The Aegean Sea Peoples and Religious Architecture in the Eastern Mediterranean at the Close of the Late Bronze Age 9780860547051, 9781407348544

Table of contents :
Cover
Copyright
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
PREFACE
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
CHAPTER ONE: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
CHAPTER TWO: PRESENTATION OF THE EVIDENCE
CHAPTER III: VARIOUS ASPECTS AND COMPONENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE
CHAPTER IV: GENERAL REMARKS AND CONCLUSIONS
NOTES
ABBREVIATIONS AND SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
FIGURES AND MAPS
GENERAL INDEX

Citation preview

The Aegean Sea Peoples and Religious Architecture in the Eastern Mediterranean at the Close of the Late Bronze Age

Mariusz Burdajewicz

BAR International Series 558

1990

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S558, 1990: 'The Aegean Sea Peoples and Religious Architecture in the Ea�;tern Xediterranean at tJie Close of the Late Bronze Age' © M.ariusz BurdajewLcz, 1990 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860547051 paperback ISBN 9781407348544 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860547051 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ONTENTS P age L ist o f F igures

i ii

P reface

v ii

C hronological T able

I :

i x

H ISTORICAL B ACKCROUND

1

I ntroduction

i

P ottery e vidence

3

C yprus a nd t he " Sea P eoples"

6

L iterary e vidence

1 6

C onclusions

2 2

I I:

T EMPLES A ND S ANCTUARIES:

K ition

P RESENTATION O F T HE E VIDENCE

( LCIIIA t emple p recinct)

P alaepaphos

2 4 2 4

( Sanctuary I )

3 0

A thienou

3 5

E nkomi

3 9

J affa

1 .

H ouse o f t he C olumns

2 .

T he A shlar B uilding

3 9 ( Area I )

4 0

A .

T he S anctuary o f t he " Horned G od"

4 0

B .

T he S anctuary o f a f emale d ivinity

4 1

3 .

T he S anctuary o f t he " Ingot C od"

4 2

4 .

" Tower" S anctuary

4 4

( the " Lion T emple")

T ell Q asile ( Temples 3 19,

4 5 2 00,

1 31,

S hrine 3 00)

B eth S han ( Northern a nd S outhern T emples)

: 1 -

4 6 5 4

P age T el M iqne 1 .

S hrine

5 7

2 .

P ublic b uilding

5 8

3 .

I ndustrial/cultic b uildings

5 8

A shdod

I II:

5 7

( Temple i n A rea D )

5 9

V ARIOUS A SPECTS A ND C OMPONENTS O F T HE R ELIGIOUS A RCHITECTURE

L ocation

6 0

6 0

1 .

T he s iting o f s acred s tructures

6 0

2 .

T he p roximity o f t he s acred a nd i ndustrial a reas

6 2

A lignment ( Orientation)

6 8

E ntrance ( Access t o a s acred a rea)

7 4

T he H oly o f H oh es

7 7

S pecial F acilities

8 5

B enches

1 01

P illars

1 03

I V :

1 05

G ENERAL R EMARKS A ND C ONCLUSIONS

N OTES

1 12

A BBREVIATIONS A ND S ELECT B IBLIOGRAPHY

1 33

F IGURES

1 47

G ENERAL I NDEX

1 87

i i

L IST O F F IGURES

1 .

M ap o f t he E astern M editerranean.

2 .

M ap o f C yprus.

3 .

M ap o f P alestine.

4 .

G eneral

p lan o f t he t emple p recinct a t T ( ition,

K ition V ,

f loor

I V.

A fter

P lan I II.

5 .

K ition:

p lan o f T emple 3 ,

f loor I V.

A fter K ition V ,

P lan I X .

6 .

K ition :

p lan o f T emple 2 ,

f loor I V .

A fter K ition V ,

P lan V III.

7 .

G eneral p lan o f t he t emple p recinct a t K ition, K ition V ,

8 .

9 .

f loor l IlA .

A fter

P lan I V.

K ition:

s uggested

r econstruction o f p lans o f T emples 1 F ig.

a nd

2 .

A fter 0 .

C allot 1 985,

6 7.

K ition:

p lan o f T emple 4 ,

f loor l ilA.

A fter K ition V ,

P lan

p lan o f T emple 5 ,

f loor l IlA.

A fter K ition V ,

P lan X XIV.

X XIV. 1 0 .

K ition:

1.

P alaepaphos:

1 2.

P alaepaphos:

p lan o f S anctuary I . t entative

F .-G. M aier i n P aphos, 1 3 .

K ition: A fter 0 .

1 4 .

-

F ig.

9 7,

S anctuary

F ig. 8 2. I .

A fter

t he

r oof.

8 1.

t wo s uggested r econstructions o f

a lternative r econstruction o f S anctuary I .

D rawn b y

B urdajewicz .

A thienou:

g eneral

A fter A thienou , 1 6.

1

r econstruction o f 9 7,

p .

C allot 1 985.

P alaepaphos: M .

1 5.

T emple

p .

A fter P aphos,

E nkomi:

p .

p lan o f a rchitectural

r emains,

S tratum

I T.

9 , P lan C .

i sometric

v iew o f t he H orned G od

f emale

d ivinity

1 7.

E nkomi: i sometric v iew o f t he H orned G od a nd f emale s anctuaries, L evel TIC . A fter E nkomi, P late 2 79.

d ivinity

1 8 .

E nkomi:

s anctuaries, L evel I lIB .

s uggested

L evel I lIB .

a nd

A fter E nkomi, P late 2 77.

r econstruction o f t he H orned

D rawn b y M .

G od

s anctuary,

B urdajewicz.

1 9.

p lan o f t he " House o f E nkomi: s chematic 1 9 8 7 , p . 3 8 , F i g . 7 . C ourtois a nd L agarce

2 0.

E nkomi: s chematic p lan C ourtois a nd L agarce 1 987,

o f p .

t he I ngod 3 4, F ig. 5 .

i ii

t he

G od

C olumns".

A fter

s anctuary.

A fter

2 1.

E nkomi: i sometric v iew o f t he " Tower" A fter E nkomi, P late 2 55.

s anctuary,

2 2.

T ell Q asile: F ig. 4 .

2 3.

T ell Q asile: s chematic p lan o f T emple 2 00 a nd S hrine 3 00. T ell Q asile I , F ig. 6 .

A fter

2 4.

T ell Q asile: s chematic p lan o f T emple 1 31 a nd S hrine 3 00. T ell Q asile I , F ig. 9 .

A fter

2 5.

B eth S han: 7 4.

2 6.

B eth S han: P late X II.

p lan o f t he N orthern T emple.

A fter B eth S han

I T,

2 7.

B eth S han: P lates KIT,

p lan o f t he S outhern T emple. X .

A fter B eth S han

I I,

2 8.

T el M iqne: i sometric v iew o f t he s hrine, a nd D othan 1 987, p . 2 00.

2 9.

T el M iqne: i sometric v iew o f t wo c ult r ooms, G itin a nd D othan 1 987, p . 2 04.

3 0.

A shdod:

3 1.

S chematic p lans o f P alestinian t emples o f t he " irregular A fter T ell Q asile I , F ig. 1 5, a nd S tern 1 984, F ig. I Va, b .

3 2.

H azor: p lan o f t he S telae T emple, A rea C . ( A) T he L ower T emple o f I B , L BII ( 14th c ent. B .C.); ( B) T he U pper T emple o f I A , L BIII ( 13th c ent. B .C.). A fter Y adin e t.al. 1 958, P l. C LXXX.

3 3.

I J garit: 4 9, F ig.

3 4.

T ell e l-Far'ah ( N): F ig. 7 .

3 5.

N ahariyah: F ig. 1 .

3 6.

H azor: s chematic p lan A fter Y adin 1 972, p . 1 03,

3 7.

H azor: s chematic p lan o f t he B roadroom T emple ( Stratum 3 ), H , M BIIC . A fter Y adin 1 972, p . 7 6, F ig. 1 8.

3 8.

S hechem : p lan o f t he m igdol-type t emple I a, M BIIC . 1 964, F ig. 4 1.

s chematic p lan o f T emple 3 1.

A fter J ames 1 969,

F ield I .

p lan o f t he t emple(?).

M BII B -C .

i v

F ig.

C itin

I V .

A fter

F ield

P lan 7 . p lan".

A fter Y on 1 984,

A fter d e V aux

A fter M .

o f t he L ong T emple, F ig. 2 6.

I ,

A fter

A fter A shdod I ,

p lan o f t he " Sanctuaire a ux r hytons". 3 .

p lan o f t he t emple,

l ilA .

A fter T ell U asile

g eneral p lan o f L ower L evel V .

p lan o f t he t emple i n A rea D .

L evel

A rea

D othan

A ,

p .

1 957,

1 956,

M BII-LBI.

A fter

A rea

W right

3 9.

M egiddo: L oud 1 948,

p lan o f t he m igdol-type t emple, F ig . 2 47.

4 0.

M yrtou-Pigadhes: p lan o f T aylor e t . .al. 1 957, F ig. 7 .

4 1.

A yia I rini:

4 2.

I dalion: X VII.

4 3.

M ycenae: 1 .

4 4.

M ycenae: p lan T aylour 1 970, p .

4 5.

E leusis: F ig. 1.

4 6.

A sine: p lan o f t he C ult H ouse C . F ig. 3 5.

4 7.

P hylakopi: F ig. 2 .

4 8.

A yia I rini, K ea : F ig. 1 .

4 9.

T ell Q asile: i sometric v iew o f T emple 3 19; r econstructions. A fter T ell Q asile I , F ig. 5 .

t wo

s uggested

5 0 .

T ell Q asile: i sometric v iew o f T emple 2 00; r econstructions. A fter T ell Q asile I , F ig. 7 .

t wo

s uggested

5 1.

T ell Q asile: F ig. 1 0.

5 2.

T el M evorakh: i sometric v iew o f t he t emple, S tern 1 984, F ig. I I.

5 3.

M ycenae: 2 73, F ig.

5 4.

T iryns: 5 2, A bb.

5 5.

K ition: p lan o f t he a ltar a nd h earth i n T emple 2 , A fter K ition V , P lan X VI.

5 6 .

K ition: p lan a nd s ections o f A ltar E i n T emple 4 , K ition V , P late 4 5: 3 .

5 7.

K ition: p lan o f t he a ltar i n T emple 5 , V , P late 4 6: 1 .

t he s anctuary,

p lan o f t he t emple, p lan

A rea B B , M BIIC .

L CITIA.

A fter

p lan o f t he M ycenaean t emple(?).

t he

A fter

F ig.

S CE

A fter F rench 1 981,

o f t he T emple a nd R oom w ith 2 71, F ig. 1 .

I I,

P lan

4 2,

p .

F resco.

A fter

2 63.

F ig.

A fter

M ylonas

1 961,

A fter F r din a nd P ersson

1 938,

p lan o f t he s anctuary.

A fter R enfrew 1 981b,

p lan o f t he t emple.

i sometric v iew o f t he T emple. 2 . i sometric v iew o f t he S hrine. 4 a nd 5 , p . 5 6, A bb. 9 .

6 9,

p .

A fter C askey 1 981,

i sometric v iew o f T emple 1 31.

V

V -VT.

A fter S CE I I,

o f t he C ult H ouse, L CTIIA .

p lan o f t he c ult c entre.

P eriod

A fter

1 28,

p .

A fter T ell Q asile

S tratum

X I.

A fter T aylour

A fter K illian

f loor I II.

I ,

A fter

1 970,

p .

1 981b,

p .

f loor

l ilA .

f loor I .

A fter

A fter

K ition

5 8.

K ition: p lan A fter K ition V ,

5 9.

M yrtou—Pigadhes; p . 1 7, F ig. 1 1.

6 0.

E nkomi: i n t he 4 6bis.

a nd v iew o f A ltar D i n T emenos A , f loors P late 4 2: 3 ; H ult 1 983, p . 1 24, F ig. 7 1. r econstruction o f t he a ltar.

A fter T aylor

1 11—I.

1 957,

" autel i nf rieur", a utel s up rieur" a nd " tethering s tone" I ngot G od s anctuary. A fter C ourtois 1 971, p . 2 00, F ig .

v i

P REFACE

A s e arly a s 1 967 S . Y eivin p ut f orward t he h ypothesis t hat M ycenaean a rchitecture h ad i nfluenced s ome t emple b uildings i n C anaan d uring t he E arly I ron A ge. H e a rgued t hat t his i nfluence w as a ttested i n t he p lans o f t he t wo t emples a t B eth S han, L evel V , w hich w ould h ave b een t he f irst e xamples o f t he L ongroom b uildings i n I srael i nfluenced b y t he M ycenaean m egaron—type s tructures. T he q uestion o f t he r elationships b etween t he A egean a nd C anaanite t emples h as b een g iven a n ew i mpetus i n r ecent y ears t hanks t o A . M azar's e xcavations a t T ell Q asile, w here h e h ad d iscovered a w ell— p reserved P hilistine s anctuary. T he e xcavator, w hile i nvestigating t he a rchitectural t radition t o w hich t he t emples o f t he T ell O asile s anctuary b elong, h as s tated t hat t here e xists a n a rchitectural r elationship b etween t hem a nd t he t emples o f C yprus a nd t hose d erived f rom t he A egean. I n t he f ollowing y ears s ome o f t he s cholars i nterested i n t his s ubject h ave r ejected o r a ccepted, w holly o r w ith r eservations, M azar's h ypothesis, w hile o thers s tressed t he n eed f or f urther d etailed i nvestigations o n t his s ubject. O ne o f t he m ost p uzzling a spects o f t he p roblem o f t he a rchitectural r elationships b etween t he A egean a nd t he L evant i s n ot, h owever, t he a rchitecture i tself a s m ight a t f irst a ppear. T he q uestion i s t he r elationships b etween t he a rchitecture a nd p eoples o r, b roadly s peaking b etween t he m aterial c ulture a nd t he e thnic a nd c ultural i dentity o f i ts c reators a nd u sers. I n t he d iscussed c ase w e -

a re d ealing g eographical p opulation.

w ith t he s o—called " Sea P eoples", n amely f rom t he a nd c ultural p erspective w ith a f oreign, n on—Canaanean -

-

T he d ynamic d evelopment o f r esearch o n t he S ea P eoples i n t he p ast t wo d ecades h as m ade i t p ossible f or u s t o g ain a b etter u nderstanding o f t he m uch d iscussed p roblem o f t heir o rigin. W e n ow h ave a n a bundance o f a rchaeological m aterial a ffording a n i nsight i nto m any m atters c oncerning t he S ea P eoples' s ettlement o n C yprus a nd i n P alestine a s w ell a s t heir m aterial c ulture, w hich a lso i ncludes t heir r eligious a rchitecture. I n t he p resent w ork I a m e ndeavouring t o p resent a nd d iscuss a ll t he s acred s tructures w hich m ay h e c lassified a s b elonging t o t he S ea P eoples, a nd a lso t o f ill i n t he s till e xisting l ack o f d etailed a nalysis o f t he q uestion s ignalized a t t he b eginning, n amely t he q uestion o f t he r elationships b etween t he r eligious a rchitecture o f t he A egean, C yprus a nd P alestine a t t he c lose o f t he L ate B ronze A ge. A p articularly c ritical e mphasis i s l aid o n t he r elationship b etween t he a rchitecture a nd i ts c ultural a nd e thnic a ttribution. A n a ttempt i s m ade t o c onsider a nd a nswer t he f ollowing q uestions: W hat a re, i f a ny, t he c haracteristic f eatures o f t he r eligious a rchitecture o f t he S ea P eoples? C an t his a rchitecture a nd i ts i ndividual c omponents b e u sed a s a r elevant i ndicator o f t he e thnic a nd c ultural o rigins o f i ts c reators a nd u sers? -

T he o riginal b asis o f t his b ook w as m y M .A. t hesis s ubmitted a t t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology o f t he W arsaw U niversity i n 1 983 a nd e ntitled " Ludy M orza i ch w iatynie i b óstwa n a C yprze i w P alestynie -

( "The

S ea

P eoples

-

T heir T emples a nd

v ii

D eities

o n

C yprus

a nd

i n

P alestine"). S ince 1 983, s everal b ooks a nd a rticles d ealing w ith t he S ea P eoples a s w ell a s w ith t he h istory o f t he E astern M editerranean a t t he c lose o f t he L ate B ronze A ge h ave b een p ublished. T hese w orks, o f w hich t he s pecial i mportance a re t he f inal r eports o n t he e xcavations a t T ell Q asile, A thienou, P yla-Kokkinokremos, K ition, a nd r ecently M aaP alaeokastro, h ave c reated t he p ossibility f or a m ore d etailed d iscussion o f s ome p oints o f m y M .A . t hesis. T herefore, t his t hesis h as b een i n i ts g reater p art r ewritten f or p ublication, s ome o ther p arts h ave b een o mitted w hile o thers h ave b een c onsiderably e xtended. T his w ork c ontains n o " catalogue t ype" d etailed a rchitectural d escriptions o f e ach o f t he d iscussed t emples a nd s anctuaries. D espite t he p revalent f ashion o f i ncluding s uch c atalogues i n m any a rchaeol ogical h ooks, I t hink i t e nough t o c onfine m yself t o t he p ublication o f t he a rchitectural p lans o nly. T hese p lans a re a dequate e nough t o i llustrate o ur d iscussion, w hile t he m ore d etailed i nformation c oncerning d imensions, t echnical d ata, s tratigraphy e tc., a re w ell a ccessible i n t he e xcavation r eports a nd, t herefore, I c onsider t hat i t w ould b e s uperfluous t o r epeat t hem . T he p resent w ork w as o riginally p lanned f or p ublication i n 1 986. U nfortunately, r easons b oth o f a s ubjective a nd o bjective n ature c aused i ts c onsiderable b elatedness. I t w as o nly a t t he b eginning o f 1 989 t hat Ih ad t he p ossibility o f t erminating t his w ork. A t t his p oint I w ould l ike t o e xpress m y h eartfelt t hanks t o D r. V assos K arageorghis, t he f ormer D irector o f A ntiquities o f C yprus, w ho h as b een a s ource o f e ncouragement f or m e a nd w ho h as w armly s upported t he i dea o f p ublishi ng m y w ork. M y s pecial t hanks g o t o D r. A nthony H ands, t he E ditor, f or h is k ind a cceptance o f m y w ork i n t he B AR I nternational S eries a s w ell a s f or t he i ndulgence a nd p atience h e s howed w hile w aiting f or m y m anuscript d uring t he p eriod w hen t his w ork w as h eld u p. I t i s a p leasure t o e xtend m y t hanks t o a ll t hose w ho h elped m e o btain t he n ecessary b ibliographical p ositions a nd i n p articular, D r. V . K arageorghis, P rofessor P . s trom , M rs. M . B osshard, D r. A . P rofessor T . D othan, F ather J .-B. H umbert, D r. D . M ichaelides.

B ounni,

I a m a lso i ndebted t o D r. F . B raemer a nd P rofessor M . M einecke f or t heir h ospitality d uring m y f requent v isits t o t he L ibraries o f t he I FAPO a nd D AI i n D amascus. M y t hanks g o t o t he D irector o f t he P olish C entre o f M editerranean A rchaeology o f t he U niversity o f W arsaw i n C airo, P rofessor W .A. D aszewski, f or t he o pportunity t o t ravel a nd v isit C yprus a nd S yria s everal t imes. I w ish t o t hank M rs. r evising m y E nglish.

L orraine T okarczyk a nd M r.

P aul B arford

f or

L ast, b ut b y n o m eans l east, I s hould l ike t o e xpress m y t hanks t o m y t utor, D r. P iotr B ielif iski, w ho d irected m y i nterest t owards t he L ate B ronze A ge, a nd e specially t o t he " Sea P eoples". H e i s, h owever, n ot r esponsible f or m y m istakes.

W arsaw,

v iii

M ay 1 989

C HRONOLOGICAL T ABLE C YPRUS 1 700 B .C. M C

( Middle C ypriot)

I II 1 600

S hort G ap ? 1 575 L C

( Late C ypriot)

I A 1 525 l B 1 425/1400 II A 1 375 I IB

1 300 2

I IC:l 1 200 I IC:2 1 190 l ilA: 1 -2 1 125/1100 T u B : 1 -2 1 050 C G ( Cypro G eometric)

I 1 000 B .C .

1 . 2 .

A fter E nkomi, p . 4 96 A fter M aa-Palaeokastro,

2 59

p .

P ALESTINE 2 200 B .C . M B ( Middle B ronze)

I 2 000 I lA 1 750 I IB 1 550

L B ( Late B ronze)

I 1 400 hA 1 300 T IB 1 200

I ron A ge

I A 1 150 T B 1 000 B .C .

A fter E AEHL

i x

C HAPTER O NE:

H ISTORICAL B ACKGROUND

I ntroduction T he u se o f a ny d esignation n ecessarily r equires a n a ssumption t hat l t w ill b e u nderstood b y e veryone i nterested i n t he s ubject i n a n u nivocal f ashion, a nd a ccording t o t he a uthor's i ntentions. F or t his r eason, t he e ssential p art o f t his w ork h as t o b e p receded b y a d efinit ion o f t he t erm " Sea P eoples", a nd b y i ts p lacing h istorical, c hronological a nd g eographical c ontext.

i n a T his

p roper s hould

p revent a ny p ossible m isapprehension a rising f rom t he h itherto e xisting l ack o f b oth a g enerally a cceptable r esolution o f t he " Sea P eoples p roblem", e specially t heir e thnic a nd c ultural i dentification, a nd a s atisfactory u nderstanding o f m any q uestions c oncerning t he i ntricate h istory o f t he E astern M editerranean a t t he t urn o f t he 1 3th a nd 1 2th c enturies B .C. C haracteristically, t he g reat m ajority o f t he s tudies w ritten u ntil q uite r ecently, d ealing w ith t he S ea P eoples a nd, a bove a ll, w ith a ttempts o riginal

t o d efine t he e thnic-cultural i dentity a nd l ocation o f t he h omelands o f t he p articular t ribes, u sually b egin w ith

q uoting, a nd s ubsequently a nalyzing t he E gyptian w ritten s ources. S pecial a ttention i s m ost o ften p aid t o t he a ccount o f R amesses I II, r ecorded o n t he w alls o f h is f unerary t emple a t M edinet H abu. E xcerpts f rom t he B ible a nd w ritten s ources f rom U garit c omplement t his i n r elation t o t he h omeland o f t he P hilistines a nd t he o ther g roups o f t he P eoples o f t he S ea. I n t he c ase o f t he p ioneer w orks d ealing w ith t he s ubject, t his w as s imply d ue t o t he l ack o f a n a dequate a mount o f a rchaeological m aterial w hich c ould h ave a t t he t ime b een r elated t o t he S ea P eoples. T he r esearchers h ad t hen a t t heir d isposal, a part f rom t he r elief r epresentations a ccompanying t he a foresaid a ccount o f R a r nesses I II a nd d epicting t he s truggles o f t he P haraoh w ith t he i nvading S ea P eoples, o nly a c ertain g roup o f p ottery v essels, w hich h ad b een f ound i n a w ell-defined s tratigraphical a nd g eographical c ontext i n P alestine a nd w hich h ad e arlier b een i dentified " Philistine p ottery". S ome l ight o n t he o rigin o f t he P hilistines,

a s a nd

t hereby o n t hat o f t he o ther g roups o f t he S ea P eoples, w as s oon t o b e t hrown b y a n a nalysis o f b oth t he a rchitecture a nd c ontents o f t he " Philistine t ombs" a t T ell e l-Far'ah ( South) i n P alestine. I n t he p ostwar y ears, t he a rchaeological s ources b egan t o b e u sed t o a n e ver g rowing e xtent. H owever, t hey w ere s till m erely b eing a dapted t o t he a lready e xisting h ypotheses, a nd E gyptian a ccounts, g roups o f i nvaders.

o bviously b ased u pon a nalyses o f

r elating t o t he o rigins

o f

t hese

B iblical e nigmatic

O nly i n t he e ighties d id a n ew p eriod i n e xploring t he P hilistines a nd t he S ea P eoples i n g eneral, b egin. T his p eriod i s c haracterized b y t he m aximized u se o f a ll t he a vailable a rchaeological m aterial, t he

1

a mount o f w hich r egularly g rows y ear b y y ear, t hanks t o t he i ntensive e xcavation w orks b eing p erformed b y a rchaeologists i n I srael i tself a nd i n t he n eighbouring c ountries, i n p articular o n C yprus a nd i n S yria. T he a rchaeological e vidence a t p resent i s s o c onsiderable a nd s o i mportant,

t hat i t s peaks f or i tself,

i f w e o nly t rust i t n o l ess

t han

t he a foresaid w ritten s ources. A s i s w ell k nown, t hese t exts h ave f ailed t o l ead s cholars t o a ny g enerally a ccepted c onclusions. A nd i t s hould b e s tressed t hat s uch c onclusions c ould n ot b e r eached, b ecause t he t exts i n q uestions a re t oo v ague, a mbiguous, a nd i mprecise, t hus f acilitating

u nrestricted

s peculations.

A t

p resent,

t hese

w ritten

s ources c annot c ontribute a nything n ew t o t he s tudy o f t he S ea P eoples p roblem. F or t his r eason, I b elieve t hat t he S ea P eoples p roblem s hould n ow b e a pproached f rom a s tandpoint q uite d ifferent f rom t hat e mployed h itherto b y m ost s cholars, f or w hom t he w ritten s ources w ere t he m ain, a nd s ometimes t he o nly b ase f or i nvestigations. I p ropose t hen

t o

d isregard f or t he t ime b eing,

t he e xistence

o f

a ny

w ritten

s ources c ontaining r eferences t o t he S ea P eoples, i n p articular t hat o f R amesses I II. T hus t he t erm i tself a nd a t t he s ame t ime t he " problem o f t he S ea P eoples" c eases t o e xist a nd w e a re r id o f t he w hole m ental e quipment o f v arious m odern t heories, h ypotheses a nd, n ot i nfrequently, s peculations,

a ll

o f

t hem

a ttempting

a t

t he

m ingling

o f

t hese

m ysterious s trangers w ith t he h istory o f t he E astern M editerranean a t t he c lose o f t he L ate B ronze A ge. L et u s t hen, i nstead f ocus o ur a ttention e xclusively o n t he a rchaeological e vidence.

h ere

S uch a s trictly a rchaeological a pproach t o t he s ubject p roposed r equires, h owever, t he a cceptance o f a r ather c ontroversial

a ssumption,

n amely

t hat

o n

t he

b asis

o f

a rchaeological

d ata

e xclusively, s ome h istorical a nd c ultural p rocesses c an b e r econstructed. M oreover, t his a im c an h e a chieved w ith a n o l esser d egree o f p robability t han w hen u sing m ainly, o r e ven s olely, w ritten s ources. O f c ourse, a l arge n umber o f s cholars a re v ery s ceptical a s r egards t he v alue o f a ttempts a t l inking t he c onclusions e merging f rom a n

a nalysis o f a rchaeological d ata a lone w ith c oncrete h istorical

a nd

c ultural r ealities, e specially w ith t hose w hich a re k nown t o u s f rom e lsewhere, i .e. f rom l iterary s ources. T he m ost s erious r eservations a rise f rom t he u se o f p ottery e vidence a s a s ource f or t he o f e thnical g çoups a nd f or t racing t heir i maginable d isplacements. 1

i dentifying t errit or ia l

I t w ould b e w rong n aturally, t o d isregard t he m any p itfalls e ncountered w hen u sing o nly o r m ainly, a rchaeological e vidence t o d raw c onclusions o f a h istorical a nd c ultural n ature; b ut a t t he s ame t ime, i t w ould b e a n e ven g reater w rong t o n eglect t he o pportunity p resented t o u s t hrough a r easonable a nalysis o f t he a rchaeological e vidence. S uch a n a nalysis i s o f p articular s ignificance w hen w e d o n ot p ossess a ny

d irect

w ritten s ources o riginating f rom t he p eriod w hich

i s

t he

s ubject o f o ur i nterest, o r i f s uch w ritten s ources e xist, t hey a re n ot a t a ll w orth g iving c redence t o. I t i s j ust t his p articular s ituation t hat w e h ave a s o ur s tarting p oint i n o ur q uest f or t he s o—called

" Sea

P eoples p roblem". T herefore, d espite t he r isk, I h ave d ecided f irst a nd f oremost, t o r ely o n t he a rchaeological f inds, 2 a mong w hich p ottery w ill p lay t he l eading r ole i n o ur d iscussion: t hat o f t he t hread o f A riadne, w hereas t he w ritten s ources w ill e ventually s erve o nly c omplement t o t he f ormer.

2

a s

a

P ottery e vidence I n t he P alestinian c eramic m aterial t here c an e asily d istinguished a u niform , h omogeneous g roup o f v essels, w hich o ccurs a s trictly d efined c ontext:

b e i n

1 .

t o

S tratigraphic

-

t his p ottery o ccurs i n l ayers w hich a re

d ated

I ron A ge I . R ecent r esearches h ave s et t he i nitial d ate o ccurrence o t his p ottery i n I ron A ge I B , t hat i s f rom B .C. o nwards. 2 .

f or t he c . 1 150

G eographic a nd h istorical p ottery o f t his t ype h as b een e xcavated a t m any s ites a long t he P alestinian c oast, e specially i n t he a rea b etween T ell e z-Zuweyid i n t he s outh a nd A kko i n t he n orth, a nd i n t he r egion o f S hephelah a s w ell. I t h as a lso b een f ound, a lthough i n s mall q uantities, o n s uch r emote s ites a s T el D an t o t he n orth, a nd T ell D eir ' Alla s ituated u pon t he e astern b ank o f t he R iver J ordan. T he g eographical d ispersion o f t he p ottery f inds c orresponds e xactly t o t he t erritory t hat w e h ave e very r eason t o b elieve, o n t he b asis o f B iblical a ccounts, w as i nhabited b y t he -

P hilistines a t t his t ime. T his r esulted i n t he e thnic o f t his p ottery t o t he P hilistines a n a ttribution, j ustified a s i n t his p articular c ase. -

a ttribution m erely s o

P hilistine p ottery i s c haracterized b y t he f ollowing: 4 t he p ottery i s b ichrome, t hat i s, b lack a nd r ed d ecoration a gainst a n u sually w hite-slipped b ackground;

-

p ainted

t he m ost d istinctive a nd f requently o ccurring m otif i s a b ird s ilhouette w ith t he h ead t urned b ack i n m ost c ases, b ut s ometimes f acing f orward. A f ish-motif a lso o ccurs, a lthough v ery r arely. T he d ecoration u sually c overs t he u pper a nd t he m iddle p arts o f a v essel, t hat i s, i ts s houlder a nd t he c entral z one. T he l atter v ery o ften h as a m etope f rieze f illed w ith g eometrical m otifs. T he

-

r ich s et o f g eometrical o rnamentation c omprises, a mong o thers, v arious t ypes o f s piral, a ntithetic t ongue m otif, c oncentric s emic ircles m otif, s cale p atterns, c hevrons e tc. D etailed s tudies h ave d emonstrated t hat t hese m otifs a re o f M ycenaean o rigin. T here o ccur a lso, b ut o n a s maller s cale, E gyptianizing m otifs ( variations o f t he l otus a nd i ts g eometrized d erivatives) a s w ell a s m otifs d erived f rom t he C anaanite c eramic d ecoration. T . D othan h as d istinguished f ive b asic g roups o f v essels, w ith r espect t o c ultural/ceramic t raditions, a nd w ith e ach g roup p articular t ypes o f v essels. T hese a re a s f ollows: I .

I T.

V essels d erived f rom M ycenaean p rototypes: 1 ) b owl, 2 ) k rater, 3 ) s tirrup j ar, 4 ) p yxis a nd a mphoriskos, 5 ) t hree-handled j ar, 6 ) s trainer s pout j ug, 7 ) j ug w ith b asket h andle a nd s pout, 8 ) j uglet w ith p inched-in g irth, V essels r elated t o t he C ypriot c eramic t ypes: 9 ) b ottle, 1 0) h orn-shaped v essel, 1) g ourd-shaped j ar,

3

c ylindrical

I II. I V.

V .

1 2)

j ug w ith E gyptian a ffinities,

V essels d erived f rom t he C anaanite t ypes: b ar h andle, 1 4) j ug, 1 5) j uglet, V essels

1 3)

s mall

b owl

w ith

a ppearing i n t he l ast p hase o f P hilistine p ottery:

t refoil-mouth j uglet, h andle, 1 8) k rater.

1 7)

j ug w ith s trainer

s pout

a nd

1 6) b asket

F rom t he f oregoing i t i s e vident, t hat o ne o f t he m ost d istinctive f eatures o f t his p ottery i s i ts i ncontestable s imilarity b oth i n s hape a nd d ecoration, t o M ycenaean p ottery. T his c onformity w as n oticed a s e arly a s t he v ery b eginning o f o ur c entury b y F .B . W elch, w hile T iersh w as t he f irst t o a ttribute t his p ottery t o t he P hilistines. T he

c orrectness o f t hese o bservations w as c onfirmed i

t he

f ollowing

y ears b y o ther s cholars s tudying P hilistine p ottery. ° N evertheless, t he s ole c onclusion t hat c an s afely b e d rawn f rom t he m ere a scertainm ent o f t he r esemblance b etween t he s hapes a nd d ecoration o f t he P hilistine a nd M ycenaean p ottery i s t hat a c onnection b etween t hese w ares d id, i n f act, e xist. W hat w as, h owever, t he n ature o f t his c onnection? W as P hilistine p ottery m erely a n i mitation o f t he w estern w ares w hich f ascinated C anaanite p otters a nd t hus a m atter o f f ashion, o r c ould w e b e d ealing h ere w ith a m uch d eeper c onnection, w hich m ight e ven p oint t o a c ultural r elationship b etween t he m akers o f t he M ycenaean p ottery a nd t he P hilistine p ottery, o r e ven t heir e thnic i dentity? A d ecisive a nswer t o t hese q uestions w as f inally A shdod e xcavations. I n t he w ords o f T . D othan: " Stratum

X IIIb

( the e arlier

p hase)

a nalysis

h as s hown t hat b oth t he

y ielded

g iven

b y

t he

t he

f irst M yc. I IIC:lh p ottery (. .) . This w are c ontinues i nto s tratum X II, w here i t a ppears a longs ide t he t ypical P hilistine b ichrome p ottery t hat f irst a ppears i n s tratum X IIla. T race-element m onochrome

I IIC:1 p ottery a nd t he b ich 'o me P hilistine w ere o f l ocal m anufacture." T he t he M yc.

M yc.

M yc.

p ottery

I IIC:lb p ottery f rom A shdod s hows c lear a ffinities

I IIC:lb p ottery f rom C ypriote s ites:

I t i s w orth s tressing t hat t here a ppears a a s a l ink b etween t he b ichrome P hilistine

S inda,

E nkomi,

w it h

K ouklia.

t hat i t i s o n t his m onochrome p ottery f rom A shdod b ird m otif, t he s tyle o f w hich c an h e c onsidered M ycena "a n b irds a nd t hose k nown f rom t he t ypical w ares. I t s hould a lso b e e mphasized t hat a t

A shdod ( stratum X [IIb, A rea C ), t ogether w ith t he l ocal M yc. [ lIC:j p ottery, t he b owls w ith h orizontal l oop h andles h ave b een f ound. W hat i s i nteresting i s t heir c lose r esemblance t o s imilar b owls w ith s trap h andles a ppearing i n C yprus t ogether w ith M yc. T IIC:lb p ottery, f or i nstance a t A ienou S tratum I T, S inda P eriod I T, E nkomi L evels l ilA-h IC,

K ouklia.

D uring t he r ecent e xcavations a t T el M iqne ( Khirbet 9 1-Muqanna), w hich w as p robably t he B iblical E kron o f t he P hil is tines,' t he s ame p ottery p henomenon w as o bserved. I n s ummarizing t he r esults o f t he

4

e xcavations o f " Chantier I " ( Phase 8 ), T . a s f ollows:

D othan a nd S .

G itin c oncluded

' L 'attribution d e c e n iveau e st n ettement F er I . L e s ol l e p lus a ncien n 'a f ourni a ucune c éramique ' Philistine' b ichrome, m ais u n r iche a ssemblage d e v ases d u M ycénien I IIC:lb. E n r evanche, l a p hase s uivante c ontenait l a f ois l e M ycénien I IIC:lb e t d e l a c éramique b ichrome ' Philistine', t andis q ue d ans l a p hase u ltime, l a c éramique ' Philistine' n 'était p lus a ssociée q u'à d es f ormes d u F er, s ans d ecor. C ette s equence, p lacée f in m e e t X Ie s i llustre l e d éveloppement t ypologique d u M ycé en I IIC:lb v ers l a c éramique p hilistine b ichrome."

a

. ,

T he d iscoveries a t A shdod a nd T el M iqne a re o f a n i mmense i mportance s ince i n t he s tratigraphy o f b oth s ites i t w as p ossible t o d istinguish a p hase d uring w hich M yc. I IIC:lb p ottery b egan c hanging i nto a n ew t ype, t he o ne w hich i s c ommonly c alled b y m odern s cholars " Philistine" p ottery. A t t his p oint o f o ur d iscussion, o ne s hould m ention t wo o utstandi ng v essels t hat c an b e c onsidered a s t he e arliest e xamples o f t he b ichrome h ilistine p ottery. O ne o f t hese i s a b ell-shaped b owl f rom A shkelon.' I t i s c overed w ith a h eavy w hite s lip a nd d ecorated w ith a b ichrome a ntithetic t ongue m otif. T his b owl c losely r esembles a M ycenaean I IIC:lb b ell-shaped b owl d ecorated w ith a t ricurved a rch a nd a r ow o f c hevrons, d iscovere i n t he h earth d eposit i n t he A shlar B uilding a t E nkomi L evel l ilA. A s till c loser p arallel t o t he b owl f rom A shkelon i s a M ycenaean I IIC:lb b ell-shaped b owl f rom S inda d ecorated w ith a ntithetic t ongue m otif. 1 6 I n f act, t he o nly d ifference b etween t hem i s t hat t he A shkelon b owl h as a b ichrome d ecoration w hile b oth t he E nkomi a nd S inda e xamples h ave a m onochrome d ecoration. I nstead, t he a rrangement a nd g eneral c haracter o f d ecoration i s t he s ame i n e ach c ase. A n? her e arly P hilistine v essel c omes f rom a t omb a t T ell ' Aitun. T his i s a s trainer-spout j ug d ecorated o n t he s houlder w ith a b ird, a f ish a nd a s ea a nemone, a nd i n t he c entral z one w ith g eometric m otifs f illing t he s pace b etween t he m etopes. T his j ug i s v ery " Mycenaean" a s r egards i ts d ecoration. T he c losest p arallels t o i t, j ust a s f or t he A shkelon b owl, a re t o b e s een i n t he C ypriote m aterial. A g lobular s trainer-spout j ug f rom P alaepaphos d ecorated i n t he C ypriote R ude S ty ° , c an h e c onsidered a s t he e arliest p arallel t o t he T ell ' Aitun j ug. F urther p arallels a re c learly v isible i n t he M ycenaean I IIC:lb r ainer-spout j ugs f rom E nkomi, S inda, a nd a lso f rom l alysos o n R hodes. T he u niqueness o f t he j ug f rom T ell ' Aitun l ies i n t he f act t hat o n t he o ne h and i t d isplays f eatures t ypical o f M ycenaean hIC p ottery, w hile o n t he o ther i t h as e lements a lready c haracteristic o f t he b ichrome P hilistine p ottery. T he f ish m otif d isplayed o n t he j ug f rom T ei l ' Aitun o ccurs v ery r arely i n t he f ully d eveloped P hilistine p ottery, b ut i t i s v ery c ommon i n M ycenaean HIC p ottery. O n t he c ontrary, t he b ird m otif w hich o n o ur j ug a ccompanies t he f ish i s a n i mportant f eature o f P hilistine p ottery, w hile i n M yc. I hIC:lb v essels

5

i t o ccurs l ess f requently. T herefore, t he T ell ' Aitun j ug a s w ell a s t he A shkelon b owl i llustrate r emarkably w ell a s tage i n t he d evelopment o f M yc. I IIC:lb p ottery i nto t he b ichrome p ottery o f t he P hilistines. T he c onclusion t hat c an h e d rawn f rom t he o bservation o f t he s equence o f M yc. I IIC:lb a nd P hilistine p ottery a t t he s ites o f A shdod a nd T el M iqne a re o f a g reat i mportance b oth f or t he r econstruction o f P hilistine s ettlement o n t he S yro-Palestinian c oast, a s w ell d eterminat ion o f t he e thnic p rovenance o f t he P hilistines a nd t he a rea o f t heir o riginal h omeland. I t i s l ogical t o a ssume t hat a p opulation w hich m anufactured t he P hilistine p ottery, w as e thnically a nd c ulturally i dentical w ith t he p opulation w hich h ad a l ittle e arlier p roduced o n t he s ame s ites M yc. I IIC:lb p ottery. I n o ther w ords, t he t ransformat ion o f t he l atter w are i nto t he p ottery c alled " Philistine" h ad t o t ake p lace w ithin t he s ame e thnos, m ost p robably i n t he s econd g eneration, o r t he t hird o ne a t t he l atest, o f M yc. I IIC:lb s ettlers. M ycenaean I IIC:lb p ottery h as a lso b een d iscovered a t s ome s ites o n t he S yro-Palestinian c oast, s uch a s T ell S uqas, R as I hn B yblos, r epta, T yre, A kko, T ell K eisan, Te l Dor , Be t h

o ther H ani, S h an ,

A shkelon. U I t i s t o b e e xpected t hat f uture e xcavations w ill r eveal t he p resence o f M yc. I IIC:lb p ottery o n t he o ther S yro-Palestinian s ites a s w ell, a nd t hat t he c ontexts o f t hese f inds w ill b e c omparable t o t hat a lready r ecorded i n A shdod a nd T el M iqne-Ekron, t wo o f t he f ive p rincipal P hilistine t owns ( cf. J osh . 1 3: 2 -3). T hus, t o d efine a ccurately t he e thnic o rigin o f t he P hilistines, a nd t hereby a lso t hat o f t he o ther g roups o f i nvaders, w e h ave f irst t o i dentify t he p roducers a nd u sers o f M yc. T IIC :lb p ottery m anufactured i n C anaan. S ince t he c losest p arallels t o e xamples o f t his p ottery f rom A shdod a nd T el M iqne, a nd t o t he e arliest P hilistine v essels f rom A shkelon a nd T ell ' Aitun, c ome i n t he f irst p lace f rom t he a bove m entioned C ypriote s ites, i t i s t o C yprus t hat w e t urn o ur a ttention n ow. T his i sland a nd t he e vents t hat o ccurred t here a t t he c lose o f t he L ate B ronze A ge, a re c ertainly a k ey t o t he d iscussed p roblem .

C yprus a nd t he " Sea P eoples" M onochrome M ycenaean I IIC:lb p ottery h as b een r ecorded a t t he f ollowing C ypriote s ites: E nkomi, S inda, K ition, H al S ultan T ekke, A thienou, M aa-Palaeokastro a nd P ala e pa p h os ( Ko u k li a ) .Ll T here i s n o c all t o d iscuss h ere i n d etail i ndividual v essel f orms a nd t ypes o f d ecoration. I t i s e nough t o s ay t hat t he r epertory o f s hapes, d erived d irectly f rom t he e arlier M ycenaean I lIB p ottery, i s v ery r ich c omprising a mong o thers, s kyphoi, b ell-kraters, c arinated b owls, k ylix j ugs, s tirrup j ars, s trainer j ugs, k alathoi a nd s o o n. T he d ecorative m otifs a re e qually n umerous; t hey c omprise v arious k inds o f s piral, s emicircles, c hevrons, z ig zags, s traight a nd w avy l ines, c hec boards, m altese c rosses, d ouble a xes, s ea a nemones, f ishes, b irds e tc. 2 2

i n

T he h istorical c ontext o f t he a ppearance o f t his t ype o f p ottery C yprus i s, o f c ourse, o f t he g reatest i nterest t o u s. I t i s s elf-

e vident t hat t he p ottery o f t he M yc.TIIB s tyle f ound o n C yprus i n t he L CII c ontext c an b e c onsidered a s g enuine M ycenaean p o ery m ade i n t he A egean a nd b rought t o t he i sland b y t he w ay o f t rade, O n t he o ther

6

h and, t he c onsiderable q uantity o f M yc.IIIC:lb p ottery, w hich w as t he p redominant t ype o f p ainted p ottery o f C yprus f rom t he b eginning o f t he L CIIIA p eriod, c an b e u nderstood t o b e t he o utcome o f t he l arge-scale c olonization o f t he i sland b y a n ewly a rrived p opulation. T his s eems t o b e a l ogical e xplanation f or t he a ppearance o f M yc.IIIC :lb p ottery o n C yprus, a nd c an b e a ccepted a s t he m ost r easonable i n t he p resent s tate o f o ur k nowledge. T he f act t hat t he p ottery i n q uestion o ccurs i n t he c ontext o f t he d estruction l evels o f a t l east t wo L CIIC s ettlem ents, n amely a t S inda a nd E nkomi, i ndicates t hat t he a rrival o f n ewcomers w as n ot a lways a ccomplished p eaceably, a s m ight h ave b een t he c ase o f o ther s ites, o r i n e arlier p eriods, b ut t hrough i nvasion i n s ome a reas. A s f or t he e thnic i dentity o f t hese n ew s ettlers, t he g eneral a nd u nanimous v iew i s t hat t hey m ust h ave b een a p opulation o riginating f rom t he r egion o f t he A egean c ulture c onsidered i n a b road s ense, t hat i s, n ot o nly f rom t he M ainland a nd t he A egean i slands, b ut a lso f rom t he A nat ian c oast w here M ycenaean s ettlements h ave a lso b een olonization o f r ecorded. O f c ourse, n ot a ll t he d etails o f t he 25c C yprus b y t hose f irst G reeks, a s s ome w ould h ave i t, a re y et k nown a nd f ully c lear t o u s. W e m ay n ow t urn t o s ome o f t he m ost i mportant q uestions o f t he A egean c olonization o f C yprus. O n t he b asis o f a rchaeological e vidence o btained f rom t he e xcavat ions a t E nkomi ( Area I a nd I II), a nd u sing t he G reek l egends, P . D ikaios r econstructed t he p robabl c ourse o f e vents f or t he w hole c ity a s w ell a s f or t he w hole i sland. A ccordingA c o r d i n gt o h im, t he L CIIC t own ( Level I T B :2) w as d estroyed c . 1 230 B .C., p rimarily b y t he M ycenaean r efugees w ho f led f rom t he M ainland a fter t he f all o f t heir c ities, a mong o thers f rom M ycenae i tself. T he i nvaders h ad n ot s tayed i n t he c ity b ut h ad g one a way p roceeding e astward. P . D ikaios s ays: " Some t en o r t wenty y ears l ater a n ew w ave o f M ycenaeans f leeing f rom t he d estroyed c entres o n t he G reek M ainland a nd p articularly t he A rgive r egion, a rrived a t t he s ite, i ntroduced M ycenaean I IIC:lb p ottery a nd o k u p t he t ask o f r econstructing t he t own." E nkomi c . 1 190 B .C . h ad o nce a gain b een c onquered a nd d estroyed, t his t ime b y t he " Land a nd S ea R aiders", t hat i s b y t he i nvaders m entioned i n t he E gyptian s ources. R ight a fter t his i nvasion, t he t own h ad b een r ebuilt ( Level I II B ) a nd t he u se o f t he M yc. I IIC :lb p ottery w as c ontinued. S ome p oints o f D iakaios' h istorical r econstruction s hould n ow b e r evised. F irstly , D ikaios s tated o n t he b asis o f t he l ack o f M yc. I IIC:la p ottery a b reak i n t he s ettlement c ontinuity f ollowing t he d estruction o f t he t own i n c . 1 230 B .C. H owever t here i s v tually n o c onvincing p roof o f s uch a d iscontinuity o f t he s ettlement, w hile t he l ack o f t he M yc. I IIC:la p ottery m ay b e e xplained i n a nother w ay. V . K arageorghis h as l ogically p ointed o ut t hat t he i mmigrants c ould n ot h ave b rought w ith t hem M yc. I IIC :la p ottery b ecause t his p ottery s tyle d eveloped o nly a fter t hey h ad l eft t he P eloponessos. I nstead, t he p ottery c onnected w ith t heir p resence o n C yprus i s t he l ast a se o f M yc. I lIB, i .e. M yc. I IlB :2 ( or L ate M ycenaean I lIB) p ottery, w hich

7

a ppears i n E nkomi b efore t he d estruction o f L evel I T B :2.

3 0

S econdly, t he i nitial m oment o f i ntroduction o f M yc. T IIC:lb p ottery o n C yprus i s a t p resent d ated t o C. 1 200/1190 B .C. a nd n ot 1 220/1210 B .C . a s D ikaios p roposed. I n c ase w e c onsider t he n ew d ate o f a ppearance o f M yc. [ IIC:lb p ottery a s t he c onstruction p eriod o f t he A shlar B uilding, t he t erminal d ata o f L evel I T B :2 s hould b e p ulled d own t o c . 1 200/1190 B .C . C onsequently t he d ate o f t he d estruction o f L evel I II A a s w ell a s t he b eginning o f L evel I II B s hould b e p ulled a lso d own. H owever t he f ollowing p roblem a rises h ere: w ith w hich d ate a fter 1 200/1190 B .C . a nd h istorical e vents s hould b e c onnected t he d estruction o f L evel I II A a s w ell a s i ts r econstruction? P erhaps w e s hould c onnect t his d estruction w ith t he e vents t hat c aused t he a bandonment o f H ala S ultan T ekke c . 1 175 B .C . T here i s e vidence i ndicating n emy a ttacks o n t his; t he i nhabitant s le f t ci ty an d n e ve r c ame

b ack .3

I t i s a lso p ossible t hat t he d estruction i n

E nkomi

h ad

n othing i n c ommon w ith t he f ate o f H ala S ultan T ekke, a nd p erhaps i t w as c aused b y s ome n atural d isaster, f or e xample, a l arge-scale f ire, o r e ven i nternal d isturbances. I n a ny c ase, t he d ate o f t he d estruct ion o f E nkomi L evel I II A s till h as t o c ome w ithin t he p eriod l imited b y t he u se o f M yc. I IIC:lb p ottery, s ince i t w as a lso u sed d estruction, i .e. i n t he e arly p hase o f L evel I II B .

a fter

t he

D ikaios w as a lso o f t he o pinion t hat t he M ycenaean r efugees w ho s ettled i n E nkomi a t t he p eriod r epresented b y L evel I II A i ntroduced t he s o-called a shlar m asonry t o t he t own a s w ell a s t he m egaron t ype b uildings, b oth o f w hich w ere c haracteristic o f t he M ycenaean c entres o n t he M ainland. A n e xample o f t he e mployment o f t his " new" a rchitectural f orm a nd b uilding t echnique i n E nkomi, w as t he A shlar B uilding i n A rea I . A ccording t o t he e xcavator, t his b uilding , w hich d id n ot h ave a t t he t ime o f i ts d iscovery a ny p arallels o n C yprus, r ecalled i n i ts a rrangement a nd b uilding t echnique t he M ycenaean p alaces o n t he M ainland, o r e xample t he p alace i n P ylos, o r H ouse G a t A sine i n t he A rgolis. 3 T his m atter t ouches u pon a f ar b roader p roblem , n amely w hether a shlar m asonry w as r eally i ntroduced t o C yprus b y a p opulation w hich h ad c ome f rom t he G reek m ainland a nd w hich, a s D ikaios b elieved, w as m anufacturing M yc. I IIC :lb p ottery. F rom t he m ost r ecent e xcavations i t b ecomes c lear t hat a shlar m asonry, r egardl ess o f w hether i t w as a n i ndigenous o r a b uilding t echnique i ntroduced f rom a broad, o ccurred i n C yprus a t am oment f ar e arlier t han t he d ate s uggested b y D ikaios a nd t hat i ts a ppearance d oes n ot n ec es sarily h ave t o b e r elated t o t he p roducers o f M yc. I IIC:lb p ottery, -3 j a lthough a t p articular s ites i t m ay h appen a nd i ndeed d oes, f or i nstance a t K ition a nd E nkomi, t hat s uch a shlar c3 s tructions a re o f a l ater d ate, t hat i s p osterior t o t he L CIIC p eriod. T wo o ther s ites a re o f u nparalleled i mportance f or t he r econstruct ion o f e vents o n t he i sland a t t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C . O ne o f t hem i s P yla-Kokkinokremos, s ituated c . 1 0km t o t he n orth-east o f L arnaca. T his i s a r ocky p lateau a bout 8 00m d istant f rom t he s ea. B rief e xcavations m ade i n 1 952 b y P . D ikaios a nd r ecently s eason ( 1981-1982) e xcavation b y V . K ar georghis r evealed t he -

a t wor emains

o f a s hort-live f ortified s ettlement. 33 T he o ther s ite i s t hat o f M aa-Palaeokastro, 6 w hich l ies o n t he w estern c oast o f C yprus, a bout 2 5km t o t he n orth-west o f P alaepaphos. T his s ite i s a s r egards i ts l ocation a nd c haracter a lmost i dentical t o P yla-Kokkinokremos. I t i s a

8

f ortified s ettlement s ituated a t a s trategic c oastal p oint, a s teepe dged p eninsula, f ounded a t a bout t he s ame t ime a s P yla-Kokkinokremos, i .e. c . 1 200 B .C. T he d ate o f t he i nitial c onstruction o f t he s ettlements a t M aa a nd P yla s till r emains a n o pen q uestion. I n t he f inal p ublication o f t he e xcavations a t P yla, V . K arageorghis h as p roposed t he f ollowing c hronological f ramework: c . 1 230 B .C . b eginning o f b oth s ettlement c . 1 200 B .C . a bandonment o f P yla a nd d estruction/rebuilding o f M aa. H owever, i n t he f inal r eport o n M aa e xcavations p ublished r ecently w e s ee t hat a bove q uoted a bsolute c hronology h as b een c hanged a s f ollows: c . 1 200 B .C . i nitial c onstruction o f b oth P yla a nd M aa, c . 1 190 B .C . a bandonment o f t he f ormer, s hort a fter 1 190 B .C. d estruction/ r ebuilding o f t he h atter; t he f inal a bandonment o f M aa i s p laced w ithin L CIIIA:1 p eriod. 3 T his i s n ot t he p lace t o s ettle a ll t he c hronol ogical p roblems c onnected w ith b oth s ettlements. W e c an o nly m ention t hat, f or e xample, t he r ecently p roposed d uration o f t he P yla s ettlement, o nly 1 0 y ears, s eems t o b e t oo s hort; t he d ating o f t he b eginning o f t he s ettlement a t c . 1 200 B .C. i s p erhaps t oo l ate. H owever, r egardless o f w hich o f t he a bove p resented d ates w e a re g oing t o a ccept, t he g eneral i nterpretation o f t he h istorical s ignificance o f b oth t he P yla a nd M aa s ettlements r emains u nchanged. -

-

-

-

-

T he c rucial q uestion f or o ur s tudy i s t o d ecide w ho f ounded b oth f ortified s ettlements. W ere t hey " foreigners", o r C ypriots? P . D ikaios p roposed t hat b oth t he f ounders o f P yla, d t hose o f M aa, s hould b e i dentified a s M ycenaeans a nd A natolians. N ew e xcavations h ave c onfirmed t his h ypothesis, a nd s hown t hat a t P yla t he p res 3ce o f C retans a nd N ear E asterners a lso s hould n ot b e r uled o ut. T he i dentity o f t he s ettlers a t M aa i s m ade c lear b y t he l arge a mount o f M yc. I IIC:lb p ottery, r elated t o t he e arly p hase o f t he s ettlement. A n a lternative i nterpretation o f t he " military o utposts" a t P yla a nd M aa h as b een p roposed b y A .K . S outh . A ccording t o h er, b oth s ites m ight h ave b een i nhabited b y a l ocal p opulation, a nd m ay h ave c ons tituted a p art t he " defensive a rrangements o f a p rosperous C ypriote s tate o r s ites" . '4 T he m ain a rgument i n f avour o f s uch a n i nterpretat ion w ould b e t he r esemblance b etween t he p ottery t ypes a nd t he b uilding t echnique u sed a t t he n ative s ite o f K alavasosA vios D himitrios o n t he o ne h and a nd t hose t estified t o i n P ylaK okkinokremos a nd e specially i n M aa-Palaeokastro o n t he o ther. A s a m atter o f f act, s ome c haracteristics w hich c an b e o bserved i n b oth t he a rchitecture a nd s trategic l ocation o f P yla a nd M aa, l ink t hese t wo s ettlements t o t he e arlier m ilitary a rchitecture o f t he i sland. L ikewise, o ne m ay e qually p oint o ut t he r esemblance b etween t he C yclopean w alls a nd a " dog-leg" g ate d iscovered a t M aa, a nd t he f ortifica ons f rom s ites i n A sia M inor, f or i nstance f rom A lishar a nd B o azkoy. -

o f

I n a n a nalysis o f t he m ilitary a spect o f t he a rchitectural r emains P yla-Kokkinokremos a nd M aa-Palaeokastro, M . D emas d emonstrates t he

w eakness o f a t heory w hich r egards t hes m ilitary o utposts a s t he c reation o f a l ocal C ypriote p opulation. F ortified F o r t i f e ds ites o f t he M CIII a nd L CI p eriods, s erving m ilitary p urposes e xclusively, w ere n ever p laces o f p ermanent s ettlements. A t t he m ost, t hey c ould h ave a dditionally s erved i n c ase o f i mminent d anger a s a r efuge f or t he

9

i nhabitants o f t he n eighbourhood. N either c an t he s mall f inds f rom P yla a nd M aa b e c onsidered a s r eflecting b arrack l ife, n or t he r emains o f d omestic a rchitecture a t t hose s ites b e i dentified a s p rimitive r efuges, i ntended t o p rovide t he p opulation a t emporary s helter i n c ase o f d anger. T here i s n o d oubt t hat b oth P yla a nd M aa s erved p ri m arily a s l iving q uarters f or n ormal, o rganized c ommunities. T his p opulation, w hile c reating a n a tmosphere o f d anger a nd u ncertitude o n t he i sland d id n ot i tself f eel s afe, h ence t he f ortifications. T here i s o ne a dditional f act t o b e n oted i n f avour o f t his o pinion, t hat t he f ortified s ettlement o f M aa a nd P yla s hould n ot b e r egarded a s t he w ork o f a n ative p opulation. I n b oth c ases t he s ite c hosen f or s ettlement w as i n r eality h ardly s uitable f or h a tation, p rimarily o n a ccount o f t he l ack o f aw ater-supply w ithin i t. T his m ay t estify t o t he f act, t hat t he p opulation i n q uestion w as n ot a ware o f a ny o ther a reas b etter s uited f or s ettlement, n or h ad i t t he t ime t o l ook f or s uch s ites. T hese p eople, a fter h aving r eached t he s hore o f t he i sland, c hose a ny n aturally d efensive p lace t o b egin a nd c ontinue t he s ettled l ife w hich h ad b een i nterrupted i n t heir p revious h omeland. I f o n t he o ther h and b oth t he m ilitary o utposts h ad b een t he w ork o f a n ative p opulation, t he f ounders o f a s ettlement d esigned t o s erve t he d ouble p urpose o f d efense a nd o f d aily h abitation, w ould s urely h ave c hosen a m ore h ospitable p lace. T hey w ould h ave w ished t o e nsure m aximum c omfort f or t he f uture i nhabitants, a mong w hom t here w ould b e n ot o nly m embers o f t he m ilitary f orce, b ut a lso t heir w ives, c hildren, m others e tc. T herefore, t here c an b e l ittle d oubt t hat b oth P yla a nd M aa m ust h ave b een f ounded b y a n ew p opulation , t hat o f i mmigrants, w ho a rrived i n C yprus i n s earch o f n ew a reas i n w hich t o b uild t heir s ettlements a nd t owns. A part f rom t hese t wo s ites, h ose o f L ara a nd S inda m ight a lso h ave b een s uch m ilitary o utposts. 4 S inda i s, h owever, a n e xception, f or u nlike t he o ther f ortified s ettlements s ituated r ight o n t he s eashore, i t l ies i nland, c . 1 6km t o t he w est o f E nkomi. P yla-Kokkinokremos w as a bandoned b y i ts i nhabitants q uite s uddenly a round 1 190 B .C. T o j udge, h owever, b y t he n ature a nd t he k ind o f o bjects t hey l eft b ehind ( hoards), i t s eems a s i f t hey h ad i ntended t o r eturn, a lthough t hey n ever d id... T he M aa-Palaeokastro s ettlement w as d estroyed s hortly a fter 1 190 B .C. b ut i mmediately a fterwards i t w as r ebuilt, a ccording t o t he e xcavator, b y t he p revious i nhabitants. V . K arageorghis e xcludes b oth M ycenaeans a nd C ypriots a s t hose w ho c aused b oth t he a bandonment o f P yla a nd t he d estruction o f M aa. H e r eaches t his c onclusion o n t he b asis o f t he o bservation t hat " Elements o f M ycenaean c ulture w ere a lready t oo w ell e stablished b y t he t ime o f t he d estruction/abandonment o f t hese s ites, a nd s how n o s igns o f d ecrease a fter t hem , t o w arrant p ostulating a n a ttack b y M ycenaeans o n a C ypriot h eld M aa o r l a-Kokkinokremos o r a n a ttack b y C ypriots o n M ycenaean s ettlements." I n m y o pinion, h owever, w e s hould n ot e xclude a ltogether t he M ycenaeans o r, g enerally s peaking, t he A egeans a s t hose w ho c aused t hese d ramatic e vents. I t s hould b e s tressed t hat M yc. I IIC:lb p ottery h as 4 o t b een d iscovered i n t he e arli es t con tex t o f the s e t tl ement a t M aa.

I t a ppeared s omewhat l ater b ut s till b efore

1 0

t he

d estruction.

T his f act m ay i ndicate t he c onstant a rrival o f n ew g roup(s) o f i mmigrants. I s i t p ossible t hat a t a g iven m oment t he a rrival o f a s uccessive g roup o f A egeans c ould h ave m et w ith t he r esistance o f t he e arlier A egean s ettlers a t M aa? W e b elieve t hat t his c ould r eally h ave h appened. A n a rmed c onflict b etween t wo g roups o f p eople o therwise i dentical a s r egards t heir e thnic a nd c ultural o rigins i s q uite n atural a nd s hould n ot b e d isregarded. I f s uch w as t he f ate o f M aa, t hen w e p ractically c annot d etermine o n t he b asis o f a rchaeological d ata w ho e xactly r ebuilt a nd r esettled M aa: t he p revious i nhabitants o r t he i nvaders. B oth p ossibilities a re e qually p robable, a nd i n b oth c ases t he c ontinuity i n m aterial c ulture a fter r ebuilding o f M aa i s t o b e e xpected. S ome o ther C ypriote s ites, i .e. E nkomi a nd S inda, w ere a lso d estroyed a nd i mmediately a fterwards r ebuilt. O n t he o ther h and, n o t races o f d estruction b y a n e nemy a ttack i n t he a nsitional p eriod L CII L CIII h ave b een f ound a t K ition o r A thienou. T his, a s w e h ave m entioned e arlier, m ay s uggest t hat t he A egeans h ad s ettled o n s ome s ites i n p eaceful w ay. H owever, t he l ack o f a ny e vidence o f b esieging a c ity b y e nemies d oes n ot e xclude t he p ossibility o f a c onflict b etween i ts i nhabitants a nd o ther p eople . T herefore, w e m ust a lso t ake i nto a ccount a nother p ossibility, n amely t hat o f a s ingle d ecisive b attle o utside t he c ity i n w hich t he n ewcomers w ould g ain a v ictory. T he i nhabitants o f t he c ity, u pon b eing d efeated i n o pen b attle, c ould h ave r esigned f urther d efence a nd v oluntarily, b ut s till o n r espectable c onditions, h ave i ntroduced v ictorious A egeans i nto t he c ity t o a void t he d anger o f r obbery a nd d estruction . S till a nother a ttractive t heory -

h as b een p ut f orward r ecently b y V . K arageorghis, i .e., t he " theory o f ac ooperative v enture b etween M ycenaeans a nd C ypriots". I t m eans t hat t he C ypriots " may h ave b een r eluctant h osts, b ut t here m ay h ave b een s trong i nducements mi li tary a nd m ercantile t o a ccept t he p resence o f M ycenaean r efugees." -

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I f w e a ccept t he a ssumption t hat t he M yc. I IIC:lb p ottery o n C yprus r eflects i n g eneral t he m assive i nflux o f A egeans, t hen i t w ould b e d esirable t o n ext p ay s ome a ttention t o t he h istorical s ituation i n t he a rea o f t he G reek m ainland. T hanks t o t he i ntensive r esearchers o n t his s ubject b y m any s cholars, s eve 81 a spects o f t he s ocio-political s ituation o n t he M ainland a re k nown. I n t he m id-13th c entury B .C . t he r ather c oherent a nd h omogenous M ycenaean c ivilisation h as a lready p assed t he a cme o f i ts s ocialc ultural d evelopment. F irst o f a ll, t here o ccurs a b reak-down i n t he i ndividual a dministrative c entres c onnected w ith t he p alaces. T he o fficial h ierarchy i s e ither r educed, o r d isappears e ntirely, o r i s d ispersed w ith t he a bandonment o f t he p alaces a nd o ther w ealthy r esidences. T he m ain h itherto e xisting r eligious c entres, t emples a nd s anctuaries a lso l ose t heir i mportance, w hile l ocal c ults d evelop r apidly. S imilarly, t he m ilitary o rganization d esintegrates a nd s everal i ndependent a rmed u nits c ome i nto b eing. T he c learly l ower a rtistic s tandard a nd d ecreasing m aterial v alue o f b oth t he t omb g ifts a nd o bjects o f e veryday l ife t estify n ot o nly t o a d eterioration i n t he a rtisans' s kill, b ut a lso t o a c ollapse o f t he e conomic b asis o f t he c ommunity, t o ad ecline i n t rade a nd e xchange i n b oth t he m acroa nd m icro r egio 3 ' ,n ot t o m ention o verseas t rade. M any s ettlements w ere a bandonment, a nd f arming d eclined, c ertainly e xerting a n u nfavourable

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i nfluence o n t he n umber a nd h ealth o f t he p opulation. W hat w as t he r eason f or t hi s ituation? T he r easons, u ndoubtedly i nterconnected, w ere n umerous. 2 P ossibly t here m ight h ave b een n atural c alamities s uch a s, f or i nstance, c limatic c hanges , e arthq uakes, a l ong-lasting c atastrophic d rought a nd/or s ome m an-made d isaster, a s ort o f s ocial r evolution? O r a n i nvasion b y p eoples r epresenting a l ower l evel o f c ultural d evelopment a nd a ttracted b y t he p rosperity o f t he c ities a nd t he a ffluence o f t he i nhabitants o f t he s outhern p art o f t he B alkan p eninsula? I t i s n ot t o b e e xcluded t hat t here w as a c onnection w ith e vents w hich t ook p lace i n t he D anube a rea, t he i nfluence o w hich w ould h ave h ad s o d ramatic a n i mpact u pon t he M ycenaean w orld. O f c ourse, t he p icture o f M ycenaean G reece a t t he c lose o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C. w hich w e h ave p resented h ere i s v ery s ummary a nd g eneral. T his i s n ot t he p lace, h owever, f or a m ore d iscerning a nalysis o f e ither t he r easons w hich c ontributed t o t he c atastrophe o f t he M ycenaean c ommunities, o r t he r esults o f t his c atastrophe o n t he s ubsequent h istory o f t he m ainland G reece. O f i mportance, h owever, i s t he c onsequence o f t his M ycenaean b reakdown o n t he L evant a nd t he p eoples o f t he E astern M editerranean. I t i s l ogical t hat a p olitical a nd e conomic c risis o n t he M ainland o bliged a p art o f t he M ycenaean p opulation t o a bandon t heir h omes a nd p ossessions a nd m igrate w ith t heir m ost v aluable b elongings i n v arious d irections, i n s earch f or n ew t erritories, i n w hich t hey c ould s tart a n ew l ife. T his w as p resumably t he u pper gass o f M ycenaean s ociety t he p alatial a nd m ilitary -

a ristocracy. M ost o f t he i mmigrants h eaded e ast, t hrough t he i slands a nd a cross t he s ea t owards C yprus. O f c ourse i t c ould n ot h ave t aken t he f orm o f a s ingle l arge g roup o f r efugees. M ore l ikely t here w ere s everal, m ore o r l ess n umerous g roups o f r efugees w ho c hose v arious r outes t o r each C yprus a nd t he S yro-Palestinian c oast. O n t heir w ay, w hich p robably h ad t he c haracter o f am igration l asting a l ong t ime, t hey c ould h ave b een j oined b y s mall g roups o f p eoples i nhabiting t he r egions t hrough w hich t heir r outes l ed, i .e., f rom C rete, t he D odecanessos a nd t he c oast o f A sia M inor. T he p resence o f p eoples f rom A sia M inor w ould e xplain t he s imilarities b etween A natolian m ilitary a rchitecture a nd b uilding t echniques o n o ne h and a nd, f or e xample, t he f ortifications a t M aa -Palaeokastro a nd t g a ppearance o f t he A natolian G rey P olished w are i n P yla-Kokkinokremos o n t he o ther. A t t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C . C yprus m ust c ertainly h ave s eemed a p articularly a ttractive i sland w ith i ts r ich t owns a nd w ealthy c ommunities w hich d erived p rofits f rom t he n atural r esources o f t he i sland a nd f rom i ts c onvenient g eographical p osition, t hanks t o w hich t he i sland s erved a s a s tage i n t he c ommercial e xchange b etween t he E ast a nd t he W est a nd v ice v ersa. B esides, C yprus h ad a lready b een w ell-known t o t he i nhabitants o f m ainland G reece f or a l ong t ime , s o i t w ould b e q uite n atural t hat t he i mmigrants w ished t o s tart a n ew l ife t here. U pon r eaching C yprus i n t he l ast y ears o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C ., r efugees f rom t he P eloponessos a nd o ther a reas o f t he A egean w orld, f earing a ttempts b y t he n atives t o d rive t hem a way, b uilt f ortified s ettlements d irectly a t t he l anding p laces o r i n t he n eighbourhood o f t hese w hich w ould i f t he n ecessity a rose p ermit a n i nstant w ithdrawal. S ome o f t hem , p erhaps t hose f eeling m ore s ecure c ould h ave m ade t heir w ay i nland a nd h ave u ndertaken a n a rmed a ttempt

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t o s ettle i n t he t owns,

f or i nstance a t E nkomi a nd S inda.

M eanwhile, t he p art o f t he M ycenaean p opulation w hich h ad s tayed o n t he G reek m ainland, a ttempted t o a rrange l ife a long t he l ines o f p ast s plendour, b ut i t w as i mpossible t o a ttain t he p revious d egree o f s ocio-political i ntegration. T his p eriod d id n ot l ast l ong; p robably t he c ontinuous l ocal t urmoil d id n ot e xert a f avourable i nfluence o n t he s tabilization o f l ife. A nother e nemy i nvasion m ight h ave b een f eared, a p roblem o pen t o v arious c onjectures a nd m ultiple h ypotheses. T he f act i s, t hat f inally s uccessive g roups o f M ycenaeans a lso d ecided t o f ollow t heir p redecessors i n l eaving t heir p revious h omeland a nd h eading e ast, m ainly t o C yprus. T his m ust h ave t aken p lace a round 1 200 B .C ., a d ate w hich h as b een r ecently a ccepted a s t he b eginning f or t he o ccurrence o f t he M yc.IIIC:lb p ottery o n C yprus. T his t ime i t w as t he w hole i sland o r a t l east i ts m ain u rban c entres t hat b ecame t he n ew h ome o f t he r efugees f rom t he G reek m ainland. T he C ypriote t owns, h itherto i nhabited b y b oth t he n ative p opulation a nd t he A egeans w ho h ad a rrived i n t he e arlier y ears, i .e. b efore 1 200 B .C ., w ere s ettled b y n ewcomers i n a p eaceful w ay o r, a s t he c ase o f S inda, E nkomi a nd M aa-Palaeokastro s hows, w ere t aken b y f orce. W here a n a rmed c onflict a nd c ity's d estruction t ook p lace, t he v ictorious i nvaders s ubsequently p roceeded t o r ebuild i t. O n t he o ther h and, w here t he r efugees w ere w elcomed a nd t he s ettlement p rocess h ad a p eaceful c haracter, t hey g ave a n ew i mpetus f or t he c ity's d evelopment a nd a b uilding b oom , a s a t K ition. I t c annot b e e xcluded t hat o n s ome s ites t he A egeans i nitiated t he c onstruction o f t he a shlar b uildings a nd n ew f ortifications. T he c onstruction o f n ew p ublic b uildings, s uch a s f or i nstance t he A shlar B uilding e xcavated b y P . D ikaios, w ith t he h elp o f t he n ative p opulation w ould n ot h ave b een t roublesome, t he m ore s o, s ince t his t echnique h ad a lready b een w ell k nown i n C yprus i n t he e arlier p eriods. I n a ny c ase i t s eems t hat t he n ewcomers s ettled t hemselves i n t he t owns a s a r uling c lass o r a s l eading o ne a t l east. A lthough i t i s n ot y et f ully v isible i n t he L CIIIA m aterial c ulture o f t he i sland, w e c an s tate w ithout h esitation t hat i t w as j ust a t t his p eriod t hat t he A egeans l aid t he f oundations f or t he f uture C ypriote c ivilization w hich t hereby w as i n l ater c enturies t o b e o riented t oward G reek w orld a nd c ulture. H owever, n ot a ll t he n ewcomers s tayed o n t he i sland. S ome o f t hem h eaded f urther e ast s oon a fter 1 200/1190 B .C., p rogressively l anding a t v arious p oints o f t he S yro-Palestinian c oast. H ere a lso i t i s M yc. I IIC:lb p ottery t hat m arks t heir p resence ( see a bove p . 6 ). T heir s ettlement i n S yro-Palestine r esulted m ainly f rom a rmed i nvasion. T he i mmigrants c onquered a nd d estroyed t he o ld C anaanite t owns. S ome o f t hem w ere s ubsequently r ebuilt a nd b ecame t he h omes o f t he c onq grors, w hile o thers, s uch a s f or i nstance U garit, w ere n ever r esettled. A s h as a lready b een m entioned, t he n ew p opulation, o f c ourse, u sed a p ottery o f t heir o wn, t he M yc.IIIC:lb, u tilized d uring t he s ame p eriod b y t heir k insmen o n C yprus. S ome t ime l ater, a fter t wo o r t hree g enerations, M yc.IIIC:lb p ottery w as t ransformed i nto t he p ottery r eferred t o b y u s a s " Philistine" p ottery. T he t ransformation o f t he p ottery s tyle s hould n ot b e c onsidered a s s urprising, n or a s r eason t o s uspect e thnic c hanges w ere b ehind t he c hange i n t he s tyle o f p ottery f or t here i s n othing u nchangeable i n h uman a ctivity, e specially w hen t he a rtist's w ork i s i nvolved. A s a n e xpression o f s uch a ctivity o ne s hould c onsider t he p henomenon o f t he p ainted p ottery, b oth t he

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m onochrome M yc.IIIC a nd i ts b ichrome P alestinian v ariant t he " Philistine" p ottery . I . S inger h as r ecently r ightly e mphasized t hat: -

. we s hould d esignate t he M ycenaean I IIC:lb p ottery p roduced i n P hilistia a s ' Monochrome ( or e arly) P hilistine p ottery', a nd t he B ichrom w ares ' classical ( or l ater) P hilistine p ottery'." A s imilar p rocess i s t o b e o bserved i n C yprus. I t i s t here a lso t hat i n t he c ourse o f t ime t he M yc.IIIC:lb p ottery i s t ransformed i nto a n ew p ottery t ype t hat o f t he P roto-White P ainted. N obody t ake t his c hange i n p ottery s tyle a s a n i ndication o f e thnic c hange i n C yprus. T he f act t hat t he e volution o f M yc.IIIC:lb p ottery w ent i n d ifferent d irections, n amely C ypriote a nd P alestine b ranches, w as c aused p rimarily b y t he g eographical s eparation o f t he A egean c olonists i n -

P alestine f rom t heir k insmen s ettling o n C yprus. S ome o riental e lements t hat a re f ound i n t he r epertory o f t he P hilistine p ottery w ere c ertainly a r esult o f t he i nfluence o f a l ocal p ottery t radition. T he c onquered i ndigenious p opulation o f C anaan p robably l ived s ide b y s ide w ith i ts n ew m asters. F rom t hese l ocal p eople t here m ight h ave d erived s ome o f t he p ostmakers w ho, a s s uggested b y M azar, t ried t o: " ...Lit t heir p roducts t o t he t aste o f b oth t he P hi1is ne r ulers a nd t he r est o f t he p opulat ion. C ertainly, i t i s n ot o nly t he p ottery, a t f irst I IIC:lb p ottery a nd t hen i ts " Philistine" b ichrome

t he M ycenaean v ariant, t hat

r eflects t he o rigin o f t he P hilistines. An umber o f o ther o bjects u ncovered i n t he P hilistine c ontext p oints p lainly t o t heir A egean b ackground. T hese a re v arious c ult o bjects, c ylindrical s eals, s ome e xamples o f w riting, a rmour a nd w eaponery, a nd e ven a rchitecture. 59 H owever, t here a re o ther a rtifacts w hich, a ccording t o s ome s cholars, p oint t o a q uite d ifferent o rigin f or t he S ea P eoples. T he h ypotheses s tate a c onnection b etween t hese m ysterious n ewcomers a nd C entral a nd N orthern E urope, o r s imply l ocate t heir o riginal h omeland t here. T hese t heories a re b ased e xclusively o n t he f act t hat s ome t ypes o f t ools a nd w eapons o f a " north-European o rigin" h ave b een f ound i n t he E astern M editerranean: i n G reece, C yprus a nd t he S yroP alestinian c oast. O ne s hould m ention, a mong o thers, a g roup o f k niv w ith a r ing-end, f ound a t T ell Q asile, E nkomi, a nd l ysos o n R hodes. P arallels a re t o b e s een i n t he U rnfield c ulture. I t i s p ossible t hat t hey c ould h ave b een b rought t o t he L evantine a rea b y m ercenaries o f a n orth-European o rigin. H owever, A .F . H arding i s s ceptical a bout a r elation b etween t his t ype o f k nife a nd t he T J rnfield c ulture, c onsideri ng i t q uite p robable t hat " ...a r ing-end w as a lso u sed o n s ome o f s tandard M ycenaean k nives w hose h ilt t erminat 9n i s n ot p reserved, t hat t he r ing-end w as t herefore n ot u nusual". A lso

s words o f N aue's T ype I I w hich o ccur i n G reece,

C yprus

t he a nd

a nd

S yro-Palestine a re c onnected w ith a n a rrival o f b arbarian m ercenari 9 1 o r i nvaders ( the l atter a re r ather d ifficult t o i magine) f rom E urope. H owever, i t i s b eyond d oubt t hat w eapons b ecome w idely a ccepted i n v arious c ultures, i f o nly t hey s erved t heir p urpose b etter t han t he w eapons p reviously u sed. T herefore, i n m y o pinion, t he m ost p lausible

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a nd s afe e xplanation f or t he p resence o f t hese s words o f n orth-European o rigin i n G reece, C yprus a nd S yro-Palestine, s eems t o b e t hat o ffered b y A .F. H arding. H e c onsiders t hese s words n ot a s a t estimony t o t he p ossible p resence o f " barbarian m ercenaries" o r i nvaders b ut a s c hange i n w eaponery o wing t o t he r ise o f n ew t echnique o f c ombat" . ° T herefore a ll, o r a t l east t he g reater p art o f t he " north-European" t ypes o f w eaponery f ound i n t he A egean a nd i n t he L evant s hould b e r ecognized a s l ocal i mitations r ather t han a s ource a llowing t he i dentification o f f oreign p eoples. A s hort m ention s hould b e m ade h ere o f s till a nother b it o f e vidence f or t he p robable p resence o f n orthern b arbarians i n t he A egean a nd t he E astern M editerranean r egions. Ia m r eferring t o t he s o-called " Barbarian w are" d iscovered a t A sine, K arakou, M ycenae, T iryns a nd s ome o ther p laces i n e arly L HIIIC c ontext i n t he A egean r egion. T his p ottery h as a lso b een f ound i n a ssociation w ith M yc. I IIC:lb p ottery o n C yprus ( Kition, S inda, E nkomi, M aa-Palaeokastro a nd H ala S ultan T ekke? , a nd i n P alestine t ogether w ith P hilistine p ottery ( Tell Q asile). P arallels t o t hese w ares a re t o b e f ound a mong t he p ottery f rom I taly, n orthwestern G reece, J ugoslavia, T hrace, R omania a nd t he T road. M uch h as b eep w ritten i n r ecent y ears o n t he o rigin of t hi s k i nd o f p ottery. f or t he p ossible c arries

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T hereT h e r ei s a g eneral t endency t o s ee t his w are a s a n e vidence a rrival o f p eoples f rom s outheastern E urope. T his m ay b e a e xplanation. H owever, t his p ottery b y i ts v ery c rude n ature a s a n e thnic d eterminant c onsiderably l ess a uthority t han -

e ven t he a bove m entioned w eapons. M uch m ore r easonable s eem t o b e t he h ypotheses w hich t ry t o e xplain t he o ccurrence o f t his p ottery i n o ther, n on-ethnical t erms, f or e xample, a s " a r egular s econdary w are a ccompanying M ycenaean w heelmade p ottery f or s ome y ears o n e ither s ide o f 1 200 B .C . a nd r eflecting t he i ncrease i n m obility a t t his t im g w hich w ould h ave l ed t o d ifficulties i n a ccess t o a po t t er 's w heel.. 97 . ,,

I n a ny c ase, t hose s cholars w ho o n t he g rounds o f t his k ind p ottery a rgue f or t he p resence o f n orthern b arbarians, h ave t hereby a ccept t he t heory a ccording t o w hich t he l arge a mount p ottery i n C yprus a nd P alestine i ndicate t he m assive A egeans.

o f t o

o f M yc.TIIC:lb i nflux o f t he

T o r ecapitulate: t he d ata d iscussed a bove c ontains v irtually n o s ignificant p roof f or t he n orth-European o rigin o f s ome g roups o f p eoples s ettled a t t he c lose o f t he L ate B ronze A ge o n C yprus a nd i n P alestine. T herefore, t he t heory i n q uestion, a lthough v ery a ttractive, h as t o b e t reated w ith a n umber o f r eservations. O f c ourse, t he p resence o f s ome i ndividual E uropeans a mongst t he A egean s ettlers o n C yprus a nd i n S yro-Palestine c an n ever b e t otally e xcluded f rom c onsideration. B ut, a t t he s ame t ime, w e s hould n ot o vervalue t heir " historical" s ignificance a nd t he p art t hat t hey h ave p layed i n t he c olonization p rocess o f C yprus a nd S yro-Palestinian c oast a t t he b eginning o f 1 2th c entury B .C . T his h ad d ecidedly " Aegean" c haracter a nd, i n m y o pinion, t here i s s till n o s ufficient d ata w hich w ould e nable u s t o t alk a bout, f or e xample, " Aegean-European" c olonization o f C yprus a nd S yro-Palestine. T o s um u p, t he p rocess o f t he A egean c olonization o f t he L evant b egins a t t he v ery e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C., b eing t hen r estricted t o C yprus p rimarily. A round 1 200/1190 B .C . t here o ccurred t he

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c ulmination o f t his p rocess, h owever, o n a m uch l arger s cale. A t t his t ime, t he a rmed s ettlement o f r efugees f rom t he A egean c omprised a ll t he m ain C ypriote u rban c entres a nd a dditionally t he S yro-Palestinian c oast. T his p icture i s c orraborated b y t he e xcavations a t P ylaK okkinokremos, M aa-Palaeokastro, K ition, E nkomi, A shdod, T el M iqne, a nd b y t he i nvestigations o f c ontexts i n w hich M yc.IIIC:lb p ottery a ppears o n C yprus a nd i n S yro-Palestine. W hat, h owever, i s t he r elation b etween t his r econstruction o f e vents a nd w hat w e k now f rom t he a ncient w ritten s ources?

L iterary e vidence A ccording t o t he w ell-know G reek l egends, t he h eroes w ho c aptured T roy, s ettled s ubsequently o n t he c oast o f A sia M inor a nd o n C yprus. T hus M opsus, a ccompanied b y A mphilochus a nd t wo L apiths, L eonteus a nd P olypoetes, f ounded t he t owns o f A spendus a nd P haselis i n P amphylia, a nd t he a t owns o f M opsou-hestia ( "Mopsus' h earth") a n d Ma lus in C ilicia. °8 M opsus i s s aid t o h ave c ome n ext a s f ar a s t he t own o f A shkelon i n s outhern P alestine. T here h e t hrew t he s tatu o f t he g oddess A starte i nto h er o wn l ake; i t w as a l so t h ere he d i ed .° 9 I t i s t o b e s tressed h ere, t hat A shkelon w as o ne o f t he f ive m ain t owns ( 1 S am 6 :17). A ccording t o H erodotus ( I, 1 05), i n t here h ad s tood a t emple o f t he C elestial A phrodite.

P hilistine t his c ity

A s r egards C yprus, t he G reek l egends c oncerning i ts c olonization b y t he h eroes o f t he T rojan w ar 7 a ve b een c ollected a nd c omprehensively c ommented u pon b y E .Gjerstad, s o t here i s n o n eed t o r epeat t his h ere. W e s hall n ote h ere b riefly t hat t he A rcadian A gapenor f ounded P aphos ( that i s P alaepaphos, t he K ouklia v illage o f t he p resent) a nd b uilt t here t he t emple o f A phrodite. R ecent a rchaeological i nvestigat ions a t K ouklia h ave r evealed t he r emains o f t he t emple d ating b ack t o c . 1 200 B .C. a t l east. N evertheless, t he a rea o f P alaepaphos h ad b een i nhabited l ong b efore t he a rrival o f t he A chaean s ettlers ( see b elow, C hapter I I). A ccording t o t he l egend, P raxandros w as t he f ounder L apithos, G olgus t he f ounder o f G olgoi, C hytrus t he f ounder C hytroi, A kamas t he f ounder o f S oli, T eucros t he f ounder S alamis; 7 1 K ypheus h ad p robably p articipated i n t he f oundation K erynia. -

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-

o f o f of o f

I n h is d escription o f C yprus, S trabo m entioned, t hat o n t he n orthern s hore o f t he C arpasian P eninsula t here w as a s pot c alled A chaion A kte ( "the c oast o f t he A chaeans" a t w hich T eucros, t he f ounder o f S alamis, w as s aid t o h ave l anded. 2 T his p articular t oponym h as p reserved t he m emory o f t he t raditional l anding-place o f A egean c olonists o n C yprus. A rchaeological i nvestigations h ave i dentified t wo m ore o f t he l anding p laces o f t he A egean s ettlers M aa-Palaeokastro o n t he w estern c oast a nd P yla-Kokkinokremos o n t he s outh-eastern c oast, b oth o f t hem , a s w e r ecall, c an b e d ated t o c . 1 200 B .C . -

S ome o f t he i nstance K inyras,

l ocal r ulers w ere p robably w ho m oved f rom P aphos t o

d riven a way, a s f or A mathous. I n t ruth,

A mathous f or a l ong t ime p reserved a r ather n on-Greek c haracter, w hile i ts a rt, b eliefs a nd c ustoms c learly p oint t o t he s urvival o f a n a utochthonous e lement.

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T hus i t b ecomes s elf-evident t hat t he l egends r eferring t o t he G reek s ettlement o n C yprus a t s o e arly a t ime s eem p erfectly t o h armonize w ith t he a rchaeological d ata d iscussed a bove o n t he c olonizat ion o f C yprus b y t he A egeans f rom t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C. o nwards. T he c onclusions b ased o n t he a rchaeological e vidence, m ainly p ottery, m ay t hereby f ind c onfirmation i n t he G reek t radition o f a l ater p eriod. 74 H owever s uch f ull " harmony" o f t he G reek l egends w ith w hat w e c an d educe f rom a rchaeological d ata i s n ot s o o bvious a s i t w ould a ppear a t f irst s ight. F irst o f a ll, w e h ave t o r ealize t he c haracter o f t hese l egends. T hey a re u ndoubtedly m agnificant w ritings o f b elles l ettres a nd o nly a s s uch t hey s hould b e t reated, n ot a s r eliable h istorical s ources. T herefore w e c annot u se t hem f or c onfirmation o f o ur r econstructio n o f t he e vents f rom t he e nd o f 1 3th c entury B .C. M oreover, t he q uestion o f t he T rojan W ar a nd i ts d ating a re s till c ontroversial a nd m uch d iscussed p roblems. T he s tatement t hat a rchaeological e vidence f rom t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C. c an i ndeed b e c onfirmed b y t he a bove d iscussed G reek l egends r equires f irst o f a ll o ur a cceptation o f B legen's i dentificat ion o f H omeric T roy w ith a rchaeological T roy V ITa, a nd a lso t hat i ts d estruction t ook p lace d uring t he l ast q uarter o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C. I n h is r ecent w ork d ealing w ith t he T rojan W ar, E .F . B loedow h as p resentq s ome s erious r eservations a s t o t he c orrectness o f B legen's t heory.' B loedow h as m ade a n i nteresting f resh a nalysis o f s ome w ell k nown f acts a nd l inked t hese w ith t he m ost r ecent a rchaeological d iscoveries i n A sia M inor. T his a nalysis h as t hrown n ew l ight o n t he m atter o f i dentification H omeric T roy w ith T roy V Ila, t he d ate o f i ts d estruction, t he s upposed r easons o f t he a rmed c onflict b etween T rojans a nd M ycenaeans, a nd a lso o n t he r ole o f t he l atter i n t hat p art o f t he a ncient w orld. B loedow a rgues t hat T roy V ITa w as d estroyed b etween c . 140 a nd 1 130 B .C ., a nd c oncludes t hat " any c onnection b etween T roy V ila a nd H omer's Tp ' ° j an W ar a s p reviously m aintained m ust b e a bandoned o nce a nd f or a ll". D oes t his m ean t hat G reek l egends c ited a bove s hould b e r egarded a s h istorically w orthless a nd t otally e xcluded f rom o ur c onsiderations? S hould w e, i n c onsequence, a lso r eject t he s upposition t hat a mong p eoples w ho s ettled o n C yprus t here w ere M ycenaeans w ho h ad f ound t heir w ay t here v ia t he T road a nd o ther a reas o f t he W estern A sia M inor? S uch a s tandpoint w ould h e a n e xtreme o ne. A natolian c onnections o f t he m ilitary a rchitecture a t M aa-Palaeokastro a nd t he f inds o f A natolian G rey P olished w are a t P yla-Kokkinokremos, m ay i ndicate h owever t hat i n s uch a r oundabout w ay, s ome o f t he M ycenaeans r eached C yprus. W hat, o ne m ay a sk n ow , w ere t he r easons t hat i nduced t he M ycenaeans t o g o t owards A sia M inor f irst, a nd l ater o n t o C yprus? T he a nswer t o t his q uestion w e c an p ossibly f ind i n B loedow 's a rticle m entioned a bove. H e t ries, s uccessfully i n m y o pinion, t o s how t hat M ycenaeans w ere v ery i nterested i n a f r / a ccess t o c opper o res l aying o n t he s outhern c oast o f t he B lack S ea . T he r oute t here l ead b y s ea t hrough t he H ellespont o r b y l and, i n b oth c ases n ear T roy. T he T rojans, t aking a dvantage f rom t he e xceptionally s trategic l ocation o f t heir c ity, w ere a ble t o c ontrol t he p assage t o t he B lack S ea. U ndoubtedly t he T rojans, w ho a lso e xploited t here c opper o res, m ust h ave b een s eriously d issatisfied w ith A egeans i ntruders w ho w anted t o -

-

1 7

e nrich t hemselves a t t he c ost o f " their" c opper o res. T herefore, a n a rmed c onflict b etween M ycenaeans a nd T rojans c ould t ake p lace e ach t ime w hen a n M ycenaean e xpedition a ppeared n ear T roy o n t he w ay t o t he B lack S ea. O f c ourse, t he M ycenaeans e xpeditions w ould n ot a lways h ave b een s uccessful. T hese w hich w ere s topped b y t he T rojans h ad e ither t o r eturn h ome, o r t o m igrate i n s earch o f f ortune e lsewhere. T hey c ould h ave s ettled a long t he I onian c oast. I n t he c ourse o f t ime s uccessive g roups o f A egeans r eturning f rom t he T road r eached t he s outhernmost r egions o f t he A sia M inor, a nd f inally, a t t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C., e ven C yprus. A t t his m oment t hey m et o n t he i sland r efugees f rom t he G reek m ainland. I n s ummary, i t c an b e a ssumed t hat t he a bove d iscussed G reek l egends c ontain i ndeed a r emote e cho o f t he c olonization o f C yprus a t t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C., b oth f rom P eloponessos a nd f rom t he A sia M inor, o f c ourse w ithout l inking t his p henomenon w ith H omer's T rojan W ar a nd e specially w ith t he s pecific f igures k nown t o u s f rom G reek l egends. T he m emory o f t his c olonization m ight h ave s urvived a mong t he a ncients, w ho a t a g iven m oment ( due t o p olitical, i deological o r s ome o ther r easons) l inked i t w ith f oundation l egends a bout h eroes r eturning f rom T roy. L et u s n ow p ass t o o ther d ocuments f rom t he a ncient N ear E ast, m uch c loser c hronologically a nd g eographically 7 O t he e vents i n q uestion. W e b egin w ith a H ittite t ext ( CTH 1 21). I ts f irst p art r efers t o t he c onquest o f A lasia ( i.e. C yprus a ccording t o t he p resent s tate o f o ur k nowledge) b y T udhaliyas I V. T his m ust h ave h appened n ot l ater t han b efore 1 235 B .C., w hich w as t he l ast y ear o f t hat k ing's r eign. T he s econd p art o f t he d ocument d eals w ith a n aval b attle, d uring w hich t he n avy o f S uppiluliuma I T ( who w as a lso t he a uthor o f t he d ocument) d efeated t he n avy o f A lasia, a nd a nother b attle, w hich s ubsequently t ook p lace o n l and, e ither i n C yprus o r o n t he C ilician c oast, w hich g ave t he H ittites a v ictory o ver t heir e nemies i n A lasia. W hile k eeping i n m ind t he f irst p art o f t he d ocument c learly i ndicating A lasia t o h ave b een a v assal l and o f t he H ittite k ing o ne i s p uzzled b y t he f act, t hat A lasia h ad s o r apidly b ecome a n a ntagonist o f t he H ittites. W e s hould r emember t hat t he e vents i n q uestion t ook p lace s oon a fter 1 215 B .C. ( the b eginning o f S uppiluliuma's r eign), n amely a bout 2 0 o r m ore y ears a fter T udhaliyas I V' c onquest o f A lasia. O n t he o ther h and, U garitic d ocuments p lainly t estify t o t he f act, t hat t he k ing o f A lasia h ad t o t he v ery e nd r emained a f aithful v assal o f t he H ittite r uler. A s G .A. L ehmann h as j ustly s aid, t he t ext u nder d iscussion i ndicate u nivocally t hat t he i sland h ad f allen u nder t he p artial c ontrol o f s ome i nvaders, t he " e n em ie s of A l as ia " . 79 O ne i s l ed t o t he i rrefutable c onclusion t hat t hose i nvaders w ere A chaeans f rom t he G reek m ainland, w ho w ere 6 esponsible f or t his f irst s tage o f t he t urmoil o n C yprus c . 1 230 B .C. 8 -

-

S ome o ther v ery i nteresting d ocuments f rom U garit, w ritten i n A kkadian, s hould b e d ated t o t he p eriod c . 1 200 B .C. O ne o f t hese ( R.S.20, 1 8) i s a l etter a ddress b y E suwara, a m inister o f t he k ing o f A lasia , t o t he k ing o f U garit. E suwara a lludes t o a n a ttack b y 2 0 e nemy s hips o n t he m ountainous c oast o f A lasia, t hat i s, o n t he

1 8

n orthern c oast o f C yprus, v is a v is C ilicia a nd L icia. F rom t he l etter i t f ollows t hat a mong t hose e nemy s hips t here h ad a lso b een r ecognized s hips a nd m en f rom U garit T his m eans t hat a p art o f t he U garitic t roops h ad p robably j oined t he e nemy f orces, e ither a gainst t he w ill o f t he k ing o f U garit, H ammurapi, o r h ad b een e ncouraged b y h is h esitant a ttitude t owards t he i nvasion. H ammurapi's v accilatory a ttitude a nd h is p olicy o f w aiting f or t he t urn o f e vents w ould s eem t o b e c onfirmed b y a nother l etter ( R.S.L.1), t his o ne a ddressed b y t he k ing o f A lasia h imself t o k ing H ammurapi. T he f ormer s trongly a dvises h is c orrespondent t o u ndertake a f irm d efensive a ction a gainst t he i nvaders a nd t ries t o h earten t he k ing o f U garit. F inally, t here i s a f amous l etter f rom t he k ing o f U garit t o t he k ing o f A lasia ( R .S.20, 2 38), g iving i nformation b out t he l osses s uffered i n U garit b y t he r aid o f t he 7 e nemy s hips .8 H ammurapi c ould n ot r epulse t his a ttack s ince h e h ad b een l eft v irtually w ithout t roops a nd a f leet. H is t roops w ere a t t he t ime i n t he l and o f H atti, w hile h is f leet i n t he l and o f L ukka. H ammurapi a lso a sks t he k ing o f -

A lasia t o g ive e very p ossible i nformation c oncerning e nemy m ovements. H owever, t he l etter w as n ever s ent t o A lasia, a nd U garit h ad b een c aptured b y t he i nvaders i n t he m eantime. F rom t his l etter i t a ppears t hat t he k ing o f U garit w aged a d efensive c ampaign j ointly w ith t he k ing o f t he H ittites, a nd t he e xpedition o f t he U garitic t roops a nd n avy t o t he l ands o f H atti a nd L ukka w as p resumably t o p revent t he e xpected e nemy c oncentration a nd a ttack o n b oth A lasia a nd t he c oast o f U garit. T here i s n o d oubt t hat t he a bove-mentioned d ramatic d ocuments o f t he l ast d ays o f t he e xistence o f U garit r efer t o t he s uccessive s tage o f t he c olonization o f C yprus b y t he A egeans, w hich t his t ime e nveloped t he S yro-Palestinian c oast a s w ell. A bove t he d estroyed L ate B ronze A ge l evels a t R as I bn H ani, w here t he r esidence o f t he q ueen o f U garit h ad b een l ocated, t here h ave b een f ound M yc.IIIC:lb ‚ pottery a nd v estiges o f h abitation d ated t o t he I ron A ge I a nd l ater. 8 ' T herefore t he i dentification o f t hese d estroyers w ho, a ccording t o t he a fore m entioned U garitic d ocuments, i nvaded A lasia a nd U garit, d oes n ot s eem t o b e d ifficult: t hey w ere r efugees f rom t he G reek m ainland a nd t he A egean i slands. T he r econstruction o f h istorical e vents o n t he b asis o f p ottery e vidence p resented e arlier d oes, i n t his c ase, f ind s ignificant c orraboration i n w ritten s ources. L et u s f inally c onsider t he E gyptian s ources, w hich a re p erhaps t he m ost i mportant, w hile b eing t he m ost f requently r eferred t o i n a ny a nalysis o f t he p olitical s ituation i n t he E astern M editerranean a t t he c lose o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C. a nd t he b eginnings o f t he 1 2th c entury B .C . O ne s hould b egin w ith t he a ccount o f t he P haraoh M erneptah ( 12361 223 B .C.) c onc °3 n ing t he f ight o f t he E gyptians a gainst a n i nvasion o f L ibyan t ribes. T hese t ribes, w ith s ome a llied p eoples, i nvaded t he D elta, b ringing w ith t hem t heir f amilies a nd b elongings. T he E gyptian t roops, a ssembled b y M erneptah i n h is 5 th r eigning y ear s tood u p t o t he e nemy a nd i n t he b attle a t P erir ( probably i n t he w estern D elta), d efeated a c oalition o f t he i nvaders. B elonging t o t he t roops a llied w ith t he L ibyans w ere t he t ribes o f L ukka, T ursha, S heklesh, S herden, E qwesh. l t i s t empting t o c onsider t he E qwesh a s A egean w arriors f rom t he m ainland G reece. T he E qwesh a re i dentified w ith t he p opulation o f t he L and o f A hhiyawa, w hich i s l ocated a ccording t o r ecent r esearch o n

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t he P eloponessos, M ycenae b eing i ts c entre. 86 T he p resence o f t he E qwesh i n t he D elta, a long w ith t he L ibyan t ribes, m ay b e t hen r egarded a s a p recursory o f t he A egean m ovement t o t he L evant. W hile t he p art o f t he p opulation m ade t heir w ay t o C yprus, t he r emaining g roups o f p eoples m ight h ave g one e lsewhere, t o t he n orthern c oast o f A frica a mong o thers. L et u s n ow t urn t o t he f amous r eferring t o t he 8 th y ear o f h is r eign:

i nscription

o f

R a n iesses

I II,

" The f oreign c ountries m ade a c onspiracy i n t heir i slands. A ll a t o nce t he l ands w ere r emoved a nd s cattered i n t he f ray. N o l and c ould s tand b efore t heir a rms, f rom H atti, K ode, C archemish, A rzawa, a nd A lashiya o n, b eing c ut o ff a t ( one t ime). A c amp ( was s et u p) i n o ne p lace i n A mor. T hey d espolated i ts p eople a nd i ts l and w as l ike t hat w hich h as n ever c ome i nto b eing. T hey w ere c oming f orward t oward E gypt, w hile t he f lame w as p repared b efore t hem . T heir c onfederation w as t he P hilistines, T jeker, S hekelesh, D enye(n), a nd W eshesh, l ands u nited. T hey l aid t heir h ands a s f ar a s t he c ircuit o f t he e arth, t heir h earts c onfident a nd t rusting: " Our p lans w ill s ucceed!" 8 7 I t w as t his t ext t hat l ed d irectly t o t he c reation o f t he " Sea P eoples p roblem". T his i s r ather s trange, s ince s uch e xpressions a s " Sea P eopl " o r " Peoples o f t he S ea" d o n ot a ppear i n t his o r a ny o ther t ext. ° U ndoubtedly, t he t erm " Sea P eoples" b egan t o b e u sed o riginally f or t he s ake o f c onvenience a nd t o a void t he n ecessity o f r eiterating t he p articular n ames o f a ll t he r elated g roups o f i nvaders. U nfortunately, t his c ollective t erm, s o i ngrained i n t he h istory a nd a rchaeology o f t he N ear E ast, h as b ecome a p roblem i n i tself. T his w as s imply d ue t o t he f act t hat m any s cholars u ncritically a ccepted t he v iew t hat t he " Sea P eoples" m ust h ave c ome f rom o utside t he A egean r egion. T his s tate o f a ffairs l ed t o t he s earch f or t he m ysterious h omelands o f t hese n o l ess m ysterious p eoples i n v ario ° d istant t erritories, f or e x ' ° p le, i n c entral a nd/or w estern E urope, o r e ven b eyond t he C aucasus. I n t he c ontext o f o ur d iscussion i t m ay b e i nstructive t o q uote t he v iews o f s ome s cholars d ealing w ith t he q uestion o f t he " Sea P eoples'" o rigins. V .R.d'A. D esborough e xpressed t he b elief t hat: t he v arious e thnic g roups w hich w ent t o f orm t he S ea P eoples h ad b een j oined i n t he A egean b y a p owerful g roup o f M ycenaeans. M ay i t n ot h e t hat t his g roup c onsisted o f t he m ain b ody o f t he r efugees w ho f led a fter t he c atastrophic i nvasion o f t he M ainland a t t he e nd o f L HIIIB? ( . .. ) Some r efugees w ent t o A chaea a nd K ephallenia, b ut t he l argest, a nd p robably b est o rganized, f orce t ook t o t heir s hips a nd s ailed e astwards, m aking c ommon c ause w ith o ther d isturbed g roups ( . ..) a nd w ill h ave b een r esponsible, t ogether w ith t he n on-

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M ycenaean e thnic g roups, , f or t he f irst o f t he d estructions i n C yprus." ' S imilarly O .J.

t wo

S chaden w rites t hat:

" ...there i s n othing i n t he E gyptian t exts w hich e xcludes t he v ery g reat p robability t hat p eoples o f W estern A natolia a nd t he A egean i n g eneral w ere a m ajor f actor i n t he S ea P eoples c oalition. T he g reat d istances c overed w hether o ver d ecades f or s ome a nd p erhaps o nly a f ew s hort g a rs f or o thers i s n o b arrier t o t his c onclusion." F urthermore, T .

D othan h as s tated:

" Otherwise, t he S ea P eoples s eem t o h ave b lended e asily w ith t he " Achaean" i nvade , t o w hom t hey w ere a pparently c losely r elated." 3 T hese v iews, g enerally c orrect, r equire a t p resent a s upplement s implifying t he w hole p roblem . I n m y o pinion, t he h ypotheses o f t he s cholars m entioned a bove a re o verly c autious, t he c aution b eing m anifested i n t he m aintenance o f t he d ivision i nto A chaeans/Mycenaeans/ A egeans a nd t he S ea P eoples, w hile a t t he s ame t ime s tressing t heir c lose r elation. T he q uestion a rises: w hat w as r eally t he n ature o f t his r elation a nd i s t here a ny r eason t o c ontinue t his d ivision? I b elieve t here a re n o s uch r easons. E ven i f a rchaeological s ources a re d isregarded i n f avour o f w ritten d ocuments e xclusively ( the t exts f rom U garit, M edinet 1 l abu a nd l ater G reek l egends) t here i s i rrefutably a l ogical c onnection , i n b oth t he c hronological a nd g eographical s ense, b etween t he A egean c olonization o f C yprus a nd t he a rrival a nd s ettling d own i n C anaan o f t he P hilistines a nd o ther g roups o f t he " Sea P eoples". I n t he l ight o f t he d iscussion p resented a bove, i t a ppears t hat t he s eparation o f t he A egean c olonists s ettled o n C yprus f rom t he e nigmatic " Sea P eoples" o f C anaan i s a rtificial, a v iew r ecently u pheld b y A . M azar w ho w rites: " We m ay t herefore i dentify t he s ettlers o f C yprus a nd t he S ea P eoples w ho s ettled i n t he L evant, p articularly t he P hilistines, a s p articipants i n t he s ame h istorical p rocess, n amely t he e migration o f M ycenaeans, p robably G reek-speaking g roups, f rom t he A egean r egions i ncluding p erhaps t he M ycenaeans c entres i n w estern A sia M inor t o h e s outh a nd e ast d uring t he t welfth c entury B .C. 19 T o r eturn t o E gyptian s ources, i t m ust b e s tressed t hat n owhere i n t hese a re t he i nvaders m entioned a s, t o u se o ur n omenclature, r epresentatives o f t he M ycenaean c ulture, i n a w ider s ense, A egean. H owever, t his s ort o f i nformation i s h ardly t o b e e xpected i n a t ext t hat d oes n ot h ave t he c haracter s ometimes a ttributed t o i t: t hat o f a h istorical s ensu s tricto r ecord. R ather, t he t ext i s a g randiloquent a ccount o f t he P haraoh, f ull o f e xpressive p hrases, k ept i n a s ublime a nd d ramatical t one. T hus w e a re d ealing w ith a n a dmirable e xample o f a ncient E gyptian b elles-lettres c oncerned w ith w ar t opics, a nd w e h ave t o c onsider i t a s s uch a nd n ot a s a n e xample o f h istoriography i n t he

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m odern s ense o f t he w ord. W ho t he i nvaders w ere, a nd w here t hey h ad c ome f rom , m ust h ave b een w ell-known t o t he E gyptians, s o t here w as n o n eed t o g ive t he m ore p recise i nformation, t hat w ould b e s o w elcome t o u s... A fter a ll, t he i nformation w hich h as b een w ritten d own s eems t o b e q uite c lear a nd t hrows e nough l ight o n t he p roblem o f t he h omeland o f t he i nvaders. T here i s n othing i n t his a ccount ( that i s o f R amesses I II i n M edinet H abu) o r i n a ny o ther, t hat w ould d irect t he s earch f or t he h omes o f t hese p eoples b eyond t he l imits o f t he a rea o f A egean c ulture, f or i nstance i n t he C aucasian r egion o r c entral a nd n orthern E urope. M eanwhile t he s entence: " The f oreign c ountries m ade a c onspiracy i n t heir l ands. A ll a t o nce t he l ands w ere r emoved a nd s cattered i n t he f ray." c learly t estifies, t hat t hese p eoples c ould n ot h ave b een a rriving f rom a nywhere, s ince t hey w ere a lready t here o n t heir i slands. F or r easons w hich t he E gyptian s ource d oes n ot m ention a nd a bout w hich w e c an c onjecture n ow ( see a bove p . 1 2), t hese p eoples a t a g iven p oint o f t ime r ather s uddenly a bandoned t heir o riginal a bodes. M oreover, I b elieve, t hat t he t erm " islands" s hould n ot b e u nderstood l iterally h ere, t hat i s, a s t he i slands o f t he A egean, b ut a lso a s P eloponessos. A fter a ll, t he u nderstanding o f t his a rea b y a n E gyptian s cribe w ould n ot n ecessarily a gree w ith o ur g eographical k nowledge. I n o ther w ords, i t i s m ost p robably t hat f or t he E gyptians, t he P eloponessos p eninsula w as j ust o ne o f t he i slands, p erhaps t he b iggest o ne, b ut m erely a n i sland o n t he " green s ea". T here i s a lso n o r eason t o s urmise a n e thnic d ifferentiation a mong t he i nvaders, j ust o n t he b asis o f v ariety o f n ames u sed i n E gyptian s ources. P ossibly, t he n ames m ay m erely r eflect s ome o ther s ort o f d ivision, f or i nstance, i nto f amilies w ithin t he f rame o f a p opulation o therwise e thnically, c ulturally a nd l inguistically h omogenous. E ach o ne o f s uch g roups ( families) w ould d erive i ts i ndividual n ame f rom i ts m ythical o r a ctual a ncestor: t he T jekker w ould b e d escendants o f T eukros, t he D enyen o f D anaos a nd s o o n.

C onclusions I n t his c hapter I h ave a ttempted t o d escribe i n a s ummary f ashion t hrough n ecessity, t he q uestion o f t he o rigins o f t he s o-called " Sea P eoples" i n t he l ight o f e vidence o btained f rom a rchaeological e xcavat ions. T o s um u p, t he a rchaeological m aterial i tself e ncourages o ne t o p ostulate e thnic a nd c ultural i dentity o f t he p eople w ho c olonized C yprus a nd t hese w ho s ettled t hemselves a long t he S yro-Palestinian c oast. T he c olonization p rocess b egan a t t he v ery e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C. a nd e ncompassed m ainly C yprus, a lthough w e c annot e xclude t he p resence o f s mall n umbers o f A egeans o n t he S yro-Palestinian c oast b efore 1 200 B .C. C ulmination o f t he s ettlement m ovement o ccurred a t t he b eginning o f t he r eign o f R amesses I II i n E gypt. Ap art o f t he A egean p opulation f ollowed t he e xample o f i ts p redecessors b y a bandoni ng i ts h omeland a nd s ettling p artly f orcibly a nd p artly p eaceably o n C yprus a nd o n t he S yro-Palestinian c oast. 1 200/1900 B .C. w ould h e t he d ate f or t he e arliest s tage o f A egean s ettlement i n S yro-Palestine p receding b y a f ew y ears t he o utbreak o f a n o vert l arge-scale c onflict

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w ith R amesses I II. T he P haraoh m ust s urely h ave b een d isquieted b y t he m ass s ettlement o f f oreigners ( who c ould b e d angerous a s w as p roved b y t he f ate o f U garit) i n t he r egion w hich h ad b een c onsidered f or a l ong t ime a s a n a rea u nder E gyptian i nfluence a nd c ontrol. D espite w hat R amesses I II r ecords, t his s ettlement p rocess w as n ot c hecked a nd t he d efeat o f t he i nvaders n eed n ot h ave b een a s g reat a s s uggested b y t he P haraoh. A c ompromise w as p robably r eached, a ccording t o w hich t he A egeans r emained i n C anaan a s a llies a nd/or m ercenaries i n t he P haraoh's s ervice. T his m oment i n t heir w andering c ould n ot b ut b e r ecorded i n t he E gyptian s ources, c onsidering t hat t here h ad b een d irect a rmed c ontact b etween t he E gyptians a nd t he i nvaders. W ith t hese r emarks i n m ind, o ne s hould f ind t he f ollowing p roposal f or t he s olution o f t he " Sea P eoples p roblem" a s t he m ost r easonable a t t he p resent s tage o f r esearch a nd j ustifiable p rimarily b y t he a rchaeol ogical e vidence w hich c an a lso b e c onfirmed b y h istorical s ources: T he s o-called " Sea P eoples" w ere a p opulation w ho r epresented o ne a nd t he s ame c ulture t he A egean c ulture. A t t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury a nd t he b eginning o f t he 1 2th c entury B .C ., t hey i nvaded a nd s ettled o n f irst C yprus a nd s oon a fterwards t he S yro-Palestinian c oast. I n r elation t o C yprus t hey h ave b een g iven t he n ame o f M ycenaeans/Achaeans. I n t he B ible t hey a ppear a s t he P hilistines, a nd i n t he E gyptian s ources a s t he p eoples w ho c ame f rom t he i slands, f rom t he m iddle o f t he s ea e tc. -

I , f or m y P eoples".

p art, w ill b e c alling t hem i n t his w ork

t he

" Aegean

S ea

O f c ourse, t he c onclusion p resented h ere d oes n ot p retend t o b e e xhaustive w ith r egard t o t his p roblem. S everal d etailed q uestions s till c all f or a n a nswer, a s f or i nstance t he q uestion o f t he e xact l ocalization, w ithin t he A egean w orld, o f t he s tarting p oints f or t he m igration o f i ndividual g roups o f c olonists. N evertheless, t he d efinition g iven b y u s i s t o s erve o nly t he m ain p urpose o f t he p resent s tudy, i n w hich t he t erm t he " Aegean S ea P eoples" i s u sed a s a s ort o f k ey w ord c overing o ne a nd t he s ame h istorical-cultural p rocess, c ommon t o t he A egean, C yprus a nd a p art o f t he S yro-Palestine a t t he t urn o f t he 1 3th a nd 1 2th c entury B .C. I f t his h ypothesis i s t o b e a ccepted, t hen a n a nalysis o f s ome o f t he s acred s tructures f rom C yprus a nd C anaan, w hich s hould b e c onsidered a s a g roup o f s tructures o riginating i n o ne a nd t he s ame r elatively s hort p eriod o f t ime, i n t he a reas i nhabited, a s Ih ave a ttempted t o d emonstrate, b y a p opulation o f t he s ame o rigin a nd w ith t he s ame c ultural t raditions, c ould p rove i nteresting.

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C HAPTER T WO :

P RESENTATION O F T HE E VIDENCE

T his C hapter i s i ntendent a s a p resentation f irst a nd f oremost f rom t he a rchitectural p oint o f v iew o f t he s acred s tructures w hich w ere u sed, a s I h ave a ssumed i n t he p receding C hapter, b y t he A egean i mmigrants ( the " Sea P eoples") s ettled o n C yprus a nd i n P alestine a t t he b eginning o f t he 1 2th c entury B .C. -

-

T he s acred s tructures i n q uestion a re p resented s ite b y s ite i n g eographical o rder: f irst t hose f rom C yprus a nd t hen f rom P alestine. E ach o f t he t emples a nd s anctuaries i s d iscussed i ndividually a s o ne a rchitectural u nit, w hereas t he v arious c omponents o f t he t emple a rchitecture w ill b e t reated s eparately i n C hapter I II. B esides t his, a n a ttempt i s m ade h ere t o g rasp a nd d etermine b oth t he a rchitectural s imilarities a nd d ifferences e xisting b etween t he i ndividual s tructures, d e f acto b etween t heir g round p lans o nly. T hey a re a lso c ompared w ith t he s acred b uildings o f t he A egean r egion a s w ell a s t hose o f P alestine a nd C yprus. I n t his w ay, b oth i n C hapter I T a nd -

-

C hapter I II, I h ope t o o btain g rounds t o a nswer t he f ollowing q uestion: D oes t he r eligious a rchitecture o f t he " Aegean S ea P eoples", t aken a s a w hole, h ave i ts o wn c haracteristic a rchitectural f eatures d istinguishi ng i t f rom t he i ndigenious a rchitecture o f C yprus a nd P alestine?

K ITION T he L CIITA p eriod b egan a t K ition w ith t he b uilding n ear t he n orthern c ity w all o f a m onumental t emple p recinct w hich b esides f our t emples, t wo t emenoi ( A a nd B ) a nd a c ourtyard s i ncluded a lso a n i ndustrial a rea, i .e., m et a l l urg ica l w orkshops i ( Fig. 7 ). T hree t emples, m arked w ith n umerals 1 , 4 a nd 5 w ere q uite n ew b uildings, w hile t he f ourth b uilding T emple 2 w as a p artially s tructure, w hose o rigins d ate b ack t o t he L CIIC p eriod. -

-

r eused

o lder

A s eparate d iscussion o f e ach t emple d oes n ot s eem t o b e n ecessary b ecause t hey b elong t o t he s ame a rchitectural c ategory w hich, a ccording t o M . D emas, " consists o f a l ong r ectangular r oom s ubdivided i nto t wo o r t hree r ooms a long t he s hort a xis o f t he b uilding, o ne o f w hich is t he l arger a nd m ay b e ca l l e d the ma in ha l l .L C ertainly, t he d etails d iffer f rom t emple t o t emple. T hese a re h owever m inor d ifferences, w hich d o n ot d isturb t he g eneral a rchitectural l ayout w hich i s t he s ame f or a ll t he t emples i n q uestion. A lthough t he p resent w ork d eals, a bove a ll, w ith t emples b uilt d uring t he p eriod o f a l arge-scale m ovement o f t he A egeans t o C yprus a nd t he N ear E ast, i .e. a t t he b eginning o f t he 1 2th c entury B .C ., i n t he c ase o f K ition w e s hould p ay s ome a ttention a lso t o t he r eligious a rchitecture o f a n e arlier p eriod. I t s hould b e s tressed a t t he

2 4

b eginning t hat a ll t he m ain c haracteristics o f p lans a nd l ayouts o f t h L CIIIA t emples a lready a ppear i n t he e arlier t emples a t K ition . T herefore, i t i s s elf-evident t hat t he L CIIIA t emple p recinct m ust h ave b een a d irect c ontinuation o f a n e arlier t emple p recinct w hich i s r epresented b y t he a rchitectural r emains c onnected w ith f loor I V , d ated t o t he L CIIC p eriod ( c. 1 300-1190 B .C.). F or a n i nquiry i nto t he a rchitectural t radition r epresented b y t he L CIIIA t emples a t K ition u sed b y t he A egean s ettlers, i t i s s ufficient t o k now t he a nswer t o t he a nalogous q uestion w ith r eference t o t he t wo e arlier t emples o f t he L CIIC p eriod. T hus, w e a re g oing t o m eet a lso a b roader p roblem , n amely t hat o f t he r eligious a rchitecture o f C yprus i n t he p eriod a nted ating t he f oundation o f t he m onumental t emple p recinct a t K ition i n t he L CIIIA p eriod. T he q uestion i s, h owever, d ifficult i n s o f ar a s t he n umber o f s acred b uildings a ntedating t he L CIIIA p eriod o n C yprus i s v ery s mall; t herefore a ll t he s weeping s tatements r eferring t o i t m ay p rove t o b e p remature a nd e ven m isleading. T he L CIIC t emple p recinct w as c onsiderably s impler t han t hat o f t he L CIIIA p eriod ' 4 ( Fig. 4 ). I t c omprised o nly t wo b uildings, i .e. T emples 2a nd 3 , a nd a s acred g arden w ith a p ool i n i ts m iddle a nd a c omplex s ystem o f w ater c hannels, e xtending o ver t he a rea b etween t hem . T emple 3 e xisted d own o nly t o t he e nd o f t he L CIIC p eriod, w hile t he i nterior o f T emple 2 h ad b een s lightly r ebuilt a t t he b eginning o f t he L CIIIA p eriod r etaining, h owever, i n g eneral o utline, t he p revious p lan. I t s eems t hat s ome p arallels t o T emple 3 m ay b e f ound i n t he s anctuary a t M yrtou-Pigadhes, t he o rigins o f w hich w ent b ack t o t he M CIII/LCI p eriod. D uring t he t ime o f i ts e xistence d istinguished a s p eriods V -VI ( LCII-LCIII), 5 t his s anctuary c onsisted o f a c ourtyard s urrounded b y v arious s tructures, o ne o f w hich m ust h ave f unctioned w ithin t his c omplex a s a p roper t emple. T his i s p robably t o b e i dentified w ith R ooms 7 a nd 6 , s howing a r ectangular b uilding o f n o g reat d imensions d ivided i nto t wo p arts: t he m ain r oom 6 a nd a s toreroom ( or: a n e ntrance h all a nd t he m ain r oom r espectively). T he e ntrance t o t he b uilding l ies i n t he n orth-western c orner ( Fig. 4 0). T he s ame s anctuary t ype i s p robably r epresented b y t he c ultic s ite a t A thienou ( see b elow), a lthough i t i s v irtually i mpossible i n t his c ase t o p oint o ut a mong t he r ooms s urrounding t he c ourtyard, a r oom w hich m ay h ave p layed a p art p arallel t o t hat o f t he t emple a t M yrtouP igadhes ( Fig. 1 5). A lso t he s anctuaries a t A yia I rini a nd I dalion, b oth o f t hem d ated t o t he L CIII p eriod, d isplay a l ayout e xactly p arallel t o t hat o f t he M yrtou-Pigadhes s anctuary' ( Figs. 4 1, 4 2). T here a re n o e ssential d ifferences b etween t he a foresaid s anctuaries a nd T emple 3 a t K ition ( Fig. 5 ). T he l atter i s a s mallish b uilding n ot p recisely r ectangular, b ut s lightly t rapezoidal i n o utl ine, d ivided i nto t wo r ooms a nd p rovided w ith a c orner e ntrance o n t he l onger s ide. T hough c ontrary t o M yrtou-Pigadhes o r A yia I rini, t here i s n o t rue c ourtyard a t K ition w hich s erved T emple 3 , b ut a f unctional c ounterpart o f i t i s u ndoubtedly t o b e r ecognized i n t he s acred g arden, n amely t he a rea o vergrown w ith b ushes a nd/or f lowers, d elimited o n t he n orth b y t he c ity w all a nd o n t he s outh b y t he s o-called b oundary

2 5

w all

a nd T emple 2 . B esides, a k ind o f a b order f rom t he w est i s p rovided w ith s ome t races o f a t l east a s ingle c omplex o f r ooms, p reserved t o t he s outh-west o f T emple 3 . T his c omplex h as b een i nterpreted a s a w orkshop, c onceivably w o rki ng to s upp ly the nee ds o f the t emples. g L et u s p roceed n ow t o T emple 2 ( Fig. 6 ), s ituated n ot f ar t o t he s outh o f T emple 3 . I t h as r ectangular p lan a nd c onsists o f a n e ntrance r oom , a m ain h all a nd a b ack c hamber ( probably s toreroom). O n t he l onger s ide i t i s p rovided w ith a c orner e ntrance, j ust l ike T emple 3 . T herefore, i t i s o nly n atural t o a ssume t hat T emple 2 r epresents t he s ame g eneral t ype o f a s acred b uilding a s T emple 3 , w ith t he o nly d istinction t hat T emple 2 s hows a c onsiderably m ore c omplex, l et u s s ay, e ven m onumentalized v ersion o f t he t ype. T he b uilding c ontains n o l ess t han t hree r ooms; m oreover, a n ew a nd s ubstantial e lement o f t his t emple i s t he d ivision o f t he m ain b all a long i ts l ong a xis b y t wo r ows o f p illars i nto t hree a isles: t he c entral o ne h ousing a h earth-altar a nd a n o ffering t able a t i ts e nd, a nd t wo l ateral o nes. T he p attern o f t he i nternal a rrangement o f t he t emple, e specially t he t hree-aisled h all, d eserves p articular a ttention s ince i t f inds n o p arallels i n t he e arlier p eriod, e ither o n C yprus o r i n t he e ntire E astern M editerranean, e xcept E gypt. W hat m atters, i s t he q uestion o f w hether s uch a s ubdivision o f t he i nner s pace o f a t emple s hould b e r egarded a s a n ative C ypriote i nvention, o r r ather a s p roof o f t he i nfluence o f f oreign s acred a rchitecture. W e s hould t ry a nswering t he q uestion f rom w hat p articular a rea o f t he E astern M editerranean m ight h ave c ome t he i nspiration f or t he C ypriote a rchitects' a ctivity a nd i magination. F or t he A egean w orld t he u se o f p illars o r c olumns i nside a t emple h as b een a ttested t o b y s everal b uildings, f or i nstance, t he R oom w ith t he F resco a nd t he T emple o n t he c itadel o f M ycenae, H ouse C a t A sine, t he a ssumed t emp e a t E leusis a nd, p erhaps, t he W est S hrine a t P hylakopi o n M elos ( Figs. 4 4-46). T hey d o n ot s eem, h owever, t o c ons titute p roper p arallels, s ince t hey p resent a s ingle r ow o f c olumns o nly, w hich i n c omparison w ith t he r emaining c omponents o f t he t emple a rchitecture p ractically f orms a n a ccessory e lement, c ontrary t o t he c learly a ccentuated p osition o f t he p illars i n T emple 2 a t K ition. N one o f t he f ew A egean t emples w hich a re k nown t o u s s how a n i nner s ubdivision i nto t hree a isles.

t o

I nfluence o f t he E gyptian t emple a rchitecture a lso d oes n ot b e v ery p robable. E ven i f p illars t hemselves a re a mong t he

s eem m ost

c haracteristic a nd i ndispensable c omponents o f E gyptian t emples, T emple 2a t K ition a nd a n E gyptian t emple r epresent t wo e ntirely d ifferent a nd u ncomparable c onceptions o f a rchitecture. F or e xample, t he p lan a nd l ayout o f T emple 2 h ave a bsolutely n othing i n c ommon w ith t he p lan a nd l ayout o f a t ypical g yptian t emple r epresented, f or e xample, b y t hat o f K honsu a t K arnak.' A t t he v ery m ost o ne c ould p ossibly a dmit t hat E gyptian t emples m ight h ave i nspired C ypriote a rchitects i n a n e xtremely p erfunctory w ay. T hey c ould, f or e xample, h ave c aught a g limpse o f a c hance t o m onumentalize t heir o wn, o riginal t emples ( distinguishable b y a s pecific p lan a nd l ayout), b y i ntroducing, j ust a s i n E gyptian t emple d esign, p illars i nto t he i nterior. T his i s h owever, a m ere t heoretical p ossibility, w hich a t t he p resent c annot b e p recluded n or c onfirmed,

b ut w hich,

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i n m y o pinion,

d oes n ot s eem t o

b e

v ery r eliable. T he s ame c an b e s aid w ith r eference t o t he r eligious a rchitecture o f S yro-Palestine, w here i n s ome t emples a lso t here o ccur p illars, e ven d ividing t he i nterior i nto t hree a isles, a s f or i nstance i n t he F ortress T emple a t S hechem' ( Fig. 3 8). H owever, t his t emple ( included a mong t he s o-called " migdol t emples"), a s r egards i ts p lan a nd l ayout, i s e ntirely u ncomparable t o T emple 2 a t K ition. T he e ntrance t o t he t emple a t S hechem i s s ituated e xactly i n t he c entre o f t he s hort s ide a nd i s f lanked b y t wo s trong t owers. M oreover, t he i nterior o f t his t emple i s a s ingle r oom d evoid o f a ny i nner s tructural s ubdivision w hich w ould h ave p rovided s ome a dditional r oom(s) a s i n t he c ase o f t he C ypriote t emple. A c ertain, s omewhat c loser p arallel t o I r ple 2 may b e s upplied b y t he s upposed t emple a t T ell e l-Far'ah ( N), ( Fig. 3 4) o n c ondition t hat i ts o riginal p lan h as b een p roperly r econstructed b y t he d iscoverer R . d e V aux. T he b uilding, w hich i s m ore s quare t han r ectangular i n o utline, c onsists o f am ain h all a nd o f a n arrow b ack c hamber t aking u p t he e ntire w idth o f t he b uilding. T he f loor l evel o f t he b ack r oom w as p robably s lightly h igher t han t hat o f t he m ain h all, t herefore t he d iscoverer a ssumed t hat a f light o f s teps h ad e xisted, p recisely o n t he m ain a xis o f t he b uilding t o f acilitate c ommunication b etween t he m ain h all a nd t he b ack r oom . T he h all w ould h ave b een s ubdivided i nto t hree a isles b y t wo r ows o f p illars. -

t aken

T he a ctual e xistence o f s uch a s ubdivision c annot, h owever, b e f or g ranted, s ince t he r ight-hand r ow o f p illars h as b een

r econstructed b y R . d e V aux m erely o n t he g rounds o f t he p resence o f p illar b ases p reserved a long t he l eft-side o f t he b uilding w here a p ortico m ust a ctually h ave e xisted. M oreover, t he i dentification o f t he b uilding a s a t emple i s n ot a t a ll s elf-evident. I t c ould r ather h ave b een a s ecular b uilding, a t ypical C anaanite h ouse c onsisting o f a n o pen c ourtyard s urrounded o n t wo s ides b y r ooms a nd w ith a p ortico o n t he t hird s ide. I t s eems t herefore t hat t he s acred a rchitecture o f S yro-Palestine s hould a lso b e e xcluded a s a p ossible s ource o f i nspiration f or t he o ccurrence o f p illars i n t he s acred a rchitecture o f C yprus. T here r emains t hen t he s implest a nd t he m ost l ogical e xplanation o f t his f eature: t he p illars i nside t he t emple h ail w ere a p urely n ative i nvention . T he r eason f or t he i ntroduction o f p illars c ertainly c ould h ave q uite b een p rosaic: w hen t he w idth o f t he p lanned t emple e xceeded t he l ength o f t he a vailable t ie-beams, t he b uilders h ad t o u se p illars, w hich t hen p layed a n e ntirely s tructural r ole, i n s erving a s s upports f or r oof b eams. A nother p ossible r eason f or t he o ccurrence o f p illars m ight h ave b een t he c onstruction o f t he r oof, i f i t w as p lanned ( instead o f t he t raditional f lat r oof) t o h ave i ts c entral p art h igher, s o t hat t he l ight c ould p enetrate t hrough t he s ide l anterns, a s i n a c lassical b asilica. T his i s t he w ay i n w hich 0 . C a bot r econstructs t he r oof o f T emple 1 f rom t he L CIIIA p eri o d a t K iti on ( Fig. 1 3b). I n s uch a c ase t he u se o f p illars w as i ndispensable, e ven i f t he w idth o f t he b uilding w as n ot v ery c onsiderable. T his m ight h ave b een p recisely t he c ase w ith T emple 2 ( floor I V) a t K ition: t he i nner w idth o f t he b uilding d id n ot e xceed c . 7 .5m, s o t he f lat r oof t here w ould h ave n o n eed o f p illars s upporting t ie-beams.

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O n t he o ther h and, T emple 2

m ay

b e a lso i nterpreted p illars b y a rchitects e xisting t radition o f o f a r ow ( or r ows) o f

a s a n e xample o f t he m echanical a pplication o f w ho b y t hen h ad b ecome a ccustomed t o t he a lready d ividing t he t emple i nterior i nto a isles b y m eans p illars.

L et u s r eturn f or a w hile t o t he t emples o f S yro-Palestine, f or s ome o f t hem a re c onnected w ith a v ery i nteresting q uestion w hich r efers t o t he C ypriote t emples a s w ell. A nd s o , t he L CIIC T emples 2 a nd 3 a t K ition ( as w ell a s t he t emples o f t he L CIIIA p eriod) a re t ypologically t o b e i ncluded i nto t he g roup o f t he s o-called " irregular t emples" i n P alestine ( Fig. 3 1), w hich i n M azar's o pinion a re d istinguishable b y, a mong o ther t hings, c orner ( indirect) e ntr ce, b enches, p illars c arrying t he r oof, bac k c ham ber , ra ise d p latform. I a m n ot g oing t o d iscuss i n d etail a t t his p oint t his t ype o f t emple, f or I d eal w ith i t i n a nother p lace. L et u s c onsider o nly i f t here a ctually e xisted a ny d efinite s imilarities b etween T emples 3 a nd 2 a t K ition o n o ne h and, a nd t he t emples o f t he " irregular" g roup o n t he o ther. S ince w e a re l ooking here for t h e poss i bl e p rototype o f T emples 2 a nd 3 , w e a re d isregarding a ll t he t emples p osterior t o t he L CIIC p eriod, t hat i s, t he t emples a fter 1 200 B .C . T hen t he f ollowing t emples s till r emain o f t he g roup o f " irregular t emples": t he t emple a t B eth S han V II, t he S ummit T emple a t L achish, t he t emples a t K ittan I V-V , t he t emple a t T ell A bu H awam V ( Building 5 0), t he F osse T emple I I II a t L achish, t he t emple a t T el M evorakh X -XI; o ne m ay a lso a dd t o t his g roup t he s o-called " Sanctuaire a ux r hytons" d is covere d r ecent ly at Ugar i t 1S ( Fig. 3 3). T he l atter b uilding, h owever, c an a lso b e a t o nce e xcluded f rom o ur c onsideration, s ince i t i s, c ontrary t o f rees tanding T emples 2 a nd 3 a t K ition, p art o f a l arger a rchitectural c omplex, w ell i ntegrated i nto o ne o f t he c ity's q uarters. T he t emple a t B eth S han V II a s w ell a s t he S ummit T emple a t L achish r epresent t he t ype o f s anctuary c onsisting o f a B roadroom t ype c ella a nd a p artially r oofed c ourtyard. T herefore, i n a t ypological s ense t hey d o n ot r epresent a ny p arallels t o T emples 2 a nd 3 . T he F osse T emple ( Il Ill) a t L achish i s a lmost s quare s tructure, a f eature t hat i s b rought o ut i n s trong r elief b y t he s ymmetrically p laced c olumns, w hich b y n o m eans a ccentuate a ny a xis o f t he b uilding. I t i s o nly t he F osse T emple I t hat c onstitutes a L ongroom t ype b uilding, a s T emple 2 , b ut o n t he o ther h and t his c ontains a s ingle r oom d evoid o f a ny i nternal d ivision, w ith a nnexes c haotically a dded o n t wo s ides o f t he t emple. T here i s n othing i n i ts p lan a nd l ayout t hat w ould r ecall T emples 2 a nd 3 . T he e arlier t emple a t K ittan ( Level V ) i s a s mall s tructure w ith a d irect e ntrance w hich i s s ituated i n t he m iddle o f t he s hort s ide a nd f lanked b y t wo c olumns. T his t emple r epresents t hen t he t ype o f a t emplum i n a ntis. O n t he o ther h and, t he l ater t emple a t K ittan ( Level I V), r epresents t he t ype o f " migdol t emple" l ike t he a bove d iscussed t emple a t S hechem, a nd t hus b y n o m eans c an i t b e c ompared t o K ition T emples 2 a nd 3 . A s r egards t he r emaining t emples, t hose o f T el M evorakh a nd T ell A bu H awam , t hese l ack t he e ssential f eature o f K ition T emple 2 w hich i s t he s ubdivision o f t he i nterior i nto t hree a isles w ith t wo r ows o f p illars. T he p lans a nd l ayouts o f t he t emples i n q uestion i n n o w ay r ecall T emples 2 a nd 3 a t K ition. A t t he c onclusion o f o ur d iscussion w e m ay s tate t hat i n t he a rchitecture o f a ll t he t emples a t K ition t here a re h ardly s een a ny f eatures w hich c ould p ossibly p oint t o t he d ependence o f t his

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a rchitecture o n f oreign i nfluences. T herefore, i t s eems r easonable t o r ecognize t he t emples o f K ition a s e xamples o f t he o riginal s acred a rchitecture o f t he i sland. M . D emas i n a nalysing t he s acred b uildings o f K ition, b oth t he t emples o f t he L CIIC a nd t hose o f t he L CIIIA p eriod, h as e xpressed t he v iew t hat t hey " ...belong t o a v y g eneral c ategory o f t emples f rom t he N ear E ast a nd t he A egean... T his s tatement s eems t o b e v alid, b ut i n a v ery b road o utline o nly. O n t he g rounds o f t he a bove-made c omparative a nalysis I a m o f t he o pinion t hat w ithin t his " very g eneral c ategory" o f t emples a s eparate p lace s hould b e r eserved f or t he s acred b uildings o f C yprus. T herefore I p ropose t hat a mong v arious g eneral t emple t ypes f rom t he E astern M editerranean, t he t ype o f t he " Cypriote t emple" s hould b e d istinguished. L et u s r ecall i ts m ain c haracteristics, w hich a re: t he s ubdivision o f t he i nterior i nto t wo o r t hree r ooms e n s uite, t he b iggest o f t hem t he m ain h all b eing s ubdivided i nto t wo o r t hree a isles a long t he l ong a xis o f t he b uilding w ith r ows o f p illars; t he e ntrance t o t he t emple i s s ituated n ear t he e nd o f e ither t he l onger o r t he s horter s ide o f t he b uilding a nd t hat i s w hy t he e ntrance i s a lways i ndirect i n r elation t o t he e mplacement o f t he m ost i mportant c ult e quipment a t t he e nd o f t he m ain a xis o f t he t emple; t he t emple i s u sually a ccompanied b y a c ourtyard o r a s acred g arden. " "'

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A f ew o f t he e arliest e xamples o f t he i ndigenous C ypriote t emple a rchitecture k nown u p t o n ow, p ermit a t entative w orking h ypothesis t hat t he t ype o f a " Cypriote t emple", b est e xemplified b y t he L CIICl ilA K ition t emples, d erived f rom s mall, 2 -roomed b uildings w ith a n i ndirect e ntrance, a ccompanied b y a c ourtyard o r s acred g arden a nd b y o ther a nnexes c onnected i n s ome w ay w ith t he t emple, f or i nstance w orks hops p roducing g oods f or t he t emple. T he e xamples a re t he a bovem entioned s anctuary a t M yrtou-Pigadhes a nd p ossibly t hat a t A thienou . I t i s w orthy o f n ote t hat t his t ype o f s imple c ult h ouse w ith a c ourty ard h as s urvived i nto t he L CIII p eriod a s t estified b y t he s anctuaries a t A yia I rini a nd I dalion. T he n ext s tep o f d evelopment, o r p erhaps a m onumentalized a nd m ore s ophisticated v ersion o f t he t ype w hich, f rom a g iven m oment, h ave e xisted p arallel t o t he s imple v ersion, i s r epresented b y T emple 2 ( floor I V) o f t he L CIIC p eriod a t K ition. T his t emple i s, a t t he s ame t ime, a d irect l ink b etween t he s acred b uildings o f t he L CIIC p eriod a nd t hose o f t he L CIIIA p eriod a t K ition. I n t he l atter p eriod t he h itherto e xisting t emple p recinct w as m onumentalized t o a p reviously u nparalleled d egree, o wing t o t he i ncreased n umber o f t emples, t o t heir e nlargement a nd t he u se o f a shlar m asonry. T he t emples, e ach a n i ndividual b uilding, f orm a t t he s ame t ime a h omogeneous a nd h armonious w hole i n b oth t he f unctional a nd a rchitectural s ense a nd c ertainly c onstituted t he r eligious c entre o f t he w hole t own. T hese t emples s imultaneously r etain a ll t he m ain c haracteristics o f t he t emples p reviously e xisting a t K ition. I n t hese n ew t emples o f t he L CIIIA p eriod, h owever, t he i ndigenous f eatures o f C ypriote t emple a rchitecture h ad r eached t heir c ulminating p oint. T o m y m ind, t hese f eatures d raw p ositively a d istinction b etween t he C ypriote t emples, a nd o ther t emples, b oth i n t he a rea o f t he A egean c ulture a nd i n S yro-Palestine. I n e ither r egion o utside C yprus t here a re n o s tructures w hether c ontemporary w ith o r p osterior ( with o ne p ossible e xception a t B eth S han V a s w e s hall s ee l ater o n), w hich i n p lan a nd l ayout w ould b e c omparable t o t hose o f t he K ition t emples.

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T herefore, i f w e i nsist o n s uspecting f eatures i n c ommon b etween t he t emple a rchitecture o f C yprus a nd t hat o f t he o ther a reas o f t he E astern M editerranean, w e s hould a dmit t hat C yprus c ould o nly h ave b een t he s ource a nd n ot t he r ecipient o f s ome o f t he a rchitectural f eatures a nd d esigns.

P ALAEPAPHOS T he a rchitectural r emains d iscovered i n t he " sacred a rea" o f K ition s uffice t o g ive a q uite c lear i dea o f b oth t he n ature o f t he p lace a nd t he p lans, l ayouts a nd g eneral a ppearance o f i ndividual t emples, w hereas i n t he c ase o f t he L C s anctuary a t P alaepaphos t hings a re m uch w orse. T he r emains o f t he s anctuary w hich h ave s urvived u p t o t he p resent a re, u nfortunately, i nsufficient f or o ne t o g et t o k now t his c ult p lace e qually w ell a s t hat o f K ition. T his i s a t ruth w hich i s a ll t he m ore d istasteful, b ecause h ere w e a re c oncerning o urselves w ith o ne o f t he m ost f amous s anctuaries o f t he a ncient M editerranean w orld, t he o bject o f f requent p iligrimages f rom C yprus a nd f rom a broad. T his s anctuary w as d edicated t o t he P aphian A phrodite w ho a ccording t o a m yth w as b orn f rom t he s ea f oam o n t he C ypriot c oast n ear P alaepaphos. T his s anctuary ( the s o c alled " Sanctuary I ") i s a lso o f p articular i nterest a nd i mportance f or o ur s tudy, b ecause a n a ncient t radition r ecorded b y P ausanias ( VIII, 5 .2) a ttributed t he c onstruction o f t he t emple o f A phrodite t o k ing A gapenor o f T egea w hen r eturning f rom T roy. A rchaeological e xcavations h ave p roved t his t radition t o b e p artialy t rue, a t l east w ith r egard t o t he e arly d ate o f t he f oundation o f t he s anctuary: t his e vent t ook p lace c ertainly n ot l ater t han t he t urn o f t he L CIIC a nd L CIIIA p eriods, t hat i s c . 1 200/1190 B .C . A n e ven e arlier d ate f or t he f oundation o f t he s anctuary c annot, h owever , h e e xcluded, s ince a ccording t o a nother t radition, t hat h anded d own b y T acitus ( f listoriae 1 1, 3 ), t he t emple o f A phrodite w as b uilt b y K inyras, t he n ative r uler o f t he P aphos k ingdom a nd t he f irst H igh P riest o f A phrodite. A t f irst s ight b oth t raditions a re a t o dds o ne w ith e ach o ther. O n e considering t he q uestion o ne c an a rrive a t a d ifferent c onclusion.' ° T he t wo a ncient s tories a re c omplementary t o o ne a nother a nd b oth o f t hem c ontain t he t ruth o r, t o b e p recise, a d ifferent p art o f t he h istorical t ruth. T he t radition r ecorded b y T acitus s eems t o i ndicate t hat i n P alaepaphos a lready b efore t he a rrival a nd s ettlement o f t he A chaeans u nder A gapenor's c ommand, t here e xisted a s anctuary o f A phrodite o r, t o b e m ore c autious, o f t he l ocal g oddess l ater t o b e i dentified w ith A phrodite. T he f ounder o f t his e arly s anctuary c ertainly w as a l ocal r uler. H owever, h e m ay n ot h ave n ecessarily b een K inyras, f or T acitus ( Historiae 1 1, 3 ) h anded d own s till a nother t radition, s upposedly t he e arlier o ne, a ccording t o w hich t he f ounder o f t he t emple o f A phrodite h ad b een A erias, t he k ing o f P alaepaphos, o ne o f K inyras' p redecessors. T hus t here i s n o r oom t o d oubt t hat P alaepaphos a s a c ult p lace w as v ery o ld o ne. T here a re e ve n r easons t o 1 ' p pose t hat i ts o rigins m ay r each bac k to t he C halcolitic p eriod. P roceeding t o t he h ypothetical s anctuary f rom t he e nd o f t he L CIIC p eriod, o ne c annot s ay w hat i t l ooked l ike o n t he c oming o f t he A chaean s ettlers. I t m ay h ave b een f or i nstance a s acred g arden s urrounded b y

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aw all a nd p erhaps i ncluding a c ult b uilding o f t he t ype l ike T emple 3 o r 2a t K ition. T he l atter s eems m ore p lausible a s a p ossible p arallel i f w e c onsider t he l ater f orm o f t he s anctuary, c ontaining t he s oc alled " Colonnaded H ail". T his s upposedly e xisting c ult h ouse s ubdivided b y r ows o f p illars i nto t wo o r t hree a isles m ay h ave n aturally b een v ery m odest a s f ar a s b uilding m aterial i s c oncerned, a nd w ithin t he m eans o f t he l ocal r uler a nd p opulation. I t w as o nly a fter A gapenor's a rrival a t P alaepaphos t hat a r ebuilding a nd a l arges cale e xtension o f t he s anctuary c ould h ave b een i nitiated, b y t he i ntroducing a mong o ther t hings t he a shlar m asonry. T he n ewly-built s anctuary m ust h ave b een s o m agnificant t hat i t c ertainly p ut t he o ld o ne i nto t he s hade. T his e nlargement o f t he o ld s anctuary w ould h ad b een a t t he o rigins o f t he t radition w hich a ttributed t he f oundation o f t he t emple o f A phrodite t o A gapenor -

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A n a lternative p ossibility s hould a lso b e n oted. S ince i t h as b een p resently a scertained t hat a shlar m asonry w as a lready k nown o n C yprus b efore 1 200 B .C., t hat i s a s e arly a s t he L CIIC p eriod a t l east, o ne c annot p reclude t hat t he p reserved r ema in s o f t he t emenos w all a nd C olonnaded H all a re d e f acto o f a n e arlier d ate t han t hat g enerally a ccepted n owadays. T here i s, h owever, n o a ctual e vidence t o s upport t his. L et u s n ow t urn o ur a ttention t o t his p eriod o f t he s anctuary's h istory w hich c orresponds t o t he t ime o f t he A chaean c olonization a nd t o w hich t he a rchitectural r emains p reserved u p t o m odern t imes d ate b ack: t he t emenos w all a nd t he C olonnaded H all ( Fig. 1 1). T he m ost d ifficult a nd c ontroversial q uestion i s s till t hat o f t he r econstruct ion o f t he e xcavated r emains. A n e ssential p art o f p revious a ttempts t o r econstruct t he s anctuary h as b een p layed, h owever, n ot b y t he a ctually p reserved r uins, b ut t he R oman c oins i ssued b etween t he e arly i st c entury A .D . a nd t he m id-3rd c entury A .D . T he r everses o f t hese c oins s how t hree d iffer L 8 t v ariants o f t he r eprese n t atio n of t he s anctuary a t P alaepaphos. T he f irst v ariant d epicts a s ingle c ella o r s hrine w ith a n o pen f ront, p receded b y a s emi-circular c ourtyard s urrounded b y a w all; w ithin t he c ella t here i s a s ymbolic i mage o f t he g oddess, t he s o-called " sacred c one". T he s econd v ariant o f t he r epresentation s hows a t ripartite s hrine w ith a r aised c entral p art w hich h ouses t he s acred c one a lso a nd w ith a s emi-circular c ourtyard e nclosed w ithin a w all i n f ront o f t he s hrine. T he t hird v ariant f inally d iffers f rom t he p recedent i n t hat i t l acks a m arked c ourtyard i n f ront o f t he t ripartite s hrine. N aturally, o n a ll t he c oins t here a lso a ppear o ther d etails t estyfying t o t he w ealth a nd s plendour o f t he s anctuary ( candelabra, a ltars, h orns o f c onsecration e tc.). O ne w ould i nterprete t he f irst a nd t he s econd k ind o f r epresentat ion o n c oins a s r eferring t o t he s uccessive s tages o f t he s anctuary's d evelopment. A ccording t o t his t heory, t he e arliest a nd t he s implest s tage i s t hat d epicted o n t he c oins s howing a s ingle c ella, w hile t he r emaining c oins r epresent t he c ella r emodelled a s a t ripartite s hri a fter t he d estruction o f t he s anctuary i n t he e arthquake o f 7 7 A .D . H owever, t his t heory d oes n ot s eem v ery l ikely a t l east i n c onsiderat ion o f t he f act t hat, f or i nstance, t he s implest v ariant o f t he s anctuary's r epresentation t he s ingle c ella o ccurs o n b oth t he e arliest c oins i ssued b y A ugustus a nd t he l atest o nes, d ated t o t he r eigns o f G ordian a nd P hilippus A rabs. T herefore, I a m o f t he o pinion -

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3 1

t hat o ne s hould r ather a gree w ith F .G. M aier w ho s uggests t hat t he d ifferent c oin t ypes " do n ot r epresent a c hronological s equence b ut a lternative s and p artly s implified) v ersions o f p ortraying t he P aphian S anctuary. A nother e xtremely c ontroversial q uestion i s t hat o f t he a rchitectural p rototype o f t he s anctuary a t P alaepaphos. R eferring t o t he r epresentations o f t he " trpartite s hrine" o n R oman c oins, s ome s cholars h ave p roposed s earching f or t he p rototype o f t he P alaepaphos s anctuary a mong e xamples o f t he s acred a rchitecture o f t he M ycenae a nd M inoan w orld, w here a s imilar t ype o f s acred b uilding o ccured. T he m ost c haracteristic a nd w idely k nown r epresentation o f a t ripartite s acred b uilding i s t hat o n t he Z akros r hyton. T ripartite b uildings a lso a ppear o n t he g old p laques f rom M ycenae. H . S chlie r nann h ad a lready n oticed a nd p ointed t o t he s imilarity b etween t he b uildings o n t he M ycenae p laques 2pd t he r epresentation o f t he A phrodite s anctuary o n t he R oman c oins. C . B linkenberg a nnounced h m self i n f avour o f t he M ycenaean o rigin o f t he t emple o f A phrodite, w hile A . W estholm , a ccepting a t ypological c onnection b etween t he P aphian s anctuary a nd t he M inoan s hrines, s uggested t ha 6 t he d irect p rototype o f t he f ormer s hould b e s ought i n t he N ear E ast. T heories o f t he A egean p rototy f or t he P aphian t emple h ave b een c alled i nto q uestion b y F .G. M aier. H e t hinks t hat, f irst, t here i s t oo w ide a g ulf i n t ime b etween t he d ate o f t he r epresentations o f t ripartite b uildings i n t he A egean a rt a nd t hat o f t he p ictures o n H ellenistic m edallions a nd R oman c oins; f or t he s econd, t ripartite s hrines o ccur n ot o nly i n t he A egean, b ut a lso i n t he N ear E ast, f or e xample a t K amid e l-Loz. M aier h as a lso q uestioned t he b elief t hat t he c oins s how a t ripartite b uilding. I n h is o pinion " the s o-called ' tripartite' v ersion a ctually d epicts t he s acred c one i n a k ind o f ' celia', w ith a nother b uilding v isible i n t he b ackground p ossibly o ne o f t he h alls o f t he R oman s anctuary w hich m ay w ell h ave H ellenistic forerunners .1 28 A s f or t he c ella i tself, i t w as n ot n ecessarily a -

b uilding s ensu s tricto, b ut ç ather " a l ofty, p illars s upporting a wnings." 2

c anopy-like s tructure

o f

L et u s p ut a side f or t he p resent t he c ontroversial i ssue o f i nterpreting t he s anctuary r epresentations o n t he R oman c oins; w e s hall r eturn t o t his l ater o n. N ow w e a re g oing t o t urn o ur a ttention t o t he a rchitectural r emains o f t he L C s anctuary. T he p reserved r emains, a lthough m eagre, d o a t l east a llow t he s tatement t hat t he s anctuary c onsisted o f t wo p arts, w hich w ere t he c ourtyard s urrounded b y a m agnificant w all a nd t he C olonnaded H all: a b uilding d ivided a long i ts l ong a xis b y t wo r ows o f p illars. T he f inds f rom t he s anctuary s ite, s uch a s t he h orns o f c onsecration a nd s tepped c apitals o f t he M ycenaean t ype, l ink t his c ult p lace t o t he t emples o f K ition, w here s imilar o bjects w ere d iscovered w ithin t he s acred a rea. A lso t he s tyle o f t he a shlar b locks i n t he c onstruction o f t h P aphian s anctuary c losely r esemble t he a shlar b locks a t K ition. ° T he f undamental c onclusion t hat e nsues f rom t he a bove f acts i s t hat, i n g eneral, t he s anctuary a t P alaepaphos u ndoubtedly b elongs t o t he s ame t radition o f r eligious a rchitecture a s t he t emples a t K ition. -

F ollowing s everal s easons o f s ystematic a nd d etailed e xcavation w ork o n t he s ite o f t he L C s anctuary, F .G. M aier h as r ecently p roposed

3 2

a r econstruction o f i t, 3 ' w hich i s, h owever, r ather f ar r emoved t he k ind o f a b uilding r epresented b y t he K ition t emples ( Fig.

f rom 1 2).

T he d ifference l ies a bove a ll, i n t he m ethod o f r econstituting o f t he C olonnaded H all. M aier r econstructs t his H all a s a b uilding c losed f rom t he n orth a nd w est, w hile o pen f rom t he e ast a nd s outh. T he e astern p art o f t he H all h e c onsiders t o h ave b een a p ortico, c onsisti ng o f t wo r ows o f s quare p illars. T he g raphic r econstruction a lso s hows s teps a butting o n t he e astern s ide o f t he H all a nd l eading u pwards, i n k eeping w ith t he c onfiguration o f t he g round w hich r ises t owards t he n orth. T he f loor l evel o f t he H all i s h igher t han t hat o f t he c ourtyard e xtending t o t he s outh. I t i s h ard t o i magine t hat s uch a s imple b uilding, o pen o n t wo s ides, c ould h ave b een t he t emple o f A phrodite. I c onsider t hat i t w ould h ave s erved m ore a s a m onumental p ropyleys w ith t he e ps a longs ide i t, a llowing v isitors t o a pproach t he t emple p roper. I t s eems t o m e t hat w e h ave o nly t wo a ctual p ossibilities o f c hoice: e ither t he H all 3 was n ot t he t emple p roper ( which w ould b e s ituated i n s ome o ther p lace "), o r t he r econstruction b y M aier i s i ncomplete. T here i s n o r eason t o c onsider t he H all t o h e a ny t hing b ut t he t emple p roper o f A phrodite. A n i ndication o f t his i s f irst o f a ll t he u nusually m onumental c haracter o f t he c olonade a nd t he m ere f act o f t he u se o f i t. D ouble c olonnades o n C yp s h ave b een u p t o t he p resent a ttested i n b e

t he s acred b uildings o nly. T herefore i n c onsidering t he H all t o t he a ctual t emple o f A phrodite, I b eg t o s uggest a s omewhat

d ifferent t entative r econstruction o f i t f rom t hat p roposed b y M aier. T o m y m ind, t he H all w as n ot o pen f rom s outh a nd e ast, a s M aier b elieved, b ut i t w as r ather a s ubstantial r oofed b uilding, p rovided o n a ll t he f our s ides w ith w alls ( Fig. 1 4). T he e astern w all w ould h ave b een b uilt a t s ome d istance t o t he e ast f rom t he e astern r ow o f p illars. T he m ain e ntrance m ight h ave b een s ituated a t t he s outh-east c orner. T he n ature o f t he t emple e ntrance w ould t hus b e i dentical w ith t hat o f a ll t he t emples a t K ition, w here t hey l ay o ff t he m ain a xes o f t he b uildings; t herefore t hey s hould b e c lassified a s " indirect e ntrances". N aturally, t he p resent r econstruction i s n othing m ore t han p urely s peculative r easoning b ased o n t he a ssumption t hat t he s anctuary a t P alaepaphos c ould h e a nalogous t o o ne o f t he K ition t emples ( Temple 2 o f f loor I V, T emple 5 o r T emple 1 ). T his r econstruction c annot b e f urther v erified t hrough a rchaeological i nvestigations i n s itu s ince n o r elics o f t he L C 1 IIIA p eriod h ave s urvived t o t he e ast o f t he n ow v isible r emains o f t he H all. T his s ituation i s c ertainly d ue t o t he i rrevocable d estruction o f a ny r emaining v estiges t hat i nterfered w ith t he b uilding o f t he M edieval s uga 5 r efinery o n t he s anctuary s ite a s w ell a s o utside t he t emenos w all. A s t he n eed a rose a t t hat t ime, e ven t he b edrock w as r emoved a nd t his w ould p ossibly e xplain t he d epression i n t he t errain d irectly e astwards o f t he v isible r emains o f t he C olonnaded H all. T his d epression m ay g ive q uite n atural b ut i ncorrect g rounds b oth f or t he p roper u nderstanding a nd c orrect r econstruction o f t he t emple p lan; a n e xample o f s uch a m isinterpretat ion i s, i n m y o pinion, t he r econstruction r ecently p roposed b y M aier. T he

a bove

p resented

n ew a ttempt a t t he

r econstruction

o f

t he

L CITIA s anctuary a t P alaepaphos p laces i n a r ather d ifferent p osition t he q uestion o f t he " tripartite b uilding", t he a ctual e xistence o f w hich w ithin t he s anctuary h as b een p recluded b y M aier b ecause o f t he

3 3

l ack o f a dequate v estiges o n t he s ite. T he C olonnaded H all, a s r econstructed b y u s, w ould b e a t hree-aisled b uilding, t herefore, i ts r oof c ould n ot n ecessarily h ave b een f lat: t he c entral p art o f t he r oof, c overing t he m ain a isle, m ight h ave b een h igher t han t he p arts o ver t he l ateral a isles. T herefore w hile f acing t he b uilding b oth f rom t he s outh ( that i s f rom t he c ourtyard) a nd f rom t he n orth, i ts f açade c ould b e d esignated a s t ripartite. A t t his p oint o f o ur d iscussion w e s hall r eturn t o t he p roblem o f i nterpretation o f t he P aphian s anctuary r epresentations o n t he R oman c oins. I t i s r ather c ertain t hat b oth t he c ourtyard a nd t he C olonnaded H all w ere a lso i n u s d uring t he R oman p eriod, w hen t he s o-called S anctuary I T w as b uilt. 6 A nd s o, i f o ur r econstruction o f t he H all a s a t ripartite b uilding c an b e a ccepted a nd a ccepted a s c onvincing, o ne m ay s uggest t he h ypothesis t hat t he R oman c oins a ctually d epict n ot S anctuary I T, b ut t he C olonnaded H all, t he o rigins o f w hich g o h ack t o a t l east t he L CIIIA p eriod a nd w hich w as t he a ctual t emple o f A phrodite. T his p ossibility w as a t o ne t ime c onsidered a lready b y M aier h imself w ho w rote: ". . . Or d o t he c oins d epict S anctuary I , a s i t w as s till t he m ain c ult b uilding i n R oman t imes? ( With s ome i r nagin,tion t he H all c ould b e r econstructed a s a t ripartite b uilding.) 3 "I b elieve t hat s uch a p ossibility i s s till n o t ewor t hy, p articularly n ow, w hen t he e xcavations a t K ition h ave y ielded a n i rrefutable e xample o f a L CIIC t emple ( Temple 2 ) s ubdivided i nside b y p illars i nto t hree a isles. F rom o utside s uch a t emple m ight h ave l ooked l ike a t ypical b asilical b uilding w ith t he r oof o ver t he c entral a isle h igher t han t hat o ver t he l ateral o nes. S o, i f t he L C b uilding a t P alaepaphos a ctually c ontinued t o s erve a s t he t emple o f A phrodite d own i nto t he R oman p eriod, t hen t he S anctuary I T w hich w as a c omplex o f v arious b uildings c onstructed i n t he R oman t imes, c ould h ave p ossibly f unctioned a s a uxiliary b uildings f or p riests, t emple s taff, p ilgrims, o r e ven a s p laces f or v arious r eligious c eremonies s uch a s r itual m eals, p rocessions e tc. I t i s w ell k nown t hat t he s anctuary a t P alaepaphos w as t he p lace o f a n a niconic c ult o f t he g oddess, w ho w as s ymbolized b y t he s acred c one p laced, a s t he U i Qst i mportant c ult o bject, a t t he m ost d istant p lace i n t he t emple. IM T herefore, d epicting t he s acred c one o n t he c oins i ndicates t hat w e a re c oncerned h ere w ith a r epresentation o f t he t emple i nterior, n ot t hat o f i ts f açade: A nd t his w ould h ave b een t he m ost i nteresting w ay o f p ortraying t he s anctuary: s howing b oth i ts s ection t hrough t he s hort a xis o f t he b uilding, a nd s imultaneously t he e xterior o f t he t emple. -

T he i ntention i n c hoosing a r epresentation o f t his k ind s eems t o b e q uite c lear. T he a im w as m ost p robably t o s how i n a n e xtremely c onventional w ay ( by w ay o f u sing t he m uch r estricted s urface a rea o f t he c oin) t he m ost e ssential f eatures o f t he s anctuary, n amely t he m ain c ult o bject ( the s acred c one) p laced i nside t he t emple a nd t he c ourtyard w ith n umerous a ltars a nd v arious v otive m onuments s urrounded b y t he m agnificant w all. O n t he o ther h and, t he s ingle " cella" s hown o n t he c oins w ould h ave b een t he s implest t ype o f s anctuary r epresentat ion, d isplaying t he c ourtyard a nd t he s acred a rea w ithin t he c entral a isle, a nd d isregarding t he l ateral a isles. I t c annot a lso h e e xcluded t hat i n t his p articular c ase w e h ave i n f act a r epresentation n ot o f t he c ella i tself, b ut o f a s ome c anopy-like a dditional s tructure w hich m ight h ave b een p laced w ithin t he c ella, d irectly a bove t he s acred

3 4

c one, i n A phrodite

r der t o e mphasize i ts e xceptional i mport a s t he

s ymbol

o f

T o c onclude o ur d iscussion o n t he P aphian s anctuary i t c an h e s aid t hat a s r egards p lan a nd l ayout, i t c onstituted a n e xample o f i ndigenous C ypriote t emple a rchitecture p ar e xcellence. T here i s n o a ctual e vidence t hat t he f orm o f t he s anctuary c ould h ave b een a ffected b y a n a lien a rchitecture, w hether t hat o f t he A egean a rea, o r t hat o f t he C anaanite a rea, o r a ny o ther o ne. T he A chaean n ewcomers d id n ot b ring a ny s ubstantial c hange i nto t he p reviously e xisting a rchitectural c oncept, t hey a ccomplished o nly t he m onumentalization o f t he f orm a nd e nriched i t w ith s ome e lements o f t heir o wn a rchitectural t radition ( horns o f c onsecration, s tepped c apitals e tc.). I t s hould b e s tressed o nce a gain h owever, t hat t he g eneral m odel f or t he s anctuary a t P alaepaphos a s b uilt o r r e-built b y t he A chaeans, w as t he i ndigenous t radition o f r eligious a rchitecture.

A THI E NOU I n t he c ase o f A thienou, i n w hich w e a re d ealing w ith a c ult p lace o f a s pecial t ype, t he m ost i mportant p eriod f or O 6 s tudy i s t hat o f c . 1 200-1150 B .C., r epresented b y S tratum I I. T he e xcavated a rchitectural c omplex i s s ituated o n a l ow h ill a nd c onsists o f a r ectangular c ourtyard s urrounded o n t wo s ides b y b uildings ( the s oc alled " northern" a nd " southern" w ings). T he b eginnings o f S tratum I I a re c haracterized b y t he o ccurence o n t he s ite o f t he M ycenaean I IIC:lb p ottery. T he p resence o f t his p otte i ndicates t hat t he n ewcomers f rom t he A egean w orld s ettled h ere. I t s hould b e s tressed, h owever, t hat t heir c oming b rought n o s ubstantial c hanges, i f a ny a t a ll, i nto t he c haracter o f t he s ite. T o g et a p roper i dea o f A thienou d uring t he p eriod w hen t he A egean n ewc omers w ere l iving o n t he s ite, ( perhaps j ointly w ith t he n ative p opulation), o ne s hould b eforehand, a s w as t he c ase w ith K ition, u nders tand t he c haracter i t h ad h ad i n t he e arlier p eriod, p rior t o i ntermingling o f t he a utochtonous c omponent o f t he p opulation w ith i mmigratory o ne.

t he t he

T he f inds v arious c ult o bjects, c opper n odules a nd, a bove a ll, h undreds o f m iniature v otive v essels c learly s how t hat a lready i n t he p eriod o f S tratum I II, t hat i s i n t he 1 4th a nd 1 3th c entury B .C., A thienou w as c ertainly a m etal w orking s ite a ssociated w ith a p ottery w orkshop a nd c losely c onnected w ith s ome c ult. A ccording t o t he e xcavators, m iature v essels a re u sually a ssociated w ith " high p laces a nd t emples". A thienou h as a o b een q ualified a s a " high p lace" i n o ne o f t he p reliminary r eports. S uch a q ualification o f A thienou i s v ery i nteresting a nd a ll t he m ore s o s ince t his e xpression i s c ommonly u sed i n t ranslating t he H ebrew w ord b amah, f requently o ccuring i n t he B ible. -

-

I s hall n ot c onsider t he p roblem o f t he b amah i n d etail h ere, s ince i t l ies b eyond t he s cope o f o ur m ain s ubject. H owever, I b elieve t hat i n t he c ontext o f o ur d iscus on i t w ould b e u seful t o g ive s ome b asic i nformation c oncerning t his. 44

3 5

D espite t he f act t hat t he w ord b amah ( p1. b amot) a ppears q uite f requently i n t he O ld T estament, t he e xact m eaning, n ature a nd c haracter o f i t i s s till n ot e ntirely c lear t o u s. T his r esults, a mong o ther t hings, f rom t he f act t hat n o s tructure u nearthed u p t o n ow c an b e i dentified b eyond a ny d oubt w ith t he b iblical b amah . I t i s w ellk nown t hat o ne o f t he r esults o f J osiah's r eform w as t he d eliberate d estruction o f a ll t he h igh p laces a nd a ltars c onnected w ith t hem , s acred g ardens a nd o ther p hysical m anifestation o f I srael's d eparture f rom t he w orship o f Y ahweh . I f t he b iblical a ccounts a re t o b e b elieved, t he v ast m ajority ( if n ot t he t otality) o f h igh p laces w ere n ever r ebuilt f rom t he r uins. T herefore, t he c hance t hat a nything c ould h ave s urvived t hroughout t he a ges i s r ather s lim. W hat c an t hen b e s aid i n t he l ight o f t he p resent-day k nowledge i s o nly t hat t he b amah, u ndoubtedly c onnected w ith r eligious a ctivities, c an b e i nterpreted i n t hree w ays a t l east: 1 .

A s ak ind o f a h oly p recinct o r a n o pen-air s anctuary, s ometimes e nclosed i n w alls. l t w as l ocalized, a s a r ule, o n a h ill o r a m ountain s lope. T he e xistence o f a ssociated a ltar(s) o r e ven s imple b uilding(s) w ithin i ts l imits c annot a lso b e e xcluded. A ccording t o G .R.H . W right, s uch a b amah w as m ost o ften c haracterized b y a n u pright s tone w hich s ymbolized t he m ale d eity ( Mazzebah) a nd aw ooden p ole ( possibly s urrogate o f t he s acred " Tree o f f e") o r a x oanon r epresenting i n t urn t he f emale d eity ( Asherah).

2 .

A s a n a rtificial c onstruction o f c onsiderable d imensions b uilt d ressed o r u ndressed s tones 4 n t he f orm o f a r ectangular, sq uare c ircular p latform ( podium). C haractcristic f eatures o f t hese h igh p laces a re t he o f s teps l eading u p t o t heir f lat t ops.

3 .

o f o r

f lights

A s a s pecial c ategory o f a ltars. 47

I t i s e vident t hat t he t ype o f c ult p lace c orresponding e xactly t o t he f irst i nterpretation o f b amah w as v ery p opular a lso i n t he A egean c ulture a rea, o n t he G reek m ainland, i slands a nd e specially o n m ountainous C rete. A g ood e xample f rom t his i sland i s a n o pen-air s anctuary o n t he M t. J uktas w here a ccording t o l egend, t he t omb o f Z eus w as t o b e f ound. T his s anc gary o riginally d iscovered b y A . E vans, h as r ecently b een r e-excavated. I ts e xploration h as m ade c lear t hat t he s anctuary c onsisted o f a s eries o f r ooms n ear w hich t wo h igh p latforms o r t erraces w ere c onstructed, t he h igher o ne c rowned w ith a s tepped a ltar. S pecialists i n A egean a rchaeology c all s uch a t ype o f c ult p lace s imply a " peak s anctuary". I t i s v ery p robable t hat h igh p laces i n t he b iblical l and w ere i n g eneral a ppearance a nd c onception c losely s imilar. A . B iran, f or i nstance, h as e xpre ed t he v iew t hat a b amah m ay e ven b e c onsidered a ' peak s anctuary'". A s f or C yprus, t here i s a nother s ite w hich, i n m y o pinion, m ay b e q ualified a s a k ind o f h igh p lace. A t P hiamoudhi-Vounari, o n t he s ummit o f a s mall h ill t he r emains o f a s imple s t cture ( a r oom?) d ated t o t he M CIII/LCIA p eriod h ave b ee n d is covere d . T his s tructure p artly

c overed

a n

a sh

d eposit c ontaining

3 6

a nimal

a nd

b ird

b ones,

i nterpreted b y t he e xcavator a s t he r emains o f r itual c eremonies. I n t he n ext p eriod, t hat i s a t t he b eginning o f t he L CIA p eriod, o n t he t op o f t he h ill a s quare ( 16 x 1 6m) p latform, m inimum 3 m i n h eight, w as b uilt. A t s ome m oment d uring L CIA p eriod t he p latform w as s urrounded b y a n o uter w all; t hus a k ind o f a c orridor e ncircled t he p latform . T hrough t he o pening i n t he o uter w all v isitors c ould a scend v ia a n i mposing d ouble e ntry-way t o t he c entral p latform . T he P hlamoudhi-Vounari s anctuary p resents t hen a n e xample o f a d evelopment f rom t he s implest f orm t o a m uch m ore s ophisticated o ne, w hich s eems t o h e a c ombination o f t he f irst a nd t he s econd t ype o f b amah ( see a bove). F rom t his i t f ollows t hat p erhaps w e o ught t o r efrain f rom d istinguishing t oo r igorously b etween t hese t wo a ssumed t ypes o f b amah. I n b oth o f t hem t he m ost e ssential f eature o f a b amah i s i ts t owering a bove i ts s urroundings. T his p ecularity o f t he b amah h as a lso b een i ndicated b y M . D othan w ho e mphasizes t hat " one h ad t o a scend w hen a pproaching t he b amah a nd d escend w hen l eaving." 5 ' T he q uestion w hether t he b amah w as s imply a " place" l ocated o n a n atural h ill o r w as a rtificially c onstructed ( not n ecessarily u pon e levated g round) o r e lse i t c ombined t hese t wo t ypes s eems t o b e, a s I b elieve, am atter o f s econdary i mportance. F rom t he c ase o f b oth A thienou a nd P hlamoudhi-Vounari o ne c an t herefore c onclude t hat t he c ult p lace t ype, w hich m ay b e q ualified a s t he h igh p lace, c haracteristic o f t he G reek m ainland, C rete, C yclades ( where i t i s u sually q ualified a s t he " peak s anctuary") a nd o f S yroP alestine ( where i t i s k nown a s b amah) a ppeared a lso o n C yprus. I c onsider t hat t here a re n o a ctual r easons t o s uspect t hat a ny o f t he m entioned t erritories w ould i nspire t he a ppearance o f t his t ype o f s anctuary o n C yprus, e ven i f i n t he A egean o r S yro-Palestine t here a re e xamples o f h igh p laces e arlier t han t hose o f A thienou o r P hlamoudhiV ounari. H igh p laces a re t his k ind o f s anctuaries w hich p robably a ppeared i ndependently o f o ne a nother i n v arious a reas, a mong v arious c ultures a nd a t v arious t imes. T heir a ppearance r esults f rom s ome g eneral f eatures c ommon t o a ll p rehistorical r eligions r ather t han f rom t he m utual i nfluences e xerted b y o ne r eligion a nd c ulture o n a nother. A s w e h ave m entioned, t he c haracter o f A thienou d uring t he p eriod o f S tratum I T r emained m ost p robably u nchanged, a lthough t he e xcavator b elieved a t t he r eligious a spect o f t he s ite m ight h ave b een f orgotten. T his s upposition w as b ased o n t he f act t hat d uring t he p eriod i n q uestion m iniature v otive v essels n o l onger o ccured. O n t he c ontrary, s uch v essels w ere v ery c haracteristic o f t he p receding p eriod a t A thienou, w hen t housands o f t hem f illed a lmost t he e ntire c ourtyard a nd o ne o f t he r ooms. H owever, i t s eems t hat a lso i n t he p eriod o f S tratum I T t his p lace c ontinued t o b e a s anctuary o f t he h igh p lace t ype, a round w hich t he m etal w orking a ctivity j ust i ncreased t hrough t he a ddition o f n ew c opper-working i nstallations t o t he e ast a nd n orthe ast o f t he c ourtyard. S uch a p henomenon c an b e p erfectly e xplained b y t he p rocess o ccuring i n t he e arly L CIIIA p eriod o n C yprus a s w ell a s i n t he w hole E astern M editerranean: t he m utual c onnection o f r eligion a nd e conomy, m ore i ntensified t han p reviously. I n t he c ase o f C yprus, i t w as t he c onnection b etween t he r eligion a nd t he e xploitation o f c opper t ogether w ith se xport t rade w hether a s r eady-made g oods o r i n t he f orm o f i ngots. ‚

3 7

A s f or t he c ustom o f s toring m iniature v otive v essels i n t he c ourtyard, i ts r enouncing i n t he p eriod o f S tratum I I c an b e i nterpreted, f or i nstance, a s a r esult o f t he c hanges w hich h ad s upposedly b een b rought a bout i n t he p reviously e xisting f orm o f t he c ult a nd i n r eligious c eremonies. T hose c hanges i n t heir t urn w ere m ost p robably c aused b y t he a rrival o f a n ew p opulation g roup f rom t he A egean. U nfortunately, o ne c annot p ossibly d educe f rom t he o btained a rchaeological e vidence w hat s hape t he r eligious a spect o f t he n ewcomers' a ctivity a ssumed; t his q uestion m ust f or t he p resent r emain o pen. T o p roceed n ow t o t he a rchitectural r emains, i t i s v ery d ifficult t o e xplain i n d etail t he p lan a nd l ayout o f t he s anctuary, t he m ore s o a s t he e xcavation w ork h as m ost p robably u ncovered o nly a f ragment a nd n ot t he w hole o f i t ( Fig. 1 5). O ne m ay a ssume t hat t he p art o f a c ult c entre w as p layed, d uring t he p eriod o f S tratum I II a t l east, b y t he c ourtyard, i n w hich r eligious c eremonies t ook p lace, t he e normous a mount o f m iniature v otive v essels b eing m ost l ikely t heir t races. l t c annot b e s aid w hether t here w as a ny c ult-room a t a ll, a nd i f s o, w hich o ne o f t he r ooms s urrounding t he c ourtyard m ight h ave s erved s uch a f unction. A c orner o f t wo w alls ( Sq.E 8 9 ) i s i nterpreted b y e e xcavators a s t he r emains o f t he w estern w ing o f t he s anctuary. T here i s, h owever, s till a nother p ossible i nterpretation, w hich s hould n ot b e e xcluded f rom c onsideration. T his c orner m ight n amely h ave b een a r elic, f or i nstance, o f a n a ltar, o r a b ase f or i t, o r a nother o ffering s tructure s ituated i n t he c ourtyard, j ust a s i n t he o ther C ypriote s anctuaries.

t he

O ne c an n ote a c ertain g eneral s imilarity b etween t he l ayout s anctuary a t A thienou, a nd t he l ayouts o f t he s anctuaries

o f a t

M yrtou-Pigadhes a nd A yia I rini. I n a ll t hree c ases w e h ave a n o pen c ourtyard p rovided w ith a n a ltar, p odium o r a nother o ffering s tructure, a nd s urrounded b y m ore o r l ess n umerous b uildings, o ne o f w hich p robably s erved a s t he m ain c ult r oom , a r epository o r s acred t reasureh ouse. T he r ather c lose s imilarity o f l ayouts o f t he m entioned s anctuaries i s t o b e e xplained a lso b y t he f act t hat a ll p laces a re o f a p rovincional c haracter a s o pposed t o t he

t hese c ult s anctuari

a nd t emples o f t he g reat u rban c entres, s uch a s K ition, E nkomi e tc. O n t he o ther h and b oth t he " provincial" a nd " urban" c ult c entres d isplay a g eneral s imilarity i n t heir a rchitectural l ayouts. T he o nly d istinction b etween t hem e xists i n t he s cale o f g numentality a nd w ealth w hich i s i n f avour o f t he "ur ban " cu l t p l aces. T o c omplete o ur p resentation o f t he c ultic/industry s ite a t A thienou w e m ay s ay t hat i t b elongs t o t he l ocal C ypriot t radition o f c ult p laces, a dditionally c onnected w ith a n i ndustrial a ctivity, a nd t hat i t a lso d isplays f eatures o f t he s o-called " high p lace". I n t his f orm t he s ite w as t aken o ver b y i ts n ew o ccupants t he A egean s ettlers w ho i n k eeping w ith t he g eneral t endency t hat t hen p revailed o n t he i sland, l aid p articular s tress o n t he f unctioning o f t he s anctuary a s t he p lace o f a n i ntense m etal w orking a ctivity . I n t he e conomy o f t he i sland, A thienou p robably p layed t he p art o f a " station" o n t he t rade r oute c onnecting t he m inip o res w ith " large m arketing c entres o n t he e ast c oast o f t he i sland." ' -

-

3 8

E NKOMI 1 .

H ouse o f t he C olumns

O ur s urvey o f E nkom s anctuaries s hould s tart w ith t he s o-called " House o f t he C olumns" B uiltB u i l ta t t he v ery b eginning o f t he 1 2th c entury B .C., i t w as s urely o ne o f t he m ost s ignificant b uildings i n t he c ity. T he b uilding i s s ituated a t t he s outh-western c orner o f o ne o f t he c ity q uarters. I t i s a l arge s tructure m easuring c . 1 9m f rom e ast t o w est a nd c . 1 6m f rom n orth t o s outh. T he i nterior i s p artitioned i nto t wo p arts a t l east t he w estern s maller p art ( the s o-called " vestibule"), a nd t he e astern g reater p art ( "cella") ( Fig. 1 9). H owever, i mmediately e ast o f t he c ella, t here i s a nother r oom . U nfortunately, f rom t he r ecently p ublished p lan o f t he b uilding i t i s i mpossible t o d etermine w hether t his r oom b elonged t o t he H ouse o f t he C olumns, o r t o a nother a rchitectural c omplex. T he p lan s hows t hat n ear t he m iddle o f t he e astern w all o f t he c ella t here i s a n o pening w hich w ould f avour t he f ormer p ossibility. H owever, J .-C . C ourtois, w ho h as r ecently p ublished t he H ouse o f t he C olumns i n m ore d etail, s ays n othing a bout t he a rchitectural r elation b etween t he c ella a nd t he a rea e ast o f i t. H e c onsiders t hat t he H ouse o f t he C olumns c onsisted o nly o f a s maller v estubule a nd a l arger c ella. -

T he

v estibule

i s

a ccessible f rom t he

m ain

N orth-South

s treet

t hrough a m onumental e ntrance. A long t he e astern w all o f t he v estibule t here i s a r ow o f f our p illar b ases. I t c an b e t hen a ssumed t hat t he v estibule w as a t l east p artially r oofed. I n t he m iddle o f t he e astern w all o f t he v estibule, a nother m onumental e ntrance l eads i nto t he c ella. A r ow o f s tone s labs o ccupies t he c entral n orth-south a xis o f t he c ella . O n o ne o f t he s labs, o pposite t he e ntrance, t here r ests a s quare s tog b lock ( 1.10m) w hich H . d e C ontenson i nterpreted a s a k i nd o f a ltar. " I t a ppears t o m e t hat w e c annot a lso e xclude a nother p ossibility. N amely, t hat t his b lock c ould h ave b een a p art o f a p illar, a nd a lso t hat m ore s uch p illars h ad o riginally s tood o n t he a bove m entioned s labs, i n a m anner a nalogous t o t he p illars o f t he v estibule. I n t his c ase, h owever, i t w ould s eem t hat t here w ould h ave b een t oo l ittle r oom f or t he l ocalization o f a n a ltar a nd/or a p odium t o p ut t he o bjects o f c ult o n. I nstead s uch s tructures c ould h ave b een l ocalized i n t he n earby, t hird r oom , l ying j ust e ast o f t he c ella i t i s a ssumed t hat i t c omposed a n i ntegral p art o f t he H ouse o f C olumns).

( if t he

W e s ee t hat t he a rchitectural p lan o f t he b uilding u nder d iscussion i s e xceptional. I t d istinguishes i tself b y t he p artitioning o f t he i nterior n ot a long t he l ongitudinal a xis o f t he b uilding, b ut a long i ts s hort a xis, i nto t wo o r e ven t hree r ooms. T he v estibule a nd p erhaps t he c ella a re s ubdivided a gain a long t heir s hort a xes. S uch a t ype o f i nner s patial a rrangement i s u nparalleled i n t he o ther s anctuaries i n E nko n ii a s w ell a s o n t he w hole o f C yprus.

t he

A t t his p oint o f o ur d iscussion w e h ave t o e mphasize t he f act t hat i dentification o f t his b uilding a s a s anctuary i s b y n o m eans

3 9

c ertain. I ts i nterpretation i s b ased o n t he f act t hat s ome o f t he a ssociated f inds m ay h ave h ad a r eligious s ignificance. T hese a rgA a n o x-horn, a n i vory s culpture, a p iece o f g old, a bu l l- s ha pe d v ase . I t i s i n f act, t oo w eak e vidence t o d etermine t he r eligious c haracter o f t he H ouse o f t he C olumns. M oreover, t here i s n o e vidence o f a h earth w hich w as o ne o f t he m ost c haracteristic f eatures o f a ll t he C ypriote t emples a nd s anctuaries. T herefore, I a m v ery s ceptical i n a ccepting t hat t his b uilding w as a ctually a s anctuary. C onsidering t he a shlar b locks, p illars, l arge d imensions a nd l ayout o f t he b uilding i t c an h e a ssumed r ather t hat i t w as a b uilding o f a p ublic c haracter, a n a dministrative c entre, t he h eadquarters o f ah igh r anking o fficial, o r s omething l ike o f t his k ind.

2 .

T he A shlar B uilding ( Area I )

A .

T he S anctuary o f t he " Horned G od"

T he s anctuary o ccupies s everal r ooms o f t he " Reconstructed A shlar B uilding" ( Levels I JIB , C ), w hich o n t he p lan a re m arked w ith n umbers 4 5-9-10 fç t he p eriod c orresponding t o L evel I TIB , a nd 1 3-9-10 f or L evel I TIC ° ' ( Figs. 1 6, 1 7). R oom 4 5 i s ak ind o f a h ail o r c ourtyard s ubdivided a long i ts l ong a xis i nto t wo a pproximately s ymmetrical p arts b y m eans o f a r ow o f p illars. I t i s d ifficult t o s ay, h owever, w hether R oom 4 5 w as w holly c overed w ith a r oof ( equiped w ith a n o pening, c arrying a way s moke f rom a h earth) o r o nly p artially r oofed, f or e xample i n i ts e astern p art, w hich w ould t hen s erve a s a k ind o f a p eristyle a t t he e ntrance t o t he s anctuary p roper, t hat i s t o R ooms 9 a nd 1 0. O n t he i sometric d rawing o f t he A shlar B uilding ( Level T u B) w hich h as b een p ublished b y P . D ikaios, R oom 1 0 l ooks a s i f i t c ould h ave b een e ntered f rom t wo d irections: f rom t he s outh-west, i .e., f rom R oom 9 a s w ell a s f rom t he n orth-east, i .e., f rom R oom 1 3. H owever, i t i s d oubtful w hether d uring t he L evel I TIB p eriod t here h ad e xisted a c onnection b etween R ooms 1 0 a nd 1 3 a s c ould b e s upposed o n t he b asis o f t he a bove m entioned i sometric d rawing. I n m y o pinion, t his a rt o f t he b uilding s hould b e r econstructed i n q uite a d ifferent w ay.' F rom a c los 03 e xamination o f t he v ery d etailed p lans a nd sec t i ons of Leve l T u B it c an r ather b e c oncluded t hat R ooms 1 0 a nd 1 3 w ere e ntirely s eparated f rom e ach o ther b y aw all; t herefore n o c onnection b etween t hem c ould h ave e xisted. " At a pproximately t he c entre o f t he r oom" s ays D ikaios, " was a p it 0 .64m a cross, b ut i ts e astern e nd, a s w ell a s i ts l ower p art, h ad b een d estroyed b y t omb s earchers w ho d ug a l arge t rial 4 p it i n t he e astern p art o f t he room a n d t u nne l l e d towar ds t he p it." 0 T herefore, i t s eems h ighly p robable t hat R ooms 1 0 a nd 1 3 w ere o riginally t otally s eparated b y m eans o f t he w all o f w hich o nly t he w estern p art h as b een p reserved, w hile t he r emainder h as b een d estroyed b y t he t rench w hich e xtends n orthwards, a long t he e astern w alls o f b oth r ooms. T here i s a n e ven m ore s ignificant r eason t hat m akes t he e xistence o f s uch a c onnection b etween R ooms 1 0 a nd 1 3 u ndesirable. T he d iscovery o f t he H orned G od s tatue i n R oom 1 0 s eems t o i ndicate t hat t his r oom w as t he m ost i mportant o ne i n t he s anctuary g gd u ndoubtedly i t s hould b e c onsidered a s t he k ind o f cu l t r e p o s i t ory . I t l ogically

4 0

f ollows t hat t he r oom s toring t he p rincipal o bjects o f r eligious s ignificance s hould b e v ery d ifficult i n a ccess. H owever, t he e xistence o f t wo e ntrances, f rom n orth a nd w est, g ives R oom 1 0 a c haracter a n ot a t a ll a ppropriate p lace a s r egards t he s ecurity o f t he s tored c ult o bjects a s w ell a s t he w hole s anctuary. M oreover, f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f t he a rchitectural l ayout o f t he w hole b uilding, R oom 1 0 a s r econstructed b y D ikaios, i s r ather a t ransitory r oom f acilitating i nternal c ommunication b etween t he e astern a nd w estern p arts o f t he A shlar B uilding. T he e xistence o f s uch a r oom i n w hiche ver s anctuary i s, i n m y o pinion, n onsensical. O n t he o ther h and, i f w e a ccept t hat R oom 1 0 w as a ccessible o nly f rom R oom 9 , w e o btain a c omplex o f r ooms f orming a s anctuary v ery c learly s eparated f rom t he r emaining p arts o f t he A shlar B uilding ( Fig. 1 8). I f t he r econstruction t hat I h ave p roposed a bove i s c orrect, t hen t he s anctuary o f t he H orned C od c onsisted o f a n a ntechamber ( Room 9 ) a nd a c ult r epository ( Room 1 0). T he m ain e ntrance l ed d uring t he p eriod o f L evel I lIB f rom H all 4 5, a nd i n t he p eriod o f L evel hIC f rom R oom 1 3, i n b oth c ases f ollowing a b ent-axis.

B .

T he S anctuary o f a f emale d ivinity

I n t he e astern p art o f t he A shlar B uilding t here l ies a g roup o f t hree r ooms ( Figs. 1 6, 1 7). A t l east t wo o f t hem , m arked w ith n umbers 1 2 a nd 1, c an b e i nterpreted a s a nother s anctuary. 6° G enerally s peaking, t he l ayout o f t his s anctuary i s i dentical w ith t hat o f t he S anctuary o f t he H orned G od, a djoining i t f rom t he w est. T hus w e h ave t he c ult r epository ( Room 1 1) a nd t he a ntechamber ( Room 1 2). A s t o t he t hird r oom , n eighbouring f rom t he s outh w ith R oom 1 2 a nd q ualified b y D ikaios a s " stoa", t his w ould b e a c ounterpart o f H all 4 5 ( and l ater R oom 1 3) o f t he S anctuary o f t he H orned G od. C ontrary t o t he t emples w hich h ave b een d iscussed h itherto a nd w hich w ere i ndependent s tructures, b oth s anctuaries m erely c onstituted a p art o f a l arger a rchitectural c omplex. T herefore a ny a ttempt a t q ualifying t he " plan" o f t hese s anctuaries i s u seless. F rom t he a rchitectural p oint o f v iew i t i s w rong t o i solate, f rom a h omogenous s et o f r ooms, t hose r ooms w hich a re d istinguishable b y t heir f unction o nly a nd n ot b y p lan a nd a rchitectural f orm . M oreover, o ne s hould n ot f orget t hat t hese s anctuaries c ame i nto b eing t hrough t he a daptation a nd p artial r ebuilding o f t he r ooms w hich h ad a lready e xisted i n t he p revious p eriod a nd w hich m ight h ave o riginally s erved s ecular p urposes a nd n ot t hose o f a c ult. H owever, a l ook a t t hese s anctuaries g ives t he i mpression t hat t heir l ayout w as d ue t o a c ertain s cheme, f ollowed a lso b y t he s anctuaries a t M yrtou-Pigadhes, A yia I rini a nd T emple 3 a t K ition. A ll t he m entioned s anctuaries i nclude a c ourtyard s urrounded b y v arious b uildings, o ne o f w hich, d ivided i nto t wo p arts a nd e quipped w ith a n i ndirect e ntrance, w as t he t emple p roper. N aturally, o ne c annot d isregard t he f act t hat t he s anctuaries o f t he A shlar B uilding a re m erely a p art o f a l arger, w ell-defined a rchitectural w hole. A g eneral s imilarity e vident b etween t he l ayouts o f t he s anctuaries a t M yrtouP igadhes, A yia I rini a nd T emple 3 a nd t hose o f t he s anctuaries o f t he A shlar B uilding m ay b e j ust c asual; b ut o n t he o ther h and o ne c annot

4 1

e xclude t he p ossibility t hat t he a daptation o f t he p reviously e xisting r ooms t o t he n eeds o f t he c ult d id n ot t ake p lace i n a n e ntirely i mpulsive a nd c haotic w ay. O n t he c ontrary, t hose w ho u ndertook t he t ask o f r econstructing o f t he A shlar B uilding m ight h ave b een g uided w hen b uilding t he t wo s anctuaries b y t he r equirements o f a d efined a rchitectural t radition, i n w hich t he c ult a nd i ts r ites n eeded a c ertain o pen-air s pace a nd s everal r ooms, t he m utual d efined r elation o f w hich w as a bove a ll, o f a f unctional a nd c ommunicational n ature, a nd o nly l ater o f a n a rchitectural o ne. H ence t he s imilarity b etween t he l ayouts o f t he s anctuaries w ithin t he A shlar B uilding o n t he o ne h and, a nd t hose o f M yrtou-Pigadhes, A yia I rini o r T emple 3 a t K ition o n t he o ther. S imultaneously, t here w as a n e ssential d ifference b etween t hem , r esulting f rom t he f act t hat t he l isted e xamples f rom M yrtou-Pigadhes, A yia I rini a nd K ition w ere i ndependent s tructures a nd n ot p arts o f a l arger a rchitectural c omplexes.

3 .

T he S anctuary o f t he " Ingot G od"

T he n ext s anctuary i n E nkomi, i n w hich t he f amous s tatue o f t he I ngot G od w as r ecovered, i s s ituated c ity q uarter 5 E . T his s anctuary i s d ated t o t he L CIIIB p eriod. A n i nterpretation o f i ts a rchitectural r emains p resents s ome d ifficulties b ecause o f t he c onsiderably p oor s tate o f p reservation o f t he s anctuary. W hat c an b e s aid i s t hat t he s anctuary ( Fig. 2 0) c onsisted o f a l arge r ectangular a rea, t he s o-called " hall", m easuring f rom e ast t o w est 1 7.60m a nd f rom n orth t o s outh 1 1.60m . A s mall ( 2 b y 2 m) -

c hamber i nterpreted a s a c ella, o ccupies t he n orth-eastern c orner o f t he h all. T he h ail i s d ivided b y m eans o f a s hort ( 6m l ong) c entral w all i nto t wo p arts: t he s outhern o ne, w hich w as p robably u nroofed, a nd t he n orthern o ne, w here m ost o f t he f inds h ave b een d iscovered. T he o riginal f unction o f t his w all i s o bscure . T he m ost l ogical o ne s eems t o b e i ts i nterpretation a s a k ind o f s upport f or t he r oof b eams c overing t he n orthern p art o f t he h all. T his p ossibility, h owever, s hould b e r uled o ut i f w e f ollow J .-C . C ourtois w ho a ssumes t hat a log t he n orthern w all o f t he h all a k i n d o f a ga l l ery o r p ort ico existed. T wo s tones ( pillar b ases ? ) ‚ d iscovered a long t he e astern w all o f t he h all, j ust s outh o f t he c ella, w ould s ug st t he e xistence o f a s imilar p ortico i n t his p art o f t he s anctuary. T he m ain e ntrance i s l ocated i n t he w estern e nd o f t he s outhern s anctuary w all. T he a rea b etween t he e ntrance a nd t he S treet i s o ccupied b y a n e ntrance h ail o r a k ind o f s mall c ourtyard. A nother e ntrance i n t he m iddle o f t he w estern w all o f t he h all c onnects i t w ith t he s mall c ourtyard ( or r oom) l ying i mmediately w est o f t he S anctuary. A n o pening i n t he n orth-eastern p art o f t he h all l eads t o a nother s mall o utside r oom . F inally, n ear t he e astern e nd o f t he s outhern w all o f t he h all, t here i s a n e ntrance t o a s mall r oom w ith a w ell. A long t he w alls o f t he h all, e xcept t he e astern w all, t here r un l ow b enches. T he a bove b rief d escription o f t he a rchitectural r emains s hows h ow e xtremely i rregular t he o utline o f t he s anctuary i s; t his p erhaps r esulted f rom t he f act t hat i t w as s urrounded b y o ther s tructures. i nner s patial a rrangement a ppears t o b e r ather c omplicated a nd, w e

4 2

T he m ay

e ven s ay c haotic a nd u nclear i n m any p oints. D espite t his f act, s ome f eatures i n c ommon w ith o ther C ypriote s anctuaries a nd t emples m ay b e o bserved. F or e xample, t he l ocation o f t he c ella c an b e c ompared w ith t hat o f t he b ack c hamber i n T emple 5 a nd w ith t hat o f t he b ack r oom i n T emple 2 ( floor I V) a t K ition; t he s outhern p art o f t he h all m ay b e c onsidered a s a c ounterpart o f t he o pen t emple c ourtyards. T he b enta xis e ntrance i s a lso a c haracteristic f eature o f t he C ypriote t emple a rchitecture. H owever, t he S anctuary o f t he I ngot G od, t aken a s a w hole, r eveals l ittle a rchitectural r esemblance t o t he o ther s anctuaries a nd t emples o n C yprus. -

T he a bove " architectural" p icture c ontrasts c learly w ith t hat o bserved i n r espect t o t he f inds d iscovered w ithin t he s anctuary. A l arge a mount o f t he s kulls o f h orned a nimals a s w ell a s w all b rakcets, i ncised b ovine s capulae, a h earth, i ndicate a n i ndigenous C ypriote r eligious r adition, w hile o ther f inds m ay p oint t o t he A egean i nfluence. 7 9 n t he o ther h and, t he O riental e lements, p ostulated b y J .-C . C ourtois 7 a re, i n m y o pinion, v ery p roblematic a nd r are. T here s hould a lso b e m entioned h ere t he h ypothesis p ut f orward b y S elma M .S. A l-Radi w ho n oted a s imilarity b etween t he S anctuary o f t he I ngot G od a nd a s anctuary d iscovere9 2 i n P hiamoudhi-Melissa w hich m ay h ave b een t he L CII p rototype f or i t. U nfortunately, t he p lan o f t his s anctuary h as n ot a s y et b een p ublished. T herefore, w e c annot s ay h ow m uch t his c omparison i s j ustified. S ometimes, a s a c lose p arallel t o t he I ngot G od S anctuary a r ough c ontemporary t o i t T emple 3 0 a t T ell A bu H awam ( Palestine) i s c ited ( Fig. 3 1H). T his i s a r ectangular e nclosure, p robably u nroofed, w ith a s mall b ack c hamber i n i ts n orth-western c orner. I n m y o pinion, t his i s a v ery s uperficial s imilarity, t he m ore s o a s T emple 3 0, c ontrary t o t he I ngot G od S anctuary, i s a f ree-standing s tructure o r t emenos. M uch m ore r elevant a s a p ossible a rchitectural a nalogy m ay b e t he s o-called " Sanctuai ,çe a ux r hytons", d iscovered i n U garit a nd d ated t o t he L ate B ronze A ge " ( Fig. 3 3). A t f irst s ight i ts l ayout i s s imilar t o t hat o f t he S anctuary o f t he I ngot G od. I t i s a r ectangular h all w ith t wo s mall r ooms a ttached t o i ts e xternal n orthern a nd s outhern s ides. T he p osition o f t hese r ooms i s c omparable w ith t he s imilar r ooms o f t he s anctuary i n E nkomi. A l ateral e ntrance a nd a s mall c ourtyard e xtending b etween i t a nd a s treet t o t he n orth a lso l ink t hese t wo s anctuaries. T here a re, h owever, a lso d ifferences w hich c annot b e o verlooked. I n t he " Sanctuaire a ux r hytons" t here i s n o e vidence t hat t he m ain h all c ould h ave b een d ivided a long o ne o f i ts a xes a s w as t he c ase i n t he E nkomi s anctuary. M oreover, t he l ack o f a h earth i nside t he s anctuary i n U garit i s s ignificant a nd m ay i ndicate t hat t he a bove n oted a rchitectural p arallels a re a ccidental a nd s uperficial. T he g eneral s imilarity o f t he g round p lans o f t hese s anctuaries r esults p erhaps f rom t he f act t hat t hey w ere i ntegrated i nto t he c ity q uarters a nd s urrounded b y o ther s tructures. T o s um u p, t he S anctuary o f t he I ngot G od a s r egards i ts a rchitectural p lan i s n ot v ery c omparable t o t he o ther C ypriote

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s anctuaries a nd t he s anctuaries i n E nkomi i tself. N ear E astern p arallels a re p roblematical o nes. O f s ignificance m ay b e t he f act t hat i t i s t he m ost r ecent o f t he C ypriote s anctuaries d iscussed i n o ur w ork, a part f rom t he s o-called " Tower s anctuary" d iscussed b elow a nd w hich h ave a q uite d ifferent, s pecific c haracter. I n t his p eriod ( LCIIIB), t he i nhabitants c ould h ave p aid l ess a ttention t o t he a rchitectural f orm o f t he s anctuary t han w as p aid a t t he t ime o f t he c onstruction o f t he m onumental t emples a t K ition, P alaepaphos o r e ven i n E nkomi i tself ( Ashlar B uilding, H ouse o f t he C olumns). C onsidering a lso t he l ate d ate o f t he I ngot G od S anctuary w e s hould r ealize t hat i t h as a r ather l imited s ignificance i n d etermining t he c ultural b ackg round o f t he i mmigrants w ho h ad s ettled i n E nkomi a t t he b eginning o f t he 1 2th c entury B .C.

4 .

" Tower" s anctuary

T he l ast s anctuary o f E nkomi t o b e d i ussed h erein i s t he s oc alled " Tower", d ated t o t he L CIIIB p eriod. T his i s a r ectangular e nclosure ( c. 2 1m x 1 7m), l ocated o utside t he n orthern f ortification w all, j ust e ast o f t he c ity g ate ( Fig. 2 1). T he T ower i s a ccessible t hrough a n e ntrance s ituated i n t he e astern s ide. T he s outhern p art o f t he T ower i s p artitioned b y m eans o f a r ow o f s tones ( pillar b ases ? ) l ying o n t he e ast-west l ine. I n f ront o f t hem t here i s a r ound h earth . A ccording t o P . D ikaios, t his s tructure s erved a m ilitary f unction. T his v iew h as b een q uestioned b y H .W . C atling, w ho c onsider t hat .. . the ' tower' i s t oo l arge t o h ave b een d efensible, h ad w alls t oo n arrow t o s upport a p arapet a nd r ampart w alk, c annot h ave b een r oofed a nd w as g ratuitously l nerahle t o t he e ast i f t here r eally w as a n e ntrance o n t hat s ide." " H e a lso p ut f orward a s uggestion t hat t his s tructure .. . was, i n f act, a s acred b uilding, o f w hich t he l arger p art w as a n e nclosed c ourt o pen t o t ,e s ky, w hile t he s maller s outh p art w as a n ' adyton' o f s ome k ind.. "

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R ecently, M .F . F ortin h as c onvincingly d emonstrated t hat b o D ikaios' a nd C atling's i nterpretations o f t he T ower m ay b e c orrect. O n t he b asis o f a d etailed a rchitectural a nalysis h e c onclude t hat t his T ower c ould h ave p layed a s trictly m ilitary f unction a nd, a t t he s ame t ime, i t c ould h ave b een t he c ult p lace o f a d ivinity g uarding t he n earby c ity g ate. H e a lso r ightly e mphasizes t hat i f t he T ower w as o nly a s anctuary, i t w ould h ave b een s ituated w ithin t he c ity a nd n ot o utside i t. M . F ortin g ives s everal e xamples o f g ates w hich w ere p robably u nder d ivinite p rotection: M ycenae ( a g ate t o t he c itadel), P hylakopi o n M elos ( a s anctuary l ocalized c lose t o a g ate a nd d efensive w all); A sia M inor ( gates i n T roy V I a nd B o azkoy); C yprus ( Temples 4 a nd 5 n ear t he g ate o f K ition, a c ult h ouse n ear t he g ate a t I dalion). T o t hese e xamples s ome o thers c an b e a dded: o n C rete, t he G ate S hrine a t F ournou K orifi-Myrtos; i n A natolia, t he A cropolis G ate a t Z incirli, t he g ates a t K aratepe; i n P alestine, c ult i nstallat3Rns i n t he c ity g ates a t H azor, L achish, T ell e l-Far'ah ( N), Te l D an. " W e m ay t hen c onclude t hat g ates u nder d ivine p rotection w ere a c haracteristic f eature t hroughout t he w hole E astern M editerranean w orld. I t i s n ot s urprising c onsidering t he i mportant r ole o f g ates i n a c ity's d efensive s ystem . T he p roximity o f g ates a nd s acred a reas w as

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, a lso c onnected w ith v arious r eligious r itu 96s i ntroduction o f a g od o r g ods i nto t he c ity.

f or e xample

w ith

t he

T he " Tower" s anctuary i n E nkomi r epresents t hen a p revalent s pecific t ype o f c ult p lace. T here i s n o n eed t o l ook f or a rchitectural p arallels t o o ur T ower. I ts p lan u ndoubtedly w as d ictated f irst a nd f oremost b y i ts m ilitary f unction.

J AFFA L et u s b egin o ur s urvey o f t he A egean S ea P eoples' t emples f rom P alestine w ith t he s o-called " Lion T emple" d iscovered a t J affa, a nd d ated t o t he c lose o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C., o r t he v ery b eginning o f t he 1 2th c entury B .C . I ts e xtremely p oor s tate o f p reservation m akes a f ull r econstruction o f t he t emple p lan a nd l ayout i mpossible, t he m ore s o a s t he p lan o f t he e xcavated a rea a nd r emains h as n ot b een y et p ublished. O n t he b asis o f t he p reliminary e xcavation r eports 8 ' w e c an o nly i magine t his s tructure a s a o ne-room r ectangular b uilding, e ntered f rom t he n orthern s hort s ide a nd d ivided i nto t wo s ymmetrical p arts b y t wo p illar b ases p laced o n i ts l ong a xis. D rawing a ny c onvincing a rchitectural a nalogies b etween t he L ion T emple a nd t he o ther s acred b uildings d iscovered i n t he L evant w ith s uch m eagre e vidence w ould s eem p ractically i mpossible. N evertheless, s uch a ttempts h ave b een m ade a nd o ne s hould g ive a t l east s ome c omment o n t hem . Y . K aplan, t he e xcavator, w rites: " Northern T emple a t B eth S hean f rom t he t ime o f R amesses I II i s i dentical i n p lan w ith t he t emple a t J affa. 8 2 S ince t he t erm " identical" m eans " exactly a like", w e s hould e xpect t hat t here i s n o e ssential d ifference b etween t he p lans o f t hese t emples. S ome d oubts, h owever, a re a roused i n r espect o f t he c orrectness o f s uch a s tatement. B oth t he L ion T emple a t J affa a nd t he N orthern T emple a t B eth S hean a re v ery p oorly p reserved. T herefore, i n t he a bsence o f a p lan o f t he f ormer, w e h ave n o s ufficient e vidence t o c ompare o ne w ith a nother. C ertainly, t he N orthern T emple w as a v ery l arge ( ca. 1 2m x 2 0m) f ree-standing b uilding w ith t wo r ows o f c olumns i nside, w ith s trong w alls a nd c learly s eparated f rom n earby s tructures ( Fig. 2 6), w hereas t he L ion T emple w as a s mall, r ather f limsy s tructure ( ca. 4 .5m x 6 m). F rom t he f oregoing c omparison, v ery b rief f rom n ecessity, s ince i t w as b ased o n i ncomplete d ata, i t a ppears t hat t hese t emples c onstitute t wo q uite d ifferent a rchitectural p henomena. I t s eems t hat t he b asic d ifference b etween t hem l ies i n b oth t heir s cale a nd c haracter: w hereas t he N orthern T emple e xemplifies a " true" t emple w ith a m onumentality o f c onstruction a s t he m ain f eature, t he L ion T emple s hould b e r egarded a s a k ind o f a s mall c hapel o r s hrine. I n c onclusion, o ne m ay s ay t hat t he p lans o f t he t emples a t J affa a nd B eth S hean h ave n othing i n c ommon e xcept f or t heir r ectangularity. A nd t his i s r eally t oo s lim a b asis f or d rawing a ny c onvincing a rchitectural a nalogy... T herefore, i t s eems h azardous t o s ee a ny d irect o r e ven i ndirect r elationship b etween t he p lans a nd t he a rchitecture o f b oth b uildings i n g eneral.

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P arallels t o t he t emple a t J affa o bserved b y A . M azar i n T emple ( Fig. 2 4) a t T ell Q asile ( Palestine) o n t he o ne h and, a nd i n H ouse

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G a t A sine, t he s upposed s anctuary a t E leusis a nd t he T emple a t M ycenae ( all o f t he o n t he G reek m ainland) o n t he o th e r , seem to be m uc h m ore i nteresting ( Figs. ( F i g s .4 4-46). A ll t he l isted s tructures s how m ore o r l ess s imilar d imensions, i .e., t hey a re o f a pproximately t he s ame s cale. T hey a lso s hare t he p resence o f b ases o n w hich o riginally t here m ust h ave s tood c olumns o r p illars s upporting t he r oof. A r ow o f c olumns o r p illars i n e ach o f t hese b uildings c learly a ccentuates i ts l ong a xis. O f c ourse, b oth t he d imensions a nd t he o ccurrence o f c olumns a re t he f eatures o f s econdary i mportance, w ithout a ny d eeper c ultural m eaning. T herefore t hey c annot b e r egarded a s p roving a ny r elationship b etween t he c onfronted t emples. A dmittedly s ignificant m ay b e t he f act t hat t he s mall d imensions o f a ll t he l isted t emples d id n ot i mpose t he n ecessity o f s upporting t he r oof o n p illars. I f t hese c olumns d o a ppear ( to b e m ore p recise t he b ases f or p illars) t his s eems t o i ndicate t hat t hey w ere i ncorporated i nto t he t emple a rchitecture b ut n ot n ecessarily f or -

c onstructional r easons. P recisely w hat f actors c aused t his, h owever, i s d ifficult t o s ay. I t i s n oteworthy t hat t he a ccentuating o f a l ong a xis o f t he b uilding b y m eans o f a r ow ( in s ome c ases e ven o f t wo r ows) o f p illars i s a v ery r are o ccurrence i n t he t emples o f S yro-Palestine. W ith t he e xception o f t he m entioned t emples a t J affa a nd T ell Q asile, o ne nq uote t he F osse T emple I a t L achish a nd t he t emple a t N ahariyah o nly ( Figs. 3 1A, 3 5). O n t he c ontrary, t his f eature i s n ot u ncommon i n b oth t he A egean t emple a rchitecture a nd o n C yprus. T o c onclude, t he o nly t hing w hich c an b e s aid o n t he a bove m entioned t emples i s t hat t hey a ll r epresent t he s ame t ype o f s mall s acred s tructure. T heir c ommon f eatures, s ingled o ut a bove, n amely t heir s imilar d imensions a nd t he u se o f p illars, a re i n f act s uperf icial a nd v ery g eneral i n n ature, s o t hey n eed n ot n ecessarily r eflect a ny a rchitectural t radition t hat w as c ommon t o a ll t hose t emples. O n t he o ther h and, t he h istorical c ircumstances w hich w e h ave a ttempted t o t race i n C hapter I , d o n ot p reclude t he p ossibility t hat t he c ertain f eatures i n c ommon a pparent i n s ome t emples i n P alestine J affa a nd T ell Q asile o n t he o ne h and, a nd t hose o n t he G reek m ainland A sine, E leusis, M ycenae o n t he o ther, m ay h ave i ssued f rom t he f act t hat t he b uilders a nd o ccupants o f a ll t hese s tructures r epresented o ne a nd t he s ame s phere o f t he A egean c ulture. -

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T ELL Q ASILE O f p articular i mportance f or o ur s tudy i s t he P hilistine S anctuary a t T ell Q asile. T hree s uccessive s trata, d ated t o t he 1 2th 1 1th c entury B .C., s how i n d etail t he p rocess o f f ormation a nd s ubsequent d evelopment o f t his s anctuary. -

T he e arliest p hase o f t he s anctuary ( Stratum X II) i s r epresented b y T emple 3 19 ( Fig. 2 2). A . M azar s uggests s eeking a rchitectural p arallels f or i t i n a s mall t emple i n A r C a t H azor, t he t emple a t T imna a nd t he I sraelite s anctuary a t Ara d° '. A ll t hese s tructures h ave s imilar d imensions, t he e ntrance a t t he c entre o f t he e astern w all a nd, e xcepting t he t emple a t T imna, b enches r unning a long t he w alls. T hese f ew f eatures i n c ommon l ed M azar t o t he c onclusion t hat T emple 3 19 p robably r etained t he C anaanite t radition o f t emple a rchitecture.

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I ndeed, t he p lans o f t he l isted t emples a re v ery m uch a like. H owever, d oes t his n ecessarily m ean t hat t hey s hare a n a rchitectural t radition o f s o g s ort a nd s hould b e c lassified i nto o ne g roup a s p roposed b y M azar? T his s eems t o b e d oubtful. O ne s hould c ertainly e xclude f rom c onsideration t he s anctuary a t A rad, f or i t o riginated e ither d uring S olomon's r eign o r i n t he 9 th c entury B .C. W hile i n s earch f or t he o rigin o f T emple 3 19, i t w ould b e m ethodologically i ncorrect t o r elate i t t o a s tructure w hich c omes f rom a l ater p eriod, a nd w hich i s c onnected w ith t he s piritual c ulture o f t he I sraelites a nd n ot w ith t hat o f t he i nhabitants o f T ell Q asile, S tratum X II. T he n ext p arallel s uggested f or T emple 3 19 i s t he T emple a t T imna i n t he s outhern N egev, d ating f rom t he 1 3th c entury B .C. B ecause o f i ts g eographical s ituation c lose t o E gypt a nd o f t he E gyptian c haracter o f t he f inds, i t m ay s afely b e a ssumed t hat i t m ight h ave b een u sed b y 7 a l ocal p opulation l iving u nder t he c ultural i nfluence o f E gypt. 8 M azar i s r ight i n s tating t hat t he a rchitecture o f hh e t emple p recludes a ny a nalogies w ith t he t emple b uildings o f E gypt. I t i s e qually d ifficult t o c laim t he p resence o f a C anaanite a rchitectural t radition, f or t he t emple d oes n ot f it i nto t he g eneral s cheme r epresented b y t he m ajority o f t he t emples a nd s anctuaries i n C anaan. T he m ost r easonable s olution s eems t o b e t he c onsidering o f t he t emple a t T imna a s a n e xample o f a l ocal a rchitectural t radition. I ts f orm w as p robably d ictated b y t he t opography o f t he a rea a s w ell a s b y t he f antasy o f i ts b uilders. A s t he t hird a rchitectural p arallel t o T emple 3 19, M azar i ndicated a s mall t emple, o r r ather s hrine, a t H azor, A rea C ( Fig. 3 2). I n v iew o f h is s tatement t hat ". . . this m ple i s t he c losest p arallel t o t hat o f s tratum X II o f T ell Q asile" w e m ust p ay i t s pecial a ttention. A ccording t o M azar, b oth t emples s hare s uch f eatures a s: d imensions w hich a re s imilar, b enches a long t he w alls a nd a d irect e ntrance a t t he c entre o f t he e astern w all. T he l ast o f t he m entioned f eatures t he d irect e ntrance, h owever, n eeds s ome s upplementary r emarks. W e m ust e mphasize t hat t he p lan o f t he t emple a t H azor r eproduced b y M azar a s a n a nalogy, i n f act r efers t o t he r emains o f a n o lder, L er t emple "

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o nly ( Level I B) ( Fig. 3 2A), d ated t o t he 1 4th c entury B .C . O n t he o ther h and, a c loser e xamination o f t he p lan o f t he U pper t emple ( Level I A , 1 3th c entury B .C.) ( Fig. 3 2B) w hich i s c hronologically c loser t o T emple 3 19 s hows t hat t here h ad b een a n i mportant c hange i n i ts g eneral l ayout a nd p lan i n c omparison w ith t hat o f t he L ower t emple. A n a dditional t emple a rea i s c reated, j ust o utside t he f ormer e ntrance, f orming a s ort o f t emple c ourtyard o r v estibule. T hereby, t he a ctual e ntran 't o t he s acred a rea o f t he U pper t emple w as s ituated on t he s outh » If t his i nterpretation i s c orre , w e s hould r egard t he U pper t emple a s h aving a n i ndirect e ntrance. A t t his p oint w e s ee a n e ssential d ifference b etween T emple 3 19 a t T ell Q asile a nd t he t emple a t H azor. T he r emaining f eatures c ommon t o t hese t wo t emples a re t oo g eneral: t he b enches a long t he w alls w ere v ery p revalent f urnishings i n m ost e mples i n t he a ncient N ear E ast f rom t he C halcolithic p eri o d o nwards, 9 w hereas s imilar d imensions c annot b e u sed a s a r eliable b asis i n l ooking f or a ny r elevant a nalogies b etween t he t emples.

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T here i s, m oreover, a n e ven m ore i mportant r eason w hich m akes t he s earch f or m eaningful r elations b etween T emple 3 19 a nd t he t emple o f H azor i mpossible. T he m ost c haracteristic f eature o f t he l a er i s t he l arge n umber o f s telae d iscovered w ithin t he t emple a rea. V4 I t i s e vident t hat t he n umerous r eliefs c overing t he s telae b ear S yro-Hittite r eligious s ymbols, p ossibly e ven i mages o f t he d eities w orshipped i n t his t emple. S ome o f t he s telae h ave b een f ound i n s itu i n a s emic ircular n iche s ituated a t t he c entre o f t he r ear w all. I t i s o bvious t hat t he n iche w as t he f ocal p oint o f t he c ult p racticed t here. O n t he c ontrary, i n T emple 3 19 t he s ame p art w as p layed n ot b y a n iche, b ut b y a r aised s tepped p latform l ocated i n t he m iddle o f t he c elia. T hus t he p resence o f t he s telae ( not o ne h as b een f ound i n T emple 3 19) s uggests t hat t he c ult p ractised i n t he t emple a t H azor w as q uite d ifferent f rom t hat i n T emple 3 19. T his f act s eems t o m e m uch m ore i mportant t han a ny e ventual s imilarities i n t he a rchitectural p lans o f e ither t emple. A nother q uestion c oncerns t he i nterior a rrangeme o f T emple 3 19. M azar a dmits t wo p ossible w ays o f r econstructing i t. A ccording t o t he f irst o ne, t he r aised p latform w ould r each t he w estern r ear w ail o f t he t emple; i n t he s econd o ne, t here w ould b e j ust b ehind t he p latform a n a dditional s mall r oom, e ntered f rom t he s outh-western c orner o f t he c ella ( Fig. 4 9). T aking i nto a ccount t he f inal s hape o f t he s anctuary ( Temple 1 31), i t s eems t hat t he s econd i nterpretation c arries m ore w eight. I n s uch a c ase t he a rchitectural r esemblance b etween t he t emple o f T ell Q asile a nd t hat o f H azor w ould b e e ven s limmer, s ince i n t he l atter s pace.

t here c ould n ot b e a ny a dditional d ivision

o f

t he

i nner

T herefore, i t d oes n ot s eem p robable t hat t he i nhabitants o f T ell Q asile w ould m odel t heir s hrine o n a ny C anaanite t emple, l ike t hat a t H azor f or i nstance. T hus, i t i s d ifficult t o a gree w ith M azar's c onclusion t hat T emple 3 19 " of s tratum X II rgains C anaanite t raditions s uch a s t hose r eflected i n H azor, A rea C ..." T he s ame c an b e s aid a bout t he t emples f rom S trata X I a nd X a t T ell Q asile ( Figs. 2 3, 2 4). I n t he p ublication t he f ollowing p arallels a re m entioned: f or T emple 2 00 t he N orthern T emple a t B eth S han, L evel V , t he F osse T emple a t L achish I I, I II, t he t emple a t T el M evorakh; f or T emple 1 31 t he F osse T emples a t L achi , t he t emple a t T el M evorakh a nd t he t emples a t B eth S han V II, V I, V . T he f ollowing c ommon f eatures l ink t hese t emples: s imilar d imensions, a rrangement o f e ntrance, b enches a long t he w alls, p illars s upporting t he r oof, t he p resence o f r aised p latforms a nd o f a b ack c hamber. A gain, t hese p arallels a re u nconvincing, f or t hey a re b ased o n m inor c haracteristics w hich a re t oo g eneral t o b e r elevant f or s ensible a rchitectural c omparisons. T here i s, i n m y o pinion, e nough d ifference i n t he g eneral p lans a nd l ayouts t o r ender i mpossible t he g rouping o f t hese t emples t ogether o n t he b asis o f t he a bove-mentioned a rchitectural f eatures. F urthermore, e ven M azar a dmits t hat " Temple 2 00 o f S tratum X I a t T ell Q asile i s o f u nique p lan, u nparalleled i n o ther t emples i n I srael," a nd X i s a lso u nique; n o s imilar b uildings h ave b een " Temple 1 31 o f S t6 9 f ound i n I srael." ' ° -

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L et u s c onsider t he c ase o f t he s anctuary a t T ell Q asile i n a w ider h istorical c ontext a nd n ot j ust t he t ypological a nd a rchitectural a spects. A s r egards t he f ounders o f t his s anctuary a nd t he w hole

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s ettlement, w e a re i n t he h appy p osition o f b eing a ble t o i dentify t hem w ith c ertainty a s P hilistines. S trictly s peaking t he f ounders o f t he s ettlement c an b e c onsidered a s d escen nts o f t he S ea P eoples w ho h ad a rrived i n C anaan c . 5 0 y ears e arlier. ' T hese s ettlers a t T ell Q asile w ere s till a n ew e thnic e lement i n t he c ountry, t herefore t hey m ust h ave b rought w ith t hem a nd m aintained f or a c ertain p eriod a t l east, t heir o wn i ndigenous c ulture w ith t he b eliefs a nd r ituals o f t heir f athers' h omeland. T he P hilistines w ere i nvaders w hose c ultural a nd c ivilizational l evel o f d evelopment w as, i f n ot h igh 6 1 t hen c ertainly n ot l ower t han t hat o f t heir n eighbours i n C anaan. ' T here i s n o d oubt, t hat a t t he p oint i n t ime w hen t hey s ettled T ell Q asile t heir s ense o f t ies w ith t heir o wn n ative t raditions m ust h ave s till b een a t i ts s trongest, s tronger t han i t w as i n l ater p eriods. T herefore, i t i s d ifficult t o s uppose t hat u pon s ettling t hey h ad s uddenly r enounced t hese t raditions a nd h ad b uilt t heir t emple a ccording t o p atterns b asically a lien t o t hem. T his r easoning i s a ll t he m ore i mportant s ince i t c oncerns a s acred b uilding, n ot a s ecular o ne. A fter a ll, r eligion a nd t he m aterial s hape i t a ssumes a re t he m ost c onservative e lements i n t he c ulture o f e very n ation e specially w hen i n c onflict w ith t he d ifferent b eliefs o f i ts n eighbours. T his m ust h ave a lso b een t he c ase o f t he S ea P eoples w hen c onfronted w ith t he l ocal p opulation C anaanite a nd I sraelite t ribes. T he P hilistines h ad n o r eason t o a dopt t he c ultural f orms o f t he c onquered a nd d ependant p opulations. F urthermore, i t i s g enerally k nown, t hat a ll i nfluences a nd t he a dopting o f n ew t raditions n ever o ccur i mmediately; a p eriod o f m utual g radual p enetration o f t he v arious e lements o f t he c ultural t radition t akes p lace. L ogically t hinking t hen, t he i nfluence o f t he C anaanite t emple a rchitecture o n t he s anctuary a t T ell Q asile s hould o ccur n ot a t t he t ime o f i ts f ounding ( Stratum X II) b ut i n a l ater p eriod. H owever, a l ook a t t he l ater s tages o f d evelopment o f t he s anctuary a lso r eveals n o s uch p rocess t o m y w ay o f t hinking. -

A . M azar h as a lso c ompared t he t emples o f T ell Q asile w ith t he C ypriot °? nes, e specially w ith t he g roup o f t emples d iscovered a t K ition. A dopting h is o wn i nterpretation o f p lans o f T emples 2 , 4 a nd 5 a s h aving a l arge r oofed h all ( this b eing c ontradictory t o t he p reliminary o f t hat t ime i nterpretation o f t he t emples b y V . K arageorghis w ho b elieved t hat e ach o f t hem w as c omposed o f a s mall r oofed h o o f h oh es a t t he e nd o f a l arge o pen c ourtyard w ith r oofed p orticoes 2 ), h e p ointed o ut s ome f eatures l inking t hese t emples t o t he t emples o f T ell Q asile, e specially t o T emple 1 31. T hese w ere n amely t he p osition o f t he h oly o f h oh es a t t he e nd o f t he r oofed c elia, d ivision o f t he c elia b y o ne o r t wo r ows o f p illars, s torage c hamber b ehind t he c elia. T he r ecent e xtremely w elcome p ublication o f t he f inal e xcavation r eport w ith d etailed p lans o f t he s acred a rea a t K ition e nables o ne t o r e-examine t he c omparison m ade b y M azar, w ho i nevitably r elied o n p reliminary r eports a nd s chematic p lant o nly. T hus a d etailed s tudy o f t he a rchitectural r emains b y 0 . C allot 0 h as c onvincingly d emonstrated t hat b oth T emple 1 a nd T emple 2 w ere r oofed. I t i s c ertain t hat a lso t he r emaining T emples 4 a nd 5 s hould b e r econstructed i n t he s ame w ay. T hus a t t his p oint t he a fore-mentioned t entative s uggestion o f M azar g ained c onfirmation. A s f or T emple 3 19, 2 00 a nd S hrine 3 00,

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h owever, n one o f t hem r esembles, i n m y o pinion, i n p lan a nd l ayout a ny t emple o f K ition, s ince t he t emples f rom T ell Q asile h ave, e xcept f or S hrine 3 00, a n early s quare g round p lan w hereas a ll t he t emples a t K ition c ertainly r epresent L ongroom t ype b uildings. B ut i f o ne i nterprets T emples 3 19 a nd 2 00 a s t wo-room b uildings, o ne c an n ote a g eneral s imilarity b etween t heir p lans a nd t hat o f t he s anctuaries a t A yia I rini, I dalion ( LCIIIA), M yrtou-Pigadhes ( LCIIC) a nd K ition T emple 3 ( floor I V, L CIIC) ( Figs. 5 , 4 0-42). F eatures i n c ommon a re a c ourty ard s urrounded b y v arious s tructures, o ne o f w hich i s a p roper t wor oomed c ult b uilding w ith a l ateral e ntrance ( bent a xis a pproach). O nly T emple 1 31 c an b e t aken i nto a ccount a s a n a ppropriate a rchitectural p arallel t o t he t emples o f K ition, s ince i t i s a L ongr oom t ype b uilding ( Fig. 2 4). A v ery g eneral s imilarity c an i ndeed b e o bserved b etween t he p lan o f T emple 1 31 a nd t hat o f T emple 2 o f f loor I V a t K ition ( Fig. 6 ). I t m anifests i tself i n a q uasi-identical a rrangement o f t he i nner s pace c onsisting o f a v estibule, t he m ain h ail, a nd a b ack, p robably s torage c hamber. Ab ent-axis a pproach ( the e ntrance s ituated c lose t o t he v ery e nd o f a l ong s ide) a nd t he l ocalization o f a n o ffering s tructure a t t he e nd o f t he m ain h all, o n i ts l ong a xis, a re a lso f eatures w hich l ink b oth t emples o ne t o a nother. O n t he o ther h and, t he b uildings s ignificantly d iffer i n t hat t he b all o f T emple 2 i s d ivided i nto t hree a isles b y t wo r ows o f p illars w hereas T emple 1 31 h as a s ingle r ow o f p illars. T he p lan o f T emple 2d isplays, w e w ould s ay, a c ertain t endency t owards s ymmetry a nd i nner h armony, m ore p ronounced t han i n t he c ase o f T emple 1 31. O ne s hould a lso b ear i n m ind t he t ime s pan b etween t he b uilding p eriods o f e ither t emple ( about t wo c enturies). T he a fore-mentioned p arallels b etween T emple 1 31 a nd T emple 2 d isappear w hen o ne t ake i nto a ccount t he n ext b uilding p hase o f t he l atter ( floor l ilA). T he l ayout o f T emple 2 h as b een q uasi-totally c hanged. E ven i t t he g round p lan i tself w as n ot r adically a ltered ( t he i nner d ivision i nto t hree a isles d isappeared a nd a n a dditional e ntrance w as p robably a rranged i n t he n orth w all, g iving a ccess t o T emenos B ), t he g eneral a rchitectural a nd f unctional i dea c hanged. T emple 2 c eased t o b e a f ree-standing b uilding. I t b ecame a p art o f a l arger, v ery c oherent a nd f rom t he b eginning w ell-planned s acred c omplex ( Figs. 7 , 8 ). T he s tructural a nd f unctional c onnection o f T emple 2 w ith t he o ther e lements o f t his c omplex ( Temple 1 , T emenos A a nd B , m etallurgical w orkshops) i s s o m arked t hat t aking T emple 2 o ut o f i ts c ontext t o c onsider i t s eparately w ould b e a p ure m isapprehension, s imply a n a dulteration o f i ts a rchitectural f orm . N ext, c omparing T emple 1 31 a s a s ingle s tructure w ith t he w hole s acred c omplex o f K ition, d oes n ot s eem t o m ake m ore s ense s ince t his w ould m ean p aralleling t wo e ntirely d ifferent a rchitectural p henomena. T he s anctuary a t T ell Q asile m ay b e c ompared t o t he K ition s acred c omplex o nly w hen t aken a s a w hole: i n e ither c ase t here a re c ourtyards w ith a ltars, t emples a nd a ccompanying b uildings o f as ecular c haracter, b ut i n s ome w ay c onnected w ith t he c ult s ervice. T he d ifference c onsists o nly i n t he s cale a nd t he m onumentality o f t he a rchitecture o f e ach c omplex. I n t his r espect, K ition d efinitely s urpasses T ell Q asile. T here i s a nother f eature w hich l inks t he P hilistine S anctuary a t T ell Q asile a nd t he s acred a rea a t K ition. N amely, i n e ach t own t here a lways o ccurs a p air o f t emples. A p ossible e xception m ay b e T emple

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3 19 a t T ell Q asile, b ut s ince i t r epresents t he e arliest s tage o f t he s anctuary, t he u ncovered s urface o f w hich i s r elatively s mall, o ne c annot p reclude t he p ossibility t hat t his e arliest t emple a lso m ight h ave b een a ccompanied b y a nother s acred s tructure, a k ind o f s mall s hrine. I ts r emains w ould b e t he f ragments o f t wo w alls p res 6 ed w est o f T emple 3 19, e xactly w here t he l ater S hrine 3 00 w as b uilt. S uch a n a ssumption s eems t o b e q uite p lausible i n t he l ight o f t he f urther d evelopment o f t he s anctuary, f or a s s oon a s i ts n ext p hase ( Stratum X I) t here a ppears a c ouple o f b uildings: T emple 2 00 a nd S hrine 3 00, t he l atter b uilt a gainst t he w estern s ide o f t he f ormer. T his p attern w as r epeated a lso i n t he s ubsequent s tage ( Stratum X ): S hrine 3 00 r emaining u naltered, T emple 2 00 w as r eplaced b y t he c onsiderably l arger T emple 1 31. T he s ame p henomenon i s o bserved a t K ition, 105 w here a s s oon a s t he f irst b uilding p eriod, r epresented b y f loor I V, t here o ccurs a p air o f t emples: T emple 2 a nd t o t he n orth o f i t T emple 3 ( Fig. 4 ). A fter t he e nlargement o f t he s acred a rea ( floor l ilA a nd t he s ubsequent o ne) t here a re t wo p airs o f t emples. O ne o f t hem i s T emple 2 a nd T emple 1 ; t he l atter, b uilt o n t he s ite o f a n e arlier s acred g arden, h ad t aken o ver t he f unctions o f T emple 3 w hich h ad c eased t o e xist. T he o ther p air o f b uildings i s T emple 4 a nd T emple 5 ( Fig. 7 ). -

T he e xistence o f a p air o f t emples i s p ossibly t o b e r elated t o t he c ult o f a d ivine c ouple, t hat o f am ale a nd f emale d eity. T heref ore t he a foresaid f eature w hich i s c ommon t o t he s acred a rea o f K ition a nd t he P hilistine S anctuary a t T ell Q asile c ould h ave r esulted f rom a g eneral s imilarity, i f n ot i dentity, o f r eligious i deas w hich i n e ither c ase g uided t he t emple b uilders r ather t han f rom a s trictly a rchitectural p rogram . W e s hould a lso n ot f orget t hat t win t emples h ave o ccuç d n ot o nly i n C yprus b ut a lso i n A egean a nd S yroP alestine. 1'° I t i s t hen v ery l ikely t hat t win t emples w ere c haracteristic f or t he w hole E astern M editerranean. O ther s acred s tructures i n w hich M azar h as f ound s ome f eatures c o r nmov w ith t he T ell Q asile s anctuary c ome f rom t he A egean c ulture a rea .' °7 T hese a re t he f ollowing: t wo t emples o n t he c itadel o f M ycenae ( the s o-called " Temple" a nd " Room w ith t he F resco"), t he s anctuary a t P hylakopi o n M elos, H ouse G a t A sine a nd t he t emple ( ? ) a t E leusis ( Figs. 4 4-47). H aving i n m ind t he p ostulated i dentification o f t he S ea P eoples w ith t he M ycenaean/Achaean i mmigrants f rom t he G reek m ainland a nd t he A egean i slands, t he c omparisons o f t he A egean s acred a rchitecture a s e xemplified b y t he a bove m entioned s tructures w ith t he t emple a rchitecture o f T ell Q asile i s o f s pecial s ignificance a nd s hould p rove t o b e v ery i nteresting. O n t he c itadel a t M ycenae, W . T aylour d iscovered ' e w ell p reserved r emains o f a t emple, d ated t o t he 1 3th c entury B .C. ( Fig. 4 4). T he b uilding, o n a r ectangular g round p lan, i s a ligned o n t he n orth-south a xis. I t i s s ubdivided i nto t hree r ooms a long i ts s hort a xis. T he f irst r oom c onstitutes a n e ntrance r oom , o r u sing T aylour's t erminology t he v estibule. I t w as e ntered f rom t he s treet s outh o f i t t hrough a n e ntrance s ituated i n i ts s outh-western c orner. A pproximately i n t he m iddle o f t he n orthern w all o f t he v estibule t here w as a d oorway t o t he m ain r oom c alled b y t he e xcavator t he " Temple." I n t his r oom t here w ere r emains i ndicating t he p resence o f t hree -

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c olumns p laced o n t he n orth-south l ine. T he c entre o f t he T emple w as o ccupied b y a l ow p latform , r ectangular i n o utline, c overed w ith a l ayer 1 w hite c lay. T aylour s upposed t hat i t w as pr o ba b ly a h earth. A long t he w alls, n amely t he w estern a nd n orthern o nes, p latforms o f v arious h eight w ere s ituated. T he n orth-easternmost p latform , w hich w as t he h ighest o ne, a djoined a s taircase l eading a long t he e astern w all t o a s mall ( 2m x 2 m) c hamber s ituated o n a h igher l evel a nd c alled b y t he e xcavator " Room w ith t he I dols". A nother s mall c hamber, t riangular i n o utline, l ay t o t he l eft o f i t. B oth c hambers p robably s erved a s s tore-rooms .

" Room

E ast o f t his b uilding t here w as a nother o ne, w idely k nown a s t he w ith t he F resco", 8 d a lso i nterpreted a s a s truct ure des igne d

f or r eligious p urposes' ( Fig. 4 4). T his b uilding, a ligned o n t he e ast-west l ine, i s d ated t o t he 1 3th c entury B .C. I t w as a ccessible f rom t he n orth-west, t hrough a r oughly s quare a nteroom f rom w hich a nother e ntrance l ed d irectly t o t he m ain r oom. I ts c entre w as o ccupied b y a l arge o val h earth. E vidence w as a lso f ound o f t hree p osts u ndoubtedly i ndicating t he p resence o f a l ine o f c olumns a long t he l ongitudinal a xis o f t he b uilding. A longside t he n orthern w all t here w as a b ench. I n t he n orth-eastern c orner o f t he d iscussed r oom t here w as a p latform. A d oorway i n t he m iddle o f t he e astern s ide l ed t o a s mall L -shaped c hamber, t he s o-called " Shrine", w ith a l ow p latform o r d ais a t i ts s outh-western c orner. A nother c hamber, i nterpreted a s a s tore-room, i s s ituated t o t he e ast o f t he m ain r oom . B oth t he a bove d iscussed b uildings b ear a c lose r esemblance t o e ach o ther. T here i s n o n eed h ere t o p rovide d etailed j ustification o f t his s tatement. B oth t emples r epresent a t ype o f s acred a rchitecture w hich a lso e mbraces v ery w ell t he t emple a rchitecture o f T ell Q asile , a lthough t he s ite o f T ell Q asile i s r ather r emote f rom t hat o f M ycenae b oth c hronologically a nd g eographically. A lready M azar h as n amed s everal f eatures w hich t he s anctuary a t T ell Q asile ( in p arti y1ar T emple 1 31) a nd b oth o f t he t emples o f M ycenae h ave i n c ommon. A ll t hree t emples s how t he t ype o f m egaronl ike b uilding; t hey a re o f s imilar d imensions, r ather m edium o nes, a nd -

h ave b ent-axis e ntrances, b enches a nd/or p latforms, b ack c hambers, a nd p illars o r c olumns, t he e mplacement o f w hich a ccentuates t he l ong a xis o f t he b uilding. T he i nternal a rrangement i n g eneral i s t he s ame i n a ll t he t hree t emples. A s M azar h as s hown, s ome s imilarity i s t o b e n oticed b etween t he s anctuary o f S tratum X I a t T ell Q asile ( Temple 2 00 t ogether w ith S hrine 3 00) a nd a s anctuary u ncovered b y C R enfrew a t P hylakopi o n M elos, d ated t o t he 1 3th-12th c entury B .C. 1 2 ( Fig. 4 7). T he s anctuary a t P hylakopi c onsists o f t wo b uildings: t he W est a nd t he E ast S hrine, t he l atter b uilt s omewhat l ater t han t he f ormer, t hat i s a round t he m iddle o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C. B oth o f t he S hrines a re a ligned o n t he e astw est a xis. T he m ain b uilding w t he W est S hrine ( probably w ith p illars a rranged o n i ts l ong a x i 5 1 1 3 ) , w hich m easured 6 .6m b y 6 m , a nd w as e ntered t hrough a d oorway s ituated i n t he m iddle o f t he e astern w all. E xcept f or i ts s outh-eastern c orner i n a ll t he r emaining t hree c orners o f t he b uilding t here h ave b een d iscovered s tructures, a s ort o f a ltar o r p latform , u pon w hich c ult o bjects h ad o nce b een d isplayed. A t t he c entre o f a n i nner w estern w all a d oorway l ed t o t wo s mall

5 2

c hambers ( A a nd B ) i nterpreted b y R enfrew a s s torerooms. T o t he n orth-eastern c orner o f t he W est S hrine, t he E ast S hrine w as a dded, t his w as e ntered e xactly t hrough i ts s outh-western c orner. T hus t he E ast S hrine h ad a b ent-axis e ntrance, a s o pposed t o t he W est S hrine w ith i ts s traight-axis e ntrance. I n t he n orth-eastern c orner o f t he E ast S hrine, t here i s s ituated a p latform. A ccording t o M azar, t he W est S hrine r ecalls T emple 2 00 ( in s ize, o rientation a nd t he p resence o f b ack c hambers), w hile t he E ast S hrine r ecalls S hrine 3 00 ( in p lan, s ize, b ent-axis e ntrance, a nd t he f act t hat b oth h rines w ere a nnexes t o t he m ain b uilding o f t he s anctuary). " I n m y o pinion, t he s imilarity b etween T emple 1 31 a t T ell Q asile a nd t he W est S hrine c an e ven b e s tronger i f w e g ume t hat t he l atter h ad a r ow o f c olumns a rranged o n i ts l ong a xis. I n a ny c ase, t he g eneral p lan a nd l ayout o f t he T ell Q asile s anctuary a re c omparable t o t hose o f t he P hylakopi s anctuary. T wo o ther s acred b uildings t he A egean r egion, n amely H ouse G a t A sine a nd t emple ( ? ) a t E leusis' a re l ess c onvincing a s a rchitectural a nalogies ( Figs. 4 5, 4 6). T he o nly f eature w hich l inks t hese b uildings w ith t he T ell Q asile s anctuary, t o b e m ore p recise, w ith T emple 1 31, i s t he a rrangement o f c olumns o n t heir l ong a xis, a m atter t hat i s m ore f ully d iscussed i n C hapter I II ( Section: " Pillars"). O ur d iscussion o n t he P hilistine S anctuary a t T ell Q asile m ay s ummarized i n t he f ollowing p oints: 1 .

T he

s anctuary

s hould

b e

r egarded

a s

a

c ertain

b e

c oherent

a rchitectural w hole g rowing f rom t he s implest f orm ( Stratum X II) t o a m ore s ophisticated b uilding c omplex ( Stratum X ) a s a r esult o f a n i nternal a utonomus d evelopment h aving n o c onvincing a nalogies a mong o ther t emples i n S yro-Palestine. 2 .

T he h as

p robability t hat t he n ewly a rrived p opulation a t T ell a dopted t he p atterns s et b y t he C anaanite t radition o f

Q asile t emple

a rchitecture i s m inimal f rom t he h istorical p erspective. B esides, t hey w ould h ave h ad p reciously l ittle t ime t o g et t o k now a nd a dopt t hese l ocal p atterns. T emple 3 19, t he e arliest o ne, m ay h ave h ad t he c haracter o f a p rovisional b uilding c alculated f or t he i mmediate, s till m odest n ecessities o f t he s ettlers. 3 .

L ater o n, w hen t he s ettlement h ad d eveloped a nd i ts i nhabitants h ad a ssured t hemselves s ources o f i ncome f rom a griculture a nd t rade, t here h ad b egun t he e xpansion o f t he s anctuary i n w hich t he o riginal, n ative c haracteristics o f t he s acred a rchitecture c ould f ind t heir f ull e xpression.

4 .

T he p rocess o f d evelopment a s w ell a s t he f inal f orm o f t he s anctuary ( Stratum X ) m ust h ave b een s ubordinated t o t he r eligious t radition r epresented b y i ts f ounders a nd u sers a nd t o t he l ocal s ite c onditions r esulting f rom t he s tructures w hich e xisted b y t hen w ithin t he s ettlement.

5 3

5 .

I n i ts f inal f orm t he s anctuary s hows s imilarities t o t he s acred a rchitecture o f t he A egean r egion a nd, a lthough i n l esser d egree, t o t hat o f C yprus, r ather t han t o a ny C anaanite t emple t ype.

B ETH S HAN W e p ass n ow t o t he N orthern a nd S outhern T emples a t B eth S han, L ower L evel V ( Fig. 2 5). A nalysing t hem i s n ot a n e asy t ask, s ince t here i s n o p ossibility o f r econstructing i n f ull t heir g round p lans . I n t he c ase o f t he N orthern T emple, t he v ery p oor s tate o f p reservation o f i ts r emains r enders a ny a scertainment o f t he a ppearance o f i ts e astern p art i mpossible. A s t o t he S outhern T emple, i ts s outh-eastern p ortion w as c ompletely o bliterated b y l ater c onstructions ( cisterns o f t he H ellenistic a nd B yzantine p eriods). T he o nly t hing w hich c an b e s aid i s t hat b oth t he t emples c onstitute L ongroom t ype b uildings, a ligned o n t he e ast-west l ine, a nd a ccessible f rom t he w est t hrough c orner e ntrances. T he S outhern T emple a s w ell a s t he N orthern T emple w ere s ubdivided a long t heir l ong a xis b y t wo r ows o f c olumns i nto t hree a isles. I n a ttempting t he f ull r econstruction o f t he t emples, A . R owe h ad a t h is d isposal n ot e ven t he s lightest a rchaeological v estige, s o h e m ade u se o f a s upposedly p arallel t emple p lan f rom a n e arlier r iod o f B eth S han, i .e., o f t he p lan o f t h e Se t i I temp le in L evel V I'' ° ( Fig. 3 1J). A ccording t o t he r econstruction b y t he d iscoverer, b oth t he N orthern a nd t he S outhern T emples w ould h ave b een p rovided w ith a n a dditional r oom ( Upper A ltar R oom) s ituated a t t he v ery e nd o f t he b uilding o n a l evel h igher t han t hat o f t he m ain h all. A f light o f s teps, b uilt e xactly o n t he l ong a xis o f t he t emple, g ave a ccess t o t his r oom . I n f ront o f t he s teps t here w as a n Jar a nd a nother o ne w as p laced i n t he m iddle o f t he U pper A ltar R oom

( Figs.

2 6, 2 7).

T his a ttempt a t a r econstruction b y R owe h owever a rouses s ome r eservations. F irstly, b oth t he N orthern a nd S outhern t emples a re t he L ongroom t ype b uildings, w hereas t he T emple o f S eti I c learly b elongs t o t he B roadroom t ype. S econdly, t he t emples o f L evel V w ere e ntirely r oofed, a s e videnced b y t he p osition o f t he c olumn b ases. I n t he t emple o f S eti I , a s w ell a s i n t he t emple o f A menophis I II ( Level V II) ( Fig. 3 11, J ), t he r oof c overed t he c ella ( Upper A ltar R oom) a nd t he n orthern p art o f t he c ourtyard o nly. T he r emaining p art o f t he t emple w as o pen t o t he s ky. T he t emples o f L evel V f ollow a n 6 ast-west a xis w hereas t hose o f L evel V I a nd V II

-

a n orth-south o ne.' 2

G enerally s peaking, t he t emples o f S eti I a nd A menophis I II, i n r espect o f b oth 'ç hitecture a nd t he m ovable f inds, s how a s t rong E gyptian i nfluence w hile t he N orthern a nd S outhern T emples a re a lmost d evoid o f i t. T herefore, o ne m ay a sk o neself w hy j ust t hose p arts o f t he S outhern a nd N orthern T emples w hich d o n ot s urvive a t a ll, s hould b e i dentical t o t hose i n t he t emple o f S eti I , s ince t he p reserved p arts s how t he v ery c lear-cut d istinction b etween t he t emples u nder c onfrontation? T he c onfrontation o f t he w ell-readable p lan o f t he t emple o f S tratum V I a nd t he p lans, e ven i ncomplete a s t hey a re, o f t he S outhern a nd N orthern T emples s hows t wo e ntirely d ifferent a rchitectural c onceptions. T herefore, t he t aking o f t he t emple o f S eti I a s t he m odel f or r econstructing t he t emples o f L evel V s eems t o b e

5 4

v ery h azardous. I n a t ypological s ense b oth t he t emples o f L evel V m ay b e i ncluded a mong t he s o-called L ongroom T emples. S . Y eivin s uggested t hat t his t ype o f b uilding a ppeared i n I srael a s a r esult o f t he i nfluence o f t he M ycenaean t emple a rchitecture, m ore p recisely, o f t he m egaron f orm , w hose f irst e xample h e w as i nclined t o v isualise i n t he t emples o f B eth S han, L evel V .' 2 2 A t p resent, i t s eems t hat t he h ypothesis o f Y eivin i s p artially o ut-of-date, s ince i t h as b een a scertained t hat L ongroom t emples h ad a ppeared i n S yro-Palestine l ong b efore t he N orthern a nd S outhern T emples a t B eth S han w ere b uilt. T he a nalysis o f t he t erritorial-chronological d istribution o f t he L ongroom t emples s o f ar d iscovered i ndicates t hat t his t ype o f b uilding d eveloped m ost p roba i n N orth-Eastern S yria, a s e arly a s t he 3 rd m illenium B .C ., a t t hat. I t w as o nly f rom t here t hat t his t ype c ould h ave p ossibly r eached t he t erritory o f C anaan . N aturally, t here i s s till a p ossibility t hat i n t he p articular c ase o f B eth S han i t m ight h ave b een j ust t he a rchitecture f rom t he W est r ather t han t he l ocal t radition o f t he S yro-Palestinian L ongroom t emples t hat d irectly i nfluenced t he a rchitectural c onception o f t he N orthern a nd S outhern T emples. B efore w e p roceed t o a c loser e xamination o f t his p ossibility, h owever, l et u s r eflect i f t here e xists a fter a ll a c onvincing a rchitectural p arallel t o t he N orthern a nd S outhern T emples a t B eth S han, a mong t he o ther C anaanite t emples. C ertainly, o ne s hould t ake i nto c onsideration t he L ongroom t emples o nly. I b elieve t hat a p articular k ind o f L ongroom t emples, t he s oc alled m igdol-temples, s hould b e e xcluded f rom a mong p ossible p arallels s traight o ff. S uch t emples, d iscovered a t M egiddo ( Area B B), S hechem , H azor ( Area A ) a nd T ell K ittan ( Figs. 3 1E-F, 3 6, 3 8-39) a re, i n t he m ain, c haracterized b y u nusually t hick w alls a nd s ometimes a lso b y t owers f lanking a n e ntrance w hich i s s ituated i n t he m iddle o f a s hort s ide. T here i s n o n eed t o s ubstantiate t he v iew t hat n ot o ne o f t he t emples a t B eth S han, L evel V , c ould b e q ualified a s a m igdol t emple. T here a re s till o ther e xamples o f t emples o f t he L ongroom t ype i n C anaan, f or i nstance a t T ell A bu H awam ( Building 3 0, S tratum I Va), T el M evorakh, N ahariyah, T ell Q asile ( Temple 1 31), J affa ( the " Lion T emple") ( Figs. 2 4, 3 1H , P , R , 3 5). A ll t hese b uildings, h owever, l ack t he f eature w hich i s v ery c haracteristic o f t he t emples a t B eth S han: t he s ubdivision o f t he i nterior i nto t hree a isles b y t wo r ows o f c olumns, w hich i s e specially w ell m arked i n t he S outhern T emple. T aking i nto a ccount t his p articular f eature, o ne c ould p ossibly c ompare t he S outhern T emple t o t he t emple ( ? ) a t T ell e l-Far'ah ( N) ( Fig. 3 4). O n t he o ther h and, t he l atter c an h ardly b e c onsidered a s a n e xample o f a L ongroom t ype b uilding; b esides, i ts i dentity a s a t emple i s v ery d oubtful, a s h ave m entioned a bove, w hen d iscussing t he t emples o f K ition. S till a nother p oint, w hich i s, t o m y m ind, o f i mportance, s hould b e a dded h ere: t he p attern, a fter w hich R . d e V aux r econstructed t he p lan o f t he b uilding d iscovered a t T ell e l-Far'ah ( N), w as j ust t he t heoretically r econstructed p lan o f t he S outhern T emple a t B eth S han T herefore o ne m ay s ay t hat b oth t he N orthern a nd S outhern T emples a t B eth S han a re e xamples o f t he t emple a rchitecture w hich f inds n o s ignificant o r c onvincing p arallels a mong t he o ther t emples o f C anaan.

5 5

A lthough t heoretically t hey s hould b e i ncluded i n t he g roup o f C anaanite L ongroom t emples, I b elieve t hat, i n f act, w e a re c oncerned h ere m erely w ith a r elationship o f a p urely t ypological n ature, d evoid o f a ny p rofound c ultural s ignificance. T he a rchitectural p ecularity o f t he N orthern a nd S outhern T emples b ecomes t o s ome e xtent u nderstandable a nd i ndeed o bvious, i f w e t ake i nto a ccount t he s pecific h istory o f B eth S han i tself. L et u s r emember t hat d uring t he L ate B ronze A ge t his t own w as c haracterized b y t he p resence o f p articulary s trong E gyptian i nfluence m anifesting i tself b oth i n a rchitecture a nd i n o ther f inds o f m aterial c ulture. A n E gyptian g arrison w as a lso s tationed t here. 2 4 I rrespective o f t he f act w hether i t w as c omposed E gyptians e xclusively o r i ncorporated f oreign m ercenaries ( Aegeans?' ) ‚ t his g arrison w as t o e nsure t hat t he t own s howed i ts a ttachment t o t he P haraoh, a t l east i n a f ormal, s uperf icial f ashion. S o i t i s a m atter o f c ourse t hat t he a rchitecture o f t emples d ating f rom t his p eriod o f B eth S han, h istory ( corresponding t o L evels V IT-VI) r eveals E gyptian f eatures. T he s ituation c hanged i n t he 1 1th c entury B .C., L ower L evel V , w hen t he f oreign m ercenaries, w ho m ight b e i dentified a s t he 1th c entury d escendants o f t he A egean S ea P eoples, t ook o ver e ither p eacefully o r b y f orce f ull c ontrol o f t he t own f rom t he E gyptians. N o w onder t hen t hat t hese e vents r esulted i n t he b uilding o f n ew t emples. U nrestricted a ny m ore b y t he p olitical a uthority o f E gypt t he n ew m asters o f B eth S han w ere f ree t o c onform t o t he i ndividual n eeds o f t heir i ndigenous r eligious c ult. I n t hese n ewly-built t emples t he E gyptian t raits t hen c eased t o p redominate. -

-

T he v ery s ame h istorico-cultural c ircumstances a re t he e xplanation o f t he f act t hat t he N orthern a nd S outhern T emples a lso d iffered f rom t he t raditional t emple a rchitecture o f C anaan . T he f eeling o f c ultural a nd r eligious s eparateness s till s trong a mong t he P hilistines i n a s l ate a s t he 1 1th c entury B .C., a s s ufficiently e videnced b y a rchaeol ogical a nd w ritten s ources, p revented t hem f rom a dopting t he C anaanite m odel o f a t emple. T herefore, i t i s t he t ime t o t urn o ur r esearch i nto p ossible a rchitectural p arallels t owards t he W est, i n a ccordance w ith t he i dentification a ccepted b y u s o f t he P hilistines a s i mmigrants f rom t he A egean w orld. T he p lan o f t he S outhern T emple, w ith t he c haracteristic s ubd ivision o f t he i nterior i nto t hree a isles, i mmediately b rings t o o ne's m ind t he p lans o f T emple 2 ( floor I V), 1 a nd 5 ( floor l IlA) a t K ition, a nd p erhaps t he S anctuary I a t P alaepaphos ( Figs. 6 , 7 , 1 0, 1 1). A part f rom t his f eature, w hich i s c ommon t o a ll t he m entioned t emples, a nd g ives t hem t he a ppearance o f " basilical" b uildings, t hey h ave a lso s imilar d imensions ( all o f t hem b eing m onumental s tructures) a nd e ntrances s ituated i n t he c orners, t hat i s, f orming a n i ndirect e ntrance. T here i s a lso a nother p arallel w hich m ay b e o f s ome s ignificance. T he i nter-columniations o f t he S outhern T emple w ere p robably b uilt u p b y l ow b rick w alls. T he s ame f eature c an h e o bserved i n T emple 5 . Kition i n t he p eriod r epresented b y f loor I T ( 1125/11001 050 B .C .), t hat i s a lmost c ontemporaneously T emple ( the s econd h alf o f t he 1th c entury B .C.). U

w ith

t he

S outhern

T herefore, t he g round p lans a nd l ayouts o f T emples 2 , 1 , 5 a t K ition a nd o f t he S anctuary I a t P alaepaphos r emaining f or t he p resent t he o nly a nd c losest p arallels t o t he S outhern T emple a s w ell a s t he

5 6

N orthern T emple. A gainst a b ackground o f b oth c ontemporaneous a nd e arlier t emples f rom C yprus a nd P alestine, a ll t he a bove m entioned t emples f rom K ition, P alaepaphos a nd B eth S han r epresent t he s ame, v ery d istinctive " basilical"-like p lan. I t i s a lso w orthy w ere t win t emples: i n t here w ere e ven t wo T emples 4 a nd 5 o n t he

o f n ote t hat i n b oth K ition a nd B eth S han t here t he l atter c ase a p air o f t emples, i n t he f ormer p airs: T emples 1 a nd 2 o n t he o ne h and, a nd o ther.

T o c onclude, i t s eems o bvious t hat t he S outhern a s w ell a s t he N orthern T emple a t B eth S han b elong f rom t he a rchitectural p oint o f v iew t o t he s ame a rchitectural t radition r epresented a lso b y t he a bove m entioned C ypriote t emples. O ne m ay g o e ven f urther a nd s tate t hat t he t emple p recinct a t K ition c ould h ave s erved a s a d irect m odel f or t he b uilders o f t he B eth S han t emples, L evel V . T he S outhern a nd N orthern T emples w ould h ave c onstituted a n a ttempt a t r eproducing t he s ame a rchitectural a nd r eligious i dea o f a t emple p recinct l ike t hat a t K ition, w ith t he o nly d istinction t hat t he t emple p recinct a t B eth S han w as s impler a nd l ess m onumental t han i ts C ypriote c ounterpart.

T EL M IQNE T el M iqne, n ow t he o bject o f a l arge-sc e xcavational p roject, h as b een i dentified w ith t he B iblical E kron.' T his w as o ne o f t he m ain s ites s ettled b y t he S ea P eoples a t t he v ery b eginning o f t he 1 2th c entury B .C., a nd w ith A shdod, A shkelon , G ath, G ezer, c omposed t he s oc alled " Philistine P entapolis". P reliminary c ommunications h ave a lready s hown t hat t he d iscoveries m ade u p t o n ow e xtend i n a n e ssential w ay o ur k nowledge c oncerning v arious a spects o f t he S ea P eoples' h istory a nd c ulture, i ncluding a lso t heir r eligion a nd c ult p laces. I t hink i t i s w orth m aking b rief m ention o n t hese d iscoveries h ere, a lthough o nly t he f inal p ublication w ill p rovide t he p ossibility o f a d etailed a nalysis o f t he c ult p laces d iscovered a t T el M iqneE kron.

1 .

S hrine ( Fig.

2 8)

T he e arliest c ult s tructure t o h ave b een d iscovered o n t he t ell, i s s ituated o n t he s o-called "Nc? heast A cropolis", n ear a f ortificat ion w all ( Field I , S tratum V ). T he s hrine i s d ated t o t he l ater p art o f t he f irst h alf o f t he 1th c en yB .C . T he r ecently p ublished i sometric p lan o f t he e xcavated a rea s hows t hat t his w as a f rees tanding s tructure , b uilt o n a n early s quare p lan, w ith o ff-centre w estern e ntrance. l t i s p robable t hat a s mall b ack c hamber o ccupied t he s outh-eastern p art o f t he s hrine. I f s uch w as t he c ase, t hen t he p lan o f t he s hrine w ould b e a lmost i dentical w ith t hat o f T emple 3 19 a s w ell a s t hat o f T emple 2 00 i n T ell Q asile S anctuary. T he s hrine i s a b uilding o f s cale c omparable t o t hese t emples. S ome o f t he c ult o bjects d iscovered i n t he s hrine h ave c lose a nalogies w ith t he o bjects f ound i n T ell Q asile S anctuary a s w ell a s i n A shdod. I n g eneral, t he c haracter o f t he f inds f rom t he s hrine s eems t o p oint t o 3 0 s trong c ultural r elationships b oth w ith t he A egean r egion a nd C yprus. L5

5 7

2 .

P ublic b uilding

( Fig.

2 9)

I n t he c entre o f t he c ity ( Field I S tratum I V) p art o f a l arge m onumental b uilding h as b een e xcavated. 1 I t i s d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 1th/early 1 0th c entury B .C. P art o f t he b uilding, i n t he p eriod r epresented b y S tratum I VC, p resumably s erved a s a c ult a rea. T his c onsists o f a t l east t wo r ooms o f s mall d imensions, a rranged o n a n orth-south l ine. B oth r ooms h ave l ateral e ntrances i n t heir w estern s ides. A t t he s outh-eastern c orner o f t he s outh r oom t here i s a m udbrick p latform ( a b amah a ccording t o T . D othan' ) ‚ w ith a l ow b ench r unning n ear i ts b ottom ( from w est a nd n orth). T he r ooms f ace a c ourty ard, i n t he c entre o f w hich a l arge r ound h earth i s s ituated. F urther e ast t here a re t wo p illar b ases a rranged o n an orth-south l ine. I t i s p robable t hat a t l east t his p art o f t he c ourtyard b elong t o t he s acred a rea a lso. H earths, a s T . D othan e mphasize, w ere c haracterist 1 33 o f t he m egaron-type b uildings o n C yprus a nd i n t he A egean r e g ion . I t c an b e a dded t hat, a t f irst s ight, t he l ayout o f t his s acred a rea s omewhat r ecalls t he s anctuary o f t he H orned G od a s w ell a s t he n earby l ocated s anctuary o f a f emale d ivinity, b oth s ituated w ithin D ikaios' A shlar B uilding i n E nkomi. I t s hould b e r ecalled t hat e ach o f t he t wo l ater s anctuaries c onsisted o f c ult r ooms ( respectively t wo r ooms a nd o ne r oom) w ith l ateral e ntrances a nd a c ourtyard o r h all ( with a h earth) r oofed a ll o ver o r i n p art. I n a ll t hree c ases, t he c ult a rea f orm p art o f a l arger b uilding c omplex,

w e

o f m onumental a nd p ublic? c haracter.

I f t he a bove c omparison w ith t he E nkomi s anctuaries i s w ould h ave t hen a t T el M iqne a c ult p lace w ith

j ustified, a l ayout

c haracteristic o f t he s acred s tructures o f E nkomi, a nd g enerally o f C yprus. I t i s t empting t hen t o m ake a p reliminary h ypothesis t hat t he c ult a rea a t T el M iqne r epresents t he C ypriote t radition o f t emple a rchitecture. T he c lose a rchitectural r elationships o f t he E kron c ult p lace w ith C yprus m ay b e f urther c onfirmed b y t he c haracter o f s ome o f t he f inds d iscovered w ithin i t ( Cypriote p ottery t ypes: h orn s haped v essç , c ylindrical b ottle, s trainer-spout j u g or P hili s t i ne " b eer j ug"1 4) •

3 .

I ndustrial b uildings I n t he s outhern f ace o f t he

g wer t ell

c omplexes h ave b een d iscovered.' q uarters o f t he 7 th c entury B .C.

( Field I II) t hree

b uildi ng

T hey a re d ated t o t he f irst t hree T he a ssociated f inds c learly s how

t hat o live o il p roduction w as u ndertaken h ere. H owever, i n a ll t he b uildings i n q uestion t here w as a lso a s mall s pace h aving a r eligious s ignificance. T he p henomenon o f a s patial p roximity b etween r eligious a nd i ndustrial a ctivities w ill h e d iscussed l ater o n ( Chapter I II).

5 8

A SHDOD T he t emple a rea o ccupies t he s outhern p art o f a l arge b uilding e xcavated pt he l ower c ity o f A shdod, p robably i n t he p otters' q uarter ( Area D ). 1° T he t emple c onsists o f a t l east t hree r ooms ( Fig. 3 0). T he m ost i mportant o ne, R oom 1 010, ( celia?) h as a n u nusual L -shaped g round p lan. I ts m aximum l ength i s 7 .40m a nd w idth 6 .50m . A s ort o f b ench w as b uilt a long t he s outhern w all o f t he t emple. I n t he s outh-western p art o f R oom 1 010, a butting t he b ench, t here i s a r ectangular p latform ( or a ltar). A n e ntrance s ituated i n t he n orth-western c orner o f R oom 1 010 l eads t o a nother R oom 1 003, r ectangular i n p lan ( 6.80m b y 3 .25m). F rom i t a n o pening i n t he s outh-western c orner l eads t o t he t hird r oom ( 1002), a lso r ectangular i n p lan ( 4.80m b y 4 .20m). -

T here a re t wo p ossibilities f or l ocalising t he m ain e ntrance t o R oom 1 010. A ccording t o t he e xcavator i t w as s ituated o ver t he b ench i n t he s outh-eastern c orner o f R oom 1 010. T his b ench, o r l ow p latform , b uilt a long t he s outhern w all o f R 9om 1 010 w ould h ave s erved a s a k ind o f " raised w alk" f or v isitors. 1 3 T he s econd p ossibility h as b een p ointed o ut b y M azar w ho i s i nclined t o c onjecture t hat t he o nly e ntrance w as f rom R oom 1 003. T he p latform, o n t he o ther h and, m ust h ave f ormed p art o f a s mall r oom i n t he b ack o f t he ° l ding, s imilar t o t he b ack c hambers i n t he t emples a t T ell 0 asi1e. I f M azar i s c orrect, a nd I t hink t hat h e i s, t hen a t l east t he m ain r oom o f t he t emple h as a n i ndirect e ntrance, a t i ts n orth-western c orner. T he m ain e ntrance t o t he t emple a rea w as t his f rom t he s treet w est o f t he t emple. S uch f eatures o f t he t emple a s t he b ench, p latform, a nte-chamber, c orner e ntrance, a nd b ack c hamber a llowed M azar t o i nclude i t i nto t he g roup o f t emples w ith " irregular p lan a nd i ndirect a ccess", b 2nging t o t he n on-Canaanea r i p opulation, a mong o thers, t he S ea P eoples. I n f act, t he o uter o utline o f t he t emple a rea i s v ery i rregular. H owever, t his t emple, d ated t o t he 8 th c entury B .C., i s t he m ost r ecent s acred b uilding w hich c an b e c onnected w ith t he P hilistine c ulture. T herefore i ts s ignificance f or b etter u nderstanding o f p ossible r elations b etween t he o riginal a rchitecture o f t he 1 2th-11th c entury S ea P eoples a nd t he l ocal ( i.e. C anaanite) t radition o f t emple b uilding i s v ery l imited. F inally, i t m ay b e n oted t hat t he b uildings r emains u ncovered i n A rea D u ndoubtedly c omposed p art o f t he c ity's p otters' q uarter. I t i s t hen v ery p robably t hat t he t emple i n q uestion, o ne o f s everal i n A shdod, w as a l ocal c ult p lace w hich s erved t ers, t he w orkshops o f w hich w ere s ituated i mmediately n orth o f i t. T he p roximity o f t he t emple t o t he c ity w all m ay b e o f s ome s ignificance a lso. I n t he E astern M editerranean a s w ell a s i n t he A egean a nd C yprus t here w ere m any t emples a nd c ult p laces l ocalized n ear f ortification w alls, f or e xample a t P hylakopi o n M elos, T iryns o n t he G reek m ainland, a t E nkomi, K ition o n C yprus, T el D an, H azor, T el M iqne i n P alestine a nd m any o thers.

5 9

C HAPTER I II:

V ARIOUS A SPECTS A ND C OMPONENTS O F T HE R ELIGIOUS A RCHITECTURE

I n t his C hapter I a ttempt t o d iscuss v arious c omponents o f t he r eligious a rchitecture, s uch a s: t he

a spects a nd a lignment o f

s acred s tructures, t heir l ocalization, p osition o f e ntrances e tc. I n a dopting s uch a n a pproach t o t he s ubject, I a m f ollowing t he l ine o f i nvestigations c haracteristic i n r ecent y ears o f s ome s cholars d ealing w ith t he r eligious a rchitecture o f t he E astern M editerranean i n t he s econd m illenium B .C . I t i s a ssumed t hat b esides t he a rchitectural g round p lan t aken a s a w hole, i ts p articular e lements m ay a lso b e c onsidered a s s ignificant f eature r eflecting v arious a rchitectural t raditions, a nd b roadly s peaking c ultural p atterns. U sing t hen t he c ult b uildings w hich o therwise c an b e g rouped t ogether o n t he b asis o f n on-architectural f eatures ( Mycenaean I TIC:lb p ottery a nd P hilistine p ottery), w e s hall a ttempt t o d etermine t he v alue o f p articular c omponents o f t he r eligious a rchitecture a s r elevant i ndicators o f a g iven b uilding a nd c ultural t radition a nd, o n t he o ther h and, t o f ind t hose c omponents w hich c an p erhaps b e c onsidered a s a ctually r eflecting t he s pecific a rchitectural t radition. -

L OCATION 1 .

T he s iting o f s acred s tructures

W ith t he e xception o f t he c ult/industry s ite a t A thienou, a ll t he t emples a nd s anctuaries o n C yprus a nd i n P alestine w hich, i n m y o pinion, w ere u sed b y t he A egean S ea P eoples, h ave c ome t o l ight w ithin l arge u rban s ettlements. T aking t he l ocation, i .e. t he s iting o f s acred s tructures i n t he s patial c ontext a s t he m ain c riterion o f c lassification, o ne c an d istinguish t wo g eneral t ypes o f t hese: 1 .

T he f irst t ype i s r epresented b y s anctuaries w hich I p ropose t o c all " house" o r " domestic" s anctuaries. T hese a re t he f ollowing: -

-

-

o f

E nkomi t he s anctuary o f t he H orned G od, f emale d ivinity; -

t he s anctuary

o f

a

T el M iqne t wo-roomed s anctuary i n a g overnor's r esidence o r p alace ( Field I V), c ult r ooms w ithin t hree i ndustrial b uildings f or o live o il p roduction ( Field I II); -

A shdod

-

T emple i n A rea D .

E ach o f t he a bove l isted s anctuaries c onstitutes a n i ntegral p art a l arger a rchitectural c omplex w hich, t aken a s a w hole, w as n ot

d evoted

p rimarily

t o

r eligious

p urposes.

6 0

T hese

s anctuaries

t hen

e xemplify a s ort o f i nternal c ult p lace p robably u sed b y n umber o f p ersons a nd/or b y s ome p articular k ind o f t hese.

2 .

a

l imited

A ll t he r emaining s anctuaries a nd t emples b elong t o t he s econd t ype; e ach o f t hem c omprises a s ingle a rchitectural u nit w ith a s eparate e ntrance. D espite t he f act t hat s ome o f t hem w ere a ttached o n o ne o r m ore o f t heir s ides t o o ther b uildings ( sometimes e ven t o a c ity w all), t hey w ere f ully i ndependent a s r egards t heir f unctionality a nd a ccessibility. V arious

b elong

t o

c ult t he

r ooms s ituated w ithin

m ost c haracteristic a nd

l arger p opular

b oth

a rchitectural snctuaries

u nits i n

t he

A egean. T here a re a g reat n umber o f t hese o n C rete. S uch s anctuaries h ave b een i dentified i n p rivate h ouses a s w ell a s i n p alaces. U sually s uch a s anctuary i s n o m ore t han a s ingle r oom o r, i n s ome c ases, a s mall u nit w hich c onsisted o f t wo o r e ven ( rarely) t hree r ooms. H ouse s anctuaries w ere a ccessible f rom t he i nside o f a b uilding, a lthough t here a re a lso e xceptions. T he o nly c onstruction t o b e f ound i nside t hese c ult r ooms i s a l ow b ench o r d ais s ituated o pposite t he w all a nd/or a long t he s ide w alls.

e ntrance

B ut r i ot o nly h ouse s anctuaries f ormed t he v ery r ich a nd v ariegated p icture

o f A egean c ult p laces a nd s tructures.

T here w as a

t ime

w hen

s cholars w ere i n a greement t hat i n t he B ronze A ge A egean n o t emples u nderstood a s s ingle a nd i ndependent a rchitectural u nits o ccurred. T his t heory w as m odified a t t he m oment o f t he d iscovering o f t he t emples a t M ycenae b y W . T aylour, t he t emple a t A yia I rini o n t he i sland o f K ea b y M .E . C askey a nd t he s anctuary a t P hylakopi o n M e o s b y C . R enfrew. A lso o n C rete, a s S . H ood h ad c learly d emonstrated, t he M inoans b uilt i n t heir t owns i ndependent a nd e ven f ree—standing p ublic s hrines. S ometimes t hese s hrines w ere b uilt a gainst t he w alls o f o ther b uildings, b ut s imultaneously t hese w ere i ndependent s tructures w ith s eparate e ntrances. I n

t he

l ight

o f t he n ow a vailable e vidence,

i t

s eems

t hat

o n

C yprus a lso, h ouse s anctuaries w ere n ot a t a ll u nknown. F or i nstance, s ome f eatures o f R oom 1 13 o f t he " Fortress" a t E nkomi ( Area I II, L evel T B) l ed P . D ikaios t o t he c onclusion t hat t his r oom s hould b e i nterpreted a s a h ouse s anctuary. T he f inds d iscovered i n R ooms 1 3 a nd 1 3A o f t he B uilding o f L evel h A w hich h ad s ucceeded t he " Fortress", m ay i ndicate a r eligious s ignificance i n t his a rea a lso.

c ould

3

T he A shlar B uilding X d iscovered a t K alavasos—Ayios—Dhimitrios h ave b een u sed f or a n a dmin strative o r r eligious p urpose.

E xcavators p refer t he f ormer f unction a lthough, I t hink, i t c annot b e e xcluded t hat t his b uilding w as u sed f or s everal f unctions s imultaneously. O ne p art o f i t c ould h ave b een u sed a s c ult a rea, a nother p art a s a n a dministrative o ne, s till a nother a s a r esidential q uarter. I n t he s ame w ay m ay b e i nterpreted t he s o—called " R sidence c l 'un c hef a ch en" a rchaeologists.

( B timent

1 8)

e xcavated

a t

E nkomi

b y

F rench

A nother, s till u npublished, h ouse s anctuary d edicated t o t he c ult o f " Dieu l unaire" l ies w ithin a n a shlar b uilding o f o fficial c haracter, w hich w as e xcavated b y C .

S chaeffer a t t he c entre o f E nkomi i n 1 058 a nd

6 1

1 959. W hen w e t urn t owards P alestine a s omewhat d ifferent p icture e merges. U ndoubtedly t he r eligious a rchitecture o f t he B ronze A ge P alestine i n t he m ain i s r epresented b y m onumental, f ree-standing b uildings c learly i solated f rom t he r emaining u rban s tructures. I n t he c ontext o f a c ity t hey c onstituted i ts c haracteristic c ore, t he m ost i mportant p oint o f t he t own a round w hich t he r emaining b uildings w ere c oncentrated. A s e xamples c an b e c ited t he t emples a t H azor ( Areas A a nd B ), t hose a t M egiddo, t he t emples a t K ittan, S hechem, a nd m any o thers. O n t he o ther h and, n o h ouse s anctuaries h ave b een d iscovered i n P alestine u p t o n ow, a nd t his m ay i ndicate t hat t hey w ere u nknown a mong t he C anaaneans. H ow f ar, h owever, t his r eflects t he t ruth o f t he c ase, a nd h ow m uch t his r esults f rom t he l imited p ossibilities o f r ecognizing t his k ind o f c ult a reas i n t he d iscovered b uildings, i s q uite a nother q uestion. T hus t he a ssumption a bout t he l ack o f h ouse s anctuaries i n P alestine m ust r emain a t entative o ne. I n a ny c ase, i t a ppears t hen t hat t here w ere c ertain d ifferences b etween t he s acred s tructures o f t he A egean a nd C yprus, a nd t hose i n P alestine, a s r egards t heir c haracter a nd l ocation i n t he s patial c ontext. A s I h ave m entioned a bove, h ouse s anctuaries i n P alestine d id n ot o ccur c ontrary t o t he s ituation i n t he A egean a nd C yprus. T hough t here a re e ven e xamples o f f ree-standing, i ndependent s acred s tructures i n t he A egean a nd C yprus, t hese s tructures a re i nfrequent a nd, e ven m ore s ignificantly, t hey h ave n o m onumental c haracter a t a ll c ompared w ith t he C anaanite t emples. T he A egean a nd C ypriote t emples a nd s anctuaries a re a lso w ell i ntegrated i nto t he t own s urroundings, u nlike t he m ajority o f C anaanean t emples w hich a re c learly d etached f rom t he n earby s tructures. S anctuary I a t P alaepaphos a s w ell a s t he t emples a t K ition c onstitute a s pecial c ase. S ince t hese h ave a n u ndoubtedly m onumental c haracter a nd s ome o f t hem a re f ree-standing, s o o ne c ould a ssume t hat t he t emples i n q uestion r epresen a p urely L evantine ( = C anaanite) t radition o f t emple a rchitecture. H owever, i t w as e arlier a rgued i n t his w ork t hat t hese t emples i n f act r epresent t he C ypriote i ndigenious t radition a nd n o c onvincing a nd r elevant a rchitectural p arallels w ere f ound b etween t hem a nd a ny o f t he C anaanite t emples. I n c onclusion i t c an b e s aid t hat t he t emples a nd s anctuaries u sed b y t he A egean s ettlers o n C yprus a nd e specially i n P alestine, a s r egards t heir s etting i n t he s patial c ontext c orrespond m uch b etter w ith t he s acred s tructures o f t he A egean a nd C yprus t han w ith t he s acred b uildings t ypical f or t he a rea o f C anaanite c ulture i n P alestine.

2 .

T he p roximity o f t he s acred a nd i ndustrial a reas

T he s pecific a spect o f t he l ocation o f t emples a nd s anctuaries, t he e ssence o f w hich i s b est e xemplified b y t he L CIIIA t emple p recinct a t K ition, i s e xtremely i nteresting, f or t here, T emples 1 a nd 2 a re s ituated i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he w orkshops ( Fig. 7 ). O ne c omplex o f w orkshops, w here m etallurgical a ctivity w as p ractised, l ies b etween T emple 1 a nd t he n orthern c ity w all. I n t his a rea, o ne

6 2

e ntrance l ed d irectly f rom T emple 1 , t he s econd o ne d irectly f rom T emenos A . T he o ther c omplex o f w orkshops, w here v arious a ctivities w ere u ndertaken ( among o thers, a w eaving i ndustry), l ies i mmediately -

w est o f T emple 1 . W e h ave t hen, a t K ition, a n e xample o f a d irect s patial c onnection b etween t he s acred a rea a nd t he i ndustrial o ne. W e d o nt k now a s y et e xactly w hat t he n ature a nd r ange o f t his c onnection w as, b ut t wo p ossibilities c an b e t aken i nto c onsideration: v arious t hings c ould h ave b een m anufactured h ere, i ndeed s olely f or u se o f t he t emples a nd p riests, n amely, o bjects c onnected i n s ome w ith c ult a nd a ctivities s trictly r eligious, 2 ) t he p roduction o f w orkshops h ad p rimarily h ad a w ider r ange a nd a nother p urpose.

1 ) t he w ay t he ( Of

c ourse, t he l atter p ossibility d oes n ot p reclude t he f ormer). T he c onsiderably l arge a rea o ccupied b y t he w orkshops m ay b e i ndicative o f a p otentially l arge s cale o f p roductive p ossbilities. M oreover, m etallurgical p roduction b ased o n t he m ain r esource o f t he i sland, i .e., t he c opper o re, w as t he m ain s ource o f C ypriote w ealth. C opper, e ither i n t he f orm o f f inished p roducts o r i n o xhide i ngot f orms w as e xported t o t he m any r egions o f t he M editerranean w orld. S ince t he m etallurgical w orkshops w ere s ituated i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he s acred a rea, i t i s t hen a ssumed t hat p ersons h aving, a mong o thers, i f n ot e xclusively, a r eligious p ower c ontrolled a nd s timulated t he w hole a ctivity c onnected w ith b oth c opper m ining a nd t he f urther p rocessing o f t his. B y v irtue o f t heir h igh o ffice a nd f inancial r esources, t hese p ersons w ould a lso h ave h ad t he m onopoly t o o rganize a nd c onduct b oth t he l ocal a nd f ar-reaching c ommercial a ctivities, f or t hese a ctivities w ould p robably h ave b een b eyond t he c apabilities o f t he o rdinary c raftsmen. T hese p ersons, w hile t aking a dvantage o f t heir p osition i n t his w ay, w ere s upposed t o e nsure d ivine f avour a nd p rotection f or t hese c raftsmen a nd t heir p roductive a ctivities. I f t he s econd s uggestion i s t o h e a ccepted a s m ore p lausible

t han

t he f irst, t hen t he c lose p roximity o f t he w orkshops, o f w hich t he m etallurgical o nes s eem t o h ave b een t he m ost i mportant ( at l east i n t he c ase o f K ition a s w ell a s t he o ther C ypriote s ites) a nd t he t emple a rea, m ay h e i ndicative o f t he v ery s pecific n ature o f t he e conomic r elations e xisting a t K ition a t t he b eginning o f t he 1 2th c entury B .C. N amely, t his t own a s w ell a s i ts c ommunity w ould h ave t he s o-called " sacred e conomy". T he p oint w as t hat a s i t i s c ommonly a ssumed t he -

-

v aried p roduction, w hich w as o f b asic i mportance f or t he e conomy o f a g iven t erritory a nd i ts s ociety, r emained i n c lose r elationship ( also a s patial o ne) w ith t emples a nd w as s urely t o s ome e xtent d ependant o n t he r eligious i nstitutions a nd a uthorities. O r, t o u se a n e xpression p erhaps m ore a pproximate t o t he a ncients' c onceptions, t he e conomy a nd p roduction a s w ell a s t he p eople c onnected w ith i t, w ere u nder d ivine p rotection. A t P alaepaphos, a d irect a ssociation o f r eligion a nd m etallurgical a ctivity, a nd p erhaps t he w hole p roduction t here, n amely t he e xistence o f a s acred e conomy, m ay p ossibly b e i ndicated y t he d iscovery o f b ronze s lag i n t he c lose v icinity o f S anctuary I . I n t his c ontext o f o ur d iscussion i t i s w orth s tressing t he f act t hat K inyras, t he f irst H igh P r est o f A phrodite, w as b elieved t o b e t he i nventor o f c opper w orking. M oreover, v arious t ypes o f w orkshops m ust h ave e xisted a t P alaepaphos o n t he s ite c alled E vreti. T he v ery r ich f inds d iscovered i n t his a rea i ndicate t hat t here w ere a t }iers m anufacturing i vory b ronze o bjects e tc. N o d oubt t he w hole

c

a r v i

n

g

s ,

p

o t t

e r y ,

6 3

p roduction, o r i ts g reatest p art a t l east, w as i ntendent t o c ater f or t he n eeds o f t he i nnumerable p ilgrims v isiting t he n earby S anctuary. I t i s t hen p robable t hat t his k ind o f p roductive a ctivity w as c ontrolled a nd s timulated b y t he S anctuary p riests. T hese p riests, w hile e nsuring t he p rotection o f t he g oddess f or t he c raftsmen a nd t heir a ctivities, c ollected h uge p rofits d eriving f rom t hese c ommercial e nterprises. N eedless t o s ay, t rade i n P alaepaphos a f amous s anctuary s ite v isited i n g reat n umbers b y p ilgrims, n ot o nly f rom t he n earest a nd t he r emoter p arts o f t he i sland, b ut a lso f rom a broad m ust h ave p rospered e xtremely w ell. -

-

A b ronze f igure d eriving f rom o ne o f t he s anctuaries o f E nkomi i s i nterpreted a s a n i mage o f t he g od p rotecting t he c raf men a nd i n p articular t hose w orking i n t he m etallurgical w orkshops. T his g od s tands o n a m iniature m odel o f a n i ngot w hich r esembles a n o utspread o x—hide. I t i s b elieved t hat n ormal s ized i ngots w ere t he o bjects o f t he c opper t rade i n t he a rea o f t he w hole M editerranean W orld. I t i s w orth m entioning t hat i mmediately n orth o f e I ngot G od S anctuary t here w as s ituated a m etallurgical w orkshop . T his w orkshop a s w ell a s t he c haracteristic b ase o n w hich t he I ngot G od s tands, m ay c onstitute t he n ext a rgument w hich i s s trongly i n f avour o f t he t heory a ccording t o w hich i ndustrial a ctivity w as p ut u nder d ivine p rotection, i n r eality, u nder t he c ontrol o f t he r eligious i nstitutions a nd t he p ersons h aving r eligious p erogatives. T he c lose r elationship b etween t he e conomy a nd r eligion w as, a s i t s eems i n t he l ight o f t he a vailable d ata, o ne o f t he c haracteristic f eatures o f t he s ocieties o n C rete, t he G reek m ainland a nd t he A egean i slands. O n C rete, t he s acred e conomy h as b een a ttested a s e arly a s t he E arly M inoan p eriod a t F ournou K orifi, i n t he e astern p art o f t he i sland. T his i s a l arge b uilding c omplex w hich c onsisted o f s everal d ozen r ooms, c orridors a nd c ourtyards. S ome o f t hem h ad b een u sed a s l iving q uarters, w hile o thers w ere s tore—rooms, p ottery w orkshops, w eaving s heds e tc. T he s outh—eastern p art o f t he s ettlement i s c onsidered t o h ave b een a s acred a rea w ith a s hrine d evoted t o t he H ousehold G oddess. T his s anctuary s eems t o b e t he m ost i mportant p oint o f t he s it a round w hich a w hole s pecialized s ettlement w as c oncentrated. A c lose c onnect ion h ad a lso e xisted b etween t he w orkshops, s tores, a nd c ult a reas i n t he C retan p alaces a nd v illae, f or e xample a t K nossos, P haistos, M alia, Z akros. I t i s s upposed t hat a t l east s ome C retan c aves w ere n ot o nly c ult p laces b ut s imultaneously w r e t he p laces o f w ork o f s miths a s, f or e xample, t he A rkalchori c ave. O n t he G reek m ainland w e a lso h ave e xamples o f v arious w orkshops c onnected w ith a t emple. I n t he c ult c en e a t M ycenae, t he t emple e xisted a longside a t l east t hree w orkshops. T he f inds i ndicate t hat t he a rtisan's a ctivity w as c oncentrated a round t he M egaron ( Room 2 ), i n t he o pen a rea j ust n orth o f t he R oom w ith t he F resco, a nd i n t he S hrine ( Room 3 2) ( Fig. 4 3). T he l atter r oom h as b een i nterpreted b 6E . F rench a s b eing .. . more o f r eligious s tore t han a n a ctual s hrine." "

A c lose c onnection b etween m etallurgical a ctivity a nd t he t emple a rea i s r eported a lso b y M .E . C askey f or t he t emple a t A yia I3ni o n K ea, a nd b y C . . R enfrew f or t he s anctuary a t P hylakopi o n M elos.

6 4

T he h ypothesis t o t he e ffect t hat a c lose c onnection e xisted b etween r eligion, t he t emple, a nd i ndustrial a ctivity h as b een c onfirmed i n t he w ritten s ources. S . B iller h as o bserved t hat t he t erm o ikos o ccurring i n t he L inear B t ablets, i mplies a d irect a ssociation b etween t he w orkshops a nd t he c ult p laces. T he w ords k a-ko n a-wi-jo a re t ranslated a s " copper o f t he t emple".' T he M ycenaean g oddess, P otnia, i s a lso a ssociated w ith m etallurgy. 1 T he a vailable d ata s eems t hen t o i ndicate t hat M inoan/Mycenaean, a nd i n g eneral, t he A egean s ocieties, h ad a s acred e conomy; t he p roduction o f v arious g oods w as u ndertaken i n w orkshops w hich w ere c ontrolled b y t he r eligious i nstitutions. T hat i s w hy a c lose s patial p roximity v ery o ften e xisted b etween t he s acred a rea a nd t he w orkshops. A l arge p art o f s uch a n o rganized s ociety a ffected b y h istorical e vents w as f orced t o m igrate e astwards a t t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C . A fter s ettling o n C yprus a nd t he S yro-Palestine c oast, t hey n aturally r etained t heir s acred e conomy, a f act w ell a ttested b y t he s pectacular d iscoveries a t K ition. H owever, o n t he i sland o f C yprus, t his p henomenon w as b y n o m eans, a nything n ew o r e xtraordinary. C ypriote s ociety o f a n e arlier p eriod, i .e. b efore t he l arge-scale A egean s ettlement o n t he i sland, m ust h ave h ad a n i dentical o r a v ery s imilarly o rganized s ocio-economic s tructure. T he c ultic/industry s ite a t A thienou o riginated i n t he 1 6th c entury B .C . O n t his s ite t he c onnection b etween r eligion a nd i ndustry i s s o s trong, t hat w e a re u nable t o d isconnect w hat w as s trictly s acred o n t he o ne h and, f rom w hat w as o nly c onnected w ith t he p roduction a ctivity o n t he o ther. I t i s e xtremely l ikely, t hat s uch a d istinction d id n ot e xist i n t he a wareness o f t he p eoples w orking a nd l iving a t A thienou. T he A egean s ettlers, w hose p resence i s w ell a ttested a t A thienou b y t he M ycenaean I TIC:lb p ottery f rom t he b eginning o f t he 1 2th c entury B .C ., h ad s imply c ontinued t heir o wn t radition o f a s acred e conomy, w hich, a t t he s ame t ime, w as a lso u ndoubtedly c haracteristic f or t he i ndigenious p eople. T here a re a lso o ther e xamples i ndicating p resence o f a s acred e conomy o n C yprus i n t he p eriod a ntedating t he A egean s ettlement. A nd s o, i n L CIIC K ition, c opper w orking i s w ell a ttested i n A rea I . T here i s a lso e vidence t hat m etallurgical a nd o ther w orkshops h ad e xi ed i n A rea I I, t hat i s, i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f T emples 2 a nd 3 . T he u nusual, s o-called " Basin B uilding", d ated t o t he L CIIC p eriod w as d iscovered a t M aroni-Vournes. I t c annot b e e xcluded t hat t his b uilding w as u sed f or b oth r itual p urposes a nd i ndustrial ( metalworking?) a s w ell a s h ygenic o nes .2 1 T he f amous s anctuary a t M yrtou-Pigadhes, a t l east f rom t he p eriod o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C ., i f n ot e ven r lier, m ight h ave b een c onnected w ith m etallurgical p roduction. L et u s c onsider n ow h ow t he h itherto d iscussed m atter a ppears o n t hose P alestinian s ites w hich w ere s ettled b y t he A egean S ea P eoples. A ccording t o t he t hesis a ccepted i n t his w ork, t hat t he S ea P eoples s ettlers h ad o riginated i n t he A egean w orld, w e s hould e xpect t he s ame s ocio-economic o rganization a mong t hem a s t he o ne h ypothetically r econstructed f or t he A egean s ocieties, i .e. t he e xistence o f a s acred e conomy. A las, i n t his c ase t he m atter i s m uch l ess c lear. T here h as

6 5

n ot a s y et b een a n e xample o f a c lose s patial p roximity b etween t he i ndustrial a rea a nd a t emple o r s anctuary, w hich w ould e nable u s t o p ut f orward a h ypothesis t hat t he s acred e conomy w as a lso a c haracteristic f eature f or t he A egean S ea P eoples s ettled i n C anaan . T here a re, h owever, s ome p remisses t hat m ay i ndicate, a ccording t o o ur e xpectations, t hat s uch w as t he c ase. W e t ouch o n h ere, a t t he s ame t ime, aw ell k nown a nd f requently d iscussed q uestion r eferring t o t he i ron p roduction o f t he 1 2th c entury P hilistines. U ntil

q uite l ately,

t he v iew h as b een a ccepted,

u ncritically

i n

g eneral, t hat t he P hilistines i ntroduced i ron-working i nto C anaan, a nd t hat t hey h ad h ad f or a l ong t ime, t he s ole r ights i n t he m anufacturing o f i ron o bjects. T his v iew h as b een b ased n s ome w ell k nown b iblical p assages, e specially t hat i n 1S am . 1 3:19.2 H owever, a t p resent t his t heory i s n ot s o e vident a s i t p reviously w as. T he w ord " iron", a s T . D othan h as e mphasized, d oes n ot o ccur i n t he a bove m entioned b iblical p assages. I nstead, t he w ord u sually a nslated a s " smith", m eans i n f act " craftsman" " artisan", " maker". T hese w ords, m oreo ver, d o n ot i ndicate a c onnection w ith a ny c oncrete k ind o f m etal. T he s earches h ave a lso y ielded t he f act t hat i ron s tarted t o c ome i nto u se o n a l arge s cale n ot e arlier t han a t t he e nd o f t he 9 th c entury B .C., s imultaneously i n P alest ge a s w ell a s a long t he e ntire w i de a re a o f t he E astern M editerranean. B ut t he f act s hould a lso b e s tressed t hat o n t he s ome s ites, u ndoubtedly i n a P hilistine c ontext, t here h ave b een d iscovered t hough q gmittedly n ot n umerous, t he e arliest i ron o bjects i n S yr o _ P a les t i ne . L '

W e s hould a lso n ote t hat a m etal-working w orkshop w ith t he r emains o f a s melting f urnace ( Building Q ) h as b een d iscovered a t T ell Q asile ( Stratum X I-X), a lthough n ot i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f s anctuary, b ut i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s ite, n ear t he c ity w all. O n t he o ther h and, a n a morphic i ron l ump w as f ound i n R oom 2 21 ( Stratum X II, m id- 1 2t h c entury B .C .) s ituated j ust t o t he s outh o f t he t emple c ourtyard. T his d iscovery w ould p erhaps s uggest s ome m etallurgical a ctivity i n t he i mmediate p roximity o f t he t emple a rea, a lthough t here i s n o e vidence o f d irect c ommunication b etween R oom 2 21 a nd T emple. T he

r ecent e xcavations a t T el M iqne h ave y ielded e vidence

o f

a n

i ndustrial i nstallation ( near t he c ity's f ortifications, F ie ld I II), w hich w as p robably c onnected w ith m etallurgical a ctivity. A s a s pecial f ind f rom F ield I II i s r eported a n i vory k nife h andle w hich, a ccording t o t he e xcavators, h as p arallels f rom t he A egean a nd C yprus a s w ell a s f rom t he T ell O asile s anctuary w here a ttached t o i ts i ron b lade h as b een d iscovered. 3

s imilar h andle

s till

T he a bove d ata m ay t hen i ndicate t hat k nowledge o f m etal w orking, r egardless o f w hether i t w as i ron o r c opper, w as w ell k nown a mong t he P hilistines a nd a lso t hat i t w as o ne o f t he c haracteristic f eatures o f t heir c ulture a nd c ivilization . I t w ould b e l ogical t herefore, t o a ssume t hat s uch a n i mportant b ranch o f t heir e conomy a s m etallurgical a ctivity w as o ne w hich a lso h ad a s ignificant m ilitary m eaning a nd m ust h ave b een p ut u nder d ivine p rotection. T here a re a lso o ther i nteresting p remisses i ndicating t hat t he v arious i ndustrial a ctivities a nd n ot o nly m etallurgical o nes, n eeded d ivine p rotection. T he s o-called " open a ir h igh p lace" d iscovered a t

6 6

A shdod ( Area C , t he v ery b eginning o f t he 1 2th c entury B .C .) w as s ituated i n t he n i mediate v icinity o f t he r ooms i nterpreted a s a p ottery w orkshop. 3 ' I n r elation t o t he t emple f rom t he s ame c ity ( in A rea D ), a lready d ated f or t he I ron A ge I I p eriod, I h ave a lso p ut f orward a s uggestion t hat t his c ould h ave b een c onnected w ith t he p ottery w orkshops s ituated n earby. T o b e p recise, t his t emple m ight h ave s erved a s a l ocal c ult p lace f or t he p otters. A t T el M iqne t here h ave b een d iscovered t hree i ndustrial b uildings f or o live o il p roduction. E ach o f t hem w as c omposed o f f ive r ooms, o ne o f w hich, o n t he b asis o f t he f iq s, c an b e i nterpreted a s t he c ult a rea o f t he i ndustrial b uilding .3 T hese b uildings a re d ated, s imilarly a s t he t emple a t A shdod, f or t he I ron A ge I I p eriod. W e w ould h ave t hen i n t he c ase o f T el M iqne a nd A shdod, e vidence o f a c lose r elation b etween i ndustrial a ctivity a nd r eligion a mong t he d escendants o f t he 1 2th c entury S ea P eoples. 3 3 O f c ourse, t he d ata p resented a bove c annot s erve b y t hemselves a s p roof f or t he e xistence o f a s acred e conomy i n t he P hilistine s ociety, b ut h owever, t hey m ake s uch a h ypothesis q uite f easible. T he f inal p ublication o f t he r ecent d iscoveries a t T el M iqne w ill u ndoubtedly c ast m ore l ight o n t his m atter. L et u s n ow t ry t o c onsider t he q uestion o f a c onnection b etween r eligion a nd i ndustrial a ctivity i n r elation t o t he P hilistines' n eighbours, i .e. t he C anaanities. M . D othan r egarding t he M iddle B ronze A ge s anctuary a t N ahariya, h as m ade t he s uggestion t hat i t ". . . may h ave b een o ccupied i n p art b y t he m etal a rtisans. T he f inished p roduct , of t his i ndustry a s w ell a s s craps o f m etal w ere f ound on t he b amah." 3 ' 4 I n t he c ontext o f t he d iscussed m atter i t i s a v ery m eaningful e xample o f t he g od, K othar-Khasis, w hich i s w ell k nown t o u s f rom t he U garitic m ythology. T his w as a g od-smith a nd, t he s ame t ime, w hich s hould b e s tressed a p rotector o f c raftsmen. -

I t w ould p erhaps b e p remature t o s tate, u nivocally a nd j ust o n t he b asis o f t he s anctuary a t N ahariya a nd t he a ttributes o f K othar-Khasis, t hat t he s acred e conomy w as a c haracteristic f eature a lso o f t he C anaanite s ociety. D oubtless, b oth t he c ited e xamples s uffice t o s tate t hat a c onnection b etween t he i ndustrial a ctivity a nd r eligion m ust h ave e xisted i n C anaan. B esides, i t w ould b e s trong e nough i f s uch a c ultural p henomenon w as a lien i n S yro-Palestine. I p resume t hat a m ore g eneral h ypothesis c an b e m ade, n amely t hat i n t he w hole a rea o f t he E astern M editerranean, i .e. i n t he A egean, o n C yprus a nd i n S yroP alestine, a ny a ctivity h aving a s ubstantial m eaning i n t he e nsuring o f g ood c onditions f or t he m aterial e xistence, o f b oth i ndividual p eople a nd t heir f amilies, a nd a lso o f l arge h uman g roups ( villages, t owns, e tc.) m ust h ave b een p ut u nder t he p rotection o f a s upernatural p ower. W e d o n ot k now a s y et i f i t h ad a lways l ed t o t he d ependence o f t he e conomy o n t he r eligious i nstitutions t o s uch a d egree t hat w e w ould b e a ble t o r efer t o a t emple-based o r s acred e conomy. I n a ny c ase, i t s eems t hat i n a d efined s ituation w hen t he p utting o f p roduction a ctivity u nder d ivine p rotection h ad e merged, t hen i t w as o nly a s mall s tep i n d ependence ( in t he n ext s tage o f t he s ocial e volution) o f t he p roduction u pon t he e arthly r epresentatives o f t he g ods, n amely t he p riests a nd r eligious i nstitutions. O f c ourse, w e s hould n ot e xclude t he v arious r egional d ifferences i n t he m anner i n w hich t he c onnection b etween e conomy a nd r eligion w as a chieved. T o g rasp a nd d etermine

6 7

t hese s upposed d ivergences, i s a p roblem i n w hich t here r emains m uch t o b e d one. H owever, t his i s b eyond t he s cope o f t he m ain s ubject o f t his w ork, a nd w hat i s e ven a m ore s ignificant o bstacle, i s a lso b eyond t hat o f t he h itherto a vailable e vidence b oth t he a rchaeological a nd t he w ritten o ne.

A LIGNMENT ( ORIENTATION) I n m any w orks w hich h ave b een w ritten o n t he t emple a rchitecture o f t he a ncient M editerranean w orld, t heir a uthors i nvestigate t he q uestion o f h ow t he s acred b uildings w ere " oriented". T his r ange o f i nterest i n r esearch w ork s urely r esults f rom a n a ssumption t hat c ult n ecessities, r itual p ractices a nd g enerally s peaking r eligious b eliefs a ffected t he t emple o rientation. T herefore, o rientation m ay b e c onsidered a s o ne o f t he f eatures w hich c haracterize t he t emple a rchitecture a nd, g oing f urther, i t m ay e ven b e u sed t o d etermine t he v arious t raditions o f t emple b uilding. T hese a re v ery d ifficult a nd c ontroversial q uestions i ndeed, b oth a s r egards w hether t he t emple o rientation c an s afely b e u sed a s a c ultural d eterminant, a nd w hether t he o rientation h ad i n f act s uch s ignificance f or t he a ncients a s s ome o f t he s cholars t ry t o a ttribute i t i n m odern i nvestigations. H owever -

b efore w e a ttempt t o a nalyse t his m atter i n r elation t o d iscussed h erein, s ome b rief m ethodological r emarks s hould

-

t he t emples b e m ade.

F irst o f a ll, t he q uestion i s t he a ppropriatness o f t he t erm " orientation". T his t erm i ntroduces t o t he i nvestigations t he c ardinal p oints a nd g ive t hem a s ignificance i n t hemselves. M oreover, t he t erm " orientation" t hrough i ts e tymology i mplies a r elation w ith a d irection t owards t he e ast. A s c an b e s een b elow , t here i s n o e vidence i ndicating i n a s atisfactory m anner t hat t he c ardinal p oints i n t hems elves c ould h ave h ad a ny m eaning f or t he a ncients u sers o f t he t emples. P erhaps t hen, i n gead o f t he t erm " orientation" w e s hould u se a nother, i .e. " alignment", w hich d oes n ot t hrust s uch c onnections a s t he f ormer, s till w idely p revalent i n v arious w orks d ealing w ith t emple a rchitecture. T he s econd q uestion t o b e m entioned i s a p roper c riterion o n t he b asis o f w hich t he a lignment o f i ndividual t emples c an b e p recisely d efined. I n t he m any w orks r eferring t o t his a spect o f t emple a rchitecture t here a ppear d ifferences i n t he c hoice o f s uch c riterion; i t i s t he p osition o f t he m ain e ntrance t o a t emple, s ome o ther t ime -

t he p osition o f i ts m ost i mportant i nternal f eature, i .e. a n a ltar, t he s o-called " holy o f h oh es", o r a ny o ther t hing s ymbolizing t he p resence i n a t emple o f a s upernatural p ower o r b eing, a ll o f t hese u sually s ituated a t t he d istant e nd o f a t emple, f ar a way f rom t he e ntrance. S ometimes, t here i s a c ombination o f t hese t wo a lternatives b ut t his a pplies o nly t o t emples w ith t he m ain i nternal f eature s ituated e xactly o pposite t he e ntrance. T he e ntrance u ndoubtedly f ormed a v ery i mportant e lement o f t he t emple a rchitecture ( see t he n ext s ection o f t his C hapter). H owever, i t c an b e a ssumed t hat i t c ould h ave p layed o nly a n a ncillary r ole i n r elation t o t he p art i nside a t emple w hich w as i naccessible t o l aymen , a nd w hich c ontained t he a bove m entioned m ost i mportant i nternal f eature. T herefore, o f t he a bove l isted c riteria, I h ave d ecided t o

6 8

a ccept f or t he t ime W henever t hen I w ill f or e xample, t o t he t here w as s ituated

b eing, a s t he w orking c riterion, t he s econd o ne. b e r eferring t o t he f act t hat a t emple i s a ligned, w est, t his m eans t hat e xactly i n i ts w estern p art t he m ost i mportant t emple f eature f ocussing t he

a ttention a nd a wareness o f t he w orshippers. O f c ourse, t he v iews o n t his m atter e xpressed b y o ther s cholars, t erminology ( "orientation") u sed b y t hem i s p reserved. T he f ollowing t able d iscussed i n o ur w ork:

i llustrates t he a lignment

w hen q uoting t he o riginal

o f

A li g n ment

C yprus

P alestine

N orth 3 15 045 0

P alaepaphos: S anctuary I

J affa: L ion T emple

E ast 4 5 0135 0

K ition: T emple 4 E nkomi: H orned G od S anctuary H ouse o f t he C olumns ?

B eth S han: N orthern T emple S outhern T emple T el M iqne: C ult r ooms i n t he r esidence ( Field I V) S hrine ( Field I )

S outh 1 35 0225 0

E nkomi: T ower

W est 2 25 0315 0

K ition: T emples 1 , 2 , 5 E nkomi: F emale D ivinity S anctuary

T el Q asile: T emples 3 19, 2 00, 1 31 S hrine 3 00

A thienou

T ell M iqne:

U nclassified

t he

t emples

T otal 2

6 ( 7?)

1

3C ult r ooms i n t he i ndustrial b uildings ( Field I II) A shdod: T emple ( Area D )

6 9

8

5

F rom t his t able t he f ollowing c onclusion a ppears: i t c annot b e s tated e xplicitly t hat a mong t hese t emples o ne d efinite a lignment w as p referred. H owever, o f s ome s ignificance m ay b e t he f act t hat i n a q uantitative r espect, t he e astern a nd w estern a lignment h ave t he a dvantage o ver t he n orthern a nd s outhern o nes. L et u s n ow t ry t o a nswer t he t wo q uestions p osed a t t he b eginning o f o ur d iscussion. A s o ur s tarting p oint I p ropose t o t ake i nto a ccount t he B iblical s ources. I n t he B ook o f E zekhiel w e r ead: " And h e b rought m e i nto t he i nner c ourt o f t he h ouse o f t he L ORD; a nd b ehold, a t t he d oor o f t he t emple o f t he L ORD , b etween t he p orch a nd t he a ltar, w ere a bout t wenty-five m en, w ith t heir b acks t o t he t emple o f t he L ORD, a nd t heir f aces t oward t he e ast, w orshipping t he s un t oward t he e ast." ( Ezk 8 :16) O n t he b asis o f t he a bove p assage i t i s t empting t o c onsider t hat 1 ) t he l iturgy i n t he J erusalem T emple h ad t o s ome d egree a s olar c haracter, a nd i n t his c onnection 2 ) i t h ad b een i ntentionally c onstructed a nd a ligned s o t hat t he r ays o f t he r ising s un c ould f all t hrough t he T3 ' p le G ate i nto t he i nterior a nd p erhaps e ven i nto t he H oly o f H ol ie s. T his p assage, i n f act, i s t he o nly p remise w hich m ay p ossibly i ndicate t hat w hen b uilding a t emple, a t l east t his p articular T emple i n J erusalem , f or c ertain t heological r easons, i ts p osition i n r elation t o t he s un h ad b een t aken i nto a ccount. U nfortunately, w ith r espect t o o ther P alestinian t emples w e h ave n o l iterary s ources w hich w ould t hrow m ore l ight o n t he p resumed r easons t hat a ffected t heir a lignment. I n t his c ase w e a re d irected t o c onjectures b ased o n t he f requency o f t he a ppearance o f p articular a lignments o f t emples. I t c an a t o nce b e s tated t hat i n t he s econd m illenium B .C., i n S yroP alestine, t here w as a g reat d iversity i n t he t emple a lignments. T he e xamples o f t he s acred b uildings d iscovered s o f ar d o n ot i ndicate w hich o f t he d irections w ere p referred, a nd t his a lso i ncludes t he a lignment w hich w as l ater c haracteristic f or t he J erusalem T emple ( the H oly o f H oh es a t i ts w estern e nd, t he e ntrance f acing e ast). H owever, s ome s cholars h ave a ttempted t o a scertain t he m ain " orientations" o f t he S yro-Palestinian t emples. G .E . W right c ons idered t hat t he t emples w ere o riented s outheast-northwest. Y . Y adin o bserved t hat s ome t emples i n C anaan h ad b een o riented i n s uch a m anner t hat t heir c orners c orresponded e xactly w ith t he m ain p oints o f t he c ompass. H e a lso c onsidered t his f eature a s a n i ndication o f t he i nfluenc o f t he M esopotamian t emple a rchitecture o n t he C anaanite t emples. 8 A ccording t o A . K empinski, t he e mples i n P alestine w ere c haracterized b y t he e ast-west o rientation .3 S . Y eivin s uggested t hat i n B ronze A ge C anaan, t emples w ere, a s a r ule, o riented t o t he n orth; a t t he b eginning o f t he I ron A ge a r adical c hange i n t emple o rientation c an b e o bserved. N amely, t he o rientation o f n ewly b uilt t emples w as t o t he e ast. T his c hange w ould h ave r esulted f rom t he i nfluence o f t he A egean t emple a rchitecture. A s t he m ain a rgument i n f avour o f t his h ypothesis t he c ase o f t he t emples a t B eth S han w as u sed. I f t he t emples o f S trata V II a nd V I o f B eth S han h ad a lways h ad o ne a nd t he s ame o rientation i .e. n orth-south o ne, i n t he p eriod r eprese nted b y S tratum V ( c. 1th c entury B .C.), t he t emple o rientation w as c hanged.

7 0

N ew t emples t he S outhern a nd N orthern o nes w ere b uilt e xactly o n t he s ite o f t he p reviously e xisting t emples. I t c an t hen b e s een t hat t he l ocalization o f t emples o n t he l ong t ime-honoured s acred s pot h ad b een p reserved. H owever, t heir o rientations w ere q uite d ifferent w hen c ompared w ith t he t emples f rom t he p receding s trata. B oth t he S outhern a nd N orthern T emples w ere o riented t owards t he e ast, w ith e ntrances b uilt i n t heir w estern s ides. I n t his p articular c ase, t he S ea P eoples s ettled b y t hen i n B eth S han w ould h ave b een r esponsible f or t he i ntroduction t o t he c ity, a s w ell a s i nto C anaan, t his a s Y eivin a rgued, A egean ( Mycenaean) f eature o f s acred a rchitecture. 40 -

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R ecently A . M azar h as e xpressed h is o wn v iew o n t he q uestion o f t emple o rientation i n P alestine. A ccording t o h im, a mong t he t emples o f P alestine, i t w as 1 j e w estern o rientation, e xactly b etween 2 15 0_ 3 13 0 , t hat p revailed. W hether t his w as a n a ctual c haracteristic a lignment o f t emples, o r o nly a t endency i n a ligning t hem , o r e ven a c ase o f t he f ortuitious d iscoveries u p t o n ow o f s uch c onstructed t emples, m ust s till r emain a n o pen q uestion. L et u s s ee n ow h ow t he p roblem o f t emple a lignment p resents i tself i n r elation t o t he A egean t emple a rchitecture. F rom v an L ouven 's i nvestigations o n t his m atter ( an o rientation o f a g iven s anct ry i s d efined b y h im t hrough " both i ts p rincipal e xit a nd a xis ), i t "

a ppears t hat i n t he A egean, t he e astern o rientation p revailed. S anctuaries o riented t o t he s outh w ere s omewhat l ess p revalent. T he t hird p lace i s t aken b y t he s anctuaries o riented t o t he w est. T he g roup o f s anctuaries o riented t o t he n orth i s t he s mallest o ne. M oreover, t aking i nto c onsideration t he t erritorial a spect, t he e astern o rientation w ould h ave b een a c haracteristic f eature f or C retan s anctuaries, w hile t he s outhern o ne f or t hose f rom t he C reek m ainl and. H owever, f rom t he g raphic j uxtaposition w hich h as b een p resented b y v an L ouven t o i llustrate t his t erri rial d ependence o f o rientation u pon a c oncrete r egion o f t he A egean, i t a lso c learly a ppears, t hat t he d ifference i n n umber b etween t he e astern, s outhern a nd w estern o rientations i s m inimal. T herefore, t here i s q uite a l arge p robability t hat f uture d iscoveries w ill c hange t he a bove p roportions, a nd t he -

s outhern o r w estern o r e ven t he n orthern o rientation w ill e merge a s t he p redominate o ne. T he c onclusion b ased t han o n s uch, i n r eality, s tatistical g eneralizations a s t he a bove p resented, s hould b e t reated w ith c onsiderable c aution. M oreover, w e d o n ot k now w hat p ercentage o f a ll t he s anctuaries e ver b uilt i n a g iven p eriod a nd r egion, c onstitute t he g roup o f s anctuaries w hich h ave b een d iscovered u p t o n ow . O nly t he a bsolute q uantitative p redominance o f o ne c oncrete a lignment c an b e u sed a s a b ase t o a ssume t hat a r ule o f t emple a lignment a ctually e xisted. F or t he t ime b eing a ny o f t he a lignments h as s uch a p redominance. I n g eneral, t he i rregularity i n t emple a lignment i n t he A egean w orld a ppears t o b e e ven g reater t han i n t he c ase o f t he S yroP alestinian t emples. E ven o n t he s ame s ite t here a re c ontemporaneously b uilt t emples, s ide b y s ide, w hich a t t he s ame t ime h ave d ifferent a lignments, f or e xample a t M ycenae.

o f

O f c ourse, i t c annot b e e xcluded a p riori, t hat t he l ocalization a t emple, a nd a s a r esult o f t his i ts a lignment, s ometimes

r esulted

-

f or

s ome p articular r easons.

7 1

A . M azar,

f or

e xample,

t akes

i nto a ccount t he p ossibility t hat i n s uch a h arbour s ettlement a s T ell Q asile, t he t emple h ad b een i ntentionally o riented t owards t he s ea, a nd, p erhaps, t hat t here s w orshipped " ...a s ea d eity, c onsidered a p rotector o f s eafarers." I f s uch w as t he c ase, t hen t he t emple a lignment d epended u pon w here t he s ea w as s ituated. T he s econd p ossibility t hat M azar c onsiders i s t hat t he o rientation o f t he T ell Q asile t emple i ndicates ‚ perhaps t he d irection o f t he p lace o f t he o rigin o f t he S ea P eoples.' H owever, t his h ypothesis a s h e h as s tated h imself, i s l ess p lausible. I t c an o nly b e a dded t hat i n t his c ase t he S ea P eoples' p lace o f o rigin w ould f all m ore o r l ess i n t he r egion o f t he N ile D elta: T he a bove q uoted i nterpretations o f M azar c oncerning t he " western o rientation" o f t he t emple i n t he T ell Q asile s anctuary a re w orthy o f m ention, d espite t he f act o f h ow m uch t hey a re r eliable. B oth i nterpretations c learly s how t hat t he l ocalization a s w ell a s t he a lignment, a t l east o f t his p articular t emple d id n ot n ecessarily h ave t o d epend o n t he c ardinal p oints a t a ll. I t m ay h ave b een a s imilar c ase w ith t he o ther t emples. M eanwhile, w hile r eading t he m ajority o f w orks d ealing w ith t he p roblem o f " temple o rientation", o ne m ay a cquire t he i mpression t hat t he c ardinal p oints i n t hemselves h ad a n e ssential m eaning f or t he a ncient b uilders a nd u sers o f t emples. T he b uilding o f t emples, a nd a s t he r esult o f t his, t heir a lignment, m ay h ave d epended, f or e xample, u pon t he d irection o f t he m ain w inds p revailing i n a g iven a rea, t he n atural c onfiguration o f a t errain, a nd i n t he c ase o f t he t emples s ituated w ithin t he u rban s ettlement u pon a s treet g rid, t he b uildings e xisting b y t hen i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f a t emple e tc. A s r egards t he s anctuaries l ocalized i nside l arger a rchitectural u nits, t heir a lignments m ay h ave d epended u pon t he p lanning o f t he w hole b uilding, u pon i ts i nner c ommunication s ystem e tc. T his " contextual" a spect o f t emple a lignment h as r ecently b een e mphasized b y V . -

K arageorghis. A ccording t o h im, t he e ast-western o rientation o f t he L CIII t emples a t K ition m ay h ave b een d ictated b y b oth t he c ity w all c ourse, n ear w hich t hese t emples w ere b uilt, a nd b y a s treet r unning e ast-west, t hat i s p arallel t o t he a foresaid w all. H e h as n ot e xcluded, h owever, t he p ossibility t hat i n t he c ase o f t he L CII t emples, w hen t here w ere b y t hen n o s uch l imitations a s4 n t he n ext p eriod, t heir e ast-west a xis m ay b e o f s ome s i gn i fi cance . I t i s a lso w orth s tressing h ere t hat w hile t he m ain l ongitudinal a xis o f a ll t he t emples a t K ition, b oth t hose o f t he L CII a nd t hose o f t he L CIII p eriod, l ies i n f act o n t he e ast-west l ine, t here i s a t t he s ame t ime a d ifference w ith r espect t o t he p osition w ithin t he t emples o f t heir m ost i mportant f eatures. I n T emples 1 , 2 a nd 5 t hese f eatures o ccupied t heir w estern f urthermost e nds, i n T emple 4 i ts e astern f urthermost e nd. -

A t emple c ould h ave b een a ligned t owards a l ess o r m ore d istant s pot o r t hing h aving a s pecial i mportance a nd r eligious m eaning f or a g iven c ult. F or e xample, i t c ould h ave b een s omething l ike a s acred m ountain, a t ree, a r ock o f u nusual s hape e tc., e ach o f t hem c onsidered a s t he h ome o f a d eity, a p lace o f h is r evelation e tc. O r, i f t here a re p remises i ndicating t he c ult o f a n a stral d eity, t hen t he a lignment o f h is t emple c ould h ave d epended u pon t he p osition i n t he s ky o f a p lanet s pecific f or t he d eity.

7 2

A s f or t he t emples w ith t he m ain i nternal f eature l ocated i n t heir w estern p arts o n t he o ne h and a nd, o n t he o ther h and, w ith e ntrances f acing e ast, t his s pecific s ort o f a lignment n eed n ot n ecessarily h ave r esulted f rom a s olar c ult b ut f rom , l et u s s ay p urely a esthetic r easons. T he r ays o f t he r ising s un c reate a n e xcellent n atural l uminous s cenery f or t he r eligious c eremonies a lready p erformed f rom t he e arliest m orning h ours i n t he c ourtyard, i n f ront o f t he t emple. S imilar c onditions c ould b e a chieved w ith a s unset i n t he c ase o f t emples p recisely a ligned, o n t he c ontrary, i .e. w ith t he e ntrance f acing w est. A s ense o f b eauty a nd t he a esthetic w as s urely f amiliar t o t he a ncients a nd c ommon t o t hem i ndependent o f t he c oncrete d ifferences e xisting a t t he s ame t ime i n t he s phere o f r eligious b eliefs. T his f act c ould h ave b een e xploited w ith p remeditation b y t he p riests o f v arious c ultures a nd r egions. T he p riests r ealizing t he r ole o f s cenery d uring c ult c eremonies f or e nhancing t he r eligious s entiments o f t he w orshippers c ould h ave i ntentionally o rdered t he b uilding o f t emples w ith e ntrances f acing e xactly e ast o r w est. I n t his w ay, t he l uminous e ffects o f s unset o r s unrise c ould h ave b een e xploited t o t he f ull. -

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-

T he l ast d oubt t o b e m entioned i s t he q uestion w hether t here e ver e xisted t he p roblem o f t he a lignment o f a s acred b uilding. P erhaps t he a lignment c oncerned s omething d ifferent. T he d irection t owards w hich t he a ttention o f a p riest o r w orshippers w as i ntended t o b e d rawn d uring r eligious a ctions a nd r itual c eremonies c ould h ave b een s ignificant. I t i s e qually p lausible t o c onjecture t hat t he d irection t owards w hich w as t urned t he i mage o f a d eity p laced i nside o f a g iven t emple w as o f b asic i mportance. A n i mportant t hing i s w orth s tressing i n t his c ontext. I n t he a foresaid i nstances t he a lignment o f a t emple i tself c ould, b ut d id n ot, h ave t o c orrespond w ith a d irection r equired b y a p riest, w orshippers o r a d eity i mage. T here a re m any r easons t o b e c ounted, w hich c ould h ave p ossibly i nfluenced t he a lignment o f t emples. N evertheless, w e d o n ot k now w hich d efined r easons w ere t aken i nto a ccount b y t he a ncient a rchitects w hen b uilding a t emple. O ur b rief d iscussion o n t he p roblem o f t emple a lignment c an b e c ompleted w ith t he f ollowing s uggestion: a n e xplanation o f t he c oncrete a lignment o f a g iven t emple s hould b e s ought f irst a nd f oremost, i n a t emple's s pecific e nvironment, i n t he c ontext i n w hich i t w as s ituated a nd f unctioned, i .e. i n r elation t o t he n earby e xisting b uildings, c onfiguration o f t he t errain a nd, i f o nly p ossible, i n r elation t o t he c ult r equirements c haracteristic f or t he t emple i n q uestion. T o s eek o ne g eneral t emple a lignment w hich w ould b e c ommon f or m any v arious t emples f rom d ifferent r egions, o r e ven f rom o ne r egion, s eems t o b e v ery h azardous. I t i s e specially h azardous i f t he s earches a re t o b e d one f irst a nd f oremost w ith r espect t o t he c ardinal p oints. O n t he o ne h and, i t i s s urely a v ery c onvenient w ay t o d efine t he a lignment o f a t emple, b ut a t t he s ame t ime i t i ndicates v ery l ittle i ndeed, o r e ven n othing i n f act, a bout t he e ssential c haracteristics o f t he B ronze A ge t emple a rchitecture i n t he E astern M editerranean o r e lsewhere. T herefore, I a m v ery s ceptical r egarding t he p ossibility o f u sing t he a lignment ( orientation) o f a t emple a s r eliable i ndicator o f t he a rchitectural—religious, i n g eneral c ultural r elationships b etween t he r eligious a rchitecture o f v arious r egions a nd c ultures . -

7 3

E NTRANCE ( ACCESS T O A S ACRED A REA) N o l ess i nteresting t han t he a bove d iscussed p roblem o f t he " temple a lignment" i s t hat r eferring t o t he " temple e ntrance". F rom a f unctional p oint o f v iew , t he b asic r ole o f a n e ntrance i s t o j oin a nd, s imultaneously, t o s eparate t wo u sually d ifferent t opographical z ones. I n t he c ase o f a n e ntrance l eading t o a s acred a rea, t his c onstitutes a s pecific s pot. N amely, i t i s a k ind o f a t hreshold o ver w hich m an i s a ble t o c ross b eyond t he l ine s eparating t wo t otally d ifferent z ones: t he f ormer, o f a p urely h uman, l ay r eality, a nd t he l atter, o f r eligious a ctivity. T he e ssential f eature o f t he l atter i s t he f a t hat i t a lso c ontains t he q ualities o f t he s o -called " Other W orld", i .e. t he W orld o f t ranscendental a nd d ivine p owers, s upernatural b eings, g ods, g oddesses e tc. I t c an t hen b e s upposed t hat t he t emple e ntrance w as n ot o nly a n i ndispensable, p urely f unctional c omponent o f t he t emple a rchitecture, b ut a lso t hat i t h ad a s ymbolic s ignificance f or t he a ncient p eoples. T his m ay b e a ttested b y t he f act t hat w hile b uilding a t emple, a mong t he v arious p arts ( pillars, a ltars e tc.) u nder w hich d eposits w erg 8 p laced, t here w ere a lso in c l u de d t he e ntrances. F rom a ncient t exts i t c learly a ppears t hat t heir f unction w as t he p rotection o f a t emple's i nterior a gainst e vil p owers, d emons, t he b ad p eople, o r i n g eneral a gainst e verything t hat c ould h ave g iven o ffence t o a d eity's h onour, a nd i n c onsequence h ave a roused h is/her -

a nger. W e m ay t hen a ssume, t hat i n t he e ntrance s etting a s w ell a s i n i ts f orm t here m ay b e r eflected t o s ome e xtent t he a ncients' a ttitude t owards t hat w hich f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f a ny r eligious s ystem w as a v ery i mportant m atter, n amely, t he a ccessibility o f m an t o t hat w hich i s c onsidered a mong a g iven s ociety a s b elonging t o t he s acrum. -

-

A las, c onsidering t he p aucity a nd c haracter o f t he a rchaeological e vidence r eferring t o t he t emples e ntrances, w e h ave t o r estrict o urselves t o a n a ttempt a t a n a nalysis o f o nly t he p osition o f t he e ntrance i n r elation t o t he g round p lan o f t he t emple. T here i s a lso a l ack o f s ufficient e vidence w hich w ould m ake p ossible a n a nalysis o f t he f orm o f t he e ntrances i n t he p arts w hich w ere h igher t han t he g round l evel o f a g iven s acred b uilding. N evertheless, p erhaps e ven s uch l imited e vidence w ould s eem t o b e o f h elp c haracteristic f eatures o f t he A egean S ea a rchitecture.

t wo

i n d etermining t he P eoples' r eligious

I n a ll t he t emples i n q uestion, t he e ntrance ( sometimes t here o r e ven t hree o f t hese) i s s ituated a t t he c orner, o r n ear i t,

a re o f

t he l ong o r s hort s ide o f a t emple. I n T emple 1 31 o f t he T ell Q asile s anctuary, T emples 2 a nd 3 ( floor l ilA) a t K ition, a nd i n t he s anctuary o f t he I ngot G od a t E nkomi, w e h ave a n e xample o f w hat G .R.H . W right i n r elation t o P alestinian t emples d efined a s a " bent a xis". T his m eans t hat t he e ntrance t o a L ongroom-type t emple i s s ituated n ear o ne e nd o f t he l ong s ide, w hile " the m ain i nternal e ature i s a t t he d istant e nd a gainst t he m iddle o f t he s hort s ide. 4 "T he e ntrance a xis i n t his c ase i s s quare w ith t he m ain l ongitudinal a xis o f a t emple. L et u s b ear i n m ind t hat a ccording t o W right, t he s econd p ossible k ind o f e ntrance l eading t o t he ongroom_type t emple c ould h e t he o ne s it ua te d e xactly " in t he m iddle" 5 o f t he s hort s ide o f a t emple. A t t hat t ime w e h ave a n e xample o f a s traight ( unbroken) e ntrance a xis, w hich m eans t hat i t t emple.

p recisely c orresponds w ith t he m ain,

7 4

l ongitudinal a xis

o f

a

I n t he c ase o f a ll t he r emaining t emples, e ither t he f irst o r t he s econd t ype o f e ntrance ( respectively t he b ent-axis a nd s traight-axis), d o n ot a ppear. T hough t he e ntrances a re s ituated i n o ne o f t he s hort s ides o f t he t emples, t hey a re n ot, c ontrary t o t hat w hat o ne w ould e xpect, e xactly i n " the m iddle" o f t hem , b ut n ear t he c orners. T heref ore, t hese t emples d o n ot f all w ithin e ither t he o ne o r s econd t ype o f L ongroom t emples g rouped b y W right o n t he b asis o f t he p osition o f e ntrance a xis i n r elation t o t he m ain t emple a xis. I t c an b e a dded a lso t hat t hese t emples d o n ot f all w ithin e ither t he g roup o f t emples r epresenting t he B roadroom-t pe b uilding o r t he g roup o f t emples h aving t he c entralized s quare p lan. 1 H owever, r igidly p ersisting w ith W right's t ypology w ould h e w rong, a nd w ould n ot b e i n a greement w ith t he o riginal i ntentions w hich l ed t his s cholar t o w ork o ut t he a bove c lassification o f t he t emple e ntrances. I n m y o pinion, t he e ssence o f t he b ent-axis e ntrance l ies, i f a t a ll, i n t he f act t hat v isitors e ntering t he t emple i nterior w ere n ot i mmediately f ace t o f ace w ith t he m ost i mportant i nternal f eatures ( the a ltar, p odium w ith i mages o f d eities e tc.). I f t his r equirement w as f ulfilled, t hen i t w as o f n o s ignificance i f t he e ntrance w as s ituated i n t he s hort o r l ong t emple s ide, e xactly i n t he m iddle o r n ear t o i t. O f i mportance w ould s eem t o b e o nly t he o ptical r elation b etween v isitors a nd t he f ocal p oint o f t he t emple i nterior. I n a ccepting s uch a n i nterpretation o f t he b ent-axis e ntrance, w e h ave t o c onsistently a ccept t hat a ll t he t emples o f t he A egean S ea P eoples h ad h ad b ent-axis e ntrances. A s r egards t he C anaanite t emples o f S yro-Palestine, i t 55 a n b e s tated t hat b ent-axis e ntrances a ppear t here r elatively s eldom . T hey a re c haracteristic r ather o f t he t emples o f t he e arliest p hase o f t emple b uilding i n i s r egion, i .e. f or t he C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge p eriods .I n t he s econd m illenium B .C., t he m ost w idespread a re t emples o f t he L ongroom-type, w ith d irect a ccess, t hat i s, t heir e ntrance a xis c orresponds w ith t he m ain b uilding a xis ( the e ntrance i s e xactly i n t he m iddle o f t he s hort s ide). T he p lan o f t hese t emples i s a v ery s ymmetrical o ne. T he t emples a t M egiddo, T ell M ardikh ( Temple D ), T ell K ittan, H azor ( Area A ), F ortress T emple a t S hechem, S mit T emple a t L achish a re e xamples o f s ome t emples o f t his t ype. D irect a ccess a lso a ppears i n t he C anaanite t emples o f t he B roadroom-type, f or e xample, t he t emples o f B aal a nd D agon a t U garit, t he t emples a t A lalakh ( Levels V II a nd V I), a nd o thers. -

P alestinian t emples w ith a b ent-axis e ntrance a re e xceptional i n t he s econd m illenium . W ith t he e xclusion o f t he t emples w hich w ere p robably u sed b y t he A egean S ea P eoples, t here c an o nly b e m entioned t he L ate B ronze A ge F osse T emple a t L achish, t he t emple a t T el M evorakh, p erhaps t he s o-called " Sanctuaire a ux r hytons" r ecently d iscovered a t U garit n d, a lready d ated t o t he I ron A ge, t he C ultic B uilding a t T ell Q iri. 5 T he p roblem u nder d iscussion s eems t o b e l ess c lear i n r elation t o t he A egean s anctuaries. G enerally i t c an b e o bserved t hat i n t he B ronze A ge A egean, t he e ntrances l eading t o s acred a reas a re v ery i rregularily s ituated. T o s ome d egree t his m ay b e t he r esult o f t he f act t hat a l arge n umber o f t he A egean c ult p laces c omposed, i n f act,

7 5

o nly a p art o f a l arger a rchitectural c omplex , w hich, t aken a s aw hole, d id n ot h ave a p rimarily r eligious s ignificance, f or e xample a p alace, a v illa, a l arge p rivate h ouse e tc. T he l ocalization o f t he e ntrance t o t he s acred a rea o f a b uilding c omplex c ould h ave d epended, f irst o f a ll, u pon t he g eneral b uilding p lanning, s ystem o f i nner c ommunication e tc. O f c ourse, i t w ould b e m ethodologically w rong t o c onsider t he e ntrances t o t his t ype o f s acred a rea i n t he s ame c ategories a s w e h ave t o in r elation t o t he t emple b uildings o f S yro-Palestine. T he c haracter o f t he c ult p laces i n b oth c ases i s q uite d ifferent a nd o therwise u ncomparable. T he e xisting i ndependent c ult b uildings w hich m ay b e r elevant t o t he q uestion o f e ntrance l ocalization, c onstitute o nly a s mall g roup a mong a ll t he A egean c ult p laces d iscovered s o f ar. M ost o f t he c ult b uildings w hich w e h ave a t o ur d isposal a re p rovided w ith a n e ntrance, t he a xis o f w hich d oes n ot c orrespond w ith t he m ain b uilding a xis. E ven i f t he e ntrance i s s ituated i n t he s hort s ide, i t i s n ot e xactly i n t he m iddle o f t his b ut n ear o ne o f t he e nds. H owever, a t P hylakopi o n M elos, t he W est S hrine h as a n e ntrance i n t he m iddle o f t he e astern s ide, w hile t he n earby E ast S hrine h as a l ateral e ntrance. I n T iryns, S hrine 1 00a i s c haracterized b y a n e ntrance i n t he m iddle o f e astern w all a lthough i n t he e arlier p hases ( Shrine 10 a nd 17) m ight h ave h ad a l ateral e ntrance.

t he i t

F rom t he a bove i t f ollows t hat b oth t he b ent-axis a nd s traighta xis e ntrance a re e vident i n t he A egean c ult b uildings. A lthough I c onsider t hat t he f ormer t ype o ccurs m ore f requently, t his c annot b e t aken a s a p rinciple o f t he A egean t emple a rchitecture i n v iew o f t he s mall n umber o f t he i ndependent c ult b uildings w ith s eparate e ntrances a s w ell a s t he i llusiveness o f s uch s tatistical o bservations. I n t he c ase o f t he C ypriote t emples h e q uestion o f t he e ntrance l ocalization a ppears t o b e q uite c lear. 5 W ith n o e xception, b oth t emples o f L CII a nd L CIII p eriods h ave l ateral e ntrances, o n t he l ong o r s hort s ide. T hey a re c haracterized t hen b y t he b ent-axis e ntrances, i n a ccordance w ith t he e arlier s uggested u nderstanding o f t his t erm. S uch a r igorous c onsequence i n e ntrance l ocalization p ermits o ne t o s uspect a v ery d eeply r ooted t radition o f b ent-axis e ntrance i n t he C ypriote t emple a rchitecture. I t i s t empting t o a ssume t hat i t e ven r eached t he E arly B ronze A ge. O n t he o ther h and, t he f act t hat t he A egean i mmigrants w ho s ettled a t t he c lose o f t he L ate B ronze A ge o n C yprus d idn't b reak t his r ule i n t he L CIII t emples m ay i ndicate t hat t he b ent-axis h ad b een q uite f amiliar t o t hem a nd, m oreover, i t h ad m et t heir o wn r equirements i n r elation t o t emple b uildings a t l east i n t his c ase. A las, u p t o t he p resent o n t he i sland t here h as n ot b een d iscovered a t emple e arlier t han t he e nd o f t he M iddle C ypriote p eriod, w hich w ould a ttest o r r eject t he a bove p ut f orward s uggestion o n t he a ppearance o f t he b ent-axis e ntrance o n C yprus i n t he t hird a nd a t t he b eginning o f t he s econd m illenium B .C. H owever, i f t his s uggestion i s t o b e p rovisionally a ccepted, t hen t he b ent-axis e ntrance w ould h ave b een c haracteristic n ot o nly f or t he C anaanite t emples, b ut a lso f or t he C ypriote o nes. W hile i n S yro-Palestine, i n t he M iddle B ronze A ge, t he t emples w ith b ent-axis e ntrance b ecame l ess p opular ( perhaps u nder t he

i nfluence o f t he n orth-Syrian t emples w ith d irect e ntrances?),

7 6

o n

C yprus w e w ould h ave a w ell a ttested c ontinuation o f t his h ypothetical l ong t radition, a t l east f rom t he e nd o f t he M iddle C ypriote p eriod, t o t he e nd o f t he s econd m illenium B .C. I t w as p robably f rom C yprus, o r b y w ay o f t his f rom t he A egean ? t hat t emples w ith b ent-axis e ntrance w ere r eintroduced t o C anaan b y t he A egean s ettlers a t T ell Q asile, B eth S han, T el M iqne. -

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T o s um u p, i t c an h e s aid t hat i n r espect o f e ntrance l ocalizat ion, a ll t he t emples b uilt o r a daptated b y t he A egean s ettlers o n C yprus a nd i n C anaan, f orm a u niform g roup. A n e xception c ould b e t he s o-called H ouse w ith t he C olumns a t E nkomi, b ut t he i dentification o f t his a s a t emple i s v ery d oubtful. T he l ateral, b ent-axis e ntrance t he c haracteristic f eature o f t his g roup o f t emples, c learly d istinguish t hem f rom t he t ypical C anaanite t emples o f t he s econd m illenium B .C. o n t he o ne h and, a nd p ut t hem v ery w ell i n t he p icture o f t he t emple a rchitecture o f C yprus, a nd p erhaps o f t he A egean r egion, o n t he o ther. W e c an a lso s uppose t hat t his s pecific k ind o f e ntrance t o a t emple c ould h ave b een c onnected w ith a m ore s ecret, m ysterious k ind o f c ult, l ess a ccessible t o t he w hole c ommunity, a nd r eserved f or t he p ersons m ost w orthy o f a ccess t o t he " deity's h ome". -

T HE H OLY O F H OLIES I t i s a c ommon b elief t hat b oth t he i nterior o f a s acred b uilding a nd t he a rea o f a n o pen a ir s anctuary u sed t o b e c onsidered b y t he w orshippers a s a h oly o ne. H owever, f rom t he d escription o f t he t emple b uilt i n t he 1 0th c entury J erusalem b y P hoenician c raftsmen b y o rder o f K ing S olomon ( 1 K gs 6 :1-38 a nd 2 C hr 3 :1-17) i t f ollows t hat t he b uilding i n q uestion c onsisted o f t hree r ooms s ituated i n s ingle f ile. T he f irst r oom w as t he u lam , i .e. a n e ntrance h ail; t he n ext o ne w as t he h ekal, t he m ain r oom ( or t he c elia); a t t he r ear o f t here w as a s mall s quare r oom , t he d ebir, w hich w as s anctuary a s t he m ost h oly p lace" ( 1 K gs 6 :19).

t he t emple " the i nner

T he a bove s hows t hat w ithin t he J erusalem T emple a s eparate r oom u sed t o b e d efined a s t he m ost s acred p art o f t he b uilding, t he H oly o f H oh es. H owever, a part f rom t he e vidence f rom t he B ible a nd r eferring, t o t his s pecific t emple, w e h ave v irtually n o o ther f rom P alestine, t hat w ould t hrow s ome l ight o n t he C anaanite i mportant,

l iterary s ources a ppearance o f a

t emple, i ts l ayout, n umber o f r ooms a nd, w hich i s t he m ost t he f unction o f t he i ndividual r ooms. T herefore, w e c annot

s ettle t he q uestion o f w hether t he s pecific p art o f a t emple, l abelled t he H oly o f H oh es, w as u sed f or t he f irst t ime i n S olomon's T emple, o r i f t he a rchitectural-religious i dea u nder d iscussion w as c onsiderably o lder a nd r eached b ack t o t he C anaanite t emples o f t he B ronze A ge o r e ven e arlier. A s am atter o f f act, t he a nswer t o t his q uestion d oes n ot d irectly c oncern t he a im o f o ur s tudy. N evertheless, a ttention s hould b e p aid t o s ome g eneral a spects o f t his p roblem . M ost a rchaeologists a re i nclined o n t he n ew d iscovery o f a C anaanite t emple o f t he B ronze A ge, t o c hoose a nd i ndicate a p articular p art o f t his a s t he m ost i mportant o ne, u sually l abelling t his a s t he h oly o f h oh es. T he m atter, h owever, i s r ather c omplicated a nd d ifficult, i .e. h ow t o d etermine, w hen w e a re d ealing s olely w ith " silent" a nd i n m ost c ases m eagre a rchitectural r emains, w hich p art o f

7 7

a g iven t emple c onstituted i ts m ost s acred p art t o t he w orshippers. D ue t o t he l ack o f a dequate w ritten s ources, i ndicating a n a rea w ithin a n ewly d iscovered t emple w hich m ight h ave h ad a f unction p arallel t o t hat o f t he d ebir o f S olomon 's T emple i s m ost o ften n othing m ore t han t he s ubjective c hoice o f t he i nvestigator w ho r elies m ore o n i ntuition t han a ny s trictly d efined c riteria. O ne h as u sually t o b ase h is/her i nterpretation o f a t emple o n t he i ndirect a nd r ather d isputable d ata t hat e merge e ither f rom t he a nalysis o f a n a rchitectural l ayout, o r f rom t he o ccurrence w ithin a t emple o f f inds i nterpreted a s c ult o bjects, e .g. a nthropomorphic a nd/or z oomorphic f igurines, a niconic o bjects e tc. T he d iscovery o f o bjects o f t his k ind i n a ny p art o f a t emple i s u sually r egarded a s t he m ost i mportant, a nd f requently t he o nly c ircumstance w hatever l eading t o t he s upposition t hat w e a re a ctually d ealing w ith t he m ost s ignificant t emple p art, o r w ith i ts c lose n eighbourhood. S uch a r easoning, h owever s ound i n s ubstance, d oes n ot a ssure i nfallibility. T he p oint i s h ow t o r ecognize w ithout a s hadow o f a d oubt a mong t he o bjects d eriving f rom w ithin t he t emple, t he o nes w hich w ere o f t he g reatest i mportance t o t he w orshippers. O ne c annot e ver r ule o ut t he p ossibility t hat t he o bjects w hich h appened t o b e u ncovered w ere o f a s econdary i mportance t o t he c ult. I t i s o nly n atural t o s uppose t hat u pon t he t hreat o f d anger ( such a s a n e nemy a ttack o r a f ire), t he a ctual o bjects o f v eneration w ould h ave b een t aken a way o r a t l east s afeguarded i n s ome w ay b y s anctuary p ersonnel, i f o nly t hey h ad h ad t he t ime a nd o pportunity f or t his. B ut e ven w hen o ne d iscovers, e .g. a s tatuette w hich m ay b e r ather s afely i nterpreted a s a r epresentation o f t he d eity w orshipped i n a g iven t emple, e ven s o o ne c annot t ell f or s ure i f t he p lace w here i t w as f ound w as a lso i ts p roper p ermanent p lace. T his m ight h ave b een j ust a s w ell t he p lace w here t he d ivine i mage w as p eriodically e xposed, f or i nstance d uring s ome c ult c eremonies, a fter w hich t he s tatuette w ould b e t aken b ack t o i ts p ermanent p lace, t he l atter f unctioning r ather a s a c ult r epository t han t he a bode o f t he d ivinity. I t s hould b e e mphasized, t oo, t hat a ny s tructure o r f eature o f a t emple a rchitecture w hich l ooks u nusual t o u s, i s o ften i nterpreted a s ah oly o f h oh es. T his i s a c ase o f t he m echanical i dentifying o f s uch i nstallations a s a n a ltar, a r aised p latform , s acred t ablet, c ult b ench e tc., w ith t he t erm " holy o f h oh es" w hich t o m y m ind i s i ncorrect. T he m entioned s tructures, b oth i n f orm a nd f unction a re e ntirely i ncomparable t o t he H oly o f H oh es o f S olomon's T emple, t hat i s, t o t he d ebir. T his e xpression h as f irst o f a ll, a n a rchitectural m eaning a nd d enotes a s eparate p art o f a t emple, a r oom i n t he s trict s ense o f t he w ord. T he d ebir c an b e m ost p recisely t ranslated a s t he " inner s anctuary", s ituated a t t he r ear p art o f t he t emple. T herefore e ven t he u sing o f t he t erm " holy o f h oh es" i n a c onventional s ense, a s a t erminus t echnicus, o bviously a rouses r eservations w hen r eferring t o a nything e lse b ut a s eparate r oom o r a t l east a c learly s eparated a rea w ithin a g iven t emple, f or i nstance, a n iche i n a w all. I n o ther w ords, o ne c an a ccept t his t erm o nly w hen i t r efers t o a r oom ( or a n iche) c learly s et a part f rom t he r est o f t he t emple, e specially i f i t l ies a t t he r ear o f t he b uilding. N evertheless, a r eservation s hould b e m ade a lso a t t his p oint. A s w e s hall s oon s ee, n ot e very s eparate r oom s ituated a t t he b ack o f a t emple h as t o b e u nconsciously i nterpreted a s t he h oly o f h oh es, a lthough s uch a n i nterpretation m ay s eem s ound a nd r easonable o n a nalogy t o t he p osition o f t he d ebir w ithin t he T emple o f S olomon.

7 8

W e h ave m entioned a bove j ust a f ew o f t he q uestions w hich a rise w hen d ealing w ith t he p roblem o f t he e xistence a nd i dentification o f t he h oly o f h oh es i n t he C anaanite t emples a nterior t o t he T emple o f S olomon. T hey s how h ow c omplicated t his p roblem i s, a nd h ow i t e scapes a ll e fforts m ade a t o bjective a nalyses . T herefore, I a m o f t he o pinion t hat t he t erm " holy o f h oh es" s hould b e u sed i n r eference t o C anaanite t emples w ith g reater c aution t han i s g enerally p ractised. I t hink t hat b efore g oing o n w ith o ur d iscussion,

i t i s p roper

t o

q uote t he v iews o f t wo s cholars o n t he s ubject u nder c onsideration. A . M azar, w hen a nalyzing m ain f eatures o f t he P hilistine s anctuary a t T ell Q asile, m entions t he t wo b asic t ypes o f h oly o f h oh es i n t he N ear E astern t emples. O ne o f t hem i s t he " raised p latform" a s tructure b uilt o n a s quare o r r ectangular p lan, s ometimes w ith s teps l eading u p t o i t. I n m ost c ases, t his p latform i s a djacent t o t he r ear w all o f t he r oom w ithin w hich i t w as b uilt. S ometimes t here o ccurs a n a rrangement o f a b ench a nd a p latform , o r a s ingle b ench s ituated a long t he r ear w all o f a c elia. T his k ind o f a s tructure w as i ntended t o p rovide a n e xposed p lace f or t he e xhibition o f a d eity's i mage. A nother k ind o f h oly o f h oh es d istinguished b y M aza i s a " niche", w hich i s s ometimes i n t he f orm o f a s eparate " adyton". -

T he r aised p latform i s c onsidered t o b e a h oly o f h oh es a lso b y E . S tern, w ho a dditionally d ivided t he p latforms o f t his t ype u ncovered i n C anaanite t emples i nto t wo s ub-types. O ne o f t hem i s t he p latform c onstructed d irectly o n t he m ain f loor o f a t emple, a nother i s t he p latform b uilt " above 4 r aised l evel s eparated f rom t he o riginal f loor b y a f light o f s teps." 8 W e s hall n ow p roceed t o a s hort p resentation o f h ypotheses f or t he i dentification o f t he h oly o f h oh es w ithin t he t emples w e a re h ere c oncerned w ith. L et u s s tart w ith t he P hilistine s anctuary a t T ell Q asile. B oth t he T emple a nd t he S hrine o f t he s anctuary h ave p rocessed t hrough a ll t heir d evelopmen l s tages a s tructure n amed b y t he e xcavator a s a r aised p latform ' ( Figs. 2 4, 4 9-51). W orth m entioning i s t he f act t hat a lso t he l ocation o f t hose r aised p latforms w ithin t he T emple a nd t he S hrine r e m ained u nchanged d uring t he e ntire e xistence o f t he b uildings, a lthough t he T emple i tself u nderwent s everal s tructural c hanges. H owever, o ne c an h ardly a ccept u nreservedly t he n ame " holy o f h oh es" g iven b y M azar t o t he r aised p latform i n t his p articular c ase. W e h ave a greed e arlier t hat t he c orrect u se o f t his e xpression i s o nly i n r eference t o e ither a s eparate r oom, o r a n a rea w hich i s a t l east d istinctly s eparated f rom t he r emaining p arts o f a t emple, w hereas i n t he c ase o f t he T emple a nd t he S hrine t here i s n ot e ven a c lear d ividing l ine b etween t he r aised p latform, w ith i ts p ossible e quipment, a nd t he r est o f t he r oom . T herefore I a m o f t he o pinion t hat a nother e xpression w ould b e m ore a ppropriate f or t he r aised p latform. H ere, I m ean t he n omenclature r ecently u sed b y C . R enfrew , w hen r eferring t o t he s tructures i n t he s anctuary a t P hylakopi o n M elos, w hich I c onsider, f ulfilled f unctions p arallel t o t hose o f t he r aised p latform a t t he T ell Q asile s anctuary. H e u ses t he m ost a p e xpressions " special f acilities", o r " an a ttention f ocusing d evices". 0

7 9

L et u s n ow c onsider a n a lternative i dentification o f t he h oly o f h oh es o f t he s anctuary a t T ell Q asile. T hroughout a ll t he s tages o f i ts d evelopment, t he T emple h ad a b ack c hamber, s ituated b ehind t he r oom w ith t he r aised p latform . T heoretically, t his h ack c hamber m ight h ave f unctioned a s t he h oly o f h oh es. H owever, t wo p oints a re a gainst t his h ypothesis. T he f irst i s t hat t he p osition o f t he b ack c hamber i n r elation t o t he e ntire p lan o f t he T emple ( throughout a ll i ts b uilding p hases) i s c learly b y n o m eans c eremonious. T he p osition o f t he b ack c hamber i s o f a v ery s econdary c haracter i n t he b uilding, t his i mpression h aving b een e nhanced b y t he s ide-entrance t o t he c hamber. F or t he s econd, t he q uantity a nd n ature o f t he f inds c oming f rom t he b ack c hamber ( especially t hat o f T emple 1 31) s eem t o d efinitely d efine t he f unction o f t his c hamber: t his w as j ust a k ind o f a s toreroom, a p lace f or k eeping v arious i tems, v ases a mong t hem , w hich w ere e ither t emporarily n ot i n u se o r h ad b een w ithdrawn f rom u se. T herefore, o ne m ay f ully a gree w ith M azar's o pinion w hich c onsiders t h°t t he b ack c hamber o f t he T emple w ere n othing m ore t han s tora g e room . H owever, s ince t he n ame " storage r oom" m ay a lso r efer t o a b uilding s erving s ecular p urposes o nly, t he b ack c hamber i n q uestion s hould p erhaps m ore a ppropriately b e c alled a " cultic r epository". T he q uestion o f r ecognizing t he h oly o f h oh es i n t he N orthern a nd S outhern T emples a t B eth S han i s f ar m ore c omplicated t han i t i s i n t he c ase o f o ther s acred s tructures. S ince t he l ocation o f t he e ntrance ( at t he s outh-western c orner o f t he b uilding) i s t he s ame i n b oth t emples; a nd t heir l ateral p arts a re t aken u p b y r ow o f c olumns, w e c an r ather s afely p resume t hat t he h oly o f h oh es, i f t here w as o ne, c ould h ave b een l ocated a t t he e astern p arts o nly o f t he t emples. U nfortunately, i t w as p recisely t he e astern p art o f t he S outhern T emple t hat h ad b een d estroyed i n a ntiquity a t t hat, w hile t he a rchitectural r elics o f t he N orthern T emple a re t oo s canty ( virtually n on-existent) t o p ermit a ny s uggestion a s t o t he o riginal a ppearance o f i ts e astern p art. T herefore, t he r econstruction o f b oth t emples p roduced b y A . R owe a nd g enerally a ccepted b y s everal s cholars a fter h im s hould b e c onsidered i n t he c ase o f t he e astern p arts a s p urely t heoretical. L et u s r ecall t hat a ccording t o t his r econstruction t he S outhern T emple w ould h ave h ad a t i ts e nd a b ack r oom a t a s lightly h igher l evel t han t hat o f t he m ain h all. T he a ccess t o t his r oom f rom t he h all w ould h ave b een b y w ay o f a f light o f s teps s ituated o n t he m ain l ongitudinal a xis o f t he b uilding. M oreover, t he m iddle p art o f t he b ack r oom w ould h ave o pened o nto t he h all. r econstruction o f t he N orthern T emple f ollowed m uch t he s ame p attern ( Figs. 2 6, 2 7). L

T he p oint o f t his r econstruction i s t he e xact c opying o f t he b uilding's b ack p art f rom a n e arlier t emple, t hat p ertaining t o L evel V I o f B eth S han ( Fig. 3 1F); o ur r eservations a s t o t his m ethod o f r econstruction h ave b een p resented i n C hapter I T. W e h ave t here a rgued t hat t he t emples i n q uestion, e specially t he S outhern T emple, m ight h ave r epresented t he s ame t ype o f s acred b uilding a s t he t emples o f K ition. I f s o, t hen t he u npreserved e astern p ortions o f t he B eth S han t emples w ould h ave c losely r esembled c orresponding p arts o f e ither K ition T emple 1 o r 5 o f t he L CIIIA p eriod, o r p erhaps T emple 2 o f t he L CIIC p eriod ( Figs. 6 , 8 , 1 0). I n c onsequence, t he q uestion o f t he h oly o f h oh es a s t he m ost i mportant p lace w ithin t he N orthern a nd S outhern T emples s hould b e c onsidered f rom t he s ame a spect a s t he t emples o f K ition.

8 0

H owever, t o m aintain t he g eographical o rder o f o ur d iscussion t he q uestion o f t he h oly o f h oh es o f t he A shdod t emple s hould b e m entioned. T he m ain r oom o f t his t emple i s a n L -shaped r oom 1 010 ( a c ella?) i n t he s outhern p art o f w hich t here l ies, i n t he d iscoverer's w ords ". . . a s mall s tructure ( 1022) o f t hree b rick c ourses, s tanding a pproximately 3 5cm a bove t he f loor.. . ( Fig. 3 0); t he d iscoverer s trongl i nclines t o t he v iew t hat t his s tructure " served a s a n a ltar." 64T he s ame s tructure i s m entioned b y M azar a s a " raised p latform". A ccording t o h is i nterpretation o f s tructures o f t his k ind, t his s hould o bviously h e c onsidered t o h ave s erved a s t he h oly o f h oh es o f t he t emple. F urthermore, t he s ame s cholar r egards a b ench s ituated b ehind t he r aised p latform i n q uestion a s a p art " of a s mall r oom i n t he b ack ft he b uilding, s imilar t o t he r ooms i n t he t emples a t T ell Q asile." 6 L et u s r ecall t hat i n M . D othan's v iew t his p art s erved a s " p latform o r r aised w alk f or t hose e ntering t he r oom f rom t he e ast.. „ 96 "

I n m y o pinion, h owever, s uch a n e ntrance i n t he f orm o f a n e longated ( c. 4 m) a nd e xtremely n arrow c orridor w ould b e r ather i nconvenient. T his w ould h ave b een s ituated, t oo, j ust b y t he r aised p latform/altar a nd t hus w ould h ave b een i n d isaccord w ith t he s acred c haracter b oth o f t his s tructure a nd o f t he w hole t emple r oom . T heref ore I s hare M azar's s uggestion t hat t he t emple e ntrance w as s ituated i n a d ifferent p lace a nd t hat t here w as a b ack c hamber t o t he t emple. T his c hamber w ould h ave f unctioned a s a s acred s tore-room, o n a nalogy w ith t he a bove m entioned t emples o f t he T ell Q asile s anctuary. O n t he o ther h and, I c annot a ccept a ny p ossible a ttempt a t c onsidering t he m entioned b rick-structure a s t he h oly o f h oh es. I rrespective o f t he n ame t o b e g iven t o i t, e ither a r aised p latform o r a n a ltar, s uch a s tructure u ndoubtedly s erved a s a n a uxiliary i nstallation d uring r ituals o f t he w orshippers. T his s tructure e nabled a s uitably s olemn d isplay o f t he o bject o f r everence a nd c ult, m ost p robably t he i mage o f a d ivinity, a nd a lso o ther c ult p araphernalia. L et u s n ow c onsider t he p roblem o f t he h oly o f h oh es i n t he t emples o n C yprus, b eginning w ith t hose o f K ition. A c haracteristic, c onstant f eature o f t hese i s a s mall c hamber f ormed i n t he e nd o f t he b uilding ( Temples 1 , 2 , 5 ), w hereas i n T emple 4 t here w ere e ven t hree b ack r ooms t aking u p t he w hole w idth o f t he b uilding ( Figs. 8 -10). O ne o f t hem, t he s outhernmost, w as a ctually a k ind o f a p assage o r a t ransitory r oom c onnecting t he t emple w ith t he e astern c ourtyard, w hereas t he t wo r emaining r ooms r esemble d eep n iches. T he a rrangement o f t he r ear p art o f T emple 1 d eserves n otice. I ts b ack c hamber c ould h ave b een a dditionally s ubdivided a long i ts s hort a xis i nto h e t hree s maller p arts, t he c entral o ne o pening i nto t he m ain h all.' M oreover, t hese t hree r ooms w ere s ituated o n a h igher l evel t han t hat o f t he m ain h ail. T his c learly c ontrasts w ith T emples 2 a nd 5 w hose b ack c hambers a re s et o n t he s ame l evel a s t hat o f t he m ain h ail, a nd a re a ccessible t hrough a l ateral e ntrance w hich w as p erhaps c losed b y d oors. 0 . h ol ie s. r egard

C ahlot i nterprets t he b ack c hamber o f T emple 1 a s i ts h oly o f T his h ypothesis s eems t o b e v ery c onvincing, a t l east w ith t o i ts c entral p art w here a d ivinity i mage c ould h ave b een

6 8

8 1

d isplayed w hile s tore-rooms.

t he t wo s ide p arts c ould h ave

f unctioned

a s

s acred

I n t he p reliminary e xcavation r eports t he b ag c hambers o f t he K ition t emples w ere i nterpreted a s h oly o f h oh es. A n a lternative s uggestion h as b8n p ut f orward b y M azar i n r elation t o T emple 5 . A ccording t o h im, i ts h oly o f h oh es o uld b e s een i n t he p latform ( an a ltar a ccording t o t he e xcavators ) ‚ s ituated o n t he c entral l ongitudinal a xis o f t he h all a nd a djacent t o t he b ack c hamber. H owever, i n t he f inal e xcavation r eport, i n t he S ection e ntitled " Storerooms o r h oly o f h oh es", V . K arageorghis c onsiders t he b ack c hambers a s s torerooms a nd s imultaneously h e d oes n ot a ccept t he p ossibility t hat t he p latforms i n t he t emples o f K i on c ould h ave f unctioned a s t he N ear E astern t ype o f ho l y of h oh es. I a m i n f ull a greement w ith K arageorghis' o pinion o n t his. -

I n t he p receding C hapter i t w as a rgued t hat t he S anctuary I a t P alaepaphos h ad i n g eneral r epresented t he s ame t ype o f c ult p lace a s t hose a t K ition, n amely: o pen t emenos a nd r ectangular c ult b uilding w ith a r ow ( rows) o f p illars a long i ts l ongitudinal a xis. T herefore, w e m ay a ssume t hat i n a ll p robability t he a rrangement o f t he r ear p art o f t he c ult b uilding a t P alaepaphos m ight h ave b een a nalogical t o t he o ne o f t he K ition t emples. T here s hould a lso b e r ecalled F .-G . M aier's s uggestion, w ho c onsiders t hat t he h oly o f h oh es o f S anctuary I m ay h ave b e5 9 p illars. N ow

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o n

t he

b eginning s hould h e m entioned t he p utative s anctuary c alled t he " House o f t he C olumns". U nfortunately b oth i ts f ragmentary s tate o f p reservation a nd i nsufficient p ublication p reclude t he e xact d etermination t he s anctuary l ayout, t he f unction o f i ts r ooms a nd t heir m utual r elation. T he n umber o f r ooms c omposing t he s anctuary i s a lso o bscure. U ndoubtedly, t here w ere a t l east t wo r ooms b ut t he p ossibility t hat a t hird r oom w as i ncluded i n t he b uilding c omplex c annot b e a lso e xcluded a t a ll ( Fig. 1 9). I n a ny c ase, w e a re u nable t o d esignate t he p art o f t his b uilding ( assuming t hat t his w as r eally a s anctuary) w hich m ay h ave f unctioned a s t he h oly o f h oh es. T he t wo o ther s anctuaries o f E nkomi a re s ituated w ithin t he A shlar B uilding u ncovered b y P . D ikaios ( Fig. 1 6). F irst o f t hem c onsisted, a s w e r emember, o f a c ourtyard a nd o f a p roper c ult h ouse s ubdivided i nto t wo s mall r ooms. I n t he f arthest R oom 1 0 t he f amous f igure o f t he H orned G od w as d iscovered. B esides t his, t wo s tones p laced s ide b y s ide w ith r oughly c oncave s ides w ere f ound h ere. P erhaps, a s D ikaios s upposed, t hese s tones h ad o ri , inally f ormed a k ind o f a n iche i n w hich t he H orned G od h ad s tood.' S hould w e t hen c onsider R oom 1 0 i n g eneral, a nd t he n iche i n p articular, a s t he h oly o f h oh es o f t his s anctuary, a s t he d iscovery o f t he H orned G od m ay i nfer? T here i s, i n m y o pinion, o ne s erious o bjection t o s uch a n h ypothesis. I n R oom 1 0, t hree l arge d eposits o f v essels h ave b een d iscovered. I n 5s um, t here a re 2 76 b owls p laced u pside d own, one on to p o f t h e ot h er . I t I tw ould t hen b e m ore p lausible t o i nterprete t his p art o f t he s anctuary a s a s toreroom , i n w hich v arious c ult p araphernalia a s w ell a s t he i mage o f t he d eity w orshipped i n t he s anctuary h ad b een c arefully s tored. M oreover, t he p osition o f t he " niche" i tself m ay a lso t estify a gainst

8 2

t he i nterpretation o f R oom 1 0 a s t he h oly o f h oh es. T his i s s ituated i n t he v ery s outh-western c orner o f R oom 1 0, t hat i s o n t he w ay f rom R oom 9 . S uch a p osition f or t he n iche w ith t he H grned G od w ould b e d ifficult t o r egard a s c eremonious w ithin R oom i O a s w ell a s w ithin t he e ntire s anctuary. T herefore i t i s m ost l ogical t o a ssume t hat R oom 1 0 s erved a s a c ult r epository. F rom h ere t he f igure o f t he H orned G od a s w ell a s o ther c ult o bjects o ccasionally w ere t aken i nto t he c ourtyard w here t he m ain r eligious c eremonies w ere h eld. T he s econd s anctuary o f t he A shlar B uilding l ies i mmediately e ast o f t he H orned G od S anctuary, a nd h as t he s ame g eneral l ayout. A s mall f igurine i nterpreted a s a f emale d eity w as f ound i n s mall R oom 1 1 i n a s imilar s patial c ontext a s t he H orned G od. 7 T he o ther f inds f rom h ere a re , h owever, s parse a nd w e h ave t hen n o s uch c lear e vidence t hat t his r oom f unctioned a s a s toreroom . H owever, w hen w e t ake i nto a ccound t he a rchitectural s imilarity o f b oth d iscussed s anctuaries, t heir c lose n eighbourhood, a nd t he f act t hat b oth f igures m ight h ave c reated a d ivine c ouple 78 w orshipped b y t he i nhabitants o f t he A shlar B uilding, t hen, i t c an b e a ssumed t hat t he r itual i n b oth s anctuaries a nd i n c onsequence o f t his, t he f unction o f t heir i ndividual p arts w ere a nalogical i n b oth c ases. T herefore R oom 1 s hould a lso h e c onsidered m ore a s c ult r epository a nd n ot a s a h oly o f h oh es. I n t he c ase o f t he s anctuary u ncovered a t E nkomi b y t he F rench m ission, t he s mall r oom s ituated i n i ts n orth-eastern c orner s eems t o b e t he m ost r elevant i n o ur d iscussion ( Fig. 2 0). I t i s h ere t hat t he I ngot G od f igure w as f ound. T he i nterpretation o f t his r oom a s t he h oly o f h oh es w ould h e t empting, i f i t w ere n ot f or t he s econdary p osition t his r oom o ccupies f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f t he w hole s anctuary. I t i s m uch m ore p lausible t o s ee t his r oom a gain a s a c ult r epository. W e s hould a lso r ecall t he s upposition t hat j ust s outh o f t he a bove m entioned r oom w ith t he I ngot G od, t here w as p robably a n e nigmatic c onstruction t aking u p t he w hole w idth o f t he e astern p art o f t he s anctuary. T wo s tones ( pillar b ases?) a re s et o n t he n orth-south l ine a t c . 2 m d istant f rom t he w all. . -C . C ourtois i nterprets t hem a s t he r emains o f a g allery o r p ortico. 7 O ne w ould i mage s uch a g allery a s a p lace f or t he o ccasional d isplay o f t he I ngot G od d uring r eligious c eremonies. A lternatively, i nstead o f a g allery o r p ortico t here m ight h ave b een t he s ame t ype o f i nstallation a s M aier h as s uggested i n r elation t o S anctuary I a t P alaepaphos ( see a bove), n amely " a c anopyl ike s tructure". T he l ast s anctuary o f E nkomi t o b e m entioned i s t he " Tower" ( Fig. 2 1). A ccording t o t he i nterpretation p resented b y H .W . C atling t he s mall s outhern p art o f t he T ower s hould h ave b een c onsidered a s " an ' adyton' o f s ome k ind, c oncealed b ehind a r elatively 80 f limsy s creen s upported o n w ooden p iers t hat r ested o n t he s tones.. I t s hould b e s tressed t hat t he a rchitectural r emains o f t he T ower a re m eagre a nd t his w ith t he c onsiderably s mall n umber o f f inds f rom t his a rea m ake t he q uestion o f t he e xistence o f a n " adyton" ( a t erm u sed i nterchangeably w ith t he " holy o f h oh es") i n t he T ower v ery d ifficult. I t i s r eally i mpossible t o r efute o r t o a ccept C atling's h ypothesis, a nd a ny d iscussion o n t his m atter w ould h e p urely

8 3

t heoretical a nd t herefore w ould c ontribute a lmost n othing t o s olving o f w hether a h oly o f h oh es h ad e ver e xisted i n t he T ower n ot.

t he o r

C onclusions W e h ave d iscussed a bove o ur t emples a nd s anctuaries i n o rder t o a nswer t he q uestion w hether a s o-called " holy o f h oh es" h ad e xisted w ithin t hem. F irst w e h ave t ried t o d efine a g eneral f ramework f or t he p roper u se o f t he t erm " holy o f h oh es". T he p rincipal c onclusion o n t his m atter i s t hat t his t erm c an b e u sed w ithout s erious o bjections o nly i n r eference t o a s eparate r oom i n t he s trict s ense o f t he w ord, w ithin t he s acred b uilding, o r a t l east i n r eference t o a n iche. A ccording t o t his a ssumption t he s o-called " back c hambers" w hich e xist i n a lmost a ll t he d iscussed c ult b uildings w ould a ppear a t f irst s ight a s t he m ost s uitable f or t he r ole o f t he h oly o f h oh es. H owever, i n t he c ourse o f o ur a nalysis w e h ave s tated t hat t heir p osition w ithin t he c ult b uilding ( with t he o ne p ossible e xception o f t hat i n T emple 1 a t K ition) i s o f a v ery s econdary c haracter, i nconsiderably m anifested i n i tself a nd t herefore n ot w hat o ne w ould e xpect i n r elation t o a h oly o f h oh es. O n t he o ther h and, t he d efinite c ult c haracter a s w ell a s t he c onsiderable g reat n umber o f v arious f inds w hich h ave b een f ound w ithin s ome o f t he b ack c hambers s eem t o c learly i ndicate t hat t he o riginal f unction o f t he b ack c hambers w as f or t he s torage o f t he c ult p araphernalia, a nd a mong t hem a lso t he i mages o f t he g ods a nd g odesses w orshipped i n a g iven t emple. I n o ther w ords t he b ack n othing m ore t han a k ind o f c ult r epository.

c hambers

w ere

W e h ave a lso n ot a ccepted t he h ypothesis o f t hose s cholars w ho w ant t o i dentify t he h oly o f h oh es i n t he " raised p latforms" o ccurring i n s ome t emples b oth i n t hose f rom P alestine ( Tell Q asile, A shdod, T el M iqne) a nd C yprus ( Temple 5 ). A lthough t hese s tructures m ust h ave p layed a n i mportant r ole i n a t emple b y c reating a w ell-exposed p lace f or t he d isplay o f t he d ivinities' i mages a nd o ther c ult o bjects, a t t he s ame t ime, i n r elation t o t hose i mages a nd o bjects, t his w as o nly a p urely a ncihhiary r ole. T here i s n othing t hat w ould m ake i t p ossible f or t his t ype o f s tructure t o b e c onsidered a s h oly o f h oh es. T he m ost r ecent d iscussion o n t he q uestion o f t he e xistence t he h oly o f h oh es i n C ypriote t emples i s p resented b y V . K arageorghis. T he c onclusion t hat h e h as r eached i s v ery a ccurate, a nd I p ermit m yself t o q uote i t i n t his c ontext o f o ur d iscussion: . a s pecific t ype o f s tructure o r r oom f or t he p ermanent d isplay o f t he i mage o f t he d ivinity s uch a s t hose i dentified i n N ear E astern t emples, i s n ot c haracteristic o f C ypriote t emples. S ince t he h oly o f h oh es h as b een d efined o n t he b asis o f t hese N ear E astern s tructures, i t s eems p referable a t p resent n ot t o d esignate s tructures o r s paces i n C ypriote t emples w hich a t b est h ave o nly a s uperficial r ese 0 l ance t o N ear E astern m odels, a s h oly o f h oh es." ". .

8 4

K arageorgis' c onclusion, I t hink, c an b e a lso a pplied t o t he S ea P eoples' t emples i n P alestine: a t T el Q asile, T ell M iqne, A shdod. N amely, t heir r aised p latforms, w hich s ome o f t he s cholars c onsider a s t he h oly o f h oh es a re, i n f act, m erely p odia f or h olding c ult o bjects a nd e ven t he d ivinity's i mage, w hereas t he b ack c hambers s hould b e d efined a s t reasuries o r c ult r epositories. W e h ave t hen h ere a n i mportant f eature l inking t he t emples o f t he S ea P eoples i n P alestine w ith t he r eligious a rchitecture o f C yprus a nd, w e c an a lso a dd o f t he A egean r egion. T here i s n othing s trange i n t his c onclusion i n v iew o f o ur h ypothesis a s r egards t he A egean o rigins o f t he S ea P eoples. I t i s s ymptomatic t hat i n t he i nvestigations o n t he A egean t emple a rchitecture t he q uestion o f t he h oly o f h oh es h as p ractically n ever e xisted. N aturally, i t w ould b e d ifficult t o d istinguish w ithin s mall, u sually o ne—roomed s hrines, a s eparate r oom o r a rea a s t he h oly o f h oh es. B ut e ven i n t he t emples w hich c onsisted o f t wo o r t hree r ooms, n one o f t hem i s c onsidered a s t he h oly o f h oh es. T he b ack r ooms w hich o ccur, f or e xample, i n t he t emples a t M ycenae o r i n t he W est S hrine a t P h akopi o n M elos, a re i nterpreted a s s torerooms o r c ult r epositories. � S z O n t he o ther h and, v arious s tructures f rom t he A egean t emples w hich b ear a r esemblance t o t he N ear E astern " raised p latforms" a re c onsidered b y t he A egean a rchaeologists a s a ltars, o ffering t ablets, p odia e tc., o r a s C . R enfre' h as r ecently d one a s " special f acilities f or t he p ractice o f r itual. C3 -

S PECIAL F ACILITIES T he h eading o f t his s ection h as b een b orrowed f rom R frew 's t erminology u sed i n h is r ecent w ork T he A rchaeology o f C ult... T he d esignation " special f acilities", w hich i ncludes t herein a nd h erein s uch t erms a s: r aised p latform , a ltar, c ult b ench, h earth a ltar e tc., a ppears t o m e t o b e t he m ost a pt o ne w ith r egard t o t he r emains o f v arious s tructures a nd i nstallations w hose e xistence i n t emples a nd s anctuaries d oes n ot r esult i n a ny w ay f rom p urely c onstructional n ecessities. I nstead t heir g eneral a ppearance, t he c ontext i n w hich t hey a ppear, a nd a bove a ll, t he c haracter o f t he f inds d iscovered o n a nd a round t hem s uggests t hat t hese s tructures h ad a s pecial s ignificance. T here i s n o d oubt t hat t hey c onstituted p art o f a s anctuary's i mmovable c ult e quipment.

a n

i mportant

W hat s hould b e s tressed a t t he b eginning i s t he f act t hat t here e xists c onsiderable c onfusion i n t he t erminology r eferring t o t hese s tructures . O f c ourse, s uch a s tate o f a ffairs r esults f rom t he m any d ifficulties e ncountered w hile i nterpreting t he d iscovered s tructures, e specially w hen t heir s canty r emains s ometimes p reclude a f ull r econstruction o f t heir o riginal f orms. T his c onsiderably r estrict t he p ossibility o f w orking o ut a ny g ood t ypology a nd t erminology c oncerning t hese " special f acilities". D oubts a lso o ften a rise o n t he q uestion o f w hether a d efinition g iven t o a p articular s tructure d oes, i n f act, r eflect i ts o riginal n ature a nd f unction. O ne m ay c ite t he c ase o f a s tructure f rom t he t emple a t A shdod ( Area D ) c alled b y i ts d i overer a n " altar" w hereas M azar h as t ermed i t a s a " raised p latform". °3 T he l atter t erm c reates a dditional c onfusion s ince, a s w e r emember f rom t he d iscussion i n t he p receding s ection o f t his C hapter, M azar c onsiders " raised p latform" a s o ne o f t he t wo m ain t ypes o f t he h oly o f h oh es

8 5

t hat h ad o ccurred i n t he N ear E astern t emples. B asing o ur r esearch t hen o n t he d esignations w hich w ere g iven t o ap articular s tructure b y i ts d iscoverer o r b y a nother s cholar, c an l ead t o s ome m isunderstanding. A b rief d escription o f e ach s tructure s eparately s hould b e, I c onsider, t he b est w ay f or a void t his d anger. A t t he s ame t ime, i t g ives a r eader t he p ossibility t o f orm h is o wn o pinion , i ndependent o f t he i nterpretations c ontained i n t he e xcavation r eports.

T ELL Q ASILE R aised p latforms 1 .

T emple 3 19

( Stratum X II) 86

( Fig.

4 9)

A t t he w estern e nd o f t he t emple. A b rick p latform r ectangular i n s hape ( 0.84m w ide, 0 .75m l ong, o riginal h eight u nknown). T wo s teps a dded o n i ts e astern s ide. F rom t he s outh a nd n orth t he p latform i s f lanked b y t wo " wings" ( 0.68m a nd 0 .85m l ong r espectively). P robably t he p latform a butted o n a w all r unning n orth-south, o f w hich o nly a s mall s ection i s p reserved.

2 .

T emple 2 00 ( Stratum X I) 87

( Fig.

5 0)

T he p latform o f t he p revious p eriod w as p robably r eused. i ts e xact o riginal f orm c annot b e d etermined.

3 .

S hrine 3 00 ( Stratum X I) 88

( Fig.

H owever

2 3)

A t t he s outh-western c orner o f t he s hrine. A b rick s tructure c omposed o f to s teps. T he l ower s tep i s 0 .40m h igh, t he o ne a bove t his i s 0 .53m i n h eight. E ach s tep i s i m w ide a nd 0 .42m d eep. N ear t his p latform t hree b rick p rojections ( pedestals ? ) r est o n t he f loor i n a l ine p arallel t o t he s outhern b ench. A nother b ench a djacent t o t he n orthern s ide o f t he p latform .

4 .

T emple 1 31

( Stratum X ) 89

( Fig.

5 1)

A buts o n t he w estern w all o f t he m ain h ail, s lightly t o t he n orth o f t he m ain l ong a xis o f t he b uilding. B rick s tructure r ectangular i n s hape ( i.12m b y 1 .30m , 0 .90m h igh). O n t he n orth t his a buts o n a b ench . T o t he s outh s ide o f t he p latform t wo b rick s teps h ad b een a dded. T he f irst s tep s tands 0 .33m a bove t he f loor l evel, t he s econd o ne i s 0 .13m h igher.

S acrificial a ltars 5 .

L ocus 2 93 ( Stratum X I) 90

W est o f T emple 2 00. S quare i nstallation m ade o f a t hick l ayer o f w hite l ime w ith a c oncave s urface a nd m esuring i m b y i m. T o i ts s outhern c orner i s a ttached t he l ower p art o f a s torage j ar.

8 6

6 .

N orth e ast o f T emple 1 31,

C ourtyard 1 11

( Stratum X )9'

R ectangular s tructure b uilt o f t wo c ourses o f r ough s tones, w ith a f lat a top, a nd m easuring 1 .30m b y 1 .50m . T his p rotrudes c . 0 .15m a bove f loor l evel. O riginal h eight u nknown. A ccording t o M azar, i t i s p robably a n a ltar f oundation.

7 .

L ocus 1 08 ( Stratum I X) 92

E ast o f T emple, C ourtyard 1 03. L arge s tone s lab s urrounded b y a n i rregular c ircle o f s tones ( c. 1 .45m i n d iameter). N ear i t t here i s a c ircular d epression i n t he f loor o f t he c ourtyard, c a. 2 m i n d iameter, s unk t o a d epth o f 0 .07m 0 .10m . -

A SHDOD O pen a ir h igh p lace 8 .

A rea G ( Stratum X III) 93

A n i nstallation c onsisting o f t wo e lements: 1 ) a s quare b rick s tructure c overed w ith p laster. T races o f b urning. O n t he s urface, s herds a nd b ones w ere f ound; 2 ) a r ound s tone p illar b ase.

A ltar/Raised p latform 9 .

T emple i n A rea D ( Stratum 3 a—b) 94

( Fig.

3 0)

I n t he s outhern p art o f t he t emple. S mall s tructure r ectangular i n s hape ( 1.35m b y 1 .15m , p reserved h eight c . 0 .35m a bove f loor l evel). B uilt o f t hree c ourses o f b rick.

T ELL M IONE B amah/Raised p latform 1 0.

A t t he s outh—eastern c o er o f t he c ult r oom w ithin a r esidence, ( Stratum I VC)' ( Fig. 2 9)

g overnor's

A m udbrick p latform, r ectangular i n s hape, p reserved h eight i m a bove f loor l evel . A l ow b ench r uns n ear i ts b ottom ( from w est a nd n orth).

H earth—altar? i.

I n I VC)

e c entre o f a c ourtyard o f a g overnor's ( Fig. 2 9)

L arge r ound h earth c harcoal a nd b ones.

w ith a p ebble b ase.

8 7

r esidence

H eavy

a sh

( Stratum

l ayer

w ith

K ITION T EMENOS A H earth-altars 1 2.

N orth e astern c orner o f T emenos,

L arge n orth e nd.

1 3.

( floors l ilA-Il) 9 7

o val a rea o f b urning a nd a sh w ith a s ingle m udbrick o n

A rea 2 1, w estern h alf o f T emenos,

( floor l ilA) 98

C ircular a rea o f b urning a nd a sh, b y a l ine o f r ubble.

1 4.

S outh o f h earth-altar N o.

L arge b urning.

1 5.

1 2,

I n i ts c entre a s maller

n orth o f A rea 2 1,

A r oughly c ircular

o n t he s outh a nd w est

e nclosed

( floor If l9 9

c ircular p atch o f a sh.

H earth-altar F ,

i ts

( floors l ilA-Ill)

c ircle

o f

1 00

( 1.85m i n d iameter) c onstruction.

O n a b edding

o f s mall p ebbles r ests a h ard p laster s urface ; o n i t a t hick l ayer o f a sh, b one m aterial a nd a b ull f igure. F loor a round t his h eavily b urnt. B uilt a ltar 1 6.

A ltar D ,

s outh w est o f A ltar F ,

( floors I II-I)

1 01

( Fig.

5 8)

A s quare s tructure ( 1.20m s q., p reserved h eight 0 .56m) b uilt o f a shlar b locks a nd f illed w ith s mall r ubble a nd e arth. T he a ltar s tands o n a f ew c entimetre p rotruding b ase c onstructed o f a shlar s andstone b locks f itted c losely t ogether. A ssociated w ith t he h orns o f c onsecrat ion t hat h ave b een f ound n ear t he a ltar o n f loor I I a nd w hich m ay h ave o riginally c rowned t he t op o f i t. A round a ltar a t hick l ayer o f a sh o n f loor I I ( a n ew u se o f a ltar a s a h earth-altar?).

S acrificial s laughtering b locks 1 7.

S outh e ast o f A ltar D ,

( floor 1 1) 1 02

T wo r ectangular b locks ( both 0 .42m b y 0 .36m b y 0 .19) w ith c oncave s urfaces, s et u pright o n t he f loor o pposite t he b ench b uilt a gainst t he s outh w all o f T emenos. N earby, t he u pper p art o f a s tone a nchor.

8 8

T EMPLE 2 H earth-altars 1 8.

A gainst t he w est w all o f t he t emple h ail ( Room 2 4).103 o riginally f or f loor I V a nd r eused f or f loors l ilA a nd I II.

B uilt

T his i s a U -shaped s tructure m easuring 0 .90m b y 0 .50m ( Fig. 5 5). B uilt o f l arge u nworked s tones s et v ertically a long t he e dge o f a s tone s lab s loping u p t o t he e ast. I n t he p eriod o f f loor l ilA a round t he v ertical s tones a g roup o f s mall s tones w as a dded. I n t he n ext p hase ( floor I II) s mall s tones w ere c overed b y t he f loor l evel.

1 9.

N ear t he c entre o f t he t emple h ail,

( floor l ilA) 104

L arge o val a rea o f a sh w ith n o c onstruction.

2 0.

A gainst t he e ast w all o f t he t emple h ail,

( floors l ilA-Ill)

1 05

S mall o val a reas o f t hick a sh a nd c harcoal w ith n o c onstruction.

T able o f o fferings? a ltar? 2 1.

S outh e ast o f t he h earth-altar N o.

1 8,

( floors l ilA a nd 1 11) 106

R ectangular s tructure m easuring 1 .30m b y 0 .95m a nd p reserved t o t he h eight o f 0 .35m ( Fig. 5 5). B uilt o f r ubble m asonry a nd a n a shlar b lock w ith d rafted m argins ( it f orms t he n orthern f ace o f t he t able). P rotrudes o nly 0 .10m 0 .15m a bove f loor l evel. P robably a f oundation o r b ase f or a h igher s uper-structure o f s tone? w ood? o r m udbrick? -

T EMPLE 4 H earth-altars 2 2.

N ear n orth w estern c orner o f t he t emple h ail l ilA)' 3 '

( Room 3 8),

( floor

R oughly c ircular a rea ( 0.90m 1 .10m i n d iameter). C omposed o f i rregular b ands o f h avara, c lay, v ery b urnt h avara, m udbrick; t he l atter s urrounds a c ircular p atch o f m udbrick. B urnt s urface. -

2 3.

W estern e nd o f t he t emple h all, S hallow p it f illed w ith a sh.

8 9

( floors I II_II) 1 08

2 4.

I n f ront o f R oom 3 8 B ,

b etween t wo N -S b ases,

( floors T IT-(II) 10 9

S mall i rregular a rea e mbedded w ith s tones. O ne o f t hem , t he l argest, h as a s mall d epression a t o ne e nd ( originally a p ivot s tone?). A ssociated w ith a sh a nd h eavy b urning.

2 5.

W estern e nd o f t he t emple h all,

n ear W ell 6 ,

C ircular t hin l ayer o f b aked m udbrick, t he f loor.

2 6.

E as ççn 1 1) 11

e nd o f t he t emple h all,

S hallow p it w ith a sh a nd,

2 7.

( floor 1 11) 10

r esting o n p ebbles s et i nto

n ear t he e ntrance,

a mong o thers,

C ourtyard o f t he t emple ( Room 3 9),

( floors

b urnt a nimal b ones.

( floors l ilA-Il?)

1 12

A long i ts w est w all l ay w orked s tone s labs ( remains p avement?) w ith h eavily b urnt s urface. A ssociated w ith a h eart u sed f or f loors l ilA-Il.

2 8.

N ear t he c entre o f t he t emple h ail,

I TT-

( floor 1 )113 ( Fig.

o f a a ltar

5 6)

T o t he w est, n orth a nd s outh t he h earth i s b ordered b y a t hreeq uarter c ircle o f h avara a nd m udbrick; a s tone s lab l imits t he h earth t o t he e ast ( it i s t he w estern f ace o f a n o ffering t able, s ee b elow). H earth f illed w ith l ayers o f a sh w ith b urnt a nd u nhurnt a nimal b ones. I nternal d imensions 0 .95m b y 1 .15m , d epth 0 .36m .

T able o f o fferings ( Altar E ) 2 9.

I mmediately t o t he e ast o f t he h earth a ltar N o.

2 8,

( floor 1 )

14

S tone t able t rapezoidal i n s hape, m easuring 1 .60m b y 1 .15/0.70m ( western a nd e astern e nd r espectively). A s ingle o r d ouble r ow o f s tone s labe s et v ertically o n o r c ut o f f loor I I e nclosing t he t able o n i ts t hree s ides. T he e astern o ne i s b ordered b y a h avara a nd m udbrick . T he c ore o f t he t able c onsists o f a l ong a shlar b lock w ith d rafted m argins o n o ne s ide. I t i s s ituated j ust a bove t he c olumn b ase f or f loors l ilA-li. O f t he s labs w hich m ay h ave o riginally c overed t he t op o f t he t able t here r emained o nly o ne ( Fig. 5 6).

9 0

T EMPLE 5 H earth-altars 3 0. O n t he m ain l ong a xis o f t he t emple h ail c orresponding w esternmost p illar b ases, ( fl oors

( Room 5 8) b etween l ilA-Il) " 5

C ircular p atch o f l ayer o f m udbrick l aid o n t he f loor w ith o f h eavy b urning a nd a sh, a nd b urnt a nimal b ones.

3 1-33.

S imilar h earths a s d escribed a bove N o.

3 0,

( floor l ilA)

S ituated b etween t he c orresponding p illar b ases, o f t he t emple h all.

3 4.

s et,

S outh w estern c orn e ntrance, ( floor I I)

o f t he t emple h all,

t o

t races

16

o n t he l ong

t he

l eft

t he

o f

a xis

t he

S emicircular a rea o f c lay o n t he f loor i nto w hich a f lat s tone w as s urrounded b y a sh a nd a nimal b ones.

T able o f o fferings? a ltar? 3 5.

A gainst t he e ast w all o f R oom 5 8 A , s1 1 htiy s outh o f l ong a xis o f t he t emple, ( floors I ll-I) ( Fig. 5 7)

A s lightly t rapezoidal s tructure b uilt o f d ressed ( northern p art) a nd t wo r ows o f m udbrick ( southern p art),

t he

m ain

s tone b locks r esting o n a

r ubble f oundation. T he t able m easures c . 3 m b y 2 m/1.75m ( south a nd n orth s ide r espectively) a nd 0 .40m a bove f loor l evel. T wo p its a nd a s tone a nchor a long t he s outhern s ide o f t he t able s uggest t hat c ult s tandards o r a c anopy l ike s tructure c ould h ave b een s pread o ver i t. I n t he p eriod o f f loor I T t wo b locks a nd a n a nchor w ere a dded t o t he s outh s ide o f t he t able, w hereas t o i ts s outh-east c orner a k ind o f m udbrick w all e xtending s outh-east h ad b een c onstructed. f loor I a s a f oundation f or a n ew s maller a ltar. I ts f orm , v ery d ifficult t o d etermine.

R eused f or h owever, i s

P ALAEPAPHOS S ANCTUARY I T able o f o fferings? a blution? 3 6.

I n s itu,

i n t he c entral a rea o f t he c ourtyard " 9

F lat l imestone t able r ectangular i n s hape w ith a l ong n arrow ( depressed s urface).

9 1

r im

E NKOMI T HE S ANCTUARY O F T HE H ORNED G OD H earth a ltars 3 7.

R oom 4 5,

L evel T u B1 20

C ircular a rea, c . 1 .20m a cross, a shes w ith n o c onstruction.

3 8.

A bove h earth a ltar N o.

3 7,

L evel hIC 1 2 '

C ircular p odium m easuring s andstone s lab a nd s mall s tones.

3 9.

R oom 4 5,

c overed w ith c arbonized m atter a nd

0 .90m i n d iameter, B urnt s urface.

b etween p illar b ases A a nd B ,

c omposed

o f

a

L evel T u B1 22

C ircular c oncentration o f a sh, 0 .50m i n d iameter.

4 0 .

A bove h earth a ltar N o.

3 9,

L evel hIC 1 23

C ircular p odium m ade o f r ubble, 0 .85m a cross a nd c . a bove f loor l evel.

0 .36

-

0 .50m

T HE S ANCTUARY O F A F EMALE D IVINITY H earth a ltar 4 1.

I n t he c entre o f R oom 1 2,

L evel T IIB 1 24

C ircular p latform m easuring 1 .70m a cross a nd 0 .10m i n h eight a bove f loor l evel. C omposed o f a l ayer o f b roken s herds p lastered o ver w ith a t hick c oat o f m ud m ortar. I n i ts c entre a r oughly r ectangular e nclosure b uilt o f m ud w ith a l ow w all a ll a round, m easuring 0 .70m b y 0 .40m .

T able o f o fferings 4 2.

I mmediately w est o f h earth a ltar N o.

L ow s tone t able r ectangular i n s hape, o f t hree s tone s labs.

9 2

4 1, L evel T u B' 25

( Fig.

m easuring i m b y 0 .80m ,

6 0) m ade

T HE S ANCTUARY O F T HE I NGOT G OD S acrificial s laughtering b locks ( Fig. 4 3 .

" Autel i nf rieur",

6 0)

s outh-western p art o f t he s anctuary 1 26

U pright m onolith r ectangular i n s hape, m easuring 0 .47m b y 0 .32m a nd 0 .80m h igh.

4 4.

" Autel s upérieur",

w ith

c oncave

s urface,

c oncave

s urface,

e ast o f " autel i nf rieur " 2 7

U pright m onolith r ectangular i n s hape, m easuring 0 .47m b y 0 .29 a nd 0 .72m h igh .

w ith

T ethering s tone 4 5.

I n t he p roximity o f t he " autel i nf rieur " 28 A b ig b lock o f s tone d rilled t hrough h orizontally.

H earth a ltars 4 6 .

" Foyer 4 ",

s outh o f " autel i nf rieur " 2 9

H avara c onstruction c ircular i n s hape, s mall c avity f illed w ith c lay.

4 7.

" Foyer 3 ",

1 .20m i n d iameter,

w ith

a

a bove " Foyer 4130

A s ort o f a p latform m ade o f e arth m ixed w ith p ottery s herds a nd s upported b y t he l ow w all o f a p lastered h earth. I ts c entral c avity w as a lso f illed w ith c lay.

4 8 .

" Foyer 2 ",

a bove " Foyer 3 v131

C omposed o f t wo h earths. O ne o f t hem c onsisted o f a d ouble l ayer o f p otsherds w ith a n e arth f ill a nd i ts c avity c ontained a shes a nd c lay, w hile t he o ther w as m ade o f a s ingle l ayer o f s herds w ith a c avity f illed w ith a shes.

4 9.

" Foyer 1, 13 2

A lso a d ouble c onstruction. C omposed o f a n o val h earth, c . 1 .50m a cross, b uilt i n t he s ame w ay a s " Foyer 2 ", a nd o f a r ectangular o ne, w hich w as a d ouble-sided c lay e nclosure.

9 3

H OUSE O F T HE C OLUMNS B uilt a ltar? 5 0.

I n t he c entre o f t he " celia " 33 A s quare s tone b lock m easuring 1 .10m s q.

D iscussion S everal d ozen e xamples o f d ifferent k inds o f s tructures p ermanent c omponents o f a t emple e quipment h ave b een c ollected a bove. T heir e xistence i n a g iven t emple m ust h ave s urely b een i ndispensable f or t he e ffective p erformance o f r eligious c eremonies. T he f irst -

-

i mpression t hat a rises f rom t his s urvey i s t hat t here a re p ractically n o t wo i dentical s tructures. T hey d iffer f rom e ach o ther i n s ize, s hape, b uilding t echnique e tc. N evertheless, d espite t he o bvious d ifferences, t here c an b e n oticed s ome g eneral s imilarity i n t hem , w hich, h owever, r esults m ore f rom t he a nalogous f unctions p layed b y t hese s tructures, t han f rom t he p urely s uperficial s imilarity. A n i mportant a rticle c oncerning " offering s tructures a nd a ltars", i .e., t he s tructures c oming w ithin t he t erm " special f acilities", w as p resented s ome y ears a go b y J . W ebb w ho a rranged t he a rchaeological e vidence r eferring t o t he v arious o ffering s tructures a nd a ltars d iscovered i n t he C ypriote t emples a nd s anctuaries o f t he a nd a lso p resented a t t he s ame t ime s ome e xtensj m aterial, b oth f rom t he Aegean a rea a n d t he N ear E ast.

L C p eriod, c omparative I n W ebb's

c onsiderations a nd p roposed t ypology o f t he C ypriote s tructures w e h ave t hen a g ood s tarting p oint f or o ur d iscussion . A ccording t o W ebb, t he t ypology o f t he C ypriote o ffering s tructures a nd a ltars i s a s f ollows: T ype A i s r epresented b y t he s quare, f ree-standing s tone s tructures l ocalized i n o pen c ourtyards a nd a ssociated w ith t he h orns o f c onsecration; T ype B l ow s tone t ablets s ituated i nside t he s anctuary b uilding, a t t he e nd o f t he c entral a xis; T ype C u pright s tone b locks -

-

w ith a c oncave s urface; s tructures.

T ype D

-

h earth a ltars ; T ype E

-

u nclassifiable

I n t he d iscussion b elow, I w ill n ot a nalyze i n d etail a ll o f t he s tructures c ollected a t t he b eginning o f t his s ection. T he g reater p art o f t hese, i .e. C ypriote s tructures, w ere s ufficiently d iscussed i n t he a bove m entioned a rticle o f W ebb a s w ell a s q uite r ecently b y V . K arageorghis i n t he f ioal e xcavation r aport o n t he p re-Phoenician a rchitecture a t K ition.' Iw ill t herefore, c oncentrate o n t he s tructures f rom t he t emples a t T ell Q asile, A shdod a nd T el M iqne b ecause t hese a s n on-Cypriote w ere n ot i ncluded i n W ebb's c atalogue. T hese s tructures o n t he o ther h and, m ay h ave a n e ssential m eaning f or t he b etter u nderstanding o f t he p roblem c oncerning t he c ultural r elationships b etween t he P hilistine s acred s tructures a nd t hose f rom t he C anaanite t emples o f P alestine o n o ne h and a nd t hose -

-

f rom t he t emples a nd s anctuaries o f t he A egean a nd C yprus o n t he o ther.

9 4

A . A n i nteresting c ult i nstallation d ated t o t he v ery e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C. ( or t he b eginning o f t he 1 2th c entury B .C.) h as c ome t o l ight a t A shdod, i n A rea C ( above N o. 8 ). I t w as g iven t he n ame " open a ir h igh p lace". U nfortunately, i t h as n ot a s y et b een f ully p ublished w hich p recludes a ny d etailed a nalysis o f i t. T herefore, t he r emarks t hat f ollow m ust b e t aken a s t entative s uggestions o nly. T his c ult i nstallation i s c omposed o f t wo e lements. T he f irst o f t hem i s i nterpreted b y T . D othan a s a n a ltar ( brick s tructure o f r ectangular s hape). O n i ts s urface, s herds a nd b ones h ave b een f ound. T he s econd e lement r ound s tone b ase) i s i nterpreted a s a p lace f or t he s tatue o f a g od. S ince t he s tone b ase h ad t races o f b urning i t i s p ossible t hat i t w as a p lace f or b urning s acrifices, w hich m ay h ave b een p repared i n a dvance u pon t he n earby s tructure. A s w e r emember f rom o ur d iscussion c oncerning A thienou ( Chapter I I), t he t erm " high p lace" i s n ot q uite c lear t o u s. G enerally, t he e xpression " high p lace" i s u sed a s a n E nglish e quivalent o f t he H ebrew b amah. T he s tructure a t A shdod c an h ardly b e r egarded a s r epresenting e ither t he f irst o r t he s econd t ype o f b amah ( see a bove, p age 3 6). H owever, t here s till r emains a t hird p ossibility o f i nterpreting t he w ord b amah, n amely a s a n a ltar. A nd o nly s uch a n u nderstanding w ould l egitimize t he c alling o f t he s tructure u nder c onsideration a k ind o f a h igh p lace. I n f act, t he m ost t hat c an b e s aid i s t hat w e a re h ere d ealing w ith a n o pen a ir a ltar. B ut t his m ere s tatement d oes n ot s ettle t he q uestion o f t he i nterpretation o f t his c ult i nstallation. F irst, w e d o n ot k now w hat t he a ctual d ifference b etween t he a ltar c alled b amah a nd o ther a ltars i s. S econdly, o pen a ir a ltars a s a c ategory o f s acred s tructures w ere v ery p revalent i n m any v arious a nd r emote l ands a nd u nconnected c ountries. -

T herefore, a n a nalysis o f t he f inds d iscovered n ear t he c ult i nstallation a t A shdod m ay b e m ore r elevant i n d etermining i ts c ultural b ackground. o f t he i ns

I n t he r oom ( pottery w orkshop?) s ituated j ust t o t he s outh llation, a l arge a mount o f M ycenaean I IIC:lb p ottery w as

d iscovered. T his a llows u s t o i dentify t he i nhabitants o f t he t own i n t his p eriod w ith t he A egean s ettlers. W hat i s e ven m ore i mportant, t he m entioned p ottery d eposit i s c haracterized b y t he f act t hat t he v essels w ere t urned u pside d own. T he s ame f eature h as b een o bserved a t t he f ollowi ng s ites: T { azor L ate B ronze A ge I T T emple, A rea H ; T ell Q asile T emple 1 31; E n k oT I ngot G od S anctuary, H orned G od S anctuary; A thienou; K nossos. 3 8 -

-

-

I t s hould b e s tressed t hat i n a ll t he l isted i nstances s uch a n a rrangement o f v essels a ppeared i n a s acred c ontext. T his w ould p rove t hat a t t hese s ites i dentical, o r v ery s imilary r eligious c ustoms a nd r ituals w ere p erformed, a nd w ould e stablish a n i mportant l ink b etween t he c ult i nstallation a t A shdç 9 a nd t he s anctuaries a t T ell Q asile, E nkomi, A thienou a nd K nossos.' T he s imilar p ractice o n t he o ther h and o bserved a t H azor, s hould n ot b e t aken a s e vidence f or t he C anaanite c haracter o f t he c ult p ractices a t A shdod a nd T ell O asile. T he M ycenaean c haracter o f t he p ottery i n t he c ase o f A shdod, a nd t he h istorical c ircumstances i n t he c ase o f T ell Q asile c onnects t hese s ites m ore w ith C yprus a nd C rete t han w ith t he C anaanite c ulture.

9 5

W ith t he a bove d ata i n m ind t he h ypothesis c an b e v entured t hat t he o pen a ir a ltar f rom A shdod s hould b e i nterpreted a s a c ult i nstallation c losely c onnected w ith t he p eoples u sing M ycenaean I IIC:lb p ottery, i .e. w ith t he A egean S ea P eoples . T herefore, r eligious p ractices c onnected w ith t he o pen a ir a ltar a t A shdod s hould p ertain, i n t heir e ssence, t o t he c ultural b ackground o f t hese p eoples. T he r ituals p erformed w ith t his s tructure w ere u ndoubtedly a m anifestation o f A egean r eligious b eliefs, t he m ore s o b ecause o pen a ir a ltars w ere a lso w ell k nown i n t he w hole o f t he A egean a nd o n C yprus. B . L et u s n ow c onsider t he " raised p latforms" i n t he T emple a nd S hrine o f t he s anctuary a t T ell Q asile ( Nos. 1 4 ) ( Figs. 2 2-24, 5 1). T hese s tructures h ave b een b riefly m entioned o n t he o ccasion o f o ur d iscussion r eferring t o t he p roblem o f t he e xistence a " holy o f h oh es" i n t hese b uildings. W e h ave s tated t hat M azar 's i nterpretation o f t he r aised p latform a s a " holy o f h oh es" i s i ncorrect. I nstead t he s uggestion h as b een p ut f orward t hat t hese s tructures s hould b e c onsidered a s a k ind o f t he s o-called " special f acilities". T he c entral p osition t hat t he r aised p latform o ccupied i n b oth b uildings a s w ell a s i ts f orm ( the s tructure h igher a nd c learly d istinguishable f rom t he a djoining b ench) i ndicate t hat i t m ust h ave p layed a n i mportant p art i n t he c ult. I t i s b eyond d oubt t hat t he r aised p latform f ormed a p articularly s uitable p lace t o e xpose t he o bject o f t he c ult a nd/or t he v arious o bjects u sed d uring r eligious p ractices. T he d ifference i n h eight b etween t he r aised p latform a nd t he b ench b ordering i t, m ust h ave r esulted f rom t he d esire t o s tress t he s ignificance o f t he o bjects p laced o n b oth t he s tructures a ccording t o h ierarchy. T he m ost i mportant o f t hem , n amely t he i mages o r s ymbols o f t he d eities m ust h ave b ee T 40 p laced o n a h igher l evel a nd i n c onsequence o n t he p latform , t hus d ominating o ver t he l ess s ignificant o bjects, f or i nstance, t he v otive o fferings, g ifts, f igures o f a dorants e tc., p laced o n a l ower l evel, i .e. o n t he b ench o r e ven 9ç t he f loor. T his i s v ery c learly e vident i n t he c ase o f S hrine 3 OO. 11 I n f ront o f t he r aised p latform i n t his b uilding, t here h ave b een d iscovered i n s itu t hree c ylindrical c ult s tands. O n t he t op o f t wo o f t hem t here h ave s urvived c ult h owls, w hich w ere n o d oubt f illed o riginally w ith o fferings o r s acred m eals. T he r eceiver o f t hese o fferings , n amely t he d eity, m ust h ave s tood e xactly o n t he r aised p latform . I t c an b e s aid t hat t he r aised p latform m ust h ave a cted a s a s ort o f l ens w hich i nstantaneously f ocussed t he a ttention o f a nybody e ntering t he c ella o n t he s ubject p laced t hereon. -

-

I n t he e xcavation o f t he c ult r oom a t T el M iqne ( Field I V) a m udbrick p latform ( bamah a ccording t o T . D othan) w as u ncovered ( No. 1 0) ( Fig. 2 9). T he p latform , r ectangular i n s hape , w as f ound a t t he s outhe astern n er o f t he r oom . T wo b owls a nd a f lask s urvived o n t he p latform. A s imilar d iscovered i n

s tructure t o t hese a t T ell Q asile a nd T el t he T emple a t A shdod, A ç 3 D ( No. 9 ) ( Fig.

M iqne 3 0).

w as M .

D othan h as q ualified t his a s a n a ltar. " The l ack o f a ny s igns o f b urning s eems t o p oint o ut t hat t his s tructure w as n ot d evoted t o b urnt-offerings. T herefore, a nother i nterpretation o f t his s tructure w ould b e m ore a ppropriate, n amely, t his w as a r aised p latform, a s h as o nce b een s uggested b y M azar. T his h ypothesis i s e ven m ore j ustified w ith t he a ssumption t hat b ehind t his p latform t here w as

9 6

o riginally a b ack D othan s uggested

a mber a nd n ot a r aised w alk f or t he v isitors a s

M .

.

I n t erms o f t ypology t he r aised p latforms f rom T ell Q asile, A shdod a nd T el M iqne f it v ery w ell i n T ype B o f W ebb's c lassification. S tructures o f t his T ype w ere s ituated i n T emples 2 , 4 a nd 5 a t K ition ( Nos. 2 1, 2 9 a nd 3 5), i n t he S anctuary o f a f emale d ivinity i n E nk? ( No. 4 2) ( Figs. 5 5-58) a s w ell a s i n s ome o ther t emples o n C yprus. T he s upposed f unction t hat w as p layed b y t hese s tructures a nd t heir l ocalization i n t he t emple ( at t he e nd o f t he l ong a xis o f t he m ain t emple h all), i s i dentical w ith t he f unction a nd l ocalization o f t he r aised p latforms i n t he T emple o f T ell Q asile S anctuary a nd t he A shdod T emple. T he o nly d ifference b etween t hem l ies i n t he f act t hat t he C ypriote p latforms w ere a lways s ituated i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he p ermanent h earth-altars. T his f eature h as n ot b een o bserved i n t he c ase o f t he r aised p latforms i n t he t emples o f T ell Q asile a nd A shdod. H owever, t he a bove m entioned c ult r oom a t T el M iqne o pened i nto a c ourtyard, i n t he c entre o f w hich w as a l arge r ound h earth, p robably h earth-altar ( No. 1). B oth M azar f or t he r aised p latform f rom T ell Q asile, a nd W ebb f or t he C ypriote s tructures T ype B , h ave f ound s everal s imilar s tructures, m ainly f rom t he N ear E ast a n a lthough s mall i n n umber f rom t he A egean ( from M ycenae o nly)' ' ( Fig. 5 3). A t p resent, t o t hese p arallels s ome o thers c an b e a dded, f rom t he L evant a s w ell a s f rom t he A egean. F rom t he f ormer r egion, i t i s n ecessary t o m ention t he r aised p latform f rom a n ewly d iscovered s anctuary a t U garit ( Fig. 3 3), a nd I hp latforms d iscovered i n t he L ate B ronze A ge t emples a t K amid e l-Loz. 4 8 F rom t he l atter r egion, t he f ollowing s ites s hould b e m entioned: P hylakopi o n M elos, T iryns a nd A sine o n t he M ainland. T he W est S hrine i n t he s anctuary a t P hylakopi, i s p rovided w ith n o l ess t han t hree p latforms s ituated a t t hree c orners o f i t, w hile t he n earby E ast S hrine i s p rovided w ith o nly o ne p latform a t t he n orth-eastern c orner. R oom X XXII i n t he C ult H ouse C a t A sine h as o ne p latform a t t he n orthe astern c orner. T he s hrine e xcavated a t T iryns h ad b een r ebuilt s everal t imes ( Fig. 5 4). D uring t he w hole p eriod o f i ts e xistence ( perhaps e xcept i n t he p eriod r epresented b y S hrine 19), t his s mall c ult b uilding h ad b een p rovided w ith a s tructure s ituated a gainst i ts b ack w al1, 1 4 n d w hich i s q ualified b y K . K ilian a s a " cult b ench" ( Kultbank). I ts s mall d imensions, h owever, c ould m ean t hat t his c ould a lso b e c onsidered r ather a s a s imple p latform a nd n ot a b ench. B esides, i n t he p hase d esigned a s s hrine 1 17, t here w as n o b ench, b ut t wo s mall p latforms s ituated a t t he t wo r ear c orners o f t he s hrine. -

T he a bove p resented e xamples o f c ult i nstallations f rom t he A egean t emples s eem t o r efute M azar's a nd W ebb's s tatements t hat t he p latforms s imilar t o t he s tructures o f t ype B f rom C ypriote t emples a nd t o t he r aised p latforms i n t he t emples a t T ell Q asile a nd A shdod, o ccurred v ery r arely i n t he A egean. Iw ould c onsider t hese s tructures a s a r ather c haracteristic c omponent o f t emple a rchitecture i n P alestine a nd C yprus a s w ell a s i n t he A egean. T his s uggestion c annot b e r efuted e ven b y t he f act t hat v arious d ifferences n aturally e xisted b etween t he p latforms i n t he t emples o f t he m entioned t erritories. P erhaps, t he m ost s ignificant d ifference l ies i n t he f act t hat t he p latforms i n t he A egean t emples w ere u sually l ocalized a t t he c orners o f t he m ain t emple h ail,

w hereas i n t he c ase o f t he C ypriote a nd t he N ear E astern t emples,

9 7

t he r aised p latforms w ere s ituated o n t heir m ain l ongitudinal a xes, a t t he e nd o f t he m ain h ail. B ut, o n t he o ther h and, i n t he p ure C anaanite t emple a t T el M evorakh, d ated t o t he 1 3th c entury B .C ., t he r aised p latform i s s ituated j ust a t t he c orner o f t he t emple h ail ( Fig . 5 2). T herefore, t he d ifference i n l ocalization a s w ell a s i n t he s hape, d imensions e tc., w ere m ore o f a s econdary i mportance a nd, i t i s a lmost c ertain, t hese r esulted f irst o f a ll, f rom t he m ore g eneral d ifferences e xisting b etween t he p lans a nd l ayouts o f t he t emples t hemselves. F rom t he f oregoing i t f ollows t hat t here i s n o a dequately j ustified r eason f or w hich w e s hould c onsider t he r aised p latforms i n t he t emples a t T ell Q asile, T el M iqne a nd A shdod t o b e m ore a p art o f t he p urely L evantine t radition o f t emple a rchitecture, t han, f or e xample, t he A egean o ne. O n t he o ther h and, t he w ide d iffusion o f s uch p latforms m ust h ave b een c aused, i n g eneral, b y t he e xistence o f s imilar c ult r equirements a mong t he p eoples o f t he E astern M editerranean h aving s imilar g estures, a cts, b ehaviours e tc., i n t he s phere o f r eligious p ractices a nd r ituals. R egardless o f w hether w e w ould l ike t o c lassify s ome o f t he c ult s tructures p latform , p latform , t ablet, d ais, c ult b ench e tc.,

a s a r aised a ll o f t hem

u ndoubtedly h ad t he s ame f unction. T he f inds d iscovered o n a nd a round t hem , l eave n o r oom t o d oubt t hat t hese s erved a s p laces t o e xpose t he c ult o bjects a nd v arious p araphernalia c onnected i n s ome w ay w ith t he r eligious c eremonies p erformed i n a g iven t emple. T here s till r emains a nother i nteresting f act t o c onsider r egarding t he r aised p latforms. I n t he t emples a t T ell Q asile a nd A shdod t hese s tructures o ccur a lone, w hereas i n t he C ypriote t emples s uch p latforms a re, a s a r ule, a ccompanied b y h earth-altars. T he a ssociation i nside a t emple o f a p latform o n w hich t he s ymbols r epresenting t he d ivinity w ere p laced, w ith h earth a ltar o n w hich b urnt-offerings w ere m ade, s eems a t p resent t o b e c haracteristic m ainly f or C yprus a nd p erhaps f or S yro-Palestine ( in t he t emples a t K amid e l-Loz). I n t he A egean t emples, t his c ustom i s l ess w ell a ttested. I t i s p ractically o nly i n t he R oom w ith t he F resco a t M ycenae, t hat t he r aised p latform a nd h earth a ltar a re l ocated s ide b y s ide ( Fig. 4 4). O ccasionally t he l ow r ectangular s tructure l ying i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f r aised p latforms i n t he T emple i n M ycenae, h as b een c onsidered t o h ave b een a h earth a ltar. H owever, t he d iscoverer hiT t races o f b urning w ere f ound o n i ts s urface.

lf

h as

s tated

t hat

n o

°

I n t he s ame c ity, t he s o-called M egaron 2 , w hich i s s ometimes i nterpreted a s a c ult b uilding, w as p rovided w ith a h earth b ut, o n t he o ther h and, n o e vidence o f a p latform h as b een f ound ( Fig. 4 3). H earth a ltars d o n ot o ccur e ither i n C ult H ouse C a t A sine o r i n t he W est a nd E ast S hrines a t P hylakopi o n M elos. I n R oom V o f t he t emple a t A yia I rini o n K ea, a n a ltar b uilt f or b urnt s acrifices s b een d iscovered, b ut t here i s n o e vidence o f a p latform n ear i t ( Fig. 4 8). T he b enches s ituated a long t he w all o f t his R oom w ere, h owever, u sed a s s eating p laces a nd n or f or t he e xposing o f c ult o bjects. I t hink t hat i n t he d iscussed m atter w e h ave d ealt w ith s ome, a fter a ll, q uite n atural r egional d ifferentiations i n t he s phere o f t he c ult p ractices p erformed i n t he t emples o f v arious r egions. I n t he C ypriote

t emples

t here w as t he c ustom o f p utting p latforms

9 8

w ith

t he

c ult o bjects o n t hem a nd h earth a ltars s ide b y s ide, w hereas t he p resence o f h earth a ltars n ear r aised p latforms i n t he t emples o f T ell Q asile a nd A shdod w as u nnecessary. T he p ossibility c annot b e e xcluded a lso t hat i n b oth t he l ast m entioned t emples t he b urnt-offerings w ere p racticed o n s mall p ortable a ltars, a c ustom v ery w ell a ttested t hroughout t he e ntire N ear E ast. T o s um u p, t he f act o f t he p resence o f a r aised p latform i n a g iven t emple ( together w ith o r w ithout a h earth a ltar) c annot b e u sed b y i tself t o d etermine t he c ultural s phere t o w hich t his s tructure a s w ell a s t he w hole t emple i n q uestion s hould b e a ttributed. I t c ould e qually w ell b e a s phere o f t he A egean c ulture ( which w as a lso v ery d ifferentiated), C ypriote c ulture, o r t he S yro-Palestinian o ne. N evertheless, i n a ssuming t hat t he u sers o f t he t emples a t T ell Q asile, T el M iqne a nd A shdod w ere r epresentatives o f t he A egean c ulture, t hen t he r aised p latforms i n t hese t emples w ould c onstitute o ne o f t he e lements c onfirming s uch a n e thnic i dentification o r, a t l east, n ot r efuting i t. I n t he c ase o f t he L CIII t emples a t K ition a nd E nkomi, i t i s o bvious t hat t he c ustom u ndoubtedly i ndigenious o n C yprus o f p utting i n t he t emple i nterior a p latform a nd h earth a ltar s ide b y s ide, w as t otally a ccepted b y t he A egean s ettlers. F or t hem, o n t he o ther h and, t his c ustom c ould h ave b een w ell k nown, t his s uggestion i s s upported b y t he a bove m entioned e xample o f t he h earth a ltar a nd p latform i n t he R oom w ith t he F resco i n M ycenae. -

-

C . I n C ourtyard 11 o f t he s anctuary a t T ell Q asile a s quare s tructure b uilt o f s tones h as b een d iscovered ( N 6 ). M azar i nterprets i t a s t he f oundation o f a s acrificial a ltar.' S tructures o f t his t ype w ere v ery p opular i n t he C anaanite t emple c ourtyards a s w ell a s i n t he A egean a nd C ypriote t emple c ourtyards. M any o f t he A egean i conographic s ources l eave n o r oom t o d oubt t hat r ectangularly s haped f ree-standing s tructures, u sually c rowned w ith t he s o-called h orns o f c onsecration w ere o ne o f t he m ost c haracteristic f eatures o f t he M inoan/Mycenaean c ulture. A lso o n C yprus, t he s quare, f ree-standing s tructures s ituated i n t emple c ourtyards ( Webb's T ype A ) a re a ssociated w ith t he h orns o f c onsecration, f or e xample i n T emenos A a t K it g9 ( No. 1 6) a nd t he f amous a ltar i n t he s anctuary a t M yrtou-Pigadhes ( Figs. 5 8-59). I n t he c ase o f t he s tructure i n t he T ell Q asile s anctuary c ourty ard, a nd b ecause o f i ts v ery f ragmentary s tate o f p reservation, w e a re n ot a ble t o s ay a nything a bout i ts o riginal a ppearance a nd f unction. W hether i t w as a ctually a n a ltar f or b urnt-offerings ( no t races o f a shes a nd b urning h ave b een f ound a round i t), o r i t w as a k ind o f a p odium o n w hich a c ult e mblem w as p laced, a s w as i n t he c ase o f C ypriote s tructures T ype A , i s a q uestion w hich m ust r emain u nanswered. I n a ny c ase, w e h ave n o s ufficient e vidence t o e xclude o ne o f t he t wo s uggested a lternatives. L et u s r eturn f or a m oment t o t he q uestion o f t he h orns o f c onsecration. T heir a ppearance i n t he C ypri9 t emples o f L CIII c ontext a t K ition , P alaepaphos, M yrtou-Pigadhes' i s c onnected w ith t he a rrival a nd l ater o n w ith t he s ettlement o f t he A egean c olonists. T he f act t hat t he s hape o f t he C ypriote h orns o f c onsecration i s s omew hat d ifferent f rom j 4S i r A egean c ounterparts s hould n ot b e a d enial o f t heir A egean o rigin. I t i s a bsorbing t hat t he h orns o f c onsecration c ommonly c onsidered t o b e t he m ost c haracteristic f eature o f t he A egean

9 9

c ivilization, d o n ot o ccur o r, t o b e m ore p recise, h ave n ot b een f ound i n e ach a nd e very o f t he A egean c ult p laces. F or e xample, h orns o f c onsecration w ere n ot f ound e ither i n t he s anctuary a t A yia I rini o n K ea, o r i n a v ery w ell p reserved s anctuary a t P hylakopi o n M elos. T his m ay b e p roof o f t he i nternal d ifferent °o n o f t he A egean r eligion, a t l east i n i ts m aterial m anifestations. T herefore, t he l ack o f t he h orns o f c onsecration i n a s anctuary o therwise c onsidered t o b e a c ult p lace o f r epresentatives o f t he A egean c ulture, i s n o r epudiation o f t he A egean c haracter o f t he c ult a nd t he r eligious b eliefs i n t he s anctuary i n q uestion. T he s o-called h orned a ltars e xisted i n t he I sraelite c ulture; t hey a re a lso f requently m entioned i n t he B ible. T he h orned a ltars y ielded t hrough e xcavations, h owever, d o n ot e xactly r esemble t he A egean h orns o f c onsecration . T he l atter a lways c onstitute a s ingle p air o f h orns p laced o n a p odium w hereas t he I sraelite h orned a ltars a re u sually r ectangular o cks, a ll f our t op c orners o f w hich h ave h orn-shaped p rojections.' N evertheless, t he t ypical A egean h orns o f c onsecration a s w ell a s t he P alestinian f our-horned a ltars t estify t o t he e xistence o f a r ather s imilar, a s r egards t heir f orm, c ult e mblems o f t he E astern M editerranean i n t he L ate B ronze A ge. I t i s d ifficult h owever, t o d etermine t o w hat d egree t he s imilarity i n f orm d enotes i n t his p articular c ase, t he s imilarity o f t he r eligious b eliefs s ymbolized b y t hese v ery s pecific o bjects. W hat d oes s eem t o b e b eyond d oubt i s f act t hat t he i mages o f h orns c onstituted a v ery i mportant, i f n ot m ost i mportant a nd t he h oliest c omponent o f a s anctuary e quipment t he w hole a rea o f t he E astern M editerranean . T his i s a ttested b y p rominent p osition o ccupied b y t he h orned s ymbols i n t he s anctuary w ell a s b y t he f act t hat t he h orns w ere c onsidered t o b e a n a sylum f ugitives a nd l aw-breakers w ho b y c atching h old o f h e h orns t hemselves u nder t he p rotection o f s upernatural p ower. 1 5

t he t he i n t he a s f or p ut

D . A nother c ult s tructure i n t he T ell Q asile s anctuary i s s ituated w est o f T emple 2 00, e xactly i n f ront o f t he e ntrance l eading t o S hrine 3 00 ( No. 5 ). T he e xcavator s upposes t hat e ither r itual a ls w ere p repared h ere o r i t w as a n a ltar f or b lood o fferin g s . I t i s i nteresting t hat t here i s n o r elevant a nalogy f or t his i nstallation i n P alestine w hile a s imilar i nstallation i s h aps t o h e f ound i n t he c ourtyard o f t he M yrtou-Pigadhes s a n c t u a r y. T o t his, a r itual b asin s ituated i n t he c ourtyard o f t he O belisk T emple a t B yblos m ay s erve a s a n a nalogy: a t Ygy e nd o f t his c ourtyard t here w as a l arge j ar s et i nto t he g round. T his c ult i nstallation a t B yblos i s a lso c onsidered b y W ebb t o b e t he c losest p arallel t o t he l arge s lab w ith a d epressed gface l ying i n t he c ourtyard o f S anctuary I a t P alaepaphos IUU

( No. 3 6). H owever, n o s ource o r r eceptable f or l iquids w as n ear i t. M aier h a u alified t his f ind a s o ffering t able, W ebb a blutionary b asin. 6

-

f ound a s a n

E . A n e nigmatic c ult i nstallation h as s urvived i n S tratum I X o f t he T ell Q asile s anctuary, i n t he C ourtyard 1 03 ( No. 7 ). T his c ould h s erved a s a k ind o f a s acrificial a ltar, a s M azar s upposes. H owever, t he s tate o f p reservation o f t his i nstallation i s t oo f ragmentary t o d raw a ny m eaningful p arallels t o i t.

1 00

F . W e f inally c onsider t he v ery i ntriguing i nstallations, w hich a re c ommonly i nterpreted a s s laughtering b locks. S uch b locks h ave b een f ound i n t he s anctuary o f t he I ngot G od a t E nkomi ( Nos. 4 3, 4 4) a nd i n T emenos A a t K ition ( No. 1 7). I n t he f ormer c ase t here a re t wo f rees tanding s tones w ith c oncave s urfaces ( Fig. 6 0). I n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t hem a l arge p ierced s tone ( No. 4 5) i s i tuated. J .-C. C ourtois h as a ruged t hat t his w as a t ethering s tone. '6 I n t he s econd c ase, i .e. a t K ition, t wo r ectangular b locks ( of h alf t he s ize o f t hose i n E nkomi) w ith c oncave s urfaces a re s ituated i n f ront o f t he b ench o r t able b uilt a gainst t he s outh w all o f t he c ourtyard. N ear t hem t he u pper p art o f a s tone a nchor h as b een f ound. I ts f unct gg c ould h ave b een s imilar t o t hat o f t he t ethering s tone f rom E nkomi. A part f rom t he a bove d iscussed b locks a t E nkomi a nd K ition n o a na1p ous s tructures e ither o n C yprus o r t he N ear E ast a re k nown t o U S. „ A lso, a s tone b lock s et i nto t he f loor i n t he N orth R oom o f laughterS tructure t H ouse o f T sountas a t M ycenae, i nterpreted aT 69 s i ng b lock, b ear n o r esemblance t o t he C ypriote e xamples. A s W ebb h as o bserved, t he A egean i conographical s ources i ndicate t hat " the s acrificial b east w as o ften u ghtered w hile l ying t russed u p o n a w ide w aist-high w ooden t able. " ‚

T he u niqueness o f t he s laughtering b locks f rom E nkomi a nd K ition r esults, i n m y o pinion, f rom t he f act t hat i t i s j ust o n t hese s ites t hat s uch b locks h ave s urvived u p t o t he p resent. T he n egative e vidence f or t heir a ppearance i n o ther s anctuaries i s r ather u ncertain e vidence. W herever b urnt- o r b lood o fferings w ere m ade t here m ust h ave b een s imilar i nstallations.

C onclusion I n c oncluding o ur d iscussion w e h ave t o s tate t hat o n t he t erritories w hich a re t he o bjects o f o ur i nterest, t here a ppear n o t ype o f s pecial f acilities, w hich w ould b e c haracteristic f or t emples i n t he A egean, o r C yprus, o r P alestine e xclusively. F or e ach o f t he s tructures c ollected a bove, w e c an f ind p arallels i n w hichever a rea o f t he E astern M editerranean w orld. T herefore, n one o f t he s pecial f acilities k nown u p t o t he p resent m ay b e u sed b y i tself t o d enote t he c ultural b ackground o f i ts u sers.

B ENCHES B enches h ave b een p reserved i n t he s anctuary o f t he I ngot G od a t E nkomi, T emples 2 ( ? )‚ 4 a nd 5 a t K ition, i n t he c ultic/industry s ite a t A thienou, i n t he s anctuary a t T ell Q asile. I n t he S outhern T emple a t B eth S han, t he p art o f b enches c ould h ave b een p layed p erhaps b y t he l ow w alls s ituated b etween t he i ntercolumniations i n t he m ain t emple h all. B enches b uilt a long t he w alls i nside t he t emples w ere a c haracteristic c omponent o f t he s acred a rchitecture i n t he A egean, C yprus, S yro-Palestine, A natolia a nd M esopotamia. A . M azar h as m ade t he o bservation t hat b enches c onstituted a c haracteristic f eature

1 01

e specially i n s mall t emples, w hereas t hey w ere r are i n t he l arge, m onumental a nd s ymmetrical t emples. I t i s a lso p ossible, a s t he s ame s cholar s upposes, t hai 0t his a rchitectural d iversity m ay r eflect d ifferent c ult r ituals. 7 D espite w hat s ome s cholars s ometimes b elieve, b enches b y t hems elves a re n ot, n or c an b e, a n i ndicative o f t he s anctity o f t he g iven s tructures o r s ite w here t hey h ave b een d iscovered. B enches f orm a c ommon p art o f o rdinary h ousehold e quipment i n w hich t heir e xistence r esults f rom t he d aily r equirements o f a m an r unning a f arm . T hey s erved w ell b oth a s s eating p laces a nd f or r esting, a nd a lso f or s toring t he v arious i ndispensable t hings t o e xistence. D oubtless, t he a ppearance o f b enches i n s acred b uildings, w hich w ere a lso h ouses , h owever, n ot o f a m an, b ut o f a d eity, m ay b e i ndicative o f t he i mitation o f o rdinary h ousehold e quipment. T he f unction o f t he b enches r emained t he s ame w hile t he s ort o f o bjects p laced o n t hem d iffered a nd t heir u sers w ere d ifferent. I n t he t emples, b enches w ould h ave s erved a s s eating p laces f or t he t emple p ersonnel d uring c ult c eremonies, s acrificies, r itual f easts e tc. B enches c ould h ave a lso s erved a s s helves f or h olding t he v arious c ult o bjects, v otive o fferings a nd s o o n. I n t his c ase a b ench i s n othing m ore t han a k ind o f s pecial f acility u sed d uring r eligious a ctivities . T he l ast m entioned f unction, c an w ell b e o bserved f or e xample, i n t he s anctuary o f t he I ngot G od a t E nkomi w here v arious ç t o bjects h ave b een d iscovered i n s itu o n a nd a round t he b enches.' I t i s v ery l ikely t hat i n t he b enches w e s hould s ee p erhaps t he o rigins o f a " raised p latform". T he l atter i n s ome c ases d irectly a djoined a b ench, a nd b oth s tructures c onstituted a s ingle u nit, e .g., i n t he T emple a t T ell Q asile. S urely, t he f act o f t he o ccurrence o f b enches i n t he t emples o f a g iven r egion i s g enerally a n i ndigenious c ustom, d eeply r ooted i n a l ocal b uilding t radition. I t w ould b e h ard t o s ee t he a ppearance o f b enches i n t he t emples o f a ny a rea a s t he i nfluence o f t he f oreign a rchitectural t radition o f f ar o r l ess r emoved r egions a nd c ultures, e .g., t he i nfluence o f t he N ear E astern t emples w ith t he b enches i n t he A egean t emples a lso p rovided w ith b enches, o r v ice v ersa. I n t he c ase o f t he T ell Q asile s anctuary, i t m ay b e h owever, t hat b enches h ave b een f ound n ot o nly i nside t he S hrine, b ut a l i n t he t emple c ourtyard, n amely a long t he

s ignificant T emple a nd e astern w a l l

o f T emple 1 31' 2 ( Fig. 2 4). A s M azar h as e mphasized, t he l ocation o f t his b ench i s u nparalleled i n t he o ther t emples i n P alestine, w hereas i t r ecalls t he b enches o ccurring a l 9 t he w alls f acing t he c ourtyard o f t he s anctuary a t M yrtou-Pigadhes ( Fig. 4 0). T o t his a nalogy, I t hink, s ome o thers c an b e a dded. T hese a re a s f ollows: T emenos A a t K ition w ith b enches s ituated a long i ts s outhern w all ( Fig. 7 ), t he s anctuary a t A thienou w ith a b ench o n t he s o-called n orth-eastern p latform ( Fig. 1 5), a nd t he s anctuary a t P hylakopi o n M elos ( Fig. 4 7) w here a b ench i s s ituated a long a w all i n t he p all c ourtyard e xtending b etween t he E astern a nd W estern S hrines.' l t i s a lso w orth m entioning a w ell k nown t erracotta m odel o f a s hrine f rom V ounous, '

C yprus. I t d epicts a c ircular, o pen-a ' 5t emenos p rovided i nside, a mong o thers, w ith a b ench a lon g s id e a wa l l. T he n ext p ossible a nalogy w e w ould a lso h ave w hile i nterpreting R oom V p rovided w ith b enches i n t he t emple a t A yia I rini o n K ea, a s a c ourtyard i n f ront o f t he c ult h ouse a nd n ot a s a r oofed i nner t emple r oom ( Fig. 4 8). A s imilar s ituation i s a lso t o b e f ound i n t he c ase o f t he I ngot G od s anctuary a t E nkomi

1 02

w here b enches w ere c onstructed a gainst t hree w alls, i .e., t he n orthern, s outhern a nd e astern w alls ( Fig. 2 0). T he p lan o f t his s anctuary c an b e u nderstood i n a t l east t wo w ays. I n t he f irst c ase i t w ould b e a l arge c ourtyard e nclosed b y w alls a nd o pen t o t he s ky a s a w hole, e xcept i ts r oofed n orth-eastern p art ( celia?). I n t he s econd c ase, o nly t he n orthern p art o f t he s anctuary w ould b e r oofed, w hile t he s outhern o ne r emained o pen-air. I n a ny c ase, t his s anctuary h ad a g reater o r s maller o pen-air a rea ak ind o f a c ourtyard p rovided w ith a b ench o r b enches. -

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M aybe t hen t he o ccurrence o f b enches i n o pen-air s anctuaries a s w ell a s i n t emple c ourtyards w as a c haracteristic f eature o f t emple a rchitecture i n t he A egean a nd C yprus. I f t his s uggestion i s t o b e a ccepted, t hen a t l east t he b ench i n t he T eil Q asile t emple c ourtyard m ay a ctually b e i ndicative o f t he c lose a rchitectural a ffinity o f t his s anctuary w ith t he A egean a nd C ypriote s acred s tructures. H owever, t his s uggestion m ust, f or t he t ime b eing r emain a t entative o ne u ntil s ome m ore r elevant e vidence c omes t o l ight.

P ILLARS E vidence o f p illars o r c olumns p robably r oof s upports w as f ound i n t he f ollowing s acred b uildings: " Lion T emple" a t J affa, T emple 1 31 a t T ell Q asile, N orthern a nd S outhern T emples a t B eth S han, T emples 1 , 2 , 4 a nd 5 a t K ition, S anctuary o f t he H orned G od, S anctuary o f t he I ngot G od ( ? ) a t E nkomi, S anctuary I a t P alaepaphos. -

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T he c haracteristic f eature o f T emple 1 31 a nd t he " Lion T emple" i s v ery c learly a ccentuation o f t heir l ongitudinal a xes b y t he r ow o f p illars. T he s ame f eature i s t o b e f ound a lso i n t he N orthern a nd S outhern T emples a t B eth S han, T emples 1 a nd 5 a t K ition, a nd i n S anctuary I a t P alaepaphos, w ith t he o nly d istinction t hat t he a ccentuation o f t he l ongitudinal a xes i n t hese b uildings h as b een a ttained w ith t he h elp o f t wo r ows o f p illars. F or t he a ppearance o f p illars a long t he l ong a xis i n T emple 1 31 a t T ell Q asile a nd " Lion T emple" a t J affa, A . M azar g ives p arallels f rom t he A egean r egion a nd l yprus: t he teT9 es E leusis, A sine, E nkomi ( Sanctuary o f t he Ingo t Go d ).

t he f ollowing a t M ycenae, I t hink t hat

t o t hese e xamples s hould b e a dded a lso Tmple 4 a t K ition a nd, t he W est S hrine a t P hylakopi o n M elos. 1 7 T he

f act

t hat t he p illars d o n ot a ppear i n t he

S yrian

p erhaps,

t emples,

w hereas t hey a re a c haracteristic f eature o f t he E gyptian t emples, h as l ed s ome s cholars t o t he h ypothesis t hat t he o ccurrence o f p illars i n s ome C anaani t emples w as c aused b y t he i nfluence o f Eg y pti an s acre d a rchitecture. 8 Id o n ot r eject t he p ossibility o f s uch a n i nfluence, b ut a t t he s ame t ime, I t hink t hat m ore c aution s hould b e t aken w hile d etermining f or w hat r easons t he p illars w ere b uilt i n t he t emples, n ot o nly i n P alestine, b ut a lso i n a ny o ther r egion o f t he E astern M editerranean. I t i s e vident b y i tself t hat a p illar i s a n a rchitectural e lement w hose e xistence r esults p rimarily f rom c onstruct ional n ecessities, n amely w hen t he a vailable r oof b eams a re t oo s hort t o c over t he s pan o f t he r oof o f a t emple o r a ny o ther b uilding. T herefore t he p ossibility c an n ever b e e xcl u de d t h a t ap p earance of

1 03

p illars i n a g iven t emple w as s imply a n i ndigenious i dea a nd n ot o ne i ndicative o f a f oreign a rchitectural i nfluence. E gyptian i nfluence, f or e xample, c an b e t aken f or g ranted o nly t hen w hen t his i nfluence a ppears n ot o nly s olely i n t he f act o f t he p resence o f p illars, b ut w hen t hese p illars a lso r eveal E gyptian s tylistic f eatures. S imilarly, t he h ypothesis s tating p otential r elationships b etween t he a rchitecture o f t he t emples a t J affa, T ell Q asile a nd B eth S han o n t he o ne h and a nd t he a rchitecture o f t he A egean a nd C yprus o n t he o ther, c annot a lso b e d efended a s l ong a s i t i s b ased o n t he s ole f act t hat i n s ome t emples o f t he A egean, C yprus a nd C anaan t here h ave o ccurred o ne o r t wo r ows o f p illars a ccentuating t he l ongitudinal a xis o f t hese b uildings. I nstead t his h ypothesis i s p erhaps s trengthened b y t wo f acts. T he f irst o f t hem i s t hat t his p articular a rrangement o f p illars i n t he t emples a t T ell Q asile, J affa a nd B eth S han c ontrasts v ery c learly w ith t he l ayouts o f t he p urely C anaanite t emples w here t he p illars, i f t hey o ccurred, a ccentuated r ather t he t ransversal a xis o f t emples, e .g., a t H azor ( Fig. 3 7), o r t hey a re a q uite n eutral a rchitectural c omponent, i .e. n one o f t he a xes i s a ccentuated, e .g i n t he F osse T emple a t L achish ( Fig. 3 1 B , C ). T he s econd f act i s t he w idth o f t he T emple 1 31 a nd L ion T emple w hich d oes n ot r equire a ny i nternal s upports f or t he r oof b eams. H owever, s ince t he p illars w ere i ndeed u sed i n t he c ited t emples, i t c an o nly m ean t hat t he b uilders w hile b uilding t heir t emples w ere g uided n ot b y f unctional n ecessities b ut w ere a ttached t o a s pecific a rchitectural t radition. W here t hen d id t his a ssumed t radition o riginated? A lthough i t i s s till r isky t o g ive a d efinite a nswer t o t his q uestion, i n t he l ight o f t he d iscussion p resented h itherto i t s eems t hat t his c ould b e t he A egean a nd C yprus. I n f avour o f t his s uggestion m ay a lso b e t he A egean a nd C ypriote c haracter o f t he m any f inds d iscovered i n t he t emples a t T ell Q asile a nd B eth S han ( alas, t he f inds f rom t he L ion T emple h ave n ot, a s y et, b een p ublished).

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C HAPTER I V:

G ENERAL R EMARKS A ND C ONCLUSIONS

W e h ave n ow c ompleted o ur s urvey o f t he e vidence f or t he r eligious a rchitecture o f t he " Aegean S ea P eoples". T he f inal t ask i s n ow t o r ecapitulate t he m ain s teps o f o ur r esearches a nd t o a nswer t he q uestions p osed a t t he b eginning o f t his w ork. I n t he f irst C hapter, a n a ttempt h as b een m ade t o d etermine h istorical, c hronological a nd g eographical f ramework o f o ur s tudy,

t he a s

w ell a s t o s uggest a p ossible i dentification o f t he s o-called " Sea P eoples". S ome o f t he N ear E astern a nd E gyptian d ocuments g ive a g eneral i dea o f t he p olitical a nd c ultural s ituation i n t he E astern M editerranean a t t he c lose o f t he L ate B ronze A ge. H owever, t hese d ocuments a re, i n f act, t oo i mprecise a nd o bscure t o b e u sed i n a ny a ttempt t o s ettle s everal d etailed h istorical q uestions, a mong t hem, t he " Sea P eoples p roblem", t he A egean c olonization p rocess o f t he L evant a nd t he m utual r elation b etween t hese t wo e vents. T herefore, w e h ave b ased o ur r esearches o n a rchaeological e vidence a lone, o r t o b e p recise, o n t he p ottery. M ycenaean I IIC:lb p ottery, n ow d ated t o t he v ery b eginning o f t he 1 2th c entury B .C., c onstitutes t he w ell k nown a nd p recisely d efined g roup o f c eramic s tyle a nd f abric t hat i s e xcavated a t n umerous s ites i n t he E astern M editerranean, m ainly o n C yprus a nd a long t he S yro-Palestinian c oast. I n P alestine, a round t he m iddle o f t he 1 2th c entury B .C., t his p ottery b egan t o c hange i nto a n ew p ottery s tyle

c alled

" Philistine p ottery",

t he e thnic

a ttribution

o f

w hich

s eems t o b e w ell f ounded a nd i ndisputable. S ince i t i s g enerally b elieved t hat t he l ocaly m ade M ycenaean I IIC:lb p ottery d enotes t he a rrival a nd s ubsequent s ettlement o f t he A egeans, o r e ven M ycenaean G reeks, w e h ave a ssumed t hat t he s pecific P alestinian d erivation o f t he M ycenaean p ottery, i .e. " Philistine p ottery", i n c onsequence a ttests t o t he A egean o rigin o f S ea P eoples. T herefore, I h ave i ntroduced i n t his w ork t he t erm " Aegean S ea P eoples", w hich u nites t he t wo h istorical e vents

( and

t heir p articipants) h itherto

c onsidered

a s

u nconnected

o nes: t he p rocess o f A egean s ettlement i n t he L evant a t t he c lose o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C ., a nd t he " invasion" o f t he S yro-Palestinian c oast a nd E gypt o f p eoples m entioned i n t he E gyptian s ources. H aving t hen e stablished t he g eneral i dentification o f t he l atter w ith t he A egeans, i t w as p ossible t o g o f urther a nd g roup t ogether t he s acred s tructures w hich m ay h ave b een c lassified a s o nes u sed b y t he A egean S ea P eoples. A gain, t he p ottery h as s erved a s a t ouchstone, s ince t he s acred s tructures f rom t he s ites w here t hey c ould b e s tratigraphicaly c onnected

w ith

t he

a ppearance

o f

t he

M ycenaean

I IIC:lb

a nd/or

P hilistine p ottery, h ave b een t aken i nto c onsideration. T he n ext s tep i n t he i nvestigation w as t he p resentation a nd d iscussion o f e ach o f t hese t emples a nd s anctuaries a s w ell a s t he v arious c omponents o f t he r eligious a rchitecture. W hat

t hen e merges f rom t hese i nvestigations?

1 05

H as

t he

r eligious

a rchitecture o f t he A egean S ea P eoples i ts o wn c haracteristic f eatures d istinguishing i t f rom t he i ndigenious r eligious a rchitecture o f b oth C yprus a nd P alestine? D oes a ny r elationship e xist b etween t he t emples o f t he A egean , C yprus a nd P alestine i n t he 1 2th-11th c enturies B .C.? a nd, i f s o, o f w hat k ind a nd c haracter w as t his r elationship? I s i t, a s o ne c ould e xpect, a n a rchitectural r elationship, o r n ot? T here c an h e n o s imple a nswers t o t hese q uestions. F irst, w e s hould r ealize t hat i n o ur i nvestigations m uch d epends o n t he q uantity a nd q uality o f t he a ccessible e vidence r elated t o t he s ubject. I n t he c ase o f C yprus w e h ave a c onsiderable n umber o f s acred s tructures w hich c an b e r elated t o t he A egean S ea P eoples a nd m ost o f t hese s tructures h ave b een w ell p ublished. A s r egards t he r eligious a rchitecture o f t he A egean S ea P eoples s ettled i n P alestine, t his i s s omewhat l ess w ell r epresented, b oth i n q uality a nd q uantity . P ractically o nly t he P hilistine s anctuary a t T ell Q asile i s s ufficiently e xcavated a nd p ublished. T he e xcavations a t T el M iqne-Ekron w hich a re v ery p romising, a re s till c ontinuing a nd w e s hall h ave t o w ait f or t he f inal p ublication o f t he s acred s tructures d iscovered t here s o f ar. T he " Lion T emple" a t J affa, w ith r egard t o w hich i t c an o nly b e c onjecture t hat t his w as u sed b y t he A egean S ea P eoples, h as n ot a s y et, b een p ublished. T he t emples a t B eth S han w ere e xcavated b efore t he 2 nd W orld W ar w hen t he e xcavation m ethods a nd t he d ocumentation o f t he a rchitectural r emains l eave m uch t o b e d esired. T he t emple a t A shdod i s t oo r ecent a s tructure ( 8th c entury B .C.) t o b e r elevant i n o ur s tudies. M oreover, a nd t his r emark c oncerns a ll t he t emples a nd s anctuaries d iscussed i n o ur w ork, w e h ave a t o ur d isposal t heir g round p lans o nly. T his f act l eads u s t o t he v ery g eneral a nd c ontroversial q uestion t o b e d iscussed n ow , n amely t he u se o f a t ypological a pproach i n t he s tudies o n t he r eligious a rchitecture. S uch a n a pproach, a s w e s hall s ee b elow , h as b een a pplied i n M azar's a nalysis o f t he t emple a rchitecture o f t he T ell Q asile s anctuary a nd i ts r elationship w ith t he t emple a rchitecture o f P alestine, C yprus a nd t he A egean r egion. T herefore, t he m ethodological p roblems c onnected w ith M azar's a pproach w ill n ow h ave t o s erve a s a s tarting p oint i n t he d iscussion b elow . I n s earching f or a rchitectural a nalogies t o t he t emples o f t he T ell Q asile s anctuary, M azar d istinguished i n t he t emple a rchitecture o f P alestine t emples h aving a n " irregular p lan a nd i ndirect a ccess" a s t heir m ain c haracteristics.' T hese a re t he t emples a t: L achish ( Fosse T emple 1 -111), T el M evorakh, B eth-Shan V II-V , J affa ( "Lion T emple"), T ell A bu H awam I Va ( Building 3 0), T ell ö asile ( Temples 2 00 a nd 1 31), A shdod ( Temple i n A rea D ). T hese s tructures h ave t he f ollowing f eatures i n c ommon: " proportional d imensions, t he t hickness o f t he w alls, t he c orner e ntrances, t he i ndirect a ccess t o t he h oly-of-holies, t he b enches a long t he w alls, t he p i lars c arrying t he r oof, t he r aised p latform, a nd t he b ack c hambers.. T hese t emples a re i n o pposition t o t he g roup o f t emples r epresenting a l ong, W est-Semitic i ndigenious t radition i n P alestine, w hich i s a pparent i n t he m onumental, u sually f ree-standing b uildings w ith s ymmetrical p lans a nd e ntrances o pposite t he h oly-of-holies, a nd w ith a l ong o r b road c elia. A n on-Canaanean p opulation a nd p robably t he S ea P eoples a mong t hem, i n M azar's v iew , w as r esponsible f or t he o rigin o f t he " irregular t emples" i n C anaan. 3

1 06

o ther t hose

I t w as q uite n atural t hat M azar's t heory p rovoked a r esponse a mong a rchaeologists, b oth t hose i nterested i n t he A egean c ulture a nd i nterested i n N ear E astern o ne. A p resage o f t his ws t he

a rticle p ublished b y J . S chafer, a n A egean a rchaeologist. I n a nalyzing t he t emples m ainly f rom t he G reek m ainland h e d isagrees w ith t he s upposition t hat t here h ad e xisted a r elationship b etween t he A egean t emples a nd t he " irregular t emples" o f t he L evant. H e a lso d escribes t he t emples o f B eth S han V , t he t emple o f T ell Q asile ( Temple 1 31) a nd t he t emples a t K iti 3 n a s e xamples o f a n ative L evantine o r C anaanite t emple a rchitecture. F inally, E . S tern, i n t he f inal p ublication o f t he T el M evorakh t emples h as s ubmitted M azar's h ypothesis t o a c ritical e valuation. I n g eneral, h e h as a ccepted i n f ull t he t ypology o f t he " irregular t emples" a nd h e a dded t o t his g roup s ome o thers ( the u mmit T emple a t L achish, t he t emples a t K ittan I V-V, A bu H awam V ). M oreover, h e s ubdivided t he i rregular t emples i nto t wo s ub-types. T he f irst s ubt ype c ontains o f t he t emples a t L achish ( the S ummit T emple), B eth S han V II, V I, V ( the N orthern T emple); t he s econd s ub-type t hose a t K ittan I V-V , T ell Q asile X I-X , A bu H awam V -IVa, M evorakh X I-X, L achish F osse T emple I -Ill. F or S tern, " It s eems q uite c ertain t hat t he o rigin o f t he f irst s ub-type o f t hese P alestinian t emples o r a t l east t he s trongest i nfluence e xerted o n i t w as d erived f rom E gypt. . The s ame i s t rue c oncerning t he s econd s ub-type w hich s hould b e i nterpreted, t o o ur m ind, a s a m ore p opular f orm e merging f rom t he s ame E gypto-Canaanite o rigin . "7 ( Emphasis m ine). -

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-

. .

A nd s o , a s t he r esult o f M azar's, S ch fer's a nd S tern's i nvestigat ions, w e h ave a t o ur d isposal t hree r ather c onflicting c onclusions o n t he s ame q uestion , a nd w e h ave t o d ecide o n o ne o r a nother, o r e ndeavour t o p resent y et a nother o ne. B ut s uch a s tate o f a ffairs a lso p rovokes o ne t o r aise t he q uestion o f w hy t his i s s o. W hy d o t hese s cholars, s tarting f rom t he s ame g iven a rchaeological d ata, a rrive a t s uch v arying c onclusions? A s M azar's a nd S chäfer's t reatment o f t he e vidence i ndicates, t heir c onclusions a re l argely b ased o n t he t ypological a pproach t o t he p roblem. F rom a n a nalysis o f t he t emple g round p lans, t hey d ecide w hether o r n ot s ome o f t hese r epresent a p articular a rchitectural t radition. T heir c onclusions, u nfortunately, d o n ot h ave a p urely t ypological n ature a nd d o n ot o nly c oncern t he t emples a s p urely a rchitectural s tructures, f or t heir c onclusions a re m uch b roader a nd i nclude t he h istorical a nd c ultural a spects. T his i s c arrying t hings f ar b eyond t he c haracter o f t he a ccessible d ata. T he f ollowing q uestion c rops u p h ere: w hat k ind o f i nformation c an b e o btained t hrough t he a nalyses o f o nly t he g round p lans o f t he t emples w ith w hich w e a re c onfronted? I t g oes w ithout s aying t hat e very o bject o r s tructure e ver c reated b y m an i s i ntended t o p erform a c learly d efined f unction, o r e ven s everal f unctions s imultaneously. I t i s n eedless t o s ay t hat t he f orm, i .e. t he m aterial s hape o f a n o bject i s d etermined b y i ts f unction(s). H owever, i t i s n ecessary t o a dd h ere t hat i n m ost, i f n ot a ll t he c ases, t here a lso e xist v arious c ontingencies i n t he f ormal t reatment o f t he o bject w hich d id n ot n ecessarily h ave a n egative i mpact o n t he e fficient p erformance o f i ts b asic f unction(s). T he c hoice o f a

1 07

c oncrete f orm ( from a s et o f p ossibilities), s eems t o d epend m ainly o n t he c ultural t raditions o f i ts c reators. T his i s j ust t he f eature o f t he o bject w hich c an h e m ade t he s ubject o f s cholarly r esearch, e specially i n r elation t o t he o bject's n on-utiliarian a spects, f or e xample: t he p attern o rders, a nd m any o thers.

o f t he d ecoration o n p ottery, a rchitectural H owever, i n t he c ase o f t he t emples m entioned

b y M azar, S chafer a nd a lso i n t his w ork, w e h ave o nly b etter o r w orse p reserved g round p lans. T here i s l ittle e vidence w hich c an p rovide u s w ith m ore e ssential c ultural/ethnic i nformation. M eanwhile, t he s imilarity o bserved i n s uch g eneral a spects o f t he t emples l ike t heir a lignment, i nner a nd o uter l ayout, d imensions e tc., p rovides m any s cholars w ith g rounds f or c laiming t heir c ommon a rchitectural o rigin. O n t he o ther h and, t he t emporal c hangeability a nd t he t erritorial d ifferentation o f t he t emple g round p lans a re r egarded a s r eliable i ndicators o f d ifferent a rchitectural t raditions w hich, i n s ome c ases, a re a utomatically i nterpreted a s t he e thnic/cultural d ifferentation o f t heir m akers a nd u sers. H owever, t his i ssue i s n ot a s a pparent a s i t w ould s eem, a s t he c onflicting v iewpoints o f M azar a nd S chafer p rove. T herefore, i t c an b e s aid t hat a s trictly t ypological a pproach a pplied t o t he a rchitectural p lans o nly d oes n ot g uarantee o bjectives T hese a nswers c an n ever b e u nivocal, s ince t he a rchitectural i n q uestion m ay, d epending o n t he m ethodological p articular s cholars, b e d ivergently i nterpreted. I t

a lso

a nswers. e vidence

a ssumptions

s eems t hat t he h ypotheses p ut f orward b y

m any

o f

s cholars

c oncerning t emple a rchitecture a re d etermined b y a n u nconscious t ransmission t o t he e arlier p eriods o f c ultural p atterns f ormed i n t he C lassical G raeco-Roman w orld, i n w hich t he c anons o f r eligious a rchitecture h ad b een e stablished. T he a wareness o f t his f act c auses a p riori t he a ssumption t hat t he L ate B ronze a nd e arlier p opulations m ust h ave a dhered t o c ertain c learly d efined c anons o f r eligious a rchitecture a lso. I n c onsequence, t hese a ssumed c anons a re s ought b y s cholars w ho o ccassionally f all i nto t ypological t raps. H owever, r esearch i s

I b y n o m eans w ish t o s ay a t t his p oint t hat u seless a nd s hould n ot b e t aken i nto a ccount.

t ypological I t i s m y

b elief t hat e very t ypological d ivision a nd s cheme h as a bove a ll, a p urely d escriptive v alue s ince i t i s a rtificially pro duce d b y s cholars f or t heir o wn c onvenience. a lthough n ot n ecessarily s o,

O nly l ater o n m ay t hese a c ognitive v alue.

e ventually

h ave,

F rom t he m ethodological p oint o f v iew , i t s hould a lso n ot b e a ssumed t hat e very t emple h ad h ad t o b elong t o a c ertain w ell-defined a rchitectural a nd c ultural t radition, o r e ven t hat s uch a t radition w as p revalent i n a g iven p eriod a nd t erritory. T he a rchitectural p lans a nd f orms o f t he t emples i n t he p eriod u nder d iscussion c ould h ave b een c hanged w ithout a ffecting e ither t he o bservance o f t heir p rincipal f unction ( places o f c ult a nd r eligious r ites), o r t heir a ttachment t o a c ertain s pecific e thnic g roup. T he f ormal, c hronological a nd t erritorial v ariability o f t he t emples w hich c an b e c oncluded f rom t ypological o bservations n eed n ot s imultaneously b e c onsidered

t he a s

i ndicating u sers.

a nd

t he c ultural/ethnic d ifferentiation o f t heir

J et u s a ccept f or a w hile t he h ypotheses t hat t emples" r epresented t he a ctually e xisting a rchitectural

1 08

b uilders

1 ) " irregular t radition a nd

2 ) t hat t his t radition o riginated, a s S tern h as a rgued, i n t he C anaanean c ulture. I n t his c ase w e s hould t heoreticaly a lso i nclude i nto t he g roup o f " irregular t emples" a ll t he L ate B ronze A ge t emples o n C yprus a nd s ome A egean t emples t oo, s ince a ll o f t hem h ave m any f eatures i n c ommon w ith t he P alestinian g roup o f " irregular t emples". I n c onsequence, s uch t emples a s t hose a t M acenae, P hylakopi o n M elos, A yia I rini o n K ea, a s w ell a s t he C ypriote t emples a t K ition, P alaepaphos, M yrtou-Pigadhes s hould b e r egarded a s p art o f t he C anaanite a rchitectural t radition o r, o n t he c ontrary, t he P alestinian " irregular t emples" a s p art o f t he A egeo-Cypriote a rchitectural t radition. -

I r egard b oth p ossibilities a re e qually q uite n onsensical. I t s hould b e e mphasized o nce m ore t hat t he m ere b asis o n w hich t he c onception o f d istinguishing " irregular t emples" h as b een f ounded i s i nacceptable. T he d egree t o w hich t he r emains o f t he r eligious a rchitecture i n q uestion c an b e u sed a s a r elevant i ndicator o f t he c ultural a nd e ven e thnic a ttribution o f i ts m akers a nd u sers i s m inimal. A lthough t here a re s ome s imilarities b etween t he t emples o f t he A egean , C yprus a nd t he " irregular t emples" o f P alestine, t hese s imilarities a re, i n f act, v ery s uperficial. S uch c ommon f eatures l ike t hose p ointed o ut b y b oth M azar a nd S tern a re o f l ittle v alue a s r elevant a rchitectural a nalogies, f or t heir p resence i n a ny t emple c an b e e xplained f irst a nd f oremost i n p urely f unctional t erms. S uch a " functional" a pproach t o t he p roblem h as b een r ecently w ell e xpressed b y M . D emas w ho w rites: " ...the a rgument b ased o n a rchitectural f orm i s i nadequate f or d etermining o rigin o r i nfluence. S imilarity o f f orm m ay i ndeed b e a n i mportant i ndicator o f c ultural i nteraction a nd e ven o f d irect i nfluence v ia m igration o f p eoples, b ut i n m any c ases i t i s p erhaps t o b e s ought i n t he s imilarity o f f unctional r equirements. . Most o f t he t emples u nder c onsideration f ulfill t hese r equirements i n m uch t he s ame w ay." 8 . .

O ne t hing c an b e a lso a dded t o t he a bove s tatement. T he d istinguishing o f " irregular t emples" a nd t heir e thnic a ttribution i s a p urely m echanical a ct a ccomplished o n t he p rinciple o f g rouping t ogether a ll t he t emples n ot f itting i nto t he t raditional d ivision o f t he N ear E astern t emples i nto L ongroom a nd B roadroom t ype b uildings w ith s ymmetrical p lans. E ven m ore r isky a re t he a ttempts a t a ttributing s uch a n a rtificially c lassified g roup o f t emples 9 t0 a d efined e thnic g roup, o f a C anaanean o r n on-Canaanean p opulation. T hereby, o ur c onsiderations l ead t o t he c onclusion t hat a n ew a lternative a pproach i s n ecessary. I n m y o pinion, r esearch o n t he p roblem o f t he r elationships b etween t he A egean, C ypriote a nd s ome P alestinian t emples s hould n ot b e d irected s imply t owards t he f ormal s imilarity b etween t hem s ince, i t m ust b e e mphasized o nce m ore, t hat t he a rchitectural g round p lans i n q uestion c annot i nform u s o f t heir c ultural a nd e thnic a ttribution. T he i nvestigations s hould t hen b e o riented t owards a n a ttempt a t e xamining t he w hole c ontext w ithin w hich t hese t emples h ave b een d iscovered. N amely, t he a rchitectural r elationships, a nd e specially c ultural/ethnic a ttribution o f t he

1 09

b uilders a nd u sers o f t emples c ould b e r evealed t o t he f ull e xtent o nly b y a p arallel a nd c omplex c onfrontation a nd c omparison o f a ll t he a spects, b oth h istorical a nd a rchaeological, o f t he s ites w ithin w hich t hese t emples s tood, s ites c onsidered a s aw hole. I n o ther w ords, i f o ne p roves t hat t he m aterial c ulture a ssociated w ith t he t emples i n q uestion h as a n A egean c haracter a nd c onnotations, t hen, t he " relationship" b etween t hese t emples c an b e a ccepted a s h aving a ctually e xisted. H owever, s uch a c omplex a nalysis o f t he w hole m aterial c ulture c onnected w ith t he A egean S ea P eoples i s b eyond t he s cope o f o ur s tudy. W e h ave m erely d iscussed i n m ore d etail t he p ottery e vidence a s w ell a s s ome o f t he h istorical s ources r elated t o t he s ubject. I n t he l ight o f t his d iscussion, w e h ave c oncluded t hat s ome o f t he t emples f rom t he A egean , C yprus a nd P alestine s hould b e g rouped t ogether o n t he b asis o f t he f ollowing f act: t hat t hese t emples h ave b een d iscovered i n t he c ontext o f M ycenaean I IIC:lb a nd/or P hilistine p ottery. A ssuming t hat b oth p ottery t ypes p oint t o t he A egean o rigin o f t heir u sers, t he t emples a nd s anctuaries u nder d iscussion , i rrespective o f t he s imilarity o r d issimilarity i n t heir a rchitectural p lans a nd l ayouts, p layed t he s ame r ole: a s t he c ult p laces o f p eoples r epresenting t he s ame A egean a nd A egeo-Cypriote r eligious b eliefs, r ituals, c ustoms a nd s o o n. I n c onclusion, w e c an s ay t hat b oth M azar a nd S chäfer a re r ight t o s ome e xtent, a lthough t heir c onclusions s eem t o b e i ncompatible a t f irst s ight. O n t he o ne h and w e c an a gree w ith S chafer's c ritical r emarks c ited a bove, o n t he c ondition t hat t hey h ave a s trictly t ypological c haracter a nd n ot a n h istorical/cultural o ne. O n t he o ther h and w e c an c onsider M azar a s c orrect w hen h e p oints o ut t he e xistence o f a r elationship b etween t hese t emples, o n t he d istinct u nderstanding t hat s uch a r elationship d oes n ot c oncern t he a rchitectural p lans, b ut i s a r elationship m ainly b etween t he b uilders o f t he t emples i n t he A egean, t he t emples o n C yprus a nd t he t emples o f T ell O asile, T el M iqne e tc., i n P alestine. L et u s a ttempt t o a nswer a nother q uestion. H as t he A egean S ea P eoples' r eligious a rchitecture i ts o wn c haracteristic f eatures w hich d istinguish i t f rom t he i ndigenous r eligious a rchitecture o f C yprus a nd P alestine? A s r egards t hose o n C yprus, t he a nswer i s e mphatically n o . I n g eneral, a ll t he s acred b uildings o n C yprus c lassified h ere a s u sed b y t he A egean i mmigrants c learly r eveal i n t heir a rchitectural p lans a nd l ayouts a d irect c ontinuation o f t he a rchitectural f eatures t hat h ad b een e vident o n t he i sland p rior t o t heir a rrival a nd s ubsequent s ettlement a t t he b eginning o f t he 1 2th c entury B .C . T his i s e specially w ell v isible i n t he c ase o f t he L CIIIA t emple p recinct a t K ition a nd a t A thienou. H owever, s ome A egean c ontributions c an a lso b e o bserved. T hese a re t he M i i j i8an/Mycenaean h orns o f c onsecration a nd t he M ycenaean s tepped c apitals. F rom t he b roader p erspective o f t he w hole E astern M editerranean, t he r eligious a rchitecture o f C yprus r eveals i ts o wn c haracteristics. L et u s r ecall t hat o ne o f r esults o f o ur a nalysis o f t he t emples a t K ition, w as t he p roposal t o d istinguish t he C ypriote t ype o f t emple b uilding w hich, a s I h ave a rgued, h ad n o e xact a nd c onvincing a rchitectural a nalogies i n e ither t he A egean o r S yro-Palestine. I t i s

1 10

p ossible t hat t he t otal a daptation o f t his i ndigenious t ype o f s acred a rchitecture b y t he A egean i mmigrants r esulted f rom t he s imilar r ites a nd t he f unctional r equirements o f t he a rrivals a nd l ocal p opulation r egarding t he a rrangement o f a s acred s pace. I n c omplex.

t he c ase o f P alestine, m atters a re m uch m ore O ur r eply, h owever, d oes n ot c oncern t he

c omplicated t emples o f

a nd t he

A egean S ea P eoples i n P alestine. I nstead, w e o ught t o s tate t hat i n P alestine t here a ctually e xisted t emples w hich w ere c learly d istinguishable f rom t he r emaining o nes b uilt t here. H ere I m ean t he g roup o f t emples r epresented b y t he L ongroom a nd B roadroom t ype b uildi ngs w hich, a s M azar h as r ightly e mphasized, h ad a v ery s ymmetrical p lan a nd d irect a ccess. T hese t emples, i n f act, c an b e r egarded a s r epresenting t he l ong a rchitectural t radition p revailing i n B ronze A ge C anaan. H owever, t here w ere a lso o ther t emples w hich, a s r egards t heir s patial o rganization, c annot b e i ncluded i nto t he g roup o f s ymmetrical L ong- a nd B roadroom t ype b uildings. T emples, f or i nstance, l ike t hose a t T el M evorakh, L achish e tc., a s t he a ssociated f inds c learly s how, s hould u ndoubtedly b e r egarded a s p urely C anaanite t emple b uildings h uil a nd u sed b y t he l ocal p opulation a nd n ot b y a f oreign o ne a t a ll. 1 T hese b uildings h ave, t ogether w ith t he A egean S ea P eoples' t emples a t T ell Q asile, B eth S han , J affa a nd A shdod, b een u nfortunately i ncluded i nto t he a rtificially c reated g roup o f t he s o-called " irregular t emples". W e m ay g o e ven f urther a nd s ay t hat b esides t he C anaanean L onga nd B roadroom t ype t emples a nd t he C ypriote t emple t ype, t here w ere n o o ther c learly d efined t ypes o f s acred b uildings i n t he w hole o f t he E astern M editerranean, t his a lso i ncludes t he A egean r egions, t he s acred a rchitecture o f w hich i s v ery d ifferentiated a nd h eterogenous. T here o nly e xisted, b oth i n t he A egean a nd t he L evant, v arious i ndividual s acred s tructures, t he f orm o f w hich w as f irst o f a ll d ictated b y f unctional r equirements a nd t he t echnical p ossibilities o f t heir b uilders. O n t he l evel a vailable t o o ur k nowledge, s ome o f t hese s tructures a ppear t o b e s imilar. H owever, t heir s imilar f eatures c annot h e r egarded a s s ufficient t o p ostulate c ommon a rchitectural o rigins a nd t raditions f or t hem . I n o ther w ords, w e a re f aced h ere a t t he m ost w ith a c ultural p arallelism i n t he E astern M editerranean e vident i n t he r eligious a rchitecture, a nd n ot w ith a n a rchitectural a nd a c ultural d iffusion f rom W est t o E ast o r v ice v ersa. H aving a lso i n m ind, t he r ich a nd h eterogenous p icture o f t he A egean a rchitecture, w e c annot e ven h ope t hat t he s acred b uildings o f t he A egean S ea P eoples s ettled o n C yprus a nd P alestine w ill s uddenly b e r evealed t o u s a s r epresenting a p recisely d efined a nd c learly d istinguishable h omogenous a rchitecture. A nd t his w ould b e t he f inal c onclusion o f o ur w ork.

i ll

N OTES C HAPTER I 1 .

C f. f or e xample a r ecently p ublished a rticle r elating t o t his t opic b y M aier ( 1986). H e r epresents p erhaps t he m ost e xtreme e xample o f t he n egative c riticism a nd s cepticism a s r egards t he u se o f a rchaeological d ata ( especially p ottery) f or r econstructing t he h istory o f C yprus i n 1 2th 1th c entury B .C. -

2 .

I n t he c ontext o f i nteresting a rticle s imilar a pproach a t E astern M editerranean

3 .

T ell Q asile I T,

4 .

F or a d etailed d escription a nd d iscussion o f P hilistine s ee T . D othan 1 982, C hapter 3 ; c f. a lso T ell Q asile I T, X IX; B rug 1 985, C hapter I II.

5 .

F or r eferences s ee T .

6 .

I bid.

7 .

I bid.,

p .

3 7.

8 .

I bid.,

p .

4 1; M .

9 .

T .

p .

D othan 1 982,

1 0.

I bid.,

1 05,

1 1.

A thienou,

p .

1 19f; M azar 1 985,

D othan 1 982,

D othan 1 972,

l OOf.

n ote 1 o n

5 4,

p .

p .

F ig.

p .

p ottery C hapter

9 4.

1 .

4 1.

p .

P l. 11,

p .

o ur d iscussion i t i s w orth r ecalling a n b y V . 1 4 ankey ( 1982), w ho p roposes a v ery r econstructing o f h istorical e vents i n t he a t t he c lose o f t he L ate B ronze A ge.

4 i n C hapter 2 . F ig.

5 0:

1 -3,

P l.

3 3:

3 ( for

r eferences

t o

C ypriote e xamples s ee i bid., n otes 2 18-220). T he C ypriote e xamples o f t hese b owls a re v ariously c lassified a s " SubM ycenaean", " Debased L evanto-Helladic", " Decorated L ate C ypriote I II", " local L ate M ycenaean I lIB", " White P ainted W heelmade I II". F or r ecent d iscussion o n t his c lass o f p ottery a t T K ouklia s ee M aier a nd W artburg 1 985, pp. 1 22-125. 1 2.

F or i dentification o f T el M iqne w ith P hilistine E kron a nd D othan 1 987, p . 1 98f.

1 3.

T .

D othan a nd G itin 1 985,

1 4.

T .

D othan 1 982,

1 5.

E nkomi,

1 6.

F urn iark 1 965,

1 7.

T .

D othan 1 982,

p p.

1 8.

T .

D othan 1 982,

p .

p p.

1 02,

p .

2 69, 8 45, 1 07,

p .

4 09.

p .

P l.

3 ,

P l.

9 4:

P l.

1 .

1 53-4,

s ee

P l.

1 54; M aier

F ig.

3 :

2 8,

3 06:

6 2,

F ig.

1 969a,

1 12

1 . 1 31.

2 9.

P hoto 15 o n

p .

1 23.

G itin

1 9.

E nkomi, pp. 2 69, 8 45, P ls. 7 5: 4 3-44; F urmark 1 965, P l. I I, F ig. 6 ; C . J acopi 1 933-40 , F igs. 4 1, 6 2. F or a f ull d iscussion o n t he P hilistine s trainer s pout j ug a nd i ts r elation t o M ycenaean m aterial s ee T . D othan 1 982, PP. 1 32-155.

2 0.

T ell S ukas:

R iss 1 973,

R as I bn h ani: 2 51-52, F igs. B yblos:

T yre: A kko: ulf.

p .

p .

1 978,

D othan,

T ell K eisan:

p p.

M .

1 975,

F ig.

2 8;

2 9.

1 979,

p p.

p .

9 0f.,

F igs.

2 6:

4 -5,

5 2:

6 5-66.

1 981:

B alensi

1 27f., P l.

2 8f.

P ritchard e t.al.

B ikai

H ankey 1 967,

B ounni e t.al. 1 978, p p. 2 80-82, 1 9: 1 0-12, 2 0-21, 2 5: 1 -12.

S ailes 1 980,

S arepta: 3 .

2 05;

p .

N otes a nd N ews

1 981,

' Akko 1 980 '

I EJ

3 1,

p .

3 99-401.

p p.

T el D or: S tern E . a nd S haron, I . 1 986: N otes a nd N ews ' Tel D or 1 985', I EJ 3 6, p . 1 04: " One p iece o f M ycenaean hIc r ough w are ( the s o-called ' Sherdena W are' o f A kko). . " .

A shkelon: 3 7, P . 6 8.

S tern,

E .

1 987:

B eth S han: H ankey 1 966, D othan 1 982, p . 8 1f.

N otes a nd N ews

1 69-71;

p p.

1 967,

' Ashkelon

p .

1 27f.;

1 986',

c f.

a lso

I EJ

T .

2 1.

F or t he b ibliography o f t he s ites w ith t he M yc. hIC p ottery B . K ling i n K ition V , pp. 3 37-374; e adem 1 984, pp. 2 9-32.

2 2.

K ling 1 984,

2 3.

O ne c annot p reclude, h owever, t hat a p art o f t his p ottery w as b eing m ade l ocally t o m eet t he n eeds o f M ycenaeans, t he p resence o f w hom i n s mall n umbers o n C yprus f rom 1 3th c entury B .C. c annot

2 9-33.

p p.

b e e xcluded ( Hooker 1 985, p p. K arageorghis i n M aa-Palaeokastro, 2 4.

F or e xample D esborough 1 964,

2 5.

M aier M aier.

2 6.

E nkomi,

2 7.

I bid.,

2 8.

P yla-Kokkinokremos,

p .

7 0.

2 9.

P yla-Kokkinokremos,

p .

6 9.

1 975a,

p p.

3 8-43;

C hapter V II, p .

s ee

p .

p .

1 75-177; 2 66).

2 05f.;

5 14.

1 13

a lso

r ecently

M ellnik 1 983.

c ompare S tucky ( 1975,

e specially p .

c f.

5 13f,

p p.

5 19-523,

4 4-46)

5 30f.

c ontra

3 0.

E nkomi,

3 1.

X str m 1 985,

3 2.

E nkomi,

3 3.

D uring t he r ecent A merican e xcavations a t M aroni-Vournes t here w as u ncovered a l arge b uilding, c onstructed o f f ine a shlar b locks, " of a q uality c omparable t o t hat o f K ition o r E nkomi" ( Cadogan 1 984, P . 8 ). O n t he g rounds o f t he p ottery i t h as b een d ated

p p.

p p.

4 51-453, p . 1 87,

t able o n

p .

4 51.

hf. 5 15,

5 18.

t entatively b y t he d iscoverers t o t he e arlier p art o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C. T hus, t his i s t he e arliest a shlar b uilding s o f ar d iscovered o n C yprus, c onstructed l ong b efore t he m assive i nflux o f t he A egean s ettlers a t t he b eginning o f t he L CTIIC p eriod. S ee a lso C adogan 1 987, p p. 8 1ff., F ig. 2 ; 1 988, p . 2 30f. A t K alavasos-Ayos D himitrios a nother A merican m ission h as e xcavated t he s o-called A shlar B uilding X o f l arge d imensions, w hich i s d ated t o t he L CIIC p eriod. T he p lan o f t he b uilding i s e vidently s ymmetrical a nd t ripartite a nd, i n g eneral o utline, c omparable t o t hat o f t he A shlar B uilding f rom E nkomi, A rea I , a lthough t he l atter i s o mewhat l ess s ymmetrical a nd r egular ( South 1 984a, p . 2 5; 1 988, pp. 2 23-225, F ig. 1 ). F or a g eneral s urvey o f t he a shlar m asonry o n C yprus a nd t he w hole E astern M editerranean s ee H ult 1 983. 3 4.

i n

S ee M . D emas i n K ition V , p p. 9 2-94. A s r egards E nkomi, h owever, i t c annot b e s tated w ith a ny c ertainty t hat t he A shlar B uilding d iscussed b y D ikaios h ad i ndeed b een c onstructed a t t he b eginning o f t he L CIIIA p eriod, t o b e e xactly, c ontemporaneously w ith i ntroduction o f t he M yc. hIC: l b p ottery, o r w hether i t i s o f a n e arlier d ate. A ccording t o V . K arageorghis, t he M yc. [ IIC:lb p ottery d iscovered o n t he f loors o f t he A shlar B uilding a t E nkomi d oes n ot n ecessarily p oint o ut t he c onstruction p eriod f or t his b uilding. T his p ottery m ay j ust w ell i ndicate t he d ate o f i ts a bandonment ( Pyla-Kokkinokremos, p . 7 1) o r, i t m ay h e a dded t he p eriod o f r eoccupation. I f s uch w as t he c ase, t hen t he b eginning o f t he p eriod c orresponding t o L evel l ilA s hould b e d ated b efore 1 200/1190 B .C., p erhaps t o c . 1 230 B .C . B ut h ow a re w e t o e xplain t he f act t hat t he s herds w hich h ave b een f ound i n t he c onstruct ional m aterial o f t he c oncrete f loors o f t he A shlar B uilding b elong, a ccording t o t he e xcavator, t o M yc. ITC: l b p ottery? F or s ome s cholars t he s olution o f t his p roblem i s n ot s o d ifficult a s i t w ould s eem a t f irst s ight. T he c orrectness o f D ikaios ' i dentification o f t hese s herds a s a uthentic M yc. TIC: l b p ottery h as b een q uestioned. F . S chachermeyr, f or i nstance, h as a rgued f or t heir i dentification a s L ate M ycenaean I hIB ( Mycenaean I ITB : 2 ), a nd n ot a s M ycenaean TIC: l b p ottery ( 1979, p . 6 1). F urthermore, 0 . N egbi h as r ecently t ried t o d emonstrate t hat D ikaios' A shlar B uilding .. . closely c orresponds t o ' Bâtiment 1 8 ' i n b oth l ayout a nd m asonry", a nd a lso t hat i t " recalls o ther m onumental b uildings e rected o n t he s ite, w hen t he o verall t ownp lanning t ook p lace. T herefore, D ikaios' ' Ashlar B uilding' w hich c oincides w ith t hat o f ' Bâtiment 1 8' h as t o b e a ssigned t o L CII a nd n ot t o L CIIIA..." ( 1986, p . 1 04). -

"

1 14

I t i s b eyond o ur c apability t o g ive h ere a d efinite s olution t o t he p roblems c oncerning t he h istory o f E nkomi i n t he p eriod i n q uestion; f urther d etailed s tudies a nd a nalyses a re n eeded o n t his q uestion. W hat r emains i mportant f or o ur s tudy i s t hat E nkomi u ndoubtedly w as o ne o f t he m ain c ities o n C yprus t o b e s ettled b y t he A egean r efugees. A t t his p oint, D ikaios' h istorical i nterpretation o f t he e xcavations i n E nkomi i s s till v alid. 3 5.

E nkomi,

p p.

8 96-907;

3 6.

E nkomi,

p p.

9 07-911.

3 7.

P yla K okkinokremos,

p p.

3 8.

M aa-Paleokastro ,

2 65f.

3 9.

E nkomi,

4 0.

P yla-Kokkinokremos,

p .

4 1.

S outh 1 984b,

p .

1 988,

4 2.

K arageorghis

1 982b,

4 3.

P yla-Kokkinokremos,

4 4.

M aa-Palaeokastro,

4 5.

K arageorghis F ortin 1 978,

p p.

p .

p .

1 7;

7 4.

p .

I bid.,

4 8.

K ition V ,

4 9 .

M aa-Palaeokastro,

p .

5 0 .

L ewartowski

1 989,

p p.

5 1.

L ewartowski

1 989,

p .

8 9. K arageorghis e t.al.

1 982,

p .

9 2.

2 8-32.

2 62.

1 982h, 6 7. p .

p .

7 13;

p p.

4 7.

F or

7 2,

7 2.

p .

M aa-Palaeokastro,

5 2.

F or n ew e xcavations s ee M aa-Palaeokastro.

9 10-912.

4 6.

p .

P yla-Kokkinokremos.

p .

7 13;

K arageorghis e t.al.

1 982,

p .

9 2;

2 65f.

2 56. p p.

2 66,

2 75f.;

A thienou,

p .

1 40.

2 65. 1 64-182; l Oif,

R enfrew 1 981a,

a nd A ppendix,

p p.

p p.

2 9-31.

2 03-230. e arlier

w orks

s ee L ewartowski 1 989, pp. 1 64-182 a nd X strom 1 985, p . 7 a nd 7 , 2 3; c f. a lso S andars 1 978 p p. 7 7-79, 1 79-195; D esborough p p. 2 17-225.

t he m ost r ecent d iscussion w ith r eferences t o

n otes 1 964,

5 3.

S ee,

f or e xample,

S andars 1 978,

5 4.

T his m ay b e s uggested b y t he r ich e quipment o f T omb 1 8 a t ( SCE I , p p. 5 46ff).

5 5.

P yla-Kokkinokremos,

p .

p p.

8 1-97.

6 7; M aa-Palaeokastro,

1 15

p .

6 3.

E nkomi

5 6.

V estiges o f t he E arly I ron A ge h abitation a nd M yc. hIC p ottery h ave b een f ound a bove t he d estroyed l evel o f t he L ate B ronze A ge p alace a t R as I bn H ani, n ear U garit. ( Bounni e t.al. 1 979, p p. 2 45ff., F igs. 2 2-23).

5 7.

S inger

5 8.

M azar

5 9.

F or t he m ost e xhaustive s urvey o f t hese o bjects s ee D othan 1 982; f or t he a rchitecture M azar 1 986, pp. 3 -7, 1 5; T el Q asile 1 , p p. 6 6-68; G itin a nd D othan 1 987, p p. 2 03, 2 05; c f. a lso B rug 1 985, p p . 1 89ff.

1 985, 1 985,

12.

p .

1 06.

p .

-

6 0.

T ell Q asile I T, p p. 6 -8, F ig. 2 , P hoto 3 ; f or t he m ost r ecent d iscussion w ith r eferences t o e arlier l iterature s ee A lasia I II, p . 2 6f.

6 1.

H arding 1 984, B ouzek 1 985, p .

6 2.

H arding 1 984,

6 3.

C atling 1 985, pp.

6 4.

H arding 1 984,

6 5.

K arageorghis

6 6.

F or t he m ost r ecent d iscussions, i ncluding r eferences t o e arlier w orks s ee L ewartowski 1 989, p p. 19-125, a nd K arageorghis 1 986; c f. a lso B ouzek 1 985, pp. 1 83-187; H arding 1 984, pp. 2 16-227.

6 7.

K arageorghis 1 986,

6 8.

B arnett 1 975,

6 9.

T radition h anded d own b y t he L ydian h istorian, B arnet 1 975, p . 3 64 a nd n ote 9 ).

7 0.

G jerstad 1 944.

7 1.

I n t he c ase o f S alamis, o ne w ould t hink t he m yth t o b e ar eference t o t he c apture a nd c olonization o f F nkomi, a lthough a t t he t ime w hen t his l egend w as w ritten d own, E nkomi h ad l ain i n r uins f or a l ong t ime, w hile S alamis w as f lourishing ( Catling 1 975a, p . 2 16; Y on 1 980).

7 2.

H adjioannou 1 973,

7 3.

F rom 1 984:

7 4.

C f.

p .

1 33 a nd n ote 4 3; A lasia I II, 1 47; T . D othan 1 982, p . 6 5.

p .

15-122; C ourtois 1 972, 1 22-124.

c f.

a lso

p p.

2 4ff.;

c f.

B ouzek

1 65.

1 986, T ell Q asile I I,

p p.

2 6f.;

1 33.

1 961, pp. 2 09-212, p .

p .

p .

p .

4 4 a nd n ote 5 1.

2 51 a nd n ote 2 8.

3 63-366.

1 53.3

( p.

X anthus,

( quoted b y

3 17).

t he e xtensive l iterature A upert, P . A mathonte I . T estimonia I . P aris.

a lso F ortin 1 980.

1 16

a nd

H ellmann,

M .-Ch.

7 5.

B loedow 1 988. I s hould l ike t o e xpress m y t hanks K arageorghis w ho c alled m y a ttention t o t his a rticle.

7 6.

I bid., p . 5 2. I t i s w orth q uoting h ere h is t heory o n t he p rocess o f c reating t he l egend o n t he T rojan W ar. H e w rites: ". . . it m ay b e a rgued t hat t he l egend o f t he T rojan W ar e merged o ut o f t he o riginal n ucleus o f a s ingle, m ajor b attle, i n w hich t he M ycenaeans w on a d ecisive v ictory. T his b attle m ay h ave e nsued f rom a c onflict o ver c ompetition f or d windling s ources o f ( pure, e xide) c opper o re, t o w hich t he L HIIIB p ottery f ound a t M a at H oyuk m ight j ust p oint.(...) A n a rmed c onflict a t t he H ellespont a t a pproximately t his t ime c ould a lso h ave f ormed t he b asis o f t he s o-called F irst T rojan W ar ( . .) . I n t he c ourse o f t ime, m ore a nd m ore e lements w ill h ave b een a dded. A s ignificant a ddition c ould, f or i nstance, h ave d erived f rom t he e vents c onnected w ith t he d estruction o f T roy V Ila. I s i t, f or i nstance, p ossible t hat t he s ubsequent n eed f or c opper, w hich m ust c ertainly h ave e xisted a lso i n t he c ourse o f t he 1 2th c entury, a gain p rompted a nother e ffort ( since t he e arlier e ndeavours h ad p roven s o s uccessful), a nd t herefore a c ombined e nterprise w as a gain a ttempted a cross t he A egean, a lbeit t his t ime o n a s maller s cale? I f s o, g iven t he m odest c haracter o f T roy V ITa, o ne m ight a t t his t ime h ave a lso a ttempted t o l ay s iege t o t he c ity. T his c ould t hen h ave m ade a s ignificant c ontribution t o t he d evelopment o f t he l egend. (. .) P erhaps a n e ven l ater c ontribution c ame f rom d evelopments i n t he p ost-Bronze A ge p eriod, n amely d uring c olonisation o f c oast o f A sia M inor." ( Bleodow 1 988, p . 5 0f.).

t o

D r.

t he

V .

w est

T he a bove t heory, r egardless w hether w e a ccept o r r eject w arns u s o nce a gain t hat w e c annot a ny l onger u ncritically u se l egends o n t he h eroes r eturning f rom T roy f or c onfirmation o f a rchaeological e vidence f rom t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury B .C. v ice v ersa. 7 7.

I bid.,

p p.

7 8.

B aurain 1 984,

7 9.

L ehman 1 983,

8 0 .

G eorghiou,

8 1.

N ougayrol i n U garitica V ,

8 2.

I bid.,

8 3.

N ougayrol 3 13-319.

8 4.

A bove,

8 5.

F aulkner

8 6 .

G iterbock 1 983, p . 1 38; M elinik 1 983, E qwesh = A hhiyawa s ee B arnett 1 975, p .

p p.

i t, t he t he a nd

4 4ff. 2 78-284.

p p.

9 1.

p .

1 979,

p p.

9 1ff.;

c f. a lso B aurain 1 984,

U garitica V ,

3 23-357.

8 3-85 a nd 3 82.

p p.

8 5f., a nd 3 83; B aurain 1 984, i n

p p.

p p.

p .

3 12f.

8 7-89 a nd 3 82;

B aurain

1 984,

P P.

n ote 2 0. 1 975,

p .

2 33.

1 17

1 41. F or i dentification 3 67 a nd n ote 5 .

p .

8 7.

P ritchard 1 969,

8 8.

M uhly 1 984,

8 9.

C ourtois

9 0.

B rug 1 978,

p p. 4 0.

p .

1 972;

1 985, 1 69,

K immig 1 964.

p .

p .

2 62f.

4 4 a nd r eferences; 2 01.

9 1.

D esborough 1 964,

p .

9 2.

S chaden 1 979,

1 55.

9 3.

T .

9 4.

T ell Q asile I I,

p .

D othan 1 982,

B ouzek 1 985,

p .

2 13;

S andars

2 38.

p .

2 93.

p .

19f.; M azar 1 985,

p .

1 06.

C HAPTER I I 1 .

M .

D emas i n K ition V ,

2 .

I bid.,

p .

9 4.

3 .

I bid.,

p .

9 2.

4 .

I bid.,

p p.

5 .

T aylor

1 957,

6 .

M .

7 .

A yia

2 4-32,

1 0-23.

p p.

I rini:

S CE I I,

P lan

3 8-84.

3 7.

D emas i n K ition V ,

4 60ff., 1 03f.

p p.

p . p p.

9 7f. 6 42ff.,

X VII; K ition V ,

D emas i n K ition V ,

F ig.

2 63;

9 8.

C f.

I dalion: a lso

i bid.,

T aylor

1 957,

8 .

M .

9 .

T aylour 1 970, pp. 2 71-76; A sine: F r din a nd P ersson 1 938, p p. 7 4-76, F igs. 4 3, 5 3; E leusis: M ylonas 1 961, pp. 3 1-44, F igs. 2 1; P hylakopi: R enfrew 1 985, p . 3 69, F igs. 9 .5, 9 .6.

1 0.

M ichalowski, F ig. 1 021.

K .

1.

W right 1 965,

p p.

1 2.

V aux 1 957,

1 3.

C allot

1 4.

T ell Q asile I ,

p p. p .

1 67-194, 6 5;

O ttosson 1 980,

F ig.

p p. p .

3 7.

Wart d e l 'ancienne E gypte ( Paris)

8 0-103;

5 75-78,

p p.

1 985,

1 968:

p p.

3 3,

p .

p p.

8 .

F ig.

4 0.

S tern 1 984,

1 18

p p.

3 1-33.

5 7-60.

p .

7 6, 2 0,

5 77,

1 5.

B eth S han I I, 1 , PP. 6 -12; U ssishkin 1 978, pp. 1 0-25; 1 977, p p. 7 8-71; H amilton 1 934, p . 1 2; T ufnell e t.al. 1 9-45; S tern 1 984, pp. 4 -44; M allet 1 987, pp. 2 13-248.

1 6.

M .

1 7.

F or a r ecent s ummary o f t he i nvestigations o f S anctuary s ee M aier i n P aphos, p p. 8 1-102; c f. a lso M aier 1 975, p p. 6 9-80, a nd p reliminary r eports p ublished i n R DAC s ince 1 967.

1 8.

M aier i n P aphos,

p .

1 9.

M aier i n P aphos,

p p.

2 0 .

I bid.,

2 1.

M aier 1 975,

2 2.

M aier i n P aphos,

2 3.

S ee n otes t ripartite

D emas i n K ition V ,

p .

9 4.

p .

5 1. 4 4f.,

1 02.

8 5f.; M aier 1 975, p .

E isenberg 1 940, p p.

p .

7 0f.

7 1. p .

8 5.

3 0 a nd 3 1 b elow . A g raphic r econstruction s hrine h as b een p repared b y S haw ( 1978, p . 4 35,

o f a F ig.

9 ), w ho b ased o n v arious r epresentations a ppearing o n o bjects t he A egean a rt.

o f

2 4.

Q uoted b y M aier 1 979a,

2 5 .

C . B linkenberg, i n H ist.-phil.Mitt. d er Dnischen W iss. G es. ( 1924), n ot a vailable t o m e, q uoted b y M aier 1 975, p . 7 2 a nd 3 .

2 6.

W estholm 1 933,

2 7.

M aier 1 979,

2 8.

I bid.

2 9.

I bid.

3 0.

I bid.; K arageorghis 1 982a,

3 1.

M aier i n P aphos,

3 2.

A s e arly a s i n 1 888 s uch a p ossibility w as t aken i nto c onsiderat ion b y R .E . S mith w ho w rote: " This d ouble r ange o f b ases s eems t o p oint t o a n i mportant a pproach t o t he c ourt (. .) f rom t he n orth s ide, a nd i t s eems l ikely t hat o riginally t here w ere t wo m ore r ows o f p iers f urther t o t he e ast, t hough n o t races o f t hem r emain; w e s hould t hen h ave a g reat t riple a venue l eading u p t o t he c ourt, a nd s ome s uch a rrangement i s i ndicated b y t he w alls a t b oth i ts e nds r unning u p t o t he m ost e astern r ange o f b ases n ow e xisting, a nd t here i n e ach c ase s topping d efinitely u nder t he b ase a s t hough f or a n i mportant o pening o r d oorway." ( Smith 1 888, P . 1 95).

2 01-236,

p p.

P p.

2 28 n ote 1 .

p .

2 28-234;

p p.

e specially P .

i dem i n P aphos,

9 1-98,

p .

9 2 n ote

2 26. P .

9 8.

9 8f.

F ig. 8 1.

1 19

3 3.

W estholm 1 936, P . 1 60. I n h is o pinion t he t ripartite s hrine w as s ituated o n t he w est s ide o f t he c ourtyard o f t he R oman p eriod s anctuary ( =Sanctuary I I). C f. a lso M aier 1 975b, p . 7 6.

3 4.

I n s ecular b uildings t here o ccur n o m ore t han a s ingle r ow o f p illars o r c olumns, f or e xample i n t he A shlar B uilding X a t K alavasos-Avios D himitrios ( South 1 988, p . 2 25, F ig. 1 ). A t M aroni-Vournes a l arge b uilding s ubdivided i nto f our a isles h as b een d iscovered. T he i nterpretation o f t his b uilding a s a s anctuary i s, h owever, d oubtful ( Cadogan 1 988, p . 2 31).

3 5.

M aier i n P aphos,

3 6.

M aier 1 975b,

3 7.

I bid.,

p .

7 9.

3 8.

I bid.,

p .

7 0.

3 9.

I bid.

4 0.

A thienou,

4 1.

I bid.,

p p.

4 2.

I bid.,

p .

4 3.

T .

4 4.

B asic l iterature V aughan 1 974.

4 5.

W right 1 971,

4 6.

T he f ollowing s tructures a re b elieved t o r epresent s uch a t ype b amah:

p .

9 1.

p .

7 8f.

6 -14.

p p.

1 15-117,

1 40.

10.

D othan 1 981,

9 1-95.

p p.

p .

1 9f.

t he e lliptical s tructure 4 017 a t M agiddo, ( Loud 1 948, pp. 7 3ff., F igs. 3 92-395); -

-

d ated t o t he

o f

E BIIIA

a c ircular s tructure a bout 1 4m i n d iameter l ying j ust t o s outh o f t he t emple a t N ahariyah a nd d ated t o t he M B A ge D othan 1 981, p . 7 4 w ith r eferences);

t he ( M .

a m onumental h eavy p latform , a lmost s quare i n s hape, c overing a n a rea o f 1 8.2m b y 1 8.7m a t t he I sraelite T el D an ( Biran A . 1 977: I EJ 2 7: p . 2 44f.).

4 7.

H aran 1 981, p p. 3 2-34; A ccording t o B iran ( 1981, b amah c annot b e i dentified w ith a n a ltar ."

4 8.

K aretsou 1 981; 7 7, 7 8.

c f.

4 9.

B iran 1 981,

1 42.

5 0.

A l-Radi

p .

1 983,

p p.

a lso r ecently R utkowski 1 986,

8 -20.

1 20

p p.

p .

1 42)

7 5-79,

". .

. a

F igs.

5 1.

M .

D othan 1 981,

7 9.

5 2.

T .

D othan 1 981, p p.

5 3.

M ost r ecently K napp 1 986,

5 4.

A thienou,

5 5.

M .

5 6.

C f.

5 7.

A thienou,

5 8 .

C ourtois i n C ourtois a nd L agarce 1 987,

5 9.

I bid.,

6 0.

I bid., p .

6 1.

E nkomi,

6 2.

B urdajewicz 1 985,

p p.

6 3.

E nkomi, P ls.

2 80/1,

6 4.

I bid.,

p .

6 5.

C f.

K arageorghis i n K ition V ,

6 6 .

E nkomi,

6 7.

C ourtois 1 971, s ee T onas 1 984b ,

p .

9 2f.,

w ith r eferences t o e arlier l iterature.

1 1.

p .

D emas i n K ition V , A l-Radi 1 983,

V .

9 5.

p .

9 9.

9 8.

p .

1 40.

p .

p p.

3 7-40.

3 9.

p .

3 9f. 1 94-199,

p p.

2 76,

2 15f. 1 5-18. 6 .

1 97.

2 00 ,

p p.

2 15f.; M . p p. p p.

p .

2 49f.,

a nd n ote 1 o n

D emas i n K ition V ,

1 51-362. 6 0-62.

p .

2 50.

9 5f.

F or t he c hronology o f t he

C ourtois i n C ourtois a nd L agarce 1 987,

6 9.

C ourtois 1 971,

7 0 .

C ourtois i n C ourtois a nd L agarce 1 987, p p. 3 5-37; i dem 2 13-216; i dem , 1 971, pp. 3 08-311, 3 26-356, 3 61-362.

1 973

7 1.

F or 2 16;

P P.

7 2.

A l-Radi 1 983,

7 3.

F or e xample A . M azar i n T ell Q asile I ,

p .

6 4.

7 4.

Y on 1 984,

p .

1 02.

7 5.

E nkomi,

7 6.

C atling 1 975b,

p .

p p.

p .

p . 9 9f.

5 0 ; M .

D emas i n K ition V ,

1 25-126. p .

5 .

1 62.

e xample i n C ourtois a nd L agarce 1 987, 1 971, pp. 2 59-361.

p .

F ig.

s anctuary

6 8.

p .

3 5,

p .

5 1.

1 21

3 7;

1 973,

p p.

2 13-

7 7.

I bid.,

5 3.

7 8.

F ortin 1 984,

7 9.

F ournou K orifi: w ith r eferences;

p .

1 73-176.

p p.

A egean r egion 1 981, p . 1 4f.

Sf1und 1 981, P . 1 88; A natolia: P alestine: O ttosson 1 980, p .

s ee a lso R utkowski 1 986,

P .

2 20,

8 0.

B arnett

8 1.

K aplan 1 977,

8 2.

I bid.,

8 3.

T ell Q asile I ,

p p.

8 4.

T ufnell e t.al.

1 940,

8 5.

T ell Q asile I ,

p .

8 6.

I bid.

8 7.

B urdajewicz 1 986,

p .

8 8.

T ell Q asile I ,

6 2.

8 9.

I bid.

9 0.

Y adin 1 972, P l. C LXXX.

9 1.

B urdajewicz 1 986,

p .

9 2.

O ttosson 1 980 ,

4 0,

9 3.

F or e xample i n t he G hassulian S hrine a t E n-Gedi. 1 980 : T el A viv 7 : p . 1 0 , F ig. 3 .

9 4.

Y adin 1 972, p p. B urdajewicz 1 986,

7 1-74, F ig. p . 2 27f.

9 5.

T ell Q asile I ,

1 5f.,

9 6.

I bid.,

p .

9 7.

I bid.,

p p.

9 8.

I bid.,

p .

B arnett 1 981, 9 8f.; f or t he a nd

v an

L ouven

1 981.

p .

5 36-540,

p p.

w ith r eferences t o e arlier p ublications.

5 40 .

p p.

p .

6 4,

6 7.

P late L XVI; M .

p .

I .

2 25.

F igs.

2 26f., F ig.

1 5,

1 6;

F ig.

3 B.

Y adin e t.al.

1 958,

p p.

8 3ff.,

6 .

F ig.

1 7;

1 5.

6 8. 6 4,

F ig.

6 2.

6 7-69,

p .

D othan 1 956,

6 4.

6 2.

1 22

Y adin

e t.al.

U ssishkin,

1 958,

p .

D .

8 8f.;

9 9 .

T he t otal l ack o f M ycenaean I IIC:lb p ottery a nd t he a ppearance o f t rue P hilistine w are i n t he e arliest S tratum a t T ell Q asile u ndoubtedly i ndicates t hat t he b eginning o f t he s ettlement s hould b e d ated t o c . 150 B .C . T herefore t he u nderstanding o f t his s ettlement, t he f irst o n t he s ite, a s a n i ndication o f t he t erritorial e xpansion o f t he P hilistines s eems t o b e v ery r easonable a nd w ell c orraborates w hat w e k now f rom t he B ible a bout p olitical s ituation i n C anaan i n t his p eriod ( Cf. M azar 1 985, pp. 9 5-107; T ell Q asile I I, p . 1 19f).

1 00 .

F or i nstance , i t i s k nown t hat i n t he m ilitary s phere t he P hilistines w ere f or a l ong p eriod s uperior b oth t o t he t ribes o f I srael a nd t he i nhabitants o f t he C anaanite c ities. S ee T . D othan's ( 1982, p . 1 9f., a nd r eferences) d iscussion o n t his s ubject.

1 01.

T ell Q asile I ,

1 02.

F or e xample K arageorghis 1 976,

1 03.

C allot 1 985,

1 04.

T ell Q asile I ,

1 05 .

V .

1 06.

F or e xample a t M eskene-Emar: M argueron 1 984, pp. 2 6-29; Y adin 1 972, p p. 9 6-98; K amid e l-Loz: H achmann 1 983, p p.

6 7.

p .

p .

6 3-69,

7 6-78.

1 65-240.

p p.

1 7,

p .

F ig.

4 8.

K arageorghis i n K ition V ,

A bb. 3 0 o n 1 5-20.

p p.

6 7.

p .

p .

2 52f.,

a nd r eferences. H azor: 6 6ff.,

F or A egean e xamples s ee v an L euven 1 981,

p p.

1 07.

T ell Q asile I ,

1 08.

T aylour 1 970,

1 09.

I bid., p . 2 73 . H owever, t he p ossibility t hat t his s tructure w as a p lace f or d isplaying v arious c ult o bjects s hould a lso n ot b e e xcluded. C f. R uthowski 1 986, p . 1 78.

1 10 .

T aylour 1 970,

11.

T ell Q asile I ,

12.

I bid.

13.

R enfrew 1 985,

14 .

T ell Q asile I ,

15.

S ee n ote

16.

A sine: s ee n ote 1 9 ( above), a nd Hgg 1 981, p p. E leusis s ee M ylonas 1 961, pp. 3 1-44, F igs. 2 0, 2 1.

17.

B eth S han I I,

p p.

p p.

p .

p .

p .

6 6f. 2 71-274.

2 74-77. 6 6.

3 69,

F igs.

9 .5,

9 .6.

6 6.

13 a bove.

1 ,

p p.

2 2-35.

1 23

9 1-94;

f or

1 18.

I bid.,

p .

1 3f.,

P l.

V III.

1 19.

I bid., P lates X a nd X II.

1 20.

I bid.,

p .

4 .

1 21.

I bid.,

p .

1 9f.; O ttosson 1 980 p .

1 22.

Y eivin 1 968,

1 23.

T he o rigins o f L ongroom-type t emples c an b e t raced i n t he t emples a t T ell C huera ( c. 2 750 B .C.), a nd T ell M umbakat ( c. 2 900-2350 B .C.). F or a r ecent d iscussion w ith r eferences t o e arlier l iterature s ee 0 lbry , M . 1 987: ' Syryjski t yp w iatyni' n a t erenie p óXnocnej S yrii w o kresie ' Wczesnosyryjskim' ( ok. 3 300 P .N.E . 2 000 P .N.E .), S tudia i m ateriaZy a rcheologiczne 8 : 3 95 9 ( in p olish).

5 0f.

1 130-1148.

p p.

-

1 24.

F or t he h istorical b ackground o f B eth S han s ee J ames 1 74-179; R owe 1 930.

1 25.

T he p resence o f M ycenaean I IIC:lb p ottery i ndicates A egean i mmigrants s ettled t here. C f. H ankey 1 966, pp. T . D othan 1 982, p . 8 1f.; J ames 1 966, p . 1 30.

1 26.

M .

1 27.

G itin a nd D othan 1 987,

1 28.

I bid.,

p .

2 30f.

1 29.

I bid.,

p .

2 00.

1 30.

I bid.,

p .

2 03f.

1 31.

I bid.,

p .

2 05.

1 32.

I bid.

1 33.

I bid.;

1 34.

C itin a nd D othan 1 987,

1 35.

I bid.,

1 36.

A shdod I ,

p p.

1 37.

I bid.,

1 33.

1 38.

T ell Q asile I ,

1 39.

I bid.

1 40.

M . D othan,

D emas i n K ition V ,

p .

1 98.

p .

2 08-210,

d rawing o n

P lan o n

p .

p .

p .

1 971,

6 5.

p p.

8 6ff.,

P lan 8 .

1 24

6 0ff.

2 04.

2 06 a nd d rawing o n

1 32-139.

p p.

p .

p p .

t hat t he 1 69-171;

1 30.

p .

c f. a lso K arageorghis i n M aa-Palaeokastro,

p p.

1 966,

2 08.

C HAPTER I II 1 .

F or t he m ost e xtensive r ecent w orks o n t he d omestic s anctuaries i n t he A egean s ee G essel 1 985, a nd R utkowski 1 986, p p. 1 2-14, 1 8, 1 25-152, 2 13-222.

2 .

H ood 1 977,

3 .

E nkomi,

4 .

S outh 1 984a,

5 .

S chaeffer

6 .

F or e xample J . S chafer w ho w rites: " Der r echteckige B auk rper b ei d en f ruheisenzeitlichen T empeln v on B eth-Schan, d em T empelbau 1 31 v on T ell Q asile a nd b ei d en T empeln i n K ition i s a us e inheimischk anaanitischer T radition s ehr w ohl z u b egreifen." ( 1983, p . 5 56).

7 .

V .

8 .

M aier 1 975b,

9 .

D ussaud

1 58-178;

P P.

p p.

2 6f., p .

3 2,

R utkowski 1 986,

3 4,

1 988,

P p.

2 88-299.

p .

K arageorghis i n K ition V , 7 8,

p .

1 950,

1 54-200.

2 28.

p .

2 54f.,

a nd r eferences.

n ote 1 .

1 0 .

M aier a nd W artburg 1 985,

1.

S chaeffer

1 2.

C ourtois 1 973,

1 3.

Sf1und

1 4 .

M arinatos 1 962,

1 5.

E .

1 6 .

I bid.,

1 7.

C askey 1 981,

1 8.

L eukart 1 979, 9 8.

1 9 .

v an L euven 1 979,

2 0 .

M .

2 1.

C adogan 1 986,

2 2.

T aylor 1 957,

2 3 .

W right 1 939, p p. 4 58-463; T . r ecently T ell Q asile I T, p p.

1 966 ,

5 9ff.;

p p.

1 05f.

p .

i dem 1 965,

p .

6 5f.

2 43.

p .

p .

1 18f. 8 7-94.

p p.

F rench i n Hgg a nd M arinatos ( eds.) P .

1 8,

5 8.

p .

1 981,

1 2,

3 8.

2 5;

1 958,

P P.

1 981,

4 0-48.

p p.

4 5. 1 32;

P .

p p.

R enfrew 1 985,

1 83-187;

p .

p .

4 2. 2 0;

H iller 1 979,

p p.

1 89-195;

i dem 1 981,

P .

1 23f.

D emas i n K ition V , p .

3 88.

P .

p p.

6 ff.,

C f.

a lso 1 987,

c f.

3 7. P .

8 3.

a lso K arageorghis 1 982, D othan 1 982, p . 7 -9; B rug 1 985,

1 25

p .

1 04.

1 9f., 9 1-93; 1 65-168.

P p.

a nd m ore

2 4.

T .

D othan 1 982,

2 5.

W aldbaum 1 980,

2 6.

C f.

2 7.

B . M aisler

2 8.

T ell Q asile I I,

2 9.

G itin a nd D othan 1 987,

p .

2 04.

3 0.

I bid.; T ell Q asile 1 1,

p .

6 ff.

3 1.

T .

3 2.

G itin a nd D othan 1 987,

3 3.

G . C adogan h as r ecently p ointed o ut i nteresting p arallels b etween i ndustrial r ooms a t T el M iqne a nd t he A shlar B uilding a t M aroniV ournes ( 1987, p . 8 3f., w ith r eferences). S . H adjisavas h as p ut

T .

2 0.

P .

6 9-98;

p p.

D othan 1 982, ( Mazar)

D othan 1 982,

T able o n 1 951,

p .

S nodgrass 1 980, p .

P p.

3 35-374.

9 2.

7 4.

p .

9 .

3 7.

p .

p p.

2 08-211.

f orward a h ypothesis a ccording t o w hich R oom 2 7 a t t he s anctuary s ite o f M yrtou-Pigadhes, p reviously i dentified b y t he e xcavators a s t he b athroom, s erved a ctually a s a p lace f or o live o il p roduction ( 1988, p . 12). I t i s i nteresting t hat t he L ate B ronze A ge " Sanctuaire a ux r hytons" i n U garit w as s ituated o pposite t he i ndustrial b uilding f or o live o il p roduction ( Callot 1 987). 3 4.

M .

D othan 1 981,

8 0 .

3 5.

C aquot,

3 6.

W ilkinson 1 984,

3 7.

v an D yke P arunak 1 978,

3 8.

W right,

3 9.

K empinski 1 975,

p .

4 0.

Y eivin 1 968,

1 137.

4 1.

T ell Q asile I ,

4 2.

v an L euven 1 981,

4 3.

I bid.,

4 4.

T ell Q asile I ,

4 5.

I bid.

4 6.

V .

4 7.

R enfrew 1 985,

p .

S znycer a nd H erdner 1 974,

G .E .

F igs.

1 965,

p .

p p.

9 8;

p .

2 9-33 a nd r eferences. Y adin 1 972,

2 15.

7 1. p .

1 5.

4 a nd 5 o n p age 1 8. p .

7 1.

K arageorghis i n K ition V , p .

9 7-99.

1 6.

p .

p .

p p.

p .

1 6.

1 26

2 51.

p .

1 04f.,

n ote 4 .

4 8.

F or r eferences s ee K ition V ,

P art l i t,

4 9.

G .R.H .

W right 1 971,

5 0.

I bid.,

p .

5 1.

I bid., F ig.

5 2.

T ell Q asile I ,

5 3.

F or e xample i n t he s anctuary a t J ericho, 1 971, p . 2 0 a nd F ig. 3 A).

5 4.

H owever, a s r egards t he S ummit T emple a t L achish, t his h as b een c lassified b y E . S tern, i ncorrectly i n m y o pinion, a s b elonging t o t he t ype o f t emple w ith a n i ndirect e ntrance ( 1984, F ig. I Va, 1 ).

5 5.

B en-Tor a nd P ortugali 1 987,

5 6.

V .

5 7.

T ell Q asile I ,

p .

5 8.

S tern 1 984,

2 8f.

5 9.

T ell Q asile I ,

6 0.

R enfrew 1 985,

6 1.

T ell Q asile I ,

6 2.

B eth S han I I,

6 3.

A shdod I ,

6 4.

T ell Q asile I ,

6 5.

I bid.

6 6.

A shdod I ,

6 7.

M .

D emas i n K ition V ,

6 8.

0 .

C allot

6 9.

F or e xample V .

K arageorghis 1 976,

7 0 .

T ell Q asile I ,

p .

7 1.

M .

D emas i n K ition V ,

7 2.

V .

K arageorghis i n K ition V ,

7 3.

M aier 1 979a,

7 4 .

E nkomi,

1 34,

n ote 6 .

1 9.

P .

1 8. i b, d . p .

6 2.

p .

p .

p .

p .

p .

p .

p .

( G.R .H .

8 7.

2 51.

6 8f.

6 1. 1 9,

p .

L evel V II

P lans 3 3 a nd 3 4 o n

K arageorghis i n K ition V ,

p .

p .

p oints 6 a nd 8 .

7 1.

1 , P lates X a nd X II. 1 33. p .

6 5.

1 33.

1 985,

p .

p .

p p.

4 6-48;

C allot 1 985,

p p.

1 91-194.

1 92. p p.

6 3-69,

6 7. p .

11. p p.

2 34.

1 98f.

1 27

2 49-251.

7 6-78.

W right

7 5.

I bid.,

p .

1 96f., P lates 3 5,

7 6.

V .

7 7.

E nkomi,

7 8.

C f.

7 9.

C ourtois 1 971,

P .

1 62.

8 0.

C atling 1 975b,

p .

5 3.

8 1.

V .

8 2.

R enfrew 1 985,

8 3.

S ee n ote 6 0 a bove.

8 4.

I bid.

8 5.

A shdod I ,

8 6.

T ell Q asile I ,

8 7.

I bid.,

p .

2 4,

F ig.

7 .

8 8.

I bid.,

p .

2 7,

F ig.

9 ,

8 9.

I bid.,

P .

3 8,

F ig.

1 0,

9 0.

I bid.,

P .

2 6, P ls.

5 :1,

9 1.

I bid.,

P .

4 1, P is.

1 8:3,

9 2.

I bid.,

P .

5 1,

9 3.

T .

9 4.

A shdod I ,

9 5.

G itin a nd D othan 1 987,

9 6.

I bid.,

9 7.

M .

9 8.

I bid.,

p .

6 3,

9 9.

I bid.,

p .

1 27,

1 00.

I bid.,

p p.

6 4,

1 01.

I bid.,

p p.

1 07,

1 02.

I bid.,

p p.

1 27-128,

3 6.

K arageorghis i n K ition V , P .

p .

a nd n ote 1 o n

p .

2 10.

K arageorghis

1 971b,

2 30 n ote 1 9.

p .

K arageorghis i n K ition V ,

2 50.

p .

3 72.

p .

1 33; T ell Q asile I ,

p .

1 5,

p .

P l.

D othan 1 982,

p .

2 49f.,

P l.

5 ,

P is.

6 5. 3 ,

4 :1.

1 4.

P l.

1 0:2.

1 6:3. 1 9:1.

1 8:1. 3 7.

p .

1 33,

p .

F ig.

p .

P lan 7 , P ls. p .

X VIII:2,

X IX.

2 05, a nd d rawing o n

p .

2 04.

2 05.

D emas i n K ition V ,

p p.

6 3,

1 07,

1 27, P lans X X-XXII.

P lan X X. P lan X XII. 1 28, 1 28,

P lans X X-XXI, P l. 1 47,

P l.

P l. 4 2:4,

4 2:3, 6 ,

1 28

6 ,

4 2:1. P lans X XI-XXIII.

P lan X XII.

2 50.

1 03.

I bid.,

p p.

2 8, 5 3,

1 05, P l.

3 8:2, P lans V III,

1 04.

I bid.,

P .

1 05.

I bid.,

P p.

5 4 ,

1 05,

P lans X VI-XVII.

1 06.

I bid.,

P p.

5 4,

1 05,

P lans X VI-XVII.

1 07.

I bid.,

p p.

6 6, P lan X XIV,

1 08.

I bid.,

p p.

1 08,

1 29,

P lans X XV-XXVI.

1 09.

I bid.,

p p.

1 08,

1 29,

P lans X XV-XXVI,

10 .

I bid.,

p .

11.

I bid.,

p p.

12.

I bid.,

p .

7 2, P lan X XIV .

13.

I bid.,

p .

1 49, P lan X XVII,

P l.

4 5:3.

14.

I bid.,

p .

1 50 , P lan X XVII,

P l.

4 5:3-4.

15.

I bid.,

p p.

16.

I bid.,

p .

7 5, P lan X XIV.

17.

I bid.,

p .

1 31, P lan X XVI.

18.

I bid.,

p p.

19.

M aier 1 976,

1 20.

E nkomi,

1 21.

I bid.,

p .

2 16, P lates 2 78,

1 22.

I bid.,

p .

1 95,

P late 2 76.

1 23.

I bid.,

p .

2 16 ,

P lates 2 78,

2 79.

1 24.

I bid.,

p .

2 00 , P lates 2 76,

2 77.

1 25.

I bid.

1 26.

C ourtois

1 27.

I bid.,

p .

1 86f.

1 28.

I bid.,

p .

2 04 ,

1 29 .

I bid.,

p p.

2 19-223,

F igs.

6 0,

1 30 .

I bid.,

p p.

2 15-218,

F igs.

5 9-62.

X VI-XVII.

5 4 , P lan X VI.

P l.

4 5:2.

P l.

4 4.

1 08 , P lan X V. 1 08,

7 5,

1 10,

7 5f.,

1 971,

P lans X XV,

1 30,

1 11,

p . 9 5, 1 95,

p .

1 29,

P lans X XIV-XXVI,

1 30,

P l.

X XVI.

1 52,

X IX,

6 .

2 79.

1 90f.

f ig.

5 0. 6 3,

1 29

4 7:4.

P lans X XV-XXVII,

P late 2 76.

p .

P l.

6 4.

P l.

4 6:1,

4 .

1 31.

I bid.,

p .

1 32.

I bid.,

p p.

1 33.

C ourtois i n C ourtois a nd L agarce 1 987,

1 34.

W ebb 1 977,

1 35.

V .

K arageorghis i n K ition V ,

1 36.

T .

D othan 1 982,

1 37.

I bid.,

1 38.

Y adin e t.al. 1 961, P l. C XXV :1-2; T ell Q asile I , p p. 4 0f., 1 18, P ls. 1 2:1, 2 ; C ourtois 1 971, pp. 2 44-249, F igs. 8 8, 8 9, 9 2-95; E nkomi, p . 1 96, P lates 3 5-36; A thienou , p . 4 1, P late 1 9: 2 ; E vans, A . 1 921-1934: T he P alace o f M inos a t K nossos. ( London), p . 5 48.

1 39.

B urdajewicz 1 18.

1 985,

p .

1 8;

1 40.

C f. T ell Q asile I ,

p .

6 9 a nd n ote 4 4.

1 41.

I bid.,

1 42.

G itin a nd D othan 1 987,

1 43.

A shdod I ,

1 44.

T ell Q asile I ,

1 45.

A shdod I ,

1 46.

W ebb 1 977,

1 47.

T ell Q asile I ,

p .

1 48.

H achmann 1 983,

p p.

1 49.

K ilian 1 981,

1 50.

T aylour 1 970,

1 51.

C askey 1 981,

1 52.

T ell Q asile I ,

p .

1 53.

W ebb 1 977,

14f.,

1 54.

M ost r ecently r eferences.

1 55.

I bid.

p .

2 15,

F igs.

2 11-214,

5 8-60. F igs.

5 5,

5 7,

6 0. 3 9,

P .

F ig.

8 .

1 11-132.

p p.

2 55-257.

p p.

3 7.

p .

3 7, P l.

3o n p age 3 8.

P lates 1 4:1-4,

T onas 1 984a,

1 04;

p .

T ell Q asile I ,

p .

1 5:2. d rawing o n

2 04.

p .

1 33.

p .

6 5 a nd T able 1 3 o n

p .

p .

6 9.

1 33.

p .

p p.

1 15f.,

p .

p p.

6 9; W ebb 1 977, 6 6ff.,

A bb.

p .

3 0,

1 22f. 3 7.

5 3.

p .

p .

1 20-124.

2 73f. 4 5. 7 2.

V .

19f.; T aylor K arageorghis

1 30

1 957, i n

p .

K ition

1 5f. V ,

p .

2 55

w ith

1 56.

F or e xample R enfrew 1 985,

1 57.

F or r eferences t o h orned a ltars s ee S tern , E . a nd A rieh, B . 1 979. T el A viv 6 :5. H orned a ltars h ave a lso b een f ound a t T el M iqne ( Gitin a nd D othan 1 987, P late o n p . 2 11).

1 58.

W ebb 1 977,

1 59.

T ell Q asile I ,

1 60.

I bid., n ote 7 8 o n p age 7 3.

1 61.

D unand, M . 1 937-1958. A tlas, P late X XXII, 1 .

1 62.

W ebb 1 977,

1 63.

I bid.

1 64.

T ell Q asile I ,

p .

7 3.

1 65.

C ourtois 1 971,

p .

2 04.

1 66.

V .

1 67.

C f.

1 68.

I bid.,

p .

1 24f.

1 69 .

I bid.,

p .

1 25.

1 70 .

T ell Q asile I ,

p .

6 9f.

1 71.

C ourtois 1 971, p .

1 52,

1 72.

T ell Q asile I ,

1 73.

I bid.,

1 74.

M . D emas A thienou,

p .

3 96;

p .

c f.

a lso i dem 1 981a,

2 7-33.

p p.

19f.

p .

p .

7 3.

F ouilles d e B yblos I I.

( Paris),

p .

6 48,

1 28f.

K arageorghis i n K ition V , W ebb 1 977, p .

p p.

p .

2 56f.

1 24f.

4 1,

F ig. 7 3,

2 . F ig.

1 2.

7 3.

p .

i n p .

K ition V , 1 0, P lan C ;

1 75.

D ikaios

1 932,

1 76.

T ell Q asile I ,

1 77.

R enfrew 1 985,

1 78 .

S tern 1 984,

p p. p .

p .

3 48ff.;

p . 6 4. P lates X X-XXIII, P l. R enfrew 1 981b, F igs. 1 , 2 , 3 1.

i dem 1 938,

p p.

18ff.,

P l.

7 0 . 3 96,

p . 2 9f.;

F igs. c f.

9 .5,

9 .6.

a lso T ell Q asile I ,

1 31

p .

7 0 .

4 2:4,

V II,

V III.

6 ;

C HAPTER I V 1 .

T ell Q asile I ,

2 .

I bid.

3 .

I bid.

4 .

S chäfer 1 983,

5 .

I bid.,

6 .

S tern 1 984,

7 .

I bid.

8 .

M .

9 .

B urdajewicz 1 986,

p .

p .

P P.

6 5.

5 51-558.

5 56. p .

3 2f.,

D emas i n K ition V , p .

F ig.

I Va,

p .

1 02f.

b .

2 31f.

1 0.

V .

K arageorghis i n K ition V ,

1 1.

C f. f or e xample S tern's d iscussion o n t he c ultural b ackground o f t he t emples a t T el M evorakh ( 1984, p p. 3 1-35, e specially 3 3-35).

p .

2 55;

1 32

i dem 1 971a,

p p.

1 01-107.

A BBREVIATIONS A ND S ELECT B IBLIOGRAPHY

A A

A rch ologischer A nzeiger

A AA

A thens A nnals o f A rchaeology

A ASOR

A nnual o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch

A fO

A rchiv f ir O rientforschung

A JA

A merican J ournal o f A rchaeology

A nnuario

A nnuario d ella r egia s cuola a rcheologica d i A tene e d elle m issioni i taliane i n o riente

' Atiqot

' Atiqot.

B A

T he B iblical A rchaeologist

B SA

A nnual o f t he B ritish S chool a t A thens

C RAT

C omptes R endus d e l 'Académie d es I nscriptions e t B elles L ettres

I EJ

I srael E xploration J ournal

J HS

J ournal o f H ellenic S tudies

O A

A cta I nstituti R omani R egni S ueciae: A rchaeologica

O p. A th.

A cta I nstituti A theniensis R egni S ueciae: A theniensia

P EQ

P alestine E xploration Q uartely

Q DAP

Q uartely o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities i n P alestine, J erusalem

Q edem

Q edem . M onographs o f t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology. H ebrew U niversity o f J erusalem

R B

R evue B iblique

R DAC

R eport o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities C yprus

S IMA

S tudies i n M editerranean A rchaeology

T el A viv

T el A viv, J ournal o f t he T el A viv U niversity I nstitute o f A rchaeology

J ournal o f t he I srael D epartment o f A ntiquities

1 33

O puscula

O puscula

T he

A cts 1 973: A cts o f t he I nternational A rchaeological S ymposium " The M ycenaeans i n t he E astern M editerranean", N icosia 2 7th M arch 2 nd A pril 1 972. N icosia. -

A cts 1 979: A cts o f t he I nternational A rchaeological S ymposium " The R elations b etween C yprus a nd C rete, c a. 2 000-500 B .C.", N icosia 1 6th A pril 2 2nd A pril 1 978. N icosia. -

A cts 1 986: A cts o f t he A rchaeological S ymposium " Cyprus b etween t he O rient a nd t he O ccident". N icosia. A lasia I : S chaeffer, C .F .-A. e t.al. 1 971: A lasia ( Premiere S erie. M ission A rcheologique d 'Alasia, T ome I V). P aris. A lasia I II: C ourtois, J .-C. 1 984: A lasia I II. L es O bjets d es N iveaux S tratifies d 'Enkomi ( Fouilles C .F .-A. S chaeffer 1 947-1970) ( Mission A rcheologique d 'Alasia, T ome V I). P aris. A l-Radi S elma, M .S. 1 983: P hiamoudhi V ounari: C yprus ( SIMA L XV). G oteborg.

A S anctuary S ite i n

A shdod I : D othan, M . a nd F reedman, D .N . 1 967: S eason o f E xcavations, 1 962. ( 'Atiqot 7 ).

A shdod I : T he F irst J erusalem .

s tr m , P . 1 985: T he S ea P eoples i n t he L ight o f N ew E xcavations, C entre d 'Etudes C hypriotes 3 : 1 -18. A thienou: D othan, T . a nd B en-Tor, A . C yprus, 1 971-1972. ( Qedem 1 6).

1 983: E xcavations a t A thienou J erusalem .

B alensi, J . 1 981: T ell K eisan, t emoin o riginal d e l 'apparition d u ' Mycénien I IIC:la' a u P roche-Orient, R B 8 8: 3 99-401. B aurain,

C .

1 984:

R ecent. B arnett,

R .D .

B arnett, R .D . 1 981, pp.

C hypre e t l a M editerranée o rientale a u B ronze

S ynthese H istorique ( Etudes C hypriotes V I). 1 975:

T he S ea P eoples,

i n C AR3, p p.

P aris.

3 59-378.

1 981: B ringing t he G od i nto t he T emple, 1 0-20.

i n B iran ( ed.)

B en-Tor, A . a nd P ortugali, Y . 1 987: T ell Q iri. AV illage i n t he J ezreel V alley. R eport o f t he A rchaeological E xcavations 1 9751 977 ( Qedem 2 4). J erusalem . B eth S han I T, 1 : R owe, A . 1 940: T he F our C anaanite T emples o f B eth S han, V ol I T P art I : T he T emples a nd C ult o bjects. P hiladelphia. B ikai, M .

1 978:

B iran, A . ( ed.) J erusalem .

T he P ottery o f T yre. 1 981:

W arminster.

T emples a nd H igh P laces i n B iblical L ands.

1 34

B iran,

A .

1 981:

T o t he G od w ho i s i n D an,

i n B iran ( ed.),

1 42-151.

p p.

B loedow, E .F . 1 988: T he T rojan W ar a nd L ate H elladic hIC, P raehistorische Z eitschrift 6 3(1): 2 3-52. B ounni e t.al. 1 978: B ounni, A . ,, L agarce, J ., S aliby, N . R apport p réliminaire s ur h a d uexième c ampagne d e f ouihles ( 1976) I bn H ani ( Syrie), S yria L V: 2 33-301.

a

B ounni e t.al. 1 979: B ounni, A ., L agarce, J ., S aliby, N ., B adre, L . R apport p réliminaire s ur l a t roisième c ampagne d e f ouilles ( 1977) I bn H ani ( Syrie), S yria L VI: 1 7-291.

N

B ouzek, J . 1 985: T he A egean, A natolia a nd E urope: C ultural I nterr elations i n t he S econd M illenium B .C. P raha. B rug,

J .F . 1 985: AL iterary a nd A rchaeological S tudy o f t he P hilistines ( BAR I nternational S eries 2 65). O xford.

B urdajewicz, M . 1 985: T he S anctuary o f t he H orned G od R econsidered, A rchaeologia C ypria I : 1 5-19. B urdajewicz, M . 1 986: 9 3: 2 43-256 .

A p ropos d es t emples P hihistins d e Q asileh,

C adogan, G . 1 984: M aroni a nd t he L ate B ronze A ge o f C yprus, K arageorghis a nd M uhly ( eds.), p p. 1 -10. C adogan,

G .

1 986:

M aroni I T,

C adogan,

G .

1 987:

M aroni I II, R DAC:

C adogan,

G .

1 988:

M aroni T V , R DAC 1 988 ( 1):

C AH 3 :

1 975.

R DAC:

i n

4 0-44. 8 1-84.

T he C ambridge A ncient H istory:

E ast a nd t he A egean R egion c . I T, P art 2 . C ambridge.

R B

2 29-231. H istory o f t he M iddle

1 380-1000 B .C .

( 3rd e dition) V ol.

C ahlot, 0 . 1 985: R emarques s ur l 'architecture d es T emples 1 e t 2 , K ition V , p p . 1 65-239. C ahlot, 0 . 1 987: L es h uileries d u B ronze R ecent e lements p our u ne e tude, i n Y on e t.al. 1 987, C aquot, A ., S znycer , M . a nd H erdner, A . M ythes e t l egendes. P aris.

1 974:

i n

aOugarit, p p.

p remiers 1 97-212.

T extes o ugaritiques I ,

C askey, M .E . 1 981: A yia T rini, K ea: T he T erracotta s tatues a nd t he c ult i n t he t emple, i n H agg a nd M arinatos ( eds.) 1 981, p p. 1 271 35. C atling, H .W . 1 15-122.

1 961.

A n ew b ronze s word f rom C yprus, A ntiquity 3 5:

1 35

C atling, H .W . 2 16.

1 975a:

C yprus i n t he L ate B ronze A ge,

i n C AR 3 , p p.

C atling, H .W .

1 975b:

A n ew s anctuary a t E nkomi?, R DAC:

1 88-

5 0-53.

C ourtois, J .-C. 1 971: i n A lasia I , pp.

L e s anctuaire d u d ieu a u l ingot d 'Enkomi-Alasia, 1 51-362.

C ourtois, J .-C. 1 972: Vage d u b ronze,

C hypre e t l 'Europe p rehistorique a l a f in d e i n P raktika 1 972, pp. 2 3-33.

C ourtois, J .-C. 1 973: L e s anctuaire d u d ieu a u l ingot d 'Enkomi-Alasia ( Chypre) e t l es l ieux d e c ulte c ontemporains e n Mditerranée O rientale, C RAI: 2 23-246. C ourtois, J .-C. a nd L agarce, J . C hypre. N icosia. C TH:

L aroche,

E .

1 971:

1 987:

E nkomi e t l e B ronze R ecent

C atalogue d es T extes H ittites.

a

P aris.

D eger-Jalkotzy, S . ( ed.) 1 983: G riechenland, d ie Ä g is u nd d ie L evante w ahrend d er ' Dark A ges' v om 1 2, b is z um 9 . J h. v . C hr. V ienna. D esborough, V .R.d'A . O xford. D ikaios, P . 1 932: S yria X III:

1 964:

T he L ast M ycenaeans a nd T heir S uccessors.

L es c ultes p rehistoriques d ans Vile d e C hypre, 3 45-354.

D ikaios, P . 1 938: T he E xcavations a t V ounous-Bellapais i n C yprus, 1 931-1932, A rchaeologia 8 8: 1 -174. D othan, M .

1 956:

D othan, M . 1 971: E xcavations, J erusalem .

E xcavations a t N ahariyah,

I EJ 6 :

1 4-26.

A shdod 1 1-111: T he S econd a nd t he T hird S easons o f 1 962, 1 965, S oundings i n 1 967 ( 'Atiqot 1 0).

D othan, M . 1 972: R elations b etween C yprus a nd t he P hilistine C oast i n t he L ate B ronze A ge ( Tel M or, A shdod), i n P raktika 1 972, p p. 5 15 6. D othan, M . 1 981: S anctuaries a long t he c oast o f C anaan i n t he M B P eriod: N ahariyah, i n B iran ( ed.) 1 981, p p. 7 4-82. D othan, T . 1 981,

1 981: T he H igh P lace o f A thienou i n C yprus, 9 1-95.

i n B iran ( ed.)

p p.

D othan, T . 1 982: J erusalem .

T he P hilistines a nd T heir M aterial C ulture.

D othan, T . 1 983: S ome A spects o f t he A ppearance o f t he S ea P eoples a nd P hilistines i n C anaan, i n D eger-Jalkotzy , S . ( ed.) 1 983, p p. 9 91 16.

1 36

D othan, T . a nd B en-Tor, A . 1 972: 1 971-2, P reliminary R eport, D othan, T . a nd C itin , S . 1 985: 1 984, R B 9 2: 4 08-412. D ussand, R . 1 950: S yria X XVII:

J ( inyras. 5 7-81.

E xcavations a t A thienou, C yprus, I EJ 2 2: 2 01-208. , K h.

e l-Muqanna ( Tell M iqne-Ekron),

E tude s ur l es a nciens c ultes c hypriotes,

E AEHL : A vi-Yonah, M ., S tern, E . ( eds.) 1 975-1978: A rchaeological E xcavations i n t he H oly L and. J erusalem. E isenberg,

E .

1 977:

E nkomi: D ikaios, P . I -ITT. M ainz.

T he T emples a t T ell K ittan, 1 969-1972:

E ncyclopedia o f t he V ols. 1 -1V .

B A 4 0:

7 8-81.

E nkomi E xcavations 1 948-1958.

V ols.

F aulkner, R .C . 1 975: E gypt: f rom t he I nception f t he N ineteenth D ynasty t o t he D eath o f R amesses I II, i n C AR 3 , pp. 2 17-251. F ortin,

M .

1 978:

T he F ortification W all a t L ara,

R DAC:

5 8-67.

a

F ortin, M . 1 980: F ondation d e v illes g recques C hypre: l egends e t d ecouvertes a rcheologiques, i n C aron J .B . e t.al. M elanges d 'Etudes A nciennes o fferts a M aurice L ebel. ( Quebec), pp. 2 5-44. F ortin,

M .

1 984:

T he E nkomi T ower, L evant V I:

F r din, C . a nd P ersson, A .W . E xcavations 1 922-1930.

1 938: A sine. S tockholm .

1 73-176.

R esults o f t he S wedish

F urmark, A . 1 950: T he S ettlement a t l alysos a nd A egean H istory c . 1 550-1400 B .C ., O A 6 : 1 50-271. F urmark, A . 1 965: T he E xcavations a t S inda. 0 p.Ath. 6 : 9 9-116.

S ome H istorical R esults,

G eorghiou, H . 1 979: R elations b etween C yprus a nd t he N ear E ast i n t he M iddle a nd L ate B ronze A ge, L evant I X: 8 4-100. G essel, G .G . 1985: T own, P alace a nd H ouse C ult i n M inoan C rete ( SIMA 6 7). G oteborg. G itin, S . a nd D othan, T . P hilistines, B A 4 : G jerstad, E . 1 944: 1 07-123.

1 987: T he R ise a nd F all o f E kron o f t he 1 97-222.

p p.

T he C olonization o f C yprus i n G reek L egend, O A 3 :

1 37

G iterbock, H .G . 1 983: T he H ittites a nd t he A egean W orld: A hhiyawa P roblem R econsidered, A JA 9 7 ( 2): 1 33-138.

H achmann, R . ( ed.) 1 983: F rihe P h niker i m L ibanon. A usgrabungen i n K amid e l-Loz. M ainz a m R hein. H adjioannou, K . 1 973: I I. L eukosia. H adjisavas, S . 1 11-119.

1 988:

T he

2 0 J ahre-deutsche

H e a rchaia K ypros e is t as E llenikas p egas.

V ol.

O live O il P roduction i n A ncient C yprus, R DAC

( 2):

Hgg, R . 1 981: T he H ouse S anctuary a t A sine r evisited, M arinatos ( eds.), pp. 9 1-91. H igg,

1 .

i n Hgg a nd

R . a nd M arinatos, N . ( eds.) 1 981: S anctuaries a nd C ults i n t he A egean B ronze A ge. P roceedings o f t he F irst I nternational S ymposium a t t he S wedish I nstitute i n A thens 1 2-13 M ay, 1 980. ( Skrifter U tgivna a v S venska I nstitutet i A then 4 0 , X XVIII). S tockholm .

H amilton,

R .W .

1 934:

E xcavations a t T ell A bu H awam,

Q DAP 4 :

H ankey, V . 1 71.

1 966:

L ate M ycenaean P ottery a t B eth S han,

H ankey, V . 1 47.

1 967:

M ycenaean P ottery i n t he M iddle E ast,

1 -69.

A JA 7 0 :

1 69-

B SA 6 2:

1 07-

H ankey, V . 1 982: P ottery a nd P eople o f t he M ycenaean hIC P eriod i n t he L evant, i n A rch ologie a u L evant. R ecueil R . S aideh . ( Lyon), p p. 1 67-171. H aran, M . 1 981: T emples a nd C ultic O pen A reas a s R eflected i n t he B ible, i n B iran ( ed.), pp. 3 1-37. H arding,

A .F .

1 984:

T he M ycenaeans a nd E urope.

L ondon.

H iller, S . 1 979: k a-ko n a-wi-jo. N otes o n i nterdependence o f t emple a nd b ronze i n t he A egean L ate B ronze A ge , i n R isch a nd M uhlstein ( eds.) 1 979, p p. 1 89-195. H iller, S . 1 981: M ykenische H eihigt i imer: D as Z eugnis d er L inear BT exte, i n H agg a nd M arinatos ( eds.) 1 981, p p. 9 5-125. H ood,

S . 1 977: M inoan t own s hrines?, i n K inzl K .H. ( ed.) G reece a nd t he E astern M editerranean i n A ncient H istory a nd P rehistory. ( Berlin), p p. 1 58-288.

H ooker, J .T . 1 985: M inoan a nd M ycenaean s ettlement i n C yprus, i n P raktika 1 985, pp. 1 75-179.

1 38

H ult,

C . 1 983: B ronze A shlar M asonry i n t he E astern M editerranean, C yprus, U garit a nd N eighbouring R egions ( SIMA L XVI). G oteborg .

J onas, I . 1 984a: L 'architecture r eligiouse a u C hypriote Rec ent ( Kition e t E nkomi), i n R oux ( ed.) 1 984, pp. 9 7-105. T onas,

I .

1 984b:

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1 46

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1 56

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F igure 1 7. E nkomi: i sometric v iew o f t he H orned G od a nd f emale d ivinity s anctuaries, L evel ITC . 1 59

U

3m

F igure 1 8. S uggested r econstruction o f t he H orned G od s anctuary a t E nkomi, L evel I JIB .

RU E

F igure 1 9.

E nkomi:

s chematic p lan o f t he " House o f t he C olumns".

1 60

A A ltars

F igure 2 0.

E nkomi:

B ' Tethering s tone'

F H earth

s chematic p lan o f t he I ngot G od s anctuary.

0

I

F igure 2 1. ullA.

E nkomi:

5 J

l O m I

i sometric v iew o f t he " Tower" s anctuary,

1 61

L evel

Z �

10

0

3M

6 w&== &

F igure 2 2.

T ell Q asile:

m m I

s chematic p lan o f T emple 3 19.

C

0

F igure 2 3.

T ell Q asile:

3M

s chematic p lan o f T emple 2 00 a nd S hrine 3 00.

1 62

F igure 2 4.

T ell Q asile:

s chematic p lan o f T emple 1 31 a nd S hrine 3 00.

1 63

F igure 2 5.

B eth S han:

g eneral p lan o f L ower L evel V .

1

0

5

F igure 2 6.

B eth S han:

p lan o f t he N orthern T emple.

1 64

0

F igure 2 7.

B eth S han:

5

4 0

p lan o f t he S outhern T emple. 1 65

M

F igure 2 8.

T el M iqne:

i sometric v iew o f t he s hrine,

F ield I .

i sometric v iew o f c ult a rea,

F ield I V.

-

F igure 2 9.

T el M iqne:

1 66

1 I I I I I I

I

I

/

I

I I I

•1

I

1 I ,

I

:

1 00 2 .

i 00

I l

1 0 10

i

1 022

2 .

3

4

A ltar? R aised

F igure 3 0.

A shdod:

p latform?

s chematic p lan o f t he t emple i n A rea D .

1 67

A

E

L ACH1SH

D

A . F os se T emple I B . F osse T emple I L C . F osse T emple II D . S ummit T emple T ELL

X ITTAN

E . M igdol T emple R .

" Templu i n w ith A ntis '

T EL A BU H AWAM

G F igure 3 1. p lan".

G .

T emple o f s tratum V

H .

T emple o f

Va S tratum I

H S chematic p lans o f P alestinian t emples o f t he " irregular

1 68

J

N I

M

B ETH S HAN I . T emple o f A menophis II J . T emple o f S eti I K . N orthern T emple T ELL Q ASIL L . T emple 2 00 L I , T emple 1 31

0

N . S hrine 3 00 A S J 4DO I ) 0 . T emple i n A rea D T EL M EVORAXF I P . T emple o f S tratum X I R . T emple o f S tratum X P

R F igure 3 1.

C ontinued. 1 69

A 2m

F igure 3 2. H azor: p lan o f t he S telae T emple, A rea C . ( A) " Lower T emple" ( 14th c entury B .C.); ( B) " T ipper T emple" ( 13th c entury B .C .).

1 70

4 F

t " i p '

$

o w

I 'V N I

z z

I M , O M Ma k u l k .

4 1 0

E ZM o —

3m

F igure 3 3.

1 �

U garit:

p lan o f t he ' t S anctuaire a ux r hytons".

0

F igure 3 4.

T ell e l-Far'ah ( N):

1 71

3m

p lan o f t he t emple(?).

0

5 I

F igure 3 5.

l

L

N ahariyah :

I O M

I

p lan o f t he t emple, M BII B -C .

LJ

o

i 2 F- L . . . . . Jm .

F igure 3 6. L BI.

H azor:

rn

s chematic p lan o f t he L ong T emple,

1 72

A rea A , M BII-

1 D m

0

F igure 3 7. A rea H ,

R azor:

s chematic p lan o f t he B roadroom T emple ( Stratum 3 ),

M BIIC.

S TA IRWELL

r I

1 D m

' THRES I 1OLP

C OLUMN B ASE

F igure 3 8. M BIIC.

F igure 3 9. B B , N I RTIC.

S hechem :

M egiddo:

s chematic p lan o f t he m igdol-type t emple I a,

0

5

F

I

l O m -

s chematLc p lan o f t he m igdol-type t emple, 1 73

A rea

1 74

s q p i j -

n o i A j

F igure 4 1.

0

5

F igure 4 2.

A yia T rini:

s chematic p lan o f t he t emple,

L CIIIA.

s chematic p lan o f t he C ult H ouse,

L CIIIA .

1 0

I dalion:

1 75

0

1R oom w ith t he F resco 2M egaron 3T emple

F igure 4 3.

M ycenae:

s chematic p lan o f t he c ult c entre. 1 76

R oom w i t h t h eP i o if o v r n s

0

J .

. 4 L tr

2 .

S B onch

2 . I d o L

6 . ß&h -tub

3 . C o lumn b ase

7 C ong lome ra te

4 . H ear th

F igure 4 4. F resco.

i

M ycenae:

th r e sho a

s chematic p lan o f t he T emple a nd R oom w ith t he

4 0

F igure 4 5.

E leusis:

M

p lan o f t he M ycenaean t emple ( ? ). 1 77

0

F igure 4 6.

A sine:

8m

4

s chematic p lan o f t he C ult H ouse G .

W est S hrine

E ast S hrine

0 F igure 4 7.

P hylakopi, M elos:

x I I I

I

L _v i1

n A A ltar F igure 4 8.

I L I J

V

B

0 K ea:

B jA !

I V

B B enches A yia I rini,

s chematic p lan o f t he s anctuary.

5m

� 3

s chematic p lan o f t he t emple. 1 78

F igure 4 9. T ell Q asile: r econstructions.

i sometric v iew o f T emple 3 19;

t wo s uggested

F igure 5 0. T ell Q asile: r econstructions.

i sometrLc v iew o f T emple 2 00;

t wo s uggested

1 79

F igure 5 1.

F igure 5 2.

T ell Q asile:

T ell M evorakh:

i sometric v iew o f T emple

i sometric v iew o f t he t emple,

1 80

1 31.

S tratum X I.

F igure 5 3.

M ycenae:

i sometric v iew o f t he T emple.

1 14 )

1 17

F igure 5 4.

T iryns:

b oa

i sometric v iew o f t he S hrine.

1 81

4m

1

0

1 :

HEARTH \

2 -i '3D

W O

0 1 ALTAR N

F igure 5 5. l ilA .

K ition:

p lan o f t he a ltar a nd h earth i n T emple 2 , f loor

A -A ' F igure 5 6.

K ition:

B -B '

p lan a nd s ection o f A ltar E i n T emple 4 ,

1 82

f loor I .

F igure 5 7.

U PPER

K ition:

p lan o f t he A ltar i n T emple 5 ,

f loor I II.

S TRUCTURE

(

BASE Im I

F igure 5 8. I .

(

K ition:

p lan a nd v iew o f A ltar D i n T emenos A ,

1 83

f loors I II-

r econstruction o f t he a ltar .

1 84 s p i d

-n o I A W

4 -

V

: 1 0

1 85 i n f é r i e u r "

G ENERAL I NDEX A chaea 2 0 A chaean(s) 1 6,18,21,23,30f.,35,51 A chaion A kte ( 'the c oast o f A chaeans') 1 6 A dyton 4 4,79,83 A egean(s) p assim s ettlers,

1 1,14ff.,21f.,25,35,38,62,76f.,95,99, hof. ‚ 114f. ‚ 124 t emple 2 6,62,85,97ff.,102,107,109 a rchitecture 4 6 ,70f.,76,85 A erias 3 0 A gapenor o f T egea 1 6,30f. A hhiyawa, L and o f 1 9,117 A kamas 1 6 A kko 3 ,6,113 A lalakh 7 5 A lasia ( Alashiya) 1 8ff. A lignment o f t emples 6 8-74 A lishar 9 A ltar 3 1,34,36,38f.,50,52,54,68,74f.,78,81f.,85,87,90f.,95f.,98ff.,120 b uilt 8 8,94 h earth 2 6,85,87-94,97ff. h orned 1 00,131 o pen a ir 9 5f. p ortable 9 9 s acrificial 8 6f.,99f. A mathous 1 6 A mor 2 0 A mphilochus 1 6 A natolia(ns) 7 ,9,12,17,21,44,101,122 A natolian G rey P olished w are, s ee p ottery A phrodite 1 6,30,33ff. ‚ 63 a niconic c ult o f 3 4 C elestial 1 6 P aphian 3 0 T emple o f, s ee P alaepaphos A rad 4 6f. A rgive r egion, A rgolis 7 f. A rkalchori c ave 6 4 A rzawa 2 0 A shdod 4 ff. ‚ 16,57,59f. ‚ 66f. ‚ 69,81,84f. ‚ 87,94-99,106,111 T emple ( Area D ) 5 9f.,67,69,81,85,94,96f.,99,106 p ottery w orkshop 5 9,67,95 A sherah 3 6 A shkelon 5 f.,16,57 A shlar 1 3,32,40,88ff.,114 B uilding, s ee E nkomi, M aroni-Vournes, K alavasos-Avios D himitrios m asonry 8 ,29,31,61,114 A sia M inor 9 ,12,16ff.,21,44,117 A sine 8 ,15,26,46,51,53,97,98,103 H ouse C 8 ,26,46,51,53,97f. -

i mmigrants e tc.

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1 87

A spendus 1 6 A starte 1 6 A thienou 4 ,6,11,25,29,35-38,60,65,69,95,lolf.,110 m etallurgical i nstallations 3 7,65 A ugustus 3 1 A yia I rini ( Cyprus) 2 5,29,38,41f.,50 A yia I rini ( Kea) 6 1,64,98,100,102,109 m etallurgical a ctivity 6 4 -

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B aal T emple, s ee U garit B ack c hamber o f a t emple 2 6,28,43,48,50,52f.,57,59,80ff.,84f.,97,106 B alkan P eninsula 1 2 B amah ( p1. b amot) 3 5ff.,58,67,87,95f.,120, s ee a lso ' High p lace' B arbarian m ercenaries 1 4f. ' Barbarian w are', s ee p ottery ' Basin B uilding, s ee M aroni-Vournes ' B timent 1 8 ', s ee E nkomi B ent a xis 4 1,43,50,52f.,74ff.,77 B eth S han 6 ,28,30,45,48,54-57,69ff. ‚ 77,80,101 ‚ 103f. ‚ 106f. ‚ 111,125 A menophis I II T emple 5 4 N orthern T emple 4 5,48,54-57,69,80,103,107 S eti I T emple 5 4 S outhern T emple 5 4-57,69,80,101,103 B lack S ea 1 7f. B o azkoy 9 ,44 B roadroom t emple t ype 2 8,54,75,109,111 B yblos 6 ,100 O belisk T emple 1 00 -

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C anaan p assim C anaanite 3 ,13,27,35,48f.,56,59,67,95,107,109,123 t emple 4 8f.,54ff.,62,75ff.,79,94,98f.,103f.,i11 a rchitecture 4 7,49,53,62,107 C archemish 2 0 C arpasian P eninsula 1 6 C aucasus, C aucasian r egion 2 0,22 C hytroi 1 6 C hytrus 1 6 C ilicia 1 6,18 C ilician c oast 1 8 C olonization o f C yprus 7 ,15-19,21f. o f S yro-Palestine ( Levant) 1 5,19,22,105 C opper 3 5,37,63,65f. o re 1 7,63,117 p roduction 6 3 t rade 3 7,63f. w orking, i nstallations f or 3 7,63,65 C ourtyard o f a t emple, s anctuary 2 4f. ‚ 28f. ‚ 31f. ‚ 34f. ‚ 37f. ‚ 40-43,47, -

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C retans 9

4 9f. ‚ 54,58,66 ,73,81,83,91 ‚ 94,97,99f., 1 02f.

1 88

C rete 1 2,36f.,44,61,64,95 C ult b ench 7 8,85,97f. o bject 3 4f. ‚ 39,41,52,57,78,83ff. ‚ 98,102 r epository 4 1,80 ,83ff. r oom 3 8,58,61 C yclades 3 7 C yclopean s tyle w all 9 C ypriote 6 ,9,11,13,16,26f. ‚ 38,40,43f. ‚ 49,57f. ‚ 62f. ‚ 65,94,97,99,101, 1 03f. ‚ 109f . t emple 2 7ff.,40,43,57,62,76,84,94,97ff.,109 t ype 2 9,110f. a rchitecture 2 9 ,35,43,58,76 C ypriots l of. C yprus p assim -

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D agan T emple, s ee U garit D anaos 2 2 D anube 1 2 D ebir 7 7f. D elta 1 9f.,72 D enyen 2 0,22 ' Dieu l unaire' 6 1 D odecanessos 1 2 D omestic s anctuary 6 0

E gypt 2 0,22,26,47,56,105,107 E gyptian t emple 2 6,103 E kron, s ee T el M iqne E leusis 2 6,45f.,51,53,103 E mar, s ee M eskene-Emar E n C edi 1 22 E nkomi 4 -8,10f.,13-16,38-45,58-61, 6 4,69,74,77,82f. ‚ 92,95,97,99,lolff., 1 14f. ‚ 116 A shlar B uilding ( Area I ) 5 ,8,13,40ff.,44,58,82f.,114 ' B timent 1 8 ' 6 1,114 c hronology 7 f.,114f. ' Fortress' 6 1 H ouse o f t he C olumns 3 9f.,44,69,77,82,94 s anctuary: o f a f emale d ivinity 4 1f.,58,60,69,83,92,97 o f t he H orned C od 4 0ff.,58,60,69,82f.,92,95,103 o f t he I ngot C od 4 2ff.,64,74,83,93,95,101f.,103 ' Tower' 4 4f.,69,83f. E qwesh 1 9f.,117 E suwara 1 8 E urope 1 4f.,20,22 E vreti, s ee P alaepaphos -

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1 89

F ortress T emple, s ee S hechem , T ell B alatah F osse T emple, s ee L achish F ournou K orifi ( Myrtos) 4 4,64,122

G ath 5 7 G ezer 5 7 G reece 1 2,14ff. G reek(s) 7 ,13,17,21,105 l egend 7 ,16-18,21 m ainland 7 f. ‚ llff. ‚ l8ff. ‚ 36f. ‚ 46,51,64,71,107 G olgoi 1 6 G olgus 1 6 G ordian 3 2 -

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H ala S ultan T ekke 6 ,8,15 H ammurapi 1 9 H atti, L and o f 1 9f. H a7or 4 4,46ff.,55,59,62,75,95,104,123 B road T emple ( Area H ) 9 5 L ong T emple ( Area A ) 5 5,62,75 ' Stelae T emple' ( Area C ) 4 6ff. H earth 4 0,43f.,52,58,97f. a ltar, s ee a ltars H ekal 7 7 H ellespont 1 7 H erodotus 1 6 H igh—place 3 5-38,66,87,95, s ee a lso B amah o pen a ir 6 6,87,95 H ittite(s) 1 8f.,48 ' Holy o f H oh es' 4 9,68,70,77-85,96,106 H omer 1 7f. H orned G od 4 0f.,58,60,69,82f.,92,95,103 H orns o f c onsecration 3 1f. ‚ 35,88,94,99f.,110 H ouse C , s ee A sine ' House o f t he C olumns', s ee E nkomi H ouse s anctuary 6 0ff. H ousehold G oddess 6 4 -

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l alysos o n R hodes 5 ,14 I dahion 2 5,29,44,50 I ndirect a ccess ( entrance) 2 8f.,33,41,47,56,59,106,127 I ngot G od 4 2ff.,64,74,83,93,95,101ff. I onian c oast 1 8 I ron 6 6 w orking 6 6 i ntroduction o f 6 6 ' Irregular p lan ' o f t emples 2 8,5 ,106-109,111 -

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1 90

I srael 2 ,36,48,55,123 I sraelite(s) 4 6f.,49,100,120 I taly 1 5

J affa 4 5f. ‚ 55,69,103f. ‚ 106,111 ' Lion T emple' 4 5f.,55,69,103f.,106 J erusalem T emple, s ee S olomon T emple J ordan R iver 3 J ugoslavia 1 5 J osiah 3 6 J uktas, M ount o f 3 6 -

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K a-ko n a-wi-jo 6 5 K alavasos A yios-Dhimitrios 9 ,61,114,120 A shlar B uilding X 6 1,114,120 K amid e l-Loz 3 2,97f.,123 K arakou 1 5 K aratepe 4 4 K arnak 2 6 K ephallenia 2 0 K erynia 1 6 K hirbet e l-Muqanna, s ee T el M iqne K honsu, T emple o f 2 6 K inyras 1 6,30,63 K ition 6 ,8,11,13,15f.,24-30,32ff.,38,41-44,49ff.,55ff.,59,62f.,65,69, 7 2,74,80ff. ‚ 84,88-91,94,97,99, 1 01ff. ‚ 107,109f. 1 14,125 m etallurgical w orkshops 2 4,50,62f.,65 T emenos A 2 4,50 ,62f.,65,101f. T emenos B 2 4,50 T emple: -1 2 4,27,33,49ff.,56f.,62f.,69,72,80f.,84,103 -2 2 4-29,31,33f.,43,49ff.,56f.,62,65,69,72,74,80f.,89,97,101,103 32 5f.,28,31,41f.,50f.,65,74 4 2 4,44,49,51,57,69,72,81,89,97,101,103 52 4,33,43f. ‚ 49,51,56f. ‚ 69,72,80ff. ‚ 84,91,97,101,103 s acred g arden 2 5,51 K nossos 6 4,95 K ode 2 0 K othar K hasis 6 7 K ouklia, s ee P alaepaphos K ypheus 1 6 -

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L achish 2 8,44,46,48,75,104,106f.,111,127 F osse T emple 2 8,46,48,75,104,106 S ummit T emple 2 8,75,107,127 L apithos 1 6 L apiths 1 6 L ara 1 0 L eonteus 1 6 L evant 1 2,15,20f.,45,97,105,107,111 -

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1 91

L evantine 1 4 t emple a rchitecture 6 2,98,107 L ibyan t ribes 1 9f. L icia 1 8 ' Lion T emple', s ee J affa L ocal L ate M yc.IIIB, s ee p ottery L ongroom t emple t ype 2 8,50,54ff.,74f.,109,111,124 L ukku ( Lukka) 1 9 -

M aa-Palaeokastro 6 ,8-13,15ff. c hronology 9 f. M alia 6 4 M alus 1 6 M aroni-Vournes 6 5,114,120,126 A shlar B uilding 1 14,120,126 ' Basin B uilding' 6 5 M a at H oyuk 1 17 M azzebah 3 6 M edinet H abu 1 ,21f. M egaron 8 ,52,55,58,64 M egiddo 5 5,62,75,120 m igdol t emple 5 5 M erneptah 1 9 M eskene-Emar 1 23 M esopotamia 1 01 M esopotamian t emple 7 0 M etal w orking 3 7f.,65f. M etallurgical a ctivity 6 2ff.,66 w orkshops 5 0,62-66 M etallurgy a nd r eligion, r elations 3 7,62-65 M igdol t emple t ype 2 7f.,55 M inoan s hrine 3 2,61 M inoan(s) 3 2,61,65,99,110 M opsou h estia ( 'Mopsus' H earth') 1 6 M opsus 1 6 M ycenae 7 ,15,19,26,32,44ff.,51f.,61,64,71,85,97ff.,101,103,109 H ouse o f T sountas 1 01 M egaron ( Room 2 ) 6 4,98 R oom w ith t he F resco 2 6,51f.,64,98f. R oom w ith t he I dols 5 2,98 S hrine ( Room 3 2) 5 2,64 S tructure L '1 01 T emple 2 6,45,51f.,64 M yc.IIIB , hIC p ottery, s ee p ottery M ycenaean(s) 3 ff. ‚ 7-15,17f. ‚ 20f. ‚ 23,32,51,55,65,71,95,99,105,110,113 t emple a rchitecture 5 5 M yrtou-Pigadhes 2 5,29,38,41f. ‚ 50,65,99f. ‚ 102,109,126 a ltar 9 9 m etallurgical a ctivity 6 5 o live o il p roduction 1 26 -

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1 92

N ahariyah 4 6,55,67,120 N aue I I s words 1 4f. N ear E ast 1 8,20,24,29,32,47,94,97,99,101 N ear E astern t emple 8 4f.,97,102,109 N egev 4 7 N orthern T emple, s ee B eth S han -

O belisk T emple, s ee B yblos O ikos 6 5 O live o il p roduction 5 8,60,67,126 O pen a ir h igh p lace, s ee H igh-place s anctuary 3 6,77,103 t emenos 1 02 O rientation o f t emples, s ee a lignment o f t emples -

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P alaepaphos 4 ff. ‚ 8,16,30-35,44,56f. ‚ 62ff. ‚ 69,82f.,91,99f. ‚ 103,109 E vreti 6 3 s acred c one 3 1f.,34f. S anctuary I 3 0-35,56,62ff.,69,82f.,91,100,103 S anctuary I I ( Roman S anctuary) 3 2,34,120 T emple o f A pfrodite 1 6,30-34 r epresentation o n R oman c oins 3 1f.,34 w orkshops 6 3 P alestine p assim P amphylia 1 6 P ausanias 3 0 P eak s anctuary 3 6f. P eloponessos 7 ,12,18f.,22 P erir 1 9 P haistos 6 4 P haselis 1 6 P hilippus A rabs 3 2 P hilistine P entapolis 5 7 P hlamoudhi-Melissa 4 3 P hlamoudhi-Vounari 3 6f. P hylakopi o n M elos 2 6,44,51f.,59,61,64,76,79,85,97f.,100,102f. ‚ 109 E ast S hrine 5 2f.,76,97f.102 m etallurgical a ctivity 6 4 W est S hrine 2 6,52f.,76,85,97f.,102f. P olypoetes 1 6 P otnia 6 5 P ottery A natolian G rey P olished w are 1 2,17 ' Barbarian w are ' 1 5 C ypriote R ude S tyle 5 D ebased L evanto H elladic 12 D ecorated L ate C ypriot I II 12 l ocal L ate M yc.IIIB ( IIIB :2) 6 ,8,112,114 M yc.IIIC:la 7 M yc.IIIC:lb 4 -11,13-16,19,35 96 0,65,95f.,105,110,112,114,116,124 -

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1 93

M yc.IIIc ' rough w are' ( Sherdenu w are o f A kko) P hilistine 1 ,3-6,l3ff. ‚ 60,105,110,112,123 P roto W hite P ainted 1 4 S ub M ycenaean 1 12 W hite P ainted W heelmade I II 1 12 P raxandros 1 6 P yla-Kokkinokremos 8 ff. ‚ 12,16f. c hronology 9 f. P ylos 8 -

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R amesses I II l f.,20,22f.,45 R as I bn H ani 6 ,19,116 R aised p latform 2 8,48,78-81,84-87,96-99,102,106 R omania 1 5 ' Romm w ith t he F resco', s ee M ycenae ' Room w ith t he I dols', s ee M ycenae

S acred p assim c one o f A phrodite, s ee P alaepaphos e conomy 6 3-67 g arden 2 5,29f.,26, s ee a lso K ition S acrificial s laughtering b lock 9 3,101 S alamis 1 6,116 ' Sanctuaire a ux r hytons', s ee U garit S anctuary p assim -

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I , I T ( Roman S anctuary) s ee P alepaphos o f t he H orned G od, a f emale d ivinity, t he I ngot G od, s ee E nkomi S arepta 6 ' Sea P eoples' p assim S hechem , F ortress T emple 2 7f.,55,62,75 S heklesh 1 9 S hephelak 3 S herden 1 9 -

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S hrine 3 1f.,44f.,48,51,61,64,85,97, s ee a lso J el M iqne-Ekron l lüa, 10, 1 17, 1 19, s ee T iryns 3 00, s ee T ell Q asile ( Room 3 2), s ee M ycenae S inda 4 -7,10f.,13,15 S oli 1 6 S olomon T emple 7 0,77ff. S outhern T emple, s ee B eth S han S pecial f acilities 7 9,85,94,96,101f. S toreroom o f a t emple 2 5f.,52f.,80-83,85 S trabo 1 6 -

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S traight a xis 5 3,74ff. S ummit T emple, s ee L achish S uppiluliuma I T 1 8 S yria 2 ,55 S yro-Palestine p assim

1 94

T able o f a blution 9 1 T able o f o fferings 2 6,89-92 T acitus 3 0 T el D an 3 ,44,59,120 T el D or 6 T el M evorakh 2 8,48,55,75,98,106f.,111,132 T el M iqne-Ekron 4 ff. ‚ 16,57-60,66f. ‚ 69,77,84,87,94,96-99,106,11Q,126,131 I ndustrial B uilding 5 8,60,69 m etallurgical a ctivity 6 6 o live o il p roduction 5 8,60,67 -

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P ublic b uilding ( Governor's R esidence) 5 8,60,69,87,96 S hrine 5 7,69 T ell A bu H awam 2 8,43,55,106f. -

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T emple ( Building 3 0) 4 3,55,106 T emple ( Building 5 0) 2 8 T ell ' Aitun 5 f. T ell C huera 1 24 T ell D eir ' Alla 3 T ell e l F ar'ah ( North) 2 7,44,55 T ell e l F ar'ah ( South) 1 T ell e z-Zuweyid 3 T ell K eisan 6 T ell K ittan 2 8,55,62,75,107 T ell M ardikh ( Temple D ) 7 5 T ell M umbakat 1 24 -

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T ell Q asile 1 4f. ‚ 46-53,55,57,59,66,69,72,74,77,79ff. ‚ 84,26f. ‚ 94-104, 1 06f. ‚ llof. ‚ 123,125 B uilding Q 6 6 m etallurgical a ctivity 6 6 s anctuary 4 6,48-54,57,66,72,74,79ff.,95ff.,99_102,106 T emple 7 9f.,96,102 3 19 4 6-51,53,57,69,86 2 00 4 8-53,57,69,86,100,106 -

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1 31 4 6 ,48-53,55,69,74,80,86f.,95,102ff.,106f.,125 S hrine 3 00 4 9-53,69,79,86,96,100,102 s melting f urnace 6 6 T ell Q iri 7 5 T ell S uqas 6 T emenos 3 1,33,43,82,102 A , B , s ee K ition T emple p assim T emplum i n a ntis 2 8 T eresh ( Tursha) 1 9 -

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' Tethering s tone' 9 3,101 T eucros 1 6,22 T hrace 1 5 T imna 4 6f. T iryns 1 5,59,76,97 S hrine 1 00a 7 6 1 10 7 6 1 17 7 6,97 1 19 9 7 T jekker 2 0,22 ' Tower' S anctuary, s ee E nkomi T ripartite s hrine, b uilding 3 1-34,119f. -

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1 95

T road 1 5,17f. T rojan W ar 1 6ff.,117 T rojans 1 7f. T roy 1 6ff.,30,44,117 T udhaliyas I V 1 8 T win t emples 5 0f.,57 T yre 6

U garit 1 ,13,18f.,21,23,28,43,75,97,116,126 o live o il p roduction 1 26 ' Sanctuaire a ux r hytons' 2 8,43,75,97,126 B aal T emple 7 5 D agon T emple 7 5 U lam 7 7 U rnfield c ulture 1 4 -

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V ounous 1 02

W eshesh 2 0 W ritten s ources,

d ocuments e tc.

l f.,16-22,30,56,70,74,105

X anthus, L ydian h istorian 16

Y ahweh 3 6

Z akros 3 2,64 Z eus, t omb o f 3 6 Z incirli 4 4

1

9 6