Thailand into the 2000s 9747772566

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Thailand into the 2000 ’s

Published by the National Identity Board Office of the Prime Minister Kingdom of Thailand 2000

Thailand into the 2000’s

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Their Majesties the King and Queen of Thailand

'Thailand into the 2OOO’s

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Thailand into the 2000’s contents Thailand at a Glance

1 Historical Setting

6 The Modern Monarchy

37 The Land and Its People

74 Religion

106 (4) Thailund intc tiic 2000's

Education

114 The Arts

136 Structure of the Economy

168 Government and Politics

196 International Relations

204 Energy and Natural Resources

216 Agriculture

’ 234 Manufacturing

254 Science, Technology and Environment

278 Transport and Communications

298 Tourism

308 Health

322 Sports

336 Looking to the Future

344 Thailand Macroeconomic Framework

346 Bibliography

350 Acknowledgements

353 (5)

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Thailand at a Glance Historical Background

Geography

There are conflicting opinions as

Situated in the heart of the Southeast

to the origins of the Thai. Only a few

Asian mainland and covering an area

d e c a d e s ago, it could b e said with

of 5 13, 115 sq. km., from North 5 30 to

presumed certainty that they originated

21 and from East 97° 30

in northwestern Szechuan in China

Thailand borders the Lao People’s

about 4,500 years ago and later

Democratic Republic and Myanmar to

to 105 ",

migrated down to their present homeland.

the north. Cambodia and the Gulf of

However, this theory has been altered

Thailand to the east, Myanmar and the

by the discovery of remarkable prehistoric

Indian Ocean to the west, and Malaysia

artifacts in the village of Ban Chiang,

to the south. Thailand has maximum

in the northern province of Udon Thani.

dimensions of about 2,500 km. north to

These include evidence of bronze

south and 1,250 km. east to west, with a

metallurgy going back 3,500 years, as

coastline of approximately 1,840 km. on

well as other indications of a far more

the Gulf of Thailand and 865 km. along

sophisticated culture than any previously

the Indian Ocean.

suspected. It now appears that the Thais might have originated here in Thailand and later scattered to various parts of

Topography Thailand is divided into four natural

Asia, including some parts of China,

regions: the North: the Central Plain,

though as yet the matter is far from

or the Chao Phraya River Basin; the

settled.

Northeast, or the Korat Plateau; and the

"Siam" is the name by which the

South, or the Southern Peninsula.

country was known to the world until

The North is a mountainous region

1949. O n 11 May 1949, an official

comprising natural forests, ridges, and

proclamation changed the name of the

deep, narrow alluvial valleys. The leading

country to “Prathet Thai", or Thailand.

city of this region is Chiang Mai.

The word “Thai" m e a n s “free”, and

Central Thailand, the basin of the

therefore “Thailand" means “Land of the

Chao Phraya River, is a lush, fertile

Free."

valley. It is the richest and most extensive

Thailand into the 2000's

)

rice-producing area in the country and has often been called the “Rice Bowl of Asia." Bangkok, the capital of Thailand, is located in this region. The northeast region, or the Korat Plateau, is an arid region characterized

Population

by a rolling surface and undulating hills.

The population of Thailand is

Harsh climatic conditions often result in

approximately 61.47 million (1999),

this region being subjected to floods and

with an annual growth rate of about

droughts.

1.3 percent. The population includes

The southern region is hilly to

descendants of ethnic Chinese, Malays,

mountainous, with thick virgin forests

Khmer, Lao, Vietnamese, Indians, and

and rich deposits of minerals and

others.

ores. This region is the centre for the production of rubber and the cultivation of other tropical crops.

*

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Climate

Thailand is a warm and rather

Wl.C *

humid tropical country. The climate is

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monsoonal, marked by a pronounced rainy season lasting from about May to September and a relatively dry season for the remainder of the year. Temperatures are highest in March and April and lowest in December and January. The average temperature is 23.7°Cto

37.5°C.

Tluiiluiut inte rhe 2000's

r'

Religion Buddhism, the national religion, is the professed faith of 95 percent of the population. Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, and others are embraced by the rest of the

•

population. There is absolute religious freedom. The King of Thailand, under the constitution and in practice, is patron of all major religions embraced by the people.

Language T h e official national language, spoken by almost 100 percent of the population, is Thai. It is a tonal language, uninflected, and predominantly monosyllabic. Most polysyllabic words in the

Economy

vocabulary have been borrowed, mainly

G N P (1999) at current prices was

from Khmer, Pali, or Sanskrit. Dialects are

approximately 4,500 billion baht o r

spoken in rural areas. Other languages are

USS 120.50 billion. Total merchandise

Chinese and Malay. English, a mandatory

exports

subject in public schools, is widely spoken

approximately 56.8 billion baht or US$

for

1999 amounted

to

and understood, particularly in Bangkok

1.50 billion and merchandise imports

and other major cities.

were approximately 47.8 billion baht or USS 1.26 billion.

Government Thailand is governed by a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral

Flag Thailand’s national flag, cere-

parliamentarian form of government.

moniously raised each morning at 08:00

The country is divided into 76 provinces,

and lowered in the evening at 18:00 in

each administered by an appointed

every town and village is composed of

governor, and subdivided into districts,

five horizontal bands of red, white, and

sub-districts, tambons (groups of villages),

blue. Outer bands of red representing the

and villages. The Bangkok Metropolitan

nation enclose equal inner bands of white

Administration is administered by an

evoking religion. The blue band, occupying

elected governor and divided into 38 dis-

the central one-third of the total area,

tricts.

symbolizes the monarchy. The harmony

Thailand inti' tlu 2000's

of the design expresses the complementary nature of these three pillars of the Thai

is as follows: The nation is nuide up of the Thais. It is a nation of Thais in every part

nation.

of the land. It has maintained

its rule because

the Thais have always been united. The Thai people are peace-loving, but they are not cowards in times of war. They shall not allow others to take away their freedom. The Thais are ready to sacrifice every drop of blood for the safety of the nation. This tricoloured flag, first introduced by King Vajiravudh (Rama VI) in 1917,

Royal Anthem

replaced an earlier design in which a

The royal Thai anthem, acclaiming

white elephant was placed against a red

the Chakravatin ideal King Bhumibol

background.

Adulyadej embodies, is played during state occasions and public meetings —

National Colours

sports events, cinema shows, concerts,

Thailand has no official national

etc. Unlike those anthems whose lyrics

colours, although red, white, and blue,

are o f t e n a r c h a i c o r o b s o l e t e , t h e

inspired by the colours of the Thai flag,

sentiments expressed in the royal Thai

are used by Thai international sporting

anthem precisely mirror the feelings of

teams, as well as on other appropriate

the Thai people towards their King.

occasions.

National Emblem T h e T h a i n a t i o n a l a n d royal

National Anthem

e m b l e m is t h e G a r u d a , a mythical

The national anthem is played on

half-bird half-human figure that adorns

all ceremonial occasions of national

King Bhumibol Adulyadej’s sceptre

importance and while the national flag

and royal standard. Many ministries

is being raised and lowered. Its music

and departments have incorporated

was composed in 1932 by Professor

the Garuda into their insignias. Moreover,

Phra Jenduriyang, while the lyrics were

the Garuda signifies “By Royal Appoint-

written in 1939 by Colonel L u a n g

ment" and is awarded at the personal

Saranuprabhandh. A literal translation

discretion of His Majesty the King, a sign

Tluiilund into the 2000’s

can be of any colour and generally has contrasting bands around the hem. It is worn with a long-sleeved silk blouse. On formal

occasions a sash may be worn

across the breast from the left shoulder to the right part of the waist. For men, the traditional dress consists of trousers with asua phra ratchathan, a short-sleeved shirt (long-sleeves for formal occasions) with a high collarless neck. On formal of royal approval to companies that have

occasions, a cummerbund is tied around

rendered outstanding economic and

the waist.

charitable services to Thailand. Such

National Day

an award is rarely bestowed and i s

D e c e m b e r 5 , t h e b i r t h d a y of

considered a great honour.

His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej,

National Dress

is the Thai national day. It is a public

A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s n o official

holiday.

national dress, the traditional dress has been adopted as the unofficial national costume and can be seen on both formal and informal occasions. For women, it is a full-length pasin, a rectangular piece of cloth worn like a skirt or sarong and generally made of Thai silk. The pasin

Thai national dress.

Public Holidays Most national holidays and festivals are of religious nature and serve to evoke a sense of devotion to the monarchy, the religion, and the nation. S o m e are celebrated by the lunar calendar and thus their dates vary from year to year, while others are celebrated according to the solar calendar. 5

Thailand into the 2000’s

Prehistoric cave painting in Ubon Ratchathani Province King Narai ofAyutthaya

Historical Setting

receives an embassy

from Louis XIV in 1685

The Earliest Inhabitants The area which is now Thailand has been populated ever since the dawn of civilization in Asia. The first humans in this region were hunter-gatherers who lived by hunting wild animals and gathering whatever grew wild in the forests. Later on, man learnt to modify nature, growing cereals such as rice and breeding livestock. Rice growing communities sprang up. Metal casting and pottery making also became highly-developed skills as these prehistoric settlements prospered. Cast bronze technology in the northeastern area of Thailand dates from around 2000 B.C., making the prehistoric achievements of Thailand just as advanced as those of India and China.

Thailand into the 2000’s

Beginning in the 1960s, archaeological excavations in various parts of Thailand have unearthed many interesting and important sites, a large number of which are prehistoric. There are several Stone Age settlements, the most notable being Ban Kao in Kanchanaburi Province, Non Nok Tha in Khon Kaen Province, and Ban Chiang in Udon Thani Province.

Prehistoric burial site at Ban Chiang in northeast Thailand

Painted Ban Chiang pottery, dating back over 2,000 years

The spectacular finds al Ban

pottery found at the site; the most

Chiang include bronze utensils

graceful shapes and intricate designs

and ornaments, painted pottery, and

appear on pottery dating back to the 300

bimetallic (bronze and iron) weapons.

B.C.- 200 A.D. period. The people of

Ban Chiang was apparently settled as

Ban Chiang comprised only one among

far back as 6,000 years ago and was

many prehistoric communities in

continually inhabited for some 4,000

Thailand, which makes the country one

years. It was an agricultural community,

of the cradles of Asian civilization

with skilled metal workers and potters.

and an area which was inhabited for

Artistically, the glory of Ban Chiang can

thousands of years before the emergence

be found in the large amount of painted

of the first Thai states.

•Thailand inti' the 2i'00’s

Mon and Khmer Dominance

much of Dvaravati art and sculpture,

From the 9th to the 11th centuries A.D., the area which is now central and

whose forms were also based on Indian prototypes.

western Thailand was occupied by a

By the 11th- 12th centuries, Mon

Mon civilization known as Dvaravati.

dominance over central Thailand had

The Mon race, who shared the same

been replaced by the power of the

linguistic lineage as the Khmers, were

ever-expanding Khmer empire to the

later to settle in southern Burma. Little

east. The capital of this empire was the

is known about the political and social

great city of Angkor, and the Khmer

“empire” of Dvaravati, but it seems quite

rulers were masters of a tightly-organized

likely that there were several Mon states

society with remarkable capacities for

sharing a common culture rather than a

territorial and cultural expansion. The

monolithic “empire” with a capital city.

Khmers also controlled most of the trade

Important Dvaravati sites in Thailand

routes in the Thailand - Indochina region.

include Nakhon Pathom, Khu Bua,

Khmer territories stretched well into

Phong Tuk, and Lawo (Lopburi). Some

the area that is present-day Thailand,

superb sculptures, bas-reliefs, and other archaeological remains survive from this

Lintel from a Khmer temple shows Hindu divinity

obscure period of history. Dvaravati was an “Indianized” culture, with Theravada Buddhism

i.

as the dominant religion. Theravada Buddhism was to remain the major religion in this area for the next millennium, co-existing with animism, Hinduism, and Mahayana Buddhism, and its ideas and philosophy inspired

Phanom Rung, one of the numerous Khmer stone temples in the northeast

Summer palace of King Narai at Lopburi, dating from the late 17th century

ip-.-

tj- ■

8 'Tiuriliind into tfie 2000’s

■I

covering the northeastern region,

since archaeological, ethnographic, and

much of the centre, and as far west as

linguistic researches do not bear this

Kanchanaburi Province. The Khmer

out. the theory now has few champions.

built stone temples in the northeast,

Another convincing hypothesis contends

some of which have been restored to

that the Thai, having migrated from

their former glory, notably those at Phimai

Sichuan province in central China, founded

and Phanom Rung. Stone sculptures

a kingdom in southern China called

and lintels depicting Hindu gods, stone

Nanchao, from which they were driven

Buddha images in the distinctive Khmer

further south by the all-conquering

style, and bronze statuary, some of great

Mongol ruler Kublai (Kublai Khan) in

beauty, are other vestiges of Khmer

1253, into Indochina and present-day

cultural dominance. Politically, however,

Thailand. This theory is not very tenable

the Khmers probably did not control the

because Nanchao was not a Thai-domi-

whole of this area directly but exerted

nated kingdom, and it also appears that

power through vassals and governors.

Thai had emigrated into the area that is

T h e fertile C h a o Phraya River

now Thailand well

before 1253.

basin had always been an area with an

A third theory propounds that the

ethnic mix: Mons, Khmers, and Lawas.

Thai were originally of Austronesian

Towards the end of the 13th century,

rather than Mongoloid stock and had

Khmer power in this area waned and

migrated northwards from the Malay

new kingdoms, dominated by the Thai

Archipelago. The most convincing theory,

race, arose. These had been influenced

however, is that which relies largely on

by Khmer rule and culture, but they

linguistic evidence. From research done

brought other spectacular legacies, the

in the southern Chinese provinces of

origins of which are still a matter of

G u a n g d o n g , G u a n g x i , and Yunnan,

historical dispute.

where the Thai language is still spoken, the proponents of this theory maintain

The Emergence of the Thais

that the Thai migrated southward from

The origin of the Thai (or Tai) race

these provinces.

is shrouded in mystery. Many theories

The fifth, and latest, hypothesis

and hypotheses have been put forward,

claims that archaeological and anthro-

some more convincing than others.

pological evidence prove that Thailand

One theory holds that the Thai race

has been inhabited continuously since

emigrated southwards into Southeast

prehistoric times and that ethnic groups

Asia from the Altai mountain range in

mixed with each other until it was diffi-

northwestern China and Mongolia: but

cult to tell them apart. Animism, material

‘Thailand into the 2000's

culture, and folklore, however, point to a continuity in the settlement of this area. This hypothesis has been cogently put forward by its proponents, but it avoids too conveniently t h e issue o f T h a i migration by maintaining that the Thai have been here all along, the presentday Thai nation being but a mixture of various races. The controversy over the origin of

r F>-

the Thai shows no sign of abating, and

-

k

i■

further research is needed before we can draw any definite conclusions. What is beyond dispute, however, is that by the 13th century the Thai had become a

■ Sukhothai

force to be reckoned with in mainland Southeast Asia, and that Thai princes ruled over states as far apart as Lanna, Suphannaphum (Suphanburi), Nakhon Si Thammarat,

and Sukhothai.

Sukhothai ( 1 3 t h - 1 5 t h Centuries) The state that is still regarded

by

Thai historical tradition as the “first Thai kingdom” was Sukhothai. There were, in fact, other contemporaneous Thai states such as Lanna and Phayao, both

Temples in the first Thai capital of Sukhothai are now past of an historical park

in present-day northern Thailand, but the Thai historical imagination has been most stirred by Sukhothai. Even today,

achievements. Sukhothai was originally a chiefdom

the evocative ruins of Sukhothai and its

under the sway of the Khmer empire;

twin city S i Satchanalai conjure u p

the oldest monuments in the city were

images of material prosperity, artistic

built in the Khmer style or else show

greatness, and Buddhist piety. Indeed,

clear Khmer influence. During the first

Sukhothai is remembered as much for

half of the 13th century the Thai rulers

its art and architecture as for its political

of Sukhothai threw off the Khmer yoke

Tluiiliiihl into the JCW's

the most famous and dynamic monarch ever to rule the Sukhothai kingdom. Much of what we know about Sukhothai in the 13th century derives from a 1292 stone inscription attributed to King Ramkhamhaeng. Though problematic, the inscription is considered a seminal source of Sukhothai history, as well as a masterpiece of Thai literature. It Ruins of Sukhothai show Khmer architectural influence

eloquently extols the benevolence of King Ramkhamhaeng’s rule, the power and prosperity of Sukhothai. The king was accessible to his people; for example, he had a bell hung in front of the palace gate so that any subject with a grievance could ring it and ask for justice: "King Ramkhamhaeng, the ruler of the kingdom, hears the call; he goes

King Ramkhamhaeng the Great, most famous ruler of Sukhothai

and questions the man. examines the

and set up an independent Thai kingdom.

the people of. . .Sukhothai praise him.”

One of the victorious Thai chieftains

According to the inscription, the

case, and decides it justly for him. So

became the first king of Sukhothai.

king did not levy road tolls or taxes on

with the name of Si Intharathit (Sri

merchandise, nor did he tax his subjects’

Indraditya). Sukhothai’s power and

inheritance at all. Such a paternalistic

influence expanded in all directions

and benevolent style of kingship has

through conquest (the Khmer were

caused posterity to regard the Sukhothai

driven southwards), by a far-sighted

kingdom’s heyday as a “golden age” in

network of marriage alliances with the

Thai history.

ruling families of other Thai states,

Even allowing for some hyperbole

and by the use of a common religion,

in King Ramkhamhaeng’s inscription,

Theravada Buddhism, to cement relations

it is probably true that Sukhothai was

with other states.

prosperous and well-governed. Its

Si Intharathit’s son and successor

economy was self-sufficient, small-scale,

was King Ramkhamhaeng, undoubtedly

and agricultural. The Thai people's basic

Tikulund inh? the JiW’s

diet was the same as that of many other people in Southeast Asia, consisting of rice and fish as staple foods, both of which were plentiful according to the inscription: “In the time of King Ramkhamhaeng this land of Sukhothai is thriving. There are fish in the water and rice in the fields.” Sukhothai, where many distinctive aspects of Thai culture originated

Sukhothai may well have been s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t a s far a s food w a s c o n c e r n e d , but i t s p r o s p e r i t y a l s o depended o n commerce. During the Sukhothai period glazed ceramic wares known as “sangkhalok” were produced in great quantities at kilns in Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai and exported regularly to other countries in the South China Sea area, specimens having been found in Indonesia and the Philippines. Sukhothai also traded with China through the traditional Chinese tributary system: the

Sukhothai Historical Park, now a World Heritage Site

Thai king was content to send tribute to the Chinese emperor and be classified as a vassal, in return for permission

Ceylonese school of Theravada Budd-

to sell Thai goods and buy Chinese

hism, beginning with King Ramkham-

products.

haeng’s invitation to Ceylonese monks

Although

animistic

beliefs

t o c o m e a n d p u r i f y B u d d h i s m in

remained potent in Sukhothai, King

his kingdom.This Ceylonese influence

R a m k h a m h a e n g and his successors

manifested itself not only in matters of

were all devout Buddhist rulers who

doctrine but also in religious architecture.

made merit on a large scale. The major

The bell-shaped stupa, so familiar in

cities of the kingdom were therefore

Thai Buddhist architecture, was derived

full of monasteries, many of which were

from Ceylonese models. Sukhothai-style

splendid examples of Thai Buddhist

Buddha images are distinctive for their

architecture. Sukhothai adopted the

e l e g a n c e a n d s t y l i z e d beauty, a n d 12

‘Thailand into the 2000’s

piety and extensive building activities than for their warlike exploits. An example of this type of Buddhist ruler was King Mahathammaracha Lithai, believed to have been the compiler of the Tribhumikatha. an early Thai book on the Buddhist universe o r cosmos. The political decline of Sukhothai was, however, not wholly due to deficiencies in leadership. It resulted rather from the emergence of strong Thai states further south, whose political and economic power began to challenge Sukhothai during the latter half of the 14th century. These southern states, especially Ayutthaya. were able to deny Sukhothai access to the area. Standing Sukhothai-style

Buddha image

The Sukhothai kingdom did not die a quick death. Its decline lasted from the

Sukhothai artists introduced the graceful form of the “walking Buddha” into

mid- 14th until the 15th entury. In 1378,

Buddhist sculpture.

the Ayutthaya King Borommaracha 1

Sukhothai’s cultural importance

subdued Sukhothai’s frontier city of

in Thai history also derives from the fact

Chakangrao (Kamphaengphet), and

that the Thai script evolved into a definite

thereafter Sukhothai became a tributary

form during King Ramkhamhaeng’s

state of Ayutthaya. Sukhothai attempted

time, taking as its models the ancient

to break loose from Ayutthaya but with

Mon and Khmer scripts. Indeed, this

no real success; in the 15th century it

remarkable king is credited with having

was incorporated into the Ayutthaya

invented the Thai script.

kingdom as a province. The focus of

King S i Intharathit a n d K i n g

Thai history and politics now moved

R a m k h a m h a e n g were both warrior

to the central plains of present-day Thai-

kings and extended their territories far

land, where Ayutthaya was establishing

and wide. Their successors, however,

itself as a centralized state, its power

could not maintain such a far-flung

outstripping not only Sukhothai but also

empire. Some of these later kings were

other neighbouring states such as

more remarkable for their religious

Suphannaphum and Lawo (Lopburi). 13

'Tiiuiluiui into tlw 2000’s

Ijpawm— ■

Wat Phra Sri San Phet in Ayutthaya

The Kingdom of Ayutthaya (1350 - 1767)

twenty years before King Ramathibodi I moved his residence to the city. The

For 4 1 7 years the kingdom of

site offered a variety of geographical and

Ayutthaya was the dominant power in

economic advantages. The rivers and

the fertile Chao Phraya River basin. Its

waterways offered not only easy access

capital was Ayutthaya, an island-city

to the countryside but also to the Gulf

situated at the confluence

of Thailand, which stimulated maritime

o f three

rivers, the Chao Phraya, the Pasak, and

trade. The surrounding rice fields flooded

the Lopburi, which grew into one of

each year during the rainy season, making

Asia’s most reknowned metropolises,

the city virtually impregnable for several

inviting comparison with such great

months annually. These fields, of course,

European cities as Paris. The city must

served the even more vital function of

indeed have looked majestic, filled as it

feeding a relatively large population in

was with hundreds of monasteries and

the Ayutthaya area, as well as yielding a

criss-crossed

s u r p l u s large e n o u g h for e x p o r t to

by canals and waterways

various countries in Asia.

which served as streets. An ancient community had existed

Ramathibodi I, Ayutthaya’s first

in the Ayutthaya area well before 1350,

king, was both a warrior and a lawmaker.

the year of its official founding by King

Some old laws codified in 1805 by the

R a m a t h i b o d i I ( U t o n g ) . The h u g e

first Bangkok king date from this much

Buddha image at Wat Phananchoeng,

earlier reign. King Ramathibodi I and

just outside the island city, was cast over

his immediate successors expanded

Thailand inti' the 2000's

well as having looser authority over a string of tributary states. The greater size of Ayutthaya’s t e r r i t o r y , c o m p a r e d w i t h t h a t of Sukhothai, meant that the method of government could not remain the same as during the days of King Ramkhamhaeng. The paternalistic and benevolent Buddhist kingship of Sukhothai would not have worked in Ayutthaya. The rulers Ruins of Ayutthaya, which ruled Thailand for more than four centuries

of the latter therefore created a complex administrative system, beginning in the reign of King Trailok, or Borommatrailokanat (1448-1488), which was to evolve into the modern Thai bureaucracy. It contained a hierarchy of ranked and titled officials, all of whom had varying amounts of “honour marks” (sakdina). Thai society during the Ayutthaya

Map of Ayutthaya. built on an artificial island

period also became strictly hierarchical. There were roughly three classes of

Ayutthaya's territory, especially northward

people, with the king at the very apex

towards Sukhothai and eastward towards

of the structure. At the bottom of the

the Khmer capital of Angkor. By the

social scale, and most numerous, were

15th century, Ayutthaya had established

the commoners (freemen or phrai) and

a firm hegemony over most of the northern

the slaves. Above the commoners were

and central Thai states, though it failed

the officials or nobles (khunnang), while

in attempts to conquer Lanna. It also

at the lop of the scale were the princes

c a p t u r e d A n g k o r o n at l e a s t o n e

(chao). The one classless section of Thai

occasion but was unable to hold on to it

society was the Buddhist monkhood, or

for long. The Ayutthaya kingdom thus

sangha, into which all classes of Thai

changed during the 15th century from

men could be ordained. The monkhood

being one of several similar small states

was the one institution which could weld

in central Thailand into an increasingly

together all the different social classes,

centralized kingdom wielding tight

the Buddhist monasteries being the

control over a core area of territory, as

centre of all Thai communities both

Thailand inti’ tlk' 2000’s

urban and agricultural.

produce,” principally sapanwood (from

The Ayutthaya kings were not only

which a reddish dye was extracted),

Buddhist kings who ruled according to

eaglewood (an aromatic wood), benzoin

the dhamma; they were also devaraja,

(a type of incense), gumlac (used as

god-kings whose sacred power was

wax), and deerhides (much in demand

associated with the Hindu gods Indra

in Japan ). Elephant tusks and rhinoceros

and Vishnu. To many Western observers,

horns were also highly valued exports,

they seemed to be treated as if they were

though the former was a strict royal

gods. The French Abbe de Choisy, who

monopoly and the latter relatively rare,

came to Ayutthaya in 1685, wrote that

especially compared with deerhides.

"the king has absolute power. He is the

Ayutthaya also sold provisions such as

only god of the Siamese: no one

rice and dried fish to other Southeast

dares to utter his name.” Another 17th

Asian states. The range of minerals

century writer, the Dutchman Van Vliet,

found in the kingdom was limited but

remarked that the king of Siam was

tin from Phuket (“Junkceylon”) and

" h o n o u r e d and w o r s h i p p e d by h i s

Nakhon Si Thammarat (“Ligor”) was

subjects more than a god.”

much sought after by both Asian and European traders.

The Ayutthaya period was early Thai history’s great era of international

The Chinese, with their large and

trade. The port of Ayutthaya became an

versatile junks, were the traders who had

entrepot, an international marketplace

the most regular and sustained contact

where goods from the Far East could be

with Ayutthaya. In order to conduct a

bought o r bartered in exchange for

steady and profitable trade with the

merchandise from the Malay-Indonesian

Ming and Manchu China, from the 14th

archipelago, India, o r Persia, not to

to the 18th centuries, the Ayutthaya

mention local wares or produce from

kings entered willingly into a tributary

A y u t t h a y a ’ s vast h i n t e r l a n d . T h e

relationship with the Chinese emperors.

trading world of the Indian Ocean was

Muslim merchants came from India and

accessible to Ayutthaya through its

further west to sell their highly-prized

possession, for much of its long history,

clothes both to Thai and other foreign

of the seaport of Mergui in the Bay of

traders. So dominant were Chinese and

Bengal, which was linked to the capital by

Muslim merchants in Ayutthaya that an

an ancient and frequently used overland

old Thai law dating back to the 15th

trade route.

century divides the Thai king’s foreign

Throughout its history, Ayutthaya

trade department into two sections, one

had a thriving commerce in “forest

for each. Chinese, Indians, and later on 16

Tiwiland into tfe 2000’s

and ammunition to the Thai king. Portugal's powerful neighbour Spain was the next European nation to arrive, toward the end of the 16th century. The early 17th century saw the arrival of two northern European East India Companies, the Dutch (V.O.C.) and the British. The Dutch East India Company played a vital role in Ayutthaya’s foreign trade from 1605 until 1765, succeeding The ruins of Ayutthaya, like those of Sukhothai, are now a World Heritage Site

in obtaining from Thai kings a deerhide export monopoly as well as one on all

Mural painting shows foreign soldiers in Ayutthaya

the tin sold at Nakhon Si Thammarat. The Dutch sold Thai sapanwood and deerhides for good profit in Japan during Japan’s exclusion period, after 1635. The French first arrived in 1662, during the reign of Ayutthaya’s most outward-looking and cosmopolitan

Japanese and Persians all settled in

ruler. King Narai (1656-1689). French

Ayutthaya, the Thai kings welcoming

missionaries and merchants came to the

their presence and granting them

capital, and during the 1680s splendid

complete freedom of worship. Several

embassies were exchanged between

of these foreigners became important

King Narai and King Louis XIV. The

court officials.

French tried to convert King Narai to

Containing merchandise from all

Christianity and also attempted to gain

corners of Asia, the thriving markets of

a military foothold in the Thai kingdom

Ayutthaya attracted traders from Europe.

when, in 1685, they sent troops to

The Portuguese were the first to arrive,

garrison Bangkok and Mergui. When

in 151 1, at the time when Albuquerque

a succession conflict broke out in

was attempting to conquer Melaka

1688, an anti-French official seized

(Malacca). They concluded their first

power, drove out the French troops, and

treaty with Ayutthaya in 1516. receiving

executed King Narai’s Greek favourite

permission to settle in the city and other

Constantine Phaulkon, who had been

Thai ports in return for supplying guns

championing the French cause. After

Thailand into the 2tW’s

King Naresuan, who liberated Ayutthaya from Burmese rule

King Narai ( 1656-1689)

1688, Ayutthaya had less contact with Western nations, but there was no policy of national exclusion. Indeed, there was increased trading contact with China

King Naresuan declares the independence of Ayutthaya in the 16th century

after 1683, and there was continued

in several battles and skirmishes,

trade with the Dutch, the Indians, and

culminating in the victory of Nong Sarai,

various neighbouring countries.

when he killed the Burmese Crown

Ayutthaya's relations with its

Prince in combat on elephant back.

neighbours were not always cordial.

During the 18th century Burma

Wars were fought against Cambodia,

again adopted an expansionist policy.

Lanna. Lanchang (Laos), Pattani, and,

The kings of the Alaungphaya Dynasty

above all, Burma. Burmese power

were intent on subduing the Ayutthaya

waxed and waned in cycles according

kingdom, then in its cultural and artistic

to their administrative efficiency in the

prime. In the 1760s. Burmese armies

control of manpower. Whenever Burma

inflicted severe defeats on the Thai, who

was in an expansionist phase, Ayutthaya

had become somewhat complacent

suffered. In 1569, King Bayinnaung

after almost a century of comparative

captured Ayutthaya, thus initiating over

peace. In April 1767, after a 15-month

a decade's subjection to the Burmese.

seige, Ayutthaya finally succumbed to

One of the greatest Thai military

the Burmese, who sacked and burnt the

leaders, Prince (later King) Naresuan,

city, thus putting an end to one of the

then emerged to declare Ayutthaya’s

most politically glorious and culturally

independence and to defeat the Burmese

influential epochs in Thai history. 18

•Tiuiiliiiiil nite the 2iWs

King Taksin: Warfare and National Revival (1767-1782) After t h e s h a t t e r i n g d e f e a t o f Ayutthaya’s destruction, the death and capture o f thousands o f Thais by the King Taksin, founder of Thonburi

victorious Burmese, and the dispersal of several

p o t e n t i a l T h a i l e a d e r s , the

s i t u a t i o n s e e m e d h o p e l e s s . It was a time of darkness for the Thai nation. Members o f the o l d royal family of Ayutthaya had died, escaped, or been

E

i

I

captured, and many rival claimants for the throne emerged, based in different areas of the country. But out o f this catastrophe emerged yet another saviour of the Thai state: the half-Chinese

general

The Grand Palace, built when Bangkok was established as the capital

Phraya Taksin. former governor of Tak. W i t h i n a few years t h i s d e t e r m i n e d warrior had defeated not o n l y all his

with neighbouring states, with China,

rivals but also the Burmese invaders and

and with some European nations. King Taksin’s prowess as a general

had set himself up as king. Since Ayutthaya had been so

and as an inspirational leader defeated

c o m p l e t e l y d e v a s t a t e d . K i n g Taksin

all the Burmese attempts to reconquer

chose to establish his capital atThonburi,

Siam. The rallying of the Thai nation

across the river from Bangkok. Although

during a time of crisis was his greatest

a small town, Thonburi

was strategically

a c h i e v e m e n t . H o w e v e r , he was also

situated near the m o u t h o f the Chao

interested in cultural revival, in literature

Phraya River and therefore suitable as a

and the arts. He was deeply religious and

seaport. The Thai needed weapons, and

studied meditation to an advanced level.

one way of acquiring them was through

The stress and strain of so much fighting

trade. Moreover, foreign trade was also

took their toll on the king, and following

needed to bolster the Thai economy,

an internal political conflict in 1 7 8 2

which had suffered extensively during

his fellow general, Chao Phraya Chakri,

the war with Burma. Chinese and

was chosen king. King Taksin’s achievements

Chinese-Thai traders helped revive the

have caused posterity to bestow on him

economy by engaging in maritime trade

the epithet "the Great." 19

‘Thailand into the 2000’s

King Rama I

King Rama II

King Rama 111

King Rama IV

King Rama V

King Rama VI

King Rama VII

King Rama VIII

King Rama IX

9 Kings of the Chakri Dynasty

20

Thailand into the 2000’s

King Rama I and the Reconstruction

been interpreted as a major change in

of the Thai State ( 1 7 8 2 - 1 8 0 9 )

the intellectual outlook of the Thai elite,

The new king, Phra Buddha Yod Fa Chulalok, or Rama I, was also a great

or a re-orientation of the Thai world view.

general. In addition, he was an accom-

The organization of Thai society

plished statesman, a lawmaker, a poet,

during the early Bangkok period was not

and a devout Buddhist. His reign has

fundamentally different from that of the

been called a “reconstruction" of the

late Ayutthaya period. Emphasis was

Thai state and Thai culture, using

still placed on manpower and on an

Ayutthaya as the model but at the same

extensive system of political and social

time not slavishly imitating all aspects

privilege. The officials’ main concern

of the old capital. He was the ruler who

was still to provide the crown with

established Bangkok as the capital and

corvee labour and to provide patronage

was also the founder of the Royal House

to the commoners.

of Chakri, of which the present monarch

The Burmese remained a threat to

King Bhumibol Adulyadej is the ninth

the Thai kingdom during this reign,

king. The significance of his reign in

launching several attacks on Thai

Thai history is therefore manifold.

territory. King Rama I was ably assisted

King Rama I was intent on the firm

by his brother and other generals in

re-establishment of the Buddhist

defeating the Burmese in 1785 and

monkhood, allying church and state and

1786. King Rama I not only drove out

purifying the doctrine. The Tripitaka. or

these invading armies but also launched

Buddhist scriptures, were re-edited in a

a bold counter-attack in retaliation,

definitive text by a grand council of

invading Tavoy in Lower Burma.

learned men convened by the King in

During this reign. Chiang Mai was

1788-9. This concern with codification

added to the Thai kingdom, and the

and textual accuracy was also apparent

Malay states of Kedah. Perlis. Kelantan,

in the collating and editing of laws both

and Trengganu all sent tribute to the Thai

old and new, which resulted in one of

king. The recovery of the Thai state’s

the major achievements of his reign:

place and prestige in the region was one

The "Three Seals Code" or Koinuii tra

of King Rama I’s major achievements.

samduang. This, too, was the work of a

His most long-lasting creation

panel of experts assembled by the king.

w a s perhaps the city of Bangkok

King Rama 1 consistently ex-

(Rattanakosin). Before 1782, it was only

plained all his reforms and actions in a

a small trading community, but the

rational way. This aspect of his reign has

first Chakri King transformed it into a

•Thailand Into the 2iW's

The cosmopolitan outlook of the Thais during King Rama I’s reign was also reflected in the arts of the period. Both painting and literature during the early Bangkok period reflected a keen awareness of other cultures, though traditional Thai forms and conventions were adhered to, especially in art. The king and his court poets composed new versions of the Ramakien (the Thai version of the Indian Ramayana epic) and the Inao (based on the Javanese Panji story).

King Rama II and His Sons King Rama I, founder of Bangkok

King Rama I’s son Phra Buddha Loet La Naphalai, or Rama II, acceded

thriving, cosmopolitan city based on

to the throne peacefully and was

Ayutthaya’s example. He had a canal

fortunate to have inherited the throne

d u g to make it an island-city, and it

during a time of stability. His reign was

contained Mon, Lao, Chinese, and Thai

e s p e c i a l l y n o t a b l e for t h e h e i g h t s

c o m m u n i t i e s similar to Ayutthaya.

attained by Thai poetry, particularly in

Several Ayutthaya-style monasteries

the works of the king himself and of

were also built in and around the city.

Sunthorn Phu, one of the court poets.

King Rama I endeavoured to

King Rama II had other artistic talents

model his new palace closely on the

as well; he had a hand in the carving

Royal Palace at Ayutthaya and in doing

of t h e door-panels o n Wat Suthat’s

so helped create o n e of Bangkok’s

viharn, considered to be the supreme

enduring glories, consisting of the Grand

masterpiece of Thai woodcarving.

Palace and its resplendent royal hapel, the

At the end of King Rama Il’s reign,

Temple of the Emerald Buddha. He also

two princes were in contention for the

completely rebuilt an old monastery,

succession. Prince Chetsadabodin was

Wat Photharam,and renamed it Wat Phra

lesser in rank than Prince Mongkut, but

Chetuphon, which became not only an

he was older, had greater experience of

exemplar of classical Thai architecture

government, and had a wider power

but also a famous place of learning.

base. In a celebrated example of Thai

Thailand into the 2000’s

Statue honouring King Nang Klao Chao Yuhua, or Rama III

crisis power management. Prince

family of Thailand remains closely

Mongkut (who had just entered the

associated with the Thammayut order,

monkhood) remained a priest for the

though other orders also remain strong

whole of his brother’s reign (1824-

within the faith.

1851). The avoidance of an open struggle worked out well for both the country and for the Royal House. While

The Growing Challenge of the West The major characteristic of Thai

King Nang Klao Chao Yuhua, or Rama

history during the 19th and 20th

111, ruled firmly and with wisdom, his

centuries may be summed up by the

half-brother was accumulating experi-

phrase “the challenge of the West.”

ence which was to prove invaluable

The reigns of King Rama II and his two

to him during his years as king. The

sons, Rama III and Rama IV, marked

priest-prince Mongkut was able to travel

the first stage in the Thai kingdom’s

extensively to see for himself how

dealings with the West during the Age

ordinary Thai lived and t o lay the

of Imperialism.

foundations for a reform of the Buddhist

In the Ayutthaya period the Thai

clergy. In the late 1830s he set up what

had more often than not chosen just

was to become the Thammayut sect

how they wanted to deal with foreign

(dhammayutikanikaya), an order of

countries. European states included. By

monks which became stronger under

the 19th century this freedom of choice

royal patronage. To this day the royal

had become more and more constricted.

Tluiiluiui into the 2000’s

The West had undergone a momentous

Caswell. His intellectual interests were

change during the Industrial Revolution,

wide-ranging: not only did he study

and western technology and economy

the Buddhist Pali scriptures but also

had begun to outstrip those of Asian and

Western astronomy, mathematics,

African nations. This fact was not

science, geography, and culture. His

readily apparent to the Asians of

wide knowledge of the West helped him

the early 19th century, but it became

to deal with Britain. France, and other

alarmingly obvious as the century wore

powers when he reigned as king of Siam

on and several once-proud kingdoms fell

(1851-1868).

under the sway of Western powers. Once

King Mongkut was the first Chakri

the British had gained victory in Europe

king to embark seriously on reform

in the Napoleonic Wars, they resumed

based on Western models. This did not

their quest for additional commerce and

mean wholesale structural change, since

territory in Asia.

he did not wish to undermine his own status as a traditional and absolute

King Rama III may have been conservative in outlook, striving hard to

ruler. He concentrated instead on

uphold Buddhism (he built or repaired

the technological and organizational

many monasteries) and refusing to

spects of reform. His reign saw road

acknowledge the claims of Western

building, canal digging, ship building,

powers to increased shares in the Thai

a reorganization of the Thai army

trade, but he was above all a shrewd

and administration, and the minting

ruler. He was justifiably wary of

of money to meet the demands of a

Western ambitions in Southeast Asia,

growing money economy. He employed

but he was tolerant enough to come to

Western experts and advisers at the

an agreement with the British emissary

court and in the administration. One of

Burney, as well as to allow Christian

his employees was the English teacher

missionaries to work in the kingdom.

Anna Leonowens, whose books on her

One of the men most intellectually

time in Siam have resulted in several

stimulated by the Western missionaries

misunderstandings concerning King

was Prince Mongkut. The priest-prince

Mongkut’s character and reign. Far

had an inquiring mind, a philosophical

from being the “noble savage” figure

nature, and a voracious appetite for new

portrayed in the musical “The King

knowledge. He learnt Latin from the

and I,” King Mongkut was a scholarly,

French Catholic Bishop Jean-Baptiste

conscientious, and humane monarch

Pallegoix and English from the

who ruled at a difficult time in Thai

American Protestant missionary Jesse

history. 24

Thailand into the 2000’s

The Reign and Reforms of King Chulalongkorn ( 1 8 6 8 - 1 9 1 0 ) The reforms and foreign policy of King Mongkut were carried on by his son and successor. King Chulalongkorn (Rama V), who came to the throne a frail youth of 16 and died one of Siam' s most loved and revered kings after a remarkable reign of 42 years. Indeed, modern Thailand may be said to be a product of the comprehensive and progressive reforms of his reign, for these touched almost every aspect of

King Chulalongkorn. Rama V

Thai life. King Chulalongkorn faced the Western world with a positive attitude, eager to learn about Western ideas and inventions, working towards Western-style “progress” while at the same time resisting Western rule. He was the first Thai king to travel abroad; he went to Dutch and British colonial

King Chulalongkorn on a tour of Europe

territories in Java, Malaya. Burma, and

interested in his subjects’ welfare

India, and also made two extended trips

and was intent on the monarchy’s

to Europe toward the end of his reign.

assuming a more visible role in society.

He did not just travel as an observer

His progressive outlook led him. in

o r tourist but worked hard during

what was his first official act, to forbid

his trips to further Thai interests. For

prostration in the royal presence,

instance, during one of his European

considering that the practice was

sojourns he obtained support from

humiliating to his subjects and apt

Tsar Nicholas II of Russia and the

to engender arrogance in the ruler.

German Kaiser Wilhelm II to put Siam

Influenced by Buddhist morality

in a stronger international position, no

and Western examples, he gradually

longer dominated by Britain and France.

abolished both the corvee system and

The King also travelled within his

the institution of slavery, a momentous

own country. He was passionately

and positive change for Thai society.

Thailaiuf into the 2000’s

During his reign Siam’s commu-

proving to the Western colonial powers

nications system was revolutionized.

that Siam had become a “modern” and

Post and telegraph services were

“progressive” country. The problem,

introduced and a railway network was

however, was that the King and his

built. Such advances enabled the

advisers had very little time in which to

central government to improve its control

do so.

over outlying provinces. One of the

The King was eager to send Thai

central issues of King Chulalongkorn’s

students abroad for their education,

reign was the imposition of central

partly because the country needed skills

authority over the more remote parts of

and knowledge from the West and partly

the kingdom. He initiated extensive

because the Thai students abroad could

reforms of the administration, both in

come into contact with Europe’s elite.

Bangkok and in the provinces. Western-

Moreover, the King also hired several

style ministries were set up, replacing

Westerners to act as advisers to the Thai

older, traditional administrative bodies.

government in various fields, among

Old units which were remodelled

them the Belgian Rolin-Jacquemyns (a

according t o the Western pattern

“General Adviser” whose special

included those of the Interior, War,

knowledge was in jurisprudence) and

Foreign Affairs, Finance, Agriculture,

the British financial advisers H. Rivett-

the Palace, and Local Administration.

Carnac and W.J.F. Williamson. Such

Completely new ministries were also

policies were deemed to be essential for

created, such a s the ministries of

Siam’s survival as a sovereign state and

Justice, Public Instruction, and Public

its progress to modernity. Thai foreign policy during King

Works. This new ministerial system of

Chulalongkorn’s reign was a series of

government was inaugurated in 1892. King Chulalongkorn's contribution

delicate balancing acts, playing off one

to education was also to prove of great

Western power against another, and

significance to modern Thailand.

trying to maintain both sovereignty and

During this reign “public instruction”

territorial integrity. Siam’s heartland had

became more secular than ever before in

to be preserved at all costs, even to the

Thai history. Secular schools were

extent of conceding to Britain and

established in the 1880s aimed at pro-

France some peripheral territories

ducing the educated men necessary for

whenever the pressure became too

the smooth functioning of a centralized

intense.

administration. One of the pressing

Even Siam’s subtle and supple

issues of the reign was the necessity of

foreign policy was not always enough 26

Thailand inte the 2000’s

to offset the appetite for territory. In

independent sovereign state in spite of

1893. Siam ceded all territories on the

all these crises, and all the while he

east bank of t h e M e k o n g R i v e r t o

strove to uphold Thai cultural, artistic,

France, then building up its Indochinese

and religious values. When he died in

empire. In 1904, it had to c e d e all

1910, a new Siam had come into being.

territories o n the west bank o f the

The Thai kingdom was now a more

Mekong to France.

centralized bureaucratic state partly

The Thai government wanted to

modelled on Western examples. It was

put an end to the clauses concerning

also a society without slaves, with a

extra-territoriality, land tax, and trade

ruling class that was partly Westernized

duties in the treaties concluded with

in outlook and much more aware of what

Western

King

was going on in Europe and America.

Mongkut’s reign. In return for t h e

Technologically, too, there had been

mitigation of treaty disadvantages, the

many advances, among them railroads

Thai had to cede several territories. For

and trams, postage stamps and telegraph

example, in 1907 the Khmer provinces of

lines.

countries during

Siem Reap, Battambang, and Sisiphon

With so many achievements to his

were c e d e d to France i n return for

credit, and a charisma that was enhanced

French withdrawal from the eastern

by his longevity, it was no wonder that

Thai province of Chanthaburi and the

the Thai people genuinely grieved his

abandonment of French extraterritorial

passing. 23 October, the date of his death,

claims over their “protected persons”

is still a national holiday, honouring one

(mostly Asian and therefore not

of Siam’s greatest and most beloved

properly French at all). In 1909, Siam

kings.

gave up its claims to the Malay states of Kedah. Perlis. Kelantan, and Trengganu. all of which became British protectorates. T h i s cession of territory was again agreed t o in return for a lessening of certain treaty disadvantages. It was fortunate indeed for the Thai kingdom that Britain and France agreed in 1896 to keep Siam as a “buffer state” between British and French territorial possessions in Southeast Asia.

King Rama V one of Thailand’s most beloved rulers

King Chulalongkorn kept Siam an 27 ‘Thailand into the 2000’s

fields. He was also keenly interested in military affairs and formed his own paramilitary organization, the "Wild Tiger Corps,” to inculcate nationalism and promote national unity. When the First World War broke out, he was determined to join the Allies in their struggle against Germany. His decision in 1917 to send Thai troops to fight in Europe was a felicitous piece of timing; although the Thai expeditionary force did see much action, Siam’s participation on the Allied side earned the country and the king much praise

King Vajiravudh, Rama VI

and recognition from the international

Nationalism and Constitution

community.

(1910-1932) King Chulalongkorn’s son and successor Vajiravudh ( Rama VI) was the first Thai king to have been educated abroad, in his case at Harrow School and Oxford University in England. King Vajiravudh (r.1910-1925) was noted for his accomplishments as a poet, King Rama VI and a group of advisers

dramatist (in both English and Thai), and polemicist. He was a convinced

The major achievements of King

nationalist and was the first person to

Vajiravudh. however, lay in the area of

try to instil a Western-style nationalistic

education and related legislation. In

fervour in his subjects. Like his father

1913, he compelled his subjects by

he was determined to modernize Siam

law to use surnames and thus be no

while still upholding traditional Thai

different from the Western nations. As a measure of his personal commitment to

values and royal authority.

this idea, he himself coined hundreds of

King Vajiravudh chose to work on

family names.

issues and problems which appealed to his personal interests, largely in the

In 1921, the King issued a law on

literary, educational, and ideological

compulsory primary education, which 28

Thailand into tlu’ 2000’s

system of government. The King,

was the first step in Siam’s path toward universal primary education. Two of

however, was still in the process of

present-day Thailand’s most prestigious

trying to convince the more conserva-

educational establishments were

tive of his relatives in the Supreme State

founded by him: Chulalongkorn

Council about the need to promulgate

University, Siam’s first Western-style

a constitution when matters were

university, named in honour of King

taken out of his hands by the bloodless

Chulalongkorn, and Vajiravudh College,

"revolution", or coup d’etat, of 24 June

a boarding school for boys modelled

1932.

upon the English public school. The death of King Vajiravudh in 1925 brought his younger brother, Prince Prajadhipok, to the throne since King Vajiravudh had no male heir. The new King (Rama VII) began his reign at an unenviable juncture of both Thai and world history. The global economic King Prajadhipok, Rama VII

depression of the late 1920s and early 1930s forced the government to economize, taking measures which led to some discontent. Internally, the dilemma about whether to institute wide-ranging political reforms became more acute during the reign. King Prajadhipok was a liberal and a conscientious man. A soldier by

King Rama VII grants a constitution in 1932

training, he nevertheless worked hard in addressing himself to Siam’s problems,

The 1932 coup d'etat put an end

and his comments on various matters of

to absolute monarchy in Siam. Prior to

government and administration in the

this event, there had been increased

state papers of his reign reveal him to

political awareness among middle-rank-

be an admirable ruler in many ways. He

ing military officers and civilian officials

was well aware of the desirability of

who were to become major figures in

establishing Siam in the international

the group that led the coup, who called

political community as a country with a

themselves the People’s Party. Many of

"modem’’ and “liberal” constitutional

these men had been educated abroad. 29

TiuuLuui inti’ tlu' 2