The Aesthetics of Shadow: Lighting and Japanese Cinema 9780822399667
By exploring the "aesthetics of shadow" in Japanese cinema in the first half of the twentieth century and trea
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English Pages 400 [394] Year 2013
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The AesTheTics of
s h A d o w
The AesTheTics of
s h A d o w Lighting and Japanese Cinema
D a i s u k e M i ya o
DukeUniversityPress DurhamandLondon 2013
©2013DukeUniversityPress Allrightsreserved PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmericaonacid-freepaper♾ DesignedbyHeatherHensley TypesetinArnoProbyTsengInformationSystems,Inc. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataappear onthelastprintedpageofthisbook.
For Dica
Contents
Acknowledgments
ix
IntroductIon
WhatistheaestheticsofshaDoW?
1
1.LightinganDcapitaList-i nDustriaL MoDernity: Shochiku and Hollywood
15
2.fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar: Shochiku and Jidaigeki
67
3.streetfiLMs: Shochiku and Germany
119
4.theaestheticsofshaDoW: Shochiku, Toho, and Japan
173
conclusIon
thecineMatographyofMiyagaWakazuo
255
notes
283
BIBlIogrAphy
329
Index
365
AC k n ow l e d g m e n t s
IameternallygratefultothelateRobertSklar,mymentor.Ihad countlessjoyfulmomentswithhimwhenwetalkedaboutfilms and books. With his generosity, patience, and continuous encouragement,Ihavebeenabletotransformmyselffromanaïve studentfrom Japanwhoknewverylittle about thepracticeof cinemastudiesintoalittlemorearticulatefilmhistorian.Thank yousoverymuch,ProfessorSklar. IowesomuchtothebigheartofthelateKeikoI.McDonald. Itwasmygreatpleasuretoreporttheprogressofmyresearchto heratannualconferences.Ourmeetingswerealwaysafterher dailyten-milerun,andshealwaysamazedmewithherpositive energy.IamsorrythatIdidnothaveachancetorunthehistoric HaywardFieldwithKeiko-sensei,whowasaUniversityofOregonalumna. SpecialthanksgotoKenWissokerofDukeUniversityPress. Kenwastheveryfirstpersonwholistenedtomyinitialrough ideaaboutwritingatransnationalhistoryofcinematiclighting. ItwasinChicagoin2007whenmybookonSessueHayakawa cameout.Hehasbeenenthusiasticaboutthisprojecteversince andguidedmethroughalongandwindingroad.Thisbookisa collaborationbetweenKenandme. AsmyprojectinvolvedextensiveresearchbothintheUnited States and Japan, I have been very fortunate to be assisted by manyinstitutions.IthankaboveallCharlesSilverattheMuseum ofModernArt,FilmStudyCenterinNewYork;OkajimaHisa-
shi,OkadaHidenori,TochigiAkira,IrieYoshiro,andItakuraFumiakiatthe NationalFilmCenter,theNationalMuseumofModernArt,Tokyo;Wachi Yukiko,FukudaAtsuko,andstaffmembersatKawakitaMemorialFilmInstitute;MoriwakiKiyotakaattheMuseumofKyoto;YasuiYoshioatKobe PlanetEigaShiryokan;BarbaraHallattheMargaretHerrickLibraryofthe CenterforMotionPictureStudy;MonaNagaiandJasonSandersatthe PacificFilmArchive;JohnMhiripiriattheAnthologyFilmArchive;and staffmembersattheUniversityofOregonKnightLibrary’sInterlibrary LoanOffice.IhavealsobenefitedgreatlyfrommyvisitstotheNewYork PublicLibraryforPerformingArts,ucLaDepartmentofSpecialCollections,TsubouchiMemorialTheaterMuseumatWasedaUniversity,theNationalDietLibrary,andShochikuOtaniLibrary. AnacLs/ssrc/nehFellowship,CenterfortheStudyofWomenin SocietyResearchGrant,OregonHumanitiesCenterResearchFellowship, RichardA.BrayFacultyFellowship,andotherinternalresearchgrantsat theUniversityofOregonprovidedmewithprecioustimeandfundingto completethisbook. KotaniEiichi,KuritaToyomichi,MiyagawaJiro,OkadaMariko,Wakao Ayako,andYoshidaKijusharedpreciousstoriesofJapanesefilmmaking withme. IamdeeplygratefultoStevenBrown,RebeccaFowler,HideakiFujiki, TomGunning,EliseHansen,AbéMarkusNornes,andYomotaInuhiko, whokindlyreadsectionsofthisbookatvariousstagesandgavemevaluablecommentsandencouragements. CheerstoKathleenKarlyn,MikeAronson,PriscillaPeñaOvalle,SangitaGopal,KatharinaLowe,KateMondloch,AudraMahoney,andthefacultyandthestaffoftheCinemaStudiesProgramattheUniversityofOregon.Iamhonoredtosharetheloveofcinemawithyou. Among many friends, colleagues, and mentors on both sides of the Pacificwhohaveprovidedinvaluableprofessionalandemotionalsupport, IwouldliketoparticularlythankCharlesAffron,DudleyAndrew,Chris Arnold, Keri Aronson, Kathryn Barton, Jennifer M. Bean, Betty Chen, StephenDurrant,MaramEpstein,RobertFelsing,FunatsuAkiko,Aaron Gerow, Carol Gluck, Frances Guerin, Heidi Johnson, Patrick Keating, ChikaKinoshita,HiroshiKitamura,ColleenLaird,TomLaMarre,JeanMa, MatsudoMakoto(PinewoodCompany),MatsuiJun(Heibonsha),ShannonMcLachlan,MizunoSachiko,ShoganNaidooandtheyMcamarathon x acknoWLeDgMents
groupinEugene(forkeepingmefitphysicallyandmentally),MiwakoOkigami,OtaYoneo(ToyFilmProject),MisaOyama,AugustaLeePalmer, Michael Raine, Donald Richie, Saito Ayako, Tze-lan Sang, Miryam Sas, ShibataMotoyuki,IrinaShport,WilliamG.Simon,BenSinger,Takeuchi Shigehiro(Eigashiryonokobeya),AlanTansman,PatrickTerry,Noboru Tomonari, Mitsuyo Wada-Marciano, Akiko and Glynne Walley, Kristen Whissel,LindaWilliams,MariYoshihara,MitsuhiroYoshimoto,andZhang Zhen. LeighBarnwellandLizSmithatDukeUniversityPresshavepatiently guidedmethroughthebook’seditorialandproductionprocesses. IalsothankenthusiasticaudiencesofmytalksattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley;CarletonCollege;theUniversityofMaryland;Stanford University;theAssociationforAsianStudies;KinemaClub;andtheSocietyforCinemaandMediaStudies. IwouldliketosincerelythankNishimuraTaro,MatsumotoToshio,TatsumiTakayuki,andthefacultyoflettersatKeioUniversity,andNotoji Masako,KunishigeJunji,andthefacultyofAmericanstudiesattheUniversityofTokyo,Komaba,fortheirtremendouskindness. I am very grateful to my parents, Miyao Shunsuke and Masami, for alwaysbelievinginme,andtomyparents-in-law,AkagiSadaoandKimiko. Lastly,very,veryspecialthanksgotothelovesofmylife:Yoko,Dica (whoisatRainbowBridge),Dot,andHoku.Withoutyou,Iwillbelostin theshadow.Withyou,Icanbebrightandcheerful.
acknoWLeDgMents xi
IntroductIon
Whatistheaesthetics ofshaDoW?
“‘Theaestheticsofshadow’[kage no bigaku]thatJapanesepeople createdoveralongperiodoftimethroughoutlongyearsstays deepinsideofourselvesnomatterhowmuchsocialtendencies change.Wewanttobringout‘theaestheticsofshadow’fromits hiddenplace,understanditcorrectly,anddoourbesttocreate Japanesecinema.”SowroteYoshinoNobutaka,aproductiondesigneratShochiku,oneofthemajorfilmcompaniesinJapan,in thejournalEiga Shomeiin1979.1Cinemaisamediumoflightand shadow.Cinemadoesnotexistwithouttheelectricallightbeam thatpassesthroughthecelluloidstriptothrowashadowimage ontoascreenbeforeaviewer.2Evenbeforetheprocessofprojection,theproductionofmovingphotographicimagesisaconstructioninlightandshadow.Evendigitalcamerasneedlightto inputinformationtobetransformedintodata.Itisthereforeno surprisethattheJapaneseproductiondesignerparticularlynoted lightinginJapanesecinema.WhatattractsmeinYoshino’swords, though,ishisstrongemphasisonshadow.Whatis“theaestheticsofshadow”thathebelievedtobeveryimportantinJapanese cinema? In fact, Yoshino’s claim faithfully replicated the well-known writing by renowned novelist Tanizaki Jun’ichiro, In Praise of Shadows(“Ineiraisan,”December1933–January1934).InhisdiscussionofJapanesearchitecture,Tanizakiwrites,“Ultimately,it
isthemagicofshadows.Weretheshadowstobebanishedfromthecorners,thealcove[inaJapaneseroom]wouldinthatinstantreverttomere void.Thiswasthegeniusofour[Japanese]ancestors—thatbycuttingoff thelightfromthisemptyspacetheyimpartedtotheworldofshadowsthat formedthereaqualityofmysteryanddepthsuperiortothatofanywall paintingorornament.”3In Praise of ShadowshasbeenoneofthemostinfluentialwritingsthatexplainJapaneseaesthetics.In1940,quotingTanizaki’s discussion extensively, Midorikawa Michio, the head of the Nipponese SocietyforCinematographers(NihonEigaKameramanKyokai),stated, “Weshouldobservethebeautyofshadows,whichappearsgracefullyin theharmonyof[Japanese] architecture andlights.”4Midorikawa urged cinematographersinJapantouselightingthatwouldachieve“thebeauty ofshadows.”Forinstance,theNipponeseSocietyforCinematographers decidedonThe Battle of Kawanakajima(Kawanakajima kassen,Kinugasa Teinosuke,1941),awarfilmsetinsixteenth-centuryJapan,ashavingthe bestcinematographyforadramaticfilmoftheyearmainlybecauseof“the attractionofblackthatfillstheentirefilm.”5ThenotionthatYoshinocalled “theaestheticsofshadow”hadalreadybeenwidelysharedamongJapanese cinematographersbytheearly1940s. Curiously,however,theexpressivityofshadowshadnotbeenemphasizedinthedominantmodeoffilmlightinginJapanbeforeTanizakiwrote In Praise of Shadows.ThesloganinthefirstdecadesoffilmmakinginJapan was“Clarityfirst,storysecond”(Ichi nuke, ni suji),whichMakinoShozo, “thefatherofJapanesecinema,”hadintroducedinthe1910s.6Astheterm nuke(clarity)suggests,whatearlyJapanesefilmmakersemphasizedwas notthebeautyofdarkness,butbrightnessthatwouldmakeimagesvisible eveninworn-outprintsscreenedattheatersnotequippedwithbrightlight bulbs for projection. Shochiku inherited such an emphasis on clarity in lighting when they adopted their slogan “Bright and cheerful Shochiku cinema”(akaruku tanoshi Shochiku eiga)inthe1920s. Morecuriously,whenTanizakiwroteIn Praise of ShadowsandJapanese cinematographerswidelyagreedwithhimaboutthebeautyofshadows, Japan was leading the world in the vogue of neon signs.7 The appreciationofshadowemergedinthemidstofaflourishingcultureofelectrical light.TheacclaimedHollywoodfilmmakerJosefvonSternbergwasvery impressedbythecoexistencebetweenlightandshadowinJapanwhenhe visitedin1936.Emphasizinginparticularthesimultaneousthrivingoflight 2 introDuction
andshadow,SternbergrelatedhisfascinationwiththeJapaneselandscape toOnoShichiro,areporterforthenewlyestablishedNihon Eigajournal: TheentertainmentdistrictsinJapanaregood,especiallyatnight.The linesofvariousobjectsrisetothesurfaceincolorfulneonandallother thingsaremysteriouslyhiddenindarkness....Japaneselandscapeisas monochromeasinkpaintings,butthecolorsintheentertainmentdistrictsaregaudilygorgeous.Thereisastreetvendorsellingexoticautumn insectsrightinfrontofanAmerican-stylejazzcafé.CornisbeingbarbecuedrightnexttoicecreambeingsoldatanAmerican-styleparlor. Wearinggeta[woodenclogs]onherbarefeet,awomanwithaJapanese hairstylewalksalongthatstreet.Itisasuperbmysteriousviewthatcombinesoldandnewcultures.IfIphotographthis,itmustbeTechnicolor.8 SternbergwasarguablythefilmmakermostrespectedbyJapanesecinematographersintheearlytomid-1930s.ThisrespectwasaresultofthecinematographyinthosefilmsofSternberg’sthatmadeastarofMarleneDietrichinHollywood.Asstatedinhisautobiography,Sternberg’stheoryof cinematiclightingresidedinacreativecontrastbetweenlightandshadow. Inachapterentirelydevotedtoexplaininghisthoughtsoncinematiclighting,Sternbergconfidentlystated,“Eachlightfurnishesitsownshadow,and whereashadowisseentheremustbealight.Shadowismysteryandlight isclarity.Shadowconceals,lightreveals.(Toknowwhattorevealandwhat toconcealandinwhatdegreeandhowtodothisisallthereistoart.)A shadowisasimportantinphotographyasthelight.Onecannotexistwithouttheother.”9ThecoexistencebetweenlightandshadowthatheemphasizedherecorrespondedtohisresponsetotheJapaneselandscapein1936. ContrarytoSternberg’semphasisontheinnatebalancebetweenlight andshadowincinematiclighting,whatJapanesecinematographersand critics who specialized in film technologies particularly noted was his “crafty emphasis on shadows,” according to the cinematographer Miura Mitsuo,whohadwitnessedSternberg’sfilmmakinginHollywoodin1928 andhadphotographedThe Battle of Kawanakajimain1941.10ThecriticTakii Koji selected Sternberg’s Shanghai Express and Blonde Venus as the best American films of 1932 in terms of cinematography. In particular, Takii praisedthecinematographicachievementin“low-keytones”that“enhance theatmosphereandexpressthedrama.”11Focusingonthedistinctiveuseof shadowsinthesefilms,Takiiclaimed,“Thelow-keylightingisthehighest WhatistheaestheticsofshaDoW? 3
achievementofphotographictechnique....Itisnotsimplyaboutinvisible darkness.”12 Why did Tanizaki and Japanese cinematographers start emphasizing shadowsinthe1930swhenJapanwasinthemidstoftheflourishingculture ofelectriclight?Whydidtheyneedtheconceptifthedominantmodeof Japanesefilmmakingsincethe1910shadbeenbrightnessinlighting?Were therenoattemptstochallengethe“clarityfirst”sloganbywayofshadow beforethe1930s?Ordidtheswitchoccurinanunprecedentedmanner? Whatwerethesociopolitical,economic,orculturalcontextsbehindthis tendencytovalueshadowshighly?WhydidTanizakiandJapanesecinematographersneedtostressthesignificanceofshadowsinthenameofJapaneseculture?Wasthereanythingtheyneededtodefendorjustify?And howwastheappreciationofshadownaturalizedastheessenceofJapanese culturalidentity,asseeninYoshino’sclaim,ifitdidnotappearuntilthe 1930s? Inthis book, I bring out“‘the aesthetics ofshadow’from itshidden place”andfindawayto“understanditcorrectly.”Youwillreadhowand whythenotionthatYoshinocalled“theaestheticsofshadow”wasformulatedinthehistoryofJapanesecinema.Tobemorespecific,Itellastory aboutthetension-riddenprocessofhowtechnologiesoflightingdevelopedandhowdiscoursesonlightingwereconstructedintheformative decadesofcinemainJapan.Mystoryoftencrossesnationalbordersbecausethediscussionof“theaestheticsofshadow”insuchcloseconnection withJapaneseculturaltraditionmusthavebeenaresultofcomplicated internationalortransnationalconflictsoverlightingtechnologies.Inthis sense,Inarrateatransnational“historyofentanglementthattracesactual interconnections”offilms,filmtechnologies,filmmakers,andfilmcriticism aroundlightandshadow,tousethefilmscholarMiriamHansen’sterms.13 ThisbookisarecastingofJapanesefilmhistorythroughthetropeof lightandshadow.14LightinghasplayedasignificantrolenotonlyindistinguishingthestylesofJapanesefilmfromthoseofAmericanandEuropean film,butalsoinidentifying,orinventing,acoherentJapaneseculturaltradition.Implicitlyorexplicitly,suchquestionsaswhat is Japanese cinema?, what roles should cinema play in Japanese society?,andwhat is Japanese?have beenexaminedinthepracticeanddiscourseoflightingtechniquesand technologies.Howcouldthelightandlightingbeusedasalensforinsight intoJapaneseidentity?Howwerecinematographyandlightingpracticed, 4 introDuction
conceptualized,andtheorizedintheheterogeneousfieldsofJapanesefilm? Iarguethatlightingtechnologyincinemahasbeenstructuredbytheconflicts of modernity in Japan, including the struggles over how to define cinema,subjectivity,andnationhood.15 IdiscusstheuniquehistoryofJapanesecinemabutIdonotpresupposeanahistoricallyunifiedJapaneseness.Influencedbystructuralistand poststructuralisttheory,thefilmtheoristNoëlBurchinsistson“theJapanesedifference,inbothHeianliteratureandmodernfilmpractice.”16Even thoughBurchemphasizesthe“presence of the context”inJapanesecultural production,whatheseemstosuggestisthepresenceofthehistorically unchangingtraditionofintertextuality, inwhichtextsdonothidetheir referencetoothertexts.17AccordingtoBurch,Japanesecinemais“presentational”because itreliesonJapanese tradition, thefundamental Other tothatoftheWest,whiletheWesterncounterparthas“representational” conventions,inwhichtheprocessofculturalproductionissupposedtobe hidden.18ThereisnodoubtthatJapanesecinemaisintertextual.Lightingis clearevidenceofthis,especiallywhenShochiku,oneofthemajorfilmcompanies,standardizeditsproductatitsfilmstudioandreferredtoKabuki- stylelighting.However,thatwasnottheresultofanunchangingpresence ofJapanesetraditionbutratherofasocioeconomicchoicemadeforlocal needs—invention of tradition in the process of modernization. When I arguethatacertaincinematicstylewasdeployedinaJapanesemanner,I makethecasewithinthehistoricalcontextofJapanesemodernity. EventhoughthefocusofthisbookisonJapanesecinema,IsituateJapanesecinemawithinthebroaderfieldsoftransnationalfilmhistory.TakamuraKurataro,theformerheadoftheNipponeseSocietyforCinematographers,oncewrotethattheessenceoffilmmakingwas“howtocontrol broadanddiversetechnologicalmaneuversfromphotographing(stabilizinglightfromlensesontofilms)toprojection(exhibitingimagesrecorded onfilmontoscreensbyusinglights).”19Takamura’sclaimindicatesthat technologicalandartistic“maneuvers”oflightdonotpresupposeanyculturalornationalconflictinnature.Experimentswithtechnologicallighting incinemashouldbelocatedwithinthetransnationaldiscursiveandpracticalnetworkofapreoccupationwithandrepresentationoftechnological modernity. Atthesametime,inJapanesereality,cinematiclightinghashistorically beenstabilizedandexhibitedincloserelationtoJapan’sculturalandnaWhatistheaestheticsofshaDoW? 5
tionalidentitypolitics.20Japanesefilmmakinghasbeenaninternationalaffair.After1897,whenKonishiCameraStorepurchasedaBaxterandWray camerafromtheUnitedKingdomandAsanoShirobecamethefirstJapanesecinematographerwhousedthecameraandphotographedlandscapes ofNihonbashiandAsakusaofTokyo,Japanesefilmcompaniesimported most of the cameras, lighting equipment, projectors, and raw film from EuropeandtheUnitedStates.21Allofthoseimportedmaterialswerecontinuouslyinshortsupply.In1919,thepioneercinematographerEdamasa Yoshiro insisted, “Both directors and cinematographers know very well thatitisimpossibletohavegoodresultsinfilmmakingwithweakbeamsof light....[However,]currently,equipmentforusingartificiallightingisnot complete.Wecannothelpdependingonlyonthesunlight.Itisthemost urgentissueforustohaveproperequipmentforartificiallighting.”22 Therehashistoricallybeenanunequalgeopoliticalrelationship,oran imbalance of power, between Japan and the United States. There is no doubtthatHollywoodhasplayedaubiquitousroleinthedevelopment oflightingtechnologyinJapan.YettherelationshipbetweenHollywood and Japanese cinema has not simply been a binary opposition between the production and distribution center and periphery, between cultural dominanceandresistance,orbetweenglobalandlocal.Thefilmscholar DavidBordwellclaimsthatalltheworld’smass-marketcinemasmighthave beenbasedonthestandardcontinuitystylepioneeredbyclassicalHollywood, as the ground against which the stylistic accomplishments of indigenousfilmmakerscanbeanalyzed.23But,asMiriamHansensuggests, thatdoesnotmaketheworld’smass-marketcinemas“simplyvariantsofa dominantstyle.”24Hansenargues,“IffilmmakersinChinaandJapanconfrontedHollywoodhegemonyinbothitsenablinganddestructiveeffects, theireffortstoforgeidiomsoftheirownwerecruciallyinflectedbyalarger vernacular-modernistcultureat oncecosmopolitanandlocal.”25 Bearinginmindsuchtensioninthegeopoliticalperspectivebetween atransnationalityandanationality,IdrawonthehistorianHarryHarootunian’sconceptof“co-evalmodernity,”whichsuggeststhenarrativeof modernityinJapantobe“contemporaneityyetthepossibilityofdifference,”withoutignoringthecomplexglobalpowerrelations.26Harootunian regardsa“doubling”as“auniqueemblemofJapan’smodernexperience”; fascinationwiththenewuncertaintyandfixationofsuchtemporalityand resistancetothecultureofcapitalism;or“therecognitionofavastfield 6 introDuction
ofeconomicandculturalunevennessthatit[doubling]soughttoresolve, overcome, and even repress.”27 Following Harootunian’s idea of a doubling,thisbookregardstheideaofJapanesemodernityasfragmentaryand provisional,inwhichkindaishugi(theideologyofmodernization,industrialization,rationalization,andscientificprogress,modeledupontheWest) andmodanizumu(discoursesofnewnessineverydaylifeandmaterialsof consumerculture)existedinanambivalentmanner. The aesthetics of shadow emerged in a process of transnational and cross-cultural negotiation in Japanese modernity. When I use the term negotiation,IhaveStuartHall’sinfluentialessay“Encoding/Decoding”in mind.Hallproposesthreedecodingstrategiesinpracticesofreadingand makingsenseofculturaltexts.28Negotiatedreadingismoreambivalent thandominantreading,whichwouldpresumenoactiveinterventionatall onthepartofthedecoder,oroppositionalreading,whichwouldassumeno identificationatallwiththestructuresofinterpellationofthetext.Asthe filmscholarJudithMaynesuggests,whilethemodelofnegotiation“posits boththeactivityofthereader/viewerandtheheterogeneityofthedifferentelementsofsocialformations”and“conceivesofavarietyofreading,” thereis“atendency”inculturalstudiesofregardingsuchheterogeneity andactivityasanindicationof“aresistancetodominantideology.”29Such atendencyeventuallymaintainsthebinarystructurebetweenthedominantversustheoppositional.Idonotconsiderthenotionofnegotiation tobeaformofresistance.Iammoreconcernedabouthistoricallyspecificstrugglesandconflictsamonggroupsofpeople.Someofthemcould beinpoliticallyoreconomicallydominantpositionsandothersinreceptiveones,butsuchrelationshipswerebynomeansunchanging.Anaudienceofapopularstarcouldbeextremelypassivetothepresumedideal ofcapitalistideologyandtremendouslyactiveatthesametime.Suchan audience could be cooperative in reinforcing thedominant ideology by notpassivelybutconsciouslyparticipatingintheconstructionofthestar’s official image. Simultaneously, his or her perception—or the affect—of theonscreenimageofthestarwasdirectandphysicalanddiminishedthe distancebetweentheactorandhimselforherself.Tome,thenotionof negotiationgraspssuchsimultaneity,coexistence,anddialogismwithout ignoringthepowerrelations—globalpowerrelations—amonggroupsof people.Negotiationisnotlimitedtotheissueofspectatorialpositionsbut thoseofindustrialproduction,socialcriticism,andculturaltradition. WhatistheaestheticsofshaDoW? 7
Withsuchanotionofnegotiationinmind,Idescribethehistoricalprocessofhowtheaestheticsofshadowhasbeeninvented,developed,naturalized,andpublicizedinthediscourseofmodernityinJapan.Myfocus onlightingtechnologiesandtechniquesinthehistoryofJapanesecinema illustratesthefollowing:
1.Thestrugglesoverthedefinitionofcinemaforthemasses,withinthe capitalist-industrialmodernizationofShochiku,betweentheclassical styleofKabukiandHollywood. 2.Theconflictsinshapingnew(especiallyfemale)spectatorialsubjectivitywithinthatcapitalist-industrialmodernity,alongwiththeemergenceofanewgenreofperioddrama,andanewstar,arguablythe most popular star in Japanese film history, Hayashi Chojiro (later HasegawaKazuo),whosefilmswereaspecificallysensorial-affective form. 3.Theambivalentrelationshipbetweenthenewformsofsocialrelations—primacyofvision,tobespecific—andcinemaasanewvisual medium. 4.Theattemptofconceptualizingculturalauthenticityinthestruggles between the ceaseless fascination with the novel technologies of Hollywoodlightingandthedefenseofculturalspirit(bunka seishin). Chapter1isahistoricalanalysisoftheformationofthefilmindustryand modeofproductionfrom1910throughthe1920sfromtheperspectiveof light.AsaresultofWorldWarI,Japanwastransformedintoanindustrial power. Especially during the reconstruction from the Great Kanto Earthquakeof1923,Tokyobecamealargeindustrialcenter,recruitingits laborforcefromthecountryside,aswellascenterofmassconsumption. Shochiku,thecompanythatoriginallyownedandoperatedKabukitheaters,enteredthefilmbusinessin1920andestablisheditselfinthemidst ofsuchdevelopingmodernlife.TheprotagonistofthischapteriscinematographerHenryKotani,whostartedhiscareerinHollywoodaround 1915andreturnedtoJapantojoinShochikuCompany’sKamatastudioin 1920butwasfiredafewyearslater.IntheclashoflightingtechniquesbetweenKotaniandShochiku,wecanobservethestrugglingexperienceof capitalist-industrialmodernityandmodernizationinJapan.Iarguethat lightingwasconceivedbyJapanesefilmmakersandcriticsinrelationto HollywoodcinemaandJapanesetheatricalconventionsduringtheforma8 introDuction
tiveyearsofthefilmindustry.Thekeytermsarevisibilityandexpressivity. ComparisonismadebetweenKotani’sstill-extantHollywoodandJapaneseworks,alongwithcriticismofhisandotherJapanese-madefilmsof theperiod.ComparisonbetweenSternberg’sDocks of New York(1928)and itsJapaneseadaptation,First Step Ashore(Joriku daiippo,ShimazuYasujiro,1932)demonstratesthatShochiku’sfilmmakingprioritywasnotthe expressivity of lighting, no matter how highly Sternberg’s lighting techniqueswereregardedbyJapanesecinematographersatthattime.Shochiku Kamatafilms,fromaperspectiveoflighting,achieveddominantstatusin Japanesefilmmakingduringtheperiodofmodernlifenotbecauseofthe imitationofHollywoodbutbecauseofthecapitalisttacticsthateffectively combinedrationalizedproductionprocesses,thestarsystem,andconventionalizedtheatricalstyle. Chapter 2 historically combines genre studies, star studies, and spectatorshipstudiesbywayofthepracticeoflighting.Themainfocuses areonjidaigeki(perioddrama),theuniquegenreofJapanesecinemathat wasrapidlypopularizedinthelatterhalfofthe1920s,andHayashiChojiro, themostpopularmalestarinJapanfromthelate1920suntilthe1940s.In thelate1920s,jidaigekichallengedtheprevailingdominanceoftheShochikuKamatafilmthroughspectacularsword-fightingscenes.Jidaigekiincorporatedlightingandtechnologyinadistinctivemanner.Theflashof theswordwasthedefinitiveelementofthenewgenre.Inordertoachieve theflashinanexpressivemanner,jidaigekimixedHollywoodstylewithanothertheatricalconventioninJapan,shinkokugeki(newnationaltheater), whichwasnotableforswordfightsthatweremorerealisticthanKabuki.In otherwords,alocalizedproductofHollywood(ShochikuKamatafilms) was challenged by another localized product of Hollywood (jidaigeki). Makingthingsmorecomplicated,Shochikuchallengedbackatjidaigeki with its brand new star, Hayashi Chojiro. Shochiku’s counterattack was achievedbyitsowninnovativelightingtechniques—“movablelight,”onobashi(extension), andnagashi-me(sensualsidelongglance)—that were exclusively invented for Hayashi by craftily combining the Hollywood- style three-point lighting with Kabuki techniques. With the flash of the star—hisfaceandeyes,inparticular—Shochikueventuallywonthefight againsttheflashoftheswordandsucceededinmaintainingitsfinancial andstylisticdominanceintheJapanesefilmindustryatleastuntilthelate 1930s.Moreover,withHayashi’sstardom,afilmfanculturethattargeted WhatistheaestheticsofshaDoW? 9
thefemaleaudiencewasborn.Hayashi’sstardomalsomarkedtheemergenceofamodernviewingsubjectinJapanesecinemawhoactivelyparticipatedinconsumingproductspreparedandpublicizedbyacapitalist industry.Hayashifanswerephysicallysusceptibletotheeffectofcinema asamoderntechnology,buttheyweresimultaneouslyconsciousthatthey wereconsumersofthestarimage. Through investigating the social demographics of the American city and the audiences of melodrama, the film historian Ben Singer shows that the urban working class and the white-collar lower middle class— bothproductsofmoderncapitalism’sgreatbureaucraticexpansion—were the main participatory spectators and consumers of the “manufactured stimulus”offeredbysensationalamusementssuchasmelodramaonstage andscreen.30Boththeswordfightinginjidaigekiandthephysicalityof HayashiChojiroofferedsuchamanufacturedstimulus.Specificlighting schemesplayedasignificantroleinbothcasesandenhancedsensationof theamusements.WhilevisibilitywascrucialtotheconstructionofnarrativeclarityandbrightnessinthedominantmodeoffilmmakinginJapan intheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcenturyandwasstandardizedinShochikuKamatafilms,jidaigekiemphasizedthespectacularvisualdelightof theswordinmotion.Iftheswordinjidaigekiamplifiedthediscourseof lightinginJapanesecinema,itwasalsothelightingthatdeprivedjidaigeki oftheinitialshock.Becauseofanewlightingscheme,jidaigekiwastransformedintoaglamorousattractionofastar—adifferenttypeofmanufacturedstimulus.TheflashoftheswordwasacontestedfieldintheJapanese filmcultureofthelate1920s. Chapter3isaclosetextualanalysisoftwocriticallysuccessfulfilms, whichIcall“streetfilms,”andIdiscusstheuseoflightingintheminterms ofsocialcriticismandaestheticmodernism.OneisCrossways(Jujiro,a.k.a. Crossroads and Shadows of the Yoshiwara), a jidaigeki film from 1928 directedbyKinugasaTeinosuke,andtheotherisThat Night’s Wife(Sono yo no tsuma),acontemporarycrimemelodramafrom1930directedbyOzu Yasujiro.BurchhighlyratesThat Night’s Wifeinhisgroundbreakingwork onJapanesecinema,To the Distant Observer: Form and Meaning in the Japanese Cinema(1979),as“fascinatingevidenceoftheimpactwhichAmericanfilmsandWesternculturehad,notonlyuponOzubutuponasizable portionoftheJapanesemiddleandlowermiddleclasses.”31Crosswayshas oftenbeenregardedasanimitationofGermanexpressionistfilm.Yetby 10 introDuction
closelyexamininglightinginthesetwofilms,thischapterfocuseslesson explicationoftherelationofinfluenceorimpactbetweenEastandWest andmoreonthedepictionofwhattheliterarycriticThomasLaMarrecalls the“cinematicmateriality”thatis“dynamic.”32LaMarrehasraisedinsightfulquestionsregardingthisdichotomybetweenJapanandtheWest:“Does theuseofaWesternformormedium(cinema)inJapanforceJapaninto Westerndevelopmentandhistory?OrdoJapanesetraditionstransform Westerncinema?Doescinema‘westernize’Japan,ordoesJapan‘japanify’cinema?”LaMarrearguesthattheproblemwithsuchquestionsisthat theysupposeaninsurmountablecontradictionorincommensurabledifference between Westernization and “Japanization.”33 According to LaMarre,though,modernity,“asthecondensationofanumberofdifferent processesandhistories,isnotalinearprocesswithintheWestorinrelationtotheWest.”34LaMarrearguesthatthedynamicmaterialityofcinema can open up new and constantly divergent “unperceived modes of sensoryperceptionandexperience,therebysuggestingadifferentorganizationofdailylife.”35ThematerialityenhancedbythelightinginCrossways andThat Night’s WifedeviatesfromthesimpledichotomyofEast/West orthegeopoliticalhierarchyandstructuralhegemonyofcenter/periphery andplacesitselfinthesensorynetworkofglobalfilmculture.Inparticular,thesetwofilmsarerepresentativesofthecoevallymodernphenomenonofstreetfilms,inwhichthecityistheprotagonistthatcapturesthe rhythmsandtoneofmodernlife:cinemarevisualizesthemoderntechnologicalworld.36Mytextualanalysisislessinaninterpretivemannerofa narrativestructureandmoreinacloselyobservatorywaytocapturesubtle nuancesandfunctionsoflightandshadow.Lightinginthesestreetfilms offersinsightfulvisionsintothereconfigurationsofurbanspace,theeffect ofsociopoliticalandsocioeconomicpowerrelations,andthediscourseon thesenseofvisionfromthelate1920stoearly1930s.Inthismanner,despite beingproducedwithinShochiku’scommercialstrategy,thesetwofilmsinternallychallenged,ordiversified,thedominantmodesoffilmproduction thatcorrespondedtothecompany’sslogan,“BrightandcheerfulShochiku cinema.” Chapter4isacomprehensivediscourseanalysisoncinematiclighting fromthelate1930sto1945.A“discursivehistoryofcinema”isproposedby thefilmscholarAaronGerow.37Inhisproposal,Gerowasksthesequestions:“Whospoke,andwithwhatauthority?WhereorinwhatsocioecoWhatistheaestheticsofshaDoW? 11
nomicconditionswascinematicdiscoursebeingspoken,andtowhomwas itdirected?Whatrelationsofpowerwereimbricatedintherelationsbetweendiscourses?Whatwerestatementsbeingmadeagainst, andwhat wastheirconcretepoliticalimport?Whatwasassumedorleftunsaidin theseenunciations?Howweretheyarticulatingnotjustcinemabutalso thosewhomdiscoursewasspeakingofandthemodernculturetheyinhabited?”38Dealingwithmostofthesequestions,Ifocusonhowandwhythe aestheticsofshadow,arguablythemostsignificantmanifestationonlightinginJapanesecinema,emergedinthelate1930sto1940s.Intheseperiodswecanobserveanobviouschangeintheappearanceofpopularfilms, mostnotablyinthestarvehiclesofHasegawaKazuo(formerlyknownas HayashiChojiro)producedatthenewlyestablishedTohostudioandinthe criticismoncinematiclightinginfilmmagazines. Inthemid-tolate1930s,Japaneseaestheticswaswidelydiscussedinthe contextofJapaneseimperialistwarefforts.Theaestheticsofshadow,which appreciateddarknessinJapanesearchitectureandlandscapeinopposition toelectricityandbrightlightinginWesternculture,emergedwithinthis trend.Filmmakersandcriticsstartedtodiscussashifttorealismandthe integrationofadocumentarystyleincinematography.However,Iargue thattheemergenceoftheaestheticsofshadowwasinfactanembodiment ofanambivalentattitudetowardtechnologiesofcinema.ItwasacomplicatedmixofadorationoftheHollywood-stylelow-keylightinganddespair aboutthelimitedmaterialconditionsinJapan.Itwasanattempttojustify theconflictinthenameofdocumentaryandJapaneseculturaltradition undercertainhistoricalandmaterialconditions.Usingthelensoflighting andtechnology,IbringoutanewlightonthehistoricaldiscoursesonJapaneseaestheticsandtheinventionofJapaneseculturaltradition. ThefilmhistorianAbéMarkNornesdescribesthecontradictoryconditionsinJapanesesocietyandcinemaofthisperiod.Ononehand,the “gradualmilitarizationoffilmcultureisundeniable,”giventhatcinemais suchacapital-intensiveandcollaborativeformofart.39Ontheotherhand, Nornessuggests,“allthewayuptoWorldWarII,onecanfindplentyof jazzy,colorfuladvertisementsforHollywoodfilmsnexttodeadlyserious celebrationsofwarheroics[onthepagesoffilmmagazines].Examined from this perspective, this so-called dark valley in Japanese history was alsoanexcitingtimeforfilmmakingthathadmoretodowiththethrillof modernitythanwiththewarinChina.”40Thediscursivetendencyofthe 12 introDuction
aestheticsofshadowwasmeanttosynthesizetheseapparentlycontradictorytrends.TheostensiblegoalwastohighlyvaluetheJapanesespiritthat shouldberepresentedinJapaneseaesthetics.Yetthehiddenmotivebehind thatgoalwasadesperatesearchforwaystoovercomematerialandtechnologicallimitationsandtoaccomplishspectaclesthatwouldequaltheglamourofHollywoodcinema—inadifferentbutequallygrippingmanner.IfI useLaMarre’sterms,thiswas“aformofcolonialambivalence,astructure ofdisavowalanddisplacement,whichentailsarepeating,reprising,orredirectingofWesternhierarchiesbasedonwhiteness,sexappeal,andindustriousness.”41Suchtermsasthe attraction of blacknessorbeauty of darknesswereinventedandconceptualizedincloserelationtodocumentary andrealismtoconcealbutsimultaneouslyimplytheaspirationformore glamour.Comparedtothekeytermsofchapter1,whicharevisibilityversus expressivity,thoseinthischapterwouldbeinvisibilityequalsexpressivity. Asacasestudyofsuchanambivalentlydialogicrelationshipbetween HollywoodandJapan,Icloselyanalyzetheworkofthecinematographer HarryMimura,aformercolleagueofthecinematographerGreggToland in Hollywood. I conduct comparative analyses of films and discourses onlighting,notpresupposingthebinarycontrastsbetweenWesternand non-Western cinema or the Hollywood dominant—because I believe itisimpossibletodistinguishthemclearlyinanyway—buttoexamine theconditionsofJapanesecinemathatwererifewithwhatGerowcalls “contradictions”and“crisscrossedbytransnationalvectors.”42 Thisbookconcludeswithanauteuristanalysis,butwithalittletwist.I donotconcentrateontheworkofagreatdirectorbutthatofacinematographer,onewhoworkedwithsuchfamousdirectorsasKurosawaAkira, MizoguchiKenji,andOzuYasujiro,whohavebeenregardedasauteursby criticsandhistorians.Thischapterisachallengetotheentrenchedmodel ofthecanonizedauteur,ormasterdirector,especiallyprevalentinJapanese filmstudies.43MostacademicworksonJapanesecinemahavefocusedon eitherahistoricalsurveyofpopularfilmsorcanonizedauteurdirectors. Theassumptionofauteurtheoryisthatfilmsdirectedbyaparticularauteur canbeanalyzedtouncoverrecurrentthemesandaestheticpatternsthat demonstratethecohesionofhisorhervisionoftheworld.Thisapproach isinsufficienttoaddressfilmmaking.WhatismostlackinginexistingacademicworksonJapanesefilmsisaperspectivethatconsidersfilmstobe theproductsofcollaborationthatexistbeyondauteurdirectors’authority. WhatistheaestheticsofshaDoW? 13
Therearetechniciansbehindthecamerainadditiontothedirectors.IdiscussthefilmsoffamousdirectorssuchasKurosawa,Mizoguchi,Ichikawa Kon,andMasumuraYasuzo,butmyemphasisisnotupondiscoveringor reaffirmingthecoherenceoftheirwork;rather,Iindicatethecollaborative natureofcinemaandtheindustrialstructurethatdefinesit. Thefocusofthisconcludingchapterisontheconflictsandnegotiationsbetweenthetrendthatattemptedtonaturalizethediscourseofthe aesthetics of shadow as the essence of Japanese culture to suit the new sociopoliticalandsocioeconomicendsofJapaninthepost–WorldWarII periodandthefilmmakerswhochallengedsuchatrendbycriticallyengagingwiththepracticeoflighting.Theprotagonististhecinematographer MiyagawaKazuo,whoseworks,suchasRashomon(Kurosawa,1950)and Ugetsu(Ugetsu monogatari,Mizoguchi,1953),continuouslyreceivedinternationalprizes.Obviously,MiyagawawasanactiveagencyininventingtraditionsandreimaginingtheaestheticsofshadowastheJapaneseaesthetic inthepostwarperiod.Butatthesametime,Miyagawa’swork,especiallyits hyperbolicfocusonthecontrastsbetweenlightandshadowandtheclarity ofimagesindeepfocus,wasnoteasilycontainedwithinsuchadiscourseof Japanesebeauty.Beingattentivetoboththehistoryoflightingtechniques andtheinnovationoflightingtechnologyinandoutsideJapan,Miyagawa’s cinematographydiversifiedthemeaningofrealismincinema.
14 introDuction
chApter 1
LightinganD capitaList-i nDustriaL MoDernity Shochiku and Hollywood
the man from Hollywood
OnJuly19,1920,asophisticated-lookingmanfromHollywood arrived at a newly established film studio in Japan. Emerging fromaluxuriouscar,themanpassedbyanongoingfilmshoot bydirectorKakoZanmuatanopenset.Hepickedupareflector fromanassistantoftheveterancinematographerTaizumiYasunao,climbeduptothetopofahighwalloftheset,andraisedthe reflectorhigh.Allofasudden,thereflectionofabrightandshiny lightbeamranaroundtherectangularsetandcreatedaclearly three-dimensionalstatueofthemainactorofthescene.Everyoneonthesetwasastonishedattheeffect.1 Thisisthelegendary“enlightening”taleaboutthedayofthe arrivalof“Henry”KotaniSoichiattheKamatastudioofShochikuCompany(ShochikuKinemaGomeiGaisha)ontheoutskirtsofTokyo.2Accordingtothelegend,Kotanibroughteffects lightingofdepthfromHollywoodtoJapan,whereflatlighting hadbeendominant.Eventhoughreflectors,withwhiteclothor tinplates,hadalreadybeenusedinJapanafter1918,theyonlyhad beenplacednearthefloororontheground,andonlytomakethe majorobjectsandbackgroundofthesetlookbrighter.3
KotaniworkedasacinematographerinHollywoodinthe1910sunder therenownedfilmmakerCecilB.DeMille.In1920,eagerlypursuedbythe representativesofShochikuandhighlyrecommendedbyDeMille,Kotani returnedtoJapan.Shochiku,acompanythatoriginallyownedandoperatedKabukitheaters inKyoto,Osaka,andTokyo, wasabout toexpand itsbusinesstofilm.OtaniTakejiro,whoestablishedShochikuin1895and wouldbecomethepresidentofShochikuin1921,claimedinFebruary1920, “Weareengagedinartisticbusiness,andsoweneedtobefullyashamed thatourfilmsareinferiortoandlessartisticthanforeignfilms.”4Otani wasmostconcernedabout“foreignfilms”fromHollywoodfromhisperspective as abusinessman. Hollywood films dominated the film market whenWorldWarIpreventedtheexportofEuropeanfilms.Otaniquoted theauthor“PaulBrune”andwrote,“Itismotionpicturesthatoccupythe fifth-largestindustryintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.Theindustryreaches everycorneroftheworld.Itcomfortsbillionsofpeople.Itshowstheway oflivingtomanypeople.Itisfatedtobecomeoneofthelargestorganizationsthatcombineentertainmentwitheducation.”5Otanideclaredthat Shochikuwouldproduce“artisticfilms”soitcould“improvemotionpicturesinJapan”and“introducethetruthofourlivesinJapantoforeign countries.”6Shochiku,aspiringtocatchupwiththestandardofforeign films,makeitsownproductsexportable,andbecomecompetitivewiththe Hollywood film industry, was preordained to adopt the American-style capitalist-industrialmodernityandtheHollywoodproductionprocess,including filmmaking techniques and technologies, distribution practices, andthestarsystem. Inthissense,thedesireforpublicitydroveShochikutohireKotanifrom Hollywoodwithanunprecedentedsalaryof1,500yenaweek.7Inaddition toKotani,Shochikuinvitedotherprominentfigurestoitsstudio,suchas GeorgeChapman,thesetdesignerforDouglasFairbanksSr.’sfilms,includingThe Mark of Zorro(FredNiblo,1920),and“Edward”TanakaKaneyuki, fromFairbanks’smanagementstaff.Shochikualsoreliedonnewtechnologies—BellandHowell,Mitchell,Akeley,andEyemocameras;American lightingfixtures;andEastmanrawfilmstock,bothnegativeandpositive.8 The studio executives Tamaki Chonosuke and Taguchi Oson were sent toLosAngelestoobserveproductionmethods.Scenaristswereurgedto studyHollywoodscripts,andcinematographerscountedandtimedshots
16 chapter1
astheywatchedAmericanfilms.9Shochiku’sattempttomodernizeJapanesefilmmakingthusoriginallyimitatedtheHollywoodfilmindustry. Under such conditions, Kotani’s impact should have been as large as the legendary tale relates.10 Pedagogically, the influence that Kotani’s Hollywood-trainedworkhaduponJapanesecinematographerswasatypicalexampleofthe“liberatoryimpulses”ofclassicalHollywoodcinemathat MiriamHansenpointedout.11AccordingtothecinematographerMiyajimaYoshio,therewasa“feudalistsystem”amongfilmtechniciansinJapan; anyknowledgeoflenses,focus,lighting,angles,compositions,andchemicalswassecretlytaughtbymasterstodisciplesonlyorwascompletelyhiddenfromassistants.12Evenin1929,nineyearsafterShochikuenteredfilm business,thecinematographerAoshimaJunichiroofNikkatsuCompany (NihonKatsudoShashinKabushikiGaisha),Shochiku’smainrival,saidin afilmjournal’sdiscussionofSkyscrapers(Matenro,MurataMinoru,1929), “Icannottellyouwhatmynewdevicesarebecausetheyaremysecrets.”13 Kotaniopposedsuchsecretiveconditions,viewingthemasobsolete.In 1924,Kotaniwroteanessay,“HowtoBecomeaMatureCinematographer” (“Ichininmaenosatsueigishininarumade”),andinsistedthatcinematographers“mustbefamiliarwithalltheknowledgeabouttinting,developing, andexposing....Withallofthisknowledge,”amaturecinematographer “iscapableoffreelycapturinganysceneswithhiscamerathatanydirector wants.”14KotaniwaspreparedtodeliverallofthisknowledgetohiscolleaguesinJapan.ThecinematographerMikiShigeruwroteinachapterfor Cinematography Reader(Eiga satsueigaku dokuhon;1940),atextbookpublishedbytheNipponeseSocietyforCinematographers,“Particularly,the influence of cinematographic techniques that Henry Kotani, a Japanese cinematographerwhohadworkedsuccessfullyintheUnitedStates,taught tohisdiscipleswastremendous.”15 TherearenumerousconfessionsfromShochikufilmmakersonthesignificanceofKotaniontheirearlycareers.UshiharaKiyohiko,apopular directorduringthe1920sand1930swhostartedhiscareerasacinematographeratShochiku,stated,“Ilearnedmostofthetechnicalthingsfrom Mr.HenryKotani(Soichi)whenIwasstudyingfilmmaking....Ialways participatedinKotani’sseminarsandruthlesslyabsorbednewinformation fromHollywood,particularlytheoriesandtechniquesofediting.”16UshiharaalsowroteforEiga Hyoron’sspecialissueonfilmtechnologiesin1933:
LightinganDMoDernity 17
“WeshouldrememberthatthereturnofMr.KotaniHenrytoJapanmade itpossibleforthefirsttimetoeducateanddevelopnumerouscinematographic technicians.”17 Similarly, Saito Torajiro, the acclaimed director whospecializedinnonsensicalslapstickcomedyatShochiku,recollected, “Mr.HenryKotani,returnedfromAmerica,wasinchargeofcinematography[forthefilmFather(Otosan,a.k.a.Chichi,1923)]andtaughtusthe Americantechniques.Hismentoringwassoeffectivethatitwasasifwe allhadgonetoanAmericanstudiotostudyforayear.”18NomuraHiroshi, another director at Shochiku, said, “I was Mr. Henry’s assistant for fourmonths....DuringtheshootingofWoman of the Island[Shima no onna,KimuraKinkaorMatsuiShoyo,1920],hetaughtmehowtousereflectorsindetail.”19ThecinematographerMochidaYonehikoalsowrote, “[Kotani’s]genuinelytrainedcameraworkabsolutelyshoneandinformed anepochoffilmtechnologyinJapan.Welearnedalotfromhim,includinghowtofreelyoperatecameras,fromlongshotstoclose-upsandhow toeffectivelyusereflectors.”20Kotanialsostandardizedthesixteen-frames- per-secondcameraspeedwhileJapanesefilmmakerspreviouslyhadused onlytwelveorthirteen,oreveneight,framespersecondtoreducecost.21 However,evenwithsuchunanimousapplausefromhisdisciplesforhis Hollywood-styletechniques,styles,andattitude,Kotanihadtoleavethe ShochikuKamatastudioasearlyas1922,lessthantwoyearsafterhisarrival.Then,afterproducingtwofilmsatHenryKotaniProduction,hisown companyinJapan,KotaniwasrehiredatShochiku’sShimokamostudioin Kyoto,theothercenteroffilmmakinginJapan,whicharoseaftertheGreat Kanto Earthquake of 1923 caused considerable damage to the Kamata studio.KotanidirectedandphotographedsevenfilmsatShimokamoin 1924,andhedesignedanewbuildingforthephoto-developingdepartment there,butheleftthestudiowithinayear.22AccordingtoTaguchiOson, Kotani’sinitialcontractwithShochikuwasfortwoyears.23IfKotanipreferredtomakeacontractwithanothercompanyafterthefirsttwoyears, KotanihadtoaskShochikuforhisreleaseinadvance.Inotherwords,if therewerecompetition,Shochikuwouldholdthefirstoption.Obviously, ShochikudidnotextenditscontractwithKotani.Ironically,acontractwas amodernformoflabormanagementthatShochikuadoptedfromHollywood.KotaniwashiredandfiredbyShochikuinamoderncapitalistmanner,justlikeinHollywood. Thisabruptdepartureraisesnumerousquestions.24OtaniTakejiroin18 chapter1
sistedthatcinematographers attheKamatastudiomasteredeverything thatKotanihadbroughtfromHollywoodwithinafewyears.25Itmight havebeenafinancialchoiceforOtanitofireKotanioncetheothercinematographers became as capable; he was earning a much higher salary thaneverybodyelseatatimewhenShochikufilmswerenotearningmuch profit.26Inthissense,Kotanimighthavebeentreatedasanoyatoi gaikokujin(hiredforeigner)fromAmerica,whomtheMeijigovernmenttypically usedforpedagogicalpurposes,hiredwithahighsalarybutforaverylimitedperiodinordertojumpstartJapan’smodernizationafterthelongfeudalistrulebytheTokugawashogunatethatendedin1867.Indeed,Kotani’s Americannesswasreportedinfilmmagazinesincessantlyandsometimes sarcastically.AreportinKinema JunpodescribedKotani’scharacteristicsas “simpleandopen,”frombeingraisedintheUnitedStates.KurishimaSumiko,afemalestaratShochiku,was“bashful”whenKotaniliftedherbody withouthesitationtopreventherfeetfromgettingwetinapuddle.27 OrShochikurealizedthatKotani’sfilmsweretooscandalousforthe Japanesestandard.TheTokyopolicehadcensoredtwofilmsthathedirectedandphotographedin1921.28Thefirst,The Electrician and His Wife (Denko to sono tsuma), was questioned for its content of adultery, and Kotaniwasforcedtoreviseit.29ItsreleasedatewasdelayedfromApril15to May6.Thesecond,Trunk(Toranku),alsowrittenbyKotani,waspraisedby thecriticFurukawaRoppaas“fabulouscomedy”with“thebestcarchase everinJapan.”30YetthecrimecomedywasbannedfromreleaseinTokyo becauseit“mighttemptpeopleintocommittingcrimes”andwasreleased onlyinOsaka,wherecensorshipwaslesssevereinthiscase,onJune21. OnlythreeJapanesefilmswerecensoredin1921,andtwoofthemweredirectedorwrittenbyKotani.31Becauseoftheseincidents,Shochikumight have become cautious in its treatment of Kotani. However, contrary to Otani’s claim and despite the censorship problems, Kotani’s techniques were highly valued by critics even in his post-Kamata films of 1922–23. AreportinKinema Junpostated,“Nobodyelsecouldcatchupwithhim [Kotani] after all.”32 Another report in the same magazine noted, “His [Kotani’s]skillasacinematographerisfarbeyondanycriticisminthecurrentconditionsofJapanesecinema.”33 IfhiscinematographywassuperiortothatofanyoneinJapan,thenwhy wasKotanithrownoutofShochikusoquickly?Curiously,accordingtothe cinematographerShiraiShigeru’srecollection,Kotani’sfilmsatShochiku LightinganDMoDernity 19
didnotlookasbeautifulasthosephotographedinHollywood.34Ifthere weredifferencesinKotani’sworksasShiraiclaimed,didShochikureject whatKotanibroughtfromHollywood?Ifso,whatwerethereasons?Didn’t ShochikuintendtoinstallthepracticesofHollywood-styletechnologies andtechniquesasapartofitsproductionsystem?Kotani’ssuddenexit fromShochikuwasasignificantindicationofthecomplexityofmodernity andmodernizationthatJapanesecinemawasfacingwhenthefilmindustry wasbeingestablishedinthe1920s. The film historian Mitsuyo Wada-Marciano claims that Shochiku emergedwithinthestabilityofthefilmindustryasa“fullyfunctionalcapitalistenterprise.”35ShochikuKinemaCompanyanditsKamatastudioappearedtorepresentwhatHansendescribesas“anatonceaestheticand public horizon for the experience of capitalist-industrial modernity and modernization” that “the worldwide success of Hollywood” provided.36 Shochiku’s incorporation of the Hollywood system, including the latest film technologies and techniques, contract practices, and star-making methods,wassupposedtoinitiatethefirstindustrialefforttoproducepure cinemaaftertheperiodoffilmmakingandfilmexhibitionthatwasunder thestronginfluenceofKabukiandshinpa(newschool,ormoderndrama influencedbytraditionalKabukistyles).37Inthefirstdecadesofthetwentiethcentury,cinemawasnotclearlyseparatefrompreexistingtheatrical entertainmentinJapan.EventhoughtheDenkikan,thefirstpermanent movietheaterinJapan,wasestablishedintheAsakusadistrictofTokyoin 1903,filmscreeningswereoftenconductedattheatersthatshowedKabuki andshinpa.Intermsofproduction,acertainvariationinframing,camera distance,andeditingwereobservableinexistingfilmsbeginningin1910. Andintermsofexhibition,cinemawasnotimmediatelyinsertedintothe traditional theatrical framework. Cinema did attract audiences though, notonlybecauseofthenewnessbutbecauseof“thethrillofexperiencing whatwasknownnottobetheaterbecomeliketheater,”likeotherforms ofmisemono(sideshow)entertainment,suchasgento(magiclantern)and ikiningyo(livingdolls),asAaronGerowputsit.38Gerowpersuasivelyarguesthattherewas“flexibility”bothonthelevelsofstyleandreceptionof theseearlyfilmsinJapanthatwouldrenderitdifficulttoclaimthatthese filmsweremerelyreproducedtheater.39Yet,asGerowsuggests,therewere “combinationsandmixtures”ofthetheatricalandthecinematic.Thismixingwasidentifiedas“oneofthemainproblemsofcinema”bysomeJapa20 chapter1
neseintellectuals,rangingfromfilmcriticsandfilmmakerstogovernment officials,whowouldinitiatethepurefilmmovement(jun’eigageki undo).40 Shochiku’sentryintothefilmbusiness,withitsstronginitialinclinationtowardHollywood,couldhavebeenanattemptatwhatGerowcalls “amodernismofdifferentiation,”orcreatingaclearseparationbetweenold andnewbymodernizingtheproductionandexhibitionpracticesofmotionpicturesinordertotakecontrolofboththeaterandcinemainanefficientmanner.41Shochikuwasmeanttobethefirstcapitalisteffortaimed atestablishingthefilmindustryinJapan.Accordingtothefilmhistorian EricCazdyn,theemphasisofthefirstphaseofcapitalismundertheMeiji governmentwasplacedon“thelabor-intensiveproductionofconsumer goods...combinedwithalow-wagesystem...thatwasunderconstant pressuretoavoiddemand-sideproblemsbyexportingwhatthedomestic marketcouldnotabsorb.”42Then,asCazdynclaims,theeconomiccrisisof thelate1920sgeneratedanimmensecampaignofgovernment-sponsored exportsthat,assistedbyarapiddepreciationoftheyen,sanctionedthe greatcartelsandsentafloodofJapanesegoodsintoforeignmarkets,which almostdoubledexportsby1936.43ShochikuembodiedthisphaseofJapanesecapitalismthatmovedintoacommoditymodeofproduction.Even whenmassproductionwasnottherealityintheinitialperiodofJapanese filmmaking,productionofconsumergoods(films)waslaborintensiveand oftenofferedlowwages,asmanystoriesprintedinearlyfilmmagazinesindicated. Moreover,Gerowstressesthatthe“engine”ofthepurefilmmovement was“thedreamofexport”ofJapanese-madefilmstotheworldmassmarket.AsOtanisuggested,Shochiku’sinitialgoalwastoexpanditsbusiness beyondthenationalborder.44EventhoughShochiku’sinitialattemptsat exportfailed,theJapanesefilmindustrylookedforforeignmarketsinthe 1930s,especiallyinChina,Manchuria,andKorea.Inparticular,thepure filmadvocateswerewellawareoftheinternationalpopularityoffilmsthat depictedsuchstereotypicalJapaneseaspectsofcultureandlandscapeas geishagirls,hara-kiri,cherryblossoms,andMt.Fujiin“talesofhonor,revenge,self-sacrifice,andunrequitedlove”intheMadame Butterflystyle.45 TheseintellectualsnotonlyfeltuncomfortablewiththeinaccuratedepictionofJapaninthesefilmsbutwerealsooffendedbythefactthatJapanese landscapeandculture,aboutwhichJapanesefilmmakersshouldbemaking filmsandmakingprofits,werestolenbyforeignfilmmakers.46Aneditorial LightinganDMoDernity 21
inKatsudo Shashin Zasshiclaimed,“Evenscenicfilmsof[Japanese]landscapeweremadebyforeignersandintroducedas‘authentic’Japan,”andit insistedthat“theMonroeDoctrineshouldbeappliedtomotionpictures” and“JapanesefilmsmustbemadebyJapanesepeople”and“expand[Japanesefilms’]marketshareintheworld.”47Otanisharedtheambitionofa globalmarketeconomywiththepurefilmadvocates. Separationofthetheatricalandthecinematicthatwouldeliminatethe “uniquemixturesfoundinlocalfilmculture”wasthekeyforsucha“dream ofexport.”48Accordingtothepurefilmadvocates,the“uniquecharacteristicsofmotionpicturesdistinguished[them]fromtheatricaldramasor dances,”and“theattainmentofaninternationallyviablelevelofnarrational clarityforfilms”wouldmakeJapanesefilmsfightbackagainstthepressurethattheHollywoodmarketputonthehomefrontandwouldregain the profits in international markets.49 The pure film movement claimed thattheonlywayJapanese-madefilmswouldbecomeexportabletoforeign marketswastoimitatetheformsandstylesofforeignfilms,andthemovementinsistedontheuseofformalandnarrativetechniques,suchasspokentitles(dialogueintertitles),morevariedandcomplexcamerawork(in particular,close-upshotsandmoving-cameratechniques),artificiallighting,continuityediting,andamorenaturalstyleofacting.Incontrast,the advocatescriticizedJapanesemotionpictures,whichhadappealedonlyto massaudiencesbecause,forthemostpart,theyweremerelyreproducing stagerepertoriesofkyugeki(perioddramaofKabukistyle)andshinpaand were“uncinematic.” Shochikuopenlysupportedsuchpurefilmmakingpractices.Withthe successoftheJapanesereleaseofD.W.Griffith’sIntolerance(1915)in1919, ShochikuappointedOsanaiKaoru,thepioneerofshingeki(aEuropean- influencedformofrealisttheater)andasupporterofthepurefilmmovement, to lead the Shochiku Cinema Institute (Shochiku Kinema Kenkyujo)inOctober1920.OsanaisupervisedtheproductionofSouls on the Road(Rojo no reikon,directedbyMurataMinoru,1921),thefilmthatdirectlyreferredtothestylesofHollywoodfilms.Souls on the Roadusedthe samecrosscuttingtechniqueasIntoleranceandasimilarrepresentationof femalestars.Forexample,HanabusaYuriko,theheroine,imitatesMary Pickfordinhairstyle,costume,andactingstyle.50Asaresult,thefilmhistorianIsoldeStandisharguesthata“stylisticshift”occurredattheShochiku Kamatastudio,especiallyaftertheGreatKantoEarthquakeof1923,which 22 chapter1
canbeattributedto“abacklashagainsttheshinpa-derived...melodramatictraditionsoffilmmaking.”51Acontemporaneousfilmcritic,Otsuka Kyoichi,similarlywroteaboutastylisticshiftatShochikuKamatainhisdescriptionofthepopularShochikudirectorShimazuYasujiro:“ShimazuYasujiroistherepresentativefilmmakerfortheShochikuKamata-stylefilms, especially when Shochiku refined the archaic form of Japanese cinema suchasshinpafilmuntoacontemporaryfilmform.”52ManyJapanesehistorianshaveindicatedthattheearthquakecausedfar-reachinghistorical, economic,andculturaldivisions,whichfacilitatedtheattemptatseparationoftheoldandthenewbytheJapanesefilmindustry. AaronGerow’sargumentismuchmorecarefullydefined.Heavoidsthe teleologicalassumptionsontransformationsinfilmstylethatareobservableintheclaimsbythesehistorians.Vigilantlyanalyzingadiscoursethat constituted a new object of knowledge, “cinema,” Gerow contends that Japanesefilmculturefromtheearly1910stothe1920switnesseda“major shift”of“narrative,thespectator,understanding,textuality,semiosis,the screenplay,criticism,exhibition,andproduction,andevenoftheimage andtheworld.”53 However,Iwouldarguethatsuchamajorshiftwasnotwitnessedso clearlyinthestylesofShochikucinema,especiallyinitsuseoflighting technologiesandtechniques.Insteadofmakingadifferentiationbetween theatricalandcinematic,oldandnew,Shochikureinforcedthemixturein filmstylesinJapan.WithShochiku’sparticipationinthefilmbusiness,the Japanesefilmindustryenteredaphaseof“fullyfunctionalcapitalistenterprise,”butitwasnotsimplythe“experienceofcapitalist-industrialmodernityandmodernization”thatHollywoodprovided. Gerowclaims,“Muchofwhatthe[purefilm]Movementproposedhad becomeindustrypracticebytheendofthe1920s....Mostimportant,many of the aspects of film style that reformers had advocated—the close-up, parallelediting,andsoon—werefirmlyapartofcommonfilmpracticeas firstShochikuinthe1920sandthenTohointhe1930sgainedareputation forhavingamoreAmericanizedfilmstyle.”54ThroughfocusingonlightingtechnologiesandtechniquesofShochikucinemabywayofthecareer ofHenryKotani,Iwanttocomplicatetherelationshipbetweenthepure filmmovementandShochiku.Theprocessbehindtheformationofsucha “commonfilmpractice”wasmuchmorecomplex.Ratherthanclarifyingthe purityofthecinematicmedium,filmmakinginJapaninthe1920sand1930s LightinganDMoDernity 23
wasstillintheconditionsof“combinationsandmixtures,”bywhichGerow definesfilmmakinginJapanbeforeandduringthepurefilmmovement.ReferringtoPierreBourdieu’ssociologyofculture,Gerowconvincinglyargues thatthefieldofcinemainthe1910sandthroughtheearly1920swas“asite ofstruggle,inwhichwhatwasatstakewasthedefinitionofcinemaandthe restrictionofwhocouldspeakaboutthemedium.”55EvenaftertheestablishmentoftheShochikuKamatastudioasanapparentforerunnerofthecapitalistfilmindustry,thestruggleoverthedefinitionandthepracticesofcinematicstylesthereweretoocomplexandmixedtobecalledamajorshift.56 Suchastrugglewasnotsimplytheculturaldominance-resistancerelationshipbetweenHollywoodandJapan.Itwasamixtureofsuchconflictsas profitabilityandtheaccessibilityofcinemaasacommodity;thetextuality ofcinemabetweenartisticmodernismandclassicism;andthelocalpower structureamongproducers,exhibitors,andspectators.Despiteitsgoalof rationalizingtheindustry,itwasimpossibletoclaimordismissShochiku’s strategyastheHollywoodmodel.Hansenarguesthatthequestionis“how filmmakershaveappropriatedHollywood(alongwithotherforeigncinemasaswellastheirownculturalpasts)increative,eclectic,andrevisionistwaystoforgeaestheticidioms,andtorespondtosocialconflictsand politicalpressures,closertohome.”57Indeed,peopleatShochikuundertook“creative,eclectic,andrevisionistwaystoforgeaestheticidioms”to distinguishtheirowncinema.Shochiku’sstrategiesappearedtofollowthe liberalmarketmodelofHollywood,especiallywhenthestudiosoughtto appealtothegrowingmarketoffemaleconsumerssocializingoutsidethe home.58WhileShochikuadoredandappropriatedHollywood’smarketing strategy,itwasnotsimplyimitatingthetranshistoricalHollywoodmodeof narration.Thecompanywasnotaimingtoreinforce“old-timevalues”soas toresistHollywood’sdominationeither.59Shochikustruggledoverhowto formulateitscinematicstylesfortheJapanesemasses. Aresultofnegotiationwasacombinationofvisibilityandexpressivity: a mixture of flat lighting and expressive mise-en-scène. In Kabuki, flat frontallightingisusedalmostexclusively,inordertoflatlyilluminatethe entirestage,eliminateshadowasmuchaspossible,andmakeonstageacts visible to the spectator, while the expressive style of lighting was introducedfromHollywood.NoëlBurchclaimsthatinthe1910sand1920sthe “pertinentvisualtraitsofkabuki”appeared“constantlyonthescreen.”60 WhileBurchconsidersthecontinuationoftheKabukistyletobeJapanese 24 chapter1
filmmakers’rejectionofthe“ideologyof‘realism’”inthe“cinemaofthe West”infavorofaconventionalized“modeofpresentation,”thechoice— atleastthechoiceoflighting—wasbasedonShochiku’srationalization policyasaleadingcompanyofthemodernizingcapitalistindustry.61Shochikuwasconstructinganewtraditionforcontemporaryindustrialpracticeandformodernmassaudiences.AsRaymondWilliamsargues,“It[tradition]isalwaysmorethananinerthistoricizedsegment;indeeditisthe mostpowerfulpracticalmeansofincorporation.Whatwehavetoseeisnot just‘atradition’butaselective tradition:anintentionallyselectiveversionof ashapingpastandapreshapedpresent,whichisthenpowerfullyoperative intheprocessofsocialandculturaldefinitionandidentification.”62Infact, Shochikuusedlightingtechnologiesthatwouldgobeyondthevisualtraits ofKabukiwhenitcametothepromotionofstars—especiallyfemalestars, inconceivableinKabuki,whichwasonlyperformedbymaleactors. Gerowcautionsthatfocusingonlyonindividualbiographieslikethat ofKotani,whosefamedidnotlastlong,couldleadonetomistakenlybelievethatthisisevidencethatthe“Westernized”purefilmmovementfailed inthefaceofdifferentJapanesetastes.ButIthinkifsuchabiographyis contextualizedwithinahistoryofthefilmindustryandthediscoursesurroundingit,thebiographywouldprovideanenlighteningperspectiveto theunderstandingofJapanesefilmcultureinthe1920s. the kamata tone and the Paramount tone: From lasky lighting to three-Point lighting
Kamata-cho(Kamatatone)flourishedinthefilmsproducedattheShochikuKamatastudiofrom1920to1936.AccordingtotheOxford English Dictionary,thetermtoneusuallyreferstoamusicalorvocalsoundconsideredwithreferencetoitsquality.Themeaningofthetermextendsto aspecialorcharacteristicstyleortendencyofthought,feeling,behavior, andsoon.Thetermalsosignifiesaprevailingeffectofthecombinationof lightandshade.TheJapanesewordchohasbasicallythesamemeaning. TheKamatatoneusuallyreferstoasophisticatedstyleofcomedywitha brightandcheerfulfeeling,whichconspicuouslydisplaysimagesofeverydaylives andexperiences inmodernizing metropolitanTokyo.Thegoal ofShochiku’sfilmproductionatKamatawassuggestedinthecompany’s slogan,“BrightandcheerfulShochikucinema”(akaruku tanoshi Shochiku eiga).63KidoShiro,atthetimeofhisappointmentasheadoftheShochiku LightinganDMoDernity 25
KamatastudioinJuly1924,wasreportedtohavesaid:“Itisuninteresting to make films foraudiences who happilycomealong to the cinema clutchingtheirhankiestowatchtragedies.Entertainmentmustbebright andhealthy;whilelaughingatsociety’sironiesandcontradictions,wecan studylife.”64InMay1929,Kidoclearlyaddressedthispolicyinthestudio’s journal,Kamata Shuho:“Kamata’smoderndramasrepresentmoderndramasinJapan.Inordertodevelopourmoderndramasfurtherandmake themavailableintheworld,thecontentsmustbebetter,whichmeansthey mustbe‘brighterandclearer,’inparticular.Theymustalwaysmakethe audiencefeelcheerfulandnevermakethemexperienceanythingdarkand depressed....Thisisourpreciousmission.”65 In addition to the bright and cheerful feeling, the photographer and criticTanakaToshioclaimsthattheKamatatonealsomeantits“brightness” in cinematography.66 The legendary tale of Kotani’s arrival at the KamatastudioconfirmsShochiku’saspirationforbrightnessandclarityin itsfilms.67Infact,Kotani’scinematographyinHollywoodfilmshadbeen praised by Japanese spectators mainly for the “vivid cinematography” whose“beautifulbrightnesscontributesgreatlytoagoodatmosphere.”68 The acclaimed director Ito Daisuke, who started his career at Shochiku andwrotescreenplaysofA New Life(Shinsei,directionandphotography byKotani,1920)andThe Secret of the Mine(Kozan no himitsu,directionby EdwardTanaka,photographybyKotani,1920),claimed,“[Shochiku]regardedcinematographyastheleastdevelopedareainJapanandbroughtin Mr.HenryKotanifromHollywood....Iwasreallyamazedatthebeautiful andbrighttonesofHenry’scinematography.”69Inthisregard,Shochiku expectedKotanitobetheappropriatepersontosetthe“brightandcheerful”Kamatatone. However,Kotani’sseeminglyprematuredeparturefromShochikuindicatedcertainconflictsinthecourseofreconfiguringthetechniquesof cinematographyandlighting.TheHollywood-trainedcinematographerdid notseemtofullyestablishtheaestheticnormsandmodesoftheKamata tone in his brief tenure with Shochiku. Tanaka Toshio argues that the KamatatonefollowedtheParamount tone,thetermthatthetechnicalstaff atKamatastudiousedfirst.70ThetermwasnotnormallyusedinHollywood,butitsignifiedanidealcinematictoneofaHollywoodstudiothat thestaffofKamataaswellascinematographersatotherstudiosaspired tofollow.71NagahamaKeizo,cinematographeratMakinoProduction,re26 chapter1
calledthatintheearly1920sParamountfilmswere“famousforbeautiful imagesthatfilmtechniciansaimedat.”72Nagahamaargued,“Paramount filmsweresecondtononeintheirfluentimagesandbeautyoflight.... Weunderstandthattheyuseimmenselightingforthekey,witheffective useofsupportinglight.”73Infact,thedarkstageatKamataimitatedthatof Paramount.74ShochikuandParamountwereevenbusinesspartnerswho ownedmajormovietheaters inTokyo.75Contrary tothesharedimages amongJapanesefilmmakersofbeautifulandimmensehigh-keylighting, theactualtonesofParamountfilmswerenotsimplybright.Instead,they often contained artistically low-key lighting effects.76 Lighting in Paramountfilmsevenmeantcontrastivephotography,atleastforseveralyears whenKotaniworkedthere.77 AccordingtoDavidBordwell,duringtheseconddecadeofthetwentiethcenturytheadoptionofcarbon-arcequipment,suchasKlieglspotlights(calledklieglights),“movedAmericanfilmlightingpracticeaway fromadominantuseofdiffused,overallilluminationtowardaconcentrationon‘effects’lighting.”78Inparticular,Bordwellargues,“agreatshiftin Americanlightingpracticestartedin1915,”whenCecilB.DeMilleandhis cinematographer,AlvinWyckoff,“usedspotlightsprovidedbyartdirectorWilfredBucklandtoproducelow-keylightingeffectsinseveralproductions.”79 Between the years 1915 and 1916, DeMille “sought to bring moredramaticandrealisticlightingtothescreen,”andWyckoffhelped himachievetheeffectsDeMilledesired—theso-calledRembrandtchiaroscuro.80WhatDeMilleandWyckoffvisualizedwascalledLaskylighting, namedaftertheJesseL.LaskyFeaturePlayCompanywheretheyworked, whosefilmsweredistributedbyParamount.ThefilmhistorianLeaJacobs defines Lasky lighting as “confined and shallow areas of illumination, sharp-edgedshadowsandapalpablesenseofthedirectionalityoflight.”81 AccordingtoJacobs,LaskylightingwasmoredirectlyderivedfromBelasco lightinginthetheater.DavidBelascofollowedRembrandt’streatmentof lightthat“emphasizessourcelightingfromwindows,lamps,andfiresand successfullycreatesadark,moodylook.”82 Bordwell claims that effects lighting with “such extreme contrasts of lightanddark”asLaskylightingdidnotbecome“thestandardwayofcreatingaselectivelightingset-up”inHollywood.83By1920,mostHollywood filmmakershadadoptedthethree-pointlightingstyle,whichmixedkey andfill,oftenaddingatouchofbacklight.84Jacobsarguesthatwiththree- LightinganDMoDernity 27
figure1.1 HenryKotani(right)sittingnexttoAlvinWyckoff.CourtesyofHenry KotaniProduction.
pointlighting,“lightworksasaneutralelementofthemise-en-scènefor most of the time” without an obvious “signifying function.”85 However, asthefilmhistorianPatrickKeatingargues,thethree-pointlightingstyle wasinfact“aflexiblesystemwhichcombinedtheaestheticadvantagesof theSoft-KeyStylewiththedramaticadvantagesoftheEffectsLighting Style.”86 In other words, the three-point lighting system did not simply abandonDeMilleandWyckoff’sselectivelightingbutincorporateditsself- consciousnarrativefunctionsinasubtlermanner. WhenKotaniworkedunderDeMille,hewas“oneofthebest”assistantstoWyckoff.87Inaphotographofcameramenatthecompany,WyckoffandKotanisitnexttoeachotherandsmile(fig.1.1).Thephotoshows howcloseKotaniwastoWyckoff.ByMarch1918,Kotaniwasoneoffour “cameramen”attheFamousPlayers-LaskyCorporationandwasearning thirtydollarsaweekwhiletheacecameramanWyckoffwasearningone hundred.88WhenKotaniworkedasacinematographerinHollywood,he experiencedthedrastictransitionofcinematiclightingthatwasunderway: theadventofeffectslightingandtheshifttothree-pointlighting.WhatinfluencedKotanimostwastheeffectslighting—underthedirectinstruction ofhismentor,Wyckoff.Kotani’sinclinationtouseeffectslightingisindi28 chapter1
catedinhisstatementonbacklighting.InFebruary1919,stillworkingin Hollywood,KotaniwasinterviewedforaJapanesefilmmagazine,Katsudo Shashin Zasshi:“Theonlythingthatcinematographershavetostudycarefullyishowtousebeamsoflightartistically.Iamcurrentlyworkingon howtoapplybacklight.Sofar,cinematographerstendtostandinfrontof thesunlighttohavefrontallightonactorsandsets,whichalwayscreates inartistic,unnatural,simplistic,banal,andflatimages.Iamtryingtodrasticallybreakthroughthispoorconvention,resistthedirectsunlight,and useitselectivelytocreateartisticallycomplicatedscenes.”89WhatKotani specifiedwasthesignificanteffectofbacklightinginoppositiontothevisibilityofactorsandsets.TheHollywoodmagnateAdolphZukoroncecommentedonKotani’sobsessionwithbacklightingthatoftenleaveshalfof actors’facesinshadows:“Henry,thisiswonderfullyartistic.Butthepeople whocometotheaterswanttowatchactors’faces.Itmaygoagainstyour taste,buttrytoshowactors’facesmoreclearlyfromnowon.”90 Backlighting was extensively used in such Lasky films as Joan the Woman(CecilB.DeMille,1917,productionbeganonJune19,1916),starringGeraldineFarrar.KotanisaidthatheworkedwithWyckoffinJoan the Womanforthefirsttimeandinsistedthatthefilmshouldbelistedfirst inhisfilmographyasacinematographer,evenifnoofficialrecordexists thatlistsKotaniasthefilm’scinematographer.91Joan the Womandisplays Kotani’spreferenceofbacklightingaseffectslighting.Eventhough“low- key‘contrasty’lighting”isemployedonly“onoccasion”inthisfilm,asLea Jacobspointsout,itcertainlyisapparentinthecriticalscenes.92Insuch scenes,visibilityofthestar’sfaceissacrificedforthesakeofeffectslighting. Thetechniquefirstappearsattheverybeginningofthefilmintheshots thatintroduceFarrarasJoan.Thefirstshotthatfollowstheopeningcredits andintertitlesisamediumlongshotofhardworkingJoanatherspinning wheel.Strongfrontallightandsidelightcreateathickshadowofheronthe wallinthebackground.Doesthisshadowimplyhertragicend?Inanycase, thisisatypicalexampleofcontrastyLaskylighting,whichminimizesdiffusedlights,enhancestensionswithinanimageevenifthemeaningofthe tensionisunclear,andleadstoanarrativeclimax.93 Thesecondshotofthefilmusesvirtuosochangesoflightingset-ups withinoneshot,asinmanyotherDeMillefilmsofthesameperiod,includingThe Cheat(1915).TheshotfirstrhetoricallyshowsJoan’smartyrdom;inalongshot,Joanstandsrightinfrontofawall.Strongfrontaland LightinganDMoDernity 29
figure1.2 Backlightintheshapeofafleur-de-lisappearsbehindJoan (GeraldineFarrar).Joan the Woman(1917).
toplightscreatemultipleshadowsofherbody,somethick,othersslightly lessdark,onthewall.Then,assheraisesherarmsandposesasifshewere crucified,acertainnumberoffrontallightsareturnedoffandbacklightin theshapeofafleur-de-lisclearlyappearsbehindher(fig.1.2).Withonly weakfrontaltoplightsandstrongbacklight,Joanappearsnearlyasasilhouetteandlowersherneckasifshewereunconscious.AsJacobsargues, changesinlightingset-upsandlightvalueslikethispunctuate“themajor turningpointsintheaction.”94Inthiscase,theselow-keyandcontrasty lighting(andshadow)effectscausedbybacklightingclearlydisplayJoan’s preordainedfate. Similarly, in The Hidden Pearls (George Melford, 1918), a star vehicle forSessueHayakawa,aJapanesestarinHollywood,wecanobservecontrastyLaskylighting.Duringtheproduction,KotanireplacedPaulKerry asthefilm’scinematographerafterKerryhadanautomobileaccident.In thesurvivingpartialprintsofThe Hidden Pearls,whicharepreservedat theGeorgeEastmanHouse,thereisasceneinwhichTom(Hayakawa) decidestoreturntohisnativeisland.Hestandsinfrontofamirrorina darkroom(fig.1.3).Inalongshot,stronglightsilluminate himfroma 30 chapter1
figure1.3 StronglightsilluminatethebodyofTom(SessueHayakawa)in frontofamirror.The Hidden Pearls(1918).CourtesyoftheAcademyofMotion PictureArtsandSciences.
frontaldirectionandframeTom’sbodyinsharpreliefagainsttheblack background.Hewearsadarknightgown,andhisfaceandhisbarechest aresowhitethattheyevenappeartoemitwhitelightfrominside.Along shotofahalf-nakedNativeHawaiianwoman,Tom’sfiancée,intearsonthe beachisinsertedashisflashback.Thisheightenedsenseofhisinteriorityis followedbyamediumshot,whichframesonlyhisreflectioninthemirror. Withinthemirror’sframe,Tomgazesathimselfwithoutblinking.Weseea blacktattooofafishonthenakedwhitechestofTom’sdoubleinthemirror,atattooforcedonhimbythenativepeoplesothathewouldnotforget hisHawaiianracialidentity.ThecontrastbetweenthewhitenessofTom’s skin and the blackness of the tattoo is intensified by the Lasky lighting techniques.ThewhiteningofTom’sappearanceinthissceneenhanceshis psychologicalstruggle,thedramaticbattlebetweenhisinternalizedsense ofselfandthewayhisbodyismarkedasdifferent.TheessenceofTom’s selfremainshiddenbutthespecialluminosityconfirmsitspresence.But thequestionremains:whatistheessenceofTom’sselfinthenarrativeof LightinganDMoDernity 31
figure1.4 HenryKotanioperatesacameraagainstthesunonastreetin Honolulu.The Hidden Pearls(1918).CourtesyofHenryKotaniProduction.
The Hidden Pearls?IsithisAmericanized,whiteidentityasenhancedby theLaskylighting?OrisittheprimitiveHawaiianracialidentityindicated bythetattoo,starklyvisibleonhiswhitechest?Tom’sluminoushalf-naked bodysignifieshisAmericanizationthatmorallycondemnssuchaprimitive customastattooing;italsosimultaneouslyremindstheviewersofhisracial OthernessandevokesprimaldesireforthatOther.Thus,thespecialluminosityandthesplitself-imageinthemirrorconspicuouslyexpressTom’s identitycrisis,thestruggletoadjudicatebetweenhisAmericanizedselfand hisstatusasaNativeHawaiian.Thescenealsoprovokestheviewers’moral struggle,aninternalbattlebetweenthefearofmiscegenationandsensual (visual)attractiontoprohibitedpleasure. Asanillustrationregardingbacklightinginparticular,wecanlookto aphotographwithKotanioperatingacameraduringtheshootingofThe Hidden PearlsonlocationonastreetinHonolulu(fig.1.4).Therearedark shadowsoftheactorsonthegroundtothesideofthecamera.Weseea whitereflectorbehindthecamera.Thissettingmeansthattheactorsare standinginfrontofthesun.Thecamerapointsattheminoppositionto thesunlight.Thereflectorworksasafilllighttoreducethedarkshadows ontheactors’faces.ThisphotographindicatesKotani’spreferenceforthe 32 chapter1
figure1.5 Acoupleembracesincompletesilhouetteandmergesintothetwilight
landscape.The Heart of Youth(1919).CourtesyoftheAcademyofMotionPictureArts andSciences.
expressivityoflightandshadow,effectivelyemployingeffectslighting— backlightinginparticular—inhisworkinHollywood.95 Aresultofsuchuseofstrongbacklightingisdisplayedinapictorialstill photo of The Heart of Youth (Robert G. Vignola, 1919), preserved at the ParamountCollectionoftheMargaretHerrickLibrary(fig.1.5).The Heart of YouthwasphotographedbyKotani,andthestillphotocapturedascene ofromanticloveinfrontofariver,trees,mountains,andthesky.Inthe photo,acoupleembracesincompletesilhouetteandmergesintothetwilightlandscape.96Itisnottruethatbacklightonlyfunctionstohideactors’ facesinshadows.Strongbacklightinginitselfreducesthree-dimensional objectstoanimmaterialtwo-dimensionality.TorbenGrodalarguesthat thissenseof“deviatingreality”makesbacklightexpressive.97Theexamples ofJoan the Woman,The Hidden Pearls,andThe Heart of Youthillustratehow this is accomplished. Yet, when combined with keyand fill lights, backlighting can secure “an illusion of roundness” by efficiently separating foregroundfrombackground,whichbecame“adefaultnorm”ofHollyLightinganDMoDernity 33
woodcinematographyfromaround1915throughtheearly1920s.98Besides servingtoisolatethecontourfromthebackground,backlightcanemphasizethehairoftheactors.Grodalevenclaimsthatrimlightadds“aperhaps subliminallyperceivedhalotoaperson.”99Thus,Kotani’sworkinHollywoodwasnotsimplycharacterizedas“beautifulbrightness”asthecontemporaneousreviewsinJapannoted. light of Compassion
Unfortunately,noneofKotani’sfilmsproducedatShochikuisextant.Yet existingrecordsindicatethatKotaniconspicuouslyusedeffectslightingin hisfilmsthatwerephotographedinJapan.Kotanisubstantiallyused3kW carbonarclightsandspotlightsonadarkstageforspeciallightingeffects duringtheshootingofPoppy(Gubijinso,Kotani,1921),avehicleforKurishimaSumiko,Shochiku’srisingstar.100Wehaveararechancetocompare ashotfromoneofKotani’sfilmstoaproductionphotographshowinga lightingandcameraset-upforwhatisevidentlythesamesceneofanunidentifiablefilm(possiblySpy of love[Koi no misshi,Kotani,1924])(figs.1.6 and1.7).TheproductionphotographdepictsKotanilyingonamatwith alow-anglecamerapositionshootingafemaleactorinakimono;thefilm shotshowshowtheactressactuallylooksinthecamera.Intheproduction photograph,abrightcarbonarclightcastsitslightontheactress(andthe crew)fromtheleftside.Inthefilmshot,theside-liteffectisclearlyobserved.Thefemaleactor’scunningfacialexpressionisemphasizedbythe selectiveeffectslighting. ThefilmLight of Compassion(Nasake no hikari,1926,35mm,printsfrom theNationalFilmCenter,NationalMuseumofModernArt,Tokyo)was producedundertheinstructionoftheMinistryofEducationinsteadofat Shochiku.YetwecanstillobservehowKotani’slightingschemesworked inhisfilmsproducedinJapaninthe1920s.InLight of Compassion,Kotani as thedirectorandMidorikawa Michio as the cinematographer used “a nuanced lighting, which was called Rembrandt lighting,” according to Midorikawa.101 Throughout the film, as the title suggests, lighting is the maintheme,andthecontrastsbetweenlightsandshadows,whichareemphasized by strong spotlights and backlights, conspicuously express the melodramaticdichotomybetweensocialclasses.Light of Compassionisa heartwarmingstoryofahardworkingboywithacriminalfatherandasick
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figure1.6 Thefemaleactor’scunningfacialexpressionisemphasizedbythe selectiveeffectslighting.CourtesyofHenryKotaniProduction.
figure1.7 Kotaniphotographsafemaleactorwithalow-anglecameraposition. CourtesyofHenryKotaniProduction.
mother.Theboyiseventuallysponsoredbyarichgirlandherfatherand providedwithanopportunityforbettereducation.Thisfilm’snarrativecertainlygoesalongwiththestate’spolicyofsocialintegration.Kotaniand Midorikawaadoptedadistinctivelightingschemeinwhichlightofcompassionisvisuallycastupontheboy. Light of Compassionopenswithimagesofbeamsoflightpenetratinga darkspace.Thebackgroundoftheopeningtitleisadrawingofacandle thatcastslightinadarkroom.Theactualnarrativeofthefilmopenswitha shotofayoungplantshininginastrongtoplight.Thisopeningshotisfollowedbyaseriesoflongshotsandmediumshotsofaboywalkingdown astreet,sellingflowers.Theboyisunderstrongtoplight,asistheyoung plant.Thestreetsceneisfollowedbyasceneinadarkroomearlyinthe morning.Inalongshot,thesameboywakesupandfoldshisfuton.Even inthehouse,stronglightsareplacedonhimfromabove.Whenhissick motherwakesup,hebringsfoodtoher.Inclose-ups,abeamoflightonher facefromtheupperrightemphasizesthepalenessofherskinandwhitenessofherbreathwhenshecoughs.Whenweseetheboyonthestreet again,werealizethatthesceneofhissickmotherisaflashbackoftheboy thinkingofthehardshipofhiseverydaylife. Inonescene,theboy’smothervisitsherhusbandinjail.Themanhas robbed a safe and has been arrested. Rembrandt-style contrasty effects lighting creates numerous shadows on thewall behind the man, as in a similarshotinThe Cheatwhentheheroineofthefilmvisitsherhusband, alsolockedinajail(figs.1.8and1.9).Afteramediumshotoftheprisoner, thecamerapanstotherighttocapturetheman’sshadow.Onthestreet,the boyiscalled“thesonofacriminal”andattackedbythreeofhisclassmates. Afterheisdefeated,bloodrunsdowntheboy’srightcheek.Hisclothesare torn.Inamediumlongshot,strongtoplightemphasizesthewhitenessof hisunderwear.Hestandsalone.Femaleclassmatesoftheboywitnesshis hardshiponthestreet.Inanextremelongshot,supposedlyashotfromthe pointofviewofthegirls,theboyisseenasadarkshadowysilhouetteon thestreetbecauseofastrongbeamoflightfromhisback.Eventhoughthe boyisalwaysunderlights,thestronglightsalsocreatedarkshadowsofhim onthestreet.Becauseofthetoplight,hisfaceisconstantlyindarkshades. Especiallyinthegirls’point-of-viewshot,becauseoftheharshbacklight heisashadowyexistence.Contrastyeffectslightingsfromthetopandthe backdonotclearlydisplaytheboy’sfacialexpressionsinclose-ups,but 36 chapter1
figure1.8 Contrastyeffectslightingcreatesshadowsbehindthemaninjail. The Cheat(1915).
figure1.9 SimilartotheshotinThe Cheat(1915),contrastyeffectslightingcreates shadowsbehindthemaninjail.Light of Compassion(1926).CourtesyoftheNational FilmCenter,Tokyo.
theyemphasizethefinanciallyandpsychologicallyseverelivesoftheboy andhispoor,sickmother. Compassion literally comes with, and as, light to the boy in Light of Compassion. A female classmate and her father appear in a subsequent sceneonabrightlysunnyveranda(engawa).Anewspaperthatherfather readsshineswhiteunderthesunlight.Whenateacherinawhiteshirtvisits herfather,thelivingroomislitwithabright-whitelight.Theroomisornamented with shining white flowers. A maid brings shining white coffee cups.Whenthegirlcomesintotheroom,shestandsrightunderthewhite light.Together,thegirl,herfather,andherteachergetintoanautomobile underthestrongsunlight,visittheboyandhismother,andofferfinancial helpfortheboy’seducation.Whentheboyandgirlstandonthestreetin frontofhishouse,thankstoabrighthigh-keylightinadditiontothetop light,wenolongerseethestrongcontrastsbetweenlightsandshadows. Theboy’sfaceislit.Heisnolongerashadowyfigure.Thefinalintertitle declares,“Theskyissunny.”Thelastshotofthefilmistheskyfulloflight, indirectoppositiontotheopeningtitlewiththedrawingofcandlelightin adarkroom.102 Visibility and expressivity: negotiation between shinpa and Hollywood
InJune1922,afterheleftShochiku’sKamatastudio,Kotanidisappointingly claimed,“Ingeneral,theonlythingsthatacinematographer[inJapan]is allowedtodoaretousethebestofbackground,tomakeimagescleanly visible,and,inparticular,tophotographactorsbeautifully.Heshouldnot gobeyondthose.”103Kotani’scharacteristiccinematographicstyleswere notlimitedtomakingimages“cleanlyvisible”andphotographingactors “beautifully.” What Kotani brought from Hollywood was the contrasty Lasky lighting as well as effective use of backlighting, which would becomethedefaultnorminHollywoodinthe1920s,tosecureanillusionof roundness. However,mainlybasedontheirexperiencesinKabukiandshinpatheaters,spectatorsinJapanwereaccustomedtotheideathatlightwasmore orlessaneutralelementinmise-en-scèneandthevisibilityofactors’faces wastheimportantthing.Kotani’sfirstassignmentwastotakechargeofthe cinematographyofWoman of the Island(1920),Shochiku’sfirstfilmproduction.104AccordingtoKidoShiro,Woman of the Island“shocked”viewerswhenitwasreleasedwithitsHollywood-stylelightingandrhythmical 38 chapter1
shot-reverse-shotediting.105Theshockwaseducationalforfilmmakers.Ito Daisukeclaimedthathewas“astonishedatthebeautyoftones”inKotani’s cinematography in Woman of the Island that “deviated from black-and- whitephotographyinthepastbutintroducedtheso-called‘halftone.’”106 ThecinematographerofShochiku’ssecondproduction,The Woman Who Stands in Light(Hikari ni tatsu onna,MurataMinoru,1920),wasMizutani Bunjiro,whohadrecentlymovedtoShochikufromtheMukojimaproductionfacilityofNikkatsu,thefilmcompanythatdominatedJapanese cinemaintheseconddecadeofthetwentiethcentury.Mizutani’sassistant, MidorikawaMichio,camealongwithhimtoShochiku.Uponseeingthe vastdifferenceincinematographicsensibilitiesbetweenMizutani’swork and Kotani’s, Midorikawa immediately left Mizutani’s supervision and wentovertoworkunderKotani.107 EvenifthevisualofWoman of the IslandimpressedItoandMidorikawa, theshockwasnotnecessarilyappreciated bygeneral audiences when it wasreleasedatShochiku’sKabuki-za,thetheaterforKabuki,onNovember1,1920.Theaudiencecomplainedthattheimagesofthefilmwereso “unclear”thatitwasimpossibletoseetheactors’facialexpressions.108This perceivednonclaritymighthavebeencausedbyKotani’spreferencefor backlighting,ortheresultinghalftoneasexpressivemise-en-scène,with whichtheaudienceatthattimewasnotveryfamiliar.Kotani’sson,Eiichi,haspreservedacertainnumberofphotographsthatcapturetheactual shootingofWoman of the Islandonlocation.Amongthemaretwophotos, inwhich(probably)Kotanitriestophotographanactorinakimono,who isinknee-deepwater(figs.1.10and1.11).Thesilhouetteoftheactor,especiallyhisrightside,iscrisplycapturedinthephotos,backlitbytheobvious sunlight.ThesetwophotosarevisualevidenceofKotani’spreferencefor backlight.Infact,thereisaphotoofaverysimilarbacklitsettingonthe beachduringtheshootingofThe Hidden Pearls(fig.1.12). IftheonlythingsthatShochikuwantedfromitscinematographerswere “tousethebestofbackground,tomakeimagescleanlyvisible,and,inparticular,photographactorsbeautifully,”asKotaninoted,thenKotani’spreferenceforeffectslightingwentfarbeyondthatscope.Itistruethatasearly as1915,HanabusaTaneta,acriticforKinema Record,theprogressivejournalonfilmsandfilmmakinginJapan,hadintroducedthenewlightingin Hollywoodinitiatedby“Mr.Rasukin”(hemeantLasky),withtheemphasisonbacklighting.Hanabusaargued,“Positionedinoppositiontoalarger LightinganDMoDernity 39
figure1.10 Henry Kotaniphotographs anactoragainst thesun.Woman of the Island(1920). CourtesyofHenry KotaniProduction.
figure1.11 Woman of the Island(1920).CourtesyofHenryKotaniProduction.
figure1.12 HenryKotaniphotographsactorsonthebeachagainstthesun. The Hidden Pearls(1918).CourtesyofHenryKotaniProduction.
darkspace,abrightspotlooksmuchmorebeautiful”inRembrandtchiaroscuro.109Similarly,in1919,Katsudo Sekaimagazinepublishedanarticleon lightinginJapanesecinema.ThefilmcriticMoritapointedoutthreeareas in which “Japanese-made films are extremely inferior to foreign ones”: “incompletefocuses,lackofcontrastsbetweenlightanddark,andlackof energy.”Regardinghissecondpoint,Moritaargued: Lackofcontrastsbetweenlightanddarkispartlyduetosuchissuesas insufficientexposureandfailureofdevelopment,butitisalsocausedby theinevitablefactthatinessencemostofthearchitectureofourcountryismadeofwoodandthecolorsofactors’costumesandskinoftheir facesandbodiesarethesameasthoseofwood.Incomparison,buildingsinforeigncountriesaremostlywhite.Actorsarealsowhite.Conversely, costumes are black. But foreign films also pay particular and extremeattentiontothebalanceofcolors....Incasetherearelimited contrastsbetweenlightanddark,thefilmsshowbrightskyandtryto createcontrast....Inanycase,thefilmsthatlackcontrastsmakethe viewersfeelunpleasantlydepressed.Theydestroytheessentiallycheerfulnatureofmotionpictures.110 Morita’s claim certainly contained a culturally essentialist view. Still, Moritawasclearlylookingfornonflatandcontrastylightingstylesthatdid notexistinfilmmakinginJapanin1919.111However,suchfilmjournalsas Kinema RecordandKatsudo Sekaiinthoseearlyyearswerewrittenbythe purefilmadvocates—elitefilmcritics.Theyultimatelyaimedtoeducate thegeneralaudienceaboutcinematicstyles,buttheirwritingshadnotyet beenwidelydisseminated. AfterthefailureofWoman of the IslandandotherfilmsthatusedKotani, itisquitepossiblethatShochikuthoughtthatthegeneralaudiencewas notreadytowelcomethecreativelycontrastyuseoflightingincinematography.Shochikuwasnotwillingtoaccomplishacomplicatedcinematic maneuverthatwouldfullyintegrateeffectsoflightingwiththenarratives, especiallywhenitwasnotappreciated.LeaJacobspointsoutthatthelow- keyeffectscharacteristicofLaskylightingwereachievedprimarilywith twotypesofcarbonarclamps:“Thefirst,standingarcfloodlights,consistedoftwoarcs,i.e.twopairsofcarbons,inametalhousingwithareflectorintheback....Thesecond,carbonarcspotlights,weremadewithalens placedinfrontofthelightsourcewhichfocusedthelight.”112According 42 chapter1
toShiraiShigeru,acinematographerwhostartedhiscareeratShochiku’s Kamatastudio,Shochikuwasequippedwithacertainnumberofartificial lights,andtheywereabletouseatleastfifteencarbonlampsinasetin 1920.113However,afterbeingasked,“Speakingoflightingtechniques,were thereanythoughtsofusingbacklight,keylight,andfilllight,asthereare now?”Shiraiwasonlyabletoanswer,“Icannotsayclearlytherewere.”114 ThecriticOkadaMunetaroreportedinDecember1921andinJanuary1922 thattheexpensivemercurylamps,generators,andotherlightingequipmentthatShochikuimportedfromtheUnitedStateshadnotbeenused andwastefullyhadbeenleftinShochiku’swarehousebecausethetechnicianstherewerenotwillingtousethemorwereincapableofusingthem properly.115 Nihon Eiga magazine sarcastically stated that Shochiku decided to “heavily use such commercial filmmakers as Nomura Hotei and Kako Zanmubeginninginmid-1921inordertoproducevulgarentertainment films and make ends meet.”116 In October 1921, Shirai Shintaro, the initialstudioheadinKamata,becameacompanyexecutiveinordertoexpandthemarketforShochikufilmsintheKansaiareas.NomuraHoteibecamethenewstudiohead.117Nomuradeclaredthathewasnotinterested in“imitatingforeignfilms”butwas“willingtodevelopJapanesecinema basedonlyonwhatheisalreadyfamiliarwith.”118Tothisend,Nomura turnedpopularshinpa-styledramasintofilmswithdirectorsexperienced in shinpa—Golden Monster (Konjikiyasha, Kako Zanmu, 1922), Cuckoo (Hototogisu,IkedaGishin,1922),Foster Brothers(Chikyodai,IkedaGishin, 1922)—andmadethembighits.119Nikkatsuhadalreadybeenfamousfor itsshinpafilms,andShochikuoriginallyhadintendedtochallengethem usingthestylesofHollywoodandinsupportofthepurefilmmovement. YetNomura’spolicywastoslowdowntherapidrenovationoffilmmaking thathadbeentheinitialaimofShochiku.Inthissense,Nomurachoseto makeShochikufilmsmuchclosertotheproductsofitsmainrivalcompany.Nomura’sslogan,“Havehighideals,butprogresscarefullyandpractically”(riso wa takaku, te wa hikuku),clearlyindicatedthecompromising policy that he took.120 Even if Hollywood films had obtained dominant statusintheJapanesefilmmarket,makingJapanesefilmsusingthestrong influencesfromHollywoodwasadifferentstory.Shochiku’sconception ofbrightnesswas,afterall,theflatlightingofKabukiandshinpathatemphasizesvisibility.Kotani’sarrivalandhispersistentattemptsatbacklightLightinganDMoDernity 43
ingmadethepeopleatShochikurealizethedifferencebetweenKabuki’s brightness and Hollywood’s lighting. Cinematographers in Japan loved whatKotanibrought,butShochikudidnotwantsuchexpressivitybecause generalaudiencesdidnotseemtoappreciateit. ItwasnottruethatNomuracompletelyabandonedHollywoodstyles inhisshinpa-stylefilmsbutdidadoptsomeofthosetechniques.Forexample,inthesurvivingprintofCuckoo,therearesuchclassicalHollywood techniquesofcontinuityeditingasshotreverseshotswiththe180degree system, crosscutting, and irised close-ups of characters in emotionally heightened scenes. The book of Shochiku’s official history, published in 1996, insists that Nomura “adopted a bright and speedy American style when making these films of outdated and banal content” and the films “wereabsolutelysupportedbythecommerciallyorientedDistributionDepartment.”121However,thebookalsomaintainsthatthe“artisticallyoriented”peopleatthestudiowere“notsatisfied”withthesefilms.122Ifwe focusstrictlyonthelightinginCuckoo,wecanseethatLasky-stylelighting and backlighting that Kotani brought from Hollywood to Kamata were notusedasanarrativedeviceatall,evenwhentheycouldhaveenhanced thefilm’smelodramaticcontent.Instead,throughoutthefilm,thepriority wastoclearlyandbrightlydisplaythefacialandbodilyexpressionsofthe actors. In the surviving print of Cuckoo, two interior scenes with quite oppositeatmospheresappearback-to-back.Thefirstisasceneinwhich Namiko (Kurishima Sumiko), the heroine with tuberculosis, is scolded byhermeanmother-in-law.ThesecondsceneinvolvesNamikoandher loving husband, Takeo, in the same room. No matter how different the atmospheresinthesetwoscenes,lightingdoesnotplayanyparticularrole indistinguishingthetones.Similarly,boththelovescenebetweenNamiko andTakeoattheseashoreunder“thebrightblueskywithoutanyclouds,” accordingtotheintertitle,whenNamikoconfessesherfearofthedisease andthefollowingbattlesceneatnightinChina,whereTakeobarelysurvives,arephotographedinhigh-keylighting.123Thelattersceneincludesa fewshotsofexplosionsinthedark,butitisshotindaylightdespitethefact thatthesceneactuallytakesplaceatnight.124 Notwithstanding its use of modern stories, shinpa usually played at Kabuki theaters.125 Therefore, in most cases, shinpa followed Kabuki’s lightingstyles,whichpredominantlyusedflatfrontallightingthatillumi-
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nated the entire set and excluded shadow as much as possible to make onstageactsvisibletothespectator.126Thenotionofdepthwasnotemphasizedintermsoflighting.Thestagewasalreadythree-dimensionalso whybotherthinkingofcompositionallighting?Flatlightingwasthemajor lightingschemeforKabukievenafterKabukimovedfromopen-airtoindoortheaters.127AccordingtoastudybyToyamaShizuo,aspecialistintheatricallightingatToho,thebrightnessofdaytimeinteriortheaterswasbetween10and100lux,whichwasone-tenththatofcontemporarytheaters. Therefore,Toyamaconcludes,“Itisnaturaltoconsiderthatundersuch conditionsoftheEdoperiod[1603–1867,whenKabukibecamepopular], lightingwasonlyusedinKabukitomakethestagevisible.”128Evenwhen electriclightbegantobeusedintheaters,itsimplyoccupiedasupplementaryroleforstagevisibilityand,accordingtoToyama,“didnotcontribute todevelopingtheatricallightinginKabukitheatersbutmadeitpossibleto haveeveningshowsmorefreely.”129 Matsui Shoyo, the director of the uncompleted and unreleased film Island of Women of the Taira Clan(Heike nyogogashima),wasanadvisorof lightinginShochikutheaters.MatsuiwroteinJuly1925onthelightingof Yotsuya Ghost Story(Yotsuya kaidan),apopularKabukirepertoireplayedat theKabuki-zatheaterthatyear,“Baiko[OnoeBaikoXI]toldmethathis artwouldbecometoorealisticifwechangedtheelectriclightingtoooften. Therefore,wetriedtomakethecontrastbetweenlightanddarkaslittleas possible.Evenduringasceneunderthemoonlight,wekeptthelightingthe same.Theonlyexceptionwasthescenesinwhichaghostorathinhand appeared.However,eveninthosescenes,wedroppedandturnedonthe lightofthetheateratthesametime[inordertoavoidaconspicuouscontrastbetweenlightandshadow].”130WhenTakadaMinoru,oneofthemost popularactor-directorsofshinpa,usedlow-keylightinginatwilightscene inLight(Komyo)toexpressthesunsetandthefollowingdarkatmosphere underthestarlight,audiencesirritatinglycriedout,“Turnonthelight!”131 AnarticlepublishedinKinema JunpoinFebruary1922illustratedthe ambivalentrelationshipbetweenKotaniandShochikuintermsoftheir conceptionsoffilmmaking: His[Kotani’s]cinematographyisalwayspleasanttowatch.Asforhis pictorial compositions, lighting, and tones, there is nothing to criticize....However,Henryputtoomuchemphasisoncinematographic LightinganDMoDernity 45
techniquesanddidnotknowanythingabouttheaters....Itisafactthat hewasnotsatisfiedwitholdmotionpicturedramasandtriedtomake newfilmswithJapaneselocalcolor....Yet,ifweareallowedtoaskhim aquestionimpossibletoanswer,whydidheborrowonlyfromthenearly extincttechniquesofshinpaandkyugekiasthe“dramaticallyJapanese techniques”?Whydidhenotthinkcarefullyaboutadoptingtheatrical techniques that were opposite to the techniques of motion pictures, whichoriginatedinphotography?...Ifhestuckwiththeshinpadrama, itwouldbeasifhewascarvingastatuewithoutasoul,asanartistwho should destroy old and create new. It was like embracing a decaying bodyofadeceasedloveroverhergravestone.132 The implication was that Kotani’s Hollywood-trained cinematographic andlightingtechniqueswererevolutionaryinJapanesefilmmakinginthe early1920s,butKotanihadtochooseconventionalmaterialsandtheatrical methodstobeacceptedbyShochikuanditsaudience.Theauthorinsisted thatKotaniwasnotresponsibleforhisfailure.HeregardedKotaniasavictimofShochiku,which“onlypursuedcommercialsuccess”withoutunderstandingKotani’sskill(“oneofthebestintheworld”).Theauthorstrongly hoped Kotani would deviate from “uncinematic” theatrical conventions andmake“newfilms”inJapan.Theauthordidnotspecifywhatexactlythe “nearlyextincttechniques”lookedlike,butitisassumedthattheyincluded thetheatricalshinpastylesoflightingandcinematographythatdominated filmmakinginJapan,evenatthesupposedlymodernizingKamatastudio. ThecriticKanoChiyoowrotein1924,twoyearsafterKotanileftKamata, “FilmsmadeatKamatahaveturnedintosentimentalshinpa.Theircinematographictechniquesarenotasimpressiveandinnovativeasbefore.”133 KotanihimselfwrotesarcasticallyinFebruary1923,“Shochikuinvited usfromtheUnitedStatesandmadeanewattempttoseparateshinpafrom Japan’sconventions[offilmmaking].Withthecompletionofthisattempt andwiththevigilantskilloftheJapanesepeople,Shochikubecamethe king of Japanese shinpa films.”134 Kotani thus implicitly criticized Shochiku’schoiceofonlycombiningshinpaconventionswithnewcinematic techniquesandfornotbeinginnovativeenoughinitsuseoflighting.
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the “Clarity First” slogan and the kamata tone
HowdidShochikucombinetheshinpaconventionswiththefilmsproducedattheKamatastudio?HowdidtheKamatatoneactuallylook?It istruethatonlyahandfuloffilmsbeforethemid-1920sstillexistand,as manyhistorianspointout,therearenotenoughextantworkstodojusticetoahistoryofJapanesefilmstylebefore1925.OkajimaHisashiofthe NationalFilmCenter,NationalMuseumofModernArt,Tokyo,estimates thesurvivalrateforJapanesefilmsoftheprewarperiodtobeonlyabout 4percent.135DavidBordwellagrees:“Scarcelyanyfilmssurvivefromthe first25yearsofJapanesefilmmaking.”136Inthisregard,itisimpossibleto sufficientlyarguehowlightswereusedinJapanesefilmsoftheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury.YetIthinkitisstillpossibletohypothesize amajorstylistic trend based onextant filmsandthecontemporarydiscourseonthem. InMay1926,SuzukiJuzaburo,arevieweratKinema Junpo,praisedA Floating Bridge of a Dream(Yume no ukihashi,OkuboTadamoto,1926),afilm madeattheShochikuKamatastudio,forits“successfulcinematography withgoodnuke[clarity].”137Whatisthisnotionofnukethatdescribesafilm oftheKamatatone?“Clarityfirst,storysecond”(ichi nuke, ni suji):thiswas asloganintroducedintheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcenturybyMakinoShozo,“thefatherofJapanesecinema.”138Theexpression“clarityfirst” indicatestheimportanceoflightandlightingintheearlyperiodoffilmmakinginJapan.However,theemphasiswasnotnecessarilyonsensitive tonesorcreativenuancesandcontrastsbetweenlightandshadow.Instead, thetermnukesuggestsanemphasisonbrightnessthatwouldprovidevisibilityevenforwell-wornprintsprojectedwithdimlightbulbs.Brightness usually meant “simply flat” frontal lighting that would make everything “cleanlyandclearly”visibletothespectatoraswellastothebenshi—who narratedthestoryanddialogueofafilmforthespectators.139ThecinematographerMoritaFujiointerpretstheexpressiontomeanthattherewas lessdensity(kaburi)infilmnegativestodepicttheflatclarity.140Inother words,therewaslesscontrastbetweenlightanddarkinlightingstylesthat followed Makino’s slogan. In particular, Mizusawa Takehiko (a pseudonymofthefilmtheoristKaeiryamaNorimasa)wrotein1915thatstudioexecutivesatNikkatsuKyoto,whereMakinoproducedhisfilms,“prohibited usingbacklight”orsidelight.141ThecriticMiuraReiconfirmedin1981the LightinganDMoDernity 47
meaningof“clarityfirst”:“Usefrontallightsonly.Nobacklight.”142Actors, props,andbackdropsreceivedanoveralldiffuselight,usuallycomingfrom thefrontandtop.ThechieftechnicianatMakino’sstudiorecollectsthat therewerenosuchthingsaslightingtechniquesaround1926:“Wesimply placed1kWarclightsinarowandobtainedflatlights.Theideaofkeylight andfilllightwasnotestablishedatall.”143Mizusawaopenlycriticizedthe “clarityfirst”tendency:“Speakingoflightingandsetting,itisobviousthat their[NikkatsuKyotostudioexecutives’]mannerhasnosenseofatmosphere,notaste,andalmostnoskillatall....[Forinstance,]useofbacklightisprohibitedandonlythosethingslitfromthefrontarephotographed inordertomakephotographslookclear,eventhoughtheyarenotactually clearbuttoowhiteorblurred.”144 GeopoliticaldistancewasnottheonlyreasonalaginJapaneselightingtechnologywascreated,comparedtootherfilm-producingcountries. Clarityorvisibilityhadsufficientappealtomassaudienceswhowereaccustomedtostagerepertoriesofkyugekiandshinpawithflatlighting,even ifitwasnotenoughtocountertheWesternstandardintermsofnarrative clarityandexpressivitywithoutthebenshi’sexplication.In1914,Shigeno Yukiyoshi,editor-in-chiefofKinema Record,wrote,“Alltheforeignfilms fullofartisticatmosphereareproductsofstudiosfullyequippedwithartificiallights.However...ourcountry’sonlystudiodoesnothavelighting equipment,andasaresult,wecanonlyexpectflatpictureswithplainlighting.”145In1912,NikkatsuopeneditsstudiowithaglassstageinMukojima, Tokyo,butitdidnothave“equipmentforartificiallighting,whichresulted inobtainingflatpicturesonlywithreflectedbeamsofthesunlight.”146Nikkatsubarelyinvestedinequipmentorbuildings,consideringonlyproduct developmentandlong-termprofit.147OboraGengo,acinematographerat Nikkatsu,complainedthatthefilmstocktheyhadwasnotsensitiveatall butthebestlenstheyhadwasf/3.5.148ItissaidthatthefirstuseofartificiallightingforfilmmakinginJapanstartedasearlyas1912inashinpafilm calledBlue Storm(Seiran)inasceneinwhichablacksmithmakesasword inacave.149Yetwhatwereusedonthoseoccasionswerenotlightbulbsfor filmmakingbutnumerousMazdalightbulbsforhouseholduseorcarbon lightbulbsforfilmscreenings. Basedonthesurvivingsmallnumberoffilmsfromthepre-earthquake period,wecouldarguethatthe“clarityfirst”technique,thatpouredlight into the set diffused with equal brightness on both settings and actors, 48 chapter1
wasadominanttendency,exceptforoccasionalshotswithbacklighting andothereffects.Hollywoodfilmshadbeenlitinthesamemannerinthe periodfromroughly1912to1915,but,accordingtothefilmhistorianKristin Thompson,Americanfilmmakerswouldhaveconsideredthisstyleoflightingtobeold-fashionedonlyafewyearslater.150 ThesurvivingprintofChushingura(1911),oneoftheoldestsurviving films produced in Japan, directed by Makino Shozo and starring Onoe Matsunosuke,thefirstfilmstarinJapan,isatypicalexampleofthe“clarity first”tendency.151Sincetheexistingprintsarecompilationsofseveralversions released inthe 1910sand reedited afterthe coming ofsound, it is difficulttodeterminewhatsortofeditingwasoriginallyused,butwecan stillobservehowlightingmaintainedtheKabukistyle.Chushingura,atale oftheloyalforty-sevenronin(masterlesssamurai)whofaithfullyavenged theirwrongedlord,isoneofthemostpopularintheKabukirepertoire. Thefilmbeginswithalongshotofthreemen“inspectingZojojiTempleof Shiba”(astheintertitlestates).152Stronglightingfromthetopcreatesdark shadowsofthemenandapillaronfusumascreensinthebackground.Itis possibletointerpretthatthelightingofthisshotemphasizestheauthoritativecharacteristicofthemen.Butitismorereasonable,rather,toread thedarkshadowsasaninevitableconsequenceofshootingonaglassstage. Thecinematographerwasprobablynotabletoachieveconsistencyinthe supplyofsunlight.Infact,theshadowsinthebackmovewithintheshot, mostlikelybecauseagustofwindmovedacurtainthatshouldhavesupposedlycontrolledtheamountoflighttotheset. Thethirdshotofthefilmisalongshotthatshowsmatsu no roka(the corridorofpinetrees),whereAsano,insultedbyKira,attackshimwith asword.Thereisasuddenchangeoflightfromdarktobrightwithinthe durationoftheshot.Whenamediumclose-upofAsanoisinsertedright aftertheassaultinalongshotwithratherflatlighting,stronglightingfrom theupperrightappearstofunctionasaspotlightthatcreatesstrongshadowsonAsano’sface.Thislightingcouldbeseenasemphasizingtemporary insanityinAsano’sfacialexpression.However,onceagain,itseemsmore reasonabletoreadthelightingchangeasaresultoftheinconsistencyinthe useofequipment:improperadjustmentofthef-stopwhenphotographing themediumclose-up.Moreover,rightbeforetheclimacticattackofthe houseofKiraforrevenge,theforty-sevenroningatheronthesecondfloor ofanoodleshopatnight.Paralleleditingshowsamanatthefrontdeskon LightinganDMoDernity 49
thefirstfloorandtheforty-sevenroninonthesecondflooroneafteranother.Despitethefactthattheonlyvisiblelightsourceinthespaceseems tobetwocandlesonthedesk,thesceneisflatlylit.Thefollowingdramatic sceneofthetriumphantattackatnightinsnowisalsodisplayedinbright flatlight. The Story of the Filial Child Goro Masamune(Goro Masamune koshi den, 1915,preservedattheNationalFilmCenter,NationalMuseumofModern Art,Tokyo)alsofollowedthe“clarityfirst”slogan.ItwasdirectedbyYoshinoJiroandphotographedbyEdamasaYoshiro,oneofthepioneercinematographers in Japan, and starred Sawamura Shirogoro, Onoe Matsunosuke’smainrival.153Mostsceneswereshotonaglassstage.Inscenes insidearoomwithandonlamps(seedoillampswithpapercovers),which aresupposedtobethesourcesoflight,thelightingisflatandsharp.Shoji screensarenotusedforspeciallightingeffectsastheyareinThe Cheat,the filmmadeinHollywoodinthesameyear.Evenascenesupposedlyseton adark,snowynightisshowninflatlighting.Becauseitissupposedtobe areallydarknight,amanstepsonachildwhofaintedinfrontofawell. Thisscenelooksunrealisticonlybecauseweseetheactionclearlyinflat lighting.154 A Historical Play: Farewell of Nanko(Shigeki: Nanko ketsubetsu,1921),the filmthatphotographedanopen-airperformanceofOnoeMatsunosukeas thelegendarypatriotKusunokiMasashige,containsanexceptionallybacklitshotthat,onlyconsequently,reinforcestheprevalenceofthe“clarity first”sloganinNikkatsufilms.Thesurvivingprintofthefilmincludesan introductorysequencethatdocumentsthemomentsbeforethisopen-air performancebegan.InthissequenceRegentHirohito,whowouldbecome theemperorinfiveyears,appearsasoneofthespectators.Quitepossiblyin ordertodepictthetwocelebritiesofthetime,HirohitoandMatsunosuke, withinthesameframe,thelightingofthescenewascompromised.The shotisstronglybacklit.Becauseofthesunlightfromtheback,Hirohitoand thesurroundingcrowdlookalmostlikesilhouettes,andMatsunosukeand otheractors’figurescreatehardshadowsontheground.However,Matsunosukefacesinthedirectionofthesun;hisface,therightsideofwhichis observabletotheaudience,isclearlylitfromthefront.Afterthisintroductorysequence,thefilmfocusesontheperformance.Hirohitoneverappears inthefilmagainandthecamerastaysatpositionswherediffusedfrontal lightingismaintaineduntiltheend.ThefilmhistorianHideakiFujikiar50 chapter1
guesthatthecameraispositionedwhereHirohitoissupposedtostandas atranscendentalpresence,whichmeansthatthisfilmneverintendedtobe challengingtotheauthority.155Inotherwords,inthecaseofthisfilmthe frontallightsymbolicallycomesfromwherethewould-beemperorstands. InareportpublishedinKokusai Eiga ShinbuninSeptember1927,thefilm journalistObataToshikazuwrote,“Untilnow,ingenerallightinghasonly beenfromthefrontwithlightsplacedrightandleftofacamera.Therefore, imageshavebeenveryflat.Now,thetechniqueshavebeenimproved,and toplightandsidelightisused.Frontallightisonlyusedtofillin.However, flatlightingisstillwidelyused.”156TwodrawingsthatObataattachedtohis reportdisplayexamplesofthepositioningoflightsataJapanesefilmstudio (fig.1.13).WhilethefirstdrawingappearstofollowclassicalHollywood’s three-pointlightingwithkeylights,sidelights,andbacklights,thesecond drawingofalightingdesignonastarclearlyindicatesmoreflatlighting withtheemphasisonlightscomingonlyfromthefrontandsides. When Suzuki Juzaburo used the term nuke to describe Shochiku Kamatafilmsin1926,hewasthinkingofthis“clarityfirst”tendency,which wasmaintainedintheshinpa-stylefilms.ComparisonofaParamountfilm, Docks of New York(JosefvonSternberg,1928),anditsJapaneseadaptation, First Step Ashore(Joriku daiippo,ShimazuYasujiro,1932),illustrateshow lightingwasusedatKamataandmaintainedthe“clarityfirst”tendency.157 IntheDecember1932issueofKamata,First Steps Ashorewasdescribedas a“splendidimitation”ofDocks of New York.158 ContrastylightinginDocks of New Yorkquiteoftenfunctionsasaself- conscious narrational device, even though the film was released in the period when so-called classical cinema, in which light was supposed to workasaneutralelementofmise-en-scène,becamedominantinHollywood.Bill(WallaceReid),theheroofthefilm,embodiesdarknessand blackness, and the heroine Mae (Betty Compson) embodies brightness andwhiteness.Billappearsinalow-keyboilerroomofashipasablack figure.Eventhoughhisskiniswhiteandtheroomishardlylitfromabove, Bill’sbodyshinesdarkandisfullycoveredwithcoalflakes.Hecleanshis bodywithapieceofragandthrowsitaway,buthisbossforceshimtopick upthedirtyrag.Heisnotallowedtotakeoffthedarknessfromhimself. Whiletheshipmenstepashoreatnight,awomanjumpsintotheocean. Mae’sentireactofattemptingsuicideisreflectedonthedarksurfaceof water.Lookingather,Billinblackclothesjumpsintotheoceanasifhe LightinganDMoDernity 51
figure1.13 ThepositioningoflightsataJapanesefilmstudioin1927.Inthefirst drawing,apersonatatableislitbythree-pointlighting.Inthesecond,astarislit ratherflatlybyspotlightsandEwinglights.ReprintedfromKokusai Eiga Shinbun5 (September20,1927):126.
weregoingintolights.Billcomesoutofthewaterandcarriesherintoa bar.Hetakesheruptoaroomonthesecondfloorandlaysheronthebed. Throughout, Bill is strongly backlit. Even when he finally lights the gas lampandisstandingagainstitinthehotelroom,Billisseenonlyasasilhouettedshadow.Onthecontrary,Mae’slegsareextremelywhiteinBill’s point-of-viewshot,asiftheywereshiningontheirown. WhileBillbecomesdrunkandbeginsfightinginthebar,hestaysonthe darksideoftheroom.Othercustomerslookathimfightingfromthebright sideattheback.Thesceneiscrosscuttotheheroineonthebed.Under strongspotlightsfromabove,herskin,hair,underwear,andthecigarette smokeshepuffsareallextremelywhite.EvenwhenBillandtheheroine eventuallyspendtheirweddingnightintheroom,Billmovestothefrontof theonlyvisiblelamp.Hekeepsplacinghimselfagainstlightsandinsilhouette.Thefollowingmorning,Billleavestheroomalonewithalarge,thick shadowofhimonthewall. Eventually,Billgivesuphisshadowyidentity.Heclimbsuptheladder oftheboilerroom,jumpsintotheoceanunderthebrightsunlight,and arrivesatacourtroom,whoseceilinghasnumerouselectricallamps,with cleanwhiteskinandwithouttheblackjacket,toprotecthislawfullymarriedwife.Onthesurface,Docks of New Yorkisastoryofonemanwhosaves asuicidalwoman.However,itisactuallythemanwhoissaved—brought backintolightfromdarkness.Itistruethattheendingleavesasenseof brightnessandcheerfulness,butthroughoutthefilmthespectatorisexposedtothemelodramaticcontrastbetweenlightandshadow. Compared to Docks of New York, First Step Ashore is overtly photographedindiffusedandflathighkey.Mostnotably,thesceneinwhichthe herosavestheheroinefromdrowningissetinthebrightdaytime.Asin Docks of New York,theheroofthefilm,Sakata(OkaJoji),isintroducedin alow-keyboilerroomofaship.ButSakataisnotcoveredwithblackcoal. Instead,heappearsasaluminoushalf-nakedmalebody.IncontrasttoBill, Sakataappearswhite.Spotlightsfromthetopandsidelightfromthecoal firemakehisbodylookshininglywhite.Moreover,sincetheshotsofthe low-keyboilerroomarecrosscuttothosehigh-keyonesoutside,thecontrastmakestheluminosityofhisbodystandoutevenmore.Sakatais,in fact,depictedasapersonwhophysicallyandmetaphoricallybringsbright light into the life of a reckless heroine who attempts suicide (Mizutani Yaeko).Sakatasavesherfromthewaterandtakeshertoawaitingroomat LightinganDMoDernity 53
thedock,infrontofwhichshinesaroundandwhiteelectricallamp.Sakata fightsagainstgangsterswhoharasstheheroine,andwhilethegangstersare inshadows,Sakatafacesthemunderbrightlamps.ThedeepspacecompositionemphasizesthecontrastbetweenSakataunderlightsandthegangstersassilhouettesinfront.Theheroinecannothelpthrowingsomething atalampandturningtheroomintodarknesstohelpSakata.Thus,while itisnottruethatFirst Step Ashoreisafilminsensitivetolightingsinceit certainlyusesitfordramaticpurposes,Shimazu’sfilmischaracterizedby brightness. AssoonastheheroineopensherhearttoSakata,thelightingturnsinto merebrightnessandcheerfulness.Itdoesnotchangeatalluntiltheend. Afterthefight,thecouplerestsatahotelroominhigh-keylighting(supposedlyunderanakedelectricallamphangingfromtheceiling),whichis displayedinonelongshotofthecouple.Thelightingdoesnotchangeat allevenwhenthemorningarrivesandbrightsunlightissupposedtoflood intotheroomfrombigwindowsattheback.Sakataneedstofightthegangstersagain,butthistimeinthesunlight.Thenhecomesbacktothehigh- keyhotelroomwhereheisarrestedbypoliceandchargedforthemurder oftheheadofthegangsters.Lightingdoesnotserveatalltoenhancethe tensionofthecharge,arrest,andtheheroine’spetition. ItisironicbecausethebacklightingthatKotanipreferredcouldproduce “agreaterimpressionofdepth”by“outliningfiguresinlight”andcould make the figures “stand out against asubdued background.”159 In other words,clarityindepthisenhancedwiththeeffectiveuseofbacklighting. However,thiswasnotthedirectionchosenbyShochikuanditsrationalizationpolicy.Shochikuturnedtoanotherway—aconventionalizedtheatricalway—oflightingandimagingthatwouldredeemthefacesofJapanese actorsforitsloyalaudienceofKabukiandshinpa. Rationalization: shochiku’s Capitalist-Industrial modernization
KotanididnotsuccessfullyfitintoShochiku’sstrategyofthemixturebetween shinpa and Hollywood from 1920 to 1923. When the earthquake destroyed most of the filmmaking facilities in Tokyo, the conditions of filmmaking at the Shochiku Kamata studio changed drastically, which couldhavegivenKotaniasecondchance.WhilethestudioheadNomura Hotei,manydirectors,andactorswhohaddominatedShochiku’sshinpa- stylefilmsbeforetheearthquakehadtotemporarilymovetotheShimo54 chapter1
kamostudioinKyoto,whichShochikuopenedforemergencymeasures, theyoungexecutiveKidoShirotookoverthepositionofstudioheadat KamatainJuly1924.“Shinpa-stylefilms,”Kidostated,“toucheduponsome truths[ofhumanlife]buttheydonotdepictactualpeople.Unchangeable moralityexistsatthebasisofthem.Thepeople[insuchfilms]aresimply controlled by morality.”160 What Kido emphasized was that the studio’s filmsshoulddeviatefromthetheatricaltradition.161 But how? Kido insisted that the Kamata films should put emphasis ontempoandmoodand“initiateanewstyleofexpressioninJapanese cinema.”162Yetheneverclarifiedhowtechnicallyhisfilmswouldachievea certaintempoandmood.Kidocertainlydiscussednewthemesandsubject matter.AccordingtoKido,hisfirstproduction,Father(Otosan,a.k.a.Chichi, ShimazuYasujiro,1923),wasa“verybrightandcinematic”filmthathad“a simpleplotwithdailyevents,”whichwasdifferentfrom“theatricallycomplicatednarration.”163Kidoinsistedonproducingwell-structuredfilmsthat “directlyconnectedtotheactuallivesofcontemporarypeople.”164However, he talked less about how he would incorporate modern cinematic techniquesandtechnologiesinhisfilms.165TakedaAkira,whoworkedat theKamatastudio’sscreenplaydepartment,confessedthat,despitethefact thatscreenwritersandKidohadnumerousdiscussionsontheoriesoffilmmaking,itwas“impossibleforthepeopleinthescreenplaydepartmentto fullyunderstandKido’spolicy.”166 Afterall,Kido’sgoalwasaslightlymoreupdatedversionofNomura’s compromising policy. Kido acknowledged the incessant popularity of shinpa-styletragedydespitehisaspirationtodistinguishShochikufilms fromtheshinpatradition.Kidostated,“Theaudiencewilleventuallywelcometragedythebest.However,tragedyshouldnotbethesameoldshinpa stylethatsimplyaimsattear-jerking.They[thefilms]needtoincorporate cheerfulscenesandactionsceneswithappropriatewitandlaughterthat willsatisfytheviewers.”167ThedreamofexportinOtaniTakejiro’sinitial goalwhenhebrokeintofilmbusiness,whichcorrespondedtothepurefilm movement,wasalmostcompletelyoverlooked.Theoriginalaimofformulatingthe“artisticmotionpictures”wasreplacedbyasafebetontheconventionalizedstyleofshinpatragedyfordomesticaudiences.Indeed,Kido broughtbackNomuraHotei,therepresentativeofshinpa-stylefilmmaking inthepast,fromShimokamotoKamatain1926.Accordingtotheofficial historybookofShochiku,thefirstbighitfromKamataunderKido’ssuperLightinganDMoDernity 55
visionwasa1929filmMother(Haha),directed“commerciallyandeffectively”byNomura.168 Yet,wecannotsimplyconsiderKido’sattitudetobeanachronisticor antimodern.In1931,thefilmcriticMoriIwaoseverelycondemnedKido’s policy:“[Kido]flattersthemassestoomuch.Icannotstandhistooobvious businessman attitude—he seems to believe that good films are the onesthatwouldgrabmoneyfromthemassesinanyway....Hehasbeen orderingcapabledirectorsandscreenwriterstofocustheirbrainsonextremeshinpatragedies,hasn’the?”169ItshouldbenotedthatMoriwas criticizingtwoissues:Kido’s“businessmanattitude”andhisretreattothe shinpa-style filmmaking. Herein lay a mixture of newness and oldness: rationalizationandconventionalization.Thesetwoelementsformedthe coreofShochikucinema’scapitalist-industrialmodernity.ForShochiku, aswellasotherstudiosintheJapanesefilmindustry,thelackofcapitalwas amajorproblem.170Thestudiohadtoemphasizeaquickreturnonminimalinvestments.Itwasabsolutelynecessarytomanagethecategoriesof capitalistproduction,suchascommodityproductionandlabormanagement, in a rationalized manner. While reinstating the shinpa-influenced oldfilmmakerswhowerecriticizedbyMoriandothersas“uncinematic,” KidoadvancedrationalizationoffilmproductionatShochiku.Kidowas veryvocalabouthisworkasastudiohead.Hepublishednumerouswritingsinfilmjournals,asthepurefilmadvocateshaddoneinthepreviousdecade.AmongthemwasanessaypublishedinFebruary1930titled“Theory ofRationalizingFilmmaking.”Kidoemphasizedthathewouldpursuethe “mosteffective and organized manner touse time, cost, and people” in filmmaking at Kamata.171 Kido’s attitude certainly corresponded to the largertrendinTokyoaftertheGreatKantoEarthquakeof1923,especially bureaucraticandcorporaterationalism.172 Evidently,KidodidnotsimplyfollowtheHollywoodindustry.Henever askedKotanitoreturntowork.173Inanessaypublishedin1928,Kidostated thathewas“shocked”bythe“failure”of“someWesternfilms”withbudgetsofmorethanseveralmillionyenandtwo-yearlengthsofproduction whenhethoughtaboutthetimeandenergythathadbeenwasted.174Itwas truethatunderKido’ssupervisiontwoadditionaldarkstageswerebuilt atthestudioandnumerouscarbonlampsandmercurylampswerepurchasedfromtheUnitedStates“inordertophotographbyelectricallights andtohavedepthofimages.”175Buttherewasnotacleartechnicalshift 56 chapter1
thatwouldincorporatemoresophisticatedandprofoundusesoflighting. Instead,in1928MugurumaOsamu,thevicestudioheadattheKamata studio,pointedouttheincreaseoflocationshootingswithoutcomplicated settingsoflighting.Eventhoughhedidnotclearlynotelightingconfiguration,Mugurumawrote,“Thereisacertaintendency[atKamata]ofgoing outofdarkroomstospaciouslocations[toshootfilms]everywhere.... Itisreallypleasanttowatchfilmswithlocationscenesthatarebeautifully done.ItishardtoputupwithfilmswithtoomanysceneswithinJapanese houses.”176 Kidowasnotconcernedaboutinnovativeuseoflightingbutonlyabout visibilityofimages.Kidoobviouslycaredlessaboutexpressivemise-en- scène as he rationalized filmmaking at Kamata. While Kido revived the studio’sactingschoolandestablishedascript“researchcenter,”hecared lessaboutlightingandcinematography.TheShochikudirectorObaHideo recalledthatKidooncecomplainedabouttheinterestofanotherShochiku filmmaker,NomuraHiromasa,inexperimentingwithlighting.According toOba,Kidosarcasticallysaid,“Experimentinlightingisonlyasfunas steppingonatatamimatandbreakingintoashojiscreen.”177AtsutaYuharu,aShochikucinematographer,laterrecalledthatnotevenahighplatformforlightingwasallowedattheKamatastudio—lightingcameonly fromthesides.178Kido,whobeganhiscareerinShochiku’saccountingdivision,wasthinkinginproduction,distribution,andexhibitionvalues—new categoriesoffilmandcapitalism.179 ThejournalistObataToshikazucomparedeachstudio’slightingequipmentinhisreportintheSeptember1927issueofKokusai Eiga Shinbun. Shochiku’s Kamata studio overwhelmed others in quantity, which indicated that the studio was initially trying to imitate Hollywood studios. Whiletherewerethirty-two5kWarcspotlightsatKamata,therewereonly twelvespotlightsatthe“rival”companyNikkatsu’sDaishogunstudioin Kyoto.180WhileKamataownedtenmercurylampsandeighttoplights, NikkatsuDaishogunhadnone.NikkatsubarelyoutnumberedShochiku inEwinglights,sixtytofifty-five.Asforelectricityusageforlighting,Shochikuusedapproximately25,000to35,000kWpermonthwhileNikkatsu used only 7,500 kW. The number indicates that Shochiku’s films, at least in the interior scenes photographed in studios, were brighter than Nikkatsu’s.181 Shochiku’sfilmsmighthavehadhigherproductionvaluesthanothers, LightinganDMoDernity 57
sotheycostmuchmorethanothercompanies’products.Accordingtothe “Japan’sSevenMajorStudios’ProficiencyReport”inKokusai Eiga Shinbun, ShochikuKamatawasproducingabouttenfilmsamonthwithatotalproductioncostof200,000yen.Nikkatsuwasmakingtwelvefilmsamonth with150,000yen.OthersmallerstudiosincludeToaKinema(ninefilms with100,000yen),MakinoProduction(tenfilmswith140,000yen),and Teikoku Kinema (a.k.a. Teikine, fifteen films with 120,000 yen).182 AnotherreportinKokusai Eiga ShinbuncomparedthefixedassetsanddepreciationratesofShochiku,Nikkatsu,andTeikineinthelatterhalfofthe 1927fiscalyear.Shochikuwasfaringthepoorestofthethree.Nikkatsu’s fixedassetswere4,286,000yenandthedepreciationratewas3.6percent andTeikine’swere2,609,000yenand21.1percent,whileShochiku’swere 6,433,000yenwithonly2.0percentdepreciation.183Aftertheearthquake in1923until1929,Nikkatsuwasconstantlymakingprofitsbetween500,000 and700,000yenayear,thankstothenewlypopularizedgenreofjidaigeki (perioddrama),especiallyafter1927withthesuccessoftheyoungfilmmakerItoDaisukeandhisnewstar,OkochiDenjiro.184Thereisnorecord ofexactnumbersforShochiku’sprofitsanddeficitsinthesameperiod,but InoueShigemasa,themanagerofShochikuKinema’sOsakabranch,noted inJanuary1928,“Honestly,thebestperiodofShochikuKamatawasfrom 1923to1924whenourfilmswerereceivedextremelywelleverywherein Japanonanincrediblescale.Idonotknowwhybutafter1925thereception ofourfilmsturnedmiserableonasimilarlyunimaginablescale.”185Under suchcircumstances,Kidomusthavethoughtthatrationalizationoffilmmakingwasnecessaryathisstudio. Contrary to Shochiku’s rationalization policy, Nikkatsu expanded its productionscale,whichwouldturnouttobeafailurebytheearly1930s. NikkatsuopeneditsnewstudioinUzumasa,Kyoto,in1928.Thenewstudio wasequippedwithseventy-eightlightswithtwenty-sixlightingtechnicians while Shochiku had seventy-four lights and nine lighting technicians.186 Theoretically,Nikkatsufilmsbecameabletoprovidemore-elaboratelighting techniques handled with more technicians. However, the timing of Nikkatsu’sbusinessexpansionwasnotperfect.Nikkatsu’sprofitsstarted todecreasein1929,partiallyduetotheeconomicdownfallinJapan.The filmhistorianTanakaJunichiroclaimsthatNikkatsuwasindebtfromits unrealizedplanofconstructingabuildinginMarunouchi,Tokyo.187In1931, therewasnodividend.188Attheendof1932,Nikkatsusufferedadeficitof 58 chapter1
199,000yen.189Asmanyastwohundredworkersweresuddenlyfiredfrom Nikkatsu’sKyotostudio.190In1934,withfinancialsupportfromShochiku, whichwasmakingagigantic579,000yenofprofitinthatyearalone,Nagata Masaichi,theformerheadofproductionatNikkatsuKyotostudio,became thepresidentofthenewcompanyDaiichiEiga.191Theestablishmentof DaiichiEigawasShochiku’sstrategytoattackNikkatsu’sdistributionsystem.ThefilmsproducedbyNagataatDaiichiEigaweredistributedtoany theaterchain,eventoNikkatsu’stheaters,viaanewdistributioncompany, JapanFilmDistribution Company(NihonEigaHaikyuKabushikiGeisha),whichwasfinancedbyShochiku.Inotherwords,evenwithinitsown theaterchains,NikkatsuhadtocompeteforscreenswithShochiku.192Accordingtotheofficialcompanyreport,Nikkatsudidnotmakeanyprofit butincreaseditsdebtbetween1936and1938.193TheNikkatsupresidentNakataniSadayoriandtheexecutiveHoriKyusakuapproachedPhotoChemicalLaboratory(pcL),arisingfilmcompanyequippedwithnewsoundfilm technologies,forfinancialsupport,butShochikuintervenedbothtimes, disclosingthehugedeficitthatNikkatsuhadcompiled.InOctober1936, OtaniTakejiro,thepresidentofShochiku,personallyundertookNikkatsu’s2,500,000yendebttoChibaBankandtookchargeofthecompany.194 By1937,Nikkatsuwasintegratedundertheso-calledShochikublock.195 Nagata,whobecamethepresidentofanothernewcompanyundertheShochikublock,ShinkoKinema,wrotein1939,“Nikkatsu’scompanypolicy wasnolongerdecidedwithoutMr.Otani’sconsent.”196 Thus,bythemid-1930s,Shochikuhadconfirmeditsdominantfinancial statusinthefilmindustry.197Alongwiththatcamethedominantmodeof filmstyles.Orviceversa.Shochiku’sfilmstylesthatwereformulatedunder itsrationalizationpolicyledthecompanytoitsdominantstatus.In1929, whenShochikucametoown“thelargestfilmcompanyinJapan,”increasingitscapitalfrom6,875,000yento15,000,000yen,thecinematographer NagahamaKeizowrote,“Isn’tlightinginJapanesecinemawrong?They [thefilms]justusedirectreflectionofthesunlightbyareflectoronlocation andnonstrategicallyarrangedvariouslampsinthestudio....Lightingdecidesthetasteoffilms.Poorlightingmakesfilmswithbadtaste....[Lighting]isthemajorissuetobestudiedrightnowinJapanesecinema.”198In thesameyear,IsayamaSaburo,thecinematographeratNikkatsusince1922, wrote,“Iwanttoexploreanewwayoflightinguniqueincinema.Basedon moderntonesoflighting,Iwanttopractice‘individualized’lightingthat LightinganDMoDernity 59
matchesthecontentofthedramaandemphasizestheparticularbeautyof it....InJapan,therearesomanyunsophisticatedpeoplewhoonlythink itbeautifulwhenactors’facesarephotographedallwhiteasiftheywere packedwithwhitepowder.Thecolorofactors’facesincinemashouldbe photographedbasedontheactualcolorsofthem....Weshouldabandon outdatedmethods.”199Similarly,in1932,Kinema Junpopublishedanessay bythecriticOkumuraYasuotitled“AboutLightingEffectsinCinema.” OkumuracriticizedthelackofconcernforlightinginJapanesecinemaand requested “meaningful lighting effects”that would fullyemploy the “fill light”andthe“backlight,”inadditiontothefrontal“keylight,”theonly lightthatlookeddominantinJapanesefilmstoOkumura.Okumurawrote, “Whatarethelightingtechniciansthinkingwhentheyparticipateinfilmmaking?Aren’ttheysimplythinkingthatlightsshouldonlybeusedtolight objectsinordertomakethemlookbright?...Inourplaces[Japanesefilm studios],allpartsofthesetsarelitbycheap2kWlamps.Thereisnoroom foranycontrasts.Lightsfromanywindowsaresoweakthattheentiresets lookcheaperthantheyare.”200 WhenKotanileftShochiku,FurukawaRoppawroteinKinema Junpo,“It isashamethatthepeopleatShochiku,andpeopleinJapan,donotunderstandhowpreciousHenryis.Therefore,HenryisleavingShochiku.He mayleaveJapan.ShochikuasacompanyhasbeendependentuponHenry butdoesnotintendtorepayhimandsimplyletshimgo.Afterlosinghim, ShochikuandtheJapanesefilmcircleswillsurelyregretit.”201But,obviously,Shochikudidnotneedtoregretit. star lighting
Shochiku’s position toward modern technologies of lighting and imagingwasnotasimpleretreattotheKabukiandshinpaconventions.While shinpa used onnagata (impersonators) for female roles, Shochiku film wascenteredontheuseofactresses.ShochikuKamatamadestarsoutof suchactressesasKurishimaSumiko,whomadeherdebutinPoppy,which Kotanidirected,andKawadaYoshiko,whoplayedaprotagonistinWoman of the Island.Whenitcametopublicizingtheirstars,specificallyfemale stars,beautifully,KotaniandhisHollywoodtechniques,includingbacklighting,playedsignificantroles.ForKido,aestheticachievementcounted aslongasitwentalongwithcommercialism.HideakiFujikiandPatrick KeatingarguethatinHollywoodfrom1915throughthe1920ssuchphoto60 chapter1
graphictechniquesasclose-up,artificialthree-pointlighting,andsoftfocus wereusedformoviestarsinboththeirfilmsandpublicityphotosto“emphasizeactors’physicalcharacteristics”andtoconvey“sensualattraction, friendliness,andpsychologicalstates,”whichcouldgobeyondthelogicof the film narratives.202 While providing narrative clarity and consistency, these photographic techniques could also enhance the viewers’ sensory perceptionsofmateriality,orwhatSiegfriedKracauercalledthe“physical reality”oftheactors’presence.203 AccordingtoFujiki,KurishimawasoneofthefirstJapanesestarswith “thesenseofnewness.”204Beforetheriseofactorsascinematicstars,Fujiki argues,anearlystarsystemwasformulatedforthebenshiandforonnagata,withemphasisontheirbodilyperformances.Contrarytothebenshi andonnagata,FujikiarguesthatKurishima’snewnesswasbasedon“the imageofphysicalsexualitythatwassimilartoAmericanfilmstars,”whose physicalcharacteristics wereenhancedbyphotographictechnologies.205 KurishimawasthefirstmajorfemalemoviestarinJapanwhomShochiku created.AfterKurishima,Shochikubecamefamousforitsgendaigeki(contemporarydrama)filmswithfemalestars. Behindthe“new”formationoftheJapanesemoviestarsystem,which wasseparatefromthetheatricalconventions,lightingplayedasignificant role. In this regard, Shochiku allowed Kotani to fully use his technique oflightingtocreatethepackagedimageofKurishima.First,dislikingthe shinpa-stylemakeup,whichusedtoomuchwhite,KotaniusedMaxFactorcosmetics,importeddirectlyfromtheUnitedStates,onKurishimain Poppytocreateamorerealisticappearanceandtoenhancethelighting effects.206NodaKogo,ascreenwriteratShochikuKamata,wrotein1927, “Aboveanythingelse,whenKurishimaSumikoappearedonthescreenin thisfilm[Poppy],IwassoastonishedathowbeautifulshewasthatIfeltsuffocatedforawhile.”207Second,Kotaniusedbacklighttoperform“theless self-conscioustasksofdefiningspaceandaddinganormativedegreeofaestheticpolish”toimitatethephotographictechniquesofHollywood,with whichtheHollywoodfilmindustrypublicizedtheirstarsinphotographic images.208StillphotosofKotani’sfilmsfrom1921,bothofwhosetitlesrefer tolighting,A Village at the Sunset(Yuyo no mura)andA Dark Street(Yami no michi),includenumerousbacklitshotsinwhichtheheroines’hairglows beautifullyandsetsthestarsofffromthedarkerbackground(fig.1.14). TheseimagesofheroinesarecertainlycomparabletothoseofLailaLee, LightinganDMoDernity 61
aParamountstar,whomKotaniphotographedinHollywood.Kotaniwas assignedasacinematographerforherstarvehicles,includingThe Heart of Youth,Puppy Love(R.WilliamNeill,1919),Rustling a Bride(IrvinWillat, 1919),andThe Secret Garden(G.ButlerClonebough,1919),andhephotographedherbeautifullyinlight.Inthestillphotosofthesefilms,Lee’sbrunettehairinparticularshinesgorgeouslyineitherinteriororexteriorshots, beinglitfromsidesandfrombehind(fig.1.15).KotaniwascertainlyaspecialistoffemalestarphotographybothinJapanandinHollywood. However,asalreadyseenintheexampleofCuckoo,Shochikuwasnot willingtofullyincorporateKotani’stechniquesintotheshinpa-stylenarrativelogicthatprioritizedvisibilitytoexpressivityorsensuality,evenwhen ShochikuusedfemaleactorsinitsfilmsandpublicizedtheminHollywood- stylephotography.Notmanyshinpa-stylefilmssurvived,butstillphotos reprintedinfilmmagazinesindicatethemaintypesoflighting.AsFujiki indicates,theMarch1917issueofKatsudo Gahojuxtaposesastillphotoof TachibanaTeijiro,averypopularonnagataatNikkatsuMukojimastudio, inashinpatragedyfilmFutari Shizuka(OguchiTadashi,1917)withaportraitofMyrtleGonzalez,aHollywoodstar.Whilethelatterisasensual close-upofthefemaleactor’sfaceandnakedshouldersinlow-keylighting, dramaticallyhighlightedwithsidelightfromtheleft,theformer,atypical portrayalofashinpa-stylefilmofthetime,isaflat-litlongshot.209Even thoughitisnotclearhowfaithfullythisstillphotorepresentstheactual sceneinthefilm,thisexampleamongmanyimplieshowthemise-en-scène oftheshinpa-stylefilmemphasizesvisibilityofthetheatricaltableauindiffusedlightingratherthandramaticallyenhancingfragmentedbodyparts oranythingwithintheframeviaspotlighting.210AccordingtoFujiki,onnagataofshinpatragedyexpresstheiremotionsinthemovementofentire bodies,orinspecialconfigurationwithotheractorsandthesurrounding decor,andlongshotsandflatlightingaremoresuitabletodisplaytheir performancesthanclose-upsandspotlighting.211InOctober1931,Nomura Hoteiclearlyarticulatedhisfilmmakingstyle:“Inmymethodofdirecting films,Icarelessaboutdetails.Iputemphasisonactingingeneral.Iuse wideanglesandphotographonecutslowlyinacertainlength,”andhealso insistedonavoidingnumerousclose-upsandshotreverseshots.212 Shochiku’sshinpa-stylefilms,mostlybasedonthefamilydramanovels bysuchauthorsasIzumiKyoka,OsakiKoyo,TokutomiRoka,andKikuchi Yuho, adopted the same tableau-style flat lighting. The film Cuckoo cer62 chapter1
figure1.14 Theheroine’shairglowsbeautifullyinbacklight.A Village at the Sunset(1921).CourtesyofHenryKotaniProduction.
figure1.15 LailaLee,photographedbyHenryKotaniinHollywood.The Heart of Youth(1919).CourtesyofHenryKotaniProduction.
tainlycontainsiridescentclose-upsofKurishima’sface,butthelighting fortheseshotsisconsistentlyflat.Withtheclose-ups,thefilmemphasizes thefactthatanactualwoman,notanimpersonator,isplayingtheheroine, butcomparedtotheportraitofGonzalezinKatsudo Gaho,lightingisnot necessarilyusedtoenhancethesensualattractionormaterialrealityofthe actress.Inotherwords,theemphasisisstillonthetableauxthatoccupy themajorityofscreentime.SincetheEdoperiod,therewasaspecialspotlightingeffectinKabukicalledtsura-akari(facelight)orsashidashi(insert).Astageassistantwouldinsertcandlelightinfrontofanactor’sface toenhanceitsvisibility.213Theirisedclose-upswithflatlightinginCuckoo couldberegardedasamodernizedversionoftsura-akari.Thetechnique wascertainlycinematic,buttheeffectwasorientedmoretowardtheconventionallytheatrical. Such visibility over expressivity was also necessitated by the power structureofthefilmindustry.AccordingtoGerow’sresearch,filmexhibitorsweretheoneslargelyincontroloftheindustryinthe1910sand1920s, whentheindustrywasnotverticallyintegratedandthenumberofmovie theaterswasquitelow.214Majortheatersnotonlyhadsignificantfreedom toselectfilms,butsomecouldalsospecificallyorderfilmsfromproducers tosuittheiraudiences,whowereaccustomedtotheideathatlightwasto be moreor less a neutral element in mise-en-scène andthevisibilityof actors’faceswastheimportantthing.ThefilmhistorianItakuraFumiaki alsopointsoutthe“superiorityoffilmexhibitorstofilmproducers”:exhibitorsandbenshirequestedwhattheyneededintheaterstofilmmakers,who wereforcedtocomplywithsuchdemands.215Whilelongshots,longtakes, andstillframingwereadoptedandspokenintertitleswereeliminatedso benshicouldmaintainthecomfortablerhythmsoftheirnarrations,clarity oflightinganddevelopmentwasalsorequiredforvisibility—fortheviewersandforbenshi.Besides,itwasacustomarypracticetomakeonlyasmall numberoffilmprintsfromanynegative—“tomilkasmuchaspossible fromafewprints”thatwereshownoverandoveragaininthebigcities, fromTokyo’sAsakusadistricttoOsaka,Yokohama,andthensentaround thecountryforextraprofit.216Thefilmindustrywasnotinvolvedwithmass production.Undersuchconditionsofproduction,distribution,andcirculation,practicallyspeaking,claritywasprioritizedtodarkandcontrasty lightingsotheprintswouldbevisiblewhenprojectedbyworn-outlight bulbsinlocaltheaters. 64 chapter1
MoviestarscouldhavepavedthewayfortheJapanesefilmindustry to fully turn into “a form of capitalist and Fordist commodity-centered cultureindustry”inwhichproducershavethedominantpositionoverexhibitors.217Inotherwords,starscouldhavebeencreatedasaproductto “channelaudiencedesiresintosetpatternscorrespondingtoidentifiable textualformulas”atthesiteoffilmproductionandnotatthesphereof exhibition—likethebenshiandonnagata.218Yetsuchseparationbetween productionandexhibitionbywayofstarlightingdidnotoccuruntilthe late1920swhenShochikuwaschallengedbytherisingpopularityofanew genre,jidaigeki,withitsspectacularswordfighting. Atthepointof1925,whileatleastpartiallyadoptingHollywood-style star-publicitymethods,Kidowascriticalofthestarsystemfromaperspectiveoflabormanagement.Hewasconcernedthataseriesofcompetitions among film companies to contract stars or even steal other companies’ starswoulddamagetherationalizationpolicythathepursued.219Hoping tomaintaintheauthorityofcontroloverhisproducts,Kidoclearlystated thatheprioritized“syntheticediting”thatemphasized“tempoandmood” and“dramaticstructure”offilmsratherthan“frequentappearanceofclose- upsofstars.”220Heobviouslytriedtocontainthecinematicappealofthe starswithintableau-styletheatricalconventions.Kidotriedtomaintainhis dominantpositionasanewlyestablishedbusinessmanoveractorsbyresortingtotheoldpractices. ThefilmcriticMoriIwaowasawareofthelimitofKurishima’snewness. Hehighlyvaluedheractingthatwasanaptfitto“cinema’sphotographic realism,”whichdeviatedfromthestylesofshinpa,buthesimultaneously claimed, “This Japanese sweetheart is a leftover beauty of the period of tragedy.Shedoesnothavetheelasticbeautyofthemodernperiod.No stimuli.”221BypointingoutKurishima’sphotographicallyrealacting,Mori was indicating the substantial use of close-ups of her face. At the same time,Moricriticizedthelackofflexibilityinherstarpersona,bywhichhe possiblymeanttheflatexpressivityinthecinematiclightinganddecorthat surroundedheronthescreen.TheMarxistfilmcriticIwasakiAkirawrote in1939: Shochiku’sprofit-orientedpolicymadeitstepbackartisticallyandled ittosafelyproducebrainlessfilmsthatwouldflatterthemasstaste.In short,theywereshallowandsentimentalfilms.Theywereunintelligent LightinganDMoDernity 65
filmswhoseonlypurposewastomakeyoungandnaïvegirlsabsorbed insweetdreamsandnostalgia.Itwassuitedtothemelancholicfeelingsofthesocietyofthiscountrythatwassufferingfromdepression afteraperiodofaffluence.Or,suchfilmswerebornundersuchconditions.Therefore,Shochikubecamehugelysuccessfulasacompany.... Yet,Shochiku’ssuccesswasalsobecauseofitsintroductionofthefirst female actors on the screen, deviating from the unnatural custom of JapanesecinemathatfollowedthetraditionofKabuki,inwhichonnagata,ormaleactors,playfemaleroles.Theemergenceoffemaleactors waswelcomedtremendously.ThefirstJapanesestars,includingKurishimaSumiko,wereborn.222 Inaverycynicalmanner,Iwasakidescribedthecapitalist-industrialmodernity in Japanese cinema represented by the corporate development of Shochiku.
66 chapter1
chApter 2
fLashesofthesWorD anDthestar Shochiku and Jidaigeki
the emergence of Jidaigeki and the Flash of the sword
KidoShiro,theShochikuKamatastudiohead,oncerecalled,“Personally,Ididnotthinkthatthepopularityofgendaigeki[contemporarydrama]filmsproducedatKamataeversuffered,butShochikutheatermanagerscametoKamataandcomplainedabout thesituationonce.Theyaskedustodoourbestfacingtherising powerofjidaigekifilms.”1Still,KidohadtoadmitthatitwasnecessaryforShochikutokeepupwithjidaigeki(filmssetinthepremodernperiodofJapan,thatis,before1868)whenthisnewgenre wasattheheightofitspopularityinthemid-tolate1920s.2Shochikuofficiallynoteddecadeslater:“Chanbara[sword-fighting perioddrama]filmsfromKyotowereenjoyingtheirbestyears, andfilmsfromKamatawerenotverypopular.”3Shochikuwas thuschallengedbyjidaigekiinthecourseofpromotingitsbright andcheerfultoneasthedominantmodeoffilmstyleandconfirmingitsdominantfinancialstatusinthefilmindustry. Thegenreofjidaigekiemergedatatimeofculturalturmoil. TheperiodthatfollowedtheGreatKantoEarthquakeof1923witnessedtherapidtransformationofthesocialandmedialandscape ofTokyo.AaronGerowargues,“Whileithasbeencalledtheage of‘Taishodemocracy’foritsfitfuleffortsatparliamentarydemoc-
racy,the1920swasalsoatimewhengrowingstateandmilitaryauthority,effectedbytheauthoritarianPeacePreservationLawof1925,battledafloodof newideas,fromleft-wingradicalismtolaborunionism.”4Populardemands forpoliticalparticipationanddemocracy,tiedtonationalismbasedonthe emperorsystemandimperialistexpansion,resultedintheestablishmentof aparliamentarygovernmentin1924.TheUniversalManhoodSuffrageAct waspassedin1925.Labororganization,unionization,andsocialistandcommunistthoughtsgraduallyprevailedinworking-classculturethroughout the1920s.5Amassmarketforfilmswasopeningupatthesametime.The numberofmovietheaterswasincreasingrapidly:from703in1923to1013in 1924,andmostofthemwerelocatedinurbanareas.6Jidaigekifilms,most ofwhichwereproducedinKyoto,theothercenteroffilmmakinginJapan thatwasnotdevastatedbytheearthquake,notonlyembracedthetension betweendemocracyandauthoritarianismintheirnarratives,themes,and stylesbutalsosatisfiedtheincreaseddemandforfilms. Itisworthwhiletonotethatjidaigekibecamepopularinalmostexactly thesameperiodastheproletarianartsmovementinJapandevelopedand “flaunteditsdiscontentandcontemptforthedominantculture.”7MitsuhiroYoshimotoargues,“Thevitalityofjidaigekiinthe1920sandearly1930s wasinseparablefromyoungfilmmakers’anarchisticrebellionagainstthe establishmentand,ataninstitutionallevel,smallproductioncompanies’ struggle against large capital.”8 Shochiku was an embodiment of such “largecapital”inthefilmindustry,whilemanyoftheearlyjidaigekifilms wereproducedatcompanieswithsmallercapital(includingMakinoProduction,establishedbyMakinoShozo,whodepartedfromNikkatsu,TeikokuKinema,andToaKinema)with“youngfilmmakers”andnewstars. These companies represented rebellious ways of expression against the dominantmodeofShochiku.9 Criticsembracedthenewnessofjidaigeki,eventhoughthegenrewas setinthepremodernperiodofJapan,inoppositiontotherelativeoldness ofShochiku’sgendaigeki,whosestoriesweresetincontemporaryJapanese society.MoriIwaopointedoutin1931,“Iamcertainthatswordfightingin [jidaigeki]isformulatedbasedonmodernsensitivityandaestheticsandis superiortothatinKabuki.”10Injidaigeki,cinematicstylesandtechniques wereusedinamoreradicalfashionthanthoseingendaigekitypifiedbythe ShochikuKamatafilms.TakizawaHajimeclaimsthatduringthetenyears between 1923and1932“jidaigeki wasmore‘modern’thangendaigeki.”11 68 chapter2
Similarly,thefilmhistorianTomitaMikaarguesthatitwasjidaigekithat reflectedthe“immensetransformationofthestructureofurbanlandscape ofthelateTaishotoearlyShowaperiod”moresubstantiallythanthegendaigekiproducedatKamata.12Assuch,withtheemergenceofpremodern dramaasthemostup-to-the-minutegenre,therelationshipbetweenold andnew,theatricalandcinematic,traditionandinnovationinJapanese cinemabecamemorecomplicated. While Shochiku’s gendaigeki preserved the style of shinpa and combineditwithHollywoodtechnologiesandtechniques,especiallyinterms of lighting and cinematography, jidaigeki overcame the theatricality of kyugekifilms(olddrama,orKabuki-styleperioddrama),manyofwhich wereproducedearlierinthecenturybyMakinoShozo(whoinsistedon “clarityfirst”)withOnoeMatsunosuke,thefirststarofJapanesecinema. EventhoughkyugekididincludesuchcinematicpolishesasMéliès-style trickeditingand“separationsofaspace”todisplaymultipleactionswithin a frame, it basically reproduced Kabuki by mostly using “the dominant stylewithlongshots,longtakes,andstillframes”anddidnothavefemale actors.13WithhisbackgroundinKabuki,Onoeemphasizedbuto(dance- likestylizedmovements)inhisswordfights.Hismovementswerepunctuatedwithstaticmomentsofhisbodyfacingthecamera. Despitebeingsetinthepremodernperiodlikekyugeki,jidaigekichallengedsuchstylizedmovementsofOnoe.Jidaigekiusedthetechniquesof Hollywoodcinemaextensively,althoughShochikuhaddecidednottodo thatonafull-scalebasis.TheswashbucklerfilmstarDouglasFairbanksSr. wasthemostpopularforeignactorinJapanaftertheearthquake.Jidaigeki, firstofall,mimickedtheathleticismandspeedthatFairbanks’sfilmsdisplayed.DavidBordwellargues:“Althoughthereformersofthelate1910s andearly1920shadstressedapplyingHollywood-basedtechniquetotales fromcontemporarylife,itwasthejidai-gekiandparticularlytheswordplay filmthatemphasizedshot/reverse-shotdécoupage,crosscutting,fastcuttinginscenesofviolentaction,andotherclassicalstrategies.Tothesewere addedviolentthrustsofactiontothecamera,acceleratedmotion(achieved throughundercranking),andswift(oftenhandheld)cameramovements, usuallyduringfightscenesbutsometimesduringconversationsoreven acrossscenes,suchastransitions.”14 Atthesametime,jidaigekiwasalsoheavilyinfluencedbyaJapanese theatrical art: shinkokugeki (new national theater). Shinkokugeki was a fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 69
newschoolofpopulartheaterfoundedin1917bySawadaShojiroandwas best known for its realistic—that is, nonstylized, speedy, energetic, and violent—swordfighting.Mostoftheshinkokugekirepertoireswerebased onthejidai shosetsu(periodnovel),theoverwhelminglywell-likedtaishu bungaku(genreinpopularliterature).Realisticswordfighting,ratherthan thedance-likestylized typeinKabuki,wasconsidered tobemoresuitabletoexpresstheclassconsciousnessofthepoliticalmassesthatemerged duringtheradicalsocialchangesanduncertaintiesinthefirstdecadesof thetwentiethcenturyandmarkedthemajorthematicconcernintaishu bungaku,eventhoughinmanydramasbothshinkokugekiandKabukinarratedthelastdaysoftheEdoperiod,whenloyalistsandshogunatesupportershadengagedinbloodybattlesandfoughtforhegemony. Inparticular,theemphasisonlightingenhancedtherealismofsword fightinginshinkokugeki.Thereisnorecordofwhatlightingequipment wasactuallyused,butsomephotographsofSawadaShojiroontheshinkokugekistageindicatehowsignificantlightingwasinhisswordfights.Ina colorphototakenfromtheplayTsukigata Hanpeita(1919),oneofthemost popularsword-fightingplaysinshinkokugeki,Tsukigata(Sawada)holdshis swordinhisrighthand,kneelsdownalittle,andgrinstohisright(fig.2.1). Twomaskedsamuraiareabouttoattackhim.Accordingtothecaption,the photoisfromthefamoussceneintheplaysetattheSanjoriverbedofthe KamoRiverinKyoto.Undertheverybrightmoonlight,Tsukigata(meaning“theshapeofthemoon”)fightsagainstthesamuraioftheloyalistgroup Shinsengumi.Weseeaverydarkandlongshadowofhisfigureextending fromhisfeet.Tsukigata’sswordandhiseyesshinebrightly,reflectingthe lightingthatimitatesthebrightmoonlightandenhancingthetensionas wellasthespectacleofthescene.15Alineintheplayevenexpressesthis: “Oh,swordsstrike.Ah,sparksareemitted.Hatefulsamuraiaredyingone byone.Oh,theyaregettingclose.Iseethemnow.Thewhitebladeshines inmyarm.Icanfeelthesharpness.Thisisecstatic.”16Nowthattheeyes andtheswordsoftheenemyareinshadow,thewhitenessoftheeyesand swordofTsukigataisstriking.Thelightingthusnotonlyemphasizesthe coldmaterialofthemetallicswordbutalsothepsychologicalstateofthe protagonistattheedgeofinsanity. It is unknown whether Sawada was familiar with the work of David Belasco.Butthetheatricallightinginshinkokugekimadeitmuchcloser
70 chapter2
figure2.1 TsukigataHanpeita(SawadaShojiro)fightsagainstthe samuraioftheloyalistgroupShinsengumi.Shinkokugekiplay,Tsukigata Hanpeita(1919).TakedaToshihiko,Shinkokugeki Sawada Shojiro,3.
tothatofBelasco’stheater.Belascobelievedthatlightingshouldbevaried tosuitthechangingmoodsoftheplay“inordertomaximizetheplay’sexpressivepower.”17AsPatrickKeatingargues,theeffectsofLaskylighting, whichwasheavilyinfluencedbyBelasco’stheater,arerealisticallymotivated and simultaneously accomplishing an expressive function.18 In an interviewin1916,CecilB.DeMilleclaimed:
fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 71
Ihavefoundthatemphasizingorsofteningcertaindramaticpointsin themotionpicturecanberealizedbythediscriminating useoflight effects,injustthesamewaythatthedramaticclimaxinaplaycanbe helpedorimpairedbythemusicaccompanyingit,andworkingonthis principleIcametofeelthatthethemeofthepictureshouldbecarried initsphotography.Inourproductionof“TheCheat,”oneoftheprincipalcharactersisaJapanese.InphotographingthisIendeavoredtocarry outtheJapaneseschoolofartbymakingmybackgroundssinisterand usingabrupt,boldlighteffects.Infact,thelightingofthispicturedefinitelysuggeststhe“clang”andsmashofJapanesemusic.19 AsKeatingsuggests,thelinkbetweenDeMille’sabruptlightingeffectsand hisstoryaboutaJapanesevillainisatenuousone.20Nomatterhowabsurd hisculturalassumptionwas,ironically,thelinkwascreatedonthestageof shinkokugekiandonthescreenintheformofjidaigekiinJapan. JidaigekifullyincorporatedsuchBelasco-typelightinginshinkokugeki, especiallywiththeflashofthesword,whilegendaigekiofShochikuabandonedtheBelasco-influencedeffectslighting(i.e.,Laskylighting)brought inbyHenryKotani.Injidaigeki,lightingwaseffectivelyusedtocombine narrativeandspectacleinanemotionallyengagingmanner.ThiscombinationispreciselythereasonwhyfilmmakerssuchasDeMillewereadmired in1915.21Tsukigata Hanpeita,setinthelastdaysoftheTokugawashogunate,wasadaptedintofilmsnumeroustimesinthemid-1920sand1930s.Not allofthemexistintheirentirety,butextantfragmentsofthesefilmsindicatethatlightingsignificantlyenhancedthespectaclesofswordfighting. Thesword-fightingsceneofthe1925version,directedbyKinugasaTeinosukeandstarringnoneotherthanSawadaShojiro,wasphotographedatthe actuallocationofTojiinTempleinKyotoatnight.Thissceneisnothingbut aspectacleoflightinanexperimentalmanner.Inanextremelongshot,we seethreerectangularroomsorspacesorboxeswithintheframe.Thesamuraiswithswordsfightinthecenterbox,alitframewithinaframe,asifthey werefightinginavisiblemotionpictureframe.22Intheshotsthatfollow, theirswordsshineinthelow-keysetting.Apartofadraftofthescreenplay forthisfilmwrittenbyKinugasa’spenispreservedintheSorimachiCollectionoftheNationalFilmCenterattheNationalMuseumofModern Art,Tokyo.23Thedraftreads,“Thebluemoonlightaftertherainmakesa sleeveofTsukigata’swhitekimonoshinebrutally....Becauseofamove72 chapter2
mentofasamuraiwhostepsonarootofabigtree,thedewonthebranches ofthetreeshinesandscatters,reflectingthemoonlight.Tsukigatamoves hisswordquietlytohislefthandandswingsitswiftly.Oneoftheenemies fromtheShinsengumiclanbarelybacksofffromtheflash,steppingona bucket.”24Thissectiondoesnotexactlydepicttheclimacticscenewiththe experimentallightingscheme,butitstillindicateshowsensitivethefilmis totheflashoftheswordinlow-keysettings. Despiteoriginatinginthetheatricallightingofshinkokugeki,lighting injidaigekidifferentiatedthegenrefromthetheatricalityofkyugeki—and fromthatofShochiku’sshinpa-stylefilms.Aswehavealreadyseeninthe examplesofChushinguraandThe Story of the Filial Child Goro Masamune, kyugekimosttypicallyembodiedMakino’searlysloganof“clarityfirst.” Criticsseverelycriticizedits“insufficiencyindetailsandgradationoflight” and“carelessnessandnegligenceoflightingequipment.”25 Incontrast,jidaigekifullyemployseffectslightinginlow-keysettings andenhancescomplexpsychologicalstatesoftheswordfighters.26Injidaigeki,charactersoftenwanderinthedark,whichistheperfectsetting forspectacularswordfighting.Underthedimmoonlightorstreetlamps, theswordsofsamuraiwarriorsflashforamoment,asiftheycouldnotwait forbloodshed.Samuraiwarriorsneedtoresorttotheirswords,whichembodytheirspirits,toprovethemselves,buttheyoftensufferfromtheactof killing:anexistentialistcrisis.Someevendecidetodumptheirswords— theiridentities—inordertodeviatefromthepast.ThefilmmakerUratani Toshiro claims, “Chanbara is the boiling point where the ‘psychological climax’andthe‘visualclimax’ofthedramameet.”27Thecinematographer MoritaFujioelaborates: Ithasbeenaregularpracticefortateshi[thesword-fightingchoreographer]tothinkofuniquesword-fightingmethodstobemosteffectively photographed....Psychologically,abambooswordtransformsintoa realsword.Itissignificanttomakethebambooswordlookheavy,edgy, andbrutal.Itiscraftworktomaketheswordshinemomentarily.The flashemphasizesthefearfulnatureoftheswordespeciallyinclose-ups. Inthissense,techniciansofDaieistudiowereextremelysensitivetothe environmentofsword-fightingscenes.Theypreferreddawn,dusk,and nighttodaytime.Theylikedtojuxtaposesuchnaturalphenomenaas rainormistwiththesenseofbrutalityinswordfighting.28 fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 73
figure2.2 TheswordofTokijiro(OkochiDenjiro)flashesmomentarily. Kutsukake Tokijiro(1929).
Eventoday,oneofthemajorattractionsatToeiKyotoCinemaVillage,a UniversalStudios–styleamusementparkattachedtoafilmandtvproductionstudio,isalivedemonstrationofjidaigekifilmmakingwhoseclimaxis aproductionofasceneinwhichaswordflashesinthehandsofanactor,reflectingaspotlight.Thepresenterexplains,jokingly,howdifficultandcrafty itistoflashtheswordinperfecttiminginfrontofacamera. Thesword-fightingsequenceofKutsukake Tokijiro(TsujiKichiro,1929) isatypicalexampleoftheeffectsoflightinginjidaigekiproducedatNikkatsu’sDaishogunstudioinKyoto.Inalow-keymediumlongshot,Tokijiro, playedbyOkochiDenjiro,thenewstarofjidaigeki,facesthecameraand hisswordflashesmomentarily,reflectingastrongsidelightfromhisright, asheslowlyraisesitinfrontofhim(fig.2.2).Theemphasisofthisshotis notthevisibilityofthestar’sfacebutthetransitorywhitenessofthesword. Okochiwasaformershinkokugekiactor,andKutsukake Tokijirowaspartof apopularrepertoireinshinkokugekithatHasegawaShinwrotein1928.29 HasegawawasamajorcontributortoTaishu Bungei,thefirstmagazineexclusivelyfocusedonpopularliterature. Twoswordfightersfaceeachotherinalongshotthatfollows.Asthetwo 74 chapter2
fightersstartmovingaround,thecameraslowlycirclesthem.Thecircular movementsofthetwofightersandthecameraarecompletelyinreverse. Throughthesimultaneousbutoppositemovementsofthefightersandthe camera,thetwoswordsshineshockinglywhitenumeroustimes,reflecting lightfromonedirection.Inotherwords,bothmovements—thecamera and the characters—generate recurring sparks from the swords. After a briefmediumshotoftheopponent,amediumshotofthreegangsterswho witnessthefight,andaclose-upofTokijiro,Tokijirokneelsdownandalmostsimultaneouslydeliversablowwithhisswordinamediumlongshot. ThefinalflashofTokijiro’sswordwithitsswiftmovementendsthefight inablinkofaneye.AfteramediumshotofthewifeofTokijiro’sopponent andthethreegangsters,thecamerapansfromtheopponentfallingtothe groundtoTokijiro,crouchingwithoutmovinghisswordatall.AsTokijiro slowlystandsup,hisswordgoesoffthescreen.Fromthenon,close-upsof Tokijiro’sfacearerepeatednumeroustimes.Nowtheemphasisoflighting isonthedarkshadowsonhisfacecreatedbystrongsidelight.Thelighting schemeofthissceneswiftlychangesfromthespectacleoftheswordfightingtotheexpressionoftheprotagonist’spsychologicalstate.Tokijirohas toprotectthewifeandthechildofthemanwhomhejustkilledfromthe viciousgangsters.30 ItwastruethatFairbanksSr.’sfilmshadacertainimpactonthestyle ofjidaigeki,buttheobsessionwiththeflashofthesworddistinguishedjidaigekifromHollywoodswashbucklerfilmsofthesameperiod.Thespectacularandnarrationalsignificanceofeffectslightingwasmuchmoreenhancedintheswordfightsinjidaigeki.InaclimacticduelinChutaro of Banba: Mother of Memory (Banba no Chutaro: Mabuta no haha, Inagaki Hiroshi,1931),anotherstorywrittenbyHasegawaShin,theswordsshine spectacularly.Afterthefight,Chutaro,playedbythejidaigekistarKataoka Chiezo,throwsawayhissword.Hisswordsticksintothebottomofatree andshinesconspicuouslywhite(fig.2.3).Thenthecameraslowlypansto therightuntilitcapturesChutaroandhismother,forwhomhehasbeen searchingalongtime,embracingeachotherandsobbing.Whiletheyhad beenseparated,Chutarowasforcedoutofnecessity tobecomeahired swordsman. ThisfinalewassurelyinspiredbytheendingofThe Mark of Zorro(Fred Niblo,1920),aDouglasFairbanksSr.starvehicle,whichwaspopularlyreceivedinJapan.WhendonDiego(Zorro),playedbyFairbanksSr.,throws fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 75
figure2.3 TheswordofChutaro(KataokaChiezo)sticksintothebottomofa treeandshineswhite.Chutaro of Banba: Mother of Memory(1931).
figure2.4 TheswordofZorro(DouglasFairbanksSr.)stickstothewallbutdoes notshine.The Mark of Zorro(1920).
awayhisswordaftertheclimacticbattle,itstickstothewall.Inthefollowinglongshot,Diegojumps uptothesecondfloor.Then,inthefollowingmediumlongshot,Diegoandhissweetheartembraceeachother. However,Zorro’ssworddoesnotconspicuouslyshineonthewallatall (fig.2.4).ThedifferenceinlightingdiegeticallyimpliesthatforZorro,the sworddoesnothavemuchsignificanceintermsofhisidentity,whilefor Chutaroitisasiftheswordembodieshissoul.31 Ito daisuke’s Jidaigeki
The films directed by Ito Daisuke most typically represented the mode oflightinginjidaigeki,analternativetothe“clarityfirst”ofkyugeki,the bright and cheerful Shochiku Kamata tone, and the Hollywood swashbuckler genre. It is a little ironic that Ito started his film career at Shochikuandthenendedupchallengingthecompany.WhenOsanaiKaoru, oneofthecoreadvocatesofthepurefilmmovement,assumedthepostof theheadoftheShochikuCinemaInstitute,Ito,withOsanai’sassistance, enteredShochiku’sactingschoolasatraineein1920.32ItobecameascreenwriterattheKamatastudioandwrotenearlysixtyscreenplaysbetween 1920and1923,whichamountedtonearly20percentoftheKamatafilms oftheperiod,includingA New Life(Shinsei,directedandphotographedby HenryKotani,1920),The Secret of the Mine(Kozan no himitsu,directedby EdwardTanaka,photographedbyKotani,1920),andWoman and Pirates (Onna to kaizoku,directedbyNomuraHotei,1923).33Itoenthusiastically readtheEnglishbooksonscreenplaysthatKotanihadbroughtbackfrom Hollywood and learned the techniques of lighting, including backlight, fromKotani.34YetItoleftShochikusuddenlyinJune1924,almostasifhe hadfollowedKotani,whohadalsoleftthesameyear.ItakuraFumiakisuggeststhatItochallengedthedominantstyleoffilmmakingthatmaintained “thesuperiorityoffilmexhibitorstofilmproducers”andexploredwaysto establish“theindependenceofaworkcreatedbyanauteur.”35According toItakura,inhisscreenplaysItoclearlyspecifiedwhichshotsizes,camera angles,andspokenintertitlesshouldbeusedandwhere.SuchanemphasisonthesuperiorityofproductionmighthavebeenproblematicatShochiku’sKamatastudio,wherethestrategyof“clarityfirst”seemedtohave beenchoseninordertoaccommodatetherequestfromtheexhibitionside. ItomovedtoTeikine(TeikokuKinema),acompanywithsmallercapital thanShochiku,andmadehisdirectorialdebutthere.36Afterestablishing fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 77
hisowncompany,ItoEigaKenkyujo(filmstudygroup),in1925,hemoved toNikkatsu,therivalofShochikuthathadproducedkyugekifilmswith OnoeMatsunosuke,inJuly1926.37 Itomighthavelearnedthetheoryandpracticeofcinematiclightingfrom Kotani,butaccordingtohisownclaim,hebecametrulysensitivetolighting andstartedhisexperimentsnotatShochikubut“outofnecessity”whenhe directedRing of the Sun(Nichirin,1926)athisown“verypoor”production company,ItoEigaKenkyujo,whichhadonlyonecameraandnolampor stage.38Itoneededtousehouseholdlampstoshootclose-ups.Itowrote: Thescenewasatacafé.Thesetwasextremelypoorandwedidnothave enoughlightbecauseofourinsufficientlightingequipment.TheArashiyamalinewasrunningacurverightbelowourstudioset.Electric sparksofthetrainspassedthroughourcaféasiftheywerecomingfrom alighthouse.Isuddenlychangedmyshootingplan.Imovedthetable wheretheprotagonistandthepartnersattothespacebythewindow. Nowtheywereinsilhouette.Asthetrainspassed,thesparksseemedto displayenhancedemotionsofthecharacters.Thisdevicecomingoutof necessitybroughtunexpectedlyuniqueeffectstothescene.39 Ito’ssensitivityandinnovationinlightingflourishedinthejidaigekithat hedirectedatNikkatsu.WhenItoarrivedthere,Nikkatsuwaslosingits trademarkstar,OnoeMatsunosuke—hefellillinMayanddiedinSeptember. Onoe’s death and Ito’s arrival were symbols of Nikkatsu’s transitionfromkyugekitojidaigeki.AtypicalexampleofIto’sworkishisacclaimedtrilogyofChuji’s Travel Journal(Chuji tabinikki,1927;preservedby TokyoNationalFilmCenter),producedatNikkatsu’sDaishogunstudio inKyoto.Chuji’s Travel Journalwashighlypraisedimmediatelyafteritsrelease.PartIIofthetrilogy,Laughing in Blood in Shinshu(Shinshu kessho hen),wasselectedasthebestfilmoftheyear,andpartIII,Arrest(Goyo hen) wasfourthoftheyearbyKinema Junpo.40Areviewnoted,“Chuji’s Travel Journalwouldberememberedforalongtimeasaclassicofjidaigekifilm. Themonumentofjidaigekiwasestablishedbythedesperatelysuffering ItoDaisukeandtheimpressiveandenchantingOkochiDenjiro.”41OkochienteredintocontractwithNikkatsuinOctober1926,onlyonemonth afterOnoe’sdeath.In1959,Kinema Junposelectedthefilmasthebestinthe sixty-yearhistoryofJapanesecinema. Inreality,Nikkatsu,therivalofShochikuandtheprotectorofkyugeki- 78 chapter2
styleMatsunosukefilmsuntilOnoe’sdeathin1926,providedItowithonly onesoundstageunderbadconditionsbecausehewasanewcomerwitha pastcareeratShochiku.Lightingequipmentwasnotpropereither.Itwas impossibletocreatealookofasmokylightringaroundanandon(anoil lampcoveredwithshojipapers)soItohadtopainttheringonthewallbehindtheandonwithwhitechalk.42Nikkatsu’sunfavorableattitudetoward ItoatfirstwasenhancedbyIto’spersistenceinusingFushimiNaoeasthe heroineofChuji’s Travel Journal.FushimiwasastageactressattheTsukiji ShogekijotheatergroupledbyOsanaiKaoru,anotherex-Shochikuartist. However,Itoturnedhismisfortuneintogold—oronceagainhehadtobe experimentaloutofnecessity.TheopeningtitleofChuji’s Travel Journal seemstodeclarethatthefocusofthisfilmislighting—andaninnovative one.Chuji,the(anti)heroofthefilm,suddenlyappearsfromablackbackgroundandcutsoffoneofthepaperlanternsinalinewithhissword. ThesceneofChujionhisdeathbedinadrywell,hissecrethidingplace, isoneofthemoststrikingexamplesofthenuancedandspectacularuses oflightinthisfilm:effectsofbacklightsaswellasspotlights.Thisclimactic sceneappearstomimicthelightingofBelascoplays,oreventhatofGermanexpressionisttheater.OnDie Niebelungen(FritzLang,1923–24),the filmthatincorporatedthelightingeffectsofexpressionisttheater,Itonotes thatthecinematographywas“notblackandwhitebuthalftoneandwith deepfocus....Whenonlythecleardistinctionbetweenlightanddarkwas highlyvaluedasgoodinclarity[nuke ga ii]inJapan,halftonewasalready pursuedinGermany.”43ThelightingoftheclimacticsceneofChuji’s Travel Journallookstoexploresuchhalftonewithdeepfocus.O-Shina,Chuji’s lover(FushimiNaoe),inquiresastowhohasdeceivedChuji.Thefirstshot ofthesceneisanextremelongshotofadarkroom.Weseeabeamoflight fromtheupper-leftcorneroftheframe,supposedlycomingfromawindow offscreen.Thebeamoflightshinesonadetermined-lookingwomansittinginthelower-rightcorneroftheframe.Therearealsosomemensitting inlineunderthebeamoflight,whichrectangularlycrossestheframe.The lightingmakestheshotlooklikeapaintingbyVermeer.Inthefollowing mediumshot,O-Shinafacesaspotlightfromthefront.Shecallsthenames ofthemenonebyone,inordertofindthetraitor.Ineachmediumshot,the faceofeachmanislitbydramaticallystrongsidelightfromtheleft.Then, inaclose-upthatfollows,O-Shinasaystothemen,“Chujihaskeptsaying thathewouldkillpeoplebutnothismen.”Beingnoticeablylitbysidelight fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 79
andbacklight,O-Shinalooksabsolutelydivine.Thecamerapansthefaces ofthemenonebyone,followedbyarapidmontageoftheclose-upsof theirfacesandaquickpanningofthem.44Then,afteramediumshotofher face,O-Shinaisdisplayedinalongshotwithadarkanddominantshadow ofherbodycastonthewallwithastrongspotlight.Inthefollowingclose- up,O-Shinaisstronglylitfromtheright.Clearly,thelightingonherhas changedfromathreepointtoamorecontrastyone.Itissaidthatinthe originalprint,whichislost,therewasashothereofO-Shinalickingthe edgeofherpistol.45Then,inaclose-up,weseetheedgeofaman’skimono pinnedbyashiningsword.O-Shinashootsapistol.Inalongshot,aman fallsdown.Thus,lightingeffectivelycreatesthesolemntoneofthemain character’sdeathbed,addsthedivinemoodthatsurroundstheheroine,enhancesthetensionoffindingoutwhoisthetraitor,and,finally,makesthe swordflash. Inasceneliketheonejustdescribed,Itoexperimentedwiththesource- lightingtechniqueofjidaigeki.Thetechniquemadeanonscreenlamplook asifitwerethesourceoflightinginthescene.Infigure2.5,D,anandon, wastheonscreensourceoflighting,anda,anarchlamp,wastheactual sourceoflightingforthescene.Thediffusinglightfromawasconverged throughb,alensinahose,andreflectedonc,halfmirrors.Thehoseneeded tobeapproximatelyfifteenfeet.Whentherewasnoroom,e,amirror,reflecteddiffusedlightfroma.46 WithChuji’s Travel Journal,Ito,whohadleftthelargecapitalofShochikuandsufferedevenatcompanieswithsmallercapital,camebacktothe frontstageunderastrongspotlight—withavengeance.ItwasShochiku’s turntostruggle—atleastforalittlewhile,facingthechallengeofjidaigeki andtheflashofthesword.However,whileShochikuattemptedtoovercomesuchastruggle,themostpopularstarofJapanesecinemainthepre– WorldWarIIperiodwasborn.ThestarwasanembodimentofthenegotiationsthattheJapanesefilmindustryofthisperiodwentthroughbetween oldandnew,theatricalandcinematic,andproductionandreception. shochiku’s Bright and Cheerful Jidaigeki
Shochikucouldhaveavoidedthechallengeofjidaigeki.ItwasatShochiku that Ito had started his career. It was Shochiku that had originally supportedshinkokugeki.ShiraiMatsujiro,thepresidentofShochikuatthat time,hadcontractedwithshinkokugekiinAugust1917.Beforethecon80 chapter2
figure2.5
Thesource- lightingtechnique ofjidaigeki.Hirai, “SokoNihoneiga satsueishi10,”47. Courtesyofthe editorialcommittee ofEiga Satsuei.
tract,shinkokugekitheaterswereonthevergeofbankruptcy.Itisassumed thatShiraiinvestedinSawada’suniquestyleofswordfighting.Infact,it wasShiraiwhosenttheplaywrightYukitomoRifutohelpshinkokugeki theatersandlethimwriteperioddramas,includingTsukigata Hanpeita.Yet thecooperationbetweenshinkokugekiandShochikuendedin1922when Sawadaterminatedhiscontract,irritatedwithShochiku’s“feudalist”attitudethatdidnotprovidefullsupporttoshinkokugekiwhenitturnedout tobenotfinanciallysuccessfulenough.47 fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 81
ItwasalsoShochikuthatoriginallyintroducedthetermandthenotion ofjidaigeki.WhenShochikureleasedWoman and Pirates(writtenbyIto)in 1923,thecompanyusedthetermshin-jidaigeki(anewperioddrama)inthe film’sadtodistinguishitsfilmfromkyugeki.Shochiku’sshin-jidaigekiwas certainly different from kyugeki. Shin-jidaigeki used directors of shinpa andactresses.ItakuraFumiakipointsoutthatshin-jidaigekiincorporated suchtechniquesasintertitlesandclose-upsmoresubstantiallythankyugeki.48Evenso,itwasnotattheShochikuKamatastudiowherejidaigeki developed.KobayashiIsamu,afilmcriticattheMiyako Shinbunnewspaper, wrotein1929,“ThebasisofJapanesesword-fightingfilmswascompleted withthetwofilms,Shimizu JirochoandWoman and Pirates,butitwasnot Kamatathatbuilttheactualstructuresofthemwithironandconcrete.... WhathappenedtoKamata?ItoDaisuke[whowrotescreenplaysforthe twofilms]becameincreasinglyinterestedinchanbara,butthestudiowas notasenthusiastic....Itowasfrustratedbecausehewasnotabletobecomeadirectorandbailedout....Andthecenterofchanbarafilmsmoved toKyoto.”49 FacingtherisingpopularityofthenewgenrethatShochikuhadoriginallydismissed,thecompanywasnotabletoignoreit.WhenBandoTsumasaburo,averypopularjidaigekistar,departedfromMakinoShozoand becamefreelance,Shochikudidnotwasteaminutebeforeapproaching him. In 1926, Shochiku contracted with Bantsuma Production, an independentproductioncompanyledbyBando,andagreedtodistributehis filmsatShochiku’stheatersnationwide.Shochiku’scontractwithBando includedpurchasingeightfilmsayearforapproximately15,000yenper film.NowthatShochiku’sAsahizatheaterinOsaka“easilymade20,000 yenaweek”foroneBandofilm,accordingtoacritic,Shochikucouldhave madeahugeprofitbydistributingBando’sfilms.50AccordingtoKidoShiro, though,thejointprojectbetweenShochikuandBandointheendresulted onlyindebt.51 Shochikudidnotintendtofullyincorporatethetechniquesofjidaigeki evenwhenthecompanytriedtoaddthegenretoitsrepertoire.Instead, Shochikutriedtoextenditscompanypolicyofbrightandcheerfultoneto thegenre.Forinstance,everysceneexceptoneinSunaeshibari(thefirst chapterdirectedbyYamaguchiTeppei,1927;thesecondchapterdirected byInuzukaMinoru,1927),astarvehicleforBando,isinflathigh-keylighting.Evenclimacticfightscenesbetweenaheroineandatattooartist,one 82 chapter2
inaheavyrainunderthemoonandtheotherinfireandsmoke,arephotographedindarkerlightingthanotherscenes,buttheystilluseflatanddiffusedlighting.52Incomparison,inOrochi(FutagawaFumitaro,1925),apre- ShochikuBandostarvehicle,lightingplaysadramaticrole,despitethefact thatthefilmwasphotographedatastudioinNaraprefectureunder“extremelypoorconditions.”53Bandoestablishedhisindependentproduction companyinthatyearandwasnotabletouseMakino’sstudioinKyoto. OrochiisastoryofthedownfallofHeizaburo,anaïvesamurai.Victimized bythefeudalistclasssystem,Heizaburoisdisownedbyhismaster,cannot findajob,becomesabodyguardofagangster,iscapturedinordertoprotectaninnocentwomanheloves,andisexecutedintheend. TheclimacticshowdownbetweenHeizaburoandthepolicemenchasing himisspectacularizedbythechoiceofanextremelylongtakethatcaptures Heizaburo’sactionwithoutapause,aswellasbythelighting.Assoonas herunsoutofthegangster’sdarklylithouse,Heizaburorevealshimself underthebrightsunlight.Hisbreakoutcorrespondstodaybreak:backlitbytherisingsun,apolicemanringsawarningbellatthetopofatower inalongshot.Then,inanextremelongcraneshot,Heizaburoandthe crowdofconstablesmovebackandforthunderhardhigh-keylighting— branchesoftreescreatestrongshadowsonbrightstreets.Heizaburoand theconstableskeepmovinginandoutoftheshadows.Thesceneisaspectacleofmovementandlighting.TanakaJunichirodescribedthesceneas follows:“He[Bando]lowersonearmandswingshisswordinabeautifulforminfrontofanumberofofficers.Asheswingshissword,thepursuersmovebackandforward,kneeldown,bendbackward,anddie.The cameraalsomovesinafiercespeed,circlesaround,riseshigh,becomes bright,andturnsdark.Thecinematicbeautyoflight,shadow,andmovementflowsintothescreenalongwithTsumasaburo’s swordfighting.”54 Eventuallycaptured,Heizaburoistakentojail:allofasudden,thesunsets. Thepolicemenraisetheirpaperlanterns.Alongthelineofshininglanterns, handcuffedbehindhisback,Heizaburolowershisheadandinanextreme longshotweaklywalksdownabridgeinsilhouette.Thus,lightingenhances thetragicendingofthetale. Despite the collaboration with Bando, Shochiku’s attempt to expand tojidaigekiwasnotverysuccessful.Intermsofboththeattitudestoward cinematictechnologies,includinglighting,andthefanbases,theShochiku Kamatatoneandjidaigekididnotgetalongverywell.AllShochikuwas fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 83
abletodowasconstantlyinsistthatjidaigekiwasnothingbutoverlyconventionalizedswordfightsofnihilisticantiheroesandtrytodiminishthe impactofthenewgenre.55 the meteoric Rise of Hayashi Chojiro: Jidaigeki and Female spectatorship
Inlate1927,however,thesituationstartedtochangedramatically.Tanaka Junichirowrites,“Chronologicallyspeaking,1927wastheyearwhenJapanesecinemamaderapidprogress.Researchersmustconcentrateonthis yearandtrytostudythefilmsproducedbyeachcompany.”56Eventhough Tanaka’sclaimwasinclinedtoarathernaïveteleologicalview,withthe tremendoussuccessofChuji’s Travel Journaltrilogy,1927wascertainlya memorableyearforthejidaigekigenre.Itwasalsoabreakthroughyearfor Shochiku’sjidaigekifilmmaking.Thechangewasnotlimitedto“thefilms producedbyeachcompany”butthereceptionofthem.Theyear1927was whenanewtypeofspectatorshipwasformedinJapanwiththeriseofa brandnewstar. ThecriticDazaiYukimichiwroteinNovember1927,“Shochiku’sjidaigekiwasboring,andthatwasafact....IcouldnothelpthinkingthatShochikuwouldneverhaveanythingtodowithjidaigeki.However,Hayashi Chojiroappeared.NotonlyIbutprobablyeveryoneelsewasastonishedby himandappreciatedhim.”57ByJanuary1928,accordingtoDazai,thefilms ofHayashiChojirowerecalled“withoutadoubt,thetreasureboxofShochiku”and,accordingtoanothercritic,ChikamatsuKyojiro,“thebest,ifwe considercinematobecommercialproducts.”58TheyoungactorHayashi ChojiroappearedasthestarofShochiku’sShimokamostudioandthenbecamethestarofJapanesecinema“meteorically.”59Shochikuestablished itsShimokamostudioinKyotoin1923whentheearthquakehitTokyo, butthestudiowasscarcelyusedin1925and1926anddidnotproduceany hits.60Allofasudden,however,Shimokamohadturnedintothehomeof therisingstar. ShiraiShintaro,theShimokamostudiohead,wrotein1930,“Jidaigeki filmhadcapturedtheheartsofmillionsoffansbygiving100percentof itsattentiontothewhiteflashofthesword....Butnowweneedtomove awayfromsuchadeadlockedcondition.Itistimetoexploreawayofnew jidaigeki.”61ForShiraiandShochikuexecutives,HayashiChojirowascertainlythekeytoexploringsuchnewnesswhiletheydidtheirbesttosimul84 chapter2
taneouslyincorporatethetheatricalstylesthattheyhadpreservedintheir films.TheuniquestardomofHayashiChojirowascreatedatthefocalpoint betweentherisingpopularityofjidaigekiandShochiku’sbusinessstrategy thatcombinedHollywood-stylelightingandcinematography,Kabukiand shinpaconventions,andnewlystructuredstar-makingpublicity. IntheJanuary1925issueofShojo Gaho,apopularmagazineforyoung women, Tachibana Takahiro, the head of the censorship board of the Tokyo’smetropolitanpoliceforce,negativelydepictedjidaigekiforfemale spectators:“Forthistypeoffilms[jidaigeki],narratorsoftentalkinvulgar languageevenwhentheimagesonthescreenarenotsomuch.Youshould notgointothetheaterswheresuchbenshiexist.”62Hayashibecamethe firstcinematicmatineeidolinJapanstarringinsucha“vulgar”genre.The year1927wasalsotoberememberedasthetimewhenwomenturnedto jidaigeki,whichhadbeenconsideredtobeagenreformen—andwere openlysolicitedasfilmpatrons(seefig.2.6). “Myfansaremostlywomen,”HayashiadmittedinAugust1928,which was quite unusual for a star in the jidaigeki genre.63 His film Gonza the Spearman(Yari no Gonza,FurunoEiji,1929),wasexclusivelycategorized “forwomen”byKokusai Eiga Shinbun,afilmtradejournal.64UedaIsamu, one of the editors of Shimokamo, a film fan magazine mainly devoted to Hayashi Chojiro, wrote that “90 percent” of the readers’ responses, whethertheywerefanlettersorquestions,werefrom“femalestudents.”65 InAugust1932,Kamata,thepublicitymagazineofShochikuKamatafilms, noted,“Weforgottomentionthemuchmoreimportant thingthatoccurred in the beginning of 1927: Hayashi Chojiro entered Shimokamo! Onceacoupleofhisstarvehicleswerereleasedasquicklyasmachinegun bullets,girlsnationwidebecameunabletosleepatnightdreamingof‘my Cho-sanofmyown!’”66ThefilmcollectorIbukiEidorecalls,“Women intheservicebusinessscreamatthescreen,‘Cho-san,don’tgetcaught! Yippee!’ Men in the audience had to hold words of damnation in their mouths.”67WhenHayashifirstvisitedTokyoinJanuary1928topromote hisstarvehicleRecord of the Ocean Country(Kaikokuki,KinugasaTeinosuke),“thousandsofpeoplegatheredinfrontofTokyostationtowelcome notanationalguest,nottheprimeminister,butjustayoungactor,”accordingtoHayashihimself.68TheTokyo Asahi Shinbunnewspaperreportedon thethree-daytourofHayashitothirty-fourtheatersinTokyo:“Thepopularity of Hayashi Chojiro, Chihaya Akiko, and Ogawa Yukiko who have fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 85
figure2.6 FemalefanslookingatpostersofHayashiChojiro.Reprintedfrom Shimokamo10.6(June1936):26.
beenvisitingTokyosinceJanuary16isincrediblyterrific.”69ThecriticAsakawaKiyoshialsoreported,“WhenChojirocameoutofDenkikanTheater afterhispromotionalappearance,heblewhisnoseandthrewawaythetissuepaperthathehadused.Then,rightawayanumberofpeoplecrowded overthepaper.Itwasanuglybattleforlifeinordertoacquirethesheetof tissuepaper.”70Atouringgroupevenappearedwithanimpersonatorwith thesamename,HayashiChojiro.71InNovember1930,Hayashiwasranked asthemostpopularShochikustar(includingbothKamataandShimokamo)inacontestheldbyKamatamagazine.Hereceived5,962ballots, whichwasalmosttwiceasmanyasthesecond-placeTakadaHiroshiwith 3,265.72Evenin1937,adecadeafterhisdebut,accordingtoonereportin
86 chapter2
Nihon Eigajournal,HayashiwasthemostpopularJapanesestaramong “femalestudents.”73ConsideringthehugepopularityofHayashi,Shochiku senthimtoitsKamatastudioinTokyoin1932tomake“aspecialappearance”inNomuraHotei’sshinpa-stylefilmGolden Monster(Konjikiyasha) featuringTanakaKinuyo,afemalestaratKamata.74Itwasveryunusualfor ajidaigekistartoappearinagendaigekifilm—especiallyplayingaleadin alovestorywithagendaigekistar.KidoShiro,theKamatastudiohead,recalls,“Hayashiwassosensationallyreceivedthatevenwe[atKamata]had tocallhimtoappearinCuckoo[sic],starringTanakaKinuyo,inorderto usehisnamevalue.Hewastrulybigbythen.WebroughtHayashitoTokyo andtookhimtoageishahouse.Thenallthegeishasofthehousevoluntarilycametomeethimleavingothercustomersunattended....Whenhe leftthehouse,twentyorthirtygeishassawhimoff.”75 Shelly Stamp suggests that an American film fan culture that chiefly targetedwomenintheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury“didsoby providingsouvenirsandtie-insthatfrozephotoplaysinpossessable,consumable moments through the dissemination of products.”76 Hayashi’s sensationalriseasastarin1927andtheformationofthefilmfanculture thatimmediatelyfollowedmarkedthepointwhencinemaanditsstardom werefirstclearlyrecognizedasacommodityinJapan.Inthatyear,Yanai Yoshio, head of the film censorship section of the Home Ministry, discussedthreeperspectivesoncinema.Inadditiontoreferringtotheartistic andtechnologicalaspectsofcinema,Yanaipointedout,“Finally,cinemais business.Wehadcompletelyignoredthisperspective....Quiterecently,at last,westartedtothinkaboutfilmproductionasanindustry.Filmmaking requiresenormoustimeandcapital.Theeconomiclawsofthisbusinessare thecompleteoppositetoart.Agoodfilmcannotbemadewithoutsufficientfinancing.Capitalmustbeuseddiverselyandefficiently.Anindustrial systemmustbeorganizedwell.”77 HayashiChojirowascertainlyaproductofsuchanindustrialsystem from the very beginning. His stardom was tactfully produced—skillful manipulationoflightinginacombinationoftheHollywoodandKabuki and shinpa manners was akeycomponent in creating his photographic images—andpublicizedtobeconsumedandpossessedbyyoungfemale movie fans. Young female fans became a staple of Shochiku’s business andpromotions,andthecompany’sadvertisingcampaignswooedfemale
fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 87
consumers with the star’s photographic image using a glamorous lightingscheme,aswasthecaseinHollywoodduringtheearlydecadesofthe century.78 For Hayashi, Shochiku’s economic organization was focused simultaneouslyonmarketsofconsumption,withmodernadvertising,and sitesofproduction,withmodernlightingtechnology.Torefertothefilm scholarMaryAnnDoane’swords,thefemaleconsumerwasidentifiedas “takeninbythelureofadvertising”andsimultaneouslyby“theseduction ofanimage.”79 However,itissignificanttonotethatHayashi’sfemalefanswerenot simplypassiveconsumersofsuchadvertisementsandimages.Hayashi’s stardommarkedtheemergenceofamodernviewingsubjectinthehistory of Japanese cinema, who dialogically consumed products prepared and publicizedbyacapitalistindustry.Inthissense,theyear1927shouldalsobe notedasthebirthofanewtypeoffilmspectatorship.ThishistoricalaudienceofHayashiChojirowasphysicallysusceptibletotheeffectofcinema asamoderntechnology,butatthesametime,heor,mainly,shewasconsciousofhisorherspectatorypositionasaconsumer.Inotherwords,while themoderncapitalistrelationshipbetweentheproducerandtheconsumer ofproductswassafelymaintained,boththeproducerandtheconsumerof HayashiChojirowereawarethattherelationshipwasalsoaperformance. Hayashi’sbackgroundasanonnagata(femaleimpersonator)facilitatedthe formationofperformativecommunicationandofamodernviewingsubjectinJapan.Eighteen-year-oldHayashiChojirowasadiscipleofHayashi Chozaburo,sonofthefamousKabukiactorinKansai,NakamuraGanjiroI,andwastrainedasanonnagata.80InKabukiorshinpa,femaleimpersonationisvaluedasverisimilarperformance.Inmanycases,theaudienceofKabukiandshinpaappreciatestheactors’skills(andcostumes) andtakespartinthe“presentational”modeofnarrativesandemotions, ifIcanquoteNoëlBurch.81Inthemeantime,theaudienceofHayashi’s films,whetherbasedonKabukiactsornot,cherishedhisact,costume, andmakeupasaperformance,and,simultaneously,becamephysicallyabsorbedintheaffectiveexperiencesthatHayashi’sonscreenimageinvoked. Regarding modern spectatorship in Japan, the historian Ayako Kano pointsout,“ModerntheaterinJapan[inthe1910s]producesanewsubject position:thatofthepassivethoughalertaudiencemember,sittingstraight andforwardfacingintheirchairs,prohibitedfromeating,drinking,conversingwiththeirneighborsandfromengaginginsocialandsexualinter88 chapter2
coursewiththeperformers.Withthehelpofthenewtechnologyofelectriclightingtoilluminatethestage,theauditoriumcannowbedarkened, andtheaudiencesitsisolated,absorbedinthespectacleunfoldinginfront oftheireyes.”82Kanoinsiststhatsuch“conditionsofanewsubjectivity” as“darkauditorium,illuminatedspectacle,aperformancewhichaddresses thespectatorbutisnotaddressedbythespectator—alreadyexistedinthe modernizing theaters of the 1910s” preceding motion pictures.83 Joseph MurphyexpandsonKano’sargumentonthedistancebetweentheaudienceandtheperformersinmoderntheaterandinsiststhatthe“unique relationshipbetweenthemodern[film]starsandtheaudiencewasestablishedonlybecausetheimageoffilmdidnotmateriallyexistanditonlyindicatedhowintangiblethestarswere.”84Ifthemodernaudiencemember wantedtofillinthe“infinitelyremotegap”betweenthestarsandhimself orherself,Murphyargues,hisorherattitudewouldbegintohave“pathologicalnuances.”85 IagreewithKanoandMurphyontheemergenceof“anewsubjective position”inmoderntheatersandmotionpicturesbasedonthedistance betweenthestars,whoseimageswerecarefullypreparedandpublicized bycapitalistindustries,andtheaudience.NeitherKanonorMurphyconsidersthemodernaudiencetobesimplypassive.Bothofthemstressthe “agency”ofthemodernaudience,withwhichheorshecan“appropriate” or“resistthedominantcultureinacreativemanner.”86Idonotthinkthe audienceofmotionpictureswasmerelypassiveeither,andIdoacknowledgetheaudience’sagency.IalsoagreewithMiriamHansen’sclaimfor“a potentiallyautonomousdynamic”of“thepublicdimensionofcinematic reception”thatmakessuchastarphenomenonastheRudolphValentino cultin1920sHollywood“morethanaconsumeristspectacleorchestrated fromabove.”87Ithinkitistruethat,asHansenargues,“publicdimension isdistinctfrombothtextualandsocialdeterminationsofspectatorshipbecauseitentailstheverymomentinwhichreceptioncangainamomentum ofitsown,cangiverisetoformationsnotnecessarilyanticipatedinthe contextofproduction.”88 However,IwouldarguethattherelationshipbetweenHayashiChojiro andhisfanswasslightlydifferentfromsuchconditionsasappropriation, resistance,orintangibility,whichseemedtopresupposeadichotomybetweenproductionandreception,aswellasbetweenpassivityandactivity. HansenreadstheValentinocultas“akindofrebellion,adesperateprotest fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 89
againstthepassivityandone-sidednesswithwhichpatriarchalcinemasupportsthesubordinatepositionofwomeninthegenderhierarchy.”89She argues,“Intheirunabashedtheatricaldisplay,Valentino’sfilmsreverttoan early‘cinemaofattractions,’abovealleroticfilmsinwhichtheperformer castsaknowingglanceatthecamera.”90Such“ritualsofmutualrecognition between star and fan” in “those moments of direct display,” claims Hansen, “inscribe the viewer as a member of a public body rather than anisolatedpeepingtom.”91Shethusdistinguishesanactiverecognition ofadirectdisplayofaneroticbodyorgazefromapassivevoyeurismand values theemergence of “a specifically female subjectivity whose politicalandpsychologicaldimensionsfaroutstriptheeconomic,consumerist function”inthatactiverecognition.92LiketheValentiniangaze,Hayashi’s gaze“exceedsitsformalfunctionofprovidingdiegeticcoherenceandcontinuity.”93Hegazesathisdiegeticopponentaswellasatthenondiegetic audience. As a result of the technological manipulation of images, like Valentino,Hayashiis“overdeterminedasbothobjectandsubjectofthe look.”94Inthissense,aHayashifanKobayashiFujieappropriatelycalled Hayashithe“ValentinooftheEast.”95 IwouldalsoarguethattheHayashicultwasbynomeansrebelliousor subversivetodominantcapitalistideology.Instead,therewasadialogic orcooperativerelationshipbetweentheproducerandtheconsumer.The Hayashifanchosetobesimultaneouslyactiveandpassive—orconsciously submissive—andtheproducersclearlywereawareofthesimultaneity.As aresult,theproducerandtheaudience,bothofwhomopenlyaddressed their concerns about the image of the star, could anticipate formations ofreceptionsothattherewaslittleroomforanyanxietyofexpectation. Suchadialogicrelationshipbetweentheproducerandtheconsumermade Hayashi’sstardomunique.Itwassuchacooperativerelationshipthatcould becalledtheemergenceofanewsubjectivepositionoffilmspectatorship. TheFrenchfilmtheoristEdgarMorindescribesthestarsystemasamixtureofaccessibilityandinaccessibility.Hecallsfilmactorstheequivalent ofatwentieth-centurygodtopointouttheinaccessiblequalityandthen simultaneouslypointsoutthecommodityqualityofthestar,whichmakes himorheraccessibletofans.Morinstressesthatthetwosidesofthestar’s status,asbothgodandcommodity,are“twofacesofthesamereality:the needsofmanatthestageoftwentiethcenturycapitalistcivilization.”96I agreewithMorinregardingthesimultaneityofaccessibilityandinacces90 chapter2
sibilityinthestarsystem.Butthegodmetaphorforinaccessibilityseems slipperytome.Godcouldbebothaccessibleandinaccessible.Certainly imagesofgodrepresentinaccessibility,orinfinitedistancebetweengod andworshipper.Butifgodappearsto,speaksto,ortouchesaworshipper, such an affective experience is one of accessibility. Specific lighting techniquesconstructedaniconic,orgod-like,imageofHayashi,butatthe sametimesuchanimageenhanceditsaffectivequalitythatcouldfacilitate theviewer’stactileexperience.Moreover,regardingaccessibility,Hayashi fanswerenotsimplypassiverecipientsofcommodity.Theiraccessmeant thattheyconsciouslycooperatedtoconstructthestarimage.Inthissense theywerebynomeansresistantorsubversivetodominantcapitalistideologybutwereactivereceptionists. Inadditiontothechoiceofawarepassivitybytheaudience,thespeciallightingtechniqueonHayashi’sface,whichcombinedtheHollywood andKabukiandshinpastyles,enabledatangibleperceptionbytheaudience.Evenifaudiencemembersunderstoodtheirsocialorphysicaldistancefromthestar,thetechnologyofcinemafilledinthatgapinstantlyand simultaneously.WhenIcalltheaudienceofHayashifilmamodernviewing subject,Imeanapositionofsimultaneity—simultaneitybetweenactivity andpassivityandbetweenintangibilityandtangibility.Suchaspectatorial positionofsimultaneitydidnotoccurtomanyactors—atleastatthattime inJapanesefilmhistory.ThismadeHayashiChojiroanexceptionalfigure evenwithinShochiku’scapitalist-industrialsystem. glamorization of Jidaigeki: A new Promotional strategy and lighting scheme
ViewingHayashiinhisdebutfilm,Kid’s Sword Fight(Chigo no kenpo,InuzukaMinoru,1927),rightbeforeitsrelease,ShiraiShintaro,theShimokamostudioheadwhohadnotbeensuccessfulincatchingupwiththe popularity of jidaigeki and expanding the market for Shochiku films in Kansaiareas,decidedtobetonhim.Shiraispent30,000yenonpublicizing Hayashionamassivescale.97Hayashi’scaseturnedouttobethefirstextensivestar-makingpublicityinthehistoryofJapanesecinema.First,ShiraisentoutfiftythousandportraitphotosofHayashi,fiftythousandspecial letters,seventythousandtowels,andtwentythousandphotoalbumsspecificallytowomenintheKyoto,Osaka,andKobeareasandtoeveryhouseholdintheentertainmentdistrictofKyoto.Thenhedistributedspecial fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 91
posterstobeautyparlorsandcafés.Hayashi’sfacebecamewidelyknown evenbeforehisdebutonthescreen.BythereleaseofHayashi’ssecond andthirdstarvehicles,Shiraihadaddedthreethousandhappis(special clothes),threethousandparasols,tenthousandsensu(fans),andtenthousanduchiwa(roundfans)totheinitialpublicitymaterialsanddistributed them“inthemosteffectivemannertoallpossibleplaces,”accordingto him.98Forinstance,intheNagoyaarea,Shiraidistributedspecialhanging screenstonumerousfemalebathhouses“inordertoattractcitygirls.”99 Afterseveralfilms,Hayashi’spopularity“roseamongfemalestudentsso high”thatShiraiproducedonehundredthousanddiariesandsentthem outusingaddressbooksfromallschoolsinKyoto,Osaka,andKobe.In ordertopromoteHayashi,Shiraialsopurchasedpagesinnationalnewspaperswithmoney,specialgifts,andlettersfromthefamousKabukiactors (andHayashi’smentors)NakamuraGanjiroIandHayashiChozaburo.100 Asanintegralpartofsuchawell-organizedexpansivepublicitycampaign,fanclubswerecreatedforthefirsttimeinthehistoryofJapanese cinema.Whiletherehadbeensupporters’organizationsforpopularactors, Hayashi’s fan clubs appeared to be what Hansen calls “an industrial- commercialpublicsphere”thatwasconspicuouslydesigned“tomobilize grassrootssupport,but...[was]fullyorchestratedfromabove,”targeting femalespectators.101Alongwiththeestablishmentoffanclubs,publication ofafanmagazine,Shimokamo,beganinNovember1927.KubotaTatsuo, editor-in-chiefofShimokamoandtheheadofthefanclubHanabishi-kai (Flowerandarrowgroup),wrotethatthepublicationofthemagazinewas planned even before Hayashi’s entry into the Shimokamo studio.102 Yet mostofthepagesofthemagazinewerededicatedtoHayashiandhisfilms, andShimokamowaswidelyrecognizedasaHayashipublicitymagazine. ItisnoteworthythatShimokamopromotedsuchHayashigoodsasphoto albums, handkerchiefs, soaps, and caramel candies in the Maruberudo storeinAsakusa,wheretheheadquartersofHanabishi-kaiwaslocated.103 Shirai’stacticwasbasedonthebusinessknow-howthathehadacquired inHollywood,whichhehadvisitedbeforehebecamethestudioheadat Shimokamo.104ContemporaryfilmcriticswereverywellawareofShirai’s businessstrategy.ThecriticMizumachiSeijiwrotein1937thata“trademarkforbusiness”hadbeenattachedtoHayashiandthe120filmsthat heappearedinfortenyears.Mizumachiargues,“Businessmen[atShochiku]keptexploitingChojiroasabeautifulmanwhowouldflatteryoung 92 chapter2
women.Chojirohimselfmadeeveryefforttodojustthat.”105Similarly,but inamoreunfavorablemanner,anothercritic,Yamahoshi,calledHayashi “ignorant”andwrotein1938thatHayashi’slife“displaysthemiseryofso- calledcommodifiedstarssotypicallythatwecannothelpbecomingmore interestedinthestructureofthecontemporaryfilmbusinessthatforces himtodance.”106CriticF.K.R.evencalledfilmstars“robotsthatfilmcompaniesproduceovernight”andregardedHayashiasatypicalexampleof them.107 ButhowcouldHayashibecomeShochiku’s“trademarkforbusiness” whenthecompanywasalmostcompletelygivingupjidaigeki?KidoShiro claimedthatHayashi’sstarvehicleswere“sweetjidaigeki,”whichare“completelydifferentfromthosewithBantsuma[BandoTsumasaburo’snickname].”108IntheeyesoftheKamatastudiohead,Hayashiwasnotexactly a jidaigeki star. Kido was not alone in this opinion. Contemporary criticsdidnotjuxtaposeHayashiwithothercontemporaryjidaigekistarsbut withShochikuKamata’sfemalestars.In1931,thecriticSuzukiTamotsu calledHayashi“thedarlingofcinemaNippon.”109Similarly,thetitleofan articleonHayashiina1929encyclopediaoffilmstarswas“JapaneseDarling” (“Nihon-teki choji”).110 Kurishima Sumiko, the first female star of Shochiku,wasoftencalled“Japanesesweetheart”(Wagakuninokoibito). ThecriticKimuraFujionoted,“TheattractionofPointo[Hayashi’snickname]ishisfemininity....IfeelpureandessentialJapanesefemininity [inhim].Canwesensethesamecharacteristicinotherjidaigekiactorslike Chiezo,Okochi,andBando?SuchfemininebeautyisthebasisofPointo’s attraction....WhatabeautifulsadnesswecanfeelinPointo,whichcould evendestroyone’s[i.e.,theviewer’s]body!”111ThejidaigekistarOkochi Denjiro admitted the difference among jidaigeki stars including himself andHayashi: “[WhenIwatched oneofHayashi’s films]IwasveryimpressedbythefactthatthetrulybeautifulChojiro-san[onthescreen]was makingtheaudienceverypleasedbyhisbeautifulfaceandposes.ItwasbeyondwhatIhadheardabout....Chojiro-sanisinatotallydifferentclass fromme.”112Inresponse,Hayashiclaimedthathewasnotgoodat“action- oriented”actingthatcharacterizedOkochiorBando.113Shochikuplayed downtheroleoftheswordinHayashi’sstarimage,whichdistancedhim fromauthenticjidaigekiwithitsrealisminswordfighting.OfHayashi’sstar vehicleStar of Woman and Man(Jobuboshi,KinugasaTeinosuke,1927),the criticHazumiTsuneowrote,“Infact‘swords’donotplaysignificantroles fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 93
figure2.7 OnlytheportraitofHayashiChojiroisaclose-up.Reprintedfrom “EnchantedMomentsfromtheSwordPlays,”Nihon Eiga1.1(June1929):n.p.
inthisfilm....Whatcanotherjidaigekiactorsdobeingdeprivedoftheir swords?Probablytheycanonlylookmiserableasiftheirarmsandlegs werecutoff....Itisimpossibleforjidaigekiactorstothrowawaytheir swordsandnottokillpeoplewiththem.Overcomingsuchanimpossibility, HayashiChojirobecamesuccessful.”114 AdifferentphotographicschemewasadoptedtoformulateHayashi’s starimagenotaroundtheswordbutaroundsweetnessandevenvulnerability.TheJune1929issueofNihon Eigamagazineplacedsixphotographs of jidaigeki stars under the title “Enchanted Moments from the Sword Plays”(fig.2.7).Amongthem,onlyHayashi’sportraitwasaclose-up;the otherphotos—mostlylongshots—featuredsuchstarsasBandoandOkochiwithswordsintheirhands.Theirswords,oftenshiningwhiteandreflecting strong spotlights, played as significant a role as their faces and bodies.Onthecontrary,inHayashi’sphoto,hisswordwasplacedbehind hisbackandvisiblyoutoffocus.Hisfaceandhiseyes,slightlynarrowed withsmallpointsofwhitelightwithinthem,wereclearlyemphasizedby high-keylighting.115 Similarly,apublicitystillphotofromTorn Woven Umbrella(Yabure amigasa, Inuzuka Minoru, 1927) captures Hayashi in high-key lighting (fig. 94 chapter2
2.8).Inthephoto,avisiblyfatiguedHayashiisembracedbyawoman(Chihaya Akiko) from the back. His eyes are narrowed as if he were sufferingfromafatalwound.Somebloodisvisibleonhisleftcheek.Whilethe womanlooksmotherly,Hayashi’sbodylooksquitevulnerable,especially becausehisswordisnotvisibleeventhoughitwasquiteobviousfromhis costumethatthiswasascenefollowingaswordfight.116SuchavulnerableimageofHayashiwastherealizationofonefemalefan’sdream.Inthe dreamthatsheconfessedinafanletter,Hayashiappearedasadyingsamuraiwhobegsforherhelp—theultimateimageofvulnerability:“Tomyears, thesufferingsamuraiseemedtobebeggingforwater.Thenhevomited blackishredbloodandfelldown.AssoonasIrealized—oh,whatastupid girlIwas—alloftheseoccurredinmydream.”117 ThefilmcriticOkamuraAkirawroteaboutKichizo the Monk(Obo Kichizo, Fuyushima Taizo, 1929), Hayashi’s star vehicle: “Cinematography [ofthefilm]isbrightandcheerful.”118ThecriticMurakamiHisaosimilarly pointed out, “When brightness, cheerfulness, and pureness quietly circlearound,theyturnintotheprofileofyoungHayashiChojiro.Theoutlineofhisspotlessprofilethatmakestheviewers’heartsjoyfulthenturns intoaclose-up,whichemphasizeshistwoeyes—theoriginofallhischaracteristics.TheimpressionofChojiroderivesclearlyfromhisbrightand shadow-freeeyesevenwhenhecries,smiles,orrages.”119Itseemedasif Hayashi’ssweetjidaigekibecameShochiku’s“trademarkofbusiness”asan extensionofitsbrightandcheerfulpolicy,whoseemphasiswasonthevisibilityofcharacters’faces.However,Hayashi’sstarimagewasbynomeans astraightforwardextensionoftheKamatatone.Infact,therewasnoother actorwhoreceivedsuchacarefulandcraftylightingandcinematographic schemeasHayashiChojirodid.FemalestarsatKamatasuchasKurishima Sumiko received the Hollywood-style three-point lighting and special makeup,particularlyinpublicityphotos,butthestarsweremostlyplaced inatableau-styleflatlightinginfilms.InthecaseofHayashi,thespecial treatmentinlightingwasnotlimitedtopublicityphotos.Speciallighting schemes,whichcombinedtheHollywoodstyleandtheKabukistyleinan unprecedentedmanner,enhancedthesensualglamouroftherisingstar andplayedsignificantrolesintheformationofanaffectiveandcommunicativemodeinHayashi’sstardom.Hayashihimselftriedtodistinguish hisstarimagefromasimpleadoptionof,oraretreatto,theKabukistyle. In his essay of February 1929, “My Kabuki Film,” Hayashi argued, “The fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 95
figure2.8 VulnerableHayashiChojiroisembracedbyawoman.Torn Woven Umbrella(1927).ReprintedfromShimokamo2.11(November1928):28.
KabukifilmthatIhavebeenmakingandwillcontinuetomakeisnota filmaboutKabukiitself.IamtentativelycallingittheKabukifilmbecause thereisnootherappropriatewordtodescribeit.Yet,essentially,aKabuki filmisanewartisticexistencethatcombinesthegoodthingsofboth,and thestylesofKabukiarecondensedinthoseofcinema.”120 ItisindicativethatinfanmagazinearticlesHayashioftennamedErnst Lubitschashisfavoritedirector.ThefirstdreamthatHayashihadonJanuary1,1930,accordingtoanarticlepublishedinShimokamo,wasstarring in 8th Heaven, a sequel to 7th Heaven (Frank Borzage, 1927) with Janet GaynorunderthedirectionofLubitsch.WhenHayashiwasabouttokiss Gaynor in his dream in a close-up, Kinugasa Teinosuke, the director of manyHayashistarvehicleswhoalsoservedastheassistantdirectorforthe film,knockedalampover,andHayashiwokeupfromthedream.121In1937, askedwhomhewouldchooseifhewereallowedtoinviteafilmmakerfrom abroadtoproducehisfilm,Hayashianswered,“Firstofall,ErnstLubitsch. I’vereallylikedhimforalongtime.HowcanIsay,heistrulymasterful.”122 BythetimeHayashimadehisdebutonscreen,Lubitschhadalready established his status in Hollywood. After discovering backlighting, accordingtoKristinThompson,“precise,glowingthree-pointlighting”became one of Lubitsch’s trademark techniques.123 Thompson argues that Lubitsch’sactorsare“typicallyoutlinedwithedgelight,”whichexemplifieshisexecutionofthethree-pointsystemthatminimizesshadowscast byactors“abitbetterthananyoneelse.”124Inthesystem,theprimary,or key,lightwouldtypicallyconcentrateonthemainactors,whichiswhat thefilmscholarTorbenGrodalcalls“typicalglamourlighting.”125Filllight castontheactorsfromthesideoppositethekeylightsoftensshadowsand createsanattractivemodeledlook.Backlightingfromlampsplacedonthe topsofthesetsattherearwouldprojecthighlightsontotheactors’hair andtracealittleoutlineoflightaroundtheirbodies.126Three-pointlightingwasoriginallyagender-codedtechnique.AJune1932articleinAmerican Cinematographerstated,“Whenphotographingwomentheyshouldbe donesobeautifully.Thelightingshouldbeinahighkeyandaimtoexpress femininity.Thetonalrangebetweenthehighlightandtheshadowshould neverbeverygreat.Thelightingformenontheotherhandshouldexpress ruggedvirility.Thetonalcontrastshouldbemuchlongerthanthatemployedforwomen.Infactitshouldbemoreorlesscontrastywithoutbeing violent.”127However,accordingtoPatrickKeating,ascinematographersin fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 97
Hollywoodgrewbetterandbetteratmakingpeoplelookperfectlyunblemished,thestudiosgrewmoreandmoreinsistentthatcinematographersuse theirglamortechniquesonallmajorstars,menandwomenalike.Asaresult,“alightingtreatmentthatwasconventionallycodedas‘feminine’:aflat key-light,agenerousamountoffill,andaglowingbacklight”wasapplied tomalestarsfortheidealofglamorization.128 ThisHollywoodidealofglamorizationinlighting,whichhadbeensporadicallyadoptedforShochiku’sfemalestarsatKamatabyHenryKotani andothers,wasfullyadoptedforthefirsttimeinthehistoryofJapanese cinema to formulate Hayashi’s photographic image. In most cases, the close-upsofHayashi’sfaceclearlydisplayspecificuseofthree-pointlighting,withvisiblysoftfocus.InastillphotofromO-Natsu Seijuro(Inuzuka Minoru,1936),thefilm“madeabsolutelyinordertoplease[Hayashi]fans,” Hayashilooksattheheroine(TanakaKinuyo)onanighttimestreet(fig. 2.9).129Withhiseyesnarrowed,heshowstheleftsideofhisfacetothe camera.Theproductionphotoofthefilmrevealstheuseofincandescent tungstenlamps,sostrongsidelightsleavethelefthalfofHayashi’sfacein slightshade,filllightsfromthefrontalrightsoftentheshadow,andtop lightsmaketherimofhisheadshinebeautifully(fig.2.10).130Inaninterviewconductedbeforethefilm’sproduction,ItoTakeo,thecinematographer,confirmedthathewouldadoptsoft-focusphotographyforHayashi inthefilm:“Iwillusesofttonesthroughout,forinstance,inordertomake Mr.Hayashilookasgoodaspossibleforthefilmthatcelebratestheten- yearanniversaryofhisdebut.”131 Incandescenttungstenlampsthatcouldbringmoreuniformilluminationwereindispensableinachievingsofttonesinthethree-pointlighting system. Carbon arc lamps that had dominated filmmaking in the 1920s, ontheotherhand,createdmoreintenselightinmorelimitedareas,even thoughtheywerenoisierandlastedonlyforfifteentothirtyseconds.132 Carbonarclampswerethussuitableforjidaigeki,especiallywhenaflashof swordswasrequired.Shochiku’sShimokamostudiotooktheinitiativeto incorporateelectricincandescentlampsintofilms.AccordingtoaMarch 1931reportinKinema Junpo,Nikkatsu’sUzumasastudioinKyoto,which specialized in jidaigeki, maintained 198 “carbon lights” and 72 “globe” lamps,whileShochiku’sShimokamostudiowasinpossessionof80“carbonand/orelectriclights”and20“specializedlights.”133Accordingtoan April1933reportinthesamejournal,Nikkatsu’sUzumasastudioowned198 98 chapter2
figure2.9 HayashiChojirolooksatTanakaKinuyoonanighttimestreet. O-Natsu Seijuro(1936).ReprintedfromShimokamo10.5(May1936):3.
figure2.10 IncandescenttungstenlampscreatesoftlightingforHayashi ChojiroandTanakaKinuyo.O-Natsu Seijuro(1936)inproduction.Reprintedfrom Shimokamo10.5(May1936):80.
carbonlightsand220globelamps.Thestudioadded148globelamps,but thenumberofcarbonlightsdidnotchangeatallinthetwoyears.Inthe meantime,inApril1933Shochiku’sShimokamostudiowasinpossessionof muchgreaternumbersofelectriclampsandproudlyinformedthejournal: one5kWelectricbulbspotlight,four3kWelectricbulbspecialspotlights, four2kWelectricbulbspecialspotlights,six6kWsunlights,twenty-five 6kWarcspotlights,thirty-five2kWtoplights,fifty1kWsidelights,thirty- five2kWsidelights,five3kWspecialtoplights,seven1kWelectricspotlights,seventeen1kWsuspension,andsix500Whectoria.Theyhad195 lampsintotal—only25ofthemweredesignatedascarbonarclamps.134 Incandescentlampsgraduallytooktheplaceofarclight(coalarclight andmercurysteamlight)inJapanesefilmmakinginthe1930s,inaccordancewiththeintroductionofpanchromaticfilm,whichwasmoresensitivethanthepreviousorthochromaticfilmandreproducedallthecolors ofthevisiblespectrum.135ShochikuShimokamoprecededallothersinthis move,evenKamata.ItwasShochikuKamatathathadinitiallystartedusing Mazda’s1kWincandescenttungstenlampsinfilmproductionasearlyas 1929,includinginRecord of New Women(Shin josei kagami,GoshoHeinosuke,1929).136ThecinematographerofRecord of New WomenwasMiura Mitsuo,whohadjustreturnedfromhisresearchtriptoHollywood.Miura wasimpressedbythe“abundant”useoflightinHollywoodstudios,includingMazdalamps,andwantedtousetheminhisfilms.137WhenMazda’s 3 kW sunspot lights were imported to Tokyo Mazda Lighting School in1930andtheJapanesebranchofMazdastartedproducing3kWsunspotlightsin1931,ShochikuKamatawasthefirsttousetheminitsfilmmaking.138WataragiMoichi,theformerchiefoftheelectricitydepartment oftheKamatastudio,whichwasresponsibleforlightingequipment,recalledthatheused3kWsunspotlightsinHobo in the City(Machi no runpen,IkedaYoshinobu,1931),starringKurishimaSumiko.139TheSeptember 1931issueofKamataproudlynotedthatsunspotlighting,whichthestudio hadstartedtouse“aboutoneyearago,”was“excellentlightingequipment” sothat“sunspotlightingtooktheplaceofarclightingrightaway.”140However,itwasatShochikuShimokamothatincandescentlampswerefully employed.AccordingtoWataragi,incandescenttungstenwhitelightbulbs of“highquality”were“extremelyexpensive”andnoteasilyreplaceable.141 TheKamatastudioheadmighthavebeenhesitanttoturncompletelyto suchanexpensiveinvestmentuntilitbecamenecessarywhentheystarted 100 chapter2
to produce talking pictures.142 After The Neighbor’s Wife and Mine (Madamu to nyobo,GoshoHeinosuke,1931),thefirstcompletetalkingpicture inJapanproducedatShochiku’sKamatastudio,lightbulbsbecameanecessitybecausetheydidnotcreatetheloudnoisesthatarclightsdid.143 ShochikuShimokamo’smovetowardincandescentlightbulbsfollowed thetechnologicaltransformationinHollywood.In1928,theSocietyofMotionPictureEngineerstestedpanchromaticfilmandincandescentlightingonamassivescale,knownas“theMazdatestsof1928.”Asaresult, incandescentlightandpanchromaticfilmbecametheindustry’snorm.144 In1930,VictorMilner,theHollywoodcinematographerwhoworkedwith LubitschonsuchfilmsasThe Love Parade(1929)andMonte Carlo(1930), insistedonthesignificanceofpanchromaticfilminthedevelopmentof newstylesofcinematography:“Noonecandenythatoneofthegreatest increasesintheactualphotographicbeautycamewiththeintroductionof thepanchromaticemulsion.Theactualstylesofphotographyandlighting wereunchanged,butthemoresensitiveemulsionwasabletomakefuller useoflightreflectedfromthesubjects,andgaveunquestionablybetterresults.”145Hayashihimselfrecollectedthathefirstlearnedhowtoputon hismakeupforfilmsfromSekiMisao,whohadworkedinHollywoodwith suchpeopleasSessueHayakawaandHenryKotani.146Inthissense,David BordwelliscorrectwhenhewritesthatJapanesefilmmakers“borrowed extensively”from“Hollywoodconventionsofstructureandstyle.”147Shochiku’soriginal goaloffilmmaking—imitating Hollywood—seemed recoupedatitsShimokamostudioafteritsKamatastudiodecidedtopursue amorecompromisingpolicy.ThedistancefromKamata,Shochiku’smain filmstudio,andthestatusofjidaigekiinShochiku’sfilmmaking,whose focuswasmoreongendaigeki,mighthavemadeitpossibletopursuesuch technological experimentation that deviated slightly from the company policy.Or,aslongasHayashiwassuccessfulasitsstar,expressivitywas justified over visibility. For Shochiku executives such as Kido, aesthetic achievementcountedaslongasitwouldgoalongwithcommercialism. However, Hollywood conventions of structure and style were not straightforwardlyappliedtoHayashi’sstarimage.Thelightingschemefor the star was surely different from the bright and cheerful Kamata tone, butthelightingcombinedtheHollywoodstylewiththeconventionsof Kabukiandshinpainauniquemanner.Bordwellclaims,“By1928,wefind filmssuchasFuun Yoshi(Yoshi Castle)[sic],whoseslickstylewhollyaccepts fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 101
thenormsofHollywoodlighting,staging,cameraposition,andcutting.”148 History of the Fuun Castle (Fuunjoshi, Yamasaki Fujie, 1928, 35 mm print preservedattheNationalFilmCenter,NationalMuseumofModernArt, Tokyo)isatypicalHayashistarvehicle—SuzukiJuzaburoofKinema Junpo calledthefilm“notgoodbutnotbad.”149Inthefilm,Hollywoodlighting iseffectivelyincorporatedtoenhancetheglamourofHayashi’sface.Inthe openingscene,forinstance,Hayashiridesonahorsetohishometownafter alongtrip.Inthefirstmediumclose-up,withhisshiningeyes,helooksat thecastlewherehegrewup,atthericefieldsandmountainsthatsurround thetown.Heslowlymoveshisgazefromrighttoleftandcriesouthisfirst lineofthefilminanintertitle,“Whatbrightsunlight!”Inthefollowing mediumclose-up,theglareinhiseyeslooksenhanced,reflectingthebright sunlightthathementions.Thencomesaflashback.Hayashiremembersthe beautifulpast:inirisedshot-reverse-shotmediumclose-upswithsilkysoft focus,Hayashiintimatelyspeakswithhisfiancée.ShesaystoHayashi,who isabouttogoonatrip,“Iwillbewaitingforyou.”Whentheflashbackends, agroupofsamuraisapproachHayashi.Theyarefromthecastleandthey welcomethereturnoftheiryoungprince.OneofthesamuraisisHayashi’s elderbrother.TheshotreverseshotbetweenHayashiandthebrotherisindicativeintermsofthefilm’slightingscheme.Whilethebrother’smedium close-upisinflathighkey,thereverseshotofHayashiisbeautifullybacklitandtherimofhishairisshininginagloriousmanner.Hisfaceisnotin darkshadebuthiseyesareglaring,reflectingsomelight—obviouslynot thesunlightbecausethesunisbehindhim.Suchglamorlightingisnot adoptedintheshotsofothersamurais—despitethefactthatthebrotheris thecrownprince,notHayashi. Hollywood-stylelightingthusglamorizesHayashiinHistory of the Fuun Castle,butitisimportanttonotethatsuchlightingclearlysingleshimout fromothercharacters.Keatingarguesthat“thecinemastarphenomenon, whichplacedahighpriorityonglamour,”encouraged“greaterhomogenization”incinematographyandlighting.150Thephenomenalsuccessof Hayashiplacedahighpriorityonglamour,butitdidnotencourageany homogenizationincinematographyandlighting.Instead,glamourcinematographyandlightingmadeHayashiexceptionalbutsignificantinthe historyofJapanesecinema. More important, the Hollywood-style three-point lighting was combined with other distinctive techniques that enhanced the sensuality of 102 chapter2
Hayashi’sphysiquetoitsextreme.Thosetechniques,whichwerenoteasily observedinanyotherfilmsofthesameperiodandmadeHayashi’sstar imageunprecedentedandnovel,includedmovablelights,longerduration ofshotswhoseoriginmighthavebeenfoundinKabuki,andKabukiand shinpa–styletheatricalacting.AccordingtothecinematographerMorita Fujio,“thismaysoundinsane,”buttomaintaintheratiobetweenthekey andthefilllightonHayashi’sportrait,thekeylight,hungfromtheceiling, wasalwaysmovable,andalightingassistantmoveditwheneverHayashi changed the direction of his face. The close-ups of Hayashi’s face often hadacertainlengthofshotduration,eventhoughitwasnotnecessarily requiredforthesakeofstorytelling.SuchspecialtreatmentofHayashi’s face,achievedincarefulandcraftylightingtechniques,haditsownJapanizedname:onobashi(extension).151Withonobashi,astaticmomentwas created,inwhichHayashi’sfacewasexclusivelyandextensivelydisplayed onthescreen.Itwasasifalltheactionhadstoppedbecauseofthebeauty ofHayashi’sface.InKabuki,afocusonastar’sfacecreatesastaticmoment inclimacticscenes.AKabukiactor’sexaggeratedandtemporallystaticface beforeenteringhisclimacticviolentactisknownasmie.Thetermmie,“exaggeratedfreezesintableaux,”meanstostopone’smovementinthemiddle oftheactandtostareforwardwitheyeswideopen.Theactorcircleshis headonce,openshiseyeswide,raiseshiseyebrows,andglaresfiercely.It createsamomentofstatictimethatexpressestheenhancedemotionofthe actorina“bombasticgesticulation”and“bringsallactiononstagetoahalt withit.”152Inthissense,thestaticmomentofonobashicouldbederived fromtheKabukiconvention,butwithstronghelpfromthecinematicmovablelight. AsHayashi’spublicityandpromotionwascarefullyplannedandexecutedbytheShochikuexecutiveheadShiraiShintaro,Hayashi’sglamorizedimagewascraftilypreparedbyShochikufilmmakers,mosttypicallyby KinugasaTeinosuke,directorofmanyHayashistarvehicles.Inadditionto adoptingmovinglightsandonobashitechniquestophotographHayashi’s face, Kinugasa, who was trained as an onnagata himself in “third-rate” shinpaandinshinpafilmsatNikkatsu’sMukojimastudio,taughtHayashi how to use his trademark expression of the eyes, nagashi-me (a sensual sidelongglance),adistinctivefacialactingtechniqueofanonnagata.153In particular,KinugasamadeHayashiglanceleftwhenhemadethenagashi- meexpression.ThecinematographerSugiyamaKohei,whoworkedwith fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 103
KinugasaandHayashiinnumerousfilms,emphasizedthatHayashi’sclose- upshadtobefacingtotheleftforthestartolookattheleftsideofthe theater,whichwasgenerallyoccupiedbythefemaleaudienceinJapanin theearlyShowaperiod.154UndertheregulationofTheRulesofControllingMotionPictures(Katsudoshashinkogyotorishimarikisoku)ofthe policedepartmentuntil1931,regularmovietheatershadtohavedifferent seatingsectionsformaleandfemaleaudiences,withanexceptionformarriedcouples.155WithararecombinationofHollywoodandKabuki,new andold—thethree-pointlighting,movinglight,onobashi,andnagashi-me techniques—Hayashi’seyesturnedintoanseductiveattractionthatcould competewiththespectacularflashoftheswordinjidaigeki. DespitethefactthatthefilmwasnotdirectedbyKinugasa,abriefextantprintofGeneral Mobilization in Satsunan(Satsunan sodoin,Fuyushima Taizo,1930),awarfilmthat“reminded”Hayashiof“oneofthoseAmericanwarfilms,”hasanexcellentexampleofthemanipulationoflighting, onobashi,andnagashi-meofHayashi.156Fuyushima,whohighlyrespected Kinugasa,declaredthatthefilmwasnotafilm“blindlyadoptingthestar system”but“anewfilmthatusedvariouscinematicsensesinordertodepictgroupsofpeopleandtheircollectivelives.”157Hayashihimselfwrote, “Iamusuallyveryconsciousofdisplayingbeautifullinesofmovementin theformofjidaigeki.Inthisfilm,however,Ichangeddirectionandacted more realistically in the role of Yoshimi the protagonist. That was what boththedirectorandIwantedtodo.”158Evenso,thefactthatabriefsegmentofthefilmhassurvivedintheformofatoyfilm(omocha eiga),which usuallycapturedthemostnotablesceneofafilmforthepurposeofmemorabilia,isevidencethatthestandardizedformatandstylesofHayashistar vehiclesweremaintainedinitskeyscenes.Thesceneissetinajail.Inextremelylow-keylighting,Yoshimi(Hayashi)attemptstoassassinateaspy fortheshogunate.Alongshotshowsthetwomengrabbingeachother overagratingintheprisoncell.Inthisshot,lightscomefromonlytwo directionsandcreateastrongcontrastbetweenlightandshadow.Theright sideofYoshimi’sfaceisalmostcompletelyindarkshadowbecauselights onlycomefromhisfrontalleftandfromhisposteriorright.Eventhough anintertitlereads,“Whydidyoustabme?”wehardlyseetheswordthat Yoshimiuses.Thereisnoflashofsword,whichmakesthissceneatypicalforajidaigeki.Instead,whenthelongshotisfollowedbyaclose-upof Yoshimi’sface,thelightingofthepreviousshotiscompletelytransformed 104 chapter2
figure2.11 Yoshimi(HayashiChojiro)narrowshiseyesandslowlyglaresto hisleftinatypicalexampleofnagashi-me.General Mobilization in Satsunan(1930). CourtesyofToyFilmProject.
intoperfectthree-pointlighting.Thereisnolongeranythickshadowon Yoshimi’sface.Thefilllighterasesit.Inaddition,thelightfromhisposteriorrightfunctionsasaperfectbacklightandcreatesabeautifulrimof lightoverhishead,whichiscoveredwithasilkyblackcloth(fig.2.11).The close-uphasalongduration(onobashi),inwhichYoshiminarrowshiseyes andslowlyglarestohisleft(nagashi-me)wherethespystands—andthe femalespectatorsholdtheirbreathinthedark. A sword-fighting scene in An Actor’s Revenge trilogy (Yukinojo henge, KinugasaTeinosuke,1935–36),anunprecedentedhitforafilmproducedat Shimokamo,craftilycombinesonobashiandnagashi-me.Inadditiontothe specifictreatmentoflightingthatenhancesHayashi’ssensuality,theeditingofthesceneemphasizesthevulnerabilityofHayashi’sbody.Thefilm criticSatoTadaowritesaboutHayashi’sfightscenes,includingthoseinAn Actor’s Revenge:“WhatcreatestheenhancedrhythmofHayashiChojiro/ HasegawaKazuo’sswordfightingisthetenseclose-upsofhisfacialexpression,whichareappropriatelyinsertedbetweenlongshotsdisplayingthe gracefuldance-likemovementsofhisbody.”159ThenSatoargues,“Trained fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 105
asanonnagataofKabuki,HasegawaKazuo[Hayashi’srealname]possessesexcellentfootworkofJapanesedancing.Hisbodyalwayslooksasifit isabouttolosecontrolandfalldownduringquickswordfighting,butfrom momenttomomentheisabletochangethisunbalanceintogracefulposes withhisexcellentfootwork.Thisishisspecialtechniquethatintoxicateshis audiencewiththebeautyofhisbody....[Itis]thebeautyofvulnerability, whichisnotaboutstrengthbutthecapabilityofturningunbalanceintoa beautifulpose.”160 Hayashi’sonscreenimagemightberegardedasaretreattoOnoeMatsunosuke’s Kabuki style. Both Hayashi and Onoe created static moments duringswordfights.However,whileOnoe’sswordfightsweremainlycharacterizedbylongshots,longtakes,andwithflatlighting(andsuchtrick editingasOnoesuddenlyturningintoagiantfrogorsomeotherthing), Hayashi’swerecharacterizedbyclose-ups,three-pointlighting,onobashi, andnagashi-me. Afteraseriesofbriefshotsthatdepictafightunderpinewoodsatnight between Yukinojo (Hayashi) and small-time hired samurais comes a close-upofYukinojo.Intheclose-up,Yukinojomoveshisheadtohisleft andturnsalmostdirectly tothecamerawithhiseyesslightly narrowed (nagashi-me)whilehisbodyisstillturnedtotheright.Yukinojochallenges Kadokura,theleaderoftheclan,inasensualtoneofvoice(thefilmisa talkie).Eventheshotisinlowkey;thekeylightfromtheleftleavesthe rightsideofYukinojo’sfaceinsoftshadewhilethetoplightmakestherim ofhishair—inatypicalfemaleJapanesestyle—shine.Therelativelycontrastythree-pointlightingenhancesthetransitionofthebattlewithoutsacrificingthebeautyandsensualityofYukinojo.Theshotisrelativelylongin duration(onobashi)comparedtotheonesprecedingit. Then,Kadokura’smen,inbetterdressthanthedefeatedhoodlumsamurais,attackYukinojo.ThefightbetweenKadokura’smenandYukinojois editedinalmostexactlythesamewayasthepreviousfight.Thereisacertainpatternofediting.First,alongshotestablishesthespatialconfigurationbetweenYukinojoandtheopponents.Yukinojostandsinaspotlit areaandlookswhiterthantheothers.Theestablishingshotisfollowedby threebriefclose-upsoftheopponentsraisingtheirswords.Then,thefirst longshotisrepeated,whenYukinojotakesoffhisovercoat.Aftertwomore briefmediumclose-upsoftheopponents,amediumlongshotdepictsYukinojo’swaist,legscoveredbyawoman’skimono,andthelongsleevesof 106 chapter2
figure2.12 Yukinojo(HayashiChojiro)facesslightlytotheleftandnarrowshis eyes(nagashi-me).An Actor’s Revenge(1935–36).
thekimono.ThecamerapanstotherightasYukinojomovesthatway.He swingshissleeveasifhewereavoidinganattackfromoneoftheopponents.ThemovementofYukinojo’sbodydoesnotlookstrongbuttottering.Butwhenthecameraswashpanstotherightagain,whatisthrown asideisnotYukinojobutthemanwhohasjustattackedhim.Afteranother seriesofclose-upsoftheopponentswiththeirswords,Yukinojoturnshis bodyaroundinanextremelongshot,asifheweredancing.EverytimeYukinojoturnshiswaistaround,amanfallsdown.Thecameraswiftlypansto theright,followingthemovementofafallingman.Yukinojoneverdraws hissword.Insteadtherecomesaclose-upofYukinojo’sface.Heisbreathingalittleheavierandlookingslightlytotheleft.Thelightingschemeisthe sameasthepreviousclose-up:therightsideofhisfaceisinsoftshadeand therimofhishairisshining.Inthisclose-up,whichisconspicuouslylonger indurationthantheshotsofthefighting,Yukinojoonceagainfacesslightly totheleft,narrowshiseyes(nagashi-me),andchallengesKadokura(fig. 2.12).161Afanwroteaboutthisscene:“Makingasolemnfaceinthescene atthepinewoods,he[Hayashi]wasverygoodwithmenacingintensity.”162 A recurrent motif in the climactic scenes of Hayashi’s star vehicles fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 107
servedtoamplifytheeffectofthenagashi-metechnique.Firesoccurat nightandspectacularlyenhancetheglareinHayashi’seyesinsuchfilmsas Record of the Ocean Country,Sajimaro the Thief(Kaito Sajimaro,KoishiEiichi,1928),Human Beast(Hitodenashi,TomonariYozo,1928),Sanji the Wild Fox(Nogitsune Sanji,KoishiEiichi,1930,35mmprintspreservedatKobe PlanetEigaShiryokan),andAn Actor’s Revenge.163Especiallywhenartificial lightingequipmentwasinshortsupply,evenatShimokamostudio,which hadincorporatedincandescentlampsearlierthantheothers,fireprovided forHayashianideallightingsourcetoachievethethree-pointlightingbecauseitneedsstrongsourcesofkeylightaswellasfilllightandbacklight. Inregardtohistoricalauthenticity,therewasnoelectricallightinthepremodernperiodofjidaigeki;firesprovidedasufficientamountofsource lightwithoutdestroyingthesenseofrealism.Sachiko,afemalefan,wrote, “Whatafireattheclimax!Itwasfantastic.Wecansayitwasrealistic.Ifelt theheatandmyhandsweresweatingasifIhadalsobeenburnedinthe fire.”164 InAn Actor’s Revenge,inamediumclose-up,Yukinojostandsrightnext toahouseonfireatnight.Hewatchesthefire,withlotsofsmoke,burning downthehouseofamerchantwhohaddeceivedhisparentsinthepast. Yukinojofacesleftandnarrowshiseyes.FlickeringlightsfromthefireprovidestrongsidelightandbacklightthatenhancetheglareinYukinojo’seyes andtheshiningrimofhishead.Intheillumination,Yukinojolooksecstatic, enjoyingthescenebutsimultaneouslysaddenedbythesuccessofhisrevenge.Moreover,Yukinojocovershisheadwithawhitecloth.Thecloth reflectslightfromthefireandenhancesthewhitenessofthefaceofYukinojo(whosenamemeans“thesnowman”).Atthesametime,reflecting light,theclothcreatesastrikinglywhitespotwithintheframe,whichconspicuouslydistinguishesYukinojofromthebackground(fig.2.13).Itisasif Yukinojoisthree-dimensionallypoppingoutofthescreen.Hayashiconfessedthatthelightingonhisfaceinthisscenewascarefullyplannedbut thattheoperationwasphysicallydemanding:“DuringtheshootingofAn Actor’s Revengesometimeago,Iwastoldnottomovefromacertainpositionwhenfireswereburningrightnexttome.Moreover,Iwascapturedin aclose-up.IhadtoputupwiththeterribleheatbecauseIhadtokeepthe positionforthecamera.”165
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figure2.13 Flickeringlightsfromthefireenhancetheglareintheeyes ofYukinojoandtheshiningrimofhishead.An Actor’s Revenge(1935–36). ReprintedfromShimokamo9.11(November1935):29.
dialogic and Photogenic: Hayashi Chojiro’s star Image and a new Film spectatorship
NomatterhowwellstructuredthepublicitycampaignbyShiraiShintaro wasandnomatterhowinnovativethelightingtechniquesinventedforhim were,theyalonedidnotquitemakeHayashi’sstardomaspecialcasein thehistoryofJapanesecinema.Therewerepublicitycampaignsthatwere organizedverywellinHollywood.Therewerenumerousstarsthatreceived groundbreakingtreatmentsinlighting,evenifthosetreatmentsdidnot necessarilycombinecinemaandKabuki.Thesignificantissueregarding Hayashi’sstardomwasthewayhisfansreceivedHayashi’sstarimage. The reception of Hayashi’s stardom was, in fact, a contested field of negotiations.Itwasacombinationofatleastthreeelements:activeparticipationincreatingthestar’simage,whatcouldbecalledconsciouspassivity toacommodifiedproduct,andwhatthefilmscholarVivianSobchackcalls “thecarnalsensualityofthefilmexperience,”whichisamoredirectperceptivereactiontocinema’saffectthanapassivereceptionofthe“classical” narrativestrategiesofmeaningfulcodification.166WhileHayashi’sfanscreateddistancebetweenthestarandthemselvesbyconsciouslyandpassively acceptingthecommodifiedimageofthestar,theyerasedthatdistance— firstbyparticipatinginthegameofinventingthestarimageandsecond byexperiencingthetactilityofthecinematicmedium.Suchnegotiations madethestardomofHayashiasingularcase—althoughnotasubversive one—withinShochiku’scapitalist-industrialsystem. Withthespecificlightingdevicesofnagashi-meandonobashi,Hayashi’s body,face,andespeciallyeyeswereconspicuouslypresentedasobjectsto belookedatbyfemalespectators.ThecriticHasumiChiyoopointsout thatthesword-fightsceneinAn Actor’s Revengeincludesanextreme,long, highangleshotwith“anambitiouscomposition,”inwhichYukinojofights againsthisenemyinfrontandO-Hatsu(FushimiNaoe),afemalethief, crouchesatthebackandisabsorbedinadmiringYukinojo’sexcellentskills, completelyforgettingthatsheisalsoindanger.Hasumisuggeststhatsuch acompositionis“absolutelyimpossibletobeachievedonlocation”andit wasKinugasa’s“meaningful”choicetophotographthissceneinastudio set.167Yukinojo’sstatusasanobjecttobelookedatisillustratedinthis scene,withthefemalespectatorsrepresentedbyO-Hatsu.Tousethefilm
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historianGaylynStudlar’swords,thisscenedisplaysacommodifiedmale star“inwaysassociatedwithwomen’sinterestinobjectifyingmen.”168 AsMiriamHansenpersuasivelyargues,women’sincreasedsignificance asconsumersfortheHollywoodfilmindustryoftenprovedcontradictory tothesystematicimposition,ontheleveloffilmstyle,representation,and address,ofmasculineformsofsubjectivityandofapatriarchalchoreographyofvision.TheValentinoculttypifiesthisambivalence.Hansenclaims that Valentino’s film vehicles “offer women an institutional opportunity toviolatethetabooonfemalescopophilia.”169Studlaralsopointsoutthat visualobjectificationofthemaleinHollywoodfilmanditssurrounding discourses, especially after Valentino became a star with his image of a “woman-mademan”ora“creationof,for,andbywomen,”gainedenormouspublicattention,astheactofwomenlookingatmenbecamesymbolic of the tumultuous changes believed to be taking place in the systemgoverningsexualrelationsintheUnitedStates.170Toacertainextent, Hayashirepresentedafascinatingconsumableobjectforfemalespectators, andinhispublicityhewasconspicuouslypositionedasanobjectforfemale audiences. CitingLouisReevesHarrison’scommentsfrom1911inthefilmtrade journalMoving Picture World,“theeyesandthelipsaremosteffectivein facialexpressionofanykind,whethertheemotionbeopenorsubdued,” thefilmhistorianJanetStaigerdescribesthechangeinthestyleoffilmactinginAmericancinemaintheearlypartofthecenturyasfollows:“From broadpantomimicgestures,tothefaceingeneraland,eventually,tothe eyesas‘thefocusonone’spersonality.’”171WhilewhatStaigerdiscusses ismoreaboutinternalinterpretationofactors’facialexpressionsbythe viewer, Hayashi’s nagashi-me eyes were formulated for an exterior purpose—oranexternalmethod.Hisnagashi-meeyesweremeanttoopenly giveasensuallooktofemalespectatorswhowerefullyawareofthephotographicmanipulationbehindsuchimagesbutwerewillingfromthebottomsoftheirheartstobejoyfullyabsorbedinsuchasensualpose.Itwasa moreopenlydialogiceffect,whichwouldmakethefunctionofthenagashi- meeyesclosertothatofthemieposeinKabukiinthesensethattheydialogicallyservedtheaudience’sexpectationforthoseextendedmoments. Hayashiasanactorperfectlyplayedhisroleofformulatinghisimage of a woman-made man and openly emphasized this reflexive relation-
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shipbetweenhisspectatorandhisstarimage.Hedidhisbesttomaintain hisphotographicimageofbeauty.TsuburayaEiichi,whomadehisdebut asacinematographerinHayashi’sdebutfilmKid’s Sword Fight,advised Hayashi:“Afilmactor’slifedependsonlighting.Learnlensesassoonas possibleinordertouselightinginthebestway.”172AccordingtoHayashi, SugiyamaKohei,“thenumberonecinematographerofthetimetoshoot photographsbeautifully,”taughthimhowtopositionhisbodyandface infrontofthecameraandhowtocatchlightsinhiseyes.173Inaproduction photo of a Hayashi star vehicle Mad Sword under the Moon (Gekka no kyojin,Kinugasa,1927),Hayashilooksintoahandmirrorandadjusts hismakeup.Inthisphoto,comparedtoKinugasa,thedirector,andSugiyama,thecinematographerbehindacamera,Hayashi’sfaceisextremely whiteunderthekeyandfilllightsthatarealsovisibleinthephoto.174The criticOhashiKoichiroreportedonthephotographingofYakuza Umbrella in Spring Rain(Kyokaku harusamegasa,FuyushimaTaizo,1933):“Mr.Chojirofixeshismakeupaftereachcut,lookingintoamirrorhandedbyan assistant.”175ThejournalistKobayashiIsamureportedinFebruary1929: “Chojiroisalwaystryingtomakehimselflookmorebeautifulandmakesall therequeststhathecaninfrontofacamera.”176InFebruary1931,thefilm criticKisoJuzaburowrote,“TherearealmostnootheractorswhounderstandcameraanglesbetterthanMr.Chojiro.Thatis,heisalwaysstudying whichdirectionheshouldfacetothecameraandhowtodisplayhimself betterineitheralongshotoraclose-up.”177Alreadyinearly1929itwas reportedthatHayashirequestedreshootingwheneverhedidnotlookas goodasheexpectedbecauseoflighting.178InJanuary1929inKinema Junpo, KubotaTatsuopublicizedHayashi’scompleteawarenessofhisaudience’s gazeathim: Chojiroalwaysgoestothetheaterswherehisfilmsarescreened.He does not only go to Kabuki-za Theater in Kyoto but also theaters in Osaka,Kobe,Nagoya,andevenTokyoandwatcheshisfilmssecretly amonghisaudience.Tobemoreexact,helistenstobriefwordsthat hisaudienceutters.Hesaysthisisthebestwayoflearningthings.... Healwaysthinksofhowsatisfyinghisfilmsaretohisaudience.Then, heneverforgetstodohisbesttosatisfyhisaudienceand,atthesame time,hisconscienceforproducingqualityfilms.Toomuchnarcissismis troublesome,butarestrainedoneispermissible.179 112 chapter2
Nagashi-me ended up becoming Hayashi’s real-life habit. A female fan calledhis“gazewithhisbeautifuleyes”his“badhabit”andevencriticized itas“unfriendlyandscary”ifnotonthescreen.180 Hayashididnothidefromhisfansthefactthathisbeautifulimagewas anartificialproduct.Hayashiwillinglysharedwithhisfanstheknowledge thathisphotographicimageofbeautywascreatedinthecraftyoperation ofcamerasandmanipulationoflighting.181IntheJune1936issueofAll Shochikumagazine,HayashiimpersonatedYukinojoandwroteabouthimself: “Hayashi’sbodycannotbecalledslender.Itissowellbuiltthathepassed thephysicalexamforenlistmentwiththebestgrade.Yetmanypeopleare impressedbythesensualityorbythesoftandsubtlegesturethathisbody delivers.”182Ina1935interview,heconspicuouslyadmittedthathewas“fat,” which “made it challenging to make Yukinojo look slender.”183 Hayashi evenpublishedanessayinShimokamo,“PaininFilmProduction,”anexposéofhowhisbeautifullovesceneswerebeingphotographedinreality: Whatahotnight!Therewassomebreezeintheevening,butitishot ashellontheset.Wemustphotographalovesceneinsuchsuffocating humidity.Itriedhardunderthebrutallyhotsunlightduringtheday, butIhavetoworkonthesetatnight.Whatapurgatory.Sweatruns onmyfacecontinuously.Itisnousewipingitoff.Icannotcountany longerhowmanytimesIneedtorestoremymakeup.Finally,westart photographingthelovescene.“Camera,ready.”Followingthedirector’s powerfulvoice,Iholdmysweetheartinmyarms.Allofasudden,afilthy smellofcheapoilandsweathasattackedmynose.Withoutanyhesitation,thedirectorsaidtome,“Fullofemotion!”AmIhappywhenI appearinsuchadreamylovescenehere?Ineedtospeakoflovewhen Iamfullycoveredwithaterriblesmell.IwillcertainlybedeadifIfill myselfwithemotion.184 FemalefansofHayashiweresurelyabsorbedinhisinescapableattraction whentheywerelookingathisfaceandmovementsonthescreen.Afan, MatsuiJunko,wrote,“WhenthefigureofChojiro-sanquietlyappearson thescreen,IfeellikeIamseeingaprincefromthedreamland....Once Chojiro-san’s beautiful face and figure rise to the surface of the screen, fans,especiallywomen,aredrawntoakindofsweetecstasyasiftheywere struckbyhisattraction.”185 Yettheabsorptionwasaself-consciousone.Femalefansweresurely fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 113
awareofthemechanismbehindHayashi’snagashi-meeyesdisplayedin three-pointlightingandonobashi.Knowingtheoriginoftheattraction,the femalefansembracedthepossiblydistractivemodeofengagementtothe cinema.Theyrecognizedthattherewasnotevenoriginalbeautyintheir objectofadoration.Afan,HasegawaShyuko,wrote,“ThemostastonishingthingformewhenIfirstmet[Chojiro]wasthathewastheownerofa full-blownbody....Ithought,‘Howcouldheshowsuchsoftandbeautiful actionswithsuchafatbody!’ButifIamallowedtohavealoveaffair,Iwill certainlyfallinlovewithCho-sama’sthickarms.”186WatchingHayashi’sstar vehicleKid Benten(Bentenkozo,Kinugasa,1928)atatheater,NanbuAyako, anotherfan,“startedtounderstandChojiro’sfemininity”andbeautythat she“didnotrecognize”whenshevisitedShimokamostudioandwatched theproductionofthefilm.NanbuwroteofHayashi’scinematicfeminine beauty: “That chubby body, soft profile, and the ways of movement [of Hayashi]becamefullyaliveinKid Benten....Isee,heisfeminine.”187 Therewereotherfanswhoweremoreconsciousspecificallyaboutthe lightingandcinematographyofHayashi’simage.Oneofthefirstessays published in Shimokamo, by a devoted fan, Fukiya Katsumi, was titled “Camera.”Fukiyashowedherclearawarenessofthefunctionoflighting andcinematographictechnologythatwouldmaketheactors’faceslook different.188Fukiyawrote,“Camera!!Nomatterhowgoodascreenplayis andnomatterhowcarefuladirectoris,badcinematographycaneasilydestroyafilm.Ifanactor’sfacelooksflatorunattractive,itmaybebecauseof theactor’smakeupbutitismainlybecauseofthecinematography.Apreviousfilm[ofHayashi]hadagoodstoryanddirection,butthelightingwas toodark,whichmadetheclimacticsceneatIriyatoobanal.Mr.Sugiyama’s cinematographictechniqueinthenewfilmDisabled Child[Katawabina, 1930]isfantastic.IntheeyesofKuminosuke[Hayashi],aflashoflight suddenlyappears.Whatamasterfultechnique!”189Anotherfan,Hayashi Sachiko,wrotetoShimokamoandstressedherawarenessoflightingand cinematographythatenhancedHayashi’sattraction:“Itisagreatmeritfor ChojiroandhisfilmsthatShimokamohascameramenwithexcellenttechniques.WeChojirofansalwaysappreciatetheclearcinematographyand vividtechniquesofMr.SugiyamaandMr.Tsuburaya.”190Therewasadirectcallandresponsebetweencinematographersandlightingtechnicians andfansregardingHayashi’sstarimage.HiroishiTsuneo,alightingtechnicianatShimokamo,wrotein1929,“Themoodandthetoneofaparticular 114 chapter2
sceneisofcoursedependentonhowcapabletheactorsareandhowclever thedirectorandthecinematographerare.Butatthesametime,lighting isasimportantasthose.”191ThewritingsofFukiyaandHayashiSachiko werepromptresponsestosuchaclaimabouttheformulationofHayashi’s photographicimage. HayashiChojirowasaconsumableobjectofShochiku’sversionofjidaigeki,whichtargetedlibidinalgazesoffemalefans.Therewasnoquestion aboutthat.Femalefanswereabsorbedinthatcommodity.However,the samefemalefanswereclearlyawarethattheypossessedsuchgazes.While passivelyreceivingthepreparedcommodity,femalefansconsciouslycooperatedwithShochikuproducersandfilmmakerstocreatethestardom ofHayashitobeavehicleoftheir“dreamsandpassionsaswomen”that couldchallengethecustomsandmoralsofwomanhoodthathadprevented femalespectatorsfrombecomingfansofjidaigekifilmsbeforeHayashi’s arrival.192Hayashi’sstardomthusprovidedanewsubjectivepositionfor femalefilmspectatorswithoutjeopardizingthecapitalist-industrialstructureledbyShochiku. Last,but significantly, withthespecial lighting techniques thatcombinedthetheatricalandcinematicinaninventivemanner,thefaceand eyesofHayashi,morestronglythananyoneelse’s,providedspectatorsof Japanesecinemawithamodernexperienceofanewmedium.ThomasLaMarrecallsitasensoryperceptiveexperienceincinemathatcollapsesperceptualdistance,oranexperienceinwhichtheheightened,too-realquality ofthecinematicimageforeclosesthespectator’sabilitytoseeandcontemplatetheartobject,allowingonlyforashocktothebody.193Itistrue thattheluminousclose-upsofHayashi’sfacechangethe“real”bodyofthe actorintosomethingelse:asexualizedobject.Butatthesametime,the femalespectatorofHayashiis“caughtupinanalmostinvoluntarymimicry oftheemotionorsensationofthebodyonthescreen.”194Afannamed MatsuiChieko’sclaim—“YoungfemalefansgetexcitedwithChojiro-san’s close-upsandforgetthemselves”—indicatessuchareaction.195 Hayashicalledthemomentofonobashiandnagashi-methatof“stillnessinmovements.”196ThefilmhistorianZhangZhenargues,referringto SiegfriedKracauer: Ifphotographyinauguratedamechanicallyreproduciblemeanstoarrestrealityandcongeallifeinasplitsecond,thecinemawasableto fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 115
reassemblethe“still”imagesandputthemintomotion,orrather,as Kracauersawit,backintothe“flowoflife.”Thecinemaisa“newmode ofembodiment”inmodernity,notsimplybecauseofitsphotographic indexicalityandvisualimmediacy,butalsobecauseitstimulatesandreorganizesawholerangeofsensoryexperiences,suchastactility,smell, taste,andsoundthroughmassmediatedtechnology....Itisthrough the (re)enactment of physiological movement and everyday life that cinemaemergesastheexemplary“mimeticmachine”forembodyingthe fracturedandconstantlymetamorphosingexperienceofmodernity.197 Ifso,whenthecinemaachieves“amomentofstillness”asHayashiinsists, suchan“experienceofmodernity”looksfrozen—again.However,itisnot a reversal of fortune. It is a reenactment of the sensory experience of a time-stoppingmoment“inmovement.”Thiscouldbecalledthemoment ofphotogénie. ThefilmcriticJeanEpsteincallstheclose-upsoftheJapanesesilentfilm actorandstarSessueHayakawa’sfaceonthescreen“photogénie,cadenced movement.”198ThedramacriticLouisDellucarguesthat,usingthecameraandscreen,“photogénie”changes“real”intosomethingelsewithout eliminatingthe“realness”andmakespeople“seeordinarythingsasthey hadneverbeenbefore.”199ThroughviewingHayakawa’sfaceinclose-ups, Epstein and Delluc, among others, developed the “utopian vision of an originary,phenomenologicalplentitudeofperception,preservedandextendedbythecinematicapparatus.”200The“phenomenologicalplentitude ofperception”ispossiblyrephrasedasthereflexiverelationshipthatthe filmscholarLindaWilliamsdiscusses.Viewedinthislight,wemightunderstandHayakawa’simmenseappealasatypeofmimeticrelationship,the likesofwhichthefilmhistorianJenniferM.Beandevelopsinthecontext ofearlyfandombyelaboratingWalterBenjamin’snotionofthe“mimetic faculty.”Shewrites:“Mimesisstressesthereflexive,ratherthanreflection; itbringsthesubjectintointimatecontactwiththeobject,orother,inatactile,performative,andsensuousformofperception,theresultofwhichis anexperiencethattranscendsthetraditionalsubject-objectdichotomy.”201 TospeakofsucharesponsetoHayakawa’sscreenbodyalsomeansto speakofacarnalexperiencemeasuredbyareflexiverelationship tothe utterdesolationandintensifiedagonyofwhatitmeanstobehuman.Dellucwrites: 116 chapter2
OfHayakawa,onecansaynothing:heisaphenomenon.Explanations hereareoutofplace....OncemoreIamnotspeakingoftalent.Iconsideracertainkindofactor,especiallyhim,asanaturalforceandhisface asapoeticworkwhosereasonforbeingdoesnotconcernmewhenmy avidityforbeautyfindstheretheexpectedchordorreflection....Itis nothiscat-like,implacablecruelty,hismysteriousbrutality,hishatred ofanyonewhoresists,orhiscontemptforanyonewhosubmits;that isnotwhatimpressesus,andyetthatisallwecantalkabout....And especiallyhisstrangelydrawnsmileofchildlikeferocity,notreallythe ferocityofapumaorjaguar,forthenitwouldnolongerbeferocity.202 In the most general and obvious way, Delluc’s language is riddled with racism,locatingHayakawa’sappearanceas“cat-like”and“childlike,”aswell as“mysterious”—a“naturalforce.”TheprimitivistassociationswithHayakawaasanembodimentofthepremodernEast,however,aretrumpedby Delluc’soverridingproclamation:thattheactor’spresenceonthescreen rendersWesternaudiencesinarticulate.Incapable,thatis,ofcivilizedand communicativespeech:“Onecansaynothing....Explanationsarehere outofplace.”Thepoint,quitesimply,isthatHayakawa’sscreenpresence, especiallytheclose-upsofhisface,hadaphenomenaleffectthatisdifficulttodescribe.ItisclearthatFrenchintellectualswere“dumfounded” by Hayakawa’s body on the screen.203 “The beauty of Sessue Hayakawa ispainful,”writesDellucinhisessay“BeautyintheCinema.”204Hecontinues,“Iwellbelievethatalllonelypeople,andtheyarenumerous,will discovertheirownrecourselessdespairintheintimatemelancholyofthis savageHayakawa.”205“Alllonelypeople”canberephrasedasspectatorsof cinemawhoplacetheirbodiesinthedarknessofmovietheatersandface theplaysoflightandshadowonthescreen. Hayashi’sbeautywasaspainfulasHayakawa’s.Afan,MizuoSakuko,felt paininHayashi’sface:“Abeamoflightcameoutofthedeepinsideofyour eyesandshotthroughmychest.Iwasmesmerizedbythesensuallightand couldnothelpstaringattheeyesofKichizo[playedbyHayashi].Onesecond!Twoseconds!!Iexhaled.Atthatmoment,Isensedthesharpedgeofthe Koshimarusword[thatKichizoholds]penetratemyheart.Idonotrememberanythingafterthat.”206ThecriticandfanFurukawaRoppaalsoclaimed, “TherookieChojiroisbeautiful....InChojiro’sswordfighting,thereisno spectacularstyle.Instead,IwouldliketopraisethesenseoffearthatIfeel.”207 fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar 117
ItisworthwhiletonotethatthetheoriesofsuchleadingFrenchfilm intellectuals as Delluc (April 1924), Marcel L’Herbier ( June 1925), and LéonMoussinac(March1926)weretranslatedandintroducedtoJapaneseaudiencestogetherwithsuchFrenchfilmsasL’Herbier’sL’Inhumaine (1925) and The Late Mathias Pascal (Feu Mathias Pascal, 1926), AlexandreVolkoff’sEdmund Kean: Prince among Lovers(Kean,1924),andAbel Gance’sLa Roue(1923),whichwerepartofwhatwascalledFrenchimpressionism.AsAaronGerowpointsout,FrenchfilmsandFrenchfilmtheoriesachievedadominantstatusinfilm-circlediscussions.208Thenotionof photogéniethatregardedcinemaasapurelyvisualmediumandoffered anewmeansofperceivingrealityhadasignificantinfluenceonacertain numberoffilmcriticsandfilmmakersinJapan. AsthecriticFujiMineoclaimed,“Chojirodoesnotneedtokillpeople withhisswordbuthecandeliver,fullofemotionsinawaythatnoother actors can imitate.”209 The choreographer Miyauchi Shohei, who later workedwithHayashi,wrotein1958,“Hisbeautifultechniquesofsword haveincrediblesensuality....Whencapturedinalongshot,hisswordfightingdoesnotlooksharpenough,butnumerousclose-upsofMr.Hasegawa fullycoverupsuchashortcoming.Thatis,hisexpression issopassionatethatitlooksasifheindeedhasslaughteredaperson....Wecallthis ‘killingwithaface’[kao de kiru].”210TheintensityregisteredbyHayashi’s face,itsveritableassaultontheenemyaswellastheviewer,comescloseto whatEpsteindescribedonthefaceofSessueHayakawawhenhelikened theactor’sfacetoagun:“Hayakawaaimshisincandescentmasklikearevolver.Wrappedindarkness,rangedinthecell-likeseats,directedtoward thesourceofemotionbytheirsofterside,thesensibilitiesoftheentire auditoriumconverge,asifinafunnel,towardthefilm.Everythingelseis barred,excluded,nolongervalid.”211IfHayakawa’sfacewerearevolver, Hayashi’sfacecouldbelikenedtoaswordthatflashes.ThesetwoextraordinaryJapanesestarsoftheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury,one inHollywoodandtheotherinJapan,oneinthefilmsthatproblematized theracialconditionsoftheAmericansocietyandtheotherinthefilms thatcomplicatedthegenderedspectatorialpositionsofJapanesecinema, sharedacarnalsensualityandaphenomenologicalshockwiththeirfansin thedark—bywayofincandescentlight.
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chApter 3
streetfiLMs Shochiku and Germany
Shochiku’s prominent plan to counterattack jidaigeki was to place less significance on the sword and to emphasize a star’s facewithspecialglamourlighting.Withthephenomenalsuccess ofHayashiChojiroasthestudio’sstar,inadditiontomanaging categoriesofcapitalistproduction—commodityproductionand labor management—in a rationalized manner, Shochiku confirmeditsdominantfinancialstatusinthefilmindustrybythe early1930s.UnderthedominanceofShochikuoverthefilmindustry,“thecinema’saestheticnormsandthemodesoffilmproduction,distribution,andexhibitionwereestablished,”accordingtoMitsuyoWada-Marciano.1ThebrightandcheerfulKamata tonethatprioritizedvisibilityoverexpressivitywasrepresentative ofsuchaestheticnorms. However,Iwanttostressthatthe“cinema’saestheticnorms and the modes of film production” that Shochiku apparently establishedwerenotundisputed.Behindtheseemingcoherence, therewerenumerousnegotiationswithinthecompany.Hayashi’s stardomwasaspecialcaseinthatsensebecause,despiteitsstatus asacapitalistcommoditythatShochikuhadcreated,itdidnot necessarily go along with the rationalization policy that Kido Shiro,theKamatastudiohead,fullypursued.Intheprocessof formulating Hayashi’s starimage, bothfilmmakers andfans of
filmsproducedatShochiku’sShimokamostudiobecamemoreconscious ofandsensitivetoexpressiveandexperimentaluseoflightinginsteadof merevisibilityoftheimages.Moreover,withHayashi’sstardom,forthe firsttimeinJapanesefilmcultureamodernspectatorialpositionemerged, whichwasbasedonadialogicrelationshipbetweentheproducerandthe consumeraswellasatangibleconnectionbetweenthestarandthefan. TwoShochikufilms,Crossways(Jujiro,a.k.a.CrossroadsandShadows of the Yoshiwara,KinugasaTeinosuke,1928)andThat Night’s Wife(Sono yo no tsuma,OzuYasujiro,1930),arenotableexamplesoffurtherinternalchallengestotheformulationofnormsanddominantmodesoffilmproduction.Challengesmightnotbeanappropriatewordbecause,nomatterhow expressiveandexperimentaltheymighthavelooked,especiallyinterms oftheirlightingschemes,thesetwofilmswerenotmeanttosubvertShochiku’scapitalistenterprise.Bothofthemwereproducedanddistributed aspartofthecompany’scommercialstrategyandasameansofattaining culturalcapital.Bothfilmssucceededcriticallyandprobablyfinancially, eventhoughthereisnoofficialrecordofthat.Inthisregard,thesetwofilms wereexamplesofdiversityofShochikucinema,despiteitsrelentlessexertionofthebrightandcheerfulmode. These two films distinguished themselves from other sweet jidaigeki filmsofShimokamoandfromthebrightandcheerfulKamatatonethrough exceptionalsensitivitytotheexpressiveuseoflighting,forwhichKidohad littleuse.Inthesefilms,thecitywasdepictedasanextremelyattractivebut seriouslyproblematicspacethatcapturedtherhythmsandtoneofmodern life.Inthisregard,thesefilmsbecameclosertothestreetfilmsproducedin WeimarGermany,includingKarlGrune’sThe Street(Die Straße,1923)and F.W.Murnau’sThe Last Laugh(Der Letzte Mann,1924),whichwerereleasedinJapanin1925and1926,respectively.Inthesestreetfilms,themoderntechnologicalworldwasrevisualizedandresensitizedinacriticalmannerbywayoflighting.ThespeciallightingtechniquesforHayashiChojiro providedeitherasensoryperceptiveexperiencethatcollapsedtheperceptualdistanceoranexperienceinwhichtheheightenedtoo-realqualityof thecinematicimageforeclosedthespectator’sabilitytoseeandcontemplatetheartobject.ThosefilmmakersatShochikuwhoweredirectlyor indirectlyinvolvedinthecreationofsuchastarimageofHayashiwere awareofsucheffectsthatcinemacouldachieve.Theyturnedtoexploring
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thesensesofvisionandtouchwithintheinnatenatureofcinemaasanew mediumthatwasflourishingintheperiodofmodernityinJapan. Crossways : “tainted Harmony” of shochiku, Jidaigeki, and street Films
Nomatterhowuniquethetechnologicalandspectatorialconditionssurrounding the Hayashi phenomenon, Kinugasa Teinosuke, who directed numerousstarvehiclesforHayashi,claimedin1928thathewasnotfully satisfiedwithhisfilmswiththestar.ItwastruethatKinugasa’scriticalengagementwithlightingandcinematographyhadasignificantimpacton thecreationofHayashi’sonscreenimage.Astheflashoftheswordbecameanobsessionamongcinematographersandthefanswhowerediscontent with the dominant style of cinema (i.e., clarity first), Hayashi’s onobashi,nagashi-me,andspecialmovablelighting,whichwerearranged byKinugasaandhiscinematographer,SugiyamaKohei,becameasensual andsensoryattraction.Thiswasespeciallytrueforfemaleaudiencemembers,whowouldgobeyondtheeconomicsignificationsystemofimages typifiedbyclassicalHollywoodcinemaaswellasbeyondthebrightand cheerfulpolicyofShochiku.2 However,KinugasadidnotlikethecommercializedandconventionalizedaspectofthestarsysteminShochiku’scapitalistenterprise:“Afterthe releaseofA Page of Madness[Kurutta ichipeiji,1926],Iwasforcefullyabsorbedinmakingtoocommercialfilms.Duringthattime,Iwaslongingto produceaworktowhichIcoulddevotemysoulandthatwouldsatisfymy artisticconscience.”3Inherdiary,ChihayaAkiko,afemalestaratShimokamowhowashavinganaffairwithKinugasaatthattime,calledHayashi’s starvehicles“nothingbutapastime”forKinugasa.4EventhoughChihaya costarredinnumerousHayashi’sstarvehicles,shesaidshewasnotsatisfied withherworkinthosefilmsandwaslongingforafilminwhichshewould be“valuedmuchbetter.”5 In the midst of his continuous work with Hayashi at Shimokamo, Kinugasa wrote, “The continuous revolutionary big wave caused by the introductionofpanchromaticfilmhasgraduallycalmeddownthesedays, andnowthetime hascome toobjectivelycriticize lighting, cinematography,anddeveloping,basedonourownexperiencesandresults.”6Infact, bythetimehestartedworkingwithHayashi,Kinugasahadbeendeeply
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involvedinthevariouscinematicandartistictrendsofthetime,including criticaldiscoursesonlighting.7 Afterparticipatinginathird-ratetouringshinpatroupeasanonnagata andinatheatergroupoftheshingekiactorInoueMasao,KinugasaappearedinshinpafilmsatNikkatsu’sMukojimastudiobeginningin1917. Eventhoughmanyshinpaproductionswereusingflatshinpa-stylelighting,KinugasaalsohadachancetoworkwithTanakaEizo,afilmmaker, andFujiwaraKozaburo,acinematographer,whoexperimentedwithcinematiclighting.8KinugasaquitNikkatsuwhenthecompanystartedusing actresses. After producing a rensageki (chain drama), which combined filmedsceneswithsectionsactedonstageinasinglestory,Kinugasawas invitedin1923tojoinMakinoProductioninKyoto,MakinoShozo’sindependentcompany,asadirector.Heworkedthereforfouryearsanddirectedbothgendaigekiandjidaigeki,coproducedwiththeUnitedAssociations of Film Artists (Rengo Eiga Geijutsu Kyokai), an independent productionalliancemodeledonUnitedArtists,includingtheshinkokugeki productionTsukigata Hanpeita(1925),starringSawadaShojirohimself.The sword-fightsceneinthefilmusedanexperimentallightingscheme.Thus, KinugasahadalreadyexperiencedmostofthepopularcurrentsoffilmproductionsinJapan:shinpa,rensageki,andjidaigeki.9 Then,Kinugasadirectedafilmwithhisownindependentgroup.The film,A Page of Madness,isfilledwithnumerousformalexperimentsandhas beenregardedbymanycritics,historians,andfansasaremarkablemasterpiece,anexperimental,modernist,avant-gardefilm.AaronGerow’sbook onthefilmelegantlyillustratesthediverseandcomplicatedbackgrounds oftheproduction,exhibition,andreceptionofthefilm,includingthemodernistshinkankaku(newimpressionist)schoolinliterature,theshingeki movement,Frenchimpressionistorjidaigeki-stylefastandrhythmicediting,andShochiku’sstrategicinvestmentandadvertising.Idonotintend toreplicateherewhatGerowhasextensivelydiscussed.WhatIwouldlike tostresshereishowconsciousKinugasawasofhislightingschemeforthe filmandthattheaudienceandcriticsatthetimewereawareofitaswell. Togethertheytriedtolocatethefilm,particularlyitsuseoflighting,within the discourses of French impressionist and German expressionist films. ThefilmcriticTanakaJunichiro’sreviewofthefilmfortheHochi Shinbun newspaperwasonetypicalexampleofsuchadiscourse:
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Thedirectorhaspartedfromtheoldnotionincinemaoftryingtofilm “things”andhasbecomeconsciousoftheattempttotakein“light.”The playoflight,themelodyoflight,thespeedoflight—thisisthewayfilms willbemade.Nomatterhowmuchcinematriestomakethingsitsobject,theimagescapturedonthefilmstockarethecommemorationof light.Intheend,itisjustlight.Becauseitislight,itconquersallforms ofspaceandtime.Lightisnottroubledbyanything. Lightandmovement—whenthesetwoelementscombine,cinematic expressionisaccomplished.Lichtspiel[movingpicture]isrealized.Isn’t itonlynaturaltoconsiderA Page of Madness—expressionistandwithoutintertitles,containingonlyatwo-orthree-linethemein6,500feet offilm—asthepreeminentguidebookforthetriptocinema’sfuture essence?10 Similarly,thefilmcriticIshimakiYoshiowroteofA Page of Madness:“See A Page of Madness.Thecinematicvalueofthisfilmisexclusivelyrelianton thecinematographictechniquesinit.Thatis,withitsnewcinematographic styles,thefilmexpressesstrongemotionsintheworldofsensuality.... [And]everythingisexpressedbypositioningofthecameraandlighting.”11 Despitesuchhighpraisefromtheartisticandjournalisticcommunity, A Page of Madnessmadelittlemoney.Gerowarguesthatthefilmlostmoney mostlybecauseofthelackofvenues—filmsmademoneythosedaysonly byshowingatmanytheatersacrossthecountryoveraperiodofmonths.12 ThepraiseofA Page of Madnesswaslimited,andthefilmwasnotexhibited acrossthecountry.InordertomakeuphisdebttoShochikuforinvesting inA Page of Madness,KinugasahadtoacceptanofferfromOtaniTakejiro, thenvicepresidentofShochiku,foralong-termcontract.Kinugasawould producetwojidaigekifilmsamonthforShochikuinitsscarcelyusedShimokamostudio,andinreturnShochikuwouldpay10,000yenforeach film.13FilmmagazinesspeculatedthatthefinancialobligationsthatShochikuwasimposingonKinugasacouldbeseenasthecompany’seffortto acquiretheMakinoveteranKinugasainordertoboostitsjidaigekiproduction.14 ProducingHayashistarvehiclesprovedtobenotentirelyuselessfor Kinugasa. Under the guise of glamorizing Hayashi’s star image on the screen, Kinugasa was able to become more sensitive and expressive in theuseoflightingthanbydirectinganyotherShochikufilms,especially streetfiLMs 123
thoseproducedatKamata.Moreover,hedidnotneedtomakestraightforwardsword-fightfilms.Hewasnotanardentfanofsword-fightfilms,and whilehewasstillatMakinoShozo’sproductioncompany,Kinugasahad requestedthatBandoTsumasaburoplay“alovescene”inLove and Samurai(Koi to bushi,1925)rightafterBando’ssuccessinRecord of an Edo Thief: The Shadow Monk(Edo kaizoku den: Kageboshi,FutagawaFumitaro,1925) witha“craftyswordfight.”Itwasobviousthathedidnotreceiveapositive reactionfromeitherthestarorhisfans.15Incontrast,swordswerenever veryimportantintheHayashistarvehicles.Itwasaprevalentdiscoursein thefanmagazineShimokamothatswordswerenotnecessaryinjidaigeki. ThebackcoveroftheMay1928issueofthemagazinedeclared:“Deprive jidaigekiofswords.Exterminatesword-fightingfilms.Wearefedupwith sword-fightingfilms.Nomoreswordfighting.Ithaslosttheattraction.”In December1927,Yukie,aHayashifan,wrote,“Itisabouttimethatsword- fightingjidaigekiberebornintoafilmfreeofswords,suchas[Kinugasa’s] Star of Woman and Man.”16Anotherfan,Nanako,agreed:“ToMs.Yukie, whoaskedwhyjidaigekimustkillpeoplewithswords.Icompletelyagree withyou.Ihatethosepeoplewhocanonlythinkofswordfightinginjidaigeki.”17Thisantisworddiscourse,mostlyutteredbyfemaleaudiences andpublicizedbyShochiku,wasnotdominantamongallmoviefansof the time but was formulated for the purpose of product differentiation ofHayashistarvehiclesfromotherjidaigeki.ThecriticMizumachiSeiji wroteinApril1926,“Itisanaturalfactthatpeopledonotapplaudjidaigekiwithoutswordfights.”18HayashihimselfclaimedinJune1929,“Probably,financiallyspeaking,thecompanywillnotstopmakingsword-fighting filmsbecausetheyhavebeensuccessfulattheboxoffice.”19Evenunder suchconditions,Kinugasawasabletoexperimentwithswordlessjidaigeki inHayashi’sstarvehicles.Kinugasawrotelater,“AfterHayashiChojiro’s namebecamewidelypopularinthemarketasaresultofoureffortstopromotehimastheonlystarofthe[Shimokamo]studio,wefinallyhadalittle room.Wewantedtodosomethingstrangeandinteresting.Jidaigekiwasat itspeak,andwestartedtofeelitslimitationstoo.Iwantedtocreatesomething new that would go beyond the popularityof sword fighting. Why don’twemakeajidaigekifilmwithoutaswordfight?”20 Kinugasa was deeply involved in the various cinematic and artistic trendsofthetime,sohedidnotwanttoberegardedsimplyasadirectorof starvehiclesandasupporterofacapitalistenterprise,eventhoughitwas 124 chapter3
notclearthathisambitionofcinematicexperimentswouldgobeyondShochiku’sbrightandcheerfultendencyanditsstarsystem,whichwasquickly beingconventionalized.Shimokamostudio’sattitudeofexceptiontoward jidaigekiworkedforKinugasa.Asaresultatrulymatchlessfilmwasborn. CrosswayswassupposedtobeastarvehicleforBandoJunosuke,thesecondmostpopularstarofShimokamo,andChihayaAkiko.ProbablybecauseBandowassofarbehindHayashiinpopularityamongfemalefans, Kinugasahadgreaterartisticfreedominthisfilm.21 WhenCrosswayswasreleasedin1928,thecriticShibataofEiga Zuihitsu, afilmjournalpublishedinKyoto,notedthatthefilmdistinguisheditself fromthejidaigekifilmsfromotherstudiosthathad“nothingbuttheflash ofthesword.”22AccordingtoShibata,thesignificantissueofCrosswayswas thatthefilmdisplayed“seriousconcernsofthemodernperiod.”23Ifjidaigekiwasconsideredbymanytoberepresentativeofthe“modern”because ofthe“flashofthesword”despitethepremodernsetting,Shibata’sclaim, then,wascontradictory.ThecriticTakedaChuyaalsowrote,“Idonoteven wanttocallCrossways jidaimono[aperioddrama],”despitethefactthatall dramassetintheEdoperiodhadbeensocalled.24 NeitherShibatanorTakedaclarifiedhowCrosswaysshowed“concerns ofthemodernperiod”withoutresortingtoswordfighting.ButitwasrevealingthatKinugasastatedthathemadeYoshiwara,theentertainment districtdepictedinCrossways,look“somethinglikeacafé”fromthe1920s.25 EventhoughthenarrativeofCrosswayswassetinthepremodernperiod, suchaspecificclaimbythedirectorindicatedhisconcernaboutJapanese modernity,particularlyabouttheproblematicsocialissuesinurbanareas, includingthechaoticconditionsoftheentertainmentdistricts,classrelations,genderrelations,andcommodificationofhumanbeings.Acafé,in thesocialandculturaldiscourseof1920sJapan,wasatypicalspacethat signifiedthoseparticularissues.YoshiwarainCrosswaysisaplacefullof lightandmovement,bothmechanicalandhuman.ThefirstsceneatYoshiwarabeginswithaclose-upofawhitespinningobject(perhapsaroulette forgambling),whosecontinuouscircularmovementisfollowedbythatof aballontheground.Aclose-upofahand,abodypartfragmentedbythe camera,followstheball.Then,anothermovingobject,anarcherytarget, appears,spinningclockwise.Amanisplayfullyshootingarrowsatthetarget.ThecamerapanstotherightanddisplaysastreetofYoshiwara,which isbrightlylitfrombelow.Weseepaperlanterns,paperdolls,andahuge streetfiLMs 125
andwhitesphericalwheel(anotherpaperlantern?).Amanbecomesfurious,andawoman,possiblyaprostitute,laughs;herfacewiththickwhite makeupshinesinaspotlight.Indoubleexposure,thewheelobjectkeeps turningbehindthewoman. Withitssensitivitytothetechnologyoflightingandtheproblematic socialissuesinurbanareas,CrosswaysbecameclosetoaWeimarstreetfilm despiteitsformofjidaigeki.IntheOctober1925issueofthejournalBungei Jidai,KinugasaselectedThe Last Laughashis“idealfilm”andclaimedthat hewatchedthefilmfivetimes.26AswasthecasewithA Page of Madness, KinugasatriedtolocateCrosswayswithinthediscourseofEuropeanart films.Beyondthediscursivelevel,therecertainlywasthesamethematic motifbetweenCrosswaysandWeimarstreetfilms.Despitethedifferent socialandculturalsettingsinboth,thepoliticsandeconomyofmodernizingsocietieswererepresentedasacauseofdistress.Inthissense,Crossways wasatypicalexampleofwhatHarryHarootuniancalls“co-evalmodernity,”whichsuggeststhenarrativeofmodernityinJapantobe“contemporaneityyetthepossibilityofdifference,”withoutignoringthecomplex globalpowerrelations.27 Crosswayssatisfiedthedecade-longaspirationofsomeJapanesespectatorstoexportJapanese-madefilmstotheinternationalmarket.Kinugasa broughtCrosswaystoEuropein1928.Thefilmwasreceived“withsensation” by European audiences.28 Shirai Shintaro, the Shimokamo studio head,amongothers,oncehopedtoexportShochikufilmstotheinternationalmarket“inordertodevelopfilmdramainthiscountry[Japan].”29 HismissionwaspartlyaccomplishedwithCrossways.Withexcitement,the criticYanomeGenichitranslatedaFrenchreviewofCrosswaysandquoted itfullyinhisarticleinKinema Junpo:“IfCrosswaysisnotafortunateand exceptionalsuccessbutoneofmanypowerfulresults,wewantotherfilms madeinthisFarEastislandofJapantobescreenedoneafteranother.With itsuniqueness,perfection,andseriousness,Japanesecinemawilloccupya dominantpositionoveralloftheEuropeanones,whichhavebeeninachaoticcondition.WecannotfindanythingsuperiortoJapanesecinema.Only Russian and American films could be comparable to Japanese ones.”30 Yanomeconcludedhisarticlebysaying,“Thismaybetoohighapraise, butitisagreatpleasuretoknowthatthefilm’sstrengthisrecognizedasit is....IthinkthatJapanesepeopleneedtodigdeeplyintotheiremotions
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andcreatesomethingunique.Then,wecanproudlypresentanoutstanding artformtotheworld.”31IwasakiAkira,whoestablishedhisstatusasaleadingMarxistfilmcriticinJapanbywritingonGermanexpressionistfilms, wroteofCrossways,“KinugasaTeinosukeshouldbeproudofhimselffor presentingCrosswaystothefilmworldinJapan.Ialsowanthimtotakeit totheinternationalmarket.ThemostsuccessfulachievementofKinugasa inCrosswayswasitsform.Hetriedtoabandonthecommonsensicalprops ofperioddramas....Instead,whatherealizedwasabeautifulstructure thatintegratedsets,lights,cameraangles,andsoon....Apartfromattemptingtomakeapurefilm[ashedidinA Page of Madness],hismaingoal wastogofortaintedharmony.”32By“taintedharmony,”Iwasakipointed outKinugasa’scompromisingbutstrategicintegrationofthe“commonsensical”techniquesofjidaigeki,Shimokamo’sownconventionalizedtechniquesfortheprominentstar,andhisownambitiousexperimentsinsets, lights,andcamera.SuchintegrationwasexactlytheformthatIwasakibelievedtobeexportableandgloballymarketableasadistinctiverepresentativeofJapanesecinema. Thedreamofexportwasstronglyattachedtoanationalisttendencyto believethatthepotentialprofitofJapanesefilmshadbeenstolenbyforeign filmsthatdepictedstereotypicalJapanesecultureandlandscapes.33Therefore, there were some Japanese critics who criticized the style of Crosswaysdespiteitsinternationalsuccess.ThefilmcriticOtakeJiropointed outthatthefilmimitated“Germanexpressionistfilm”andclaimedthat “Crosswaysisagoodanduniquefilm,butshouldnotbeappreciatedasa representativeofJapanesecinema.Thisisbecausethefilmdoesnothave enoughoftheJapanesespiritandtraditionalJapaneseaesthetics.”34Anothercritic,KiyotomoHideo,wrote,“InCrossways,thestaircasethatleads ustotheroomthatthebrotherandsisterarerentingisagoodexample. Itsexpressionisticdeformationisappropriatetonarratetheatmosphere oftheirhome.”35MuromachiKyoji,theeditor-in-chiefofthefilmmagazineKatsudo Gaho,emphasizedtheimportanceofimitatingthetechniques offoreignfilms“withoutlosingtheessenceofJapanesecinema.”36Mukai ShunkoofKatsudo GahoinsistedonmakingfilmsthatwoulduseWestern techniquesbutexpressyamato damashi(thepureJapanesespirit),which he,andothers,consideredtorepresentJapan’spowerandstrengthasanation.37WhatthesecriticsimpliedwastheiranxietythattheJapanesespirit
streetfiLMs 127
couldbeinapositionofperipheryinoppositiontotheWestasthecenter ofglobalpowerrelations.Asthepurefilmadvocatesinsisted,theyunderstoodthenecessityofacertaindegreeofimitationofcinematicandtechnical innovations in theWest to attain aninternationally viable level of narrationalclarityandcreateexportableandmarketableproducts.Butthey requestedapropermixtureofitwithanexclusivelyJapanesecontent.To them,Crosswayswasaborderlinecase. Nomatterhownationalisticthosecriticswantedtobeincomplexglobal powerrelationsandorhowmuchtheyquestionedwhetherJapanese-made filmsmimickedthestylesofforeignproducts,itseemsmoresignificantto notethatCrosswayssharedconcernsontheissuesofmodernityandtechnologyoflightingwithWeimarstreetfilms.Historicalaudiences,including intellectualfilmcritics,regardedCrosswaysasastreetfilm.TheHungarian filmtheoristBélaBalázswatchedCrosswaysinGermanywhenitwasreleasedandjuxtaposedthefilmwithThe Street.BalázspointsoutthesimilaritybetweenCrosswaysandWeimarstreetfilmswithoutemphasizingthe originoftheinfluence(whichfilminfluencedwhich);insteadhefocuses theirsharedattitudesandtreatmentoflighting.Despitedifferentcultural origins,Balázscallsthem“absolutefilms”by“expressionists”whotriedto “projectoutwardstheinternallandscapeofthesoul.”38Balázswrites,“Karl GrunewasthefirsttoshowinhisfilmTheStreetthepictureofacityasit isreflectedintheinnervisionofayoungmanthirstingforlife.Inthefilm ShadowsofYoshiwarasomeonegoesblindandinthelastflashofsightsees thecolourfulbustleofafestival.Thesepicturesflowontothescreenwithoutoutlineorshape,likethebloodoutoftheinjuredeye.”39 WhenIwasakiAkiracalledCrossways“oneofthebestfilmsevermade inJapan,”hewasnotsimplythinkingofthedreamofexport;hewassimultaneouslysharinghisthoughtswithBalázsregardingthe“absolutefilm.” Iwasakidiscussed theeffectsoflighting inThe Last Laugh andclaimed, “Weshouldnotseeonlyblack-and-whitedots,butshouldfeeltheflight ofhumansoulsbecause,onthescreen,actualhumanbeingswithdepths and‘tactilevalues’andwithreasonandemotionsareinmotion.”40AccordingtoIwasaki,“autonomousfromworldlyobjects,”suchafilmasThe Last Laugh,whichheregardedasthe“absolutefilm,”revealstheinnatenature ofcinemaandwould“directlyinsertthecomposer’sspiritualcontentsinto oursanddeliveraestheticemotions[tothespectators].”41Anothercritic, TakedaChuya,pointsoutasimilarissueinCrossways: 128 chapter3
His[Kinugasa’s] sense is“perfectlycinematic.”Animminently modernsense,whichcannotbecalledanythingbutcinematic,isbreathing vigorouslyinhim.Itisbanaltosaythis,butheisamanwho“paints withlight.”Therefore,iftheviewerlooksathisworkwithapuresense ofmind,heorshecandirectlyreceivewhatKinugasawantstosay.... However,somecriticizethathismethodistooinclinedtotechniques. Whydotheyimpurelyandsuperficiallypickonlytechniques?Whycan’t theyacceptthefilmpurelyasitis?...Whycan’ttheyseethecinematic powerinit?...Iftheviewerispure,heorsheseesthatCrosswaysisa workthatisleastconsciousoftechniquespersebutoneinwhichcinematicexpressionsarecoherentlyadoptedtodeliverKinugasa’sspiritual desire.42 What“spiritualcontents”and“aestheticemotions”didCrosswaysvisually delivertothespectators?Howweretheimagesinthefilmpaintedwith light? killed by light
When Crossways was released, reviewers’ major focus was on the film’s techniquesratherthanitsstory.ThecriticTokudaShonosukewrote,“Ifelt that in Crossways the story has only secondary importance. . . . That is, expressionismostimportantfortheauthor.”43Anothercritic,Okudaira Hideo,calledCrossways“amasterpiecethatcannotbeignoredinthehistoryofcinema”becauseofthe“beautyofthefluidcameramovementsand contrastsoflightsandshadows.”44Similarly,KubotaTatsuoofShimokamo regardedCrosswaysas“anartisticallychallenging,conscientious,andinnovativefilmwithacompletelynewstyle,whichambitiouslyattemptedto createanewgenreinjidaigekifilms.”45Inparticular,Kubotapointedout theinnovativeuseoflightinginCrosswaysinspecificterms:“Shimokamo studiohadonlyoneglassstagebackthen.Itwasoneofthemostprimitive piecesofequipmentoffilmmaking,wherefilmswereshotonlyundernaturallightwiththehelpofthesun.However,Crosswayswasnotmadeunder thesunlightbutlitbylamps,aswasthepreviousfilm,A Page of Madness.... Infact,noshotinthisfilmwasphotographedunderthesun....Probably therewerenootherfilmsatthattime,otherthanA Page of Madnessand Crossways,thatdidnothaveanyshotsphotographedonlocation.”46 ThedirectorKinugasawasfullyawareofhislightingschemeintheprostreetfiLMs 129
figure3.1 Ahigh-angleextremelongshotofdarkstreetsatnightlooksasifit werefromaWeimarstreetfilm.Crossways(1928).
ductionofCrossways.Hewasmindfulofhowmanylampshewasableto useatShimokamo.Kinugasamadealistoflampsthatwereavailableto him:“Sunspotlight,1;Spotlights,8;Ewinglights,20.”47Withthosenumbersinmind,hedecidedtophotographCrosswaysentirelyatnightona glassstageinordertoachievethebesteffectsoflighting.48ThecinematographerSugiyamaKoheiwasextremelyconsciousoflightinginthisfilmas well.Hecomplainedthatduetothelackofsufficientlightingequipmentit wasimpossibletomaketheclimactichallucinatoryscenesetintheentertainmentdistrictofYoshiwarabrighterthan,andclearlycontrastiveto,the previous“moredepressing”scenes.49Inordertomakeupfortheinsufficiency,thecrewneededtopaintthesettoindicatebrightandshadowy sections.50Asaresultoftheirefforts,despitethelackofaswordfight,the hallucinatorysceneinthisjidaigekifilmcertainlylooksstrikinglyflashy— likewhitelightning. Fromtheopeningshot,theeffectsoflightingareclearlynoticeable.The firstshotofCrosswaysisahigh-angleextremelongshotofdarkstreetsat night,asifitcameoutofoneoftheWeimarstreetfilms(fig.3.1).Lights fromoff-screenleftcreatestronglinesofshadowsonthestreet.Aman 130 chapter3
runsalongthestreetinahurry.Strongcontrastsoflightandshadowcreateasenseofaspider’swebthatisabouttocapturetheman.Thefollowing close-upsofthebodypartsoftheman—hisface,hand,andfoot—andhis point-of-viewshotofthestreetthatappearoneafteranotherinextremely quickeditingenhancethepsychologicalandemotionalintensity,eveninsanity,ofthischaracter,whoturnsouttobetheprotagonistofthefilm (BandoJunosuke),knownasthebrother,desperatelyrunningbacktohis home.Whenthemanreacheshisapartment,herunsupstairs.Inalong shot,hisbodycastsathickdarkshadowonthewall.51 Theeconomicallyimpoverishedmanandhissister(ChihayaAkiko), whoworksintheclothingindustry,areseverelyharassedbypeoplewith financialandpoliticalauthority.Theytryinvaintoescapefromthem.One ofthosepeopleisacourtesan,O-Ume(OgawaYukiko),whounreasonably enhancesthebrother’ssexualdesirewithherloveforsale.WhenO-Ume isfirstintroducedinthenarrative,thecameratiltsdownfromaclose-up ofherfaceandshowsnumeroushandsofmen,whowantherinsanely.The shotofthehandsdissolvesintoanothershotofcrowds.Thecameramoves backtoamediumshotofO-Umeasifthemovementrepresentsthedesires ofthemen.AnotherharasserisO-Ume’snewlover(OzawaMeiichiro), whohasmuchmoremonetarypowerthanthebrotherand,infrontofthe brother,eventearsupakimono,acommodity,thatthesisterhasproduced. Thereisalsoatoothlessmanposingasaconstable(SomaIppei)withjitte (a visual sign of a police force). He sexually attacks the sister using his falseorimaginarystrength(hepretendstobeapolicemanandpromises thesistertoprotectherbrotherifsheagreestogiveherbodytohim;but heconfessestohisfriend,thestingylandlordoftheapartmentwherethe brotherandsisterlive,thathehaspickedupthejitteonthestreet).The finalharassersareadoctorwhotellsthesisterthathecancureaninjurythe brothersustainedonlyforapaymentandagrinningoldwoman,theowner ofawhorehouse,whoisalwayscountingmoneywheneversheappearsin thefilm. InCrossways,theperilofthebrotherandsisterisalmostalwaysdisplayed inaconspicuousmanipulationoflighting.Inotherwords,theirhardshipis treatedasavisualspectacleofmodernconsumersocietyvialighting.Inthis sense,thelightingschemeofthisfilmgoesbeyondthedualitybetweenvisibilityandexpressivityandexcelsinthefunctionofglamorizationaswell, oftendrawingtheviewers’attentiontoit.Crosswaysisconstructedasafilm streetfiLMs 131
aboutthemoderntechnologyoflightinganditsfatalattraction.Tobemore specific,inCrossways,especiallywithitsconspicuouslightingscheme,the senseofvisioninthemodernworldiscriticallyexamined.Theprotagonistofthisfilmgoesblindabouthalfwaythrough.Inthespectacularlylit entertainmentdistrictofYoshiwara,thebrotherfranticallytriestoattack O-Ume’snewlover.Inresponse,theenemythrowsballsofashesintohis eyes.Inanintertitle,thebrothercriesout,“Allisdarkness!”Thescreenplay withhandwrittennotations,includedinKinugasa’spersonalpaperspreservedintheSorimachiCollectionoftheNationalFilmCenterattheNationalMuseumofModernArt,Tokyo,describesthescene:“Thesighthas turnedintopitchblacknessallofasudden.Somethingthrownintohiseyes hasblindedhim.”52Whitedotsofashesspreadnotonlyonthebrother’s facebutalsoonthecamerathatisphotographingthescene(fig.3.2).Asa result,thevisionofthecameraaswellasthespectatorisobstructed.When thebrotherisblindedbytheashes,soarethecameraandthespectator. The film historian William O. Gardner reads the brother’s blindness “asacorrelativefortheimpairmentofhisrationalfacultiesandhismoral blindness,forheisunabletodistinguishbetweenrealityandvirtue,representedbythesister,andillusionanddepravity,representedbyO-Ume.”53 Inadditiontosuchasymbolicalreading,Iwouldarguethattheblindness inthisscenerevealsthematerialityofcinema.Differentfromthebrother’s experienceofdarknessorpitchblackness,whattheviewersofthisfilmperceiveistheeffectofwhiteout.Thewhitedotsliterallystickontothecameraandreflectthestronglightingofthescene.Asaresult,onthevergeofa potentialswordfightbetweenthebrotherandtheenemy,thescreenturns almostsolidwhite.Neitheraswordofasamurainorafaceofastarshines, butthesceneproducesextremeviolencetotheeyesofboththebrother (suddendarkness)andtheviewers(suddenbrightness).Thesuddenappearanceofwhitedotsnotonlyrevealstheexistenceofthecamera,butalso drawstheviewers’attentiontotheveryfactthatcinemaisavisualmedium andaspectacleoflight. I want to expand this interpretation to a sociopolitical level as well. Gerowargues,“Astoryofmentaldelusion[inA Page of Madness]would havebeenattractivebothtomodernistwritersinterestedinperceptionand tofilmreformershopingtoshowthepotentialofcinemaasapureartfor itallowedforavarietyofexperimentswithintheboundsofnarrative.”54At thesametime,Gerowpointsout: 132 chapter3
figure3.2
Thebrother (BandoJunosuke) isblindedbyballs ofashesthrown intohiseyes. Crossways(1928).
In the context of 1920s Japan, the cinema was related to insanity in another, more problematic fashion. From early on, motion pictures werefrequentlytheobjectofcensorbygovernmentofficialsandsocial leadersasamediumthatwascorruptingyouthandunderminingsocial values.Centraltothiscritiquewasaviewofspectatorpsychologythat sawthecinemaasbreakingdownnormalmodesofreasoningandsocializedself-control,encouragingtheexpressionofirrationalandasocial thoughts....Inthisdiscursivecontext,attemptingtodepictthepsychologyofthementallyunstableinfilmwouldhavetoappearasadiscussionofthepsychologyofcineitself.55 GerowclaimsthatA Page of Madnesscertainlyintervenesin“thestruggles overtheplaceofcinema”inmodernity,whetheritmightbe“aFoucauldian technologyofsurveillanceandseparationthatreproducesefficientmodes ofknowledgeunderastricthierarchy”ormoreradicallyandsubversively “crossing boundaries and undermining that division of epistemological labor.”56Gerowconcludesthatthefilmis“farmoreinterestingthanthe onecelebratedastheavant-gardemasterworkofalonegenius”because it“ambivalentlystandsinthemiddle”anddoesnottakeanysideinthese debates.57 Focusingontheunstablementalstateoftheprotagonistandattempting tovisuallydepictthepsychology,Crosswayssimilarlyintervenesinsuchdebatesovertheplaceofcinemainthe1920s.Kinugasa’sconspicuousawarestreetfiLMs 133
nessofthediscourseoffilmtheoriesandcriticismsandcritics’enthusiastic reactionstothefilmweretheclearevidence.WhatmakesCrosswaysinterestingtomeisthatdespitethefactthat(orbecause)thefilmwasmadeas acapitalistcommodityatShochiku’sShimokamostudio,wherethemost popular star of the time resided, Kinugasa and his collaborators took a potentiallysubversivesideinsuchdebates.Withthemotifofblindness, Crosswayscriticallyrevealsthenatureofcinemaasavisualmediumandas aconsumerproductinJapanesemodernity.Thefilmsharedtheconcerns abouttheprimacyofvisionwithcontemporaneouscriticismandliterature. AsinEurope,theprocessofmodernizationinJapanappearedas“apervasive ‘separation of the senses’ and industrial remapping of the body,” especiallywhenvariousimportedmedicaltermshierarchizedthesesenses andparticularlyprivilegedthesenseofvision,asthehistorianTsuboiHidetopointsout,referringtoJonathanCrary’sworkonvisionandmodernity.58ThecriticMatsuyamaIwaoarguesthatthe1920swere“theperiod whenvisualcultureflourishedextensively”andthestatusofthesenseof physical touch diminished and human senses were centralized toward vision.59ItisindicativethattheethnologistYanagitaKuniobeginshis1930 bookonthesocialhistoryofmodernJapanwithachapteronvision(“SocialConditionsThattheEyesCanSee”).60AndasHarryHarootunianargues,heconcededtheimportanceoftheeyesthatseesocietyinthe“progressivefragmentationanddestabilizationofculturalforms.”61 The remapping of the body was conducted under the supervision of themodernizingstate,theMeiji(1868–1912)andTaisho(1912–26)governments.Bytheearly1930s,Japanesescholarsandpractitionersinmedicine, psychiatry,psychology,andsexology,aswellasphilosophersandbureaucrats,developedanewunderstandingofthemanagementoftheJapanese bodyand,throughit,oftheentirepopulation.Theyincreasinglyemployed scientificknowledgetoguidepoliciesaimedatwell-regulatedbodiesthat wouldconstituteamodernnation.62Thedevelopmentofthefingerprint systemwasanexampleofsuchacontrol. Theregulationofbenshiwasanotherexample.Intheearlyperiodof filmcultureinJapan,asinEuropeandtheUnitedStates,spectatorswere notsimplyquietviewersandinterpretersofnarrativesonthescreen.As Gerow points out, the experience of early cinema in Japan was not definedasthedominanceofvisualattractionsbutas“aplethoraofequally viable modes of enjoyment,” including the verbal narrative of benshi as 134 chapter3
oneofmany“attractions.”63Spectatorswere“kinetic”andphysicalparticipantsofthespace,occasionallycryingouttowardthescreen,callingand respondingtobenshi,projectionists,andorchestramembers.64ThehistorianKitadaAkihiroarguesthatthroughouttheTaishoperiod,theoptical (orexclusiveandintensivevisualobservationofrepresentedimagesonthe screen)andaself-sufficiencyoffilmicnarrativethatpromotedasubjectdivorcedfromthephysicalbecamemoreprivilegedthanthevoiceofbenshi, whichrepresentedthemodeofperceptionandsubjectivityinbodilyform andisparticipatoryandkineticinthespaceofcinematicexperiences.65As Gerowsuggests,suchaclearbinarydivisionbetweentheopticalandthe kineticcouldignoreamorecomplexhistory.Instead,Gerowpersuasively arguesthatfilmreformersoftheTaishoperiodwantedtoincorporatebenshiwithinthefilminordertoincreasethevisualexperienceofcinema.At thesametime,accordingtoGerow,internalizationofbenshiwasmeantto controlthevolatilityoftheimagebytheword.66Suchapracticethatcould controlamultiplicityofmeaningswouldfunctiontoreinforcetheprimacy ofvisionbecausethevoicewasusedtounifythemeaningofthevisual image.Thesenseofvisionneverstoodalone,especiallywiththecomingof sound,butwasenhancedbytheauditory.67 Critics,poets,andnovelistsinJapanbecameconcernedabouttheprimacyofvisioninmoderncultureandsociety,which,theyargued,could turncinemainto“thestateapparatusofvision.”68Theystarteddiscussing sensoryperceptionofcinemainordertocritiquetheprimacyofvision. In1931,forinstance,thepopulardetectivenovelistEdogawaRampopublished“BlindBeast”(“Moju”),inwhichheintroducedhis“theoryofhapticart”(shokkaku geijutsu ron).69Theprotagonistof“BlindBeast”isblind andisonlyabletoappreciateartandthebeautyofwomen’sbodieswith hishands.Throughthemouthpieceoftheprotagonistasheaddressesthe heroine,Rampowrites,“Itisreallystrangethatwehaveonlythoughtabout thevisualartandhavenotcaredanythingaboutthehapticart.Why?Only becausewehaveeyes.Becausewearenotblind....Ifwedidnothaveeyes, thehapticartwouldhavedevelopedinthisworld.”70Inanothernovellaby Rampo,“Caterpillar”(“Imomushi,”1929),thewifeofaformersoldier,who haslosthisarms,legs,auditorysense,andvoiceinthebattlefield,damageshiseyesandmakeshimblind.Shebecomessoirritatedandscared ofhisroundeyesgazingatoneplacecontinuouslythatsheturnshiminto anobjectthatonlyhasthefragmentarysenseoftouch.ThehistorianYostreetfiLMs 135
shikuniIgarashisuggeststhattheprimacyofvisionis“thoroughlyproblematized”inRampo’sstories.Igarashiwrites,“Rampo’sstoriesremindhis readersofthecentralityofthebodyanditssensesinthesemodernexperiences....Rampo’sfictiondemonstratesthatvisioncannotsatisfactorilyintegratefragmentarybodilysenses.”71WhenRampo’snovella“Tom Thumb”(“Issunboshi,”1926)wasmadeintoafilmin1927,whichunfortunatelyisnotextant,thedirectorShibaSeika,accordingtoacontemporary review,insertedshotsofahumanhandatvarioustimesandplacesforno particularnarrationalreason.Thereviewerconfessedthattheshotswere “incomprehensible”andregardedthemas“mistakes”thatneededsomeexplanationfromthefilmmaker.Itispossiblethatinsertionoftheseshotsof handswasthefilmmaker’sstrategytorefertoRampo’sthematicconcern withtheprimacyofvisionandthenotionofthehaptic.72 The motif of temporary blindness in Crossways enhances the critical awarenessofthesenseofvision.Itismoresignificanttonotethatitisnot hisblindnessbuthissubsequentregainedvision,orhallucinationsinlight, thatacceleratesthebrotherintoinsanity.ThedeclarationbythecinematographerSugiyamaKoheionhislightingschemeinCrosswaysisindicative:“Whenhis[thebrother’s]eyesopen,weusedandonwithdoubleexposure. Or, we used a paper with a hole and showed a beam of carbon lightthroughtheholetomakeandonstandout.”73Thus,whenthebrother regainshisvision,Sugiyamaconspicuouslyandconsistentlyusedspecial lightingtechniquesnottoemphasizethebrother’srenewedvisionbutto indicate his illuminated hallucinations. In his new world of luminosity, visualhallucinationsattackthebrotherandkillhimintheend.Inother words,themoderntechnologyoflightingwasusedhereforthepurposeof suggestingthattheprimacyofvisioncouldbefatallybetraying. Theperilofthesister,whoisabouttobeattackedbyamanposingasa constable,iscrosscuttoaclose-upofthefrowningfaceofthebrother,who isasleep.Thebrothersuddenlyopenshiseyesinaclose-up.Inthenext shot,supposedlyhispoint-of-viewshot,weseeanabstractimageoflight, whichlookslikeasurfaceofshimmeringwater.Thenashotofdimlight precedesaclose-upofhisface,thistimebrightlylitbyaspotlight.Then, ashotofthebrightlightisinsertedagain.Afterashotoftheconstable’s hand,anextremelongshotoftherainoutsideemphasizeslightagain.The raindropsshinewhiteasiftheyfullyreflectthelightfromanandonlamp andsurroundthebrother(andsister)inluminosity.Whenthescenecuts 136 chapter3
backtothesister,whatweseeisaclose-upofadebabocho( Japanese-style cookingknife),ominouslyshining,heldbythesister’shands—anotherreferencetojidaigeki,butwithoutusingasword.Asifbeingattackedbythe flashofthedebabocho,thebrotherfallsdownthestairs.Thisfallingmovementisaccompaniedbyanothermotifofluminosity:ashotofabucket, fullofshiningrainwater,fallingfromawallbecauseofitsownweightisinsertedhere. Inthisworldfullofluminosity,whatthebrotherfirstwitnesseswith hiswide-openeyesisasightthatisnightmarishlylit.Inhispoint-of-view shot,asthefalseconstable’sbackfallsdownonthefloor,heseeshisloving sisterholdingaknifeinherhands.Strongsidelightthatcomesthrough shojiscreenscreatesnumerouscrossinglightsandshadowsonher.Then, aclose-upofherhandsandoneofherfaceareinserted,bothofwhichare brightlylitfrombelowandlookextremelywhite.Inthestrongsidelight, thebrotherandthesisterembraceeachotheroverthedeadbody.Inthe brother’spoint-of-viewshot,theraindropsoutsideshineextremelywhite. Asifbeingattractedbysuchbrightness,thebrotherandsisterfleeoutside. Theirbodiesaresurroundedbydazzlinglywhitesmoke—evaporationof therainandsweatbecauseoftheirbodyheat.Thesister’shairholdsnumerouswhiteandshinydropsfromtherain. Ontheirway,thebrotherdeclares,“Icanseeeverything.”Butitisnothingbutanothervisualhallucinationthatattacksthebrother.ItisaluminousvisionofO-Umeinaflashbackthatdriveshiminsane.Leavinghissisterbehind,hedesperatelystartsrunningtowardtheentertainmentdistrict. ThebrothercannothelpgoingbacktoYoshiwara—thebrightcityofconsumerismandmoderntechnology—toseeO-Ume.ThesightofO-Ume makeshisvisiongooutofcontrol.Anextremelyquickmontagedisplays numerous objects in luminosity one after another, over and over again: spinningwhiteballs,shadowsonshojiscreens,thesister’swhiteface,rain, whiteashes,flowerpetals,andwhitelitcrosswaysunderthestarsasshining littledots(fig.3.3).74Thescreenplaydescribesthesceneafterthebrother looksatO-Ume:“Thebrotherfeltablowofanironhammeronthehead. Hewrithedfromtoomuchbrutalityonhismindandbody.Intertitle(12): Thebrother‘No.’Realityhadalreadyvanishedfromhisunclearhead,and hisveryoldmemoriescameback.Nostalgiaofhappinessinthepast— withhissister.Intertitle(13):Thebrother‘Sis.’Thebrother’seyescannot seeanythinganylonger.”75Hisblackeyesinsanelymovetothecenteras streetfiLMs 137
figure3.3
Thebrother’s visiongoesoutof control.Crossways (1928).
figure3.4
Thebrother’s blackeyesmove insanelyto thecenterasif imitatingthemie expressionofa Kabukiactor. Crossways(1928).
ifimitatingthemieexpressionofaKabukiactor(fig.3.4).(Comparedto Hayashi’snagashi-me,whichisamoresubtlemovementoftheeyes,mie conspicuously emphasizes the act of gazing with a strong movement of theeyes.)Then,helplessly,thebrothercovershiseyeswithhishandsin vain.Hisbodymovesbackandforth,evenmovingawayfromthecamera frameuntilfinallyfallingtotheground.Thebrotheriskilledbythepower ofvision.Kinugasasaidheoriginallywantedtoshowthat“thebrotherdies inhappiness,”butobviouslydecidedagainstthat.76 ThecriticHatanoMitsuodiscussesthefinaleofCrosswaysinhisreview: 138 chapter3
It is true that Crossways is much more cinematically expressive than other sword-fighting films, which are filled with grotesque dances with swords. Particularly in the scenes in an entertainment district, Mr.Kinugasa’sgoalisaccomplishedcompletely.Spinningarcherytargets,circlingwhiteballs,andredpaperlanternsareusedtoestablish comfortabletonesofthefilm.Theyareinniceharmonywithstylized andmechanicalfacialexpressionsofthepeoplethereandsuccessfully expressthebeautifulandfantasticatmosphereoftheplace....However, eventhoughwearemesmerizedbysuchfantasticimageryoftheentertainmentdistrict,wecannothelpbeingawareofanotherissue.Wesee poorpantomimesunderinadequatelyshimmeringbeamsoflight,which aresupposedtoexpressthefateofthemiserablesisterandbrotherwho areatalossonthecrosswaysbetweenbeautifulfriendshipanda[cruel] loveaffair.Whentheseactorsappearinthescenesintheentertainment district,ourfantasyisrecklesslydestroyed.Whatwewitnessareawful remnantsofolddramas.Thedirectordoesnotseemtobeawareofthis ambivalenceinCrosswaysandallowscoexistenceoftwoelements.The coexistenceofthetwounrelatedelementsmayhavebeenadoptedto differentiatethelivesofthesisterandbrotherandthosepeopleinthe entertainment district, but instead it has become the fatal force that completelydestroysthecinematicfantasyinCrossways....Can’twe hopeforthefilmmakersinthiscountrytocreate“motionpictures”with possibilitiesoftemporalmovementsoflightsandspatialvisualization ofimages?77 Thus,whetheritwasusedsuccessfullyornot,Crosswaysmadethiscritic extremelyawareofthesignificantfunctionoflightingincinema.Hatano pointedoutthedichotomybetweentheatricalityandthecinematic—the shinpa-styleactingandtheeffectiveuseoflighting,whichtohimwasnot fullyintegratedinthisfilm.HewasratherdisturbedbytheelevatedfunctionoflightinginCrossways.Hatano’sdisturbancewascausedbythefact thatCrosswaysputthemechanismofthespectacleoflightingincinemain theforefront.KinugasarespondedtoHatano’sclaimandsaid,“Ididnot thinkitwasimportanttolettheaudiencereasonablyunderstandthespatialandtemporalrelationshipsofthestory.Manyoftheordinaryfilmsare worthlessbecausetheyonlypayattentiontotellingstorieswithnumerous intertitles.Idonotthinkthatisveryinteresting....Idonotcareabout streetfiLMs 139
plots.Aslongasthefilmandthecharactersinitlookmovingastheyshould withoutanyinterruption,Iamsatisfied.”78ForKinugasa,movementproducesthecinematic.EventhoughKinugasadidnotnamelightingperse, Crosswaysproblematizedthesenseofvisionthroughthemotifoftemporaryblindness,andtheenhancedluminositythatfollowedrevealedtheinnatenatureofcinemaasamediumoflight.Thefilmportraysthesceneas ifthebrotherwereliterallyblindedandkilledbylight. In jidaigeki, whether the authentic ones or Hayashi’s star vehicles, peoplearekilledbytheshiningswordorbythebeautifulfaceoreyes.The lethalnessoftheweaponswasenhancedbylight,andboththeeyesofthe enemyandthespectatoraremesmerizedbylight.Suchanexpressiveuse oflightingtechnologymadejidaigekiamoderngenre.Injidaigeki,though, themechanismofspeciallightingtreatmentswashidden.Inthissense,distinguishedfromotherjidaigekifilms,Crosswayswasamodernistfilm. ThefactthatpeopleareblindedandkilledbylightconnectsCrossways toWeimarstreetfilms.InMurnau’sThe Last Laugh,theprotagonist,who haslosthisjobasahoteldoorman,sneaksintothehotelatnightandlooks athisuniformthathasbeentakenawayfromhim.Asthefilmhistorian MarcSilbermandescribes,witheffectslighting,theuniform“glows...with aninnerlight”asifitwere“infusedwithalifeof[its]own.”79Theelderly formerdoormancannothelpbuttakeawaytheshiningobject,butassoon ashegoesoutintothenighttimestreet,tall,whiteilluminatedbuildingsfall downuponhiminhishallucination. InGrune’sThe Street,whenthestreetlightscomeintothewindowof hiscrammedlivingroom,atired-lookingmiddle-agedofficeworkercannot help being drawn out to the streets of Berlin. He watches the light effectsfromthefar-rightbottomoftheframe.AsthefilmhistorianAnton Kaesdescribes,inthismockshadowplay,pedestriansrushby;aflaneur addressesawomananddeliriouslyfollowsher;passingvehiclesrefractthe lightintoamyriadofluminousrays.80Arousedbythespectacleoflight,the mansitsupandlooksoutthewindow,downontothestreet.Aclose-up ofhisfaceregistershiscaptivatedgaze.Inapseudopoint-of-viewshot,the filmshowstheviewerswhatthemanseesinhishallucinatorystate:cars andtrainsinwildmotion,thrillseekersenjoyingthemselvesonamusementparkrides,acircusclownmakinguphisface,anorgangrinder,anda smilingyoungwoman.Inotherwords,thewindowfunctionslikeamovie screen.Ashiswifecallsthemantodinner,grippedbyasuddenimpulse, 140 chapter3
themangrabshishatandumbrella,runsoutthedooranddownthestairs, andplungesintothestreet,justasthebrotherinCrosswaysrunsoutinto thestreetdespitehissister’scry. Thesenseofvisionviathetechnologyoflightisalwaysatstakeinstreet films.Peopleareblindedandkilledbythevisionoflightonthestreets. Crosswaysasksitsviewers:Areyousafegazingatthisvisionoflight? streets of kamata
WhileCrosswayscameclosetothestreetfilms,someShochikufilmsproducedattheKamatastudioalsoapproachedcinematiclightinginasensitivemannerintheformofgendaigeki,despitethestudio’s“Brightand cheerful Shochiku cinema” slogan. In the films of Ozu Yasujiro, for instance,“thereisadeepcurrentofdarknessatthebottomofthenihilisticbrightnessonthesurfaceofshoshimin[petitbourgeois,orthemiddle class],”arguedthecriticAndoSadaoinhisessay“AboutDarkness,”which waspublishedintheMay1938issueofanewfilmjournalEiga.81Nomatter howstronglyAndo’sframeworkwasinclinedtoaMarxistdichotomybetweencapitalistsandworkers,itisnoteworthythatheusedthemetaphor oflighting—darknessversusbrightness—indescribingOzu’scommercial filmsproducedatShochikuKamatainthelate1920sand1930s.Infact, lightingplayedasignificantroleintermsofthecontentandvisualmeansin Ozu’sfilmsofthisperiod.OzudidnotopenlychallengeShochiku’spolicy. Hestayedatthestudiountilhediedin1963.Still,hisworkinthelate1920s to1930swentbeyondthesimplebrightandcheerfultone. Ozu’sfilmsofthelate1920sand1930sareoftendiscussedincanonicalauteurstudiestobegoodexamplesoftheKamatastyle,avernacular formthatappropriatedAmericanmassculture,particularlyclassicalHollywoodcinema.Ozu,atremendousfanofCharlieChaplin,ErnstLubitsch, andKingVidor,amongothers,incorporatedorevenimitatedthestylesof theirfilms.Forexample,examiningtheweatherinOzu’sfilms,where“the skycanonlybesunny,”thecriticHasumiShigehikocallsOzu“abroad- daylight director.”82 Hasumi argues, “Ozu’s eternally cloudless skies are muchmorecloselyconnectedtothefineweatherofCalifornia,theland JeanRenoirchoseashisretreatfromtheworld,ortotheskyofJohnFord’s MonumentValley.LiketheWestCoastofCalifornia,wherethecinema wasborn,whereitgrewandmatured,thesunnyskiesofOzumustbeclear asfarastheeyecansee.Hisexclusionfromthescreenoftherainyseason, streetfiLMs 141
thedampclimateuniquetoJapan,wasachoicemadeinordertoinsiston aspecificallyfilmicreality.”83Similarly,DavidBordwellwrites,“Ozuinsistedonabright,hard-edgedlooktoevokethecrisplydefinedimageshe hadvisualizedinhisnotebooks.EvenafilmnoirlikeDragnet Girl,which isshotinalowerkeythanmostofhisworks,remainsgenerallycommitted toahigh-keytonalscale.”84AccordingtoBordwell,Ozu’spersistencewith brightnessevenwentbeyondwhatHasumicalls“thefineweatherofCalifornia.”BordwellpointsoutthatOzudidnotemploy“Hollywoodedge lightingtooutlineplanes”anddidnot“dimthebackgroundlightlevelsto throwmoreemphasisontheperformer,”butinstead,litthebackground andforeground“uniformly.”85Withsuchbrightness,Ozu’sfilmappeared to faithfully follow Shochiku’s official slogan, “Bright and cheerful Shochikucinema,”atleastonthesurface. However,thesituationwasnotthatsimple,asindicatedinAndo’sessay. Ozu’sfilms,amongothers,diversifiedthedominant“clarityfirst”tendency atShochikuKamatafromwithin.Ozu’slightingschemewasnotarejection ofbrightandcheerful.But,curiously,OzuwaseloquentabouttheinnovativeuseoflightinginKabuki.In1935heappreciatedtheKabukiactorOnoe Kikugoro’schallengingchoiceofdarklightingforthesakeofrealisminhis KabukiplayUshimatsu in the Dark(Kurayami no Ushimatsu).86Onceasked ifhewantedtoworkwithOzu,HayashiChojirosaidthathedidnotwant tobecausehewasafraidthathe“wouldbedestroyed.”87IfwetakeOzu’s sensitivitytolightingandhisconcernaboutKabukiintoconsideration,we mayneedtosaythatHayashiwaswrong.Hayashimightnothavebeenlit simplyinaglamorousmanner,buthewouldhavereceivedacarefultreatmentinlighting. The1930filmThat Night’s Wife,directedbyOzu,isparticularlynoteworthybecauseitnotonlylookslikeaWeimarstreetfilmbutalsoengages directlywiththecontesteddiscoursesonthepoliticsandeconomyofJapanesemodernity,primarilybyresortingtothetechnologyoflighting.Moreover,whiletheclosureofthefilmcertainlyappearsbrightandcheerful,the filmdoesnotsimplysubscribetoShochikuKamata’sdominanttendency ofshinpa-stylelighting.AsinCrossways,thenotionsofvisibilityandtactilityareinquestion.Inparticular,inThat Night’s Wife,thefigureofhands isenhancedwithspecificlightingandfunctionsasaknotthatconnectsthis streetfilmproducedatKamatatotheambivalenceofmodernity—anxiety andattraction—inJapanaswellasinWeimarGermany. 142 chapter3
figure3.5 Aglimpseofamoderncitystreetatnight.Openingof That Night’s Wife(1930). the glowing Hands
That Night’s Wifeopenswithaglimpseofamoderncitystreetatnight.In anextremelongshot,weseetwoelectricalstreetlampsandsevenoreight extremelytallcolumnsofaWestern-stylebuilding(fig.3.5).Apoliceofficerwalksdownthestreet.Hisfigurecastsalongshadowonthestreetasa stronglightcomesfromtheoff-screenleft.Thepoliceofficerfindsahomelessmanasleepatthebaseofthebuildingandchaseshimoff. The hands of the police officer are noticeably visible in this opening scene,withthehelpofconspicuouslighting.Inthefirstextremelow-key (dark)longshot,thehandsofthepoliceofficerplacedbehindhisbackare theonlybrightwhitespotsonthescreenbesidesthetwostreetlamps.In thethirdlongshotofthepoliceofficer,hemoveshishandstothefront.His handsinwhiteglovesshineatthecenteroftheframe,supposedlyreflectingthestreetlamps.Afterhispoint-of-viewshotthatlooksatthehomeless man,thepoliceofficeradjustshisglovesinfrontofhisbody,walksoverto theman,andwaveshisrighthandtochasethehomelessmanoff.Thequick movementoftheofficer’shandmakeshiswhitegloveflashshockingly,mostreetfiLMs 143
figure3.6 Apoliceofficer’swhiteglovesandhandsareilluminatedbyan extremelystrongspotlight.That Night’s Wife(1930).
mentarilyreflectingthestreetlamps.Inthefollowingextremelongshot, thepoliceofficerlightsacigarette.Thefireemphasizesthehardcontrast betweenbrightlightanddarkness.Asaresult,hisgloveslookstrikingly whiteeventhoughtheyareonlytinyspotsonthescreen.Afterashotof thehomelessmaninastateoffatiguelyingunderanothertallbuilding, thepoliceofficerwalksofftowardhiscolleagueinalongshot,takesoff hisgloves,andplayswiththemathisback.Aclose-upofthehandsand thewhitegloves,illuminatedbyanextremelystrongspotlight,isinserted here,eventhoughtherewasnostronglightinthepreviousshot(fig.3.6). Thus,thespotlightisusedonlytoemphasizethewhitenessofthehands andgloves. Theclose-upofthepoliceofficers’handsandwhiteglovesisfollowedby anotherclose-upofahandthatputswhiteglovesintoapolicecaponadesk (fig.3.7).Rightnexttothepolicecap,wealsoseeasmallblacktripodwith threeChinesecharacterswritteninwhiteink,whichread“ei-sei-gakari” (theSanitaryBureau).Thisclose-upturnsouttobethefirstoneofthe sceneatthepolicestation.Thepolicestationisratherflatlylitcomparedto 144 chapter3
figure3.7 AnotherpairofwhiteglovesattheSanitaryBureau. That Night’s Wife(1930).
theextremelydarkstreetofthepreviousscene,butitisstillphotographed inlowkey.Theshotsofthehard-litwhiteglovesofthepoliceofficersfunctionasthegluethatconnectsthesetwoscenesatdifferentspatiallocations. InhisseminalworkonthefilmsofOzu,Bordwellclaimsthathands“recurthroughout”That Night’s WifeandarguesthatOzupatternedthem“in abstractfashion.”88However,Iwouldarguethattheconspicuously,oreven harshly,illuminatedhandsofthepoliceofficersinthefilmshouldbespecificallylocatedinthesociopoliticalandsocioeconomiccontextsofJapan aswellastheglobalfilmculturein1930.89Firstofall,themotifofhands positionsthisfilmattheintersectionofthetechnologiesofcriminalinvestigationandsurveillanceandthediscoursesonsubjectivityinthemodernizingnation.Second,withsuchamotif,thisfilmcelebrates,oratleastfully appreciates,thearrivalofthetechnologyofmodernity,whichcreateda spectacleoflightintheformofanewvisualmediumforamass-consumer society. Theyear1930wasfullofcontradictions—anxietyandcomfort,dread andconfidence—inJapan.Ononehand,JapanwasinthemidstofafistreetfiLMs 145
nancialandpoliticalcrisis,especiallyamongbureaucratsandpoliticaland economicelites.Followingthebankingcrisisof1927andtheWallStreet crashof1929,in1930thenumberofunemployedrosetoadisastrouslevel, reachingfourhundredthousand.Ayearlater,theImperialJapaneseArmy invadedManchuria.Theparliamentarygovernmentcollapsedinthehands ofright-wingterroristsinMay1932.Ontheotherhand,themetropolitan siteswereexpanding,andthatenabledJapanto“dramatizetheproductionofdesireinspiredbyanewlifepromisingnewcommoditiesforconsumption,newsocialrelationships,identities,andexperience.”90In1930 thecityofTokyocelebrateditsfullrecoveryfromtheGreatKantoEarthquakeof1923,whichhaddestroyedapproximately554,000of2.3million homes,killedmorethan105,000people,anddeprived250,000peopleof theirjobs.91Thecelebration“showcasedbrightlylitdepartmentstoresand hanadensha(illuminatedtramcars)asatestamenttothesuccessofreconstruction.”92ThehugeneonsignofGeneralMotorsappearedinGinza,a districtinTokyo,in1930andwasrapidlyfollowedbyotherdazzlingurban illuminations,whichprovidedordinarypeoplewithafantasyviewofmodern life.93 Under these contradictory conditions, which were similar to othercontemporaneousfilms,photographs,andpostersofmoderncities andskyscrapers,suchasMetropolis(FritzLang,1926),That Night’s Wifeand itsexecutionoflightinginvitedtheviewerto“experienc[e]theworldina newdefamiliarizinglight,”bothasasocialcritiqueandasavisualspectacle ataspecifichistoricalmomentinJapan.94 Critique of the scopic Field
TheopeningscenesofThat Night’s Wife,mostofwhichwerephotographed onlocation,appeartofaithfullydepictthesurfaceofaconcretemetropolis andofferviewersself-consciousengagementwiththeharshandthrilling modernurbanlifeof1930.AsintheWeimarstreetfilms,theextremelytall columnsoftheWestern-stylebuildingandthelarge,crispshadowsofthe policeofficeronthestreetinThat Night’s Wiferegisteredthesocialissues ofclass,desolationofthemoderncity,andauthoritativepoliticalrealityas understoodbythehomelessman(thoughthereisnopoint-of-viewshot ofthetallcolumnsfromhisvantagepoint)andtheprotagonistofthefilm, Hashizume(OkadaTokihiko),awould-bepainter.Hashizumehasacriticallyilldaughterathisapartmentbuthasnomoneytopayforadoctor.Out ofnecessity,herobsabank. 146 chapter3
ThefilmdirectorYoshidaKiju,who,likeOzu,startedhiscareeratthe Shochikustudios,claims: AlthoughOzu-sanbeganhisfilmcareerbyimitatingAmericanfilms,he soonbegantoreflecttheactualsocialandpoliticalconditionsinJapan inhisfilms.TheGreatDepression,whichstartedwiththeNewYork stockmarketcrashonBlackThursdayinthefallof1929,destroyedthe AmericancinemathatOzu-sanregardedasamagicalmirrorthrough whichhecouldexpresshimself.TheGreatDepressioneventuallyspread toJapan,andcitiesfilledwiththeunemployed.TheJapanesegovernmentinvadedChinaasawayoutofitstrouble,andthetransientmodernism of the early Showa period faded away. Ozu-san quit making nonsensical slapstick comedies with college students as protagonists andstartedmakingfilmsaboutthedifficultlivesofunemployedoffice workers.Theuncertaintyoftheperiodaffectedhisfilmsandmarkeda turningpointinhiscareer.95 Withthisinmind,That Night’s Wife,aswellasCrossways,couldberegarded asoneofthekeiko eiga(tendencyfilms,orfilmswithleftisttendencies), whichwerepopularinJapanforashortperiodfrom1927to1930.Questioningtheauthoritativecapitalistconditionsinmodernizingsociety,the keikoeigafrequentlythematized“thegapbetweenthefashionable‘modern’consumptionthatprevailedintherapidlyexpandingmassmediaofthe 1920sandtherealitiesofeverydaylifeforthemajorityofJapanesesubjects duringthestagnanteconomicconditionsofthatdecade.”96Shochiku’sShimokamostudioannouncedtheproductionoftwotrilogiesof“proletariat films”in1930—Challenge(Chosen),Bullet(Dangan),andFire Starter(Hibuta)forthefirstseries,andFlag(Hata),Spear(Hoko),andShield(Tate) for the second. Even though these films were severely censored by the HomeMinistryandwerenotreleased,by1930Shochikuwasconsidering thepopularityofthegenreandtryingtoincorporatethekeikoeigaintoits production.97 Amongtheproblematicissuesinthe“realitiesofeverydaylife,”That Night’s WifeappearstobecriticallyengagedwithwhatYoshikuniIgarashi hasdescribedasthe“reorganizationofthebodyinthescopicfieldofmodernJapan.”98Thelightingandthecameraworkofthefilm,inparticular,are foregroundedtoarticulatetheeffectsofsocialtransformationsspawnedby moderntechnologies. streetfiLMs 147
It is significant to note that the opening scenes of That Night’s Wife clearly included the Chinese characters for the Sanitary Bureau, which arenotwrittenintotheoriginalscreenplay.99Thefilmdoesnotdirectly claimthattheSanitaryBureauwasresponsibleforthebleaksituationof theworkers,butinreality,thebureauwasoneofthemostpowerfuldepartmentswithintheHomeMinistrythatpolicedthebigcitiesinJapan. Asagovernmentalinstitution,theCentralSanitaryBureauwasfoundedas partoftheMinistryofEducationin1872tocollectnationwidedataeffectivelyandscientificallycontrolpeople’slives.In1874,thebureauwasincorporatedintotheHomeMinistry,theagencythatofficiallystartedcensoringfilmsin1925.100Theshiningwhiteglovesofthepoliceofficersin That Night’s WifeemphasizethepresenceoftheofficersfromtheSanitary Bureauinthecitystreetsasthecleansersofsociety,whopolicebutnever leaveanyphysicaltraceofthemselves.InthescreenplayofThat Night’s Wife,thepoliceofficerintheopeningscenewakesupthehomelessman “byshakinghimup.”Butinthefilmversion,theynevertouch.Thepolicemanjustobservesandsimplywaveshisrighthandoverthehomelessman toforcehimtoleave. ThebodyofHashizumeismoreobviouslyplacedinthescopicfieldof control.Afterthesceneoftherobbery,thereisaclearlynoticeabletrackingintoahandprintofHashizume(fig.3.8).Afterrobbingthebank,Hashizumeleavesthroughawhitefrostedglassdoor,yetthecamerastays insidetheroomandconspicuouslytracksintohishandprintleftonthe frostedglass.101Hardlightingonthefrostedglassdoorinthelow-keyscene enhancesthecontrastbetweenthewhitenessofthefrostedglassandthe blacknessofHashizume’shandprint. Curiously,despitethemagnifieddisplayofthehandprint,asBordwell alsosuggests,thenarrativeofThat Night’s Wifenevercomesbacktothe visual evidence of the crime.102 No matter how diegetically misguiding thistrackingintoHashizume’shandprintis,theveryfactthatthecameraclearlydisplaysthehandprintinaconspicuousclose-upemphasizes thatHashizume’sphysicalpresenceiscapturedwithinthescopicfieldofa policingpowerthatiscapableofcontrollinghumanbodiesevenifitdoes notphysicallyexistattheexactmomentofacrime.Thetrackinginand close-upconnecttheeyesofthecameratothoseofthepoliceofficersand alsothoseofthespectators,whoareinvisiblebutomnipresentobservers ofthecrimescene. 148 chapter3
figure3.8 AhandprintofHashizume(OkadaTokihiko)isleftonafrostedglass door.That Night’s Wife(1930).
Herethestatepoweroveroneeconomicallydistressedcitizenisrepresentedthroughlightingandcameramovement.103Igarashiarguesthat thefingerprintingsystemwasonetypical“waytocontrolhumanbodies within the scopic field.”104 According to Igarashi, fingerprints were severedfromtheirconnectionstotheirbodiesandtransformedinto“decipherablesigns.”105TheMinistryofJusticefirstadoptedfingerprintingas aviablemethodofidentificationin1908inordertoimprovetherecord- keepingsystemforimprisonedcriminaloffenders.TheuseoffingerprintingincriminalinvestigationsbyTokyo’spolicedepartmentbeganin1911 inarobberycaseinKanda,anareaindowntownTokyo.In1917,theMinistryofJusticerequiredfingerprintingforallpersonsenteringprison.106As Igarashiargues,withsuchasystemasfingerprinting,humanbodieswere transformedfroman“anatomical”andkineticexistencetoa“topological” andvisualone.107 Cinemafullyincorporatedfingerprintsandhandprintsastopographicalandvisualelementsinthescopicfieldbytheearly1930sinJapanas wellasinGermany.Forinstance,intheJuly15,1918,issueofChuo Koron, theaesthetepoetandnovelistSatoHaruopublishedthedetectivenovella streetfiLMs 149
“Fingerprints” (“Shimon”), which used a motion picture as an essential element ofitsnarrative. In“Fingerprints,”thefingerprints ofthe criminal,whicharetheresultoftouch,aretheessentialelementintheplot.The narratorandR.N.,hischildhoodacquaintance,happentowatchthe(fictional)detectivefilmGun Moll Rosario(Jozoku Rosario)atamovietheater inAsakusa,Tokyo.R.N.,anopiumaddict,isafraidthathemighthavecommittedmurderatanopiumdeninhishometown,Nagasaki,beforehecame toTokyo.InGun Moll Rosario,afingerprintisshowninaclose-up“asifit wereagermominouslyexpandedunderamicroscope.”108Afterobsessively consultingsixteenreliablescientificbooksonfingerprints,R.N.concludes that“notwofingerprintsareidentical”andhehasseenexactlythesame fingerprintonthebackofagoldwatchthatheaccidentallypickedupatan opiumdeninNagasaki.Basedonthisscientificfact,R.N.comestobelieve thattheminorHollywoodactorinthefilm,WilliamWilson—anobvious referencetoEdgarAllanPoe’sfamousstoryaboutadoppelganger,another figurationoftheuncanny—istheonewhocommittedmurder.Thebodyis thusreducedtopurevisualsurface,exterioritywithoutdepth,“amovable theateroftheself.”109 OzucreatesacomicalsceneoutofahandprintinthebeginningofStudent Romance: Days of Youth(Gakusei romansu: Wakaki hi,1929),theoldest extantfilmbythedirector.Astudent(SaitoTatsuo)leanshislefthandon apolemarked“wetpaint”whilehisfootscuffsatagloveontheground.110 Whenhepullshispalmaway,hefindsitcoveredwithpaint.Inthenext sceneatacafé,heabsentlyrestshispalmonhischeekinfrontofagirlwith whomheisinlove.Abigblackshapeofhispalmisclearlyleftonhisface. Heleavesfingerprintsonhiscupaswell.Eventhoughhetriestoactnormally,thefingerprintsturnouttobeobviousvisualevidenceofhisaffectionforthegirl.111 InGermany,ahugeblowupofathumbprintappearsinFritzLang’sM, whichwasproducedinthesameyearasThat Night’s Wife,asacluetoa murder.AsinThat Night’s Wife,themagnifiedfingerprintisnotactually usedtosolvethecase.Moreover,thecreditsequenceofMisagraphic drawingofahandreachingtowardusshowingitspalm,onwhichthesingle letterMisinscribedasifitwereamagnifiedhandprint.112Inthescenethat followstheshotofHashizume’shandprintonthefrostedglass,Hashizume isundoubtedlyplacedinthescopicfieldofboththepoliceofficersandthe spectators—underbrightlightsinthebigcityatnight.Herunsdesper150 chapter3
figure3.9 AshotofastreetlampisinsertedwhenHashizumerunsawayfromthe police.That Night’s Wife(1930).
atelythroughthestreetsinsearchofahidingplace,buthispathisexposed throughtheharshlightsofthestreets.Inanextremelylongshotofadark citystreet,numerousbright-whitespotscomecloseruntiltheyturnoutto betheheadlightsofpolicemotorcycleswithsidecarsthatarechasingthe fugitive.Then,alongshotofaroundelectricalstreetlampinfrontofatall buildingandatree(fig.3.9)isinsertedbeforealongshotofHashizume’s legsrunningupstairsonthedarksideofthestreet. ThebriefshotoftheelectricalstreetlampisregardedbyNoëlBurch asoneofOzu’stypical“pillowshots”that“appearrathertoserveassheer transition.”113SimilarlydifferentiatingthestylesofOzu’sfilmsfromthose ofclassicalHollywoodcinema,Bordwellconsidersthatthis“transition”is basedon“noncausicalprinciples”withoutanyconnotativefunctionwithin theshotofthestreetlamp.114Yetbyconsideringtheimageofthestreetlamp tobeanoncausicalshotoftransitionandlocatingitwithinculturalorartisticsingularity,thesecriticshaveoverlookedtheheterogeneouspotentiality thattheshotcouldbringtotheentirefilm.Nowthattheshotconnectsthe policeofficerswiththebrightsearchlightschasingthesuspectandthefugistreetfiLMs 151
tivetryingtohideinthedark,thestreetlampcouldsymbolicallyembody the surveillance system of technological modernity that reveals everythingunderbrightlightandleavesnothinghiddenfrompolicing.Theshot shouldnotberegardedasasheershotoftransition,whichentirelydeviatesfromthecausalityofclassicalHollywoodcinema.Ithasacertaindramaticfunctionbothvisuallyandconnotatively.ThefilmhistorianFrances Guerin,inherbookA Culture of Light: Cinema and Technology in 1920s Germany (2005), oneofthefirst critical studies ofmotion picture lighting, categorizesthreeusesoflighttechnologyincinema:“material,”“subject,” and“referent.”Guerinexplicates,“Lightasthemediumoffilmalsohasthe capacitytobedevelopedasthecontentofrepresentationalimages.These imagesmightrepresentdevelopmentsinlighttechnologythattakeplace inthehistoricalworld.Suchrepresentationscanthenpotentiallyanalyze thesociologicalfunctionofartificiallightformationssuchasthecinema itself.”115InThat Night’s Wife,electricallightsareusedasthe“material”to illuminatethescenes,asthe“subject”torepresentthehistoricalprevalence ofelectricallightsoncitycornersinTokyoin1930,andasthe“sociological” or sociopolitical “referent” to indicate the technological modernity that illuminatesadarkcorneronthestreetunderconstantpolicegaze. Infact,aftertheshotofthestreetlamp,Hashizumekeepstryingtostay awayfromthesearchlightsbutisunsuccessful.Thecamerapersistentlyfollows him with strong spotlights. Thick shadows of his body are cast on thestreetsandthewallsofbuildings.Hidingatthecornerofatallbuilding,Hashizumecautiouslyrevealshisheadintothelightandpeeksatthe gathering police officers with the shining white gloves. In the midst of thechase,weseeabrightlylitphonebooththatoccupiesthelefthalfof theframe.116Likeamothdrawntolight,Hashizumecannothelprunning uptotheshiningphoneboothfromfartherbackinthedistanceandgoing in(fig.3.10).Inthefollowingmediumshotofthebooth,Hashizumelooks asifhehasbeencapturedandputinaprisoncell,harshlylitfromabove. Eventhoughhecrouchesinordertohidefromthepoliceofficers,hisface andbodyareclearlyseenunderthebrightelectricallightasifhewerenot onlyaprisonerbutalsoamannequininthedisplaywindowofadepartmentstore.Heistryingtohide,buttheelectricallightexhibitshisbodyto thespectator.Inthebooth,Hashizumemakesaphonecalltoadoctor,who stronglyrecommendsthatHashizumegohomerightawaytotakecareof hissickdaughter.Here,narrationally,moderntechnologiesenhancethe 152 chapter3
figure3.10 Hashizumerunsintoabrightlyilluminatedphonebooth. That Night’s Wife(1930).
suspensefulspectacleofthescene:thephoneconnectsthetwoseparated narrativesandthebrightlightoftheboothclearlydrawsHashizumeback intothespectacularchasefilledwithshockinglights.Butthemoderntechnologiesarepresentedasdouble-sided.ThephonesurelyworksasHashizume’shopefullifelinethatletshimknowabouthisdaughter’scondition, butinordertoobtainthatinformation,heneedstoexposehisvulnerable selftothespectacularlights. Eventually,Hashizumeiscapturedwithinthegazeofapolicedetective, whoalsowearswhitegloves.Hashizumetakesacabtostayawayfromthe search,butthedriverofthecabisthepolicedetectiveindisguise(fig.3.11). Inthecab,weseeinthemirrorthedriver’spoint-of-viewshotofHashizumefeelinganxiousandlightingacigaretteinthebackseat(fig.3.12).The lightfromthematchilluminatesthefaceofthefugitive.Inthispoint-of- viewshot,whichisconnectedtothespectator’sgaze,thedetectivevisually captures Hashizume’s face. The light and the frame-within-a-frame compositionmakeHashizume’sfaceappeartobepoppingoutofthevoid. Withthehelpofthisspotlighting,Hashizume’sface,fragmentedwithinthe frameofthebackmirror,clearlybecomesanobjectofgazefromtheaustreetfiLMs 153
figure3.11 Thedriverofthecabisthedetectiveindisguise.Healsowearswhite gloves.That Night’s Wife(1930).
figure3.12 Hashizumeiscapturedinamirrorandbythedetective’sgaze. That Night’s Wife(1930).
thoritywhoobservestheurbanspace:boththepoliceandSanitaryBureau andthespectatorofthefilm.Hereaswellthefugitive’sfacelookscompletelyseveredfromhisbodyandisturnedintotheobjectinthescopic fieldofthedetectiveandthespectator.117 The electrical lights and the camera are clearly used to “articulate a mode of visual surveillance” that captures Hashizume’s body, and body parts,withinascopicfield.118Underthestreetlamp,Hashizumecrouches onthestreetnearanedgeofaconcretebuilding,stronglylitfromtheright offthescreen.Aclose-upofhishandnervouslygrabbingpebblesonthe street, again brightly lit from the side, is inserted. Hashizume is illuminatedunderthedazzlingelectricallightsofthemetropolisatnight,which conspicuouslydeclaretheirhistoricalpresenceinalloftheseshotsofthe streetsatnight.Thus,inadditiontocomposingmise-en-scèneformore specificnarrativeandstylisticpurposes,lightandlightingareusedinThat Night’s Wifetorepresentthetransformationofspaceandeverydaylifefor individualcitizensfashionedbyintensetechnologicaladvanceinJapan.In otherwords,asGuerinclaimsabout1920sGermancinema,That Night’s Wife“usesthemediaofcinemaandelectricallighting,twoinventionsof technologicalmodernity,tointerpretthemodernlifetheybothhelpto fashion.”119 Moreover,inadditiontothepolicemen,thereisanothermodernfigure inthenarrativeofThat Night’s Wifewhofunctionsto“articulateamode ofvisualsurveillance.”AmedicaldoctorlooksatHashizume’scriticallyill daughterwhilethepolicearepursuingHashizume.AfterexaminingHashizume’sdaughter,thedoctorwasheshishandsanddriesthemwithhis handkerchief, which is shining as white as the policemen’s gloves lit by spotlight.LiketheofficersoftheSanitaryBureau,thedoctorobservesbut leavesnotracebehind.Neartheendofthefilm,atHashizume’sapartment, thedetectivefindsachartinanotebook,inwhichHashizume’sdaughter’s temperatureswererecorded.Thus,withtheguidanceofthedoctor,bodily conditionsofhumanbeingsaretranslatedintoascopicfield. Infact,likethepoliceofficers,thedoctorissymbolicallyandpolitically boundtotheSanitaryBureauinJapan.SincetheMeijiera,thefieldof medicineinJapanmainlyfollowedGermantechnologies.120Initsattempt to build a modern nation-state, the Meiji government was eager to updateJapanesetechnologyinthefieldofmedicine,andbeginninginthe latenineteenthcentury,manymedicalprofessionals,mostlyGerman,were streetfiLMs 155
recruited to train Japanese students in the fields of ophthalmology and surgery.NagayoSensai,whostudiedmedicineinPrussiaandcoinedthe termeisei(sanitation),atranslationoftheGermantermGesundheitspflege, foundedtheCentralSanitaryBureauin1872. WiththecrosscuttingbetweenHashizumeandhisdaughter,bothbeing observedbythemodernfiguresofdetectiveanddoctor,thenarrativeof That Night’s Wifeindicatesthatnotonlythepublicsphere(citystreets)but alsodomesticspace(Hashizume’sapartment)areopentosurveillancein technologicalmodernity.Infact,accordingtoBordwell,inthe1920sand 1930stheTokyogovernmentcontrolledalldomesticlightingbyturningit onintheeveningandoffatdawn.121Laterinthenarrative,thedetective, whopretendedtobeacabdriver,forceshiswayintoHashizume’sapartmenttofindthefugitive.HesimplysaystoHashizume’swife,whodesperatelytriestogethimtoleave,“Iamfromyouknowwhere”and“Iam supposedtobehereevenifyoudon’tlikeit.”Thusthepublicworldeasily penetratestheprivate.Publicandprivatespacewereredefinedbythesurveillancesystemunderpowerfulnewelectricallights.122 spectacular light and tactile light
WhatmakesThat Night’s Wiferemarkableisitsresilience,whichmovesbeyondsocialcriticismoftheoppressionofformsofsocialorganizationwith its dynamic exploration of films’ technological and technical capacities. NomatterhowcriticallyThat Night’s Wifelooksatthesociopoliticaland socioeconomicconditionsofmodernJapanin1930,atthelevelofexpressivemeans,throughthepoliceofficers’outrageouslywhiteglovesinparticular,thefilmpresentsatechnologicalcelebrationofcinema’scapacity tovibrantlyrepresenturbanlives,especiallythenighttimestreets,inthe splendoroflightandtovividly,orphenomenally,presentthemateriality oflightingtechnologyintheformofvisualattraction.Theusesoflighting thatspawnthenarrativeofThat Night’s Wifeareextraordinarydisplaysin andoftechnicallightandcertainlyrepresentatechnologicallysophisticatedindustryandsociety.123ByrelyingontechnicaldevelopmentinelectricallightinginmodernJapan,That Night’s Wifereplicatesthespectacular scenesofbrightlightsinthebigcityatnight.Thephysicalchasesceneisa spectacleoflight,enhancedbyexpressiveuseoflighting.Theexcitementof thelightsmesmerizesboththecameraandthespectator. Thepotentialityofcinemaasavisualmediumisdramaticallyexplored 156 chapter3
here.Curiously,intheoriginalshortstoryonwhichThat Night’s Wifeis based,thereisnosceneonthenighttimestreets.That Night’s Wifeisbased on Oscar Schisgall’s “Nine to Nine,” which appeared in Detective Story Magazine in the United States on April 9, 1927, and was translated into JapaneseandpublishedinShinseinenmagazineinMarch1930.NodaKogo, whowrotenumerousscreenplaysforOzuatShochiku,addedallthestreet sceneswiththeelectricallights,whoseentireeventsoccurinoneapartmentroomintheshortstory.Therearefewreferencestolightinginthe shortstory,suchasagaslampthatthewifeleavesdiminordertolether daughtersleepandthegoldenmorningsunlightcomingintotheroom,but nodescriptionofstreetlampsorpolicesearchlights.NodaandOzuconspicuouslyaddedthespectacularuseoflightinginThat Night’s Wife. Historically,technologicallygeneratedlightmadeitspresencefelton the landscape of everyday life in Tokyo, which had recovered from the earthquake, by the late 1920s. As the historian Gennifer Weisenfeld describes,“Afloodofelectriclighttransformsthestreetscene[ofGinzainthe late1920s]intoanevenmoredramatictheatricalstageilluminatedfrom above.”124Apopularsongof1932,“FloweringTokyo”(“HananoTokyo”), whichwasthethemesongofthefilmwiththesametitle,attractivelybut criticallycaptured thevision ofGinza atnight asabrightly illuminated spectatorialspace: YorunoGinzawahotarukago Koinokokoroochirachirato Manekuhikarinimanekarete Kitemirutsukinohosoikoto [Ginzaatnightisafireflycage Theflickeringoflove Drawnbytheinvitinglights Icameandsawthemoon;howthinitwas]125 Movietheatersthatshowedfilmswerepalacesofillumination(fig.3.13). ThecriticTawaradaTatsuopublishedtheessay“MovieTheatersandthe NotionofLighting,”ina1927issueofEiga Zehijournal.Intheessay,Tawaradastronglyrecommendedusing“diffusedlighting”inordertoilluminate theoutsideofmovietheatersand“let[ting]thetheatersstandoutclearlyin thedark”sothat“thepeopleshouldbeattractedtothem.”126 streetfiLMs 157
figure3.13 DaiTokyoEigakanwasanexampleofmovietheatersinTokyo, manyofwhichwerepalacesofillumination.ReprintedfromShomeiGakkai, ed.,Shomei Nippon,149.
Electricallightwascelebratednotonlyinthepublicsphereoftheurban milieuintermsofthecultureofconsumption,butalsointhedomestic,privatespaceintermsofart.Again,in1930,SasakiShintaro,thepresidentof SasakiShokai,thelightingequipmentcompanyatKanda,Tokyo,initiated theartoflightingmovement(shomei geijutsu undo).Sasaki,whohadbeen tryingtopopularizelightingequipmentsincetheearlypartofthecentury, insistedonusinglightforvernacularartforms.Sasakiwrote,“Idon’tthink itisconsideredtobegoodtastetopurchaseexpensivegoodsincontemporarysociety.Whatisthebesttastenow?Thatisappreciationoflighting.... Tastefullightingequipmentmakeslightlookartisticineveryhome.Itis notonlynecessaryfordailylivesbutalsoessentialfortastefullives.”127 Underthesesocialandculturalconditionsof1930sTokyo,That Night’s Wife is a visceral attraction, both commercially and artistically, with its seriesoftechnicalmanipulationsoflightandlighting.That Night’s Wife, whosestorybeginswhenthecity’slightsareonandendswhentheyare turnedoff,clearlydisplaysthetechnicalandtechnologicalexperimentationoflightingbyOzuandMobaraHideo,hiscinematographer,atShochikuKamata,nomatterhowreluctantKidoShiro,thestudiohead,was toexperimentwithlighting.That Night’s WifewasoneoftheearliestexamplesinJapanoftheconscioususeofelectricallightandpanchromatic filmstock.128Theelectricalcitylampsaredisplayedinlongshotsthroughoutthefirsthalfofthefilm.Eventhoughthereisnorecordofproduction,it wasprobablyonlypossibletophotographthedarkcitystreetsinpanchromaticfilm.AreviewofthefilminKinema Junpodidnotmentiontheissue of social criticism but noted the lighting: “Cameras, development, and lightingareexcellentindisplayingextraordinaryilluminationradiance.”129 AnotherreviewerinKinema JunpoclaimedthatThat Night’s Wifehadthe “dignifiedappearanceofParamountfilms”becauseofitscinematography, development,andlighting.130 ThesignificanceofThat Night’s Wifewasnotlimitedtothefactthatit usednewtechnologiesinanexperimentalmannerinacommercialproduct.ThelightingonthewhiteglovesofthepolicemeninThat Night’s Wife fitswithwhatthefilmhistorianThomasElsaessercalls“tactilevalues”in thelightingofsomeWeimarfilms.WhatThat Night’s Wifedisplays,asdo someWeimarfilmsandHayashiChojiro’sstarvehicles,ifweconsiderhis faceandeyestobephotogénie,isaphenomenalandperceptualfunction
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oflighting,inadditiontoitsreferentialormetaphoricalfunction—thatis, afunctionofbeingasocialcriticism.ExaminingtheUniversumFilmag (ufa)studio’slightingstylesinWeimarGermany,Elsaesserargues: Lightingturnstheimageintoanobjectendowedwithaspecialluminosity (being lit and at the same time radiating light)[,] which is to say,lightappearsasbothcauseandeffect,activeandpassive.Inshort itsuggests“authenticity”and“presence,”whileremaining“hidden”and “ineffable.”Theobject,andthehumanactorasobject[,]becomeirreduciblyimmanent,more-than-realintheir“there-ness”and“now-ness,” butbyaprocessthatconfersthispresenceonthemfromoff-frame,off- scene[,]...theluminousbecomesominousbecomesnuminous.... Thespecialkindofluminositythatcomesfromobjectsbeinglitandat thesametimeradiatinglight,bringsforththeillusionofaspecialkind of“essence.”131 Theconceptofthetactile,orthesenseoftouch,existedinthecontemporaneouscriticismonGermanexpressionismandWeimarcinema.Itwas AloisRiegl,anarthistoryprofessorattheUniversityofVienna,whoproposedanideaofthetactilealongsidehisreformulationofspatialityinart theory.Rieglwrites: Wemodernmenhavegraduallygrownaccustomedtosuchanextent tooperatingwithcountlessmentalimagesthatthecoloredimpression ofathingsufficestoawakenourconceptionofthatthinginourconsciousness,thedepotofourexperience,andwedon’tevenfeelanurge toexploreitslimitationsandqualities.Thesensualactofseeingappears thustohavebeenreducedinusmodernstoabareminimum,pushed back,asitwere,bytheintellectualactofconceptualcompletionfrom therealmofouractualexperience;this,however,constitutesanobvious threattothefinearts,whichcouldnotexistwereitnotforsensualperception,anditisforthisreasonthattheaforementionedreformersare convincedthatpeopleneedonceagaintobestimulatedtoresumeseeing asasensualact....Itisthusinanycaseessentiallythroughthesenseof touchthatweexperiencethetruequality,thedepthanddelimitationof objectsinnatureandworksofart.Ihavethereforecalledthesequalities ofthingsthetactile(fromtangere=totouch),asopposedtotheoptical (visible)qualities,likecolorandlight.132 160 chapter3
WalterBenjaminreformulatedRiegl’sspatialconfigurationinartbetween thetactileandtheopticalwhenheappliedittohisanalysisofcinemaas anewvisualmedium.Benjaminarguesthatincinema,despiteitsoptical immateriality,thevieweristactilelyengagedwiththeprofilmicmaterialbecauseofthecamera’sfunctionthatperplexinglycombinesfarandnear.133 FollowingthecriticalsuccessofRobertWeine’sThe Cabinet of Dr. Caligari(Das Kabinett des Dr. Caligari,1919),throughoutthe1920stherewas sustainedinterestandlivelydiscussiononthetechniques,technologies, and theories of German cinema among film critics and filmmakers in Japan.134Thosecriticsandfilmmakerswerekeenlyawareofthecentrality of light and lighting to a certain number of films from Germany. Even popularmagazinesforyoungwomenoftenpublishedarticlesonhowto appreciateGermanexpressionistfilmsandemphasizedthesignificanceof lightingandcompositionsinsuchfilmsasThe Cabinet of Dr. Caligari.135In particular,IwasakiAkira,ayoungGerman-speakingMarxistfilmcritic,investigatedtheconsequencesoftherelationshipbetweenfilmandlightin Weimarcinema.IwasakitranslatedRudolfKurtz’sExpressionism and Film (Expressionismus und Film,1926)intoJapaneseandtheoreticallysubstantiatedhisargumentonthelightinginGermanexpressionistcinema.Asearly asinthesecondpartofhisseriesoftranslations,whicheventuallycontinuedformorethanayearinKinema JunpoandEiga Orai,IwasakitranslatedKurtz’sargumentonlightinginGermanexpressionistcinema,which appearsalmostinthemiddleofKurtz’sbook:“Lighthasgivenbirthto expressionistcinema.Andthemostdifficulttaskforexpressionistcinema hasbeenwheretoplacelamps:lighting.Expressionistcinemahasmade peoplerecognizetheabilityoflighttodisplaymovementsandconstruct spaces.”136 Highly valuing the way German films’ lighting functioned with the viewer’s perception, Iwasaki pointed out the “tactile value” or the phenomenologicalfunctionthatlightingincinemashouldhaveinnature.In 1926,discussingaGermanfilmNew Year’s Eve(Sylvester,LupuPick,1923), Iwasakiclaimed,“Thepurelycinematicstylemeanslights,shadows,and movements.”137Hisargumentcenteredonlightinganditsfunction:“The opticalfascinationoftheplazathatmesmerizinglychangesfromduskinto night. Advertising illumination that circles around. Lit windows of elevatedrailwaytrainsthatgobackandforthlikecentipedes.Headlightsof automobiles.Complexnuancesofreflectinglightsemergefromaninfinite streetfiLMs 161
mixofsuchilluminations.Also,therhythmicalbutdelicatemovements that means of transportation unconsciously construct in the sea of illuminations....Theseareessentiallycinematic.”138Withtheselightsand movementsthatthelightscreate,Iwasakiconcluded,asdidElsaesser,that German expressionist cinema achieved “inward expression”and“tactile value.”139Theinwardexpressionandtactilevalue,accordingtoIwasaki, wouldchallengethe“superficialimitationandrepresentationoftheworld” in“naturalismandrealism.”140 Inparticular,Iwasakiextensivelyusedtheconceptof“absolutecinema” inordertoemphasizethetactilenatureofcinema.Absolutecinemawas mostnotablypracticedinWeimarGermanybyWalterRuttmannandhis films,includingOpus I–IV(1921–25)andBerlin: Symphony of a Great City (Berlin: Die Sinfonie der Grosstadt,1927),buthedidnotnecessarilyfocuson thetactile.AccordingtothearthistorianWilliamMoritz,“theterm‘AbsoluteFilm’wascoinedbyanalogywiththeexpression‘AbsoluteMusic,’referringtomusiclikeBach’sBrandenburg Concertoswhichhadnoreference toastory,poetry,dance,ceremonyoranyotherthingbesidestheessential elements—harmonies,rhythms,melodies,counterpoints,etc.—ofmusic itself.”Moritzargues,“Cinemaevenmorethanmusicseemsdominatedby documentaryandfictionfunctions,bothofwhichreliedonfilmrecording humanactivitieswhichhadtheirprimaryexistenceandmeaningoutside thefilmtheatre.AbsoluteFilm,bycontrast,wouldpresentthingswhich couldbeexpresseduniquelywithcinematicmeans....Themostunique thingthatcinemacoulddoispresentavisualspectaclecomparabletoauditory music, with fluid, dynamic imagery rhythmically paced by editing, dissolving,superimposition,segmentedscreen,contrastsofpositiveand negative,colorambianceandothercinematicdevices.”141 IwasakiexpandedMoritz’sconceptofabsolutefilm,whichwasmainly used for rather experimental films in Weimar Germany, to mainstream films.142Whenhetranslatedthetermabsolute cinemaintotheJapanesezettai eiga,Iwasakiemphasizedthattheultimateshokkakuteki(tactile)relationshipbetweenfilmmakersandspectatorscouldbeachievedinzettai eiga.143Iwasaki’sextendedconceptofabsolutecinema,withtheemphasisonthenotionofthetactile,isclosetothenotionof“thehapticvisuality”thatthefilmtheoristLauraU.Markssuggests.Marksarguesthatit is“abitunnecessary”tofocusonthefilmicimagesofhandstoevokethe haptic.Iwasakiwasnotconcernedmuchaboutrepresentationsofhands 162 chapter3
onthescreeneither.AccordingtoMarks,“lookingathandswouldseem toevokethesenseoftouchthroughidentification,eitherwiththeperson whosehandstheyareorwiththehandsthemselves,”andthe“hapticbypassessuchidentificationandthedistancefromtheimageitrequires.”144 Markstakesaphenomenologicalapproachandregardstheactofviewing asaformofsensuouscontact(“theeyesthemselvesfunctionlikeorgans oftouch”).145Shedefines“hapticvisuality”insuchawaythat“visionitself canbetactile,asthoughoneweretouchingafilmwithone’seyes.”146For Marks,inthehapticvisuality,“identification”doesnotneed“anillusionisticpictureplane”thatmakes“agreaterdistancebetweenbeholderandobject,”butleadsthespectatorintoa“contingent”spaceandletsthem“interact”withobjects(discardsthedistance,inotherwords).147 IwasakididnotwritespecificallyaboutThat Night’s Wife,buthedistinguishedOzu’sfilmsofthisperiod—fromI Graduated, But . . .(Daigaku wa detakeredo,1929)toI Was Born, But . . .(Umarete wa mitakeredo,1932)— fromotherfilmsproducedatShochikuKamata.IwasakinotedthatOzu’s films “more directly depicted the psychological depression of the ‘dark period’thananyotherfilms.”148IwasakicouldhavecalledThat Night’s Wife anabsolutefilm.EveniffiguresofhandsareessentiallyunnecessarytoinvokethesenseoftouchasMarksarguesandIwasakisuggests,theycould stillbecomevisualmetaphorsorindexesofthetactile,enhancedbyspecial lighting.149Infact,That Night’s Wife,especiallywithitsrecurrentimagesof hands,coalescestheopticalandthetactile.Whilethespectacularlighting inThat Night’s Wifepoliticallyengagesintheissuesofprimacyofvision andthedevelopmentofavisualsurveillancesystembythestate,itsimultaneouslysharesdiscursiveconcernswithWeimarintellectualsandfilmmakersaboutcinemaasanewmediumwhose“dynamicmateriality”could “openupnewandconstantlydivergentunperceivedmodesofsensoryperception.”150InThat Night’s Wife,hardandcontrastylightingexaggerates thesignificanceofcertainobjects.Again,accordingtoElsaesser,theillumination in the film enhances the “‘authenticity’ and ‘presence’” of the policemen’sgloves,whicharepulledforwardfromavagueanddarkbackground,andmakesthem“more-than-realintheir‘there-ness’and‘now- ness.’”Theoutrageouswhitenessoftheglovesoriginatesfroma“special kindofluminositythatcomesfromobjectsbeinglitandatthesametime radiatinglight”that“bringsforththeillusionofaspecialkindof‘essence.’” Atthesametime,thechaseonthenighttimestreetsinThat Night’s Wife streetfiLMs 163
canbecalledasymphonyoflight,whichgoesbeyondthe“superficialimitationandrepresentation”ofthecity.151Thechasescenebecomescloser and closer to the absolute cinema of Ruttmann’s Opus II and the night scenesinBerlin.Inthesefilms,numerouswhiteorbrightdotsofvarious sizesandshapes,includingabstractimagesandelectricalneonsigns,pop outandmovefreelyonthescreen,inoppositiontotheblackordarkbackgrounds.InthemidstofthechasesceneinThat Night’s Wife,ifweonlyfollowthewhitenessofstreetlightsandbrightnessoftheheadlightsofpolice motorcycles,thesequencelookslikeabstractartwithwhiteelectricallight bulbs.Atallthestreetcornersandinmostoftheshotsofthechasescene, electricallightsarepresent,occupythebrightestwhitespotswithinthe frames,dominatethemovementofthefilm“astheyflythroughthedarkness,” and catch the eyes of the spectators.152 Then, shots of assembled patrolmenstandinginlineareinsertedinthemiddleofthechasescene. Hardlightingemphasizesthepoliceofficers’whitegloves,whichappear rathercomicallyasaseriesofmovingwhitedotsinline. ElsaesserclaimsthatthetactilelightingstyleinWeimarcinema,which wasdevelopedbyGermancinematographerssuchasKarlFreund(The Last Laugh)andFritzArnoWagner(M),“remarkably”contributedtointernationalcinema.153Ozuandhiscinematographerswerekeenlyawareofthe discursiveandpracticaltrendsofGermancinematographyandphotographythatwereintroducedtoJapanviafilms,photographs,andarticlesin journalsinthelate1920sandthroughoutthe1930s.AtsutaYuharu,theassistantcinematographerofThat Night’s Wife,whowouldbecomeOzu’spreferredcinematographerinhislaterfilms,retrospectivelysaidinthe1980s thathelearnedgacho(tonesoflighting)byviewingGermanfilms:“The firstname[ofacinematographer]thatIrememberedwasKarlFreund.”154 Infact,theinfluentialfilmjournalEiga HyorontranslatedanessaybyKarl Freund,“RevolutionderFilmphotographie,”intoJapaneseandpublished itinthejournal’sSeptember1927issue.Freund’sessaywasontheemergenceofpanchromaticfilmstocksandhisinnovativeuseoftheminBerlin, particularlyfor“nightshootingsofeverywhereinthecity”thathadnot beenpossiblebeforethedevelopmentofpanchromaticfilm.155 AsanenthusiasticamateurphotographerandavidfanofGermancameras,OzupurchasedaLeicacamerain1930,theyearwhenThat Night’s Wifewasproduced,andsubscribedtothephotojournalKogathatfollowed theavant-gardephotographymovementthathadstartedinthelate1920s 164 chapter3
inGermany.Ozucontributedtwophotographs,Weapons(Heiki)andStill Objects(Seibutsu),toMonthly LeicamagazineinJanuaryandFebruary1934. Thesephotosarenotmerelybrightandtheimagesarenotcrisplydefined inasimplemanner.KimuraIhei,theeditorofKoga,notedontheformer: “Thephotodoesnotonlyhaveawell-constructedcomposition.Fromthe photo,somethingessentialofarmylifecomesoutalive.”156InWeapons, a hard spotlight from the frontal left creates a strong contrast between lightsandshadowswithintheframe.Theleftsidesoftheleatherboxesand knivesarelit,butastrongshadowpenetratestheframediagonallyfrom thebottomlefttotheupperrightandhidessomeweaponsincomplete darkness.157Thelitweaponsstandoutinthedarknessandseemtosuggest“‘authenticity’and‘presence,’”makingthem“more-than-realintheir ‘there-ness’and‘now-ness.’” Yettomeitismoreinterestingtothinkaboutthesimultaneity(“co- evalmodernity”)throughwhichdirectorsandcinematographersinGermanyandJapaninthelate1920stoearly1930sbecameintriguedbythe senseoftactilityinthevisualmediumthanitistoclarifywhowasinfluenced by whom. Moreover, it is fascinating to wonder how those filmmakersnegotiatedwiththeconditionsoffilmproductionandreception whiletheypursuedthediversepotentialityoflightingincinema.AsIhave alreadymentioned,itiswidelyknownthatOzupreferredfilmsbysuch directorsasChaplin,Lubitsch,andVidor,whowould“generallycontent themselves with even, general lighting,” in contrast to such directors as Sternberg, whose lighting “is an indispensable means of expression.”158 Bordwell points out that Ozu “insisted on a bright, hard-edged look to evokethecrisplydefinedimageshehadvisualizedinhisnotebooks.”159At thesametime,obviouslyThat Night’s Wifedidnotusemerely“bright”and “crisplydefinedimages”butwasconsciousthatlightingwas“anindispensablemeansofexpression.”AccordingtoAtsuta,Ozuwas“obsessedwith tones”andhated“flat”images.160AtsutaclaimedthatOzurejectedShochiku’srequestforthetintingofhisfilms,sayingthattintingwouldmake imageslookflat.161 Hence,negotiationshadtobemade.BecauseCrosswayswasadistinctiveproductofamixtureofShochiku’sstarsystem,thepopularityofjidaigeki,andKinugasa’sprofoundinvolvementwiththecriticaldiscourseson cinema,itstechnologies,anditstheories,That Night’s Wifeemergedata dialogicfocalpointofShochiku’sbrightandcheerfulpolicyinitsgendaistreetfiLMs 165
gekiproduction,itsdevelopmentofacultureofelectriclightintheurban spaceofTokyo,andOzu’sawarenessofthecriticaldiscoursesoncinematographyfrombothHollywoodandWeimarGermany. the Return of the kamata tone
Let’sfast-forwardthenarrativeofThat Night’s Wife.Thedetectivefollows Hashizumetohisapartment,wherehisdaughterissickinbed.WhenHashizumeisabouttobearrested,hiswife(YakumoEmiko)pointsagun atthedetectivefromhisback.Thehierarchalrelationship inthescopic fieldbetweenthepursuingandthepursued,thegazerandthegazed,isreversed.However,nomatterhowfatigued,Hashizume’s wifecannot fall asleepfromthenon.Shehastokeephereyesandgunonthedetectivein ordertopreventhimfromarrestingherbelovedhusband,whoneedsto takecareoftheirsickdaughterthroughthenight.Yetsoonafter,asifimplyingthatshehasfallenasleep,thecamerapanslefttohanginglaundryand stopsatanornamentedwindow,fromwhichthesupposedsunlightstarts toilluminatetheapartment.Thefollowingshotshowsanelectricallamp ontheoutsidewallofabuildingbeingturnedoff.Underthestrongmorningsunlight, amilkman arrives andexchanges milkbottles.Thecamera comesbacktotheapartmentandpansrightfromthewindowtothelaundry.WhenHashizume’swifewakesup,sheseestwogunsbeingpointedat herbythedetective.ThespectacleoflightsinThat Night’s Wifecomesto anendatthispoint. Therestofthestoryisplayedoutintheevenlylitbrightroomsofthe working-classapartment.Hashizumedecidestogivehimselfupandthe detective mercifully waits until his daughter wakes up to take him to thepolicestation.Thefilmendswithasurprisinglyoptimistictone,despitethefactthatHashizumeisabouttobesenttojailforseveralyears. Furthermore,thereisnopresentationofastructuralplantoimprovethe industrialeconomythatputHashizumeintoadistressedposition.ThedetectiveoffersacigarettetoHashizume(fig.3.14).Thenthetwowalkalong asunnystreetinterlockingtheirarmslikeclosefriends,withouthandcuffs: thereisnolongeranyemphasisonshiningwhitegloves. Thereisnosensitivitytolighthere,whichmakesastrongcontrasttothe darkenedstreetwithcitylightsintheopeningofthefilm.Thefilmseemsto compromiseitsovertcritiqueofthesocialdistresscausedbytechnological modernityanditsdirectengagementwiththeissueofanewsensoryper166 chapter3
figure3.14 ThedetectiveoffersacigarettetoHashizume.That Night’s Wife(1930).
ceptionacceleratedbylightingtechnologybypresentingamelodramatic happyendingwithanapparentlyhumanisticandsociallymoralisticrelationshipbetweentheobserverandtheobserved.Itlooksasifthebrightbut flatsunlighthasanuminousandomnipotentfunctionthatgoesbeyondthe phenomenologicalattractionofelectricallightinginthenighttimestreets, oratleastovercomesthesocialdistress.ThefilmcriticKishiMatsuowrote inacynicaltone:“Ifitisnotallowedinthecurrentbusinesssystem[of Shochiku]tofullydepicttherealityofshoshimin,thenitisnotreallyabad ideatosupporttheconjunctionbetweenmelodramaandrealism,nomatterhowcompromisingthatlooks.”162 Sucha“compromising”conclusioncouldbeunderstoodtobeanimplicitprerequisiteoftheKamatatoneforanyfilmscommerciallyproduced atShochikuKamata.The March(Shingun,UshiharaKiyohiko)wasagood exampleofthebrightandcheerfulKamatatonein1930becauseitwasa filmmadetocommemoratetheten-yearanniversaryofShochikuKamata, which was established in 1920. Ushihara Kiyohiko, whom Iwasaki Akira namedas“oneofthefirstandmosttypical”directorsoftheKamatatone, wasassignedtodirectthisfilm.In1926,UshiharavisitedHollywoodand, accordingtoIwasaki,afterthathe“decidedtomakebrightandvigorous streetfiLMs 167
films.”163ThescreenplayofThe MarchwaswrittenbyNodaKogo,whoalso wrotethescreenplayofThat Night’s Wife.Bothfilmsdealwiththeissueof thepovertyoftheworkingclass.InThe March,Koichi(SuzukiDenmei),a peasantfarmer’sson,fallsinlovewithToshiko(TanakaKinuyo),awealthy landowner’sdaughter,butfeelsunworthyofherbecauseofhisfinancial conditionunderthefeudalstructure.HeenlistsintheaviationschoolattachedtotheJapanesearmyandputshimselfindangertoovercomefinancialdifficulty. LightingschemesthatrealizeasharedthematicmotifatfirstseemoppositionalbetweenThat Night’s WifeandThe March.UshiharasaidaboutThe March,“Thetone[oflighting]wassoftanddelicate.Thatwasthecharacteristic of the Kamata tone.”164 Indeed, most of the sequences of The Marcharephotographedin“softanddelicate”toneswithevenlighting. Thereisalmostnodifferenceinbrightnessbetweenthelandowner’sluxuriousWestern-stylehouseandthefarmer’shouse,eventhoughweseeonly oneelectricallampinthelatter.Eventheclimacticbattlesceneatnight isphotographedinhighkey.ThereareonlyafewscenesinThe Marchin which dramatic styles of lighting are observable. Koichi visits Toshiko’s housethenightbeforeheleavesforthebattlefield.WhileToshikostands insideabrightlylitroom,Koichistaysoutsideandsecretlylooksather throughawindow.Itisdarkoutsideandhardsidelightscreatedarkshadowsonhisface.Afteranofficeriswoundedinbattle,hisdeathissymbolizedbyaclose-upofthegentlyswaying,flickeringhospitallamp.Still,in thesescenesbothToshikoandthehospitallampareinhighkey. Comparedtothisbrightandcheerfulfilm,inwhichtheprotagonistmarriesabourgeoiswomanandfulfillshissomewhatcapitalistdesiretobreak outofhisworking-classstatus,theapparentlightingschemeofThat Night’s WifehasmoreincommonwiththatofWhat Made Her Do It?(Nani ga kanojo o so saseta ka,SuzukiShigeyoshi,1930),acriticallyacclaimedandfinanciallysuccessfulkeikoeigaof1930.LikeThat Night’s Wife,What Made Her Do It?dealswiththeimminentissueofeconomicdepressionandpoverty. Yet,unlikeThat Night’s Wife,theheroineofWhat Made Her Do It?never fulfillsheraspirationformodernlifebutonlysuffersfromcontinuouscruel actionsbythebourgeoisie.Adeprivedgirl,Sumiko(TakatsuKeiko),issold toacircusbyheruncle,whoisalsosufferingfrompoverty.Shefallsinlove withSintaro(UnnoRyujin)there,buttheyareforcedtobeseparatedfor years.Afterescapingfromthecircus,Sumikoistreatedharshlybynumer168 chapter3
oustypesofbourgeoisie.WhenSumikoandShintaroarefinallyunited, thedepressedcoupleattemptsadoublesuicide.OnlySumikosurvivesand isplacedinaChristianreformschool.Discouragedbyhypocriticalteachers,Sumikosetsfiretotheschool.Thelastintertitleofthefilmquestions: “Whatmadeherdoit?” SuzukiShigeyoshi,thedirectorofWhat Made Her Do It?,whohadbeen anassistantdirectortoUshiharaatKamata,returnedfromEuroperight beforetheproductionofthefilm.InEurope,accordingtotheassistant directorKimuraSotoji,Suzukiwas“influencedbytheexperimentalstyles ofabsolutefilmsandpurefilms,”includingManRay’sThe Sea Star(L’Étoile de mer,1928)andGermaineDulac’sThe Seashell and the Clergyman(La coquille et le clergyman,1927).165 IncertaincriticalscenesofWhat Made Her Do It?,hardlightingisused anditcreatesstrongcontrastbetweenlightsandshadows.Electricallights oftenexposethepoorprotagonisttospectatorialsurveillance,asinThat Night’s Wife.DuringthesceneinwhichSumikofinallyseesShintaroafter severalyears,thelightingdrasticallychangesasthedramatictensionofthe sceneenhances.Atthebeginningofthescene,thereisaclockonthewall. Thetimeisfiveo’clockintheevening.Sumikohearsthunderroaring,feels scared,andcomestoawindowtolookoutside.Ithasstartedraining.She seesShintarostandingonthestreet,tryingtostaydry.Sheinviteshimin andtriestotellhimwhathashappenedtohersincetheyparted.Sumiko isnowlivinginahouseofabiwa(aJapanesemusicalinstrument)teacher, whohasallegedlybeentakingcareofher.Asnightfalls,aspotlight,which replicates an electrical light hung from the ceiling, gradually makes Sumiko’sshadowonthewalldarkeranddarker,asifitwerereflectingher tragiclifestorythatshetriestorelatetoShintaro.Bythetimethebiwa teacherreturnsandstealsalookatthecouplefromoutsidethedoor,the lightingofthe scenehas becomeextremelycontrasty.Withharshlightingfromoneside,numerouslinesofaglassdoorandshojiscreenscast darkshadowsonthethreepeoplestandingatthedoorway.AfterShintaro leaves,theteacherviolentlyapproachesSumiko.Theteacherthinksthat Sumikohasseducedtheyoungmanandbroughthimintothehouse.Feelinginsulted,Sumikorunsthroughthecontrastivelylitroomsandescapes into the rainy nighttime street. The teacher scornfully laughs at her. As doestheprotagonistofThat Night’s Wife,Sumikocannothelpbutruninto aphoneboothonthestreettoavoidrainaswellasthecontemptuousgaze streetfiLMs 169
figure3.15 Sumiko(TakatsuKeiko)runsintoabrightlyilluminatedphone booth.What Made Her Do It?(1930).
fromtheteacher(fig.3.15).Shecannotbesafelyhiddeninthedark,though. Anelectricallightontheceilingoftheboothisverybright.Moreover,a shotisinsertedhereofashinylightintherainystreetseenfromtheinside ofthephonebooth.ItcouldbeSumiko’spointofviewofasearchlighton thestreet,fromwhichshedesperatelywantstohide. ItwasOtaniTakejiro,thepresidentofShochiku,whooriginallyplanned toproduceWhat Made Her Do It?Otanidecidednottomakethefilmat Shochikubut,accordingtoKimuraSotoji,broughttheprojecttoSuzuki, adirectoratTeikokuEngeiKinemaCompany(Teikine),amuchsmaller studio.166What Made Her Do It?,basedonanacclaimed1927leftistnovelby FujimoriSeikichi,wascertainlyattractivematerialforOtani,butprobably tooradicaltobemadeintoafilmatbrightandcheerfulShochiku.Onthe otherhand,theratherfavorableandmoralisticdepictionofthepolicedetectiveandtheprotagonist’svoluntarycaptureintheendingsceneofThat Night’s WifefitperfectlyintoShochiku’smissionofpresentingbrightand cheerfulcinema. Havingsaidthat,theapparentlyhappyendingofThat Night’s Wifewith noobsessivedisplayofspectacularlycontrastyhardandharshlightsand 170 chapter3
thus no emphasis on the ambivalence of brightness and technological modernitycouldstillberegardedasasocialcriticism,simultaneouslysatisfyingShochiku’spolicyforitscommodities.Whenjuxtaposedwiththe criticalengagementoftheharshcontrastoflightandshadowinthenighttimestreetsofamoderncitythroughouttwo-thirdsofthefilm,thesudden andconspicuousbrightnessinlightingattheendcanbereadasacritique ofamodifiedinstrumentalrationalityofmodernization—“oppressionwith aheart.”167Themoraloffidelitytobothlawandfamilyembracesthethrillingbutofteninhumane nighttime streets.Thisending under thebright sunlightcouldberegardedas“acapitulationtothesystem’sallencompassingpower.”168Thissuperficialcompromisingclosureofthefilm,between amelodramaticreactionaryresolutionofthenarrativeandacelebratory displayofsoftandbrightlights,indicatestheveryexistenceofthecontradictionsofeverydaylifeinJapanesemodernity. That Night’s Wife,aspartofShochiku’scommercialstrategyandasits meansofattainingculturalcapital,capturesthehistoricalmomentbyway ofthefilm’ssensitivitytolightandlighting.Inparticular,thefilmisspecificallyconcernedwithquestionsabouttechnologyandasocietymolded bytechnology.169Electricallightingtechnologyenablesthecharactersto strollthroughthecityatnightand,atthesametime,allowsthefilmmakers toshowsuchactivitiestothespectators.Thefilmoffersacriticalvisionof thereconfiguringofurbanspaceandpowerrelationsintheformofflourishingspectacularindustrialentertainment.Thefilmnotonlydisplays,with acriticalview,ahistoricalworldthatincreasinglyisdefinedbytheroleof electricallight,butalsocontributestothedepthofamodernworldofspectacle.170Inthissensethefilmcombinesasociallycriticalqualitywithvisual spectacleandbecomes“innovative,provocative,andconventionalinthe bestsenseoftheword.”171Simultaneouslycelebratingandcritiquingthe innovativetechnologiesandcriticallyengagingthetheoreticaldiscourses onsuchtechnologiesthatenablethespectacleoflighting,That Night’s Wife tookseriouslythecontradictorysociopoliticalandsocioeconomicconditionsof1930.
streetfiLMs 171
chApter 4
theaestheticsofshaDoW Shochiku, Toho, and Japan
to the dark side: Hayashi Chojiro’s transformation to Hasegawa kazuo
HayashiChojirowasattacked!IntheeveningofNovember11, 1937,HayashiwasonhiswaybackfromtheproductionofGenkuro Yoshitsune,thefirstplannedstarvehicleforhimatTohoEiga Company’sKyotostudio.Fromtheshadowycornerofthestreet, anunknownruffiancameout,asking,“Mr.Hayashi?”Allofasudden,heslashedthefaceofHayashiwithrazorblades.Instantly, the left side—the beauty side—of Hayashi’s face was covered withblood.Severelyinpain,Hayashicriedout,“Mirror!Giveme amirror!”InhisstarvehiclesatShochiku,Hayashimetaphoricallyslashedhisenemieswithhisface.Butnowhisdeadly,beautifulfacewasbrutallydamaged.1 Even though there was no clear evidence, it was widely assumedthatthisviolentincidentwasShochiku’sretaliatorymeasureagainstHayashi’sso-calledbetrayal.Somecriticsandfans regardedHayashi’sdecisiontoworkwithToho,anewfilmcompany,asabetrayaltoShochiku,thecompanythathadmadehim astar.2Tohowasheadhuntingstarsfromelsewhereinorderto challengeShochiku’sdominanceinthefilmbusiness.The“Toho Block”hadappearedbyMarch1935asthecollaborationofPhoto
ChemicalLaboratory(pcL)inTokyo(afilmproductioncompany),J.O. StudiosinKyoto(afilmproductioncompany),andTokyoTakarazukaGekijoCompany(acompanywithapproximatelyfourhundredtheaters,includingTokyoTakarazukaGekijo,HibiyaEigaGekijo,andNihonGekijo). ThesethreecompaniesestablishedTohoEigaDistributionCompanyin June1936andthenTohoEigaCompanyinAugust1937.3InordertochallengeShochiku,TohohadtriedtomergewithNikkatsuin1936tobeableto useits537movietheaters,butShochikuintervened.ItwasToho’scounterattacktohireactorsandstars,includingHayashiandOkochiDenjiroin May1937,awayfromShochikuandNikkatsu.4 Hayashi’smotivebehindhismovetoTohowasnotaboutmoney.AccordingtoareportinKinema Junpo,hiscontractwithTohowasnotlucrativeatall,butitwasbasicallythesameastheoldonewithShochiku.The newcontractwasforfiveyears,2,500yenamonth,plusanannual20,000 yenincentive,whileatShochikuHayashireceived2,000yenamonth,plus a1,000or2,000yenincentiveperfilm.5Heappearedineighttoelevenfilms ayearatShochiku,whichmeantanadditional8,000to22,000yenayear. Besides,Hayashi’scontractwithShochikuhadendedonSeptember7,so hismovetoTohoonOctober13wasnotabreachofhiscontract.6TheofficialreasonforHayashi’smovewas“hisintentionofartisticimprovement,” accordingtoareportinKinema Junpo.7Hayashisaid,“Iamalreadythirty yearsold.Ihavereachedthetransitionalperiodofmylife.Ineedtochange something.”8 By using such language, Hayashi was certainly taking into accountthehighprofileofToho’sbrand-newlightingsystem.AsofApril 1937,pcLalreadyownedmuchmorelightingequipmentthanShochiku’s Shimokamostudio.WhileShimokamohadsix5kW,ninety3kW,eighty 2kW,and1501kWelectriclamps,pcLwasequippedwithtwo10kWspots, six5kWspots,ninety3kWspots,thirty2kWspots,1202kWsidelights,150 1kWtoplights,sixteen5kWstrips,two4kWstrips,five1kWcondenser spots,andten2kWcondenserspots.9 Hayashi’s aspiration for change was granted at Toho. First of all, his namewaschanged.Givinghisstagename,HayashiChojiro,backtoShochiku,Hayashistartedusinghisrealname,HasegawaKazuo,atToho.Second,andmoreimportant,thestarimageofHasegawaKazuowasneverthe sameasthatofHayashiChojiro.Eventhoughbothimageswereachieved byextremecareinmanipulationoflighting,themethodsofsuchmanipu-
174 chapter4
lationwereverydifferent.WhiletheemphasisontheimageofHayashiwas onglamour,forHasegawaitwasonshadow. Hasegawamightnothaveexpectedsuchachangebecauseofwhathe hadheardfromthecinematographerTsuburayaEiichi,whohadphotographedHayashiChojiro’sdebutfilm,Kid’s Sword Fight,atShimokamo andhadalreadybeenworkingatToho.TsuburayamentionedToho’scinematographyasbeing“muchclearer”thanShochiku’s,buthedidnotsay anything about its emphasis on shadow.10 Despite—or because of—the changeofonscreenstarimage,however,HasegawaKazuobecameaneven biggerstarthanHayashiChojiro.11 Practically,anemphasisonshadowwasnecessarytohidethescarson Hasegawa’sface.Nagashi-meandonobashi,anenhancedapplicationof theHollywood-stylethree-pointlighting,becamedifficultinhisclose-ups. Butmoreimportant,theprominenceofdarknessinHasegawa’sonscreen starimagecorrespondedtotheemergenceofanewdiscursivetendency thatcouldbecalled theaestheticsofshadow inJapanesecinema.Even thoughHayashiwasnotagenuinestarofShochiku’strademarkgendaigeki,thegenrethattypicallyrepresentedthecompany’ssloganof“Bright andcheerfulShochikucinema,”Hayashi’sfacewasaniconofShochiku.It isironicthatHayashiwrotefromhishospitalbedaftertheattack:“Iwill returnverysoon.Iwillnotgiveuponlybecauseofsuchathing.Iwillwork harderwhenIrecover.AndIwillfight.Thereisnootherwayforusbutto workhardinordertofightback.Ibelieveabrightroadwillopenupthere. Ugly and dark spirits will vanish entirely.”12 Hayashi’s stardom revived brightlybutnotinthebrightnessoflighting.Hayashi’smisfortunewith ShochikuandHasegawa’sriseatTohoweresymboliceventsthatmarked theturningpointofcinematiclightingandthecriticaldiscourseaboutitin thehistoryofJapanesecinema.WhenHasegawarecoveredfromthenear- fatalinjury,somecriticsandcinematographersstartedcriticizingShochiku filmsmoreopenlythaneverfortheiruncriticalinclinationtobrightness. Shochiku’sdominanceinthefilmindustryhadreachedacriticalpoint.The aestheticsofshadowincinematographyappearedasamajorcriticaldiscourseandpracticaltendencyofJapanesecinemainthelate1930sto1945. TheaestheticsofshadowembodiedthecomplicatedfilmcultureinJapan duringthewar,aculturethatwasnevermonolithicinspiteofthenational filmpolicyandthemilitaristandimperialistgovernmentalcontrol.Butbe-
theaestheticsofshaDoW 175
foregoingintothedetaileddiscussionofthisnotionoftheaestheticsof shadow,IwanttostaywithHasegawaKazuoforalittlewhileinorderto showhowhisimageonthescreenandthelightingschemeforhimchanged inhisstarvehiclesatToho. TheproductionofGenkuro Yoshitsunewasabandonedafterall.Instead, Tojuro’s Love(Tojuro no koi,YamamotoKajiro,1938),basedonapopular novelbyKikuchiKan,wasselectedasthefirstfilmforHasegawaatToho. ItwasastoryaboutafamousKabukiactor,SakataTojuro,whosedevotion tohisartresultedinthetragicdeathofO-Kaji,ageisha,whowasbetrayed bythemansheloved.Tojuro’s LovewasadreamprojectforbothHasegawa andhisfans.HesaidinSeptember1937,whenhewasstillwithShochiku, “IdowanttomakeTojuro’s Love,butthecompany[Shochiku]isworrying aboutcensorship.”13InJune1937,SakyoSayuri,afan,wrotealettertoShimokamoandconfessed,“EverytimeIreadthestoryofTojuro’s Love,my wishbecomesstrongerandstrongerinmyheart:IwishMr.Hayashiwould playtheroleofTojuro.AmItheonlyonewhohasthiskindofwish?...In aroomlitwithasilkandon,Tojuro’sice-coldeyesstareatO-Kaji’severy singlemovementwhilehiswordsandbehaviorsbywhichheconfesseshis lovetoherareextremelysweet.”14Infact,Tojuro’s Loveturnedouttobe abighit,financiallythethirdmostsuccessfulfilmof1938forToho.15The critic Iijima Haruo reported that in bothTokyo and Osaka, such major TohotheatersasNihonGekijoandUmedaGekijowere“99percentfull” forthefirsttendaysafterthefilm’srelease.16Hasegawafanswerewaiting forhiscomeback,andthecontent—eitherdarkorbright—mighthavehad onlysecondaryimportancetothem.17 WhenTojuro’s Lovewasreleased,somefanswatchinghiminthefilm weresurprised.Insteadofbeinglitinaglamorousmanner,Hasegawawas placedinverydarkspacesinanumberofscenes.Afanpointedout,“The camera[inTojuro’s Love]:darkingeneral.”18Theclimacticsceneisatypical case. Tojuro (Hasegawa) confesses his false love to O-Kaji (IrieTakako) only for the sake of improving his acting skill. Some female fans complainedthatthey“werenotabletofeelecstaticaboutTojuro’sclose- upevenhalfasmuchasthatofYukinojo[theheroofAn Actor’s Revenge].” They pointed out that the camera position was too low, which made Hasegawa’sfacelook“toofat.”19Otherfans,however,appreciatedtheway thattheonscreenimagesofHasegawaincorporated“thesenseofreality andtruthfulness”morethanthoseofHayashiatShimokamohaddone.20 176 chapter4
Afan,WakanaMari,wrote,“[Playing]Tojuro,[Hasegawa]abandonedhis feelingsinthepastandaddedrealisticsombernesstohisgorgeousimage atShimokamo.”21 The lighting scheme of Tojuro’s Love deviated conspicuously from a glamorous treatment of the star’s face. The cinematographer of Tojuro’s LovewasMiuraMitsuo,whospenthisearlycareeratShochiku’sKamata studioandhadbeenfamousforhis“brightandmodernsensitivityincinematography.”22InTojuro’s LoveMiuraundoubtedlytreatedthestar’sface withextremecare.Hasegawa’sclose-upsinthisfilmarealmostalwaysaccompaniedwithsuchon-screenlightingsourcesasandon,candles,and bright shoji windows, which indicate Miura’s distinct awareness of the lighting on the star’s face. The first close-up of Hasegawa appears most appropriatelyinasceneinwhichTojuromakeshimselfupinhisdressing room.Softlightcomesintotheroomfromashojiscreenwindowbehind Tojuro,whichplaceshimindimbacklight.Tojuroturnshisheadtothe cameraoverhisrightshoulder.Hiseyes,lookingtowardfrontalleftwith theslightlyclosednagashi-mestyle,catchkeylightswhiletherimofhis headshinessoftlybecauseofthebacklight.Additionally,aroundmirror, whoseframealsoshinessoftlyreflectingthekeylight,occupiesalargepart ofthescreenanddisplaystheleft(injured)sideofHasegawa’sfaceina smallersize.Thisisthemostsubtletreatmentpossibleofthestar’sface,in ordertosatisfytheaudience’scuriosityandtorevivetheglamorouslightingthatwasadoptedforHayashiinthecraftyworkofSugiyamaKoheiand KinugasaTeinosukeatShimokamo.23SugiyamaandKinugasadealtwith Hayashi’sfaceasabeautifulobjecttobelookedat,especiallybyafemale audience.Forthatspecificpurpose,nomatterhowdarkthesceneoftheir jidaigeki,thestar’sfacewasbrightlyandglamorouslydisplayedwiththe specialtechniquesofonobashiandnagashi-me. In contrast, in other scenes of Tojuro’s Love, Miura did not place Hasegawa’sfaceatthecenterofglamour.Insteadhetreateditasanentity onwhichshadowsplaysignificantrolesinorder“toachievetheperfect atmosphereofthespace.”24Theclimacticsceneisaperfectexample.Tojuroissleepinginadarkroominthelateevening.Theroomislitonlyby anandonlamp,thepseudolightingsource,placedinthefrontalrightof thescreen.AsO-Kajientersfromtheleft,thecamerapansinthatdirection tocapturethecouplewithinthesameframe.Accordingly,theandongoes outoftheframe.O-Kajicomesintotheroomandplacesakimonoover theaestheticsofshaDoW 177
figure4.1 Litonlybyanandon,conspiringTojuro(HasegawaKazuo)staresat O-Kaji(IrieTakako)withnagashi-me.Tojuro’s Love(1938).
Tojuro.WhenTojurogetsup,hisbodycreatesahard,dark,andauthoritativeshadowonthewallbehindhim.InthemediumshotofTojurothatfollows,theleftsideofhisfaceislitbytheandon(fig.4.1).Theinjuredsideof Hasegawa’sfaceisnothiddeninthisshotbutratherappearsinstarkwhite. Hiseyesarelookingtowardtheleftsideofthescreen—thesamedirectionalityasthefamousnagashi-me—withsparklinglightsinsidethemreflectingthesidelightfromtheandon,buttherightsideofhisfaceisalmost completelyinshadow.Afterhepassionatelyconfesseshis(false)loveto O-Kaji,whoweepsonthefloor,Tojurostandsup,walksaroundtheandon, andleavestheroom.AsthecamerafollowsTojuro’scircularmovement,a strongspotlightcastsahuge,darkshadowbehindhim.Whenhepassesin frontofshojiscreensinthedarkroom,whitewavesoflightandblackwaves of shadow, which reflect the moonlight on the river outside, ominously movebehindTojuro.Theemphasisoftheclose-upsofHasegawa’sfacein thestronglycontrastylightinginTojuro’s Loveisnotontheglamourofthe star.Insteadtheemphasisisontherealisticdirectionalityoflightingfrom theandonplacedinthedarkroom,andperhapsonthenarrativeeconomy thatexpressesthesenseofconspiracyinTojuro’smind.25 178 chapter4
Inthefinalsequencethatfollows,TojurolearnsthatO-Kajihascommittedsuicide,brokenheartedtoknowthatshehassimplybeenusedby him.Amontageofextremeclose-ups(ecus)ofTojuro’sfaceisaperfect exampleoftheRembrandt-stylelightingofthefilm: ecu:Tojuro’sfacelookingslightlytothefrontalright(fig.4.2).Theleft sideofhisfaceisinshadow.Onlytherightsideislit. ecu:Tojuro’sfacelookingfullytotheleft(fig.4.3).Completelyinsilhouette.Therimofhisfaceandapointofhislefteyearelit. ecu:Tojuro’sfacelookingfullytotheright(fig.4.4).Theposteriorhalf ofhisheadisinshade.Hisrighteyecatcheslight. Thesethreeextremelybriefshotsarerepeatedatleastfivetimesbefore thecameracapturesTojuroinamediumclose-up,onceagaininacontrastylighting,instrongsidelightfromtheleft.Nowthattheinjuredside ofHasegawa’sfaceisdisplayedintheseclimacticscenes,itisclearthat Miura’schoiceoftheRembrandt-stylelightingwasnotonlyforthepurposeofhidingthescarsonHasegawa’sface.Instead,inTojuro’s Love,the star is placed in a specific lighting scheme that emphasizes the realistic tonesanddirectionalityoflightandshadow. In Cinematography Reader (Eiga satsueigaku dokuhon), the 1940 textbookoftheNipponeseSocietyforCinematographers(nsc;foundedon May1,1932),theJapanesecounterpartoftheAmericanSocietyforCinematographers(asc;foundedin1919),Miuracontributedanessayonlighting.Miurafirstexplicatestheprinciplesofcinematiclightingtechnologies basedonthetheoreticaldiscoursesinHollywood,andthenrefutesthem inJapanesefilmmakingpracticesbasedonthenotionofrealism.Miura writes:“Tonesoflightareindispensablefordramaticeffectsoffilms.Good orbadtoneswillgivefatalimpacttoaworksothatlightingisextremely important.Itislightingthatcinematographersofdramaticfilmsneedto haveprofoundinterestin.Itisessentialforthemtothinkoftherelationshipbetweenmodesofrepresentationandlightingwhentheycloselyexaminethegoal,subject,andstructureofaprovidedscreenplayanddecide howtocontrollighting.”26Miura’sclaimheredirectlyfollowedtheargumentoftheasccinematographerWilliamStullinthefirstvolumeofCinematographic Annual(1930):“Thechiefdistinctionbetweengoodandbad cinematographyislighting.Cinematographyisessentiallythecontrolof light,andnaturallythebestcinematographeristheonewhoknowshowto theaestheticsofshaDoW 179
figure4.2
Tojurolearns thatO-Kaji hascommitted suicide.Tojuro’s Love(1938).
figure4.3 Tojuro’s Love (1938).
figure4.4 Tojuro’s Love (1938).
socontrolthelightreflectedintohislensesastogetthemostperfectand pleasingrepresentationofhissubjects.”27 Miuraregardedthe3/4frontand3/4toplightingas“themostideal” forlightingafigure.Miurawrites,“Conditionsoflightingshouldbeideally achievedbyacombinationofatleasttwostrongandweaktypes.Thatis, concentratedspotlight,relativelybrightdiffusedlight,andfilllight,which isoftencalledsidelight,softeningcontrastsbetweenlightandshadow.”28 ThisisalmostexactlywhatStullexplainedabouttheidealuseoflighting: “Thereisthe3/4frontlighting.Thisisthemostusefulforgeneraluse,as itbringsoutthemodelingandskintextureinthemostnaturalway.... Forgeneraluse,theselightings[flatfrontlighting;sidelighting;3/4front lighting;backlighting]shouldbeusedincombination:atleasttwolight- sourcesshouldbeused.”29 Havingsaidthis,Miuracontinues,“Speakingofthemethodsoflighting, Ithinkitisdangeroustobeabsorbedinblindlyimitatingforeignfilmsand bringingshowybrightnessintoJapaneserooms,inparticular.”30Miuraexplainsthereasonsforhisclaimintermsofactuality: Mainly,aJapaneseroomislitbyreflectionsfromthecorridor.Thetop oftheroomisactuallydarkwhilethefloorisverybright.Plus,thetone oftheroomisusuallydarkish.ItisacceptabletofollowtheAmerican styleoflightingwhenwephotographaWestern-styleroom,butcalm andsimplifiedbeamsoflightarenecessaryforaJapaneseroominorder tomaintainharmonybetweentheroomanditslighting.Suchbeamsof lightareusefulinordertoenhanceasenseofreality....Wemustavoid acarelessmethodoflightingthatthrowshardlight,orhigh-keylight, fromthetopinaJapaneseroom....Thebeautyofsimpleandsoftbeams oflightfloatingintoaJapaneseroominthesemi-darkevening.Thisis thelightthatwearemostfamiliarwith.31 Precedinghisessayfrom1940,MiuradidnotdisplayHasegawa’sfacein Tojuro’s LoveintheHollywood-stylelightingthatprioritizesastar’sglamouraboveanythingelse.Lightinginthefilmisgenericallymelodramatic insomescenesandemphasizestheemotionalstatesoftheprotagonists, butatthesametimelightingisusedtohighlighttherealismofthespace. ShimazakiKiyohikooftheJapaneseAssociationofFilmTechnology (NihonEigaGijutsuKyokai)highlyvaluedMiura’sattemptofrealismin lightinginTojuro’s Lovethatused“chiaroscuro”and“contrastyRembrandt theaestheticsofshaDoW 181
lighting”inordertoachieve“theperfectatmosphereofthespace.”32Even thoughShimazakicalledthelightingschemeofthecorridorbehindthe stage“anabsolutefailure”fromthestandpointofrealism(toShimazaki, thespacelooked“asifitwerelitbymoderninteriorelectriclampsinstead ofbeinglitbycandlesorandon”),hestillpraisedthelightandshadow createdonthefaceofTojuroashewalkeddownthecorridor.Thiswasa goodexampleofthe“precisionlighting”thattheHollywoodcinematographerGaetanoGaudio,whoreceivedanOscarin1936forZola(directed byWilliamDieterle),hadbeenadvocating,butShimazakicriticizedthe overalllightingofthecorridorbecauseitdidnotmatchsuchprecision.33 Shimazaki had just translated into Japanese Gaudio’s August 1937 essay “A New Viewpoint on the Lighting of Motion Pictures,” which had appearedintheJournal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers,andpublished itinEiga to Gijutsu.34GaudiowroteandShimazakitranslated: Thewriter’smethod[ofbuildinglighting]istobeginbyplanningfor theshadowareas,andbuildthemuptothedesiredlevelwithspotlight beams.Andhereisanimportantfact:innaturethereisnormallynosuch thingasanopaqueshadow.Eventhedarkestshadowsordinarilyencounteredreflectalittlelight,sothatatleastasuggestionofsomethingcan beseen.Wemaynotpenetratetheshadowenoughtomakeoutallthe details,butwecanalmostalwaysgetanideaofwhatisintheshadow. In photography, things are different. If a shadow does not reflect enoughlighttomakesomesortofexposureonthefilm,thepicturewill showmerelyanopaque,jet-blackemptinesswheretheshadowis.On theotherhand,ifwethrowtoomuchlightintothearea,thereissimply noshadowatall. ThatiswhyIbeginwithlightingtheshadows....Establishingmotion picturelightinginthismanner,andfromthisviewpoint[,]permits,even compels,theuseofmorenaturallightingeffects....Inbothofmymost recent productions, Anthony Adverse and Zola, most of the moving- camerashotshavebeenlightedsoastosimulatenaturaleffects,letting theplayersmovethroughthelessbrilliantlylightedareas,andconcentratingthehighlightsandthemodelingeffectsinwhatwouldinactualitybethelogicalhighlight-areas.... Fromthisdiscussionitwillbeseenthatthisformoflightingmustof necessitybeverycloselyinterlockedwiththecompositionofthescene, 182 chapter4
justasitshouldbe,forcompositionisreallymuchmorethanthemere geometrical arrangement of lines, masses, and objects. Composition shouldproperlytakeintoconsiderationlighting;andlighting,composition....Thetechniquedescribedhererequiresneithermoreangles ofilluminationnormorelightingunitsthantheconventionalgeneral- lighting-plus-spotlightingtechnique.Farfromrequiringahigherlevel ofillumination,itpermits,asarule,theuseoflowerlevels.35 WhatGaudioemphasizedinwhathecalls“precisionlighting”washow toachievenaturalnessbyusingshadowsincomposition.ForShimazaki, Gaudio’semphasisonrealismofshadowsandhisclaimthathislighting wouldnotneeda“higherlevelofillumination”providedanidealmodel forlightingpracticesinJapan. ShimazakialsocommentedonthedisputeovercinematographicrealismbetweenErnstLubitsch,aHollywooddirector,andVictorMilner,a Hollywoodcinematographer.ImpressedbytwoFrenchfilms,Pépé le Moko ( Julien Duvivier, 1936) andThe Grand Illusion (La Grande Illusion,Jean Renoir,1937),Lubitschcriticized,intheFebruary1938issueofAmerican Cinematographer,thecinematographyinHollywoodforbeingtoo“idealized”andpraisedFrenchfilmsfortheir“realism,”despitetheFrenchfilm industry’smaterialandtechnologicallimitations.Lubitschsaid,“Inboth cases,theeffectonthescreenwaspreciselyasthoughthecameramanhad beenabletosetuphiscameraandshoottherealthing,technicallylimited byjustthesamelimitationsintime,lightingandsoonwhichwouldrestrict himhadhebeenworkingactuallyinMorocco[JosefvonSternberg,1930] orinawartimeprisoncamp....Now,intheaverageAmericanfilm—even aClassBprogrampicture—wecouldcreateequallyauthenticsets.Butour cameraworkwouldalmostinevitablytendtoidealizethem.”36 Milner,whohadworkedwithLubitschonsuchfilmsasThe Love Parade (1929)andMonte Carlo(1930),wasopposedtosuchaviewbasedonthe notionof“thecinematographer’sdutytotheplayersandtohisemployer” inHollywood.Milnerwrote: Itisafactthatapopularstarisnotmerelyahumanbeingorafineactor oractress.Suchastaralsorepresentsatremendousfinancialinvestment onthepartoftheproducerorhisstudio.Thatinvestmentmustbeprotected....Inotherwords,tosafeguardhisemployer’sinvestment,the manatthecameramustconsistentlybendeveryefforttomakehisstar theaestheticsofshaDoW 183
appearasyouthfulandlovely....Hemustoftensubordinatehisown conceptsofhowasceneshouldbephotographedtothenecessityfor makingastar,whoisactuallythirtyyearsoldandmayatthemoment lookforty,appearonthescreenaglowingtwenty.Suchasituation—and theyareandalwayshavebeenmuchtoocommon—isnotimeforthe brutalfranknessofrealisticcamerawork!37 Shimazaki agreed with Lubitsch. Shimazaki claimed, “Considering our feelings toward Hollywood cinema and our thoughts on the essence of cinematographictechnology,Ithinkhis[Lubitsch’s]wordsareappropriate,andIsupporthisview.”38Shimazaki’semphasiswasobviouslyonrealisminlighting. ThepositionsofShimazakiandMiurawerenotidentical.MiuraemphasizedthespatialdifferencebetweentheUnitedStatesandJapanand insistedonadoptingdifferentlightingschemesinordertorepresentthem properly.Shimazakiplacedahigherpriorityon“theperfectatmosphereof thespace”thantheglamourofstars.Yetbothofthemagreedthatlightingshouldservetoachievetherealismofspace.Shimazakireferredtoa newdiscourseinHollywoodcinematographyinordertoexploreamethod differentfromthemajorpracticesthere.Miuraalsotriedtodistinguish hisworkfromthemainstreamHollywoodtechniques.Despitebothmen’s slightlydifferentpositionsregardingHollywoodlighting,theywereclearly aimingforthesamegoal:tochallengethedominantmodeoflightingin Japan—bright andcheerful Shochiku cinemaandthehomeofHayashi Chojiro—fromtheperspectiveofrealism. Tohowasnotabsolutelysurethatrealisminlighting,whichwouldprioritizeshadowoverglamour,wastheroadthatitwouldtakewhenitcame topromotingthebiggeststarofthetime.InacoupleofHasegawastar vehiclesatTohothatfollowedTojuro’s Love,therewasareverseeffortto recreatetheShimokamo-tonecinematographyusedonHasegawa,especiallywhenthereweresomefanswhocomplainedaboutthedarklighting inTojuro’s Love.Respondingtosuchfans’voices,TohoproducedMother of Memory(Mabuta no haha,1938)asHasegawa’ssecondstarvehiclethere, withKondoKatsuhikoasthedirectorandItoTakeoasthecinematographer,whohadworkedwithHasegawaatShimokamo.Thefirstclose-upof Hasegawa’sfaceinMother of Memoryrevivedthethree-pointlightingof Hollywood,whichwastactfullyincorporatedinHayashistarvehiclespro184 chapter4
ducedatShimokamo.Thethree-pointlightingisinaninteriorsceneofa Japanesefarmhouseintheevening.Inamediumshot,Chutaro(Hasegawa) iswritingalettertohismotherwithhisfriend’smother’shelp.Thecamera tracksforwardtoChutaro,andtheshotturnsintoaclose-upoftheright sideofhisface.Hidingtheinjuredsideofhisface,Hasegawafacestheright sideoftheframe,wherethelightfromanunknownsourceenters.Thekey lightprovidesflaminglightstohiseyesinthisonobashishot.Theshadow onhisfaceissoftenedbythefilllightfromthefront,andtherimofhishair shineswithbacklight.Thesourcesoflightarenotclearforanyofthem.The glamorouslightingonthestarisobviouslyprioritizedhereovertherealisticdepictionofthespace. AsimilarglamorouslightingschemeforthestarappearsinTsuruhachi Tsurujiro(NaruseMikio,1938)aswell.ItwasthethirdfilmforHasegawa atTohoandhisfirstwithYamadaIsuzu,anotherbigstaroftheperiodwho wasfamousforherbeautifulphotographicimage.Thecinematographer ofthefilmwasagainItoTakeo.Tsuruhachi Tsurujirohadbeenplannedas Hasegawa’ssecondfilmatToho,butwaspostponedbecauseofYamada’s illness.39Tsuruhachi TsurujiroisanuncreditedremakeoftheHollywood filmBolero(WesleyRuggles,1934).Eventhoughacriticcommentedwhen Tsuruhachi TsurujirowasreleasedthattheHollywoodversionhadamuch more“straightforwardbeauty”thantheEdoaestheticofhumanemotions depictedintheJapaneseversion,thelightingschemesontheheroesare consistentinbothfilms:glamorousthree-pointstarlightinginalmostall close-upsofHasegawaandGeorgeRaft.40InTsuruhachi Tsurujiro,asthe criticYamaneSadaopointsout,the“beautyoflightandshadowformed bythesunlightfallingthroughthedeepwoods”isparticularlyimpressive inthefilm.ThefacesandbodiesofTsuruhachi(Yamada)andTsurujiro (Hasegawa)are“colorfullylitbytheshimmeringlightsfromthesurface ofthelakethatreflectthesoftsunlightfallingthroughthewoods.”41Such lightsalsoprovideshininghalosontheirhair. Surprisingly, however, the glamorous Shimokamo tone of Mother of Memory was unanimously criticized by both fans and critics as “regressive.”42Onefanwasdisappointedatthefilmandsaid,“IexpectedMother of Memorytobealittledarker.”Anotherfanagreedandsaid,“Theytriedto makethedepressivescreenplaylookbrightandcheerfulandaimedatthe Shimokamotone,butIdon’tthinkthatwasagoodidea.”43Theproduction ofTsuruhachi TsurujirostartedonJuly16,1938.44SinceMother of Memory theaestheticsofshaDoW 185
wasinitiallyreleasedonlyonJuly14,thereactiontothefilmwasnotyet availabletothefilmmakers.45 triumphal songs of Black: Female genealogy and the Battle of kawanakajima
ThesituationwasdifferentwhenHasegawaandYamadaworkedtogether againinthefollowingyears.Longgonewastheglamorouslighting.The emphasiswasonrealismandshadow.Female Genealogy(Onnakeizu,Makino Masahiro; part I was released on June 11 and part II, Zoku Onnakeizu,onJuly16,1942)andThe Battle of Kawanakajima(Kawanakajima kassen,KinugasaTeinosuke,1941),bothofwhichwerephotographedby MiuraMitsuo,weretypicalexamples.Female Genealogyearned1,110,474 yen(bothpartscombined),toppingThe War at Sea from Hawaii to Malaya (Hawai Mare oki kaisen,YamamotoKajiro,1942)with1,039,088yen,and becamethesinglemostfinanciallysuccessfulfilmoftheyear.46The Battle of Kawanakajimawasnotassuccessfulattheboxofficeasotherstarvehicles fromHasegawaandYamada,butitwasthemostcriticallysuccessfulfilm amongthem.47ThenscdecidedThe Battle of Kawanakajimahadthebest cinematographyforadramaticfilmthatyear. InitiallytheproductionofFemale GenealogywasimpededbytheInformationBureau.48Theproblemwasnotaboutthestars’glamourbutthe storyofthefilm.Accordingtothedirector,MakinoMasahiro,thebureau warnedthefilmmakers,“Thereisnowayofmakingafilmaboutageisha [during the time of war]. Moreover, such a foppish film cannot be permissible.”49Inresponse,Makinohadtochangetheprotagonist’soccupationfromascholarofGermanliteraturetoagunpowdermaker,anoccupationdirectlyconnectedtothewarefforts.ThefilmhistorianShimura Miyokoarguesthatthischangeironicallyfunctionstodiminishtheseriousnessofthewareffortsbyemphasizingtheinnocenceoftheheroine whodoesnotunderstandaman’sworkbutonlybelievesinromanticlove.50 O-Tsuta(Yamada),theformergeishaandheroine,doesnotknowhowimportantgunpowdermakingisforthenationandbelievesthattheyoung chemistHayaseChikara(Hasegawa)simplymakesfireworks.According toShimura,asparklerisnotarepresentationofHayase’sworkbutatoken oftheirromance.Assuch,Shimuraargues,thenationalisticaspectofthe “man’sworkisturnedintoasentimentalandsweetthing.”51 Yet,thelightingofFemale Genealogydoesnotfullyenhancesuchsenti186 chapter4
mentalityandsweetness.ThefamoussceneatYushimaShrineunderthe moonlightisgoodevidence.Thescene,inwhichHayasebidsfarewellto O-Tsutabecausehehasbeenorderedbyhismentortodosoinorderto focusonhisstudies,provides“thefirstclimax”intheshinpaplayaswell asinMakino’sfilmversion.52Thesceneonlyusestwolongshots,andthe secondshothasextremelylongduration.Followinganextremelylongshot withadeepcompositionthatcapturesthecouplewalkingintotheshrine, acraneshotwithlongduration follows themovement ofthecouple— walkingunderaplumtree,sittingdownonabench,standinguponeat atimeinanemotionalmanner,andwalkingoutoftheshrine.Thelong takemaintainsaspecificlightingschemethroughout:Hayaseontheleft isalmostinfullsilhouetteandO-Tsutaisonlylitfromtheaboveleft.The lightfromtheaboveleftsupposedlyimitatesthemoonlight.Eventhough themovementofthecameraisbeautifullysmoothandthehigh-angleand deepcompositionthatplacethetragiccouplebehindafullybloomedplum tree(blocking)ismemorable,thereisnoglamorousclose-upoftheprotagonists(fig.4.5).EvenwhenO-Tsutastartscryingintohersleeveinthe midstofthissceneofemotionalenhancement,whatisemphasizedisthe shadowonthescreen.Thecouplewalksintoanextremelydarkcorneron therightasthescenecloses.Eveninthefollowinginteriorsequenceata noodleshop,anakedelectriclampontheceilingisindicatedintheinitial longshot,andthefollowingshotreverseshotsofthecoupleinmedium close-upsarelitfromonlyonedirection.TheleftsideofHayase’sfaceis indarkshadow.Thereisnoshiningrimofhishair.Intheend,thecouple goesoutsideagainandvanishesintothedarkendofthestreet,whichislit byonlyafewelectricstreetlamps. Inthesecondpart,HayaseandO-Tsutaneverappearinthesamescene alive.ThereisasceneinwhichO-TsutareturnstoYushimaShrineinthe coldautumneveningwithKoyoshi(MimasuAiko),anothergeisha,but Hayaseappearsonlyinflashback.Thissecondsceneattheshrinemakesa clearcontrasttothefirstone,intermsofthetechniquesused.Thefaster editing(fromalongshotofO-Tsutatoamediumshot,amediumclose-up, andanextremeclose-upofherface),thehysterical“actingout”ofYamada Isuzu,thedramaticscore,andtheinsertionofthefarewellsequenceinthe pastallfunctiontorepresenttheemotionallyenhancedconditionofthe heroineandtoinducethespectatortobecomeaffectivelyinvolvedwith the scene.53 However, as for lighting, the same dark scheme as the first theaestheticsofshaDoW 187
figure4.5 Inalongtake,HayaseChikara(HasegawaKazuo)saysgood-byeto O-Tsuta(YamadaIsuzu)attheYushimaShrine.Female Genealogy(1942).
shrine sequence is maintained here. The emulated moonlight from the aboveleftleavesO-Tsuta’sbodyandfacenearlyasasilhouettewhenshe facesright.Theonlyexceptionistheslightuseofbacklightatthesame noodlerestaurant.O-TsutaandKoyoshitalkatthesametableunderthe singlelightbulbwhereO-TsutaandHayaseatebowlsofnoodles.Thistime, delicatebacklightcreatesanangelicrimonthehairoftheself-sacrificing heroine.ShespeaksillofherstupidselfwhodoesnotunderstandthesignificanceofHayase’sworkanddeclaresthatshewouldratherchooseto dieinlovethantirehimandbeabandonedbyhim.Thistwo-pointlighting appearstobeoneoftheimpliciteffortsinFemale Genealogytodisplaythe starinarelativelyglamorousandsensualmanner. Attheveryendofthefilm,O-Tsuta,alreadydeadfromtuberculosis, appearsasaghostintheroomofHayase,whohassucceededinhisgunpowder making. In a long shot, there is a gas desk lamp on the frontal leftsideoftheframe.Farbehind,O-Tsuta’sghoststands,litonlyfromthe belowleft.Hayasesitsatthedeskonthefrontalright,litonlyfromtheleft. AfterabriefmediumshotofHayase,thereappearsaclose-upofhisface photographedfrombehind.Nowthedesklampislocatedatthebackon 188 chapter4
figure4.6 Inaclose-up,O-Tsuta(TanakaKinuyo)criesattheYushimaShrine. Female Genealogy(1934).
therightside.Hayase,sensingO-Tsuta’sexistence,turnshalfwayback.In frontofthedesklamp,hisfaceisalmostcompletelyinsilhouette.Thusthe emphasisoflightinginFemale Genealogyisonrealismofthespace,despite thefilm’smelodramaticcontent,aswellasthefactthatthefilmisbasedon averypopularshinpaplay. ShochikuKamata’s1934versionofFemale Genealogy,directedbyNomuraHoteiandstarringTanakaKinuyo,themostpopularfemalestarin Japanatthattime,isaclearcontrasttothe1942versionintermsoflighting. IntheShochikuversion,thesceneattheYushimaShrineismainlystructuredaroundshotreverseshotsbetweenHayase(OkaJoji)andO-Tsuta (Tanaka).Eventhoughitisstillsetunderthemoon,thesceneisflatlylit fromthefrontthroughout—theshadowsofthetwoareconstantlyvisible onthewallbehindthemandthereisnohaloontheirhair—exceptfor theclose-upsofO-Tsuta’sface,whicharelitwithglamorouslysoft-toned three-pointlighting(fig.4.6).Intheend,O-TsutadiesinHayase’sarms under the bright light. As a famous shinpa tragedy, Female Genealogy is notcheerfulatall,butthelightingofthe1934versionfaithfullyfollowsthe sloganof“BrightandcheerfulShochikucinema.” theaestheticsofshaDoW 189
ThepainterOtaSaburocalledThe Battle of Kawanakajima“atriumphal songofblack”andpointedout“theattractionofblackthatfillstheentire film.”Otaargued,“Theamountofblackthatisusedinextremeabundance isitselfmeaningfulanddecidesthevaluesofthisfilm.”Asanexample,he contendedthatthesceneinthewoodswherecommonfootsoldierslook fortheircargoaftertheydroppeditfromacliffis“thedarkestandblackest”sceneofthefilm,butthe“richandemotionalblacknesshasacharm inwhichweareeasilyabsorbed.”54Similarly,theTohocinematographer KawasakiKikuzowrote,“He[Miura]depictedthestrongsunlightofsummerindarktoneswithoutlosingthedetailsinthedark.Itlookedsimple, butwasinfactthemostdifficulteffect.Andtheeffectofthemoonlight[in thenightscenes]wasarrangedsmoothlyandconsistentlyintoneswithout anydisruption.”55 ForShimazakiKiyohiko,whowasnotfullysatisfiedwithMiura’swork inTojuro’s Love,The Battle of Kawanakajima,thefilmforwhichHasegawa andMiurareunitedafterseveralyears,turnedouttobeaperfectredeemer. Shimazakiaskedhimself,“Cangeneralaudiencescomfortablyappreciate suchdarknessandcontinuityofblack?”56Still,hecalledthefilm“thepure attractionofblack,aspectacularsymphonyofthephotographicbeautyof black”andpraiseditas“anunprecedentedhugesuccessinthehistoryof Japanesecinematographictechniques.”57Shimazakiasserted,“Somewould complainthefilmistoodarkandlacksdetailsofblacktones,butIthinkit isgoodtohavesuchdarknessinfilmsandthetonesthatignoredetails.Of courseitisincorrecttoregardacompletelyblackshotaslow-key,butat thesametimeitistooconservativeandwrongtoconsiderthatthereisno cinematographicvalueunlessdetailedtonesofblackremain.Inthissense, itisacceptableandvaluabletoboldlyuseblackincomposition.”58 ThedarktoneinThe Battle of KawanakajimawastheresultoftherealisminlightingtowhichMiuraaimed.The Battle of Kawanakajimaopens with a scene at night, in which common foot soldiers with heavy loads slowlymarchthroughopenfieldsintothewoods.ThehandwrittenscreenplayofThe Battle of Kawanakajimabegins: AvillageinthemountainsnearMt.Kurohime.Thelinesofmountains arecrisplyvisibleundertheclearskywithstars.Dawnisapproaching. Alongwithavaguelywhitehillyroad,rootsoftreesandstonesofthe uniqueshapesofsnowycountriesarelyingunderthesky.Itisafterthe 190 chapter4
rain. The stones are still wet and shining. There is no sign of human beingsinthislonesomesight....Fromtheforestroad,agroupofsamuraisontheirhorsesappear.Theylookexhaustedandtryingnottofall asleepaftermarchingonthetoughroute.Then,infinitelinesofcommonfootsoldierswithguns,spears,andbows;additionalsoldiers;and samuraiscarryingflagsfollow.Theyweararmorontheirnakedbodies, coveredwithsweatanddust,andstruggleonthebadroads.59 Obviously,thescenewasphotographedindaytime,andtheday-for-night techniquewasused.Thechoiceofday-for-nightwasaresultofmaterial scarcity.Itwasimpossibletophotographthemarchofsoldiersonsuch alargescaleatnightwithalimitedamountoflightingequipment.What wereavailabletoMiurawereonlythree5kWsunspotlights,fifteen3kW sunspotlights,threesolarspotlights,andfive2kWsidelights.60Thelightingschemeoftheopeningsceneclearlysetsthebasictoneofthefilm:full utilizationofavailablelightingsources(thatis,thesun)andemphasison thecontrastytonesofthenaturallandscape.Miuraclaimedinhisproductionnoteofthefilm,“Idecidedmybasicattitudeinthisfilm:toaimfora vividlycontrastivetoneinordertodepictthecorethemeofthefilm,the enhancementofourundauntednationalspiritdisplayedintheseasonof summer.”61Miuraaddressedthathehopedtodisplaythenationalspirit“in anabnormallytensefashion”bywayof“depictingdarknessofthenight inindefinitesilence.”62Miura’sargumentwasthatdocumentationofthe vividlycontrastylightingofsummerinJapanintheformofstrongshadows wouldconsequentlyexpresstheJapanesenationalcharacter,evenifcertainvisualdetailswerehiddenindarkness.TheproductiondesignerKubo Kazuonoted,“Speakingofthetones,[The Battle of Kawanakajima]took advantageoftheshortcomingsofthefilmstockinJapan—itsweaksensibilitytolight—andexcellentlyemphasizedthestrongcontrastbetween blackandwhite,”andclaimed,“Mr.MiuraMitsuo’sbolddarktonescanbe calledgroundbreakingworkinJapanesecinema.”63 ThefilmhistorianDarrellWilliamDavisagrees.Hedescribestheopeningscene:“Extremelongtake-longshotsshowthousandsofsoldiersand horsemen moving first through fields, woods, meadows. They are integratedintothelandscape:ahighangleshotofasquadronofsoldierswith lancestrudgingthroughadeepsun-dappledforesthasshaftsoflightspearingandbouncingfromtreesandlances....Again,theshotisheldforsuch theaestheticsofshaDoW 191
durationthatthesheersizeofthearmyisemphasized,butalsotheabstractpatterningofthesunlightplayingthroughtreesandspearsaestheticizestherepresentationqualitativelyaswellasinscale.”64Asaresultof such“spectacularscaleandvisualeffects,”DavisarguesthatinThe Battle of Kawanakajimathelandscapeisinvokedas“ametonymicsignifierofwar spectacle”andnatureisappropriatedas“historicalglorification.”65Miura mightnothaveintendedtoglorifyorspectacularizethelandscapeasDavis argues.ItwasimpossibleforMiuratodothatunderthelimitedconditions ofthelightingequipment.Instead,hedecidedtoappropriatethevisual effectsofdarknessindocumentaryterms.ThissenseofdocumentaryoccupiedthecentralpartoflightinginThe Battle of Kawanakajima.Thedirector,KinugasaTeinosuke,whoproducedmanyglamorousHayashifilmsat Shimokamo,emphasizedthedocumentaryqualityofThe Battle of Kawanakajima:“Perioddramasusedtofocusonbattlescenes,butinThe Battle of Kawanakajima,Iplantoexpressthesoldiers’movementsandhowthey overcamethedifficultiesoftransportationandlackoffood.”66 Inpractice,Miuraconfessedthathe“sufferedtoovercometheextreme difficultyofsettingthedarknessofthethickwoodsasthebasisofthefilm.”67 Itwasnoteasytoexpressthe“sublimebeauty”ofwoodswith“darkshadow” and“thetransparentlightofleaves”aswellastodisplayalargegroupofarmoredsamurai,whowere“tooinsensitivetolightasaphotographicsubject,” whenitwasimpossibletobringlightingequipmentintothedeepwoods.68 Therefore,Miuradecidedto“erasedetailsinultimatecontrastsand,against commonsense,tousefiltersforday-for-nightshooting(lattenno.72xand 25a)inthedarknessofthecedarwoods.”69Bothlattenno.72x(specifically forday-for-nightphotography)and25afilterswereknownfortheirusein achievinghardandcontrastytones.70AsaresultofbreakingoutoftheconventionsofHollywood-stylelightingtechniques,Miuradepictedthemarch ofanarmywithspearsinthewoodsunderthedarklightofthemoon—the supposedlightingsource—in“aradicalcontrastbetweenblackandwhite,” giving“anextremelyvigorousrhythmoflightonthescreen”(fig.4.7).71 Bythesamemethod,MiuraplacedanenormousarmyoftheTakedaclan infrontofapitch-blackshadowofmountains,inwhich“onlythetipsof thespearsominouslyshineashighlights.”72Miura’slightingschemeincorporatedtherestrictedconditionsofthelightingequipmentonlocationin termsofdocumentarism,andtheresultwasanidealrealizationoftheaestheticsofshadow,asOta,Kawasaki,andShimazakinoted. 192 chapter4
figure4.7 Anarmymarchesinthedarkwoods.The Battle of Kawanakajima(1941).
Miuradidnotchangehisdocumentarystyleoflightinginthestudio. WhenproductionresumedonSeptember12atToho’sstudio,hefocused onmaintainingthebasicdarktones,thistimeforthesakeofarealistic depictionofJapanesearchitecture.Miuraseriouslyconsidered“thedark shadows and the thick depth of Japanese houses” and chose “low-key tones”asthestandardduringstudioshooting.Hedecidedto“avoidunnaturalbacklighting[ofthree-pointlighting]anduseone-directionallightingasthebasic.”Miuraexpectedtobecriticized“forplacingcharactersin too-dark spots.”73 Miura wrote, “Ofcourse, Iwould accept criticisms if mycinematographicschemewasuncleartotheviewers.ButIdon’tthink itisnecessarytosaythatthemostbasicnotionofcinematographictechnologyisaperfectmanagementofenrichingtones,eitherlowkeyorhigh key.”74Miuraevensaid,“Thereisalimittoemphasizingrealism.”75Quite obviously,hemeanttheseamlessrealismofHollywood-stylelightinghere: visibilityofcharactersinsoftgradation.Inreality,whatMiuraattemptedin The Battle of KawanakajimawastodocumentthelightandshadowofJapanesesummerandofJapanesearchitecture. WhilethemajorstarofThe Battle of KawanakajimawasHasegawa,the biggestmalestaroftheperiod,Ota,Shimazaki,andKawasakinevermentheaestheticsofshaDoW 193
figure4.8 NoglamorouslightingisprovidedtophotographHasegawaKazuoas Momozo,acommonfootsoldier.The Battle of Kawanakajima(1941).
tionedhisnameintheirfilmreviews.Instead,accordingtoShimazaki,the only thing that is noticeably lit and “breaks through the claustrophobic amountofblack”inthesceneinwhichthecommonfootsoldiers,includingMomozo(Hasegawa),takecareoftheircargoisnothingbut“asubtle movementofanox’stailinsilhouette.”76ThefirstshotofMomozointhis filmisamediumshot(fig.4.8).“Inafullsweat,”hetriestopullahorse.77A tireoftherearcartiscaughtinaditchontheroad.Inthestrangedarkness ofdayfornight,thedimsunlightfromupperrightilluminatesonlytheleft sideofhisbody.Thecontrastylightingleavesalmosthalfofhisfaceina shade.Nocatchlightisobservedinhiseyes,either.Becausethismedium shotappearsafteraseriesofmediumshotsofotherlaborers,someofthe viewersmightnotrecognizethatMomozoisplayedbyHasegawa,thestar. Obviously,brightnessthatignoresdirection,strength,andtonesoflight andthatdoesnotexpressdarknessinordertomerelydisplaythestar’sface isabandonedhere. Inthefollowingscene,Momozorunsintothewoodsafterapanfor cookingricehasfallenfromtheircargoandmeetsO-Shino(Yamada),a youngwomanwithawoundonherfoot.Thefirstclose-upofthemalestar 194 chapter4
appearswhenhetreatsherfoot.Butagain,theone-directionallightfrom upperleftleavestheleftsideofhisfacecompletelyinshade.Thismightbe adevicetohidethescarleftonHasegawa’sface,butitisnotglamorousstar lightingatall.Besides,asalaborer,Momozo’sfaceismadeupwithblack dirtandsweat.Heiseven“breathinglikeadog,”accordingtothescreenplay.78ThereisonlyonemomentwhenMomozolooksup,whichmomentarilybringsshininglightsontohiseyes.Butthecamerapansdowntohis leftarmrightawayandcapturesasmallstrawbagthatdropsfromhiswaist, asifthedirectordidnotwanttomakeMomozo’sfacelookbeautifulatall. ThescenethatOtapointsoutinhisreviewisextreme.Insteadofthe star’sface,whatisemphasizedisacompositionofblackness.Theviolent actionofthehorseandcargo’sfalloverthecliffisdisplayedsodarklylit thatitisbarelyvisible.Alllaborersstandinsilhouetteinmediumshotand itisdifficulttodetecttheirfacialexpressions.OnlyMomozostandspartiallytothelightandthetearsinhiseyesmakeextremelysmallwhiteand shiningspotswithintheframewhenhecriesoverthedeadhorse.Buteventuallythetearsonlymakehisfacelookdirtier. The nsc chose The Battle of Kawanakajima for the best cinematographyinadramaticfilmof1941becausethefilm“overcamethedifficulty ofday-for-nightphotography,basedonadetailedandexactscheme,”and achieved “superb cinematographic effects of dawn in the woods,” and Miura“vigorouslydecidedtodestroyhisuniquetones(Miura-cho)ofthe pastandpursueanewdirectioninordertocontributetothedevelopment ofJapanesecinematographictechnology.”79Theemphasiswasobviously ontheshadowthatMiuradisplayedthroughoutthefilm,whichthensc regarded as “a new direction” for cinematographers in Japan. Receiving theaward,Miurawrote,“Iwasstronglyremindedhowessentialthesubtle workofshadowisasthecentralexpressiveelementinfilmtechnologyand howfatalthelimitofdarknesscouldbetoafilm....Iintendtoexplorethe limitofdarknessandtopursuethebeautyofshadow.”80 SothechangewasclearinHasegawastarvehicles.Nomoreonobashi, nagashi-me,andglamorouslighting. Realismoflightingandthebeauty ofshadowreplacedthem.Thedocumentarystyleofcinematographythat Miura pursued because of material limitations and the resulting photographic sublime beauty of the Japanese landscape, which Miura connectedtothesenseofthenationalspirit,formedthecoreofthediscursive andpracticaltrendoftheaestheticsofshadow.Undersuchconditions, theaestheticsofshaDoW 195
Hasegawacomplainedaboutthemakeoverofhisstarimage,evenwhenhis stardomwasrevived.Hesaid,“Nomatterhowdominantthefilmswithsoldiersbecome,IthinksuchactorsasmyselfandBeru-chan[YamadaIsuzu, who would star in a number of Toho films with Hasegawa] need to be photographedbeautifully.”81 Iamtemptedtofollowwhatthestarenouncedandtoconnecttheemphasisondarknesstotheriseofmilitarismandgovernmentalcontrolover thecontentoffilm.Asnationalismgraduallyintensified,whichwasmarked by Japan’s occupation of Manchuria in 1931, the influence of militarism washavingacertainimpactonthefilmcultureinJapaninthelate1930s, especiallyaftertheFilmLawwaspromulgatedonApril5andenforcedon October1,1939.82TheFilmLawof1939wasapartofthenationalmobilizationpolicy(kokka sodoin taisei)toputthenationaleconomyonawartimefootingafterthebeginningoftheSecondSino-JapaneseWarinJuly 1937.Thepurposeofthelaw,accordingtoDarrellDavis,was“toensurethe steadyproductionandexhibitionofkokutai[nationalpolity]ideologyon Japanesescreens;theproductcomingoutofJapanesestudioshadtohelp raiseaspecificallyJapaneseconsciousnesssothatthewarwouldbewon.”83 Thelawrepresentedthenationalfilmpolicy(eiga kokusaku),ortheJapanesegovernment’sendeavortocontrolthefilmindustry.Underthelaw, allmembersofthefilmindustry,includingactors,technicians,directors, anddistributors,hadtobelicensed,whichusuallyentailedbeingtested notonlyfortheirprofessionalskillsbutalsoforpoliticalcommitmentto thewareffort.84Featurefilmswerecensoredatthelevelofscenarioduring preproduction.85 Governmentalcontrolofthefilmindustrywasstrengthenedespecially afterthewartimefilmsystem(eiga rinsen taisei)startedinAugust1941,followingtheestablishmentoftheInformationBureauinDecember1940, locatedatTeikokuGekijoTheaterthatKobayashiIchizoofTohoowned. Thegovernment declared thatitwouldnotdistribute rawfilmstock to privateindustriesanylonger.In1942,mainlybecauseofashortageofraw film stock, ten feature-film companies were combined into three (Shochiku,Toho,andDaiei),andtheywereallowedtodistributeonlysixfilms amonth(twoforeachcompany).Regulationoftheuseoffilmstockand shorteningofprogramlengthatexhibitioncausedadrasticdecreaseinfilm production.Butreducingthenumberoffilmsmademeantincreasingthe numberofprintsproduced.Inthewaningdaysofthewar,distributionwas 196 chapter4
streamlinedsothataudienceseffectivelyhadonlytwofilmstochoosefrom aweek.86 FilmproducerssuchasKobayashiIchizosupportedthestate’scontrol ofproductionanddistributionintermsof“efficiency.”87Theyalsoappreciated“theelevationoftheirprestigeinthepassageofalaw.”88ItwasbelievedthatTohowasthemostaccommodatingcompanytothepolicy.89 Forinstance,inapublisheddiscussionwithKidoShiro,whotriedtostick toShochiku’swell-knownstoriesandstyles,theTohoproducerMoriIwao emphasizedtheimportanceof“howtointerpretthemes”andpublicized Toho’sflexibilitytochangeitsfilms’contentsinordertopasscensorship.90 The film historian Fujii Jinshi argues that Toho’s entrance into the film businesscausedthestructuralreorganizationoftheJapanesefilmindustry. WiththeestablishmentofToho,strictbudgetarycontrolwasputintopractice,theproducersystemwassetup,andverticalintegrationofproduction,distribution,andexhibitionwasachieved.Forthefirsttime,Fujiiargues,“theHollywood-stylestudiosystemwastransplantedtoJapanalmost completely.”91ShochikuendedupnotrelocatingtheHollywoodsystemin itsentirety,despitethestudio’sinitialinvitationtoHollywoodpersonnel andtechnology.InordertocompetewiththenewlyestablishedToho,Fujii insists,ShochikuneededtofollowToho’s“system”and,asaresult,gaveup itsresistancetotheHollywood-stylesystem.92Suchanintegratedsystem seemedsuitableforgovernmentalcontrolofthecinema. Theideologyofkokutai,dictatedbytheMinistryofEducation,stipulatedthatallculturalproductionmustconformtothetwinprinciplesof “areturntoJapan”andanembraceoftheemperorsystemanditshierarchicalstructureofJapanesesociety.Thephrase“thecardinalprinciplesof ournationalpolity”(kokutai no hongi)entailedarevivalofJapaneseculturalpractices thathadlong since been forgotten in thepopular imaginationandmusthavebeenreinventedforthepurposesofculturaluplift. Theunderlyingprinciplewastoconstruct,throughtheedificeofhistorical authenticity,aspiritualunificationofthenationinthewareffort.Thefilm industryagreedtoobservearigoroussetofprinciplesdesignedto“elevate”Japanesefilmcultureabovethedecadenttendenciestowhichithad ostensiblysunkundertheinfluenceofforeignmoviecultures.AbéMark Nornesarguesthatintheprocessofintensifyingdomination,especially undertheFilmLaw,Japanesefilmstylesbecame“highlyconventionalized” inorderto“hidethefractiousnessofrealityandtheless-than-totalgripof theaestheticsofshaDoW 197
thedominant.”93Theemphasisonshadow,whichconsistentlyincreasedin films,whethertheywereproducedas“greatentertainmentfilms”(Female Genealogy)or“greatnational-policyfilms”(The Battle of Kawanakajima), two slogans that Toho raised, could be regarded as an example of such “highlyconventionalized”filmstylesofthetime.94 IamalsotemptedtosubscribetoShimuraMiyoko’sideaofresistance tothegovernmentalcontrolofcinemaduringwartime.ShimurapersuasivelyarguesthatHasegawa’sromanticstarimage,especiallywhenhewas coupledwithYamada,“containedadangerouspossibilityofdeviatingfrom the‘nationalpolicy.’Themoreattractivetheylookasstars,themoredominanttheromancebetweentheheroandtheheroinebecomesinthenarrativeoftheirfilm,eventhoughtheromanceneededtobeasubmissiveelement.”95ThecriticTamuraYukihikosimilarlyclaimedthatthepopularityof Hasegawa’sfilmsmighthavebeen“asilentprotestfromthegeneralmasses whowatchfilms”tothecensorship.96InFebruary1943,thecriticTsumura HideooftheTokyo Asahi ShinbunnewspaperstatedthatToho“certainly overwhelmed”othercompaniesintermsoffilmtechnologyin1942.Yet Tsumura claimed that it was “mainly because Toho imported new filmmakingequipmentfromAmericafourorfiveyears”earlierandcriticized thatToho’sfilms“lack[ed]Japanesecharacteristics”;theywere“beautiful butwithoutsoul.”97TsumuraseverelycriticizedChina Night(Shina no yoru, FushimizuOsamu,1941),aHasegawastarvehiclewithRiKoran(a.k.a.Li Hsianglan):“Despiteitssurface,thecontentofthefilmgoesagainstthe spiritoftheFilmLaw.Fullymade-upactorsandactressesdisplaylaughable,contemptible, andshamelessaffairs foralongtimeinfront ofthe devastatedlandscapeofthecontinentwhereoursoldiersshedtheirblood respectfully.IcannotstandthatasoneoftheJapanese....Thestoryitself has an intention of Japan-China friendship, but the focus of the film is sugar-coatedaffairsanddialoguesthatIcannotevenwatchandextremely poorelementsofactionwithanti-JapaneseChinesecharacters.”98China Nightpassedthecensorshipbut“madetheofficerwhocensoredthefilm angry,”and,asaresult,filmcensorshipwasstrengthenedonJuly7,1940.99 Hasegawastarvehiclescontinuedtodrawbothmaleandfemalespectatorsonamassivescalethroughoutthewarera,despitethefactthatalmostallofthemwerefilmsthatpassedtheHomeMinistry’scensorship butwerenotsuitableforgeneralaudiences,meaningchildrenunderfourteenyearsoldwerenotallowedtowatchthem(thesefilmswerecatego198 chapter4
rized as hi-ippan-yo eiga).100 Films for general audiences (ippan-yo eiga) meantthosethatpassedtheHomeMinistry’scensorshipwouldnotquestionso-calledfactsinJapanesehistory,wouldnotcontradictthecontent innationaltextbooks,wouldnotdisrespectolderpeople,wouldnottempt juvenilestocommitcrimes,wouldnotcausebrutalandviolentemotions, wouldnotcauseextremefearandabhorrence,wouldnotbetoosentimental,wouldnotprovokeloveaffairs,wouldnotstimulateimaginationand curiositytoomuch,andwouldnothavefurtherpedagogicalproblems.101 China NightwasthetophitofTohoin1940.102The Man Who Was Waiting (Matteita otoko,MakinoMasahiro,1942),acomicmurdermysterystarring HasegawaandYamadathatwasinspiredbytheHollywoodfilmThe Thin Man(W.S.VanDyke,1934),whoseJapanesetitletranslatedbackintoEnglishasThe Man Who Does Not Have a Shadow,wasthethirdbestamong sixtyfilmsthatwerereleasedbetweenAprilandDecember1942,andKantaro of Ina(Ina no Kantaro,TakizawaEisuke,1943),ayakuza(gangster)film withHasegawa,becamethetophitfilmof1943.Thelatterwasexhibitedfor onlyfiveweekdays,butitsboxofficerevenuereached1,096,000yen,and morethan1,550,000peoplewatchedit.103 However,theactualsituationwasnotsuchasmoothtransitionofhegemonyfromShochikutoToho,thebusinesssystemderivedfromKabukito thatofHollywood.First,Shochikufilmsneverlostpopularityamonggeneralaudiences.Theboxofficerecordsuggeststhatevenin1943,whenToho filmswerefiveofthetoptenhitswhileShochikuhadonlytwo,Shochiku’s boxofficerevenueof9,903,392yenwasalmostequaltoToho’s10,351,679 yen.104Shochikufilmsweresurelymakingaprofit.Accordingtoareportin theDecember1941issueofEiga Junpo,Shochiku’s“profitrate”inthefirst halfofthefiscalyearof1941was31.5percentwhileitwasonly8.4percent in1938.Accordingtothereport,“Shochikuismakinghighprofitwithout betrayingitsbrandname,”butitwastruethatTohohadaprofitrateof 60.4percentin1941andwasputtingsubstantialpressureonShochiku.105 Second,Shochikumaintainedthebrightandcheerfultonethroughoutthe periodofwar.Aftermeticulouslyanalyzingboxofficerecordsofthetime andtherelationshipbetweenthegovernmentalfilmpolicyandtheactual processesoffilmmaking,thefilmhistorianKatoAtsukoarguesthatboth thequantityandqualityofJapanesecinemadidnotchangeevenafterthe enactmentoftheNazi-styleFilmLawin1939.Asanexample,Katopoints outthecaseofShochiku.Shochiku’sKidoShirodeclaredthathewould theaestheticsofshaDoW 199
abandonthebrightandcheerfultonebutmaintainedthestudio’sproductionof“women’sfilms”withthesamecinematographicstyleafterall.106 The argument that presupposes the dominance of the national film policyandsearchesforapossibilityofresistanceisproblematicaswell.I admitthattherewasapossibilityofresistingthenationalpolicyamongthe filmspectatorsbecausetheromanticstoriesandsettingsofHasegawaand Yamadafilmswereoftendescribedasescapist.Also,therewere,andstill are,multiplepositionsforspectatorstotakewhenwatchingandperceivingfilms.Butnomatterhowsubversivetheylookedtothenationalpolicy, HasegawaandYamadastarvehiclesweresimultaneouslycontainedwithin the filmic discourse that was leaning toward the national policy. As the examplesofFemale GenealogyandThe Battle of Kawanakajimaillustrate, thesefilmsnevercounterednationalistandimperialistideology,butinvokedittoaconsiderabledegree,asHideakiFujikiclaims.107Suchcontainmentwasmuchlessvisibleinentertainmentfilms,whichdidnotusually receive a recommendation from the Ministry of Education or were not selectedforgroupviewingsatmilitarybases,schools,offices,andcommunities,thaninobviouswarpropagandafilms,soentertainmentfilmscould bemuchmorepowerful. However,Iamalsohesitanttosimplycallthesepopularfilms—witha newtrendofcinematiclighting—anideologicalapparatusthatreflectsthe wartimeculturalspiritandrequiresthecontemporaneousaudiencetobecomeaself-sacrificingsubjectofthenation.Firstofall,theaestheticsof shadowdidnotoriginateintraditionalJapaneseaesthetics—iftherewere any.Also,expressingtheaestheticimaginariesofthenationwasnotrequiredbytheJapanesegovernment.TheFilmLawdidnot“forcetheproductionoffilmswithanyparticularthemesorcontent”andwasnotmeant tonationalizetheJapanesefilmindustryasawhole.108 Weneedtoacknowledgethatanewaestheticexpressionemergedin thelate1930sinJapanesefilmmakingthroughthepracticeanddiscourse onlighting,eveninsuchhugelypopularfilmsasHasegawaandYamada starvehicles.ThiswasanothercriticalmomentwhenShochiku’sbrightand cheerful cinema faced a challenge within the film industry. But we also needtobewarethatitisnotappropriatetocallthisemphasisondarkness theformulationofsharedJapaneseimaginariesorthedominantaesthetic expressionofJapanunderthemilitaristcontrolofcinema. There are some explanations for the complexity of the aesthetics of 200 chapter4
shadow.TherewereJapanesecinematographerswhoadoredthelow-key lightinginHollywoodcinema.TheydespairedatthelimitedmaterialconditionsinJapanesecinema.Explorationofthedocumentarystyleoccurred withintheconfinesofthatambivalentsituation.Therewasalsoastrong rivalrybetweenTohoandShochiku.Andthenationalfilmpolicywascertainlyinfluential.Allofthesefactorsareevidenceofhowdiverseandmultifacetedthefilmculture,oftenbelievedtobeunilateralunderultranationalismandmilitarism,wasinJapanduringtheperiodofwar. WhenJapanesecinematographersrealizedthatitwouldbedifficultto achievesuchlow-keycinematographyundertheconditionsoffilmmaking inwartimeJapan,theyturnedtooneaspectofJapaneseart—praiseofshadows,whichwaseasilyavailable,andusedittojustifytheirpracticesinthe nameofthe“Japanesecharacteristicsincinematographictechnology.”109 Inotherwords,theystrategicallyconnectedtheaestheticsofshadowtoa nationalistdiscourse.Itwasnottheiroriginalgoaltoformulate“Japanese” cinematography—theywantedtoperfectlymimicthelow-keycinematographyofHollywood.Buttheyconsciouslychosetonametheaestheticsof shadowJapaneseaesthetics.JapanorthingsJapanesedidnotoccupythe centeroftheirminds,evenwhenthesenotionsappearedtobeatthecenteroftheirdiscussions. AaronGerowarguesthatinthewartimesocialandculturaldiscourses inJapantherewereconflictsover“howtoplaceJapanintheoppositions betweenuniversalandparticular,EastandWest,andtraditionandmodernity.”110Yet,thatwasnotexactlythecaseformanycinematographersand criticsoffilmtechnologies.Japanwasjustanexcusetotalkabouttheir actualpracticesincinematography,whichweretornbetweentheirlongingsforHollywood,desperationaboutmateriallimitations,and,inaddition, serious commitments to document the war by film camera. While thenotionofJapanwascontinuouslyusedinnegotiationsbetweencinematographers, critics, governmental officials, and spectators on how to formulateimagesonthescreenandhowtoreceivethem,manycinematographersandcriticsoffilmtechnologiesdidnotaimto“elevateaspectacleofnationhood”byfilm.111Eveniftherewere“strenuouseffortsmade toexpress,anddefine,whatmakesJapanesepeopleandlifesoJapanese” inwartimeJapan,and“writers,artists,journalists,companymen,neighborhoodassociations,studentsactivists,women’sgroups,[and]boys’and girls’clubswereallorganizedfortheexpresspurposeofdelineatingthe theaestheticsofshaDoW 201
outlinesofanauthenticJapaneseessence,”112themajorconcernsofmany cinematographersandtheircriticswerenottobeapartofsuchefforts. Theydidnotmeantochallengeorresistsucheffortseitherthough. IamnotignoringthefactthatthefilmindustryproducednumerouspropagandafilmsthatevokedidealJapaneselifeandbehavior.Itcertainlydid. ItmightalsobepossibletofindwhatDarrellDaviscalls“themonumental style,”oraestheticsacramentalizationofthenation,inthemilitaristpropagandafilmsfromthisperiod.Themonumentalstyle,accordingtoDavis, wastextual“appropriation”oftraditionalaestheticformsandclassicalheritages“inordertopromoteanapotheosisofJapanesenationalidentity”and toteachspectatorstoperceivefilminapurelyJapaneseway.113Iamnot indicatingthatthegovernment-widenationalfilmpolicyhadfailedeither, despitethefactthatsome“national-policyfilms”werenotaspopularas “entertainmentmovies”andthattheeffectofthe“GreaterEastAsiaCo- prosperityFilms”thatpromotedtheassimilationpolicyinEastAsiawas dubious.114Iamonlydoubtfulthattheentirefilmindustrywasintunewith theinstitutionalizedactivityofdefiningandreconstructingJapaneseness ledbythestate.Inthisregard,IagreewithGerowwhenhepointsout“the difficulty,evenimpossibility,ofnation-alizingfilmduringthewar,”despite bureaucrats’effortstocontrolcinema.115Gerowinsistsona“hybridity”that “hamperedtheimaginingofahomogeneousnationalcinema”inthisperiod andexplicateswithsuchfactsastheexistenceoftoomanyfilmsproduced (fivehundredpicturesayear—secondintheworld)intoomanydifferent modesofproductionbytenfeature-filmstudios;thesmallnumberofspectatorsinattendanceatmovies,especiallyinruralareas;andsoforth.116 WhenTohoemergedasanewface,whathappenedwasnotthetransitionofhegemonybuttheemergenceof“twooppositionalgroupsinfilm businesswithdifferentmodesofproduction.”117Continuingcompetition betweenthetwomajorstudiosprovidedanothersignificantelementbehindtheflourishingdiscursiveandpracticaltendencyoftheaestheticsof shadow.Theaestheticscouldbeseenasanotherchallengetothebright andcheerfulShochikutonethathadstylisticallyandfinanciallydominated Japanesefilmuntilthemid-1930s.Inthissense,thedevelopmentofthe aestheticshadnothingtodowiththeriseofultranationalismandmilitarismbutwithacapitalistwarwithinthefilmindustry—Hollywoodstyle (Toho)versusKabukistyle(Shochiku)onceagain,eventhoughtheaestheticsofshadowwasnotabletofullyimitateHollywood-stylelighting. 202 chapter4
WhenShimazakiKiyohikopraisedMiuraMitsuo’scinematographyinTojuro’s LoveinthejournalEiga to Gijutsu,hewasrepresentingtheposition oftheJapaneseAssociationofFilmTechnology(NihonEigaGijutsuKyokai).Eiga to Gijutsuwasthebulletinoftheassociation.Inanearlyissue ofthejournal,theassociationstated:“BecomeamemberoftheJapanese AssociationofFilmTechnologythatcomprisesauthoritiesofallareasof filmtechnologyinJapan,andobtainthecorrectcompassinthestudyofall filmtechnology!”118Byusingthetermthe correct compass,theassociation challengedthedominanceofbrightandcheerfulShochikucinema.InMay 1935,theboardoftrusteesoftheJapaneseAssociationofFilmTechnology wascomposedoftwenty-threeactivecinematographers,includingIsayama Saburo (Nikkatsu), Karasawa Hiromitsu (Nikkatsu), Kawasaki Kikuzo (Nikkatsu-J.O.), Midorikawa Michio (Nikkatsu), Miki Shigeru (Nihon Eiga Sha [Nihon Film Company]), Miura Mitsuo (pcL), and Mimura Akira(pcL),mostofwhosenamesIhavealreadyreferredto.Theadvisory boardincludedTachibanaKanichi(studioheadatNikkatsuTamagawa), UemuraTaiji(pcL;would-bepresidentofToho),MasutaniRin(pcL), TachibanaKoshiro(headofthecensorshipbureauofTokyo’smetropolitanpoliceforce),andArugaTeruandFukushimaShinnosuke(renowned chemistswithspecialtiesinphotochemistry).Thepermanentmembersof thecouncilincludedShimazakiandTsuchiyaKiyoyuki(criticswithspecialtiesinfilmtechnology),UnoMasao(criticwithspecialtyinkogata eiga [homemovies]),andTejimaMasuji(kogataeigafilmmaker).119Therewas aconspicuousabsenceattheassociation.TherewasnoonefromShochiku oneithertheadvisoryboardortheboardoftrustees.Theonlyexception wasSasakiTaro,acinematographerandfilm-developmentspecialistatShochikuKamata,buthedidnotreceivecreditforanyfilmtherebetween1934 and1936.Therefore,theaestheticsofshadowwasnotnecessarilyshared by Shochiku. The association was trying to have a discourse authorized officiallyandscientificallythroughthepresenceoftheheadofthecensorshipbureauandchemistsontheadvisoryboard.Inaddition,theassociationselected“excellentfilms”and“excellenttechnicians”everyyearand awardedprizes,astheexampleofThe Battle of Kawanakajimashowed.120 TheaestheticsofshadowwasnothingbutsignificantevidenceofhybridityinwartimeJapanesecinemathatproblematizedthenotionofnationalisminwartimeJapaneseculture.Inanintroductorysectionofhis book,Davisinsists,“Whatisremarkableaboutthemonumentalstyleis theaestheticsofshaDoW 203
its‘bending’ofthelanguagesofclassicalWesterncinematoaccommodatetheundulationsofclassicalJapanesedesignandbehavior.”121Davis doesnotfullycomebacktodiscussthisnotionofbendingthroughouthis bookandseemstofocusmoreonhowthestylesofJapanesecinemain thisperiodrepresented“abacklashagainst‘excessive’Westernization”and “a‘conversionexperience’backto”thetraditionalJapaneseaesthetics.122 Buttome,thisnotionofbendingisamoresignificantissue.Ifweexaminehowcinematographersandtechnologycriticsofthisperiodtriedto discursivelyandpracticallybendHollywoodcinema,weshouldbeable tocapturetheambivalentnatureofthewartimefilmculturewithoutdichotomizingpre-WesternizedJapanesetraditionandWesternization.The aestheticsofshadowwasnotanexpressionof“delineatingtheoutlinesof anauthenticJapaneseessence”butofbendingHollywoodcinema,among otherthings. Appreciating the low-key lighting of Hollywood Cinema
Thespecifictermkage no bigaku(aestheticsofshadow)wasusedarguably forthefirsttimebyYoshinoNobutaka,aproductiondesigneratShochiku in1979.123Yetthenotionitselfwaswidelyadoptedamongcinematographersandcritics,whousedsuchtermsasattraction of blackandbeauty of darknessinpopularJapanesefilmsinthelate1930s. Beforetheemergenceofthenotion,thefirsthalfofthe1930switnessed aboomamongJapanesecriticsandcinematographersofpraisingthelow- keylightinginHollywoodcinema.124In1934,KawasakiKikuzo,acinematographerwhoworkedatNikkatsu’sKyotostudioandMakinoProduction,discussedthelow-keylightinginmoredetailedterms:“Definitively, low-keytonesdonotmeandarklightingatall.SuchmasterpiecesofLee GarmesasBlonde VenusandZoo in Budapest[RowlandV.Lee,1933]look alittledarkerthanotherfilms,butthegradationfromhighlightstoshadowsisverywellstructuredandthedetailsoftheshadowsareparticularly beautiful....Ibelievethathighlights,whichlookasbeautifulandsoftas silk,anddetailedshadowsaretheworkofauthenticcinematographythat pleasesusaswellaspopularaudiencesofcinema.”125 By 1940, Japanese filmmakers and critics came to agree that low-key lightingwasthemostaccomplishedforminthehistoryofcinematography. HoshiTetsuroku,adirectoratShochiku’sShimokamostudio,claimedin
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1941:“Ibelievethatlowkeytookoverhighkey,whichhadbeenageneral practiceincinema.”126InthefirstchapterofCinematography Reader,which waspublishedbytheFilmAssociationofGreaterJapan(DaiNihonEiga Kyokai)in1940,thecinematographerMikiShigeruoverviewedthe“developmentofcinematographictechnology”aftertheconstructionofEdison’s BlackMariastudioandconcludedhischapterbynamingGarmes(Morocco andShanghai Express),BurtGlennon(Blonde Venus),VictorMilner(The Man I Killed,Lubitsch,1931),andCarlStrauss(Doctor Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, RoubenMamoulian,1931)asthosecinematographerswho“realizedgorgeousandvelvetyshadowsonthescreen.”127 MikiidentifiedtheadventofSupersensitivePanchromaticTypeTwo Motion Picture Negative film by Eastman Kodak Company, which was announcedonFebruary5,1931,asthekeymomentinthebirthofthelow- key tendency in Hollywood lighting.128 With emulsion reacting “faster” tolight—75percentmorespeedtobluelight,200percentmoretogreen light,andfrom400to500percentmoretoredlight—theSupersensitive PanchromaticTypeTwoextendedthelatitudeandenrichedthegradation betweenblackandwhitetobemuchmorediverse.129Miki’sintentionwas todistinguishthenewlyemergedlow-keytoneswiththe“diverseexpressivityintermsofgradation”fromthedarktonesthatexistedevenbefore theadventofsupersensitivepanchromaticfilm.130Mikiwrote: When I think of the issue of darkness in photography in Japanese cinema,Icanonlyfeelmiserable....Mr.MakinoShozosaid,“Clarity first,storysecond,actingthird.”[InJapan]darkcinematographyisthe mosthorriblething.Theabsoluterequirementtocinematographersof anystudioistomakephotographicimagesbright.Thisistheprinciple. IfacinematographerinJapanviolatesthisprinciple,heisorderedin afriendlymannertoleavethestudiorightawayorispreventedfrom filming.ButJapanesefilmmakersneedtoexpressdarktonesinorder tomakegoodfilms.Theyneedcontrastswithartisticuseoflights.And theyhopetohaveeffectivelow-keycinematographywithsupersensitivefilm.Allofthesearecinematographers’responsibilities.However, theonlythingthatstudiossaytotheircinematographersiswhetherthe filmsare“dark”ornot.Itisreallyambiguoushowandwhysomescenes arecalled“dark,”fromwhichstandpoint.Thedisputecontinuesendlessly....Weneedtoutilizebothlow-keytonesandhigh-keytonesas theaestheticsofshaDoW 205
themeansofcinematographywithoutrestraint.Itisextremelyunwise tospeakonlyof“dark”ornot.131 Miki’sclaimderivedfromwhatHalHall,theeditorofAmerican Cinematographer,saidabouttheadventof“fastfilms,”filmwithanemulsionthat isverysensitivetolight—theEastmanKodakCompany’sSupersensitive Panchromatic Type Two and the Dupont Film Company’s Special Panchromatic,inparticular—in1931.Hallwrote,“Toomanycinematographers confusetheimprovedspeedwithexaggeratedcontrast—aseriousmistake. Theaimofthecinematographershouldbefornaturaltonalcontrastwith anartisticsoftness—andthissoftnesscannotbeattainedwithflatlighting. Softlightingshouldbeused—butitshouldbenormallybalanced,sacrificingnoneofthetonalandphysicalcontrastswhichthecameramanwishes to preserve.”132 What Miki emphasized, following Hall, was that ample lightsandavarietyoflampsonthesetswouldbeneededinordertobe perfectlybalancedtoachievethelow-keytones.133 However,Miki,othercinematographers,andcriticsinJapanwereaware thatsuchconditionswereunimaginablegiventherealityofmateriallimitationsinJapan.ThecriticD.O.C.wroteintheSeptember1939issueof Nihon Eiga about the amount of lighting used in Hollywood studios in ordertoachievelow-keylighting,whichis“inconceivabletoJapan’scommonsense.”134Nihon EigaregularlypublishedtheofficialviewsoftheFilm AssociationofGreaterJapan,whichwasestablishedin1935tofacilitate communications between the film industry and the governmental officials.135Inotherwords,theviewspresentedinNihon Eigahadacertain authorityoverfilmmakersandcriticsinJapan.Commentingontheuseof lightsbyJamesWongHoweinAlgiers(JohnCromwell,1938),D.O.C.sarcasticallyclaimed,“Afterthediscussionwiththechiefoflighting,[Howe] placedatremendousnumberoflightsonthelifteroftheceiling....Tobe honest,everybodywaschokedbythesmokeinthestudio.Theelectrician almostfellfromtheceilingbecauseoftheheatandsmokefromthelighting.”136In1931,Howespokeofhowtoperfectlybalancelightwhenachievinghispreferredlow-keytones: Low-keylightingshavealwaysbeenmyfavorites....Therearetwoprincipalmethodsofproducingtheseeffects:onemaylayafoundationof soft,diffusedlightandbuilduptotherequiredhighlights—oronemay determinehishighlightsandlettherestgraduatedowntotherequired 206 chapter4
shadows.Eithermethodisgood;personally,Ipreferthelatter,especiallysincetheintroductionofFastFilm[supersensitivepanchromatic film].Inthefirstplace,youneednotusesomuchlight,as,onceyouhave arrangedyourhighlightsandmodelinglights,the“spilled”lightwhich leaksfromeventhebestofequipmentwillkeepyourshadowsfrombecomingtoounpleasantlyempty.137 EventhoughHowewasdiscussingeconomyoflightinHollywood,that wasnotthecaseinJapan.“Notsomuchlight”wassomuchlight.Soyama Naomori,whoworkedattheJ.O.studioinKyoto,wrote,“Peopleinthis countryneedtolearntheAmericanmethods[ofcinematography].However, financially it is nearly impossible to follow them. In order to realize ideas and motifs only with available lighting and shallow lenses, we needtosacrificethefinalprocessthatAmericanmethodsrequire.”138CinematographerOguraKinjialsoclaimed,“He[Sternberg]preparedlightingperfectlyinsuchafilmasDishonored(1931),consideringtheshapeof [Marlene]Dietrich’sface.Hewasalsoconcernedaboutthevarietyandthe quantityoflighting.Low-keytonesmustbeachievedbysettingandthen savingnumerouslights,butthatisimpossibleinJapan.Ihavesomespotlightsinhand,suchas5kW,3kW,and2kW,butthatisstillinsufficient.”139 Japanesecinematographersandcriticsneededtofindawaytodealwith thisgapbetweentheidealofcinematographyandtherealityofthelimited materialconditions. MidorikawaMichio,theheadofthensc,claimed,“Weshouldobserve thebeautyofshadows,whichappearsgracefullyintheharmonyof[Japanese]architectureandlights.”140Midorikawa’sdeclarationappearedinhis essay“Cameramen’sLivesandKyoyo[culturalknowledge]”(“Kameraman no seikatsu to kyoyo”) in Cinematography Reader.141 Midorikawa’s essay wasthefirstofficialturnofJapanesecinematographerstothenotionof Japaneseaestheticstojustifytheirunfulfilledgoalandpracticesincinematography,tornbetweentheiryearningforHollywoodandtheiranguish aboutmateriallimitations. Inthisessay,MidorikawawalkedatightropeinordertorecouptheJapanesenaturalsublimebywayofthetechnologicalmodernityrepresentedby cinema.Midorikawainsisted,“Itistimewegobacktoourtraditiononce again.Apparently,ourlivesareinchaoticconditionsbecausewehavedependedtoomuchuponthetrendthatisnotbasedupon[ourculture].The theaestheticsofshaDoW 207
righteouscameraeyesmustenlightentheJapanesepeopleforthegoodof tomorrow’ssociety,withpedagogicalconsciousnessandinthenameof bunka eiga[thisliterallytranslatesas“culturefilm,”butinthelate1930sand early1940sitoftenmeantdocumentaryfilmingeneral].”142Obviously,MidorikawameantHollywoodfilmsasthe“trend,”whichwasdistinguished fromthe“culture.”WhenMidorikawaemphasizedthedistinctionbetween trendandculture,hewasmostcertainlyreferringtothefirstarticleofthe FilmLaw,forwhichCinematography Readerwaspreordainedtoserve.This articlereads,“Thepurposeofthislawistoimprovethequalityofcinema andtoleadthehealthyprogressofthefilmbusinessinordertodevelop thenationalculture.”143FuwaSuketoshioftheMinistryofEducationdefined“culturefilm”undertheFilmLawas“filmsabouteducation,artsand sciences,nationaldefense,health,andsoon.Theyarenotdramaticfilms buttheonesmainlywithdocumentaryandrealisticmethods.Theyneed tobeacknowledgedbytheministerofeducationastheonesthatservefor enhancingthenationalspirit,directlyinspiringknowledgeoftheJapanese people,andimprovingtheirskills.”144Nornesclaims,“AsJapanbecameincreasinglyisolatedintheworldwithitsexpansionacrossAsia,thevalues attachedto‘culture’cameunderinterrogationandtheassociationsconnectedtothewordtransformed.Thebunkaofbunka eigasignaledareturn ofthedemandfordisciplined,self-sacrificingdedicationtonon-personal goalsservingthedevelopmentofthenation,evenwhileretainingtraces ofthepreviousera’sconceptofcultureasanelitistbulkheadagainstthe vagariesofpopularculture.”145 Inorderto“developculturalconsciousness,”Midorikawasuggestedthat Japanese cinematographers should learn “how to construct dramas and howtoexpresspsychology”from“literature.”146Afterbrieflymentioning thenamesofsuchgiantsofliteratureasStendhalandHermanHesse,MidorikawahighlyrecommendedA Study of Japanese Landscape(Nihon fukei ron),a1894nonfictionbookbyShigaShigetaka(1863–1927),ajournalist andgeographer.147A Study of Japanese Landscapebecamepopularagainin 1937whenitwasreprintedintheinfluentialseriesofpaperbackspublished byIwanamiPress.148Shigawasknownasthepioneeringadvocateofkokusui shugi(maintenanceofJapan’sculturalidentity)inthefaceofincreasing pressurefromtheWest.ShigaperceivedthatthetraditionalJapaneseelementsthatweresomuchapartofthelivesoftheJapanesepeoplehadtheir foundationingeography.Hisimmediategoalwastoarousenationalaware208 chapter4
nessandprideandtoalerthiscountrymenandwomentoJapan’sposition inthefast-changingworldorder.149ButitisnoteworthythatShigafullyemployedhisscientificandtechnicalknowledge,whichhehadlearnedfrom academiaintheWest,inordertopraiseJapan’slandscapeintermsofits sublimity. LikeShiga,Midorikawaresortedtohisprofoundknowledgeoftechnologyandtechniquesofcinematographyandlighting,whichwasinaccordancewiththediscourseoftheasc.Midorikawawrote,“Incinema, architectureistheobjecttobephotographedanditsviabilityofexistence completelydependsonlights,themostimportantelementincinematic expressions.”150However,onceitcametotheissueofphotographingJapanesearchitectureinreality,whatMidorikawareferredtowasnotpractical articleswrittenbyHollywoodcinematographersorgaffers.Instead,MidorikawaconsultedTanizakiJun’ichiro’sIn Praise of Shadows(“Ineiraisan”),a studyoftheuseoflightsandshadowsinthetraditionalspacesofJapanese culturewrittenbytheacclaimednovelist.TanizakiarguedthatJapanese aestheticswas“inseparablefromdarkness.”151Midorikawaquotednearly fourpages from In Praise of Shadows,inwhichTanizaki discussed Japanesearchitectureand“marvel[ed]atour[Japanese]comprehensionofthe secretsofshadows,oursensitiveuseofshadowandlight.”152“Ultimately,” TanizakiwroteandMidorikawaquoted,“itisthemagicofshadows.Were theshadowstobebanishedfromthecorners,thealcove[inaJapanese room]wouldinthatinstantreverttomerevoid.Thiswasthegeniusofour ancestors,thatbycuttingoffthelightfromthisemptyspacetheyimparted totheworldofshadowsthatformedthereaqualityofmysteryanddepth superiortothatofanywallpaintingorornament.”153 Harry Harootunian claims, “In Japan and elsewhere, modernity was seenasaspectacleofceaselesschange(thenarrativeofhistoricalprogress andthelawofcapitalistexpansion)andthespecterofunrelieveduncertaintyintroducedbyadominanthistoricalculturenolongeranchoredin fixedvaluesbutinfantasyanddesire.”154Asaresult,Harootunianargues, “Provokedbyagrowingsenseofhomelessnessandthesearchfor‘shelter,’” theconcernfor“layingholdofanexperiencecapableofresistingtheerosionsofchangeandsupplyingastableidentity—difference—inaworld dominated by increasing homogeneity and sameness” became “the way discourserecodedthehistoricalproblemoftheinterwarperiod.”155What emergedwas“animmenseefforttorecallolderculturalpractices(religious, theaestheticsofshaDoW 209
aesthetic,literary,linguistic)thatderivedfromaremotepastbeforethe establishmentofmodern,capitalistsociety,andthatwerebelievedtobe stillcapableofcommunicatinganauthenticexperienceofthepeople[,]... race[,]orfolkthathistoricalchangecouldnotdisturb.”156Alongthisline, accordingtoHarootunian,peoplelikeTanizakiJun’ichiro“lookedlonginglytosomemomentinthepast,orsimplythepastitselfasanindefinite moment,astheplaceofcommunityorculture,thatwouldserveastheprimordialandoriginaryconditionoftheJapanesefolk.”Harootuniancontinues,“Thisimageofcultureandcommunitywasastimelessandfrozenas thecommodityformitself.”157Heclaimsthata“socialdiscoursedevotedto fixingthegroundofculturalauthenticityandthesourceoforiginalityand creativity”wasorganizedanddefendedthe“culturalspirit(bunka seishin). ThenHarootunianarguesthatorganizationofsuchdiscoursewas“asignificationofamodernismthatwouldseektostabilizevalues,eternalizethem, by‘overcominghistory,’byriddingsocietyoftheceaselessfascinationwith thenewandthenovelandthesuccessionofchange(theevernewinthe eversame)thatmotoredmodernsociety,andthespecterofunrelieved uncertaintythatmarkedthedominationofhistoricalculture.”158Thediscourseoftheaestheticsofshadowwasanexampleofsuchorganization. AsimpliedinHarootunian’stermssuchasfantasy,desire,andorganization,Tanizaki’sessay—andtheaestheticsofshadow—wasnotexactlybased ontheactualityoftheJapaneselandscapeandarchitectureofthetime.In 1936,JosefvonSternbergvisitedJapanandwasimpressedbythegapbetweenlightandshadow.“[Iam]astonishedatthefloodofnumerousneon lightsinGinza,”Sternbergsaid.“Therearetoomanyelectricornaments, neonsignsinparticular,inTokyo.IselectricityverycheapinJapan?”159It wasthetimewhenJapanledtheworldinthevogueofneonsigns.160TanizakihimselfadmittedinIn Praise of Shadows,“TokyoandOsakawerefar morebrightlylitthananyEuropeancity....Perhapsnotwocountriesin theworldwastemoreelectricitythanAmericaandJapan.”161Instead,as MiyaEliseMizutapointsout,Tanizakirecountsthatwhatisintrinsically oressentially“Japanese”is“stimulatedbythetransformationthatoccurs intheencounterwithwhatarrivesfromtheoutside,electriclight.”162 Inhisculturallyessentialistclaim,wecoulddetectTanizaki’s“dilemma,” tornbetweentworealities.Tanizakifullyunderstoodtheformidableattractionofsuchmoderntechnologyaselectriclighting.Simultaneously, hewasawareofthemateriallimitationsinJapan.163Mizutaevenargues, 210 chapter4
“Bydelineatingtheshadownotasarepresentationofpuredarknessbut assomethingthatliesbetweentwovalues,he[Tanizaki]infactresiststhe conceptualizationofJapaneseaestheticsas‘pure’orofJapanas‘difference,’ acounterpointtotheWestastheoriginatingabsolute.”164Tanizaki’sconceptual dilemma was Japanese cinematographers’ reality: the attraction ofHollywood-stylelightingandthematerialconditionsinJapan.InJune 1941,thecinematographerAriyoshiAtaruclaimedfromaslightlydifferent butbasicallysimilarperspective: Modern architectures are constructed on the basis of brightness in termsofthestandardsoflivingandhealth.Architecturesforjidaigeki filmsandtheirsenseofdarknessshouldbeimaginedfromarchitectures oftemplesandsoforth.Probablyourtraditionalspiritualcultureand thewaysoflivingwereborninsuchdarkness.However,thecinematographersofjidaigekifilmslikeusneedtothinkaboutthis:ifwestickto thishistoricallystylizeddarknessandthisexceptionalrealism,arethe massfilmaudienceswhowerenewlybornintheactiveworldofmodern sciencesatisfiedwithourproducts?Thisisourrenewedtasktotackle.165 TanizakiwroteinIn Praise of Shadows,“OneneedonlycompareAmerican,FrenchandGermanfilmstoseehowgreatlynuancesofshadingand colorationcanvaryinmotionpictures.Inthephotographicimageitself, theresomehowemergedifferencesinnationalcharacter.Ifthisistrueeven whenidenticalequipment,chemicals,andfilmareused,howmuchbetter our own photographic technology might have suited our complexion, ourfacialfeatures,ourclimate,ourland.”166When“identicalequipment, chemicals,andfilm”werenotused?Theaestheticsofshadowwasbornas astrategicbendingofHollywood’strendoflow-keylightinginthenameof Japanesetraditionalcultureinordertoembracethelimitedmaterialconditions.167 As for bending, in order to distinguish the Hollywood-style low-key toneandthedarktone,somecriticsandcinematographerseventurned to German cinema. German cinema served as a mediator between the low-keytoneandthedarktone.InSeptember1936,thecriticUnoMasao favorablysingledouttheuseofthedarktonesinGermancinema,connectedthemtothenationalcharacteristic,andcontrastedthemtothelow- keytonesofHollywood.Implicitly,Unosuggestedsuchdarktonesasthe modellightingthatJapanesefilmmakersshouldfollow.Unowrote: theaestheticsofshaDoW 211
In America, so-called clear tones (bright tones) and low-key tones, whichwehavebeentryinghardtoimitate,aremainlyadopted....In cinematographictechniques,Germanymaintainsdarktones....The primaryreasonforthedevelopmentofdarktonesiseconomy.Overall,Germanyhaslackedmechanicalequipment,cameras,lenses,reflectors,screens,diffusers,andlightingequipment,includingelectricityand lamps....Theirdarktonesarecompletelydifferentfromthelow-key tonesthathavebeenusedinAmericaandanywhereelse.Theylooksimilar,butitisinterestingtothinkofthedifferencesinorigins.Inthecaseof Germany,thedarktonesisamethodtosupplementtheshortcomingsof Agfafilmsbutexpressthefilm’scontenteffectively,whileinAmericathe low-keytonesisauniqueachievementbasedoncinematographicimprovementsatstudiosthatutilizethehighsensitivityandtonalquality ofsupersensitivepanchromaticorsuperxfilmsfromEastmanKodak orDupont....TheuniquedarktonesstandoutinGermany.Probably thedarktonesrepresenttheGermannation....MasterCarlHoffman isthebestrepresentative....Hetriestoexpresseverythingindarkness, whichhasatotallyoppositevaluetoAmericanfilms....Hisworkcontainsexcellentcontentandspiritintheinfinitedarktones.Itisworthwhiletonoteonthelow-keytonesinAmericanfilmshere.Itisaninnovative expressive style that tries to depict numerous gradations even withinblacknesssupportedwithperfectfilmandlightequipment.Itis surelyanadvancedtechniqueintermsofcinematographicscience.But nomatterhowperfecttheenvironmentalconditionis,itisnotimpressivewithoutsomethingwithin.Thegradationthatisonlyrecognizable invaguehalftonesisnothingbutbeautyonlyforthefilmaficionados.168 Inthisregard,in1937and1938,Nihon Eigamagazinepublishedaseries ofpedagogicalarticlesbytheSwiss-borncinematographerRichardAngst, whohadexperiencesinphotographingsublimemountainfilmsandhad visitedJapanduringtheGerman-JapanesecoproductionofThe New Earth (Atarashiki tsuchi, a.k.a. Die Tochter des Samurai and A Daughter of the Samurai,1937)withGermandirectorArnoldFanck,whohadbeenfamous fordirectingmountainfilms(Bergfilm),agenrethathasbeenregardedas a forerunner of fascist aesthetics.169 In these articles, Angst pointed out threeareasinwhichJapanesefilmswereparticularlylaggingbehindAmerican and German counterparts: “lighting, development, andmakeup.”170 212 chapter4
Inordertoemphasizethesignificanceofdarktones,Angstintroducedhis ownphrase:“Killedbylight”(todbeleuchten).Angstexplains,“Thisdoesnot meantodisplayanactor’sfaceasifitwereadeathmask.Itisabouttheconditioninwhichaseriousshortcoming[inlighting]isoverlooked.Forinstance,thereisacaseinwhichtoomuchlightisonaface.”171Angstadded, “Audiencesneverthinkofdirectionsoflight,butitisextremelyimportant tohaveaclearsenseoftheminordertomakeactorslookbeautifulonthe screen.Neverplacemurderousbeamsoflightfromalldirectionsinthe studioontoactors.”172ThecriticSugaTadaothoughtthatJapanwaspresentedundernewlightbybeingvibrantlycaptured,orbeingbent,bythe handsofAngstwithhislightingscheme.Hewrote,“Itisagreatpleasureto lookatthegiantvolcanoofMt.AsoswallowedandconqueredbyAngst’s camera.Angstisanincrediblehumanbeing.IthinkthattheJapanesegovernmentshouldhirethissupercinematographerforseveralmonthswhile heisinJapanandaskhimtophotographasmanyJapaneselandscapesand thingsaspossible.”173TheGermancinematographer’swordsandpractice becameanotherjustificationfortheaestheticsofshadow. Inotherwords,withtheconceptoftheaestheticsofshadow,Japanese cinematographers were grappling with the anxiety of the overpowering technologythatHollywoodcinemabroughttotherealityofJapanesefilmmaking.Adorationcouldeasilyhaveturnedintodespair.InordertoovercometheiraspirationtothedestructivelyattractivetechnologicalmodernityrepresentedinHollywoodcinema,theydiscursivelyformulatedthe aestheticswithasenseofnostalgia,eventhoughsuchnostalgia,oracalling towardthepastandtradition,wascertainlyaninventedone.JapanesecinematographersandcriticsdidnotwanttodiscardJapanesecinematictechnologyandtheirpracticeoffilmmaking.Thecinematographerswantedto salvage them. As such a contested notion, the aesthetics of shadow approached another German idea: Walter Benjamin’s “aesthetics.” Zhang ZhenwritesaboutMiriamHansen’sinterpretationofBenjamin’snotion ofaesthetics,whichisusefultounderstandtheambivalentrelationshipof theaestheticsofshadowtotechnology: HighlightingWalterBenjamin’setymologicalparseofthewordaesthetics,orthe“theory[Lehre]ofperceptionthattheGreekscalledaesthetics,”whichheemployedtocritiqueitsnarrowdefinitionassociatedwith thebourgeoisinstitutionofart,HansenunderscoresthehistoricalsigtheaestheticsofshaDoW 213
nificanceofBenjamin’sinvestmentintheterm.Writingatthemoment ofdanger—theriseoffascismanditsappropriationoftechnology(war machinesaswellasmimeticmachinessuchascinema)fordestructive purposes—Benjamincalledforarevisedandexpandednotionofthe aestheticinanefforttorescuetechnologyfromreificationorabuseby boththebourgeoisieandfascism. Hansenobservesacruciallinkbetweenthisrevivednotionofthe aestheticandtheconceptofinnervationinBenjamin’sthinkingonthe social,productivereceptionoftechnology.Thisemphasisonaestheticsasperceptionandsensation(rather[than]techniquesortastesaccessibleonlytoafew)andontechnologyasamediumforovercoming alienationandanaesthetizationintheindustrialage,shiftsthefocusof philosophicaldebateonmodernityfrommindtobody,frommessianismtoactuality,fromsuperstructuretoinfrastructure,fromthesublime totheprofane,fromthatoftheindividualtothecollective....However, thereactivationoftheabilitiesofthebodyandthereignitionoftheinstinctualpowerofthesensesmustnotbeconstruedasanostalgicreturn tothepastoralerabeforetechnologyandmodernity.Fortechnologyhas irrevocablyalteredthevectorsofthehistoricalprocessandtheconditionsforexperiencingandtransformingtheworld.Astechnologyhasso deeplypenetratedor“cut”intothemodernlandscape,...anyattempt toachieve“bodilycollectiveinnervation”goeshand-in-handwithacollectiveinnervationoftechnology.Fortherestorationofhumansenses couldonlybedoneby“passingthrough”technologythatpermeatesthe airofmodernlife.174 ItcouldbearguedthatJapanesecinematographersandcriticscalledforthe aestheticsofshadowinanefforttorescueJapanesefilmtechnologyfrom thesenseofabuseandabundancedisplayedin“fascinating”Hollywood cinema.175Documentarism,inparticular,becamethesignificantissuein theeffortof“passingthrough”technologyinJapanesefilmmaking.Along theway,theconceptofthesublimewastransformedfromtechnological tonatural. the documentary spirit and the Japanese sublime
Realismoflighting,especiallyinthespaceofJapanesearchitecture,becamethekeythatdistinguishedtheaestheticsofshadowfromthelow-key 214 chapter4
styleinHollywood.176Reviewsoftwoprisonfilmsthatwereproducedin 1941withsupportfromtheMinistryofLaw,The Sin-Free City(Tsumi naki machi,MoriKazuo)andFor Mother(Hahashiro,TanakaShigeo),weretypicalexamplesofthediscursivetendencyoftheaestheticsofshadow.Inthe reviews,thecriticHanamuraTeijiroofEiga Gijutsuhighlyvaluedthedark tonesofthesetwofilms,specificallyintermsofrealism.OfThe Sin-Free City,Hanamurawrote,“Suchlevelsoflightingcouldbeappropriatefor actualJapanesehouses,whilethetoo-brightlightingofShochikucinema mustberegardedasunpleasant.”177OfMother,hewrote,“[ThecinematographerAoshimaJunichiro]maintainedexcellentgradationinhisdark tones.Inparticular,itisnoteworthythathewasabletoexpressthepassingoftimeofdaybysimplydepictingacorridorofaprisonindarktones. Probablyitwasnotpossibletouseanyspeciallampsatallinthecorridor. Therefore,Aoshima’sachievementshouldbehighlyvalued.”178Incontrast, theTohocinematographerTamaiMasaowas“impressedbythebeautyof afishingboatsailingunderthebrightsunlight”inthedocumentaryshort filmDiary of the Northern Sea(Hokuyo nikki,1942),butseverelycriticized such“pictorialphotography...[,which]lacksrealisticdepictionofthe northernsea.Cinematographersofbunkaeigashouldfacerealitydirectly andexpressitwithastrongattitude.”179Tamaiturnedtoanotherdocumentaryshortfilm,Bullets(Hodan,1942),andpraisedthe“solemnlow-key tonesininteriorshots”whilecriticizing“powerlesssofthigh-keytonesof theexteriors.”180 ItisnoteworthythatsuchanemphasisonrealismoflightingintheJapanesespacewasonceagainjustifiedbyaHollywooddiscourse,evenwhen Japanesecriticsandcinematographersinsistedonthedangerofdirectly mimickingHollywoodlighting.PatrickKeatingarguesthattheimportance ofthelow-keytonesinHollywoodlightinginthe1930swasalmoststrictly genrebased.181VictorMilnerdeclaredintheJanuary1935issueofAmerican Cinematographer:“Lightisthecinematographer’smostversatiletool.”He argued,“Itiseasyenoughtoreadaheavy,dramaticscenewhichmustnecessarilybesomberandslow-paced,andunderstandthatitmustbephotographedinalowkey;ortoglanceoveraswift-pacedcomedysceneand seethatitwillrequirehigh-keylighting.”182Similarly,thecinematographer JohnArnoldclearlyexplicateshisviewonlightingintheNovember1936 issueofAmerican Cinematographer:
theaestheticsofshaDoW 215
Whileeachproductionandeachscenehasitsownproblems,thereare certainestablishedconventionsinCinematography,basedonproven psychologicalreactionscommontohumanitytheworldover.Ifweare photographingaheavydramaticsituation,westriveforsomber,“low- key”lightingswhosedarktoneswillheightenthesenseoftragedy.Ifit isamelodrama,strong,virilecontrastsbetweenbottomless shadows andintensehighlightsnotonlyaidindevelopingaresponsetorugged action,butalsoetchtheactionclearlyandswiftlytotheeye.Ifthepictureiscastinarealisticmood,likeFury[FritzLang,1936],harsh,almostnewsreelesquephotographybuildsanillusionofreality....If,on theotherhand,thepictureisaromance,softer,smootherphotography buildssubtlytoanillusionofidyllicglamour.Lastly,ifourpictureisa broadcomedy,cameraandlightingmustsimplyrevealastageforthe comics,withouttraceofartificeorartiness,sothatnoteventhesmallest gesture,theslightestgrimace,willslipbyunseen.183 Japanesecriticsandcinematographerswereverywellawareofsuchstress ongenericlightinginHollywood.InFebruary1942,thecriticandphotographerTanakaToshiowrote,“‘Comedymustbeinhighkeyandtragedyin lowkey.’ThewordsofJohnArnold,departmentheadofcinematographyat MgMandvicepresidentofasc,arethemottoofpopularcinematography [inHollywood].”184Inhisreviewofthe1942filmWater Margin(Suikoden, a.k.a.Shui Hu Zhuan,OkadaKei),KawasakiKikuzowrote,“Inanonsense comedylikethisone,itisnaturaltosetbrighttonesasthebasisandeliminaterealityinlighting.”185Here,Kawasakiclearlydistinguishedhigh-key tonesofthecomedyfromrealisticlighting. ThefirstissueofEiga Gijutsujournalin1941publishedWilliamStull’s articleonastudyoflightlevelsatmajorHollywoodstudios,whichwas translatedintoJapanese.TheconclusionofStull’sarticlestatesthatthere arehugedifferencesoflightlevelsfromonestudiotoanother.Stullwrites thateachstudioandeachdirectorofphotographyhasitsownideaonhow toobtainanidealnegativeanditsownmethodtoachieveitsgoal.186This encouragedJapanesecinematographers,whodidnothavesufficienttechnicalequipment.Thecinematographersandcritics,especiallythosewho werenotworkingforShochiku,imaginedJapanesecinemaasagenrewith aspecificlightingscheme,agenrethatwoulddocumentJapanesespace inarealisticmanner.Inthissense,itwouldevenbepossibletosaythat 216 chapter4
thesecinematographersandcriticsinsistedthatallJapanesefilmsshould becomedocumentary.187Infact,thetermdocumentary spirit(jissha-teki seishin)becameoneofthekeyconceptsthatanumberofcinematographers and critics stressed in the late 1930s to early 1940s. In 1934, a reader of Kinema Junpocriticizedjidaigeki’spersistenceindetailsofpropsandsettingsandcalledit“fanaticdocumentarism.”188Theaestheticsofshadow wasfanaticdocumentarismonadifferentlevel. Itwassaidthatthetermdocumentary spiritwasfirstintroducedbythe filmcriticKishiMatsuoin1934inhisreviewofOzuYasujiro’sA Mother Should Be Loved (Haha o kowazu ya, 1934).189 Kishi claimed that Ozu “made every effort to achieve shajitsu shugi [documentarism]” by emphasizinglow-keylightinginA Mother Should Be Loved.190Kishiargued, “Here,didn’tOzuYasujirorespectthedocumentaryspirittoomuch?Itis widelybelievedinJapanesefilmmakingthatthebrighterthebetter.Asif allscenesshouldbephotographedinbrightfields.Ozuhasconsciouslyrevoltedagainstsuchabelief.Nobodywillbelievethataninteriorroomwith electriclampsonshouldbeasbrightasaplaceunderthesun.OzuYasujiro startedthefilmwitharebelliousideatodemolishsuchabelief,butwas eventuallytrappedinthesmallholeofdocumentarism.”191Kishiusedthe termdocumentary spirittoemphasizehisrathernaïveconceptionofacamera’sfunctionofmechanicalreproduction.Kishimaintained,“Weshould gooutwithacameraandafeelingoffreedom.Let’sgoonatrip.Then,let’s capturewhatcatchesoureyesandearsandwhatimpressesusasiftheyare acamera.”192KishiwasnotthinkingoftheconceptinrelationtoHollywood’slow-keylighting,thematerialconditionsofJapanesestudios,and theemergingdiscourseoftheaestheticsofshadow. Yetanumberofcinematographers andcriticsstartedusingtheterm documentary spirittodistinguishtheirfilmsfromHollywoodfilms—and fromShochikufilmsthattheyregardedasslavishimitationsofHollywood films.In1941,theliberalfilmcriticHazumiTsuneopointedout,“Sincea coupleofyearsago,threeseparateentitieshavebeenjumbledandshamelesslyexploitinggenresoffictionfilms.Thosethreeentitiesare:cinema’s photographic nature, documentary spirit, and documentary taste along withtherisingpopularityofdocumentaryfilms.”193Hazumiclearlydistinguisheddocumentaryspiritandthepopulartasteforitfromthemotion picture camera’s capacity of mechanical reproduction—the notion that Kishi was originally thinking of when he introduced the term. In other theaestheticsofshaDoW 217
words,HazumidepictedtheemergenceofanewdiscoursethatpurposefullyemphasizedthedocumentarystyleinJapanesefilmmaking. Shimazaki Kiyohiko admitted in his essay “On Tones of Lighting in Cinema:AThoughtaboutBrightnessofImages”(“Eiganogachonitsuite: Gamennoakarusanikansuruichikosatsu,”1942)thatthequalitiesoffilm stockandlightingequipmentinJapanwerenotallowingJapanesecinematographerstoachieveHollywood-stylelow-keytones.Shimazakiinsisted, “Idonotthinkallproblemswillbesolvedscientificallyandmaterialistically.”194Whathesuggestedwasan“artisticandmental”methodinorder toovercomethemateriallimitations.195Shimazaki’semphasisonthe“artisticandmental”methodcouldhaveeasilyfallenintotheirrationallogicof seishin-ron(thetheoryoftheJapanesespirit),oneofthedominantsociopoliticaldiscoursesofthetime.InFebruary1941,NakanoToshioofthe HomeMinistryasserted,“Itisnotdifficulttoimaginecinematographers [inJapan]encounteringnumerousdifficultiesduringfilmproduction,includinglackoffilmstock,cinematographicequipment,cameras,andother machines.However,IthinkthatisexactlywherethedevelopmentofJapanesecinemaandtheprogressoffilmtechnologiesshouldbegin.Inother words,byovercomingsuchdifficulties,anewandrighteousJapanesefilm technologywillbeborn.Themissionofcinematographersincludesinventing new equipment and innovating new technologies. This is extremely important.Cinematographersshouldservethenationwithtrulydevoted spirits.”196Similarly,inApril1941,FuwaSuketoshioftheDepartmentof IntelligenceattheHomeMinistryclaimed,“Whiletechnologieshaveinternationalcharacteristicsandfilmmakingisuniversalwork,Ithinkthereare technologiesthatarefilledwithJapanesespiritandemotion.Thedeeper technologiesdevelop,themorethisistrue.”197Followingthissociopoliticaldiscourse,theleftistfilmjournalEiga Hyoronpublishedaspecialissue on“Cinema’stechnologiesandseishin[spirit],”inSeptember1942,andthe filmcriticIijimaTadashicontended,“Artworksmustbeproductsofseishin. Onlycinematictechnologiesthatdealwithmaterialsscientificallydonot makecinemaofart,whichmustbeaproductofseishin.”198Similarly,Osaka Soichi,acinematographeratDaiei,proudlywrotein1944,“JapanesetechnologiesarenotimitationsofBritishorAmericantechnologiesbutareones withJapanesespirit,achievedonlywiththeuniquelyJapanesespirit.”199 Shimazakididnotdirectlyfollowthefanaticdiscourseofthenational spirit.Instead,groundedonhisprofoundknowledgeoffilmtechnology, 218 chapter4
Shimazakiprovidedatheoreticalbasisfortheconnectionbetweenthenationalspiritanddocumentarism.Shimazakiinsistedonthesignificanceof composition,whichwouldbeachievedbyspecifictonesoflighting.The discoursethatemphasizedrealismoflightingemergedinJapanesecinematographers’aspirationsforHollywood’slow-keylightinganddespairatthe limitedmaterialconditionsinJapan.Suchalightingstylewasjustifiednot onlybyso-calledtraditionalJapaneseaestheticsbutalsobyHollywood’s ideaofgenericlighting:specificlightingstylesshouldbeusedforspecific genres.InadditiontothisbendingofHollywoodfilmsintheemergenceof theaestheticsofshadow,ShimazakiexpandedHollywood’sideaofcompositionallightingtoJapanesefilmmaking.Shimazakiclaimed,“TrulycinematiccompositionsofimagesarenotyetestablishedinJapanesecinema,” andhehelduptheimportanceof“composition withallpossiblestyles, techniques,andtechnologiesasmeticulousandorganicaspossible,not in two- but in realistic three-dimensionality.”200 Shimazaki argued, “By compositionIdonotonlymeantwo-dimensionalarrangementsofsuch elementsasstraightlines,windinglines,andsoon,butnonflatoneswith lightingandtones.Inaddition,allofthoseelementsneedtomove,transform,andhavethree-dimensionality.”201Inordertoachievesucharealistic three-dimensionality,Shimazakiemphasizedthesignificanceofdarkness inlighting:“Imagesaredepictedingradationfromhighlighttoshadowsso thatitisnotreasonabletolimitthescopetothehighendas[Shochiku’s] Ofunafilmsdo.Ibelievethatfilmsshouldbeasbrightandclearaspossible, butexpressionofdarknessisabsolutelynecessary.Brightnessthatignores directions,strengths,andtonesoflightsandthatdoesnotexpressdarkness inordertomerelydisplaystars’facesmustbeabandoned.”202Shimazaki triedtoreinforcetheaestheticsofshadowbyexpandingthetheoryofcompositionallightinginHollywood. Inthisregard,ShimazakihighlypraisedIsayamaSaburo’scinematographyinFive Scouts(Gonin no sekkohei,TasakaTomotaka,1938)forhis“ultimateuseofanextremelyboldlow-keytone,”whichwasparticularlyeffectiveforcompositionalpurposes.203InJuly1937,thesecondSino-Japanese warbeganasaresultofJapaneseimperialistpolicy,mainlyaimingtosecure China’svastrawmaterialreservesandothereconomicresources.Inthe followingyears,numerousfilmsaboutthewarwerereleasedinJapan.Five Scoutswasoneofthemostsuccessfulfilmsamongthemcriticallyandfinancially.Inthisfilm,acompanycommandercallsonfivesoldierstoreconnoitheaestheticsofshaDoW 219
terinnorthernChina.Ontheirway,thefivescoutsareattacked,andonly fourofthemreturn.Whenthefourcompanionsstarttomournatnight, thelastscoutstrugglesback.Critics,governmentalandmilitaryofficials, andgeneralaudiencesagreedthatFive Scoutswasan“ideal”Japanesewar film.204Itwasselectedasthebestfilmof1938byKinema Junpoandwon anawardattheVeniceInternationalFilmFestival.TheMinistryofEducation,theHomeMinistry,andthearmyhighlypraisedthefilm,anditwas thefourthmostfinanciallysuccessfulfilmoftheyearforNikkatsu,oneof themajorJapanesefilmcompanies.205 Thewarfilmwasaperfectvehicleforthedocumentaryspirit.Nornes arguesthatthedocumentaryspiritdevelopedoutofa“needforanddesire todisplayJapan’scolonialtrophiesthroughthedocumentarycapabilitiesof themedium,”especiallybecause“documentariessimplyprecededfeature filmswhenitcametowarsubjects.”206EveninHollywood,accordingto Keating,asagenredominatedbymen,“thewarfilmbecameanidealgenre forexperimentationwithrealisttechniques.”207Indeed,AramakiYoshiro, thescreenwriterofthefilm,wrote,“Thewarisafactthatisbeyondcontrol.Thereforewedidnothaveanyambitionexceptthatwewoulddepict suchafactasafact.Rather,wethoughtwemustnothaveanyambition.”208 AccordingtothecriticMurakamiTadahisa,itwasfilm’s“reportage-style” realisticexpressionsthatcouldmake“trulygoodwarmilitaryfilms”that wouldgobeyond“simplepublicityandpropaganda.”209 Shimazaki highly valued the “light effects with depth” that avoided “banalanduncharacteristicflood[flat]frontallight,”whichcouldtypically beobservedinmelodramaticfilmsproducedatShochiku’sOfunastudio, according to Shimazaki.210 In a discussion with Shimazaki, Isayama explainedhowattentivehewastocompositionaluseoflighting,especially inthescenesatnight:“Itriedthreedifferenteffectlightingswithdifferent heightsandangles—lightstothemaincharacterinfront,theoneinthe middle,andtheatmosphericcharactersattheback....AndIcontrolled thethreelayersskillfully.”211 Inlongshots,soldiersaredepictedinsilhouetteandcontrastedvisibly (and symbolically) to bright spots. When Commander Okada (Kosugi Isamu)readsanimperialmessagetohisarmy,mostofthesoldiersturn theirbackstothecameraandformashadowyspacethatoccupiesmore thanhalfofthescreenfromthebottom.Onlythecaptainwhospeaksthe emperor’swordsisinabrightspot.Similarly,beforetheentirearmyleaves 220 chapter4
forageneralattack,thecaptaintalkstohissoldierswithhisswordraisedin frontofhim.Ashemoves,theswordreflectstoplightandshinesinfrontof thearmyofshadows.Then,inanextremelongshot,thesoldiersinsilhouettemarchfromadarkspacethroughagateofthearmybasetothebright fieldsinfrontofthem. Evenforclose-upsIsayamaemphasizedhissenseofcompositionand hischoiceof“thepowerofblackness”asthekeytoneofthefilm.Isayama claimedthatwhenheusedclose-ups,he“triedtoimprovetheeffectsthat LeeGarmesshowedinShanghai Express...delicately,rationally,andcreatively.”212 Garmes’s lighting on Marlene Dietrich fully employed one- directionallightfromatop.ShadowscreatedbyalimitedspotlightonDietrich’sfaceinadarksettingenhancedtheglamour.Isayamadidtrytoimitate Garmes’slightingtechnique.Heneverplacedanylightatthesameheight astheactors,butpositioned2kWspotlightsapproximatelyfourfeethigher thantheactors’faceswith35-degreeangles,providingone-directionallight fromatop.Healsohadthetopoftheactors’capscutoff“inordertoavoid disgustinghighlightreflectingthetoplight,whichwoulddistortthebalancedimpressionoflightingontheirfaces.”213However,Isayama’saimwas notsimplytoenhancetheglamourofJapanesesoldiers’facesbuttocompositionally“balancethedarkshadowontheupperhalfofanactor’sface becauseofavisorofhiscapandthedetailofhisfacialskin.”214WhenPrivateKiguchi(IzawaIchiro)finallyreturnsonarainynightfromhisscout mission,othersoldierswelcomehim.Thefacesofthesoldiersaredepicted inclose-upsonebyone,facingtowardthecamera.Thetophalfofeach faceisinshadebecauseofthelightfromabove,buttheireyescatchsome lightsandglare.Theseclose-upsaretheresultsofIsayama’scarefulcompositionalbalancingactswithlightandshadow(fig.4.9).215 To achieve a compositional balance, Isayama also chose “blackish makeupinsteadoftheconventionalyellow”fortheJapanesesoldiers.216 Richard Angst’s choice of makeup for Kosugi Isamu’s face on The New Earththepreviousyearwasinspiringinthisregard.KosugiplayedtheprotagonistinFive ScoutsaswellasThe New Earth.Angstdecidednottouse theconventionalyelloworwhitemakeupforKosugi“afterexperimenting withseveraltypes.”217AccordingtoAngst,thechoicewas“forthepurpose ofrealism.”218SawamuraTsutomu,ascreenwriteratTohowhowasacentralfigureinpublicizingthenationalizationoffilmbytheJapanesemilitaristgovernment,wroteinhisreviewthatthelightinginFive Scouts“gave theaestheticsofshaDoW 221
figure4.9 Thefacesofthesoldiersrepresentedthedocumentaryspirit. Five Scouts(1938).
shadowstocharacters,withverycarefuluseofsideandtoplighting,and expressedsolemndepth.”219Apparently,Sawamurawastryingtomakea connectionbetweentheuseofshadowsinFive ScoutsandnationalistsentimentinJapan.ThomasLaMarreasserts,“Generally,intheseessaysfrom theearly1930sinwhichhe[Tanizaki]continuallyexploresthelimitations ofWesterntechnologieslikeelectriclightsandphotography,thecentral issuewaswhatkindoflightingwillallowforasublimeexperienceofthe Japaneseface.”220Shimazaki’stheoryandIsayama’spracticeofdocumentarismwerecertainlyformulatedinaccordancewithTanizaki’sthoughts inIn Praise of Shadow.Butinsteadofexploringthe“limitationsofWestern technologies,”ShimazakiandIsayamaexpandedHollywoodideasofgenericlighting,compositionallighting,andevenstarlightingintheirformulationoftheaestheticsofshadow. Theaestheticsofshadow,whichwaspracticedinFive Scoutsandpraised critically,couldberegardedasanattempttorecoupthenaturalsublime fromthetechnologicalsublime.HistoriansofAmericanculturesuchas LeoMarx,JohnF.Kasson,andDavidNyehaveregardedthetechnologicalsublimeasanimportantelementintheformationofthespecifically 222 chapter4
Americansenseofnationalidentity,purpose,anddestinyinthenineteenth andearlytwentiethcenturies,asthefilmhistorianKristenWhisselpoints out.221Nyearguesthattheexperienceofthetechnologicalsublimegeneratesfeelingsofawe,astonishment,shock,andeventerrorthatmomentarily overpowermentalfacultiesandtemporarilyreducethespectatortoastate ofdumbfoundedness,butthenultimatelypropelhimorherintoastateof mentalactionthatallowsforrationalcomprehensionofthatwhichinitially seemedinconceivable.Theprivilegedplacegrantedtothepowerofinventors,engineers,technicians,andfinancierssymbolizes,byextension,the privilegedplaceoccupiedbythenation,as“theAmericansublimetransformedtheindividual’sexperienceofimmensityandaweintoabeliefin nationalgreatness.”222Inturn,Japanesecriticsandcinematographersemphasizedthatitwastheaweofnaturalismthatcouldgranttheprivileged placetoJapan.Thiswassurelyaslantedargument.Limitedmaterialconditionspreventedthemfromachievingthetechnologicalsublime,butconverselyallowedthemtoexplorewaysofdocumentingthenaturalsublime. Realisticlightingthatincorporatedshadowinasignificantmannerwasone suchway.Thehumanspiritwasalsoconsideredpartofthenaturalsublime. According to Francis Guerin, representations in and of light can be groupedundertwoumbrellas.First,fromPlatothroughtheMiddleAges andintothenineteenthcentury,lightwasusedintheserviceofmythical andmysticalnarrativesthatsearchedformetaphysicaltruth.Second,from theworkofEuclid,throughGalileo,toEinstein’stheoryofenergyquanta, lighthasfunctionedintherealmofscienceinattemptstoquantifyand rationalizetheelementaluniverse.223Thesetwotraditionsofthemythical andthescientificusesoflightcreatetensionintheaestheticsofshadow: afascinationwithmoderntechnology—thatis,Hollywoodlow-keylighting—andanostalgiclongingforapremodernnatureofthesublime.The documentaryspiritwasamethodofpursuingthelatterwithfullsupport oftheavailabletechnology. TheexceptionallyhighpraiseofStagecoach( JohnFord,1939)fromthe JapaneseAssociationofFilmTechnologyisnoteworthy.IntheJuly1940 issueofEiga to Gijutsu,Stagecoachwascalled“ararepleasantfilmofthese years,” and its cinematography noted as “stand[ing] out among recent American cinema.”224 Mimura Akira, a Japanese cinematographer who startedhiscareerinHollywoodinthe1920s,was“mostimpressedbythe locationofthevastdesert”inStagecoachandwrote,“TheinfinitelyenortheaestheticsofshaDoW 223
mousplainenablespeopletolookatitandhavesomegrandthoughts.... BurtGlennon’scinematographydoesnothaveanythingspecialbutstill is excellent.”225 Mimura was obviously struck by the natural sublime in Americathatisrepresentedinthefilm,buthewasnotawedbythetechnologicalmanipulationthathadcapturedit.InsteadofpraisingthetechnologicalsublimethatwasachievedintheHollywoodfilm,Mimurastated,“I sometimesthinkofhowwecouldbringourfilmsoutsidewherewecould utilizenaturallandscapeasbackground.”226EventhoughMimuradidnot speakoftheaestheticsofshadowperse,hesuggestedaroadthatJapanese cinematographerscouldtakewithoutfullyimitatingHollywood’smethods:documentingthenaturalsublime. The same issue of Eiga to Gijutsu translated an interview with Burt Glennon,whoemphasizedhischoiceofanunconventionallightingstyle inStagecoach.Glennonsaidthathetookacompletelydifferentmethodof lightingtothesetsandthepeoplefromconventionalones.Forinstance, wheneverheuseda25mmwide-anglelens,hecapturedlowceilingsofthe setswithintheframe.Hedidnotusetheconventionalbacklight,either, whichwasoftencalledthe“Hollywoodhalo.”Still,Glennonclaimedthat hewasabletoobtainasenseofdepth,asitshouldhavebeen.Eventhough itwasdifficultforhimtoachieveasenseofthree-dimensionalitywithout usingbacklight,hethoughtitwasanappropriatechoicetousebacklight onlywhenadiegeticlightingsourcewasavailable,suchasthelightcoming from outside of a door, outside of a window, and from a streetlamp, in ordertorepresenttheatmosphereoftheWestatthattime.227Thesense ofrealismandthecompositionaluseoflightingthatGlennonpursuedin StagecoachwereconsideredtobewhatJapanesecinematographersshould follow.IfGlennon’sattemptwasunconventionalinHollywood,thatwas evenbetter.Besides,totheinterviewer’squestion,“Theproductioncost willbecomelowerwithsuch[dark]lighting,won’tit?”Glennonanswered, “Yes,Ibelievesointhisfilm.”228ItwouldbetheperfectmodelforJapanese cinematographers.229 IncontrasttothehighpraiseofFive Scouts,Shimazakiseverelycriticized thelighting schemeofShochiku’s warandbiographical filmTank Commander Nishizumi(Nishizumi sensha cho den,YoshimuraKozaburo,1940), whosebattlesequenceswereshotinShizuofChibaprefecture,thesame locationthatFive Scoutsused.Shimazakiconsideredtheinteriorsofthe basecamp,supposedlylitonlybycandles,tobetoobrightand“unnatu224 chapter4
ral”andconcludedthatthefilm’scinematography“endedupassuperficialbeauty”whenitshouldhavedepictedthe“realbattlefields.”230Kaita Seiichi,acinematographerfornewsfilms,whoinrealityhadbeeninthe battlefieldswithNishizumi,agreedwithShimazakiandcriticizedthatthe film’slightingforthenightscenesinthebattlefieldswas“irresponsibly”too brightandtoobeautiful.231 Beforetheopeningcredit,Tank Commander NishizumiincludesamessagefromYoshimuraKozaburo,thedirectorofthefilm.Theopeningof themessagereads,“InTank Commander Nishizumi,Itriedtodepictthe spiritofoursoldiersandtherealityofbattlesoftanksduringthiswar.”The openingcreditswiththetitlesongaboutNishizumiarefollowedbyaseries ofshotsofthelandscapeofKumamoto,Nishizumi’shometown,andthen newsfootageofthebattlesinChina.ThemalevoicenarrateshowNishizumigrewuptobecomeacommanderofatankunit.Thelightingofthis footageisambientunderthesunlight,whichsupportsYoshimura’sopening messagethatemphasizedtherealismofthescene. Whatweseeinthefollowingdramasequencesisalightingschemethat followstheHollywoodstyleforthegenre—butnottheonethattheadvocatesoftheaestheticsofshadowhadinsistedonforthefutureofJapanesefilmmaking.Shadowsareused,butinmostcasestheyfunctiontoenhancetheeffectofglamorousthree-pointlightingintheshotsthatfollow. Thestrugglesofthesuperhero,playedbyastar,intheseeminglynever- endingwarandhiseventualdeterminationareemphasizedbythislighting scheme.Onceagain,brightnessisthekeyanddarknessservesit.Preparationofmealsunderthebrightsunlightisfollowedbyamedicalteam marchingby,carryingdeadsoldiers.Adarkshadowiscastonthefaceof Nishizumi(playedbyatopstarofShochiku,UeharaKen)inatransitional close-up,inwhichhechangeshisfacialexpression.Thefollowingscene, which depicts suffering soldiers, is even darker. While his unit spends a rainynightatacamplitonlybycandles,aweary-lookingNishizumisays, “Thewarhasjustbegun.Itwillbelongandtough.”Afterlookingaround atsoldierssufferingfromdiarrhea,highfever,andnervousbreakdowns,he turnshisbacktothecameraandwalksout.Infrontofdimbacklight,his backisdisplayedinsilhouette.Nishizumiiswoundedinthelegduringthe followingbattlesceneonarainynight.Eventhoughbombs,firearms,and theshiningmetaloftankscreateaspectacleoflightandshadow,thereis noexcitementofvictoryhere,butthesceneendswithaclose-upofNishitheaestheticsofshaDoW 225
zumi’swoundedlegsilhouettedinfrontofashinypuddle.Suchdarkness, bothliteralandsymbolical,iscounteredinthefollowingscenebyaclose- upofNishizumiintypicalthree-pointlighting.Eventhoughsuperiorofficerssuggestthathegorestatarearbase,Nishizumideclares,“Iwillnever withdraw.” His heroic determination is emphasized by Hollywood-style three-pointlighting.Later,Nishizumitellshisfriend(RyuChishu)thathe hasnointentionofgoingbacktoJapanbutplanstobeburiedunderthe soiloftheAsiancontinent.Hedoesnotevenhaveamessageforthepeople inhishometown.HereNishizumiachievestranscendentalstatus—thatof thegunshin(wargod).Suchthree-pointlightingisrepeatedinthefollowingsceneofasnowynight.NishizumihelpsaChinesewoman(playedby theyoungJapaneseactressKuwanoMichiko)whohasjustgivenbirthto herdaughterinadevastatedhouse.Eventhoughthereareonlylitcandles visibleinthescene,bothKuwano’sclose-ups(fig.4.10)andNishizumi’s (shotreverseshots)beautifullyuseonlykeylights,filllights,andbacklights insofttones.TheconspicuousmoralstructureofJapanesemilitarism,in whichtheJapanesearmyprotectstheinnocentnativesfromthebrutalChineseResistanceArmy,isenhancedbythethree-pointlighting.232 Intheformationofthediscursiveandpracticaltendencyoftheaestheticsofshadow,anumberofcinematographersandcriticscriticizedShochikufilmsforbeingtoobright.Shimazakiwasoneofthem.Inthenameof Japanesetaste,TanakaToshioalsocriticizedShochiku’slightingonevery occasion.In1940,sharingAngst’sviewonlightingandclose-ups(histerm “murderous”lighting,inparticular),TanakapraisedSternberg’sShanghai Express,criticizedfilmsproducedatShochiku’sOfunastudio,andtheninsistedonthedevelopmentofuniqueJapanesecinematiclighting.Tanaka claimed,“TheU.S.releaseprintofShanghai Expresswasbeautiful.Ididnot seeevenapieceofdustinthepitch-blacknightscenes.Iwasastonished. Usingnumerouslamps,whichcouldhaveendedupwithoverlighting,the filmachievedsuchlow-keyphotography.Incomparison,Ofunafilmsare hopeless.Overlitandoverdeveloped. Itisnotevencalledhighkey.The facesoftheiractorsaretoowhiteandmask-likeasifbeingphotographed atacheapstudioofadepartmentstore.Thetonesonthosefacesremind meofdeathmasks.Theycannotbecalledphotography.”233Hecontinued, “[Photographers]shouldappreciate‘shadow.’Theyshouldknowthevalue andthetasteofitandthinkabouthowtouseit.”234HebelievedJapanese cinematographers could achieve this because they had “delicate” senses 226 chapter4
figure4.10 ThefaceofaChinesewoman(playedbytheJapaneseactressKuwano Michiko)isdisplayedinthree-pointlighting.Tank Commander Nishizumi(1940).
andtechniquesofcolorandlightingthathadbeenprovedinthebeautyof Japanesetraditionaltextiles.235TanakadenouncedShochiku’sexecutives whoweresousedtotheirhabitsofinsistingon“morebrightness”thatthey didnotunderstandthe“beautyofdarkness”andhow“valuableandtasteful itis.”236Curiously,suchcriticismofShochikufilmswasoftenconnected totheirlackofJapaneseness.TsumuraHideooftheTokyo Asahi Shinbun newspapercalledShochiku’sThe Tree of Love(Aizen katsura,NomuraHiromasa),thetopfilmof1938,“abanalandoutdatedtearjerker”andclaimed thatShochikufilmsofthissortdidnot“seemtohavetheintentionofworkingactivelyfortheJapaneseculture.”237 Consideringitslightingscheme,ShochikufilmwasnotaHollywood imitationbutratheranextensionoftheJapaneseKabukistyle.Evenitsstar lighting,whichincorporatedHollywood’sthree-pointlighting,wasbentto aKabukistyle,asHayashiChojiro’sstarimagedisplayed.Incontrast,the aestheticsofshadowdidnotstemfromtraditionalJapaneseaesthetics,but insteadexpandedHollywood’sgenericandcompositionallighting.Itwas quiteareversaloffortune.Theadvocatesoftheaestheticsofshadowjustifiedtheirlightingscheme,whichhadoriginatedinHollywood,byresorttheaestheticsofshaDoW 227
ingtotheappreciationofshadowanddarknessinJapanesearchitecture. ThentheycriticizedShochikufilmsfornotbeingJapaneseenoughbecause theywerenotdark.Theconflictbetweentheaestheticsofshadow,originallyaddressedbythecinematographersatTohoandcriticswhotriedto challengethedominanceofShochikuinthefilmindustry,andbrightand cheerfulShochikucinemawasnotbetweenJapanesenessandAmericanism. In order to challenge the dominance of Shochiku, the Toho group formulatedthediscourseandthepracticebybendingHollywoodcinematographyinthenameofrealism,documentarism,andJapaneseaesthetics. Yet,especiallyaftertheattackonPearlHarbor,whenHollywoodfilmsbecameanenemy’smedium,suchaconflictwasconsciouslyturnedintoa dichotomy:theaestheticsofshadowwastheculturaldocumentofJapan andbrightcinemawasthevulgarentertainmentandtherepresentativeof Americanism.Undersuchconditions,KidoShiro,whohadrejectedthe Hollywood-stylelightingschemeinthe1920s,turnedtodefendShochiku filmsas“bright,healthy,andentertaining,”referringtoHollywoodfilms andemphasizingtheirvalueinJapanesesociety.Kidosaid: What? Are Shochiku films produced at its Ofuna studio excessively bright?Aretheylackingcontrasts?Itisnotfruitfultosaysuchthings. Cinemamustbebright.Idon’twanttosaybadthingsaboutTohofilms, buttheysaythatThe Battle of Kawanakajimaissodarkthattheycannot seeitwell.Iamagainstmakingsuchafilm.Shochikufilmsareclearly visible in any local theaters of any regions. It is the most important issue.Itisimpossibletoshowthefacesof[ourstars]TanakaKinuyo andUeharaKenonlyvaguely.Ifeelsorryformyaudienceifthatisthe case.Ikeeptellingourdirectorsandcinematographerstodisplaydetails inbrightness.DisplayingdetailsofcontrastsinshadowseemstoberegardedasthegreattechniqueunderthecurrentconditionsofJapanese cinemathough.Ithinkitisuselesstomakemucheffortinit.Wecannot appreciatedetailsofdarknessinlocaltheaters.LookatAmericanfilms anyway.TheyarebrighterthanOfunafilms.Cinemashouldbebright innature.238 Inspiteofseverecriticismthatquestionedtherealismofthelighting,Tank Commander Nishizumiwassuccessful.Itwasselectedasthesecondbest film of 1940 in the critics’ poll in Kinema Junpo, and was also the most profitablefilmforShochikuthatyear.Thesuccessofthefilmwasevidence 228 chapter4
ofthehybridityofJapanesefilmcultureduringwartime.Eveniftheaestheticsofshadowwasaninfluentialtendencythatcouldaffectfilmswith themost-popularstarsofthetime(HasegawaandYamada),itwasnotthe onlymethodoflightinginJapanesecinema.Nomatterhowstronglythe documentaryspiritwaspushed,itdidnotbecomethecoreformulation ofJapanesenationalcinema.TaketomiYoshio,acinematographeratShochiku’sOfunastudio,didnotsubscribetotheideaofshadowbutjustified thebrightnessofShochikufilmsfromastandpointofusefulnessinJapanesesociety.AccordingtoTaketomi,theOfunastudioasawholewasaimingforbrighttonesbecausemanyoftheirprojectscontained“healthy” and“constructivethemes.”Theirchoicewasnecessitatedbythethemesof thefilmsanditwasnotforbrightnessperseonthesurface.Taketomiconcluded,“Itisimportantforhealthyfilmstohavebrighttones.Ourefforts lieinhowtoexpressthematicmotifs,andconstructivethemesarenecessitatedbythenationandexpectedbyitspeople.IbelievethatthebrightnessofOfunafilmsmightnotbeartisticbutpracticalandusefultosociety.”239DespitethesuccessofTank Commander Nishizumi,Shochiku’s Kidoclaimed,“IwanttoavoidmakingmorefilmslikeNishizumi”inorder nottolosefemalefansforShochikufilms.240ToKido,evenNishizumiwas toodark.Theclose-upofUeharaKenmightnothavebeenassublimeas thefacesinFive Scouts,butitwassoglamorousthatithelpedShochiku withitsbrightandcheerfultonetomaintainitspopularity. SasakiTaro,whobecametheheadofthedeveloping-technologysection atShochikuin1936,publishedtheessay“HowtoPhotographMotionPictures”(“Katsudoshashinsatsueiho”)inwhichheillustratedhowhepracticedlightingduringshooting.Sasaki’sessaywaspublishedinA Guide to the Latest Science of Photography VI(Saishin shashin kagaku taikei dai 6 kai), a1935textbookforcinematographers.OthercontributorsincludedUshihara Kiyohiko (Shochiku director) and Masutani Rin (film-developing specialistatShochiku).IfCinematography Readerhadbeenthetextbook editedmainlybymembersoftheToho-basedJapaneseAssociationofFilm Technology,A Guide to the Latest Science of Photography VIwasthecounterpart.Sasaki’sdemonstrationservedasamodellightingarrangementinthe Shochikumethod,whichwassimultaneousevidencethatanothermajor tendency—brightandcheerfullighting—existedinthe1930s. Sasaki’s essay was accompanied by reproductions of actual films, in whichwecandetectnopalpabledistinctionbetweenhigh-keyandlow-key theaestheticsofshaDoW 229
tones,especiallyinclose-upphotos.Inhisexampleof“relativelyhigh-key lighting”(fig.4.11),Sasakiusedeightkinolights(frontaldiffuselightwith two1kWLg-127Mazdalamps),fivesunspotlights(3kW)foralongshot ofaroom,andtwokinolightsandonesunspotlight(3kW)foraclose-up ofanactress.Ontheotherhand,inhisexampleof“relativelylow-keylighting”(fig.4.12),Sasakiusedfourkinolightsandfoursunspotlights(3kW each)foralongshotofaroomandonekinolightandtwosunspotlights (3kWand2kW).Forbothexamples,Sasakiusedthesamelens(CarlZeiss Biotarf=40mm,f/1,4),thesamefilm(EastmanSupersensitiveType TwoPanchromatic),andthesamef-stop(f/2.3),exceptfortheclose-upof thelow-keyshot(butitwasf/1.9,whichwasquiteclose—Sasakiregards f/1.8–2.3asthe“standard,”withwhicha“relativelybalancedbrightprint canbeobtained”withsupersensitivepanchromaticfilm).241 “Harry” mimura Akira: toho’s man from Hollywood
While Henry Kotani, the first cinematographer from Hollywood, was notabletoachievesuccessatShochikuinthe1920sduringthesupposed periodofAmericanization,“Harry”MimuraAkira,anothercinematographerfromHollywood,becametheacecinematographeratTohointhelate 1930stoearly1940sduringthesupposedperiodofultranationalism.Mimura’ssuccesswasatypicalexampleofthecomplexrelationshipbetween theaestheticsofshadowandHollywood,aswellasofthehybridfilmcultureofwartimeJapan. MimurawasawareofthelimitedmaterialconditionsinJapanesecinema andatthesametimewasdeeplyconcernedwiththetechnologicalinnovationsinHollywood.Whileheconstantlyshowedhisconsciousnessto realisticlightinginhispublishedarticlesaboutGreggToland,hiscoworker inHollywood,MimuratriedtoachievewhatTolanddidinadifferentgeopoliticallocationandanunfavorabletechnologicalsituation.Eventhough itwaswrittenin1948,afterthewar,Mimura’swritingonToland’sworkin The Best Years of Our Lives(WilliamWyler,1946)illustratedhisdeepconcern for documentary-style cinematography. Mimura noted, “The most notableissueinthecinematographyofthisfilmiscraftylighting.Throughoutthefilm,he[Toland]createsvividandsharpimages.Appropriateto itscontent,thetoneofthefilmappearsasthatofadocumentaryfilm.”242 WhatwasfortunateforMimurawasthatTolandwasnotatypicalrepresentativeofHollywoodcinematographybutanexceptionalfigurewhopersis230 chapter4
tentlyexplored“theillusionofpresence”onthescreen.243Toland’spursuit ofhisrealism,whichwasasharedinterestwithMimura,wasinaccordance withthediscourseofthedocumentaryspiritinJapan.Mimurawasableto maintainhisbondtoHollywoodbyconstantlyassertinghisthoughtson thedocumentarystyleofcinematographywhilehesimultaneouslybecame anadvocateoftheaestheticsofshadowinJapanesefilmmaking. MimurawasthefirstJapanesecinematographerwhoobtainedmembershipinHollywood’scinematographers’union(InternationalAlliance ofTheatricalStageEmployees,Local659).AfterstudyingattheNewYork InstituteofPhotographywithCarlGregory,D.W.Griffith’scompanyman, Mimurastartedhiscareerasanassistanttotheacclaimedcinematographer GeorgeBarnesinHollywoodinthelate1920s.Tolandwasanassistantto Barnesatthesametime.OneofthefirstworksofMimurawithBarnes and Toland was Trespasser (Edmond Goulding, 1928), a star vehicle for GloriaSwanson.244Coincidentally,thecameraoperatorwasAlvinWyckoff,HenryKotani’smentor.AfterBarneslefttheGoldwynstudio,Mimura workedforTolanduntilNovember1933. In1932,MimuravisitedJapanbrieflyinordertotakecareofhissick father.Duringhisstay,thenewlyestablishedOrientalFilmCompanyasked MimuratoworkasthecinematographysupervisorofthefilmNamiko,directedbyTanakaEizo.245Namiko,whichwasreleasedonMay19,1932,was thefirsttalkingpictureinJapanthatusedtheWesternElectric(We)sound system,oneofthethreelargesttalkiesystemsintheworld.NowthatMimurahadoftenbeenreportingfromHollywoodonnewfilmtechnologies insuchjournalsasKinema Junpo,hewashiredbytheOrientalFilmCompanytoassistitsfilmproductionthatusedthenewtechnologyfromthe UnitedStates.246 LikeKotani,Mimuraendedupchallengingtheconventionoflighting practiceinJapan,andtheresultwasnotentirelyappreciated.Accordingto Mimura,hedecidedtofullyemploytoplight,followingthelightingstyleof HollywoodforWesternarchitecture.Mimuraclaimed,“Themostnotable thingduringtheproductionofNamikowasthatIwasabletousesufficient light.Itwasveryraretoplacelampsonscaffoldsandlightfromabove.I usedasmanyaselevensunspotlightsasthemajorlightingsourceforthe charactersandthesets,andIscarcelyusedsidelightsontheground.Asa result,Ithinkwehavecompletedafilmthatlooksverydifferentfromother Japanesefilmsinthepast.”247AccordingtoareportinKinema Junpo,the theaestheticsofshaDoW 231
figure4.11 Anexampleof“relativelyhigh-keylighting”inShochikufilms. ReprintedfromSasakiTaro,“Katsudoshashinsatsueiho,”91.
figure4.12 Anexampleof“relativelylow-keylighting”inShochikufilms. ReprintedfromSasakiTaro,“Katsudoshashinsatsueiho,”94.
newlyconstructeddarkstageoftheOrientalFilmCompanywasequipped withnine3kWsunspots, two2kWsunspots, thirtysidelamps,twenty top lamps, and two strips.248 Still, in order to recreate Hollywood-style lighting,Mimuraneededtoborrowmore3kWlampsfrompcL,ledby UemuraTaiji,sonofSumizaburo,whohadestablishedtheOrientalFilm Company.249 ItwastruethatMoriIwao,thescreenwriterofNamiko,whowouldlater becomeanexecutiveofToho,intendedtomakeNamikosomethingnew. NamikowasbasedonCuckoo,apopularnovelbyTokutomiRoka,which hadbeenturnedintoshinpaplaysnumeroustimes,aswellasfilms,includingtheonewithKurishimaSumiko.ThestoryofCuckoowassetinthelate Meijiperiod,duringtheFirstSino-JapaneseWarof1894–95.Moriturned Cuckoointoacontemporarydramasetin1932.250Itwasnotonlyitssetting butitslightingscheme—Mimura’schoiceoftoplightsasthemajorlightingsource—thatcreatedanewmoodinNamiko. ThefinaleofthefilmisashowcaseofMimura’sHollywood-stylelightingofthetime.Namikoisonherdeathbed,notonafutonbutaEuropean- stylebed,anddreamsofherwedding.Lightclearlycomesfromabove,as Mimuranoted.Then,inadoubleexposure,Namiko’sdoublesitsuponthe bedwhileherrealbodystayslyingdown.Next,aclose-upofNamikoreplacesthebodythatwassittingup.Eventhoughtheimageisslightlyvague becauseofthedoubleexposure,theclose-upisanexampleofthree-point lighting.Keylightcomesfromfrontalright,filllightcomesfromleft,which leavesaslightshadeonhernoseontherightsideofherface.Toplight,insteadofbacklight,makestherimofherhairshine.Thenthereisaninsertof aclose-upofherweddingringbeingplacedonherfinger—fromNamiko’s pointofview.Theringshinesatthecenteroftheframe:effectslightingenhancesthesignificanceofthecentralobjecttothenarrative.ThecriticTakeyamaMasanobucalledthefinale“thescenethatwecanbeproudofin Japanesefilmmaking.”251Financially,however,Namikowasnotsuccessful atall—WerequestedahighfranchisefeeandtheOrientalFilmCompany disbandedafterthefilm.Despiteitsinternationallydominantstatus,the WesoundsystemwasnotusedinJapanafterNamiko.252 Still,MimuraandNamikoenhancedaspirationsamongJapanesecritics andcinematographerstowardHollywoodtechnology.Kinema ShuhopublishedaspecialissueonNamikoonMay20,1932,whichwasthefirsttime thejournalhaddevotedanentireissuetooneJapanese-madefilm.Inthe 234 chapter4
issue,thestoryofNamikowasintroducedwithnumerousstillphotos,and leadingcriticsofthetime,thedirector,andthescreenwriterdiscussedthe filmindetail.TheissuealsoincludedanessaycontributedbyMimura;he discussedhowhechallengedtheconventionsoffilmlightinginJapan.AccordingtoTamaiMasao,whowouldworkatJ.O.Studiosafter1936andbecomeanacclaimedcinematographeratToho,MimuragaveatalkinKyoto infrontofJapanesecinematographersandtoldthemaboutthepractices oftheasc.Morethan160Japanesecinematographersandtheirassistants respondedquickly.Theyestablishedthensc,thecounterpartoftheasc, onJune15,1932.253Atthatpoint,beforetheriseofthediscourseoftheaestheticsofshadow,Japanesecinematographerswereeagerlytryingtofollow thetrendinHollywood. CinematographerstookactionalongsidethedominantstudioinJapan. Right after the release of Namiko, Shochiku announced the production ofCuckoowithHayashiChojiroasTakeo,Namiko’slover.Thefilmisno longerextant,butaccordingtoareportinKinema Shuho,thefilmwasalsoa “vividlymodern”version.254Obviously,Shochikuwascounterattackingthe OrientalFilmCompany,andthenpcL,whichopened“thelargesttalkie studioinJapan”inDecember1932.Kinema ShuhoreportedthatpcLspent “nearly65,000yenonlyforlightingequipment,”which“luxuriously”included twenty-two sun spot lights, forty Ewing lights, one hundred top lights, and sairaton contororu (the system that could control lighting of theentirestudio).255MasutaniRin,whohadbeenthedepartmenthead ofphotodevelopingatShochikuandhadintroducedthelatesttechniques fromHollywood,suchasfine-graineddevelopingthatusedboraxinstead ofsodiumcarbonateasastimulus,movedtopcLin1931.256Itwasnatural forShochikutobesupersensitivetopcL’severyaction.Incompetition, ShochikuhadtomoveoutfromtheoldKamatastudioandopenanew largerstudioinOfunain1936.Inadditiontoequipmentfortalkingpictures,eachstageatOfunawasequippedwitha10kWsunspotpertsubo (approximately3.3meterssquare)ontheceilinginorderto“strengthen toplight”andchallengeToho’slightingsystem.257 ChallengingthedominanceofShochiku,pcLsucceededinconvincing MimuratojointheminJapanin1934.AssoonasMimuraarrivedatpcL’s studioinKinuta,Tokyo,Mimuraplacednumerouslampshighabovethe setsinordertohavethe3/4frontal-topkeylighting,whichMiuraMitsuo inCinematography Readercalled“themostideal”inordertoachievethree- theaestheticsofshaDoW 235
pointlighting.AshehaddoneinHollywood,withsuchsettingsoflight, Mimura preferred to use a photographic lens with 100 mm long focal length,whichcouldfocusontheeyes,nose,andmouthofanactorand makeiteasiertoblurthebackground,especiallywithadiffusiondisc.258 MiyajimaYoshio,acinematographeratToho,testifiesthatin1933Toho studiowasequippedwith650kWelectricity,whileotherstudioswerein the500kWrange,andTohousednumeroustopandsidelampstosufficientlysupplementthekeylight.259Thus,withMimura,Tohowastrying todirectlytransferHollywoodtechnologyandtechniquestoJapaninthe early1930s. InJournal of Wandering(Horoki,KimuraSotoji,1935),thesecondfilm that Mimura photographed at pcL, his signature lighting, which critics called “subtle high key” or “soft tones,” was clearly visible.260 Even thoughthenarrativefollowstheearlystrugglingyearsofthefemalenovelistHayashiFumiko(thecharacter’snameisFusakointhefilm),Mimura maintainstheshiningthree-pointlightingontheprotagonist,especially forherclose-ups.WhenFusako,atthispointawaitressinacafé,decidesto leaveherlover,Oyama,agentlewomanizer,theclose-upofherfaceisdisplayedinidealthree-pointlighting(fig.4.13).Althoughtheprecedinglong shotrevealsthatthereisonlyonelightbulbontheceiling,hertearsand hairshinebeautifully.Evenintheclimacticscene,inwhichFusakoswallowspoisonandcommitssuicide,thethree-pointlightingismaintained inthelow-keysurrounding—hereyesandhairshinewithoutanydiegetic lightingsource. Criticsdidnotlikethisdepictionofthestrugglingheroineofthefamous novel.ShinoharaYasushimaintained,“ThecharacterFusakoinJournal of Wandering,thenovel,isanarchistic.Sheisweepingatonepoint,butbecomescheerfulallofasudden,andthenturnsrecklessatthenextmoment.Itisapitythatthereisnodifference[inappearanceoftheheroine inthefilmversion]betweenthetimeswhenshefeelsdepressedandcheerful.IthinkNatsukawa[Shizue]isresponsibleforthis.Sheistoobeautiful toplaythepartofFusako.Plus,itseemsthatthefilmdoesnotintendto makeherlookdirty.ItisnotgoodtodepictFusakolikethat.”261Similarly, OtsukaKyoichiargued,“NatsukawaShizue’sFumiko[sic]onlylooksasif sheisaspiritedbutaffectedgirlfromanicefamilypretentiouslydrinking sakeandwritingpoems.Heractingskilliscompletelydifferentfroman inexperiencedamateur,butshedoesnotlooklikethecharacteratall.The 236 chapter4
figure4.13 ThefaceofFusako(NatsukawaShizue)isdisplayedinthree-point lighting.Journal of Wandering(1935).
character’smiseryandstupidityisnotexpressedevenwhenshecomesout infrontofcustomerswearingaworn-outkimono.”262TheheroineFusako wasplayedbyNatsukawaShizue,oneofthemostpopularstarsofthe1920s and1930s.AccordingtoHideakiFujiki,Natsukawa“accomplishedsocial respectabilityinharmonizingsuchnewvaluesassophisticationandconsumerismwithspirituality,whichwasamotifcommonintendencyfilms andnational-policyfilmsproducedduringthelatterhalfofthe1920sand 1930s.”263Theclose-upsofFusakoweresupposedtobeanidealrepresentationofNatsukawa’sstarimage:simultaneouslyasophisticatedmodern girlonthesurfaceandawomanwhoembodiedspiritualitywithin.Mimura’ssoftthree-pointlightinginclose-upsquiteobviouslycontributed totheheroine’s“toobeautiful”appearanceinthefilm,butsomespectators indicatedthatthe“spirituality”ofaJapanesewomanwasnotfullyrepresentedbysuchlighting.264Kubokawa(Sata)Inekoclaimedaboutthefilm, “IhaveneverseenaprotagonistwithsuchlivelycharacteristicsinJapanese films.”265Inotherwords,underMimura’slightingNatsukawalookedlikea Hollywoodstar. HayashiChojiro(soontobeHasegawaKazuo)wassurelyawareofMitheaestheticsofshaDoW 237
mura’sworkatTohowhenhedecidedtomovetherefromShochiku.He praised Toho’s structure that “followed the American studios” and was particularlyimpressedbythecompany’scamerasandlightingequipment, whichwere“theheartofthefilmstudio.”266Healsosaid,“Beingthirty yearsold,Iwanttostarttorevitalizemycareer.Itisimpossibletodothat atShochiku.IwanttostepforwardandhavedecidedtomovetoToho.”267 Chojiro Fan,thefanmagazine,originallyreportedthatMimurawouldbe thecinematographerforTojuro’s Love.268 WhenhestartedworkingatToho,Mimurawasinitiallyfollowingthe cinematographictendencyinHollywoodaftertheadventofsupersensitivepanchromaticfilm,whicheventuallyresultedinthedevelopmentof low-keylighting,aswehavealreadyseen.Throughoutthe1930s,themajor concernofHollywoodcinematographersregardingblack-and-whitecinematography was tonal softness and crispness of images. The trend was towardsofttones:firstinitiatedbytheintroductionofincandescenttungstenlightingthatgaveasoftereffectthanarclights,whichmadeahumunsuitablefortalkingpictures,andthenbytactfuluseofdiffusersthroughout thedecade.ThefilmhistorianPatrickOgleclaimsthat“heavilydiffused images,softtonality,andshallowdepthoffield”characterizedHollywood filmsuntilthelater1930s.269BarrySaltalsonotesthatincandescentlighting,whichprovided80percentoffilmlightingin1931,produced“attractivesoft-edgedshadowsontheface”whenusedforfigurelighting.270The softandfine-grain(incomparisontoorthochromatic)EastmanTypeOne panchromaticemulsionof1928wasfollowedlaterthesameyearbyslightly fasterandevensofterTypeTwoemulsion,andtheninFebruary1931by EastmanSupersensitivePanchromaticNegative,astockthatwasatonce materiallyfaster,finergrained,andsofterthanitspredecessors,andthenin March1935byEastmanSuperxPanchromaticNegative.271ThefilmhistorianCharlesH.Harpolelistsanumberoffilmsofthe1930switha“depth style”thatused“greatcomplexityoflightinginzonesandthedeployment of two and three planes of important, interacting ‘business’ within the spaceofsinglefilmframes,”includingworksbyGreggTolandandGeorge Barnes.272ButHarpolestillagreeswithOgleintermsofthetendencyof softtonality:“Thisstylewasrenderedthroughtheuseofgreatdepthof field,butnotwithhighlydetailed,sharpfocus.”273 However,itwasnotthe“subtlehighkey”and“softtones”thatwere praisedintheworkofMimurainthediscursivetendencytowardtheaes238 chapter4
theticsofshadowinthelate1930s.In1938,thecriticTsuchiyaKiyoyukiof theJapaneseAssociationofFilmTechnologycriticizedMimura’suseof diffusers,which,accordingtoTsuchiya,followed“akindoftrend”inHollywood.274TheasccinematographerCharlesB.LangJr.wroteintheSeptember1933issueofAmerican Cinematographer: Diffusion is undoubtedly one of the most valuable aids to good dramaticcinematographyeverdeveloped....Inthefirstplace,diffusionas awholeshouldbegovernedtoagreatextentbythenatureofthestory inproduction;clearly,anultrarealisticormelodramaticstory,suchas ‘Scarface,’ontheonehand,or‘JekyllandHyde,’ontheother,demands adefiniteharshnessandcontrastinthephotography;clearly,diffusion willbelittleofusehere.Thesameistrueofbroadcomedy,wherehigh- keylightingmustfloodeverycorneroftheset,sothatnoslightestbitof actionislost.Themorepolished,dramaticcomedyandcomedy-drama, ontheotherhand,areusuallyenhancedbyaconsistent,thoughslight, diffusionthroughout.Mostdramas,ofcourse,demandagreaterdegree ofdiffusion,whileromanticorsentimentalplotsalmostalwayscallfor thegreatestdegreeofdiffusionofall.275 Tsuchiyawasnotinfavorofsuchatrend,basedonhisinclinationtoward realism in lighting. He claimed, “The close-ups of Toyoda Masako in Mr.MimuraAkira’sWriting Class[Tsuzurikata kyoshitsu,YamamotoKajiro, 1938]aretoobrightthroughoutthefilmbecauseofusingdiffusers.Assuch, thewomanisdepictedinadistortedmanner.”276 WhatthesecriticsandcinematographershighlyvaluedwasMimura’s workthatwentalongwiththediscourseoftheaestheticsofshadow.Inparticular,criticspraisedhowMimurasuccessfullymanagedthelimitedmaterialconditionsinJapan,especiallyreferringtohisuseoflow-qualityFuji filmstock,andhowheeffectivelyusedlightinginacompositionalmanner todepictJapanesespacesandinarealisticmannertoenhancethesenseof naturalsublime. Eiga Gijutsu praised Mimura’s work after 1940 for his “well-prepared andcarefullighting,whichwasperfectlyappropriateforFujifilmstock.”277 MostfilmproductioncompaniesinJapanusedEastmanKodakfilmstock inthe1920stoearly1930s.ItwasaslateasJanuary1937whentheJapanese filmcompanyFujifirstreleaseditsfilmsfortalkies.InSeptemberofthe sameyear,alawthatwouldcontrolimportingandexportingwasenforced theaestheticsofshaDoW 239
andtheamountofimportedrawfilmwasreduced.By1939,only6.5percentfilmstockswereimported,andthenumberbecamezerobytheendof 1941.Asaresult,Fujibecamealmostthesoleprovideroffilmstockforfilm productioncompanies.278 However,thequalityofFuji’snegativefilmwasquitelow.IntheJuly1941 issueofEiga Junpo,TamuraYukihiko(managerofParamountJapan),Midorikawa,MobaraHideo(formercinematographerforOzuatShochiku), HamamuraYoshiyasu(editoratShochiku),IwabuchiKiichi(specialeffects cinematographyatToho),andMurayamaJunji(recordingsounddivision atToho)discussedFujifilmnegativestock.Midorikawacomplainedthat thefilmstockwas“notsensitiveenoughtoshadow.”Tamuraconfirmed:“It iseasiertoachievehighkeythanlowkey,isn’tit?”279Similarly,in1942,the cinematographerSugiyamaKoheinoted,“WiththequalityofJapanese- made film, light sections and dark sections made contrasts too strong, whichwoulddistracttheviewers.”280Inthesameyear,citingareporton thenewnegativebyToholaboratory,NishikawaEtsuji,theheadoffilm developingatToho,pointedoutthatFuji’snewlyintroducednegativewas evenlesssensitivetolightthanthepreviousversion.Therefore,itwould benecessaryto“sacrifice”thelightingofbrightsectionstodepictdetails ofdarkparts.281However,NishikawasaidinhisessayonFuji’snewnegative:“Wecannotonlyblamethefilmstockforitsinconsistenttonesand decreaseofqualityofimages.Itisourcurrentmissiontothinkofhowto masterthegivenmaterials.”282Inthissense,theaestheticsofshadowwas adiscursiveattempttojustifyFujifilmstock’slowsensitivitytolightinthe nameofrealism. NishikawanotedMimura’slightingschemeinThe Horse(Uma,YamamotoKajiro,1941),whichincorporatedthecharacteristicsofthefilmnegativewiththesenseofrealismandthedocumentaryspirit,especiallywhen theoriginalideaofthefilmwastodocumentthelifeofahorse-breeding familyintheTohokuareaofJapan.AccordingtoYamamotoKajiro,what hehad“wantedtodoforalongtime”was“semidocumentary,”andthis filmwasthe“realization”ofhisdreams.283Nishikawa,whodevelopedthe filmforThe Horse,stated,“Mimurahasbeenknownforhissubtlebright tones,butinthisfilmwecanobserveacertaindifferencefromhispreviousworks.Forinstance,thecontrastsoftonesseemcompletelydifferent betweenthedetailsofdarksectionsinthenightscenesofSerpent Princess [Hebihimesama,KinugasaTeinosuke,1940],hispreviousfilm,andthosein 240 chapter4
thesetoftheOnodafamilyinwinterinthisfilm.Thedetailsweremuch moreclearlydepictedintheformerandthelatterisweaker.”284Inpractice, Nishikawaclaimed,“ConsideringMr.MimuraandMr.Suzuki[Hiroshi]’s seriouseffortstodepictthelocalcolors,”he“triedtoachievethedetailsof darktones”whenhedevelopedthefilm.285Nishikawapointedout,“We mustsaythatthephotographedfilmlacksmediumtonesinitsexpression ofdarkness.”286Nishikawafirstassumedthatitwasprobablybecausethe conditionsofthesetoftheoldcountryhousestructurallymadeitdifficulttoachievesufficientgradationbetweenlightanddark.Then,Nishikawanoticedthat,insomescenes,Mimuraalsousedasufficientamount oflightthatwouldmakethe1.4densityofbrightness(highlight)possible. Therefore,NishikawaconcludedthatthelackofmediumtoneswasMimura’sstrategicchoice“inordertodepictthecontentofthedramaina realisticmanner.”287Nishikawaadded,“The Horseaimedatlow-keytones, butnotinthesensethatcriticsdiscussthem[inHollywoodfilms].Lack ofmediumtonesmadeitimpossibleformetodevelopthenegativeand achieve[Hollywood-style]low-keytones.”288 Mimura’sturntoextremedarktonesdismayedsome.TamuraYukihiko wrote:“Wasn’tMr.Mimura’slow-keycinematographytoomuchthistime? Weneeddetailsindarknessevenwhenthesceneisdarkingeneral.Yet, thereweresomescenesinwhichthedarknesswastoodark...eventhough I am absolutely against such overly bright images as we see in many of Ofunafilms.”289ButMimura’salterationofhismethodswashighlyvalued overall.ThecinematographerOguraKinjicommentedparticularlyabout theuseoftoplights.WhenMimurastartedworkingatTohoin1934,he reliedheavilyontoplightsinaHollywoodmanner.Oguraargued:“Itis alwaysagreatchallengetodecidehowtousetoplightwhenphotographing Japanesehouses.Ifwemakeamistake,thehouselooksasifitdidnothave eitherarooforaceiling.Thehouselosesshadowsthatarenecessaryina Japanesehouse....[InThe Horse]thedarktonesaresuccessfullyachieved overall.ThecraftytechniqueofthepeoplewhowereinchargeoflightingunderMr.Mimurashouldbeacknowledged.”290ThecriticTachibana Nobuoalsopraisedthefilm’s“realistic”representationofthe“darkatmosphereofapeasant’shouseintheTohokudistrict”andthe“darkestlow- keytonesthatchallengethedevelopinglaboratory”thatMimuraachieved, “apartfromhissignaturetonesofbrightness.”291 Despite these critics’ and technicians’ attempts to associate Mimura theaestheticsofshaDoW 241
withthediscourseoftheaestheticsofshadow,itisnoteworthythatMimura was strongly concerned with technological innovations in Hollywoodthroughouthiscareer.Tophraseitdifferently,evenwhenMimura’s workinThe Horsewasappreciatedinthediscourseofthedocumentary spirit,itwasnotsomuchbecauseofhiscompromisetosuchadiscourse asitwastheresultofhisrivalrywithGreggToland,hisformercoworker atSamuelGoldwyn’sstudio,whowasnotanarchetypalcinematographer ofHollywoodinthelate1930sand1940sbutratheranexceptionalfigure. SuchanaccidentalconnectionbetweenthedocumentaryspiritandHollywoodcinematographybywayofthemanfromHollywoodmadetheaestheticsofshadowmorecomplexinnature. Eventhoughtheavailablematerials—suchasthequalityandquantity ofrawfilmstock—werelimited,afterhecamebacktoJapanMimurawas alwaysfollowingthestylesofToland.In1941,whileMimuracomplained aboutthepoorconditionsoffilmtechnologiesinJapan,hecontinuously discussedwhatTolandwasachievinginHollywoodanddesperatelyasked himselfwhathecoulddoinadifferentgeopoliticalandeconomicsituation. Mimura wrote, “[American cinematographers] are provided with first-qualitymachines andallowed toworkinthe bestconditions.They canshootinhighkeyorlowkeydependingonthegoalsofthefilms.They canhaveanythingtheywantaslongastheyareavailableintheworld,such asdiscs,filters,screenprocesses,andspecialeffects.Ofcoursetheycando better.Ifwecomparethemtous,theJapanesecounterpart,itisamazing howdifferentweare....Lackoflenses,finders,tripods,filters,anddiscs. Wedonothaveanythingcomplete.”292InAugust1941,Mimurawrotethat hewasimpressedbythe“cleartonesandextremelow-keylighting”insuch filmsasThe Grapes of Wrath(JohnFord,1940)andThe Westerner(William Wyler,1940),bothphotographedbyToland.293Mimuraalsowrote,“Idon’t thinkweareincompetentcomparedtoAmericanandEuropeantechniciansintheareasofcameraoperation,lightingcharacters,andcomposition.”294Mimura’slightingschemeinThe HorsewasmeanttorivalToland’s inThe Grapes of Wrath,thefilmthatwasreleasedintheUnitedStatesless thanayearbeforeThe Horse. WhatisdistinctiveaboutthecinematographyinThe Grapes of Wrath, thestoryoftheharshlivesoffarmersduringtheGreatDepression,was itschiaroscurolightingintheinteriorscenes.VivianSobchackpointsout
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theambivalenteffectsofsuchimagesthatare“shotindarknesspunctuatedonlybycandlelightandflashlight.”295Despitetheexplicitindication ofthelightingsources,“thechiaroscurolightingofamajorportionofthe filmdoesmorethanmerelysupplyatmosphereandsupportthethematic darknessoftheJoads’odyssey.Italsofunctionsasatechniquewhichisabstracting,whichagainbringsasenseofclosuretothescreenimagebyobscuringtheconnectionbetweenvariousobjectsintheframeandturning theviewer’sattentioninwardtowardtheJoads....Thatblacknessisless grimthanabstracting,lessharshthanprotective;theJoadsandtheviewer areremovedfromavisuallyurgentandengagingcontextandtheresult is a predominant imagery which seems highly aestheticized, staged and framed.”296 ThecriticYamaneSadaoclaims,“ThemostattractiveelementofThe Horseisthevividnessofimagesthatcouldbecalledsemidocumentary.In particular,thesceneinwhichafoalisbornandthetwoscenesofahorse market are very impressive and famous.”297 The semidocumentary-style horse-market scenes, which open and close the film, are photographed underambientsunlightwithoutvisiblemanipulationoflighting,especially inlongshots,andsetthebasicnaturalisttoneofthefilm.However,contrarytoYamane’sclaim,themostvividimagesofthisfilmareobservable inthedarkandclaustrophobicinteriorsceneswithasinglelightsource andtheshadowthatsurroundsthecharacters.InaJapanesefarmhouse wheretheheroine,Ine(TakamineHideko),lives,thereisanakedelectriclamphungfromtheceiling.Itistheonlydiegeticsourceoflightin thehouse,eventhoughitisobviousinthefirstlongshotoftheinterior thatthespaceislitfromaspotlightfromabove.Still,themaincharacters ofthefilm,sittingaroundthefireplaceandstandingonthedirtfloor,are litbythesinglesourceoflightfromabove.Almosthalfofeachfaceisin shadowmostofthetime.Mostsectionsoftheroomareinshadow.Such adrasticcontrastoflightingandspatialconfigurationfunctionsnotonly toindividualizethefamilymembersfornarrationalpurposesbutalsoto separatethemfromhistoricaltemporalityandspatiality.Inotherwords, thediegeticsinglelightingsourcehasambivalentqualities.Ononehand,it embodiesthedocumentaryspiritthatdepictsafarmhouseintheTohoku areainanaturalistmanner,asNishikawaclaimed.Ontheotherhand,as inThe Grapes of Wrath,itsinglesoutthefamilytohavemythicstatus—
theaestheticsofshaDoW 243
figure4.14 Aclose-upofthefaceofTomJoad(HenryFonda)represents abstractionandtranscendenceinAmerica.The Grapes of Wrath(1940).
atimeless,frozenimageofaJapanesefarmingfamily.Indeed,namahage (folkloricmythiccreaturesoftheTohokuarea)suddenlyappearfromthe shadowyoff-screenspaceandscareIne’sbrother. SobchackarguesaboutThe Grapes of Wrath,“Althoughthereisagreat dealofdialogueinthefilmwhichrelatesthefamilytotheland,toalarger population,andtoapoliticalclimateverbally,thevisualinterestofthefilm isontheJoadsasanisolatedanduniversalfamilyunitwhichtranscends theparticularityandspecificityoftimeandplace.”298Thisinterestseems quiteapplicabletoThe Horse.AsinThe Grapes of Wrath,thegeneralcompositionofThe Horseisconsciouslycontrolledandtight.Especiallyininteriorscenes,asinThe Grapes of Wrath,theactionofThe Horseoccursin visuallylimitedspace—limitedeitherbyitstightframingorbytheamount weareallowedtoseebyvirtueofthegivenillumination.299Mediumclose- upsofIneandherhorselitbyasinglelightsource—alamphangingabove them—areinsertedinsignificantpointsofthestoryline.Sobchackclaims aboutThe Grapes of Wrath,“Eitherthroughtheactualproximityofclose- upsorthemaskingeffectofdarknessinthemediumshots,theabundance of expressionistic cinematography which emphasizes the pale faces and 244 chapter4
figure4.15 Aclose-upofthefaceofIne(TakamineHideko)represents abstractionandtranscendenceinJapan.The Horse(1941).
glisteningeyesofthecharactersisnotreallycounterbalancedtoanygreat degreebyanequivalentinsistenceonrealisticandclearly-definedimagery” (fig.4.14).300EvenwhenInegoesoutofthisclaustrophobicspace,sheis usuallyaloneinthevastlandscape—whetheritisinthemidstofsnowy landsinsearchofmedicineforherhorsewhenitissickorinthebrighthilly spacesearchingforherhorsewhenitislost. The Horseendswithaclose-upofIne’sface(fig.4.15).Hereyesarein tearsbecauseshehasjustbeenseparatedfromthehorsethatshehasraised. Shesoftlyputsherrighthandtoherrightearinordertohearthevoiceof herhorsegoingfaraway.Stronglightfromtheleft,supposedlythesunset, leavestherightsideofherfaceinshade—notthree-pointlightingatall. Thisisaclose-upandlightingthatdocumentsthefaceofafarmgirl,butit achievesmythicandabstractspirituality.Inthissense,Mimura’scinematographyinThe Horsecombinedthedocumentaryspiritwiththe“abstracting”blacknessofThe Grapes of Wrath.Inotherwords,Mimura’slighting schemeachievedthesenseofabstractionandtranscendencethatToland aimedforinthecontextofAmericanhistoryandHollywoodmythbydisplayingthespaceofaJapanesefarmhouseinarealisticmanner. theaestheticsofshaDoW 245
Havingsaidthis,MimurawasnotsimplytryingtocatchupwithToland. Despitephysicallylocatingtheirfilmsindifferentspacesandpositioning themwithindissimilarsociopoliticalandfinancialsituations,Tolandand Mimurawereintuneinpursuing“theillusionofpresence”onthescreen.301 Theywerepartsofco-evalmodernityintheUnitedStatesandinJapan wherecinematographictechnologiesandtechniquesdevelopedseparately butwithanumberofconflictsandnegotiations.Inparticular,bothToland andMimuraexploredcompositionsofdepthoffieldinordertogivestories harsh,brutalmoods,insteadofsimplyclarifyingthestorywithcarefully controlledfocusonimages.Also,insteadofglamorizingthestarsoftheir filmswithsoftthree-pointlightinginthetrendofsofttones,theyexperimentedwithhardlight.302 InSeptember1938,ShimazakiKiyohikocriticizedtheworkofMimura, who,accordingtoShimazaki,“learnednicetechniquesdirectlyfromthe worldofAmericancinematography”and“endedupwithasimpleimitation.”303AsIhavealreadydiscussed,Shimazakiinsistedonthenecessity of “establishing truly cinematic compositions in Japanese cinema” and suggested“three-dimensionality.”304Shimazakimighthavebeencorrect whenhepointedoutMimura’slinktoHollywood,butwhatheoverlooked wasthatMimurawasexploringwaystoachieve“three-dimensionality”on thescreen,whichwouldgoalongwiththediscourseonthecompositional lightingthatShimazakiinitiated.Mimura’scinematographyandlightingin Humanity and Paper Balloon(Ninjo kamifusen,YamanakaSadao,1937),ajidaigekifilmthatfullyusedtheeffectsofdeepcomposition,wasaperfect example. TolandinsistedthatthekeynoteofCitizen Kane(OrsonWelles,1941) wasrealism.TolanddiscussedwithOrsonWellesthatinthefilm,“thepictureshouldbebroughttothescreeninsuchawaythattheaudiencewould feelitwaslookingatreality,ratherthanmerelyatamovie.”305“Thefirst step”thatTolandandWellestook“wasindesigningsetswhichwouldin themselves strike the desired note of reality.”306 The result was that the majorityoftheirsetsforCitizen Kanehadactualceilings.Conventionally inHollywood,interiorlighteffectscomefromanglesthat“wouldbedefinitelyimpossibleinanactual,ceilingedroom”because“thelightisprojectedfromspotlightingunitsperchedhighonthelamp-railsparalleling thesets.”307Sincethesetswere“ceilinged,”accordingtoToland,thesetsfor
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Citizen Kaneweren’tparalleledforoverheadlightingandalmosteverything inthepicturewastobelightedfromthefloor.308 In addition to the production design and the lighting angles, Toland andWellestriedto“obtainthedefinitionanddepth”ofthehumaneyein reallifeandnottorequireaudiencestoseethingsonthescreen“witha singlepointofperfectfocus,andeverythingfallingoffwithgreaterorless rapidityinfrontofandbehindthisparticularpoint.”309Todoso,Toland andWellesincreasedtheilluminationlevelbyadoptingthehardlightof arcbroadlamps,whichweregenerallyusedinTechnicolor,inadditionto usingSuperxxfilm“withasuper-speedemulsion.”310 AccordingtoPatrickOgle,theintroductionofEastmanPlus-x PanchromaticNegativeinlateOctober1938andSuperxxjusttwoweekslaterwith theirgreaterfilmspeed“developedinitiallyfornewsreelworkandother specializedandrealisticfilmingdoneunderdifficultlightingconditions” couldhave“reversed”the“tonalsoftness”thatcharacterizedHollywood cinema in the 1930s.311 A few cinematographers, such as Victor Milner, becameimmediatelyawareofthepossibilitiesoftheincreasedcrispness anddepthoffield.Milnerclaimed,“It[supersensitivepanchromaticfilm] makesitpossibleforustorunthescalebetweenextremelysoft,naturalesquelow-levellightings(50footcandlesorless),shotwithfulllensapertures,totheoppositeextremeofhigherlevelillumination(perhapsashigh as200footcandlesormore)exposedatgreatlyreducedaperturesforanew andgreaterdepthandcrispness.”312Yet,accordingtoOgle,“Conservative bynatureanddistressedbytheincreasedcontrastinessofthenewgeneral- usePlus-x emulsion,”thegreatestnumberofcinematographers(Milner included)employedPlus-x andSuperxx“withdeliberateunderdevelopment,aprocedurethatgavethemloweredcontrast”andpreservedthesoft tonality.313Toland’schoiceusedthepotentialityofthefastfilmstockbut wentagainstthegeneralsofttendencyofHollywoodcinematography. Moreover,asPatrickKeatingpointsout,genre-basedlightingwasnot Toland’sprimaryjustificationforhisobsessionwithdeepfocus.Hepushed forward“theillusionofpresence”onthepartofthespectator.This,accordingtoKeating,“conflictedwithotherideals,likeglamourandtheillusionofroundness,”becausethedominantstyleofHollywoodfilmwasa “modulating”stylewith“artfulcompromises,”inwhichthelightingwasadjustedfromscenetosceneandshottoshotastheemphasischangedfrom
theaestheticsofshaDoW 247
storytellingtorealismtopictorialqualitytoglamour.314Keatingarguesthat Toland’sfellowcinematographersevenworriedthathis“obsessiveattentiontoonetechniquewasboundtoupsetthedelicatebalancethatamultifunctionalstylerequired.”315 InJapan,however,Toland’sobsessionwithrealismwasboundforadmiration,inthemidstofthediscourseofthedocumentaryspirit.Milner’s essaythatpointedoutthepotentialincreaseofcontrastinphotography withSuperxxwastranslatedintoJapaneseandpublishedintheDecember1941issueofEiga Gijustuonlyonemonthaftertheoriginalpublication inAmerican Cinematographer.316KawamotoMasaoofEiga Gijutsuinsisted on theemergenceofthe “halftone photography”that would emphasize thesharpnessbetweenblackandwhiteenabledby“fine-grainedpanchromaticemulsionwithextensivesensitivitytoallcolorsandextremelyfast speed.”317KawamotothennamedTolandasthekeyfigurewhowas“earnestlystudyingsuchanewphotography.”318InhisinterviewwithMimura, Kawamotopraisedthesharplow-keytonesofHumanity and Paper Balloon incontrasttothesofttonesofJournal of Wandering.319 InAugust1941,Mimurawroteinhisarticlepraisingthecinematography inCitizen Kane,“IcannothelpexpectingtheappearanceofJapanese-made products that can compete with American film technologies, including supersensitive films, coated lenses, and high-intensity carbon lamps.”320 Mimura’saspirationsoundeddesperatebecausehewasalreadyattemptingthesamething—theillusionofpresencewithoutusingeithermodern lampsorthemost-advancedfilmstock. ThecriticSugiyamaHeiichiarguedin1941thatthedirectorYamanaka Sadao“inventedthecompositionofdepth[tate no kozu].”321Inthetrendof inventingtradition,Sugiyamaconnectedthecompositionofdepthtothe traditionofJapanesepainting.Sugiyamawrote,“[Yamanaka]musthave beeninspiredby[Ando]Hiroshige.”322Sugiyamadiscussedtherelationshipbetweenthedetailedclose-upsinfrontandthegrandbackgroundthat isindicatedininkpaintings(sansui-ga)bySesshuToyo.Thecomposition ofdepth,accordingtoSugiyama,“revivesthe‘tradition’ofindicatingsomethinggrandbehindthethingsinclose-ups.”323 AsSugiyamasuggested,thecompositionofdepth,whichwasfullyemployed in Humanity and Paper Balloon, could be juxtaposed with a certaincompositionofwoodblockpaintingsorinkpaintings.Butatthesame
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time,wecoulddetectatleastanotherfunction:theillusionofpresence. ThecriticAikawaKusuhiko,whousedthetermtate no kozuforthefirst timetopraisethefilmsofYamanaka,argued,“Constructingtherelationshipbetweencharactersandbetweenobjectsandcharactersinathree- dimensionalmannerinadeepspaceofthescreen,thedirectorYamanaka Sadaofantasticallyandeffectivelyusesthiscompositionofdepthinorder toexpresspassingoftime,psychologicalstatesofcharacters,atmosphere ofscenes,andsoforth.”324 Humanity and Paper Balloonbeginswithalongshotofavacantstreet onarainynight.Partsofthewetstreetshine,reflectinglightsfromsomewhere.Shinza(NakamuraGanemon),ayoungandambitiousformerhairdresser,challengesagangsterbossbykidnappingtheonlydaughterofa pawnshopowner.Thebossisaprotectorofthepawnshop,andtheowner haspromisedMori,thesamuraiwhorulesthetown,towedhisdaughterto Mori’sson.Inmanyscenes,lightingiscontrastylowkeyandimitatesthe conventionofHollywood’sgangstergenrelighting.Shinza’sillegalgamblingplaceisonlylitbyanandonlamp;thesidestreetofthesecretgamblingplaceislitonlybythelampofanoodlestand;Shinza’sroomatthe nagaya (tenement houses), where hebringsthepawnshopowner’s kidnappeddaughter,isalsolitbyanandonlamp;andthefinalshowdownbetweenShinzaandthegangstersisonEnmadoBridgeunderthemoonlight, wheretheirfigurescreatedarkshadowsandtheirswordsominouslybut spectacularlyshine. Inadditiontosuchgenericlightingsuitableforthisgangsterjidaigeki film,lightandshadowareusedforacompositionalpurposeandenhance thedepthoffieldinlongshots.Thesetofthenagayaisstructuredonthe principleofdeepspace.Tworowsofnagayaoccupythetwosidesofthe framefromfronttoback(fig.4.16).Atthefarend,thereisawarehouse-like building,andthestreetsareT-shapedthere.TheT-shapedareaattheback isbrightlylitandenhancesthesenseofdepth.Peoplewholivetherebutdo nothaveparticularrolesinthenarrativewalkbackandforthonthestreet inthedeep-spacecomposition.Itseemsthattheyspeakratherarbitrary dialogueandmovesimilarlyarbitrarily.Inthelongshotsofthestreetbetweenthenagayathatareconstantlyinsertedbetweenscenes,movements ofthepeoplewholivetherearethemajorfocusmainlybecausetheirrather arbitrarymovementsconstantlyblockthebrightestareaofthescreenat
theaestheticsofshaDoW 249
figure4.16 Thetenementhousesaredepictedinthecompositionofdepth. Humanity and Paper Balloon(1937).
thefarend.Thedeep-spacecompositionfunctionsasifitweredocumentingtheactuallivesofpeopleinthenagaya,manyofwhomdonothavesignificantrolesinthenarrative. Therearemajorcharactersofthisfilmwhosefatescometotragicends inthefinale,buttheirmovementsarenotcapturedinaparticularlyprivilegedormelodramaticmanner.Likeotherpeopleofthenagaya,theywalk onadailybasisfromthefrontaldarkareatothebrighterareaattheback. Asaresult,theirbacksareoftendisplayedinsilhouette.Unno(KawarazakiChojuro),amasterlesssamurailivinginthenagaya,walksdownthe rainystreetfromafrontalshadowyareatoalitareaatthebackafterheis dismissedbyMori,ahigh-rankingsamurai,afteraskingforajob.Aftershe hearsotherwomenofthenagayagossipingaboutherhusbandforhelping Shinza,Unno’swifewalksdownthenarrowstreetbetweentherowhouses toherplaceatthebackandistrailedbyathickshadowofherself.Even insideahouse,thecompositionofdepthismaintained.AthomeUnno’s wifeslowlyapproachesherhusband,whoisdrunkandsleepingbesidean andonlampatthebackoftheirroom,fromadarkcornerwithashinysmall daggerinherhand.Whensheblowsouttheandonlamp,awindowatthe 250 chapter4
backbecomestheonlyvisiblylitareaofthescreen.Thepeoplefromthe nagayalearnaboutthe“doublesuicide”ofUnnoandhiswifethefollowingmorning.Thefilmendswithalongshotofavacantstreetwithaside ditch,whereoneofthepaperballoons,probablymadebyUnno’swifeto earntheirliving,slowlyfloatsfromthefrontalshadowyareatothelight areaattheback.Praisingthecraftilyconstructedsetand“richtonesthat fullyconveythesenseofseason,”thecriticTsumuraHideo,whoabhorred anyimitationofHollywoodfilms—HasegawaKazuostarvehiclesinparticular—claimed,“Thereare‘lives’here,whichhavebeenlackinginconventionaljidaigekifilms.”325 ConsideringhisattachmenttoHollywoodandhisdespairatthefilmmakingconditionsinJapan,Mimuramusthavebeenthrilledwhenhewas appointedtobethedirectorofphotographyofThe War at Sea from Hawaii to Malaya(Hawai Mare oki kaisen,YamamotoKajiro,1942).Eventhough thatwas—andis—themostcommontitleforcinematographersinHollywood,therewasnosuchtermorconceptinJapanbefore1942.Itwasso oddtohavesuchatitle,adirectimportfromHollywood,inafilmendorsed bytheMinistryofNavytocommemoratethefirstanniversaryoftheattack onPearlHarborthatcriticsandcinematographersdiscussedtheconcept oneveryoccasion.InHollywood,directorsofphotographyareincharge ofallthepracticesoflightingtechnicians(gaffers).InJapan,cinematographersarecalledcameramenandareusuallyonlyinchargeofcameras. Eventhoughcamerameninformlightingtechniciansoftheirlightingplan, itislightingtechnicianswhodecidewhichlightistobeused.InJapan, cinematographersandlightingtechniciansarestilltwoseparatepositions withequalauthority.Thus,cinematographersinJapandonothavetheautonomytomanipulatelighting.Sincethe1920s,lightinghasbeenanautonomous department (asthedepartment ofelectricity, in manycases) instudios,separatefromthedepartmentofcinematography.In1936,with the establishment of the Japanese Association of Film Lighting (Nihon EigaShomeiKyokai),thelightingtechniciansystemwasofficiallyrecognized.326In1929thecinematographerIsayamaSaburowrote,“Themost difficultthingisthatthepeopleofthelightingdepartmentcannotalways bemygoodfriends.”327ThelightingpracticesinJapanesefilmmakingthat Ihavediscussedsofarwereproductsofcontinuousnegotiationsbetween cinematographersandlightingtechnicians,eventhoughIhaveonlyused thenamesofcinematographers,suchasSugiyamaKohei,AtsutaYuharu, theaestheticsofshaDoW 251
andMimuraAkira,asthepeoplewhowereresponsibleforthefilms’lighting.Suchaseparationmighthavemadeitdifficultforcinematographers suchasHenryKotanitorealizetheirlightingideasonthescreen.Lightingtechnicianshadtheirownconventionsandstandardsforusingequipment. That separation might have made it easy, however, for producers suchasKidoShirotointerveneintheproductionandstandardizeShochiku’sproducts.Iamsimplyassumingtheseissuesbecauseunfortunately Icannotfindanyspecificevidencetosupportsucharguments.Thereis nodocumentthatclearlystateswhythedepartmentofelectricitywasset upseparatelyfromthatofcinematography.Iassumethatseparationderivedfromthetheatricaltradition.Kabukitheatersalreadyhadelectricity andlightingtechnicians.Motionpicturecameraswerenewequipmentand needednewpeopletobeincharge,especiallyinacompanysuchasShochikuthathadenteredthefilmbusinessfromtheworldofKabuki. Undersuchconditions, inreality, thedirectorofphotography inthe productionofThe War at Sea from Hawaii to Malayawasdirectorinname only. Mimura was nothing but the chief of four cinematographers (Mimura,MiuraMitsuo,SuzukiHiroshi,andHiranoYoshimi).Fourcinematographerswerenecessitatedbythenavytoengagewiththisbigproduction,whichwouldbephotographedinmultiplelocationsinashortperiod oftime.Insteadofbeingcalledtheheadcameramanorchiefcameraman, thetitleofdirectorofphotographywasadoptedbecauseitwasthetitle alreadyknowninHollywood. However,MimuratookthisopportunityandtriedtooperateasthedirectorofphotographyintheHollywoodsystem’swayasmuchashecould (whichwasironicgiventhemilitaristpropagandafilminproduction).Duringpreproduction,whenHollywooddirectorsofphotographyofthetime generallydiscussedvisualschemesoffilmswiththedirectorsandproductiondesigners,Mimuraalsogatheredallthecinematographers,theirassistants,andlightingtechniciansandclearlydeliveredhislightingschemefor thisfilm.328Mimura’sapparentdictatorshipworked,probablybecausehe acted consciously inaccordancewith thediscourseofthedocumentary spirit.WhatMimuraemphasizedthroughouttheproductionwas“severe realisticeffects.”329AsNornespointsout,thefactthatspecialeffectsfootageofthisfilmhasbeenpresentedasactualfootageoftheattackonPearl Harborinpostwardocumentaryandnewsbroadcastsis“atestamentto thedocumentarylookofthewartimefeaturefilm.”330Inparticular,accord252 chapter4
ingtoMimura’sproductionnotes,hespokeofrealismalmostalwaysin connectionwiththeaestheticofshadow.Heavowedtoabolishhisusual makeup“inordertoemphaticallydepicttheenergeticlookofdarklytanned facesoftheimperialnavy”and,atthesametime,“bannedreflectorsfrom beingusedasmuchaspossibleonlocationinordertoachievedocumentaryeffects.”331 During the production, Mimura did everything he could think of to maintainhisoriginalideaoflimitedlightingandshadoweffects.Hewrote, “The most challenging issue when we photographed the interior of the mothership,whosesethadceilings,wasthatwelimitedlightinginanextrememannerinordertoaimforasenseofreality.Wecreatedaholeinthe ceilingandonlyusedafew2kWspotlightsandafew1kWbabyspotlights. Wedidnotuseany3kWspotlights.”332Mimuraconfessedthatthesecond unit“hadadifficulttimephotographingreverseshots”thatwouldcorrespondtowhatMimurahadalreadyphotographedbecausetheylookedtoo hard and contrasty in lighting.333 Similarly, in the scene set at a French IndochinabaseonthenightofDecember9,Mimuraavoidedusingbright lamps but used filters in an unprecedented manner “in order not to be unfaithfultothefactsoflightcontrolandthebeautifulmoonlightofthe night.”334 ShimazakiKiyohiko,whohadcontinuedtocriticizeMimura’sworkat TohoasaslavishimitationofHollywoodtechniques,finallycongratulated hisaccomplishment.UnlikeinHollywood,Shimazakiargued,thedirector ofphotographyofThe War at Sea from Hawaii to Malayawasnottheone whowouldtake“responsibilityinallphotographicachievements”byplanningallthevisualschemesforthedirectorandbymanagingcameraoperators,gaffers,andphotodevelopersatthelaboratory.335Instead,inJapan, hewastheonewhoneededonlyto“formulatethegoalsandmethodsof cinematographictechnologiesforthisfilmonly,toassignfellowcinematographerstoappropriatescenes...andtomaintaincontrolandconsistencyintechnologicalmaneuversalongwiththeoriginalgoals.”336Shimazaki’sdistinctionbetweenthetwosystemswasquiteambiguous,however. TheonlydifferenceseemstobethatinHollywoodthedirectorofphotographyisthetitleofaprofessionandinJapanitisthenameofapositionfor onefilmonly—inthiscase,forthedurationoftheproductionofThe War at Sea from Hawaii to Malaya.Evenso,Shimazakihadtocallthedirector ofphotographysysteminThe War at Sea from Hawaii to Malaya“aform theaestheticsofshaDoW 253
uniquetoourcountry”andclaimthattheresultofsuchauniquesystem would“settheunshakablecornerstoneforthefuture”inordertoachieve such“anewmission”as“usinglocallymadematerials”and“establishing anewandstrongviewofthenationandtheworld.”337Shimazaki’sbent argumentwasanotherindicationoftheambivalentstatusoftheaesthetic ofshadowandthedocumentaryspirit,aswellasthehybridnatureofthe wartimefilmpolicyinJapan.
Postscript:Afterthewar,Shimazakiinsistedontheestablishmentofthe Hollywood-styledirectorofphotographysysteminJapan.Helamented thatJapanesecinematographerswerenothingbutcameraoperatorsand stronglysuggestedfreeingthemfromsuch“uselesslytiresome”positions.338
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conclusIon
thecineMatography ofMiyagaWakazuo
Publicizing Japanese Aesthetics
“Namingthemostskillfulcinematographerofacountryoftenis adifficulttask.InJapanthejobhasbeensimplifiedsomewhatby theinternationalreputationwhichhasbeenearnedbyKazuoMiyagawa,”thecriticCliffordV.HarringtonwroteinAmerican CinematographerinJanuary1960.1Theso-calledgoldenageofJapanesecinemainthepost–WorldWarIIperiodopenedwiththe accumulationofprizesininternationalfilmfestivals.Miyagawa Kazuowasthecinematographerformanyoftheawardedfilms, including Kurosawa Akira’s Rashomon (1950; Venice Golden Lionin1951),MizoguchiKenji’sUgetsu(Ugetsu monogatari,1953; VeniceSilverLionin1953),andSansho the Bailiff(Sansho dayu, 1954;VeniceSilverLionin1954).IntheUnitedStates,Rashomon initiated the “art cinema” movement. In Europe, Ugetsu andSansho the BailiffastonishedsuchyoungfilmmakersasJean- LucGoddardandFrancoisTruffaut,whowouldleadtheFrench NewWave.ThesefilmswithMiyagawa’scinematographyrepresentedJapanesecinemaformanyinternationalaudiences.Even somedecadeslaterin1985,whenPaulSchraderdirectedthefilm Mishima,abiopicofthefamousJapanesenovelistMishimaYukio, theasccinematographerJohnBaileyvisitedMiyagawainJapan andconsultedhimonhowtophotographJapaneselandscapes. MiyagawawasofficiallyregardedasamajorpublicistofJapa-
nesecinemainthepost–WorldWarIIperiod.In1953,theMinistryofEducationofJapanawardedMiyagawaanationalprizeforhis“introduction andpromotionofJapanesebeautyincinema.”2Inparticular,throughout Miyagawa’spost–WorldWarIIcareer,therewasadiscoursethatconnected hisworktotraditionalJapaneseaesthetics.In1961,inhisreviewofYojimbo (KurosawaAkira,1961),thecriticandcinematographerWatanabeYutaka claimedthatMiyagawa“craftilycreatedamicrocosmbyusingextremely subtlelighting,whichcouldbecalledtheJapanesestyle.”3WatanabeconcludesinhisbiographyonMiyagawa,“WecouldsaythatthelifeofMiyagawawasdevotedtopursuingJapanesebeauty.”4Similarly,in1979,the acclaimedscreenwriterYodaYoshitaka,whoseworkwithMizoguchiKenji waswidelyknown,saidthatMiyagawa“capturedJapaneselandscape,culture,andhistoryinfilmsmoreconsciouslythanothercinematographers.5 Miyagawahimselfplayedhispartintheconstructionofthediscourse.In 1960,ofhisaward-winningfilms,Miyagawahimselfdeclared,“ThesepicturesIbelievecomeclosetogivingatrueimpressionoftherealJapan.”6 Inmostcases,thetraditionalJapaneseaestheticsthatMiyagawa’swork displayed—especiallyhisconceptionoflighting—wasconnectedtoacertainimageofKyoto,thecapitalofJapanbetween794and1603.Inthisdiscourse,theaestheticsofshadowthatemergedinthelate1930swasnaturalizedastherepresentationofJapanesebeauty.WatanabeYutakaargues thatMiyagawa’scinematographywasorientedtolow-keytonesbecause Miyagawawasborn,grewup,andstartedhiscareerinKyoto.WatanabedescribesatypicalhouseinKyoto:“Thehouseisalittledarkinside,onlywith afewlightsfromsomewhere.Thebackyardandthefishbowlontheterrace aretheonlybrightspotsinthespace....Miyagawawasbornandgrewup insuchanordinaryhouseinKyoto,andhevividlydepictedthesehouses inhisfilms.”7Watanabe’sargumentisinaccordancewiththefilmhistorianOtaYoneo’sclaimaboutthelandscapeandatmosphereinKyoto.Ota particularlynotesthelow-keylightinginthearchitectureinKyoto:“The sunlightcomesintocourtyards.Thesunlightgoesthroughlatticewindows. Whitesandsofrockgardens[karesansui]reflectthesunlightandsendit deepintothehouse.Shojiscreenssoftlyspreaddirectlight.Aboveall,the keylightinginjidaigekicomesfromthelightofandonlamps....Lighting assuchhasenhanceddramasandservedtoemphasizeatmospheric,emotional,psychological,andmagnificentqualities.Suchlightinghasoccupied therigidbasisoffilmsproducedinKyoto.”8 256 concLusion
Miyagawa confirmed such arguments that connected his cinematographicstyletohisbiographyaswellastothecultureofKyoto.In1985, Miyagawawrote,“IwasbornandraisedinKyoto.Asyouknow,theobjects and the landscapes of Kyoto are filled with quiet and dark colors. Myeyesnaturallyrememberthemandhaveformedmysenseofcolors. Also,Ilearnedsumi-e[traditionalmonochromeinkpaintings],frommy teacherHaradaKorei....Mr.Haradawasastrangeteacherandneverpermittedustousecolors.Hekeptsaying,‘Useexclusivelysumi[Japanese blackink].’Sumi-eisaworldofblackandwhite,andinfinitelevelsofgray. Hemeantthatwehadtomakeviewersfeelcolorsbythelevelofthickness[ofgray].Mycinematographictonewasbornthankstomytrainingin sumi-e.”9In1999,Miyagawasaidinaninterview,“[InmyhouseinKyoto] therewasabackyardrightbehindacompletelydarkkitchen.Thesunlight camethroughawindowontheceiling,whichmadeonlythewellbucketin thebackyardshine.SuchaviewthatIsawwhenIwasachildleftanunexpectedlystrongimpressiononmymind...eventhoughIwasoneofthose childrenwhoweresoshythattheywouldnotgooutsidebutstayedina darkcornerofthehouse.”10 ShinodaMasahiro,arenownedfilmmakeroftheJapaneseNewWave, disagreedwithsuchaviewofKyoto:“PeopleinKyotoarelivinginthe Westernizedworld,wherecontrastsarestrong.IdonotbelievethatKyoto istypicallyJapanese.Mr.MiyagawaKazuoprefersWesternfoodtoJapanesedishes.ItiswrongtosaythatKyoto’slandscapeisambiguous.”11Even so,whenhecollaboratedwithMiyagawaonseveralfilms,Shinodasaidhe “wasnotabletothinkofanycinematographerotherthanMiyagawaKazuo whohadcapturedJapaneselandscapeasJapanese.”12Rightafterworking withShinoda,MiyagawaalsodeclaredinhislectureattheJapanSocietyin NewYork,“Mylifelongthemeishowtocapturetheuniquebeautyofthe Japaneselandscapeonfilmbyusingthebestindustrialtechnologythatwas bornintheAmericancivilization.”13 TheincessantconfirmationofMiyagawa’scareerastheexplorerofJapanesebeautywasstrikingbecause,whetherthelightingofKyotoarchitecturewasauthenticornot,Miyagawawasnotaimingtocaptureitandto callitJapanesebeautywhenheworkedatNikkatsu’sKyotostudiosinthe prewarperiod.14Miyagawaadmittedthatatthebaseofhisstyleoflighting wasastronginfluenceofbothHollywoodandGermancinemas.Miyagawa once said that he mainly learned how to place and move cameras from thecineMatographyofMiyagaWakazuo 257
Hollywoodfilms,eventhough“theirlightingseemstobeflatlybright.”15 Miyagawawrote,“Wecannotteachorbetaughtcamerawork.Wehaveto thinkofacameraasapartofourbodiesandmoveitbasedonourown sense.Thereisnootherway.Wehavetomasteritnaturally.Iwatchedmany foreignfilms,Americanfilmsinparticular,andlearnedthis.IlearnedespeciallyfromHollywoodmusicalsthatIwatchedin1939–40.”16 Miyagawa’s debut film as a cinematographer was O-Chiyo’s Umbrella (O-Chiyo gasa,1935).Itwasajidaigekifilm,butitwasactuallyaremakeof Dishonored(1931),aspygenrefilmstarringMarleneDietrichanddirected byJosefvonSternberg,theGermanstaranddirectorwhohadarrivedin Hollywoodtheyearbefore.DishonoredwasphotographedbyLeeGarmes, notonlyMiyagawa’sbutalsomanyJapanesecinematographers’favorite cinematographer because of his low-key style. O-Chiyo’s Umbrella is no longerextant,butaccordingtothescreenplayinMiyagawa’sownhandwriting,itisclearthatthefilmtriedtoimitateGarmes’slow-keyandcontrasty“northlight”technique.Thefilmbeginsinthemiddleofthenight, andspotlightsserveforthelightingscheme.O-Chiyo,afemalespy,appears asadarkshadowonawhitewall,precededbyastrongspotlight—alamp thatshehasinherhandasthesourcelight.Accordingtothescreenplay, “lightingsoftheroomsinthebackgroundchangeasO-Chiyomoves.”17 When Miyagawa talked about the dark tones in cinema that he preferred,itwasnotthelightingofKyotobutthatusedbysuchGermanfilmmakers as Murnau, especially the “gloomy contrast between black and white”intheirfilms.18Miyagawasaidinaninterview,“Inshort,Frenchfilm wassoftfocus,Americanfilmwashighkeyandbright,andGermanfilm wasgoodinthecontrastbetweenblackandwhite.Ipreferthelightingin Germanfilm.”19Morespecifically,hestated,“[Germanfilms]fullyutilized contrastsbetweenblackandwhite.Relatively,theylookeddarkintones, butwithsolidimages,didn’tthey?WhenIwasintheproductionunitsof jidaigeki,Ilearnedalotfromthem.”20 Ifthatwasthecase,theconnectionamongMiyagawa,thetraditional culture of Kyoto, and Japanese beauty seemed nothing but a discursive constructinaccordancewiththepost–WorldWarIIpolicyofJapanese cinema.AfterthesuccessofRashomonattheVeniceInternationalFilm Festival,internationaldistributionoffilmsbecameaprevalentaspiration for the Japanese film industry. A major strategy taken by Japanese film companiestoappealtointernationalaudienceswastoemphasizesuchcul258 concLusion
turalmotifsasnohplayandKabukidrama,ZenBuddhism,samurai,and geishathatwereself-consciouslymarkedastraditionallyJapanese.Exotic Japanesenesswassoldasacommoditytoforeignaudiencesandpublicized asasymbolofthenationalidentityofJapantobeapprovedinternationally. Daiei(DaiNipponEigaSeisakuKabushikiGaisha,establishedonJanuary27,1942,combiningNikkatsu,ShinkoKinema,andDaitoEiga),where Miyagawa worked, initiated the exoticization of Japanese cinema under NagataMasaichi,thepresident.Therewasonesymbolicalincident.Nagata originallycastSessueHayakawa,aJapaneseactorwhohadobtainedhis internationalfameintheearlydecadesofthecentury,inPlace for Leo(Shishi no za,ItoDaisuke,1953),ajidaigekifilmthatwoulddepictthetraditional worldofnohtheater.21PersuadedbyNagata,Hayakawahadreturnedto Japanin1949forthefirsttimeintwelveyears.Hayakawawasexpectedto becomearepresentativeofJapan,notbecauseofhisJapanesenationality butbecauseofhisforeign-madestarimage,inordertogainrecognition forJapanesecinemafrominternationalaudiences.22Hayakawahimselfdeclaredin1949thatheintendedto“makeaJapanesefilmreallytargetingforeignaudiences....Iwanttocreateanewstylethatwouldgobeyondthe frameworkofJapanesecinemasofar.”23Hayakawaalsosaid,“IfIworkin Japan,Iamonlyworkinginfilmswithinternationalperspectives.”24Hayakawa’sinternationalfamewasalsoconsideredtobeasafetyvalveforthe AlliedoccupationgovernmentinJapanthatwastryingtoreestablishthe Japanesefilmindustry.25ImmediatelyaftertheendofWorldWarII,Japan wassubjecttotheAlliedoccupation(fromSeptember1945toApril1952). ThegoaloftheoccupationwastoabolishthemilitarismandultranationalismthathadprevailedinJapanesepoliticsandculturebeforeandduringthewarandtoeducateJapanesepeoplewithAmerican-styleliberalism anddemocracy.Theoccupationgovernmentturnedtotheeffectivenessof media,especiallycinema,topublicizethisnewideologytoJapanesesocietyatlarge.AsearlyasSeptember1945,thegovernmentmetwiththeexecutivesofJapanesefilmstudiostocommunicatetheirinterestinthefilm industry.ByOctober1945,theInformationDisseminationSection(later theCivilInformationandEducationSection,orcie)wasestablishedand startedexercisingcensorshipoffilmprojects,scripts,andcompletedfilms bycheckingtranslatedmaterialssubmittedbyfilmcompanies.26ThegovernmenthighlyvaluedHayakawa’sHollywoodstarimagefromtheprewar period,whichhadpreventedhimfromstayinginJapanduringthewar. thecineMatographyofMiyagaWakazuo 259
Hayakawa’sinternationalstarimagebecamethesymbolofJapan’sdeviation from a militaristic past and the transplantation of democracy from abroad.HayakawaplayedtheroleofaJapaneseofficerwhodefendsinternationallaws,familyvalues,andawhiteAmericanheroineintheHollywoodfilmThree Came Home( JeanNegulesco,1949),starringClaudette Colbert.InsomeinterviewarticlesinJapanesemagazines,Hayakawaalso playedtheroleofaninstructoroftheAmericanwayoflife.Inonearticle inaJapanesemagazine,HayakawainstructedTanakaKinuyo,arguablythe mostpopularfemalestarofJapanintheprewarperiod,whowasaboutto goonatriptotheUnitedStates,onhowtobehavethere.Hesaid,“You mustforgettheJapanesewayofthinkingandbehaveconfidently....You mightbesurprisedhowfranklyAmericanpeoplespeakandbehave,but onceyougetusedtoit,youwillfeelcomfortable....[InHollywood,]all staffmembersmakeeffortstocreatethebestatmospherefortheactorsto performastheywant,andviceversa.Thisharmony,thismorality,iswhat youshouldlearnfromthem.”27 Despiteallthis,HayakawadidnotappearinPlace for Leo,whichwas releasedaftertheoccupationended.HisrolewastakenoverbyHasegawa Kazuo, whose star image had almost always been associated with Japanesetheatricalarts.Thisreplacementofstarsindicatedtheinclinationof theJapanesefilmindustrytowardtraditionalismandexoticism,freefrom an“imposed”American-styleanddemocratic“revolutionfromabove.”28 TheJapanesefilmindustry’sturntotraditionalismandexoticismwasnot onlyaresultofinternationalsuccessofRashomon,butitcouldhavebeen anationalistreactiontothedrasticchangesandradicalreformsledbythe occupation government. Hayakawa himself was aware of this changing trendinJapanesefilmmaking.Hesaid,“[Japanesecinema]willneverbe successfulbymerelyimitatingAmericanfilms.Withoutusingtheunique Japanesetradition,suchastheharagei[refrained]actingstyle,American audienceswillnotwelcomeJapanesefilms.”29 Undersuchconditions,Miyagawa’sworkbecameoneoftheimportant sitesinwhichJapaneseaestheticswasreimaginedtosuitthenewcultural endsofpost–WorldWarIIJapan.Thediscourseoftheaestheticsofshadow wasreappliedtohisworkwithreferencetothearchitectureandcultureof Kyoto.TheprewardiscursivetendencythatinventedJapaneseculturaltraditionwasrenewedinthepostwarperiod.Onceagain,theissuewasabout therelationshipbetweentheaestheticandthegeopolitical.Theaesthetics 260 concLusion
ofshadowwasnecessitatedandusedinordertojustifyJapanesecinemain thenegotiationswithothercinemasininternationalmarkets. WhileplayinganofficialrolewiththepublicizingofJapaneseaesthetics,however,Miyagawawasnotsimplysubscribingtothediscourseofthe aestheticsofshadow.EvenwhenDaiei’sstrategyofself-exoticizationwas oneofthecentraldiscoursesforJapanesefilmmaking,Miyagawa’swork wasnotcontainedwithintheJapanesetraditionalitythatwasemphasized inthatstrategy.Instead,thedetailednotesonlightingthatMiyagawainscribedonmanypagesofthescriptsofhispost–WorldWarIIfilmsindicatethathewasmoreconcernedaboutthepotentialityofcinematography. Hewasfullyawareoftheexistenceofthediscourseoftheaestheticsof shadow.ThatwaswhyhepublicizedthathisworkhadastrongconnectionwiththecultureofKyotoandapparentlycollaboratedtopromulgate thatdiscourse.ButinpracticeMiyagawawasexaminingwhatexactlythe aestheticsofshadowincinemawereandwasexploringthenotionofcinematicrealism,inparticular,whichoccupiedthecoreofthediscourseofthe aestheticsofshadow.IfwefocusonthelightingofMiyagawa’swork,we realizethattherewerediverseeffortsofcinematographybehindthepublicizedJapanesebeauty.Inthissense,justaswartimeJapanesecinemawas neverunifiedbutwasinsteadacomplicatedmixoftendencies,Daiei’sfilmmakingforexportwiththestrategyofself-exoticization,whichachieveda certainamountofinternationalsuccesses,wasnotunified. Incorporating the Aesthetics of shadow: during world war II
Bythelate1930s,inspiteofhispreferenceforHollywoodandGerman cinematography,asanactivememberofthensc,Miyagawabecamefully involved in the emerging discourse of the aesthetics of shadow. Singing Lovebirds(Oshidori utagassen,MakinoMasahiro,1939),thefilmthathas recentlyachievedthestatusofacultclassic,isagoodexampleofMiyagawa’sskillfulincorporationofHollywood-stylethree-pointlightingand jidaigeki-stylespectacularlightinginarealistmannerthatwouldgoalong withthedocumentaryspirit. TheproductionofSinging Lovebirdswasnothingbutaccidental.Thedirector,Makino,wasinproductionofanothermusicalfilm,Yaji Kita: The Great Emperor’s New Year(Yaji Kita: Meikun hatsu agari),inmid-November 1939.WhenKataokaChiezo,thestarofthefilm,becameillandhadtorest fortwoweeks,NikkatsudidnotwanttowastethesingersonloanfromTeithecineMatographyofMiyagaWakazuo 261
chikuCompanyandrequestedthatMakinomakeanotherfilmwiththem. Singing Lovebirdswasthereforeasubstitutefilmthatwasphotographedin “onlyninedays.”30ThefilmwasincompletionbyDecember10,whenMakinowentbacktothesetofYaji Kita.Similarly,Miyagawaphotographed thisfilmwhiletheproductionoftheMiyamoto Musashitrilogy(Inagaki Hiroshi,1940)wasbrieflyonhold.31SinceSinging Lovebirdswasmadeon suchabread-and-butterscheduleandbudget,itisverylikelythatthefilm displaysthetypicalcharacteristicsofthetechniquesandstylesofMiyagawa’sworkofthetime. Intheopeningsequence,O-Haru,theheroine,isdryingnumerouspaper parasolsinthealley.Theparasolsreflectthesunlightandenhancethesense ofhigh-keytonesofthefilm.ButthefilmwasnotsimplybrightinamannerofeitherHollywoodorShochiku.Apparently,O-Haruwascaptured inthree-pointlighting,butshewascarefullyplacedinthemidstofsource lights:thestrongsunlightcomingintotheroomsthroughthewindowsand openshojiintheback.Herfaceandhairarebeautifullyrimmedbythose lightsandstandoutfromthebackground,butinarealisticmanner. Atnight,thesameJapaneseroomwasagainrealisticallylit.Lightcomes fromanandonlamp,theonlydiegeticsourceoflight,andoffersstrong sidelightonthefacesofO-Haruandherdepressedfatherwhentheyfind outthatthefather’santiquesareallfake.Thedarknessoftheroomnotonly satisfiesthedocumentaryspiritindepictingaJapaneseroombutalsohas aHollywood-stylenarrationalfunctionofformulatingthetragicmoodof thesceneandofconveyingthepsychologicalstatesofthecharacters. Thefinaleofthefilmonthestreetdisplaysnaturalisticbutskillfullymaneuveredtransitionoflighting:fromacontrastyone,supposedlyphotographedasdayfornightinordertoenhancethebeautyofshadowduring theswordfighting,toabrighthigh-keytone.WhenO-Haruisattackedin themiddleofthenightbygangsters,herbodycastsastrongshadowonthe wallofthehouse.Thehero,playedbyKataokaChiezo,comestotherescue.Theswordfightingbetweentheheroandthegangprogresses,along withanondiegeticrumbascore,andisskillfullychoreographedundera hutwithnakedlogs.Theshadowsofthelogscreatecontrastypatternsof lightandshadowupontheconstantlymovingcharactersandtheirshining swords.WhenthefightisoverandtheheroconfesseshislovetoO-Haru, theskyisvisiblybrighteratdawn.Kataoka’sstarvehicleswereoftencalled meiro jidaigeki(brightandcheerfulperioddrama)becauseoftheircomical 262 concLusion
tones,butinthecaseofSinging Lovebirds,realismoflightingalsoservedthe brighttones. examining the Aesthetics of shadow: After world war II
InhisMarch1957essay,Miyagawawrote,“Havingexperiencesinmaking black-and-whitefilmswithrealisticlighting,Ihadadifficulttimeinreproducingcolorsrealisticallyincolorfilms....Therealityofblackandwhite isthatofcompletedimagesonthescreen,buttherealityofcoloristhat ofactualobjects.”32Here,Miyagawaadmittedthattherealismofblack- and-whitefilmswasdifferentfromactualobjects.Whathespokeofwas achievingrealityeffectsratherthandocumentingrealityasitwas.33MiyagawaevenusedcolorsinUgetsuforthepurposeofrealityeffects.Inascene whenLadyWakasa(KyoMachiko)revealsheridentityasaghost,Miyagawachangesthelightsfromredtoblue.Kyowasmadeupinanoh-style scaryred.Undertheredlight,herface“lookswhiteronblack-and-white films,”accordingtoMiyagawa.Then,whenthespotlightonherchanges toblue,“theredbecomessoemphasizedthatitturnsintoblack,which makes the expression of her eyes change drastically.”34 Miyagawa once talkedaboutcolorsintermsofenhancingrealityeffects:“Redisthecolor withthestrongestimpact,butitvanishesintoothergraysinmonochrome images.Therefore,Ioftenusedsumiinkinsteadtoshowbloodinfilms.It looksredder.WhenIstartedmycareerinafilmstudio,filmswerealready panchromatic,buttheprevious[orthochromatic]filmswerenotsensitive tored.So,myimageofredincinemahadbeenacertainblack.”35Here, JapanesesumiinkwasnotusedforJapaneseaestheticsbutforcinematic realityeffects. Thewartimediscourseoftheaestheticsofshadowwasleaningtoward documentingrealityasitwas.IfHollywoodcinemawascharacterizedas transparencywithseamlessrealityeffects,thedreamofJapanesecinematographersofthe1930swastoachievethesame.Yetwhentheyrealized thatthatwouldbedifficultbecauseofthemateriallimitations,theyneeded tojustifytheirworkbyspeakingoftruthfuldocumentationofthereality ofJapaneseculture,Japanesepeople,andJapan’swareffortswithoutformativemanipulationofrawmaterials.Miyagawa’sworkquestionedsuch ambivalentnotionsofrealismincinemaandconsequentlyexaminedthe statusoftheaestheticsofshadowinthehistoryofJapanesecinema. In his interview withWatanabeYutaka, Shinoda MasahirodifferentithecineMatographyofMiyagaWakazuo 263
atesMiyagawa’spost–WorldWarIIworkfromthe“so-calledpostwarrealism.”36NeitherWatanabenorShinodaclarifywhatexactly“postwarrealism”means,butShinodajuxtaposesMiyagawa’sworkwithGreggToland’s and calls these cinematographers “photogenists,” who prioritize acquiringcinematicimageswith“clearlines”and“contrasts”betweenlightsand shadows.37 Indeed, what characterized Miyagawa’s postwar cinematography was conspicuousclarityofimagesandprominentdistinctionbetweenlightand shadow,bothofwhichhadnothingtodowiththeJapanesetraditionalaestheticsinnature.InMiyagawa’swork,theillusionofpresenceonscreen andtheexistenceofdarknesswereenhancedbytheconstantuseofdeep focusandcontrastylighting.Withsuchaconspicuous,orevenobsessive, emphasis on clarity and contrast via lighting, Miyagawa was exploring realityeffectsincinemathatthediscourseofthedocumentaryspiritdid notfullypursue.WhenDaieistudioexecutivesbeggedMiyagawatoopen theapertureofhiscameramorewidelytoeconomizetheelectricityused forlighting,Miyagawarejectedthatideasoasnottolosethesharpnessof theimagesthathewouldcapture.38Miyagawawas“amazed”atCezanne’s paintingofaforest(Kari no mori;theoriginaltitleisuntraceable),which useda“deepfocus”stylesothateverydetailwaspaintedverycarefully, fromthefallenleavesinfronttothesmallhumanbeingandadogatthe back.MiyagawajuxtaposedtheWesternpainter’sdeepfocuswithJapanesepaintings.39MiyagawaalsowroteaboutMaedaSeiton’spaintings:“As iftheywerephotographsshotwiththedepthoffield,allpartsoftheimage areinfocus.Heevenpaintedsmallpeopleattheedgeofthepaintingin detail.Hisimageisreallysharp.”40 Forasimilarreason,Miyagawa’sexplorationofrealityeffectswasdistinguishedfromthe“so-calledpostwarrealism”thatShinodanoted.Mitsuhiro YoshimotoarguesthatanewdominantideaofrealismemergedinJapan afterWorldWarII:“realismasadocumentaryrecordofcontemporarysocietyandeverydaylife.”41SuchItalianneorealistfilmsasPaisan(Roberto Rossellini,1946),whichwasreleasedinJapanin1949andwasselectedas thebestfilmoftheyearbyKinema Junpo,andBicycle Thieves(Ladri di biciclette,VittoriodeSica,1948),whichwasreleasedinJapanin1950andwas alsoselectedasthebestfilmoftheyearbyKinema Junpo,influencedthe formationofpostwarrealism.ItalianneorealistfilmsarosefromthedevastationofpostwarEurope.Rejectionofthe“formativemanipulationof 264 concLusion
rawmaterials”andphotographingonlywithavailablelight,nomatterhow darkitwouldlook,turnedintoajustificationofneorealistfilmmakingthat resortedtothenotionofmechanicalreproductionasthenatureofcinema undertheextremelylimitedmaterialconditions.42Despitedifferentgeopoliticalandhistoricalsituations,suchanideawasnotverydifferentfrom thedocumentaryspiritduringwartimeJapan.Incontrast,theextremely sensitiveandratherhyperbolicemphasisonclarityofimagesandcontrast between light and shadow in Miyagawa’s work brought the question of cinematicrealismtothesurface,anissuewithwhichneitherthediscourses ofdocumentaryspiritnorpostwarrealismengaged. RashomonestablishedMiyagawa’sinternationalfameforthefirsttime. Whenhewasworkingonit,hedidnotsayanythingaboutJapanesebeauty or traditional aesthetics. Instead he was emphasizing that the film was nothingbutcontrastandclarityforthepurposeofcapturingthe“seriousness”ofthestorythat“wouldexpressthetruenatureofhumanbeings.”43 MiyagawasaidofRashomon:“Absolutelywithblackandwhite.Nogray.I wanttoshootpictureswithstrongcontrasts.”44Miyagawapursuedsuch contrastandclaritybyintentionallylimitingthematerialsthathewould use,asifhehadbeenrevisitingthewartimeconditionsoffilmmakingand reexaminingtheultimatepotentialityofthoselimitedmaterials.Hisattempttoachieverealityeffectstodisplaythe“truenatureofhumanbeings” wasparadoxicallyacknowledged.AreviewerofRashomonforEiga Gijutsu noted,“Mr.Miyagawadidnotpayanyattentiontorealismbutsimplysubscribedformalism.”45Miyagawa’shyperbolicattentiontoclarityandcontrastwassurelydistinguishedfromtherealismofdocumentarismandwas absolutelyobsessiveastoformsandmaterials. First,Miyagawaselected“hard”Fujifilm,identicaltotheonlyfilmstock availableduringwartime.46InthescriptofRashomon,wecanfindMiyagawa’shandwrittennotesonf-stopsandemulsionforthescenesofthe opencourtyard(fig.c.1).Kneelingontheshininglywhitesands,suspects andwitnessesmaketheirtestimoniestotheinvisiblejudge.Thenotesread “400,150,250,f13”atthetopofthepageforthesceneinwhichawoodcutter(ShimuraTakashi)talkstothejudgeand“200,300,f14”fortheone inwhichaBuddhistmonk(ChiakiMinoru)doesthesame.47Suchfaster f-stopsas13and14usuallyindicatelessdepthoffield.Therefore,obviously, Miyagawahadtohaveusedextremelybrightlightingforthescene.Miyagawasaidaboutthescene,“Iattempteddeepfocuswithlotsoflightwith thecineMatographyofMiyagaWakazuo 265
figurec.1 Miyagawa’snotesonf-stopsandemulsioninthescreenplayfor Rashomon(1950).Courtesyof3MastKyoto.
f16orso.Iamverysorryfortheactors[whohurttheireyesbecauseofthe toobrightlight].”48Thenumbers400,150,250,200,and300indicatethat Miyagawawasexperimentingwithhowhiscompositionofdepthwould lookwithdifferenttypesofFujifilmstocks.Asaresultofhisexperiment withfilmstocksandlighting,thesharpnessoftheimagefromfronttoback inthecourtyardisstriking.Withsuchadepthoffield,theillusionofpresenceonthescreenwasachieved,asintheworksofGreggToland. Second,whenhephotographedscenesinthewoods,Miyagawaused mirrors to directly reflect the sunlight. It was impossible to use electric lightsdeepinthewoods—thelocationcreatedalimitedmaterialcondition.49Miyagawaevenpaintedtrees,grasses,andleavesblacktoemphasizethecontrastbetweenblackandwhite.50Miyagawasaid,“Shadowsare not only created by lamps and lights. Water on the streets can create a darkspotthatmaylooklikeshadows.”51Suchexplorationofrealityeffects, whichcouldbeevencalledhyperrealism,wasdistinguishedfromthedocumentaristicrealismthatwasadoptedbyMiuraMitsuointhescenesinthe woodsinThe Battle of Kawanakajima.WhileMiuracraftilyusedlightinThe Battle of Kawanakajimaandaimedfor“avividlycontrastivetoneinorder todepictthecorethemeofthefilm,”thebasisofhislightingschemewas applicationofavailablelightingsources.52Facing“theextremedifficultyof settingthedarknessofthethickwoodsasthebasisofthefilmandofdisplayingalargegroupofarmoredsamurai,”whichwas“tooinsensitiveto lightasaphotographicsubject”whenitwasimpossibletobringlighting equipmentintothedeepwoods,Miuradecidedto“erasedetails”indarkness.53Incontrast,Miyagawaadopted“formativemanipulationofrawmaterials”toobtainthesharpdetailsoftheimagesandsimultaneouslythe strongcontrastsbetweenlightandshadow. Miyagawa’sworkwithMizoguchiKenji,whichfollowedtheaccidentalinternationalsuccessofRashomon,hasbeenpraisednotforthecontrastycinematographybutfortherealizationofinfinitelevelsofgraybetween black and white, which can be connected to traditional Japanese aesthetics.WatanabeYutakawrites,“Miyagawa’sbestmonochromeworks aresimilartoinkpaintings,”whichcontain“multiplelevelsofgraybetween black and white.”54 Miyagawa called Ugetsu a film with “infinite gray as thebasictone,”whichcouldgive“asenseofcalmnesstohumaneyes.”55 “Inmovietheaters,”Miyagawaadded,“graymeltsintoblacknessthatsurroundsthescreen.Whenwewatchfilmsintheaters,graycertainlyappears thecineMatographyofMiyagaWakazuo 267
tobespreadingoutoftheframeintothespaceoutside.Thisiswhatcinematographershavetothinkofmost.”56 However,again,suchemphasisongradationseemedtobeMiyagawa’s officialattitudetopublicizehiscinematographyastheJapaneseorKyoto aestheticsforthepurposeofexoticization.Ifwereadmoreclosely,wefind thatMiyagawadiscussedsuchmultiple“levelsofgray”intermsofhishyperbolicpursuitofcontrastsandclarity.Andtheemphasisoftheactual filmswasonrealityeffectsoflightinginsteadofrealism.WhenMiyagawa talkedaboutthe“infinitegray,”hecontradictedhimselfbysaying,“Technically,Iusedarclight.Thelightingsourceofarclightisadotsothatitcreatesasharpshadow....Ifweuseanarclampforfrontallight,itcanmake softdiffusinglight.”57Here,Miyagawamentionedhowheachievedcertain softtones,butactuallyhewasreferringtotheresultingsharpshadowsby useofthesamelightingequipment.Miyagawaevenexperimentedwitha specialdevelopingtechniquetoemphasizethesignificanceofblackness: “In order to make black stand out, sensuality of white and vividness of levelsofgrayareessential.Gin-nokoshi[leavingsilver]isonesuchmethod thatemphasizesblacknessinimages.”58Gin-nokoshiisaspecialtechnique offilmdeveloping,whichpreventscolorfilmfromdevelopingcolorsand makeseverythinghavegreen-tintedgraytones.59 InthescriptforUgetsu,Miyagawaleftonlyafewhandwrittennoteson hislightingschemeforthefilm.Butbecausethereareonlyafew,theyindicateMiyagawa’sparticularattentiontothedifferencesinlightingbetween thesescenes.Onthepagesthatdescribealocationsceneunderdaylight, whereTobei(OzawaEitaro),afarmerandoneoftheprotagonists,begsto becomeasamurai,Miyagawanoted,“35mm,f/5.6and1/175,”“f/8and 1/90with3n5filter,”or“f/8and1/175,with3n5filter.”WhenTobeifinally becomes a samurai and proudly marches in the street, Miyagawa chose both 35 mm and 50 mm lens, f/6.3 for the f-stop, 1/175 aperture speed, andagaina3n5filter.60Basedonthefactsthatsuchfasterf-stopsasf/8or f/6.3wereusedwiththe3n5yellow-green/neutraldensityfilterandthat theimageoftheshotswereindeepfocuswithnormal35mmor50mm lenses,wecanassumethatTobei’ssuccessinhiscareerwasphotographed underverybrightlightanddisplayedinsharpcontrast.Infact,ofanother black-and-whiteworkofhisfromroughlythesameperiod,Younger Brother (Ototo,IchikawaKon,1960),Miyagawasaid,“Igenerallyusedf/8asthe normalf-stopsothatitwasterrible[terriblyhot].”61 268 concLusion
Bycontrast,Miyagawaused40mm,f/2.8,and1/170foranightscene withsamuraisattackingavillagewhereTobei’swiferesides.ThevictimizationofTobei’swifeandthedownfalloftheotherprotagonistareenvisionedinconspicuouslowkey.Miyagawashotthenightsceneswithf/2.8 or f/2.4 and needed all the extra exposure he could obtain to keep the imagesasdarkaspossible.Assuch,Miyagawa’sparticularnotesindicate thatitwasthecontrastofimages,nottherealisticdocumentationofpeople and landscape in in-between colors, that was at the core of his lighting schemeofUgetsu. WhenMiyagawa worked withfilmmakers such asIchikawa Kon and MasumuraYasuzo,whobecamedirectors inthepostwarperiod,hisexaminationofrealityincinemabeyonddocumentarism,bywayofclarityof imagesandcontrastsoflightandshadow,cametothesurfacemorethan ever.IchikawaandMasumurawereconsideredmodernistinthesensethat theyhadanacuteunderstandingofthehistoryofJapanesecinemaand wereobsessedwiththequestionsofwhatJapanesemodernitywasandhow Japanesecinemacouldpresentanewmodeofsubjectivitythatwasgenuinelyliberatedandmodern. Odd Obsession(Kagi,IchikawaKon,1959)isbasedonanovelof1956by TanizakiJun’ichiro.Onthesurface,inOdd Obsessiontheshadowyspaces ofahouseinKyotothatTanizakicelebratedinIn Praise of Shadowslooks realisticallydocumented.Thisisparticularlyvisibleinthesequencessetin thehouseofKenmochi,anelderlyartdealer(NakamuraGanjiroII).The corridor,thestaircase,andthekitcheninthehouseareilluminatedonlyindirectlyandkeptdarkeveninthedaytime.Inthosespaces,sidelightscome fromonesideoftheframe—awhiteshojiscreennexttothecorridoror frosted-glasswindowsinthekitchen. But,inmanyscenes,thecontrastsbetweenstronghighlightsanddeep shadowsaredisplayedinamannertoooverwhelmingtobecalledrealistic inthesenseofthedocumentaryspirit.Tanizaki’sfocusinthenovelisnot on“themagicofshadows”inJapanesearchitecturethatheidentifiedinIn Praise of ShadowsevenwhenthestoryofOdd ObsessionissetinKyoto.62 WhatTanizakiemphasizesinOdd Obsessionisthebrutallywhitebrightness offluorescentlight.Anelderlyhusbandisobsessedwithrevealinghiswife’s whitebodyunderthewhitelightwhiletheforty-five-year-oldwifewants tostayinthedark.Thestoryreachesitsclimaxwhenthewifecomesto admithersexualdriveanddecidestouseherbodytomurderherhusband thecineMatographyofMiyagaWakazuo 269
byincreasinghisbloodpressure.Shebecomeswillingtorevealherbody undertheincreasednumberoffluorescentlamps,withhardlightusedfor herhusband’sgazeordesire,andwithherbodymagnifiedbyherhusband’s glassesandhisPolaroidcamera. However,Miyagawa’sfocusisnotlimitedtothefluorescentlampthat Tanizakihighlightedinhisnovel.MiyagawaturnstheentirespaceofKyoto architectureintoahyperbolicspaceofcontrastsbetweenlightandshadow. Sharpimagesindeepfocusenhancesuchcontrasts.AsHarringtonpoints out,Miyagawaleaves“largesectionsoftheframeshroudedindarkness,but atthesametimewithartfullightingcleverlyguidestheeyeoftheviewer totheareainwhichthedirectorhasplacedhiscenterofinterest.”63The viewer’seyecannothelpbeing“rivetedtothelitobject”becauseofMiyagawa’sratherhyperbolicuseofcontrastsinlightingandthecomposition indepth.64 WhileTanizaki’snovelisnarratedinaformofcrosscutting,goingback andforthbetweentwodiarieswrittenbythehusbandandthewife,thefilm versionopenswithaclose-upofKimura,atwenty-five-year-oldmedicalintern(NakadaiTatsuya)inhisoffice,whospeaksdirectlytothecamera(the viewer)abouthisoddexperiencewithamanobsessedwithafemmefatale (fig.c.2).Thiscrosscuttingcouldbeareferencetothenarrativedevicesof voiceoverandflashbackinsuchcontemporaneousHollywoodcrimethrillersasDouble Indemnity(BillyWilder,1944)andLady in the Lake(Robert Montgomery,1947),manyofwhichwerereleasedinJapanafterthepostwaroccupationcametoanendin1952.TheseHollywoodfilmswerecalled filmnoirandoftenemployedcontrastyeffectslightingtoenhancepsychologicaltensionsofcharacters,attractionandanxietyofthecities,andso forth.AsifMiyagawahadbeenconsciouslyreferringtothestylesofthese films(andheprobablywas),intheopeningofOdd Obsession,thestrong keyspotlight,withthehelpofwhitemakeup,makesKimura’sfacelook extremelypaleinoppositiontotheblackwallbehindhim.Theshotisdescribedinthescript:“Thescreenisallinblack....Kimura’sfacestands outinthedark.”65Miyagawaunderlinedthefirstsentenceinred(fig.c.3). Inaddition,hedrewapicturecontinuityofthesceneonthescript.Forthis firstshotofthefilm,MiyagawapaintedthebackgroundofKimurainpitch blackinclearcontrasttohiswhiteface.Hedoesnotblink.Hiseyesreflect thekeyspotlight. WhenKimurastopstalkingandwalksuptothefrontandthentothe 270 concLusion
figurec.2 Kimura(NakadaiTatsuya)speaksdirectlytothecameraatthe openingofOdd Obsession(1959).
figurec.3 TheopeningofOdd Obsession(1959),withMiyagawa’sdrawinginthe screenplay.Courtesyof3MastKyoto.
leftofthescreen,thecameraaccordinglymovesbackandthenpanstothe lefttofollowhismovement.Theclose-upeventuallyturnsintoalongshot oftheofficewithoutacut.Thelongshotdoesnothavethestrongkeyspotlightanylongerbutisphotographedindiffusedlighting.Lightssupposedly comeintothisroomfromwindowswithfrostedglass.Thescriptnotes, “Simultaneously,lightingbecomesrealistic.Itturnsintocoldwhitetones, characteristictoanyhospital.”66 Thistransitionoflighting,fromastronglycontrastyonetoaratherflat one,togetherwiththechangeofshotsize,smoothlyleadstheviewersfrom thesceneoftheprotagonist’sobsessiveconfessionintothespaceofobjectivethird-personnarrativewithoutanyinterruption.Itisalsoarguable that in this opening shot, lighting changes conspicuously and expresses twotypesofrealism:subjectiveandobjective.Whiletheobjectivemode inflatlightinglooksmorerealistic,wecannotdiscardthesubjectiveview asunrealistic.Extremelycontrastylightingrealisticallycreatesasenseof insanityorobsessioninKimura.Inthissense,thefunctionoftheflatlightingisnotsimplybeing“realistic.”Itenhancesthecontrastoftwopossible realities. Conspicuouscontrastsoflightingalsosignifyobsessivegazes,another psychologicalrealityinthefilm.WhileKenmochi,thegazingsubject,is almostalwaysinblack,Ikuko,Kenmochi’syoungwife(KyoMachiko),the objectofhisgaze,isinwhiteinmostcases.Kenmochipreferstostayin shadows.Inasceneinhisstudy,assoonasHanathefemaleservantturns onthelight,Kenmochi,fromthedarkcorneroftheroom,ordersherto turnitoff.67Cominginfromthedarkcorridor,Hanadoesnotknowthat Kenmochiissittingathisdesk.Sheisastonished.Inadifferentscenein theevening,KenmochialsosaystoIkuko,“Itisstillbright,”eventhough thespaceinthehouseisalreadydark,especiallyinlongshots.Shereplies, “IcannotseeanythingrightafterIcomeinside.” Bycontrast,Miyagawausedfluorescentlampsinanextrememanner to make Ikuko’s whiteness stand out. Instructed by Kenmochi, Kimura looksinthehouseforIkuko,whohasfeltsickafterhavingafewglassesof wine,untilhefindsthatshehasfaintedinabrightlylitbathroom,naked (fig.c.4).ItisinfactKenmochi’sperverseplottostimulatehisownsexual desirebyforcingtheyoungphysiciantofallforhisyoungandbeautiful wife.Walkingthroughdarkcorridorswherelightsareweaklycomingout ofroomsononesidethroughshojiscreens,Kimuraappearsastheobject 272 concLusion
ofattentiontotheviewersandastheonetrappedinanuncannyconspiracy inadarkcornerofKyotoarchitecturethatisdisplayedinthisshotofdeep focus.Rightafterashotofthesamedarkcorridor,inwhichlightsfrom theshojiscreensononesidecreatehighcontrast,abustshotofIkuko,in afaintinabathtub,follows.Eventhoughthisshotisnotclearlypresented asthepoint-of-viewshotofKimuraorKenmochi,itsfunctionisthesame. Theskinofhernakedshoulders,thehyperbolicobjectofthegazes,isextremelywhiteinthebrightlylitbathroom.Miyagawa’sowndrawingofthe shotinthescriptemphasizesthewhitenessofherbody(fig.c.5).Thearea surroundingherbodyisleftblankasifthebodyisemittingwhitelight:tactilelighting.InthedrawingofthepreviousshotbyMiyagawa,Kenmochi andKimurastandinthecorridorinthicklydarksilhouette.Bycontrast,the whitenessofIkuko’sbody,capturedintheirsubjectivereality,isstriking.68 EvenafterKenmochiandKimuralayIkukodownonherbedinher bedroom,thewhitenessofherbodycontinuestobeemphasizedinstrong spotlights while the two men are positioned in the darker space of the room. A shot of the very dark corridor wraps up this scene: Kenmochi sneaks back into the room where his wife is resting, holding aportable fluorescentlampinhishand.Withthislampthatemitsstrong,coldwhite lights,heexposeshiswife’swhitebodyandcapturesitintheviewfinderof hiscamera:theobjectificationofhissubjectivereality.Miyagawa’shandwritingonthescriptsuggeststhatheaimstoemphasizeKenmochi’sgazing actwithlightby“panningthelight.”69Accordingtothescript,theroom becomes“verybrightwithoutanyshadow,”whereatotallynakedIkuko doesnotmoveatallonherbedbutKenmochiwith“ecstatic”expressions keepstakingphotosofher.70Whenshemoves,Kenmochipanics,turnsoff thelamp,andgoesbacktohissafeplaceinthedark.Ironically,whenhe exposeshimselfunderthebrightlightbecauseofhisownactofgazing,he turnsintoanobjectofgazingaswell.FromthedarkcorridoroftheKyoto architecture,Toshiko,Kenmochi’sdaughter,peepsatherfather’sperverse conduct. Laterinthefilm,Kenmochiisfatallyillinbedinthedark.Still,without speakingbutonlywithhiseyes,heasksIkukototakeoffherclothes.Accordingtothescreenplay,“Ikuko’snakedbodystandsoutinwhitebythe dulllightfromtheshojiscreens....Kenmochi’sgazegoesupfromherlegs. Herlegsrisestraight.Theyaretransparentlywhite.Asandduneappearsall ofasudden.Infinitewhitebarrenspaceexpands.”71Miyagawa’sdrawings thecineMatographyofMiyagaWakazuo 273
figurec.4 Ikuko(KyoMachiko)hasfaintedinabrightlylitbathroom. Odd Obsession(1959).
figurec.5 ThesceneofIkukoinabathroomfromOdd Obsession(1959),with Miyagawa’sdrawinginthescreenplay.Courtesyof3MastKyoto.
figurec.6 TactilewhitenessofIkuko’sbodyinOdd Obsession(1959),with Miyagawa’sdrawinginthescreenplay.Courtesyof3MastKyoto.
ofthissceneconspicuouslycontrastKenmochiasashadowyfigurewithan obsessivegazeandIkuko’sbodyastactilewhiteness,asifitwereradiating light(fig.c.6).InOdd Obsession,contrastoflightingisconspicuouslyused forthepurposeofenhancingrealityeffectsanddepictstheobsessivenature ofthesubjectivegazes. Althoughfilmedincolor,Odd Obsessionwasveryrestrictiveintheuseof vividcolorsandevenlookedlikeablack-and-whitefilm.Miyagawafocused onthehyperrealisticcontrastbetweenlightanddarkinthefilm.ButSpider Tattoo(Irezumi,MasumuraYasuzo,1966),anotherfilmbasedonTanizaki’sworks—hisdebutnovella“Tattoo”(“Shisei,”1910)andhislaterwork “Murdering O-Tsuya” (“O-Tsuya goroshi,” 1915)—was in bright colors. EveninthiscolorfilmMiyagawaextendedhisexplorationofcontrastsin lightingandclarityofimagesandhispursuitofcinematicrealism.Spider TattoowasmadenineyearsafterMiyagawasaidthathe“hadadifficulttime inreproducingcolorsrealisticallyincolorfilms.”72Throughoutthefilm,in interiorscenes,Miyagawaformulatesthelightingschemeinawaythatan andonlampisthesoleoriginoflightintheroom.Consequently,theinteriorspacesinthefilmarealmostalwaysinlowkeywithasingledirection thecineMatographyofMiyagaWakazuo 275
oflight,whichcreatesconspicuouscontrastsbetweenlightsandshadows, asinOdd Obsession. WatanabeYutakaclaimsthatSpider Tattoo“cameclosertoMiyagawa’s ideal of re-creating tones of sumi-e in films.”73 Contrary to Watanabe’s claim, Spider Tattoo goes far beyond the rather restrained aesthetics of sumi-e.Again,Miyagawa’sfocuswasonthecontrastoflightandclarityof images,whichwereeffectivelyusedtoenhancesubjectivereality.Throughoutthefilm,theskinoftheheroine,O-Tsuya(WakaoAyako),isastonishinglywhite,asisIkuko’sskininOdd Obsession.Thedifferenceisthat inSpider Tattoowhitenessishighlycontrastednotonlytothedarkspaces withinframesbutalsotothevividredcolorsofthekimonos,theredink fortattoos,andblood.Thecontrastsarebetweenblackandwhiteandred andwhite.Evenwhentheandonlamp,thesinglesourceoflightinaroom, representsrealisticuseoflight,theheroine’snakedskinlooksasifitwere glowingwithaninnerlight—tactilelighting—oftenbyreflectingtheunrealisticallystronglightemittedfromtheandonlampandincontrastto thevividredkimono.Thespidertattooinredinkforcefullyinscribedon theheroine’sbackmovesasifitwerealiveonthewhiteskinthatseemsto radiatelight. Infact,Miyagawa’splanforthisfilmwasnottore-createthetonesof sumi-eortorealisticallyrepresentJapanesespaceslitbytheandonlamps. Hisgoalwastoachievemorevividandsharperimages.In“MiyagawaReport:Spider Tattoo,”Miyagawawrote: As a result of director Masumura’s intention and exchanges of opinionsbetweenus,wedecidedtofilmthestoryinKabuki-styledialogues andscenes,whichareclosetotheoriginalstories[byTanizaki].Even thoughwewouldrefertotheukiyo-e[woodblockprint]-stylemanners andcustomsofthatperiod,weagreedtodepictO-Tsuya,thewoman inthepast,asnodifferentfromanycontemporarywomen.Aimingfor thecolorsofukiyo-eandthesharptonesofwoodblockprinting,Idecidedtousef/6asthestandardf-stop.Actually,actingindeepspace increasedduringproduction,andtherearenearlythirtyshotsindeep focuswithf/11,f/9,orf/8.Itriedtoenhancethevividnessofscenesby densecolors.74 Miyagawaarguedelsewherethatevenwhentheyareplacedinthebackground, colors would vividly appear on the screen and invalidate the 276 concLusion
senseofdepthinimages.75ThedeepspacecompositioninSpider Tattoo isachievedbyblocking,whichtactfullycreatesdarkspacesandbrighter spaceswithinframes.Miyagawacertainlymadespecialnotesonthescript withhispencilofthedifferentf-stops,f/11inparticular,forthesedeep- spaceshots.76 Miyagawa’schoiceofEastmannegativeforSpider Tattooindicatedhis obsession with contrasts and clarity.77 When Eastman negative was not considered to be suitable for contrasty cinematography, Miyagawa approacheditfromadifferentperspectiveandachievedconspicuouslycontrastyimages.ItwashiswayofincorporatingHollywoodtechnologies,a waynotnecessarilyaffectedbyalocalsociopoliticalandsocioeconomic necessitybutinaccordancewithhisattitudetoexplorethepotentialityof cinematicmaterials. Intheearly1950s,EastmanKodakintroducedasingle-stripcolorfilm andadye-couplingprocessthateliminatedtheneedforexpensiveTechnicolorequipment.By1954,atleasthalfthefilmsproducedinHollywood wereshotinEastmancolor.AccordingtothefilmhistorianJamesNaremore,“BecauseoftherelativebrightnessoftheEastmancolorphotography,thetransitionalyearsbetween1955and1970wereillsuited”tocontrastycinematography.78 SuchbrightnessofEastmancolorwassuitableforDaiei’spolicy.Daiei startedexperimentingwithcolorfilmbeginninginApril1951inordertoenhancetheexoticqualityofitsfilmsforexport.79In1952,NagataMasaichi sentMidorikawaMichiototheUnitedStatestoinvestigatethecinematographictechnologiesofcolor.MidorikawafirstvisitedDr.EmeryHughes at Eastman Kodak Company in upstate New York and obtained brand- newEastmancolorfilm.MidorikawathenvisitedtheMitchellCompany andpurchasednewMitchellcamerasandprojectors,whichwouldallow for the color-screen process. Midorikawa also visited Universal Studios andobservedtheshootingofMississippi Gambler(RudolphMaté,1953). Inparticular,Midorikawawasimpressedbythebrightlightingforcolor films,whichwouldconsistentlyneedtwoorthreetimesasmuchlightas black-and-whitefilms.Gate of Hell(Jigokumon,KinugasaTeinosuke,1953) wasthefirstfilmthatusedthetechnologiesthatMidorikawabroughtback fromtheUnitedStates.Midorikawaservedasthetechnicaladvisorforthe film.InGate of Hell,brightcolorsintensifythepictorialismfromthevery beginning of the film: a colorful twelfth-century scroll painting depictthecineMatographyofMiyagaWakazuo 277
ingthe1160Heijirevoltisrolledoutbyananonymoushand.Inthefollowingthirtyminutesorso,thestoryinthisscrollpaintingisdramatized withmorecolorfulcostumes,props,andsets.TraditionalJapanesebeauty isthusreplacedbyacinematicform,andbecauseofthescrollpaintings, brightcolorsespeciallyinthesetsappeartobearealisticdepictionofhistoricalincidents.Thankstosucharealizationofexoticculturethatused themostinnovativecolortechnologyofthetime,Gate of Hellreceivedthe GrandPrizeatCannesandtheBestForeignFilmAcademyAwardofthe year. WhatisemphasizedinSpider Tattooisnotthebrightnessofcolorphotographyorexoticobjectsincolor,butthevividcontrastbetweenwhite andred.MiyagawavisualizedthelastsceneinordertoenhancethecontrastofO-Tsuya’swhiteskin,onwhichthespidertattooispainted,andthe redblood.80OnthelastpageofanearlyversionofthescreenplayofSpider Tattoo,Miyagawawritesinredpencil,“Regardingthelastscene:aspider andblood.”Inthisearlyversion,O-Tsuya,Seikichi,andShinsuke(who desperatelylovesO-Tsuyaandcannothelpmurderingheroutofjealousy) alldieinanexteriorscenesetontheriverbankinheavyrain.Thefinalshot ofthisearlyversionisalongshotofthecrescentmoonoverthethreedead bodies—presumablyinlowkey,eventhoughMiyagawarewritesinpencil, “itstartsraininghard”over“therainhasstopped.”81 Instead,thefinalversionissetinO-Tsuya’sroomintheevening.Thunderisroaringoutside,andaflashofwhitelightningfromoutsideshines onShinsuke’sswordaswellasonthespidertattooinaclose-up.O-Tsuya deprivesShinsukeofhisswordandstabshim.Another“flashofbluish- whitelightningshinesonO-Tsuya,whostandsandstaresatthedyingShinsuke.”82Then,“Seikichicomesintotheroomfrombehindher,quietlylike ashadow.”83Miyagawaunderlinesthefirstdirectioninredpencilandthe secondinblack.AsO-TsuyatakesoffherkimonoandshowsthespidertattooonherbacktoSeikichi,“anotherflashofbluish-whitelightningshines onthespider,”accordingtothedescriptioninthescreenplay,whichMiyagawaagainunderlinesinred.Seikichisays,“Thespiderisaslivelyasever. Howmanymenwillsheeattokill?Everytimeshedoesso,IfeellikeIam theonewhomurdersthem.”O-Tsuya“turnspale,”underlinedbyMiyagawa.AtthemomentwhenO-Tsuyatriestoputherclothesbackon,SeikichistabsherinthebackwithShinsuke’ssword:“Thespiderspillsblood.” O-Tsuyafallsdownunderthe“tremendouselectriclightandroaringthun278 concLusion
der.”Inaclose-up,thespidertattooiscontinuouslyspillingbloodonto thewhiteskinofO-Tsuya’sback.Thechangeoflocationfromarainyand low-keymoonlitexteriortoacontrastyhigh-keylitinteriorenhancesthe vividcontrastofcolorsbetweentheskinandtheblood:whiteandred.84 ThepointwasnotrealisticdocumentationofaJapanesespaceinanexotic mannerbutthepsychologicalrealityeffectsonthesubjectsofthegazes— inthiscase,Seikichiandspectators,inthedark. Thearrivalofcolorfilmwas“themostshocking”changeinfilmmaking inMiyagawa’scareer,accordingtoMiyagawa.85Incolorfilms,cinematographerstendtolighttheentiresetinordertomaximizetheeffectsofits variouscolors,ratherthanpaintingblackandwhitewithlights.Theimportanceoflightingislessincolorfilmsinthissense.MimuraAkiranoted, “Comparedtoblack-and-whitefilms,[colorfilms]needmorelights.... Incinematography,tastehasmainlycomefromhowtodifferentiatehighlightsandshadows,butincolorfilmsflatlightinghasbecomethemostimportantlighting,whileithasbeenmostlyavoided.”86 InOdd Obsession,Miyagawadidnotfullyincorporatecolorsintohis cinematography.Odd Obsessionlookslikeablack-and-whitefilm.Theonly notableuseofcoloriswiththeservantHana,whoiscolorblindandcannotdistinguishacanofsoapfromthatofinsecticide.InSpider Tattoo,on theotherhand,Miyagawausedredinasignificantmanner.Still,thefunctionofcolorinthefilmisbasedonthelightingschemeofblack-and-white filmseventhoughMiyagawausedcolorsinahyperbolicmannertoenhancecontrastsandtheclarityofimages.Miyagawaadmitted,“Colorsof objectsareconsideredtobesoimportantthatallpartsofthesettendtobe litratherevenly.Morelightsmeanmoreshadows.Therefore,incolorfilms itisimportanttothinkoflightingthatdoesnotcreateshadows.”87Miyagawaevenpaintedgreenorredleavesgraywhenhedidnotwantcolorsin thebackgroundtostandoutwithinframes.88 lighting matters
I have brought the aesthetics of shadow out from its hidden place and tried to find a historical way to “understand it correctly.”89 Before the 1920s,therewasnoaestheticsofshadowinJapanesefilmmaking.Theuse ofshadowwasinconceivablethenunderthesloganof“clarityfirst.”Itbecameanexperimentinthe1920swiththereturnofHenryKotaniandhis introductionofHollywood’seffectslighting,butvisibilityprevailedasthe thecineMatographyofMiyagaWakazuo 279
firstpriorityoffilmmakingduringShochiku’scapitalistdevelopmentinthe filmindustry.Intheprocessofthatdevelopment,Shochikudidnotrefuse theHollywood-stylebusinessmodelandcinematographicstylesandeven incorporateditsrationalizationstrategyaswellasitsstar-publicitymethods,forinstance,especiallywhenShochikuhadadreamofexportingits ownproductstotheinternationalmarket.However,simultaneously,the companyresortedtotheconventionalizedtheatricalstylesoflightingin ordertosatisfythedemandsfromexhibitorsandspectators.Inthissense, thecapitalist-industrialmodernitythatJapanesecinemaexperiencedwas notsimplyalocalizedadoptionoftheAmericanorEuropeansystembuta multilayeredmixoflocalandforeignasaresultofsociopoliticalandsocioeconomicnegotiations.Therewereinnovative,spectacular,andcritically engagingusesofcontrastsbetweenlightandshadowinjidaigekiandstreet films,withreferencetoHollywoodswashbucklerfilms,Weimarfilms,and Frenchimpressionistfilmtheory,amongothers.Shochikurespondedto suchmovementswithcomplicatedmanipulationsoflightandshadowon itsstarfilms.Assuch,thecultureoflightinJapanesecinemabecamemultifacetedbythelate1920s,butthedominantmodewasstillbrightandcheerfulasShochikuestablisheditsdominantstatusinthefilmbusiness. Then,asamixedresultofToho’sentryintothefilmbusinessatthebeginningoftheeraoftalkingpictures,therisingpopularityoflow-keylightinginHollywoodfilmsamongJapanesecinematographersandcritics,the limitedmaterialconditionsthatJapanesefilmmakershadtofaceduring theperiodofwar,andtheinfluenceofmilitaristandimperialistpolicyon thefilmculture,theaestheticsofshadowemergedasamajordiscursiveand practicaltendencyinfilmmakinginthelate1930sto1945.Theappreciation ofdarknessasrepresentativeoftraditionalJapaneseculturewasnotthe onlydominanttendency.Thevarietyofhowtoconceptualizelightanddark thatrangedfromadorationofHollywoodfilms(low-keysoft-tonecinematography,deepfocus,etc.),toguidanceofGermancinematography,to “BrightandcheerfulShochikucinema,”tothedocumentaryspirit,andto theJapanesesublimecomplicatedthesituation.Inthissense,wartimefilm cultureinJapanneverwasunitary. Duringthepostwarperiod,therewasacontinuingefforttonaturalize theuseofshadowasthetraditionalJapaneseaesthetics.Filmsproduced under the self-exoticizing strategy were acknowledged by international viewers,andtheso-calledgoldenageofJapanesecinemaarrivedinthe 280 concLusion
1950swhenJapanasanationwasinthemidstofreconstructionfromthe devastationofWorldWarII.Theaestheticsofshadowincinemaplayeda significantroleintherenewedinternationalrelationstoformulateaculturalimageofJapan.Assuch,lightingtechnologiesandtechniquesexisted withinadialogicsiteofconstantconflictandvolatilenegotiationsamong filmmakers,critics,andspectatorsovertheownershipoftheimagesonthe screen;thebusinessinitiativeofthefilmindustry;andtheformationof Japaneseculturalidentity. Whencolorfilmsbecamethedominantmodeoffilmmakinginthe1960s, itseemedthattheaestheticsofshadowhadoncebeenforgotten,asindicatedbyYoshinoNobutaka’sclaimin1979that“theaestheticsofshadow” wasin“itshiddenplace.”90Suchoblivionmighthavesomethingtodowith Japan’shighrateofeconomicgrowthinthelate1950sand1960s.Thefuture lookedbrightandcheerfulinJapan.Ortherewasnoroomfortheaestheticsofshadowintherisingpopularityoftelevision,themediumthatemphasizedimmediatevisibility.ButcontemporaryJ-horror( Japanese-made horror)filmmakersoftenspeakoftheirpreferencesfordarknessandshadowsspecificallyinJapanesespaces.Inthemidstofthedigitalera,whatdo theirinclinationstotheaestheticsofshadowmean?Howdifferentaretheir aestheticsofshadowfromthoseinthewartimediscourseandfromtheself- exoticizedversioninthe1950s?Thesearethequestionsforthefutureworks onthecinematographyofcontemporarycinemaandmedia.Lightingstill matters.
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n ot e s
Introduction
AlltranslationsofJapanesebooks,leaflets,andnewspaperandmagazinearticlesinthis bookarebymeunlessotherwisenoted.IhavepreservedJapanesenameorder,which placesthefamilynamefirst(e.g.,OnoShichiro),exceptforfamouspersonsandscholarsbasedintheUnitedStateswhoarecommonlyreferredtobytheirgivennamesfirst (e.g.,SessueHayakawa).IdonotusemacronsforJapanesetransliteratedtexts. 1.Yoshino,“‘Ineiraisan’niyoseteII,”15.Eiga ShomeiisajournalfortheJapanese AssociationofFilmLightingTechnicians(NihonEigaShomeiGijutsushaKyokai). 2.Guerin,A Culture of Light,xiii. 3.Tanizaki,In Praise of Shadows,32–33. 4.Midorikawa,“Kameramannoseikatsutokyoyo,”65. 5.OtaSaburo,“Kuronogaika,”102–3. 6.Shimazaki,“NihonnoeigagijutsuhattennihatashitaTsuburayaEijinoyakuwari,” 38;Watanabe,Eizo o horu,60;Kawatani,Mato o kakenuketa ototko,14–15,38–41. There are different versions of Makino’s words. According to some sources, “story”precedes“clarity.”AccordingtoJoanneBernardi,TakizawaOsamu,who knewMakinoShozopersonally,supportsthisversion(Bernardi,Writing in Light, 301).ThecinematographerMoritaFujioclaimsthatitwasoriginally“clarityfirst” butwaschangedto“storyfirst”later(Morita,“Nihoneiganojidaigekisahodai3 kai,”71).Evenifithadbeen“claritysecond,”thefactthatMakinoemphasizedthe importanceoflightingincinemastaysthesame. 7.Mizuta,“LuminousEnvironment,”342. 8.Ono,“Sutanbaguotsuisekisuru,”44.ForSternberg,thisvoyagetoJapanwasthe firstlegofalonewestwardcruisetoAsiaafterhisheartbreakingexperiencesin Hollywood.TheVienna-bornfilmmaker,whohadmadeastarofMarleneDietrichinHollywood,hadbeenfiredbyParamountafterbothcriticalandboxoffice failuresofThe Scarlet Empress(1934)andThe Devil Is a Woman(1935).Thelatter becamethelastfilmthatSternbergandDietrichworkedontogether(Baxter,Von Sternberg, 202–3). Arguably, the experience in Japan revived Sternberg’s confi-
denceinhistheoryofcinema.EventhoughSternbergdidnottalkparticularly aboutJapanandlighting,henotedinoneinterviewhisrealizationafterthetrip: “Myideasaboutthecinemabecamemorepreciseinthelightofmyexperiences. Iwastiredofseeingstudiooppositiontoanycreativeideasofthecinéasteatthe differentstagesofitsexpression.Whereasapainteruseshisbrushes,canvasand colors,followingonlythebentofhisimagination,thefilmdirectorhastoconsider othermenandhumanmaterial.Afteratriparoundtheworld,Iwantedtowork accordingtocertainprinciples;forinstance,thatweshouldbeconcernedtocreateexpressiveeffectsachievedinliterature—andIhopedtoworkwithmorefreedom”(Weinberg,Josef von Sternberg,125). 9.Sternberg,Fun in a Chinese Laundry,311–12. 10.MiuraMitsuo,“CameramannoCameramanhihyo,”82;MiuraMitsuo,“Horiuddo kara,”41. 11.Takii,“MitchellNoiseless,”79. 12.Ibid. 13.Hansen,“VernacularModernism,”305. 14.Theprevalenceofshadowsproducedbythenonmimeticmise-en-scèneandby artificiallightingwasrecognizedbysuchhistoriansandtheoristsasLotteEisner andSiegfriedKracauerinadifferenthistoricalcontext(seeEisner,The Haunted Screen;Kracauer,From Caligari to Hitler).BothEisnerandKracauerseeshadow inthefilmsoftheearlyGermanstudiosasavisualmetaphorforevilorforthe darkandthreateningforcesthatallegedlylurkedinthepre-HitlerGermanpsyche orsoul.Mybookalsoregardsthecinematicshadow’ssignificanceas“an‘other’ realitythatmustbeperceivedforthesakeofexistentialsecurityorpsychicstability”andthensuggestsanotherfunctionofitasa“modernistnarrativedevice” thatenablesacommunicativerelationshipbetweenfilmmakerandviewerregarding “a simultaneity of multiple narrative, a diegetic complexity” (see Franklin, “MetamorphosisofaMetaphor,”178–79).YetthemajorfocusofEisnerandKracauerseemedtobethenarrationalfunctionsofthecinematicshadow,whetheras ameansofmetaphororofcommunication.Whataboutthelightingtechnologies andthepeoplewhodealtwithsuchtechnologiesbehindthecinematicshadowon thescreen?Howweresuchtechnologiesdiscussedincontemporarycriticism? 15.Regarding definitions of the terms modernity, modernism, and modernization, I basicallydrawonthefilmhistorianAaronGerow’susage.Modernityis“thestate ofbeingnew”onthemateriallevel;modernismistheheterogeneousbutinterconnected“setofdiscoursesattemptingtoshapeaparticularvisionofmodernity,” oftencharacterizedbyself-reflexivityandrebellionagainstbourgeoisvalues;and modernizationisaprocess“inafieldofstrugglewheretherearenotonlyother competingmodernisms...butalsocomplextraversingforcesofpowerandhistoricalcontingencies”(Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,34–35). 16.Burch,To the Distant Observer,49;emphasisintheoriginal. 17.Ibid.;emphasisintheoriginal. 18.Ibid.,71–72. 19.Takamura,Satsuei kantoku Takamura Kurataro,386. 20.Itrynottosubscribetotechnologicaldeterminism,nomatterhowsignificant theimpactthatmaterialconditionshadupontheemergenceoftheaestheticsof
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shadow.Insteadmyfocusistocarefullydelineatethecompetingdiscoursesand practicesthatcinematographersandcriticsweresubjecttowhenfacingcertain materialconditions. 21.Gijutsu shi Iinkai, “Yunyu dai 1 go no kamera wa bakkusuta ando rei,” 69–72; TanakaJunichiro,Nihon eiga hattatsu shi I,70. 22.Edamasa,“Nazewagakuniniyuryoeigaumarezaruka,”107.Edamasastartedhis careerasacinematographerwhenYoshizawaShoten,oneoftheoldestfilmcompaniesinJapan,constructedthefirstglassstageinJapan. 23.Bordwell,“VisualStyleinJapaneseCinema,1925–1945,”7,23. 24.Hansen,“VernacularModernism,”291. 25.Ibid.;emphasisadded. 26.Harootunian,Overcome by Modernity,xvi–vii. 27.Ibid.,xvii,xxi;emphasisintheoriginal. 28.StuartHall,“Encoding/Decoding,”128–38. 29.SeeMayne,Cinema and Spectatorship,92–93. 30.Singer,Melodrama and Modernity,91.SeealsoZhang,An Amorous History of the Silver Screen,9. 31.Burch,To the Distant Observer,154. 32.LaMarre,Shadows on the Screen,82. 33.Ibid.,80. 34.Ibid.,19. 35.Ibid.,83. 36.Guerin,A Culture of Light,xviii,170. 37.Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,3. 38.Ibid.,4. 39.Nornes,Japanese Documentary Film,xvii,xx. 40.Ibid.,xxi. 41.LaMarre,Shadows on the Screen,14. 42.Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,13. 43.Nornes,Japanese Documentary Film,xviii;Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity, 3. 1. lighting and modernity
1.Ushihara,“Kamatanokoro,”21. 2.ShiraiShigeru,Kamera to jinsei,25. 3.Miura,“Kiseki,”42. 4.OtaniTakejiro,“Shochikukinemasosetsunitsuite”[OnestablishingShochiku cinema],Engei Gaho,May1920,quotedinTanakaJunichiro,Shochiku shichijunen shi,239. 5.QuotedinWakiya,Otani Takejiro engeki rokuju nen,208.Otanialsomentionedthe numberofreelsthattheU.S.filmindustryexportedeverymonth(eightmillion) andtheamountofincometaxespaidbythosewhoengagedinthebusinessinLos Angeles(6.4milliondollars). 6.QuotedinHirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi5,”47. 7.Taguchi,“ShochikuKinemasoritsuhiwa(5),”95. 8.Bordwell,Ozu and the Poetics of Cinema,19.
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9.TanakaJunichiro,Nihon eiga hattatsu shi I,309–11;Bordwell,Ozu and the Poetics of Cinema,19. 10.Thethree-volumesetpublished inhonoroftheonehundredth anniversaryof Shochiku’sfilmmakingproudlyplacesphotosofKotani’sfilmsonthefirsttwo pagesof“TheBirthofShochikuCinema”:Woman of the Island(Shima no onna, 1920),photographedanddirectedbyKotani;A New Life(Shinsei,1920),directed and photographed by Kotani; Secret of the Mine (Kozan no himitsu, 1920), directed by Edward Tanaka and photographed by Kotani; and Poppy (Gubijinso, 1921),directedandphotographedbyKotani(Nagayama,Shochiku hyakunenshi Honshi,47–48).OtherKamatafilmsbyKotaniwereSchools in Los Angeles(Rafu no gakugyo en,1920),newsreel,photographedbyKotani;News of the Explosion of Mt. Asama(Asamayama daibakuhatsu jikkyo,1920),newsreel,photographedby Kotani;Electrician and His Wife(Denko to sono tsuma,1921),directedandphotographedbyKotani,censoredanddelayedfrom1921;Trunk(Toranku,1921),written,directed,andphotographedbyKotani;Village at the Sunset(Yuyo no mura, 1921),directedandphotographedbyKotani;A Dark Street(Yami no michi,1921), directed by Kotani; Carnegie Planetarium (Kanegi tenmondai, 1921), newsreel, photographedbyKotani;andReturn of Tom(Tomu no kicho,1921),unreleased,directedbyKotani. 11.Hansen,“TheMassProductionoftheSenses,”69.Seealso59–77. 12.Miyajima,Tenno to yobareta otoko,27. 13.“Matenrozadankai,”51. 14.Kotani,“Ichininmaenosatsueigishininarumade,”84,86. 15.Miki,“Eigawaikanishiteumareikanishitehattasushitaka,”29. 16.Ushihara,“Kamatanokoro,”21;Ushihara,Kiyohiko eiga fu goju nen,92. 17.Ushihara,“Gijutsutekitenkankinisaishite,”32. 18.Saito,Nippon no kigeki o,23.Officially,thecinematographerofthefilmOtosanis MidorikawaMichio.KotaniwasalreadyatShimokamoin1924.EvenifSaito’s recollectionisincorrect,thereisnomistakethatKotanihadacertaininfluence onhim. 19.QuotedinHirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi5,”48.InSeptember1921,oneyear after Kotani’s arrival, Katsudo Zasshi published an article with six photos that explainedhowtousereflectorsappropriately(“Jinbutsusatsueihonokenkyu” [Astudyofphotographingaperson],Katsudo Zasshi,September1921,quotedin Hirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi7,”48–49). 20.QuotedinHirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi5,”48. 21.Kawaguchi,“Mukashinosatsueijoatootazunete(1),”60. 22.SeeAkiyama,“1930NenSatsueijotenbo3gatsunomaki,”43;YamamotoRyokuyo,“Shimokamosutajionoashiato2,”19;TanakaJunichiro,Nihon eiga hattatsu shi I,344;Masumoto,Jinbutsu Shochiku eiga shi,51.Kotani’sfilmsmadeatShimokamoincludedYui Shosetsu(1924),photographedbyKotani;Spy of Love(Koi no misshi,1924),directedandphotographedbyKotani;Black Monk(Kurohoshi, 1924),directedbyKotani;Plover Sings at Night(Chidori naku yoru,1924),directed by Kotani; Cherry Blossoms (Tei no sakura, 1924), directed by Kotani; A Secret Comes Around(Meguru himitsu,1924),directedbyKotani;andShip of the City (Miyako no fune,1924),directedbyKotani.
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23.Taguchi,“ShochikuKinemasoritsuhiwa(5),”97. 24.Katsudo Zasshi originally planned to publish an article that would question thereasonswhyKotanileftShochiku,butthearticledoesnotappeartohaveever beenpublished(Hanayagi,“ShochikukinemakabushikigaishashachoOtaniTakejirokunenokokaijo,”83). 25.Masumoto,“Kinema no tenchinohaikei,”238. 26.Shochiku’sofficialhistorystates,“Therewasamoreorlessdifficulttimeinthe launchingyears”(TanakaJunichiro,Shochiku shichijunen shi,246).Onereasonfor Shochiku’seconomichardshipwasthatthecompanydidnothaveitsowntheaters forthefilmsitproduced(Nagayama,Shochiku hyakunenshi honshi,559). 27.“HenriKotaniSoichi,”7;Kurishima,“Gubijinsonokoro,”21–22. 28.TheHomeMinistrydidnotnationalizefilmcensorshipuntil1925. 29.TanakaJunichiro,Shochiku shichijunen shi,244. 30.FurukawaRoppa,“Henritonohannichi,”7. 31.ThethirdwasCorpse of Love(Ai no mukuro),anotherShochikufilmdirectedby thefilmtheoristKaeriyamaNorimasa(MakinoMamoru,Nihon eiga kenetsu shi, 157). 32.Kinema Junpo,February21,1923,5. 33.“HenriKotaniSoichi,”7. 34.ShiraiShigeru,“Kameramanjinsei,”57. 35.Wada-Marciano,Nippon Modern,114.Wada-MarcianoarguesthatShochiku’sfilm enterprisebecameaformofanactiveresistancetoHollywood’sculturalimperialismandthattheKamatatonecanbest beunderstood ascultural nationalist cinemathatmademodernitysafeforJapan.IagreewithWada-Marcianowhen sheemphasizestheparodicaspectofKamatafilmsinrelationtoHollywood,but thefocusofmyargumentisnotresistancebutnegotiation. 36.Hansen,“VernacularModernisms,”290. 37.ShinpaintroducedmodernstoriesintothetheatricalrepertoireinJapan.Shinpa originatedinapoliticaldramaassociatedwiththefreedomandpeople’srights movement of the 1880s. The genre dealt with contemporary social issues and Western ideas, but was stylistically within Kabuki conventions. Thematically, shinpaplaysoftenhavetragicendings(Hagii,Shinpa no gei,226–28).According toGerow,theseplayswere“oftenconventionallymelodramatic,focusingonthe sufferingsofwomenwho,duetofateorsocialcircumstance,couldnotfulfilltheir romanticdesires”(Gerow,APageofMadness,2). 38.Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,100.Seealso40–47. 39.Ibid.,101–3. 40.Ibid.,106. 41.Ibid. 42.Cazdyn,The Flash of Capital,29. 43.Ibid.,45–46. 44.Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,114. 45.Bernardi,Writing in Light,133. 46.Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,114. 47.“Eigapuropagandaron”[Anideaoffilmpropaganda], Katsudo Shashin Zasshi 5.5(May1919):38–39.
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48.Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,115. 49.Bernardi,Writing in Light,13;Numata,“Katsudoshashinnogeijutsubi,”142. 50.Souls on the RoadwasphotographedbyAoshimaJunichiro,wholeftShochikuand movedtoNikkatsuin1923.AoshimapreferredverycontrastyLasky-stylelighting, usingonlyasmallnumberofreflectorsandpushingthelimitoforthochromatic films.TsukagoshiSeiji,thecinematographerofWhat Made Her Do It?(Nani ga kanojo o so saseta ka,1930),recollectsthatAoshima,hismentor,didnotevencareif therewasnodetailinshadowaslongastherewerestrongcontrastsbetweenlight andshadow(Hirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi9,”52). 51.Standish,A New History of Japanese Cinema,64. 52.Otsuka,“Ojosan,”50–52,translatedandquotedinWada-Marciano,Nippon Modern,156. 53.Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,10. 54.Ibid.,224. 55.Ibid.,9. 56.Wakiya,Otani Takejiro engeki rokuju nen,227.Thepurefilmmovementturnedout nottocompletelydefinethemajortrendatShochiku,inspiteofthecompany’s initial support. Osanai Kaoru left Shochiku in 1921. Otani Takejiro’s biography clearlystatesthatOtaniwasnotabletostandOsanai’s“idealismthatisnotconcernedwithfinanceatall”butchosethe“compromisingpolicy”thatwouldprivilegefinancialfactorstoartisticconscience(227). 57.Hansen, “Vernacular Modernism,” 301; emphasis in the original. Appropriation mightnotbeapropertermtodescribetheprocessthough.AsGerowalsopoints out,appropriationpresupposesabinaryopposition:thecenterandtheperiphery. ThedefinitionandformationofcinematicstylesinJapanatthattimewasnot basedonadichotomybutmoreofanegotiationamongseveraldifferentchoices (Visions of Japanese Modernity,23). 58.Hansen,“VernacularModernism,”303. 59.Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,64. 60.Burch,To the Distant Observer,83;emphasisintheoriginal. 61.Ibid. 62.Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature, 115; emphasis in the original. See also Hobsbawm and Ranger, The Invention of Tradition; and Vlastos, Mirror of Modernity. 63.Watanabe,Eizo o horu,63. 64.Quoted in Suzuki Kazuyoshi, Aizen katsura to Nipponjin, 234. See also KobayashiKyuzo,Nihon eiga o hajimeta otoko,21;Standish,A New History of Japanese Cinema,32. 65.Kido,“Kichodaiichigen,”1.In1956,fouryearsafterthepostwaroccupationended, Kidorephrasedwhathehadsaidin1929:“Therearetwowayswecanviewit[art], withawarmthandbrightness,orwithafeelingofgloom....ButatShochiku,we trytoviewhumanlifewithasenseofwarmaspirationandbrightness.Inconclusion,thebasisofafilmmustbehope.Itmustnotimparttothespectatorasenseof despair.This,inotherwords,isthebaselineoftheKamatatone”(Nihon eiga den, 39–40).AlsoquotedinStandish,A New History of Japanese Cinema,64. 66.TanakaToshio,“ObaraJoji,”148.
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67.ShiraiShigeru,Kamera to jinsei,25. 68.“Kage no meiyu,”9;“Himitsu no hanazono,”9. 69.Ito,Jidaigeki eiga no shi to shinjitsu,65–66. 70.TanakaToshio,“ObaraJoji,”148;TanakaToshio,“Cameranosowatokessan,” 12. 71.“GoshoHeinosukeKikigaki,”6. 72.Nagahama,“Makinopurodakushontowatashi,”60. 73.Ibid. 74.TanakaToshio,“Cameranosowatokessan,”12. 75.Bordwell,Ozu and the Poetics of Cinema,19. 76.Jacobs,“Belasco,DeMille,andtheDevelopmentofLaskyLighting,”405. 77.Birchard,Cecil B. DeMille’s Hollywood,17. 78.Bordwell,Staiger,andThompson,The Classical Hollywood Cinema,223;Thompson,Herr Lubitsch Goes to Hollywood,37. 79.Bordwell, Staiger, and Thompson, The Classical Hollywood Cinema, 224–25. Wyckoff’s name as a cinematographer seems to have been highly regarded in Japan.Anarticlefrom1922titled“InOrdertoBecomeaCameraman”inKatsudo ZasshiquotedonlyWyckoffwhenitlistedthenecessarycharacteristicsforcinematographers:“Theyneedtoknowthecustomsoftheworldoffilmmaking,tobe courageous,andhopefullynottodrinktoomuch”(“Kameramanninaruniwa,” 132). 80.Jacobs, “Belasco, DeMille, and the Development of Lasky Lighting,” 408. AccordingtoPeterBaxter,DeMillebecamemoreinterestedinsetandcostumedesignthanlightingafter1916andeventuallydepartedwithWyckoff(“OntheHistoryandIdeologyofFilmLighting,”97,101). 81.Baxter,“OntheHistoryandIdeologyofFilmLighting,”99;Jacobs,“Belasco,DeMille,andtheDevelopmentofLaskyLighting,”408. 82.Jacobs,“Belasco,DeMille,andtheDevelopmentofLaskyLighting,”408–9.From 1914to1918,inGermany,MaxReinhardtalsoexperimentedwithlightingeffects thatthrewlightonwhatwasimportanttoseeandemphasizedthe“shockoflights andshadows”inhistheatricaltragedy(Baxter,“OntheHistoryandIdeologyof FilmLighting,”100).SeealsoYura,Celluloid Romanticism,27. 83.Bordwell,Staiger,andThompson,The Classical Hollywood Cinema,225. 84.Thompson, Herr Lubitsch Goes to Hollywood, 39; Keating, “The Birth of BacklightingintheClassicalCinema,”46. 85.Jacobs,“Belasco,DeMille,andtheDevelopmentofLaskyLighting,”416;italicsin theoriginal. 86.Keating,“TheBirthofBacklightingintheClassicalCinema,”46. 87.Kawaguchi, “Amerika eiga to Henri Kotani sensei,” 20. Kotani started his film careerinHollywoodaround1914asasupportingactorinThomasInce’s“Japanesefilms”starringSessueHayakawa.ForInce’sJapanesefilms,seeMiyao,Sessue Hayakawa,50–75.JamesWongHowe,theacclaimedcinematographerofHollywood,whowasparticularlyknownforhishardlightingstyles,startedhiscareeras Kotani’sassistant.SeeJames Wong Howe: The Man and His Movies,adocumentary filmpreservedattheucLaFilmandTelevisionArchive. 88.“FamousPlayers-LaskyCorporation:CorrespondenceandProductionRecords,”
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Box240,Folder9,intheCecilB.DeMilleArchive,HaroldB.LeeLibrary,BrighamYoungUniversity. 89.Aoyama,“Kotanishashingishinosatsueidan,”49. 90.Okabe, “Amerika jidai no Henri Kotani,” 26–27. See also Midorikawa, “Tsuito,” 25. 91.Aoyama,“Kotanishashingishinosatsueidan,”48. 92.Jacobs,“Belasco,DeMille,andtheDevelopmentofLaskyLighting,”413. 93.Ibid. 94.Ibid.,415. 95.Other films in which Kotani used effects lighting include The Hostage (Robert Thornby,1917),The Firefly of France(DonaldCrisp,1918),Puppy Love(R.William Neill, 1919), Rustling a Bride (Irvin Willat, 1919), The Secret Garden (G. Butler Clonebough,1919),andMrs. Temple’s Telegram( JamesCruze,1920),accordingto thestillphotosofthesefilmspreservedattheMargaretHerrickLibrary. 96.Patrick Keating suggests that the silhouette was popular with the ambitious cinematographeroftheAmericanSocietyforCinematographersbecauseofthe pictorialist photography championed by Alfred Stieglitz’s famous photography journal, Camera Work, in the first decades of the twentieth century (Keating, Hollywood Lighting from the Silent Era to Film Noir,69). 97.Grodal,“FilmLightingandMood,”160. 98.Keating,Hollywood Lighting from the Silent Era to Film Noir,46. 99.Grodal,“FilmLightingandMood,”156. 100.Miura Rei, “Kiseki,” 43. A set of a Chinese castle was built at a Shinkoyasu beachnearKamataonanunprecedentedscale,which“astonished”thecinematographerNagaiShinichi(Hirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi5,”48).Ushihara KiyohikoandNomuraAkirarememberthatitwasaPathécamerathatKotani mainlyused(Ushihara,“Kamatanokoro,”21;NomuraAkira,“ShitoshitenoHenri Kotani,”22). 101.Quotedin,“Nasake no hikari,”23. 102.The films that follow Light of Compassion display Kotani’s effectively emphasizedcontrastsbetweenlightandshadowforthematicpurposes.InA Village at Dawn(Akeyuku mura,1927,35mm,nfc),aneducationalfilm,Kotaniadopted thecontrastylightingscheme,whichenhancesthedichotomybetweenacityand afarmingvillage.Thefilmopenswithaseriesoflongshotsofafarmingvillageby theriver.Underthestrongsunlightfromabove,amandigsaholeinthemud.Despitephysicallyandeconomicallyseverelives,peopleofthisfarmingvillagelive cheerfullyunderthebrightsunlight,whichisdisplayedinafestivalscene.Theday- for-nighttechniquewithbluetintingaddsabrightatmospheretothefestivity.On thecontrary,thecityofTokyoiselectricallylitbutdark.Kotanididnotusethe day-for-nighttechniquewhenherepresentedthecity.Instead,aseriesofextreme longshotsofthecityandphantom-ride-liketravelingshotsfromtramsdisplay electricneonsignsinthedark. 103.Kotani,“Eigagadekiagarumade(1),”5. 104.Woman of the Island was not originally planned as Shochiku’s first film. The originalprojectwasIsland of Women of the Heike Clan(Heike nyogogashima,Matsui Shoyo).Yet,becausetheshootingofIsland of Women of the Heike ClanatEno-
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shimainKanagawaprefecturewasdelayedseveraltimes“duetobadweather,” OtaniTakejirochangedtheplanquickly,switchedtoanotherfilm,Woman of the Island,andfinishedshootingitonlocationatTomiurainChibaprefecture.AccordingtoOtani,ittookonlytwodaystofinishshootingWoman of the Islandusing Kotaniashiscameraman(TanakaJunichiro,Nihon eiga hattatsu shi I,316–17). 105.“KidoShirokikigaki,”3. 106.Ito,Jidaigeki eiga no shi to shinjitsu,65–66. 107.QuotedinHirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi5,”49. 108.Masumoto,Jinbutsu Shochiku eiga shi,41. 109.HanabusaTaneta,“Gikotekikosen,”3. 110.Moritasei,“Honposeieiganokettenka?,”62–63. 111.Thesignificanceoflightingtechniqueswasnothighlyappreciated,andneither was the status of cinematographers. In 1928 the critic Takeda Akira lamented, “Whenwetalkaboutfilms,wethinkweknowhowtodiscussdirectors,writers, andactors.Yet,wepayleastattentiontoorevenignorecameramen....Itseems widelythoughtthataslongasweseeimagesaccuratelyandbeautifullywithout anymistakes,thatisokaywithcameras....Evencameramenthemselvesdonot respectcamerasfullyaslongastheycancaptureimages”(TakedaAkira,“Cameramannitsuite,”50). 112.Jacobs,“Belasco,DeMille,andtheDevelopmentofLaskyLighting,”408. 113.Muguruma,Eiga no komado,223. 114.“ShiraiShigeru,”OtakeToruetal.,Eizo kenkyu bessatsu,Shira-6–7. 115.Okada Munetaro, “Hakujitsu no moto ni sarasaretaru Shochiku Kinema: Riso tsuizuikanokanashikihatan”[Shochikucinemarevealed:Tragicfailureofthe idealists], Katsudo Kurabu, December 1921 and January 1922, quoted in Hirai, “SokoNihoneigasatsueishi5,”50–51. 116.“Shochikuokokumonogatari,”112.Kakoincorporatedsomeeffectslightinginhis filmLamb(Kohitsuji,1923)though.Forinstance,whenanelderlywomanoverhearsherhusband’sconversationwithhisemployeeinthenextroom,herhusbandisdisplayedasashadowonashojiscreen.Thisshotexactlymimicstheone inThe Cheat,aHollywoodmelodrama,whereEdithHardy(FannieWard)andthe JapaneseartdealerTori(SessueHayakawa)overhearEdith’shusbandtalkingto hiscolleagueinthenextroom.Thetwomenareseenastwoshadowsonashoji screen.A35mmprintofLambispreservedattheNationalFilmCenter,National MuseumofModernArt,Tokyo. 117.TanakaJunichiro,Shochiku shichijunen shi,246. 118.NomuraHotei,“Nihonnoeigaotsukuritai,”24. 119.TanakaJunichiro,Shochiku shichijunen shi,247. 120.Nagayama,Shochiku hyakunenshi honshi,562;TanakaJunichiro,Nihon eiga hattatsu shi I,349–50. 121.Nagayama,Shochiku hyakunenshi honshi,562. 122.Ibid.UshiharaKiyohikoeveninsiststhatitwasNomura“whoestablishedthevery basisoftheKamatatone”(Ushihara,“Kamatamodanizumunogunzo,”138). 123.AreviewinKatsudo Zasshi,though,praisedthe“diffusedwhite”lightingofthe love scene for its realization of “very soft tone” (Katsudo Zasshi [June 1922], quotedinHirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi8,”57).Softfocuswasverypopular
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amongShochiku’scinematographersaftertheJapanesereleaseofD.W.Griffith’s A Romance of Happy Valley(1919)in1921andBroken Blossoms(1919)in1922(Hirai, “SokoNihoneigasatsueishi9,”50). 124.The only exception is a backlit shot at a train station where Namiko waits for Takeowithherfather.Takeodoesnotarrive.Becauseofthestrongsunlightthat spotlightsthetrainintheback,Namikoandherfatherinfrontaredisplayedin completesilhouette.Thisbacklitdeepspacecomposition,bywhichthisfilmis barelyconnectedtoKotani’spreferredlightingtechniques,functionstoenhance Namiko’ssenseoflossanddespair.Inthefollowingsceneoftheprint,Namiko fallsintoafatalillnessandpassesawaybeforeTakeoarrives.Thiswasprobablynot intended,butthereturnedhigh-keylightingironicallyenhancesthepalenessof thedyingheroine.Underthebrightlight,Namiko’sfaceinclose-uplyingonthe bedlooksextremelywhite. 125.Yanagi,Shinpa no rokuju nen,25–26. 126.KawadaandAsahara,“Butaishomei,”50.Still,Matsuiisconsideredtobeaninnovatoroftheatricallighting.WithOnoeKikugoroXI,Matsuistartedusingcolorfiltersinordertoindicatechangesofseasonsortoenhancedrama.InChushingura, thesceneofthesuicideislitinmuchwhiterlightingthanotherscenes.Nihon ShomeikaKyokai,Nihon butai shomei shi,68.InJanuary1925,whenKabuki-za theaterreopenedaftertheGreatKantoEarthquakeof1923andexhibitedanew play,Ieyasu Enters the Country(Ieyasu nyukoku),Matsuirepresentedpassingof timefromdusktonightwithlighting(KawadaandAsahara,“Butaishomei,”51). 127.Kawatake,“Hakujitsukonobutai,”18–19. 128.Toyama,“Gekijonoakari,”167–68.Toyamaadmitsthatthereweresomeexamples ofusinglightingfor“expressivemeasurestoenhancetheatmosphereofscenes.” InYotsuya Ghost Story(Yotsuya kaidan)theprotagonistIemonclosesblindsinthe evening,whichnotonlyindicatesthetimeofthesunsetbutalsopreparesforthe followingbrutalspectacleofaghost’sappearance. 129.Toyama,Butai shomei goju nen,5. 130.Engei Gaho,August1925,quotedinShadanhojinNihonhaiyukyokai,Kabuki no butai gijutsu to gijutsu sha tachi,51. 131.Yanagi,Shinpa no rokuju nen,304. 132.“HenriKotaniSoichi,”7. 133.Kano,“Shimokamohomon,”57. 134.Kotani,“Haro!AoyamaYukioshi!”135.KotanialsowroteinApril1922,“Itried tomakeonlyafewfilmsatShochikuKinema,butIwasnotsatisfiedwiththemat all”(Kotani,“Nihonnoeigaseisakukaidewakantokunitaisururikaigatarinai,” 40–41). 135.Okajima,“Japan’sCase,”2. 136.Bordwell,Poetics of Cinema,338. 137.SuzukiJuzaburo,“Yume no ukihashi,”66.SeealsoYamamotoRokuha,“Tsukahara Kotaro,”67. 138.Shimazaki,“NihonnoeigagijutsuhattennihatashitaTsuburayaEijinoyakuwari,” 38;Watanabe,Eizo o horu,60;Kawatani,Mato o kakenuketa otoko,14–15,38–41. 139.Nagahama,“MakinoPurodakushontowatashi,”60;MoritaFujio,“Nihoneigano jidaigekisahodai3kai,”71.
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140.MoritaFujio,“Nihoneiganojidaigekisahodai3kai,”71. 141.Mizusawa,“TaihaiseruNikkatsuKyotoha,”3. 142.MiuraRei,“KisekiII,”54. 143.QuotedinMiuraRei,“KisekiII,”54. 144.Mizusawa, “Taihaiseru Nikkatsu Kyoto ha,” 3. Mizusawa (Kaeriyama) explicatessuchtechnicalelementsofcinematographyascomposition,contrast,gradation, and exposure in detail in his book Katsudo shashin no sosaku to satsuei ho(1921),whichwasmainlybasedonFrederickA.Talbot’sPractical Cinematography and Its Applications(1913).Kaeriyamaclearlydefinestheroleofcinematographers:“Sincecameramenworkwithcinematographicmachines,theyneedto fullyunderstandallthefunctionsoftheirowncameras,howtorepairthem;the characteristicsoffilms,lights,andexposure;howtophotograph;andhowtodo trickphotography;andsoforth”(Kaeriyama,Katsudo shashin no sosaku to satsuei ho,227–28).EventhoughKaeriyamapublishedadetailedarticlethatexplained howtouseartificiallightinginfilmmakingin1917,artificiallightingequipmentwas outofthequestioneventhen.Kaeriyama,“Jinzokosenoyobisonoshashinjutsu,” 61–63.UchidaSoichi,anearlycinematographeratNikkatsu’sMukojimastudio, said,“Thesunlightwastheonlyreliablesourceoflightingandthereforewebuilt aglassstage”(quotedinOkabe,“NikkatsuMukojimaSatsueijonitsuite,”59). 145.Shigeno,“Katsudoshashingekinosatsueiomitatoki,”3. 146.MiuraRei,“Kiseki,”42. 147.Fujiki,Zoshokusuru perusona,82–83. 148.Obora Gengo, “Warera no kokyo Mukojima” [Our hometown Mukojima], Mukojima no kai kaiho1(January1961),quotedinSatoTadao,Nihon eiga shi I,138. Acameralenshasasetofnumberscalledf-stopsthatcorrespondtothesizeofthe apertureopening.Alargeapertureopening(e.g.,f/2.8,3.5,4)createsashallow depthoffield,whileasmallapertureopening(e.g.,f/11,16,22)producesalong depthoffield.Thus,acamerawithonlyf/3.5haslessflexibilityintermsofdepths offield. 149.Hirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi3,”50. 150.Thompson,Herr Lubitsch Goes to Hollywood,39. 151.ItakuraFumiakiconvincinglydiscussesthe“longshot+longtake+staticframe stylethatdominates”thefilmsoftheseconddecadeofthetwentiethcenturyin Japan,includingChushingura,andthenpointsoutuniqueusesofmise-en-scène inChushingurathatdonotdeviatefrombutdisplay“theactivecreativityofthe filmmaker,”buthedoesnotmentionthefilm’slightingscheme(Itakura,“‘Kyugeki’kara‘jidaigeki’e,”96–97). 152.Chushingurawasmadeintoafilmalmosteveryyear.Sincenewfilmsfreelyincorporatedoldversionsintheseperiods,theversionofChushingurafrom1912probablyhasmuchfootagefromearlierversions,includingtheonefrom1910. 153.GerowsuggestshowChushinguraandThe Story of the Filial Child Goro Masamune deviatedfromthetheatricalprosceniumbyincludingvariationinframingand cameradistance(Visions of Japanese Modernity,101–3). 154.Thereisonesceneinthisfilminwhichaspeciallightingeffectismelodramatically used.Inalongshot,achildandhisgrandfathersitinfrontofahouse.Astrong beamoflightfromupperrightoffscreenplacesthetwoinlightwhileotherspaces
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areinshadow.Thespotlightenhancestheirfinanciallychallengingsituationaswell astheirloneliness.Yetlightingassuchstayswithintherealmoftheatricalstaging. 155.Fujiki,Zoshokusuru perusona,93–99. 156.Obata,“Satsueijonoshomeisochi,”125. 157.RegardingcomparisonofthenarrativesandcharactersofDocks of New Yorkand First Step Ashore,seeWada-Marciano,Nippon Modern,35–40. 158.Kamata11.12(December1932):63,66. 159.Bordwell,Staiger,andThompson,The Classical Hollywood Cinema,225–26. 160.Kido,Nihon eiga den,40. 161.Kido,Waga eiga ron,277. 162.Kido,“Seisakushanotachibayori,”18–20;Kido,Nihon eiga den,42. 163.Kido,Nihon eiga den,21–22. 164.Kido,“Seisakushanotachibayori,”18–19. 165.Masumoto,“Kinema no tenchinohaikei,”247. 166.Takeda,Eiga juni ko,177. 167.Kido,“Seisakushanotachibayori,”19. 168.TanakaJunichiro,Shochiku shichijunen shi,264. 169.Mori,“KidoShiroron,”34. 170.Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,224–25. 171.Kido,“Eigaseisakugorikaron,”22–23. 172.SeeGerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,10–11;Shillony,“FriendorFoe,”187–211; Clark,“IndicesofModernity,”25. 173.ThecinematographerMidorikawaMichiodidnotstaylongatShochikueitherand movedtoNikkatsuin1926(MiyajimaandMidorikawa,“MiyajimaYoshiokaisoroku,”115). 174.Kido,“Seisakushanotachibayori,”76–77. 175.Nagayama,Shochiku hyakunenshi honshi,570. 176.Muguruma,Eiga no komado,73–74. 177.Yoshimura,Oba,andYamada,“Ofuna-chotowananika,”87. 178.AtsutaandHasumi,Ozu Yasujiro monogatari,96. 179.“KidoShiroKikigaki,”2;Cazdyn,The Flash of Capital,18–19. 180.“KidoShiroKikigaki,”4;Masumoto,Shochiku eiga no eiko to hokai,20–22. 181.Obata,“Satsueijonoshomeisochi,”122–26. 182.“Honponanadaisatsueijojitsuryokuchosa,”1. 183.Kokusai Eiga Shinbun,July10,1928,11. 184.Sakamoto,Nikkatsu yonju nen shi,n.p.;SatoTadao,Suta no bigaku,53. 185.Inoue,“Chihokaitakunidoryoku,”104. 186.“Honpokakusatsueishisetsujinyohikaku,”13. 187.TanakaJunichiro,Nihon eiga hattatsu shi II,263. 188.Hirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi18,”44. 189.Sakamoto,Nikkatsu yonju nen shi,53. 190.Shibata, Sasaki, and Kawaguchi, “Mukashi no satsueijo ato o tazunete (20),” 61–62. 191.IkedaandTomoda,“1934nengyokaikessan,”277. 192.Masumoto,Shochiku eiga no eiko to hokai,24–30.
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193.Inthesameperiod,Shochikumadeaprofitof718,900yen(Kinema Junpo,January1,1936,321;Sakamoto,Nikkatsu yonju nen shi,n.p.). 194.Kinema Junpo, January 1, 1937, 77; Masumoto, Shochiku eiga no eiko to hokai, 30–33,52–57. 195.F.K.R.,“TohoShochikunidaiburokkunokaibo,”90. 196.Nagata,“Eigakaienokokaijo,”99.InNagata’sarticle,despitehisownposition withintheShochikublock,Nagataclaimedthat60–70percentoftheJapanese filmindustrywasoccupiedbytheShochikublockandcouldpreventthefuture developmentofToho. 197.Kido,Eiga e no michi,212. 198.Kokusai Eiga Shinbun,26(April10,1929):2.SeealsoNagahama,“Katsudoshashin nokisotekigijutsu(2),”464–66. 199.Isayama,“Satsueikushindan,”93;Isayama,“‘Cameraman’shikokiroku,”340–41. 200.Okumura,“Eiganoshomeikokanitsuite,”39. 201.FurukawaRoppa,“Henritonohannichi,”7. 202.Fujiki,Zoshokusuru perusona,7,133–34.SeealsoKeating,“FromthePortraitto theClose-Up,”90–108. 203.Fujiki, Zoshokusuru perusona, 132–33. See also Kracauer, Theory of Film, 45–46; andDoane,“TheClose-Up,”89–111. 204.Fujiki,Zoshokusuru perusona,17. 205.Ibid. 206.Kurishima,“Gubijinsonokoro,”21–22;Okabe,“AmerikajidainoHenriKotani,” 25;Tamaki,Nihon eiga seisui ki,109. 207.Noda,“SoritsutojinoKamataeiga,”61. 208.Keating,“TheBirthofBacklightingintheClassicalCinema,”49;Fujiki,Zoshokusuru perusona,369. 209.Katsudo Gaho1.3(March1917):n.p.SeealsoFujiki,Zoshokusuru perusona,227– 29,263–83. 210.Fujiki,Zoshokusuru perusona,240. 211.Ibid.,258. 212.NomuraHotei,“Kogyokachieiganitsuite”[Aboutfilmswithexhibitionvalue], Kamata, October 1931, quoted in Tanaka Masasumi, Ozu Yasujiro zen hatsugen 1933–1945,259. 213.OgawaNoboru,Nihon butai shomei shi,59;Toyama,“Gekijonoakari,”172. 214.Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,167.Nikkatsu,forinstance,ownedonly19 ofits169chaintheatersin1913and30ofits365theatersin1923(Sakamoto,Nikkatsu yonjunen shi,41–45). 215.Itakura,“‘Kyugeki’kara‘jidaigeki’e,”92–93. 216.Ibid.,164. 217.Ibid.,169. 218.Ibid.,170. 219.TanakaJunichiro,Shochiku kyuju nen shi,237. 220.Kido,Eiga e no michi,229–30. 221.Mori,“KurishimaSumikoron,”45. 222.Iwasaki,Eiga to genjitsu,66.
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2. Flashes of the sword and the star
1.Kido,Nihon eiga den,42.Shochikudevelopeditsnichewithagenreofmodernfilm (gendaigeki)thatdepictedthelivesoftheemergingclassofwhite-collarworkers, includinganunprecedentednumberofworkingwomen,in“symptomaticsites ofeverydaymodernity—urbanstreetsanddepartmentstores,cafés,bars,dance halls,andmovietheaters,schoolsandhospitals,officesand(occasionally)factories,Western-styleapartmentsandtraditionalJapanesehousesandshackssetin thesemi-industrialwastelandofsuburbanTokyo,orinthemoremarginal,low- cosmopolitanmilieuofYokohamaharbor—andusedtheminwaysthatledcontemporarycriticstodiscerninthem‘astunningnewrealistaesthetic’”(Hansen, “VernacularModernism,”302). 2.“KidoShirokikigaki,”10. 3.TanakaJunichiro,Shochiku kyuju nen shi,239. 4.Gerow, A Page of Madness, 7–8. The year 1925 also witnessed the enactment ofkatsudo shashin“firumu” kenetsu kisoku,thecensorshipbytheHomeMinistry, whichcontrolledpolicedepartmentsnationwide,ofallfilmsreleasedinJapan.It wasthebeginningofunifiedcensorshipoffilms’contentsacrossJapan.“Standardization”offilms’contentsthusbeganfromthestate’sviewpoint(Kato,Sodoin taisei to eiga,24). 5.Gordon,Labor and Imperial Democracy in Prewar Japan,237–69. 6.TanakaJunichiro,Nihon eiga hattatsu shi II,12. 7.Nornes,Japanese Documentary Film,xxii. 8.Yoshimoto,Kurosawa,222. 9.AccordingtothefilmhistorianTsutsuiKiyotada,however,Japanrevivedfromthe GreatDepressionrelativelysoonerthanothercountries.EventhoughtheJapaneseeconomyhitbottomin1930–31,itstartedtoimproveasearlyas1933,andby 1935itwasfullyrecovered(Jidaigeki eiga no shiso,28). 10.Mori,“BandoTsumasaburoron,”45. 11.Takizawa,“Jidaigekitowananika,”130.GendaigekiproducedatNikkatsuoften displayedinnovativestylesinlighting,eventhoughtheywerenotaspopularas Shochiku’s.ThoseincludedMurataMinoru’sfilms.Muratawasimpressedbythe use of numerous pieces of lighting equipment when he visited film studios in Europein1926.Murata’s1926filmRing of the Sun(Nichirin),madeatNikkatsu’s Kyotostudio,withits“particularuseoflightsfromthebottomthatgivenewforms toobjectsandnewlivestoshadows,”wascalleda“symphonyoflightsandshadows,gradationoflightanddark,waltzofwhiteandblack”andregardedas“modern”and“cinematic”cinema,“theartthatwascreatedbycameras”(Masumoto, “Kinema no tenchinohaikei,”239;HanabusaNijiji,“NichirinsanshotoTokihiko byokinokoto,”40–41;Kaneda,“GekijidaitekieigaNichirinomiru,”46–47). 12.Tomita,“Makinoeigajidaigeki,”139. 13.Itakura,“‘Kyugeki’kara‘jidaigeki’e,”96.See94–102. 14.Bordwell,Poetics of Cinema,356–57;italicsintheoriginal. 15.TakedaToshihiko,Shinkokugeki Sawada Shojiro,3. 16.Fujii,Tozai chanbara seisui ki,20–21. 17.Keating,Hollywood Lighting from the Silent Era to Film Noir,60.
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18.Ibid.,64. 19.“LightingtoPhotoplayIsLikeMusictoDramaDeclaresCecilB.DeMille,”Motography29(January1916):249,quotedinKeating,Hollywood Lighting from the Silent Era to Film Noir,63. 20.Keating,Hollywood Lighting from the Silent Era to Film Noir,64. 21.Ibid.,66. 22.A35mmprintofTsukigata Hanpeita(fragments;1925)ispreservedattheNational FilmCenter,theNationalMuseumofModernArts,Tokyo. 23.Tsukigata Hanpeita(1925),screenplayinSorimachi04-0160,NationalFilmCenter,Tokyo. 24.Ibid.,41–42. 25.Mizusawa,“TaihaiseruNikkatsuKyotoha,”3. 26.TanakaJunichiro,Nihon eiga hattatsu shi II,13. 27.Uratani,“Chanbarasutaretsuden,”24;italicsintheoriginal. 28.MoritaFujio,“Nihoneiganojidaigekisahodai7kai,”79–80. 29.Fujii,Tozai chanbara seisui ki,45–46. 30.Correspondingtotheemergenceofjidaigeki,thosewhodirectedkyugekistarted tochangetheirlightingschemes.MakinoShozofullyemployedeffectsoflightinginthe1928filmJitsuroku Chushingura.BeforetheclimacticassaultofKira,the enemy,Oishi,thehero,playswithmanygirlsinGioninordertodeceivetheeyes oftheworld.Thesceneisphotographedinbrighthighkeywhilethefollowing sceneoftheattackatnightintheextantprintisinlowkey.Severalspotlightsare usedassidelightstoenhancethespectacleofthescene,especiallywhenthegroup ofsamuraigoesdowntoanundergroundescaperoutethatKirahastaken. 31.Bythe1940s,theJapaneseswordcametosignifytheembodimentoftheJapanese spirit.TheAmericanculturalanthropologistRuthBenedictjuxtaposestheJapaneseswordandtheJapanesesoulinherclassicwork,The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture(1946).Benedictwrites,“Thougheverysoul originallyshineswithvirtuelikeanewsword,nevertheless,ifitisnotkeptpolished,itgetstarnished.This‘rustofmybody,’asthey[Japanesepeople]phraseit, isasbadasitisonasword.Amanmustgivehischaracterthesamecarethathe wouldgiveasword.Buthisbrightandgleamingsoulisstillthereundertherust andallthatisnecessaryistopolishitupagain”(198). 32.Yoshimoto,Kurosawa,219. 33.Itakura,“‘Kyugeki’kara‘jidaigeki’e,”105. 34.KobayashiIsamu,Eiga no toei,228. 35.Itakura,“‘Kyugeki’kara‘jidaigeki’e,”108.See102–12. 36.ThefilmsthatItowroteanddirectedatTeikinearenolongerextant,butIto’s screenplaysexist.OneofthemiscalledNight Lamps(Joyato),whichwasnotever madeintoafilm.ItisassumedthatItoplannedtouseLasky-styleeffectslighting inthisfilm.Night Lampsisastoryaboutafaithfuldaughterwhosuffersfromtorturebyhercruelstepmotherbutkeepsapromisewithherbloodmothertoput alightonanightlampatthetopofthemountainofhervillage.Thelampshows thedirectiontothevillageforherfather,atravelingmerchant,whoalwayscomes backatnight.Intheoriginalstory,Itowrites,“Thestepmother’sloverforcesthe fathertodrinkpoisoninordertostealhismoney.Awayfromhome,thefather
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quicklybecomessick.Withoutknowingwhathashappenedtoherfather,Osayo [thedaughter]putsthelightupeverynight.Thedyingfatherenvisionsashining nightlampandOsayo.‘Ah,IseethenightlampofOsayo.Iseeheavenbeyond that.Ah,thereismywife’”(quotedinIsoda,Netsugan nesshu no hito,91–92). 37.Ito,Jidaigeki eiga no shi to shinjitsu,323–24;“ItoDaisukenokutoshi,”49–51. 38.“Yokijidaitowaienaikeredoureshikijidainokatsudoya,”61. 39.Ito,Jidaigeki eiga no shi to shinjitsu,37. 40.TanakaJunichiro,Nihon eiga hattatsu shi II,49. 41.Kinema Junpo,January21,1928,quotedinSaiki,“Chuji tabinikkikaisetsu,”85. 42.Isoda,Netsugan nesshu no hito,171. 43.Ito,Jidaigeki eiga no shi to shinjitsu,57–58. 44.This technique of super-fast or accelerating montage of numerous shots that representsacharacter’spointofviewwastermedflash.Flashisdifferentfrom flashback,thetermimportedtoJapanafterWorldWarII.FlashwasfirstintroducedinJapanbyAlexanderVolcoff’sEdmund Kean: Prince among Lovers(Kean) in1924(Itakura,“‘Itowajutsu’towananika,”n.p.). 45.Isoda,Netsugan nesshu no hito,168. 46.Hirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi10,”47. 47.Shinkokugeki,Shinkokugeki goju nen,22–43;Manabe,Shinkokugeki,7–12. 48.Itakura,“‘Kyugeki’kara‘jidaigeki’e,”107. 49.KobayashiIsamu,Eiga no toei,204. 50.SatoShigeomi,Bantsuma no sekai,94;Akishino,Bando Tsumasaburo,246. 51.In1929,ShochikuinvitedItoDaisuketoitsShimokamostudioandlethimdirect The Sword That Slashes Human and Horse(Zanjin zanba ken)with“twentytimes aslargeabudgetasusual”(“KidoShirokikigaki,”14). 52.Onebriefexceptionisasceneatajail.Stronglightfromtheleftsidecreatesahuge shadowofanimprisonedsamurai(Bando)onthewall,whostealsacarvingknife andbreaksoutofthejail. 53.Inuzuka,Eiga wa kagero no gotoku,71–72. 54.Tanaka Junichiro, “Orochi,” Kinema Junpo, February 1, 1952, quoted in Hirai, “SokoNihoneigasatsueishi12,”71. 55.HayashiChojiro,“Zokusairentokaratokiesono2,”79. 56.Tanaka Junichiro, Nihon eiga hattatsu shi II, 71–72, translated and quoted in KomatsuHiroshi,“TheFoundationofModernism,”364. 57.Dazai,“Kinugasaeigaenokotoba,”66. 58.Dazai,“Cho-sankawaiya,hokazakkennisan,”48;Chikamatsu,“HayashiChojiro noeiganitsuite,”52. 59.Asakawa,“ChojiroZatsudai,”44. 60.HasegawaKazuo,Butai ginmaku rokuju nen,61. 61.ShiraiShintaro,“Shinkokabukieiga18ban,sonohoka,”32. 62.Tachibana,“Eiganomikatatoajiwaikata,”70. 63.HayashiChojiro,“HayashiChojiroshuminoMandan,”33. 64.Kokusai Eiga Shinbun29(July10,1929):52. 65.Ueda,“Iminoaruyonanaiyonahanashi,”92–93. 66.“Kamatajunennokaiko,”70.
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67.Ibuki,Makino shusshin no chanbara suta,186. 68.Hasegawa Kazuo, Butai ginmaku rokuju nen, 94–95; Hayashi Chojiro, “Isogashisugiru,”118.FansconfirmedHayashi’sclaim.K.KSei,GotoChiyoko,and HayashiMichikodepictedtheexcitementattheTokyostationaround10a.m.on January16whenHayashisteppedoutofthetrainfromKyoto(K.KSei,“Chojiro shiomukaete,”73;Goto,“Omoumamani,”74;HayashiChojiro,“Gubunhitotsu,” 78). 69.Tokyo Asahi Shinbun,January20,1928,6. 70.Asakawa,“Chojirozatsudai,”45. 71.HasegawaKazuo,Watashi no niju nen,89. 72.“ZenShochikuhaiyuninkitohyo,”n.p. 73.Tejima,“Kyoshinomeniutsuttaeigatojogakusei,”112. 74.In 1931, three gendaigeki stars, Suzuki Denmei, Okada Tokihiko, and Takada Minoru,withdrewfromtheKamatastudio.TheKamatastudioneededamalestar (“HasegawaKazuokikigaki,”7). 75.“KidoShirokikigaki,”10.ThefilmwasactuallyGolden Monster.Hayashiworea costumeforthefilmandparadedthroughthestreetsofGinzatopromotethefilm (Hasegawa,Butai ginmaku rokuju nen,96). 76.Stamp,Movie-Struck Girls,22. 77.Shibai to Kinema,March1927,13,translatedandquotedinKomatsuHiroshi,“The FoundationofModernism,”365. 78.Stamp,Movie-Struck Girls,6. 79.Doane,The Desire to Desire,24. 80.HayashiChojiro,“Oyanonaiko,”51. 81.Burch,To the Distant Observer. 82.AyakoKano,“VisualityandGenderinModernJapaneseTheater,”44. 83.Ibid.ThefilmhistorianKomatsuHiroshisuggestsfemalefollowersalreadyexisted forsuchanonnagataactorasTachibanaTeijiro,ashinpastarwhoappearedinnumerousfilmsproducedatNikkatsuMukojimastudiointhelatterhalfofthe1910s. TheaudienceofTachibanafilmsmusthaveachieved“anewsubjectiveposition” inKano’ssense,butthis“position,”whichhadmoresimilaritytoatheateraudience,shouldbedistinguishedfromthatoftheHayashifans,whosimultaneously maintainedandabandonedthedistancebetweentheperformerandtheviewer. WhilebothHayashiandTachibanahadonnagatabackgrounds,thereweresignificantdifferencesintheironscreenimages.Tachibanaexclusivelyplayedfemale roleswhileHayashiplayedboth—butmainlymaleroles.Tachibanaspecializedin theshinpagenre,whichimitatedWesternstagesetsandplays,suchasKachusha, adaptedfromthenovelResurrection(Voskraeseniye)byTolstoy,andSalome,based onOscarWilde’splay.Hayashiappearedmostlyinjidaigeki.WhileTachibanawas placedinlongshotsandlongtakesinflatlights,thelightingschemeonHayashi wasmorecomplicated.Tachibanawasneverglamorizedbuthisslenderbodywas emphasized,theidealbeautyofaJapanesewoman.Tachibanaswitchedhisimage fromapureandinnocentmaidentoadiabolicalandsensualfemmefatale.Inthis sense, Tachibana was very different from Hollywood stars of the same period. LillianGishmighthavehadaslenderbody,butshewasnotallowedtoplayasen-
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sualfemmefatale.Hayashiwasabletorepresentbothinnocentandsensualwith thesupportofspecificlightingandcamerapositions(Komatsu,“Shinpaeigano keitaigaku,”43–83). 84.Murphy,“Fanzonoseisei,”348. 85.Ibid. 86.Ibid. 87.Hansen,Babel and Babylon,7. 88.Ibid. 89.Ibid.,294. 90.Ibid.,282. 91.Ibid.,282–83. 92.Ibid.,254. 93.Ibid.,279–80. 94.Ibid.,277. 95.KobayashiFujie,notitle,Shimokamo2.2(February1928):90. 96.Morin,The Stars,116. 97.Kitano, “Eiga suta seizo ho,” 93; Inuzuka, Eiga wa kagero no gotoku, 119; HasegawaKazuo,Butai ginmaku rokuju nen,76;HasegawaKazuo,Watashi no niju nen,69. 98.ShiraiShintaro,“HayashiChojiroouridasumade,”53–54. 99.Ibid.,54. 100.Ibid. 101.Hansen,Babel and Babylon,248. 102.Kubota,“Sokanzappitsu,”72. 103.Shimokamo2.2(February1928):103;Shimokamo2.4(April1928):79;Shimokamo 2.6( June1928):iv. 104.Kashiwagi,Senbongumi shimatsu ki,303–4. 105.Mizumachi,“HayashiChojiroron,”7. 106.Yamahoshi,“Kyonohitoasunohito,”128–29. 107.F.K.R.,“Eigahaiyushakaigaku,”45–46. 108.“KidoShirokikigaki,”10. 109.SuzukiTamotsu,“HayashiChojiroYoserubun,”110. 110.“Nihon-tekichoji,”113. 111.Kimura,“Pointodessan,”16–17. 112.Okochi,“Chijirosantowatashi,”92–93. 113.HasegawaKazuo,Butai ginmaku rokuju nen,189–90. 114.Hazumi,“Jobuboshi,”49. 115.“Kennomiwaku,”n.p. 116.Shimokamo,specialissue(September1928):n.p. 117.Shimokamo1.2(December1927):70. 118.Okamura,“Obo Kichizo,”87. 119.Murakami,“Sorawaharetari,”58–59. 120.HayashiChojiro,“Watashinokabukieiga,”38–39. 121.“Wareragasutatachinohatsuyume,”66. 122.Katayama,“RubicchideO-Natsu SeijurootottemoraitaiHayashiChojiro,”31. 123.Thompson,Herr Lubitsch Goes to Hollywood,28.
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124.Ibid.,51. 125.Grodal,“FilmLightingandMood,”156. 126.Thompson, Herr Lubitsch Goes to Hollywood, 39. See also Stull, “The Elements ofLighting,”324–25.Stullassertivelyclaims,“Thebestresults,ofcourse,areobtainedthroughthecombinationofwell-balancedfront-lightandback-light.” 127.Hesse,“Shadows,”34,alsoquotedinKeating,Hollywood Lighting from the Silent Era to Film Noir,128. 128.Keating,Hollywood Lighting from the Silent Era to Film Noir,50. 129.HasumiChiyoo,“O-Natsu Seijurokenkyunobiyo,”26. 130.Shimokamo10.5(May1936):3,80. 131.“O-Natsu Seijuronosutaffunikiku,”17. 132.Whissel,Picturing American Modernity,127. 133.Kamatastudioownedthirtytoplights,sixtyglobelamps,fortyEwinglamps,and fortyspotlights(“Showa6nen3gatsuchosa:Nihonsatsueijoroku,”220–30). 134.Kamatastudioownedonehundredtoplights,130globelamps,twenty3kWsun spotlights,five10kWsunspotlights,tentuliplights,andacoupleofEwingand spotlights.Thestudiohadmorethan265lampsintotal,butdidnotclarifyhow manyelectriclampsitowned.Besides,eventhoughKamatahadagreaternumber oflamps,thenumberofpeoplewhoworkedthere(503)wasalmosttwiceaslarge asthatatShimokamo(293).Inaddition,Shimokamostudio’sdirectcurrentcapacitywas100kWandalternativecurrentwas570kW,whileKamatawas250kW and400kW.Consideringthesizesofthestudios,Shimokamostudio’semphasis ontheuseofelectriclampswasnotable(“Showa8nen3gatsugenzai,”appendix 34–46). 135.MiuraRei,“KisekiIII,”40.Intheemulsionofpanchromaticfilm,thesensitivityis notonlyintheblueendofthespectrumbutextendsfarintotheyellowandred, whileorthochromaticcanonlysenseorange(“TheEvolutionofMotionPicture Lighting,”95). 136.InitiallywhatShochikuusedwerethelampsnotmeanttobeforfilmmakingperse butforfactoryuse(MiuraMitsuo,“Geijutsutoshitenoeigasatsueinohattatsu [seihen,chu],”74). 137.Miura Mitsuo, “Horiuddo kara” [From Hollywood], Eiga Jidai, October 1928, quotedinHirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi16,”59–61. 138.“Zadankaieigashomeishi,”17. 139.Nagayama,Shochiku hyakunenshi honshi,585. 140.“Shomeitofunsonoohanashi,”96–97. 141.Wataragi,“Gojumanshokkonoraito,”20. 142.Miura Rei, “Kiseki III,” 42; Kawaguchi, “Mukashi no satsueijo ato o tazunete (6),”49. 143.YamadaAkinobu,Nihon eiga gijutsu shi,46. 144.Bordwell,Staiger,andThompson,The Classical Hollywood Cinema,294–97. 145.Milner,“ProgressandLightingEquipment,”8. 146.HayashiChojiro,“Zokusairentokaratokie,”16. 147.Bordwell,Ozu and the Poetics of Cinema,22. 148.Ibid.,21. 149.SuzukiJuzaburo,“Fuun joshi,”89.
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150.Keating,Hollywood Lighting from the Silent Era to Film Noir,50. 151.Hata,Hana no shunju,140–41. 152.McDonald,Japanese Classical Theater in Films,43,330. 153.HayashiNaritoshi,Chichi Hasegawa Kazuo no oinaru isan,217;Gerow,APageof Madness,17. 154.SugiyamaKohei,“Hitokoto,”73;HasegawaKazuo,Butai ginmaku rokuju nen,90. 155.Kinema Junpo,February11,1931,41;Ishizuki,“Eigakannonakano‘jenda,’”922–25. 156.HayashiChojiro,“Kongetsunowadai,”41. 157.Fuyushima,“Satsunan sodoinseisakuki,”44. 158.HayashiChojiro,“Kongetsunowadaisono2,”53. 159.SatoTadao,Suta no bigaku,64. 160.SatoTadao,Kimi wa jidaigeki o mitaka,112–13. 161.TheextantprintofAn Actor’s Revenge,the1952compilationofthetrilogy(1935– 36),onlycontainstwosword-fightingsequences,onebyYukinojoandtheother byYamitarothethief(alsoplayedbyHayashi).Thelatterhasthesameediting structure:establishinglongshot,close-upsoftheenemy,extremelongshotof thebattle,extendedclose-upofHayashi,close-upsoftheenemy,longshotofthe battle,andtheclosingextendedclose-upofHayashi.Inthiscase,theextremelong shotsoftheswordfightingareinextremelow-keyandthecharactersfightina longdistance.Theirmovementsarenotclearlyvisible.Onthecontrary,theclose- upsofHayashifollowthesamepositioning(turningtotheleft),lightingscheme (litfromleftandtop),narrowingeyes,andtheextension. 162.Mihara,“Yukinojo hengeokataru,”67. 163.Hayashi Chojiro, “Happi endo,” 67–68; Sakai Tamako, “Hitodenashi no kotodomo,”67–68;HayashiChojiro,“Zokusairentokaratokiesono4,”71–72. 164.Sachiko,“Iroironokotodemo,”74. 165.“Jidaigekiyomoyamazadankai,”66.ThefilmcriticTsumuraHideooftheTokyo Asahi Shinbunnewspaper,whowasknownasMr.Q,praisedthesetandlighting ofthescene:“Theexcellentpreparationanddepictionoffire,andblacksmokein particular,arenotveryunusualinKinugasa’swork,butstilltheymustbehighly valuedwhenmostotherjidaigekifilmsexhaustourinterestswiththeirpoorsets andcarelesslighting”(quotedinHasumiChiyoo,“Yukinojo henge dai 2 henkenkyu nobiyo,”26). 166.Sobchack,Carnal Thoughts,56. 167.HasumiChiyoo,“Aihansurufutatsunoeiga,”16.Anothercritic,UemoriShinichiro,alsomentionsthesamecompositionofthesamescene(“Okawanouta,” 23). 168.Studlar,This Mad Masquerade,101. 169.Hansen,Babel and Babylon,277,282. 170.Studlar,“ThePerilsofPleasure?,”288–89. 171.Staiger,“TheEyesAreReallytheFocus,”20;Harrison,“EyesandLips,”348–49. 172.Yamajietal.,“Chojiroomeguruzadankai,”56;HasegawaKazuo,Butai ginmaku rokuju nen,91. 173.“KikigakiHasegawaKazuo,”3,7. 174.“Onajimigurafikku,”30. 175.Ohashi,“Shimokamonopurofiru,”49.
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176.KobayashiIsamu,“Chojirotobibo,”42–43. 177.Kiso,“Chojiromonogatari,”71. 178.Banchoronin,“HayashiChojirogyojoki,”9;KobayashiIsamu,“Chojirotobibo,” 42. 179.Kubota,“Shimokamozatsuwa,”144. 180.AkishinoYoko,“WatashinomitaHasegawaKazuo,”20. 181.Shimokamo2.9(September1928):n.p. 182.Nakamura,“HayashiChojirookataru,”49. 183.Higashiyama,“Pointonikiku,”43–44. 184.HayashiChojiro,Chojiro soshi,100–101. 185.MatsuiJunko,“MaegamisugatanoHayashiChojirosan,”85. 186.HasegawaShuko,“Cho-samanoinsho,”67. 187.Nanbu,“Joseishugi,”70–71. 188.Fukiya,“Camera,”106. 189.Ibid. 190.HayashiSachiko,“Cho-samaomeguruhitobito,”64. 191.Hiroishi,“Raitoman,”68. 192.Hata,Hana no shunju,159. 193.LaMarre,Shadows on the Screen,9. 194.Williams,“FilmBodies,”704. 195.MatsuiChieko,“BinanChojiro-sanoomou,”95. 196.HayashiChojiro,“HayashiChojiro,”31;HayashiChojiro,Chijiro soshi,87. 197.Zhang,An Amorous History of the Silver Screen,32.SeealsoKracauer,Theory of Film,71–72;Shaviro,The Cinematic Body,256–57. 198.Epstein,“TheSensesI(b),”243. 199.CitedinAbel,“PhotogénieandCompany,”110. 200.Shaviro,The Cinematic Body,18. 201.Bean,“TechnologiesofEarlyStardomandtheExtraordinaryBody,”435–36. 202.Delluc,“BeautyintheCinema,”138–39. 203.HammondandFord,“FrenchEndGames,”330. 204.Delluc,“BeautyintheCinema,”138–39. 205.Ibid. 206.Mizuo,“Ojo Kichizo,”42–43. 207.QuotedinHata,Hana no shunju,126. 208.Gerow,APageofMadness,10. 209.Fuji,Mimura,andTanima,“Yabure amigasagappyoroku,”56. 210.QuotedinSatoTadao,Suta no bigaku,63–64. 211.Epstein,“Magnification,”239–40. 3. street Films
1.Wada-Marciano,Nippon Modern,2,4.Mainlyfocusingonthethematicmotifsand thenarrativesofShochikufilms,Wada-MarcianocarefullylaysouthowKamata- stylefilmsexpressed“avisionofmodernJapaneselife”byemulating“Hollywood filmmakingmodes”inoppositiontoNikkatsu’sKabukiorshinpa-style“uncinematic”films(116,130).Yet,asIhaveargued,Kamata-stylefilmswerenotfully“in oppositionto”Kabukiorshinpa-stylefilms,intermsofhowtheyusedlighting.
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2.Gerow,“Benshinitsuite,”136. 3.Kinugasa,“Jujirozakkan,”54. 4.Chihaya Akiko, Diary, Sorimachi Collection 05-0109, National Film Center, Tokyo.KinugasaeventuallymarriedChihaya. 5.Ibid. 6.Kinugasa,“‘Pankurofirumu’genzonojissai,”6. 7.Gerow,APageofMadness,20–21. 8.“KinugasaTeinosuke,”OtakeToruetal.,Eizo kenkyu bessatsu,Kinu-11–12. 9.ForKinugasa’searlycareerinfilm,seeGerow,APageofMadness,17–19. 10.TanakaJun’ichiro,“Hyogenshuginoeiga”[Anexpressionistfilm],Hochi shinbun, June23,1926,4,translatedandquotedinGerow,APageofMadness,105. 11.Ishimaki,“Satsueigikonogeijutsutekikachi,”31. 12.Gerow,APageofMadness,54. 13.Shibata,Sasaki,andKawaguchi,“Mukashinosatsueijoatootazunete(29),”76; Shibata,Sasaki,andKawaguchi,“Mukashinosatsueijoatootazunete(32),”80. 14.[Yamamoto] Rokuyo-sei, “Nihon eigakai no chikagoro” [Recent events in the Japanesefilmworld],Nihon Eiga22(June1926):n.p.,quotedinGerow,APageof Madness,25;Kameyama,“ShimokamoniokeruKinugasanoashiato,”57. 15.AkishinoKentaro,Bando Tsumasaburo,188–89. 16.Yukie,“Gushanonegoto,”69. 17.Nanako,“Ukabiizurumamani,”68. 18.Mizumachi,“TsumasaburotoShibaSeikani,”36. 19.HayashiChojiro,“Gakuyanite,”101. 20.Kinugasa,“Jujironokoro,”176–77. 21.The art director of the film, Taira Bonji, sarcastically called the set “moro-ha” (ambiguity-ism), referring to its eclectic quality—a mix of “expressionism, cubism,constructivism,Mavo,andfuturism”(HappiHitto,“Jujironosetto,”47). TairaisinfactapseudonymofTomonariYozo,whodirectedthreefilms,including twoHayashistarvehicles,atShimokamoin1928afterCrossways.Itisnoteworthy thatChuji’s Travel Journalwasalsoregardedbyatleastonecinematographeras “utilizingGermantechniques”(Miki,“Cameramangaeikyoouketaeiga,”102). 22.Shibata,“Jujiroomite,”27–28. 23.Ibid. 24.Takeda Chuya, “Jujiro,” 42. William O. Gardner overtly argues that Kinugasa “establishesageographicallink”betweenYoshiwarainCrosswaysandAsakusa, “the foremost popular entertainment district of Tokyo” (“New Perceptions,” 71–72). 25.“Jujirogappyokaikiroku,”86. 26.Yamamoto,Nihon eiga ni okeru gaikoku eiga no eikyo,140. 27.Harootunian,Overcome by Modernity,xvi–xvii. 28.Kaeriyama,“Nihoneiganokaigaishinshutsunitsuite,”13;OtakeJiro,“Jujirono baai,”23;Kokusai Eiga Shinbun29(July10,1929):6;Kokusai Eiga Shinbun30(August10,1929):6. 29.ShiraiShintaro,“Nihonnofirumuogaikokueyushutsushitai,”76. 30.Yanome,“KinugasaTeinosukeshinoJujirogafuransueigakainiataetaruinsho,” 35.
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31.Ibid. 32.Iwasaki,“Jujiro,”74. 33.Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,114;Bernardi,Writing in Light,133. 34.OtakeJiro,“Jujironobaai,”26. 35.Kiyotomo,“Jujiromanso,”30–31. 36.Muromachi,“Furukushiteatarshikitsunenitayumanutaido,”4. 37.MukaiShunko,“Katsudoshashinkainoshinkeiko:kigekinozenseijidaikitaru” [Anewtendencyinmotionpictures:Thegoldenperiodofcomedyhascome], Katsudo Gaho(March1917),translatedandquotedinBernardi,Writing in Light, 192. 38.Balázs,Theory of the Film,178. 39.Ibid. 40.Iwasaki,“Hyogenhaeiganoshorai(1),”26;Iwasaki,“Saigo no hito(2),”27. 41.Iwasaki,“Hyogenhaeiganoshorai(2),”29;Iwasaki,“Eigatohyogenshugito,”13. 42.TakedaChuya,“Jujiro,”43. 43.“Jujirogappyokaikiroku,”35.Seealso“KinugasaTeinosuketokarenoshinsaku Jujiroomeguruzadankaihikkiroku,”14–20. 44.Okudaira,“KinugasaTeinosuketoNihoneigashi,”33. 45.Kubota,“Omoidenomeihenkaiko13,”22–23. 46.Ibid. 47.Kinugasa,“Jujironokoro,”77. 48.Kinugasa, “Eiga 40 nen kaiko (10),” 177. See also Kiyotomo, “Jujiro manso,” 30–31. 49.SugiyamaKohei,“Jujirosatsueizakki,”11. 50.Eiga Jidai,May1928,quotedinHirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi15,”43. 51.TheproductionofCrosswaysstartedfromthisopeningsceneonaglassstageof ShimokamothenightofMarch7,1928.Chihaya,Diary,SorimachiCollection05- 0109,NationalFilmCenter,Tokyo. 52.Jujirokaisetsudaihon[Crosswaysscreenplaywithcommentary],SorimachiCollection04-0267,9,NationalFilmCenter,Tokyo. 53.Gardner,“NewPerceptions,”72.Themotifofblindnesscouldalsobeareference toTsukueRyunosuke,anihilistantiheroofthejidaigekinovelDaibosatsu Pass (Daibosatsutoge)byNakazatoKaizan,whichwasalsomadeintoshinkokugeki. Inthenovel,Tsukueloseshiseyesightfromaballofgunpowderthatisthrownat himbyhisrival.UnlikethebrotherinCrossways,Tsukueisdepictedasimmoral innature.Hekillspeoplewithhisswordfornoreason,whilethebrothercannot evenusehissword. 54.Gerow,APageofMadness,92–93. 55.Ibid.,93. 56.Ibid.,98. 57.Ibid.,98–99. 58.Crary,Techniques of the Observer,19;Tsuboi,Kankaku no kindai,21. 59.Matsuyama,Rampo to Tokyo,54. 60.SeeYanagita,Meiji Taishoshi, sesohen (jo). 61.Harootunian,Overcome by Modernity,xxiii,14,21. 62.Frühstück,“ManagingtheTruthofSexinImperialJapan,”333–34.
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63.Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,28,148. 64.Fujiki,“BenshiasStars,”68–84. 65.Kitada,“Imi” e no aragai,237–75.SeealsoGerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity, 213–14. 66.Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,215. 67.Ibid.,150–52. 68.Tsuboi,Kankaku no kindai,388–89. 69.Edogawa,“Moju,”401. 70.Ibid.,401–2. 71.Igarashi,“EdogawaRampoandtheExcessofVision,”304. 72.Fukuro,“Issunboshi,”104. 73.SugiyamaKohei,“Jujirosatsueizakki,”11. 74.Bordwellcallsthetendencyofjidaigekifilmsofthe1920s,includingtheuseof flash,the“flamboyantmethod,”which“enhancessuspenseandexcitementwith quickmontage”(“Furanbowaiyankarasochoseie,”146–47). 75.Jujirokaisetsudaihon[Crosswaysscreenplaywithcommentary],SorimachiCollection04-0267,19–20,NationalFilmCenter,Tokyo. 76.“Jujirogappyokaikiroku,”40. 77.Hatano,“Futatsunojujiro,”23. 78.“Jujirogappyokaikiroku,”37,42;emphasisintheoriginal. 79.Silberman,German Cinema,28. 80.Kaes,“SitesofDesire,”26. 81.Ando,“‘Kurasa’nitsuite,”19–20. 82.HasumiShigehiko,“SunnySkies,”120,124. 83.Ibid.,127–28. 84.Bordwell,Ozu and the Poetics of Cinema,82. 85.Ibid. 86.Ozu,Hazumi,etal.,“OzuYasujiro zadankai,” 173.Inthesameyear,discussing KingVidor’sOur Daily Bread(1934),thephotographerandcriticTanakaToshio highly valued the film’s avoidance of reflectors and bright lighting in order to maintaindarkimagesforan“ideological”purposetodocumentthegreenmovementintheUnitedStates.OzuapparentlyagreedwithTanakaandsaid,“Probablythecameralensesbecamedirtyduringtheshooting”(“Mugi no akigappyo” [DiscussiononOur Daily Bread],Eiga no Tomo,April1935,quotedinTanakaMasasumi,Ozu Yasujiro zen hatsugen 1933–1945,41–42).Similarly,whenthefilmdirectorUchidaTomupraisedthe“low-keytones”ofStagecoach(JohnFord,1939), Ozuagreedwithhimandhighlyvaluedthe“intensive”lightingofasceneatabar (“Showajugonennoeigawadodeattaka”[Howwerethefilmsof1940],Shin Eiga,February1941,quotedinTanakaMasasumi,Ozu Yasujiro zen hatsugen 1933– 1945,166). 87.“PointUpperBox,”63. 88.Bordwell,Ozu and the Poetics of Cinema,207. 89.The white gloves of police officers are conspicuously emphasized in Ozu’s otherfilmsoftheperiodaswell.InWoman of Tokyo(Tokyo no onna,1933),anappearanceofapoliceofficeratanofficewheretheprotagonistChikako(Okada Yoshiko)worksisprecededbyahard-litclose-upofapairofwhiteglovesplaced
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onadesk.ThepoliceofficerwhoisinquiringintoChikako’sbehaviorafterfive o’clockintheeveningobservesheratworkwithhersupervisor.Chikakoiscapturedintheirgazes—intheirpoint-of-viewshots—butshedoesnotnoticethem. Chikakoisatypistduringthedaybutworksatacaféandmostlikelyprostitutes intheeveninginordertoearnmoneyforherbrotherRyoichi’stuition.Another policeman,whosesister,Harue(TanakaKinuyo),isdatingRyoichi,alsoappears afterashotofhiswhiteglovesandasaberhangingonawall.Inagangstergenre filmDragnet Girl(Hijosen no onna,1933),whenJoji(OkaJoji),agood-hearted gangster,andTokiko(TanakaKinuyo),hislover,surrendertothepolice,apolice officer’shandwithawhiteglovesuddenlyappearsonthescreenfromtheleft.A spotlight onthe protagonists’ bodies enhances thewhiteness ofthe glove that grabsJoji’shand,placeshandcuffsonhishand,andsearcheshispockettofind apistol.Then,inextremelongshots,policeofficers,whohavesucceededinthe hunt,walkawayfromthenighttimestreetswiththeirhandscrossedattheirbacks asiftheywereintentionallyexhibitingtheirwhiteglovesthatreflectthediegetic streetlampsandnondiegeticspotlightstotheviewers. 90.Harootunian,Overcome by Modernity,13. 91.Ibid.,6.TheShochikuKamatastudiowastheonlyproductionfacilityinTokyo from1923to1934,theperiodofexplosiveurbandevelopmentandculturaltransformationaftertheGreatKantoEarthquakeof1923completelydestroyedallof thefilmstudiosintheTokyoareaexceptforShochikuKamata.Forinstance,Nikkatsu relocated its studio to Kyoto after the earthquake and did not return to Tokyountil1934(Wada-Marciano,Nippon Modern,5). 92.Mizuta,“LuminousEnvironment,”342. 93.Hashizume,Modanizumu no Nippon,56–57. 94.Kaes, “The Expressionist Vision in Theater and Cinema,” 89–90. Chika Kinoshitacallstheperiodaround1929to1931“anephemeralcarnivalesquemomentin whicheverything—alliancesacrosspartylines,genuinelyrevolutionaryandpopulararts,andperhapsarevolution—seemedpossible”(Kinoshita,“TheEdgeof Montage,”n.p.;emphasisintheoriginal). 95.YoshidaKiju,Ozu’s Anti-Cinema,21. 96.Gardner,“NewPerceptions,”71. 97.Akiyama,“1930NenSatsueijotenbo4gatsunomaki,”44;Ogimachi,“1930nen Shimokamoeigatenbo,”49. 98.Igarashi,“EdogawaRampoandtheExcessofVision,”299. 99.InoueKazuo,Ozu Yasujiro zenshu (jo),191. 100.Frühstück,“ManagingtheTruthofSexinImperialJapan,”334. 101.ThereisnomentionofHashizume’shandprintinthescreenplay.Thescreenplay simplynotes,“Shujikickshis[thejanitor’s]shoulderandquicklyvanishestothe corridor”(InoueKazuo,Ozu Yasujiro zenshu (jo),192). 102.Bordwell,Ozu and the Poetics of Cinema,207. 103.Guerin,A Culture of Light,xxix. 104.Igarashi,“EdogawaRampoandtheExcessofVision,”315–16. 105.Ibid. 106.Kim, Nihon no shimon seido, 61–64, 70–74; Nagai, Bikosha tachi no machikado, 109;Kawana,“MadScientistsandTheirPrey,”94.
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107.MinatoChihiro,Kangaeru hifu[Theskinthatthinks](Tokyo:Seidosha,1993), 30–48, translated and quoted in Igarashi, “Edogawa Rampo and the Excess of Vision,”314. 108.Sato,“Shimon,”25. 109.Braidotti,“OrganswithoutBodies,”154. 110.SeeBordwell,Ozu and the Poetics of Cinema,156. 111.MichaelRainesuggeststhatthiswet-paintgagisatakeofffromHaroldLloyd’s Speedy(1928)(“Ozubefore‘Ozu’”). 112.Gunning,The Films of Fritz Lang,2. 113.Burch,To the Distant Observer,155;emphasisintheoriginal. 114.Bordwell,Ozu and the Poetics of Cinema,207. 115.Guerin,A Culture of Light,xiv–xv. 116.TheshootingofThat Night’s Wifebeganwiththissceneofaphoneboothonlocation.ThephoneboothwasactuallyinuseneartheYurakuchostationintheGinza area(AtsutaandHasumi,Ozu Yasujiro monogatari,54). 117.Tokyo Twilight (Tokyo boshoku, 1957), the last black-and-white film directed by Ozu, is visual evidence of Ozu’s consciousness toward whiteness, gloves, and surveillance.Inthispostwarrevisitofhisstreetfilmsofthe1930s,adetectivein civilianclothes(MiyaguchiSeiji)patrolsthenighttimestreetandquestionsAkiko (ArimaIneko),thepregnantheroine,whowandersthecityofTokyoandwaits forherunfaithfulboyfriendaroundmidnightatthedarklylitCaféÉtoile.Even thoughthedetectivedoesnotwearauniformorwhitegloves,heplacesbothof hishandsinhiscoatpocketsandwearsawhitemask,whichcoversalmosthalfof hisfaceandemphasizeshiseyesofsurveillance.Spotlightingcomingfrombelow enhancesthewhitenessofthemask,especiallyinmediumshotsofthedetective. Then,atapolicestationwhereAkiko’ssister(HaraSetsuko)comestopickher upwearingamaskaswhiteasthedetective’s,thereappearsaposteronthewall thatwarnshowdangerousarailroadcrossingis.Intheposter,acartooncharacter makesa“stop”gesturewithahugewhiteglove.Hereagain,thepoliceofficersare connectedtotheshiningwhiteglove.Infact,thelightingschemeofthescenesat nightinTokyo Twilightconspicuouslyemphasizethecontrastbetweenbrightand darkspaces,includingelectriclampsandthickshadowsoffiguresonwalls. 118.Guerin,A Culture of Light,xxx. 119.Ibid.,155. 120.Kawana,“MadScientistsandTheirPrey,”92–93. 121.Bordwell, Ozu and the Poetics of Cinema, 49. Tokyo Electric Company (Tokyo DentoGaisha)wasfoundedin1883,andelectriclighting wasfirstmadeavailablecommerciallyin1887whenitwasinstalledattheRokumeikan,thebuilding thatprovidedhousingforforeignguestsoftheJapanesegovernmentandbecame thecontroversialsymbolofJapan’sWesternizationinthelatenineteenthcentury (Meiji bungaku to ranpu,9–10). 122.InothersilentfilmsdirectedbyOzu,includingTokyo Chorus(Tokyo no korasu, 1931)andAn Inn in Tokyo(Tokyo no yado,1935),electriclampsarealsoconspicuouslyconnectedtomodernmedicine.InTokyo ChorusandAn Inn in Tokyo,the protagonists’childrenarehospitalizedatnight,andelectriclampsthatlightup thecorridorsofthehospitalsareclearlyvisible.InTokyo Chorus,theprotagonist
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Okajima(OkadaTokihiko)andhisson(SugawaraHideo),whowaitforthedoctor’swordsonOkajima’ssickdaughter,worryinglylookuptogetheratoneofthe lamps,whichisthendisplayedinaclose-upastheirpoint-of-viewshot.Amoth isattractedtothebrightlight.WhenOkajimaandhissonleavethehospital,Okajima’swife(YakumoEmiko)seesthemofffromawindow.Sheisbacklitfrom thesidebytheelectriclampsintheroom.Obviously,contrastylightingatthe nightsceneenhancesthetenseatmosphere,butatthesametime,electriclampsin suchasceneimplicitlydrawviewers’attentiontomoderntechnology.Suchmodernentitiesaselectricityandmedicinebringhopebutsimultaneouslycontrolthe livesofpeople,mostlyfinancially.InAn Inn in Tokyo,thelow-anglecameraslowly movesalongacorridorasiftoemphasizethattheentirespaceofthehospitalis brightlylitbynumerouselectriclamps.Rightbeforethehospitalscene,theyoung mother(OkadaYoshiko)ofthesickdaughterconfessestoKihachiwhyshehadto becomeageishawhenherdaughterbecamesick.Despitesittingunderthebright high-keyelectriclamp,shesays,“Theworldturnsdarkallofasudden.” 123.Guerin,A Culture of Light,42. 124.Weisenfeld,“JapaneseModernismandConsumerism,”75. 125.AsahiShinbunsha,Tokyo no uta,183.SeealsoTipton,“TheCafé,”125. 126.Tawarada,“Eigagekijotoshomeigainen,”8. 127.CitedinHashizume,Modanizumu no Nippon,49. 128.While the earliest panchromatic film had been relatively contrasty, the Mazda lampisknownforitssoftness.ConsideringtheoverallhardphotographyofThat Night’s Wife,excepttheending,arclightwasmostlyusedinthephotographingof thenightscenesdespitethefactthatnumerouselectricallightsaredisplayedin thefilm.SinceEastmanhadyettointroduceSuperSensitivePanchromatic,the firststockcreatedspecificallyforMazdalight,lowcontrast,andsofterhighlight rendering,thepanchromaticfilmthatThat Night’s Wifeusedwasstillcontrasty. SeeBordwell,Staiger,andThompson,The Classical Hollywood Cinema,296,343. 129.Kinema Junpo,July21,1930,65;Kurtz,Expressionismus und Film,60,translatedand quotedinKracauer,From Caligari to Hitler,75. 130.Kinema Junpo,July21,1930,65. 131.Elsaesser,Weimar Cinema and After,44,251. 132.Riegl,“LateRomanorOriental?,”181;emphasisintheoriginal. 133.Benjamin,“TheWorkofArtintheAgeofMechanicalReproduction,”222.Seealso Lant,“HapticalCinema,”72;Bruno,Atlas of Emotion,247,250–51. 134.Evenbeforethesensational releaseofCaligari,someelite filmcritics inJapan highlyvaluedGermancinema.AsearlyasApril1914,theleadingfilmcriticKaeriyamaNorimasawrote,“Artificiallightinghasbeenappliedinvariouswaysalong withthetremendousdevelopmentofotherscientifictechnologies.”Kaeriyama concludedthearticlebyinsisting,“BothGermanyandJapanareinthemidstof progress.GermanyhasmadeeveryefforttoberecognizedasadevelopedcountrywhileJapanhashadlesssuccessfuldevelopmentintheworld.Eventhough thesituationsaredifferentbetweenusandEurope,wecouldstilllearnalotfrom Germanyintermsofnationaldevelopment”(“Doitsufirumunogenzaioyobishorai,”4–5).KaeriyamaalsowroteinDecember1917,“Fromapointofviewofthe specialistinphotography,American-madefilmsseemsomehowunsettled.Onthe
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contrary,GermanandScandinavianfilmsaremorevaluablewiththeirsubstantialuseofgradations....Details,gradations,andcontrastsinthemareexcellent” (quotedinMizusawa,“Yoishashintowananika,”33). 135.Asajima, “Hyogen ha no eiga,” 76–81; Ushigome, “Doitsu hyogen ha no eiga,” 82–85. 136.Kurtz,“Hyogenshugitoeiga(2),”33.TheoriginalcanbefoundinKurtz,Expressionismus und Film,60.ItisnottruethatGermanexpressionistcinemaasa wholewassensitivetotherelationshipbetweenthetactileandcinematiclighting.AsThompsonclaims,expressionistfilmmakerspreferredtouse“flatfrontal lighting”inordertomakeeverything“maximallyvisible”andhave“theactor’s three-dimensionalityandseparationfromthesetminimized”(Herr Lubitsch Goes to Hollywood,52). 137.Iwasaki,“Saigo no hito(1),”6–7. 138.Iwasaki,“Saigo no hito(2),”26–27. 139.Ibid. 140.Iwasaki,“Hyogenhaeiganoshorai(1),”26. 141.Moritz,“TheAbsoluteFilm,”n.p. 142.IwasakiintroducedBerlintoJapaneseaudiencesassoonasitcameoutinGermanyevenbeforehehadseenthefilm(Iwasaki,“Berurin daitokai shinfoni 1,”17–18; Iwasaki,“Berurin daitokai shinfoni2,”8–12). 143.Iwasaki, “Hyogenha eiga no shorai (1),” 26. Iwasaki and others used the term “absolutefilms”alsoinreferencetoKandinski’s“absolutepaintings.” 144.Marks,Touch,8. 145.Ibid.,2;Marks,The Skin of the Film,162. 146.Marks,The Skin of the Film,xi. 147.Marks,Touch,5,18. 148.Iwasaki,Gendai no eiga,114–15. 149.Themotifofhandshasrecentlyattractedscholarlyattentionasanintersection oftechnologiesofcriminalinvestigation,medicine,statistics,modernanxietyand senseofalienation,andearlyandsilentcinema.Inparticular,ithasbeenargued thatWeimarcinemawasobsessedwithhands.FritzLangwasoneofthoseobsessedwithfigures.InadditiontothemagnifiedhandinthecreditsequenceofM, Langconstantlydisplayedhandsinclose-ups.TomGunningeveninventedaterm, aLangianclose-upofahand,todescribeLang’sobsession.Inclose-ups,handsare fragmentedfromthebodyandoftenexposedunderstrongspotlights.Theylook luminousundersuchhardlights.GunningarguesthatLang’sfilms“formacomplexandprofoundmeditationonthecinemaasameansofrepresentingmodern experience”(The Films of Fritz Lang,x–xi).TheobsessionwithhandsinWeimar cinemacouldberelatedtothefearoffragmentationofsubjectivebodies,especiallyinthecontextofthememoriesofWorldWarI.Themotifofthemutilated hand was widespread in popular wartime discourses. The motif of the severed handwasoftenusedinwarpropaganda.Oneofthemoststrikingimagesofwartimeatrocitiesisthedepictionofababy,littlegirl,oryoungwomanwhosehand (orhands)hadbeenchoppedoffbyenemies.Paintedin1915,ErnstLudwigKirchner’sSelf-Portrait as a Soldier,whichdepictstheartistwithhisrighthandmissing, documentstheartist’sfearthatthewarwoulddestroyhiscreativepowers.The
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famoussurgeonFerdinandSauerbruch,directoroffieldhospitalsintheVosges duringWorldWarI,whoperformednumerousarmandhandamputations,publishedThe Voluntarily Movable Artificial Hand: A Manual for Surgeons and Techniciansin1916. 150.LaMarre,Shadows on the Screen,80–84. 151.Iwasaki,“Hyogenhaeiganoshorai(1),”26. 152.Guerin,A Culture of Light,xxx. 153.Elsaesser,Weimar Cinema and After,44,251.Othercinematographersanddirectorsofthetime,includingAoshimaJunichiro,MidorikawaMichio,andMurata Minoru, highly praised the work of Karl Freund too. Praising Variety (Varieté, Ewald Andre Dupont, 1925) Aoshima said, “I want to study with Freund for four,fiveyears,especiallyabouthowtousebeamsoflight.”Midorikawareplied, “His [Freund’s] work in Variety teaches us the right direction as cinematographers.”Murataadded,“Ipreferhis[Freund’s]mattedcinematographytostylized high-keylightinginAmericanfilms....CheerstoKarlFreund”(“Varieténogappyo,”12). 154.KanematsuandWatanabe,“Meijinokatsudodaisukishonen,”16–17;Atsutaand Hasumi,Ozu Yasujiro monogatari,83,85. 155.Freund,“Eigasatsueinokakumei,”179. 156.TanakaMasasumi,Ozu Yasujiro Shuyu,95. 157.TanakaMasasumi,Ozu Yasujiro no ho e,97. 158.Arnheim,“Lighting(1934),”61;TanakaMasasumi,Ozu Yasujiro zenhatusgen 1933– 1945,137. 159.Bordwell,Ozu and the Poetics of Cinema,82. 160.Hirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi17,”51. 161.Ibid. 162.Kishi,“34nendoNihoneigakessan,”272. 163.Iwasaki,Nihon gendaishi taikei,65–66. 164.Ushihara,“Kamatamodanizumunogunzo,”138–39. 165.KimuraSotoji,“Keikoeigatozeneieiga,”274–75. 166.KimuraandSato,“‘Keikoeiga’karamaneie,”246. 167.Kaes,“CinemaandModernity,”31. 168.Silberman,German Cinema,33. 169.Guerin,A Culture of Light,xiii–xiv,43. 170.Ibid.,xiv,xxix. 171.Hake,German National Cinema,33. 4. the Aesthetics of shadow
1.Masumoto,Shochiku eiga no eiko to hokai,76–77;Kashiwagi,Senbongumi shimatsu ki,328–29. 2.HasegawaKazuo,Butai ginmaku rokuju nen,138;Kashiwagi,Senbongumi shimatsu ki,332;S.O.S.,“Topikkukaibo,”48. 3.TanakaJunichiro,Nihon eiga hattatsu shi II,224–61;Iwasakietal.,Eiga hyakka jiten,312. 4.Kato,Sodoin taisei to eiga,31–32. 5.Mizumachi,“HayashiChojiroron,”6.
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6.Kinema Junpo,October21,1937,29. 7.Ibid. 8.Mizumachi,“HayashiChojiroron,”6. 9.“Nihonsatsueijoroku,”211–20. 10.Kashiwagi,Senbongumi shimatsu ki,318. 11.In 1940, three of the five most successful Toho films at the box office starred Hasegawa(FurukawaTakahisa,Senjika no Nihon eiga,123). 12.HayashiChojiro,“Goaisatsu,”n.p. 13.“Tsuchiya Akiraseisakuzadankai,”26. 14.Sakyo,“Nozomu,”90. 15.FurukawaTakahisa,Senjika no Nihon eiga,73. 16.Iijima,“Tojuro no koisaikento,”28–29. 17.FurukawaTakahisa,Senjika no Nihon eiga,73. 18.MurakamiShiro,“Tojuro no koiniyosu,”23. 19.Kojietal.,“PointUpperBox,”27. 20.Kuribayashi,“Pointoniippitsukeijo,”29;Sakyo,“Pointoniippitsukeijo,”32. 21.Wakana,“Tawagoto,”46. 22.“Tojuro no koi”(Tojuro’s Love),Eiga to Gijutsu,May1938,quotedinHirai,“Soko Nihoneigasatsueishi58,”69. 23.Yamaguchi,Kameraman no eiga shi,94. 24.Shimazaki,“Tojuro no koi,”380. 25.Sucharealisticlightingschemeisenhancedbyaninsertedflashback.Eventhough theflashbackisofasceneduringaflowerfestivalunderthebrightdaylight,Tojuro andO-KajiareplacedincontrastyRembrandtlighting.Thechiaroscuroisslightly softerwiththepossibleuseofadiffuser,andtherimsoftheirhairandkimonos glamorouslyshinebecauseofthebacklight.Yet,inaclose-up,inwhichTojuro staresatO-Kajifrombehind,therightsidesoftheirfacesareindarkshadow. 26.MiuraMitsuo,“Gekieiganosatsuei,Dai4sho,”238. 27.Stull,“CinematographySimplified,”477. 28.MiuraMitsuo,“Gekieiganosatsuei,Dai4sho,”244–45. 29.Stull,“CinematographySimplified,”482. 30.MiuraMitsuo,“Gekieiganosatsuei,Dai4sho,”241–42. 31.Ibid. 32.Shimazaki,“Tojuro no koi,”380.In1941,KaeriyamaNorimasa,apurefilmadvocate inthe1910sand1920s,revisitedthevalueofRembrandtlighting,“whichwasused insilentAmericanfilmsquiteoften...asoneofthebasicmethodsforcameramentostructurecompositions”inordertovividly“depictpeople,buildings,landscape,andsoon,clearenoughtoimpresstheviewer’sbrain.”Kaeriyamaregarded Rembrandtlightingasthe“mostappropriatetonesinblack-and-whitecinema”in termsofscientificrealism.WhatKaeriyamaopposedwas“softfocusimagesthat usedsilkscreenorcrystallenses,”whichwere“hugelyunorthodox”tothe“missionofcinematicimages”(“Eigagijutsunojissen,”231). 33.Shimazaki,“Tojuro no koi,”379. 34.Gaudio,“Eiganohaikoniokeruatarashikenkaitosonogijutsu.” 35.Gaudio,“ANewViewpointontheLightingofMotionPictures,”165–67.
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36.QuotedinStull,“CameraWorkFailsTrueMissionWhenItSinksRealismfor Beauty,”56. 37.Milner,“VictorMilnerMakesReplytoErnstLubitschastoRealism,”94–95. 38.Shimazaki,“Rubicchitomirunanoronso,”12. 39.Kashima,“YamadaIsuzunisaikinnokansookiku,”22–23. 40.Iida Shinbi et al., “Tsuruhachi Tsurujiro gappyo” [Collective critique of Tsuruhachi Tsurujiro],Kinema Junpo,July15,1953,28–31,quotedinRussell,The Cinema of Naruse Mikio,140. 41.Yamane,“Shisentokukannogeki,”44. 42.Asu,“Fannomitatenshatenmatsu,”26–27. 43.“Mabuta no hahagurimpusu,”24–25. 44.HasegawaKazuo,“Tsuruhachi Tsurujironitsuite,”20–21. 45.Pointo Fan1.8(August1938):n.p. 46.“Kogyo seiseki kessan” [Record at box office], Eiga Junpo, February 1, 1942, quotedinKato,Sodoin taisei to eiga,120–21. 47.“Tobinokogyosenokataru,”76. 48.Kato,Sodoin taisei to eiga,122. 49.Makino,Eiga tosei chi no maki,99. 50.Shimura,“HasegawaKazuotoYamadaIsuzu,”175. 51.Ibid. 52.HanayagiShotaroetal.,“GappyozadankaiOnnakeizuokataru,”46–47. 53.Kinoshita,“Merodoramanosaiki,”219. 54.OtaSaburo,“Kuronogaika,”102–3. 55.Kawasaki,“Tohoeigasatsueigijutsunokaiko,”64. 56.Shimazaki,“Satsuei,”27. 57.Ibid. 58.Shimazaki,“Eigagijutsugeppyo,”82.Anothercritic,HazumiTsuneo,praised“the beautyofsubtlecontrasts”ofthefilmandclaimed,“Whatisinscribedinmybrain aretheshadowsofpeopleandhorsesmovingaroundonthedarkscreen”(“Kawanakajima kassen,”57). 59.Kawanakajima kassen[TheBattleofKawanakajima]screenplay,1,6,Sorimachi Collection04-0117,NationalFilmCenter,Tokyo. 60.MiuraMitsuo,“Kawanakajima kassensatsueikirokudanpen,”44. 61.Ibid. 62.MiuraMitsuo,“Kawanakajima kassensatsueikiroku,”45. 63.Kubo,“Eigabijutsukainokaiko,”71.MiurausednotonlyJapanesefilmstock butalsoAgfasuperpanchromaticnegative,whichwasoriginallyintroducedin 1936andwasratheroutdatedcomparedtoEastman’sPlusxandSuperxx.AccordingtoMiura,heused“Agfasuper-panchromaticfilmstock—graybase;Astro pantucker 35 mm lens; latten no. 72x filter; f-stop 4.5; shutter open ratio 140; andfifteen-minutedevelopment”(Nishikawa,“Eigagijutsunosaishuppatsu,”42; MiuraMitsuo,“Kawanakajima kassensatsueikiroku,”45).ThecriticAzumaTakeo pointsouttheuseofAgfafilmtoexplainthisfilm’sachievementof“beautifulcinematographyindarknightscenes”(Eiga Junpo35[January1,1942]:82). 64.Davis,Picturing Japaneseness,101–2.
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65.Ibid.,102,94.The Battle of Kawanakajimawaspublicizedasshin rekishi eiga(new historycinema).ThejournalEigadefinednewhistorycinemaasbeing“faithful inrecordingthehistoricalperiod”andhaving“newspiritandcontent”(Eiga1.12 [December1941],n.p.).MoritaNobuyoshi,aTohoproducer,calledThe Battle of Kawanakajimaa“nationalcinema”(kokumin eiga)andclaimedthathisintention onthisprojectwas“tocorrectlydepictthetraditionalJapanesespirit”(“Kokumin eigaKawanakajima kassen,”32). 66.“Kawanakajima kassentoGenroku Chushinguranoseisakuotaishosuru,”84. 67.MiuraMitsuo,“Kawanakajima kassensatsueikiroku,”45. 68.Ibid. 69.Ibid. 70.Hiroki,“Hyogennisanyosurufiruta,”54–55. 71.MiuraMitsuo,“Kawanakajima kassensatsueikiroku,”45. 72.Ibid. 73.Ibid.,47. 74.QuotedinHirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi58,”76. 75.Ibid. 76.OtaSaburo,“Kuronogaika,”102–3. 77.Kawanakajima kassen[ThebattleofKawanakajima]screenplay,9,SorimachiCollection04-0117,NationalFilmCenter,Tokyo. 78.Ibid.,19. 79.OguraKinji,“NihonEigaSatsueishaKyokaisho,”59. 80.MiuraMitsuo,“Jushosunawachigekireinikotaete,”63. 81.Hata,Hana no shunju,305–6. 82.Takahashi,“Kenkatobisatsueikengakuki,”20. 83.Davis,Picturing Japaneseness,64;italicsadded. 84.Russell,The Cinema of Naruse Mikio,131–32.TheFilmLawof1939wasaresult ofyearsofefforttowardstatecontrolofthecinema,whichtookintoconsideration themedium’sinfluenceoverthepeopleinJapananditscoloniesaswellasthe cinema’spotentialityforinternationaldistribution.Nationalizationofcensorship bytheHomeMinistryin1925ineffectassumedthatlocaldifferencesnolonger matteredintheregulationofmotionpictures.InFebruary1933,thePlantoEstablishtheNationalFilmPolicypassedtheHouseoftheRepresentatives,inwhich theDietofJapanofficiallyadmittedthesocialinfluenceofcinemaandinitiated thegovernmentalprotectionandcontrolofmotionpicturesasanindustryforthe “improvement”ofitsproducts;inMarch1934,theCommitteeforControlling Cinemawasestablished;inDecember1935theFilmAssociationofGreaterJapan FoundationwasestablishedintheHomeMinistryandbecamethespacewhere governmentofficialsandthefilmindustryexchangedopinions;andinApril1937, theHomeMinistryrevisedtherulesoffilmcensorshipandintroducedtheterm bunka eiga(culturalfilm)(Gerow,“NarratingtheNation-alityofaCinema,”206; Kato,Sodoin taisei to eiga,28–29;FurukawaTakahisa,Senjika no Nihon eiga,32–33). 85.TheFilmLawproscribedthefollowing:“Thatwhichmayprofanethedignityof theImperialHouseorinjurethedignityoftheEmpire;Thatwhichmayinculcate ideaswhichoffendnationallaws;Thatwhichmayobstructgeneralpolitics,militaryaffairs,foreignpolicies,economicsandotherpublicinterests;Thatwhichmay
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corruptmoralsorunderminepublicmoralprinciples;Thatwhichmaystrikingly injurethepurityoftheJapaneselanguage;Remarkablyawkwardtechnicalproduction;Thatwhichmayhinderthedevelopmentofthenationalculture”(quoted inShimizuAkira,“WarandCinemainJapan,”32–33;Shimizu’stranslation). 86.Gerow,“NarratingtheNation-alityofaCinema,”207. 87.SatoTakumi,“TheSystemofTotalWarandtheDiscursiveSpaceoftheThought War,”304. 88.Davis,Picturing Japaneseness,68. 89.Toho produced a number of films, including Burning Sky (Moyuru ozora, Abe Yutaka,1940)withHasegawaandBouquet of the South Sea(Nankai no hanataba, AbeYutaka,1942)withthearmyandnavy’scooperation(Kato,Sodoin taisei to eiga,119). 90.“Eiga gyosei” [Politics of cinema], Eiga Junpo, May 11, 1942, quoted in Kato, Sodoin taisei to eiga,122. 91.Fujii,“Nihoneigano1930-nendai,”27–29. 92.Ibid.,29. 93.Nornes,Japanese Documentary Film,93. 94.Shimura,“HasegawaKazuotoYamadaIsuzu,”169. 95.Ibid.,165–66.ChikaKinoshitaalsopointsoutthepossibilityofmultiplereadings ofFemale Genealogybydiverseaudiences,includingcensorshipofficers,filmcritics,filmmakers,actors,andgeneralaudiences.KinoshitaclaimsthatMakinowas “notantiwar”butwas“awareoftheconflictbetweenthedominantsenseofvalues andrepressedemotions”(“Merodoramanosaiki,”216). 96.Tamura,“Kyakuhonnojizenkenetsusonota,”27. 97.Tsumura,“Nihoneigawashinposhitaka,”38–39. 98.Q. [Tsumura Hideo], “Shin eiga hyo: Shina no yoru” [New film review: China Night],Tokyo Asahi Shinbun,June9,1940,eveningedition,quotedinFurukawa Takahisa,Senjikano Nihon eiga,128. 99.“Kenetsu no madokara (kan)” [From a window of censorship: Final], Shin Eiga,August1941,64,quotedinFurukawaTakahisa,Senjika no Nihon eiga,128. 100.Nornes,Japanese Documentary Film,110. 101.FurukawaTakahisa,Senjika no Nihon eiga,83. 102.Serpent Princess (Part 1) (Hebihimesama, Kinugasa, 1940), with Hasegawa and Yamada,wasthesecond,andSerpent Princess (Part 2)(Zoku hebihimesama)was thefifthinthesameyear(FurukawaTakahisa,Senjika no Nihon eiga,123). 103.Thetenbestboxofficerevenues(April–December1942):(1)The War at Sea from Hawaii to Malaya(Hawai Mare oki kaisen);(2)The Record of Battles in Malaya (Mare senki);(3)The Man Who Was Waiting(Matteita otoko)withHasegawaand Yamada;(4)Kuramatengu;(5)You Are the Target(Anata wa nerawareteiru);(6) The City of Memory(Omokage no machi)withHasegawa;(7)Female Genealogy Part 2(Zoku onna keizu),withHasegawaandYamada;(8)Mother of Japan(Nippon no haha,Shochiku);(9)The Triumphant Song of the Wings(Tsubasa no gaika); and(10)The Success Story of Isokawa Heisuke(Isokawa Heisuke komyo banashi). Thetenbestboxofficerevenues(1943):(1)Kantaro of Ina(Ina no Kantaro), withHasegawa;(2)The Rickshaw Man(Muhomatsu no issho);(3)Sanshiro Sugata (Sugata Sanshiro);(4)The City of Battles(Tatakai no machi,Shochiku);(5)Great
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Music March(Ongaku daishingun),withHasegawa;(6)The Shadow That Stands on Mt. Fuji(Fuji ni tatsu kage);(7)The Slave Ship(Doreisen);(8)The Night before the War(Kaisen no zenya,Shochiku);(9)Master Choji’s Sculpture(Meijin Choji bori), withHasegawa;and(10)Heiroku’s Dream Story(Heiroku yume monogatari)(FurukawaTakahisa,Senjika no Nihon eiga,173). 104.Nihon Eiga 7 (1944), quoted in Kato, Sodoin taisei to eiga, 160; “Kogyo seiseki kessan”[Recordofboxoffice],Eiga Junpo,February1,1943,quotedinKato,Sodoin taisei to eiga,120–21;Furukawa,Senjika no Nihon eiga,173. 105.Kuge,“RinsentaiseinichokumensuruShochikukonkinokessan,”21–22. 106.“Jiho”[Timelyreport],Kinema Junpo,August21,1940,quotedinKato,Sodoin taisei to eiga,79. 107.Fujiki,“CreatingtheAudience,”n.p. 108.Kyokuto kokusai gunji saiban sokkiroku Dai 4 kan, 655. Gerow argues, “Cultural elitesremainedambivalenttowardfilm’scapacitytoexpress‘nation-ality’”and “cinemawastooalienamediumtobeentrustedwithconstructingthenation” (“NarratingtheNation-alityofaCinema,”208–9). 109.“15nendoNihoneiga(geki)nosatsueigijutsudanmen,”89. 110.Gerow,“NarratingtheNation-alityofaCinema,”211. 111.Ibid.,217. 112.Davis,Picturing Japaneseness,2. 113.Ibid.,45. 114.SeeFurukawa,Senjika no Nihon eiga;andBaskett,The Attractive Empire. 115.Gerow,“NarratingtheNation-alityofaCinema,”201,207. 116.Ibid.,206–7. 117.“Shochikuburokku(4sha)taiTohonokosooikanimiraruruka?,”52. 118.Eiga to Gijutsu3.1(January1936):45. 119.Eiga to Gijutsu1.5(May1935):271. 120.“1935nendoyushueigatosonogijutsu.” 121.Davis,Picturing Japaneseness,6. 122.Ibid.,4,46. 123.Yoshino,“‘Ineiraisan’niyoseteII,”15. 124.Shimazaki, “Satsuei gijutsu no keiko,” 45; Miyajima, “Weruzu to tornado no kashikarikanjo,”29.MichaelRaineintroducedtheconceptoftransculturalmimesistocaptureJapanesefilmmakers’desiresandpracticesofre-creatingHollywood filminJapan,inadditiontoparodyingtheabsurditiesofAmericancinema(“Ozu before‘Ozu’”). 125.Kawasaki,“Kameramanwakataru,”38–39.Inreality,GarmesbeganexperimentingwiththeuseofMazdaincandescentlampsforlightingfilmsduringthemid- 1920saspartofthetrendtowardsofteningshadowsandloweringcontrasts(Ogle, “Deep-FocusCinematography,”23).WhenthenscdecidedonThe Battle of Kawanakajimaasthebestcinematographyforadramaticfilmofthatyear,Miura Mitsuo,thecinematographerofthefilm,wasregardedasadiscipleofSternberg. ThecriticNanbuKeinosukequitefavorablypointedoutduringa1942discussion onThe Battle of Kawanakajima,“Mr.MiurausedtobestudyingwithSternbergat Paramount”(“Kawanakajima kassenkento,”79). 126.Hoshi,“Jidaigekiniokerufotogurafinitsuite,”31.
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127.Miki,“Eigawaikanishiteumareikanishitehattatsushitaka,”20. 128.Miki,“Nihoneiganokurakibamennosatsuei,”46–47;h2o,“Dai2kiomukaeta ‘shirizuNihonnosatsueikantoku,’”3.SeealsoNagatomi,“Eigasatsueinoshin shomeiho,”102–4. 129.HuseandChambers,“EastmanSupersensitivePanchromaticTypeTwoMotion PictureFilm,”108. 130.Miki,“Nihoneiganokurakibamennosatsuei,”48.Thesharp,contrastyqualitiesoforthochromaticfilm,atypesensitivetogreen,blue-violet,andultraviolet light,workedwellwiththecarbonarclamp,whichproducedaverybluelightand wastheprimarylightsourceinthe1920s,inadditiontothesunlight.Thecarbon arclampemittedlightfromaverysmallarea,whichcouldbringouttexturesand castverysharpshadows,addingstronglytothesenseofcrispnessandcontrast alreadydefinedbythefilmandlenstypes—criticallysharp-cuttinganastigmatic onessuchasCarlZeiss’sTessar(Ogle,“Deep-FocusCinematography,”22). 131.Miki, “Nihon eiga no kuraki bamen no satsuei,” 48–49. The cinematographer Kawasaki Kikuzo similarly wrote in his 1942 essay, “Even nowadays, in Japan therearetoomany‘low-keytones’thataresimplydarkwithoutanydetailsinthe dark....Weoftensaybrightphotographyanddarkphotography,butwedonot usethetermsinthecorrectmanner.Wetendtocallphotographswithnocontrast andnodetailinbrightparts‘bright’andthosewithoutanydetailinshadows‘dark.’ Visually,Icannottoleratethelatter”(“Satsueigijutsunohinkon,”38). 132.Hall,“ImprovementsinMotionPictureFilm,”95. 133.YamaguchiTakeshi,Kameraman no eiga shi,95. 134.D.O.C.,“Horiuddokameragitan,”49. 135.Gerow,“Tatakaukankyaku,”136. 136.D.O.C.,“Horiuddokameragitan,”49–51. 137.Howe,“Lighting,”59. 138.Soyama,“WareranotachibatoAngusuto,”113.In1937,TanakaToshiowrotethat Hollywoodfilmslookedbeautiful“thankstothemotionpictureindustry’senormousfinancialpower,withwhichtheycoulduseartificiallightsthatevenlookas strongasthesunlight”(“Kameramannobunrui,”10).MarukawaTakeo,whobelongedtothelightingdepartmentofTohoKyotostudio,wroteinOctober1941, “Thelow-keytoneisoftenreferredtoasthelightingofjidaigekiandismisconceived.Itistruethattheamountoflightingintheperiodofthesettingofjidaigeki musthavebeenverylow,butitisdoubtfulthatwecandecreasethenumberof lampsinordertofollowthephysicalrealityandproudlycallittherealizationof low-keytone.Thingsshouldhavetheirownappropriatetones.Inmisusedlow-key lighting,suchinnatetonestendtobeneglectedandsimplyfallintodarkness.... Inlightingforjidaigeki,lightordarkonlyhasasecondaryimportancebuttheclassicaltonesofthingsmustbeprioritizedinordertoexpresstheirhistoricityand charm”(“Jidaigekisatsueinotamenoraitingu,”36). 139.“Kojima no haruzadankai,”24. 140.Midorikawa,“Kameramannoseikatsutokyoyo,”65.Midorikawawasaninnovativecinematographerintermsoftheuseoflighting.In1929,afterrecovering fromhospitalization,Midorikawainitiatedproductionofadocumentaryfilmof atuberculosisoperation.Thechallengewashowtodepictdetailsofanoperation
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fullofblood.Orthochromaticfilmwasinappropriatebecauseitwasnotsensitive toredandturnedthecolorofbloodintopitchblack.Archlamp,whichwassuitablefororthochromaticfilm,couldnotconceivablytobeusedduringtheoperationbecauseitproducedburnttungsten,whicheasilyfelltotheground.Midorikawausedpanchromaticfilmandincandescentlamps,withsupportfromMazda lamps.ThesuccessofThe Balanced Pressure Surgery(Heiatsu kaikyo jutsu,1929) ledNikkatsuandthestudioheadIkenagaHirohisatoswitchtopanchromatic filmandincandescentlight(Yamaguchi,Kameraman no eiga shi,85–90).Midorikawaalsoadoptedlow-keylightingearlyevenwhenfilmcompaniesdidnotpreferfilmswithlow-keytonesbecauseoftheexhibitionpracticesatthattime.MidorikawaclaimedthatYokotaEinosuke,thepresidentofNikkatsu,criticizedhis cinematographicworkforThe Season of Love(Koi shiru koro,1933)andsaidtohim, “Wecannotstandsuchadarkfilm.Itisnotcommerciallyacceptable” (YamaguchiTakeshi,Kameraman no eiga shi,96).TanakaToshiodefendedMidorikawa and“howhetreatedthewarmdarktones”inthisfilmbyinsisting,“Generally speaking,thephotographyinthisfilmshowsthehighqualityinrecentJapanese cinema”eventhoughhecriticizedthe“poor”useofspotlightsinit(“Eiganiokeru kameragijutsuhihan,”578–79). 141.FollowingCinematographic Annual volumesIandII,theaschandbookspublishedin1930and1931,othertitlesdealingwiththedetailsofcinematographic techniquesandtechnologiesofCinematography Reader,including“TheSystem ofMotionPictureCamerasandItsDevelopment,”“LensesforMotionPicture Photography,”and“TheCharacteristicsofMotionPictureFilmsandFilters.” 142.Midorikawa,“Kameramannoseikatsutokyoyo,”70–71. 143.Miyajima,Tenno to yobareta otoko,77. 144.Fuwa,“Bunkaeiganomokuhyo,”15. 145.Nornes,Japanese Documentary Film,56;italicsintheoriginal.SeealsoHarootunian,“Introduction,”16–17.IwasakiAkira,wholedtheproletarianfilmmovement intheearly1930sinProkino(Nipponpuroretariaeigadomei;ProletarianFilm LeagueofJapan),wasagainsttheFilmLawandassertedthatsuchauseofthe wordcultureandlegitimatizationwiththelawwasnothingotherthanan“aestheticization”ofcapitalismforthesakeof“nationalpolicy”andnotmuchdifferent thanthecapitalistfilmsofShochiku(Iwasaki,Eiga ron,170–71.SeealsoKazama, Kinema ni ikiru,56,83–105). 146.Midorikawa,“Kameramannoseikatsutokyoyo,”55. 147.Ibid.,57. 148.YamamotoNaoki,“Fukeino(sai)hakken,”87. 149.Gavin,“NihonFukeiron(JapaneseLandscape).” 150.Midorikawa,“Kameramannoseikatsutokyoyo,”65. 151.Tanizaki,In Praise of Shadows,17. 152.Midorikawa,“Kameramannoseikatsutokyoyo,”65;Tanizaki,In Praise of Shadows,32. 153.Midorikawa,“Kameramannoseikatsutokyoyo,”66;Tanizaki,In Praise of Shadows,33. 154.Harootunian,Overcome by Modernity,xix. 155.Ibid.
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156.Ibid.,xxvi. 157.Ibid. 158.Ibid.,x;italicsintheoriginal. 159.QuotedinUshihara,“EnrainotomoSutanbagu,”166. 160.Mizuta,“LuminousEnvironment,”342. 161.Tanizaki,In Praise of Shadows,54. 162.Mizuta,“LuminousEnvironment,”343. 163.Lippit,Atomic Lights (Shadow Optics),21,108. 164.Mizuta,“LuminousEnvironment,”345. 165.Ariyoshi,“Jidaigekinoakarusatokurasa,”97. 166.Tanizaki,In Praise of Shadows,9. 167.Midorikawa practiced the aesthetics of shadow in Soil (Tsuchi, Uchida Tomu, 1939),thefilmaboutpoorfarmersbasedonNagatsukaTakashi’srealistnovel.Tsuchiwasproducedoverayearandphotographedtheactuallivesofthefarmerson location.Theresultwascalled“thesparklingachievementofJapanesecinematographictechniquesintheentirehistoryofcinema”(Eiga to Gijutsu10.5[December1939]:272).InhisconversationwithShimazakiKiyohiko,Midorikawaemphasizedhis“attitudeofbeingnakedandfrankwithhiscamera”andhisdecision of“consciouslycuttingoffpictorialscenes.”Midorikawaargued,“IfollowedNagatsukaTakashi,whowrotetheoriginalstory....Nagatsukainsistedontruthfully depictingthemovementsofnatureand,asaresult,theheartsofhumanbeings. Hisworkchallengedthetendencyofmetaphoricalusesofnature.IntheproductionofSoil,IwantedtopursuethisnaturalistviewasmuchasIcouldwithmy camera”(Shimazaki,“MidorikawaMichioshiniTsuchinosatsueiokiku,”270). WhatMidorikawatriedtoenhancewasthedarknessofthesoilastheJapanese sublime,whichwouldmakeastrongcontrasttothepictorialismofHollywood cinema.Hedidnotresorttoanypictorialeffectsof“backlighting,diffusion,and sweetsofttones”(Shimazaki,“MidorikawaMichioshiniTsuchinosatsueiokiku,” 271).Heevensacrificed“photographicdetails”and“capturedthepitchblack[of thesoil]incontrasttothewhitesnowbystoppingdownthelensasmuchaspossible”(Shimazaki,“MidorikawaMichioshiniTsuchinosatsueiokiku[zoku],” 338). 168.Uno, “Oshu eiga to gacho,” 64. In 1929, the critic Nagahama Keizo compared AmericanandGermanfilmsintermsofbrightness:“WhileAmericantechniques arecoquettishandbright,Germanfilmsowntechniquesthatcouldexpressstrong motifs in a very dark appearance” (Nagahama, “Katsudo shashin no kiso teki gijutsu,”316–17). 169.The New EarthwasmeanttocelebratetheAnti-CominternPactbetweenJapan and Germany, which would be established on November 25, 1936. The film faithfullyreflectedNaziculturalpolicyandJapanesecolonialism.Theprotagonist,YamatoTeruo(KosugiIsamu),whichmeans“ashiningJapaneseman,”has studiedinEuropeandbeguntodespisehisnationality.Yethestartstoremember hisculturalbackground,nationalidentity,andthe“bloodofancestorsinhim,”in hisownwords,byrevisitingJapanesecustomsandculture,includingatalkwitha Buddhistmonkatatemple.HedecidestomarryaJapanesewoman(playedbythe sixteen-year-oldHaraSetsuko)andmigratetoManchuria,theJapaneseEmpire’s
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uncultivatednewearth.The New Earthwascalleda“filmforexport”and“thefirst internationalculturalfilminJapan”withapoliticalgoal,inparticular,ofintroducingJapanesepeopleandculturetoGermanaudiences(Kinema Junpo,1January 1937,238). 170.Angst,“Nipponnokameramane,”36. 171.Angst,“Yagaisatsueinitsuite,”34–35.Angstrepeatedhispointinanotherarticle publishedinJuly1937(“Kameramannihitsuyonachishikitogijutsu,”35–36). 172.Angst,“Kameramannihitsuyonachishikitogijutsu,”22.Angsthadachanceto recognizethedemeritsofEuropeanfilmmakingandreflectonhisexperiencein Japan, including his viewing of more than fifty Japanese films, influencing his futurework.Inparticular,basedonthestandpointoftheeconomyoflighting, Angst highly valued Japanese cinematography that used small sets in studios. Angstpointedout,“[InEurope]hugearchitectures,whichcanevenswallowup theentirestudioinJapan,areoftenpresentedinfrontofacamera.Asmallsetcan belightedwithmuchmoreaffection.IthinkaJapaneseroomcanbeextremely picturesquewhetheritislitbythesunlightorbyelectriclamps....Iwantto stressthattheJapanesecinematographersmustnotbeashamedoftheirphotographictechniques.Onthecontrary,theyhavemorethingsthatweneedtolearn” (Angst,“Kameramannihitsuyonachishikitogijutsu,”22–23,25).Angstplayed asignificantroleintheThirdReichfilmmaking.RestructuringofthefilmindustrywasunderwayinNaziGermanyunderthecontroloftheReichMinistryfor People’sEnlightenmentandPropaganda,headedbyJosephGoebbels.TheMinistryadopteda“rationalization”policyespeciallyafter1942whenthefilmindustrybecamefullynationalized(Petley,“FilmPolicyintheThirdReich,”176).To simultaneouslyservethefunctionsofentertainmentandpropagandaandtosatisfydifferentinterestsandtasteswithinaspecificbudget,theMinistrytookthe doublestrategyofproducingonlyafewbig-budgetpropagandafilmsandalarge numberofconventionalgenrefilms(seeHake,German National Cinema,65–67, 85).Apparently,theeconomyofproduction,sets,andlighting,inparticular,that Angstre-realizedinJapanhelpedtoproducesuchconventionalgenrefilms.David StewartHullclaimsonthefilmRembrandt(1942),directedbyamajorNazidirector,HansSteinhoff,“ThebeautyofthefilmisduetoRichardAngst’sstunning camerawork,whichmakesthebestofWalterRoehrig’shandsomesets.Noexpensewassparedontheproduction,whichmovedfromtheUfatoAmsterdam andtheHague....RatherthanattemptingtoshowthesubjectsofRembrandt’s workwithliveactorsintheHollywoodmanner,AngstandRoehrigmoreoften concentratedontherecreationofperioddetail.Thereisanoutstandingsequence ofburghersbowling,usinglightedcandlesaspins,tocitebutoneexample”(Hull, Film in the Third Reich,220–21). 173.Suga,“Fankuhakasenosatsueihaiken,”37. 174.Zhang,An Amorous History of the Silver Screen,10–11.SeealsoHansen,“Benjamin andCinema,”306–43(Zhangquotesfromp.312). 175.IamreferringtoSusanSontag’sideaof“fascinatingfascism”here.SeeSontag, “FascinatingFascism,”73–105. 176.FujiiJinshipointsoutthatthecriticaldiscourseoncinemainJapaninthe1930s centeredonrealismbecauseofthecinema’sacquisitionofsound(“Nihoneigano
320 notestochapter4
1930-nendai,”24–26).Realisminlightingmighthavepartiallystemmedfromsuch adiscourseonrealismintalkingpictures. 177.Hanamura,“Tsuminaki machi,”128. 178.Hanamura,“Hahashiro,”130. 179.Tamai,“Bunkaeigagijutsuhihyo,”78–79. 180.Ibid. 181.Keating,Hollywood Lighting from the Silent Era to Film Noir,229. 182.Milner,“CreatingMoodswithLight,”7. 183.Arnold,“WhyIsaCameraman?,”462. 184.TanakaToshio,“Sokokunoutsukushisa,”58–59;emphasisintheoriginal. 185.Kawasaki,“Suikoden,”77. 186.Stal,“Hariuddoshuyosatsueijoniokeruraitoreberunochosa,”52–55. 187.The number of documentary films was increasing in the same period. In 1939, theMinistryofEducationrecognized985documentaries;thefollowingyearthe figurejumpedto4,460(Nornes,Japanese Documentary Film,63). 188.HanabusaMichio,“Jidaigekienosasayakanateigen,”73. 189.Kishi,“Haha o kowazu ya,”106. 190.Ibid. Ozu used contrasty lighting throughout the maternal melodrama Mother Should Be Loved,whichobviouslyreferstotheHollywoodmaternalmelodrama Over the Hill to the Poorhouse(HarryF.Millarde,1920).Charactersarelitfrom thesideorbehindinmostinteriorsceneswhileaportraitofthedeadfatheranda posterofthecrossareconspicuouslylitbyspotlights. 191.Kishi,“34nendoNihoneigakessan,”272. 192.Kishi,Nihon eiga yoshiki ko,95. 193.Hazumi,Eiga no dento,250. 194.Shimazaki,“Eiganogachonitsuite,”71. 195.Shimazaki,“Nihoneiganosatsueigijutsu(zoku),”8–9. 196.Nakano,“Gijutsushanoshimei,”80. 197.Fuwa,“Nihoneigagijutsunosusumubekimichi,”232. 198.Iijima,“Eiganogijutsutoseishin,”16. 199.Osaka,“Gijutsukenkyu,”44–45. 200.Shimazaki,“Eiganogijutsutoseishin,”30. 201.Shimazaki,“Nihoneiganosatsueigijutsu(zoku),”8–9. 202.MikiandShimazaki,“Satsueishatosakkaseishinnomondainitsuite,”13. 203.Shimazaki,“IsayamaSaburo,”129. 204.See Murakami Tadahisa, “Hoga katagata,” 10; Iwatsuki, “Shintai no ‘muryoku- sa’to‘koe’toshitenokenryoku,”108. 205.FurukawaTakahisa,Senjika no Nihon eiga,73. 206.Nornes,Japanese Documentary Film,95. 207.Keating,Hollywood Lighting from the Silent Era to Film Noir,238. 208.Aramaki,“Gonin no sekkoheinitsuite,”11–12. 209.MurakamiTadahisa,“Hogakatagata,”10. 210.IsayamaandShimazaki,“Gonin no sekkoheinosatsueigijutsuokataru,”12. 211.Ibid.,12. 212.Ibid.,11. 213.Ibid.
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214.Ibid. 215.MurakamiTadahisa,“Hogakatagata,”10. 216.Ibid. 217.“Angusutogishitokataru,”376. 218.Ibid. 219.Sawamura Tsutomu, “Gonin no sekkohei,” Eiga Hyoron 20.2 (February 1938), quotedinHirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi47,”75–76. 220.LaMarre,Shadows on the Screen,10. 221.Whissel,Picturing American Modernity,128. 222.Nye, American Technological Sublime, 43, 60. See also Whissel, Picturing American Modernity,129–30. 223.Guerin,A Culture of Light,18. 224.“GijutsukaisetsuEkibasha,”284,285. 225.Mimura,“Ekibashanokanso,”290. 226.Ibid. 227.Castle,“Ekibashasatsueikengakuki,”288–89. 228.Ibid. 229.Cecil B. DeMille’s Union Pacific (1939) was praised for a similar reason. The filmcriticNishimuraMasamiclaimed,“Itistrulyfavorablethatfilmshavebeen producedoutsideofstudiosintheselastcoupleofyears....MostAmericanfilms, withoutadoubt,werefallingdownintotheterribletechnology-is-the-star-ism, inwhichamplelightwassimplyprovidedfromtheceilingofeverystage”(NishimuraMasami,“Daiheigen,”76). 230.Eiga to Gijutsu12.4(December1940):192. 231.Ibid. 232.The director Yoshimura Kozaburo was ambivalent about bright lighting on Japanesefaces,though.Hewrotein1941,“Inclose-upsofthefacesofJapanese people,ahugeamountoflightisnecessaryinordertodisplaythedetailsoftheir blackhair.Asaresult,toomuchlightiscastonfaces,whichdoesnotmakeanice contrastwiththebackground.Lightingofjidaigekiisparticularlydifficultinthis sense.TherearemanyblackcolorsinsideoldJapanesehouses.Plus,oldJapanese hairstylesemphasizeblackhair.Therefore,theirfaceslookextremelywhite[in stronglighting].Itisdifficulttoreducetheamountoflightonlyontheirfaces” (“Eigatekisanpo,”70). 233.“Camera,rokuon,sochi:Zadankai,”38. 234.TanakaToshio,“Eigatekinabi,shu,kegare,”45. 235.TanakaToshio,“Fotogurafinoseikakutoishi,”16. 236.Tanaka Toshio, “Sokoku no utsukushisa,” 59; Tanaka Toshio, “Eigateki na bi, shu,kegare,”45. 237.Tsumura,“Shochikueigaron,”10–11. 238.Kido,“Kenzennarurenaiwaegaiteka,”31. 239.Taketomi,“Ofunaeigaryunoakarusanoshakumei,”60–61. 240.Furukawa Takahisa, Senjika no Nihon eiga, 123; Kido, “Fujin kyaku o wasureruna,”30. 241.SasakiTaro,“Katsudoshashinsatsueiho,”92,93. 242.Mimura,“Gureggutornado,”13.
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243.Keating,Hollywood Lighting from the Silent Era to Film Noir,237. 244.Kudo,Hariuddo kara Hiroshima e,88. 245.Kinema Shuho107(April29,1932):19. 246.Mimura,“Chokankoseipankuronoshutsugen,”64. 247.Mimura,“Cameramantoshitenotachibakara,”26. 248.Kinema Junpo,April21,1932,6. 249.Hirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi20,”52–53.pcLwasofficiallyestablishedon June1,1932,severaldaysafterthereleaseofNamiko. 250.Mori,“Omoikittagendaimononikyakushoku,”23. 251.“Namikoomeguruzadankai,”20. 252.TanakaJunichiro,Nihon eiga hattatsu shi II,265–67. 253.Kinema Shuho115(June24,1932):11. 254.Kinema Shuho113(June10,1932):8. 255.“NihonsaidainotokisatsueijoShashinKagakuKenkyujo(pcL),”14–15. 256.Miyajima,Tenno to yobareta otoko,26. 257.Eiga to Gijustu,January1935,quotedinHirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi31,”54. 258.Kudo,Hariuddo kara Hiroshima e,126–27. 259.Miyajima,Tenno to yobareta otoko,46. 260.MimuraandKawamoto,“Satsueihodan,”15. 261.Shinohara,“Horoki,”190. 262.Otsuka,“Horoki,”247. 263.Fujiki,“MultiplyingPersonas,”316. 264.In comparison, in the remake of Journal of Wandering (Horoki, Naruse Mikio, 1962),TakamineHideko,aTohostarofthetime,requestedthatYasumotoJun, cinematographerofthefilm,notphotographherfacebeautifully,accordingto SatoTadao(“Horoki,”n.p.).TheshotofFumiko(Takamine)tearfullygivingup Date,thewomanizer,isofherback,kneelingdownonthefloor,almostinasilhouette,litbythesinglelightbulbontheceiling.Wedonotseeherface.Fumiko doesnotswallowpoisoninthisversion,andthelowestpointofherlifeisdepictedasherarrestwithaprostituteatacheaphotel.Fumikohadbeenwritingby asinglecandlelight.Withthesinglediegeticlightingsourcefromthelowerside, darkshadowsarecastonherface. 265.QuotedinKanai,“Bungakutojendazenkidai7kai,”n.p. 266.HasegawaKazuo,Watashi no niju nen,179–80. 267.Ibid. 268.Chojiro Fan1.4(April1938):34. 269.Ogle,“Deep-FocusCinematography,”24. 270.Salt,Film Style and Technology,222–23,265. 271.Ogle,“Deep-FocusCinematography,”24–25. 272.Harpole, “Ideological and Technological Determinism in Deep-Space Cinema Images,”15,17. 273.Ibid., 19. It should be noted that there are contested views on the relationshipbetweentechnologyandstyle.Ogle,withhisrathertechnologicaldeterminist viewpoint,insiststhatevenwhenEastmanintroducedPlus-x andthenSuperxx PanchromaticNegativeinOctober1938withnoticeablyhighercontrastwithfiner grain,whichbecame“theHollywoodstandardforsomeyears,”manycinematog-
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raphers,havinggrownaccustomedtoworkingwithsofttonalityfilms,experienced “realdifficultyinlightingsetsproperlyforthenewfilm”(“Deep-FocusCinematography,”24).MikeCormackdisagreeswithOglebecause“thereisnonecessarylinkbetweenimprovedlighting,fasterstockandhigh-keyeffects.”Cormack writes,“Eastman’sPlusxin1938...greatlyimproveddefinitionandbecamethe Hollywoodstandardforsomeyears”(Ideology and Cinematography in Hollywood, 1930–39,83). 274.Tsuchiya Kiyoyuki, “Uguisu” [Bush Warbler], Eiga to Gijutsu, December 1938, quotedinHirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi37,”71.KijimaYukioalsowrote,“MimuraAkiraachievedbeautifultonesinHumanity and Paper Balloon,buthiswork inthisfilm[Writing Class]istoocarelessandlackingcharm”(“Tsuzurikata kyoshitsu,”144). 275.Lang,“ThePurposeandPracticeofDiffusion,”193. 276.Tsuchiya, “Uguisu” [Bush Warbler], quoted in Hirai, “Soko Nihon eiga satsuei shi37,”71. 277.“15nendoNihoneiga(geki)nosatsueigijutsudanmen,”86. 278.Okada,“Nihonnonaitoretofirumuseizoshokinojijo(ge),”12–15. 279.Tamuraetal.,“Eigagijutsu,”31–32. 280.Sugiyama Kohei, Eiga to Gijutsu, January 1942, quoted in Hirai, “Soko Nihon eigasatsueishi56,”73. 281.Nishikawa,“Eigagijutsunosaishuppatsu,”42–43. 282.Ibid. 283.Hirai,Jitsuroku Nihon eiga no tanjo,269. 284.Ibid. 285.Nishikawa,“Umanogenzo,”253. 286.Ibid.,255. 287.Ibid. 288.Ibid. 289.Tamura,“Nihoneiganogijutsu,”18. 290.OguraKinji,“Umanosatsueinitsuite,”58. 291.Tachibana,“UmanosatsueioMimuraAkiranikiku,”101. 292.Mimura,“Satsueigishinoyokyosurumono,”104. 293.Mimura,“Saikinnoamerikaeigaomite,”20. 294.Ibid. 295.Sobchack,“The Grapes of Wrath(1940),”609–10. 296.Ibid.,609–10,612. 297.Yamane,“YamaneSadaonootanoshimizeminar,”n.p. 298.Sobchack,“The Grapes of Wrath(1940),”602. 299.Ibid.,605. 300.Ibid.,609. 301.Keating,Hollywood Lighting from the Silent Era to Film Noir,237. 302.Ibid.,240. 303.Shimazaki,“Nihoneiganosatsueigijutsu(zoku),”8–9. 304.Shimazaki,“Eiganogijutsutoseishin,”30. 305.Toland,“Realismfor‘CitizenKane,’”54. 306.Ibid.
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307.Ibid. 308.Ibid. 309.Ibid.,55. 310.Ibid.SeealsoToland,“UsingArcsforLightingMonochrome,”558–59,588. 311.Ogle,“Deep-FocusCinematography,”25–26. 312.VictorMilner,“Superxxfor‘Production’Camerawork,”American Cinematographer,November1941,269,quotedinOgle,“Deep-FocusCinematography,”25. 313.Ogle,“Deep-FocusCinematography,”25–26. 314.Keating,Hollywood Lighting from the Silent Era to Film Noir,237. 315.Ibid. 316.Milner,“Supaxxnoatarashiyoho,”61–63. 317.Kawamoto,“Rudorufumatenokakushintekishuho,”50–51. 318.MimuraandKawamoto,“Satsueihodan,”14–15. 319.Ibid.,15. 320.Mimura,“Atarashikicamerawaku,”27. 321.SugiyamaHeiichi,Eiga hyoron shu,123. 322.Ibid.,124. 323.Ibid.,125. 324.Aikawa Kusuhiko, “Kantokusha Yamanaka Sadao shi” [Director Mr. Yamanaka Sadao],Kinema Junpo,May11,1932,quotedinChiba,Kantoku Yamanaka Sadao, 33–34. 325.TsumuraHideo,“Ninjo kamifusen,”Eiga to hihyo(1939),quotedinChiba,Kantoku Yamanaka Sadao,480. 326.YamaguchiTorao,“SenkushaNishikawaTsuruzotoeigashomei,”12. 327.Isayama,“‘Cameraman’shikokiroku,”339. 328.“Satsueikantokuseidonokakuritsuo,”90. 329.Mimura,“Hawai Mare oki kaisennosatsueinisshiyori,”62. 330.Nornes,Japanese Documentary Film,108. 331.Mimura,“Hawai Mare oki kaisennosatsueinisshiyori,”62. 332.Ibid.,64. 333.Ibid.;TanakaToshio,“Hawai Mare oki kaisentosatsueikantokuto,”54. 334.Publicity materials of The War at Sea from Hawaii to Malaya, quoted in the bookletfortheHawai Mare oki kaisenDvD(Tokyo:Toho,2007). 335.Shimazaki,“Satsueikantokunitsuite,”75. 336.Ibid. 337.Ibid.,75–76. 338.Shimazaki,“Satsueikantokuseinohitsuyojoken,”104–5. Conclusion
1.Harrington,“TheTechniquesofKazuoMiyagawa,”40. 2.Watanabe,Eizo o horu,58. 3.Watanabe,“KurosawaAkira,MiyagawaKazuo,soshiteYojimbo,”81. 4.Watanabe,Eizo o horu,178. 5.“MiyagawaKazuo,”OtakeToruetal.,Eizo kenkyu bessatsu,Miya-13. 6.Harrington,“TheTechniquesofKazuoMiyagawa,”41. 7.Watanabe,Eizo o horu,182.
notestoconcLusion 325
8.OtaYoneo,“Kyotojidaigekieigagijutsunokeisho,”103. 9.Miyagawa,Watshi no eiga jinsei 60nen,195. 10.OtaYoneo,“Monokuromunojidai,”18. 11.Watanabe,Eizo o horu,341. 12.Ibid.,334. 13.Miyagawa’spersonalnote,MiyagawaKazuoArchive,3MastKyoto. 14.MiyagawastartedhiscareeratNikkatsu’sDaishogunstudioinKyotoonMay15, 1926(Watanabe,Eizo o horu,63,312).ItwasNikkatsu’sstudiopolicyatthattime that neophyte cinematographers start their apprenticeships in darkrooms. He continuedworkingatNikkatsuafterthecompanymoveditsKyotostudiotoUzumasain1928andafterNikkatsuwascombinedwithShinkoandDaitointoone company,Daiei,in1942.“MiyagawaKazuo,”OtakeToruetal.,Eizo kenkyu bessatsu,Miya-5–6,Miya-16. 15.Oguri,“Renzunomushi,”67. 16.Miyagawa,Watshi no eiga jinsei 60nen,38–39.Harringtonreportedin1960thatMiyagawawas“anavidreaderofAmerican Cinematographer”(“TheTechniquesof KazuoMiyagawa,”52). 17.O-Chiyo gasa[O-Chiyo’s Umbrella]screenplay,preservedatMiyagawaKazuoArchive,3MastKyoto,1–1,1–7. 18.Uekusa,Hikari to kage no eigashi,67;Watanabe,Eizo o horu,201. 19.Miyagawa,“Watashinocameramanjinsei,”3. 20.Oguri,“Renzunomushi,”67. 21.Shishi no za[Place for Leo]productionplan,Ito Daisuke Bunko[ItoDaisukeCollection],Box29,theMuseumofKyoto. 22.Sukurin Suteji174(September6,1949):n.p. 23.Anewspaperclipping.Norecordforcitation.Ito Daisuke Bunko,Box20,theMuseumofKyoto. 24.“HayakawaSesshujijoshoden(ge),”22. 25.TheperiodofpostwaroccupationofJapanbeganwiththeJapanesesurrenderto theAlliesinAugust1945andcontinueduntilsigningoftheSanFranciscoPeace TreatyinApril1952.Australia,theU.S.S.R.,China,andtheUnitedStatesofficially administeredtheoccupation,butforallintentsandpurposesitwasaU.S.-run operation. 26.Hirano,Mr. Smith Goes to Tokyo,4–6. 27.“Amerikaorai,”20–21. 28.Dower,Embracing Defeat,69,81. 29.“Hariuddokonjaku,”23. 30.MakinoMasahiroetal.,“Nipponnoongakueigaokataru,”206. 31.Sasaki Atsushi and Tanji, Utaeba tengoku Nippon kayo eiga derakkusu, 40–41, 43–44. 32.Miyagawa,“Shikisaieiganosatsueinihitokoto,”44. 33.“MiyagawaKazuo,”OtakeToruetal.,Eizo kenkyu bessatsu,Miya-16. 34.Miyagawa,“Watashinocameramanjinsei,”12. 35.OtaYoneo,“Monokuromunojidai,”20. 36.Watanabe,Eizo o horu,335–37. 37.Ibid.
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38.Ibid.,38. 39.Miyagawa,Watshi no eiga jinsei 60nen,195–96. 40.Ibid. 41.Yoshimoto,“Ozu.” 42.Ibid. 43.Watanabe,Eizo o horu,91;OtaYoneo,“Monokuromunojidai,”21. 44.Miyagawa,Watshi no eiga jinsei 60nen,60;Oguri,“Renzunomushi,”72. 45.QuotedinWatanabe,Eizo o horu,103. 46.Watanabe,Eizo o horu,43. 47.Rashomon screenplay, n.p., preserved at Miyagawa Kazuo Archive, 3 Mast Kyoto. 48.Miyagawa,“Watashinocameramanjinsei,”8. 49.Miyagawa was amazed that Eisenstein had already done this in Viva Mexico!, thefilmthathewatchedmuchlater(Miyagawa,Watshi no eiga jinsei 60nen,61; Oguri,“Renzunomushi,”72). 50.Watanabe,Eizo o horu,92. 51.OtaYoneo,“Monokuromunojidai,”21. 52.MiuraMitsuo,“Kawanakajima kassensatsueikirokudanpen,”44. 53.Ibid.,45. 54.Watanabe,Eizo o horu,58–59. 55.OtaYoneo,“Monokuromunojidai,”23;Miyagawa,Watshi no eiga jinsei 60nen,82. 56.Oguri,“Renzunomushi,”76. 57.OtaYoneo,“Monokuromunojidai,”23. 58.Ibid.,20. 59.“Ototo,”57. 60.Ugetsu monogatari (Ugetsu) screenplay, n.p., preserved at Miyagawa Kazuo Archive,3MastKyoto. 61.Miyagawa,“Watashinocameramanjinsei,”10. 62.Oguri,“Renzunomushi,”77–78. 63.Harrington,“TheTechniquesofKazuoMiyagawa,”40–41. 64.Ibid.,41. 65.Kagi [Odd Obsession] screenplay, a-1, preserved at Miyagawa Kazuo Archive, 3 MastKyoto. 66.Ibid.,a-2. 67.Ibid.,c-1. 68.Ibid.,b-7. 69.Ibid.,c-3. 70.Ibid.,c-2–c-3. 71.Ibid.,e-13. 72.Miyagawa,“Shikisaieiganosatsueinihitokoto,”44. 73.Watanabe,Eizo o horu,273. 74.Miyagawa used a 75 mm lens as the standard for Spider Tattoo (363 shots of 422totalshots).Heuseda50mmlensforthe“smallnumberof”exteriorscenes inorderto“haveamorespaciousfeelingandatmospherictonesincontrasttothe continuouslyintenseinteriorscenes”(“MiyagawaRepoto:Irezumi”[Miyagawa report:Spider Tattoo],preservedatMiyagawaKazuoArchive,3MastKyoto).
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75.“MiyagawaKazuo,”OtakeToruetal.,Eizo kenkyu bessatsu,Miya-18–19. 76.Irezumi [Spider Tattoo] screenplay, a-10–a-11, for instance, preserved at MiyagawaKazuoArchive,3MastKyoto. 77.“MiyagawaRepoto:Irezumi”[Miyagawareport:Spider Tattoo],preservedatMiyagawaKazuoArchive,3MastKyoto. 78.Naremore,More Than Night,186–90. 79.ThefirstcolorfilminJapanwasmadeatShochiku,Carmen Goes Home(Karumen kokyo ni kaeru,KinoshitaKeisuke),in1951. 80.Tanizaki,“O-Tsuyagoroshi,”506. 81.Irezumiscreenplay,earlyversion,e-14,preservedatMiyagawaKazuoArchive,3 MastKyoto. 82.Ibid.,c-23–c-24. 83.Ibid.,c-23–c-24. 84.Ibid.,c-25–c-26. 85.“MiyagawaKazuo,”OtakeToruetal.,Eizo kenkyu bessatsu,Miya-17. 86.Mimura,“Beikokuniokerushikisaieiga,”61. 87.OtaYoneo,“Monokuromunojidai,”21. 88.Oguri,“Renzunomushi,”78. 89.Yoshino,“‘Ineiraisan’niyoseteII,”15. 90.Ibid.
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Index
Absolutecinema,128,162–63,169 Abstraction,244–45 Actingstyle,22;transitionin,110 Actor’s Revenge, An(Yukinojo henge),105–10, 176,302n161 Advertising,87–88,122 Aesthetics:Benjaminand,213–14;Japanese,2,12–14,119,200,207,219,228,256, 261,263–65,267–68,280;modern,68;of shadow,1–14,175–76,192,195,200–254, 256,260–61,263,279–81 Affect,88,91,110 Agency,14,89 Agfafilm,212,313n63 Aikawa,Kusuhiko,249 Aizen katsura.SeeTree of Love, The Akeleycamera,16 Akeyuku mura.SeeVillage at Dawn, A Algiers,206 Alliedoccupation,259–60,270 American Cinematographer,183–84,206, 215–16,239,248,255 Americanism,228 Americanization,23,32,230 AmericanSocietyforCinematographers(asc),179,209,216,235,239,255, 290n96,318n141 Americanwayoflife,260 Ando,Sadao,141–42 Angst,Richard,212–13,221,226 Aoshima,Junichiro,17,215,288n50,311n153 Appropriation,288n57
Aramaki,Yoshiro,220 Architecture:andcinema,209,211,231, 320n172;ofJapan,1,12,42,193,207,209, 211,214,228;ofKyoto,257,260,270,273 Arima,Ineko,308n117 Ariyoshi,Ataru,211 Army,220 Arnold,John,215–16 Artcinema,255 Artoflightmovement(shomei geijutsu undo),159 Aruga,Teru,203 Asakawa,Kiyoshi,86 Asakusa,6,20,64,92,150,304n24 Asano,Shiro,6 Atarashiki tsuchi.SeeNew Earth Atsuta,Yuharu,57,164–65,251 Audience,7,25,39,42,45,48,54–55,64, 89,91,93,122,139,197,200,204,213,246, 258–59;femaleaudience,9–10,84–118, 121,124,177,211,229.See alsoSpectatorship Auteur,13,77,141 Authenticity,108,160,163,165,197,202,210 Azuma,Takao,313n63 Bailey,John,255 Balanced Pressure Surgery, The(Heiatsu kaikyo jutsu),317–18n140 Balázs,Béla,128 Banba no Chutaro: Mabuta no haha.See Chutaro of Banba: Mother of Memory
Bando,Junosuke,125,131,133 Bando,Tsumasaburo,82–83,93–94,124 Barnes,George,231,238 Battle of Kawanakajima, The(Kawanakajima kassen),2–3,186,190–95,198,200, 203,228,267,316n125 Baxter,Peter,289n80 BaxterandWraycamera,6 Bean,JenniferM.,116 Belasco,David,27,70–72,79 BellandHowellcamera,16 Bending,204,211,219,227–28,254 Benedict,Ruth,297n31 Benjamin,Walter,116,161,213–14 Benshi,47–48,61,64–65,134–35 Bentenkozo.SeeKid Benten Berlin,139 Berlin: Symphony of a Great City(Berlin: Die Sinfonie der Grosstadt),162,164,310n142 Bernardi,Joanne,283n6 Best Years of Our Lives, The,230 Bicycle Thieves(Ladri di biciclette),264 Biography,25,224,255–57 “BlindBeast”(“Moju”),135 Blindness,132–34,135–37,140 Blocking,187,277 Blonde Venus,3,204–5 Blue Storm(Seiran),48 Body,19,93,115,135–36,137,214,306n89, 310n149;HayashiChojiroand,105–7, 110,112–14;OnoeMatsunosukeand,69; remappingof,134,147–56;SessueHayakawaand,31–32,116;Valentinoand,90, 111 Bolero,185 Bordwell,David,6,27,47,69,101,142,145, 148,151,156,165 “BrightandcheerfulShochikucinema” (akaruku tanoshi Shochiku eiga),2,11, 25,67,82,95,101,119–21,125,141–42,165, 167–68,170,175,184,189,199–200,202–3, 228–29,280.See alsoKamata-cho;Shochiku Broken Blossoms,291n123 Buckland,Wilfred,27 Bullets(Hodan),215 Bunkaeiga(culturalfilm),208,215.See also Culturalspirit
366 inDex
Burch,Nöel,5,10,24–25,88,151 Buto(dance-likestylizedmovements),69 Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, The(Das Kabinett des Dr. Caligari),161 Camera,1,6,16,32–33,132,164,251–52,258, 264 Capitalism,8–27,56–57,64,66,68,77,80, 87–91,110,115,119–21,124,134,141,147, 168,171,202,280,318n145 Carbonarclamp,34,42–43,80,98,100–101, 136,238,309n128,317n130,317n140 CarlZeissBiotarlens,230 CarlZeissTessarlens,317n130 Carmen Goes Home(Karumen kokyo ni kaeru),328n79 “Caterpillar”(“Imomushi”),135 Cazdyn,Eric,21 Censorship,19,87,133,147,176,197–99,203, 296n4,314n84 Cezanne,Paul,264 Chanbara(sword-fightingperioddrama), 67,73,82.See alsoJidaigeki Chaplin,Charlie,141,165 Chapman,George,16 Cheat, The,29,36–37,50,72,291n116 Chiaki,Minoru,265 ChibaBank,59 Chigo no kenpo.SeeKid’s Sword Fight Chihaya,Akiko,85,95,121,125,131 Chikamatsu,Kyojiro,84 Chikyodai.SeeFoster Brothers China,6,12,21,44,147,198,219–20,225 China Night(Shina no yoru),198–99 Chuji’s Travel Journal(Chuji tabinikki), 78–80,84,304n21 Chushingura,49,73,292n126,293n151, 293n152,293n153 Chutaro of Banba: Mother of Memory (Banba no Chutaro: Mabuta no haha), 75–77 Cinemaofattractions,90 Cinematography Reader(Eiga satsueigaku dokuhon),17,179,205,207–8,229,318n141 Citizen Kane,246–48 CivilInformationandEducationSection (cie),259 “Clarityfirst,storysecond”(ichi nuke, ni
suji),2,4,47–51,69,73,79,121,142,205, 279,283n6 Class,34,70,125 Close-up,18,22,36,44,49,61–62,64–65, 73,75,78–80,82,94–95,97–98,102–8, 115–18,125,131,137–39,144,148,150,155, 168,175–79,184–85,187–89,194,221, 225–26,229–30,234,239,244–45,248, 270–72,278–79,306n89,310n149,312n25, 322n232 Colbert,Claudette,260 Colonialism,13,220,319n169 Color,3,60,100,160,162,257,263,268–69, 275–79 Colorfilm,277–79,281,328n79 Comedy,18,215–16,235 Commodity,21,24,56,65,87,90–91,93, 110–11,115,119,125,131,134,146,171,210, 259 Composition,17,182–83,187,190,195,219– 24,227,239,242,245–46,248–50,267, 270,277,292n124,293n144 Compson,Betty,51 Consumerism,10,21,24,88,90,111,115,120, 131,134,137,145–47,158,237 Cormack,Mike,323n273 Costume,88 Crosscutting,22,44,53,69,136–37,270.See alsoParallelediting Crossways(Jujiro),10–11,120–41,147,165 Cuckoo(Hototogisu),43–44,62,64,234–35 Culturalspirit(bunka seishin),8,200,210. See alsoBunkaeiga Daibosatsu Pass(Daibosatsutoge),305n53 Daiei(DaiNipponEigaSeisakuKabushikiGaisha),73,218,259,261,264,277, 326n14 Daigaku wa detakeredo.SeeI Graduated, But . . . DaiichiEiga,59 Daishogunstudio(Nikkatsu),57–59,74, 78,326n14 DaitoEiga,259,326n14 Dark Street, A(Yami no michi),61 Davis,DarrellWilliam,191–92,196,202–4 Dayfornight,191,195,262 Dazai,Yukimichi,84
Deepfocus,14,79,247,264–65,268,270, 276,280.See alsoDepthoffield Deepspace.SeeDepthoffield Delluc,Louis,116–17 DeMille,CecilB.,16,27–29,71–72,289n80, 322n229 Democracy,259–60 Denkikan,20,86 Denko to sono tsuma.SeeElectrician and His Wife, The Depthoffield,45,54,187,224,238,247–50, 264,267,270,277,292n124 deSica,Vittorio,264 Developmentoffilm,17,42,159,203,212, 229,235,240,253,268,313n63 Diary of the Northern Sea(Hokuyo nikki),215 Die Niebelungen,79 Dietrich,Marlene,3,207,221,258,283n8 Diffusiondisc(diffuser),236,238–39,242 Digital,1,281 Directionalityoflight,178–79,193,195,213, 221,275–76 Directorofphotography,251–54 Disabled Child(Katawabina),114 Discursivehistoryofcinema,11–12 Dishonored,207,258 Dissolve,131,162 Distribution,44,57,59,64,119–20,196–97, 258 Doane,MaryAnn,88 Docks of New York,9,51,53 Doctor Jekyll and Mr. Hyde,205,239 Documentary,12–13,191–92,195,201,214– 22,228,230–31,243,250,253,263–64,267, 269,279,317n140,321n187 Documentaryspirit(jissha-teki seishin), 217–22,231,240,242–43,245,248,252, 254,261–62,264–65,269,280 Domesticspace,156,159 Double Indemnity,270 Doubling,6–7 Doubleexposure,136 Dragnet Girl(Hijosen no onna),142,306n89 Dulac,Germaine,169 Dupontfilm,206,212 Earlycinema,135 Eastmancolor,277
inDex 367
EastmanKodak,16,205–6,212,230,239,277 EastmanPlus-x PanchromaticNegative film,247,313n63,323n273 EastmanSuperSensitivePanchromatic TypeTwoMotionPictureNegativefilm, 205–6,230,238 EastmanSuperxxPanchromaticNegative film,247–48,313n63,323n273 Edamasa,Yoshiro,6,50,285n22 Editing,17,20,49,65,69,80,105–6,122,131, 162,179,187;continuity,22,44 Edmund Kean: Prince among Lovers(Kean), 118,298n44 Edogawa,Rampo,135–36 Edo kaizoku den: Kageboshi.SeeRecord of an Edo Thief: The Shadow Monk Edoperiod(1603–1867),45,64,70,185 Education,cinemaand,208 Einstein,Albert,223 Eisenstein,Sergei,327n49 Eisner,Lotte,284n14 Electrician and His Wife, The(Denko to sono tsuma),19 Elsaesser,Thomas,159–60,162–64 Emperorsystem,68,197 Emulsion,101,238,247–48,265–66,301n135 Epstein,Jean,116,118 Euclid,223 Exhibition,20–21,23,57,64–65,119,122–23, 196–97.See alsoExhibitor Exhibitor,24,64–65,67,77,280.See also Exhibition Exoticism,3,259–61,268,277–80 Export,16;ofJapanesecinema,21–22,55, 126–27,258–59,261,277,280,319n169 Expressivity,9,13,24,44,48,62,64–65,71, 101,119–20,131,139 Eye,70,95,98,102–5,108–12,115,120,128, 132–37,139,159,185,195,236,263,270.See alsoClose-up;Facialexpression;Vision Eyemocamera,16 Facialexpression,39,44,105,139 Fairbanks,Douglas,Sr.,16,69,75 FamousPlayers-LaskyCorporation,28 Fanck,Arnold,212 Fanculture,85–118,120,176–77 Fanmagazine,85–86
368 inDex
Farewell of Nanko(Nanko ketsubetsu),50 Farrar,Geraldine,29–30 Fascism,212,214,320n175 Father(Otosan),18,55 Female Genealogy(Onnakeizu,1934),189 Female Genealogy(Onnakeizu,1942),186– 89,198,200,315n95 Feminization,ofHayashiChojiro,93,114 Femmefatale,270,299n83 Feudalism,17,81 FilmAssociationofGreaterJapan(Dai NihonEigaKyokai),205–6,312n84 FilmLaw(1939),196–200,208,314n84, 318n145 Filmnoir,270 Filmstock,191,196,218,239–40,242,247, 265,267,313n63 Filter,192,242,253,268,292n126,313n63 Fingerprint,135,149 “Fingerprints”(“Shimon”),150 First Step Ashore(Joriku daiippo),9,51, 53–54 FirstWorldWar.SeeWorldWarI Five Scouts(Gonin no sekkohei),219–22, 224,229 Flamboyantmethod,306n74 Flash,298n44,306n74 Flashback,31,36,102,137,187,270,312n25 Floating Bridge of a Dream, A(Yume no ukihashi),47 Fluorescentlamp,269–70,272–73 “FloweringTokyo”(“HananoTokyo”),157 Ford,John,141,223,242 Fordism,65 Formalism,265 For Mother(Hahashiro),215 Foster Brothers(Chikyodai),43 France,90,116–18,126,211,258 Frenchimpressionistfilm,118,122,280 FrenchIndochina,253 FrenchNewWave,255 Freund,Karl,164,311n153 F-stop,48–49,230,265–69,276–77, 293n148,313n63 Fuji,Mineo,118 Fujifilm,239–40,265,267 Fujii,Jinshi,197 Fujiki,Hideaki,50,60–62,200,237
Fujimori,Seikichi,170 Fujiwara,Kozaburo,122 Fukiya,Katsumi,114–15 Fukushima,Shinnosuke,203 Furukawa,Roppa,19,60,117 Fury,216 Fushimi,Naoe,79,110 Futari Shizuka,62 Fuunjoshi.SeeHistory of the Fuun Castle Fuwa,Suketoshi,208,218 Fuyushima,Taizo,95,104,112 Gacho(tonesoflighting),164,179,194, 218–19,229 Gaffer,209,251,253 Gakusei romansu: Wakaki hi.SeeStudent Romance: Days of Youth Galileo,223 Gance,Abel,118 Gangsterfilm,306n89 Gardner,WilliamO.,132,304n24 Garmes,Lee,204–5,221,258,316n125 Gate of Hell(Jigokumon),277–78 Gaudio,Gaetano,182–83 Gaynor,Janet,97 Gaze,31,90,102,112–13,115,152–54,166, 169,270,272–73,275,279,306n89 Gekka no kyojin.SeeMad Sword under the Moon Gendaigeki(contemporarydrama),61, 67–69,72,87,101,122,141,165–66,175, 296n1,296n11,299n74 Gender,118,125;hierarchyof,90;lighting and,97 General Mobilization in Satsunan(Satsunan sodoin),104–5 Genre,9,65,67–68,70,73,77,82,84–85, 129,139,147,159,212,215–17,219–20,222, 225,227,247,249,258,320n172 Geography,208–9 GeorgeEastmanHouse,30 Germanexpressionism,10,79,122–23,127– 28,160–62,244,310n136 Germany,79,120,128,142,146,149–52,155, 160–62,164–66,186,211–13,257–58,261, 280,284n14,289n82,309n134,319n168, 319n169 Gerow,Aaron,11–13,20–21,23–24,64,67,
118,122–23,132,133–35,201–2,284n15, 316n108 Gin-nokoshi(leavingsilver),268.See also Developmentoffilm Ginza,146,157,210,299n75,308n116 Glamorization,10,13,102–15,131,142,175– 77,181,184–89,192,194–95,216,221,225, 229,246–47,312n25 Glennon,Bert,205,224 Godard,Jean-Luc,255 Golden Monster(Konjikiyasha),43,87, 299n75 Goldwyn,Samuel,242 Goebbels,Joseph,320n172 Gonin no sekkohei.SeeFive Scouts Gonzalez,Myrtle,62 Gonza, the Spearman(Yari no Gonza),85 Goro Masamune koshi den.SeeStory of the Filial Child Goro Masamune, The Gosho,Heinosuke,100–101 Gradation,193,205,212,215,219,268, 293n144,309n134 Grand Illusion, The(La Grande Illusion),183 Grapes of Wrath, The,242–45 GreatDepression,147,242,296n9 GreatKantoEarthquake,8,18,22–23,48, 54,56,58,67–68,84,146,292n126,307n91 Gregory,Carl,231 Griffith,D.W.,22,231,291n123 Grodal,Torben,33–34 Grune,Karl,120,128,139 Gubijinso.SeePoppy Guerin,Frances,152,223 Guide to the Latest Science of Photography VI, A(Saishin shashin kagaku taikei dai 6 kai),229–30 Gunning,Tom,310n149 Haha.SeeMother Hahashiro.SeeFor Mother Haha o kowazu ya.SeeMother Should Be Loved, A Hall,Hal,206 Hall,Stuart,7 Hamamura,Yoshiyasu,240 Hanabishi-kai(Flowerandarrowgroup), 92 Hanabusa,Taneta,39
inDex 369
Hanabusa,Yuriko,22 Hanamura,Teijiro,215 Hand,125,131,136–38,142–45,148,155, 162–63,306n89,310n149.See alsoHaptic; Tactility;Touch Hansen,Miriam,4,6,17,20,24,89–90,92, 111,213–14 Haptic,135–36,162–63.See alsoHand;Tactility;Touch Hara,Setsuko,308n117,319n169 Harada,Korei,257 Haragei(refrainedactingstyle),260 Harootunian,Harry,6–7,126,134,209–10 Harpole,CharlesH.,238 Harrington,CliffordV.,255,270 Hasegawa,Kazuo,8,12,105–6,118,174–89, 193–96,198–200,229,237,251,260.See alsoHayashi,Chojiro Hasegawa,Shin,74–75 Hasegawa,Shuko,114 Hasumi,Chiyoo,110 Hasumi,Shigehiko,141–42 Hatano,Mitsuo,138–39 Hawaii,30–32 Hawai Mare oki kaisen.SeeWar at Sea from Hawaii to Malaya, The Hayakawa,Sessue,30–32,101,116–18,259, 289n87,291n116 Hayashi,Chojiro,8–10,12,84–121,123–24, 140,142,159,173–75,184,192,227,235, 237–38.See alsoHasegawa,Kazuo Hayashi,Chozaburo,88,92 Hayashi,Fumiko,236 Hayashi,Sachiko,114–15 Hazumi,Tsuneo,93–94,217,313n58 Heart of Youth, The,33–34,62–63 Hebihimesama.SeeSerpent Princess Heiatsu kaikyo jutsu.SeeBalanced Pressure Surgery, The Hesse,Herman,208 Hidden Pearls, The,30–32,39,41 Highangleshot,110,130,187,191 Hijosen no onna.SeeDragnet Girl Hikari ni tatsu onna.SeeWoman Who Stands in Light Hirano,Yoshimi,252 Hirohito,50–51 Hiroishi,Tsuneo,114
370 inDex
Hiroshige,248 History of the Fuun Castle(Fuunjoshi),102 Hitodenashi.SeeHuman Beast Hodan.SeeBullets Hoffman,Carl,212 Hokuyo nikki.SeeDiary of the Northern Sea Hollywood,6,8–9,12–66,69,75–77,85, 87,91–92,95,97–98,100–104,110–11, 121,141–42,147,150–52,165–66,175,179, 181–85,192–93,197–99,201–31,234–47, 249,251–54,257–63,270,277,279,280, 283n8,316n124,317n138,319n167,320n172, 321n190 HomeMinistry,87,147–48,198–99,218, 220,296n4,312n84 Honolulu,32 Hori,Kyusaku,59 Horoki.SeeJournal of Wandering Horse, The(Uma),240–45 Hoshi,Tetsuroku,204–5 Hototogisu.SeeCuckoo Howe,JamesWong,206–7,289n87 Hughes,Emery,277 Hull,DavidStewart,320n172 Human Beast(Hitodenashi ),108 Humanity and Paper Balloon(Ninjo kamifusen),246,248–49,324n274 Hybridity,202–3,229–30,254 Ibuki,Eido,85 Ichikawa,Kon,14,268–69 Identification,163 Identity:American,223;Japanese,4–6,146, 202,208,259,281;politicsof,5–6;racial, 31–32 Ideologicalapparatus,200 Igarashi,Yoshikuni,136,147,149 I Graduated, But . . .(Daigaku wa detakeredo),163 Iijima,Haruo,176 Iijima,Tadashi,218 Ikeda,Gishin,43 Ikenaga,Hirohisa,317n140 Illusionofpresence,246–49,264,267 Imitation.SeeMimicry Imperialism,12,68,146,200,280 Inagaki,Hiroshi,262 Ina no Kantaro.SeeKantaro of Ina
Incandescenttungstenlamp,98,100–101, 108,118,238,316n125,317n140 Ince,ThomasH.,289n87 InformationBureau,186,196 InformationDisseminationSection,259 Inn in Tokyo, An(Tokyo no yado),308n122 Inoue,Masao,122 Inoue,Shigemasa,58 In Praise of Shadows(“Ineiraisan”),1–2, 209,269 Internationalfilmfestival,220,255,258,278 Internationalmarket,21–22,258,261,280 Intertitle,22,77,82,102,104,123,132,137 Intolerance,22 Inuzuka,Minoru,91,94,96,98 Invisibility,13 Irezumi.SeeSpider Tattoo Irie,Takako,176,178 Isayama,Saburo,59,203,219–22,251 Ishimaki,Yoshio,123 Itakura,Fumiaki,64,77,82 Italianneorealism,264–65 Ito,Daisuke,26,39,58,77–80,82,259,298n51 ItoEigaKenkyujo,78 Ito,Takeo,98,184–85 Iwabuchi,Kiichi,240 IwanamiPress,208 Iwasaki,Akira,65–66,127–28,161–62,167, 310n142,318n145 I Was Born, But . . .(Umarete wa mitakeredo),163 Izawa,Ichiro,221 Izumi,Kyoka,62 Jacobs,Lea,27–30,42 JapaneseAssociationofFilmLighting (NihonEigaShomeiKyokai),251 JapaneseAssociationofFilmTechnology (NihonEigaGijutsuKyokai),181,203, 223,239 JapaneseNewWave,257 Japanesespirit,13,127–28,191,195,218, 297n31 Japanesetaste,226 JapanFilmDistributionCompany(Nihon EigaHaikyuKabushikiGaisha),59 JapanSocietyinNewYork,257 JesseL.LaskyFeaturePlayCompany,27
J-horror(Japanese-madehorror),281 Jidaigeki(perioddrama),9–10,58,64, 67–118,120–41,165,177,211,217,246,249, 251,256,258–59,261–62,280,299n83, 302n165,306n74,317n138,322n232;meiro (brightandcheerful),262 Jidaishosetsu(periodnovel),70 Jigokumon.SeeGate of Hell Jitsuroku Chushingura,297n30 Joan the Woman,29–30 Jobuboshi.SeeStar of Woman and Man Joriku daiippo.SeeFirst Step Ashore J.O.Studios,174,203,207,235 Journal of Wandering(Horoki,1935),236,248 Journal of Wandering(1962),323n264 Jujiro.SeeCrossways Kabuki,5,8–9,16,20,24–25,38–39,43–45, 49,54,60,64,66,68–70,85,87–88, 91–92,95,97,103–4,106,110–11,138,142, 176,199,202,227,252,259,276,303n1 Kabuki-za,39,45,112,292n126 Kaeriyama,Norimasa,47–48,287n31, 309n134,312n32 Kaes,Anton,139 Kagi.SeeOdd Obsession Kaikokuki.SeeRecord of the Ocean Country Kaita,Seiichi,225 Kaito Sajimaro.SeeSajimaro the Thief Kako,Zanmu,15,43,291n116 Kamata-cho(Kamatatone),25–26,47,51, 53–54,83,95,101,119–20,142,167–68, 303n1.See also“BrightandcheerfulShochikucinema”;Kamatastudio;Shochiku Kamatastudio(Shochiku),8–9,15–69,77, 82,85,87,93,95,98,100–101,119,124, 141,159,163,167,169,177,189,203,235, 299n74,301n133,301n134,307n91.See also “BrightandcheerfulShochikucinema”; Kamata-cho;Shochiku Kandinski,310n143 Kano,Ayako,88–89 Kano,Chiyoo,46 Kantaro of Ina(Ina no Kantaro),199 Karasawa,Hiromitsu,203 Karumen kokyo ni kaeru.SeeCarmen Goes Home Kasson,JohnF.,222
inDex 371
Kataoka,Chiezo,75,93,261–62 Katawabina.SeeDisabled Child Kawada,Yoshiko,60 Kawamoto,Masao,248 Kawanakajima kassen.SeeBattle of Kawanakajima, The Kawarazaki,Chojuro,250 Kawasaki,Kikuzo,190,192–93,203–4,216, 317n131 Keating,Patrick,28,60,71–72,97–98,102, 215,220,247–48,290n96 Keikoeiga(tendencyfilms),147,168,237 Kerry,Paul,30 Kichizo the Monk(Obo Kichizo),95 Kid Benten(Bentenkozo),114 Kido,Shiro,25–26,38–39,55–58,60,65,67, 82,87,93,101,119–20,159,197,199–200, 228–29,252 Kid’s Sword Fight(Chigo no kenpo),91,112, 175 Kikuchi,Kan,176 Kikuchi,Yuho,62 Kimura,Fujio,93 Kimura,Ihei,165 Kimura,Kinka,18 Kimura,Sotoji,169–70,236 Kinoshita,Chika,307n94,315n95 Kinoshita,Keisuke,328n79 Kinugasa,Teinosuke,2,10,72,85,93,97, 103–5,110,112,120–40,165,177,186,192, 240,277,302n165 Kirchner,ErnstLudwig,310n149 Kishi,Matsuo,167,217 Kiso,Juzaburo,112 Kitada,Akihiro,135 Kiyotomo,Hideo,127 Klieglspotlight(klieglight),27 Kobayashi,Fujie,90 Kobayashi,Ichizo,196–97 Kobayashi,Isamu,82,112 Kobe,91,108,112 Kogataeiga(homemovies),203 Kohitsuji.SeeLamb Koi no misshi.SeeSpy of Love Koi shiru koro.SeeSeason of Love, The Koi to bushi.SeeLove and Samurai Kokusuishugi(maintenanceofJapan’sculturalidentity),208
372 inDex
Kokutai(nationalpolity),197 Komatsu,Hiroshi,299n83 Komyo.SeeLight Kondo,Katsuhiko,184 KonishiCameraStore,6 Konjikiyasha.SeeGolden Monster Korea,21 Kosugi,Isamu,220–21,319n169 Kotani,Eiichi,39 Kotani,Soichi“Henry,”8,15–66,72,77,98, 101,230–31,252,279 Kozan no himitsu.SeeSecret of the Mine, The Kracauer,Siegfried,61,115–16,284n14 Kubo,Kazuo,191 Kubokawa,Ineko,237 Kubota,Tatsuo,92,112,129 Kurayami no Ushimatsu.SeeUshimatsu in the Dark Kurishima,Sumiko,19,34,44,60–61, 64–66,93,95,234 Kurosawa,Akira,13–14,255–56 Kurutta ichipeiji.SeePage of Madness, A Kurtz,Rudolf,161 Kutsukake Tokijiro,74–75 Kuwano,Michiko,226–27 Kyo,Machiko,263,272,274 Kyokaku harusamegasa.SeeYakuza Umbrella in Spring Rain Kyoto,16,18,47–48,55,57–59,67–68,70, 72,74,78,82–84,91–92,98,112,122,173– 74,204,207,235,256–58,261,268–70, 273,307n91,317n138,326n14 Kyugeki(perioddramaofKabukistyle), 22,46,48,69,73,78,82,297n30 Labor,18,21,56,68,119,133 Lady in the Lake,270 LaMarre,Thomas,11,13,115,222 Lamb(Kohitsuji),291n116 Lang,CharlesB.,Jr.,239 Lang,Fritz,146,150,216,310n149 La Roue,118 Last Laugh, The(Der Letzte Mann),120,126, 128,139,164 Late Mathias Pascal, The(Feu Mathias Pascal),118 Lee,Laila,61–63 Leicacamera,164
L’Herbier,Marcel,118 Li,Xianglan.SeeRi,Koran Light(Komyo),45 Lighting:artificial,6,22,43,48,61,108, 293n144;backlighting,29–30,32–34, 36,39,43–44,48–51,53–54,60–63,77, 79–80,83,97,102,105,108,177,181,185, 188,193,224,226,234,292n124,308n122, 312n25,319n167;effects,27–29,33–36, 39,72,220,234,270;electrical,2–4, 45,54,56,89,98,100,108,143,151–52, 155–59,164,166,169–71,174,182,210, 217,243,267,278,308n117,308n122; flat,15,24,43–45,47–53,62,64,82–83, 95,102,106,122,165–67,181,189,206, 220,258,272,299n83,310n136;high- key,27,33,38,53–54,60,82–83,94,102, 142,168,193,205,216,226,229–30,232, 236,238–40,242,258,262,279,311n153, 323n273;Kabuki-style,5,24–25,43–45, 49,54;Lasky,27,30–32,38–39,42,44, 71–72,288n50,297n36;low-key,3–4,12, 27,29–30,42,45,51,53,62,72–74,104, 106,142–43,145,148,190,193,201–23, 226,229–30,233,236,238,240–42,248– 49,256,258,269,275,278–80,306n86, 317n131,317n138,317n140;“precision,” 182–83;side,29,34,51,75,79,98,137,174, 179,181,191,222,262,269;source,80–81, 262;technician,251–52;three-point,9, 27–28,51,61,80,95,97–98,102–4,106, 114,175,184–85,189,193,225–27,234–37, 245–46,261–62;top,30,36,38,48–49, 98,106,108,181,221–22,231,234–35,241 Light of Compassion(Nasake no hikari),34, 36–38 L’Inhumaine,118 Lloyd,Harold,308n111 Love and Samurai(Koi to bushi),124 Love Parade, The,101,183 Lubitsch,Ernst,97,101,141,165,183–84, 205 Luminosity,31–32,53,115,136–37,140,160, 163 M,150,164 Mabuta no haha.SeeMother of Memory Madame Butterfly,21
Madamu to nyobo.SeeNeighbor’s Wife and Mine, The Mad Sword under the Moon(Gekka no kyojin),112 Maeda,Seiton,264 Makeup,61,88,95,101,112–14,126,177,198, 212,221,253,262,270 Makino,Masahiro,186–87,199,261–62, 315n95 Makino,Shozo,2,47–49,68–69,73,82–83, 122,124,205,283n6,297n30 MakinoProduction,26,58,68,122–24,204 Manchuria,21,146,196,319n169 Man I Killed, The,205 Manufacturedstimulus,10 Man Who Was Waiting, The(Matteita otoko),199 March, The(Shingun),167–68 MargaretHerrickLibrary,33,290n95 Mark of Zorro, The,16,75–77 Marks,LauraU.,162–63 Marukawa,Takeo,317n138 Marx,Leo,222 Massculture,8,24–25,68,70,141,145,147 MasumuraYasuzo,14,269,275–76 Masutani,Rin,203,229,235 Maté,Rudolph,277 Materiality,11,61,64,132,152,156,161,163 Matineeidol,85 Matsui,Chieko,115 Matsui,Junko,113 Matsui,Shoyo,18,45,292n126 Matsuyama,Iwao,134 Matteita otoko.SeeMan Who Was Waiting, The MaxFactor,61 Mayne,Judith,7 Mazdalamp,48,100–101,230,309n128, 316n125,317n140 Medicine,155–56,245,308n122 Meijigovernment,19,21,134,155 Méliès,George,69 Melodrama,10,34,44,53,167,171,181,188, 216,220,239,250,293n154,321n190 Metropolis,146 MgM,216 Midorikawa,Michio,2,34–35,39,203,207– 9,240,277,286n18,294n173,311n153
inDex 373
Mie,103,111,138 Miki,Shigeru,17,203,205–6 Militarism,12,196,200–202,221,226,252, 259–60,280 Milner,Victor,101,183–84,205,215,247–48 Mimasu,Aiko,187 Mimicry,115–16,128,162,201,215,227,246, 251,253 Mimura,Akira“Harry,”13,203,223–24, 230–31,234–54,279 MinistryofEducation,34,148,197,200, 208,220,256,321n187 MinistryofJustice,149 MinistryofLaw,215 MinistryofNavy,251 Mirror,30–32,80,177,267 Miscegenation,32 Misemono(sideshow),20 Mishima,255 Mishima,Yukio,255 Mississippi Gambler,277 Mitchellcamera,16,277 Miura,Mitsuo,3,100,177,179,181,184,186, 190–95,203,252,267,316n125 Miura,Rei,47–48 Miyagawa,Kazuo,14,255–79 Miyaguchi,Seiji,308n117 Miyajima,Yoshio,17,236 Miyamoto Musashi,262 Miyauchi,Shohei,118 Mizoguchi,Kenji,13–14,255–56,267 Mizumachi,Seiji,92–93,124 Mizuo,Sakuko,117 Mizuta,MiyaElise,210–11 Mizutani,Bunjiro,39 Mizutani,Yaeko,53 Mobara,Hideo,159,240 Mochida,Yonehiko,18 Moderngirl,237 Modernity,284n15;co-evalmodernity, 6–7,11,126,128,165,246;Japanand,5–9, 11–16,20,64–66,121,125,133–34,142,170, 201,269;Shochikuand,11–16,20,55–66, 280;spectatorshipand,88–118;technologyand,145,152,155–56,166,171,207, 214,223 Modernization,284n15;cinemaand,8,17,
374 inDex
20–21,65,68,139;Japanand,5,19,133–35, 145–46,171;Japanesetheaterand,88–89 Monte Carlo,101,183 Montgomery,Robert,270 Monumentalstyle,202 Morality,32,115,132,167,170,260 Mori,Iwao,56,65,68,197,234 Morin,Edgar,90–91 Morita,Fujio,47,73,103,283n6 Moritz,William,162 Morocco,183,205 Mother(Haha),56 Mother of Memory(Mabuta no haha),184 Mother Should Be Loved, A(Haha o kowazu ya),217 Mountainfilm(Bergfilm),212 Moussinac,Léon,118 Movietheater,27,157–58 Muguruma,Osamu,57 Mukai,Shunko,127 Mukojimastudio(Nikkatsu),39,48,62, 103,122,293n144,299n83 Murakami,Hisao,95 Murakami,Tadahisa,220 Murata,Minoru,17,22,39,296n11,311n153 Murayama,Junji,240 “MurderingO-Tsuya”(“O-Tsuyagoroshi”),275 Murnau,F.W.,120,258 Muromachi,Kyoji,127 Murphy,Joseph,89 Music,162,187 Musical,258,261 Nagahama,Keizo,26–27,59,319n168 Nagai,Shinichi,290n100 Nagasaki,150 Nagashi-me(sensualsidelongglance),9, 103–7,110–11,113–15,121,138,175,177–78, 195.See alsoClose-up;Eye;Mie;Onobashi Nagata,Masaichi,59,259,277 Nagatsuka,Takashi,319n167 Nagayo,Sensai,156 Nagoya,92,112 Nakadai,Tastuya,270–71 Nakamura,Ganemon,249
Nakamura,GanjiroI,88,92 Nakamura,GanjiroII,269 Nakano,Toshio,218 Nakatani,Sadayori,59 Nakazato,Kaizan,305n53 Namiko,231,234–35 Nanbu,Ayako,114 Nanbu,Keinosuke,316n125 Nani ga kanojo o so saseta ka.SeeWhat Made Her Do It? Nanko ketsubetsu.SeeFarewell of Nanko Nara,83 Naremore,James,277 Naruse,Mikio,185,323n264 Nasake no hikari.SeeLight of Compassion NationalFilmCenter,34,37,47,50,72,78, 102,132,290n102,291n116,297n22 Nationalfilmpolicy(eiga kokusaku),196– 97,200–202,221,254,314n84 Nationalism:cinemaand,127–28,191, 200–201,229,314n65;Japanand,68,196, 200–203,230,254,259–60 Nationality,6 Nationalmobilizationpolicy(kokka sodoin taisei),196 National-policyfilm,202,237 Nationhood,5,201 Natsukawa,Shizue,236–37 Naturalism,162,223,243,262 Nazis,199,319n169,320n172 Negotiation,7–8,13–14,24,80,110,119,165, 201,246,251,261,280–81,287n35,288n57 Neighbor’s Wife and Mine, The(Madamu to nyobo),101 Neonsign,3,146,164,210 New Earth, The(Atarashiki tsuchi,a.k.a.Die Tochter des Samurai),212,221,319n169 New Life, A(Shinsei),26,77 Newsfilm,225,247 New Year’s Eve(Sylvester),161–62 NewYorkInstituteofPhotography,231 Niblo,Fred,16 Nichirin.SeeRing of the Sun NihonEigaSha,203 Nikkatsu(NihonKatsudoShashinKabushikiGaisha),17,39,43,47–48,50,57–59, 62,68,74,78–79,98,103,122,174,203–4,
220,257,259,261,295n214,296n11,303n1, 307n91,317n140,326n14 “NinetoNine,”157 Ninjo kamifusen.SeeHumanity and Paper Balloon NipponeseSocietyforCinematographers (nsc,NihonEigaKameramanKyokai), 2,5,17,179,186,195,207,261,316n125 Nishikawa,Etsuji,240–41,243 Nishizumi sensha cho den.SeeTank Commander Nishizumi Noda,Kogo,61,157,168 Nogitsune Sanji.SeeSanji the Wild Fox Noh,259,263 Nomura,Akira,290n100 Nomura,Hiromasa,57,227 Nomura,Hiroshi,18 Nomura,Hotei,43–44,54–56,62,77,87, 189 Nornes,AbéMark,12,197–98,208,220,252 Nostalgia,213,223 Nye,David,222 Oba,Hideo,57 Obata,Toshikazu,51,57 Objectification,90,110–11,115–16,155,160, 177,272–73 Obo Kichizo.SeeKichizo the Monk Obora,Gengo,48 O-Chiyo’s Umbrella(O-Chiyo gasa),258 Odd Obsession(Kagi),269–76,279 Ofunastudio(Shochiku),219–20,226, 228–29,235,241 Ogawa,Yukiko,85,131 Ogle,Patrick,238,247,323n273 Ogura,Kinji,207,241 Ohashi,Koichiro,112 Oka,Joji,189,306n89 Okada,Munetaro,43 Okada,Tokihiko,146,149,299n74,308n122 Okada,Yoshiko,306n89,308n122 Okajima,Hisashi,47 Okamura,Akira,95 Okochi,Denjiro,58,74,78,93–94,174 Okudaira,Hideo,129 Okumura,Yasuo,60 O-Natsu Seijuro,98–99
inDex 375
180degreesystem,44 Onnagata,60–62,64–66,88,103,122, 299n83 Onnakeizu.SeeFemale Genealogy Onna to kaizoku.SeeWoman and Pirates Ono,Shichiro,3 Onobashi(extension),9,103–6,110,114–15, 121,175,177,185,195.See alsoClose-up; Nagashi-me Onoe,Kikugoro,142,292n126 Onoe,Matsunosuke,49–51,69,78–79,106 Opus I–IV,162,164 OrientalFilmCompany,231,234–35 Orochi,83 Orthochromaticfilm,100,263,301n135, 317n130,317n140 Osaka,16,19,58,64,82,91–92,112,176,210 Osaka,Soichi,218 Osaki,Koyo,62 Osanai,Kaoru,22,77–79,288n56 Oshidori utagassen.SeeSinging Lovebirds Ota,Saburo,190,192–93,195 Ota,Yoneo,256 Otake,Jiro,127 Otani,Takejiro,16,18–19,21–22,55,59,123, 170,290n104 Otherness,32 Otosan.SeeFather Ototo.SeeYounger Brother Otsuka,Kyoichi,23,236 Our Daily Bread,306n86 Over the Hill to the Poorhouse,321n190 Oyatoigaikokujin(hiredforeigner),19 Ozawa,Eitaro,268 Ozawa,Meiichiro,131 Ozu,Yasujiro,10,13,120,141–71,217,240, 321n190
ParamountPictures,27,51,62,240,283n8, 316n125 Paramounttone,26–27,159 Pathécamera,290n100 Patriarchy,111 PeacePreservationLaw(1925),68 PearlHarbor,228,251–52 Pépé le Moko,183 Performativity,88,116 Phenomenology,116–18,163,167 PhotoChemicalLaboratory(pcL),59, 173–74,203,234–36,323n249 Photogénie,116–18,159 Photogenist,264 Photography,146,164–65,182,290n96 Pickford,Mary,22 Place for Leo(Shishi no za),259–60 Plato,223 Poe,EdgarAllan,150 Point-of-viewshot,36,53,131,136–39,143, 146,153,170,234,273,306n89 Polaroidcamera,270,273 Poppy(Gubijinso),34,60–61 Primitivism,117 Producersystem,197 Productdifferentiation,124 Prokino,318n145 Propaganda,filmand,200,202,220,252, 310n149,320n172 Publicsphere,156,159 Puppy Love,62 Purefilmmovement(jun’eigageki undo), 20–24,42,55–56,77,128,288n56,312n32
Race,31–32,117–18 Raft,George,185 Raine,Michael,308n111,314n124 Rashomon,14,255,258,260,265–67 Rationalization,9,24–25,54–59,65,119, Page of Madness, A(Kurutta ichipeiji),121– 280 23,126–27,129,132,133 Painting:ink(sumi-e),3,248,257,267,276; Ray,Man,169 Realism,12–14,25,45,61,64–65,70–71,93, Japanese,264;scroll,277–78;Western, 104,108,115–18,120,142,147,162,167,176, 264;woodblock(ukiyo-e),248,276 178–79,181,183–86,188,190,193,195,211– Paisan,264 25,228,230–31,239–41,245–48,252–53, Panchromaticfilm,100–101,121,159,164, 261–69,272–73,275–76,278–79,312n25, 205–6,212,230,238,247–48,263,301n135, 312n32,320n176 309n128,313n63,317n140 Realityeffect,263–68,275,279 Parallelediting,49.See alsoCrosscutting
376 inDex
Reception,20,80,89–90,122,165 Record of an Edo Thief: The Shadow Monk (Edo kaizoku den: Kageboshi),124 Record of the Ocean Country(Kaikokuki), 85,108 Record of New Women(Shin josei kagami), 100 Red,263,275–79.See alsoColor Reflector,15,18,32,212,253,306n86 Reid,Wallace,51 Reinhardt,Max,289n82 Rembrandt,27,34,36,179,312n25,312n32 Rembrandt,320n172 Renoir,Jean,141,183 Rensageki(chaindrama),122 Resurrection(Voskraeseniye),299n83 Ri,Koran,198 Riegl,Alois,160–61 Ring of the Sun(Nichirin),78,296n11 Rojo no reikon.SeeSouls on the Road Rokumeikan,308n121 Romance of Happy Valley, A,291n123 Rossellini,Roberto,264 RulesofControllingMotionPictures (Katsudoshashinkogyotoroshimari kisoku),104 Rustling a Bride,62 Ruttmann,Walter,162,164 Ryu,Chishu,226 Saito,Tatsuo,150 Saito,Torajiro,18 Sajimaro the Thief(Kaito Sajimaro),108 Sakata,Tojuro,176 Sakyo,Sayuri,176 Salome,299n83 Salt,Barry,238 SanitaryBureau,144–45,148,155–56 Sanji the Wild Fox(Nogitsune Sanji),108 Sansho the Bailiff(Sansho dayu),255 Sasaki,Shintaro,159 Sasaki,Taro,203,229–30,232–33 Sashidashi(insert),64 Sata,Ineko.SeeKubokawa,Ineko Sato,Haruo,149–50 Sato,Tadao,105–6,323n264 Satsunan sodoin.SeeGeneral Mobilization in Satsunan
Sauerbruch,Ferdinand,310n149 Sawada,Shojiro,70–72,81,122 Sawamura,Shirogoro,50 Sawamura,Tsutomu,221–22 Scarface,235 Schisgall,Oscar,157 Schrader,Paul,255 Scopicfield,147–56,166 Seashell and the Clergyman, The(La coquille et le clergyman),169 Season of Love, The(Koi shiru koro),317n140 Sea Star, The(L’Étoile de mer),169 SecondWorldWar.SeeWorldWarII Secret Garden, The,62 Secret of the Mine, The(Kozan no himitsu), 26,77 Seiran.SeeBlue Storm Seki,Misao,101 Sensoryperception,11,61,115–16,120–21, 135–36,163,166–67,214 Sensuality,32,62,64,102,105–6,110–11,113, 118,121,123,160,163,188,268,299n83 Serpent Princess(Hebihimesama),240 7th Heaven,97 Sexuality,61,115 Shanghai Express,3,205,221,226 Shiba,Seika,136 Shiga,Shigetaka,208–9 Shigeno,Yukiyoshi,48 Shima no onna.SeeWoman of the Island Shimazaki,Kiyohiko,181–84,190,192–94, 202–3,218–20,222,224–26,246,253–54, 319n167 Shimazu,Yasujiro,9,23,51,55 Shimokamo,85–86,92–118,124,129,176 Shimokamostudio(Shochiku),18,54–55, 84–118,120–21,123–27,129–30,134,147, 174–77,184–85,192,204,298n51,301n134 Shimura,Miyoko,186,198 Shimura,Takashi,265 Shina no yoru.SeeChina Night Shingeki(European-influencedformof realisttheater),22,121–22 Shin-jidaigeki(newperioddrama),82 Shin josei kagami.SeeRecord of New Women Shinkankaku(newimpressionist)school, 122 ShinkoKinema,59,259,326n14
inDex 377
Shinkokugeki(newnationaltheater),9, 69–74,80–81,122,305n53 Shinoda,Masahiro,257,263–64 Shinohara,Yasushi,236 Shinpa(newschool,ormoderndramainfluencedbytraditionalKabukistyle),20, 22–23,38,43–46,48,51,54–56,60–62, 69,73,82,87–88,91,103,122,139,142,188, 234,287n37,299n83,303n1 Shinrekishieiga(newhistorycinema), 314n65 Shinsei.SeeNew Life, A Shinsengumi,70–71,73 Shirai,Matsujiro,80–81 Shirai,Shigeru,19,43 Shirai,Shintaro,43,84–85,91–92,103,110, 126 Shishi no za.SeePlace for Leo Shochiku,1,5,8–11,14–69,72–73,77–171, 173–78,184–85,189,197,199–204,215–17, 219–20,224–30,232–33,235,238,240,252, 262,280,295n196,296n1,318n145,328n79. See also“BrightandcheerfulShochiku cinema”;Kamata-cho;Kamatastudio ShochikuCinemaInstitute(Shochiku KinemaKenkyujo),22,77 Shotreverseshot,44,62,69,102,253 Silberman,Marc,139 Sin-Free City, The(Tsumi naki machi),215 Singer,Ben,10 Singing Lovebirds(Oshidori utagassen), 261–63 Sino-JapaneseWar,196,219,234 Skyscrapers(Matenro),17 Sobchack,Vivian,110,242–45 Socialism,68 SocietyofMotionPictureEngineers,101 Softfocus,61,98,102,258 Softtone,107,226,236–39,246–48,268, 280,291n123,319n167 Soil(Tsuchi),318n167 Soma,Ippei,131 Sono yo no tsuma.SeeThat Night’s Wife Sontag,Susan,320n175 Souls on the Road(Rojo no reikon),22 Sound,136,240,320n176 Soyama,Naomori,207 Specialeffects,252
378 inDex
Spectacle,10,13,65,70,72,75,79,83,89, 131–32,139,146,153,156–57,162,166,171, 192,201,249,261,280 Spectatorship,7–9,23–24,84–118,120, 135,153,198,200–202,223,247,279–81; female,85–88,92,110–18 Speedy,308n111 Spider Tattoo(Irezumi),275–79 Spyfilm,258 Spy of Love(Koi no misshi),34 Stagecoach,223–24,306n86 Staiger,Janet,111 Stamp,Shelly,87 Standardization,5,10,104,252,296n4 Standish,Isolde,22–23 Star,7–10,16,19–20,22,25,30,34,49,51, 60–65,68–69,74,80,82–121,123–25,127, 134,139,159,165,173,177,181,183–88,193– 96,198,222,225,227,231,237,246,251, 258–60,280,299n74,299n83,323n264 Star of Woman and Man(Jobuboshi),93–94, 124 Steinhoff,Hans,320n172 Stendhal,208 Sternberg,Josefvon,2–3,9,51,165,183,207, 210,226,258,283n8,316n125 Stieglitz,Alfred,290n96 Story of the Filial Child Goro Masamune, The(Goro Masamune koshi den),50,73, 293n153 Strauss,Carl,205 Street, The(Die Straße),120,128,139 Streetfilms,10–11,119–71,280 Student Romance: Days of Youth(Gakusei romansu: Wakaki hi),150 Studlar,Gaylyn,111 Study of Japanese Landscape, A(Nihon fukei ron),208 Stull,William,179,181,216 Subjectivity,5,8,88–91,110–18,135,145,200, 299n83 Sublime,192,195,207,209,214,222–24,229, 239,280,319n167 Suga,Tadao,213 Sugawara,Hideo,308n122 Sugiyama,Heiichi,248 Sugiyama,Kohei,103–4,112,114,121,130, 136,177,240,251
Suikoden.SeeWater Margin Sumiink,248,257,263 Sunaeshibari,82 Superimposition,162 Surveillance,133,145,152,155–56,163,169, 308n117 Suzuki,Denmei,168,299n74 Suzuki,Hiroshi,241,252 Suzuki,Juzaburo,47,51,102 Suzuki,Shigeyoshi,168–70 Suzuki,Tamotsu,93 Swanson,Gloria,231 Swashbuckler,75–77,280 Sword That Slashes Human and Horse, The (Zanjin zanba ken),298n51 Tableaux,62,64–65,95,103 Tachibana,Kanichi,203 Tachibana,Koshiro,203 Tachibana,Nobuo,241 Tachibana,Takahiro,85 Tachibana,Teijiro,62,299n83 Tactility,91,110,116,128,142,159–63,165, 273,275–76,310n136.See alsoHand; Haptic;Touch Taguchi,Oson,16,18 Taishodemocracy,67–68 Taishogovernment,134–35 Taishubungaku,70,74 Taizumi,Yasunao,15 Takada,Hiroshi,86 Takada,Minoru,45,299n74 Takamine,Hideko,243,323n264 Takamura,Kurataro,5 Takatsu,Keiko,168,170 Takeda,Akira,55 Takeda,Chuya,125,128–29 Taketomi,Yoshio,229 Takeyama,Masanobu,234 Takii,Koji,3–4 Takizawa,Hajime,68 Talkingpicture,101,231,235,238–39,280, 320n176 Tamagawastudio(Nikkatsu),203 Tamai,Masao,215,235 Tamaki,Chonosuke,16 Tamura,Yukihiko,198,240–41 Tanaka,Eizo,122,231
Tanaka,Junichiro,58,83,122–23 Tanaka,Kaneyuki“Edward,”16,26,77 Tanaka,Kinuyo,87,98–99,168,189,228, 260,306n89 Tanaka,Toshio,26,216,226–27,306n86, 317n138,317n140 Tanizaki,Jun’ichiro,1–2,4,209–11,222, 269–70,275–76 Tank Commander Nishizumi(Nishizumi sensha cho den),224–26,228–29 Tateshi(sword-fightingchoreographer),73 “Tattoo”(“Shisei”),275 Tawarada,Tatsuo,157 Technicolor,3,247,277 Teichiku,262 TeikokuEngeiKinema(Teikine),58,68, 77,170 TeikokuGekijoTheater,196 Tejima,Masuji,203 Television,281 That Night’s Wife(Sono yo no tsuma),10–11, 120,141–71 Theatricality,8–9,20–23,44–46,54–56,61, 64,68,73,80,85,103,115,139,280 Thin Man, The,199 Third-personnarrative,272 ThirdReich,320n172 Thompson,Kristin,49,97 Three Came Home,260 Three-dimensionality,15,33,45,54,108,219, 224,246,249,310n136 ToaKinema,58,68 ToeiKyotoCinemaVillage,74 Toho,12,45,173–203,215,221,228,230,234– 36,238,240,253,280,295n196,317n138 Tohoku,240–41,244 Tojuro’s Love(Tojuro no koi),176–84,190, 203,238 Tokuda,Shonosuke,129 Tokugawashogunate,19,72 Tokutomi,Roka,62,234 Tokyo,6,8,15,19–20,25,27,48,56,58,64, 67,85,87,112,146,149–50,152,156–59, 166,174,176,210,235,308n117 Tokyo boshoku.SeeTokyo Twilight Tokyo Chorus(Tokyo no korasu),308n122 TokyoElectricCompany(TokyoDento Gaisha),308n121
inDex 379
TokyoMazdaLightingSchool,100 TokyoMetropolitanPoliceDepartment,19, 85,149,203 Tokyo no korasu.SeeTokyo Chorus Tokyo no onna.SeeWoman of Tokyo Tokyo no yado.SeeInn in Tokyo, An TokyoTakarazukaGekijoCompany,174 Tokyo Twilight(Tokyo boshoku),308n117 Toland,Gregg,13,230–31,238,242,245–48, 264,267 Tolstoy,299n83 Tomita,Mika,69 “TomThumb”(“Issunboshi”),136 Tomonari,Yozo,304n21 Tone,25 Tonesoflighting.SeeGacho Toranku.SeeTrunk Torn Woven Umbrella(Yabure amigasa), 94,96 Touch,senseof,121,135,160,163.See also Hand;Haptic;Tactility Toyama,Shizuo,45 Toyfilm(omocha eiga),104–105 Toyoda,Masako,239 Tradition,4–5,11,20,68,201–3,207–9,227, 256,258–61,264–65,267,278,280;inventionof,5,7,12,14,25,211,213,219,248,260 Transcendence,244–45 Transnationalism,4–6 Transparency,263 Tree of Love, The(Aizen katsura),227 Trespasser,231 Truffaut,Francois,255 Trunk(Toranku),19 Tsuboi,Hideto,134 Tsuburaya,Eiichi,112,114,175 Tsuchi.SeeSoil Tsuchiya,Kiyoyuki,203,239 Tsukigata Hanpeita,70–72,81,122 TsukijiShogekijo,79 Tsumi naki machi.SeeSin-Free City, The Tsumura,Hideo,198,227,251,302n165 Tsura-akari(facelight),64 Tsuruhachi Tsurujiro,185 Two-dimensionality,33,219 Uchida,Tomu,306n86,319n167 Ueda,Isamu,85
380 inDex
Uehara,Ken,225,228–29 Uemura,Sumizaburo,234 Uemura,Taiji,203,234 Ugetsu(Ugetsu monogatari),14,255,263, 267–69 Uma.SeeHorse, The Umarete wa mitakeredo.SeeI Was Born, But . . . Union Pacific,322n229 UnitedArtists,122 UnitedAssociationsofFilmArtists(Rengo EigaGeijutsuKyokai),122 Universal,277 UniversalManhoodSuffrageAct(1925),68 UniversumFilmag(ufa),160,320n172 Unno,Ryujin,168 Uno,Masao,203,211–12 Uratani,Toshiro,73 Ushihara,Kiyohiko,17–18,167–69,229, 290n100 Ushimatsu in the Dark(Kurayami no Ushimatsu),142 Uzumasastudio(Nikkatsu),58,98,326n14 Valentino,Rudolph,89–90,111 Variety(Varieté),311n153 Vermeer,Johannes,79 Verticalintegration,64,197 Vidor,King,141,165,306n86 Village at Dawn, A(Akeyuku mura), 290n102 Village at the Sunset, A(Yuyo no mura),61, 63 Visibility,9–10,13,24,29,38–39,45,47–48, 57,62,64,74,95,101,119–20,131,142,193, 228,279,281 Vision,senseof,8,11,121,132,134–38,141, 163.See alsoEye Viva Mexico!,327n49 Voice,135 Voiceover,270 Volkoff,Alexandre,118,298n44 Voyeurism,90 Wada-Marciano,Mistuyo,20,119 Wakana,Mari,177 Wakao,Ayako,276 Wagner,FritzArno,164
WallStreetcrashof1929,146 War at Sea from Hawaii to Malaya, The (Hawai Mare oki kaisen),186,251–54 Warfilm,104,220,224 Wartimefilmsystem(eiga rinsen taisei),196 Watanabe,Yutaka,256,263–64,267,276 Wataragi,Moichi,100 Water Margin(Suikoden,a.k.a.Shui Hu Zhuan),216 Weine,Robert,161 Weisenfeld,Gennifer,157 Welles,Orson,246–47 WesternElectricSoundSystem(We),231, 234 Westerner, The,242 Westernization,25,204,257,308n121 What Made Her Do It?(Nani ga kanojo o so saseta ka),168–69,288n50 Whissel,Kristen,223 Whiteness,31–32,36,38,42,51,53–54,61, 70,74,94,108,130,132,143–56,163–64, 166,195,268–70,272–73,275–76,278–79, 306n89,308n117 Wide-anglelens,224 Wilde,Oscar,299n83 Wilder,Billy,270 Williams,Linda,116 Williams,Raymond,25 Woman and Pirates(Onna to kaizoku),77, 82 Woman of the Island(Shima no onna),18, 38–40,42,60 Woman of Tokyo(Tokyo no onna),306n89 Woman Who Stands in Light(Hikari ni tatsu onna),39 Workingclass,68,166 WorldWarI,8,16,310n149 WorldWarII,12,14,80,255–56,258–61, 264,280–81 Writing Class(Tsuzurikata kyoshitsu),239, 324n274 Wyckoff,Alvin,27–28,231,289n79 Wyler,William,230,242
Yabure amigasa.SeeTorn Woven Umbrella Yaji Kita: The Great Emperor’s New Year (Yaji Kita: Meikun hatsu agari),261–62 Yakumo,Emiko,166,308n122 Yakuza Umbrella in Spring Rain(Kyokaku harusamegasa),112 Yamada,Isuzu,185–89,194,196,198–200, 229 Yamahoshi,93 Yamamoto,Kajiro,176,186,239–40,251 Yamanaka,Sadao,246,248–49 Yamane,Sadao,185 Yanagita,Kunio,134 Yanai,Yoshio,87 Yanome,Genichi,126–27 Yari no Gonza.SeeGonza, the Spearman Yasumoto,Jun,323n264 Yoda,Yoshitaka,256 Yojimbo,256 Yokohama,64 Yokota,Einosuke,317n140 Yoshida,Kiju,147 Yoshimoto,Mitsuhiro,68,264 Yoshimura,Kozaburo,224–25,322n232 Yoshino,Jiro,50 Yoshino,Nobutaka,1,2,4,204,281 Yoshiwara,125,130,132,137,304n24 Yotsuya Ghost Story(Yotsuya kaidan),45, 292n128 Younger Brother(Ototo),268 Yukinojo henge.SeeActor’s Revenge, An Yukitomo,Rifu,81 Yume no ukihashi.SeeFloating Bridge of a Dream, A Yuyo no mura.SeeVillage at the Sunset, A Zanjin zanba ken.SeeSword That Slashes Human and Horse, The ZenBuddhism,259 Zhang,Zhen,115–16,213–14 Zola,182 Zoo in Budapest,204 Zukor,Adolph,29
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Da i su k e M i yao isassociateprofessorintheDepartment ofEastAsianLanguagesandLiteraturesattheUniversityof Oregon.HeistheauthorofSessue Hayakawa: Silent Cinema and Transnational Stardom,alsopublishedbyDukeUniversityPress.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Miyao,Daisuke. Theaestheticsofshadow:lightingandJapanesecinema/ DaisukeMiyao. p.cm. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. isbn978-0-8223-5407-9(cloth:alk.paper) isbn978-0-8223-5422-2(pbk.:alk.paper) 1.Cinematography—Lighting. 2.Cinematographers—Japan. 3.Motionpictureindustry—Japan—History. 4.Culturein motionpictures. I.Title. pn1993.5.j3M562013 777.092—dc23 2012033713