The age of silver: the rise of the novel East and West / 9780190606565

788 73 5MB

English Pages x, 263 pages ; [299] Year 2017

Report DMCA / Copyright

DOWNLOAD FILE

Polecaj historie

The age of silver: the rise of the novel East and West /
 9780190606565

Citation preview

Title Pages

The Age of Silver: The Rise of the Novel East and West Ning Ma

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780190606565 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2017 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.001.0001

Title Pages (p.i) The Age of Silver (p.ii) Global Asias (p.iii) The Age of Silver Eric Hayot, Series Editor Foreign Accents by Steven G. Yao A Taste for China by Eugenia Zuroski Jenkins Lin Shu, Inc. by Michael Gibbs Hill The Age of Silver by Ning Ma

(p.iv) Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries. Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press Page 1 of 2

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Title Pages 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America. © Oxford University Press 2017 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Title: The age of silver : the rise of the novel East and West / by Ning Ma. Other titles: Rise of the novel East and West Description: New York : Oxford University Press, 2016. | Series: Global asias | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016011174 | ISBN 9780190606565 (cloth) criticism. | Silver in literature. | Xiaoxiaosheng. Jin Ping Mei ci hua. | Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de,

Robinson Crusoe. | Comparative literature. LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016011174

Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America

Access brought to you by:

Page 2 of 2

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Dedication

The Age of Silver: The Rise of the Novel East and West Ning Ma

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780190606565 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2017 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.001.0001

Dedication (p.v) To my mother. (p.vi)

Access brought to you by:

Page 1 of 1

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Acknowledgements

The Age of Silver: The Rise of the Novel East and West Ning Ma

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780190606565 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2017 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.001.0001

(p.ix) Acknowledgements Many years have passed since my days in Princeton University, where the initial ideas and comparative aspiration of this book were first nurtured. My greatest thanks go to my mentor Andrew Plaks, whose inspiring lectures on Chinese literature and pioneering comparative vision have been a shaping force in my intellectual growth. I am also indebted to the rigorous but caring guidance of April Alliston and Martin Kern, and to the stimulating while supportive environment of the Department of Comparative Literature and the Department university fellowship during those graduate school days allowed me to embark on unconventional scholarly pursuits, and, for that, I am always grateful. The collegial and forward-looking atmosphere at Tufts University fostered the gradual maturation of a youthful research project into the current book. Especially, I benefited from conversing and sharing ideas with my colleagues Xueping Zhong, Charles Inouye, Hosea Hirata, Susan Napier, Kamran Rastegar, Gregory Carleton, Vida Johnson, Christiane Zehl Romero, Joel Rosenberg, Gloria Ascher, and Daniel Brown. I also thank Gary Leupp and Lisa Lowe for looking at earlier versions of the manuscript and offering helpful feedback. Furthermore, I am indebted to Elizabeth Remick, who has been a friend and mentor through the years. I appreciate the A. Owen Aldridge Prize from the journal Comparative Literature Studies, and the Sidonie Clauss Dissertation Prize from the Department of Comparative Literature at Princeton University, which endorsed earlier presentations of my comparative idea and encouraged its further development. I also thank the Committee on Faculty Research (p.x) Awards from Tufts University in helping me conduct research over the summer.

Page 1 of 2

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Acknowledgements Through conferences, publication projects, and emails, feedback and support from the scholarly community have been crucial to the progression of my research. My thanks first go to David Porter for his tireless and much needed promotion of the research topic of comparative early modernities, from which I have benefited greatly. It is always an enjoyable experience to meet with Rivi Handler-Spitz, who, with her perceptive insight and witty personality, has helped me fine-tune this book. I appreciate attention to my research from Tamara Chin, Ming Dong Gu, Patricia Sieber, Alexander Des Forges, Wai-yee Li, Lydia Liu, and Franco Moretti. Friendly supports from Min Ye, Enhua Zhang, Lanjun Xu, Chunmei Du, Man Xu, and Ariel Fox have also been memorable parts during my writing of the book. Earlier presentations of the ideas that bear fruit here have appeared in the journal Comparative Literature Studies and Encountering China: Early Modern European Responses (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 2012), which is edited by Rachana Sachdev and Qinjun Li. I thank the reviewers, editors, and publishers of these articles. I am also grateful for Professor Naiqiao Yang from

translation and inclusion in Selected Essays on Comparative Literature: China (Beijing: Beijing Normal University Press, 2012).

reports from anonymous reviewers from the Oxford University Press. I thank also go to Andrew Alquesta and proofreaders from the Oxford University Press for their timely assistance on the editing of the book. Last, but not the least, nothing is possible without the support of my family. It is my tremendous luck to enjoy the selfless care of my parents and in-laws, the solid assurance of my husband Dapeng, and the beaming smiles of Jerry and Emily, who have been growing along with the present book. To their love and presence I am forever indebted.

Access brought to you by:

Page 2 of 2

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction

The Age of Silver: The Rise of the Novel East and West Ning Ma

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780190606565 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2017 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.001.0001

Introduction Toward Horizontal Comparisons Ning Ma

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.003.0001

Abstract and Keywords The bourgeoisie has through its exploitation of the world market given a cosmopolitan character to production and consumption in every country . . .In place of the old wants, satisfied by the production of the country, we find new wants, requiring for their satisfaction the products of distant lands and climes. In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal interdependence of nations. And as in material, so also in intellectual production. The intellectual creations of individual nations become common property. National one-sidedness and narrow-mindedness become more and more impossible, and from the numerous national and local literatures, there arises a world literature.... The bourgeoisie has through its exploitation of the world market given a cosmopolitan character to production and consumption in every country . . .In place of the old wants, satisfied by the production of the country, we find new wants, requiring for their satisfaction the products of distant lands and climes. In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal interdependence of nations. And as in material, so also in intellectual production. The intellectual creations of individual nations become common property. National one-sidedness and narrow-mindedness become more and more impossible, and from the numerous national and local literatures, there arises a world literature. Page 1 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction The Communist Manifesto (1848)1 Historians are alert to vertical continuities (the persistence of tradition,

macrohistory, a tentative general schema of the continuities, or, at the least, parallelism in history, the full significance of the historical search for and description and explanation of such interrelated historical phenomena. Its methodology is conceptually simple, if not easy to put to practice: first one searches for historical parallelisms (roughly

it as needlepoint. The horizontal continuities (the weft of the web) run from left to right. From top to bottom run the various vertical continuities of further and, more important, (p.2) to create a pattern of the needlepoint itself, is the thicker and more brightly colored yarn of the historical translucent hues of the warp and the dazzling colors and patterns of the needlepoint yarn almost totally conceal the horizontal continuities of the weft. But without the weft we have no needlepoint at all. Only a bag of threads.

2

If we imagine ourselves as planetary subjects rather than global agents, planetary creatures rather than global entities, alterity remains underived from us; it is not our dialectical negation, it contains us as much as it flings us away. The Death of a Discipline3

World Literature, World System

literature is now a rather unmeaning term; the epoch of world literature is at 4

Now, nearly two

more ubiquitous, yet less certain, than ever before. Despite frequent and ardent literary studies always seems to be an unwieldy mission, simultaneously 5

Rather than starting from already defined objects of study, a comparatist must begin Page 2 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction with a theory of scale and relationality

6

complex spatial politics that revolves around a constant tension between the

comparative literature to venture outside its conventional orbit around the research model as a rugged discovery of the pitfalls and potentials that occur when one tries to reimagine the world across national lines and the colonizer/ colonized divide, under impulses as incongruent but just as exigent today as when Goethe first envisioned Weltliteratur.7 (p.3) Around the turn of the millennium, the field of world literature received a notably Pascale Casanova and Franco Moretti. In similar ways, they argue for in which comparative sociologists such as Fernand Braudel and Immanuel Wallerstein have approached the history of capitalism.8 Based on this crossdisciplinary premise, Casanova and Moretti highlight the underlying core-

practically constituting the last decade.9 More than manifesting individual opinions or oversights, their world-system literary theories threw into relief a collective intellectual dilemma level, whether we can imagine a single world without resorting to the primacy of or, in other words, without Eurocentrism. Granted, in the new millennium few critics would uncritically follow a teleological view of the Eurocentric world order as a necessary evolutionary goal or a sure sign of progress. Yet, however negative it has become in ethical terms, Eurocentric history continues to retain an ontological worldmaking priority precisely due to a widely shared, even when critically motivated, diffusionist vision that views globalization as a passive consequence of Western European forces of capitalism and colonialism. This is the kind of conceptual paradox that homologically

task of cross-cultural reading, we must creatively move beyond this monocentric world-system perspective without falling back into a fragmented multiculturalism or losing sight of the complex dynamics of power and representation.

Page 3 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction Horizontal Continuities If the bottleneck of our current comparative literary exercises has much to do with the inherent limitations of prevailing world-system outlooks, which from Braudel to Wallerstein structurally position Western Europe as the primary source of global transformations, the question then becomes whether there exists alternative frameworks that instead emphasize the worldmaking roles of non-Western civilizations. Keeping this issue in mind, one notes that, over the last two or three decades, globalization (p.4) and world history studies have indeed turned toward a more holistic direction with highly fruitful results. A proposed by comparative historians such as Janet Abu-Lughod, Andre Gunder Frank, Kenneth Pomeranz, Roy Bin Wong, Jack Goldstone, Victor Lieberman, James Blaut, Warren I. Cohen, John M. Hobson, Jack Goody, and Giovanni Arrighi. Working against the Orientalist foundations of Western social and historical theories, these scholars have, on the one hand, demonstrated that many allegedly unique aspects of European economy, society, politics, and so singular given their earlier or roughly contemporaneous Asian counterparts. On the other hand, they have reconstructed the multimillennial traces of a networked Afro-Eurasian ecumene, which had first accumulated key the new ecological and geopolitical conditions brought about by the European colonization of America.10 Decades ago, Edward Said theorized that the East material to define Europe (or the West) as its contrasting image, idea, personality, 11

Structurally, if the writing off of Asia as hypostasized alterity was foundational to the rationalizing procedure of Western self-representations and self-universalization, the world-system reincorporation of these radically externalized Eastern histories means no less than destabilizing the basic scales of modernity, origins, and difference that previously regulated the outer limits of historical thought. An ongoing project, the gradual recuperation of the Eastern half of world history is demonstrably a site of crucial resources for not only how we can practice cross-cultural comparison differently, but also how we should begin to conceive the historical basis of comparison differently.12

historian Joseph Fletcher, anticipates the new brand of methodology world wide-ranging global parallels between 1500 and 1800 as well as the failure of mainstream historiography to take account of them, Fletcher criticizes the method as a new macrohistorical paradigm. In his words, this horizontal method

Page 4 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction

13

When attributable to a common condition, the discovered parallelisms become (p.5) transregional correspondences not necessarily related in themselves but allied through global factors. In his thought-provoking 1998 book ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age,

if for want of empirical information or theoretical adequacy it may be full of 14

Critically speaking, the horizontal perspective Fletcher and Frank advocate is a necessary corrective to the epistemological bias aptly

15

Given this ingrained frame of mind that continues to haunt intellectual productions today, the horizontal method is a crucial step toward resituating Europe and its Others upon the same plane of historical time, thereby leading to a more balanced model of transregional comparison. A highly productive framework among sociologists and historians, the horizontal perspective entails tremendous potential for comparative literature. David Damrosch has stated that the writing of a global literary history should involve longue durée broader systemic relations between literary cultures, not opposing world literature to national literatures but undertaking to trace the cocreation of literary systems that have almost always been mixed in character, at once 16

accord with the principle of horizontality. In light of the long globalization perspective opened up by post-Eurocentric world history, scholars have mapped out the distant interconnections and parallelisms within the Afro-Eurasian 17

According to Jerry Bentley, the virtue of tracing these previously obscured linkages is to communities, that crosscultural interactions and exchanges have taken place since the earliest days of human existence on planet earth, that Europe has not always been a unique or privileged site of dynamism and progress, that 18

Here Bentley describes a broader project world literature should undertake based on its distinctive Page 5 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction

cultivating this mutually enriching cross-fertilization.19

(p.6) The Age of Silver and the Rise of the Novel East and West Embarking on a new initiative to further the parallel globalizing impulses in the humanities and the social sciences, The Age of Silver advances a transcultural category of the realist novel as having analogous materialist tendencies and shared macrohistorical roots in the world system of the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries. In particular, the cross-continental literary phenomenon at the center of this book was correlated with the global silver trade and the sociological and cultural shifts it stimulated in East Asian and Western European regions. This transregional thesis challenges the widespread understanding of

The Age of Silver ultimately argues for the importance of the horizontal method in pluralizing the trajectories of the modern, a meta-question that has been implicitly structuring the basic geohistorical scales of comparative The Age of Silver reexamines the conjunctural global perspective, rather than routinized Eurocentric narratives of linear development. Thus colonial, industrial, and Enlightenment telos, but preceding and polycentric alternatives that were later repressed by these hegemonic constituents of this book. In contrast to the monocentric framework of Modernity that is characterized by Western capitalism and Enlightenment subjectivity, The Age of Silver reexcavates a form of modernity writ small, which can be broadly defined as social mobility and critical consciousness. Constructing a different genealogy recalibrating transcultural literary inquiries. chapter of this study lays down its

and world literature during the first half of the nineteenth century. The chapter subsequently positions the Goethean vision within the transcontinental connections rediscovered by current early modern studies, and moves to multilateral history of global commerce and contacts beyond the class-based (p.7) that took place due to South American and Japanese silver during these centuries. This world-system perspective of the early modern era recasts European capitalist political

Page 6 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction economies not as the fountainhead of modernity and globalization, but as belated and local responses to already globalized modern dynamisms. After outlining the Age of Silver, chapter 1 develops a transcultural concept of the early realist novel, which is characterized by parallel shifts in Eastern and heroic narratives to representing individual life under the conditions of a commercialized society. My primary examples for this cross-continental literary Don Quixote (1605, 1615) and Robinson Crusoe (1719), which together represent the similarly influential yet often competitive theses on the Spanish and English origins of the novel. The Eastern cases I investigate consist of the anonymous Chinese novel The Plum in the Golden Vase (Jin Ping Mei, c. 1580s or Life of an Amorous Man ( , 1682). Little known in the West, these texts occupy important positions in Chinese and Japanese literary histories for pioneering

historical contexts. Overall, encompassing the East Asian commercial circuit, the Iberian Age of Discovery, and finally the Anglocentric phase of capitalist and colonial acceleration, the four geographical vantage points in my comparative study chart out a multilocal trajectory of the emergence of economic and cultural modernities. This horizontal spectrum provincializes the prevailing polycentric early modern past. Combining sociological and literary concerns, my analysis emphasizes that the parallel incipient realisms of the Eastern and Western narrative landmarks in question are all characterized by serious engagements with material forces and with a sphere of life that closely resembles contemporary realities. Reading these texts in a world-system sense thus demands a close attention to economic history and, specifically, to the history of money and commerce. In this light, beyond the Europe-centered lineage of Enlightenment thought and capitalist

with the social and political significances money and material objects rapidly assumed during the period. (p.8) Importantly, whereas the Eastern and Western texts juxtaposed in this book exhibit different viewpoints on money and trade, they all symbolize individual-market-state 1, this observation is vital to my reconfiguration of a set of influential theories of the novel, including those by Georg Lukács, Mikhail Bakhtin, Ian Watt, Benedict Anderson, and Fredric Jameson.20 Realigning the entangled relations of the novel, realism, capitalism, Page 7 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction

in these earlier models, I contend that novelistic modernity resides in a narrative substate public associations under the historio-philosophical conditions Lukács famously portrayed as in the human order of social relations, the homelessness of a soul in the ideal 21

For my comparative thesis, this Lukácsian notion usefully characterizes the transcultural destabilization of traditional belief systems and power structures due to global commercial expansions during the Age of Silver. Decentering communal social and spiritual values, these horizontal processes of dissolution at the same time unsettled the metaphysical postulations of state power often associated with these values, and thus triggered more secular and critical modes of political consciousness. In both Eastern and Western arcs of the Age of Silver, the realist narrative mode was a literary invention stimulated by the impacts of materiality upon social and political life, and epitomizes a substate form of public participation that started to gain momentum through this historical transition. According to my horizontal findings, in short, commerce and money were power and, at the same time, increasingly active social functions. To be sure, the literary expression of this mode of cultural modernity was not limited to vernacular narratives or the realist form, and can be found in other categories such as poetry and fantasy. Nonetheless, the type of early realist novel at the heart of this book constitutes the most evocative site of the historical and

and necessary counterthesis to the West-centric account of the genesis of the novel. The comparative argument I advance positions narrative realism not as a necessary evolutionary telos, but as a telling sign of the rising dominance of materiality and its (p.9) cultural repercussions in multiple early modern localities in a context of global economic shifts. For the purpose of discerning horizontal evolutions of substate cultural forces productive unit of analysis, if we invoke the term not to mean a fixed ethnic or as civil associations. In chapter 1, civil formation is the core idea that guides my synthesis and reinvention of a set

Page 8 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction

imaginaries that are independently and diversely related to state power. In terms of literary representation, this historical condition encouraged aesthetic

voices and a wide variety of their links and interrelationships (always more or 22

According to Bakhtin, furthermore, heteroglossia is the

23

In light of these Bakhtinian notions, the early realist novels discussed in this book are mostly heteroglossic manifestations of substate cultural relations, or, in somewhat special case of Robinson Crusoe employment of the approach to separate Western and non-Western literatures,

narrative texts started to assume in both the East and the West during the

A heteroglossic national theory of the novel unsettles and rebuilds the Westcentric theories from Lukács to Jameson on a transcultural scale. To reinforce this conceptual reconstitution, chapter 1 further refers to a range of multicentric models of social theory and world literature, such as Gilles Deleuze and Félix

24 (p.10) For my analysis, the similarly pluralist orientations of these recent perspectives help assert that reality and

networked relations, and that these interactions during the Age of Silver fostered cultural and political modernities in multiple places. In contrast to the Anglo-European pedigree of

witnessed no ideological sublimation of the capitalist political economy and of the unitary bourgeois subject. Whereas the mainline of Western historiography tends to see this absence as a failure in achieving cultural and political a generative distance to both the market and the state. This decentering tendency is a fundamental characteristic of the pluralist form of cultural and political modernities I emphasize in this book. Page 9 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction Along with this reinterpretation of narrative evolution, The Age of Silver also reconsiders a larger set of issues surrounding the theorization of modernity. On a basic level, the ongoing debates about world literature are rooted in an apparent conflict between a West-centric model of modernity and globalization retreat of Western studies toward national and regional confines by no means resolves the issue since it leaves the conflict hidden rather than transformed.

transcend this binary opposition, we must turn our attention away from the histories of political, economic, and intellectual institutions, and toward the less structured spheres of material relations, everyday life, and spontaneous cultural creations and associations. Thus rethought, a pluralist form of cultural and political modernity implies a pluralist liberalism with global historical roots. This more amorphous and multicentric liberal force may involve growing individual connections to and mobility across material and social networks, the more and more independent forms of subjectivity and public relations generated by such sociocultural fluidities, as well as the increasingly transregional and transcultural nature of these sociological shifts and their inductive conditions. For the vexed politics of cross-cultural comparisons, a reformulation of modernity along the lines laid out above promises a new cosmopolitan politics in

back into the past to readjust the (p.11) The Age of Silver intervenes in precisely this historical sense. All in all, the case of the transcultural early realist novel constitutes a multivalent entry point into the entangled questions of modernity, global history,

Readers who are suspicious of their cross-cultural relevance may hence construe the prominence of these analytical categories in The Age of Silver as yet another assumed incongruity between Western terms of modernity and non-Western conceptually allocates the non-West as its radical externality. In order to develop a new cosmopolitan comparative politics, then, we must first break or punctuate this interior-exterior boundary and revise the historical foundations of the categories of modernity. In chapter 1, I discuss this critical strategy in relation to the emergent intellectual landscape of planetary comparatisms. Rather than imposing Western theories upon Eastern examples, The Age of Silver aims to unpack and recoordinate the categories themselves. The different geohistorical Page 10 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction scales generated by this process are indispensable for further cross-cultural dialogues and alignments, one example of which may be a reevaluation of modernity. The Age of Silver aspires to be a starting point for a broader and multiway transcultural recalibration, not its conclusion. Methodologically, The Age of Silver contends that the horizontal comparative approach is not only productive or interesting, but critically necessary. To a large extent, its critical vision mirrors what Catherine Gallagher and Stephen dominant narratives, but also to prevailing modes of historical thought and 25

counterhistorical tool for unearthing what has been obscured, masked, and eradicated in intellectual discourse and memory. To a degree, as a work of literary interpretation my comparison echoes of aesthetics.26 However, rather than focusing on traditional Marxian categories that center on the social classes and the modes of production, The Age of Silver builds its materialist and political concerns upon the more transcultural 27 as the symbolically constitutive (p.12) From this dualistic viewpoint, the early realist novels in my comparison all symbolically

reenact transforming relations between cultural constraints and mobility in a context of changing material forces. Moreover, while exhibiting very different social foundations and ideological inclinations, their narrative structures all imply critical commentaries on national political economic matters. In this sense, the surrounding political environment as the scope of critical representation and reflection. After theorizations of a pluralist understanding of novelistic modernity in chapter 1, chapter 2 focuses on the anonymous sixteenth-century Chinese novel The Plum in the Golden Vase (Jin Ping Mei), and situates the novel within late developments of economic, cultural, and political modernities. It postulates Plum narrative realism. Specifically, the chapter analyzes Plum and

family conflicts serves a function of national representation and critique, and that its narrative indicates a subversive political consciousness and changing Page 11 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction visions about human nature and individuality. Overall, these findings reposition Plum transcultural literary early modernity. Chapter 3 Don Quixote in the Age of Silver. It first relates the picaresque novel Lazarillo de Tormes pioneering realism to rapid commercial developments in Spain after the colonization of the New World. Then the chapter reads Don Quixote as a far more complex literary engagement of the same context. Drawing on emergent idealism as connoting aspects of Habsburg imperialism, and his relations to Sancho and Dulcinea as symbolizing the historical ironies within imperial

relations to East Asia. The chapter thus situates Don Quixote early modern global history, and reads from the novel a nationally symbolic political critique similar to the other cases. Chapter 4 socioeconomic shifts, and analyzes in this light the new literary (p.13) paradoxical growth, while remaining politically subordinated. This historical situation social chaos and an instrument of individual empowerment. Based on these The Life of an Amorous Man (

), an ironic vision of national

realities from the townsman perspective as well as fantasies about the outside aligns Saikaku with the literary horizontal continuities of the Age of Silver, and reveals his neglected importance to the general discourse of narrative modernity. Chapter 5 situates the works of Daniel Defoe within the Age of Silver and argues The Rise of The Novel, as a belated response to global early modernities. For this purpose, it discusses the neglected second half of Robinson Crusoe, in which the protagonist travels to the East as a trader. This advancements implicitly structures the trope of island survival and selfand colonial tendencies, the novel Robinson Crusoe as a whole exhibits a Moll Flanders and Roxana Page 12 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction

socioeconomic transitions of the period through the transgressive figure of the

a privileged pioneer of novelistic modernity.

the novel form developed a feminized and interiorized orientation on both sides.

translated and introduced to Europe during the eighteenth and early nineteenth 1820s,

works.28 Based on the horizontal findings of this book, the East-West (p.14) humanistic similarity noted by Goethe indicates resonant cross-cultural novel form became reformulated into a means of private edification detached from the degraded domain of social and political powers. This deep-rooted literary horizontal continuity once again indicates a critical necessity to culturally pluralize a typically West-centric conceptual nexus of modernity and subjectivity. In light of the macrohistorical cultural shifts I have traced, we can see that these transcultural privatizing tendencies in fact deepened and self-conscious and autonomous participant in national cultural and political expressions. Whereas a fuller study of these later horizontal dynamics demands another occasion, this book hopes to generate a new conceptual baseline that enables future investigations of this kind. As the Goethean moment indicates, due to its profound constriction by a Eurogenetic imaginary of modernity and globalization, the current discourse of world literature has not yet been able to articulate a preceding global early modernity, the marginalized Eurasian linkages of which constitute a theoretically Weltliteratur. This book hopes to assert a mostly untried method of reading that can facilitate the increasingly polycentric world order, is more relevant to imagining the global future than the monocultural legacies of the nineteenth century. Notes:

(1.) Karl Marx: A Reader, ed. Jon Elster (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University .

Page 13 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction (2.) Studies on Chinese Islamic Inner Asia, ed. Beatrice Forbes Manz (Aldershot, UK: Variorum, 1995), part x, pp. 39, 38, 56. (3.) Gayatri Spivak, The Death of a Discipline (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 73. (4.) Johann Peter Eckermann, Conversations of Goethe, trans. John Oxenford (New York: Da Capo, 1998), 164. (5.) the Discipline Report, http://stateofthediscipline.acla.org/entry/comparativeliterature-next-ten-years (accessed May 8, 2014). (6.) For discussions on the questions of worlding and comparative scale, see, for instance, Eric Hayot, On Literary Worlds (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012); New Literary History 39, no. 3 (2008); and Wai Chee Dimock, Through Other Continents: American Literature across Deep Time (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008). (7.) For books and collections of essays addressing these issues with regard to David Damrosch, What is World Literature? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003); Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, The Death of a Discipline; Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, An Aesthetic Education in the Era of Globalization (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012); Emily Apter, Against World Literature (New York: Verso, 2013); Christopher Prendergast, ed., Debating World Literature (New York: Verso, 2004); Haun Saussy, ed., Comparative Literature in an Age of Globalization (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2006); World Literature: A Reader (London: Routledge, 2012); Rita Felski and Susan Friedman, Comparison: Theories, Approaches, Uses (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2013); David Damrosch, ed., World Literature in Theory (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014). The Routledge Concise History of World Literature (London: Routledge, 2012) also provides a helpful overview on the issue of world literature. (8.) The most representative works by Braudel are his three-volume Civilization and Capitalism, first published in English by the University of California Press in 1992. Wallerstein published four installments of his studies under the title The Modern World-System from 1974 to 2011, as well as numerous essays. For an interdisciplinary volume that combines Wallersteinian world-system perspective and comparative cultural concerns, see David Palumbo-Liu, et al., eds. Immanuel Wallerstein and the Problem of the World: System, Scale, Culture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011). The world-system perspective has been promoted by academic journals such as The Journal of World-Systems Research, The Page 14 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction Journal of World History, and Review: A Journal of the Fernand Braudel Center. Also see Christopher Chase-Dunn and Salvatore J. Babones, eds., The Routledge Handbook of World-Systems Analysis (London: Routledge, 2012) for a comprehensive survey. (9.) See Pascale Casanova, The World Republic of Letters, trans. M. B. DeBevoise (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), along with New Left Review , and New Left Review , as well as New Left Review ; and New Left Review . These two theorists have been cited, often critically, in many later publications related to the topic of world literature. For examples, see New Left Review 16 (2002): ; Comparative Literature Studies ; PMLA ; Wai Chee Dimock, Narrative 14, no. (also included in Through Other Continents); Narrative Comparative Literature ; Against World Literature

; Fernando ; ; Michael

Emmerich, The Tale of Genji: Translation, Canonization, and World Literature ; and Jerome McGann, A New Republic of Letters 208. (10. technologies), see John Hobson, The Eastern Origins of Western Civilization (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 2 comparative historical studies, see Janet Abu-Lughod, Before European , reprint ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Roy Bin Wong, China Transformed: Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997); Andre Gunder Frank, ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Jack Goldstone, Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991) and (New York: McGraw-Hill Humanities, 2008); Victor Lieberman, Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800 1830, 2 vols. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 2009); James Blaut, the World: Geographical Diffusionism and Eurocentric History (New York: Page 15 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction Guilford, 1993) and Eight Eurocentric Historians (New York: Guilford, 2000); Warren I. Cohen, East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000); John Hobson, The Eastern Origins of Western Civilization (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Jack Goody, The Theft of History (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007); Giovanni Arrighi, Adam Smith in Beijing: Lineages of the TwentyFirst Century (New York: Verso, 2007); and Patrick Manning and Barry K. Gills, eds., Andre Gunder Frank and Global Development: Visions, Remembrances, and Explorations (New York: Routledge, 2013). For reviews and assessments of this line of scholarship, see Jack Goody, ed., Capitalism and Modernity: The Great Debate (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2004); Goes Hybridising East and West: Tales Beyond Westernization: Empirical Contributions to the Debates on Hybridity, eds. ; History Compass ; Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, 12, no. 2 ; and Journal of World History

.

(11.) Edward Said, Orientalism. 25th anniversary edition with 1995 afterword . (12.) For notable works on East-West comparative literature, see Longxi Zhang, The Tao and the Logos: Literary Hermeneutics, East and West (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992); Mighty Opposites: From Dichotomies to Differences in the Comparative Study of China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), and From Comparison to World Literature (New York: SUNY Press, 2015); Yingjin Zhang, ed., China in a Polycentric World: Essays in Chinese Comparative Literature (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998); and Ming Xie, Conditions of Comparison: Reflections on Comparative Intercultural Inquiry (London: Continuum, 2011). Whereas The Age of Silver likewise aims to widen the conceptual possibilities of East-West comparisons, it adopts a distinctive world-historical and materialist perspective. (13.)

38.

(14.) Frank, ReOrient, 227. (15.) See Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object . (16.) History

New Literary .

Page 16 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction (17. perspective, see Jack Goody, The Theft of History, 2007. (18.) Globalization and Global History, eds. Barry K. Gills and William R. Thompson (London: Routledge, 2006), 29. For the long globalization perspective, see Andre Gunder Frank and Barry K. Gills, eds., The World System: Five Hundred Years or Five Thousand? (London: Routledge, 1993); A.G. Hopkins, Globalization in World History (New York: Norton, 2002); C. Chase-Dunn and E.N. Anderson, eds., The Historical Evolution of World Systems (New York: Palgrave, 2005); Barry K. Gills and William R. Thompson, eds., Globalization and Global History (London: Routledge, 2006); and New Global Studies . (19.) Other than arguments that trace the beginnings of world literature to ancient globalizations can be found in New Left Review ; Stephen Greenblatt, ed., Cultural Mobility: A Manifesto (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009); and McGann, A New Republic of Letters, 2014. Unquestionably valuable, these discussions have so far centered on symbolic, linguistic, and textual contacts and thus differ from the materialist and sociological perspective I pursue in this book. (20.) See Georg Lukács, The Theory of the Novel: A Historico-Philosophical Essay on the Forms of Great Epic Literature, trans. Anna Bostock (The M.I.T. Press, 1971); Mikhail Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. and trans. Michael Holquist (University of Texas Press, 1981); Ian Watt, The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson, and Fielding (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Verso, 1991); and Fredric Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1981), and Social Text

.

(21.) Lukács, The Theory of the Novel (22.) Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination, 243. (23.) Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination, 263. (24.) See Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (London: Continuum, 1988); Bruno Latour, Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); Text and Nation: Cross-Disciplinary Essays on Cultural and Page 17 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Introduction National Identities, eds. Laura Garcia-Moreno and Peter C. Pfeiffer (Columbia, ; Édouard Glissant, Poetics of Relation (University of Michigan Press, 1997); Spivak, Death of a Discipline; Wai Chee Dimock, Through Other Continents, 2006. (25.) Catherine Gallagher and Stephen Greenblatt, Practicing New Historicism (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2001), 52. (26.) See Jameson, The Political Unconscious. (27.) See Critical Terms for Literary Study, eds. Frank Lentricchia and Thomas McLaughlin (The University of Chicago . (28.) Johann Peter Eckermann, Conversations of Goethe, 1998.

Access brought to you by:

Page 18 of 18

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels

The Age of Silver: The Rise of the Novel East and West Ning Ma

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780190606565 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2017 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.001.0001

Global Silver, Local Novels Ning Ma

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.003.0002

Abstract and Keywords This chapter bridges the early modern history of the global silver trade, EastWest comparative sociology, theorizations of modernity, concepts of planetarity and networkedness, and theories of the novel and world literature. The purpose method, demanding attention to roughly contemporaneous transcultural parallels and their shared environments and conditions. In this light, this chapter formulates a horizontal mode of early realism and novelistic modernity that appeared in both the East and the West during the Age of Silver (c. 1800), and argues that this transcultural phenomenon crystallizes the analogous and interrelated processes of cultural destablizations during an era of global commercial expansion. These findings overcome the unilateral equation of globalization and modernity with westernization, and counterbalance the discourse of incommensurability between different national literatures, especially Western and non-Western cultures. Keywords: Anthropocenic, global silver trade, East-West comparative sociology, theorizations of modernity, theories of the novel, world literature, Age of Silver, heteroglossic

The Anthropocenic World Market As a strategy for thinking beyond national histories and leveling the grounds of comparison between the West and the non-West, the horizontal macrohistorical perspective I propose is in essence synergistic with the burgeoning aims to push these emergent forms of critical inquiry toward a new set of Page 1 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels frontiers. The most crucial of these advancements is the multi-perspectivism mostly nationally bounded parameters of existing transnational researches. Rather than observing cross-cultural or Self-Other relations from one vantage point, horizontal comparison requires two or more viewpoints, which counterbalance and complement one another as equally embedded participants within a greater whole. Another key principle of the horizontal method is its openness toward a panhistorical view of the past, which parallels the long perspective of globalization world historians now pursue. This recontextualizing strategy is significant for expanding the conceptual scale of world literature beyond the Eurocentric predeterminations of a primarily post-1800 chronology. In relation to these temporal and transdisciplinary extensions, finally, horizontal comparative thinking must be attentive to trade and material contacts as the substructural world-making forces across national histories and civilizational ecomaterialist comparatism, which propels us to envision a networked and polycentric symbiosis of the world market and world literature, and a macrohistorical continuity that does not need to go through Europe or any other (p.16) outside the Eurogenetic history of capitalism as an environmental continuum that resembles bears reintegrative meanings that are both multimillennial and contemporary.1

seminal 1848 account in The Communist Manifesto, which attributes the birth of Weltliteratur to a world market created by the European bourgeoisie, the literature and the critical debates they have provoked indicate that although the politics, methods, and localities of world literature have by now received remain tacitly similar to the Manifesto dominance.2 Revisitations of a far longer trajectory of economic globalization, a comparative project sociologists and historians are now actively promoting, nonetheless permit us to perceive the European expansion not as the primary driver of history but as contingent upon polygenetic global networks. Instead of being a totalizing structure of globalization, the world market in this Anthropocenic mode signals a hybridizing body logic of the world. This new materialist perception of the world market is instrumental for opening up a more holistic model of comparative literature. Though its intellectual articulations are quite recent, the Anthropocenic world documented and was actively discussed by European economic writers until as late as the end of the eighteenth century. An important case in point is Adam Page 2 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels The Wealth of Nations, which portrays a global yet multicentered

Emphasizing circulation and exchange rather than any particular group of The Wealth of Nations refers to Chinese and other nonEuropean economies as equal commercial partners and sometimes examples European model.3 This multipolar conception of the world market also appears Manifesto. While picturing a purified domain of intellectual communication, 4

Evoked as both a metaphor and a historical

literature is consistent with the phenomenon of mercantile globalization depicted by Smith, whose late eighteenth-century account presents a world bonded (p.17) by trade in the absence of a uniform social system, revolutionary class, or geographical core. As will be discussed further in the epilogue, West continuum in correspondence to the Smithian geoeconomic vision, for it was directly spurred by a common humanity and moral poetics he had sensed from reading several translated Chinese novels. This East-West dialogic imaginary that helped germinate the Goethean Weltliteratur, however, vanishes completely in the Manifesto, which avows instead a decisively monocentric on the civilized ones, nations of peasants on nations of bourgeois, the East on 5

Goethe and Manifesto-era Marx and Engels were certainly writing on different sides of a tectonic moment in East-West relations. The outbreak of the First British navy and the unequal terms of the Nanjing Treaty in 1842, seriously and political system during the post-Columbian European expansion. This shift period inevitably informed the Euro-diffusionist historical vision we find in the Manifesto reminiscent of Smithian economics and the more multicultural strand of the Enlightenment as represented by Leibniz, was already a rare sentiment when he coined the term Weltliteratur in the 1820s: this is the very decade when Hegel The Philosophy of 6

History. In the wake of the First Opium War, for observers looking from the

Page 3 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels

indisputable fact. In her recent book An Aesthetic Education in the Era of Globalization, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak sensitively notes that, between its Goethean and Marxian 7

In view of reintegrative world-system studies, one

waits to be reintroduced. Although the sprawling globality Goethe was still 1800 era constitutes an especially fertile bridge for negotiating the question of century. Given their pivotal roles in linking the global past and present, these system studies and have been rediscovered as an (p.18) era of Eurasian

period as an Anthropocenic world-historical longue durée 8

Below, I elucidate this world-historical backdrop in relation to a critical perspective the Argentine philosopher Enrique Dussel has cogently Eurocentrism.9 These macrohistorical premises shall prepare us toward within an uncharted East-West spectrum.

Toward Transmodernity frustratingly resilient in its universalizing Eurocentrism and its ability to evade 10

economic category of capitalism, the intellectual category of the Enlightenment, the political category of liberal democracy, the technological category of science and mechanic production, the institutional category of the nation-state, and the cultural category of individualism as its main historiographical pillars. Since the surges of critical theory and postcolonial studies around the 1960s, the concept has been negatively associated with the hegemonies of capitalist production, bourgeois institutions, and imperialism.11 In virtually all these cases, however, to

they came under Western influences and began to copy Western models.

multifarious meanings in different knowledge domains in the end all congregate Page 4 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels to postulate a total systematic change of human history, and in this manner a singular rupture between the past and the present.

whether negatively or positively defined, lies at the foundation of what Johannes the West and the non-West.12 This temporal binary further entails a local/global spatial dichotomy, according to which (p.19) globalization is a byproduct of Eurogenetic modernization due to the powerful forces of capitalism and colonialism. To indicate the theoretical double bind this tenacious geohistorical presupposition generates, it is illustrative to briefly review two widely noted books, both published in 2000, which likewise strive to articulate less Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference and Local Histories/Global Designs: Coloniality, Subaltern Knowledges, and Border Thinking.13 In the former, Chakrabarty forcefully

account of the economic and political pluralities of non-European experiences, Theories of Surplus Value, when the text acknowledges that European industrial capital and likewise finds money in circulation, but not as an element in its own industrial forms of capitalism in Surplus Value locally embedded economies, which had historical roots in the heterogeneous 14

Having offered this revealing critique,

15

Local Histories/Global Designs correlates plural area histories as complementary yet distinctive parts of shared global networks. Representing the Latin American subaltern perspective and drawing on insights from seminal figures in the field such as Enrique Dussel and as a derivative rather than constitutive element of capitalist modernity. Correlating the Eurocentric geographical imaginary with the subject-object split character of the knowing subject, thus suppressing the intersubjective Page 5 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels

monocentric intellectual structure.16 While making these valiant arguments, Mignolo nonetheless maintains throughout his analysis an equation between the history of globalization (p.20) and that of colonization. As the main title of his book explicitly designates, his thesis begins with the supposition that the

local design in itself within a larger material ecology? This inverted perspective unveils the wider conditions beyond the Eurogenetic teleology Mignolo contends to unsettle. Significantly, Dussel in his newer works begins to promote this more complete East-West world-system studies, thereby realizing the critical project Chakrabarty and Mignolo both gesture toward yet fall short of realizing in full. Calling the macrohistorical imaginary that arises from these reintegrating

Eurocentric world-system model, Dussel observes that the uncovered Eastern 17

In

European hegemony as an abrupt world-historical episode of less than two centuries and as a contingent phenomenon dependent upon dynamics and critical repercussions for pluralizing the lineages of globalization and modernity in relation to trajectories, connections, and crises outside the limits of Eurodiffusionist historiography.

recent debates on East Asian modernities and proposed to reexamine the

pursue through a literary perspective in this book:

evolutionary phases in the history of modernity. Euro/American modernity was built not only on the conquest of others, but also the conquest of its Page 6 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels own past. We need to recover what Alexander Woodside has described as (p.21) revival, but as resources to help out in the resolution of problems of modernity that have become critical. That means a prior recognition,

than the present, when claims to alternative modernities are deeply compromised through entanglement in capitalist modernity. If Europe is to modernity was one among others, rather than the present when capitalist modernity, globalized, provides the grounds for modernity globally.18

around the eleventh century, which witnessed major technological and institutional developments including the proliferation of printing, paper money, bureaucracy, urbanization, maritime trade, and even quasi-industrial production. Through the thirteenth-century rise of the Mongol Empire, which stimulated greater Eurasian integration, these Song developments became a distant progenitor of the European transformation, which was simultaneously indebted to other forms of Asian modernities such as the scientific innovations of medieval Islam.19

through trade ties, New World silver, and expanded cultural and informational contacts.20 The following section in this chapter foregrounds the unfolding of the global silver trade since approximately the 1550s as an ecomaterialist ecology macrohistorical foundation of my correlation of East-West cultural and literary shifts during these multipolar, transformative centuries.

The Age of Silver New World, Spanish colonizers began uncovering rich silver deposits and finally recuperating the enormous costs of their expeditions. The most prominent of those mining sites is the legendary Potosí, a once deserted area at a barren Following the discovery of silver in 1545, the region (p.22) transformed at an astonishing pace. By the beginning of the 1600s Potosí had transformed into a Paris at the time. From the mid-sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries, silver output, and their yields alone by 1800 were nearly five times greater than the global silver stock in 1500. Mostly controlled by the Spanish, the massive Page 7 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels quantity of newly found American silver entered international circulation soon after being excavated, resulting in complex economic and sociological repercussions in far-flung corners of the world. As voluminous scholarly literature has demonstrated, a major portion of these New World mineral treasures ended up in China, where silver money had evolved into its national currency and had been in severe short supply. American silver flooded into that began to sail across the Pacific in 1571, shortly after the Spanish colonization of the Philippines. Loaded with bullion on their eastbound voyage, the galleons usually returned to supply American and European markets with silk, porcelain, and other consumer goods that Chinese merchants had taken to

being first traded to the Portuguese, Dutch, English, and other Europeans, who 21

In addition to New World mines, China drew another colossal influx from its South America. Rich in mineral wealth, Japan experienced a mining boom due to technological breakthroughs as well as the political sponsorship of Toyotomi shogunate. It has been suggested that Japan exported an astounding portion of about 75 percent of its entire silver yields to China between 1601 and 1708, often going through the hands of Dutch.22 Throughout the seventeenth century an enormous quantity of Japanese silver bullions was traded to China either from Nagasaki, the only Japanese port clandestine passages, including rampant smuggling.23 The preceding paragraphs may be restated by the eloquent description of a world in its peregrinations before flocking to China, where it remains, as if at its 24

Culturally disparate, Eastern and Western societies during the period were likewise swept into a swelling vortex of circulating money and goods. Sensing this global commercial (p.23) connection, Smith thus observes in The Wealth of Nations the principle commodities by which the commerce between the two extremities of the old one is carried on, and it is by means of it, in a great measure, that 25

In the words of the monetary historians Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giráldez, the with economic tentacles penetrating into the social fabric of all populated 26

A substructural force, the international bullion flow affected diverse localities on ecological, fiscal, and political levels as well as the dark Page 8 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels

motions connected nations, peoples, and individuals in covert yet profound ways.27 Memorably, Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giráldez state that the emphasis on the

modern world economy.28 East-West world-system analysts such as Frank and Pomeranz have adopted a similar contextualist perspective and have likewise stressed the global significances of the China-bound bullion flow. A pioneering ReOrient compellingly excavates, global economy until as late as the beginning of the nineteenth century, and, on the capital stock provided by New World silver. In his nuanced 2000 study The Great Divergence, Pomeranz arrives at an analogous conclusion after combing

differences between these two regions, Pomeranz ventures a geoecological

acquisition of American mineral wealth and later the finding of rich coal deposits industrialization to first occur in a part of Western Europe rather than China.29 In an even broader world-historical framework, we must further embed Frank genuinely planetary impacts, the Columbian consequences of 1492 took place upon the earlier Afro-Eurasian world-system. According to important work, Before European Hegemony (1989), which offers one of the (p.24) world-system one that encompassed eight overlapping regional subsystems between the South China Sea and northwestern Europe. This East-West trading circuit directly new landmass. The China-bound bullion flow after the discovery of American silver was a logical continuation of the earlier geoeconomic momentum of the

spectrum, preexisting Old World ties provided exogenous capitalist transitions. The thirteenth century is an important beginning in trade or the industrial mode of production, but Page 9 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels

formations ultimately depended on the big profits that came along with capitalism and the credit system, and the large returns generated by international trade.30 By these criteria, Braudel pinpoints fifteenth-century Venice as the originating example of the capitalist state, and situates this other Italian city-states over monopolizing the eastbound Levant trade across noting the Asian half of the relationship, book Adam Smith in Beijing: Lineages of the 21st Century realizes this cross-reference by opposing the Braudelian definition of capitalism to the Smithian dynamic of economic The Wealth of Nations The Wealth of Nations,

militarism, while portraying the more self-sufficient economies of China and growth.31 Recontextualizing the emergence of European capitalism in terms of the history of global trade and state power formations, the Braudel-Arrighi thesis disrupts the evolutionary narrative of capitalist modernity and exposes the profoundly exogenous nature of early modern European economic development. Overall, despite the explorative nature of their studies, re-Orienting historians from Frank to Arrighi have revealingly provincialized the (p.25) histories of conceptual edifice of (Euro-)Modernity. Consonant with the critical purpose of the postcolonial approach to globalization, their findings further open up a different and still little understood world-system dynamic, wherein Europe occupies not so much a position of transformation and dominance, but rather a networked and even peripheralized place within preexisting global continuums. Even until the late eighteenth century, European economies were in deficit in their trading relations to China, and Britain was no exception to this pattern, despite having become the most commercially advanced area of Europe. After with China rapidly enlarged in ways that stimulated widespread anxieties within

All of these circumstances led to the massive English trade of India-made opium with China. During the opening decades of the nineteenth century, the opium trade soon became the premier financial source of the expanding British Empire Page 10 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels and reversed the eastward silver flow. These international political economic shifts concurred with changes in Western transportation, technology, monetary, and financial systems, and contributed to radical geopolitical transformations in Together, these conditions drew the curtain on the Age of Silver, the memory of which was subsequently expunged by the monocentric constructions of Western social and historical theories over the course of the nineteenth century.32

Re-Orienting Early Modernity Manifesto

historiographies showcase an exigent need to think past the monocultural biases responses to East-West world-system studies have arisen from a historical field

Porter, Robert Markley, Chi-Ming Yang, Gerald (p.26) MacLean, Srinivas Aravamudan, Yu Liu, and Eugenia Zuroski Jenkins have recovered the intricately formative meanings of Asian goods, ideas, and images to English culture and fundamental to the Eurocentric framework of modern history.33 studies may be at the beginning of a paradigm shift away from Eurocentric discourses, narratives, and habits of thought that invest post-1800 conceptions 34

In comparison to the more established transatlantic approach to early modernity and its focus on European colonial operations, the question of coeval Eurasian relations harbors a much less noted world-historical dynamic. A fuller delineation of this undertheorized world-system subtext constitutes a fecund ground for understanding the lineage of the present beyond

For all their valuable contributions, efforts to re-Orient cultural early modernity the West, typically without comparative engagement with Eastern literatures and histories themselves. In order to surpass this monolocal limit, Porter has the horizontally synchronic comparatism economic and social historians have pursued. Mirroring the considerable range of socioeconomic parallels found by 1800 period also present strikingly similar trends. In the cases of China and England, for instance, during the two or three centuries before their fateful military clashes, both regions witnessed the spread of commercial publishing, Page 11 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels the popularization of vernacular fiction, the growth of female readership, and the literary and philosophical emphases on individual sensibility. These convergences often resided outside direct lines of influence or contact, thereby eluding conventional historicist methods. Yet, similar to the critical effects of East-West comparative histories, their articulations are vital for disrupting the monovocal production of the discourse of modernity and creating more inclusive categories of literary and historical understanding.35 Whereas there is little doubt that, as Porter avers, synchronic East-West cultural comparisons are worthy endeavors even without a final attribution of causation, the world-economic longue durée level, especially across its previously marginalized Eurasian axis. Beyond the European expansion itself, the Anthropocenic spectrum of the silver trade allows us to recast the (p.27) Western cultural and literary histories in previously unimaginable ways. On a theoretical level, in order to achieve this reintegration, we must transfer the

consumption. Once a stigmatized area of materialist analysis associated with fetishism, alienation, and inauthenticity, consumption has received more serious 36

From Marcel

developed sophisticated studies on the political, cultural, and existential implications of objects, though typically on a monosocial basis.37 Yet, as worldsystem analysts such as Christopher Chase-Dunn and Thomas Hall have noted, cross-area commodity flows could have wide-ranging sociocultural effects. In the ability of local leaders to monopolize the supply of these goods is often an 38

Thus,

historical impact was tenuous, the now extensive writings on the social and ideological functions of commodities indicate that their intersocietal and crosssocietal circulations could very well be an important historical venue where

make nations and wars. If we follow the Braudel-Arrighi thesis, the forces of commodities could have shaped the trajectory of European capitalism in a Page 12 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels manner that is more fundamental than industrialization per se. Although current research on consumption is still mostly centered on the master narrative of European capitalism, significant scholarly attention has been paid to sophisticated consumer cultures and market relations in non-Western traditions. global monetary and commercial expansion, witnessed material cultures flourishing across multiple global areas from China and Japan to Mughal India, the Islamic world, Southeast Asia, Latin America, and Africa.39 Entangled with complexity and a broader scope, and must be better understood as worldmaking forces on their own terms. (p.28) Methodologically, in order to approach these interlocking socioeconomic heterogeneities and their cultural repercussions, we must develop a comparative vision that is nontotalizing, associative, and transregional. To this end, I will

40

Then I will situate these considerations within influential theories of the novel by critics

social forces, and literary worlds. On this conceptual basis, I shall argue that the novel in the East and the West coevolved toward a socioeconomically informed cultural displacement during the Age of Silver. Focusing on the emblematic issue of the novel, my analysis is meant in a broader sense to diversify and relink forms of economic, political, and cultural modernity beyond the unipolar explication of the emerging intellectual landscape of planetary comparatisms and their resonances with my horizontal method.

Planetary Comparatisms The Death of a Discipline as a critical alternative to the homogenizing idea of globalization. global agents, planetary creatures rather than global entities, alterity remains underived from us; it is not our dialectical negation, it contains us as much as it 41

Aiming to revitalize comparative literature, Spivak arrives at

Page 13 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels this objective, Spivak predicts the limits of the formalist mode of comparative

paradigm (p.29) sociological basis of world literature from the panoptic systematizations of ready-made scales to the vast substrata of material interconnections.42 Rather of point of view of an all-knowing analyst, planetary criticism is attentive to the in example, Spivak cites how an awareness of the 1930 Irwin-Gandhi Pact A Room of , published just one year earlier, to a wholly different critical frontier. Culture and Imperialism 43

According to her

better

literary spaces requires constant association, hybridization, and recontextualization on microscopic yet border-crossing levels.44 Promoting a similar redefinition of world literature, Nirvana Tanoukhi contends that the 45

In a

or being-with . . . to be found in the intervals, mediations, passages, crossings

ongoing cartography and creation of the world instead of a body of timeless 46

While these discussions from Spivak to Cheah are illuminating, for the horizontal is even more noteworthy due to its effort to network multiple literary worlds by a transcultural world-historical arc.47 Also inspired by the reintegrative method of

Page 14 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels 48

(p.30) evolution, whose order is continually in flux and whose disorder one can imagine 49

Monkey Cup The Pagoda (1999). Products of their own time and space in the absence of direct literary lineages, these texts all address a shared human history related to slavery, the coolie trade, and racism, while manifesting comparable moral complexes through their analogous

50

Rather than erasing the relevance of poetics and form, world-historical associations of multiple literary worlds simultaneously bring out the globality and the singularity of a text in resonance with its otherwise unrelatable counterparts in the same planetary continuum. This cross-cultural reading strategy thus helps construct a widened and lived form of world literature 51

Relation, Shih affirms following Glissant, is poetics parcel to the world, and poetics is as much about understanding the text as 52

exercise in multiperspectivism, which compels the critic to travel beyond a familiar field and embrace the geographical multiplicities of global historical dichotomous politics of treating the non-West as a necessary site of resistance, utopia, or ethical elevation, strategies that are ostensibly exalting yet Monkey Cup, Shih

53

insistence on distributing agencies as well as accountabilities across the involvement of Indian business interests in the promotion of the Irwin-Gandhi 54

planetary comparatism 55

of capitalism and hegemony nor the positivities of innovation and reflection are dynamisms exclusive to Western agencies. Rather, all these staple forces of history are (p.31) problems and opportunities on an always globalized scale. In Page 15 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels this manner, they weave together multivalent worlding conditions we can, and should, relate to the idea of world literature.

Networkedness

has been noted by more and more literary analysts. In brief, Latour prioritizes

56

57

ANT is thus a work

mapping of the material and spatial concreteness of events and relations (139).

all of the grandiose ingredients of the world begin to be hatched; the second part (the network) may explain through which vehicles, which traces, which trails, which types of information, the world is being brought inside those places and then, after having been transformed there, are being pumped back out of its

Other than transcultural correlations, the Latourian model can also facilitate a rethinking of the intricate ties between literary and historical worlds due to its book On Literary Worlds

to talk about the sense of diegetic world-space created by the village about how the world theorizes the set of relations (p.32) among its various

conceive, refuse, or otherwise engage with them, such a model would allow presupposing that the field of address exerts a determining effect on the Page 16 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels 58

Given the constant yet unstable interactions between

capacity of literary actors to imaginatively reorder these shifts from their own existential and moral perspectives. This interactive vision on materiality and literary creativity is an important premise for my comparative analysis. In short, a networked understanding of aesthetic-historical relations allows us to see literary worlds as neither passive reflections of reality nor thoroughly autonomous realms. For my analysis of the rise of the novel during the Age of Silver, the transcultural emergences of narrative realisms in the East and the active agencies in responding to outside material influences. As will be elaborated further, the political and social frameworks that

here suggests a substate space for critical public participation through cultural

two synergistic proposals I see as representing a new ethics for world literature

critics such as Jameson and Lukács.

book Through Other Continents: American Literature across Deep Time innovatively resituates American literary studies in a (p.33) Through Other Continents advances two promising critical proposals, one of which is a new conception of According to Deleuze and Guattari, the rhizome represents an intellectual drive

origins and chronology.59 is always in the middle, between things, interbeing, intermezzo

61

60

Borrowing

To further this argument,

62

Page 17 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels 63

It is hence a useful notion for reading beyond the borders of national culture and language.

comparatism launches a political objective toward equating the imaginary of 64

Here we come to the second point of her study I aim to carry out further in this book.

regime: it is subnational in one sense, transnational in another. This duality of

65

these senses, is framed by national historical experiences, yet is independent from the centralizing authority of the territorial state. It is thus where the potentials of a cosmopolitan humanism reside, a humanism that stems not from a detached ideality but from expressive moments that are heterogeneously integrated owing to their shared relations to power.

66

Although it (p.34) fusion of we rework her proposal in two directions. First, in place of automatically

to its possible service to the homogenizing forces of nationalism and imperialism as noted by Anderson and Said, on the other.67 Another caveat to add is that,

associative networks that could exist beyond Western metropolitan centers and the institutional establishment of electoral democracy.68 This conceptual widening allows us to sense and articulate latent civil formations across plural historical spaces and times, and hence to recontextualize the often assumed single to say, as a form of political modernity writ small rather than writ large. Equipped with this critical strategy, we can subsequently appreciate previously neglected cultural modernities outside Eurogenetic histories and develop a more Page 18 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels

idea.69 Along with this historicization, Bhabha notes that a more genuine

ethical identification with globality premised on the need to establish a subject 70

Rather than being limited to the Enlightenment model, vernacular cosmopolitan thinking negotiates between local specificities and translocal values, in order to rearticulate alternative and marginalized experiences outside the master narrative of Western modernity.

address the cross-cultural issues of postcolonial globalization, the Age of Silver we have retraced is both a forgotten prelude and an alternative to the history of (p.35) and counter-theses to Eurocentric narratives of modern humanity. As will be made clear, Robinson Crusoe differs from preceding Chinese, Spanish, and Japanese cases not because it exceptionally expresses a secular critical consciousness and is thus singularly ideological features of the other cases. In this manner, the Crusoeian narrative model indicates an inseparable historical nexus of liberalism, capitalism, and colonialism, forces that gave rise to a hegemonic ideology of Modernity. In comparison to Robinson Crusoe Enlightenment-capitalist-colonial history, the other examples are better

implications for the ongoing search for a new concept of global humanity. Overall, by theorizing a transcultural category of early novelistic realism, my civil consciousness outside the Enlightenment pedigree of rationality, capitalism, and liberalism. In this manner, while unsettling the Eurocentric thesis of the the often assumed incompatibility between multiculturalism and cosmopolitan thinking. Once we

Page 19 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels

which has delimited the current impasses of world literature.

and implicitly subversive stratum of political life, which resides both beneath and beyond the official state. This understanding enables us to reinvent in a planetary manner a notion Jameson unfortunately employed some time ago to The next section explores this synthesis and further ties it to Andersonian, Bakhtinian, and Lukácsian frameworks in order to advance a transcultural

(p.36) 71

This

works are not isolated aesthetic objects or merely manifestations of individual politically and historically sensitive analyses.72 of this position when cross-referencing the West and the non-West presents a telling example of the tenacious power of binary comparative thinking, according to which non-Western histories and cultures are necessarily the

critique rather than nation or ethnic construction.73 Connoting a wide degree of literary works are at their core public and political. Or, according to Imre

74

Understood as a structural dynamic

Imagined Communities: despite his preoccupation with the problematics of nationalism, Anderson ultimately aims to grapple with

Page 20 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels

75

clarification as to how it will be understood in this book. For Anderson, as a fundamental cultural conceptions, all of great antiquity, lost their axiomatic grip

human beings and who ruled by some form of cosmological (divine) 76

Stemming from these conditions of displacement, the Andersonian nation denotes a new form of communal solidarity that known argument, this secular collectivity is best represented by the (p.37) While Anderson points to a crucial historical dynamic, the scope he addresses is territorial formation, which is often shaped by religious and monarchical forces in the first place.77

susceptible to the impulse of nationalistic homogenization Anderson probes, this civil space is at the outset borne of disenchantment and displacement. As such, it is imbued with an ideological porousness that renders it linkable to other similar spaces.

subversive heteroglossia complements his model in meaningful ways.78 In

indissolubly 79

The process of sociolinguistic dissolution

primary literary form that manifests these major historical transitions. According to

caused both social structures and cultural forms to be reconceptualized based Page 21 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels

disintegration, the two critics have pursued different conceptual emphases: though imaginary, national identity, but Bakhtin sees novels as centrifugally disorganizing such collective narratives in order to liberate the heteroglossia Andersonian and Bakhtinian configurations of the nation and narration should fluid spectrum of secularized subject-nation relations between the extremities of convergence and divergence.80 For the cross-cultural comparatism we pursue, the Anderson-Bakhtin synthesis allows us to trace collective allegories in both Western and non-Western literary spheres beyond civilizational differences and the (p.38) colonized/colonizer divide, and thus to investigate the question of novelistic modernity inherent in this structure on a transcultural scale.

For Jameson, Anderson, and Bakhtin, the novel form crystallizes existential conditions in a secularized time. On these accounts, they resemble other major theorists of the novel such as Ian Watt and Georg Lukács, who likewise treat the genre as the premier embodiment of literary modernity. All these theorists also assume that novelistic modernity is a unique offspring of European history, and became spread to the rest of the world through the European expansion.81 Although critics such as Margaret Doody have argued for a larger definition of

82

Once measured by this theoretical core, the novel has been commonly presumed as a Eurocentric genre, which reached its apex during the nineteenth century. Rather than an isolated literary question, moreover, the novel in this heavily theorized sense is laden with sociological and historical implications pertaining to the histories of Enlightenment rationality, capitalism, liberal democracy, nation formation, and colonialism. However multicultural we now allow the broadened vision can actually expand, challenge, or engage with the Europecentered theoretical core of the novel, a core that has always combined literary and sociological elements.

occupies a pivotal position, we can sense the kind of conceptual ambiguity

Weltliteratur essay collection titled The Novel Page 22 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels in Chinese, Japanese, Indian, and Arabic traditions. Though a valuable endeavor, the collection of these non-Western materials resembles what Moretti portrays in

homogenizing form of the European (p.39) cultural relationship between the West and the non-West.83

employed by Dimock to redefine literary genre on the basis of affinity and shared contexts. In addition to the Anderson-Bakhtin perspective on nation and The Theory of the Novel, which likewise relates the realist novel to the historical dynamics of displacement and secularization, is similarly relevant to the rhizomatic literary-historical relations

relations, the homelessness of a soul in the ideal order of a supra-personal 84

Along with this idea, Lukács famously states that the novel 85 In this light, the novel genre allegorizes larger socioideological destabilizations through seemingly random individual biographies.86 Whereas Lukács emphasizes the negative effects of alienation as the result of this communal symbolic breakdown, my foregoing discussion indicates that this process of displacement leads to more independent forms of political and cultural consciousness. The implies an immobile and mythologized perception of the given cultural order and of its inherent power structures. The unsettlement of these inherited forms of meaning inevitably entails an ideologically equalizing impulse, and a demystification of the cultural fixtures that buttressed traditional modes of power.

theory of the novel has a distinctive strength due to its materialist approach,

Lukács discusses in History and Class Consciousness directly relates the Influenced by the Marxian idea of the commodity fetish, Lukács equates

Page 23 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels

Signifying the rule of money (p.40) under capitalist modernity, the social former becomes passive and subjugated and the latter becomes active and dominant.87 Later on, Lucien Goldmann in his Towards a Sociology of the Novel transposition on the literary plane of everyday life in the individualistic society created by between the literary form of the novel . . . and the everyday relation between man and commodities in general, and by extension between men and other men, 88

Writing many decades ago, Lukács and Goldmann were primarily concerned proletariat consciousness. In the twenty-first century, we can revise their observations away from the uniform Marxian model of class production and social change and toward a pluralist form of materialist cultural analysis. In the forms of reification, so to speak, that persisted in locations such as Ming China, Tokugawa Japan, and Golden Age Spain, and the ideological reification of

relation in most of the cases we examine remains conceptually desublimated, as

principle.

topic as such within the horizontal parameter of the Age of Silver. Although on a comparative level his association of the novel with an Anglogenetic Enlightenment rationality, and Protestantism persists as an indispensable reference point for anyone interested in correlating the novel with certain conditions of modernity.89 Notably, the Wattian model has informed not only

Culture and Imperialism, for instance, is one important example that treats the novel as a Eurocentric form imbricated with the histories of colonialism and imperialism.90 The horizontal (p.41) framework of my study nonetheless Page 24 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels

system, which contained multiple other trajectories of socioeconomic and

basis for theorizing narrative modernity.91

The Rise of the Novel East and West economic and political histories, we must take note of the cultural history of sixteenth-century China, where several major vernacular novels emerged and established a literary model in the tradition. Jin Ping Mei, or The Plum in the Golden Vase (henceforth Plum), an anonymous work first circulated in manuscript form in the 1590s, is especially notable owing to its groundbreaking documentations of a mundane world characterized by money and sex. For this reason, Chinese readers have long described Plum shiqing) in contrast to earlier works of vernacular fiction that features novel as in some way concerned with depicting social change or conflict by the careful documentation of the texture of society, then [Jin Ping Mei] is the first 92

Plum continued to evolve through later narrative works, most significantly in the The Dream of the Red Chamber (Honglou Meng Xin Xiaoshuo) movement that promoted Western narrative models in the semicolonial context of early twentieth-century China, the tradition of native narrative realism from Plum to Red Chamber continued to play a vital role in shaping the discourse, 93

and transported to regions in East and Southeast Asia such as Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.94 Meanwhile, Japan during the second half of the seventeenth century witnessed notable narrative turnabouts while experiencing remarkable commercial expansions. The most prominent sign of this narrative transition was ), as marked by the publication of his first major work of prose fiction, Life of an Amorous Man ( ), in 1682. Diverging from the elegant courtly (p.42) tradition of the earlier monogatari classics such as The Tale of Genji and The Tale of Ise the politically subordinate class of the merchant townsmen and the lives and sentiments of prostitutes in an earthly setting of commerce, fashion, and developed a similar genre of urban love stories known as The Essence of the Novel, which argues to reform Japanese literature by the standards of Victorian narrative Page 25 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels

a model for their own literary practices. Although The Tale of Genji can be justly

history.95 Once we attend to Eastern realist narrative landmarks from Plum to Amorous Man sixteenth century, The Plum in the Golden Vase is closely coeval with Lazarillo de Tormes (1554) and Don Quixote (1605, 1615), which inaugurated narrative realism in European fiction. Remarkably, this literary synchronicity corresponds to the peak years of the Sino-Spanish silver commerce that followed the opening as tenfold, the transcontinental silver trade simultaneously financed the rise of the Spanish Empire.96 As another major silver producer of the period, seventeenth-century Japan developed wide-ranging material ties to the outside world via its trading port Nagasaki and other passages despite its general took place when Japanese society was experiencing a period of remarkable economic and cultural efflorescence due to the Tokugawa peace and a monetary revolution that occurred alongside the global silver flow.

the English novel Watt traces back to Defoe was a rather belated phenomenon nonfictional writings were also profoundly informed by developments in eighteenth centuries. In fact, the complete version of Robinson Crusoe contains a second part in which the protagonist travels to the Far East as an overseas trader, although the sequel has been persistently neglected in studies on the (p.43) in chapter 5, the sequel the world market of the early eighteenth century, concerns that underlie the first part of the novel in a masked manner.97 greater Eurasian macrohistory in the Anglocentric construction of Modernity. Reexcavation of these forgotten world-system relations shall bridge literary worlds as seemingly incommensurable as those of Plum and Robinson Crusoe, and accordingly help us reconceptualize the possible scope of the modern. Relinking East-West novelistic histories during the Age of Silver according to the principle of planetary comparatism discussed earlier, the main chapters of this book juxtapose the literary worlds of Plum Page 26 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels narratives with those of Don Quixote and Robinson Crusoe have, in paradigmatic ways, demarcated the beginnings of the European novel. Bearing potent defamiliarizing effects in a horizontal comparison, these two canonical European texts are also representative of a dualist complexity of the of this duality, the Western novelistic form is characterized both by a movement which uses as subject matter its own doubt and belief in the value of clearly tendencies of the mercantile middle class which emerged from the 98

Robinson Crusoe thus signifies a retotalizing literary impulse following the detotalizing penchants of Don Quixote. Indicatively, the world-historical settings from which these texts emerged correspond to what tied to Renaissance humanism, the Mediterranean Muslim-Christian interregional system, and colonization of the New World, as well as the second modern lineage. Given these world-system associations, a horizontal examination of these two texts alongside roughly coeval Chinese and Japanese

In view of the commercial coevolutions of the Age of Silver, it is not coincidental that the male protagonists of Plum, Amorous Man, and Robinson Crusoe are all merchants by occupation. Don Quixote and Sancho Panza are not tradesmen per se, yet as members of the lower nobility and the peasantry, they similarly belong to the less privileged social classes. In these ways, our transcultural examples Mimesis (p.44) inferior human groups to the position of subject matter for problematic99

The cases we have further suggest that the representational weight assumed by these characters of lower social tiers functions to enact dramas of mobility. Their biographies are thus allegories of a collective process of deconstitution and reconstitution, a process wherein the individual is no longer a fixed component within a transcendentally ordained identity system, but a transmutable part within a secular domain of horizontal exchange. In this light, the texts in question all engage with the spiritually hollowing yet politically equalizing forces of money and commerce, or what we can otherwise name the national problem of materiality. The novelistic modernity at the center of my comparative inquiry then connotes a nationally symbolic realist mode, which emerged at both ends of the Eurasian continent during the Age of Silver in response to a historical

Page 27 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels Expressing analogous trends of commercial expansion and cultural destabilization, the Eastern and Western literary examples in our comparison simultaneously manifest divergent geographical perspectives. In the Eastern cases, the narrated socioeconomic mobilities mostly occur within a domestic parameter. On the Western side, in contrast, they are profoundly linked with the Don Quixote and Robinson Crusoe are deeply entwined with the histories of Spanish and English colonial expansion during the Age of Silver, though in very different ways. As I shall discuss further in chapter 3, according to the illuminating transnational studies on Don Quixote,

100

While crystallizing the dawning of a

contains an ironic commentary on the totalizing state politics of imperial Spain thorough domination over a Caribbean island, the first section of Robinson Crusoe solitary and liberal subjectivity in English novels and the history of British imperialism.101 Also evident in Robinson Crusoe is the homogenizing ideological island survival rationalizes material accumulation as a rightful and quasi-divine reward to the self-making homo economicus. In our (p.45) horizontal

and monocultural epistemological system in support of its own sense of centrality within an entangled global reality. Overall, Robinson Crusoe is a narrative underlain with mutually consolidating capitalist, liberal, colonial, and nationalistic tendencies, and hence represents a constellation of the hegemonic inclinations associated with the rise of the English novel.102 In contrast to the reification of capitalist ideology that happen in Robinson Crusoe, the other cases in our horizontal juxtaposition present an indeterminate Don Quixote is in fact more similar to the distant Eastern narrative landmarks than to Robinson Crusoe. Related to this ideological divergence, one literary peculiarity of Robinson Crusoe is its deliberate repression of the bodily aspects of material desire in service of its rationalization of the capitalist impulse. This repression is absent in the other narrative landmarks in our comparison. Both Plum and desire. Though not an explicitly erotic text, Don Quixote monetary interests to unsublimated bodily forces by highlighting his gluttonous and profane behaviors.103 Having diverse forms and emphases, these bodily

Page 28 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels treatments of the materialist drive likewise prevent the rational abstraction and sublimation of the logic of capital. Importantly, given the increasing entanglement of money and power through economic developments, a desublimation of material forces simultaneously connotes political and social critiques. Exemplifying this symbolic logic, the Plum directly corresponds to degenerations in the imperial court and among the literati elites. Thus rather than merely targeting the newly rich, the novel launches a scathing critique of the Ming Plum material desire as the source of individual ruins and national disorder, Don Quixote exhibits a far more accepting attitude toward commerce and economic self-advancement. It portrays such desires as lived and hybridizing forces of reality that disrupt the purist Habsburg ideology, which the protagonist mimics desublimate the logic of capital by hinting at the ironic entanglements between the power of money and Habsburg imperialist ideology, on the one hand, and by counterbalancing materialist social ethos with the utopian aspects of the materiality, Don Quixote sustains a heteroglossic multivalence and decenters all fixed forms of meaning or authority. (p.46) money and consumption as the foundations of a distinctive mercantile identity detached from Tokugawa cultural and political orthodoxies. Due to the parodic and ironic thrust of his writings, Saikaku nonetheless maintains a vulgarized and deidealized image of this emergent identity.104 Overall, whereas the Chinese, Japanese, and Spanish cases from the Age of Silver exhibit diverse attitudes and cultural frameworks, the early realist novels from these spheres all sustain a critical distance from both political privileges and the rule of money, which then became the mixed grounds of social power. In contrast to the decentering textual politics of the other cases, Robinson Crusoe reconsolidates the disintegrated historical relations of meaning, money, and power by constructing the image of a triumphant homo economicus. The circumstances it takes to enable such a simplifying narrative. Moreover, the first part of Robinson Crusoe, which is set in the Caribbean, allows the protagonist to master his environment in ways unimaginable in his own social context and in a manner that allegorizes British dominance over other places and peoples. The profound sense of insecurity over its projected myths of individual selfsufficiency and British world dominance.

Page 29 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels At the same time, whereas Robinson Crusoe suppresses the bodily aspects of 105

the erotic Moll

Flanders to Roxana.106 As I shall discuss in chapter 5, the sexual constituents of gender dynamics. Symbolically, they express anxieties over kinship and interpersonal chaos in a market-oriented society wherein money, goods, and people are increasingly prone to free circulation. Thus turning away from Robinson Crusoe novels project an ideological complexity that is more commensurable to novelistic evolvements elsewhere. Plum narrating prostitute heroine in The Life of an Amorous Woman. The similar theme of female material agency in these texts subverts not only traditional patriarchal cultural systems, but also the continuously male-centric power dynamic engendered by economic mobility. In both the East and the West, these problematic female figures emerged to symbolize an ultimate state of symbolic breakdown. Interestingly enough, (p.47) their appearances likewise foreshadowed analogous narrative counterstrategies in their own cultural and femininity as the new moral center of individual life. This observation brings us to a further East-West literary resonance addressed in the epilogue of this book, one that is germane to the origins of the Goethean Weltliteratur.

Coda: The Sentimental Turn Most evident in the Chinese and English cases, the figure of the chaste woman became prominent in fictional narratives following the appearances of materialist narratives such as Plum Weltliteratur, which was given partly in response to his reading of translated caizi jiaren) genre, a genre that consists of refined love romances and started to gain popularity in China around the midarrived in Europe since the 1760s through the efforts of figures such as Thomas 107

In their prefatory remarks, both Percy and Rémusat comment on the arresting similarities between the lifelike qualities of the Chinese novels being presented and the type of new narrative aesthetics practiced by English authors such as Richardson and Fielding. Informed by

Having an idealized notion of the East, Goethe relates the moral purity he saw in the Chinese novels to a primordial Chinese spirit. An understanding of earlier Page 30 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels Eastern precedents such as The Plum in the Golden Vase nonetheless guides us to see a deeper parallel between the Chinese talent-beauty novels and literary agenda in the face of ongoing cultural destabilizations. The literary-

resonances in counterbalance to a world of thickening economic and political interdependencies. A new conception of moral subjectivity rests at the heart of the East-West similar contexts of cultural displacement, Chinese talent-beauty novels and (p.48) woman to relocate the existential and ethical center of individual life from the collective political and social order to private conducts and sentiments. In this light, the

image of the self in opposition to both commodity relations and political power.108 In light of our foregoing discussions, this literary convergence construct a substate cultural and moral sphere in counterbalance to real-world economic and political forces. In both Chinese and European narrative histories, furthermore, the sentimental turn was followed by continuous literary transmutations. On the European side, the Bildungsroman narrative mode, of which Goethe is a seminal figure, is characterized by a symbolic dualism as it treats the sentimental self with both sympathy and irony.109 In the Chinese case, the eighteenth-century classic The Dream of the Red Chamber is an analogous example that situates its in the European Bildungsroman and Chinese texts such as the Red Chamber the unstable relations between subjectivity and materiality under the conditions of gender, sexuality, and aesthetics, the novel genre in both spheres grew into an independent cultural form, offering new ethical and existential representations when traditional cosmological and political meanings became increasingly destabilized. All these observations on East-West narrative coevolutions push the familiar issue of modern subjectivity into unfamiliar directions. While foregrounding previously unnoted parallels between the East and the West, they reformulate the question not simply in terms of aesthetics or psychology, but with regard to broader historical and social shifts. The private selves that took form through these transcultural processes, in short, were the building blocks of 110

Although a fuller exploration of sentimental and postsentimental narratives rests outside the scope of this study, thoughts on Page 31 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels these later developments gesture toward a wider and more complex spectrum of East-West horizontal literary continuities. In sum, by practicing a hitherto untried method of horizontal reading, my analysis shall unfold a macrohistorical process through which Eastern and identity away from the state-defined official discourse. This transmodern and modernity beyond a Eurogenetic lineage. On a broader level, a (p.49) planetary

articulates a polycentric form of globality and modernity for which current comparative theories have not yet developed a language, method, or politics. Upon these premises, then, let us delve into the first literary world in our The Plum in the Golden Vase, in order to generate a transcultural account of the rise of the novel across the world-historical continuum of the Age of Silver. (p.50) Notes:

(1. Nobel Prize-winning atmospheric chemist Paul Crutzen on the environmental changes brought on by the Industrial Revolution. However, other scientists such as William F. Ruddiman have applied the term to a much longer period beginning with the agricultural revolutions about eight thousand years ago. See, for instance, Climatic Change . This book adopts this broader implication of the term to evoke the planetary repercussions terms of its ecologically oriented and object-based critical approach, my study is resonant with the emergent theoretical landscape of environmental humanities as represented by the writings of Timothy Morton in The Ecological Thought (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010) and Hyperobjects: Philosophy and Ecology after the End of the World (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013). In (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006), Robert Markley uses the perspective. My approach shares the same orientation, though moving toward a further step of horizontal networking and cross-referencing. (2.) For a thoughtful reexamination of the contemporary implications of the Manifesto The Communist Manifesto Social Scientist . For a Hobson, Eastern Origins Page 32 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels Kevin B. Anderson, Marx at the Margins: On Nationalism, Ethnicity, and Non-Western Societies (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010). Also see Lütfi Sunar, Marx and Weber on Oriental Societies: In the Shadow of Western Modernity (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2014). (3. Adam Smith in Beijing, which I shall detail further. For passages from The Wealth of Nations that positively assess the Chinese economy, see, for instance, I.8.24, I.11.129, II. 5.22, and III.1.7. (4.) Cited and translated by Weltliteratur Debating World Literature, ed. Christopher Prendergast (New York: Verso, 2004), 38. For more discussions of this idea in relation to the Manifesto, see, for instance, Jonathan Arac, New Literary History 39, no. 3 (2008): 755; and Special Issue: On Cosmopolitanism, Daedalus 137, no. 3 . (5.) Karl Marx: A Reader, 228. (6.) Georg W. F. Hegel, Philosophy of History, trans. J. Sibree (New York: Dover, 1956), 116. For a helpful review of the image of China in Western social thought, see China and Historical Capitalism: Genealogies of Sinological Knowledge, eds. Timothy Brook and Gregory Blue (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, can be found in Franklin Perkins, Leibniz and China: A Commerce of Light (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004). (7.) Spivak, Aesthetic Education, 461. (8. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 284 and The Qing Formation in World-Historical Time, ed. Lynn . The volume , ed. David Porter (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012) such as Kenneth Pomeranz, R. B. Wong, and Jack Goldstone as well as literary

modernity globally. Whereas I largely agree with the seven-century span Porter settles on for accommodating non-Western origins of modernity, such as those Page 33 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels that evolved in Song China (which I shall discuss further), this book uses the

(9.) See from South

Nepantla: Views , and

Transmodernity coined by the feminist philosopher Rosa María Rodríguez Magda and elaborated at length in her Transmodernidad (Barcelona: Anthropos, 2004). For discussions perspectives, see The South Atlantic Quarterly

, and

Review (Fernand Braudel Center) 29, . The term has been employed to name the journal Transmodernity: Journal of Peripheral Cultural Production of the Luso-Hispanic World (University of California e-scholarship) since 2011. Although so far the

concerns in connection with the re-Orienting historiographical movement. (10.) no. 1 (2007): 220. (11.

History Workshop Journal 63,

Peter

Wagner, Modernity as Experience and Interpretation (Cambridge: Polity, 2012). For noted studies that aim to open up alternative forms of modernity, though maintaining the premise of Euro-genetic globalization, see Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double-Consciousness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993); Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Martin Albrow, The Global Age: State and Society Beyond Modernity (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996); Daedalus ; and Alternative Modernities, ed. Dilip Parameshwar Gaonkar (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001) with contributions from Homi Bhabha, Dipesh Chakrabarty, Leo Ou-fan Lee et al. In We Have Never Been Modern, trans. Catherine Porter (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), Bruno Latour offers a sobering argument on the inherent ideality of the Enlightenment modernity discourse and its limits. For a helpful review of the ongoing debates over the genealogy and theorization of modernity with attention to diverse geographical and cultural perspectives, see Gennaro Journal of Historical Sociology 27, no. 4 .

Page 34 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels (12.) See Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object . (13.) See Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000) and his further clarifications in Provincializing Europe: A Response to History and Theory ; and Walter Mignolo, Local Histories/Global Designs: Coloniality, Subaltern Knowledges, and Border Thinking (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000). (14.

Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe, 27, Surplus Value Provincializing Europe

Provincializing Europe (15.) This paradox is especially clear in the epilogue to Provincializing Europe in London Review of Books penetrating language to deal with modernity and the colonial encounter . . . It is modernity that gives his study its poetic undertow and its intelligent Provincializing Europe along the lines I have suggested, see Interventions: International Journal of .

Postcolonial Studies (16.

Local Histories/Global

Designs

Eurocentric historiographical critiques such as

White

Mythologies: Writing History and the West, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2004) and Against Autonomy: Global Dialectics of Cultural Exchange (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003) challenges of the Latin America-based world-system perspective can be found in the essay which he co-authored with Anibal Quijano, in International Social Sciences Journal . (17. 42. Also see his discussion of transmodernity in relation to

The Cultures of Globalization, ed. Fredric Jameson Page 35 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels . Mignolo Local Histories/ Global Designs, though without taking the further step of connecting the post-1492 Euro-American system to the preceding Eurasian circuit. (18.) See Alexander Woodside, Lost Modernities: China, Vietnam, Korea, and the Hazards of World History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006). (19. breakthroughs of Song China. See for instance Philip D. Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984), and William H. McNeill and John R. McNeill, eye View of World History , which addresses

Marshall Hodgson notes in The Venture of Islam, 3 vols (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974; reprint 2009) that, given that the later European

Occident seems to have been the unconscious heir of the abortive industrial influential argument that modernity began with Song China owing to the emergences of a nonaristocratic scholar-official class and for-market social relations. For developments and assessments of this thesis, see The Far Eastern Quarterly and Joshua A. Fogel, ed., the Development of the Conception of Modernity in Chinese History (Armonk, NY: Sharpe, 1983). For essays on the continuity of Chinese development since the Song period, see Paul Jakov Smith and Richard Von Glahn, eds., Song-YuanMing Transition in Chinese History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003). (20. become a rapidly growing field. For informative accounts on East-West relations during the period, see for instance Joanna Waley-Cohen, The Sextants of Beijing: Global Currents in Chinese History (New York: W.W. Norton, 2000); Geoffrey Gunn, (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003); Timothy Brook, Century and the Dawn of the Global World (New York: Bloomsbury, 2007); D. E. Mungello, (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009); and Charles Mann, 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created (New York: Knopf, 2011), which updates Alfred

Page 36 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels

post-1492 global economic, ecological, and demographic shifts. (21.) The scholarly literature I consulted on the topic of the silver trade includes: Journal of World History Economic and Social History of the Orient

; Journal of the ; and

Journal of World History . Also see the Tokugawa Shogunate with Hapsburg Spain: Two Silver Empires in a Global The Political Economy of Merchant Empires: State Power and World , ed. James D. Tracy (New York: Cambridge University Press, ; The Journal of Economic History 56, no. 2 (1996): and 1700 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996); Economy of Lower Yangzi Delta in Late Imperial China: Connecting Money, Markets, and Institutions, ed. Billy K.L. So (New York: ; Frank, ReOrient; the Emerging World Economy, c.

The Cambridge History of

China, Vol. 8, The Ming Dynasty, eds. Denis Twitchett and Frederick W. Mote and Journal of World History 16, ; Brook, End of a Silver Era: The Consequences of the Breakdown of the Spanish Peso Journal of World History ; Mann, 1493; Nanny Kim and Keiko NagaseReimer, eds., Mining, Monies, and Culture in Early Modern Societies: East Asian and Global Perspectives (Boston, MA: Brill, 2013); and Niv Horesh, Chinese Money in Global Context: Historic Junctures Between 600 BCE and 2012 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2013). On Potosí, see Flynn and 209; Mann 1493 Nicholas A. Robins, Mercury, Mining, and Empire: The Human and Ecological Cost of Colonial Silver Mining in the Andes (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011). For silver production estimates, see ReOrient, 144 and Flynn and For trade routes, see ReOrient Atwell, Brook, Hat (22.) See Global Connections and Monetary History, eds. Dennis Flynn et al. (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2003), 174. Page 37 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels (23.) For details on Japanese silver exportation to China, see 432 ff., Fountains of Fortune Apart from Nagasaki, Japanese silver routinely entered China via the Tsushima

Period: Sakoku 306.

Journal of Japanese Studies

(24.) The quotation is cited in von Glahn, Fountain of Fortune Frank ReOrient Arbitrio sobre la plata (Discourse on Silver; published in Lisbon in 1621) by Duarte Gomes Solis. For a Almodovar and Jose Luis Cardoso, A History of Portuguese Economic Thought . (25.) For other passages from The Wealth of Nations on the China-bound bullion flow, see for instance I.5.20, I.11, 74, I.11.166, I.11.167, I.11.229, II. 5. 22, IV.1. 33. (26.)

417.

(27.

Fountain of Fortune

with a focus on the East Asian commercial circuit. I use this term in this book

Eastern and Western histories. (28.)

217.

(29.) See especially Pomeranz, Great Divergence (30.) See Braudel, Afterthoughts on Material Civilization and Capitalism . Before European Hegemony emphasizes a similar world-economic compulsion that bounded European economy to the eastward Levant trade. (31.) See The Wealth of Nations

assessments of Chinese economy. (32. on the transpacific dissolution of the silver standard in the 1820s in the wake of the Mexican War of Independence. See David Porter, Ideographia: The Chinese Page 38 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels Cipher in Early Modern Europe (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001),

(33.) See Porter, Ideographia and The Chinese Taste in Eighteenth-Century England (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010); Markley, The Far East in the English Imagination; Chi-Ming Yang, Performing China: Virtue, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011); Gerald MacLean, Looking East: English Writing and the Ottoman Empire before 1800 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008); Srinivas Aravamudan, Enlightenment Orientalism: Resisting the Rise of the Novel (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011); Yu Liu, Seeds of a Different Eden: Chinese Gardening Ideas and a New English Aesthetic Ideal (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2008); and Eugenia Zuroski A Taste for China: English Subjectivity and the Prehistory of Orientalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013). (34.) Markley, The Far East in the English Imagination, 22. (35.) See Eighteenth-Century Studies

.

(36.) See The Oxford Handbook of the History of Consumption (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 1; and Mary Douglas and Baron Isherwood, The World of Goods: Towards an Anthropology of Consumption (New York: Routledge, 1996), 37. (37.) See Marcel Mauss, The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies (London: Routledge, 1990); The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, ed. Arjun Appadurai (Cambridge, UK: ; and Bill Brown, A Sense of Things: The Object Matter of American Literature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003). (38.) See Social Forces 71, no. 4 (1993): 85. Also see Jon D. Carlson and Salvatore J. Babones, eds. The Routledge Handbook of World-Systems Analysis , for a supportive argument on the world-systematic significance of prestige goods trade. (39.) These situations are described across the essays collected in The Oxford Handbook of the History of Consumption. See for instance Jeremy Prestholdt, Page 39 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels Michelle Craig McDonald, Prasannan Parthasarathi and Also see John Brewer and Roy Porter, eds., Consumption and the World of Goods (London: Routledge, 1994), and Paula Findlen, ed., Early Modern Things: Objects (New York: Routledge, 2012). For a critique of Eurocentrism in consumption studies, see The American Historical Review . (40.) See Spivak, Death of a Discipline; Édouard Glissant, Poetics of Relation; Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia; Bruno Latour, Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to ActorNetwork-Theory; ; and Wai Chee Dimock, Through Other Continents: American Literature across Deep Time. (41.) Spivak, Death of a Discipline, 73. Further citations in text. (42. New Left Review

, and Graphs, Maps, Trees:

Abstract Models for a Literary History (London: Verso, 2005). (43.) Said, Culture and Imperialism . (44.) Franco Moretti has attended to the question of literary space in his Atlas of (London: Verso, 1998), though primarily through the perspective of the European nation-state rather than cross-cultural comparison. (45.) (46.)

600. , 30.

(47.) Comparison: Theories, Approaches, Uses, eds. Rita Felski and Susan Friedman (Baltimore: Johns . Further citations in text. (48.)

84.

(49.) Glissant, Poetics of Relation, 133. Also see Françoise Lionnet and Shih Hsumei, eds., The Creolization of Theory (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011). (50.)

96.

Page 40 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels (51.) See (52.)

79.

(53.)

89.

(54. in Krishnaswamy and Hawley, eds., The Postcolonial and the Global (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), 106. (55.) Radical History Review 91 (2005): 78. (56.) See Latour, Reassembling the Social Mind, Culture, and Activity

Latour, .

(57.) Latour, Reassembling the Social, 148. Further citations from the book in text. (58.) Hayot, On Literary Worlds, 77. Also see New Left Review

.

(59.) Deleuze and Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, 8. (60.) Deleuze and Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, 27. (61.) Dimock, Through Other Continents, 74. (62.

Dimock and Lawrence Buell, eds.,

Shades of the Planet: American Literature as World Literature (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), 12, and Douglas Hofstadter, Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid ([1979]; New York: Basic Books, 1999). (63.

Robert Dixon in

Kirkpatrick and Robert Dixon, eds., Republics of Letters: Literary Communities in Australia: 82. (64.) Dimock, Through Other Continents, 8. (65.) Dimock, Through Other Continents Michael Walzer, Toward a Global Civil Society (Providence, RI: Berghahn, 1995). For critical surveys of John Ehrenberg, Civil Society: The Critical History of an Idea (New York: NYU Press, 1999); Michael Edwards, Civil Society (Malden, MA: Polity, 2004); and International Affairs become a major research topic in the London School of Economics with a focus

Page 41 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels http://www.lse.ac.uk/globalGovernance/research/globalCivilSociety/home.aspx East Asian societies, see Timothy Brook and B. Michael Frolic, eds., Civil Society in China (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1997); Karla W Simon, Civil Society in (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013); Frank J. Schwartz and Susan J. Pharr, eds., The State of Civil Society in Japan (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003); and Eiko Ikegami, Bonds of Civility: Aesthetic Networks and the Political Origins of Japanese Culture (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005). For a comparative account on civil society with attention to traditional East Asian roots, see Jude Howell and Jenny Pearce, Civil Society and Development: A Critical Exploration (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002). (66.) See, for instance, Dixon, eds., Republics of Letters

(67. Prison Notebooks

The Order of

Things The Forms of Capital, as well as

Imagined Communities

Culture and Imperialism.

(68.) Dimock, Through Other Continents, 25. (69.)

203, 200. Also see Theory, Culture and Society

;

and Pheng Cheah and Bruce Robbins, eds, Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling Beyond the Nation (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998). (70.)

196.

(71.) See Social Text article is Social Text

. For a more recent reassessment of South Atlantic Quarterly 100, no. 3

. (72.) See Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1981) Fables of Aggression: Wyndham Lewis, the Modernist as Fascist (London: Verso, 2008 ([1979]) to describe the Tarr (1918).

Page 42 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels (73. Lu Xun in Mighty Opposites: From Dichotomies to Differences in the Comparative Study of China . (74.)

805.

(75.) Anderson, Imagined Communities, 65. For helpful commentaries on and Grounds of Comparison: Around the Work of Benedict Anderson (New York: Routledge, . (76.) Anderson, Imagined Communities, 36. (77.) See, for instance, Azar Gat, Nations: The Long History and Deep Roots of Political Ethnicity and Nationalism (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013), which comments on the Andersonian model of the novel on page 12. Against the intellectual tradition of attributing the beginning of the nation as a historical category to eighteenth-century Europe or the French Revolution, Gat proposes a long historical perspective that begins with ancient Egypt as the European model, see, for instance, Chun-shu Chang, The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Nation, State, and Imperialism in Early China (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2007); Wang Hui, China from Empire to Nation-State, trans. Michael Gibbs Hill (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014); Mary Elizabeth Berry, Japan in Print: Information and Nation in the Early Modern Period (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007); and Joshua A. Fogel, ed., The Teleology of the Modern Nation-state (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005). (78. M. M. Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981). For discussions of Nation and Narration, ed. ; Laura E. Ruberto, et al, eds. Bakhtin and the Nation (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2000); and Srinivas Aravamudan, Enlightenment Orientalism: Resisting the Rise of the Novel (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011). (79.) Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination, 243, 263. (80.) Bakhtin and the Nation, 186.

Page 43 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels (81.) See Ian Watt, The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson, and Fielding (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957); and Georg Lukács, The Theory of the Novel: A Historico-Philosophical Essay on the Forms of Great Epic Literature, trans. Anna Bostock (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1971). For a Michael McKeon, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987). In Theory of the Novel: A Historical Approach, ed. Michael McKeon (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), McKeon anthologizes and reinterprets with his own editorial notes a range of influential essays by Western critics including Watt, Bakhtin, Lukács, and Anderson on the

(82.) See Margaret Anne Doody, The True Story of the Novel (Rutgers University Press, 1997). Also see the long-term and global approach adopted by Steven Moore in The Novel: An Alternative History. 2 vols (New York: Continuum, 2011) theorization, see Marina MacKay, The Cambridge Introduction to the Novel (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 14. Also see Fredric Jameson, The Antinomies of Realism (New York: Verso, 2013) for his recent

literary style to ordinary demotic language; the serious treatment of the everyday lives of the ordinary, unaristocratic masses; the embedding of those Cambridge Introduction East have yet to be integrated into the Western consensus on the rise of the useful category of transnational analysis, though with a primarily contemporary focus, see the essays collected in Modern Language Quarterly 3 (2012) under

(83.) See in Studying Transcultural Literary History, ed. Gunilla Lindberg-Wada (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2006), 120 The Novel (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007) is a two-volume selection of the five-volume Italian version Il Romanzo literature has been widely criticized, his diffusionist theory about the history of model in postcolonial analysis, for instance, see Globalization of the Novel and the Novelization of the Global: A Critique of World Comparative Literature , also included in World Literature: A Reader Page 44 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels Comparative , Fernando Cabo Aseguinolaza portrays the

Literature

the form in his theorization of world literature. (84.) Lukács, The Theory of the Novel (85.) Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 88. (86.) For discussions of the contemporary meanings of Lukácsian aesthetics, see Timothy Bewes and Timothy Hall, eds., Georg Lukács: The Fundamental Dissonance of Existence: Aesthetics, Politics, Literature (New York: Continuum, 2011); and Michael Thompson, ed., Georg Lukács Reconsidered: Critical Essays in Politics, Philosophy, and Aesthetics (New York: Continuum, 2011). (87.) See History and Class Consciousness (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1972), 83. Verdinglichung) appears only once or Capital Karl Marx, Capital, trans. Ben Fowkes (New York: Vintage Books, 1977), 209 Hanna Theory and Society 16, no. 2 (1987): Georg Lukács: The Fundamental Dissonance of Existence

;

Georg Lukács Reconsidered

; and Telos

.

Also see Axel Honneth. Reification: A New Look at an Old Idea, ed. Martin Jay. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012) model to a less teleological and class-deterministic direction, they stop short of making room for transcultural applications of the concept. (88.) Lucien Goldmann, Towards a Sociology of the Novel, trans. Alan Sheridan (London: Tavistock, 1975), 7. (89.) According to

Making (New York: Palgrave

Macmillan, 2006) something more historically specific at stake in question about the rise of the The Theory of the Novel

Novel:

A Forum on Fiction 42, no. 2 (2009): 311 the world of strictly eighteenth-century studies, The Rise of the Novel continues to be amplified, supplemented, or dismantled by every critic concerned with the

Page 45 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels without skeptical quotation marks) remains the customary shorthand The Rise of the Novel Representations 119, no. 1 (2012): 120 scholarship within his experience as a POW of Imperial Japan during the WWII.

New Left Review 41 (2006), 83. (90.

Culture and Imperialism in essence agrees with the genealogy of the The Rise the Novel and The Theory of the Novel, though situating the line of evolution in a different ideological dimension (see for instance Culture and Imperialism Watt, Anderson also attributes the beginning of the novel to eighteenth-century England. See Imagined Communities, 25. (91.) To further clarify, my comparative analysis in this book does not aim to exclude other forms or earlier works of fiction from the rubric of the novel. Rather, its purpose is to search for a form of literary horizontal continuity and pluralize the notion of narrative modernity. Historically, as a literary term, the European languages other than Spanish (which has the analogous term longer works of prose fiction. In Institutions of the English Novel: From Defoe to Scott (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), Homer Obed Brown

light, around the time of their composition and initial circulation, Western works same formal and institutional ambiguity as their roughly coeval Eastern works. For prevailing narrative terms and their conceptual histories in Japanese and Chinese cases, see and Judith T. Zeitlin, The Novel. Vol. 1: History, Geography, and Culture, ed. Franco

(92.) The Far East: China and Japan, eds. Douglas Grant and Millar MacLure (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1961), 329. (93.) For a brief account of the pattern described here, see World Literature in Theory, ed. David . For reassessments of Chinese literary transitions from the Page 46 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels nineteenth to the early twentieth centuries, see, for instance, Lydia Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995); David Der-Wei Wang, Fin-de(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997); Xiaobing Tang, Chinese Modern: The Heroic and the Quotidian (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000); Denise Gimpel, Lost Voices of Modernity: A Chinese Popular Fiction Magazine in Context (University of Hawaii Press, 2001); The Appropriation of Velingerová et al. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002); Haiyan Lee, (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007); and Patrick Hanan, Chinese Fiction of the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries: Essays by Patrick Hanan (New York: Columbia University Press, 2013). Chinese Approaches to Literature, ed. Adele , still remains a useful account of the New Fiction Movement. (94.) An overview of these processes can be found in Claudine Salmon, Literary Migrations: Traditional Chinese Fiction in Asia (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2013). Also see Atsuko Sakaki, Obsessions with the Sino-Japanese Polarity in Japanese Literature (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2005),

(95. English are still Howard Hibbett, The Floating World in Japanese Fiction (North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle, 1959) and Donald Keene, World within Walls: Japanese 1999). Also see

(Columbia University Press [1976] The Chrysanthemum and the Fish: Japanese

Humor since the Age of the Shoguns (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2002). For newer translations of and concise introductions to Tokugawa literary works, see , Haruo Shirane, ed. (Columbia University Press, 2008). For a contextualized discussion of Tamenaga Shunsui, see Maeda Ai, Text and the City: Essays on Japanese Modernity 228. Criticisms related to Saikaku will be further detailed in chapter 3. For Essence of the Novel, its significance to Japanese literary history, and Currents in Japanese Culture: Translations and Transformations, ed. Amy Vladeck Heinrich (Columbia University Press, 1997); Inventing the Classics: Modernity, National Identity, and Japanese Literature, eds. Haruo Shirane and Tomi Suzuki (Stanford University Press, 2002); and Atsuko Ueda, Concealment of Politics, Politics of (Stanford University Press, 2007) in Best Stories (New York: W.W. Norton, 1992) provides an excellent introduction to Page 47 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels

Empires of Texts in Motion: Chinese, Korean, and Taiwanese Transculturations of Japanese Literature (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009) is a remarkable study on multiway contacts and receptions across the East Asian literary system with focus on the early twentieth century and touches on the Essence of the Novel Taiwanese writers. See Empires of Texts (96.) Cf. and the Tokugawa Shogunate with Hapsburg Spain: Two Silver Empires in a Global The Political Economy of Merchant Empires: State Power and World , ed. James D. Tracy (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University . (97.) In recent scholarship, the second part of Robinson Crusoe has received more detailed treatments in Ideographia The Far East in English Imagination; Critical Inquiry ; and Book History 9, no. 1 (2006): . (98.) See selections from Marthe Robert, Origins of the Novel in Theory of the Novel, ed. McKeon, 68. (99.) Erich Auerbach, Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature, with introduction by Said, trans. Willard Trask (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1953), 4. (100.) Upon this point, I am informed by Henry Higuera, Eros and Empire: Politics and Christianity in Don Quixote (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1995); Diana de Armas Wilson, Cervantes, the Novel, and the New World (Oxford University Press, 2003); William Childers, Transnational Cervantes (University of Toronto Press, 2006); and Frederick A. de Armas, Don Quixote Among the Saracens: A Clash of Genres and Civilizations (University of Toronto Press, 2011). (101.) See Said, Culture and Imperialism, 70, 77. (102.) My interpretation of Robinson Crusoe on these points have been informed by a sizable number of postcolonial readings of the novel. See, for instance, Robinson Crusoe and Roxana Reading with a Difference: Gender, Race, and Cultural Identity, ; Robert P. boundary

;

Page 48 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels Politics of Robinson Crusoe 20; and Laura Doyle,

Eighteenth-Century Fiction (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008).

(103.) See politics of bodily degradation in Rabelais and His World (Bloomington: Indiana . (104.) For a careful effort to read Saikaku in light of Bakhtinian novelist theory, see Journal of Japanese Studies . (105.

Watt, Rise of the Novel

(106.) Eroticism was also a prevalent feature of early modern English fiction. For an informative comparative account of early modern Chinese and English erotic literatures, see Comparative Early Modernities, ed. . Also see Adrienne Laskier Martin, An Erotic Philology of Golden Age Spain (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2008) for an account of the Spanish case. (107.) Thomas Percy, ed. Hau kiou choaan, or, The Pleasing History: A Translation from the Chinese Language. 4 vols. (London: R. and J. Dodsley, 1761); and Jean-Pierre Abel Rémusat, Iu-kiao-li, ou, Les deux cousines (Paris: Moutardier, 1826) Conversations of Goethe

Johann Peter Eckermann, Hao qiu

zhuan, Yu Jiao Li, and other translated Chinese texts, see Zhongshu Qian, Vision of China in the English Literature of the 17th and 18th Centuries, ed. Adrian Hsia (Hong Kong: The ; Porter, Chinese Taste in the Eighteenth Century Cultural Mobility

;

German Literature as World Literature, ed. Thomas Beebee (London: Bloomsbury, 2014), . (108.) The above observations have been informed by studies on Richardson and eighteenth-century domestic fiction such as Nancy Armstrong, Desire and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987); G. J. Barker-Benfield, The Culture of Sensibility: Sex and Society in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Dror Wahrman, The Making of the Modern Self: Identity and Culture in EighteenthCentury England (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004); Michael McKeon, The Secret History of Domesticity: Public, Private, and the Division of Knowledge (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005); and Helen Page 49 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Global Silver, Local Novels Thompson, Ingenuous Subjection: Compliance and Power in the EighteenthCentury Domestic Novel (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005). qing and women and fiction in late imperial Chinese culture can be found in Dorothy Ko, Teachers of the Inner Chambers: Women and Culture in SeventeenthCentury China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994); Keith McMahon, Misers, Shrews, and Polygamists: Sexuality and Male-Female Relationships in Eighteenth-Century Chinese Fiction (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995) and Polygamy and Sublime Passion: Sexuality in China on the Verge of Modernity (University of Hawaii Press, 2010); Martin Huang, Desire and Fictional Narrative in Late Imperial China (Harvard University Press, 2001); Anthony C. Yu, Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001); Tina Lu, Persons, Roles, and Minds: Identity in Peony Pavilion and Peach Blossom Fan (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002); Paolo Santangelo, Sentimental Education in Chinese History: An Interdisciplinary Textual Research on Ming Qing Sources (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003); Ellen Widmer, The Beauty and the Book: Women and Fiction in Nineteenth-Century China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006); and Haiyan Lee, Revolution of the Heart: A Genealogy of Love in China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007). (109.) For a thoughtful comparative essay on Goethe and Red Chamber, see Elective Affinities (Die Wahlverwandtschaften) through The Story of the Stone (Hong Lou Meng): German Literature as World Literature

.

(110.) Notably, in her more recent writings Nancy Armstrong has underscored structure of the domestic novel. See A Companion to the English Novel, eds. Stephen Arata, .

Access brought to you by:

Page 50 of 50

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

The Age of Silver: The Rise of the Novel East and West Ning Ma

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780190606565 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2017 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.001.0001

Along the Grand Canal The Lord of Silver in The Plum in the Golden Vase Ning Ma

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.003.0003

Abstract and Keywords This chapter focuses on the anonymous sixteenth-century Chinese novel The Plum in the Golden Vase (Jin Ping Mei). It situates the novel within the late Ming developments of economic, cultural, and political modernities. It theorizes Plum narrative realism. Specifically, the chapter analyzes Plum

national representation and critique, while its narrative expresses a subversive political consciousness and changing visions about human nature and individuality. Overall, these findings reposition Plum not just as a distinctively modernities. Keywords: The Plum in the Golden Vase, late Ming China, realism, Chinese texts

, narrative

By 1644 China is a part of world history, deeply affected by the movement which would transform its agriculture, and by weapons and warfare, plagues, and products which bore in on the daily life of the Chinese people. In the consciousness of peoples, whether Chinese, Europeans, or others, Page 1 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal the national entities of Eurasia remained worlds apart and would do so until very recent times. Yet in many ways . . . the civilizations and national entities of Eurasia were becoming mutually responsive. 1

One man in a hundred is rich, while nine out of ten are impoverished. The poor cannot stand up to the rich who, though few in number, are able to control the majority. The lord of silver rules heaven and the god of copper cash reigns over the earth. Avarice is without limit, flesh injures bone, everything is for personal pleasure, and nothing can be let slip. In dealings with others, everything is recompensed down to the last hair. The demons of treachery stalk. 2

The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy, and the End of the Republic, a sobering look at the political, military, and economic costs and consequences of an American empire headed toward a seemingly irrevocable decline, in , 1587, A Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline. The uncanny similarities between these two works suggest the need for new modes of thinking about the relationships between the early modern and the all-too-modern world. Robert Markley, The Far East and the English Imagination (2006)3

(p.52) Scholars who are interested in rediscovering Eurasian histories of modernity

Ming-Qing China was at the same time far more involved in international trade than previous eras. In a world-system sense, while lying outside the Europeexporting consumer goods during the period was a crucial substructural condition of coeval European and global developments.4 This chapter situates one literary landmark from late Ming China, the anonymous one-hundredchapter novel Jin Ping Mei, or The Plum in the Golden Vase (henceforth Plum), within the macrohistorical context of the Age of Silver and as a different beginning for conceptualizing the realist novel.5 Even though all endeavors in Plum in this

Page 2 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

repercussions. Long noted in Chinese literary history as a native forerunner of narrative realism, Plum Age of Silver, Plum 6

Despite ongoing controversies over the

further explain, place the time of its final completion within the last two decades 7

Thus, on a

world-historical level, Plum created within cross-continental forces that substructurally ran through late Ming history. While its socioeconomic conditions occurred as an integral part of the Age of Silver, Plum nationally allegorical nature of novelistic creations elsewhere, since it offers a troubling account of the waning powers of Confucian moral philosophy to regulate social relations and state practices. Thus exemplifying a collective spiritual void simultaneously helps express a more independent political attitude and a more complex engagement with human nature. (p.53) These patterns are comparatively meaningful for theorizing the multilocal emergences of realist narrative aesthetics during the Age of Silver. Before we delve into the arguments outlined above, some introductory information on Plum will be helpful. In Chinese literary history, Plum is the latest sida qishu) that surfaced in the Ming book market. Composed between the early fourteenth and the mid-sixteenth centuries, these books together mark the first full blossoming of the vernacular The Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo yanyi), a chronicle of the fierce military competitions after the fall of the Han dynasty during the early third century, Outlaws of the Marsh (Shuihu zhuan), which retells the legends involving a group of bandits who rebelled against the corrupt Northern Song The Journey to the West (Xiyou ji), a magical 8

Like these antecedents, Plum has rather murky origins. At first, it was circulated as a manuscript among a small circle of decades before the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644. At its outset, Plum borrows Outlaws, in which a Page 3 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal debauched merchant named Ximen Qing seduces Pan Jinlian (whose name husband Wu Da. In the original story, the two perpetrators are summarily killed Outlaws. Plum, however, lets the conspirators escape death and live on for several more years until being destroyed by their own excesses. An entirely new literary creation after retelling the Outlaws episode in its opening chapters, Plum develops a vast life in and outside his household, which includes many servants and six wives. scandals, and squabbles, the novel presents numerous details about daily objects and social practices that belong to the contemporary life of late Ming China rather than its supposedly twelfth-century setting. As this massive narrative slowly moves toward its conclusion, the protagonist suffers a fatal illness as a result of his indulgences in sex and wine, despite having amassed a large fortune and received a coveted official position through bribery. Following his death, the household soon crumbles after a quick series of scandals, betrayals, and bankruptcies. The novel ends its dystopian vision by reporting the fall the Chinese state itself under the assault of invading nomadic armies.9 Owing to its candid treatment of the topics of money and sex and meticulous attention to socioeconomic and domestic matters, Plum has (p.54) long been noted among Chinese readers for inaugurating a new tradition of narrative style. shiqing) to describe Plum According to a commentator from the eighteenth century, Plum is the most

10

delicacies of land and sea, from clothing and daily objects to jokes and banters, every odd corner and trivia is registered to the fullest detail; its thoroughness is 11

When composing his seminal study on the history of Chinese fiction in the 1920s, Plum as the founding piece of shiqing xiaoshuo). According to Lu Xun, this narrative subgenre further evolved through seventeenth-century talent-beauty novels and culminated in the eighteenth-century masterwork The Dream of the Red Chamber (Honglou Meng) by Cao Xueqin.12 During the 1930s, critics such as Zheng Zhenduo and Wu Han began to present Plum as the first work of xieshi zhuyi) in the Chinese tradition, while tying its groundbreaking features to the social crises brought about by commercial expansion and political corruption during the late Ming era.13 Later, scholars in comparison to the Western novel. In his 1968 introduction to a set of famous Page 4 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal Ming-Qing Chinese novels, C. T. Hsia observes that Plum history and legend to treat a world of its own creation, peopled by life-sized men and women in their actual bourgeois surroundings divested of heroism and

depicting social change or conflict by the careful documentation of the texture of society, then [Plum

14

Of course, the reading of Plum in terms of the Western standard of realism may now look outdated. Looking back at the twentieth-century reading history of Plum, Naifei Ding in her 2002 book Obscene Things

Plum by attending to the significance of money and material objects in the book. As I will illustrate over the course of this book, Plum materiality is a transcultural pattern also present in canonical European texts from Don Quixote to (p.55) Robinson Crusoe. For all its fuzzy borders and orientations Eastern and Western narrative texts both assumed during the Age Plum with early realism can mobilize a creative reworking of established theories of the novel, while linking Ming-Qing narrative history to horizontal counterparts elsewhere and to more contemporary concerns, as suggested by Markley in the epigram to this chapter. Below, as the foundation for aligning Plum with these broader implications, I will first review some basic aspects of late Ming society and its position in the emergent world economy.

Late Ming China in the Age of Silver Ming and Qing dynasties, especially from the sixteenth century onward, as a distinct unit of analysis. The following lines by Evelyn Rawski succinctly summarize the basis for this delimitation: The late imperial period (sixteenth through nineteenth centuries), was substantively different from its predecessors and was characterized by considerable continuity in key institutions and socioeconomic structure. In investigating this continuity, we discuss three major phenomena: economic growth and change which led to shifts in the composition and character of the elite; an expansion of the educational system, produced in part by economic growth; and the onset of large-scale printing, stimulated by prosperity and expanded education.15

Page 5 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal Before the rapid economic expansions that started during the sixteenth century, Ming China experienced successful agricultural developments and momentous population increase. Imported quick-yielding American crops including maize, sweet potatoes, and peanuts played a contributive role in the process. Between 1400 and 1600, Ming population experienced an immense growth, from sixtyfive to one hundred and fifty million. Under the Qing dynasty, Chinese population again doubled during the eighteenth century. Although the majority of this more populous than ever before. The cities, especially those clustered around (p. 56) urban settings empowered the merchant class, who assumed prominent social influences and could obtain gentry status by educating their sons to succeed in civil examinations. In this shifting socioeconomic context, an xin xue)

subjective mind as the site of moral categories and even emphasized desire (yu) as the true expression of human nature. Meanwhile, following from the spread of printing technology, commercial book markets thrived nationwide. One of the new genres that surged through this thriving world of print was the daily encyclopedia, which classified everyday goods and activities to help its readers navigate and imagine a reality saturated with myriad objects. The proliferation of luxury goods, which included both domestic products such as silk and overseas exotics such as Southeast Asian spice, blurred the status lines these sumptuous items once signified.16 While all these social and economic trends were escalating during the second half of the Ming dynasty, many Ming-Qing writers began to condemn the subversion of tradition and the exploitative human relations that came with the commercial expansion and pleasure-seeking culture radically diverged from the of Confucian orthodoxy after nearly a century of Mongol rule. Although later the dynasty after its middle run started to develop a thriving market economy

Page 6 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

scholars, peasants, and artisans, commerce was unquestionably a powerful force in late Ming life. For Zhang Tao, the rampant materialism of his age contrasts starkly with the older order of the early Ming, during which, as he nostalgically

Zhang further portrays the early Ming as a time of proper human relations and (p.57) men tended the crops.

17

Indignantly, Zhang traced the source of this widespread social degeneration to 18

Of the two numismatic culprits condemned by Zhang, copper had been in use in China as a major form of currency since around the third century BCE, typically issued as a round coin with a square hole in the

disastrous overissuing of paper money during its last few decades. Whereas Zhu Yuanzhang resolutely banned silver in order to sustain the official position of paper currency, Chinese traders never regained their confidence in statesanctioned money and continued to use silver as the monetary standard. Yielding to market pressures, the Ming state allowed in 1436 the residents of several provinces to pay part of their taxes in silver. As the Chinese economy became increasingly dependent on silver, supply soon fell behind demand. By the 19

Under these conditions, silver began developing an extraordinarily high value in China, likely doubling the world average during the time. This arbitrage stimulated the influx of overseas silver in the wake of the American and Japanese mining booms around the midcentury. According to monetary historians Dennis Flynn and Arturo Giráldez, who pinpoint the establishment of the Acapulco-Manila route in 1571 as the beginning of globalization, the initial profit margins of the China-bound silver trade were so large that they enriched all parties involved.20 In the words of one

ReOrient, which avers that Page 7 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal 21

Involving a global movement of capital and commodities, the international bullion flow into China was a key condition of what William Atwell called an its exceptionally narrow exchange ratio to gold, an arbitrage difference that rendered the (p.58) purchase of Chinese gold by silver a literally moneyspinning enterprise for foreign traders. More crucially, silver was the most profitable trading medium when foreign merchants used it to buy popular Chinese goods such as porcelain, silk, and tea, which were in rising demand worldwide.22 For China itself, the influx of foreign silver significantly altered its monetary history. According to Richard von Glahn, the amount of bullion imported to China between 1550 and 1600, estimated at 46.6 tons per year, was nearly ten temporary recessions, the China-bound silver inflows during the two centuries afterwards were much greater.23 This massive international supply enabled silver to become the primary medium of exchange in China. According to taxes. Jesuits in Nanjing and housewives in Guangdong kept some on hand for domestic purchases. Large merchants handled it in sums in the hundreds and 24

A contemporary

child who does not know how to estimate the metal of the ingots and its degree 25

specialization and commercialization; rapid growth in the silk, cotton, and porcelain industries; a significant expansion in interregional trade; and the whereby most land taxes, labor service obligations, and extra levies were 26

economic history. Empirically undeniable, the China-bound silver trade remains a matter of ongoing debate in interpretations of its historical effects. According to a number of scholars, the Ming-Qing Chinese economy might have suffered from the production for silver revenue led to the massive conversion of farmlands in the lower Yangtze area into mulberry fields. This reduction of agricultural resources generated devastating consequences when a period of bad weather and poor price to unprecedented levels and triggered widespread rebellions, which overthrew the Ming state before the Manchu conquest in 1644.27 Page 8 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal Before its catastrophic end, late Ming China experienced drastic economic, political, and cultural transmutations alongside internal market growth and expanded global contacts. As an initial attempt at comparing these dynamisms with European early modernity, historians of China once (p.59) launched a developments. Although driven by a revisionist purpose, debaters concerned already raised by Max Weber and Étienne Balázs: that is, why China did not generations of East-West comparatists, however, have transcended the older

which to reembed and provincialize the West-centric theories of capitalism and modernity.28 Realigning theory and history, this major shift in East-West

29

new ways. For instance, their study of the historical impacts of geographical conjunctures indicates that the Chinese economy faced a far weaker incentive toward long-distance explorations, owing to a more self-sufficient internal circuit, the Indian Ocean economy. Subsequently, despite possessing advanced naval technologies and having sponsored the Zheng He expeditions of the early fifteenth century, the Chinese state had few practical reasons for overseas explorations and expansion. This lack of geographical stimulus contrasted

results, was ultimately an accidental outgrowth of an earlier Eurasian worldsystem.30 Another important finding of re-Orienting historians is that the state-market opposition in explanations of China-West differences is deeply reductive.

capitalism.31

Adam Smith in Beijing further indicates that

extroverted, militarist, financially dependent, and nationally monopolistic characteristics of early modern European economic developments rather than as descriptions of their historical reality. Compared to the monopolies that led to institutional and political legitimizations of capitalism in Europe, the Chinese state during the Ming-Qing period was in certain areas more decentered than its Page 9 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

developed its economy (p.60) market growth envisioned by Smith. Given its increased productivity in keeping with tremendous population growth, Ming-Qing society was likely experiencing and industry, as opposed to capital accumulation propelled by monopolistic 32

c.

Chinese economy also reveals a mostly market-driven monetary transition. As resistance to state-authorized money, a trend the Ming court finally yielded to by yi tiao bian fa) in 1581, which mandated that all taxes be collected in silver. Despite having become the foundation of the national economy, silver, in terms of its supply source, remained dependent upon private overseas trade. For this reason, silver money in pre-1800 China was 33

Thus moving from its state-sanctioned

the Age of Silver followed a path opposite to coeval European and Japanese system. An understanding of this difference belies the stereotypical image of the economy firmly in its grip.34 Furthermore, and somewhat paradoxically, the apparent stability of imperial

development comparable to that of the bourgeoisie of late medieval Europe or of the

of Tokugawa Japan was forestalled by the absence of effective 35

1279) dynastic transition around the tenth century. Noting the comparative historical significance of this key sociopolitical change, the Japanese Sinologist

nonmilitary class of the scholar-official elite, a system that further freed peasant labor and encouraged for-market production. Owing to these earlier developments, there was very little aristocracy to stand in the way of late Ming mercantile capitalism. Meanwhile, the demoted position of commerce in Confucian thinking did not, in practice, establish real obstacles to the translation of mercantile wealth into urban elite status. By educating their sons toward

Page 10 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal success in civil examinations, mercantile families could legitimately enter the rank of the scholar-official elite.36 (p.61) debates in the 1990s. According to William Rowe, who was one of the first to

signs of commercial capitalism, public management, civil law, publishing for 37

Whereas

between Chinese and European histories, Philip Kuhn offered the salutatory elaborated the concepts of the public sphere and civil society is not the historical 38

Given this more or less

potential empirical resources beyond its conventional avatars, landmarks, and linear arcs. Though lacking a bourgeois revolution, late Ming cultural and political history does present a wealth of examples for this thought experiment. Notably, for instance, while social attitudes toward commerce and consumption sheng

she), both sides

presented critical views of traditional figures of authority such as high officials, leaders of the Buddhist and Daoist clergy, and members of the imperial court.39 These criticisms are especially visible in personal essays, dramas, fictions, and in a cultural context characterized by commercial publishing, private academies, class of discontented scholars unable to find success in the impossibly competitive civil examinations. As a salient indication of the critical cultural atmosphere of the period, the corruption case of the former high courtier Yan recurring subject in dramatic and fictional literatures from the late Ming period. Meanwhile, representing the increasing independency of scholar-officials, in 1589, a magistrate named Luo Yuren boldly condemned the Wanli emperor in his

during the last few decades of the Ming dynasty, when the Donglin party emerged as a politically self-conscious organization among discontented officials. In light of all these examples, should the late Ming state be called that had already been vigorously denounced by late Ming writers and political activists.40 Page 11 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal (p.62) Based on the foregoing considerations, late Ming China exhibited signs domain of critical political culture. The Plum in the Golden Vase emerged upon

Encyclopedic in scope, Plum of its age, a world that is shot through with the modern existential problematic Plum

expresses a strident critique of the moral failures of the scholar-official class and of the imperial court. The domestic unit at its narrative center thus serves as a metaphor for national political economic degenerations. While correlating the individual self, the family, and the state according to the Neo-Confucian discourse of moral management, Plum ironically represents a radical fall of this utopian Confucian universe in an era ruled by money and objects.41 Thus exposing the degraded authority of the state and engaging with the national problem of materiality, Plum exhibits a civil-aesthetic dynamic we can likewise locate in the other cases surveyed in this book. In the section below, we first examine how Plum utilizes the motif of silver money for narrating a nation in decay and for treating the new individual images foregrounded by such a historical crisis.

The Lord of Silver In chapter 79, Plum death of its protagonist, the lecherous merchant Ximen Qing. Having bribed his way up the official ladder and amassed a large fortune, he falls fatally ill due to his sexual excesses. Thirty-three and sonless at the point of his death, Ximen Qing must entrust his entire estate to his son-in-law and heir-by-default, Chen Jingji. In this distressing context, the protagonist discloses to Chen in an impressively clearheaded manner all the complicated finances of his multibusiness network: The satin goods store has a capital worth 50,000 taels of silver, but part of the capital and interest belongs to our kinsman Qiao and should be returned to him. Have manager Fu sell off the stock, one batch at a time, and then close the shop. The spun silk store being managed by Ben the Fourth has a capital (p.63) worth 6,500 taels of silver, and the silk and cotton goods store being managed by Brother-in-Law Wu the Second a capital worth 5,000 taels. After selling off the stock, the proceeds should be brought home . . . Li the Third and Huang the Fourth still owe us the 500 taels of capital that they borrowed, not to mention the 150 taels of interest that they owe us. If you succeed in collecting these debts, you can Page 12 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal use the money to pay for my funeral expenses. You and manager Fu can continue to operate the two shops in the front of our property. The pawn shop has an operating capital of 20,000 taels, and the herbal medicine shop one of 5,000 taels. Clerk Han and Laibao have 4,000 taels worth of merchandise on their boat in Songjiang. As soon as the waterways are open to navigation again, you should go down to meet their boat and bring the cargo back home to be sold. The silver realized by the sale can be used to provide the living expenses for your mother-in-law and the rest of the family. School Official Liu still owes me 300 taels, Assistant Magistrate Hua me 340 taels of capital and interest. The contrasts for these debts are all in my possession, and someone should be sent as soon as possible to press for their collection.42

liquidate his long array of business ventures chillingly mirrors his physical depletion. Strikingly, with his lingering breath, the protagonist draws close to a dozen references to specific amounts of money, all counted in silver and adding up to about a hundred thousand taels. Alongside these financial details that reflect his variegated dealings in textile goods, herbal medicine, and moneylending, the protagonist mentions a roster of his employees and debtors, who form a mixed social group comprised of shop clerks, merchants, and scholar-officials. Geography constitutes another economic matter that occupies Shanghai) is frozen, blocking cotton goods worth four thousand taels from living expenses of the remaining family. When commenting on this financially meticulous passage upon the moment of Plum 43

In this

transcendental void. According to Zhang Zhupo, moreover, Plum yan liang) imageries: network he attracts with wealth and power, and the second connotes the inherent emptiness of his emotionally (p.64) hollow relations, which scatter as soon as his possessions disperse.44 both the climax and anticlimax of his life, for the material assets he has so obsessively and unscrupulously accumulated will soon fall apart and enter the hands of others, in close resemblance to the women in his family compound. The alteration of possession and dispossession patterns the basic rhythm of Plum,

Page 13 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

chapters of Plum collapse, as the wealth and the human network the protagonist has accumulated rapidly dwindle to nothingness.

alongside Ximen Qing and observes that the total capital worth of the 100,000 taels. This is not a very impressive sum in the eyes of Zhang Zhupo, who lived during the late seventeenth century, as he bewails after the 45

Writings more contemporary with Plum late sixteenth-century sources report that the richest merchants of the time boasted a million taels or more.46 Dwarfed by the actual moguls of the period, Ximen Qing is nonetheless rich enough to undo life or cheat death in the social world portrayed by Plum, wherein the price for a young servant is usually just a few taels.47 Those having artistic skills and sexual appeal would have cost more, for thirty taels at the age of sixteen (ch. 10; Roy 1:26). In chapter 10, fifty taels and a set of silver and gold wares given to the local magistrate help the protagonist get away with the murder of Wu Da (ch. 10; Roy 1:189). Later on, when a prosecutor from the Ming court launches charges against Ximen Qing and his political protectors, the protagonist flees the arms of law with a heftier price, as Ximen Qing does when judging a murder case after having become a magistrate himself (ch. 47; Roy 3:141), one hundred thousand taels would still

Although it saturates Plum Chinese literary works. Notably, Plum materials in Outlaws of the Marsh, in which paper bills and (p.65) copper cash are more common than silver currency. Overall, despite its alleged setting in the Northern Song dynasty of the twelfth century, Plum unambiguously reflects the contemporary life of late sixteenth-century China, an unfolding present that was materially different from not only the Song dynasty several centuries ago but also the fairly recent past during which Outlaws was composed, perhaps somewhere around the mid-fifteenth century. Throughout Plum narrative, except for one or two references to copper cash, the numerous

Plum and Outlaws is that, while copying almost verbatim from Outlaws the Plum changes the reward Wu Page 14 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

silver.48 Historically, the numismatic change that happens between Outlaws and Plum of overseas bullion. Although Plum attributed the time of its completion to the 1580s or the 1590s during the Wanli agrarian tax in silver, its final version must have been finished after the yi tiao bian fa) in 1581.49 Plum is very much a satire of the silverization of the national psychology. Given the actual fall of the Ming dynasty buildup to national disasters is almost clairvoyant.

yin as excess also implies a more abstract sense of greed and transgression.50 This symbolic connotation is fundamental to the literary design of Plum and to its underlying political critique on the degraded late Ming state. In fact, a rumored origin of the novel is that it was written to satirize the corrupt courtier Yan Song, whose embezzlement scandal became a flagrant sign of the degeneration of the scholar-official class. Twentieth-century academics have also proposed that the 51

Though none of these theories are conclusive and it is overly reductive to read the novel as a roman à clef, Plum does feature an overarching political theme through its (p. 66) to morality and law. Having rewarded the semi-illiterate protagonist a government position (ch. 30), Cai Jing later ritualizes his ties to Ximen Qing by taking him as a foster son (ch. 55).52 Given that the father-son bond rests at the wu lun and kinship disorders induced by unchecked greed. In fact, having a name that cai jing in the novel can be read in more symbolic than realistic terms, and hence as an archetypal figure of the general collapse of the Confucian civilizational order due to the overflow of material self-interests.53

Page 15 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal Views from Linqing s geographic setting represents the collective degenerations that spread from the imperial center to the urban merchant class. In his classic historical

a model Charles Tilly has borrowed to study nation formation in general.54 Plum literary geography is richly suggestive of these nationally framed city-state interactions. On the surface, the main setting of Plum is a provincial town named Qinghe, where Ximen Qing lives with his large household of six wives and numerous servants. For the most part, the protagonist moves between his family government bureaus. The novel only shows Ximen Qing traveling far away from Qinghe in two chapters, both times to the capital to visit the powerful courtier Cai Jing (ch. 55; ch. 70). Meanwhile, the protagonist has at his disposal a team of delegates who regularly travel on his behalf for currying political favor or purchasing commercial goods. For the first of these goals, the destination is other hand, routinely end up in Lower Yangzi areas such as Hangzhou and Merchants from the Lower Yangzi region and other parts of China repeatedly appear in Qinghe as well, bringing in trading (p.67) opportunities from afar. In addition to traveling characters, distant exotics, from extravagant textiles to overseas spices, are essential to the trappings of luxury that saturate the is thus situated within a narrative world space with multiple transregional networks. Though fictionalized, Plum economic geography of late Ming China. Notably, by setting the story in the city Plum makes a deliberate change to its predecessor, Outlaws, in

heart of the Grand Canal that connected the Ming capital, Beijing, with According to several scholars of the novel, the fictional Qinghe was indeed based upon the historical setting of Linqing.55 In this light, via its alteration of the geography of Outlaws, Plum transfers its narrative world from the countryside to the city, and subsequently to the intertwined political economic networks between the city and the state. Historically, after the restoration of its Canal section in the early fifteenth century, Lingqing became the home of a national Page 16 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal custom house, which garnered more tax revenue than any other station around thrived, rising from 8,356 during the late fourteenth century to 66,745 in the year 1600 according to official census reports. More importantly, Linqing attracted from all corners of China a great number of traveling merchants, who

area that faces the Korean Peninsula in the north and Guangdong and Fujian in the south, ports that were directly linked with maritime commerce.56 During the Ming period, foreign travelers who found the chance to enter the Chinese inland encountered Linqing as a main stop.57 In 1472, when he saw the city for the first

intermingled political and economic flows.58 culture, Plum stresses instead the problem of excess that came along with the quickened political and cultural institutions. Mirroring the historical Linqing, the Qinghe in Plum boasts a thoroughly commercialized (p.68) scene, wherein the moneylender, Ximen Qing has broad dealings in luxury goods. His textile stores, by far the largest of his investments, are filled with silk fineries legally forbidden to the merchant class. His herbal medicine shop in fact contains many varieties of spices, including overseas exotics. The commodification of these luxury goods in Plum again mirrors historical trends of the late Ming period. Textile production around the Lower Yangzi region, which constituted the historical

59

Moreover, by their convenient access to the Canal, Linqing merchants indeed formed a prominent group in the nationwide textile trade. Spice, another of the period, and its importation doubled over the course of the late Ming. Failing to ban private spice trade, the Ming state eventually legalized it in

to a free circulating commodity.60 In world-historical terms, Ximen Qing deals in two of the most profitable global commodities of the period: silk and spice. In the narrative design of Plum, the promiscuity as he simultaneously employs them for trade, bribe, and personal Page 17 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

fashion vogues. In chapter 15, when feasting in a roadside building on the night with their new robes made with the richest brocades, fine satin, and other extravagant silk materials. Noticing the courtly style of their dresses, an

quarter that some big spender has engaged to entertain him while he enjoys the to the utter social disarray in an age of indiscriminate (p.69) luxury consumption, while deflating imperial authority to little more than an image of extravagance and luxury. The gossips on the street of Qinghe thus deliver a strident commentary on the cultural chaos of the period. Plum 61

In the novel, other than being consumed by the Ximen household itself, out-of-bounds luxury goods are the sine qua non and kinship exchanges, these forbidden objects are often enumerated and foregrounded in the text. The set of gifts that later win Ximen Qing the foster fatherhood of Cai Jing, for instance, are catalogued in full in the novel: These consisted of a crimson python robe, a dragon robe of statutory green, twenty bolts of brocade in Han dynasty pattern, twenty bolts of Sichuan brocade, twenty bolts of asbestos fabric, and twenty bolts of cloth imported from the Western Ocean. In addition, there were forty bolts of fabrics in flowered and plain patterns, a girdle with a jade plaque depicting the king of the Lion Barbarian, a girdle with a plaque of aloeswood enchased with gold, ten pairs each of jade cups and cups of rhinoceros horn, eight goblets of pure gold enchased with floral designs, ten luminescent pearls, and two hundred ounces of gold for his own personal expenditures (Roy, 3:356). Revealing the blatantly transgressive nature of the gifts, the catalogue begins dragon robe, followed by other first-rank silk luxuries.62 The list also includes valuable exotics that traditionally served as ritual gifts in the imperial court, yet became widely commercialized during the late Ming period, such as the Page 18 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

enchased plaque of aloeswood, and the rhino-horn cup.63 The use of all these courtly gift culture. Mirroring actual historical trends to an extent, the outrageous catalogue in this scene is a fictionally exaggerated account that aims ritual meanings. Remarkably, Plum frequently refers to gifts used as bribes as renqing, a term classical Confucian meaning as the sincere sorrow a son feels at the passing of his father.64 Extending beyond the merely affective ties between parent and child, in the Confucian moral system the principle of filial piety (xiao) is lun) husband and wife, between the elder and (p.70) the younger brothers, and between friends.65 Given these symbolic ramifications, the idea of filial piety in

conceived as a quasi-metaphysical model of vertical continuity at the heart of the 66

The degradation of filial piety into money and gifts, which the novel exemplifies through the case of Ximen Qing and Cai Jing, thus represents a dislocation of the entire Confucian ideal of social order. Simultaneously, nonetheless, this literary emphasis on displacement demystifies the subject-

Plum parallel chaos across society at large and within state politics. By this radiate far beyond the scope of a family or a city and toward a parameter of zhongyuan

Sexual Politics In chapter 21 of Plum, in one of the scandalous jokes that is told during a family

Though presented as a joke, the state-family correlation in this scene hints at the 67

Given

corresponds to larger political and social disorders. In service to this general

Page 19 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal all symbolize aspects of the degraded cultural and political system. The instance, connotes the ineffectuality of the established ritual authority.68 The prostitutes, represent the decadent material life of the Ximen household, since the former is the keeper of the family coffers and the latter oversees the kitchen. materialistic human ties similar to the sex trade, Wu Yueniang ends up adopting Li (p.71)

disorderly connections to Cai Jing. The confused and fickle domestic relations in the novel thus symbolically parallel political corruption on the level of the state.69

marriage to Ximen Qing has obvious financial consequences: her dowry contains more than 1000 taels of silver, which is a considerable addition to the

jieyi, is a Three Kingdoms to Outlaws. By taking an oath to treat each other as brothers, the characters in these earlier narratives are willing to sacrifice even their own lives to honor the bond.70 An affront to this heroic concept of jieyi around their endless merrymakings in local brothels and are fraught with instances of mutual manipulation and deceit. In the case of Hua Zixu, who

During the affair, and after a threatening legal charge against Hua over his questionable inheritances, Li resolutely passes trunks of treasures and silver taels into Ximen

neglect and mistreatment (ch. 14). Soon afterwards, Ximen Qing buys the

brings to Ximen Qing over the course of their affair and marriage is crucial to his initial capital accumulation. Page 20 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

brotherhood, and friendship. Meanwhile, the narrative repeatedly hints that Li scandal. Unrelated to any specific trade, Hua Zixu inherited (p.72) his wealth from his uncle, a former palace eunuch. In the novel, little is disclosed about the

15; Roy, 1:277). Though not openly stated in the text, during the late Ming a

trade bureau (shi bo si). Wielding a power that often superseded the authority of local officials, eunuchs in Canton frequently engaged in corruption and embezzlement.71 In Plum incestuous relationship between Li and her uncle-in-law. The wealth Li brings to the protagonist through her betrayal of Hua is thus tainted by political and sexual wrongdoings from the start, in parallel to its corrupt functions in the control of the new owner.

treasures that are still hard to find around the marketplace despite the proliferation of luxury commodities. Always including the ritually significant python robe as a centerpiece in his gifts to Cai Jing, Ximen Qing is on one occasion short of some specific varieties of the python robe to complete his textiles embroidered with the python pattern from her own stash of luxury goods (ch. 25; Roy 2:98). Considerably finer than those purchased in the counterfeit

palace, while possessing material privileges the market cannot fully reproduce, is nothing but a hub of the most expensive and lavish objects, which can be spirited away and possessed by others without moral qualms. Power is, in this sense, detached from any sacred or ethical core of meaning, and comes to be defined entirely by the possession of things. Plum unscrupulous desire for wealth and power through her sexual appeal. Indicating

Page 21 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal favors and gifts during these heated moments reveals the material motives that underlie her sexual relation to Ximen Qing. The pecuniary subtext inherent in (p.73) which are likewise maintained through his gifts of money and fashion goods. The Wang the Sixth), the wife of his employee, Han Daoguo. Fully aware of the affair, Han turns a blind eye to the already publicized scandal for the material benefits my

death occurs as a consequence of his consecutive sexual encounters with Wang barefacedly materialistic. This narrative outcome follows upon a key event that occurs around midway through Plum

fatally ill, the one hundred pills are almost spent. Having consumed one of his returns home and stumbles into the room of a sex-starved Pan Jinlian. In her aroused haste, Pan administers the last three pills of aphrodisiac to the heavily one pill at a time. Stimulated by this overdose and virtually unconscious, Ximen

mere cold air (ch. 79).

devious pursuit of wealth through currying political favors, since the foreign monk episode occurs immediately after his lavish banquet with two newly appointed officials, an occasion that allows him to bribe one guest into assigning yan yin) and special permission to monopolize the trade for one month. Through these privileges, the protagonist makes an extraordinary profit, which he subsequently invests into the opening of a

and sexual desires. However, the fatal overdose at the end ironically nullifies the meaning of every silver tael he has earned. When describing the depleting gush

transmutability between mercury and silver, (p.74) and that the Chinese term shui yin Page 22 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

image of the melting away of his wealth, which will soon be stolen, appropriated, or squandered by his circle of false confidants. In light of the above analysis, Plum political and moral critique. Whereas the novel foregrounds sexual deviance in

Plum 72

The nineteenth-century commentator Wen Long likewise notes that 73

27, which includes some of the most scandalous sexual scenes in this generally risqué novel. Before portraying its central sexual episode, the chapter bribes that would soon buy the protagonist a post in the officialdom (ch. 30). Remarkably, the centerpiece of these gifts consists of four silver statues (yin ren)

political evildoers whose mismanagement and greed are berated by the novel for ruining the entire empire. This prelude indicates that the sexual perversion in the main body of the chapter implicitly functions to condemn the political and 74

In order to perceive the confluence of sexual and political themes in Plum, we should also attend to the significant image of fashion goods in the novel. While clothing, gifts invariably contain python robes. These robes are typically dyed bright red, which is, according to Ming laws, a sacred color reserved for major ritual occasions, such as ancestral worship at the imperial temple.75 In Plum, the ritually honored crimson color nonetheless proliferates as a vulgarized status symbol. As soon as he obtains an official title, for instance, Ximen Qing begins to appear in a variety of crimson robes, although the color is well beyond his given rank. Personifying the corruption of political power, Cai Jing is also conspicuously associated with the crimson robe. In the only chapter where the minister appears in person, the novel lets us vaguely visualize him from the armchair, covered with a tiger skin, on which there sat a figure, garbed in a (p.75) (ch. 55; Roy 3:354). Devoid of distinctive human tokens of power around him. In chapter 70, in which Ximen Quing visits the capital to thank Cai Jing for his recent promotion, the slew of corrupt officials he encounters are likewise swathed in bright red. Toward the end of this chapter, Page 23 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

warningly relates the color they wear to national disasters in the following power; It was only appropriate that the Central Plain should become soaked in 76

Thus linked with blood and destruction, the proliferating crimson color foreshadows the violent fall of the dynasty in the opulent empire, a catastrophic ending that darkly yet powerfully concludes the all under the rule of the lord of silver.

Beginnings of the End The final twenty chapters of Plum quick disintegration of the Ximen household and the violent deaths of main death, Chen Jingji starts an affair with Pan Jinlian and the two are driven out of the household after Wu Yueniang finds out about the scandal. Later, Pan is brutally slaughtered by the returning Wu Song (ch. 87), while Chen dies at the (Spring Plum), who then becomes the wife of a high-ranking officer (ch. 99). In contrast to the bandit heroes in Outlaws decadent as members of the Ximen family and has become the lover of Ximen

kinship chaos in Plum

77

Significantly, the novel situates the dispersals and deaths of its central characters within the historical context of the fall of Northern Song due to the Jurchen invasion. Brought down by military forces from the north, the fictional dynasty in Plum has been ruined on a fundamental level by the corruption of the firstborn son Guan Ge is an important (p.76) narrative arc that prefigures the

post from Cai Jing as a result of his lavish gifts. Though viewed by his father as an auspicious sign of his rising wealth and power, Guan Ge is always in poor

through devious political ties, his second son Xiao Ge, who is borne by Wu Yueniang upon the moment of his death, symbolically reinforces the theme of Page 24 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

monk, Pujing, as the reincarnation of his father and as being destined to atone already fifteen years old, to Pujing as a disciple (ch. 100). Although this conclusion seems to end the novel on a note of Buddhist redemption and regeneration, it hardly counterbalances the moral disorder elaborated throughout the narrative, wherein the Buddhist and Daoist clergies are portrayed as being equally contaminated by materialism as the secular world. not so much a religious conclusion but the irrevocable loss of the kinship-based Confucian moral-political order.78 Overall, within the anarchic world of Plum, the only sense of order seems to come from materiality itself. Given the harms associated with erotic excess in

the text employs to contain the otherwise boundless expansion of desire.79 Rather than resorting to a metaphysical source of meaning, the book thus

sexual prowess, its narrative revolves around an ironic contrast between these two forms of materiality: if wealth or capital is open to infinite growth, the body will be spent or damaged by indiscriminate sexual expenditure.80 By subsuming the unlimited principle of money to the limited principle of sex, then, the novel manages to reach a proper ending. The most scandalous aspect of the novel, in this sense, contains its moral core. Yet, if the deaths of characters such as Ximen Qing, Pan Jinlian, Chun Mei, and Chen Jingji express a retributive logic of desire, this self-destructive pattern somehow lacks universality in the world of the novel. (p.77) The most obvious

protagonist when he breathes his last, as she urges her husband, Han Daoguo, to embezzle the one thousand taels he acquired when trading cotton for Ximen sexual service to Ximen Qing. The two then run away with the money and suffer no retributive consequences (ch. 81). Later, the novel casually reports that, after whom she has already developed an adulterous relation. By coincidence, Wang

fortuitous ending, suggests a reality principle of sheer objective contingencies beyond the retributive framework the novel employs in the other cases. Page 25 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

husband over the son of a local scholarly family, Meng clearly embodies a new social attitude. At the same time, despite her mercantile background and close association with Pan Jinlian, Meng remains a rational and pacifying character in official who shows her true affection, and the two are reported to have happily lived to an old age. In the opinion of Zhang Zhupo, given her capabilities of self-

endorsement of a more viable form of individual desire.81 Last but not the least, the most multivalent character in Plum is doubtlessly Pan 82

Pan is malicious, murderous, and always insecure of her standings, yet bold enough to objectify any man as the target of her lust. Unsettling the sexual hierarchy characteristic of patriarchal power, she embodies a radically transgressive form of individual desire. While using her image to express the thorough moral decay of the era, Plum foregrounds Pan as its most vividly portrayed character with complex intentions and desires.83 Moll Flanders and Roxana. These insubordinate female images manifest the significance of gender and sexuality in denoting larger processes of cultural destabilization, and in representing altering visions of individuality. In the epilogue to this book, we will see further variations of these correlations of gender and individuality in Eastern and Western narrative texts. (p.78) In short, the new realist trend we observe in Plum has transculturally a global system of material interrelations. While Plum shows few explicit concerns with the outside world, it does from time to time hint at an international sphere as a source of exotic goods and material temptations. embezzlement; the exotic spices consumed by the Ximen household; the forbidden overseas luxuries the protagonist sends to Cai Jing; and the outlandish image of the aphrodisiac-giving monk. Moreover, in a historical sense social world ultimately traveled from a much broader world space. In the following chapters, we shall see the pertinence of the same global silver economy to landmarks of narrative realism elsewhere. The most contemporary of these cases to the appearance of Plum in late Ming China took place in Spain, differences, imperial Spain and Ming China were both epicenters of the Age of Silver, and were both at the forefront of the monetary impacts of the New World Page 26 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal mining booms. In this macrohistorical context, it is unsurprising that money and commerce likewise became prominent narrative themes in Spanish picaresque fiction, which emerged during the late sixteenth century, and, in a more complex Don Quixote. As two roughly coeval Eastern and Western landmarks of narrative realism, Plum and Don Quixote, for all their apparent incommensurability, both exhibit the historical conditions of

manner can further expand the rising transnational approach to his works resituating Don Quixote transcultural spectrum. With these interests in mind, we now turn from Plum military and colonial empire of the Age of Silver. Notes:

(1.) Food in Chinese Culture: Anthropological and Historical Perspective, ed. K.C. Chang (Yale University Press, 1977), 195. (2.) Cited in Timothy Brook, The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China (University of California Press, 1998), 238. (3.) Robert Markley, The Far East and the English Imagination, 22. Also see Chalmers Johnson, The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy, and the End of the Republic (New York: Metropolitan, 2004) and Ray Huang, 1587, A Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981). (4.) See, for instance, Janet Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony (1991); Roy Bin Wong, China Transformed (1997); Andre Gunder Frank, ReOrient (1998); Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence (2000); Jack Goldstone, Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991) and Why Europe? (2008); Warren I. Cohen, East Asia at the Center (2000); John Hobson The Eastern Origins of Western Civilization (2004); Jack Goody, ed., Capitalism and Modernity: The Great Debate (2004); Alexander Woodside, Lost Modernities: China, Vietnam, Korea, and the Hazards of World History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006); Giovanni Arrighi, Adam Smith in Beijing (2007); ; David Porter, ed., Comparative Early Modernities (2012); and Manning and Gills, eds. Andre Gunder Frank and Global Development. (5.) For a complete English translation of Jin Ping Mei, see The Plum in the Golden Vase

Page 27 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal translation, unless otherwise noted. Notable English scholarly writings on the novel include ; C. T. Hsia, The Classic Chinese Novel: A Critical Introduction (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968); Katherine Carlitz, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986); the Body: The Sexual Economy of the CLEAR 15 ; Andrew Plaks, The Four Masterworks of the Ming Novel: Ssu ta (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987); Martin Huang, Desire and Fictional Narrative (2001); Naifei Ding, Obscene Things: Sexual Politics in Jin Ping Mei (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002); Gift of a Python Robe: The Circulation of Objects in Jin Ping Mei Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies ; Everyday World: Jin Ping Mei cihua Dynastic Crisis and Cultural Innovation: From the Late Ming to the Late Qing and Beyond, eds. David Der-wei Wang and Shang Wei (Cambridge, MA: Harvard bibliographies that include Chinese and Japanese sources. For a comparative study of eroticism and sentiments in Chinese and French novels with Plum as a major example, see Tonglin Lu, Rose and Lotus: Narrative of Desire in France and China (Albany, New York: SUNY, 1991). For a study on early modern consumption using Plum in comparison to European cases, see et verba and the World of Goods

Res

Consumption .

(6.) See

329.

(7.) For information regarding Plum Masterworks

Plaks, Four Plum

Plum dates to manuscript was circulating among a small group of readers by the mid-1590s. Mei (CLEAR

Jin Ping Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews revives the theory of earlier authorship by promoting

intriguing suggestion that Plum Jin Ping Mei CLEAR . Xu Jin Ping Mei Wenxue Yichan (Literary Heritage persuasively points out that due to recurrent references to nationwide agrarian taxes in the book, the Page 28 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

yi tiao bian fa) in 1581. (8.) All these novels were published anonymously and appeared in print mostly during the sixteenth century. In terms of their earliest extant editions, Three Kingdoms dates to 1522, Outlaws to 1589, Journey to the West to 1592, and Plum to 1617. Bibliographical references from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries have led twentieth-century scholars to attribute Three Kingdoms to Luo Guanzhong (fl. 14th century), Outlaws c. Guanzhong, and Journey to the West c. Four Masterworks of the Ming Novel contains detailed discussions on the questions of dating and came into circulation during the seventeenth century in the Chinese book market. See Four Masterworks, 5n. In The Four Masterworks of the Ming Novel,

parallelisms. In ways that were inspiring to the conception of this book, Plaks commensurabilities between the Chinese texts in question and the Western novel since Don Quixote. See in The Novel, Vol.1, edited by Moretti. Except for Plum, which was based on one episode from Outlaws earlier sources, which have been attributed to oral traditions such as the These sources are addressed in detail in Four Masterworks. Also see Robert Reading Illustrated Fiction in Late Imperial China (Stanford, CA: , for an overview of the development of fiction in the Chinese tradition. The Dream of the Red Chamber Scholars (Rulin waishi) were traditionally published with prefatory interlinear commentaries, which are significant for understanding narrative theories in the Chinese tradition. For translations of these commentaries, see David L. Rolston, ed., How to Read the Chinese Novel (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990). Ming Dong Chinese Theories of Fiction: A Non-Western Narrative System (Albany, New York: SUNY, 2006) provides a valuable account of the distinctive features of Chinese narrative criticism as they evolved through the Ming and Qing periods. For informative accounts of the trend of vernacularization and secularization in Chinese fiction, see, for instance, Sheldon H. Lu, From Historicity to Fictionality: The Chinese Poetics of Narrative (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994); Liangyan Ge, Out of the Margins: The Rise of Chinese Vernacular Fiction (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2001); and Page 29 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal in The Journey to the West .

CLEAR 16

(9.) It should be noted that the most popular editions of Plum prior to the xiu xiang) version, which earlier extant edition dated to 1617, otherwise known as the cihua) version due to its different title, was not rediscovered and revived until the 1930s. For detailed textual studies of these editions, see Patrick Asia Major ; and Asia Major . The

primarily follows this version. For a reemphasis on the distinctive literary values Two Recensions of Jinpingmei .

Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 62, no. 2

(10. Jin Ping Mei

Jin Ping Mei) has been translated by

David Roy and included in How to Read the Chinese Novel

(11.) Cited in Jin Ping Mei ziliao huibian (Collected Materials on Jin Ping Mei), ed. Huang Lin, 6. My translation. (12.) See Lu Xun Zhongguo xiaoshuo shilue (first draft published in 1923), which has been translated into English by Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang under the title A Brief History of Chinese Fiction (Beijing Foreign Press, 1959). Lu Xun shiqing xiaoshuo renqing xiaoshuo) alternatively to refer to the narrative tradition from Plum to Red Chamber historiography, see R. Hegel, Reading Illustrated Fiction (13.) See Jin Ping Mei cihua of Plum Wenxue 1.1 (1933), now in Jin Ping Mei ziliao huilu (Collected Sources of Plum and Plum Wenxue jikan 1, no. 1(1934), now in Jin Ping Mei ziliao huilu

Page 30 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

Comparative Literature Studies

.

(14.) Hsia, Classic Chinese Novel, 166; 329. (15.) in Popular Culture in Late Imperial China, eds. David Johnson, et al. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 3. (16.) For surveys of these social and historical trends, see Evelyn Rawski, Plaks, Four Masterworks Benjamin Elman, On Their Own Terms: Science in China, . On late Ming consumption culture, see Timothy Brook, Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), and Craig Clunas, Superfluous Things: Material Culture and Social Status in Early Modern China (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2005). Population figure is from Elman, On Their Own Terms, 9. For world population comparison Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism, Vol.1, Frederick W. Mote,

(Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press, 2003); Jonathan Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990); and Dennis Twitchett, ed., Cambridge History of China

).

(17.) Cited in Timothy Brook, The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 238. (18.

Brook,

Confusions of Pleasure, 73, 144, 149, 221. (19.) See

c.

Cambridge History of China 384. For more detailed accounts, see Richard Von Glahn, Fountain of Fortune Niv Horesh, Chinese Money in Global Context. (20.) See

(21.) Frank, ReOrient

Page 31 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal (22.) See

; Flynn ; Brook, Mann, 1493

and Troubled Empire

Portuguese missionary who lived in Manila from 1637 to 1638 and is cited in von 436. (23.) See

440, 432.

(24.) Brook, The Confusions of Pleasure, 10. (25.) Cited in Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism, vol.1, 454. (26.) (27.) See for instance

and Mann, 1493,

in The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), 465. (28.) For these debates, see Timothy Brook and Gregory Blue, eds., China and Historical Capitalism: Genealogies of Sinological Knowledge (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1999); and Jack Goody, ed., Capitalism and Modernity: The Great Debate , 2004 be found in The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism, first published in Blaut, Eight Eurocentric Historians . Also see Lütfi Sunar, Marx and Weber on Oriental Societies (2014) Chinese Civilization and Bureaucracy; Variations on a Theme (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1964) and Political Theory and Administrative Reality in Traditional China (London: University of London, 1965).For one example of the Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia

.

(29.) See Beyond Binary Histories: Re-Imagining Eurasia to c 1830 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999). (30.) For geographical difference, see Abu-Lughod Before European Hegemony, Arrighi, Adam Smith in Beijing economy, Chinese overseas commercial networks, and relations to Southeast Asia, see K. N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Kenneth McPherson, The Indian Ocean: a History of People and the Sea (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Philippe Page 32 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

Journal of World History ; Angela Schottenhammer, ed., Trading Networks in Early Modern East Asia (Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2010); Eric Tagliacozzo and Wen-Chin Chang, eds., Chinese Circulations: Capital, Commodities, and Networks in Southeast Asia (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011); Brook, Troubled Empire 237. For accounts on Zheng He and the early Ming expeditions, see Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, and Edward L. Dreyer, Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405 1433 (New York: Pearson, 2006). Also see Abu-Lughod Before European Hegemony Mann, 1493 Columbian expeditions. For Chinese maritime politics, diplomacies, and the Gang Den, Maritime Sector, Institutions, and Sea Power of Premodern China (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999); Gang Zhao, The (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2013); and David Chan-oong Kang, East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute (New York: Columbia University Press, 2013). (31. history in Eastern Origins (32.) Braudel explicitly defines capitalism as monopoly and state ideology on the Afterthoughts on Material Civilization and Capitalism Arrighi, Adam Smith in Beijing (33.) According to a European traveler in 1695, one tael of silver (roughly equivalent to the weight of a Spanish peso

European observer avowed in the 1730s that for the purpose of cutting and

observations are cited in Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism vol.1, 455. (34.) See von Glahn, Fountain of Fortune for details and Niv Horesh, Chinese Money in Global Context: Historic Junctures Between 600 BCE and 2012 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014), for a comparative analysis. (35.) George William Skinner, The City in Late Imperial China (Stanford University Press, 1977), 268.

Page 33 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal (36. The Far Eastern Quarterly ; and Joshua A. Fogel, ed., Konan and the Development of the Conception of Modernity in Chinese History (Armonk, NY: Sharpe, 1983). For studies on social mobility, the civil examination, and merchant-gentry relations in late imperial China, see Ping-Ti Ho, The Ladder (Columbia University Press, [1965] 2011); Benjamin Elman, A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000); Joseph Esherick and Mary Backus Rankin, eds., Chinese Local Elites and Patterns of Dominance (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), and Richard John Lufrano, Honorable Merchants: Commerce and Self-Cultivation in Late Imperial China (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997). (37.) Cited in Timothy Brook and B. Michael Frolic, eds., Civil Society in China, Modern China 19, no. 2 Also see Jude Howell and Jenny Pearce, Civil Society and Development, ch. 4; and Karla W Simon, Civil Society in China: The Legal Framework from Ancient (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013) for related analyses. (38.) Summed up in Brook and Frolic, eds., Civil Society in China, 21. See Philip La Société civile face à . (39.) On the two contrasting attitudes toward economic developments and consumption in late Ming China, See The Oxford Handbook of the History of Consumption . For a summary of the emergence of antiauthoritarian sentiments and more autonomous forms of political and cultural consciousness in sixteenth-century China, see Plaks, Four Masterworks, culture, see Ray Huang 1587, A Year of No Significance; Maram Epstein, Competing Discourses: Orthodoxy, Authenticity, and Engendered Meanings in Late Imperial Chinese Fiction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001); Chun-shu Chang and Shelley Hsueh-lun Chang, Crisis and Transformation in Seventeenth-Century China: Society, Culture, and Modernity in (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998); and Harry Mille, State Versus (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).

Page 34 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal (40. developments of commercial publishing during the Ming dynasty, see Kai-wing Chow, Publishing, Culture, and Power in Early Modern China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004); Cynthia J. Brokaw and Kai-Wing Chow, eds., Printing and Book Culture in Late Imperial China (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2005); and R. Hegel, Reading Illustrated Fiction. On Jin Ping Mei and print culture, see Jin Ping Mei cihua William Theodore de Bary, eds., Self and Society in Ming Thought (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970). For more recent studies, see Pauline C. Lee, Li Zhi, Confucianism, and the Virtue of Desire (Albany, NY: SUNY, 2012); and George L. Israel, Doing Good and Ridding Evil in Ming China: The Political Career of Wang Yangming (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2014). Donglin activism received a book-length treatment in John W. Dardess, Blood and History in China: The (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2002). In relation to the themes addressed in this passage, it should be ye shi). See analysis in From Historicity to Fictionality

(41.) The self-family-state correlation in the process of self-cultivation is a basic proposition of the canonical Neo-Confucian text Da Xue (Great Learning). For readings of Plum as a subversion of The Great Learning framework, see Plaks, Four Masterworks

Rhetoric, 30ff. Also see Indira and

and Tradition in Jin Ping Mei Modern China micro-macro relations in the novel. (42.

for

The Plum in the Golden

Vase, vol.4: The Climax (43.) Jin Ping Mei hui ping hui jiao ben (A Collated Edition of Plum with Collected Traditional Commentaries), ed. Qin Xiurong (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1998), 1171. All translations of

(44. jiao ben

Jin Ping Mei hui ping hui Andrew Plaks, Four Masterworks

(45.) jiao ben, 1191.

Jin Ping Mei hui ping hui

Page 35 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal (46. Fu Yilin, Ming Qing shidai shangren ji shangye ziben (Merchants and Commercial Capitals in Ming and Qing 1624), cited in Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies . (47.) For example, in chapter 30 a young maid is bought for seven-and-a-half taels (Roy, 196); in chapter 37 a young girl is sold for only four taels (Roy, 373); and in chapter 60 another maid is sold for five taels (Roy, 490). (48.) For a Chinese study that uses the monetary backgrounds of Outlaws as a the mid-1500s, see Shuihu zhuan qian ban bu zhuan yu Ming Xuande Composition of the First Half of Outlaws Wenxue Yichan (Literary Heritage (49.) See

Jin Ping Mei liutong huobi zhitai yu chengshu niandai Jin Ping Mei Wenxue Yichan (Literary Heritage

(50.) See

. : A Look at

. (51.) For these theories, see Plaks, Four Masterworks (52.) See Religion and Society Based on a Study of the University of Chicago, 1973) various trips to the capital for submitting birthday gifts to Cai Jing. (53.) See Proceedings of the International Conference on Sinology, Section on Literature . (54.) See George William Skinner, The City in Late Imperial China (Stanford University Press, 1977) and Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1992). (55.) See, for instance, Ye Guitong, Lun Jin Ping Mei (On The Plum in the Golden Vase ; Wang Rumei, Wang Rumei Jiedu Jin Ping Mei (Interpretations of The Plum in the Golden Vase by Wang Rumei) (Jilin, China: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2007), 256.

Page 36 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal (56.) See Jin Ping Mei Jin Ping Mei Jin Ping Mei yu Linqing, ed. Huang Lin and Du Mingde (Shandong Xinhua, . For English writings on Linqing, see Brook, Confusions of Pleasure Brook, The Troubled Empire

, in

(57. Michela Fontana, Matteo Ricci: A Jesuit in the Ming Court (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011), . (58.) Quoted in Kevin Bishop and Annabel Roberts, Retracing an Historical Trade and Communications Route from Hong Kong to Beijing (Hong Kong: Guidebook, 1997), 65. (59.) History of China, vol. 8 of The Ming Dynasty, Part 2

in The Cambridge William in The Cambridge

History of China, vol. 8 Yangzi region probably generated more than three-fourths of early modern The Great Divergence, 139. Lower Yangzi cities including Huzhou and Hangzhou are described in Plum as the places frequented

(60.) See Jianghai xuekan

. Also see Chinese

Circulations Arjun Appadurai, ed., The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988). To my knowledge, there is its literary reflections, similar to what Timothy Morton did in English studies. See Timothy Morton, The Poetics of Spice: Romantic Consumerism and the Exotic (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000). (61.)

136.

(62.) On the illicit nature of the python robe, see

(63. huo huan bu) in the Chinese original. Known for its fire-resistant quality, the fabric was initially an imported tributary item, although China began to domestically produce the Travels

Page 37 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal Pope for sacramental purposes. See Huang Jingchun and Fan Wenxing,

Shengming, zhishi, yu wenming: Shanghai shehui kexuejie xueshu nianhua lunwen ji . xi yang bu) in Plum must refer to the famed Indian Calicut to Cambay and often used to trade for Southeast Asian spices by participants of the Indian Ocean economy. It was a valued gift item in the Ming and Qing court. See Dongnanya Yanjiu 4 (2005), . The printed variety of the Indian cotton was a sought-after commodity in the European markets and motivated important technological renovations in the European textile industry. See Journal of Social History .

history of the aloeswood and its trade during the early modern time, see Andrew Dalby, Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices (Berkeley and Los Angeles: ; and Tana Li, Southern Vietnam in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Ithaca, NY: . Judging by the Chinese original, the Plum qinan particularly valuable subtype of the genus, the finest aloeswood, once known as qinan wood was taxed in China at a rate twenty times higher than ordinary aloeswood and a hundred times more than pepper. Obviously, it belonged to the most expensive spices one could possibly buy during the time. For tax information, see Yan

Jianghai xuekan 1 (2008), 185. For an early-nineteenth century The London Encyclopaedia: or Universal Dictionary Of Science, Art, Literature, and Practical Mechanics, vol. 22 (London: Thomas .

also more thoroughly commercialized as a result of the growth of international emperor of the newly established Qing dynasty, an official proposes reopening commerce to the Portuguese settlement in Macao and lists rhino horns alongside Page 38 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal

merchants would further distribute the goods to the Chinese inland. As the

Shunzhi through Qianlong Trading Networks in Early Modern East Asia, ed. Angela Schottenhammer (Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2010), 114. (64.) Plaks, Four Masterworks, 171. Also see as recorded in Confucian classics such as Liji (The Classic of Rite). (65. Mencius Sources of Chinese Tradition, vol. 1, eds. de Bary and Bloom, 133, for a translation of the passage. Cf. Plaks, Four Masterworks Plum of the cardinal relations. (66.) Plaks, Four Masterworks, 171. (67.) Cf.

Jin Ping Mei and Plaks, Four

Masterworks (68.) Cf. Ping Mei

Jin Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews

.

(69.) In the indignant words of Plum one will become not-human. Prostitutes take foster mothers, sons-in-law play with mothers-in-law, mistresses drink with servant boys, younger brothers commit adultery with wives of older brothers, all the world is become muddy Naifei Ding, Obscene Things, 195. To compare with actual social practices, see Ann Beth Waltner, Getting an Heir: Adoption and the Construction of Kinship in Late Imperial China (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1991). (70.) Cf. Martin Huang, Negotiating Masculinities in Late Imperial China . (71.) See Shantou daxue xuebao . Also see Shih-shan Henry Tsai, The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Albany, NY: SUNY, 1996). (72. Jin Ping Mei Plum Jin Ping Mei ziliao huibian (Compiled Sources of Jin Ping Mei), ed. Huang Lin (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1987), 71. Page 39 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Along the Grand Canal (73. huibian, 436.

Jin Ping Mei ziliao

(74. (75.) These prescriptions can be found in Ming Shi

(76.

History of Ming,

Plum in reference to China at large.

(77.) For literary analyses of these endings, see Journal of Asian Studies Tamkang Review

and Zheng .

(78.) See Carlitz, , 141 and Plaks, Four Masterworks, 168 on the ironic aspects of Plum redemption. (79.) For backgrounds on the medical theory Plum employes, see the chapter on Furth, . (80.) Cf. Martin Huang, Desire and Fictional Narrative in Late Imperial China,

(81.

Four Masterworks, 171.

(82.) Steven Moore, The Novel: An Alternative History, vol.1, 649. According to

(83.) Cf. Naifei Ding, Obscene Things

Access brought to you by:

Page 40 of 40

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies

The Age of Silver: The Rise of the Novel East and West Ning Ma

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780190606565 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2017 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.001.0001

La Mancha to the Indies The Romance and Materiality of the Empire in Don Quixote Ning Ma

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.003.0004

Abstract and Keywords Don Quixote in light of imperial Lazarillo de Tormes the colonization of the New World. Don Quixote is a far more complex literary engagement of the same context. Drawing on transnational approaches to aspects of Habsburg imperialism, and addresses his relations to Sancho and

Spanish-East Asia relations, thus situating Don Quixote modern global history, and reading from the novel a nationally symbolic political critique similar to the other cases. Keywords: Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote, Lazarillo de Tormes, imperial Spain, Age of Silver, transatlantic colonialism, Spanish-East Asia relations

America bores open all her mines, and unearths her silver and her treasure, to hand them over to our own Spain, , Page 1 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies from Europe, Libya, Asia, by way of Sanlúcar, . 1

conqueror. Although he based himself on the so-called Book of Chivalry, his hopes were neither merely fantastical nor narrowly chivalric. They were He wanted to lead great armies and give away conquered provinces to his loyal comrades. He believed himself capable and worthy of founding vast empires . . . [H]e wanted all this, he believed, not for his own sake but out

hardly a coincidence that Cervantes was a citizen and soldier of the Spanish Empire and a fellow countryman of Charles V, the Conquistadores, and Ignatius Loyola. It is clear that being historically close to these figures helped Cervantes to understand his own hero. Like the best of them, Don Quixote wants to conquer the world and is possessed by love for the Divine; like the worst of them, he is a violent madman. Eros and Empire2 (p.80) mediocrity of his daily life. He could thus, through an experience which is seldom obtained when the writer is successful and wealthy, know, observe, and feel the beat of Spanish life in its greatness and in its poverty, in its heroic fantasy and in the sad reality of an imminent decadence. He was to leave in his books the most faithful image of this life, reflected in multiple perspectives with bittersweet irony and penetrating humor. 3

4

Distantly,

similar apprehensions expressed by Zhang Tao and many other Chinese literati writers at the other end of the Eurasian continent, likewise during the opening decades of the seventeenth century. This synchronicity is more than coincidental. Around the time when Chinese traders rushed to import overseas silver as soon as the Japanese mining boom occurred in the 1530s, Spanish explorers were ardently hunting for gold in the New World territories they had Page 2 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies

miscalculated westbound sail for China. Meanwhile, in order to obtain genuine

fleets ventured further west in 1519 under the captainship of Ferdinand Magellan into the vast Pacific, eventually reaching the islands they later named

and conquered Manila as their Eastern base in 1571. All these transpacific processes, in crucial ways, happened alongside serendipitous silver strikes in

gave rise to a monetary revolution in Castilian Spain and Europe at large while military ventures. At the same time, propelled by the same trading motives that its massive flows to the East in exchange for Chinese (p.81) goods, both via Europeans, who had siphoned away large portions of the transatlantic silver first sent to Seville and Cádiz through loans and commerce. Typically reminted as silver ingots once they entered China, Spanish pesos became so prevalent around Chinese coasts that they were also accepted there in the original form. century, use of the Mexican peso had become generalized in southern China, 5

Given the global bullion flow that linked China and Spain as two epicenters of the Age of Silver, writers such as Quevedo and Zhang Tao were essentially looking at the same material continuum from different vantage points when voicing their anxieties about the spreading rule of money. While Zhang and other late Ming literati bemoaned the blurring of cultural boundaries and moral degenerations that came with expanded commercial circulations, the same problems preoccupied Quevedo and a succession of Renaissance Spanish age of ours riches are esteemed more than virtue and that the base and immoral rich man will be better received in many places than the distinguished man who

perdition which could ever come into the world . . . because of the covetousness 6

In a similar vein, Quevedo notes

7 8

Infiltrating actual social power, money simultaneously displaced the discourse of value and Page 3 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies virtue related to the elite status. Thus, according to the eminent scholar of be the necessary basis for the success of any enterprise, occupying a role formerly reserved to other values or goods, principally heroic valor and 9

Tellingly, this inverted social hierarchy between status and wealth manifests itself linguistically in the altered implication of the term and because

Ricos homes, according to Spanish custom, are those who in other countries

10

(p.82) Important for our comparative purpose, the parallel and interrelated spreads of monetary powers in China and Spain were accompanied by remarkably analogous narrative inventions. Around the time when The Plum of the Golden Vase initiated a realist turn in Chinese fiction, a similar emphasis on the material world surged in Spanish narratives. The anonymous Lazarillo de Tormes, published in 1554, spearheaded this narrative turn in Spanish literature. A founding piece of the picaresque narrative, Lazarillo has been realism in contrast to the enchanted vision of medieval romance. According to characterizations such as the one provided by Francisco Rico, Lazarillo is a experience, and common sense, by the same criteria of veracity that are generally used in daily life, and told in language that is in turn substantially in 11

Once we attend to Lazarillo

level concern the rule of money. Narrated in the first person, Lazarillo tells the story of its eponymous protagonist from boyhood to adulthood and his

12

By sending out prayers,

of money from these tricks and earned more in one month than a hundred blind Lazarillo, 8). The material corruption of religion prefigured by this opening episode becomes a more developed theme almost starves him to death, and he leaves his fourth master, a shady friar, in a later masters further include a seller of papal indulgences, and a chaplain who profits from vending water to his parishioners. Intermixed with the episodes

Page 4 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies impoverished squire (escudero) who lives off the bread begged by his servant appearance. Finally, Lazarillo settles down and works for the government as a town crier in Toledo, while marrying the mistress of the archpriest of San Salvador in the role of a cabrón 13

Having made this compromise, Lazarillo also abuses his newly gained political position for money. As he boasts in the last chapter

less condemning (p.83) manner, these barefaced materialistic attitudes in Lazarillo are not unlike those manifested by Plum Following the appearance of Lazarillo, the picaresque theme was further Guzmán de Alfarache La Pícara Justina El Buscón (1626). Widely disseminated and translated across Europe, Spanish picaresque novels created an important literary prototype that influenced many later European fiction writers, including eighteenth-century English authors from Defoe to Fielding. But the most influential Spanish literary work for the Don Quixote (1605, 1615), which has been characterized by eminent twentieth-century critics as

14

Tying the figure of Don Quixote to both a belated feudalism

called it.15 Along these lines, the factor of money in the novel has received much theme of Don Quixote

16

political and cultural contexts, Maravall similarly listed monetary economy

17

The more recent works of Carroll Johnson, David Quint, and Myriam Yvonne Jehenson and Peter N. Dunn, among others, have likewise related Don Quixote writings to the social and ideological dislocations brought on by the ascendant power of money.18

Page 5 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies Clearly rooted in major socioeconomic shifts in Spanish society, Don Quixote is a opposition to the social and the material domain, in contrast to the earthly Chinese novel Plum. Traditionally interpreted as a remnant of feudalist personality have received more complex scholarly treatments, in particular

studies concerns the world-historical connotations of (p.84) the romance genre convention or a purely European genre, the romance tradition in a transnational perspective involves an ideological history entwined with the Iberian this light, as discussed by Hispanists such as Henry Higuera, Diana de Armas Wilson, William Childers, Barbara Fuchs, and Frederick A. de Armas, rather than a ludicrous version of Habsburg imperialist ideology.19 Higuera, whose comments are cited at the opening of this chapter, represents this opinion when

Don Quixote, the identification of

contexts.20 In these lights, the target of Don Quixote so much the marvelous per se, but the contradictory makings of Spain as a 21

Transmodern Cervantes

order to articulate the constitutive role of coloniality in European capitalist modernity, Latin America-based critics such as Enrique Dussel and Walter 22

One key phenomenon of this Iberian

fortuitous result of the Columbian expedition. Important to the reading of Don Quixote, the Columbian venture took place when Spanish culture was infused with a romance-like ideology of adventure and conquest, in the wake of the the financial resources it generated, the inflows of colonial wealth at the same time engendered new socioeconomic and international situations that dislodged the historical foundations of the romance ideology. On the verge of the seventeenth century, the once daunting Spanish Empire was already haunted by Page 6 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies irresolvable foreign debts, multiple bankruptcies, and aggressive competitions mines in its possession. Rather than originated from a world of pure fiction, (p. 85) than romance. Thus, like the case of Plum we surveyed in the last chapter, Don Quixote is a

political and economic environment. This comparative observation can help us

Don Quixote historically reductive to position the book as the progenitor of a narrowly rationality and bourgeois subjectivity.23 Yet if Don Quixote is hardly about

light, slant them in such a way that the stress falls upon the side which slopes 24

While Ortega wrote the above comment as a

meditation on Don Quixote the mystified ideality of imperial Spain. As will be discussed further, given the

confronting the protagonist connote the hybrid economic forces the Spanish court depended upon despite its totalizing ideology. While having an emancipatory implication, the material world in Don Quixote has no sublimated or rationalized meanings. In the next chapter, we will see that case of Robinson Crusoe analyzed in the last main chapter of this book, the multiplicities of the material world are nonetheless homogenized and simplified

a monocentric cultural system of rationalization.25 In line with this macrohistorical context, the self-destabilizing proclivity of the Cervantine novel capitalism and colonialism were not yet fully legitimate. Robinson Crusoe, on the Don Quixote is culturally and geographically closer to (p.86) in fact resonate more with Page 7 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies Plum Once we attend to these horizontal relations, it becomes possible to read Don Quixote representing the critical cultural dynamisms that surged across the Age of Silver.

The Enchanted Boat Reading Don Quixote understanding of the ideological genealogies of the romance genre at the heart Don Quixote the crowning influence upon the protagonist undoubtedly comes from Amadís of Gaul fourteenth-century original, this enormously popular romance fathered a whole dynasty of Amadís sequels and inaugurated the chivalric literature trend among Iberian readers during the sixteenth century. Dramatizing and validating such themes as martial valor, loyalty, Christian religiosity, and exotic wonders, projects and was widely read among Spanish soldiers, even prompting some of its avid readers to join the military.26 Historically, these military ventures first forces gradually reclaimed most of Iberia from Islamic rule by 1250, except for the area of Granada, which persisted in the southeast corner of the peninsula as a Muslim kingdom until its fall in 1492. The heroic image of the knight and the glory of adventure fostered by this historical background continued to inform motivated by the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453. Deepening centuries-old Christian-Muslim rivalries around the Mediterranean, the Ottoman occupation of Constantinople also blocked the European access to the eastbound

inaugurated the beginning of Spain as a nation, had thoroughly depleted the westward maritime exploration for Asia against all odds, a point that shall be

forced conversion or expulsion of the Muslim and Jewish populations and the Traditional (p.87) European myths about Prester John and St. Thomas propagated the idea of finding Christian allies or converts in East Asia.

conquest of Jerusalem.27

Page 8 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies Etched in the motivations of the Columbian expeditions, the Reconquista ideology continued through the Spanish colonization of the New World. In this context, chivalric images and ideas unsurprisingly infiltrated the cult of Spanish hunt for wealth and political advances in the New World. The most defeat of the Aztec Empire around the Valley of Mexico in 1521 and Francisco c. Inca Empire in the 1530s.28 Exemplifying the significance of the romance

said it was like the enchantments they tell of in the book of Amadís

29

In Don Quixote

served as a refuge area for expelled Moriscos (Muslims who converted to Christianity, often by coercion) from Granada in the aftermath of the War of rebels.30 In 1609, Philip III forcefully drove out all the remaining Morisco populations from Spain. Don Quixote hints at these events in the famous episode in which Sancho reencounters his old neighbor Ricote, a wealthy Morisco who furtively returns from Germany to unbury the treasures he has left in Spain.31 mediated the roads between the imperial center Madrid and southern Andalusian cities such as Seville and Cádiz, which had a history of Islamic though apparently an economic and political backwater, La Mancha was during operations as a world empire.32

knight-errant, Don Quixote clean some armor that had belonged to his grandfathers and, stained with rust and covered with mildew, had been lying forgotten in a (p.88) corner for protagonist has received the hidalgo status as the descendant of a Reconquista participant.33 Ironically, the protagonist sells acres of the land he has inherited conditions of post-Columbian Spain. Considering the historical incongruities changed from a national history to a sold fiction, one interesting fact of the novel is that during his adventures as a knight-errant, Don Quixote travels neither to Page 9 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies

traditional ties to the royal court; by foregoing Seville, he acts against the tides of a new historical time. In Book 1, chapter 13, a traveler named Vivaldo explicitly invites the protagonist to Seville, with the tongue-in-cheek comment rich indianos (returned emigrants from overseas), prostitutes, and thieves, the idea of Seville stands in stark contrast to the notion of chivalry.34 Courteously journeys to Barcelona before returning to his native village. Shunning the degenerate Atlantic port city, the protagonist in Book 2 does conduct a significant crossing that ironically alludes to both the romantic stereotypes and the Columbian voyages at the foundation of the Spanish Empire. on an oarless boat and thus depart from the Castilian regions of central Spain for the northeastern areas of Zaragoza and Catalonia. Immediately following this around a long series of machinations by the Duke and the Duchess. In this narratively and geographically intermediary episode, transoceanic allusions domestic geography with its incredible overseas outreaches in ludicrous yet Columbian accident, which engendered complex legacies for Spain and the entire globe. Signaling the importance of the episode, Book 2 foreshadows the image of the enchanted boat in its opening chapter, wherein the protagonist laments the degradation of knightly morals in the present age. In his words: There is no one now to sally forth from this wood and enter that mountain, and from there to go to a wasted and deserted shore of the sea, most often stormy and tempestuous, and to find there on the beach a little boat without oars, sail, mast, or tackle, and with undaunted heart to fling himself in and (p.89) entrust himself to the implacable waves of the deep sea, which at one moment toss him up to the sky, and at another engulf him in the abyss. Then, exposing his chest to the irresistible tempest, he finds himself, when he least expects it, more than nine thousand miles from the place where he embarked; and leaping on to a remote and unknown shore, he undergoes experiences worthy to be inscribed not on parchment, but on brass (Book 2, ch. 1, 535).35 Characteristically, Don Quixote describes a conventional theme in chivalric literature, the theme of the enchanted boat. Notably, other than appearing in Amadís of Gaul and other romances with medieval settings, the enchanted boat Page 10 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies is also a recurrent motif in literatures of the Age of Discovery. One version of it, for instance, can be found in The Lusiads, the Portuguese epic that eulogizes author of this epic poem written in the Homeric style, was himself a transoceanic traveler and probably started writing the poem while serving in Macau in the 1560s. Despite his real seafaring experiences, Greco-Roman gods dominate the maritime world Camões created. In this mythical setting, da

European encroachment. Venus, who patronizes the Portuguese, sends out to (Canto 6).36

Don Quixote unsettles not just romance stereotypes, but also the whole history of maritime expeditions, renders these historical references unmistakable. After embarking upon the oarless boat with a reluctant Sancho, Don Quixote declares that the vessel must have been sent by a knight in distress. He then begins a pseudoscientific lecture

attempts to introduce Sancho to high-sounding geographical and cosmological

el cómputo de Ptolomeo, que fue el mayor cosmógrafo que se sabe), mispronouncing it to the puto y gafo, con la añadidura de meón, o meo, o no sé cómo).37 (p.90) comment right after he announces that they are close to the open sea. In his East Indies, one of the signs by which they know that they have passed the

himself. But Sancho finds plenty evidences to the contrary. Historically, Cádiz 38

Don

who initially aspired to arrive in Asia by sailing westward from Spain. Cádiz was Page 11 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies and seventeen ships, a tremendous expansion of the three-ship fleet he captained in 1492 from Palos de la Frontera. This grand undertaking, however, failed to prove to the Catholic Monarchs that the newfound land was anywhere

were subsequently downsized to no more than half a dozen ships. Columbus, the anywhere other than Asia, despite doubts by many other Europeans immediately upon his first return in 1493.39

landmass had been long been established in Western Europe, with the resultant

distinction the explorer would not have made. This narrative moment thus presents the history it recalls as thoroughly illogical. The ludicrously distorted

40

Although

geographical experts contemporaneous with Columbus already knew better. For Asia had been rejected around Europe. For example, his plan was turned down

In Spain, Columbus presented his plan to Ferdinand and Isabella as (p.91) early as 1486 and was likewise rejected.41 Columbus in 1492 against the opinion of their council was due to the financial desperation they faced at the completion of the War in Granada. Recalling these tortuous and haphazard pasts when the Columbian journeys and the Age of Discovery became the idealized subjects of national epics in Iberian literature of Don Quixote offers a subtle national formation.

features Don Quixote and Sancho, two rural characters whose itineraries are patently limited to the Spanish interior. This comic depiction suggests the historical incongruence between Spain as an empire and as a domestic society.

42

Spanish citizens were guided to envision

Page 12 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies themselves as members of a Christian empire by romance literature and popular

capital all generated a tremendous cost of empire-building, which negatively

political and economic deprivations that wracked Spain during its imperial rise.43

as will be discussed further, emits a lived earthly reality that punctuates Don allegorizes larger national historical themes, which are simultaneously interlaced with the profound transnational dimensions of imperial Spain.

uncultured, can find pleasure in reading of how a great tower full of knights sails away across the sea like a ship with a fair wind, and will be tonight in Lombardy and tomorrow morning in the land of Prester John of the Indies, or some other ridicule of romantic geography, which once again alludes to the enchanted boat topos, hints at the strangeness of history itself. The New World, after all, was a visions (p.92) and exploitations both disenchanted and reenchanted past geographical images. Unable to locate real sources of wealth other than a limited amount of gold and pearls, Columbus deliberately stuffed his returning fleet with exotica, native men and women included, along with reports of curiosities and wonders in the newfound land with the hope of sustaining the 44

Myths of wealth and Christian religiosity continued to inspire transatlantic navigational and colonizing

values of their American colonies. The situation, however, dramatically changed enchanted image of America as the source of legendary wealth, this turn of relations. However, rather than benefiting Spain itself, New World wealth quickly flew into foreign pockets through war loans and international trade, in the midst of unsettling news of exploitation and troubling moments of national bankruptcy. In a self-contradictory manner, New World money was both an enabling condition of the romance of imperial Spain and a force that unsettled Page 13 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies its ideologies. These historical ironies underlie Don Quixote famous chapter, the Cave of Montesinos episode.

his dreamlike experiences in the Cave of Montesinos (Book 2, ch. 23). In this preceding episode, Don Quixote descends alone into a subterranean pit. Upon resurfacing, the protagonist dreamily describes his tour around the crystal palace in the cave guided by an old man who calls himself Montesinos. The question of whether his account of the cave is true becomes a recurrent motif throughout the rest of the novel. Alluding to the classical theme of descent into hell and rife with grotesque distortions of romantic imagery, the Cave of Montesinos episode is widely regarded as the symbolic core of the novel.45 Though the episode alone can sustain book-length studies, here I focus on one particular moment that, in resemblance to the hidden Columbian allusion in the

meeting with his imagined lady-love, Dulcinea, and her two maids in the cave. In this oneiric encounter, one of the maids informs Don Quixote that her mistress is real (p.93) replies that all he has to offer is four reals, while adding that he wishes ser un Fúcar Fuggers were a historically prominent German banking family from Augsburg. Their legendary wealth and intimate ties with the Habsburg court gave rise to in this scene as an expression of his uncharacteristic wish to get rich. In order to understand the profound irony of this narrative moment, we must consider the central financial role the Fuggers and other foreign moneylenders played in

began with the Catholic Monarchs and snowballed under the reign of the first Habsburg ruler, Charles I, who ruled Spain between 1516 and 1558. Warring on multiple fronts against the French Crown in Italy, the Ottoman Empire around the eastern Mediterranean, and the Reformation movements in Germany, Charles I funded his expensive military campaigns and political projects primarily by borrowing from German and Italian moneylenders. These high-

Philip II inherited a debt of about thirty-six million ducats and an annual deficit of one million ducats from Charles I. Pressures from this accumulated debt propelled Philip II to announce bankruptcy in 1557, 1575, and 1596, during the very years when American mines were churning out unprecedented volumes of silver.46

Page 14 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies From the late 1480s on, the Augsburg-based Fugger family loaned money to the

the Holy Roman Emperor. In return, Charles I granted members from the Fugger family various privileges and monopolies in Spain and in the New World, although these overseas rights were sometimes thwarted by resistances from Almadén in the mountain ranges of Sierra Morena to the Fuggers.47 Decades later, during the second half of the sixteenth century, this decision made the then become the basis of a new refining technique that increased bullion productivity by as much as tenfold. Although rich mercury deposits were located silver production continued to draw massive imports of mercury from Almadén and from other parts of the world, including as far away as China.48 As demands grew dramatically, Almadén started to employ convict labor in 1566 since it was difficult to enlist enough voluntary workers. The galley slaves freed by Don (p. 94) Quixote when he approaches Sierra Morena (Book 1, ch. 22) may very well be heading for the Almadén mines.49 was notorious. One investigator from the 1580s indignantly described Almadén 50

Unprotected daily contacts with mercury caused irreparable physical and mental damages as well as high mortality rates among the miners. Repeatedly using the image of mercury poisoning in Don Quixote to portray uncontrollable trembling owing to fear or shock, Cervantes was clearly familiar with its symptoms. Working as a government clerk, the novelist was likely aware of the publicized terrors of Almadén as well.51 Meanwhile, reports of the even more abhorrent conditions in American silver mines were also circulating in Spanish sources of the period. Native laborers and, later, African slaves, many of whom also suffered from mercury toxicity, were forced to toil in these mines. Several times a day while carrying heavy loads of ore, they had to ascend and descend crude, often frayed ladders, which were made of widely spaced leather straps and were suspended hundreds of feet in the air. Safety measures were nonexistent and accidents were frequent.52 Like Almadén, the brutal scenes of the American silver mines were compared by Spanish writers to hell itself. In the condemning words of through which enter every year a great quantity of people whom the greed of 53

In theory, the grimly exploitative Almadén and American mines should have that twenty percent of the gross value of mined New World precious metals went to the Spanish Crown. In reality, however, New World silver and other precious metals were frequently subject to smuggling. As for the bullions that were Page 15 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies actually commuted to the king, a large portion was already pledged in advance for repaying loans. Moreover, under Philip II and Philip III, military expenses escalated at a faster rate than the inflow of American wealth. The greatest toll

minimum of 218 million ducats from Castile, while the Crown received only 121 54

Aside from exhaustive war expenses, Spain was simultaneously losing its silver through luxury importation, often, ironically, 55

Owing to all these factors,

existed in the phantom form of royal credit. Passing through Spain like a restless traveler, American bullion and its power to serve as credit was nonetheless real enough to restructure socioeconomic life and provision wars. As we shall (p.95)

debts. According to Hispanists such as Higuera, Dulcinea is a romantic personification of imperial Spain and its projected Christian idealism.56 This symbolism deepens the political satire implied by her loan request. What renders hell and the murderous mines of Almadén and Potosí, a subtext that darkly lurks

Laden with hellish implications in the Cave of Montesinos episode, the image of the Fuggers reappears in the Ricote episode in a far more positive light. There,

57

Juxtaposing the two moments, we see in

materiality. While carrying sinister exploitative implications, these material forces also offer a new venue for individual self-realization and constitute a counterforce to the political and religious ideology of Habsburg Spain. As to be discussed in the following section, Sancho functions as the main embodiment of these subversive connotations of economic desire. In this sense, his relation to Empire as a poorly appreciated veteran. With these historical and autobiographical implications, the narrative theme of paying Sancho in the novel Page 16 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies ends up promoting an ethics of just payment in opposition to the romantic ideology of the empire.

Paying Sancho In his vision in the Cave of Montesinos, Don Quixote encounters Dulcinea in the Don Quixote, for in order to cover up an earlier lie, the squire leads the protagonist to believe that his lady-love and her maids have been transfigured by evil spells. Traumatized by the sight of a peasant Dulcinea, (p.96) Don Quixote

myths. In Book 2, an elaborate hoax by the Duke and the Duchess further tricks Sancho voluntarily flogs himself 3,300 times. This scenario leads to a two main characters negotiate over the financial reward Sancho should expect from this self-afflicting service:

greatness and importance of the services rendered, not all the wealth of Venice or the silver mines of Potosí would suffice to recompense you.

about five. The rest are to come. Let those five count as the odd ones and

reals make 1,500 half-reals, which are 750 reals. The 300 quarter-reals make 150 half-reals, which go to 75 reals. Adding these to the 750, it

received much critical attention. In The Origins of the English Novel, McKeon employs a historical materialist perspective and notes that the economic tension 58

In a similar vein, the Hispanist Carroll Johnson

wage-based labor and the medieval code of mercedes for the service of his vassal. Indeed, the term mercedes Page 17 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies

mercedes

(p.97) evoked 59

In this light, the socioeconomic vision of Don Quixote is highly volatile, reflecting a historical moment of profound liminality and indeterminacy.

payment according to a Europe-centered historical materialist framework, transnational perspectives on the novel have fruitfully foregrounded the subtext

words themselves rewarded with an island or something equivalent, and at least they

of America, Columbus gifted a New World island to the Italian voyager Michele da Cuneo, who accompanied him on his second journey, and later secured for his son, Diego, the governorship of Hispaniola.60 Rather than coming from a relations between Don Quixote and Sancho closely reflect the colonial economy

in his speech to Sancho recalls both the older Mediterranean trade route that

Notably, his absurdly repetitive enumeration conjures up the image of actual coins, particularly the quarter-real or cuatrillo, the smallest piece of Spanish silver currency, which he equates with the worth of each whip to be inflicted on payment by letting him convert between smaller and larger silver monies until he arrives at a number measured in reals, which served as the basic 61

Page 18 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies Turning Dulcinea into a topic of financial negotiation, the narrative theme of idealized image of imperial Spain she embodies. As early as 1589, Bartolome 62

Later (p.98) cannot achieve heroic 63

64

The material degradation of Dulcinea in Don Quixote ironically suggests these national crises. If the ideal Dulcinea introduction of a vision of her as a crude peasant girl reveals a traumatizing

imperial wish must be matched by just compensation. If someone has to literally take pains to dissolve the imagined spell, the price must be right.65 Demanding such a just price, Sancho equates the value of each lash devoted to the disenchantment of Dulcinea to the quarter-real or cuartillo. The petty value empire-building wealth of Potosí. At the same time, the image of the coin also connotes a national history of economic decline. Due to the quick outflow of colonial silver to pay for war loans and foreign goods, Spanish currency around the end of the sixteenth century experienced constant debasements, which severely affected smaller monetary units such as the cuartillo. Nominally silver, the cuartillo would become entirely composed of copper later during the seventeenth century.66 calculation heightens the materiality of these gradually devalued small coins,

with Don Quixote indicate that, through the spreading monetary culture these coins helped foster in Spanish society, an equal playing field of valuation and exchange emerged between the terms of an empire and those of a peasant. Unmoored from the ideological totality dictated by the transcendental Dulcinea, presses all voices and demands into constant interchanges across a horizontal

The Emperor of China biographical information also helps elucidate the ironically structured national (p.99) poem Journey to Parnassus Page 19 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies

refers to his permanent injury from the historic Battle of Lepanto in 1571, in which the Spanish-led Holy League defeated the Ottoman navy in the Gulf of Corinth off western Greece.67 A few years after this victory, which was widely celebrated around the Christendom, Cervantes was captured by Algerian corsairs when leaving his military base in Naples for Spain in 1575. He was then held as a captive in Algiers for five years until being ransomed by members of the religious order of the Trinitarians.68 Upon returning home, Cervantes took on a government post in 1587 and requisitioned supplies such as wheat and olive oil for the Armada. This tedious yet confrontational job led to charges of embezzlement, which temporarily landed him in jail in 1592. In 1594 Cervantes became a tax collector and was once again imprisoned in 1597 due to fiscal conflicts. Supposedly, it was during the several months of this second incarceration that Cervantes began forming the concept of Don Quixote.69 Dissatisfied with his clerical positions, Cervantes petitioned for vacancies in the New World twice during the 1590s.70 Both requests were turned down, and the maimed veteran had to continue with his domestically bounded posts for over a decade while striving to add modest increases to his income by composing plays and poems. Although the publication of the first part of Don Quixote in 1605 found immediate success across Europe and the New World, the book did not bring Cervantes any major financial relief. During the final decade of his life, Cervantes managed to secure courtly patronage from the Count of Lemos, yet tasted another bitter rejection in 1610 when his influential benefactor excluded him from the selected literary entourage to Naples.71 A solider in youth, a government clerk in middle age, and a writer in late years, imperial history. If the younger part of his life reverberated with the chivalric dream of military glory, the novelist spent many of his remaining years serving a

the 1590s, America apparently impressed Cervantes as a desirable escape from unpayable debts, tiresome commissions, and the harshness of Spanish laws. Both of his applications were nonetheless denied for no apparent reason. On the second note of rejection Cervantes received from the Council of Indies, an [merced 72

The heavy sacrifice (p.100) dreams was obviously not compensated in kind, and the payment issue inherent

Page 20 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies

73

In an East-West comparative framework, it merits noting

with a broader Eurasian history. Another example of this geographical continuity

Don Quixote as the

diasporic wish he once aimed to realize through his American petitions. Relocating the possible world of his future career from the New World to China, cultural domain to reposition his personal worth in relation to the imperial transpacific ties has been scarce, new publications such as those by Robert Richmond Ellis and Carmen Hsu have begun to reveal the remarkable amount of early modern Iberian writings about Asia. In general, these accounts present China and other Asian states as powerful and affluent domains impervious to the influences of the Habsburg monarchy and Christianity.74 According to Juan

75

The viceroy in Mexico in his report to the

from this land nor from Spain, so far as can now be learned, can anything be 76

Reduced to subsidiary status or complete obsolescence in both its economic and (p.101) empire was thoroughly subverted. At the same time, as a non-Christian Other, the image of China in Iberian writings around the time of Philip II was frequently subjected to charges of idolatry and trickery, condemnations that circulated alongside equally recurrent governance. These contradictory assessments sometimes coexisted in the Page 21 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies

Christian superiority and imperial ambitions while aiming to present the Spanish and then Franciscan friars, these carefully crafted documents never reached their intended recipient.77 Although the Spanish court tried to be tactful in its diplomatic dealings with China, its colonization of America and the Philippines encouraged a plan to conquer China among members of the Iberian military and religious establishments in the 1580s. After some serious deliberations, Philip II eventually abandoned the proposal as unfeasible.78

humanities across the most divisive political and religious barriers. On the other

unlikely place entails a hidden sarcasm about the questionable taste of his patron, who failed to value a literary genius even readers of an alien culture

emperor. The vague promises and denials the author relates to the Chinese

American applications. In these historical and personal contexts, the question of just payment looms through the emperor of China story as a new form of ethics, which entitles the author to turn down the terms of a monarch. Mediated through the image of an exotic other, this reversed power relation can be

(p.102) world empire and resituates it within a polycentric world market. Historically, according to the argument of the monetary historian Dennis O. Flynn, as the exerting a distant yet momentous impact on the political economy of imperial Spain. Reaching the zenith of its power in the 1580s, about a decade after the establishment of the Acapulco-Manila route, the Spanish Empire was in crucial ways sponsored by the large profit margins of the initial cycle of the global silver trade. When the once excessive silver profits in the Chinese market gradually Page 22 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies

escalating financial stresses, brought on by warfare on multiple fronts, finally reached a breaking point.79 Even though these geoeconomic dynamics must have been too amorphous to detect for individuals experiencing their effects,

interactions during the Age of Silver. While fostering increasing material transcontinental contacts during the period were simultaneously haunted by conflicts that were sometimes brutally violent. Although, as previously China and the Spanish Empire, Sino-Hispanic interactions around Manila were not free of bloodshed. The darkest of these moments involved the 1603 massacre of 20,000 Chinese in Manila by the Spanish administration. Unnerved by the arrival of a Ming delegation sent by the Wanli emperor to investigate the rumored existence of a large silver mine in the Philippines, Spanish officials tightened their control over the local Chinese community, who were subsequently driven to revolt after a series of frictions with the Manila resulted in the horrendous massacre. Decades later, in 1639, another violent confrontation in Manila claimed the life of thousands of Chinese protestors.80 Taking place along the borders of Eastern and Western civilizations, all this violence remained only obscurely registered in extant Chinese and Spanish sources, without becoming identifiable forms of cultural memory on either side. Unbacked by a supporting state system and exposed to the multitude of dangers of dealing with European trading empires, Chinese overseas traders were a historically marginalized group, who had nonetheless performed crucial (p.103) 81

A more

darkness of the Manila massacres as well as the historical agencies of Chinese overseas traders and of other non-Western mercantile formations, whose forgotten histories propel us to envision a more multilateral picture of the trajectory of globalization.

connection that materially linked Chinese and Spanish imperial histories, the novelist could then closely witness from his home the kind of politically charged yet economically entangled ethnic situation that surrounded the Philippine port

Habsburg court promoted, the spreading world of goods in Spanish society constituted a counterforce of interethnic and interclass fluidity.82 In the next Page 23 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies section, I will consider how Don Quixote ethnic, political, and economic dynamics can be observed through its depiction of the image of silk. A luxury good of Eastern origins, silk goods occupy a significant position in the literary world of the sixteenth-century Chinese novel The Plum in the Golden Vase, as we have examined in the previous chapter. Framed by a more positive attitude toward materiality, the image of silk in Don Quixote cultural transitions and transnational relations. An analysis of its presence in the book thus provides a pertinent thread for thinking about novelistic early modernity across the East-West spectrum.

The Time of Silks Don Quixote suffers his first drubbing when he intercepts a group of Toledo merchants who are traveling to Murcia to buy silk and forces them to acknowledge the unparalleled beauty of Dulcinea (Book 1, ch. 4, 78). Commenting on this encounter, Frederick A. de Armas noted that it enacts an

and the Murcia silk industry was dependent upon the labor forces of Moriscos

(p.104) by the Toledo merchants connotes the inevitable failure of a homogenizing imperial discourse to purge real-world material

83

This sense of irony deepens if we further relate the incident to another notable reference to the Toledo silk industry in the novel. During a radically self-decentering moment, the text reports that, if not for the intervention of its narrator, the paper bundle that contains the original manuscript of Don Quixote 84

In

consumption by silkworms relegates its written contents to a dispensable nature. This ironic situation subsequently deflates the imperial romance Don Quixote mimics throughout the narrative. Empire, in other words, can hardly escape the cannibalizing forces of materiality.

monocultural pretensions, silk products in Don Quixote further signal a spreading commercial culture that motivates desires for upward mobility.

Page 24 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies 85

Flying in the face of these official prescriptions, one of the most lavish displays of silk in Don Quixote takes place on the occasion of the wedding of the wealthy farmer Camacho, whose nuptial ceremony is spiced up by a whole group of

that represents the opposition of love and money in the triangular relationship of Camacho, Quiteria, and Basilio, we see that the figure representing wealth is

allowed them to appropriate traditional aristocratic symbols, the material luxuries Camacho conspicuously exhibits throughout the ceremony are psychologically influential to its onlookers. The novel attends to this social effect

86

Upward mobility, of course,

(p. 105) to Sancho that marrying rich is even more preferable than marrying high, for hard cash rather than lineage has become more definitive for the social manifestation of status. In historical terms, the propagation of luxury goods was a material phenomenon

87

While

from a more materially austere period, one that stands in stark contrast to the swirling world of luxury goods, many imported, that inundated both the the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella was the subject of a prevalent cultural This nostalgic imaginary became further intertwined with both classical GrecoRoman ideals and myths of the New World as an Edenic land whose inhabitants 88

89

emblematic of a decadent historical present in contrast to the utopian past he dreamily portrays in chapter 11 of the first book, when he speaks of how

Page 25 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies

time by acting out bucolic roles. Having read the first book of Don Quixote, they invite the protagonist and Sancho to join them in a banquet. The chapter ends

is second only to Dulcinea. In this episode that once again brings about the materiality of the present despite their mimicking of idyllic archetypes. If, as Ife

shepherdess (p.106) changing material landscapes of the past and the present.90 In sum, the image of silk in Don Quixote acts as a polysemous sign of multicultural mercantilism, of vacillating social lines, and of a materially proliferating present. All of these connotations constitute ironic commentaries upon the monocultural imperialism and the utopian communitarianism Don Quixote represents. Given this symbolic tension, it is significant that the protagonist is, in fact, also susceptible to the surrounding commodity culture. damasks, brocades, and other rich silks they wear rather than in armored coats His favorite pair of stockings, the novel reminds us several times, are adorned with green silk, a luxury beyond his given station as a mere hidalgo caballeros, the actual knights especially those squireens who black their shoes and darn their black stockings 91

intermixed with an intentional act of self-promotion, which has been stimulated and enabled by the socially blurred circulations of material goods. In chapter 44 of the second book, we see a fleeting acknowledgement from Don Quixote himself on the material aspects of his ambitions. In this narrative moment, the

request in monetary terms rather than seeking a kingly favor. Page 26 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies Serving as indicative signs of a changing present in Don Quixote, silk goods and global commerce during the Age of Silver. Whereas Castilian Spain had developed a domestic sericulture industry by 1500, it kept importing silk products from a wide range of regions including Italy and Turkey. A large quantity of Chinese fabrics also entered European markets via the ManilaAcapulco galleon trade and other commercial networks. This influx reduced Chinese production techniques.92 The silk stockings that adorn Don Quixote and many 93

A list of over a hundred types of goods given by Antonio de Morga, who served as an administrator in the (p.107) Philippines in the 1590s, shows that Chinese traders shipped to Manila a large variety of luxury fashion items similar to those donned by the richly clad characters in Don Quixote silk, white and of all colors, wound in small skeins; quantities of velvets, some plain and some embroidered in all sorts of figures, colors, and fashions, with body of gold and embroidered with gold; woven stuff and brocades, of gold and silver upon silk of various colors and patterns; quantities of gold and silver The catalog goes on to include many different kinds of spices, foodstuffs, animals, furniture, household goods, precious stones, and metals. De Morga concludes his meticulous enumeration with an emphatic claim that, despite its 94

Such an endless abundance of goods substructurally connected the superstructurally distant realms of the East and the West during the Age of Silver, drawing these culturally disparate societies into a common vortex of commercial coevolution. For the literary horizontal continuities traced in this book, the kind of global commodity continuum as recorded by de Morga points to a shared world market condition beneath the realist resonances of narrative landmarks such as Plum and Don Quixote. In the East as in the West, the mounting power of money and goods in this macrohistorical context augmented socioeconomic fluidity, which subsequently destabilized the ritualized certainties of past political and communal bonds. As discussed theoretically in the introduction, the existential

wherein individual subjects became more mutable and active participants across a horizontal network of political and economic exchange. Similarly indicative of this transcultural dynamic, Plum Don Quixote effects likewise function to deliver critical representations of the impacts of proliferating material forces upon their national environments. Whereas Don Quixote is more approving of the ideologically equalizing and socially Page 27 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies intermingling consequences of material disseminations, the book continues to and refrains from reconsolidating them into a totalizing ideality. Consequently, decentered as Plum landmarks indicate that novelistic coevolutions in the East and the West assumed parallel capacities to provide national political (p.108) critiques and ideological experimentations under changing socioeconomic conditions. This more transcultural and contingent light, beyond the Eurocentric teleology that tends to define the basic scope of such inquiries. In the following chapter, juxtaposition as another key Eastern example of narrative realism from the Age of Silver. Notes:

(1.) Cited in American Historical Review

The . Slightly modified.

(2.) Higuera, Eros and Empire, 1. (3.) Cited in Roberto González Echevarria, ed., Casebook (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 31. (4.) For a full translation of the poem along with the Spanish original, see Vincent Barlett, et al., eds., Dreams of Waking: An Anthology of Iberian Lyric . (5.) Diego G. Lopez Rosado, Historia del peso mexicano (Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1975), 32. English translation of the quotation is included in 413. On the historical processes described above, see and ; ; Mann 1493 Felipe Fernández-Armest, Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration (New York Norton, 2007) and Rainer F. Buschmann, et al., eds., (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2014). Standard reference materials on early modern Spanish history are J. H. Elliot, , 2nd rev. ed. (London: Penguin, 2002) and Henry Kamen, Conflict (New York: Pearson, 1991). (6.) Both of these quotes are cited in Jose Antonio Maravall, Utopia and (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991), 47. Page 28 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies (7.) Dreams of Waking, ed., Barletta, 323. For more on Quevedo and Golden Age Spain, see George Mariscal, Contradictory Subjects: Quevedo, Cervantes, and Seventeenth Century Spanish Culture (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991). (8.) The Cambridge Companion to Cervantes, ed. Anthony J. Cascardi (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press), 24.For similar discussions, see Jonathan Dewarld, The European Nobility, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996), and Anthony Cascardi, Ideologies of History in the Spanish Golden Age (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997). (9.) Maravall, Utopia and Counterutopia, 38. (10.) Cited in Myriam Yvonne Jehenson and Peter N. Dunn, The Utopian Nexus in Don Quixote (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2006), 90. For more on the social effects of New World money in Spain, see Elvira Vilches, New World Gold: Cultural Anxiety and Monetary Disorder in Early Modern Spain (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010). (11.

The Novel

146. The text of Lazarillo I cite below is from Anonymous and Francisco de Quevedo, Lazarillo de Tormes and the Swindler: Two Spanish Picaresque Novels (Penguin Classics, 2003), trans. Michael Alpert. Citations in text. For critical discussions on Lazarillo and the picaresque genre, see for instance Peter Dunn, The Spanish Picaresque Fiction: A New Literary History (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Giancarlo Maiorino, ed., The Picaresque: Tradition and Displacement (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Anne J. Cruz, Discourses of Poverty: Social Reform and the Picaresque Novel in Early Modern Spain (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999); Gordana Yovanovich, Play and the Picaresque: Lazarillo de Tormes, Libro de Manuel, and Match Ball (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999); and Francisco J. Sánchez, An Early Bourgeois Literature in Golden Age Spain: Lazarillo de Tormes, Guzmán de Alfarache and Baltasar Gracián (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003). For an account of Don Quixote Cesáreo Bandera, The Humble Story of Don Quixote: Reflections on the Birth of the Modern Novel (Washington, DC: CUA Press, 2006), and Edward H. Friedman, Cervantes in the Middle: Realism and Reality in the Spanish Novel from Lazarillo de Tormes to Niebla (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 2006). (12.) Anonymous and Francisco de Quevedo, Lazarillo de Tormes and the Swindler: Two Spanish Picaresque Novels, trans. Michael Alpert, 8. All citations of the text are from this version. Further citations in text. (13.

Lazarillo de Tormes and the Swindler, ix.

Page 29 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies (14.) See Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 103; Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination, 324; and Jameson, The Political Unconsciousness, 152. For influences of Spanish fiction from the picaresque to Don Quixote in England, see Ronald Paulson, Don Quixote in England: The Aesthetics of Laughter (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998); J. A. G. Ardila, ed., The Cervantean Heritage: Reception and Influence of Cervantes in Britain(London: Legenda, 2009); and Barbara Fuchs, The Poetics of Piracy: Emulating Spain in English Literature (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013). For an analysis Rachel Schmidt, Forms of Modernity: Don Quixote and Modern Theories of the Novel (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2011). (15.) Lukács, The Theory of the Novel Don Quixote is the first great battle of interiority against the prosaic vulgarity of

(16.) no. 1 (1948): 15.

The Kenyon Review, 10,

(17.) Maravall, Utopia and Counterutopia, 37. (18.) See Carroll B. Johnson, Cervantes and the Material World (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2000); David Quint, Modern Times: A New Reading of Don Quijote (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005); and Myriam Yvonne Jehenson and Peter N. Dunn, Utopian Nexus. (19.) See Henry Higuera, Eros and Empire: Politics and Christianity in Don Quixote (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1995); Diana de Armas Wilson, Cervantes, the Novel, and the New World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); William Childers, Transnational Cervantes; Barbara Fuchs, Mimesis and Empire: The New World, Islam, and European Identities (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001) and Exotic Nation: Maurophilia and the Construction of Early Modern Spain (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011); and Frederick A. de Armas, Don Quixote Among the Saracens: A Clash of Genres and Civilizations (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013). (20.) See Anthony J. Close, The Romantic Approach to Don Quixote: A Critical History of the Romantic Tradition in Quixote Criticism (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 1978). (21.) For a reading of Don Quixote Discourse of Politics

Cervantes, Literature, and the .

Page 30 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies (22.) See Transmodernity ; Walter Mignolo, Local Histories/Global Designs: Coloniality, Subaltern Knowledges, and Border Thinking (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012). (23.) See Transnational Cervantes Also see Edward H. Friedman, Cervantes in the Middle; Félix Martínez-Bonati, Don Quixote and the Poetics of the Novel (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992), and Edwin Williamson, Half-Way House of Fiction: Don Quixote and Arthurian Romance (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984). (24.) Theory of the Novel, ed. McKeon, 284 Childers, Transnational Cervantes Luiz Costa Lima, The Dark Side of Reason: Fictionality and Power (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992), ; and Diacritics 29, no. 2 (1999): . (25.) See Mignolo, Local Histories/Global Designs (26.

Don Quixote, in the Amadís of Gaul is the only survivor

Amadís is among the range of signs that imply curious resemblances between his image and the Conquistadores of the early sixteenth century. See Childers, Transnational Cervantes Diana de Armas Wilson, Cervantes, the Novel, and the New World and its relation to Cervantes, see for instance Barbara Fuchs, Romance (London: Routledge, 2004); Edward Dudley, The Endless Text: Don Quijote and the Hermeneutics of Romance (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1997); Edwin Williamson, Half-Way House of Fiction: Don Quixote and Arthurian Romance (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984); Romance: Generic Transformation from Chrétien de Troyes to Cervantes, ed. Marina Brownlee and Kevin Brownlee (Hanover, NH: University of New England Press, 1986); Howard Mancing, The Chivalric World of Don Quijote: Style, Structure, and Narrative Technique (University of Missouri Press, 1982); Daniel Eisenberg, Romances of Chivalry in the Spanish Golden Age (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1982) and Henry Spanish and Portuguese Romances of Chivalry ([1920]; Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013). For studies that situate the romance genre within the histories of the Crusade, the Age of Discovery, and the Page 31 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies conquest of the New World, see Jennifer Robin Goodman, Chivalry and (Woodbridge, UK: Boydell & Brewer, 1998) and Simone Pinet, Archipelagoes: Insular Fictions from Chivalric Romance to the Novel (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011). (27.) For backgrounds on the Columbian expeditions, see Mann, 1493 see Comparative Studies in Society and History , and Delaney, Columbus and the Quest for Jerusalem: How Religion Drove the Voyages that Led to America (New York: Free Press, 2012). (28.) Details of these conquests can be found in John Hemming, The Conquest of Incas (New York: Harcourt, 2003) and William H. Prescott, The History of the Conquest of Mexico (Random House, 2010). (29.) Bernal Diaz de Castillo, The Truthful History of the Conquest of New Spain. Cited in Thomas, Spanish and Portuguese Romances of Chivalry, 82. (30.) See Childers, Transnational Cervantes

Don

Quixote and the War of the Alpujarras: The Historical Debasement of Chivalry as . (31.) The Ricote episode has been widely commented upon. See for instance Johnson, Cervantes and the Material World Childers, Transnational Cervantes Barbara Fuchs, Passing for Spain: Cervantes and the Fictions of Identity , and Anthony Cascardi, Cervantes, Literature, and the Discourse of Politics (32.) According to Childers, throughout Don Quixote the protagonist encounters numerous characters from all walks of life while they crisscross La Mancha along an X-shaped network of roads. See Transnational Cervantes, 34. The chapter in which Don Quixote braves the lion (II, 17), one that is Mediterranean, for the magnificent beast is being sent to Madrid as a tribute from Oran, a North African Moorish city then occupied by the Spanish. The more discussed destination in the novel, particularly in Book I, is Seville, the metropolis that looked out to overseas wealth and fed the growth of local urban commerce and underworld societies. See Don Quixote and Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos . (33.) See Childers, Transnational Cervantes, 33. (34.) See Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies . Seville El Buscón (The Swindler) as the last stop Page 32 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies of the rogue protagonist, who aspires to strike his fortune in the New World. The Exemplary Tales (Novelas ejemplares) (1613), whose main Johnson, Material World (35.) Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote, trans. Walter Starkie (New York: Signet Classic, 2001), 535. Unless otherwise noted, all page references to and citations from the novel in this chapter are based on this edition. Further citations in text. (36.) See Luïs Vaz de Camoes, The Lusiads, trans. Landeg White (Oxford: Oxford . For a comparative article on The Lusiads and the late sixteenth-century Chinese novel Voyage of the San Bao Eunuch by Luo Maodeng, loosely based on Zheng He expeditions, see Voyage of the San Bao Eunuch Comparative Studies in Society and History 34, no. 2 . (37.

literally to preserve the low humor arising from blunders upon words or sounds, I have been obliged to substitute an equivalent jingle, in the room of Puto, Gafo and Meon, which are Spanish words signifying a whore, a catamite, and a piss-inbed: so that Sancho, deceived by the affinity of these sounds to Computo, Comographo and Ptolomco, thought he had reason to say his master had Don Quixote, trans. Tobias Smollett (New York: Modern Library, 2004), 192. (38.) During the early seventeenth century, Cádiz was the major competitor against the Seville-Sanlúcar axis that possessed the legal monopoly over the America trade. In 1717, both the monopoly and the Casa de Contratación were formally transferred from Seville to Cádiz. Due to its economic significance and seaside position, Cádiz was repeatedly sacked by the English navy during

The Exemplary Tales (Novelas ejemplares) (1613). See Johnson, Material World discussion on the geoeconomic and geopolitical complexities of Cádiz and their Joseph V. Ricapito, (West .

Page 33 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies (39.) See Mann, 1493

Zhang Monumenta Serica . Also see The Wilson Quarterly , and Margarita Zamora, Reading Columbus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993). It is popularly believed that the Italian

encountered as a separate continent. Martin Lehmann has recently disputed this theory and attributed the distinction to other sources from the 1500s in Imago Mundi . Also see Martin W. Lewis and Kären E. Wigen, The Myth of Continents, a Critique of Metageography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997). (40.) See Donald Lach, Asia in the Making of Europe the influence of Ptolemy in seventeenth-century Spain, see Chad M. Gasta, Don Quixote Cervantes: Bulletin of the Cervantes Society of America

.

(41.) These circumstances are described in among other sources. (42.

The Cambridge Companion to

Cervantes, 12. (43.) See Childers, Transnational Cervantes epic Lope de Vega constructs in El Nuevo Mundo descubierto por Cristóbal Colón (The New World Discovered by Christopher Columbus). For an analysis of this play, see Pacific Coast Philology

. For the changing

economic and social status of the hidalgo, see Maravall, Utopia and Counterutopia (44.) See New World Gold (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), . (45.) For a recent book-length study on this episode, see Henry W. Sullivan, (University Park: Penn State University Press, 2008). (46.) On debts and bankruptcies at the Spanish court, see Kamen, Society in Conflict Elliot, Imperial Spain

Page 34 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies (47.) On the Habsburgs and the Fugger family, see Wilson, Cervantes, the Novel, and the New World Johnson, Material World Kamen, Society in Conflict Mark Häberlein, The Fuggers of Augsburg: Pursuing Wealth and Honor in Renaissance Germany (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2012). (48.) For the mercury refining technique, see Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism, Vol. 2, The Wheels of Commerce goods Chinese traders frequently took to Manila. See Timothy Brook, Hat, 179. For the Portuguese exportation of Chinese mercury, see Jonathan Spence, The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci (London and New York: Penguin, . (49.) This possibility is suggested in

Don Quixote and the Exploration of

(50.) Cited in Anne J. Cruz, Discourses of Poverty: Social Reform and the Picaresque Novel in Early Modern Spain (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999), 80. Also see Wilson, Cervantes, the Novel, and the New World, 90. Over the course of the seventeenth century, a great number of African slaves were A. Mineralium Deposita

.

(51.) E.g. pp. 179, 313, 753 in the Signet edition of Don Quixote. See Wilson, Cervantes, the Novel, and the New World Almadén area. (52.) See Mann, 1493 (53.) Cited in Nicholas A. Robins, Mercury, Mining, and Empire: The Human and Ecological Cost of Colonial Silver Mining in the Andes (Bloomington: Indiana . (54.) See Kamen, Society in Conflict, 139. (55. Material World (56.) See Higuera, Eros and Empire (57.) Cf.

Material World

(58.) McKeon, Origins of the English Novel, 283. (59.) Johnson, The Material World, 36.

Page 35 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies (60. Hispanic Review . For the broader context on island fantasies and European fictional development, see Simone Diacritics and Pinet, Archipelagoes: Insular Fictions from Chivalric Romance to the Novel (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011). (61.) For a detailed study on the numismatic background of Don Quixote, see diss., University of Nebraska, 1997). (62.) Cited in Maravall, Utopia and Counterutopia, 47. (63.) Cited in Don Quixote, 1986), in Miguel de Cervantes, ed. Harold Bloom(Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 2005), 63. (64.) J. H. Elliot,

(2nd rev. ed., London: Penguin,

2002), 273. (65. debates during the period. See Vilches, New World Gold analysis of the complex interpersonal dynamics between Sancho and Don Quixote, see Bulletin of Spanish Studies

.

(66.) For this process of debasement, see Signs of Power in Habsburg Spain and the New World, eds. Jason McCloskey and Ignacio López Aleman (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2013), 99; and Justice in the Marketplace in Early Modern Spain: Saravia, Villalon and the Religious Origins of Economic Analysis (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2014), 64. The trend of debasement gave rise to the copper-made

Dream of Waking (67.) See James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra: A Memoir (Oxford: Clarendon, 1913), 22. Also see Jean Canavaggio, Cervantes (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990). (68.) Cf. Maria Antonia Garces, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2005).

(Nashville,

Page 36 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies (69. Quixote.

Don

(70.) See Wilson, Cervantes, the Novel, and the New World (71. Hispanic Review 308. (72.) For the quotation, see Wilson Cervantes, the Novel, and the New World 38. Also see Canavaggio, Cervantes, 102. (73.) Companion to Cervantes, ed. Cascardi, 208, 221.

The Cambridge

(74.) See Robert Richmond Ellis, They Need Nothing: Hispanic-Asian Encounters of the Colonial Period (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2012) and Carmen Hispanic Review 78, no. 3 . (75.) Ellis, They Need Nothing, 86. (76.) Mann, 1493, 29. (77.) See (78.) On the planned conquest of China, see Lach, Asia in the Making of Europe, Timothy Brook, Robert Finlay, The Pilgrim Art: Cultures of Porcelain in World History (Berkeley: . (79.) See and (80.) These two massacres are described in detail in Timothy Brook, Hat Itinerario

; and

México y la Cuenca del Pacífico

.

(81.) On Chinese overseas and trading networks, see Chinese Circulations: Capital, Commodities, and Networks in Southeast Asia, eds. Eric Tagliacozzo and Wen-Chin Chang (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011).

Page 37 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies (82.) There are many studies on Muslim-Christians-Jewish relations in medieval and early modern Spain. For a recent monograph, see Chris Lowney, A Vanished World: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Medieval Spain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006). Muslim and Jewish populations were traditionally the economically most vibrant groups in Iberia. (83.) Frederick A. de Armas, Don Quixote among the Saracens, 49. On the Islamic dominance in Renaissance European silk production, see Lisa Jardine, World of Goods: A New History of the Renaissance (New York: W.W. Norton, 1998), 63. Toledo became an important silk center in Spain in the late fifteenth century; Murcia, on the other hand, developed a sizable sericulture industry by the mid-sixteenth century and emerged as a regular provider of raw silk for Toledo. The growing economic importance of Murcia was related to the decline following the unsuccessful revolt in the Alpujarras in 1568. See Carroll Johnson, Material World, 7. (84.) Although the text does not state it explicitly, the fact that the bundle is being sold to a silk merchant implies that it is intended to be used as food for worms. See Carroll Johnson, Material World, 6. Notably, the particular Toledo Jewry. Historically, one important social group that contributed to the rise of the silk The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, Vol. 1, ed. David Jenkins (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 340. (85.) See Susan Byrne, (86.) See Jehenson and Dunn, The Utopian Nexus, 135. (87.) See Kamen, Society in Conflict, 60. (88.) This image of the New World was presented by Peter Martyr on the basis of his interview with Columbus. Cited in Jehenson and Dunn, The Utopian Nexus, 45. (89.) See Jehenson and Dunn, Utopian Nexus, 87. (90. Cervantes, 11.

The Cambridge Companion to

(91. gentleman and that you have turned yourself into a don and thrust yourself into knighthood with no more than a few miserable vinestocks and two acres of land,

Page 38 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

La Mancha to the Indies (92.) Cf. Cambridge History of Western Textiles, ed. David Jenkins, 445, 465. (93.) William Lytle Schurz, The Manila Galleon (Boston: E. P. Dutton, 1959), 32. Cited in 40. (94.) Quoted in Timothy Brook, Confusions of Pleasure, 205.

Access brought to you by:

Page 39 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki

The Age of Silver: The Rise of the Novel East and West Ning Ma

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780190606565 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2017 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.001.0001

Out of Nagasaki To the End of the Floating World Ning Ma

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.003.0005

Abstract and Keywords

political subordination despite their economic advancement. This historical trigger of social chaos and an instrument of individual empowerment. Based on novel The Life of an Amorous Man ( ), an ironic vision of national realities from the townsman perspective as well as fantasies about the thus aligned with the literary horizontal continuities of the Age of Silver, and should be viewed as an Eastern pioneer of narrative modernity. Keywords: Ihara Saikaku, of an Amorous Man, narrative modernity

, fiction, Tokugawa Japan, Age of Silver, materiality, The Life

So secretly he sought out a Chinese trader and inquired if he happened to

Page 1 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki traversed thousands of miles of rough sea at the risk of his life,had come . This Scheming World

1

When I was just a child, I heard it said that things which pass before a

respectable thought in ages, for that matter, I have never had a swelled head either, but what I have done is take these clumsy observations of imported from Cathay, I have spun these tales and woven my humble yarns. Some Final Words of 2

Advice

[Saikaku] was less interested in a neat beginning, middle, and end than he was in the cumulative effect that a progression of images, however tenuously related, could induce. A cluster of these images becomes a story (sometimes remaining an incoalescent array of subplots and digressions),

In the Shade of Spring Leaves

3

(p.110)

region outside Europe and North America over the course of the late nineteenth

literary, aesthetic, and historical traditions have remained deeply localized, peripherized, and Orientalized in West-normative knowledge systems.4 All these studies. From a literary and cultural perspective, Dennis C. Washburn notes that

Japanese culture and created the extreme self-consciousness and sense of belatedness reflected in the historicist usage of kindai and gendai 5

Citing earlier scholars such as Nakamura Mitsuo,

Page 2 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki 6

7

Paralleling and interrelated with the case of China, Japan constitutes another significant geographical vantage point in our East-West horizontal comparison. With respect to the Age of Silver that forms the macrohistorical framework of this book, the case of Japan is especially noteworthy due to its historical role as a major silver exporter in the early modern world and the flourishing of its commerce and culture around the same time. Moreover, in resemblance to the other areas we examine, Japanese literary history during the period witnessed more realistic and earthly narrative tendencies. The most salient indication of this new literary trend is Ihara from past conventions to focus on an urban world of pleasure, fashion, and trade, with a playful yet implicitly melancholic attitude that suggests the ethos of the economically thriving yet politically subordinated class of the Tokugawa townsman.

(p.111) Japanese history was richly imbricated with transregional linkages through its multicentury contacts with China and other Asian states, its absorption of Buddhism, and its contacts with Europeans since the early sixteenth century. With regard to the Age of Silver at the center of this comparative inquiry, Japan bears a special significance as the second largest silver producer of the period next to the Spanish colonies in South America, responsible for perhaps one third of the global total output of silver during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Japanese mining boom began in the 1530s during the Sengoku or c daimyo). The boom continued through the unification process that led to the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate in

8

Meanwhile, based on the stimuli of precious metal monies and the political stability brought about by unification, the seventeenth century was a period of significant commercial and cultural developments in Japanese history. Resembling the Spanish Golden Age around the end of the sixteenth century, Japanese cultural history boasts a spurt of literary and artistic creativity during haikai

Page 3 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki seventeenth century. These Genroku cultural landmarks emerged in a context of

tripled within about a century under the Tokugawa peace, all these cities were among the most populous in the seventeenth-century world, each having over a third of a million residents on the verge of the eighteenth century.9 This period of rapid commercial growth witnessed the rise of the , or merchant townsmen, in the economic sector. In part following the Chinese model, the Tokugawa social order placed merchants at the bottom, while honoring the hereditary warrior class of samurai as the elite group. After the however, many samurai elites fell into destitution and often had to rely on highinterest money loans from merchants. In the words of one historian of Tokugawa were not in accord with prevailing moral beliefs, such as merchants dominating the economy, samurai living in debts, (p.112) peasants rebelling, and 10

As a cultural correlative to this shifting social landscape, a distinct narrative genre that came to be known as ukiyo-e was closely associated with the growing class, who had begun to develop cultural tastes independent from the Confucianized samurai class. Originally a Buddhist term referring to ukiyo

idea of the ukiyo

11

Resting at

quarters, characterized by glamorous fashions and the constant exchange of money and desire, where relationships were ever-changing, bonded by little more than gold and silver coins. The most representative figure of the is doubtlessly the prolific writer Ihara Saikaku. Borne to an Osaka merchant family, Saikaku made a name early on as a haikai poet and was known for his legendary feat of having composed over 20,000 stanzas of haikai in a single day and night. After the untimely death of his wife in 1675, Saikaku retired from family trade and became a lay monk, while traveling widely across Japan. Despite his earlier achievements in poetry, Saikaku turned to prose in his forties and, in 1682, published his first major work of fiction, (Life of an Page 4 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki Amorous Man; hitherto Amorous Man), which became an immediate bestseller. Following this success, Saikaku replicated his earlier prodigious literary productivity and completed over a dozen books in the decade between 1682 and 1692. Other than the longer Life of an Amorous Woman ( , 1686), and the novella-like stories of Five Women Who Loved Love ( gonin onna stories. Some of these collections, most notably The Eternal Storehouse of Japan (Nihon eitaigura, 1688) and This Scheming World ( , 1692), concentrate on the world of commerce. His other works feature a diversity of topics such as homoerotic love, samurai honor, and family morality. The Genroku author tried his hand at travelogue and detective stories as well, creating some of the earliest examples of these narrative types in the Japanese tradition.12 writings fell into obscurity during the late Tokugawa period. Nonetheless, (p.113)

13

One of the

member of the important group of writers associated with the literary magazine (Friends of the Ink Stone

customs and feelings of people from two hundred years in the past as though we are looking at a mark on the palm of our hands, we can also see that even now the days and nights of events that Saikaku has painted for us are still 14

only retroactive but also generative for Meiji writers, as his writings inspired the 15

(

The Essence of the Novel ), which has been widely regarded as the founding text of

Movement.16 Promoting the nineteenth-century Western novel as the true xiaoshuo an evolutionary scheme of literary history that is patterned according to the ideology of Social Darwinism, which was tremendously influential to the Meiji study and follow the superior ways of the West, thereby creating the basis for a superior haishi, our Eastern will remain at the stage of the 17

In the context

Page 5 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki

constructed an alternative mode of literary modernity away from the Westoriented evolutionary doctrine.18 Highly similar to the case of Plum in Chinese literary history, the works of Saikaku in the horizontal perspective we have established represent yet another important Eastern example of novelistic modernity. On the other hand, in contrast to the European examples and full-length Chinese novels like Plum relatively independent episodes in ways that resemble Spanish picaresque (p.114) is related to his earlier practices of the poetic form haikai and an aesthetic emphasis on ephemerality and mutability. Despite this stylistic difference, similar to the Spanish and Chinese examples highlighted in previous chapters order while presenting vivid images of a commercialized society. In her study on

informational exchanges in the absence of politically homogenizing institutions.19 This analysis of Saikaku meaningfully corresponds to the BakhtinAnderson synthesis I have elaborated in chapter 1 the early realist novels from the Age of Silver encode literary crystallizations of Saikaku, the heteroglossic tendency of his writings is manifested through his characteristic blending of high and low discourses, a method I shall further

the surrounding socioeconomic shifts and commercial coevolutions during the Age of Silver, the rest of this chapter first surveys aspects of Tokugawa history to

through the marginalized lens of the Tokugawa townsman, while generating a prototype of novelistic modernity that is both Japanese and global.

Japan as the Floating World

that lasted from its official inauguration in 1603 to the Meiji Restoration of 1868 mineral wealth. Hideyoshi, the ruler for the last two decades of the sixteenth propagating the use of gold and silver monies, and employing silver to trade Page 6 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki with China for raw silk and other goods.20 In the words of a Japanese chronicler have gushed forth from the mountains and from the plains in the land of Japan . . . In the old days, no one as much as laid an eye on gold. But in this age, there are none even among peasants (p.115) and rustics, no matter how 21

Following these developments, in 1601, two years before his formal installment as shogun, Ieyasu ordered the casting of several forms of gold (e.g. ) and silver (e.g. cho-gin) currency, which formed the basic monetary system for the next silver mines came into production. Around the late 1630s, gold and silver monies truly overpowered the traditional rice currency in general market exchange, although rice would continue to serve as the main form of payment within the political system as the basis of tax and stipends for the samurai elite.22 The full monetization of the Japanese economy was accompanied by vigorous domestic commercial growth. In his influential History of Japan, Engelbert during his service as a physician for the Dutch East India Company, avowed that

23

Enriched by a flourishing urban commercial culture, Tokugawa merchants were nevertheless mibunsei) system based on the Confucian model, the Tokugawa state relegated the merchant class to the bottom tier of society. One infamous indication of this hierarchical structure concerns an edict that granted the kiri-sute gomen): that is to say, to kill with 24

domain lords, a source of income that became increasingly inadequate in a world of fluctuating prices and growing expenses. Long-term peace also weakened the military rationale that had supported the prestige of the samurai. Whereas samurais of a higher rank sometimes managed to land in civil offices, 25

so-called

The most deprived were the , or masterless samurais. As many older daimyo clans dissipated under Tokugawa rule grew to

century.26 Having no stable income unless they could find a new lord, many members of the with the common folks.27

Page 7 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki ) class, in (p.116) interregional transportations and disseminations of goods, including the rice yields that served as the basic tax unit for the shogun and daimyo. The creation in the 1660s of a seaborne national trading network, which consisted of an east lane that connected northeastern Honshu (the Main Island) to Edo and a west lane these urban regions.28 Overland travels were likewise brisk, thanks to a far29 30

While numerous merchants traversed

pilgrimage, or under such pretense for diversion. In the description of Laura

requirements.31 On the other hand, however conveniently seventeenth-century Japanese citizens traveled domestically, they could hardly ever step outside the national borders. Although there had been a long history of Sino-Japanese contacts, the two that targeted Ming China in the 1590s and pirate raids along Chinese coasts prior to the 1630s.32 a typhoon rushed a Portuguese ship to Kyushu in 1543. While capitalizing on the lucrative Sino-Japanese silver trade by acting as its middleman, the Portuguese converted many Japanese to Catholicism during the sixteenth century. Yet, in the

expelled all Portuguese inhabitants from Japan in the 1630s. This series of sakoku) policy that was finalized in 1639 and lasted until the end of the Tokugawa era. Under this policy, Japanese citizens were forbidden to sail overseas on pain of death, and foreign trade was, for the most part, limited to the Chinese and Dutch merchants who traveled to Nagasaki. Generally, Dutch traders were confined to the small artificial island of Dejima in the bay of Nagasaki, although a small envoy was allowed to visit Edo inland possible. Chinese merchants were assigned to their own settlement in a walled compound near Dejima.33 Segregated into different quarters, the multiethnic community at Nagasaki nonetheless exchanged commodities of a truly global spectrum. In his memoir, silk from China and Tunkin [The northernmost (p.117) Page 8 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki

brass, from Tunkin; turpentine (from wild pistachio trees), gum lacca, myrrh,

goods taken into Japan by the Dutch were equally diverse. Aside from different

34

From its domestic society to its foreign relations, seventeenth-century Japan was a world rife with fluid interactions and movements, in contrast to its stratified

of this mixture of social constraint and fluidity. Historically, in order to separate designated special areas in various cities to house all the local brothels. Eventually, there were about twenty such areas across Japan during the seventeenth century. The most prominent of these districts were naturally those Shinmachi in Osaka. In order to physically enforce their segregation, the encircled them with a wall or moat, as in the cases of Shimabara and Yoshiwara. However, patronized by both high and low classes from daimyo and samurai to townsmen, the world within these isolated enclosures was fraught with transgressive social contacts. In particular, the pleasure district in Nagasaki was a site of curiosity for many Tokugawa observers, since the courtesans there from time to time ventured into the foreign settlements and took on Chinese or Dutch customers.35

creations. During the mid-seventeenth century, Japan was far more literate than it had been one hundred years earlier. As the shogunate and daimyo endeavored to educate the samurai so that they could serve in civil positions, merchants and farmers actively sought private schooling in order to master the skills of writing, reading, and accounting necessary for commerce. Concurrent with the spread of literacy was the spread of printing technology. Having first adopted the movabletype method brought in by the Europeans, Japanese publishers in the 1630s began using the woodblocks technology that was prevalent in China because it was more suitable for reproducing Japanese scripts and the illustrations that (p. 118) commonly accompanied published books during the period.36 Soon nationwide network of public information exchange alongside developments in transportation and the economy, and disseminated heterogeneous reading Page 9 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki The Tale of Genji and Tales of Ise, Buddhist scriptures, Chinese philosophical texts and vernacular fiction, medical manuals, calendars, encyclopedias, and maps. Meanwhile, fictions about contemporary Japanese life, such as those composed by Saikaku, also became a vibrant part of this expanding world of print, and populated the term ukiyo 37

frequently cited locus classicus of the term ukiyo comes from an earlier book entitled Tales of the Floating World (Ukiyo monogatari c tongue-in-cheek exposition of ukiyo according to the Buddhist notion of the sorrowful world:38 It seems that they call this a sorrowful world [ukiyo] because in all things,

In reply, the other interlocutor in the prologue vouches for a more optimistic definition of the ukiyo:

and hear the good and the bad in all things; everything is interesting, and gourd to worry about it; fretting just causes indigestion. So cross each bridge as you come to it; gaze at the moon, the snow, the cherry blossoms, and the bright autumn leaves. Floating along with an unsinkable call the floating world [ukiyo].39

pleasure district of the city, until he runs out of money. He then becomes a minor

yearly tribute without fail, (p.119) even if it meant selling their wives and

a prank on and his subsequent disguise as a Buddhist monk under the name Page 10 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki

a jester-critic in the mansion of another lord, this time advocating nobler goals such as reinforcing samurai morality and shunning extravagance. Soon enough,

40

41

nonetheless portrayed a world of gloomy exploitations, wild twists and turns, and pressing material forces. As much as the characters themselves, money, taxes, and rice prices take on life in the text as mutable social elements. In one

days people used to pray they would be spared droughts, floods, or typhoons, but the merchants today pray for precisely these disasters, in the hopes that the 42

The fluctuation of rice prices highlighted in this passage was a socioeconomic issue that aroused considerable cultural anxiety in Tokugawa Japan.43 As mentioned, rice was the collection and land values during the Tokugawa period. It was also the form in which samurai salaries were paid. The stability of the price of rice was thus of primal importance for maintaining the privileges of the traditional elite class. Yet, like that of all other commodities, the price of rice oscillated throughout the Tokugawa era. Moreover, in order to purchase all other types of goods, daimyo and samurai had to sell their surplus rice to merchants, in particular to the warehouse owners in Osaka. In these ways, the commodification of rice augmented the socioeconomic shifts brought about by the growth of monetary powers in Tokugawa Japan.

indicated by his famous discussion on ukiyo an image of the mutable self, one that is breathlessly reinvented as a profligate, a counselor, a priest, a jester, and finally, a cicada shell. Despite its Buddhist undertones, the fluid mode of individuality represented by (p.120) ukiyo is ultimately a product of the world of secular pleasures. In light of our

observable in other cultural spheres across the Age of Silver. The following writings, first by attending to his short story collections The Eternal Storehouse of Japan and This Scheming World.

Page 11 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki From Eternal Storehouse to the Scheming World Tales of the Floating World, was a samurai who later lost his employment and became a came from the lower tier of the samurai class. By contrast, Saikaku was the son of an Osaka-based merchant family, although in youth he had already earned a literary reputation as a haikai (comic verse) poet in affiliation with the Danrin c. exhibit an unorthodox stylistic blending of the lyrical and the prosaic, a feature that would continue to characterize his prose writings. Due to their

then typically pejorative meaning as foreign and outlandish.44 For an example of turn to the following haikai set that poeticizes the pedestrian subject of money minting: Today the master smelter feels the first autumn wind

own cherry blossoms and red leaves

Pure water, too, flows through channels and out the Dragon Mouth.45

(p.121) Many forms of social and symbolic crossings underlie this intriguing

Ieyasu as his major advisor for developing and minting Tokugawa coins. Noted for his technological skill in metalwork and his experiences with foreign trade, 46

Conjoining lyrical and political implications, the poem further juxtaposes the image of the castle-garden with an industrial scene: a mint filled with the hot

Page 12 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki

commerce, by the suggestion of these poetic designs, become a force of

historical vision.47

experimentations with prose fiction. Also notably, by subjecting the recent presents an earthly and creative perspective on a national subject matter. This individualized and lively perception of Japan as a nation also characterizes his becomes not just a commonly accessible mental ground but a practically intertwined space of exchange, where ideas, goods, ships, tourists, traders, and 48

published in 1688 under the title The Eternal Storehouse of Japan is a clear indication of the national space his works aim to generate. As a whole, the book enacts the rise and fall of merchants and their families in a backdrop of nationwide market shifts, through which some individuals emerge riding the tides, glory galore, while others fall behind the waves to drown in the ruin of themselves and their familial lineages. A generally optimistic book, Eternal Storehouse (p.122) According

Thrift (not Shinto priests alone, but samurai, farmers, traders, artisans, and even Buddhist bonzes), and we must husband gold and silver as the deity enjoins. 49

zeni copper coins. Afraid to offend Kannon, the pilgrims always pay back the loan along with due interest. One day, an ordinary-looking man unprecedentedly zeni for the borrower-turned-lender keeps careful calculation of the compounded amount of his debt to the temple. Then, in the thirteenth year, he sends the temple a

Page 13 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki and delighted by this windfall of fortune, the monks of the temple build a pagoda using the returned zeni 50

Throughout the story, the text is deliberately obscure on the causal chain that enables the inherent in the temple money or from his own business acumen, including using return his debt in its original form rather than in gold or silver. Given that the returned copper coins would weigh over thirty tons if taken literally, this narrative design stretches the bounds of plausibility, yet serves an important symbolic purpose in maintaining the material consistency of the coins, thereby creating the sense of a perfect correspondence. Quantitatively enlarged yet qualitatively the same, the coins in the story fuse the liquid world of market exchange with the ritualized mystique of religious piety. The story thus reinvents

transcendental aura upon monetary forces in support of the promercantile

story works to map this new social philosophy onto a national scale. (p.123) Eternal Storehouse includes many other success stories in which ingenuity, thrift, and perseverance lead to tremendous wealth, or at least a decent livelihood. The idea of luck and occasionally supernatural forces appear throughout the stories to instill their material world with spiritual undertones. Drawing together earthly and ethereal domains, money and commerce in Eternal House also blend

narrative world of Eternal Storehouse, even the most privileged daimyo household must bow to fluctuating economic forces, as we see in the story

sumptuary regulations, the story first voices orthodox opinions by commenting

development of the story indicates that these statements are likely ironic, since

), which required the domain lords to leave their family members in Edo as hostages whenever they traveled back to their home Page 14 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki

the lords, despite their daunting facades, are living on dwindling revenues. As a unsettled year after year. Such money would have been more profitably invested 51

While drapers in Edo are suffering great losses, one merchant breaks the norm and asks for cash only in his textile shop. This strategy turns out to be spectacularly successful, for the merchant backs up his required a formal waistcoat for an immediate audience with his lord or someone

who has been identified by scholars as Mitsui Hachiroemon, the founder of the Mitsukoshi department store chain that first opened in Edo in 1683. (p.124)

Neatly folded in the alphabetically arranged drawers of his shop were all the materials of Japan and countries overseas, a varied selection of antique

sword sheath. Absolutely nothing was missing. A firm with such well-filled stock books is indeed fortunate!52 The above list absurdly attributes the hodgepodge of objects it includes to religious or historical figures representing purity and transcendence, such as the Amida Buddha, the celebrated seventh-century poet Hitomaro, and the Chinese scholar Rin Wasei (Lin Pu), who was noted for his passion for plum blossoms and cranes.53 The arbitrary alphabetical order imposed upon these objects, as if in an encyclopedia or in a catalogue of goods, heightens the sense of chaos implied by their juxtaposition, yet also announces a new commercial ending thus symbolizes the socioeconomic reversal that occurs through its course, wherein a merchant rejects the credit system that privileges the elite, and subsequently succeeds in creating his own commercial kingdom.

Eternal Storehouse assumes heavier tones in its last few stories, which focus instead on cases of business failure. The escalating financial risk engendered by economic development underlies these instances of financial ruin. The very last Page 15 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki piece in Eternal Storehouse charts a few of such examples, yet then moves into perfect contentment, worshiping the gods and holding the Buddhas in deep

rudely disrupted by townsmen from Kyoto. Begging the old farmer to cut them a bamboo grain-level for good luck, the intruders go on to chop down almost all the straight bamboo in the area. The story ends with the picture of a wealthy merchant using one of these levels to measure silver when dividing his possession among his three sons.54 From rice to silver, the changing measuring function of the level symbolizes a historical shift. Wishfully imposing the more settled order of the past upon the unpredictable present, the merchants in (p.125) socioeconomic scene. Upon this ironic vision, Eternal Storehouse concludes its narrative with the following epilogue: Money is still to be found in certain places, and where it lies it lies in abundance. Whenever I heard stories about it I noted them in my great national stock-book, and, in order that future generations might study them and profit thereby, I placed them in a storehouse to serve each 55

would family

56

However, despite Eternal

Storehouse short story collection Twenty Cases of Unfilial Children, which parodies the influential didactic Chinese book Twenty-Four Cases of Filial Conducts. One traveling priest for his gold under the urge of his eight-year-old daughter. Six years later, the girl stabs the wife of a samurai she has seduced and refuses to surrender herself to the authorities, even though her father is being held

retribution. Soon enough, as the story concludes, the girl herself is caught and functions as a grotesque instance of filial piety, because the blood money greatly material concerns for her family naturally turn into coldhearted betrayal when her own interests are at stake. In this chilling narrative, gold is the evil temptation that exposes the worst of humanity. When the girl persuades her Page 16 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki father to murder the priest, the narrator intrudes to comment on the When killing the hapless priest even after he has surrendered his gold, the 57

This statement casts the ukiyo as a dystopian realm, wherein material desires run amok and foster egoistic obsessions just as threatening to

In 1692, one year before his death, Saikaku published one of his last works, This Scheming World, the title of which can be more literally (p.126) translated as Worldly Mental Calculations.58 Likewise focusing on the world of commerce, Scheming World reads like a pessimistic sequel to Eternal Storehouse. In place of great merchants and miraculous wealth, Scheming World attends to the life of petty characters, who are perpetually pressed to scrape together enough money for their bills. Significantly, the stories in Scheming World are organized ( seventeenth-century Japan was also the time of debt collection. This particular time of the year thus serves as a fit occasion for comedies, farces, and 59

One story in the

mon in copper, plus three sho pawnbroker, and notes that she has lost her moral pride due to poverty, despite being the daughter of a samurai.60 with the founding of the Tokugawa rule, the apparently trivial event in the story reigned reality. Scheming World

everyone else is busy settling their bills. After the sermon, the priest disappointingly finds out that the attendees all come to the temple for purposes other than seeking enlightenment. An old woman in the group confesses that her Page 17 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki only son asks her to leave home so that he can distract his debtors and avoid paying the bills under the pretense that his mother is missing. Another is a man from Ise who has been driven out of his house by his wife due to his failure to make money. The third is a thief who comes to the temple for some drinking money, yet finds nothing that is worth stealing. Deeply moved by these you, who (p.127) are born with the possibility of salvation, should have been

interrupted by a busy succession of requests. First a woman reports that the

enters to report the theft of the white silk kimono he is making for the priest. Finally, a profligate son who has been disinherited by his father comes to sojourn in the temple by the arrangement of his mother. All these worldly commotions

61

crowded social space that overpowers even the purified mindset of a Buddhist Scheming World

old debts (19), which linger on throughout the seasons as the agitated motions

Vulgar Genji his two representative works of this kind, The Life of an Amorous Man (1682) and The Life of an Amorous Woman (1686), both feature a protagonist whose sexual promiscuity verges on the fantastic. According to the numbers given in the first chapter of Amorous Man, by the age of fifty-four the protagonist, 62

In Amorous Woman, which is narrated in the first person, the heroine confesses that her male lovers 63

Though stated in a more or less tonguein-cheek manner, these totals conjure up a vast public realm which these protagonists traverse with their amorous bodies. Mostly occurring within the social realm as well. While reflecting the urban gaieties and the rising pleasure regulation of private conduct under Tokugawa legal codes, which allowed a woman (p.128) to be captured and stabbed to death if she eloped and left her Page 18 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki

the master of the house . . . at the request of the master, [could] be executed, 64

Generally lighthearted, Amorous Man does include one dark episode wherein Yonosuke becomes close to a woman who has run away from her husband and is later killed by her kinsmen. In Five Women Who Loved Love, code.

also deflates classical lyrical and religious motifs. The self-narrated Amorous Woman, for instance, parodies the style of the Buddhist confession tale, with a 65

As to Amorous Man, the book at the center of my subsequent discussion, the protagonist Yonosuke is a vulgarized version of Heian nobleman and poet widely believed to be the hero of The Tales of Ise. In the words of Haruo Shirane, Amorous Man commoner who travels from one pleasure quarter to another in seventeenthcentury Japan. The result is a vernacular parody of a Heian aristocratic text in which the humor derives from the unexpected transformation of a figure of cultural authority into a contemporary character with whom common readers 66

sexual history also recalls the myth of Narihira as being a manifestation of 3,733 women in order to bring them salvation.67 Turning classical romance into 68 Amorous Man is interspersed with playful literary allusions to the stories Genji and Narihira. For instance, in one episode of Amorous Man, Yonosuke starts an affair with a widow after having met her in the Ishiyama Temple, where Lady Murasaki purportedly composed her up as a superficial fling and results in the birth of a son who is soon abandoned.69 encounter with two singing girls when it lets Yonosuke experience a similar situation, which ends anticlimactically when Yonosuke exhausts his travel money and abandons the girls. This turn of event constitutes a narrative watershed, after which Yonosuke begins a rapid downward spiral as he liberally writes promissory notes in the name of his family in order to satisfy his temporary

(p.129) Adding to Amorous Man its setting within a concrete contemporary landscape, which the narrative presents in a map-like manner through a breathless list of place names. Within a few chapters after his disinheritance, for instance, the protagonist travels to Page 19 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki Yoshino, and then to Naniwa (2:7), Katano, Hiraka, and so forth. Later on he 70

This narrative design of Amorous Man provides a literary equivalent to the larger cultural trend Marcia Yonemoto has 71

by which she refers to a nonhierarchical and horizontally organized representational mode observable in maps and geographical texts from seventeenth-century Japan. As previously described, since the 1630s Tokugawa Japan had been an era of busy domestic travels despite its sakoku policy. Cartographical activities also flourished during the period. Whereas state land surveys around the beginning of the century laid the groundwork for early modern Japanese maps, the public dissemination and rearrangement of this geographical knowledge mostly depended on private compilers and commercial printing.72 One prominent commercial mapmaker of

supplementary one information mélange, which encompasses facts as diverse as the ranks of from Confucian scholars to dentists and haikai poets, and directories of merchant specialties and entertainments.73 The juxtaposition of these categories signals the secular attitudes of a commercial culture, which treats all areas of aesthetics of love indicates the same cultural sensibility.

Yonemoto calls it, by transporting the legends of Genji and Narihira into a hybrid and concrete contemporary landscape, Amorous Man performs a vernacularization of desire contributes to this vernacularizing effect, and reflects a trend that historically took place through the expanding commodity circulations of seventeenthcentury Japan. By the end of the century, classical romances like Genji had themselves become part of the commercial book market and appeared as motifs of games and fashion products. According to the (p.130) description in Amorous Man, kimonos decorated with scenes from Genji are the latest urban to outdress one another as they patronize the fashionable prostitutes as a form of luxury good. Thus, in one scene of Amorous Man made robe decorated with paintings by a renowned artist drives her patrons to lifetime dweller of the floating world, Yonosuke is himself a close follower of the Page 20 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki latest fashion in blatant violation of Tokugawa sumptuary rules, which forbade merchants from wearing silk. Even beyond middle age, the protagonist flaunts

187).74 Yet if luxury fashion is the definitive veneer of the floating world, its glamour is ultimately a vain disguise for its lack of authenticity. The protagonist and his company clearly recognize this reality with regard to the female beauty they patronize. In chapter 5 an outstanding beauty and elegant manners. Sehei subsequently observes that so courtesans in Shimabara [the famous courtesan district in Kyoto], or brocades and figured silk bought for them by their bosses . . . they can at least put on an 75

As it turns out, this prostitute who has not followed the popular trend to falsify her beauty is the daughter of a ruined samurai family. Touched by her background, Yonosuke ransoms her out of prostitution. In the end, the however, embodies a fallen yet inimitable moral essence in contrast to the rootless material flows of the floating world. In a chapter that parallels the Fushimi episode, Yonosuke ransoms another

the rare aloeswood incense he takes out at a drinking party to sober up the atmosphere. The woman further distinguishes herself by trying to give the forty pieces of silver the protagonist sends her to a mendicant monk.76 The incensemotif in Genji 77

Like silk, the aloeswood became a

indicates that, in addition to numerous (p.131) textiles, Chinese and Dutch traders brought a great number of expensive spices and drugs, usually of Southeast Asian origins, to Nagasaki.78 During the Genroku period, moreover, incense peddling was a common disguise of underground boy prostitutes.79 These historical contexts add rich connotations to the scene in Amorous Man wherein the protagonist travels to the countryside and meets a group of traveling kabuki actors who moonlight as prostitutes (ch. 8). While spending the

Strangely, the smell reminds the protagonist of aloeswood incense and arouses Page 21 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki

fleeting sensual delight.80

villages, and between drastically different orders of society. In a long dialogue with Yonosuke, the boy prostitute reveals that he has served a wide range of patrons from lords and priests to woodcutters and fishermen from all corners of 81

Just as that money transforms the purified aloeswood into a free circulating commodity, the boy prostitute, through the commodification of his own body, equalizes the relations between his socially stratified and geographically dispersed patrons.

scents the protagonist experiences in his encounter with the boy prostitute, Amorous Man counterpoises the classical connotations of aloes-wood against a dominant monetary culture. Saikaku scholars have repeatedly noted that the fluid mixing of the high and the low is a salient feature of his narrative method. elements are vulgarized, so vulgar elements are classicized; in saying this, the doubling of value, a relativization takes place, this is where laughter springs 82

By attending to how the complex images of luxury goods such as silk

commodity networks, which altered social distributions of traditional prestige goods and, as a corollary, deflated their aristocratic cultural connotations.

global commercial coevolutions of the Age of Silver. Historically, through its knowledge of raw silk, the cotton plants, (p.132) and iron, and later came to produce along these three lines, which worked quite a revolution in [its] industries and trade, and at the same time what is called a middle class, consisting of industrial and commercial capitalists, came into existence between 83

This economic history helps contextualize

merchant townsmen also became avid consumers of traditional luxury items including silk and spice, as we have seen from Amorous Man representations of these prestige goods. Notably, with similarly rich literary implications, the book also mentions several times a newfangled global introduced from the New World to East Asia around the 1600s. In Amorous Man, 84

Given

Page 22 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki this erotic connotation, it is deeply ironic when Amorous Man contrasts the

in Otani, not to admire the flowers but to crush them in their hands. They saw the smoke erupting majestically from Mt. Toribe and thought no more of it than 85

Mt. Toribe was a cremation ground in the vicinity of Kyoto and appears in Genji as the principle wife, Lady Aoi (ch. 9), who were both cursed by the angry spirit of his 86

Considering these allusions, the comparison of Mt. Amorous Man ironically trivializes the romantic themes of death and passion. In Amorous Man, the most memorable appearance of a traveling global object concerns the telescope Yonosuke uses when he is nine to spy on a bathing maid country estates, summer houses, and pavilions overlooking a lake, undoubtedly

87

A

amorous encounters in the Heian classic, the telescope scene of Amorous Man is at once vulgar and vernacular. Following from the preceding discussion, the new sensibility expressed by this scene signals the dawn of a new age wherein the power of materiality and technology breaks older boundaries, from access to status symbols to the limits of perception, thus exposing its (p.133) underlying grime.

A Journey of No Return

Amorous Man scene in which the lyrical images of the moon and blossoms are dissonantly set against the banal, semiindustrial landscape of a silver mine settlement: Blossoms scatter soon after they bloom, and people grieve. The moon, too, always sinks down behind the mountains. Near Mount Irusa in the province of Tajima, in a silver-mining settlement, lived a man who came to be known as Yumesuke, Man of Dreams. Weary of making money, he put aside his worldly duties as a mine manager and moved to Kyoto, where he

Page 23 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki dreamed, asleep and awake without reserve, along the double path of female and male love.88 According to Jeffrey Richard Johnson, Japanese critics have treated this opening passage of Amorous Man 89

We should further note that this significant aesthetic turnabout is expressed province of Tajima, the setting at the beginning of Amorous Man likely refers to manager 90

and accumulated immeasurable wealth.

sense of ennui and a powerful impulse for expenditure. This desire essentially courtesans Yumesuke has ransomed from Shimabara. The narrative purposefully floating world of desire. Embodying the Everyman of the ukiyo, Yonosuke 91

in fulfillment of the impulse of consumption (p.134) inherent to his own origins. As foreshadowed by the first chapter, following his precocious initiation into the art of love at the tender age 92

Self-destructive as it is, this depleting process in Amorous Man is at the same time imbued with emancipatory potentials. Remarkably, the image of chapter, this time in the words of exhaust your kidneys and vital fluids . . . and get yourself buried there, but, well, what of it? All of us here happened to be born to live our whole lives without ties 93

As these lines indicate, the journey Yonosuke and his crew resolve upon enacts the logical extreme of their from Japan itself and, by extension, from historical reality at large.

his ship are all aged, and their voyage ominously yet ludicrously mirrors the practice of Fudaraku tokai, the ritual of religious suicide in which a Buddhist devotee would float away in a sealed boat equipped with a plug for sinking, under the belief that at the end of this passage rests the paradise of Kannon. Most famously associated with the Kumano shrines, Fudaraku tokai often meant a departure from the archipelago of Japan into the Pacific.94 Here, in place of the island that borders on the world of demons. While the lore of the Island of Women can be traced to the Chinese classic Shanghai Jing (The Classics of Mountains and Seas), its cartographical and literary representations in Page 24 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki seventeenth-century Japan were often conflated with those of another mythical Rasetsukoku, a country of shape-shifting temptresses who would sap the life forces of shipwrecked sailors through sexual seduction.95 In an

story

faces grave dangers on the Island of Women, which is portrayed as a realm of sexually insatiable and semibarbaric women, and he escapes only by his unusual wit and luck.96 A 1658 Japanese encyclopedia briefly describes the island in a 97

takes place in concrete historical time, which the text explicitly dates to the 98

same year of Amorous Man

In

the sakoku policy that subjected all citizens who left the country in an unauthorized manner to the death penalty.99 Considering (p.135) this historical connotation, it is fitting that Amorous Man

states: In ancient times the great scholar Abe no Nakamaro [c sojourning on the foreign soil of China, expressed in verse a powerful Yamato. Yonosuke, however, as started out on his journey, reversed that port city.100 Subverting the lyricism of the moon into a stimulus of longings for the foreign Nagasaki trip as an economic inversion. When asked by a business associate what imported goods he wishes to purchase in the port city, Yonosuke answers 101

His interlocutor immediately construes that Yonosuke is heading for the Maruyama pleasure quarter. Receiving Chinese and Dutch customers, the courtesans of Maruyama were a topic of curiosity in seventeenthcentury Japanese culture. For instance, the bestseller The Guide to the Brothels of All Provinces, which was an inspiration for Amorous Man deal of voyeuristic attention to the engagements between the local courtesans 102

Amorous Man

waning energies.103 Filled with the presence of overpowering foreign Others, Page 25 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki Nagasaki confronts Yonosuke with signs of his own biological and libidinal finitude, a symbolic effect that mirrors the geographical, political, and economic constraints the port city historically demarcated for the Tokugawa townsmen. To better situate Amorous Man it is apposite to cite a haikai

renewal through extending itself into an infinite outside world: Passing along so many limbs: moon at dusk (p.136)

from even beyond Holland Measuring, mixing pine resin powder

water returns through the earlier clattering of limbs and the sounds of the autumn wind, while the blind passion of needle-like baby eels as they, lithe as monkeys, leave the Pacific and enter the mouth of the Chikuma River suggests that the island of Honshu curves like a giant lover, one without clear haikai piece

104

This fluid notion of the national space stands in sharp

boundaries. The ending of Amorous Man, read in this light, encodes a subtle Page 26 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki

disenfranchised status of the merchant townsmen. According to David Gundry, the image of the Chinese in the Nagasaki chapter of Amorous Man examination system, which provided an avenue of social mobility unavailable in the hereditary system of Tokugawa social ranks.105 While this reading is pertinent, we should further note that the Chinese (p.137) and Dutch merchants in the novel also represent a freedom of trade and travel denied to their Japanese counterparts. Significantly, before embarking upon his final journey Yonosuke buries six thousand of gold coins to symbolize his own funeral. Leaving the money behind, the protagonist and his crew load their ship with a variety of goods, including two hundred pails of clove oil, four hundred sacks of pepper, hundreds of pounds of mercury and cotton seeds, as well as a 2,550 water-buffalo-horn dildos, 3,500 tin dildos, 800 leather dildos, 200 erotic 106

Tokugawa commerce. Taking these goods back to the sea in the final chapter of the novel, Yonosuke implicitly assumes the position of the Chinese and European merchants who historically brought these coveted objects into the self-enclosed Japan. Given this implied role reversal, Amorous Man

individual aspirations.

Women can be read as a mythical escape from the historical limits symbolized by his Nagasaki trip. The arsenal of sexual stimulants the protagonist carries on his 107

Having exhausted the pleasure and power allowed to him within the domestic confines, Yonosuke, in his final sexual expedition, makes a once-and-for-all exit from the sealed borders of his native country, bringing with him an outflow of libidinous, economic, and political desires.108 Forged through cultural and political perspectives distinctive to seventeenth-century Japan, the national political critique underlying Amorous Man is analogous to novelistic early modernities that emerged elsewhere, and was historically rooted in the horizontal material and cultural contacts of the Age of Silver. In our comparative framework, while Amorous Man consumption and sexual expenditure resembles that of the late Ming novel The Plum in the Golden Vase liberating potentials of material desire, despite revealing apprehensions of the social and domestic disorders caused by the power of money. In this sense, Page 27 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki

material exchange against a stratified political order.109 On the other hand, both Cervantes and Saikaku continue to maintain an ironic distance to material desire, and refrain from sublimating it into any definitive form of ethics or rationality. All (p.138) in all, then, the cases surveyed thus far all manifest the Through their complex engagements with the decentering force of materiality, the novels in question further assumed politically critical and nationally symbolic functions. Keeping in mind this transcultural pattern of novelistic early Robinson Crusoe (1719) canonical Western text that often serves as the starting point for discussing the become ideologically reified into a new form of rationality. A more contextualized that such an epistemological closing functions precisely to mask broader global linkages, which this book has sought to reconstruct. Notes:

(1.) Ihara Saikaku, This Scheming World, trans. Masanori Takatsuka and David C. Stubbs (Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 2005), 108. (2.) Ihara Saikaku, Some Final Words of Advice, trans. Peter Nosco (Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 1980), 117. (3.) In the Shade of Spring Leaves (New York: W.W. Norton, 1992), trans. Robert Danly, 114. (4. Bruce Loyd Batten, To the Ends of Japan: Premodern Frontiers, Boundaries, and Interactions (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2003) and Robert I. Hellyer, Defining (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2010). Also see Masao Miyosh, Off Center: Power and Culture Relations Between Japan and the United States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998) for an analysis of Japan-West cultural relations. (5.) Dennis Washburn, The Dilemma of the Modern in Japanese Fiction, 4. (6.) Dennis Washburn, The Dilemma of the Modern in Japanese Fiction, 7, 9. (7.) Dennis Washburn, The Dilemma of the Modern in Japanese Fiction, 267. (8. Global Connections and Monetary History, 174. For the Sino-Japanese silver trade, see Page 28 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki

The Economic History Review 18, no. 2 (1965): ; von Glahn, Fountains of Fortune Nanny Kim and Keiko Nagase-Reimer, eds., Mining, Monies, and Culture in Early Modern Societies: East Asian and Global Perspectives (Boston, MA: Brill, 2013). (9. Conrad D. Totman, Early Modern Japan (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993.); Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 4, Early Modern Japan, ed. John Whitney Hall (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Marius B. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2000); and Louis G. Perez, Daily Life in Early Modern Japan (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2002). Also see Engelbert Kaempfer (1727), Tokugawa Culture Observed, eds. Beatrice M. Bodart-Bailey and Derek account of Japan while serving as a physician in the Dutch East India Company between 1690 and 1692. For the doubled population, see

, 12. , ed., Haruo Shirane

, also contains a helpful introduction to basic features of the period. (10. Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 4, 600. For the trends described previously, see Totman, Early Modern Japan (11.) See Howard Hibbett, The Floating World in Japanese Fiction (New York: . For more backgrounds on the ukiyo, see Conrad Totman, Early Modern Japan (Berkeley, CA: University of . Conventionally

has been positioned

the early seventeenth century. For a recent reexamination of this literary history from the perspective of commercial printing, see Monumenta Nipponica

.

(12.) To date, the following books of fiction by Saikaku have been translated: Five Women Who Loved Love, trans. Theodore de Bary (Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 1956); The Japanese Family Storehouse; Or the Millionaires Gospel Modernised, trans. G. W. Sargent (Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge Press, 1959); The Life of An Amorous Woman, trans. Ivan Morris (New York: New Directions, 1963); The Life of an Amorous Man, trans. Kenji Hamada (Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 1964); This Scheming World, trans. Masanori Takasuka and David Stubbs (Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 1965), and another translation of the same work Seken under the title Worldly Mental Calculations, trans. Ben Befu Page 29 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1966); Comrade Loves of the Samurai, trans. E. Powys Mathers (Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 1972); Tales of Japanese Justice, 1980); Some Final Words of Advice, trans. Peter Nosco. (Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 1980); The Great Mirror of Male Love, trans. Paul Schalow (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990). For newer translations of portions of his writings, see Early Modern Japanese Literature, ed. Haruo Shirane To my knowledge there has not yet been a published book-length study on Saikaku in English, although detailed analyses of his texts can be found in David ;

Washington, 1994); PhD diss. (Harvard, 1987); ; 1978); and .

can be found in Gary Leupp, Servants, Shophands, and Laborers in the Cities of Tokugawa Japan (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994) and Male Colors: The Construction of Homosexuality in Tokugawa Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Eiko Ikegami, Bonds of Civility: Aesthetic Networks and the Political Origins of Japanese Culture (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005); and Mary Elizabeth Berry, Japan in Print: Information and Nation in the Early Modern Period (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006). Also see classic studies on Edo fiction including Howard Hibbett, The Floating World in Japanese Fiction and Donald Keene, World within Walls (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976). Dennis C. Washburn The Dilemma of the Modern in Japanese Fiction (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995). (13.) The Saikaku revival is discussed in detail in Molly Catherine Des Jardin, . Also see Inventing the Classics: Modernity, National Identity, and Japanese Literature, eds. Haruo Shirane and Tomi Suzuki (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, .

Page 30 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki (14.)

Kokumin no tomo 83 (May 1890): 27. Cited in 135.

(15.

Gold Demon (Konjiki Yasha), participated in

In the Shade of Spring Leaves (16.) For a discussion of the paradigm shift in Japanese literature marked by The Essence of the Novel, see Tomi Suzuki, Narrating the Self: Fictions of Japanese Modernity . On the translational relation between and xiaoshuo, see Zeitlin, The Novel, Vol. 1, ed. Moretti Lydia Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995) for the mediating role of Japanese translations of European concepts on Chinese incorporation of Western notions during the early twentieth century. For a recent Essence of the Novel, see Atsuko Ueda, Concealment of Politics, Politics of Concealment: The Production of Literature in Meiji Japan (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007). (17.) Cited in Narrating the Self Narrating the Self (18. In the Shade of Spring Leaves, 109. It should be noted that, while promoting an refer to Genji and other pre-Meiji texts as native precedents of narrative realism. See Washburn, The Dilemma of the Modern in Japanese Fiction (writings about human feelings). In one of his articles, analogous to the parallel I address in the Suzuki, Narrating the Self, 22. (19.) Berry, Japan in Print, 222. In Bonds of Civility, Eiko Ikegami expresses a

Page 31 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki Ikegami, Bonds of Civility,

must rediscover in order to generate more pluralist perspectives on political and cultural modernity. (20. deliberately publicized through spectacular displays such as his famed tea house when marching for Kyushu in I587. Parading gold and silver as emblems of his wealth and power, Hideyoshi further endorsed the usage of these precious metals as currencies, and employed them in bulk for military provisions. See 257; and Mary Elizabeth Berry, Hideyoshi (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), 57. (21.) Quoted in note 71.

398,

(22.) See

265; Totman,

Early Modern Japan (23.) Engelbert Kaempfer, The History of Japan, 3 vols. (Glasgow, UK: J. MacLehose, 1906), vol. 3, 21. Quoted in Howard Hibbett, The Floating World in Japanese Fiction (24. Ihara Saikaku, The Life of an Amorous Woman, 5. In actual jurisdiction, the pardons given to samurai violence on this ground were rather limited. See Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, 102. (25.) Totman, Early Modern Japan, 185. (26.) This figure is cited in Morris, Love of an Amorous Woman, 428. (27.) Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, 117. For an overview of the decline of the samurai, see Stephen Turnbull, The Samurai: A Military History (New York: . (28.) See Totman, Early Modern Japan, 6. (29.) For the influence of this national highway on Tokugawa politics and culture, see Jilly Traganou, Edo and Meiji Japan (New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004). (30.)

, 271.

Page 32 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki (31.) See Laura Nenzi, Excursions in Identity: Travel and the Intersection of Place, Gender, and Status in Edo Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2008), 1. (32. woko in Ming China, the pirate forces close to Chinese coasts were often consisted of a mixture of Chinese and Japanese participants. (33.) For details, see Michael S. Laver, The Sakoku Edicts and the Politics of Tokugawa Hegemony (Amherst, NY: Cambria, 2011). The Sakoku (closed country) edict of 1636 is cited and discussed in Charles Boxer, The Christian (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1951), Appendix VII, 439ff of the Portuguese, see Totman, Early Modern Japan (34.) foreign trade, see Totman, Early Modern Japan (35.) See Early Modern Japanese Literature, ed. Haruo Shirane fantasies about Maruyama, see Nenzi, Excursions in Identity Gary Leupp, Interracial Intimacy in Japan: Western Men and Japanese Women, (New York: Continuum, 2003) for an overview of interracial relations in Japanese society during the period. (36.) Printing technology was first introduced to Japan by Christian missionaries and first used in 1594 to print a Romanized Japanese translation of Fables under the title Isoho monogatari. For an overview of the development of printing and the book market, see Early Modern Japanese Literature, ed. Haruo Shirane (37.) Cf. Berry, Japan in Print. (38. text, see Early Modern Japanese Literature Within Walls

Donald Keene, World

(39.) The above citations are from Early Modern Japanese Literature, 30, trans. Jack Stoneman and Richard Lane. (40.) The above summary and citations are based on Donald Keene, World Within Walls (41.) See Charles Inouye, Evanescence and Form: An Introduction to Japanese Culture (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 19. For more on the symbolism of the cicada in Japanese aesthetics, see Evanescence and Form (42.) Donald Keene, World within Walls, 158. Page 33 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki (43.) For a discussion of cultural anxieties over unstable rice prices, see Nam-Lin Hur, . (44. Spring Leaves Haikai

Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies

In the Shade of Traditions .

21. (45.) Cited in (46.) See Sir George Bailey Sansom, (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1965), 11. For more on the important position of Charles Ralph Boxer, The Christian Century in Japan Matsunosuke Nishiyama, Edo Culture: Daily Life (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997), 38. (47.) Cf.,

51.

(48.) Berry, Japan in Print, 222. (49.) The Japanese Family Storehouse; Or the Millionaires Gospel Modernised, socioeconomic backgrounds of the story. Further citations from the book in text. Also see Keene, World within Walls the book. (50.) The Japanese Family Storehouse (51.) The Japanese Family Storehouse, 27. (52.) For citations above, see The Japanese Family Storehouse (53.) See The Japanese Family Storehouse, 162n. (54.) The Japanese Family Storehouse

(55.) The Japanese Family Storehouse, 146. (56.) The Japanese Family Storehouse, p. xxix. (57.) For summary and analysis of this story, see Keene, World within Walls 188. So far there is no English translation of Twenty Cases of Unfilial Children.

Page 34 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki (58.) See This Scheming World, trans. Masanori Takasuka and David Stubbs, and another translation of the same work, , under the title Worldly Mental Calculations, trans. Ben Befu (Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 1966). (59.) Ben Befu, Worldly Calculations, 16. (60.) This Scheming World, 26. (61.) This Scheming World (62. Amorous Man censors many sexually explicit passages from the original. For a more accurate translation of portions of the Life of a Sensuous Man in Early Modern Japanese Literature translation in Early Modern Japanese Literature, 28. (63.) The Life of an Amorous Woman, trans. Ivan Morris, 207. (64.) Cited in Early Modern Japanese Literature, 14. (65.) Charles Inouye, Evanescence and Form, 74. (66.) See

The Tale of Genji and the Dynamics of Cultural

Envisioning The Tale of Genji: Media, Gender, and Cultural Production, ed. Haruo Shirane (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 41. For Amorous Man Narihira, also see Journal of Japanese Studies , and Hibbett, The Floating World in Japanese Fiction, 92. (67.) See The Ise Stories: Ise Monogatari, trans. Joshua S. Mostow (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2010), 6. (68.) Hibbett, The Floating World in Japanese Fiction, 92. (69.) See Hamada, Amorous Man, 41. (70.) These itineraries are summarized in

(71.) Marcia Yonemoto, Mapping Early Modern Japan: Space, Place, and Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 14. (72.) See Berry, Japan in Print, 210. Also see Yonemoto, 9. (73.) See Yonemoto, Mapping Early Modern Japan map making and travel literature in Tokugawa Japan can be found in Page 35 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki Constantine Nomikos Vaporis, Breaking Barriers: Travel and the State in Early Modern Japan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994); Jilly Traganou, ; and Laura Nenzi, Excursions in Identity collection of thirty-five stories titled (Saikaku shokoku hanashi) sets a model for later travel writings. (74.) See Hamada, Amorous Man consumptions during the period, see Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 25 , and Louis Peres, Daily Life in Early Modern Japan 100. (75.) Hamada, Amorous Man, 25. (76.) Hamada, Amorous Man (77.) See Genji Monumenta Nipponica

The Tale of .

(78.) Starting from the fourteenth century, the goal of

gomi Rokkoku), which includes Kyara (Vietnam or Cambodia), Rakoku (Thailand), Manaban (unidentified, possibly the Malabar coast of India), Manaka (Malacca), Sumatora (Sumatra), and Sasora (likely western India). See and Kiyoko Morita, The Book of Incense: Enjoying the Traditional Art of Japanese Scents For Chinese trading of aloeswood in Nagasaki, see

. , 226, 445.

Tokugawa Japan was an extremely lucrative market for overseas spices: one pound of in Nagasaki, at 600 taels. See Tana Li, in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 79. (79.) On the links between incense peddling and male prostitution, see Gary Leupp, Male Colors, 78, 162. (80.) K. Yamada,

. Quoted in Aileen 47.

(81.) Hamada, Amorous Man, 38. Cf. Gregory M. Pflugfelder, Cartographies of (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999). (82.) Cited in

200.

Page 36 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki (83.) The Economic Aspects of the History of the Civilization of Japan, vol. 2 (New York: Routledge, 2004), 415. (84.) Tobacco, a New World product that began to gain currency in Japanese and Chinese markets around the 1600s, was, to an extent, the vulgarized cousin of the preexisting spice culture in Old World regions. It first came to Japan probably around the 1600s and became widespread in a mere decade. Richard Cocks, an English merchant who once ran a trading post in Macao, noted in

in Timothy Brook, , 136. The production of tobacco was initially prohibited, but it was legalized in 1663 and grew to be a major cash crop of Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 4, 213. Japanese Family Storehouse is set in the background of the Sino-Japanese tobacco trade. Culturally, tobacco smoking was closely related to the image of prostitutes and the pleasure quarters. Amorous Man makes recurrent reference to this association, as in the irreverent scene about an intoxicated prostitute who passes gas in her sleep while Yonosuke smokes his tobacco pipe. For a discussion of this passage and its ironic Buddhist allusion, see Johnson,

(85.) Hamada, Amorous Man, 43. (86.) See Murasaki Shikibu, Tale of Genji, trans. Royall Tyler, 72, 177, 1152. In

(87.) Hamada, Amorous Man, 21. In a seventeenth-century Chinese story composed by Li Yu, the European telescope likewise appears to help the young protagonist peep into a private feminine space, this time overseeing a whole group of bathing servant girls. See Li A Tower for the Summer Heat, trans. Patrick Hanan (New York: Columbia . (88. Japanese Literature, 22. (89.) See

Early Modern

208.

(90.) On the Ikuno silver mine and the mine management system, see Takekoshi, The Economic Aspects of the History of the Civilization of Japan, vol. 2, 34, 428; Totman, Early Modern Japan Mining, Monies, and Culture in Early Modern Societies, 163 and 208. (91.) Keene, World within Walls, 169. (92.) Early Modern Japanese Literature, 28. Page 37 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki (93.) Early Modern Japanese Literature, 34. (94. Max Moerman, Localizing Paradise: Kumano Pilgrimage and the Religious Landscape of Premodern Japan . (95.) For a genealogy of the myth, see Journal of Religious Studies

Japanese . According to Marcia Rasetsukoku appear as the same

, 1689). Even though these maps were published slightly later than Amorous Man, they reflect the culmination of an earlier process by which the tradition of the Nyõgonoshima assumed threatening meanings similar to those implied by the Rasetsukoku. See Marcia Yonemoto, Mapping Early Modern Japan, 33. (96.) For the Yoshitsune legend, see Yoshitsune: A Fifteenth-century Japanese Chronicle, trans. Helen Craig McCullough (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1966), 51. (97.)

366.

(98.) Hamada, Amorous Man, 233. (99.) The regulation began in 1633. See Totman, Early Modern Japan, 114, and Charles Boxer, The Christian Century in Japan, Appendix VII, 439ff. (100.) Hamada, Amorous Man peculiar features representing the mixture of Dutch and Chinese manners and Economic Aspects, vol. 2, 126. For the poem cited see Joshua S. Mostow, Pictures of the Heart: The Hyakunin Isshu in Word and Image (poem 7). (101.) This is the translation 170. (102.) See Excursions of Identity, 170. (103.) See Hamada, Amorous Man, 227, and

(104.) See (105.)

171.

Page 38 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Out of Nagasaki (106.) This passage is taken from

370.

(107.) Hamada, Amorous Man, 231. Influenced by the Chinese zodiac, Tokugawa Japanese culture treated the age sixty as one full cycle of life. (108. Totman, Early Modern Japan, 116. (109.) Due to this convergence, Bakhtinian narrative theory, which has been developed with Don Quixote as one of its premier examples, is highly pertinent applicability of Bakhtinian concepts to Saikaku and comparisons of early modern Spanish and Japanese fiction, see

Access brought to you by:

Page 39 of 39

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China

The Age of Silver: The Rise of the Novel East and West Ning Ma

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780190606565 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2017 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.001.0001

Caribbean to China Ning Ma

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.003.0006

Abstract and Keywords This chapter argues that the novels of Daniel Defoe represent not so much an context the neglected second half of Robinson Crusoe, in which the protagonist economic and technological advancements implicitly structures the trope of

Moll Flanders and Roxana return to the social setting and present more complex treatments of the socioeconomic transitions of the period through the one local variation of global literary shifts, rather than the unique embodiment of novelistic modernity. Keywords: Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe, capitalism, Age of Silver, Moll Flanders, Roxana, novelistic modernity

It is a fine summer morning in 1730. The prosperous London merchant flings back the chintz quilt, very old-fashioned but a beloved family heirloom, straightens his muslin night-shirt and puts on his Chinese silk dressing-gown as the maid enters with the tea, milk and sugar. She trips,

Page 1 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China and the newly bought matched blue and white china tea service is smashed. There will be a row.

1

There are no sunsets and no sunrises; there is no solitude and no soul. There is, on the contrary, staring us full in the face nothing but a large earthenware pot . . .By believing fixedly in the solidity of the pot and its earthiness, [Defoe] has subdued every other element to his design; he has roped the whole universe into harmony. 2

It had a thing instead of a head, but no head; it had a mouth distorted out of all manner of shape, and not to be described for a mouth, being only an unshapen chasm, neither representing the mouth of a man, beast, fowl, or fish; the thing was neither any of the four, but an incongruous monster . . . if I have not represented their monstrous deities right, let imagination supply anything that can make a misshapen image horrid, frightful, and surprising; and you may with justice suppose those sagacious people called the Chinese, whom, forsooth, we must admire, I say, you may suppose them prostrate on the ground, with all their pomp and pageantry, which is in itself not a little, worshipping such a mangled, promiscuous-gendered creature. Serious Reflections during the Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe3

(p.140) Halved Rise of the Novel Having charted narrative landmarks from China, Spain, and Japan to illustrate networked literary evolutions across the Age of Silver, we arrive in this final chapter at the case of the eighteenth-century English author Daniel Defoe. Due to the tremendous influences of book The Rise of the Novel, terminus a quo for thinking about the

4

The lack of a geographical

ambiguously between being a specifically English phenomenon and a global occurrence. Our transcultural inquiry nonetheless locates the eighteenthglobal early modern transitions. To relate this comparative thesis to the world-

Page 2 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China writings were closely related to the development of commerce and international trade in early modern Britain. English competitions for overseas trade, against the leading Iberian powers and other rivals such as the Dutch, had been a key the Spanish Armada in 1588 allowed its merchants to venture into the Indian Ocean once monopolized by Iberian vessels, a development that led to the founding of the English East India Company (henceforth EIC) in 1600. Nonetheless, throughout the seventeenth century English overseas interests were consistently threatened by rival forces such as the Spanish and the Dutch.

essential to national wealth and security.5 In the words of Josiah Child, who was Riches, Riches Power, Power preserves our Trade and Religion; they mutually

Commodities; and if we lose the Importation of them into Europe, we shall soon 6

(p.141) Trade in both domestic and overseas domains is a main subject matter in the numerous writings of Daniel Defoe, who authored not only Robinson Crusoe (1719), Moll Flanders (1722), and Roxana writings such as The Complete English Tradesman (1726) and a large number of commentaries on contemporary political and economic affairs.7 economic preoccupations profoundly informed his fictional works, as in the case of Robinson Crusoe.8 Shortly after the publication of the first book of Robinson Crusoe in 1719, Defoe completed and published two more sequels to the book: The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe post-island adventures as an overseas trader and his travels to the Far East, and Serious Reflections during the Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, with His Vision of the Angelic World (1720), which consists of moral

percent of the over one thousand published editions of Robinson Crusoe before the 1920s included both the original and Farther Adventures, and many of them also contained Serious Reflections.9 Robinson Crusoe was by far the most popular novel of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, it is likely that The Farther Adventures was the second most widely read novel in English for 10

11

While the separation of

Page 3 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China The Rise of the Novel neglect characterizes not only scholarship that works to sustain Robinson Crusoe individualism, either in progressive or disciplinary senses, but also in admittedly Only recently, Farther Adventures and Serious Reflections began to receive more detailed attention in the works of critics such as Lydia Liu, Markley, and Free, whose contributions disclose a hidden gap in prevailing approaches to the novel.12 Remarkably, the separation of the two parts of Robinson Crusoe in literary Western economic writings, which tended to single out the insular first half of the novel for theoretical postulations. As early as 1867 in Das Kapital, Marx 13

In his earlier writings in (p.142) A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859), Marx astutely critiques the unrealistic

history; not as something evolving in the course of history, but posited by nature, because for them this individual was in conformity with nature, in keeping with 14

Despite this critical appraisal, in Das Kapital Marx also resorts to the Crusoe setting in his theorization of labor value, thus furthering the reductive intellectual legacies of the model.15 Considering the extraordinary popularity of the Crusoe setting among nineteenth-century economists, the obliteration of Farther Adventures and Serious Reflections in their analyses likely preconditioned the disappearance of these two parts from Robinson Crusoe Seen together, the marginalization of the two Robinson Crusoe sequels in economic and literary discourses over the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries signals a common simplification process Dussel and others have critiqued as the self-rationalizing and self-universalizing strategy of the Anglo16

mercantile identity and global itineraries is meaningful for counterbalancing the larger ideological trend behind the selective scholarship on the novel. On a comparative level, whereas Robinson Crusoe symbolic connotations in resemblance to the other cases we have analyzed, its collective allegory has a hegemonic effect toward consolidating capitalist and Farther Adventures engage with in order to fully represent its central image of the homo economicus. When the European expansion during the nineteenth century Page 4 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China gradually displaced the multicentered global order, Robinson Crusoe part subsequently became a structural excess, and hence must be purged from

Relinking Robinson Crusoe cultural transitions of the Age of Silver. This investigation provincializes the works within a transcultural comparative perspective. For these purposes, let us first single out a significant narrative moment from the conclusion of the first book of Robinson Crusoe. Like the passages we have highlighted in the preceding chapters, this moment is saturated with the image of silver money, yet for quite different purposes.

(p.143) For an indication of Robinson Crusoe financial success after his return to civilization:

it to them, and he did so; and in about 8 Months more, the Ship being then remitted 33,000 pieces of Eight, to a correspondent of theirs at Lisbon, to pay for it.

Lisbon, and sent it to my old Man, who sent me the Bills of Exchange for 328,000 pieces of Eight to me, for the Estate; reserving the Payment of 100 Moidores a Year to him, the old Man, during his Life, and 50 Moidores afterwards to his Son for his Life, which I had promised them, which the Plantation was to make good as a Rent-Charge. And thus I have given the Chequer-Work, and of a Variety which the World will seldom be able to show the like of; Beginning foolishly, but closing much more happily than any Part of it ever gave me Leave so much as to hope for.17 passage brings about a happy ending that sanctifies the protagonist as the self-making homo economicus. Interesting enough, though, the image of money central to

dramatic monologue the protagonist delivers with both contempt and regret Drug! . . . what art thou good for? . . . one of those Knives is worth all this

Page 5 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China enough interest to calculate that their total value equals thirty-six pounds. safekeeping (43). Later, when discovering more money on the ship, the

18

After all, Crusoe is by occupation an overseas trader. Although the island setting conceals the ultimate reward to (p.144) his experiences reveals the larger reality that has been suspended in the narrative.

adventures take place within a contemporary context of global trade and Brazilian plantation was the English name for the Spanish peso, since the coin was nominally equivalent to eight reals. As mentioned in the earlier chapters, due to its high level of silver content, the peso became the de facto standard of international commerce during the Age of Silver. Thus, unsurprisingly, while using the Portuguese gold coin moidore to compensate his middleman in Lisbon, Crusoe completes the sale of the plantation with the most internationally honored currency form of the time. The fact that Crusoe obtains his payment in the sale of a Brazilian plantation bespeaks the global economic networks surrounding his adventures. Likewise reflecting this global backdrop, the

ends up as a multiethnic colony with mixed Spanish, English, and native populations.19 to Cervantes. According to Diana de Armas Wilson, the island setting in Robinson Crusoe bears striking resemblance to the cannibal island described in Persiles and Sigismunda (1617). Wilson sees this potential Cervantine ancestry of Robinson Crusoe as one reason than linking Spanish and English literary histories, the resonance between

Both the Spanish and English rises of the novel were linked to European unacknowledged debts to Cervantes, but also the debts of both writers to 20

Historically rooted in a common backdrop of transatlantic navigation and colonialism, the protagonists of Don Quixote and Robinson Crusoe, for all their apparent differences, both embody an ideology of conquest. We have seen that Page 6 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China

Habsburg imperial ideology. Remarkably, despite being the model homo economicus (p.145) island. The two novels, Whereas Don Quixote empire, Robinson Crusoe conjures up a self-contained and totalizing narrative contrast to Don Quixote metaphorical kingship over the Caribbean island connotes a different kind of 21

reward he receives after returning to civilization is improbably large. According

not anything resembling what goes on in real life or the relationship to God any 22

In our comparative framework,

Robinson Crusoe money and material objects have important literary connotations in all the narrative texts we have surveyed. What is unique about Robinson Crusoe, on the other hand, is that it displaces the social context of the material world and subsequently endorses an ideology of colonial dominance under the guise of a story of solitary survival and individual material success.23 Through his apparent 24

Or, as Laura Doyle has aptly

(96, 112, 113, 139). This state is the precodition for liberation, prosperity, and 25

island survival nonetheless must end on a note of fantastic monetary reward. This conclusion reveals the actual national political economy his story implicitly allegorizes.

Farther Adventures makes it clear that the first actual lack of centrality in global trade of the period, during which the East was an especially powerful economic domain outside European influences. As we enormous that his further travels overseas are hardly necessary in an economic sense. Farther Adventures Page 7 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China a historical condition that (p.146) underlies the fantasies of self-subsistence,

A New Voyage Round the World, by a Course Never Sailed Before as a central narrative theme.

A New Voyage Round the World

New World gold and silver.26 trade in The Complete English Tradesman (1726), Defoe envisions the following

Brazils, not the Galleons or Flota from New Spain, but the Gold of the first, and the Silver of the last, or at least a great share of it, is the product of English Stocks, and belongs to London Merchants, whose Goods sold upon Credit at Lisbon and Cádiz, went first out to America to purchase that Gold and Silver . . . 27

directly resonates with this national fantasy. The trading reality of the early eighteenth century, however, was quite different. Its overseas ventures being threatened by Dutch and Spanish rivals, Britain was also losing its silver stock in its expanding Eastern trade. After several failed attempts at establishing commercial access to China, English ships succeeded in trading in Macao and 28

Historically, Britain had been in trading deficit to China due to the importation of silk, tea, and porcelain until the opium trade overturned the monetary flow between the two regions around the 1820s. Considering this context, the eastward flow of English money was a national economic issue that informed fictional adventures from the Caribbean to the Far East. The same mercantile anxiety A New Voyage Round the World.29 As several scholars have discussed, New Voyage in opening up an English colony in the Patagonian area of eastern South America.30 (p.147) western side of the Andes, in particular the Valdivia region in southern Chile, a Quantity of Silver and Gold, to make an effectual Foundation of all manners of 31

32

For our purpose, however, it

Page 8 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China New Voyage are directly Asia, which was the actual destination of much of the outflowing American silver. New Voyage fantasizes a new way of circumnavigation by which English merchants manage to first sell their goods in the East and then bring home gold and silver from the New World, in complete contrast to the actual trading pattern of the time. New Voyage is delivered in the voice of a nameless captain whose defining characteristic is his insistence on inverting the normal course of circumnavigation. Instead of going around South the captain advocates sailing to the East Indies first and then traversing the Pacific to the west coast of America. The rest of the crew unanimously reject his where our goods were wanted, and would sell for money, and then to the East Indies, where our money would be wanting to buy other goods to carry home, and not to go to the East Indies first, where our goods would not sell, and where but due to unexpected weather conditions, he manages to revive his plan, finally

While trying to convince the crew of the feasibility of profiting from their unusual route, the captain reasons that English goods in the Philippine Islands must be exorbitantly expensive because they are usually transported by the Spanish via a succession of American and transpacific stops. Thus, by trading with the East Indies directly, he and his fellow merchants should be able to sell are gloriously verified in Manila, where merchants of different nationalities

disappointing many other potential buyers. The Eastern goods the English merchants obtain in Manila are later sold with hefty profits in western South America. In the end, the merchants (p.148) return home with a shipload of gold and silver, the ultimate proof of any commercial victory. New Voyage blatantly subverts the trading reality of the early eighteenth century. Defoe with Asia. In fact, in the latter part of New Voyage he belies his earlier fantasy by having the captain frankly criticize the one-sided monetary flow between Britain most of it, by an exportation of bullion in specie and a return of foreign manufactures or produce; and most of these manufactures also, either trifling Page 9 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China and unnecessary in themselves, or such as are injurious to our own

important Chinese import to Britain during the late eighteenth century, although was New Voyage Chinese merchants in Manila bring to trade for English merchandises. In that

originated indicates his ambivalent attitudes toward East Asia. On the one hand, Eastern goods during the period commanded a worldwide popularity and were coveted by all mercantile interests; on the other, they constituted a major manufacturers. The threats from Asian economy contextualize New Voyage terra nova in the largely uncharted waters of the South Pacific by virtue of its new circumnavigation route. New Voyage describes the immense commercial potential of trading with these insolated island manufactures of their own, [they] would consequently take off a very great quantity of English woollen manufactures, especially when civilised by our dwelling among them and taught the manner of clothing themselves for their manufactures, it is evident we should have gold in specie, and perhaps spices, (p.149) (156). By envisioning a novel implicitly endeavors to offset the actual multicenteredness of global Valdivia and Patagonia, New Voyage nonetheless returns to an acknowledgement of the trading reality of the time, and reports that the goods obtained from Manila fetch prodigious prices in these New World regions. Overall, New Voyage actual trading order of the early eighteenth century, during which the East remained a more dominant commercial force. The same historical situation also Caribbean to China. In order to trace out this literary-historical interconnection, Page 10 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China

earthenware pot in the first book, an image Virginia Woolf once highlighted as a Farther Adventures.

Robinson Crusoe contains a remarkable passage on the dominating realist effects of the novel. In particular, her writing

There are no sunsets and no sunrises; there is no solitude and no soul. There is, on the contrary, staring us full in the face nothing but a large earthenware pot. We are told, that is to say, that it was the 1st of father has the gout. Obviously, then, we must alter our attitude. Reality, fact, substance is going to dominate all that follows. We must hastily alter our proportions throughout; Nature must furl her splendid purples; she is only the giver of drought and water; man must be reduced to a struggling, life-preserving animal; and God shrivel into a magistrate whose seat, substantial and somewhat hard, is only a little way above the horizon. Each sortie of ours in pursuit of information upon these cardinal points of

(p.150) these

about a wood is that it harbours an abundance of parrots who may be tamed and taught to speak. Nature does not exist. He considers the dead, whom he has killed himself. It is of the utmost importance that they should

Finally, that is to say, we are forced to drop our own preconceptions and to accept what Defoe himself wishes to give us.33

objective material and technological descriptions are often far from the wellunderstood realities of the period. For this reason, Lydia Liu aptly calls Robinson Crusoe

34

success in A New Voyage are both pseudorealistic. A similar observation can be

Page 11 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China

her reading.

arrival on the island when he needs containers to store the harvest of the year. Having produced a number of crude, sun-baked vessels and pots with clay, the

his wares with high temperature, the protagonist eventually produces two

palpable presence of the Chinese porcelain and all the associated meanings this chinaware, delftware, faïence, maiolica, the porcelain towers that were being 35

eighteenth centuries, Western Europe imported at least seventy million pieces of Chinese porcelain, which became a prized symbol of beauty and refinement in both royal chambers and bourgeois homes. European emulations of the Chinese 36

As Liu further notes, given (p.151) brickmaking, he must have been able to appreciate the technological significance of transforming sun-baked pottery into a hardened and glazed vessel, especially when the differences

37

denies a widely discussed technological difference of the period and subsequently erases the Chinese context of the episode. The erasure of the Chinese associations of the earthenware episode once again accumulated

38

Sharing a similar attitude, Defoe was vocally critical of A Tour through the Whole Island of Great Britain

The queen brought in the custom or humour, as I may call it, of furnishing houses with china-ware, which increased to a strange degree afterwards, piling their china upon the tops of cabinets, scrutores, and every chymneyPage 12 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China piece, to the tops of the ceilings, and even setting up shelves for their china-ware, where they wanted such places, till it became a grievance in the expence of it, and even injurious to their families and estates.39 Satirizing the royal obsession with the Chinese porcelain, Defoe was equally national industries. Silk, another major Chinese export, was unsurprisingly disparaged in his writings as yet another pernicious Eastern extravagance. In 1708, for instance, Defoe wrote sarcastically that the English monarch of the 40

the foreign origins of the fabrics rather than their own lavishness. For Defoe, the set a bad example for all other social classes. As he writes in A Tour through the Whole Island of Great Britain common people so much . . . as to make them greivous to our trade, and ruining 41

According to Defoe, the principal ills of the (p.152)

native ones. As he emphatically argues in The Complete English Tradesman, 42

In The Complete English Tradesman scenario in which the whole world becomes dependent on English goods. In his and this is Trade; this greatness and wealth of the City is the Soul of the 43

To a great extent, the Robinson Crusoe myth allegorizes this fantasy of a London-centered world economy. Despite being

44

Displaced by the island setting of the first book of Robinson Crusoe, this social dimension is nevertheless inevitable in

he produces, of the technologies of making them, and, finally, of the island he island, the later arrivals of the Spaniards and the cannibals hardly threaten his position as the true master of the place. Translating economic prowess into Page 13 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China

trade.

dream of either a Crusoe-centered island or a London-centered world trade. blue-and-white decoration that became the hallmark feature of exported Chinese porcelain, a feature that was imitated by nearly all European knockoffs of the

appearances of these wares work to indicate a process of trial and error, and right place for making delicate blue-and-white porcelain wares. Yet, given

out by contemporary European (p.153) Farther Adventures is a

economic domain at odds with his nationalistic agenda. Reading Farther Adventures as an integral part of the novel, we can clearly see that the intertwined myths of individual self-sufficiency and empire in the first book hide

master of the eighteenth-century world economy.

An Incongruous Monster The fear of peripherality is already written into the particular geographical setting of the first book of Robinson Crusoe differs from the actual location of the shipwreck survived by Alexander Selkirk, a real-life castaway whose story served as a noted inspiration for Robinson Crusoe

narrative within a New World economy of slave trading and colonial

Page 14 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China

45

in European overseas competitions around the early eighteenth century. Eager besieged by threats from other powerful European competitors. By the 1700s, the Juan Fernández that led to the Pacific passage to the East was still very much a forbidden area to the English. Selkirk reportedly hid himself from all 46

Written during a time when England was

plagued by domestic (p.154) omnipotent and blessed survivor in order to offset an ongoing sense of national British conquest is in Robinson Crusoe . . . The whole Anglo-Saxon spirit is in Crusoe; the manly independence and the unconscious cruelty; the persistence; the slow yet efficient intelligence; the sexual apathy; the practical, well-balanced 47

after all, a retrospective observation from the vantage point of the early very overseas survival, was characterized by a far greater degree of ambiguity promising waters of the Caribbean rather than the menacing Pacific navigation zone of the Juan Fernández is a small yet indicative sign of this historical context. The Asia-bound global context Defoe deliberately avoided in the first book of Robinson Crusoe nonetheless returns with a vengeance in Farther Adventures, as a source of anxiety the protagonist strives to denaturalize through his travelogue.48 settles a series of troubles that have occurred during his absence, the opening chapters of the sequel offer an anticlimactic conclusion to his engagement with the island, which has fallen from a model of economic self-sufficiency to an

49

endeavors, which were besieged by the difficulties of establishing profitable colonies and were heavily dependent upon the Eastern trade despite the disadvantages its merchants experienced there. To compensate for the unsettling reality that opens its narrative, Farther Adventures goes on to Page 15 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China he encounters in his trade and travels, especially the Chinese civilization that is the ultimate Other to English religious, cultural, and economic powers. In Farther Adventures, one notable scene that presents a demonized image of be read as a monstrous double of the earthenware pot in the first book. While heading toward the northern Chinese border with a Russia-bound caravan, (p.155) house leads to a long descriptive passage that begins as follows: I was then curious, indeed, to see it; and when I came to it, it was nothing but this: it was a timber house, or a house built, as we call it in England, to say, it was plastered with the earth that makes China ware. The outside, which the sun shone hot upon, was glazed, and looked very well, perfectly white, and painted with blue figures, as the large China ware in England is painted, and hard as if it had been burnt (170).

earthenware pot description in the first part of Robinson Crusoe. However, the kinship of these two episodes is barely recognizable because Defoe ascribes the material product they both portray to utterly different origins. Whereas the earthenware pot episode erases all implications of porcelain to affirm the underscores the Chineseness of the building as an example of Eastern

50

The real

glazed and multicolored pottery tile known as liu li rather than the true porcelain ci.51 liu li 52

Farther Adventures is akin to well-known chinoiserie constructions such as the Trianon de Porcelaine commissioned by Louis XIV in 1670. European in its general style, the Trianon boasted a lavish roof constructed entirely with 53

for exotic consumption among European nobles, who in turn influenced the taste

Page 16 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China its goods were consumed in Europe, China came to be associated with and excess among nationalistic economic thinkers like Defoe, in whose eyes the Eastern country must (p.156) have been characterized by a culture prone to vacuous display rather than rational production and healthy commercial circulation.54

finest china . . . mixed with gold . . . joined so artificially . . . that it was very hard

conclusion that the Chinese skills in porcelain are more style than substance: this is one of the singularities of China, so they may be allowed to excel in it; but I am very sure they excel in their accounts of it; for they told me such incredible things of their performance in crockery-ware, for such it is, that I care not to

whole of the story, which was, in short, that the fellow lied: so I smiled, and said

in fact rests in extravagant ornamentation or downright lies. By conjuring up the fantastic image of the chinaware house and the strange rumor of the earthenware ship, Defoe fiction implicitly denounces the historical reality of the ships of Chinese porcelain that were then inundating Euro-American markets. Calling the chinaware house passage in Farther Adventures will to truth implies a necessary act of violence toward the object . . . in as much 55

out with chilling hostility when he reaches the foot of the Great Wall and looks at

out an army of our country people, with a good train of artillery; or our engineers, with two companies of miners? Would not they batter it down in ten days, that an army might enter in battalia; or blow it up in the air, foundation (p.157) depictions of the chinaware house and of the Great Page 17 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China

Great Wall uncannily presages future warfare, his deciphering gaze at the 56

In Serious Reflections even more arresting than the pointless complexities of the porcelain house. This witnessed in a garden near Nanjing. According to the passage cited at the

hefty paragraphs, many of them more than a page long, to castigating the Chinese for their pride, immorality, technological backwardness, corrupt 57

The prominent theme of Chinese negativity in the two sequels to Robinson Crusoe reveals that one of their primary purposes is to de-Sinicize the early-eighteenth century global order, or, in other words, to attack a powerful civilizational Other that conflicts

porcelain house. Devoid of a given order and predictable movements, as

metaphor of the complex power dynamic early modern European merchants faced in their trading relations with China. Other than civilizational in the very large number of publications on China in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Europe. While some of these descriptions praise Chinese

Comte).58 Either way, these accounts depict China as a robust and even unrivaled mercantile center. In the words of Louis le Comte, whose writings on

and Commerce that is carried on everywhere, is the Soul of the People, and the 59 primum mobile Attaching the image of the model homo economicus to a non-English/European and non-Protestant/Christian Other, these reports (p.158)

all-controlling master and surrounds him with a multicentered global continuum. Page 18 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China

60

In other words, they must be regarded as a realm of monstrous

of the Anglocentric ideological system at the center of its literary agenda.

Serious Reflections relates the horror of this image of Otherness to the threat of hybridity. Whereas the protagonist used to sit on the island with his

later authority over Friday and the natives, and is thus quite different from the indistinguishable borders. Moreover, perplexing to Crusoe as to whether it is subject of knowledge and possession. Utterly incomprehensible in the eyes of Crusoe, the images of the Chinese idol and its implied double, the porcelain house, present an impervious monstrosity in contrast to the evolutionary stories of the earthenware pot and other material technologies in the first book. Based on our relinking of the two halves of Robinson Crusoe, however, we can see that

Farther Adventures Robinson Crusoe, Lynn Festa notes that, considering the constitutive significances of objects in the

61

Attention to Farther Adventures, which is lacking Robinson Crusoe, nonetheless

Farther Adventures, however, signals that the normativity of a Eurocentric global order was not fully established in the Western imagination at this point. Rather it was (p.159) not until well into the nineteenth century that the Crusoe myth began to assume a

In the following section, we shall nonetheless see that the theme of monstrosity circulation in Moll Flanders and Roxana through the figure of the promiscuous Serious Reflections Page 19 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China thus also registers the sense of change and chaos in his own national environment. The sense of transition and contingency in Moll Flanders and Roxana generates a more open-ended novelistic discourse that resonates better with other Eastern and Western works of early realism from the Age of Silver. The symbolic significance of gender and sexuality in these later novels by Defoe, furthermore, is comparable to what we have observed in cases such as the sixteenth-century Chinese novel The Plum in the Golden Vase. In the epilogue, we shall further discuss how the interlinking of historical and sexual chaos in Eastern and Western narrative texts, such as Plum prefigured the reinventions of the theme of female chastity in these traditions, a

Promiscuous Money Despite his vehement attacks on virtually every aspect of China in Farther Adventures, Crusoe ends up buying £3,500 worth of valuable Chinese transported across the Russian steppes (which was an active Eurasian pieces of fine damasks, with about two hundred pieces of other very fine silk of several sorts, some mixed with gold . . . a large quantity of raw silk, and some

historical perspective, it is approximately equal to the annual income of the top 0.06 percent or the top 800 richest families in England around 1688.62 This comparison further indicates the rather fantastic nature of the monetary accounts in Robinson Crusoe. Given that in Farther Adventures and his other 63

(p.160) of his cargo hides the

denounce Chinese objects and customs every step of the way, Defoe in Farther Adventures ends up presenting Eastern commerce as a complex network of

Intriguingly enough, monstrosity is also a trope Defoe repeatedly employed to The Complete English Tradesman or four hundred by the end of the century.64 In A Tour through the Whole Island of Great Britain 65

depictions of foreign and domestic commercial scenes, the fear and fascination Page 20 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China his Robinson Crusoe series projects onto the image of China mirror his Moll Flanders (1722) and Roxana (1724) overtly manifest his concerns with cultural chaos in the new commercial era. In these material desire Defoe deliberately obscures in Robinson Crusoe resurge as prominent literary constituents. These complexities allow his later novels to totalizing discourse of capitalist rationality. Similar to the marginalization of money in the first part of Robinson Crusoe, the and hybridities between the Self and the Other, and hence to rationalize an ideology of capitalist-colonial dominance. On one level, this textual politics of Robinson Crusoe suppress sex for its own rationalization, a model Watt has invoked to interpret 66

Rather than typifying narrative trends of the period, however, Robinson Crusoe and early eighteenth centuries.67 Whereas these preceding and coeval English Eastern cases such as The Plum in the Golden Vase 68

Robinson Crusoe to Captain Singleton completely purge the sexual motif, and subsequently erase the (p.161) potentially socially disruptive aspects of material desire. Importantly, these desexualized narratives are invariably tied to the diasporic subject matter of travel. This narrative pattern hints that colonial conditions are essential to rationalizing the capitalist impulses these protagonists embody. The return of eroticism in Moll Flanders and Roxana is inseparable from their different gender structure, these books present a more contingent vision on SelfOther relations and a prominent theme of plural identities. To a large degree, counterparts such as Crusoe and Captain Singleton. Owing to their gender, however, sexual commerce replaces trade in their quest for profit and self69

female characters occupy an ambiguous human-thing position, which allows their images to allegorize the surrounding political and epistemological instabilities in ways that are more provocative than his male protagonists.

and female-centered narratives resides in their representations of kinship decay, which is a prevalent motif in his fictional works. In the words of Christopher Page 21 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China

70

serves the purpose of freeing his protagonists from all social restraints, the most basic of which is the parent-child bond. In Robinson Crusoe, for instance, the

island and over the colonial subject Friday, the narrative in the end elevates the

the motif of kinship decay in a hypereroticized rather than deeroticized manner. The material desire they embody thus assumes an ambiguous promiscuity, which is both transgressive and liberating. In Moll Flanders, one especially notable narrative device that expresses the 71

On the narrative level, Moll violates the incest taboo after she unwittingly marries a man who turns out to be her half-brother. In a symbolic sense, this outcome and erotic desires. When describing her first sexual commerce with a man, the more confounded with the Money (p.162) The heroine further portrays the one hundred guineas her lover brings to her in Colour came, and went, at the Sight of the Purse, and with the fire of his Proposal together; . . . so putting the Purse into my Bosom, I made no more 72

so much emphasis on the libidinal lure of money, the novel in fact renders sex 73

In one symbolically significant narrative moment, after her second and last legal husband hides their remaining properties in the Southwark sanctuary of the Mint away from

74

her incest symbolizes the radical interpersonal chaos that could have come along with monetary and commercial circulations, a scenario Defoe himself alertly addresses in his morality books, Family Instructor (1715) and The New Family Instructor conduct books as expressions of his anxiety about the fracturing pressures on families within an economic system he otherwise condones, we can see that 75

Page 22 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China In Moll Flanders her half-brother occurs in the English settlement in Virginia in North America. After she flees back across the Atlantic following the discovery of the true identity of her husband, Moll finds new partners and ways to profit until she falls into the arms of the law and faces the gallows. In the end, however, thanks to the amnesty the American colonies provided to English convicts, Moll travels once again to Virginia and is thus reunited with her brother-husband and one of

colonial wealth and arrives at a happy ending across the Atlantic, while her Humphfry, the fruit of her incest, revolves around her motherly gift of a gold

altering (p.163) where the circulation of money and goods (uprooted from embedded community 76

Notably, in both Robinson Crusoe and Moll Flanders individualism finds justification in the new transatlantic environment: the former achieves this effect through an assured narrative of self-sufficiency, while the latter arrives at its happy ending in a less settled manner by a comic resolution of the incest taboo. Whereas these narrative patterns indicate the crucial novel Roxana somehow abandons the transatlantic prospect and ends up as his darkest, yet likely most powerful, reflection on the volatility and hybridity of individual identity in the changing socioeconomic system. As the ex-mistress of a wealthy jewelry merchant, a prince, and finally a Dutch banker, the heroine of Roxana blends the worlds of goods, monetary capital, and political privilege through her promiscuous sexual ties. In the end, the heroine marries the Dutch banker and the couple purchases the titles of duke and duchess. Rather than signifying the linear growth of the self as in Robinson Crusoe, this ending identities and social roles, and is burdened with the terrible suggestion that the ennobled heroine might have arranged the murder of her own daughter in order

Page 23 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China

77

78

To go back to the question of monstrosity in Serious Reflection

crossing identities with both Orientalist exoticism and gender ambiguity. The

representations of the Orient during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 79

The novel

(p.164) of a

Oriental guise, which entices both merchants and kings. Moreover, rather than a means of self-regeneration. The urge toward individual liberation and

combining Eastern and Western disguises, while moving between different gender and status roles, Roxana is a transgressor of all borders. In this sense, Serious Reflections thus characterizes the absolute freedom and absolute chaos of his own historical world, as crystallized through the image of Roxana. Roxana tendencies during the Age of Silver than the self-solidifying narrative of Robinson Crusoe. Moreover, after Defoe, Samuel Richardson and Henry approached surrounding socioeconomic shifts with new narrative models and new visions of the self.80 Richardson and Fielding are very different writers, yet Robinson Crusoe. Whereas Fielding adopted the reintegrative perspective of an omnipresent narrator and utilized self-balancing plots to impose a sense of order Page 24 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China sentimental narrative transition toward promoting a feminized and privatized mode of moral subjectivity separated from political and economic powers.81 The case of Richardson, as to be addressed in the epilogue, can again be brought into a meaningful comparison to Eastern narrative developments, in particular

narratives, by their idealization of love and femininity, aimed at creating a private moral order in detachment from the social and political space. As mentioned in the introduction, this East-West parallel is germane to the birth of turns, Eastern and Western novels both assumed more subjectivized and more autonomous (p.165) civil-aesthetic dynamics. This transcultural development cosmopolitan humanistic affinity, which occurs upon yet transcends transnational political and economic relations. These linkages signal further horizontal continuities in the histories of Eastern and Western novels, and may (p.166) Notes:

(1.) Consumption and the World of Goods, eds. Brewer and Porter (London: Routledge, 1993), 133. (2.) The Second Common Reader [1932], by Virginia Woolf (London: Hogarth, 1965), 58. (3.) See The Works of Daniel Defoe, vol. 2 ed. Howard Maynadie (London: Clements, 1840), 41. (4.) The Rise of the Novel Representations, 119, no. 1 (2012), 120. Notable works on English fiction in response to the Wattian thesis include: Jane Spencer, The Rise of the Woman Novelist: From Aphra Behn to Jane Austen (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1986); Michael McKeon, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987); Nancy Armstrong, Desire and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); and How (New York, Columbia University Press, 2005); J. Paul Hunter Before Novels: The Cultural Contexts of Eighteenth-Century Fiction (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990); Firdous Azim, The Colonial Rise of the Novel (London, Routledge: 1993); Homer Obed Brown, Institutions of the English Novel: From Defoe to Scott (Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998); William Beatty Warner, Licensing Entertainment: (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998); Margaret Anne Doody The True Story of the Novel Page 25 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997); Josephine Donovan, Women and the Rise of the Novel (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1998); Leah Price, The Anthology and the Rise of the Novel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Laura Doyle, (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008); and Srinivas Aravamudan, Enlightenment Orientalism: Resisting the Rise of the Novel (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011). (5.) See Robert Markley, The Far East and the English Imagination, 5. (6.) Sir Josiah Child, Trade is the most National of All Trades (London, 1681), 29 are quoted in Robert Markley, 1730 . For a concise overview of early English efforts to trade with China, see Oskar Hermann Khristian Spate, Monopolists and Freebooters (Minneapolis : University of . (7. complete collection of this kind, The Political and Economic Writings of Daniel Defoe (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2000), includes eight volumes. (8. after Walter Scott gave his fictional works a prominent position in his ten-volume reference work on the earlier English novels. Before this point, Defoe was at best a nebulous literary figure despite the popularity of his Robinson Crusoe, and was far less recognized by publishers and readers of the period as the

Homer Obed Brown, Institutions of the English Novel from Defoe to Scott 183. Also see Marina MacKay, The Cambridge Introduction to the EighteenthCentury Novel Leah Price, The Anthology and the Rise of the Novel. (9. Book History (10.) Philological Quarterly (11.)

.

Farther Adventures in . 302.

Page 26 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China (12.) In The Rise of the Novel, Watt says nothing about the two sequels to Robinson Crusoe, which is an intriguing omission, given that he does acknowledge other sequels in the book such as Pamela and third books of Robinson Crusoe text. For emerging studies on Farther Adventures, see Robert Markley, Lydia Liu, Critical Inquiry . It should be further noted that a known source of the island plot in Robinson Crusoe is of Asian origins, that is, the twelfth-century Arabic philosophical novel Hayy bin Yaqzan, which had been transmitted to European readers through Islamic Spain. See The Hayy Eighteenth-Century Studies 47, no. 2 (2014): . (13.) Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, vol. 1. Edited by Friedrich Engels. Translated by Samuel Moore and Edward Aveling ([1867] Reprint, New York: Cosimo Classics, 2007), 88. For an interdisciplinary volume on Robinson Crusoe (principally the first part) and economic theory, see Deconstruction, eds, Ulla Grapard and Gillian Hewitson (New York: Routledge, 2012). Maximillian E. Economics and the Fiction of Daniel Defoe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962) novels to economic matters. For newer interpretations with regard to the Deidre Lynch, The Economy of Character: Novels, Market Culture, and the Business of Inner Meanings ; Carol Houlihan Flynn, The Body in Swift and Defoe (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 2005); and Mary Poovey, Genres of the Credit Economy: Mediating Value in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Britain (Chicago: Chicago University . (14.) Karl Marx, A Contribution to the critique of Political Economy ([1859], New York: International Publishers, 1970), 188. See , 71, for more analyses. (15.) Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy economic theorists, see and White traces the epistemological construction of Robinson Crusoe as the

Page 27 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China quintessential homo economicus to the coevolvements of marginalist economics and Robinsonade literary motifs since around the mid nineteenth century. (16.) See Local Histories/Global Designs.

and Walter Mignolo,

(17.) Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe (1719), ed. Michael Shinagel, 2nd ed. (New York: W.W. Norton, 1975), 219. All page references to the novel in this chapter are based on this edition. Further citations in text. (18. mercantile ideology of Robinson Crusoe. For an analysis of this kind, see, for instance, Eighteenth-Century Studies . (19.) The location is given on the title page of the 1719 edition of the novel. (20.) Diana de Armas Wilson, Cervantes, the Novel, and the New World, 212. In Robinson Crusoe and Persiles and Sigismunda

writings, see Dennis Todd,

(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

University Press, 2010). For the significance of the maritime motif in the English novel, see Margaret Cohen, The Novel and the Sea (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012). (21.) See Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature, 54, no. 2 (2000): 15. (22.) Flanders, and Roxana

Robinson Crusoe, Moll The Modern Language Review, 107, no. 1 (2012): 76.

(23.) See

Robinson

Crusoe and Roxana Reading with a Difference: Gender, Race, and Cultural Identity, ed. Arthur F. Marotti (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1993), . (24.) 14. (25.) Laura Doyle,

, 187.

(26.) For a recent volume on early modern British mercantilism, see Mercantilism Reimagined: Political Economy in Early Modern Britain and Its

Page 28 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China Empire, eds. Philip J. Stern and Carl Wennerlind (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013). (27.) Daniel Defoe, The Complete English Tradesman, vol. 2 (London: Charles . (28.) Michael Greenberg, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1969), 6. (29.) All page references to the novel in this chapter are based on Daniel Defoe, A New Voyage Round the World, ed. George Aitken (London: J.M. Dent & Co., 1900). Citations in text. (30.) See A New Voyage Round the World Huntington Library Quarterly 24, no. 4 (1961); P.N. Furbank and W.R. Owens, A New Voyage Round the World Eighteenth-Century Fiction 13, no. 4 (2001); and David Todd, Defoe and America (31.) Daniel Defoe, Review, Tuesday, August 7, 1711. Quoted in New Voyage Round the World 325.

A

(32.) See

(33.)

The Second Common Reader, 58.

(34.)

736.

(35.)

741.

(36.) The exportation figure is cited in Journal of World History 9, no. 2 (1998), 142. For more on the economic and cultural significances of European importations of Chinese porcelain, see Timothy Brook, Robert Finlay, The Pilgrim Art: Cultures of Porcelain in World History; Collecting China: The World, China, and a History of Collecting, ed. Vimalin Rujivacharakul (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011); and Eugenia Zuroski Jenkins, A Taste for China: English Subjectivity and the Prehistory of Orientalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013). (37.)

749.

(38.) Quoted in

142.

(39.) Daniel Defoe, A Tour Through the Whole Island of Great Britain, eds. Furbank, et al. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), 65.

Page 29 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China (40.) Quoted in Fernand Braudel, The Wheels of Commerce: Civilization and Capitalism 15th-18th Century, vol. 2, 180. (41.) Daniel Defoe, A Tour Through the Whole Island of Great Britain, 65. In The Complete English Tradesman written around the same time, Defoe also like the rich, the rich like the gentry, the gentry like the nobility, and the nobility Daniel Defoe, The Complete English Tradesman (42.) Daniel Defoe, The Complete English Tradesman, vol. 2 (1727), 175. In the book Defoe in fact argues against sumptuary regulations, at one point blatantly by their Extravagance and Luxury, their Gaiety and Pride; Gluttony and See Complete English Tradesman, 118. (43.) Daniel Defoe, The Complete English Tradesman (44.) Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, vol. 1, 88. (45.) All the quotations in this passage come from Farther Adventures A Companion to Eighteenth-Century English Novel and Culture, eds. Paula R. Backscheider and Catherine Ingrassia (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2006), 31. (46.) See the account by Woodes Rogers (c. edition of Robinson Crusoe, 232. When compared with the well-publicized story different. Far from becoming a triumphant island colonizer, the actual survivor was in extremely poor physical and mental condition when he was rescued by Robinson Crusoe, ed. Shinagel, (W.W. . (47. Robinson Crusoe, 323. (48.) All page references to the sequel are based on Daniel Defoe, The Further Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (Rockville, MD: Serenity, 2009). (49.)

32.

(50.) Nieuhof traveled to China in 1656 with a Dutch embassy representing the VOC. For the embassy see John E. Wills, Jr., Embassies and Illusions, Dutch and Portuguese Envoys to (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), 42 Page 30 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China soon translated into many other European languages. Some editions of the book contain over 150 illustrations. See China and Europe: Images and Influences in Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries, ed. Thomas H. C. Lee (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1991), 224. During the seventeenth Patrick Conner, Oriental Architecture in the West (London: Thames and Hudson, 1979), 17. (51.

1850s. See Jonathan Spence, of Hong Xiuquan

. The

Chinese sources, many of which are collected in Zhang Huiyi, si ta Zhi ( ) ([1937] Nanjing, China: Nanjing Press, 2007). (52.) Johannes Nieuhof, An Embassy from the East-India Company of the United Excellencies Peter de Goyer and Jacob de Keyzer, at His Imperial City of Peking. 2nd ed. (London: By author, 1673), 78. (53.) The Trianon was demolished seventeen years after it was built, since the blue-and-white tiles were too fragile for architectural purposes. See Lothar 232, and Patrick Conner, Oriental Architecture in the West

erected in 1762. See

(54. Eighteenth-Century Studies Eighteenth-Century Studies Digital Defoe (55.)

; ; and Swetha . 752.

(56. Theodore Nicholas Foss and Page 31 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China

China and Europe: Images and Influences in Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries, ed. Thomas H. C. Lee (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1991), 177. century English commercialist writings in Ideographia (57.) Markley, The Far East in English Imagination, 192. (58.) Cited in Markley, The Far East in English Imagination, 198, 199. (59.) Louis le Comte, Memoirs and Observations (London, 1697), 237. Cited in Markley, The Far East in English Imagination Memoirs was a source material consulted by Defoe. (60.) See

56.

(61.) no. 3 (2011): 467. (62.) Flanders, and Roxana

The Eighteenth Century 52,

Robinson Crusoe, Moll 68. The average annual earnings of these households

were between £1,500 and £5,999. (63.) Cited in

437.

(64.) Daniel Defoe, The Complete English Tradesman, vol. 2 (London: Charles . These numbers are also quoted in Fernand Braudel, , vol. 2, 69. (65.) Daniel Defoe, A Tour through the Whole Island of Great Britain. Edited by Philip Nicholas Furbank, W. R. Owens, and Anthony J. Coulson (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), 135 A Great and Monstrous Thing: London in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013). (66. see, been placed under particularly strong controls in the ideology of industrial The Rise of the Novel, 67. (67. Nancy Armstrong, Desire and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel, 96. See John J. Richetti, (Oxford: Clarendon, 1992) time. For more backgrounds, see Lynn A. Hunt, ed. The Invention of Pornography: Obscenity and the Origins of Modernity Page 32 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China Zone Books, 1993) and Ian F. Moulton, Before Pornography: Erotic Writing in Early Modern England (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000). For an informative comparative account of early modern Chinese and English erotic literatures, see Comparative Early Modernities, ed., David . (68.) Michael McKeon, Origins of the English Novel, 262. (69.) See Crusoe and Roxana

Robinson Reading with a Difference, ed. Arthur F. Marotti, 209.

(70.) Robinson Crusoe ELH 55, no. 2 (1988): 381. For more studies on kinship and family in eighteenth-century English literature, see Naomi Tadmor, Family and Friends in Eighteenth-Century England: Household, Kinship and Patronage (Cambridge University Press, 2001) and Ruth Perry, Novel Relations: The Transformation of (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001). (71.) Ellen Pollak,

(Baltimore: John

Hopkins University Press, 2003), 116 trope of incest in English fiction by authors such as Manley, Defoe, Fielding, and Austen. (72.) Citations are from Daniel Defoe, Moll Flanders: The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders (New York: Penguin, 1989). (73.) Moll Flanders and Roxana

PMLA 110, no. 5 (1995): 1026.

(74.) discussions, see

Moll

Flanders PMLA ; Bram Dijkstra, Defoe and Economics: The Fortunes of Roxana in the History of Interpretation (London: Macmillan, 1987); ELH ; Sites in Robinson Crusoe and Roxana ; and Laura J. Rosenthal, Infamous Commerce: Prostitution in Eighteenth-Century British Literature and Culture (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006). (75.) Doyle,

, 157.

(76.) Doyle,

, 157.

(77.)

1032.

Page 33 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Caribbean to China (78.) William Warner, Licensing Entertainment, 164. Cited in Aravamudan, Enlightenment Orientalism, 65. (79.) Srinivas Aravamudan, Enlightenment Orientalism, 66. (80.) See Homer Obed Brown, Institutions of the English Novel (81.) The epilogue contains more discussions on Richardson. My understanding McKeon, The Origins of the English Novel Eighteenth-Century Fiction ; Martin Bank Notes, Fiction and the Law in Tom Jones Tom Jones

Eighteenth-Century Fiction

PMLA

ELH

; ; and Scott

.

Access brought to you by:

Page 34 of 34

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue

The Age of Silver: The Rise of the Novel East and West Ning Ma

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780190606565 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2017 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.001.0001

Epilogue The Transcivilizational Feminine and World Literature Ning Ma

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.003.0007

Abstract and Keywords The epilogue presents the parallel employments of the figure of the chaste works of Samuel Richardson, such as Pamela. It proposes that this East-West correspondence reflects analogous narrative shifts toward representing a more interiorized mode of morality and individual existence in response to the ongoing destablizations of past cultural forms. The parallel in question was noted by

geographical transformation of word civilization, the epilogue reinforces the necessity of the horizontal comparative literature method. It argues that a more future-looking concept of world literature demands an unearthing of a polycentric mode of transcultural early modernity. Keywords: , novels, Samuel Richardson, Goethe, transcultural early modernity, horizontal comparative literature, Pamela

,

have read many things; especially a Chinese novel, which occupies me still

Page 1 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue

and feel almost exactly like us; and we soon find that we are perfectly like them, except that all they do is more clear, pure, and decorous, than with

Conversations of Goethe1 On February 21, 1827, less than a month after he spoke to Eckermann on the young associate his anticipation of an artificial canal that would cut through the Isthmus of Panama in a manner proposed by Alexander von Humboldt. In can

coast of the Pacific Ocean, where nature has already formed the most capacious and secure harbors, important commercial towns will gradually arise, for the furtherance of a great discourse between China and the East Indies and the

(p. 168) certainly occur after his lifetime, the poet concluded his predictions on an great works! It would be well worth the trouble to last some fifty years more for 2

recurrent framing of the idea of world literature with the notion of trade. In his Friedrich Schiller, for instance, Goethe relates world literature to a desire for

3

Associating global literary exchange with what he perceived as an 4

world literature and the world market in The Communist Manifesto about two decades later. Despite their direct lineage, the Goethean and the Marxian visions of literary globalization nonetheless presuppose different world systems. Although being transformed by primarily Euro-American agents, the world for Manifesto, in contrast,

Page 2 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue

5

In this monocentric historical vision, the East-West resonance and communication Goethe had in mind when he envisaged the prospect of world literature became conceptually impossible.

that took place around the mid-nineteenth century. As a counterthesis to the monocentric account of globalization and modernity that has been dominating the intellectual course since the time of the Manifesto, this book charts analogous realist trends in East-West narratives during the pre-Divergence transcultural continuum of global early modernity. Overall, the groundbreaking realist styles of the literary texts I have surveyed came about in response to the dissolution of established cultural and socioeconomic structures due to the ascension of monetary and material forces, and connote nationally allegorical implications owing to their critical engagement with the surrounding political economy. While representing larger historical shifts, these early realist works foreground the changeability of (p.169) identity and the active roles of individual desire within the ongoing social transformations. As mentioned in the previous chapter, parallel sentimental trends emerged in Chinese and English novels during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, as analogous narrative strategies to construct a private domain of emotional and moral commitment in separation from the materialistic social sphere. This

subjectivity on a transcultural basis. Although a more detailed treatment of this development is outside the scope of this study, it is apposite to conclude our present inquiries with the comparative questions surrounding the Goethean encounter, in order to gesture toward further horizontal resonances in the 6

Specifically, according to the passage cited at the opening of this chapter, Goethe entered into his speech on world literature after commenting on the common humanity he had sensed from the reading of a Chinese novel. In his the works of Samuel Richardson. Based on the few details Goethe offered in his conversation with Eckermann, the particular Chinese book in his mind must have been an anonymous text entitled Hao qiu zhuan. First published during the 1650s, Hao qiu zhuan happens to be the first full-length Chinese fictional work introduced to European readers. An English translation of the book in four Hau kiou choaan: or, The Pleasing History, was first published in London in 1761. Within the next two Page 3 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue years, French, German, and Dutch versions of the novel based on the English rendition came out in Paris, Leipzig, and Amsterdam.7 In addition to Hao qiu zhuan, Goethe was also reading other translated Chinese novels of the period, such as an 1826 French translation of Yu Jiao Li, another anonymous novel from the seventeenth century.8 In his conversation, Goethe must have been thinking about these books as well. Typically featuring the love romance between a beautiful and artistically cultivated maiden and a talented scholar, Hao qiu zhuan, Yu Jiao Li, and other similar books have been generally referred to as caizi jiaren) novels by scholars of Chinese literature. Widely popular in China from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, the talentbeauty genre has fallen from favor since the early twentieth century.9 Given that critics today often view books such as Hao qiu zhuan and Yu Jiao Li as works that resulted from the sheer dearth of translations of Chinese literary texts available in Europe during the period. (p.170) In light of the transcultural literary correspondences we have the translated talent-beauty novels are not entirely accidental. In both talentbeauty novels like Hao qiu zhuan parallel reinventions of the discourse of female chastity for reforming and elevating the cultural meaning of individual desire. This literary similarity Hao qiu zhuan to an essential Chinese spirit, the historical spectrum we have opened up reveals that prevalent topic of sexual decadence in earlier works of Chinese fiction, such as The Plum in the Golden Vase and a number of erotic texts that emerged during the late Ming period.10 clearly seen in a preface included in the earliest extant edition of Yu Jiao Li. According to the curious claim of the anonymous prefacer, the book was composed by the same group of writers who had authored The Plum in the Golden Vase, in order to amend their faults in having produced such a scandalous text.11 Though implausible, the story expresses the cultural rationale edition, Yu Jiao Li

shi) nature of

prefacer, the novel offers a much-needed antidote to the degeneration of literary and social ethos.12 Going back to our comparative question, Yu Jiao Li

published in the first edition of Pamela, which came out in 1741 and launched Page 4 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue

is much wanted in the World, which is but too much, as well as too early, 13

The parallel reformism of the two cases explains why the chaste Chinese talent-beauty novels appealed to eighteenthcentury European readers and were chosen for circulation in Europe in the first place.14 Thomas Percy, the chief literary figure responsible for the publication of the 1761 English edition of Hao qiu zhuan, explicitly expresses the didactic purpose of his promotion of the Chinese book in his dedication of the translation

licentious and immoral turn, it may have some good effect to shew what strict (p.171) regard to virtue and decorum is paid by writers amongst the Chinese, notwithstanding the deplorable ignorance they labour under of those sublime 15

Hao qiu zhuan Goethe. In his dialogue with Eckermann, Goethe imagined that China must have 16

When making this comment, Goethe clearly had no idea that the Eastern civilization he associated with permanent tranquility was the birthplace of a text as morally chaotic as Plum. Rather than reflecting a timeless Chinese spirit, the talent-

world that had lost its past certainties.

responded to the ongoing cultural destabilization by reinventing the figure of the chaste woman as a new moral center. In contrast to the ancient patriarchic

individual personhood that transcends social hierarchies. On the side of English

17

According to April Alliston, for instance, chastity in 18

In a similar vein, Nancy Armstrong has made the influential argument that Richardson employed space for a private morality in opposition to social and political roles.19 Likewise, in his study on the separation of public and private spheres in eighteenth-

successfully control their behavior and feelings in a much more thorough way 20

Elsewhere, McKeon has further observed that

Page 5 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue the elevation of female chastity in eighteenth-century English writings occurred bankruptcy of an ideological correlation of social and moral orders, a discourse

culture thus occurred upon a prevalent cultural skepticism toward the past ideology of aristocratic honor.21 Pamela inverts the inner-outer correspondence in aristocratic ideology by (p.172) master. Deployed in this context, the discourse of chastity becomes the core of a moral self that empowers the heroine to transcend her political subordination. master, Pamela nonetheless caused widespread controversies among its eighteenth-century readers. According to one commentator who wrote in the

Ladies to follow . . . Others, on the contrary, discover in it, the Behavior of an hypocritical, crafty Girl in her Courtship; who understands the Art of bringing a 22

The Pamela debate indicates the profound separation of virtue and power in the cultural consciousness of the period, an environment in work, Clarissa, or the History of a Young Lady, carefully resolves this ideological spiritual quality. Unknowingly drugged and raped by her harasser, Lovelace, dignity.23 becomes the very means to attesting her spiritual chastity. No longer chaste according to physical or social definitions following the rape, Clarissa transforms virtue entirely into a creation of her interior will and sentiment. On a broader level, the distinction of bodily and spiritual chastity in Clarissa pushes the innerouter dislocation in the cultural consciousness of the period to a logical extreme.

differences are obvious. For instance, the epistolary style for which Richardson is famous is absent in the Chinese narrative tradition, which did not witness the spread of first-person narratives until the early twentieth century under Western influences. Furthermore, in contrast to the rakish image of the male protagonist third major work, Sir Charles Grandison, and by a series of late eighteenth-

character and artistic refinement, while relegating villainous forces to more Page 6 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue marginal places in the narrative plot. These and other dissimilarities aside, interiorized form of moral agency through the theme of chaste love and female virtue.

theme, Chinese talent-beauty novels detach conjugal bonds from the correlative wu lun), (p.173) which, in resemblance to the Western patrilineal code, prescribes female chastity for the purpose of maintaining patriarchic lineage and, by extension, political loyalty. In The Plum in the Golden Vase, interconnected sexual, kinship, and political contrast to Plum decouple the two domains and elevate marriage as an independent value that, while lying outside political and social concerns, is more fundamental to individual life. In Yu Jiao Li, a speech by the protagonist Su Youbai directly distinguishes marriage as an autonomous bond detached from the other cardinal

24

This statement redefines the foundation of marriage as loving companionship rather than authority and subordination, and elevates the works, talent-beauty novels reframe marriage and chastity as a matter of personal choice and sensibilities, rather than as hierarchical codes in service of the social organization of power. Hao qiu zhuan the chastity motif as a manifestation of individual moral choice. The central event of the novel concerns a nightly meeting between the hero Tie Zhongyu and the heroine Shui Bingxin under pressing circumstances. Although their meeting violates the Confucian principle of gender segregation, the two protagonists conduct themselves in a perfectly proper manner. In his conversation with Eckermann, Goethe highlighted this scene by noting that the lovers in this they were on one occasion obliged to pass the night in the same chamber, they 25

After this pivotal episode that occurs around the midpoint of the novel, Hao qiu zhuan

nephew, who covets Shui for himself. To this end, the protagonists even avoid all vindicated in the imperial court. In the chapters that slowly move toward the moral character is determined from within. When facing the accusation of her Page 7 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue ill-natured uncle, for example, the heroine compares the immoral appearance of xin

ben) of her personal purity

26

(ch. 6; 37).

(p.174) As in Pamela, in Hao qiu zhuan known talent-beauty novel from the same period, Jin Yun Qiao zhuan (Romance of the Golden Hairpin), parallels Clarissa purely spiritual property. Although Jin Yun Qiao zhuan was not introduced to Europe like Yu Jiao Li or Hao qiu zhuan, it was popular enough to be spread to Southeast Asia and became the source of the Vietnamese classic by 27

The novel was based on earlier accounts of a goodhearted prostitute named Wang Cuiqiao, who became the mistress of the powerful pirate lord Xu Hai and later committed suicide after she mistakenly persuaded Xu to surrender to the government, which led to his execution. Retelling this famous story, Jin Yun Qiao zhuan personal history before her political involvement in the Xu Hai incident.28 This xin) in contrast to her debased body and social persona (shen

an unsullied body [or, lives an unsullied life] yet degraded heart is unchaste despite being chaste; a person who has a degraded body yet blameless heart is 29

In terms of its narrative content, Jin yun qiao zhuan chaste behaviors during a secret love affair, thus establishing her image as a romantic yet virtuous young lady. Later, Wang sells herself as a concubine to raise the necessary bail to save her father from a disastrous lawsuit, yet is Clarissa, functions to bear out her inner moral sentiment. To this end, Jin Yun Qiao zhuan includes a large number of song lyrics Wang composes to express her sufferings and her deep sense of alienation from her sullied environment. the heroine is rescued from drowning and returns home. She is thus reunited married her younger sister. In order to compensate for her sacrifices, the family

deteriorated body is no longer a part of her moral self and must be purged from her conjugal (p. Page 8 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue 175) that you are in fact not a woman, but belong to the order of great saints and implication of the body-heart opposition that emerges through the narrative of Jin Yun Qiao zhuan, a duality that allows a former prostitute to assume a saintly stature after she has endured the most debasing experience in the traditional Confucian value system. In light of the new materialist thesis I have explored in the preceding chapters, talent-beauty novels indicates analogous literary reactions to the social and moral fluidities brought about by the rise of monetary powers. In this context, the theme of chastity allegorizes a resistance to exchange, and hence represents a counterforce to the materialism that permeated social and political life. Thus, 30

a

As an obvious example of this contrast, in diametric opposite to the choices of

with her chastity.31 The Chinese talent-beauty novels advance a similar antimaterialism. For instance, turning down the marriage proposal of a wealthy and privileged family despite his impoverished conditions, Yu Jiao Li protagonist Su Youbai explains to one of his acquaintances that neither rank nor

While the antimaterialist motive contributed to the idealist tendency of individual autonomy through the theme of chastity is also laden with political

32

In Hao qiu zhuan

fa) yi) as decrees higher than not only the power of a magistrate, but

As this statement shows, (p.176) through its dramatization of the theme of

Page 9 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue chastity, Hao qiu zhuan endorses an equalizing civil ethics in resemblance to

Characterized by analogous social and political connotations, Chinese talentrealisms in their cultural spheres in order to carry out their reformist purposes. Rambler no. 4 (1750) manifests this goal of transforming the social influences of narrative realism, when he transaction and sentiment was so remote from all that passes among men, that

perhaps be made of greater use than the solemnities of professed morality, and convey the knowledge of vice and virtue with more efficacy than axioms and 33

Chinese sources offer a parallel theory about the social benefits of representing the familiar world. The following passage from a preface to a widely read seventeenth-century collection of vernacular short stories, for instance, advocates a social-aesthetic logic that closely resembles the principle Rambler no.4: Mirages on the sea and flaming mountains are admittedly extraordinary, yet they are not familiar sights to the eye or common news to the ear. We doubt their existence in the same manner insects who live and die within the summer doubt the existence of ice. Benevolence, righteousness, ritual propriety, and wisdom are the normal state of the heart. Loyalty, filial piety, happens that we lose our normal state of the heart and deviate from our normal ways of conduct . . . and therefore they become wonders to be communicated with others. A story of these themes will make its reader grieve or sigh, and bring delight as well as shock. The virtuous will be encouraged and the evil-minded will be alerted. Social custom will thus be edified with pleasant results. Hence we know that the most touching and wondrous stories are those that teach people about the normal state of things . . . Writings about strange feats such as swallowing blades or fire, or odd phenomena like thunder in winter or ice in summer, are airy fancies completely devoid of merit. Readers who want to make the best of fiction should take heed of these words.34 Given these converging perceptions in China and Europe on the reformist functions of narrative realism, it is no longer surprising that works such (p.177) as Hao qiu zhuan and Yu Jiao Li should have struck their European readers with an arresting aesthetic familiarity. As noted in the editorial materials included in the translated Chinese talent-beauty novels, these Chinese texts are comparable Page 10 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue to recent European novels in terms of their socially edifying effects, lifelike techniques, and nationally representational capacities. For instance, in his preface to Hao qiu zhuan, Percy states that, like the writings of Fielding, whose

Hao qiu zhuan Chinese manners, wherein the domestic and political economy of that vast people is displayed, with an exactness and an accuracy to which none but a Yu Jiao Li, Yu Jiao Li

Yu Jiao Li exuberantly explicates in the following passage: It is in the portraiture of details that the Chinese novelists excel, in which respect they may be compared to Richardson. Like that ingenious author, they render their characters interesting and natural by reiterated strokes of the pencil, which finally produce a high degree of illusion. The persons whom they create, may be said to stand before you, their motives of action are fully laid open, you hear them speak of themselves, and learn to track even their minute peculiarities of manners and conversation. What so many continental readers have experienced on the perusal of the English Clarissa, has often been felt by me in running over for the first time certain Chinese romances. The interest in their pages arose precisely in proportion to the stage of my progress; and in approaching to the termination, I found myself about to part with some agreeable people, just as I had duly learnt to relish their society. This is always the case with the romance of detail, when it is correct in the species of portraiture which it assumes to delineate. It is felt heavy in the first instance, but after a while the progress seems too rapid; we yawn over the first volume, and devour the last (Vol.1, xii).35

these distant Eastern texts. This transcultural awareness, however, disappeared nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In fact, even though the translated Chinese talent-beauty novels were still (p.178) stimulating feelings of humanistic affinity on the verge of the nineteenth century, the image of the East in Western perceptions during the period was already moving in the opposite direction. A small but indicative sign of this trend can be found in a curious advertisement, which mentions a recent exhibition of two Chinese women in London, in the 1827 English translation of Yu Jiao Li large portion of London have been recently gratified with the contemplation of Page 11 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue two Chinese ladies who have condescended to waive the privilege of high rank for the small consideration of half-a-crown per head admission; it is trusted that a due stock of interest has been excited to ensure the favorable reception of 36

The exhibition, which took place in Pall Mall, is reported in a news article published in Times on December 12, 1826. In sharp writings, the Times

of Attoi Whoatty, which we had in our hands, does not exceed four inches. We saw them pass through the room and go upstairs to their chambers, and it was evidently as difficult a task to them as it would be to a child just beginning to

feet of the Chinese women must, by preventing them from taking exercise, have a sensible effect on the health of the nation. It is impossible that the offspring of 37

According to Yu Jiao Li exhibition should have attracted English consumers in similar ways since they the Times report, however, in fact present opposite cross-cultural visions, since the former stresses humanistic and aesthetic affinities, whereas the latter the course of the nineteenth century, the East-West humanistic commonalties Rémusat and Goethe had once envisioned became an increasingly marginalized view. Now, in the face of the necessity to renew world thinking in the postEurocentric era, it is high time to revive a more integrated view of East-West social and cultural histories, which experienced especially significant horizontal continuities during the Age of Silver. However minor the case of Yu Jiao Li and the novelistic history surrounding it may look in comparison to the vast task of rethinking historical world systems, it is ultimately a relevant part to this (p. 179) broad project. The main chapters of this book have charted an initial phase of East-West narrative coevolutions prior to the more idealistic and

narrative realisms. The Eastern and Western texts in my comparison indicate of social mobility and larger processes of cultural destabilization. Their realist tendencies are underlain with politically critical and nationally allegorical functions. This horizontal argument realigns novelistic modernity with a multipolar global context and reestablishes commensurabilities between Eastern Page 12 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue and Western literary histories. On a broader level, it challenges the unilateral equation between globalization and modernity with westernization, and foregrounds a polycentric mode of global early modernity for pluralizing the

After the materially oriented novels we have focused on, Eastern and Western novels presented further parallels, such as the idealizing sentimental trend we have observed in this epilogue. Following the sentimental turnabout, moreover, both Eastern and Western narrative literatures started to exhibit more complex treatments of inner-outer and subjective-objective polarities, a pattern we can find in roughly coeval works such as the eighteenth-century Chinese classic The Dream of the Red Chamber Bildungsroman tradition, exemplifies a dualistic structure in which the artistic idealism of the protagonist is set in contrast to a pragmatic, disenchanted world.38 According to theorists of the novel such as Lukács, the Bildungsroman represented by Wilhelm Meister constitutes a paramount expression of the problematic conditions of modern subjectivity, for it manifests the unrealizable nature of ideal values and authentic personality in a

objective worlds. Discussed as a unique aspect of Western literary modernity, the novelistic irony characterized by Lukács is nonetheless also observable in coeval Chinese novels such as The Dream of the Red Chamber degeneration, financial mismanagement, and political schemes.39 The striking similarity and synchronicity of the emergences of an ironic dualism in Eastern and Western narrative texts again indicate the fertile opportunities of horizontal comparison between the two sides, (p.180) and the Eastern literary dynamisms that have been neglected by theories of the novel. In light of the resurged question of world literature, the analogous inner-outer dislocations in Wilhelm Meister and Dream, which occurred in a larger context of Western and non-Western literatures in a manner that has not yet been addressed by the large number of criticisms to his model. Belonging to a period prior to the primarily post-1800 focus of literary comparatists, a period long in question indicate that the interiorizing narrative trend Jameson exclusively associated with Western modernity already emerged in a context of coevolving Eastern and Western early modernities, and was from the start laden with national historical implications. One productive approach toward overcoming

Page 13 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue forgotten beginnings and continuities, which lie outside the discourse of cultural incommensurability or a strictly antihegemonic model of postcolonial critique. While the exploration of further East-West literary horizontal continuities demands other occasions, this book has provided a launching point for further

of the historical parameters of the genre is crucial for advancing its comparative ties to the historical dynamics of material mobilities, national imaginaries, the gender structure, and private-public relations, the novel also constitutes an politics, and cultural identity on a transcultural level. As detailed in the theoretical discussions of chapter 1 and exemplified through my literary analyses, works of early realism from the Age of Silver in general present what hybridization of different social voices and positions. The parallel realist inventions of these texts rest in their foregrounding of the force of materiality as a historical agent of social and cultural mobility. In attending to changes in both social life and the political economy under conditions of commercial circulations, furthermore, these narratives become nationally allegorical and express modes of critical political consciousness. Other than the somewhat exceptional case of Robinson Crusoe, the narrative works we have examined treat the material domain as a lived, desublimated realm, in the absence of a reified capitalist ideology. Due to this ideological openness, identity and authority become malleable categories in these narrative worlds that reflect (p.181) multilocal cultural displacements during the Age of Silver. As I suggest in this epilogue, the historical contingencies registered by early realist novels further stimulated parallel constructions of the autonomous, idealized self through the theme of female chastity in Eastern and Western narratives, and these sentimental turnabouts subsequently grew into more complex narrative modes of ironic dualism on both sides. By tracing these literary horizontal continuities, we can see that the typically West-centric conceptual nexus of narrative realism and modern subjectivity has excluded richly comparable Eastern counterparts. In this transcultural light, moreover, we can theoretically reinforce public and historical dimensions of novelistic images of the self, which constitute a substate

interconnections. All in all, by the horizontal comparative perspective we have followed, one would perhaps agree with Goethe that there is, after all, a common humanity, except that it is not the timeless essence he assumed, but rather historically networked and constantly changing. To map the trajectory and interrelations of these Page 14 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue

as urgent as ever. (p.182) Notes:

(1.) Johann Peter Eckermann, Conversations of Goethe, trans. John Oxenford (New York: Da Capo, 1998), 164. (2.) Johann Peter Eckermann, Conversations of Goethe . Cf. Astrida Orle Tantillo, , for more comments on this passage and its relation to the world vision of Faust. The Panama Canal was eventually completed by the United States in 1914. (3.) See Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Memoirs, ed. Berthold Biermann (Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1971), 374 Stefan Hoesel-Uhlig, Weltliteratur Debating World Literature ; Pheng Special Issue: On Cosmopolitanism. Daedalus

; New Literary

History

.

(4.) Johann Peter Eckermann, Conversations of Goethe, 174. (5.) Karl Marx: A Reader, ed. Jon Elster (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 228. (6.) While the sentimental convergence discussed in this chapter seems to be the most prominent in Chinese and English cases, the emergence of as Shunshoku Umegoyomi (Colors of Spring: The Plum Calendar Early Modern Japanese Literature West sentimental narrative turns, see Encountering China: Early Modern European Reactions, eds. Rachana Sachdev and Qingjun Li (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, .

Page 15 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue (7.) See Vision of China in the English Literature of the 17th and 18th centuries, ed. Adrian Hsia . (8.) Jean-Pierre Abel Rémusat, Iu-kiao-li, ou, Les deux cousines (Paris: Moutardier, 1826) Hao qiu zhuan, Yu Jiao Li, and other translated Chinese texts, see Patricia Sieber, Theaters of Desire: 2000 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 14. Also see Reihard Meyer-Kaikus, Cultural Mobility 121, and German Literature as World Literature . (9.) For two notable studies that contain extensive discussion of the talentbeauty novel, though not from a comparative perspective, see Keith McMahon, Misers, Shrews, and Polygamists: Sexuality and Male-Female Relationships in Eighteenth-Century Chinese Fiction (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995) and Martin Huang, Desire and Fictional Narrative in Late Imperial China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001). (10.) For studies that address these late Ming erotic novels, see for instance McMahon, Misers, Shrews, and Polygamists and Huang, Desire and Fictional Narrative in Late Imperial China. For an informative comparative study on Chinese and English discourses of pornography and chastity during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, see Comparative Early Modernities

.

(11.) Included in Yu Jiao Li (Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1990), 1. The edition dates to the 1650s. (12.

1979. For the quoted lines, see 353. (13.) See Samuel Richardson, Pamela: Or, Virtue Rewarded (Oxford: Oxford University Press, [1741], 2001), 9. According to Thomas Keymer and Alice

Shamela (note 10, p. 526). All page references to the novel in this chapter are

Page 16 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue

Richetti, Popular Fiction before Richardson. (14. Wilkinson, an English merchant who had traded in Canton. Part of the original translation was in Portuguese. See

(15. Hao qiu zhuan are based on Hau kiou choaan: or, The Pleasing History: A Translation from the Chinese Language, 4 vols. (London: R. and J. Dodsley, 1761). Cf. profound ambivalence toward China is neither surprising nor unique: at a time when Britons were first forging their identity as a nation, the Middle Kingdom loomed large on the horizon as a rival claimant not only to the spoils of

(16.) Johann Peter Eckermann, Conversations of Goethe, 165. (17.) See G. J. Barker-Benfield, The Culture of Sensibility: Sex and Society in Eighteenth-Century Britain, xxxiv. For other studies on eighteenth-century English fiction that has informed this chapter, see Nancy Armstrong, Desire and Domestic Fiction; Dror Wahrman, The Making of the Modern Self: Identity and Culture in Eighteenth-Century England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006); Michael McKeon, The Secret History of Domesticity: Public, Private, and the Division of Knowledge (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005); and Helen Thompson, Ingenuous Subjection: Compliance and Power in the Eighteenth-Century Domestic Novel (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005). (18.) April Alliston, (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), 56. (19.) See Nancy Armstrong, Desire and Domestic Fiction (20.) Michael McKeon, The Secret History of Domesticity, 298. (21.) All the citations above are from Michael McKeon, Origins of the English Novel, 131. (22.) Quoted in Bernard Kreissman, Pamela-Shamela: A Study of the Criticisms, (Lincoln, NE: University at Lincoln, 1960), 40. (23.) Samuel Richardson, Clarissa, or the History of a Young Lady (London: Penguin Books, 1985), 189. Page 17 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue (24.) Translations of Yu Jiao Li are mine. Page references are to the Chinese original of the book, based on the Zhongguo gudian xiaoshuo mingzhu baibu edition (Beijing: Huaxia chubanshe, 1995). Cf. Iu-Kiao-li, or the Two Fair Cousins . As stated in the chapter on Plum moral principle that prescribes the correct relations between sovereign and minister, father and son, husband and wife, elder and younger brothers, and friends. In its orthodox form, the bond between husband and wife focuses on the

(25.) Conversations of Goethe, 165. In the novel, the heroine, Shui Bingxin, is forced by her greedy uncle to marry the good-for-nothing son of a court presents her grievance to the local magistrate. The hero, Tie Zhongyu, hears about this case and tries to persuade the magistrate to rule in the suitor secretly poison him, and their misdeed is soon discovered by the heroine. In order to save the hero who has fallen seriously ill, Shui Bingxin takes him to her home to convalesce, thus breaching the ritual prohibition of direct contact between unmarried men and women. (26.) Translations of Hao qiu zhuan are mine. Page references are to the Chinese original of the book, based on the Zhongguo gudian xiaoshuo mingzhu baibu edition (Beijing: Huaxia chubanshe, 1995). (27.) Translations of Jin Yun Qiao zhuan in this chapter are mine. Page references are to the Chinese original of the book, based on the Zhongguo gudian xiaoshuo mingzhu baibu edition (Beijing: Huaxia chubanshe, 1995). Citations in Text. (28.) For an account on the evolution of the Wang Cuiqiao tale, see Martin Huang, Desire and Fictional Narrative

.

(29. seventeenth-century talent-beauty novels. He was the editor, publisher, and prefacer of at least sixteen examples of the genre, including Yu Jiao Li.

18). (30.) Markman Ellis, The Politics of Sensibility: Race, Gender and Commerce in the Sentimental Novel (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 129.

Page 18 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue (31.) See Samuel Richardson, Pamela: Or Virtue Rewarded (Oxford: Oxford University Press, [1741], 2001), 190. (32.) Doyle,

, 934. Also see Special Issue: Misandry, and Misanthropy. Representations .

(33.) See Samuel Johnson, The Rambler (London: Harrison and Co., 1792), 10. Pamela be followed in the most critical and affecting Cases, by the modest Virgin, the chaste Bride, and the obliging Wife: If to effect all these good Ends, in so probable, so natural, so lively a manner, as shall engage the Passions of every

(34. Jingu qiguan (Extraordinary Accounts from the Past and the Present), which was first printed around the 1630s. My translation. Translations of three stories from the collection appear in JeanDescription de la Chine (Paris: Chez Henri Scheurleer, 1735), which was translated into English in 1736 as The General History of China. (35. Kiao-li, or the Two Fair Cousins.

Iu-

(36.) Iu-Kiao-li, or the Two Fair Cousins (1827), viii. Other than the Times article, I have not been able to locate more sources on the exhibition. For a better documented English exhibition of Chinese objects, see the account on Nathan Elizabeth Chang, Nineteenth Century Britain (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010), . (37.) For an excellent survey of Western accounts of Chinese footbinding, see Late Imperial China . For an important new study on the cultural history of footbinding, see Dorothy Ko, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005). The bound-foot is a central motif in The Plum in the Golden Vase, yet its image is for the most part absent in the talent-beauty novels discussed in this chapter. (38.) Here I am thinking about theoretical arguments on the Bildungsroman as a historical genre as in Georg Lukács, Theory of the Novel ; Mikhail Bildungsroman Speech Genres and Other Later Essays, trans. Vern W. McGee and Michael ; and Franco Moretti, Page 19 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Epilogue The Way of the World: The Bildungsroman in European Culture, trans. Albert Sbragia (London: Verso, 1987). For a discussion of The Dream of the Red Chamber as Bildungsroman, see New Left Review . (39.) For a comparison of The Dream of the Red Chamber and Apprenticeship Ning Ma, Honglou Meng, Wilhelm Meister, and Bildungsroman Tamkang Review .

Access brought to you by:

Page 20 of 20

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography

The Age of Silver: The Rise of the Novel East and West Ning Ma

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780190606565 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2017 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.001.0001

(p.229) Bibliography Bibliography references: Abu-Lughod, Janet. 1350. Reprint ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.

The World System: Five Hundred Years or Five Thousand? and New York: Routledge, 1993.

Social Text The Communist Manifesto

Social

Scientist Albrow, Martin. The Global Age: State and Society Beyond Modernity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.Alliston, April. . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996. Almodovar, Antonio, and Jose Luis Cardoso. A History of Portuguese Economic Thought. New York: Routledge, 1998.

Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, edited by Ben

Anderson, Kevin B. Marx at the Margins: On Nationalism, Ethnicity, and NonWestern Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010. Page 1 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. New York: Verso, 1991. Anon. Hao qiu zhuan. Beijing: Huaxia chubanshe, 1995. Anon. Jin Yun Qiao zhuan. Beijing: Huaxia chubanshe, 1995. Anon. Yu Jiao Li. Beijing: Huaxia chubanshe, 1995. Anon. The Plum in the Golden Vase (Jin Ping Mei). Translated by David Roy. Vol.

Anon. and Francisco de Quevedo. Lazarillo de Tormes and the Swindler: Two Spanish Picaresque Novels. Translated by Michael Alpert. New York: Penguin Classics, 2003. (p.230)

New Left Review New Literary

History Aravamudan, Srinivas. Enlightenment Orientalism: Resisting the Rise of the Novel. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011.

Eighteenth-Century Studies Ardila, J. A. G., ed. The Cervantean Heritage: Reception and Influence of Cervantes in Britain. London: Legenda, 2009. Armas, Frederick A. de. Don Quixote Among the Saracens: A Clash of Genres and Civilizations. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013. Armstrong, Nancy. Desire and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. Armstrong, Nancy. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.

.

A Companion to the English Novel, edited by Stephen Arata et al.,

Arrighi, Giovanni. Adam Smith in Beijing: Lineages of the Twenty-First Century. New York: Verso, 2007.

Lane. In

Tales of the Floating World. Translated by Jack Stoneman and Richard , edited by

Page 2 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography c. The Cambridge History of China. Vol.8, The Ming Dynasty, edited by University Press, 1998.

Journal of World History Appadurai, Arjun, ed. The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Appadurai, Arjun. Modernity At Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996. American Literary History New Literary History, 39, no. 3

Apter, Emily. Against World Literature: On the Politics of Untranslatability. New York: Verso, 2013.

Journal of Historical Sociology 27, no. 4

Comparative Literature 58, no. 4

Auerbach, Erich. Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature. Translated by Willard R. Trask. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1953. Weltliteratur Maire and Edward Said. Centennial Review Azim, Firdous. The Colonial Rise of the Novel. London: Routledge, 1993. (p.231) Ballaster, Ros. 1785. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Bakhtin, Mikhail. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Edited and translated by Michael Holquist. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981. Bakhtin, Mikhail. Rabelais and His World. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984.

Page 3 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Bildungsroman and its Significances in the History of Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, translated by Vern W. McGee

Balázs, Étienne. Chinese Civilization and Bureaucracy; Variations on a Theme. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1964. Balázs, Étienne. Political Theory and Administrative Reality in Traditional China. London: University of London, 1965. Bandera, Cesáreo. The Humble Story of Don Quixote: Reflections on the Birth of the Modern Novel. Washington, DC: CUA, 2006. Barlett, Vincent et al., eds. Dreams of Waking: An Anthology of Iberian Lyric . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013. Barker-Benfield, G. J. The Culture of Sensibility: Sex and Society in EighteenthCentury Britain. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. Batten, Bruce Loyd. To the Ends of Japan: Premodern Frontiers, Boundaries, and Interactions. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2003.

Journal of World History 465. Beebee, Thomas, ed. German Literature as World Literature. London: Bloomsbury, 2014.

New Left Review Bentley, Jerry H. Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.

Globalization and Global History, edited by Barry K. Gills and William R.

Berry, Mary Elizabeth. Hideyoshi. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989. Berry, Mary Elizabeth. Japan in Print: Information and Nation in the Early Modern Period. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. Bewes, Timothy, and Timothy Hall, eds. Georg Lukács: The Fundamental Dissonance of Existence: Aesthetics, Politics, Literature. New York: Continuum, 2011. Page 4 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Text and Nation: Cross-Disciplinary Essays on Cultural and National Identities, edited by House, 1996. Blaut, James Morris. Diffusionism and Eurocentric History. New York: Guilford, 1993. Blaut, James Morris. Eight Eurocentric Historians. New York: Guilford, 2000. Bloom, Harold, ed. Miguel de Cervantes. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 2005.

Knowledge across Cultures: Universities East and West, edited by Ruth Hayhoe,

(p.232) China and Historical Capitalism: Genealogies of Sinological Knowledge Cambridge University Press, 1999. Bodart-Bailey, Beatrice, and Derek Massarella, eds. The Furthest Goal: Engelbert . Sandgate, Folkestone: Japan Library, 1995.

Itinerario The Novel. Vol. 1: History, Geography, and Culture Press, 2006. Bourdieu, Pierre. Language and Symbolic Power. Edited by John Thompson and translated by Gino Raymond and Matthew Adamson. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991. Bourdieu, Pierre. The Rules of Art: Genesis and Structure of the Literary Field. Translated by Susan Emanuel. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996. Boxer, Charles Ralph. University of California Press, 1951.

. Berkeley:

Braudel, Fernand. Afterthoughts on Material Civilization and Capitalism. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977.

Page 5 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Braudel, Fernand. Civilization and Capitalism. Vol.1, The Structures of Everyday Life: The Limits of the Possible. Translated by Siân Reynold. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Braudel, Fernand. Civilization and Capitalism. Vol.2, The Wheels of Commerce. Translated by Siân Reynold. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Braudel, Fernand. Civilization and Capitalism. Vol.3, The Perspective of the World. Translated by Siân Reynold. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Nation and Narration,

Brokaw, Cynthia J. and Kai-Wing Chow, eds. Printing and Book Culture in Late Imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005. Brook, Timothy. The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998. The Cambridge History of China. Vol.8, The Ming Dynasty. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Frederick W.

Brook, Timothy. Global World. New York: Bloomsbury, 2007. Brook, Timothy. The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010. Brook, Timothy and Gregory Blue, eds. China and Historical Capitalism: Genealogies of Sinological Knowledge. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Brook, Timothy and B. Michael Frolic, eds. Civil Society in China. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1997. Brown, Bill. A Sense of Things: The Object Matter of American Literature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003. Brown, Bill, ed. Things. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004. Brown, Homer Obed. Institutions of the English Novel: From Defoe to Scott. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998. (p.233) Brownlee, Kevin, and Marina Scordilis Brownlee, eds. Romance: Generic Transformation from Chrétien De Troyes to Cervantes. Hanover, NH: University of New England Press, 1986. Page 6 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Res et verba: Conspicuous Consumption in the Early Modern Consumption and the World of Goods. Edited by John Brewer and Roy

Byrne, Susan. Toronto Press, 2013.

. Toronto: University of

Camoes, Luïs Vaz de. The Lusiads. Translated by Landeg White. Oxford: Oxford

Canavaggio, Jean. Cervantes. New York: W.W. Norton, 1990. Casanova, Pascale. The World Republic of Letters. Translated by M. B. DeBevoise. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004. New Left Review New Left Review 134. : A Look at Chapter

Jin Ping Mei. Modern China

Carlitz, Katherine.

. Bloomington: Indiana

University Press, 1986.

. Edited by

Journal of World-Systems Research 264. Routledge Handbook of World-Systems Analysis. Edited by Salvatore J. Babones and

Cascardi, Anthony. Ideologies of History in the Spanish Golden Age. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997. Cascardi, Anthony J. Cervantes, Literature, and the Discourse of Politics. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2012.

Page 7 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Cervantes, Miguel de. Don Quixote. Translated by Walter Starkie. New York: Signet Classic, 2001. Moll Flanders PMLA Chakrabarty, Dipesh. Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.

History and Theory

A Secular Age. Journal of the American Academy of Religions Humanism in Intercultural Perspective Transcript Verlag, 2009. American Historical Review

(p.234) Inter-Asian Cultural Studies 13, no. 1 (2012):

Chang, Chun-shu. The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Nation, State, and Imperialism in Early China. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2007. Chang, Chun-shu, and Shelley Hsueh-lun Chang. Crisis and Transformation in . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998. Chang, K. C., ed. Food in Chinese Culture: Anthropological and Historical Perspective. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977.

Social Forces Chase-Dunn, Christopher, and Thomas D. Hall. Rise and Demise: Comparing World-Systems. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1997. Chase-Dunn, Christopher, and Salvatore J. Babones, eds. The Routledge Handbook of World-Systems Analysis. New York: Routledge, 2012.

Page 8 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Chaudhuri, K. N. Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Diacritics

In Special Issue: On Cosmopolitanism. Daedalus 38. Special Issue: Comparison, edited by Rita Felski and Susan Stanford Friedman. New Literary History Cheah, Pheng, and Jonathan Culler, eds. Grounds of Comparison: Around the Work of Benedict Anderson. New York: Routledge, 2003. Also published as expanded version of Diacritics 29, no. 4 (Fall 2000). Cheah, Pheng, and Bruce Robbins, eds. Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling Beyond the Nation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998.

Hispania 88, no.

Childers, William. Transnational Cervantes. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006. Chow, Kai-wing. Publishing, Culture, and Power in Early Modern China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004. Comparative Literature in the Age of Multiculturalism Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994. Special Issue: Modern Chinese Literary and Cultural Studies in the Age of Theory, boundary 2, 25, no. 3

PMLA

Chow, Rey. The Protestant Ethnic and the Spirit of Capitalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. Chow, Rey. The Age of the World Target: Self-Referentiality in War, Theory, and Comparative Work. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006.

Page 9 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography PMLA

(p.235) Clarke, J. J. Oriental Enlightenment: The Encounter between Asian and Western Thought. New York: Routledge, 1997. Close, Anthony. The Romantic Approach to Don Quixote: A Critical History of the Romantic Tradition in Quixote Criticism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1977. Close, Anthony. Cervantes and the Comic Mind of his Age. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.

The American Historical Review Clunas, Craig. Superfluous Things: Material Culture and Social Status in Early Modern China. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2005. The Oxford Handbook of the History of Consumption, edited by Frank Trentmann,

Cohen, Margaret. The Novel and the Sea. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012. Cohen, Warren I. East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. Conner, Patrick. Oriental Architecture in the West. London: Thames and Hudson, 1979. Coole, Diana, and Samantha Frost, eds. New Materialisms: Ontology, Agency, and Politics. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010. Crosby, Alfred. 1900. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Crosby, Alfred. Germs, Seeds, and Animals: Studies in Ecological History. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1994. Crosby, Alfred. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1972. Cruz, Anne J. Discourses of Poverty: Social Reform and the Picaresque Novel in Early Modern Spain. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999.

Page 10 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography The Theory of the Novel

Novel: A Forum on Fiction

Curtin, Philip D. Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Dalby, Andrew. Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000. Damrosch, David. What is World Literature? Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003. New Literary History

Damrosch, David, ed. World Literature in Theory. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014. Dardess, John W. Blood and History in China: The Donglin Faction and its . Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2002. de Bary, William Theodore, eds. Self and Society in Ming Thought. New York: Columbia University Press, 1970. Defoe, Daniel. The Complete English Tradesman. Vol. 2. London: Charles Rivington, 1727. Defoe, Daniel. The Works of Daniel Defoe, vol. 2. Edited by Howard Maynadie. London: Clements, 1840. Defoe, Daniel. A New Voyage Round the World. Edited by George Aitken. London: J.M. Dent & Co., 1900. (p.236) Defoe, Daniel. Robinson Crusoe [1719]. Edited by Michael Shinagel. 2nd ed. New York: W.W. Norton, 1975. Defoe, Daniel. Moll Flanders: The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders. New York: Penguin, 1989. Defoe, Daniel. A Tour Through the Whole Island of Great Britain. Edited by Philip Nicholas Furbank, W. R. Owens, and Anthony J. Coulson. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991. Defoe, Daniel. Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Defoe, Daniel. The Further Adventures of Robinson Crusoe. Rockville, MD: Serenity, 2009. Page 11 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Justice in the Marketplace in Early Modern Spain: Saravia, Villalon and the Religious Origins of Economic Analysis. Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2014. Comparative Studies in Society and History Delaney, Carol. Columbus and the Quest for Jerusalem: How Religion Drove the Voyages that Led to America. New York: Free Press, 2012. Deleuze, Gills, and Félix Guattari. A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. London: Continuum, 1988. Deleuze, Gills, and Félix Guattari. Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. New York: Penguin, [1972], 2009. Den, Gang. Maritime Sector, Institutions, and Sea Power of Premodern China. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999.

2012. Dewarld, Jonathan. Cambridge University Press, 1996.

. Cambridge, UK:

The Routledge Concise History of World Literature. London: Routledge, 2012. World Literature Reader. London: Routledge, 2012. Dijkstra, Bram. Defoe and Economics: The Fortunes of Roxana in the History of Interpretation. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1987.

Narrative Dimock, Wai Chee, and Lawrence Buell, eds. Shades of the Planet: American Literature as World Literature. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007. Dimock, Wai Chee. Through Other Continents: American Literature across Deep Time. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008. Ding, Naifei. Obscene Things: Sexual Politics inJin Ping Mei. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002. InterAsia Cultural Studies Page 12 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography The Appropriation of Cultural Capital: . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002. Donovan, Josephine. Women and the Rise of the Novel. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1998. Doody, Margaret Anne. The True Story of the Novel. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997. Douglas, Mary, and Baron Isherwood, The World of Goods: Towards an Anthropology of Consumption. New York: Routledge, 1996. (p.237) Doyle, Laura. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008.

University, 1987. Haikai

Harvard

Journal of Asiatic Studies Dreyer, Edward. Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, . New York: Pearson, 2006. Jin Ping Mei Mei yu Linqing

Jin Ping Mei

China: Shandong Xinhua, 2008.

The Journal of Asian Studies 63, no. 2

Du, Ming Gong. Chinese Theories of Fiction: A Non-Western Narrative System. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 2006. Dunn, Peter. The Spanish Picaresque Fiction: A New Literary History. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993.

The Cultures of Globalization, edited by Fredric Jameson and

Nepantla: Views from South

Page 13 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography

Transmodernity: Journal of Peripheral Cultural Production of the Luso-Hispanic World 59.

Late Imperial China Echevarria, Roberto González, ed. Don Quixote: A Casebook. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Eckermann, Johann Peter. Conversations of Goethe. Translated by John Oxenford. New York: Da Capo, 1998. Edwards, Michael. Civil Society. Malden, MA: Polity, 2004. Ehrenberg, John. Civil Society: The Critical History of an Idea. New York: NYU Press, 1999. Eisenberg, Daniel. Romances of Chivalry in the Spanish Golden Age. Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1982. Daedalus Elliot, J. H.

. 2nd rev. ed. London: Penguin, 2002.

Ellis, Robert Richmond. They Need Nothing: Hispanic-Asian Encounters of the Colonial Period. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2012. Elman, Benjamin. A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. Elman, Benjamin.

.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005. Elman, Benjamin. A Cultural History of Modern Science in China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009. (p.238) Elman, Benjamin. Civil Examinations and Meritocracy in Late Imperial China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013. Elvin, Mark. The Pattern of the Chinese Past: A Social and Economic Interpretation. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1973. Early Modern History and the Social . Edited by John A

Page 14 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Elvin, Mark. The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004.

Disaggregate and Sharpen Comparisons Between China and Europe from Song History of Technology Emmerich, Michael. The Tale of Genji: Translation, Canonization, and World Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013. Epstein, Maram. Competing Discourses: Orthodoxy, Authenticity, and Engendered Meanings in Late Imperial Chinese Fiction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001. Esherick, Joseph, and Mary Backus Rankin, eds. Chinese Local Elites and Patterns of Dominance. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Fabian, Johannes. Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983. Fang Ming, ed. Jin Ping Mei ziliao huilu (Collected Sources of Plum). Hefei, China: Huangshan chubanshe, 1986. Felski, Rita, and Susan Stanford Friedman, eds. Comparison: Theories, Approaches, Uses. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2013. Special Issue: Misandry, and Misanthropy. Representations The Eighteenth Century 52, no. 3

diss., University of Nebraska, 1997. Findlen, Paula, ed. 1800. New York: Routledge, 2012.

Lusiads Voyage of the San Bao Eunuch Studies in Society and History

Comparative

Journal of World History

Studies on Chinese and Islamic Inner Asia, edited by Beatrice Forbes Manz, part x. Aldershot, UK: Variorum, 1995. Page 15 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Robinson Crusoe

ELH

Later Works.

, 54, no. 2

Flynn, Carol Houlihan. The Body in Swift and Defoe. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 2005. (p.239) The Political Economy of , edited by James

Journal of World History

Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient

Journal of World History 13, no. 2 (2002):

Fontana, Michela. Matteo Ricci: A Jesuit in the Ming Court. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011. Foucault, Michel. The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences. New York: Pantheon Books, [1966], 1970. Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Pantheon Books, [1975],1977.

Book History Friedman, Edward H., Cervantes in the Middle: Realism and Reality in the Spanish Novel from Lazarillo de Tormes to Niebla. Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 2006. Fuchs, Barbara. Mimesis and Empire: The New World, Islam, and European Identities. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Fuchs, Barbara. Passing for Spain: Cervantes and the Fictions of Identity. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003.

Page 16 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Fuchs, Barbara. Romance. New Critical Idiom. London: Routledge, 2004. Fuchs, Barbara. Exotic Nation: Maurophilia and the Construction of Early Modern Spain. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009. Fuchs, Barbara. The Poetics of Piracy: Emulating Spain in English Literature. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013. Fogel, Joshua A., ed. Naito Konan and the Development of the Conception of Modernity in Chinese History. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1983. Fogel, Joshua A., ed. The Teleology of the Modern Nation-State. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005.

China and Europe: Images and Influences in Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1991. Frank, Andre Gunder. ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998. Frank, Andre Gunder, and Barry K. Gills, eds. The World System: Five Hundred Years or Five Thousand? London: Routledge, 1993.

Footnote to A New Voyage Round the World

Eighteenth-Century Fiction 13, no.

Furth, Charlotte. 1665. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. Gallagher, Catherine, and Stephen Greenblatt. Practicing New Historicism. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2001. (p.240) Gaonkar, Dilip Parameshwar, ed. Alternative Modernities. Durham: Duke University Press, 2001. Garces, Maria Antonia. Vanderbilt University Press, 2005.

. Nashville, TN:

Don Quixote

Cervantes:

Bulletin of the Cervantes Society of America Gat, Azar. Nations: The Long History and Deep Roots of Political Ethnicity and Nationalism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013.

Page 17 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography The Tale of Genji Monumenta Nipponica Ge, Liangyan. Out of the Margins: The Rise of Chinese Vernacular Fiction. Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 2001. Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double-Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. Gimpel, Denise. Lost Voices of Modernity: A Chinese Popular Fiction Magazine in Context. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2001. Glissant, Édouard. Poetics of Relation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. . Edited by Berthold Biermann. Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1971. Goldmann, Lucien. Towards a Sociology of the Novel. Translated by Alan Sheridan. London: Tavistock, 1975. Goldstone, Jack. Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient Goldstone, Jack. New York: McGraw-Hill Humanities, 2008. Goodman, Jennifer Robin.

.

. Woodbridge,

UK: Boydell & Brewer, 1998. Goody, Jack, ed. Capitalism and Modernity: The Great Debate. Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2004. Goody, Jack. The Theft of History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Diacritics Graf, Eric C. Cervantes and Modernity: Four Essays on Don Quijote. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2007. Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from the Prison Notebooks. New York: International, 1977.

Page 18 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Grapard, Ulla, and Gillian Hewitson, eds. Construction and Deconstruction. New York: Routledge, 2012.

Hispanic Review Greenberg, Michael. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1969.

.

Critical Terms for Literary Study, edited by Chicago Press, 1995. Greenblatt, Stephen. Cultural Mobility: A Manifesto. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009. (p.241) Review (Fernand Braudel Center)

Gunn, Geoffrey. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003.

.

Häberlein, Mark. The Fuggers of Augsburg: Pursuing Wealth and Honor in Renaissance Germany. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2012. Hall, John Whitney, ed. Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 4, Early Modern Japan. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Telos Hammond, Brean, and Shaun Regan. Making the Novel: Fiction and Society in . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. Asia Major Asia Major 67. The Far East: China and Japan University of Toronto Press, 1961.

Page 19 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography The Legacy of China Hanan, Patrick. Chinese Fiction of the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries: Essays by Patrick Hanan. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013. Hayot, Eric. The Hypothetical Mandarin: Sympathy, Modernity, and Chinese Pain. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. Hayot, Eric. On Literary Worlds. Oxford University Press, 2012. Jin Ping Mei

Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews

The Hispanic American Historical Review 646. Hegel, Georg W. F. Philosophy of History. Translated by J. Sibree. New York: Dover, 1956. Hegel, Robert. Reading Illustrated Fiction in Late Imperial China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998. Heinrich, Amy Vladeck, ed. Currents in Japanese Culture: Translations and Transformations. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997. Hellyer, Robert I. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2010.

.

Hemming, John. The Conquest of the Incas. New York: Harcourt, 2003. Mineralium Deposita

Hibbett, Howard. The Floating World in Japanese Fiction. New York: Oxford University Press, 1959. Hibbett, Howard. The Chrysanthemum and the Fish: Japanese Humor Since the Age of the Shoguns. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2002. (p.242) In the Shade of Spring Leaves: The Life of Higuchi Ichiyo, with Nine of Her Best Stories. Translated by Robert Lyons Danly. New York: W.W. Norton, 1992.

Page 20 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Higuera, Henry. Eros and Empire: Politics and Christianity in Don Quixote. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1995. Ho, Ping-Ti. The Ladder of Success in Imperial China: Aspects of Social Mobility, . New York: Columbia University Press, [1965] 2011. Hobson, John M. The Eastern Origins of Western Civilization. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Hodgson, Marshall G.S. The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History In A World Civilization. 3 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977. Hodgson, Marshall G.S. Rethinking World History: Essays on Europe, Islam, and World History. Edited by Edmund Burke III. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Weltliteratur In Debating World Literature London: Verso, 2004. Hofstadter, Douglas. Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid. New York: Basic Books, [1979] 1999. Honneth, Axel. Reification: A New Look at an Old Idea. Edited by Martin Jay. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Hopkins, A. G. Globalization in World History. New York: W.W. Norton, 2002. Hopkins, A. G. Global History: Interactions between the Universal and the Local. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. Horesh, Niv. Chinese Money in Global Context: Historic Junctures Between 600 BCE and 2012. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014. Shuihu zhuan qian ban bu zhuan yu Ming Xuande chunian: shi cong the First Half of Outlaws Wenxue Yichan (Literary Heritage)

Howell, Jude, and Jenny Pearce. Civil Society and Development: A Critical Exploration. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002. Hsia, C. T. The Classic Chinese Novel: A Critical Introduction. New York: Columbia University Press, 1968.

Page 21 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography

Chinese Approaches to Literature NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975.

Hispanic Review

Asbestos Shengming, zhishi, yu wenming: Shanghai shehui kexuejie xueshu nianhua lunwen ji Huang Lin, ed. Jin Ping Mei ziliao huibian (Collected Materials on Jin Ping Mei). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1987. Huang Lin, and Du Mingde, eds. Jin Ping Mei yu Linqing. Shandong, China: Shandong Xinhua, 2008. Huang, Ray. 1587, A Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981. (p.243) Huang, Martin. Desire and Fictional Narrative in Late Imperial China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001. Huang, Martin. Negotiating Masculinities in Late Imperial China. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2006. Hunt, Lynn A., ed. The Invention of Pornography: Obscenity and the Origins of . New York: Zone Books, 1993. Hunter, J. Paul. Form in Robinson Crusoe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1966.

for

Hunter, J. Paul. Before Novels: The Cultural Contexts of Eighteenth-Century Fiction. New York: W.W. Norton, 1990. Hur, Nam-Lin. Edo Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000. The Cambridge Companion to Cervantes University Press, 2002. Ihara Saikaku. Modernised. Translated by G.W. Sargent. Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge Press, 1959.

Page 22 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Ihara Saikaku. The Life of an Amorous Woman, and Other Writings. Translated by Ivan Morris. New York: New Directions, 1963. Ihara Saikaku. Life of an Amorous Man. Translated by Kengi Hamada. Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 1964. Ihara Saikaku. Worldly Mental Calculations. Translated by Ben Befu. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1966. Ihara Saikaku. Comrade Loves of the Samurai. Translated by E. Powys Mathers. Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 1972. Ihara Saikaku. Tales of Japanese Justice. Translated by Thomas Kondo and Alfred

Ihara Saikaku. Some Final Words of Advice. Translated by Peter Nosco. Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 1980. Ihara Saikaku. The Great Mirror of Male Love. Translated by Paul Schalow. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990. Ihara Saikaku. This Scheming World [newer translation of Worldly Mental Calculations]. Translated by Masanori Takatsuka and David C. Stubbs. Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 2005. Ikegami, Eiko. Bonds of Civility: Aesthetic Networks and the Political Origins of Japanese Culture. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Evanescence and Form: An Introduction to Japanese Culture. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.

Journal of World History Israel, George L. Doing Good and Ridding Evil in Ming China: The Political Career of Wang Yangming. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2014. Israel, Jonathan I. Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. Roman à Thèse Huntington Library Quarterly

Journal of World History

Page 23 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography (p.244) Jameson, Fredric. Fables of Aggression: Wyndham Lewis, the Modernist as Fascist. London: Verso, 2008 (1979). Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1981.

Social Text Jameson, Fredric. The Antinomies of Realism. New York: Verso, 2013. Jansen, Marius B. The Making of Modern Japan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002. Jehenson, Myriam Yvonne, and Peter N. Dunn. The Utopian Nexus in Don Quixote. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2006. Jenkins, David, ed. Cambridge History of Western Textiles. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Jenkins, Eugenia Zuroski. A Taste for China: English Subjectivity and the Prehistory of Orientalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. Jones, David Martin. The Image of China in Western Social and Political Thought. New York: Palgrave, 2001. Johnson, Barbara. Persons and Things. Cambridge, UK: Harvard University Press, 2010. Johnson, Carroll B. Cervantes and the Material World. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000. Johnson, Chalmers. The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy, and the End of the Republic. New York: Metropolitan, 2004.

1994. Journal of Japanese Studies Johnson, Samuel. The Rambler. London: Harrison and Co., 1792.

Modern Language Quarterly

Page 24 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography

Studying Transcultural Literary History 132. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2006. Kaempfer, Engelbert. The History of Japan. 3 vols. Glasgow, UK: J. MacLehose, 1906. Kaempfer, Engelbert. . Edited, translated, and annotated by Beatrice M. Bodart-Bailey. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999. International Affairs 79, no. 3

Kamen, Henry.

. New York: Pearson, 1991.

Kamen, Henry. Imagining Spain. Historical Myth and National Identity. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008. Kang, David Chan-oong. East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013.

Tom Jones

Period: Sakoku 306.

ELH 68, no. 3 (2001):

Journal of Japanese Studies

Keene, Donald. World within Walls: Japanese Literature of the Premodern Era, . New York: Columbia University Press, 1976. (p.245)

Robinson

New York: Routledge, 2012. Moll Flanders and Roxana

PMLA

Kim, Nanny, and Keiko Nagase-Reimer, eds. Mining, Monies, and Culture in Early Modern Societies: East Asian and Global Perspectives. Boston, MA: Brill, 2013. Kirkpatrick, Peter John and Robert Dixon, eds. Republics of Letters: Literary Communities in Australia. Sydney, N.S.W: Sydney University Press, 2012.

Page 25 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography

Pacific Coast Philology Kiyoko Morita. The Book of Incense: Enjoying the Traditional Art of Japanese Scents. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1999. Ko, Dorothy. Teachers of the Inner Chambers: Women and Culture in Seventeenth-Century China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994. Ko, Dorothy. University of California Press, 2005.

. Berkeley:

The Economic History Review 18, no. 2 (1965):

Koehler, Martha. Models of Reading: Paragons and Parasites in Richardson, Burney, and Laclos. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2005.

Eighteenth-Century Fiction 22, no. 2 (2009):

The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, 1983. Kreissman, Bernard. Pamela-Shamela: A Study of the Criticisms, Burlesques, Lincoln NE: University at Lincoln, 1960. Krishnaswamy, Revathi, and John Charles Hawley, eds. The Postcolonial and the Global. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008. La Société civile

Lach, Donald F. Asia in the Makings of Europe. 3 vols. Chicago: University of

Edebiyat Larner, John. Marco Polo and the Discovery of the World. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999.

Page 26 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Latour, Bruno. We Have Never Been Modern. Translated by Catherine Porter. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. Mind, Culture, and Activity 3, no. 4 (1996):

Latour, Bruno. Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-NetworkTheory. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. Laver, Michael S. The Sakoku Edicts and the Politics of Tokugawa Hegemony. Amherst, NY: Cambria, 2011. Lee, Haiyan. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007.

.

(p.246) Lee, Pauline C. Li Zhi, Confucianism, and the Virtue of Desire. Albany, NY: SUNY, 2012. Lee, Thomas H. C., ed. China and Europe: Images and Influences in Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1991.

Imago Mundi

Journal of Social History Leupp, Gary. Servants, Shophands, and Laborers in the Cities of Tokugawa Japan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. Leupp, Gary. Male Colors: The Construction of Homosexuality in Tokugawa Japan. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997. Leupp, Gary. Interracial Intimacy in Japan: Western Men and Japanese Women, . New York: Continuum, 2003. Levathes, Louise. When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne Lewis, Martin W., and Kären Wigen. The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.

Shantou daxue xuebao 24, no.1,

Li, Tana. Eighteenth Centuries. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998. Page 27 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Li, Yu. The Carnal Prayer Mat. Translated by Patrick Hanan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990. Li, Yu. A Tower for the Summer Heat. Translated by Patrick Hanan. New York: Columbia University Press, 1992.

Yunnan shehui kexue 131. Lieberman, Victor. Beyond Binary Histories: Re-Imagining Eurasia to c 1830. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999. Lieberman, Victor. Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 1830. 2 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 2009. Lima, Luiz Costa. The Dark Side of Reason: Fictionality and Power. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992. Liu, Lydia. Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995. Critical Inquiry 25, no. 4

Liu, Yu. Seeds of a Different Eden: Chinese Gardening Ideas and a New English Aesthetic Ideal. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2008.

Politics of Robinson Crusoe 20.

Eighteenth Century Fiction

The Historical Journal 23, no. 4

Lu, Sheldon H. From Historicity to Fictionality: The Chinese Poetics of Narrative. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994. Lu, Tina. Persons, Roles, and Minds: Identity in Peony Pavilion and Peach Blossom Fan. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002. (p.247) Lu, Tonglin. Rose and Lotus: Narrative of Desire in France and China. Albany, NY: SUNY, 1991. Lu, Xun. A Brief History of Chinese Fiction. Translated by Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang. Beijing: Beijing Foreign Press, 1959.

Page 28 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Lufrano, Richard John. Honorable Merchants: Commerce and Self-Cultivation in Late Imperial China. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997. Lukács, Georg. The Theory of the Novel: A Historico-Philosophical Essay on the Forms of Great Epic Literature, trans. Anna Bostock. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1971. Lukács, Georg. History and Class Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1972. Lynch, Deidre. The Economy of Character: Novels, Market Culture, and the Business of Inner Meanings. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1998.

Encountering China: Early Modern European Reactions 126. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2012. Honglou Meng, Wilhelm Meister, and Bildungsroman

Tamkang Review

MacKay, Marina. The Cambridge Introduction to the Novel. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011. The Rise of the Novel

Representations,

Mackerras, Colin. Western Images of China. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. MacLean, Gerald. Looking East: English Writing and the Ottoman Empire before 1800. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008. Maeda, Ai. Text and the City: Essays on Japanese Modernity. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004. Maiorino, Giancarlo, ed. The Picaresque: Tradition and Displacement. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996. Mancing, Howard. Chivalric World of Don Quixote: Style, Structure and Narrative Technique. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1982. ELH

Mann, Charles. 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. New York: Knopf, 2011.

Page 29 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Manning, Patrick, and Barry K. Gills, eds. Andre Gunder Frank and Global Development: Visions, Remembrances, and Explorations. New York: Routledge, 2013. Maravall, José Antonio. Wayne State University Press, 1991.

Detroit:

Amboyna

Eighteenth-Century Life 22,

In A Companion to Eighteenth-Century English Novel and Culture, edited by Blackwell, 2006. Markley, Robert. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

.

(p.248) Philological Quarterly Mariscal, George. Contradictory Subjects: Quevedo, Cervantes, and Seventeenth-Century Spanish Culture. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991.

Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies Martin, Adrienne Laskier. An Erotic Philology of Golden Age Spain. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2008. Martínez-Bonati, Félix. Don Quixote and the Poetics of the Novel. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992.

and Society Based on a Study of the Chicago, 1973. Marx, Karl. A Contribution to the critique of Political Economy. Translated by S. W. Ryasankaya. Edited by Maurice Dobb. New York: International Publishers, 1970. Marx, Karl. Capital. Translated by Ben Fowkes. New York: Vintage Books, 1977. Marx, Karl. Karl Marx: A Reader. Edited by Jon Elster. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Page 30 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Marx, Karl. Grundrisse: Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy. Translated by Martin Nicolaus. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Classics, 1993. Marx, Karl. Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, vol. 1. Edited by Friedrich Engels. Translated by Samuel Moore and Edward Aveling. Reprint, New York: Cosimo Classics, 2007.

boundary 2, 29, no. 2

Mauss, Marcel. The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies. London: Cohen, 1990. McCloskey, Jason, and Ignacio López Aleman, eds. Signs of Power in Habsburg Spain and the New World. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2013. The Oxford Handbook of the History of Consumption Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. McGann, Jerome. A New Republic of Letters. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014. McKeon, Michael.

. Baltimore: Johns

Hopkins University Press, 1987. McKeon, Michael, ed. Theory of the Novel: A Historical Approach. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000. McKeon, Michael. The Secret History of Domesticity: Public, Private, and the Division of Knowledge. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. History Workshop Journal 63, no. 1

McMahon, Keith. Misers, Shrews, and Polygamists: Sexuality and Male-Female Relationships in Eighteenth-Century Chinese Fiction. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995. McMahon, Keith. Polygamy and Sublime Passion: Sexuality in China on the Verge of Modernity. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2010. McMurran, Mary Helen. The Spread of Novels: Translation and Prose Fiction in the Eighteenth Century. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009. (p.249) McNeill, William H., and John R. McNeill. eye View of World History. New York: W.W. Norton, 2003. Page 31 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography McPherson, Kenneth. The Indian Ocean: A History of People and the Sea. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Menocal, María Rosa. The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 2002. Cultural Mobility: A Manifesto UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Mignolo, Walter. Local Histories/Global Designs: Coloniality, Subaltern Knowledges, and Border Thinking. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.

The South Atlantic Quarterly

Asian Journal of Social Science Mille, Harry.

. New

York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.

Ancient English Poetry

Reliques of Eighteenth-Century Studies, 43, no. 3 (2010):

The Far Eastern Quarterly 552. Miyosh, Masao. Off Center: Power and Culture Relations Between Japan and the United States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998. Moerman, D. Max. Localizing Paradise: Kumano Pilgrimage and the Religious Landscape of Premodern Japan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006.

Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 36, no. 2

Moore, Steven. The Novel: An Alternative History. 2 vols. New York: Continuum, 2011.

Page 32 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Moretti, Franco. The Way of the World: The Bildungsroman in European Culture. Translated by Albert Sbragia. London: Verso, 1987. Moretti, Franco. Modern Epic: The World System from Goethe to Garcia Marquez. New York: Verso, 1996. Moretti, Franco.

. London: Verso, 1998. New Left Review 1(2000):

Moretti, Franco. Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History. London: Verso, 2005.

New Left Review 41 (2006). Weltliteratur

Studying

Transcultural Literary History Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2006. Moretti, Franco, ed. The Novel, 2 vols. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007. New Left Review 52 (2008):

Monumenta Nipponica Morton, Timothy. The Poetics of Spice: Romantic Consumerism and the Exotic. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000. (p.250) Morton, Timothy. The Ecological Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010. Morton, Timothy. Hyperobjects: Philosophy and Ecology after the End of the World. Minneapolis: University Of Minnesota Press, 2013. Mostow, Joshua S. Pictures of the Heart: The Hyakunin Isshu in Word and Image. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1996. Food in Chinese Culture: Anthropological and Historical Perspective University Press, 1977. Mote, F. M. Press, 2003.

. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Page 33 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Moulton, Ian F. Before Pornography: Erotic Writing in Early Modern England. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Critical Inquiry Mungello, D. E. Curious Land: Jesuit Accommodation and the Origins of Sinology. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1985. Mungello, D. E. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999.

.

Murasaki Shikibu. The Tale of Genji. Translated by Royall Tyler. New York: Penguin Classics, 2001. Nancy, Jean-Luc. The Creation of the World, or Globalization. Translation and introduction by François Raffoul and David Pettigrew. Albany, NY: SUNY, 2007. Hispanic Review Nenzi, Laura. Excursions in Identity: Travel and the Intersection of Place, Gender, and Status in Edo Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2008.

Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies Nieuhof, Johannes. An Embassy from the East-India Company of the United Excellencies Peter de Goyer and Jacob de Keyzer, at His Imperial City of Peking. 2nd ed. London: By author, 1673. Nishiyama, Matsunosuke. Edo Culture: Daily Life and Diversions in Urban Japan, . Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997. Novak, Maximillian E. Economics and the Fiction of Daniel Defoe. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962. Osamu, Oba. Books and Boats: Sino-Japanese Relations and Cultural Transmission in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Trans. Joshua A. Fogel. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2011. Padrón, Ricardo. The Spacious Word: Cartography, Literature, and Empire in Early Modern Spain. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004.

Page 34 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography

Triunfo de la fee en los reynos de Japón of Medieval and Early Modern Studies

Journal

Palumbo-Liu, David et al., eds. Immanuel Wallerstein and the Problem of the World: System, Scale, Culture. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011. Parker, Alexander A. Literature and the Delinquent: The Picaresque Novel in . Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press, 1978. Comparative Literature Studies 41, no.

(p.251)

World: The Oxford Handbook of the History of

Consumption Press, 2012. Paulson, Ronald. Don Quixote in England: The Aesthetics of Laughter. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998. Percy, Thomas. Hau kiou choaan, or The Pleasing History: A Translation from the Chinese Language. 4 vols. London: R. and J. Dodsley, 1761. Peres, Louis. Daily Life in Early Modern Japan. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2002. Perkins, David. Is Literary History Possible? Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992. Perkins, Franklin. Leibniz and China: A Commerce of Light. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Perry, Curtis. Material Culture and Cultural Materialisms in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2001. Perry, Ruth. Novel Relations: The Transformation of Kinship in English . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Pflugfelder, Gregory M. Cartographies of Desire: Male-Male Sexuality in Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.

In Hybridising East and West: Tales Beyond Westernization: Empirical Contributions to the Debates on Hybridity, edited by Dominique Schirmer et al.,

Page 35 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography

New Global Studies Pinet, Simone. Archipelagoes: Insular Fictions from Chivalric Romance to the Novel. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011. Theory and Society 16, no. 2

Plaks, Andrew. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987.

New Left Review The Novel, Vol.1: History, Geography, and Culture Princeton University Press, 2007. Pollak, Ellen. University Press, 2003.

. Baltimore: John Hopkins

Pomeranz, Kenneth. The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000. Pomeranz, Kenneth, and Steven Topik. The World That Trade Created: Society, Culture, and the World Economy, 1400 to the Present. 3rd ed. New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2012. Poovey, Mary. Genres of the Credit Economy: Mediating Value in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Britain. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2008.

Eighteenth-Century Studies 33, no.

Porter, David. Ideographia: The Chinese Cipher in Early Modern Europe. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. Porter, David. The Chinese Taste in Eighteenth-Century England. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010. (p.252) Eighteenth-Century Studies 306.

Profession Page 36 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Porter, David, ed. Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.

. New York:

Prendergast, Christopher, ed. Debating World Literature. New York: Verso, 2004. Prescott, William H. The History of the Conquest of Mexico. New York: Random House, 2010. The Oxford Handbook of the History of Consumption Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Price, Leah. The Anthology and the Rise of the Novel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Portuguese Asia: Aspects in History and Economic History, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries Stuttgart: Steiner Verlag, 1987.

German Literature as World Literature,

Vision of China in the English Literature of the 17th and 18th Centuries, edited by Adrian Hsia,

Qin Xiurong, ed. Jin Ping Mei hui ping hui jiao ben (A Collated Edition of Plum with Collected Traditional Commentaries). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1998. Quint, David. Quijote. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005.

Popular Culture in Late Imperial China Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.

Digital Defoe Reichwein, Adolf. China and Europe: Intellectual and Artistic Contacts in the Eighteenth Century. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1968. Reiss, Timothy J. Against Autonomy: Global Dialectics of Cultural Exchange. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003.

Page 37 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Rémusat, Jean-Pierre Abel. Iu-kiao-li, ou, Les deux cousins. Paris: Moutardier, 1826. Rémusat, Jean-Pierre Abel. Iu-Kiao-li, or the Two Fair Cousins, 2 vols. Translated from French by Hunt and Clarke of York Street. London: Hunt and Clarke, 1827, Ricapito, Joseph V. Creativity. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1996. Comparative Literature Studies 37,

Richardson, Samuel. Clarissa, or the History of a Young Lady London: Penguin Books, 1985. Richardson, Samuel. Pamela: Or, Virtue Rewarded. Oxford: Oxford University Press, [1741], 2001. (p.253) Richetti, John J. Popular Fiction before Richardson: Narrative Patterns, . Oxford: Clarendon, 1992. Miguel de Cervantes, edited by Harold

Robins, Nicholas A. Mercury, Mining, and Empire: The Human and Ecological Cost of Colonial Silver Mining in the Andes. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011. Rodríguez Magda, Rosa María. Transmodernidad. Barcelona: Anthropos, 2004. Rolston, David L., ed. How to Read the Chinese Novel. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990. Rosado, Diego G. Lopez. Historia del Peso Mexicano. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1975. Rosenthal, Laura J. Infamous Commerce: Prostitution in Eighteenth-Century British Literature and Culture. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006. Modern China

Proceedings of the International Conference on Sinology, Section on Literature Academia Sinica, 1981.

Page 38 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Jin Ping Mei CLEAR Ruberto, Laura E. et al., eds. Bakhtin and the Nation. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2000.

Climatic Change Rugo, Daniele. Jean-Luc Nancy and the Thinking of Otherness. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013.

México y la Cuenca del Pacífico, 12, no.

Saffar, Ruth S. El, and Diana de Armas Wilson, eds. Quixotic Desire: Psychoanalytic Perspectives on Cervantes. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993. Said, Edward. Culture and Imperialism. London: Vintage, 1994. Said, Edward. Orientalism. 25th anniversary edition with 1995 afterword. New York: Penguin Classics, 2003. Sakaki, Atsuko. Obsessions with the Sino-Japanese Polarity in Japanese Literature. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2005. Salmon, Claudine. Literary Migrations: Traditional Chinese Fiction in Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2013.

Journal of World History Sánchez, Francisco J. An Early Bourgeois Literature in Golden Age Spain: Lazarillo de Tormes, Guzmán de Alfarache, and Baltasar Gracián. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003. Sansom, Sir George Bailey. Stanford University Press, 1965.

. Stanford, CA:

Santangelo, Paolo. Sentimental Education in Chinese History: An Interdisciplinary Textual Research on Ming Qing Sources. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003. (p.254) CLEAR

Page 39 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography

Discipline Report. http://stateofthediscipline.acla.org/entry/comparativeliterature-next-ten-years (accessed May 8, 2014). Saussy, Haun, ed. Comparative Literature in an Age of Globalization: The 2005 ACLA Report on the State of the Discipline. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006.

Eighteenth-Century Studies Schmidt, Rachel. Forms of Modernity: Don Quixote and Modern Theories of the Novel. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2011.

Shunzhi through Qianlong Asia Harrassowitz Verlag, 2010.

Trading Networks in Early Modern East

Schurz, William Lytle. The Manila Galleon. Boston: E. P. Dutton, 1959. Schwartz, Frank J., and Susan J. Pharr, eds. The State of Civil Society in Japan. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Radical History Review Don Quixote Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos

Novella La española inglesa. Crítica Hispánica

Shirane, Haruo, ed. 1900. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. The Tale of Genji and the Dynamics of Cultural Production: Envisioning The Tale of Genji: Media, Gender, and Cultural Production Columbia University Press, 2008. Shirane, Haruo, and Tomi Suzuki, eds. Inventing the Classics: Modernity, National Identity, and Japanese Literature. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002.

Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies Page 40 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography PMLA

Comparison: Theories, Approaches, Uses Hopkins University Press, 2013. Shu-Mei Shih, and Françoise Lionnet, eds. The Creolization of Theory. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011. Sieber, Patricia. Theaters of Desire: Authors, Readers, and the Reproduction of . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. Simerka, Barbara. Discourses of Empire: Counter-Epic Literature in Early Modern Spain. University Park: Penn State University Press, 2008. Simon, Karla W. Civil Society in China: The Legal Framework from Ancient Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. (p.255) Comparative Literature 62, no. 4

Skinner, George William. The City in Late Imperial China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1977. So, Billy Kee Long, ed. The Economy of Lower Yangzi Delta in Late Imperial China: Connecting Money, Markets, and Institutions. London and New York: Routledge, 2013. So, Richard Jean. . New York: Columbia University Press, 2009. Spence, Jonathan. The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci. London and New York: Penguin, 1985. Spence, Jonathan. The Search for Modern China. New York: W.W. Norton, 1990. Spence, Jonathan. York: W. W. Norton, 1999.

. New

Spencer, Jane. The Rise of the Woman Novelist: From Aphra Behn to Jane Austen. Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1986. Robinson Crusoe, Moll Flanders, and Roxana. The Modern Language Review

Page 41 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. Death of a Discipline. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003. Narrative 14, no.

Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. An Aesthetic Education in the Era of Globalization. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012. Stanley, Amy. Selling Women: Prostitution, Markets, and the Household in Early Modern Japan. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012. Eighteenth-Century Studies 43, no. 4 (2010):

Stein, Stanley J. and Barbara H. Stein, eds. Silver, Trade, and War: Spain and America in the Making of Early Modern Europe. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2003. Stern, Philip J. and Carl Wennerlind, eds. Mercantilism Reimagined: Political Economy in Early Modern Britain and Its Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.

The Qing Formation in World-Historical Time, edited by Lynn

American Historical Review 112,

Sullivan, Henry W. Part 2. University Park: Penn State University Press, 1996. Sunar, Lütfi. Marx and Weber on Oriental Societies: In the Shadow of Western Modernity. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2014. Suzuki, Tomi. Narrating the Self: Fictions of Japanese Modernity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997.

South Atlantic Quarterly Tadmor, Naomi. Family and Friends in Eighteenth-Century England: Household Kinship and Patronage. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Page 42 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Tagliacozzo, Eric, and Wen-Chin Chang, eds. Chinese Circulations: Capital, Commodities, and Networks in Southeast Asia. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011. (p.256) Tang, Xiaobing. Chinese Modern: The Heroic and the Quotidian. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000. New Literary History 39, no.

Tantillo, Astrida Orle.

Period: Sakoku 306.

. London: Continuum, 2010.

Journal of Japanese Studies

Taylor, Mark C. The Moment of Complexity: Emerging Network Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.

World Literature Studies 5,

in Tom Jones

Eighteenth-Century Fiction

Thomas, Henry. Spanish and Portuguese Romances of Chivalry [1920]. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Thompson, Helen. Ingenuous Subjection: Compliance and Power in the Eighteenth-Century Domestic Novel. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005.

Eighteenth-Century Fiction Thompson, Michael, ed. Georg Lukács Reconsidered: Critical Essays in Politics, Philosophy, and Aesthetics. New York: Continuum, 2011. Thornber, Karen. Empire of Texts in Motion: Chinese, Korean, and Taiwanese Transculturations of Japanese Literature. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.

American Comparative Literature Association (ACLA) State of the Discipline Report 2014. http://stateofthediscipline.acla.org/entry/comparative-literatureworld-literature-and-asia.

Page 43 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Jinpingmei Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies Tilly, Charles. MA: Blackwell, 1992. Todd, Dennis. 2010.

. Malden,

. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press,

Totman, Conrad D. Early Modern Japan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993. Traganou, Jilly. Meiji Japan. New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004. Trentmann, Frank, and John Brewer, eds. Consuming Cultures, Global Perspectives: Historical Trajectories, Transnational Exchanges. Oxford and New York: Berg, 2006. Trentmann, Frank, ed. The Oxford Handbook of the History of Consumption. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. The Kenyon Review 10, no. 1

Trocki, Carl A. Opium, Empire and the Global Political Economy: A Study of the . London: Psychology Press, 1999. Tsai, Shih-shan Henry. The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty. Albany, NY: SUNY, 1996. Comparative Literature Studies Turnbull, Stephen. The Samurai: A Military History New York: Routledge, [1977], 2013. Twitchett, Denis C., ed. Cambridge History of China

(p.257) Ueda, Atsuko. Concealment of Politics, Politics of Concealment: The . Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007. Vaporis, Constantine Nomikos. Breaking Barriers: Travel and the State in Early Modern Japan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994.

Page 44 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Vilches, Elvira. New World Gold: Cultural Anxiety and Monetary Disorder in Early Modern Spain. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010.

Signs of Power in Habsburg Spain and the New World 212. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2013. Jin Ping Mei

Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies Monetary The Journal of Economic History

von Glahn, Richard. Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China, . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996. von Glahn, Richard and Paul Jakov Smith, eds. The Song-Yuan-Ming Transition in Chinese History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003. Economy of Lower Yangzi Delta in Late Imperial China: Connecting Money, Markets, and Institutions

History Compass Wagner, Peter. Modernity as Experience and Interpretation: A New Sociology of Modernity. Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2008. Wahrman, Dror. The Making of the Modern Self: Identity and Culture in Eighteenth-Century England. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006. Waley-Cohen, Joanna. The Sextants of Beijing: Global Currents in Chinese History. New York: W.W. Norton, 2000. Wallerstein, Immanuel Maurice. The Modern World-System (Studies in Social Discontinuity

Routledge Handbook of World-Systems Analysis, York: Routledge, 2012.

International Social Sciences Journal

Page 45 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Waltner, Ann Beth. Getting an Heir: Adoption and the Construction of Kinship in Late Imperial China. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1991. Walzer, Michael. Toward a Global Civil Society. Providence, RI: Berghahn, 1995. Wang, David Der-Wei. Fin-de-Siècle Splendor: Repressed Modernities of Late . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997.

boundary Wang, Hui. China from Empire to Nation-State. Translated by Michael Gibbs Hill. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014. (p.258) Wang, Rumei. Wang Rumei Jiedu Jin Ping Mei (Interpretations of The Plum in the Golden Vase by Wang Rumei). Jilin, China: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2007. Warner, William Beatty. Licensing Entertainment: The Elevation of Novel . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998. Washburn, Dennis C. The Dilemma of the Modern in Japanese Fiction. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995. boundary 2 28, no. 2 (2001):

Watt, Ian. The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson, and Fielding. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957. EighteenthCentury Fiction Jin Ping Mei cihua and Dynastic Crisis and Cultural Innovation: From the Late Ming to the Late Qing and Beyond, edited by David Der-wei Wang and

Theory, Culture and Society 23,

White, Jerry. A Great and Monstrous Thing: London in the Eighteenth Century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013.

, edited by Ulla Grapard

Page 46 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Widmer, Ellen. The Beauty and the Book: Women and Fiction in NineteenthCentury China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006.

and Roxana

Robinson Crusoe Reading with a Difference: Gender, Race, and Cultural Identity,

1993. Wiggin, Bethany. Novel Translations: The European Novel and the German Book, 1680 to 1730. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011.

Seminar: A Journal of Germanic Studies 49, no. 2

The Wilson Quarterly Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977. Williamson, Edwin. The Half-Way House of Fiction: Don Quixote and Arthurian Romance. Oxford: Clarendon, 1984.

Bulletin of Spanish Studies 84, no.

Wills, John E., Jr. Embassies and Illusions, Dutch and Portuguese Envoys to . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984.

Consumption and the World of Goods, edited by

The Cambridge Companion to Cervantes Cambridge University Press, 2002. (p.259) Wilson, Diana de Armas. Cervantes, the Novel, and the New World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Winks, Robin W., and James R. Rush, eds. Asia in Western Fiction. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1990. Wolf, Eric. Europe and the People without History. 2nd edition. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010.

Page 47 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Wong, Roy Bin. China Transformed: Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997. Wood, Denis, and John Fels. The Power of Maps. New York: Guilford, 1992. Wood, Denis, and John Fels. Rethinking the Power of Maps. New York: Guilford, 2012. Woodside, Alexander. Lost Modernities: China, Vietnam, Korea, and the Hazards of World History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006. The Second Common Reader [1932], by

Xie, Ming. Conditions of Comparison: Reflections on Comparative Intercultural Inquiry. London: Continuum, 2011. Jin Ping Mei Wenxue Yichan (Literary Heritage Jin Ping Mei: Bai Yue CLEAR Yang, Chi-Ming. Performing China: Virtue, Commerce, and Orientalism in . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011. Ye, Guitong. Lun Jin Ping Mei (On The Plum in the Golden Vase). Henan, China: Zhongzhouguji chubanshe, 2005. Yonemoto, Marcia. Mapping Early Modern Japan: Space, Place, and Culture in . Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003. The Economic Aspects of the History of the Civilization of Japan. Vol. 2. New York: Routledge, 2004. Yoshihiko, Amino. Rethinking Japanese History. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2012. Young, Robert J. C. White Mythologies: Writing History and the West. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 1990, 2004. Yovanovich, Gordana. Play and the Picaresque: Lazarillo de Tormes, Libro de Manuel, and Match Ball. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999. Yu, Anthony C. Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001.

Page 48 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Bibliography Zamora, Margarita. Reading Columbus. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. The Novel. Vol. 1: History, Geography, and Culture Press, 2007. Zhang, Longxi. The Tao and the Logos: Literary Hermeneutics, East and West. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992. Zhang, Longxi. Mighty Opposites: From Dichotomies to Differences in the Comparative Study of China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998. World Literature in Theory 2014. Zhang, Longxi. From Comparison to World Literature. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 2015. (p.260)

Elective Affinities (Die

Wahlverwandtschaften) through The Story of the Stone (Hong Lou Meng): German Literature as World Literature London: Bloomsbury, 2014. Zhang, Yingjin, ed. China in a Polycentric World: Essays in Chinese Comparative Literature. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998. Zhao, Gang. 1757. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2013. Jin Ping Mei cihua

Plum

Wenxue 1,

no. 1 (1933). In Jin Ping Mei ziliao huilu (Collected Sources of Plum), edited by

Monumenta Serica The Journey to the West: Cultural Dialogism in CLEAR

Access brought to you by:

Page 49 of 49

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Index

The Age of Silver: The Rise of the Novel East and West Ning Ma

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780190606565 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2017 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190606565.001.0001

(p.261) Index Abu-Lughod, Janet, 4, actor-network theory, 9, 31 Afro-Eurasian (Old World) ecumene, 5, Age of Discovery, 7, , Age of Silver, , Amadís of Gaul, 86 Anderson, Benedict, 8, Anthropocenic materialist perspective, 6, Arrighi, Giovanni, 4, 24, Auerbach, Eric, Bakhtin, Mikhail, 8, Balázs, Étienne, 59 Bentley, Jerry, 5 Bhabha, Homi, 9, 34 Bildungsroman, 48, Blaut, James, 4 Braudel, Fernand, 3, 24, Bronze Age, 5 Casanova, Pascale, 3 Cervantes, Miguel de, 7, , 144 Chakrabarty, Dipesh,

,

, civil society: late Ming China, 61; as substate cultural forces, , Cohen, Warren I., 4 Columbus, Christopher, 21, 59, Communist Manifesto, The, 1, Confucian cardinal relations, 12 consumption and commodities, 27 counterhistory, 11 culture as mobility and constraint, 12 Page 1 of 5

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Index Damrosch, David, 5 Defoe, Daniel, 7, 13, , A New Voyage Round the World, . See also Moll Flanders; Robinson Crusoe; Roxana Deleuze, Gilles, 9, 33, 39 Dimock, Wai Chee, 9, Dirlik, Arif, 21 Don Quixote, 7, 12, 42, , Dream of the Red Chamber, The (Honglou Meng), 41, 48, 54, Dussel, Enrique, 18, East India Company (EIC), 140 Eckermann, Johann Peter, 2 ecomaterialist comparatism, 15 Engels, Frederick, 1, 6, 16 Eurocentrism, 3, 18 Fabian, Johannes, 5, 18 female images, 77, 159 Fielding, Henry, 47 20, (p.262) First Opium War, 17, 25 Five Cardinal Relations (Confucianism), 66, , , Fletcher, Joseph, ,4 13, , Frank, Andre Gunder, 4, 23, 57 Fuggers, the, Gallagher, Catherine, 11 Glissant, Édouard, 9, Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 2, 6, , , Wilhelm Meister, Goldmann, Lucien, 40 Goldstone, Jack, 4 Goody, Jack, 4 Greenblatt, Stephen, Guattari, Félix, 9, 33, 39 Hanan, Patrick, 41, 52 Hao qiu zhuan, Hayot, Eric, Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (The Philosophy of History), 17 heterarchy, 33 heteroglossia, 9, , 36 Hideyoshi, Toyotomi, 22, 42, 113 Hobson, John M, 4 horizontal continuities, , , 11, 15, imagined communities, 9, imperial Spain, 12, , relations to China, Jameson, Fredric, 8, 12, Page 2 of 5

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Index Jin Yun Qiao zhuan (Romance of the Golden Hairpin), 174 Johnson, Samuel, 176 Journey to the West, The (Xiyou ji), 53 Latour, Bruno, 9, 31 Lazarillo de Tormes, 12, 42, Lieberman, Victor, 4, 59 Life of an Amorous Man ( ), 7, 13, literary geography: in Defoe, , in Don Quixote, in The Plum in the Golden Vase, in Saikaku, Lu, Xun, 36, 54 Lukács, Georg, 8, Lusiads, The, 89 luxury goods (silk, spice, exotics), 27; in The Plum in the Golden Vase, in Saikaku, (silk) in Don Quixote, macrohistory, Mark, Karl, 1, 6, , Theories of Surplus Value, 19 Markley, Robert, , 51, 141 materiality: as bodily forces, 45; and sexuality, 45, , 76, Mignolo, Walter, modernity: capitalism, 3, , 19, 24, 59; 5, 18; early modernity, 6, 21; East Asian, 21; English, 26; as a Eurocentric concept, 18; , 43, Japan, 110; late Ming China, modernity versus (Euro-)Modernity, 6; Song China, 60 Moll Flanders, 13, 46, money and commerce, 7, 9; Golden Age Spain, 81; late Ming China, monoglossia, 9, 13 Moretti, Franco, 3, , 60 national allegories, 9, national problem of materiality, 8, 44, 114 networkedness, novel: and civil dynamics, 14, 35, and colonialism, 44, as a cross-continental phenomenon, Page 3 of 5

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Index and the nation, 8, 12, 32; (p.263) realism, , 28, 39, , , , 107, 113, 140, 6, 13, Spanish and English origins, 7, , 144; theories, 8, 28, Orientalism, 4 Outlaws of the Marsh (Shuihu zhuan), , , 67 42, 113 Percy, Thomas, 47 picaresque novels, planetarity, 2, 9, Plum in the Golden Vase, The, (Jin Ping Mei), 7, 12, 41, , political unconsciousness, 12 Pomeranz, Kenneth, 4, 23 Porter, David, Potosí, , Quevedo, Francisco Gómez de, Quijano, Anibal, 19 reification, , 10, 45 Rémusat, Jean-Pierre Abel, 47, , , , rhizome, 9, 33, 39 Richardson, Samuel, , , Robinson Crusoe, 7, 9, 35, , 85, romance, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The (Sanguo yanyi), 53 Roxana, 13, 46, Said, Edward, 4, 29, 40 Saikaku, Ihara, 7, 13, , 20, 143 Shih, Shu-mei, silver: in Don Quixote, in The Plum in the Golden Vase, in Robinson Crusoe, in Saikaku, silver trade, 6, 16, , 42, , , , 102 Skinner, William, 60, 66 Smith, Adam (The Wealth of Nations), , Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty, 2, 9, 17, Tale of Genji, The, 42 , , Tokugawa Japan, transcendental homelessness, 8, 14 transmodernity, 113 vernacular cosmopolitanism, , 34 Wallerstein, Immanuel, 3, , Watt, Ian, 6, 8, 13, , 140 Page 4 of 5

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020

Index Weber, Max, 59 Wong, Roy Bin, 4 Woolf, Virginia, , and the novel, 39; Weltliteratur, , 6, , world market, 1, , 107 world system analysis, , 23

,

Access brought to you by:

Page 5 of 5

PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2020. All Subscriber: University of Edinburgh; date: 25 May 2020