Testing the chains: resistance to slavery in the British West Indies 9780801412523, 9780801475283

Table of contents :
Frontmatter
Preface (page 11)
Introduction (page 19)
PART ONE: The Plantation World and Slave Resistance Short of Rebellion
1. The Plantation at Work (page 31)
2. Backra and Negar (page 36)
3. Making a Life of Their Own (page 44)
4. Quashie as Hero (page 52)
PART TWO: Maroon Resistance, 1600-1775
5. Marronage: the General Context (page 61)
6. The Jamaican Maroons: Origins, 1600-1700 (page 67)
7. Cudjoe's War and Its Aftermath, 1700-1775 (page 81)
PART THREE: African Slaves
8. The African Phase (page 99)
9. Barbados, 1645-1701 (page 105)
10. Antigua Echoes Barbados, 1687-1737 (page 115)
11. Jamaica, 1760: Tacky's Revolt (page 125)
12. New Colonies, Traditional Resistance, 1763-1802 (page 140)
PART FOUR: Slave Resistance in the Age of Revolution, 1775-1815
13. An Inescapable Context? (page 161)
14. The First Afro-Caribbean Slave Plot in Jamaica: Hanover, 1776 (page 172)
15. The Storm Breaks: Grenada and St. Vincent, 1795 (page 180)
16. The Pacification of the Windward Islands, 1796-1797 (page 195)
17. The Final Maroon War in Jamaica, 1795-1796 (page 211)
18. The Subjugation of Dominica and Trinidad, 1791-1814 (page 224)
PART FIVE: Slave Rebellions and Emancipation, 1816-1832
19. Creolization and Resistance (page 241)
20. Bussa's Rebellion: Barbados, 1816 (page 254)
21. The Demerara Revolt, 1823 (page 267)
22. The Baptist War: The Jamaican Rebellion of 1831-1832 (page 291)
Epilogue (page 323)
Chronology of Resistance, 1638-1837 (page 335)
Glossary (page 341)
Notes (page 347)
Credits and Sources for Photos (page 381)
Index (page 383)

Citation preview

TESTING THE CHAINS

ALSO BY MICHAEL CRATON A History of the Bahamas

A Jamaican Plantation: The History of Worthy Park, 1670—1970 (with James Walvin) Sinews of Empire: A Short History of British Slavery

Searching for the Invisible Man: Slaves and Plantation Life in Jamaica

TESTING THE CHAINS Resistance to Slavery in

the British West Indies

By MICHAEL CRATON

op Cornell University Press

Copyright © 1982 by Cornell University Press

All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information address Cornell University Press, 124 Roberts Place, Ithaca, New York 14850. First published 1982 by Cornell University Press.

First printing, Cornell Paperbacks, 2009

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 82-71600 Printed in the United States of America Librarians: Library of Congress cataloging information appears on the last page of the book

| ISBN: 978-0-8014-7528-3 The paper in this book ts acid-free and meets . the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources.

To WALTER RODNEY (1942-1980),

who died for his belief in History

~ BLANK PAGE |

Contents —

Preface 11 Introduction 19 PART ONE The Plantation World and Slave Resistance Short of Rebellion

1. The Plantation at Work 32 2. Backra and Negar 36

3. Making a Life of Their Own A4

4. Quashie as Hero | 52 PART TWO Maroon Resistance, 1600-1775

5. Marronage: The General Context , 61

6. The Jamaican Maroons: Origins, 1600—1'700 67 7. Cudjoe’s War and Its Aftermath, 1700-1775 81

| PART THREE African Slaves

8. The African Phase 99 g. Barbados, 1645-1701 105 7

8 Contents 10. Antigua Echoes Barbados, 1687—1737 115

11. Jamaica, 1760: Tacky’s Revolt 125 12. New Colonies, Traditional Resistance, 1763-1802 140 PART FOUR Slave Resistance in the Age of Revolution, 1775-1815

13. An Inescapable Context? 161

Hanover, 1776 172

14. The First Afro-Caribbean Slave Plot in Jamaica:

15. The Storm Breaks: Grenada and St. Vincent, 1795 180

16. The Pacification of the Windward Islands, 1796—1'797 195

17. The Final Maroon War in Jamaica, 1795—1796 211 18. The Subjugation of Dominica and Trinidad, 1791-1814 224

| PART FIVE

Slave Rebellions and Emancipation, 1816—1832

19. Creolization and Resistance 241 - 20. Bussa’s Rebellion: Barbados, 1816 254 21. The Demerara Revolt, 1823 267 22. The Baptist War: The Jamaican Rebellion of 1831—1832 291

Epilogue B22 Glossary 341 Notes 347

Chronology of Resistance, 1638—1837 335,

Index 383

Credits and Sources for Photos 381

Maps and Illustrations

MAPS

1 The British West Indies [2

2 The Lesser Antilles: Five nations compete, 1605-1660 20

3 A typical slave plantation 34

45 Jamaica: Jamaica: Topography 72 The maroon phase, 1655-1775 73

6 Barbados in 1681, by Richard Ford 106-107 7 Antigua in 1739, by Herman Moll 116-117 8 Jamaica: Tacky’s revolt, St. Mary’s Parish, 1760 128

g Dominica, 1763-1814 142 |

10 St. Vincent, 1763-1797 148

11 Tobago, 1770-1801 154 12 Jamaica: The Hanover slave plot, 1776 173

1g Grenada: Fédon’s rebellion, 1795-1797 184

14 St. Lucia, 1796 196 15, Barbados: Bussa’s rebellion, 1816 255

16 East Coast, Demerara, 1823 268 17 Jamaica: The Baptist War, 1831—1832 292 ILLUSTRATIONS.

Sugar mill and slave quarters, Montpelier, Jamaica 32

Plantation overseer and slave driver, Antigua 4I 9

10 Maps and Illustrations

Country 68—69

Jamaican maroon refuges: Blue Mountains and Cockpit

Order of march against maroons, Guyana, 1775 86

Cudjoe’s Treaty, Jamaica, 1739 88 Ritual decapitation: Ashanti and Guyana 102-103

Subversive rebel message, Barbados, 1683 III Alleged plan for a slave takeover, Barbados, 1692 113

“A Rebel Negro,” by Bartolozzi, 1796 126

Dominican Maroons Negotiating Treaty, by Brunias, c. 1786 146

Free black ranger and black regular soldier 166—167 The Haitian revolution, as depicted by a German artist 182 , White troops out after maroons, by William Blake 203 Maroon ambush, Dromilly estate, Jamaica, 1795 216 Leonard Parkinson, last Jamaican maroon rebel, 1796 221

Ideal guerrilla country, Dominica 230

Kalinda, or stick dance, Dominica, by Brunias 234 Skirmish near Mahaica Fort, Demerara, 1823 271 White militia on parade, Georgetown, Guyana 282 Battle at Bachelor’s Adventure, Demerara, 1823 286

Rebel attack on Montpelier estate, Jamaica, 1831 298 ]

Montpelier, 1831 306

Black Regiment versus Colonel Grignon’s militia,

Rebel attack on Reading Wharf, Jamaica, December 1831 320

Free peasants at market, Falmouth, Jamaica, c. 1840 326

Preface

Horascivilization who believe history to be the story of man’s rise to tend to define civilization to include the acceptance by all classes of their place within the socioeconomic system. The history that results, even when it appears in a liberal guise, is essentially that of accommodation and acceptance. This is the “bourgeois” style that was fundamentally challenged by C. L. R. James in his Marxist interpretation of the Haitian slave revolution and by Herbert Aptheker in his pioneer study of American negro slave revolts. “The slaves worked on the land,” wrote James in 1938, “and like revolutionary peasants everywhere, they aimed at the extermination of their oppressors.” Likewise, Aptheker demolished the “magnolia and moonlight” myths of the southern United States and the idea that slave revolts were occasional aberrations, concluding in 1943 that “discontent and rebelliousness were not only exceedingly common, but, indeed, characteristic of American negro slaves.”! Subsequently, at a slavery conference in 1976, he went far beyond this position to assert that “resistance, not acquiescence, is the core of history.”? Aptheker’s clarion call in 1976 and James’s thrilling account of the

struggle led by Toussaint Ouverture were primary inspirations for this book, which seeks to achieve for the slaves of the British West Indies what James and Aptheker did for the slaves in Haiti and the

United States. Coming a generation later, the present volume is bound in some respects to go even further. Yet in others it stops far short of the pioneer populists’ pure Marxism. The fight against enslavement was clearly part of that perennial and universal class conflict consigned by traditional historiography to history’s “underside.” But having decided that slave resistance was structurally endemic and 11

Leo SED SEN A|

| 23a 253 PN «) ~ ama8mtSo 6 einen EC Ge Es S58 roid sy &S gee 352 om oOo —En) I) tam we Q oe or. O A o fn =f ace "9 a) Zz, 2°, “ Ce oe 1\ So 8e 8 CO WANN $RES 9 < SN ef anss . eo @eNia sun Tr ss ,Xe3se ESblchs ' eee.oO‘ ’2 rs Sih we

ra mo BU

ES “8° [| “ 6 ji wom Zo N

g, 3 0 ; 5 oo fd es na ow g ~y 8

32 “b= \\*(| £32 " N/E

°

:as . |>©uo. 238™ ao

i=

~~ Shore

e (sx 43, (3 seS S Eon tf ©)

2

\

Preface 13 that white writers have more often than not distorted the account, one is still left with the need to analyze the degrees of resistance open to slaves and the variations in revolts from place to place and from time to time. Doing so involves delimiting the indistinct boundary between

resistance and accommodation, or between true political resistance | and apparent accommodation. One must decide not just why at a given time some slaves rebelled, while others did not, but—most diffi-

cult and contentious of all—why, at every stage, some actually collabo- , rated with the dominant class, while others risked all to rebel. Histo-

rians who seek to restore an independent ideology to the AfroAmerican slaves must acknowledge that such an ideology was surely more complex than the simple reactive ethos suggested by Aptheker and James. Above all, the ideology of resistance to slavery in the Americas was , not simply an extension of an external ideology, any more than AfroAmerican resistance was simply a phase in a progressive scenario dreamed up by certain Eurocentric historians. Yet the very idea that slave resistance was not an isolated phenomenon but part of a continuum is an aid to understanding. West Indian slaves inherited and melded traditions of resistance both from the Amerindians, whom they largely replaced, and from their own African forebears. They also bequeathed a tradition to their Afro-Caribbean descendants, who formed a downtrodden black majority even after formal slavery had

ended. The Amerindian and African backgrounds form the substance of my Introduction; what happened to the former slaves after slavery ended is the subject of the book’s brief Epilogue. In considering actual slave revolts, I started with a rather oversim-

ple formulation predicating a tripartite, sequential model of slave

revolts and a set of four “conducive situations.” I divided revolts into those of the maroon type, those led by unassimilated Africans, and the late slave rebellions led by creole (colony-born) members of the slave elite. My preliminary analysis borrowed from many different

theories of popular rebellion and suggested that resistance might flare into revolt under conditions of extreme oppression, where unassimilable elements were found in the subject population, where the forces of control were weakened, or where slave expectations became frustrated.° At the general level this analysis still has its merits, chief being its concentration on intrinsic forces and the playing down of abstract and extraneous influences, including all the ideologies of the Age of Revo-

lution (1775-1815) that loom so large in many accounts. Yet as I , wrote I found it necessary to refine and expand my initial analysis

14 Preface considerably. The three-phase model was overly neat and needed overhauling, at least in its simple sequentiality, and the allegedly causal elements required much greater articulation, if not outright - rejection where they were directly contradictory. The French and Haitian revolutions called for rather more emphasis than they had previously been given, although I was unable to go as far as Eugene Genovese’s argument that they marked a decisive watershed between simple rebellions and true revolution.4 On a narrower scale, besides, it was necessary to distinguish more clearly between mere plots and actual revolts, or rather, between different types of plot. All plots that came to nothing were clearly of a lesser level of political achievement than a prolonged revolt or a mass running away. But some plots were _ simply aborted revolts, at least potentially similar, while others were

barely embryonic, mere mutterings of discontent, even figments of the masters’ fears, rather than real threats to the regime. One of my basic assumptions is that the slave system was shaped largely by the slaves. But one must not understate the complexity of | the shaping. The first, and shortest, of this book’s five parts analyzes plantation slave society and reevaluates forms of resistance short of rebellion with the slaves’ influence on the system in mind. I attempt to go beyond the simple analysis of day-to-day resistance first proposed

by Raymond and Alice Bauer in 1942 and the rising scale of noncooperation proposed by Kenneth Stampp in 1956 to adopt many of the refinements made by George Frederickson and Christopher _ Lasch in a seminal article in 1967.° Not only can slave antagonism toward imposed labor and the master class (feelings like those of all subordinated people) be divided into simple noncooperation and true political resistance, but slave attitudes can be seen as resulting from choice and calculation. Different decisions could make the same slaves under different conditions appear cringingly docile, simply content, annoyingly troublesome, or implacably rebellious. By emphasizing the effects of change, my view dismisses the simple dichotomies between accommodation and resistance, accommodators and resisters,

and sheds light on the issue of whether slaves were more likely to rebel if driven on tight reins or on loose. But I stop short of the conclusion of Frederickson and Lasch that stability and a sense of belonging on the part of the slaves were the slaveowners’ chief allies and that change itself was most dangerous to them. Part One is an extended prolegomenon. The core of the book is, - naturally, a consideration of actual slave plots and revolts. Though I

confine myself to the British West Indies, which never comprised more than a third of the Caribbean region or included more than a

Preface 15 quarter of the total of Afro-American slaves, this work cannot hope to be definitive. Such an enterprise would require several volumes. The present book describes all major revolts and nearly all serious plots

and supplies a comprehensive list in a chronology at the end. Yet I have, inevitably, been selective. My choice was determined not by the admitted patchiness of source materials but by a conscious decision to give due prominence to the salient outbreaks while otherwise selecting examples that would most vividly illustrate themes and variations. Constraints of space also led me to concentrate on the true plantation colonies, excluding, for example, details of the many plots and small-

scale outbreaks that occurred in the nonplantation colonies of Bermuda and British Honduras and unrest short of armed rebellion in the “marginal” colonies of The Bahamas, Tortola, and Antigua that occurred at the same time as serious revolts elsewhere late in the slavery period.®

Following my original formulation, Parts Two, Three, and Five deal successively with maroons (especially the Jamaican), with African-led revolts, and with the revolts that rose to a: climax in the formative period between the ending of the British slave trade in 1808 and the freeing of the British slaves in 1838. Part Four provides

the rather more extended treatment I now think necessary of the transitional period that coincided with the American, French, and Haitian revolutions. These four core sections emphasize the interrelation, rather than the separation, of types and phases of revolt. ‘They illustrate how the maroons continued to provide an admired example

, for rebellious slaves even after most maroon groups had come to terms with the slaveholding class and show that the pull of Mother —_ Africa remained strong even after the umbilical cord had been cut in 1808. These sections also show that creole and elite slaves were prominent in slave unrest far earlier than has previously been thought: the two groups dominated the Jamaican slave plot of 1776 and were of critical importance in the Antiguan slave plot forty years earlier. In-

deed, in Barbados, the first of the British sugar colonies, Governor , Willoughby as early as 1668 said, in effect, We can control the Africans by mixing the tribes, but what will happen when all our slaves are creoles?’ The discoveries that I have made all contribute to the devaluation of outside influences upon slave attitudes and behavior. Slave revolts, particularly their leadership, were seldom as blind and insensate as the master class averred. At every stage there was far more planning and calculation than any whites recognized. Just as Caribs consciously played the English off against the French, and maroons cannily played off white smallholders and ranchers against

16 Preface the owners of the capital and labor-intensive large plantations,® so within the plantations slaves secretly preserved their private integrity, exploiting the planters’ fear of rebellion with constant threats, which cost the slaves less than actual revolt. Anansi, the spider-trickster of West African and Afro-Caribbean folklore, was as significant a hero to the slaves as were the real-life heroes Cudjoe, Nanny, and Tacky. Slave leaders were quite capable of utilizing the ideologies of the Age of Revolution when it suited them and were able to use the support of sympathetic liberals without subscribing to liberal ideas in more than a superficial way. The slaves even molded and used Christianity in ways beyond the imagination of earnest and self-deluded missionaries.

What, then, motivated slaves? And what was their ideology? In brief, slaves always resisted slavery and the plantation system, rebelling where they could or had to. Their aim was that of all unfree — people—that is, of the vast majority throughout history—freedom to make, or to re-create, a life of their own in the circumstances in which they found themselves. This desire, simple and informal though it was, amounted to a popular ideology even more important than that which justified and explained the slaves’ subjugation. The four situations conducive to slave rebellions that I originally identified possibly mislead as much as they inform. They do not address themselves as much to the causes as to the occasions or forms of slave revolts. Because they ignored the underlying ideology—or culture—of resistance they were bound to seem contradictory and thus to perpetuate in the analysis the ignorance and puzzlement of contemporary whites. Surely, some slaves—like all subject peoples— might rebel when they were treated too harshly; some slaves might rebel more readily than the others, and some might look especially for

opportunities offered by the temporary weakness of the masters,

: while others might rebel only when their slow, insensible gains were threatened. Yet none of these conditions was necessarily conducive to

__ uprising. In their arrogant assumption of cultural superiority and superior power, whites were lulled or confused by those slaves who worked well under severe conditions, by those slaves thought to be implacable who actually collaborated, by the numbers of slaves who volunteered for colonial defense or to fight against rebels, and above

all by the slaves who appeared content with the gains they had achieved, or had been granted, in the last and creolizing phase of formal slavery.

At the very least one should reformulate the four conducive situa-

tions, turning them around so as to see them not from the white masters’ viewpoint but from that of the Afro-Caribbean slaves. A

Preface 17 more satisfying summary might conclude that oppression on the part of the masters was particularly likely where unassimilable elements

were found but that violence nearly always provoked counterviolence | and that the forces of control had to be constantly on the alert, for even where the planters accommodated the creolizing tendencies of their slaves, the planters did not tame the slaves or deflect forever their will to freedom. When I look back over servile resistance in the British West Indies,

two overall interpretations seem possible. In’ one sense there was clearly a continuum of active slave resistance, which connected the Amerindians’ defense of their heritage and the Africans’ resistance in Africa to shipboard “mutinies” on the Middle Passage, resistance in the plantations short of rebellion, maroon activity, African-type rebellions, and the more sophisticated late Afro-Caribbean revolts. In

another sense, one might argue that all these forms of resistance worked inexorably toward a climax that resulted in slave emancipation when the time was ripe.

Of the two interpretations, the latter can be plausibly argued, but I | prefer the former, because whether or not the slaves were instrumen-

tal in the passage of the emancipation acts of 1834 and 1838, the notion that an unequivocal victory was achieved at this time is an exaggeration, if not a dangerous myth. Only if one were gifted with Marxist optimism could one conclude that history did, and does, go forward, that the former slaves formed a class of independent commodity producers in the essential intermediate phase, and that the Revolution is around the corner, if not quite here. Certainly Amerindian, maroon, and slave resistance has already entered the official mythology of independent countries throughout the Caribbean region, along with worthy campaigns to bring dignity and respect to Afro-Caribbean peasants and their culture. It is somewhat doubtful that the spirit represented by the splendid statue Le marron inconnu in front of Duvalier’s palace in Port-au-Prince is quite the same as that

expressed in the designation of Cuffy, Nanny the Maroon, Samuel Sharpe, and Julien Fédon as Heroes of Guyana, Jamaica, and Grenada or in the official attitude of the Cuban regime to Hatuey the Arawak and Esteban Montejo the runaway slave. But what the following chapters can do for such heroes, and for the masses they led and symbolize, is to disentangle myths from reality, whether the myths are those of former masters or those of former slaves. MICHAEL CRATON

Waterloo, Ontario

fy

Introduction

Mes of superiority, conquest, and cultivation have distorted the history of European involvement in America. The similarities and, mdeed, direct connections between Amerindian resistance to European colonialism and slave resistance have hitherto been slighted as part of that process. From the point of view of the colonized rather than the colonizer, the earliest relationship between the Amerindians and the Spaniards set a pattern that was to be replicated throughout the course of European colonialism—with other Europeans, with other Amerindians, and with African slaves and indentured Asians. Some “Indians” collaborated for hoped-for advantages, appeared to collaborate, or actually did so for a time; some fled from the Spaniards in the forlorn hope that they could preserve their way Of life in isolation; and some, through realistic calculation, pride, disappointment, or desperation, offered armed resistance. Amerindian behavior was, of course, far more complex than this simple description, varying within as well as between groups and changing over time. The forces that brought people together could subsequently tear them apart, and attitudes regarded as antithetical could sometimes prove complementary. Miscegenation was inevita-

ble, given the shortage of women among the newcomers and the Amerindians’ relaxed attitude toward sexuality, and some Christianization was bound to occur, given the missionary zeal of the Ca-

tholics and the curiosity of the natives. Yet the attractions of miscegenation were soon replaced by enmity in the disadvantaged males, by social dislocation, and by a mestizo class that the second generation of Spaniards and the Amerindian survivors alike despised. Catholic Christianity offered the parlous attractions of partial assimilation, and

, 49

Zz. Co] . v3 5 D o c = 2 Oo + -2 "ho a cc - §§ AB ° € sa) 6 —>Beton Seer &© DY ound O QO

r ul eS fae)dir=) {

[.] >$oO —) 4 — Be oumt Ye See rw) e© eid $R, Ws grotatete) SS eS iees eo Brrcemaememats Sones ©G)bad eo .eas Pangasinan: © | Q = Q arf 8 "S Eig VES e bes we Patras satetecete ae Oo =~ t Psosetatehat teats ye) Lh. ome % pints Ra ; fa or P| *) e ¥ Sooo tl

a pe RRR ow] ow estates 4 iL be Bes ES ' @ ep]wnt ofae band © e Se esa a& snd rw od cy aR Re te ne r o 3 =. (75) ew [EEE count < ont te Saeenesanarn, Ree

© piecespacientes ernenas ta atatetal itatotanetereseresze nee atecetate © Satsom sn]@ siimieytencasensts a =| Oo c .) © at °s@ : 4atat sstaeeectatatee ® om © ss Vegsatahatet ata teacatrcatatoserareces tote SRS

(s) © % eetranianenen

Saeed sateen ee sa war" tateretetetetate, Tale t= 9} ea S mane mw renee iF) @ lf ® ie© r+]Raeencae ber Pierre, ome ® ~ See ia Seater On aaa es Sh eeu nee ESE Depart neon St

- eee sean 2. oem Say — ee SRN pe = eee Sea eee en CON ence

rn ee ‘ee . tio See es Se Se sees a) -— .s Reais Ses Co aef Sere es Re aa es Reese spun pe ( ee oS ease fe oS feee — ee .) ee ee Be ae Se oe ©} |ees : So ae ee eae cae oe ee ee a} Ff Srshe Yi; ee—sre.oo oe ioWw 8ee sos oooe Sees pepeee es ore aesSOS . a .eeeeeeSes ee eaEee rasanss aa ae Ca) | ee meee SoeSo se as eae EERE See eine ueee os ae_Rn| Eanes aNeee ~ Be ae ee pec SESS sesne Seaears Sareea aneersot Sone ae 35 Beaman Ree: ea ee eee Spey ee ; Be een Seo en porns Serene euneeue Soe orcas See SE a: yee pias o sree SESS a FF Seats safe Bae ee eoeaaeemenaen states rraeate Seats siraeateernt ee — Soe cere Secu ee ROS oifahe ee eens Sera Soe See eaten ae

. ren ey ie a a . . ree es Fo 80 ne _ ees ES Se Senet aS Cerone seeeenn NS en Soom eesenern ;

s Seciecgis - aesoeeeESyrs Recess SoeeeeoeEU iterates Soir Seessee sessf sae ES — SEE SESS SoSSeR Se ee ee eas ae Seen ReeceSens cee eee eat:oeeeee NeaSRG Pe CC Sas eneSaree = os enc otssiete pee Bebe See Oe arta Beroumeacce ss a«f Sa Bans isan ee ene Sea aes epee aesas Sai_Ran ets Ses Ee eeene eee ome SOCAN x Sree atc Re erences Seta gence ea ae ee tale Beeence OR CNeae aeeetats ee ihSere eestesoe RNS

eee |ee ee Ria tenes eae: en —=—=S—se er earn Sects eee Pin.aSe Siaremrenn oe Bemceeninaes ee Soars eeape ts Omens coe eetEe eect» ee greaeaetattte scopes SER Resncosewrcte aeSe Seti earoonen es shotFF ee CSC 8=aRaa | Shae nin Seances =So secs Be Sees ea aiasvrecre Sheers Rea ena Ros %s*eae oe eoe ee ie aerate

|. = ees SeSee Se—assete:ecateee |. ee ae—eae . eerie — es ee ee ae es oe es eee &)

— FaSones Soe ee: ssSes ee ee See oe oaneeeae Se .es. — esiyeePree Sterome se esac . — .. Boreas oaCo Seceerns ch Seoete Sone Sen eae amSeems Ssae oeee. asee Bene sree Bae Senet dod

rr ee — oo Sang 8 tend © -—ee¢.—— as Saoe.. aeee . hon oon] 2. sa, gee pe SS pe©i.Beas es aSesee Pee eeBess ce >.aeae aeaeoe eee okons _ es eS amare sere Se |=teed | cone RS oe aa eres oeSees aN Pe pee eeespharas Br— eee oe

a — Rs Sane Seay ec ee oeFIaeae ce%ceeaeSRR reatens Rann saan a Ses Bee soo aaa ae ena areae See BRE ee‘-Sees RS Sena Semeanne ps areas Se. seme Soe SESS Seeenonne enn iagaehennenad Soereeiataa Se Sears Rens niece Senoe an cee pee RoeSee seen oesc ee sn Bae aeae a.Rasesen ees Seen peasSie ts een peat OC aBex oo LUieeees saaae ncshins essen SeatSat ess eee rete geacteeee ac Suse Baan rsee nopeeeaista sei -— 8eeaaa sioeEES, eee ae os re aBe OE iaspasree oe core seo enone Re dened Faan aeSoman eS me papas er Femara oh2 Seon mae eset Bae SD— seus NN ee precios es -_ .Sa zSen ee ae ae

2 2 ee a | ee oes _ ~~ ~) : Ss| eS, ale oe Ce oe o Sates . | hee) a >. . . cs ee ee -. nesees pees _ ws = Y ee esFf neah eesee ern— ie wore Se san = cn ees aes ee sae ee ecg ec ne Bi Snaee Ro ees panes ewes pow ene oo pene oe aati Reece aa sae . @ er Coarse ee ot eae oe Rie he epee Pesca pos eee sce se seas “ Pete ge Recan Sea

Y ee soe: os ee ooo 3 Seae nea i Sos:: ER onineeeseo eeBre ae Se | .pea aieSeSas eCeeaeaes Reeser Beasate eines eaBae yen eae eo — Bie =e Sareea ee ees Se eae ze pease 8 EEE Ee Beta ps i aoe ge eres ae ieee see 3 precrnge seit hi ogee SRS SESE ec ee :=ee eee ene —. men err a os a oo ee ee =eee eee: ee. atSBSaeeineearn eeSaraee oe _ss os>nestersyond = se Sere mee aamonn meh ay Se— Spetoutiaccsie: seen oewhes weiceeneet Ra Sa Ue Seis eeSire Seana pee es seakee . lax] : Re ce aS Renee Sie—ges Soest.s Siares nae Seas oe aa aaae Bensaoaiees eae: bund ieool a) 2SSS ee Saia eeear ae cae — sO eae Bi Ree aor Sapa Seat ceoe Se Ss Sa aa eon ee Sees aeaooee san a er eenSe CaeSs poate Seeks Sree Beas eee oeee Pr aosoo aoeaeeae crete Saas oe ia SSE Ses eee 8 cae ae| Sorsireste Sk aie ee eaine See pe aaa se eee ace eee ee pomcmiee, =| s fo ae Pe cae ae — — iss} opel |; RRO ns Soe reese Sevan ct ee eR rca Reece sa ei Soares a eh Seria ek ea i ae aaa Se aeaa 3 IEaorsa gitiee Sere ss Secrest eR See cn sate ea a Seen eeeee eo = ee Sy >pees pate eeeeeens ea‘ ee5Reatrons * 47on) * || ae rasan Soe eS RRS on eee Sanssee pie Serie eae PiesSee SRCeens es ie Bas Pao —_. & oe ene 3 eer Sega Re at Sa eee eubonia crc ieee sere ee So S00 Ree a epee Sern ae vy

. ee PHT ea | Ss Sere ss. a) as oe . sae:Ree ae See ee eeSema: se ee aage ” ona a ear a See ceeLD Bete _eS =f eae _ F.eeae oese apes ee. feeee aei ee eeeeoF oe od eee Bes Cae i~— ‘#2 ns :— oS -. aes =sees ae poet 8.a ca ee _sera _—=SCse Rept nae ee s ee eee es -. | . Res . = oe ee cee eee oe md Cee:oe se 3rae—— EGS ™ eer eRe eee Ae Soper SeNeriatanesee Mareen - ©) 2«¢,7aatA ee oe —~— ee eee ae 2. eae Sana eran eeeeOES Seeac seis ee crre eae: -oo eee ae x. ae oo oosaseed eee > ee manera te 8 eeesuena eis neteae Se RRR. ge eee ee ieists SR eae a0Be ee onBe BRucnoeae See erento he se: Bannon -oe —— eee pane asvat an meSeren he faa i a Se. se Sie es a Bs - “ ee Gea cet Seca seSee ser Be Seas Ses ROE Rehan Le Be prec eioe eeRe pe eaeeR rarteuticotant ge See ss ratetocs Sg Sean Ne Bean. Ee ere a oo 2Se Bs See ara ea Pee ee eebat camel .|— Breer eas >OO eae peau ene nantes Beane Sei eoaetaet See: Bie eet SeeKuen he mie Sens Rei Senses oar Sis artea a5 SS Sree a .— eae.. sere ae eet Rarer seen Nee Reece SeesSoo ieneSeone — .. ee Seon oy senate oats ese aaa Soren a Sees cenaeasea te Serene Se Re 2 es SOIR ResSes, ee . oes eee caercci Sr a OSes Smt oaee ee s aie eo ke PROSE et seatotes

eeaeesaeeae as i?) a eS SuneRare - ee :2. eesSee ee Sung Sa? Oe ClSea eee een — oe Rea een ee Ge . ei Set eee Sine aesae See Seon crore eesoe oe eSRd oe:see een3© i Ce ee ene eee ee eo os ee ae as es = ie a aes ame Perea aes Seas reac er aeoSeeERO aame ates See. ien es sahi Se aaSCBe aes ae: oe a oe CSOs SESE = ee ie Sees See iiciasneant Se Bera ons caer enero vY ee Sects et Seen pean Ss Peace Sone aiee Steet esata Saas Se ) a. om eR aaSe Phones oy eeiencase ae os Ss Senta rsetSoe ene Nectar essse oe .. eee .a|.- eae Ree siSees aoa SA ee Sse ee >45as;speed ee eRe. Senate, See. oe: ae ra Sans pear: Me Renae poe es eens or Sos Superson setae oe om _esee oeLs EeBees Soe TORR Sicha recta mates mae é, | ea ge Seen son citaee Sec ie ae ie Seen: peat 4 ee es See ee— 2aa Ree es :aSeaenee eons ees erRO eter ress es -ts ° a2 ee Seva re encoun ena a HERS is ht ee enorme pase aeoe a 0oe 3 RE areca Se =ae | pak .— © Pee ee pe: es on Sega pee ooects . oe Bans ee ee od

a ae re ee see ee aeze es einSOE eee eee tesMists ee a Scie Beer eesae sen ee eee : n =. aNeen .eee Ses ee Pepa aun reOSes See . peace co.ne ae sine Shounen gee ee score ae se ee ee RNS FBG repre eee SR

CC Ee corer See Sse epeeeee i >het Bice openers Sco Ces ae Reet a ae ate ees penne ae . EES ee seen eS stitete Spero ees sre gee rae Ra RS Sunes ee See ..eee oe. eeserneeanen aneSa Se asee Piecensens eet x. pe ernie Ppa SBR SOE SE SEER Seana SRNR NE a Serre prec certens sonarex Seas etre.cots attests titan see SoneSera Seen EEee *Re retsertene Poaonan aens ES BRE ecageeeena eeeSoret te Rison eteeee areca een teoe ae os I eel EES HIE SSIES Sorennonei ee Sire eena norte Senennecen enuacisiettiny Es monereneen eet srs Seco see Sse: hanno Se atetetetaant Serene an enn Se RENAE tae Spite Baise eter Soeeae ea ee eae Se eae: ote Serna Ret

a Ce or pees sees Ss Sees Sm ST aie eee ee Soe Sees sSernrenetes see sentoae Sa See Seas a

. “ — i ihtateatets seat Ras ro eietas sean a a eee ee me Stents pisces seth ateteres a Ns SA es ermcntenre oe pessnegan pene2Sanaa cs oenian: cx Pornasrens anes eee Ry eeters Senereetess Ramee ees SS is yerss gence ooeeai—SA Srceasesee cee Soe Saas Sooueonna aa Se :asSiete eeeee oeSeSes 5 Se —

eaten! us . eee cra Sco pee Recounts Sesh Barscoetaies Ot Stent a ee Rao SORES me yaanhety ss sence roeenee ne See Sang ae Sea onc ears ena seems HPs sSeebcte scoamettonn eens peer ee BERS ren i Seas canes ser ee eeSeo Seite cS. Seteeae a. aeen Oosee marea rane a -rate easeoseo —seat ey ae rans i aneSs eeSR eenSe pen eeeaeSa Se ed oO _ ats ert eechager ee pees eer a aes a - eee ee on ee Cemeeone Bis So Rien Seager Kear opens oe saison eee ee >. SEN Bs Siam oe awry So ee oe

Cf Pe oe Sa Eee ee ee ma eames as RE ater SRNR Sees peReeen re eeecaes eae See Peers sean entateny rs RON capes ies Sennen

a | ee a, — 2 CD | eS eae 3“ =. " a. Se ee SESS a : Eran . a scab ess ;

- .”Rios Seek. Sona oe RRase Aras eS es . a Se ). Sh a: Re eens oe es, Re —s Swe ee . ies _— ~~ oe =ae. _ea @ aSea CC eS tseoee_ . 7g ee : _ ee —— a Re een ee Sats a 2S 2 8 — re i PEE 7a soe ee Oe ere Eee ne | Seste Seay _pect .— Seer Sepercire RR etna caine pi oo Siar RR se x ee oes ene: eo as CC ee ee ESS ees og oe pee Be ees sees = i ce oe EIR se . oe saa pice a ee ees % _. ei aoa Se : .SESS C. aaa fe oe i ee. Sree ee sna peeae 82eeeasens Sein SSE See ee — eatenSree . oe) m= v “3 ee' © < O w Bs wea! | Cr: FOS TO , < gq © f © a+ ZA S 42 o 06 Be ne a4 “gat ; i=.)

™ vn = ~O

, yo .e\Uce 2 = bys oS “ Be~i a6 OO ~ e& SESS) 55) WN ENGV6 i «©

~ [te ol

rao Sets. s s\ / = $5355 RE Ew |cesses cs 2{ +&s3332588 2538238

a $ “)} $ o |EO. : s3 | N\ aan |\: xXx © + 0

73

74 Maroon Resistance, 1600-1775 _ Not so the other maroons. The Varmahaly Negroes (also referred to as the “outlying” or “wild” negroes) continued to be a source of irritation to the English, who placed a price on their heads in a series of decrees. After the murder of five hunters and six small settlers in Clarendon parish in 1670, the government decreed that no settler

should travel more than two miles without being armed and that anyone caught trading or treating with the Varmahalies would be regarded as an accomplice. A reward of thirty pounds was offered for : the band’s commander, twenty pounds for the man styled “sergeantmajor” or for any other officer, and ten pounds each for “any com-

mon negroes of that gang.” In another decree any servant or slave who killed a maroon was promised freedom, any Varmahaly who surrendered and brought in a fellow was offered pardon, and it was said that “any persons finding out the pallenque of said negroes, shall have and enjoy to their uses all the women, children, and plunder for their reward.”!5 None of these rewards was ever claimed, nor were the Varmahaly or Porus settlements ever located with any certainty. Because they had

, few women and were constantly on the run, the survivors died out in the 1670s, fled to Cuba, or merged with the more pacific “wild negroes” of eastern Jamaica, who formed the nucleus of the group that became known as the Windward Maroons.!®© According to the best near-contemporary source, these maroons “thought of nothing

Else but securing themselves in the most remote of hidden places which the small Number of [white] inhabitants then only possessing the Maritime Places of the Island gave them an easy opportunity of doing.” Since the time of the Spaniards they had become acquainted with the most difficult and almost inaccessible places of the Blew Mountains where their love of Liberty induced them to Settle or rather hide themselves for I am well informed they there lived innocently for many years as they were not interrupted. They planted at several places and by the plenty of Wild Hogg & fish which the Mountains and rivers supplyed them with which they were well contented and as they had some women they Multiplyed fast

Even before they were augmented by the runaways from the plantations.

Only rarely were the Windward Maroons glimpsed, when they came down to the coast near Manchioneal for salt and turtles or when “the

Hunters of Wild Hogg from the plantations. . . fell in with theirs, who att this time being unarmed always fledd.”!” As the anonymous chronicler suggested, the situation gradually

The Jamaican Maroons: Origins, 1600-1700 75 changed with the tightening pressure on the maroons caused by the

building of coastal roads and forts and the spread of settlement, while | the eastern remnant of Spanish negroes (and possibly Arawaks) was

augmented by negro slaves running away from the burgeoning En- | glish plantations. At the same time new bands were formed in the western (or leeward) parts of Jamaica, made up exclusively of planta-

tion runaways. Together, these two very distinct types of maroon proved a mounting threat to the English colony. The first few runaways were not welcomed by the Spanish negroes and those who were allowed to stay were sometimes treated so harshly ©

that they fled back to their masters. Indeed, while plantations were | small and underdeveloped the slaves were said to have more encour-

agement to stay than to take permanent flight. At first the English planters could only settle their estates by small degrees. Because they lacked capital they “could only putt a verry Small number of Slaves on their Lands and these became Season’d to their way of Life & generally gott wifes, children & some small property in stock, all which were so many hostages for them not deserting & obliged them to bear with _ many hardshipps rather than leave them.”!® But after 1670 plantations increased rapidly in number and size as Jamaica emulated Bar-

bados in developing a sugar monoculture. Large gangs of new Africans, predominantly robust males, were rapidly introduced, and

they rebelled and ran away in bands far more readily than their predecessors, particularly since the proportion of whites on the plan- , tations, never high, declined rapidly at this stage. That a high proportion of the slaves imported into Jamaica were warlike Akan- and Ga-

planters. , ,

Adangme-speaking Coromantees increased the problem for the In 1673 a new Jamaican law defined a runaway as any slave found roaming without a ticket of leave, irrespective of the distance from the owner's estate or the time absent. Masters were penalized five pounds for failing to provide tickets, and any white free man was authorized to whip and detain any slave found roaming illicitly. The Jamaican Council explained that this stricture was “on consideration how much the safety of all planters consists in restraining communication of the

negroes one with another.” Militia regulations were continually strengthened, and parties frequently organized to scour the woods for runaways.!9 However, none of these precautions prevented five major uprisings, accompanied by mass flight, between 1673 and 1690, in all of which Coromantee slaves were principally involved.

In 1673, 200 Coromantee slaves rose up on Lobby’s plantation in

St. Ann’s parish, killed a dozen whites, seized arms, and fled into the

76 Maroon Resistance, 1600-1775 mountains between Clarendon and St. Elizabeth’s parishes, where they were harried and reduced but never entirely dislodged.?° Three years later there was such a serious defection in St. Mary’s parish that martial law was declared in the district and a permanent guard estab-

lished on two outlying estates.2! In 1678 nearly all the slaves who | rebelled on Captain Duck’s plantation near Spanish Town were killed

or recaptured, but many more of the 150 slaves on the estate of the

widow Grey and several other plantations in Guanaboa Vale who suddenly rose up on July 31, 1685, escaped. On that occasion the rebels laid siege to the house of Maj. Francis Price, which held out until thirty mounted troopers and a detachment of “choice” infantrymen arrived from Spanish Town, alerted by one of Mrs. Grey’s faithful domestics. Had Price’s house fallen, it was reckoned, a thousand slaves in the valley would have thrown in their lot with the rebels. Instead, the first rush was repulsed, with the loss of

“one of their conjurors, on whom they chiefly depended,” and the | rebels retreated to the limestone outcrop still known as Cudjoe Hill, “an advantageous hill full of craggy rocks and stumps of trees where the horse could not possible attack them.” The troopers dismounted and stormed the hill when reinforcements arrived. Half the rebels were killed or captured, but the remainder split into three parties and faded into the interior. Thirty of the stoutest rebels under a Coromantee called “Cophy” (alias Coffee or Cuffee) descended into St. Mary’s where, having killed an innkeeper and his family on the way, they terrorized the district for several months. Once again martial law was declared, and Captain Davis was sent “to pursue the rebels with his Indians ull completely destroyed.” A reward of ten pounds was offered for Cuffee, five pounds each for five other leaders, and two pounds for any rank-and-file rebels, dead or alive. When Cuffee was

reported killed in April 1686, the parties chasing the rebels were

1687.72 |

reduced to three, but these continued in operation until the middle of

The most significant early rebellion occurred, however, in 16go. On July 31, the fifth anniversary of the Guanaboa rising (and presumably during the traditional crop-over celebration), all 500 of the slaves rebelled on Sutton’s estate in nearby Clarendon, “in the moun-

tains in the middle of the island,” where the whites were outnumbered by about ninety to one. Having taken and burned the great house and having killed its caretaker, the rebels seized fifty muskets and a piece of artillery and tried in vain to persuade the slaves on neighboring estates to join them. Returning to Sutton’s, they loaded

The Jamaican Maroons: Origins, 1600-17700 77 the “great gun” with nails and laid an ambush in “a skirt of wood next to the house.” The first militia party of fifty horse and foot soldiers

was repulsed, but reinforcements arriving the following day were later able to claim that they had put the rebels to rout, capturing the “field gun” and many provisions and “killing or wounding some” of the rebels. In fact the slaves had simply decamped. A hunting party of

thirty “choice men” went in pursuit, killing a dozen fugitives and capturing more provisions. In addition, about 200 slaves, including sixty women and children, voluntarily surrendered during the follow-

ing month, reporting—probably disingenuously—that many of the wounded rebels had died on the trail and that the remainder had no food and very few guns. Governor Inchiquin stated on August 31 that

he regarded the rebellion as past but in the same dispatch admitted that parties still pursued the remaining rebels, who were so numerous “as to be a great danger to the mountain plantations.?° In fact, far more than 200 negroes had remained at large, including

for the first time a contingent of women and younger persons. Though its stronghold was not fixed for many years and this band may have coalesced with survivors from earlier outbreaks, its members were regarded by R. C. Dallas and most others who have written

about the maroons as the nucleus of the Leeward Maroons, particu- | larly since one of Sutton’s chief rebels was the father of Cudjoe, the greatest of all maroon chieftains, who was probably born in the moun-

tains about 1700.24 | |

In political, cultural, and military respects, the Leeward Maroons remained much more under African influences and were much more homogeneous than the maroons of eastern Jamaica. Aided perhaps

by the preponderance of Coromantees in the original band, by the forceful personalities of their Coromantee leaders, and by intrinsic merits in the Coromantee culture, “Cudjoe’s Negroes” established an autocratic polity cemented by kinship in the style of the Asante, rather than the Amerindian-style confederacy with a “shallow, weakly institutionalized” leadership developed by the Windward Maroons.?° Individual runaways from different African ethnicities who were prepared to undergo a rigorous probationary period were welcomed, but rival bands sometimes bitterly struggled for territory and supremacy. Such an armed conflict occurred in the 1720s with the “Madagascar” slaves from Down’s plantation, who established themselves in Dean’s Valley in the hills of Westmorland parish and were forcibly amalgamated by Cudjoe.?® By the 1730s Cudjoe was insisting on the use of English as the language of ordinary communication for his followers,

48 Maroon Resistance, 1600—1775 but as late as the 1750s “Coromantee” was said to be “ye Wild Negro Court Language,” used for all binding rituals. Since, as even Edward Long realized, Coromantees spoke several mutually unintelligible languages (“Akims, Fantins, Ashantees, Quangoos etc.”), this particular

tongue may have been a syncretic form, purposely developed and handed down by the captains and obeahmen who led the band.?7 Similarly, Accompong and Johnny, Cudjoe’s lieutenants in the 1730s, were described as his “brothers,” though the kinship may have been fictive rather than real. No record remains of Cudjoe’s mother, though she should have been important in a matrilineal tradition that designated the Queen Mother a trusted adviser. Cudjoe himself had several wives, and generally women played a lowly role among the Leeward Maroons, some of those seized from plantations being treated little better than slaves. As in Ashanti, the men were essentially a warrior caste. The women did most of the farming as well as cooking and keeping house, while the men spent much time roaming the hills, hunting and fishing and practicing martial skills, rapidly and silently tracking through difficult country, and polishing the arts of concealment and ambush, marksmanship, and subtle communication over long distances by means of drum, conch shell, and cow horn (abeng). Like the Asante the Leeward Maroons were adept in the use of firearms from the earliest days—preferring the long “Dane gun” found in West Africa from the early seventeenth century. In contrast, many of the Windward Maroons for a long time preferred “to arm themselves with launces and cutlashes rather than guns.”2° By 1730, though, many of the differences between Windward and Leeward Maroons had been eliminated by their adaptation to a common environment, by the exigencies of a mutual struggle for survival, and by recruitment from a common pool of disaffected slaves. The

Windward Maroons had long been forced into open resistance by competition for their habitat and by calculated moves on the part of the colonial government to dislodge, destroy, or reenslave them. As early as 1686 Lieutenant Governor Molesworth felt the need to put down the “outlying and rebellious negroes” in the windward parishes, especially St. George’s (now the western half of Portland parish), in order to encourage the continued expansion of white settlement. The group of maroons then most active was thought “to have been formed first by negroes saved from a shipwreck on the easternmost part of the Island sixteen or seventeen years ago” [that is, about 1669], which “had made themselves plantations in the mountains from which they descend into the plains in great numbers for provisions, often doing

The Jamaican Maroons: Origins, 1600—1'700 79 much mischief in obtaining the same.” They also inveigled slaves from the coastal plantations to run away and join them. The three parishes of St. Mary, St. George, and St. Thomas (which last then also

included the eastern end of what is now Portland) sent out parties constantly, but the time-consuming rigors of militia duty were regarded by small settlers as but another reason to desert the region.?9 Major Archbold, who as an assemblyman from St. George’s had a vested interest, led a volunteer expedition against the maroons but

came back empty-handed. One group he found established on an almost inaccessible hilltop, but instead of dividing the attacking column to cut off a maroon retreat, he made a frontal assault, and the adversary simply melted away. After destroying fifteen huts, a provi-

sion ground, and some hog traps, the column withdrew, its leader reporting to the governor that instead of living in a fixed location the

maroons had several, if not many, interchangeable townships and more provision grounds than were immediately needed.°° In contrast, the Leeward Maroons were much more inclined to concentration, being established by the time of Cudjoe’s ascendancy at places in due course to be called Accompong Town, in northern St. Elizabeth’s parish, and Trelawny Town, fourteen miles away in St. James’s par-

ish, at the highest point of the western Cockpits. By 1702 the Windward Maroons were much more numerous and considerably more aggressive than formerly. Almost certainly they had been augmented by slaves who had run away from the plantations captured and destroyed by the French in the invasion of 1696, and they were encouraged by the obvious weakness of the colonial regime, which that invasion had demonstrated. “They have mightily increased in their numbers,” reported Lieutenant Governor Beck-

ford, “and have been so bold to come down armed and attack our out :

settlements to windward and have destroyed one or two, which if not

prevented would prove of fatal consequence and endanger the Island; for if the settlements to the Windward should be so discouraged that the Inhabitants should be forced to quit them the enemy possessing themselves thereof might annoy, if not render themselves master of the remaining part.”>! Beckford had sent out four parties, one of which, consisting of only 20 men, had fought a six-hour engagement with the main body of the maroons, said to number goo. “They had posted themselves in the mountains between the North and South-

East Point of the Island,” wrote Beckford, and “had a Town and above 100 acres of land well planted with provisions,” which had been

“their rest” for some years past. In the engagement three of the

80 Maroon Resistance, 1600-1775 colonial party were wounded and several of the “rebels” killed or captured, but the remaining maroons decamped once their ammunition was exhausted. Once more the township was destroyed, a post was established in its place, and three search parties pursued the fugitives, but to little avail.5

CHAPTER 7

Cudjoe’s War and Its Aftermath, 1700-1775

B thenomiddle Jamaican maroons were said number longer1720s in the the hundreds but in the thousands. Thetoparish of St. George had become “desolated,” and travel along the north coast was extremely hazardous for whites. Because of the activities of Cudjoe’s band, much the same was true of St. James’s parish in the west and of the route over the island by way of the Great River valley.! The focal center of the most belligerent of the Windward Maroons was now the complex of three villages called Nanny Town, after the formidable priestess who inspired the maroon warriors and conducted their oz rituals, although she was neither an actual chief of any of the

settlements nor a leader in battle.? Nanny’s inspirational role and many of the legends attached to her attest to a much stronger African influence at this stage. In particular, the story that during attacks she was able to catch cannonballs between her buttocks and to fart them back with deadly effect has many African parallels during the long

period of resistance to the Europeans. Significantly too, the most potent of the Windward captains during the 1730s bore African names, at least three of which were Akan: Cuffee, Quao, and “Colonel Needham’s” Cudjoe.* Nanny’s role in stiffening and focusing resistance was very necessary, for compared with Cudjoe’s band the Windward Maroons suffered from a lack of cohesion, cultural and political as well as military. Each village and each warrior band was under a different leader, and there seems to have been an underlying dichotomy, one pole being represented by Nanny Town proper, with strong African and Coromantee influences, and the other by Guy’s Town, on a neighboring mountain spur, in which lived the last descendants of the first ma81

82 Maroon Resistance, 1600-1775 roons. Under colonial pressure the two villages cooperated, and Guy’s Town provided a refuge during the first attack on Nanny Town. But

the consequent closer contact and overcrowding exacerbated conflicts, which further weakened the cause. That the Windward leaders enjoyed the summary right of executing transgressors in their band by virtue of their office (rather than, as in Cudjoe’s case, through personal authority) testifies, if paradoxically, to political weakness. It

is significant, though, that according to one captured maroon, this summary right was exercised only in cases of adultery—seemingly proof of a conflict between African concepts of polygyny (as practiced

in Cudjoe’s band) and a countertradition of monogamy that characterized the earlier maroons. Another difference that may have weakened the Windward Maroons was their tendency to accept new recruits immediately during this period, insisting merely on a ritual oath rather than on a period of probation.? For Cudjoe at least, freedom was the first principle of resistance; revenge and destructiveness for their own sakes did not appeal to him. He sought freedom from embarrassing allies as well as from white domination. He was implacable in defense of his band’s territory but did not believe in unnecessary provocation and could be almost as fierce against rival bands who might bring down reprisals as he was against the whites once battle was joined. One commentator asserted, “It was always a rule with Him (Cudjoe], not to molest or injure the White People unless he was provok’d to it,” and described how he showed a Windward band that had penetrated his territory “severall Graves, where He said were buried some of His Men whom he had executed for Murdering of White People Contrary to His orders.”> In contrast, the Windward Maroons, with their looser organization and larger proportion of recent runaways, were less able to control attacks on white settlements by semiautonomous bands. Such differences help to explain both why the colonial authorities sought to eradicate the Windward Maroons first and why the whites held Cudjoe and his band in the most cautious respect. Hamstrung in its operations during the periods of war between the

Furopean nations such as 1689—1697 and 1702-1713, the plantocracy seized its chance during the long interval of Walpole’s peace during the 1730s, most notably during the incumbency of Governor Ayscough, who was himself a Jamaican planter. From the government’s point of view the Windward Maroons posed a more serious threat because of their numbers and seemed easier to defeat because of their manifest divisions. Broadly speaking, plantocratic policy was to drive a wedge across the island to separate Windward and Leeward

Cudjoe’s War and Its Aftermath, 1700-1775 83 maroons and to deal with maroon bands piecemeal, beginning in the east. But the colonial forces proved unequal to their task in numbers and fighting skills and were even more divided than their opponents

by parochial concerns. The limited enthusiasm of militiamen disappeared at the boundary of the parish in which they had been raised, | but parish boundaries, of course, meant nothing to maroons. To anyone familiar with Jamaican topography it is not surprising that maroons could travel across the central ridges of the island with nearimpunity. More remarkable was the efficiency of their intelligence and communication networks. Recent runaways kept in touch with

family and shipmates on the plantations, and maroons apparently could also mingle in the crowds of slaves at Sunday markets, picking up valuable information as well as trading for vital necessities. ‘They even had clandestine means of obtaining guns, powder, and shot to supplement supplies stolen or captured in battle.® To reinforce the unreliable militia 800 regular troops were brought in from Gibraltar in 1731 and were posted at strategic points in the interior, such as the Cave River valley in upper Clarendon. But as in Africa, the mosquito was on the side of the defenders. Lacking immunity to West Indian diseases, the troops died off rapidly from malaria and yellow fever. Even in battle the regulars were at a disadvantage. As Governor Trelawny reported in 1738: The service here is not like that in Flanders or any part of Europe. Here the greatest difficulty is not to beat, but to see the enemy. The men are forced to march up the currents of rivers over steep mountains and precipices without a track, through such thick woods that

they are obliged to cut their way almost every step, the underwoods. . . being always exceedingly tough and bushy, twisted and entangled in a strange manner: add to this they frequently meet with torrents caused by heavy piercing rains that often fall in the woods and against which tents are no shelter. . . . In short, nothing can be done in strict conformity to the usual military preparations and according to a regular manner, bushfighting as they call it being a thing peculiar to itself.7

When the maroons were fighting they were never absolutely tied to their townships, but these settkements were bound to be the focus of

colonial operations. Accordingly the maroons tended to use their townships as bait, setting up traps and ambushes by the most obvious approaches while hiding the escape routes with great subtlety. In the precipitous east, for example, Quao’s township “was so situated .. . that no body of men, or scarce an individual could approach it, that

they would not have five or six hours notice, by their . . . out cen-

84 Maroon Resistance, 1600-1775 tinels. .. . The only accessible way to it, was up a very narrow path in which holes were cut, from place to place, about four foot deep, all

the way up, and down, with crutch sticks set before them, for the entrenched Negroes to rest their guns upon.”’® Similarly, Cudjoe’s inner fastness of Petty River Bottom was approached first by a winding, waterless, half-obscured uphill trail through jungle and then by a half-mile gorge. If they had not already repulsed the colonial forces by ambushes in the woods, it was said, Cudjoe’s men could bottle up attackers by rolling down large boulders at each end of the gorge, “and even without using their guns they could destroy such a force with rocks alone.”? In addition the maroons constantly used psychological techniques to intimidate their enemy. “When they engaged,” wrote one white, “they Constantly kept blowing Horns, Conch Shells, and other Instruments, which made a hideous and terrible noise among the Mountains in hopes of terrifying the Parties, by making them imagine their Number and Strength much greater than it really was.” From their

hiding places, or during the night, the maroons called out taunts, telling the white militiamen to come up and fight like men, or encour-

aged the blacks and Indians in the white men’s parties to desert, bragging how well they lived in the bush.!° By paying such attention to the whites’ auxiliaries, the maroons tacitly acknowledged their effectiveness. Though they took some years to adapt to Jamaican conditions, the Moskito Indian auxiliaries rivaled the maroons in tracking skills, especially when accompanied by their fearsome dogs, while the negro “black shot” rangers, trained in the woods, could almost rival the maroons in marksmanship. Yet even then it was not military defeat that turned the tide as much as a calculated decision by the maroon chieftains that the time had come to seek advantage in accommodation. This decision acknowledged _ that the ability of the whites to recruit and deploy Amerindian aboriginals and at least some of the plantation slaves had upset the balance and had made it necessary once more to revise, or to redefine, the shifting boundaries between slave and free. Nanny Town was first captured in 1732, but the dispersion of the maroons was only temporary—the first campaign in an eight-year war. Early in 1733 maroons led by Kissey retook Nanny Town and then brilliantly repulsed a two-pronged counterattack by 100 regulars, 100 militia, and 200 sailors. Taking the offensive, the Windward Maroons occupied Hobby’s and two other plantations and cut off Port

| Antonio from the landward side. Even more alarming to the planters were an epidemic of desertion from eastern plantations and a slave

Cudjoe’s War and Its Aftermath, 1700-1775 85 rebellion that suddenly erupted in Hanover parish, at the far end of the northside of the island. “We are in terrible circumstances in respect to the rebellious Negroes,” wrote one panicky planter. “They get the better of all our partys, our men are quite dispirited and dare not look them in the face in the Open Ground or in Equal Numbers.”?!!

In 1734 and 1735, the colonial forces made gains against the Wind-

ward Maroons, but at great cost in men and money. Governor Ayscough organized several expeditions under Colonel Brooks and Captains Stoddart and Swarton. In April 1734, Nanny Town was captured with the aid of light artillery, after a five-day battle in which eighty of the attackers and an unknown number of maroons were killed. This time Nanny Town and its outlying settlements were all put to the torch, the provision grounds destroyed, and the inhabitants permanently dispersed. The site, at the junction of the Macungo and Stony rivers, under the highest ridge of the Blue Mountains, became a place of ghosts. !? According to the more romantic accounts, all the survivors of Nan-

ny Town made a fighting long march to join Cudjoe in the west.!3 The reality was more complex and less heroic. The maroons of the Nanny Town—Guy’s Town nexus split up into several bands. One large group, including Nanny herself, trekked east, not west, and

founded New Nanny Town—rechristened Moore Town in the 1760s—eight miles away, on the slopes of the John Crow Mountains above the Rio Grande.!* Other maroons did fight their way westward, where different accounts have them assimilated into Cudjoe’s band, tolerated by him for a time as allies, or rejected outright as a threat to

his authority and fighting methods. “As he had absolute command over His people,” wrote James Knight, “He was unwilling to receive another Body, who were independent to Him, and Subject only to

their own Chiefs, who would not submit to Him.”!° In fact a first group of 140 refugees from Nanny Town proper seems to have migrated to St. Elizabeth’s parish late in 1734, “hoping to join John Cuffee.” These, being predominantly African fighting men, were accepted by Cudjoe and settled in Accompong Town. Yet when another large party under Gummor arrived in western Jamaica a short time later, its welcome was far more equivocal. This group was allowed to stay in Cudjoe’s territory for eighteen months and to fight alongside his men but was not permitted to settle. Its members were eventually persuaded, about 1737, to filter back into St. Mary’s parish, where they founded what became known as Crawford Town. Gummor’s

band may have come from Guy’s Town rather than from Nanny

, are:

4 2 / 3 2 3 46S 6 7 2. ‘ . # y re ; | A SRAtS 4 HBOS A B = A : n AMAA? c . » >otA Wy , 2»4fifAG 10 nd & -% Cpille? hee’ a R ts Its 7 % a. eal

sn gS accel rt Ms os a 2 ARR BEEING ABER DE ay Uae ot ag, 88 N haa tala a ER i , TEs é

we AAT Po mnve? fd. 4 atest eh iees aad baz be oe Pectgntin, eBay eteneaetn Le 3 Ran iBya ah es er

6 ieteNINN, oOguly y & ’ yy ¥ ~ J -f B09. 3 a i A : A a om da dacerl esc L el deadadolde R Adan ob densietedieee. oA AEE et

ae ~~ Dp gg 20 12 IZ ig 1S 26 17 18 oe References to the above March.

1 . Two Negroes with Bill hooks to open a Path reenter eee onee ct erreee es rg

One Comporal & two Privates, to cover the Van H 3.2.One Subaltern , Six Privates, & one Corporal . 20.0000 00000. po B,

\A

/ . The Captamn or conrmanding OMcer . 0... cv a ce ence cette

2 . The Surgeon . 3. Dwo Privates,to cover the Lowder . =

|. 4 Negro with aPrivates Box of Ball Cartridges. 8. p J. Two . , Sl 6. A Negro with a Bar of Ball Cartridges . a 7. Eight Privates . 9 @. One Corporal . “qo I. Twelve Privates . : 2. Two [nvates . % 4.. Two Frivates . D 5. Three Negroes with Salt Beet; Salt Pork &e. = O. Two Privates . = 8. One Private : . 8 10. One Private ° 11. One Negro, with the Captains Provestone | rd 12. One Private . ” 44. One Private. bg | 17. 26.One Sie Privates. Sergeant. oa LO One Sergeant .. 000000660 ccc nen ee eet eee e nett cee tered

1 A Subaltern OVFICE? oo ccc tee eee Le ee ceo. -

3. Three Negroes, with Medicues ,Mettles , Aves, Spades, Xe . B

7. Three Negroes, with Black Bread or Rusk Biscuat. Qu

2. Two Negroes, with Hill-devil, or New Ruaa . A Lc 13. One Negro. with Provisions for the two Subaltern Officers. a

15.Three Negroes to carry the Sick & Wounded . &

18. One Corporal & two Privates, to cover the fear .............2...0. serene ®

A + B+ c = D+E#F#

Marks to be cut onthe Trecs on a March.

Fourgeouds 14 Column, Sub A . 2% Ditto, Sub.B. 3% Dito, Sub. C.

: DP Qnder Sedp£

Socety s Lf* Column, Sub.) . 2% Dato, Sub.E. 3* Dato, Sub. F.

Order of march against maroons, Guyana, 1775. This diagram, from John Gabriel Stedman’s classic account of antimaroon operations, published in 1796, graphically illustrates the dependence of white troops on their black auxiliaries.

Cudjoe’s War and Its Aftermath, 1700-1775 87 Town proper and probably differed too much from the Leeward Maroons, and was too numerous, to settle comfortably under Cudjoe’s suzerainty.!©

Certainly the maroons remaining in the windward parts of Jamaica became relatively quiescent after the destruction of old Nanny Town, while fighting shifted to leeward and entered a more savage phase.

Altogether, Edward Long calculated that both stages of the 1730s maroon war cost the colonial regime a quarter million pounds and several hundreds killed. Yet despite the cost it was becoming obvious

that the result was a stalemate. For the plantocracy the war was a constant drain of money and men without prospect of victory in the field. Constant fighting was also a serious impediment to sugar production from established plantations, quite apart from destroying the hope of extending cultivation. But even for the maroons the war was counterproductive, causing a steady drain of manpower and an increasing shortage of supplies, even provisions.!” Furthermore, under the pressures of war Cudjoe found himself forced to accept unreliable recruits from among the runaways and captives from plantations. Disenchanted by the rigors of guerrilla war under a spartan chief, at least five of Cudjoe’s recent adherents deserted and acted as guides to the whites, being later rewarded with manumission.!® As early as 1734 the Board of Trade advised Governor Hunter to negotiate a peace. A delegate named Bevil Granville was sent into the woods but first had great difficulty finding maroons with whom to parley and then was politely told by a maroon captain that they well knew what he was about but would never trust a white man.!9 Acting Governor Gregory in 1736 offered more specific terms that were no more successful: liberty and lands to cultivate for all who had been at large five years or more, provided they would help to clear the woods of those refusing amnesty and would harbor no more runaways.?° It

was not until the newly arrived Gov. Edward Trelawny in 1738 found | a local planter and militia officer, Col. John Guthrie, who was respected by the maroons for his honesty and woodsmanship, that Cud-

joe agreed to come to terms. The tale of the signing of Cudjoe’s Treaty has often been told and

often misrepresented. Plantocratic propaganda described it as an ob- | ject submission on the part of the maroons, with Cudjoe groveling at Guthrie’s feet, kissing his hand, and begging pardon. This interpretation is not undermined by the illustration used by R. C. Dallas in the

classic history of the maroons, which portrays Cudjoe as an ugly, dwarfish figure cringing before an idealized Guthrie, who extends an arm symbolically.?!

? = — iene oe eee me— a8 ee ee ae ee ce ae LL eS ae spies ey oe : a ee 3 . ae So

ectHees hete * ee PY‘asgesigs ¥ 1 : as: ofeach ; ae semS Raa ees oe oe my ke ed

aes See gaue es oe Rae ee :ee sarePeer ogee . SOR SENS reba es rr Saati ot. aro Fae Sree ren aeee BieBe ey aeat ie aase : — oo -

: — See ee re 2 oo ae RE a .

. ee ee Sonera re Pe tnt eae. soos e Sa PR eee Ie gam: ae cee cet satay meen Bese eae as aaa ms Be ed aa Roger ennere a Roe aa pas Sen esiG os eee Beis eee sateen Seat sone Boece Se Lhe ce oie sertoanes,: ogee ea Sep ence Dies onsen etn a ieee . _

es oe ee a eeeaaarene Re Laceee ee: Sones hs Beir Sees ta soa Se od eu SE — eters SF a eeascscates - 2- 7 :.- “:fe= Aeer as ee See eS oe Seaes: Ce ees Be te. Recoaraeinee Racin ee ES Rares SRsee Ri Saree nea Sarge See - ee ..—_: a == ayaa EE Soe ee aban Pee aNS serene aaaaatos pierces Secates popeRae eee Bae een i esr re oe ee Be ee ae Ree eae ee3 ay =—LW Senet Bpersese See Serena a oe fg ns ae Rr see Se >.ey . -— . eee ee Sea raRs eae SR ES a ee a eee CF . . .... ceca eee Sete = eae ee oe 3 . _ : a > ee :-_.. =—=—m es BS oo. Sa a oe a — oe ae cae eee Se — . rhe ect aa ee -. Bi See oS ees: Co oseessoe ae ee ee: See | ee Cl aeons ea —SER: = |RRO sae Stoe. ae Se |re.es SeoeSet aeoeSN ee Neat - Bie,” oo st je ksO suseeC Manteca ca See aeee a eeeRo seo Ni aSe SptOe AROS Saat i:-. 2in -|. oe © ae yEe veces Kereta aeesi eet ee) es RSSines SeisRake Ree se Se Ses ences os ace rae Seer esaaa x eRe ee st Pe n Sen Reee eeeseS ES septum eee ae SIRS. ate ore Sem ees ee Soe —a— Se eons Soren Bi Sees eae NTN eae RENE ONager Seer gie Sonane eatsSr aaa Its Se ea aoe. oe 8-oe . Serta RE ees eaSee nes Sree BecSeen onSiete ey mini Re Se Oe SORE ats Sc eas _| .serene: oe ose!sscgicasisina Sion eesaceeaeres eeLR See Ne ager AoSRS ea SNES ee srese ie nse eectetn ees Ria se Sees ee 3 pap eee sie notes Rae Cees saesee aeDeere tens Spacer atocos Sennen ae aoe Searea aes See Sei— See Oa2otee =.oe-nee _ . boise ~~— —Re: es amen aes ee Beers Rc Sake: eeoeSee Sipe aesSaSO eS eS Saaee SRE, eeSaene

~=S—C.Ce. See — oo a BRR ee Re oe .-vy >a- eee Ve —~ ees Soon ee = ee 8Bis Se a.|/“.3..gi Br ‘aeEE Bers eae Sees Remar er _7 iA fA i|Cee es sR fume rh Ae _ se2. oo=-«=Cs -— -— eee ee. ieae aSea pee _re Ee aees ete oR aa.Benes — oo eee ee — |. _ ae Rie ae | 8 ro

.. ee : a -. Claas oe ee es ne Bc i oo a i . - | = ==. ee paige Bs Soames oe eRe aes Bones Be Bi Sere cee Suen a Se ee 2 See Sn |_ oe esSpe ee eS eae aeane: tears spose: esSeBS eaeenRE 8 3 Lea Neeee SROSe x asa SN Seo sect eet Ssteoneae Sas et es aspa EE aena ge aeeccnamanees eet pene teen seekSorat eS ae eee See Raed ~~ Se ‘ Somme weespee Saas cgieenen eee es ace See Sereneots Krissee poten eet aaSome ieee gee ae Be paresoeee Rye Sree Se ee2rene [ Sap panne ee Soe sesheearen aeeeee Seder esc ieeetieceet ERE siiste Re SUSUR cee _.ar ara ae s ae eee es Ste parents ie Ss RS Sete Boe aoe Re ray PO oe ae erate Stern: eee ees ieecamenenn pote < Buena ces oe Siren

__ - ee ee Sees ences aes oeee eeee ee ee oeae See— see ee. aaaee oops Pe:=Se asae ae ee— See ga RRR Bs .| -.a. SS oe oF : a ee = Serres Rao eeneanencs signet ah ee serosa oeue ee | Sa so eee Soe 8 Co oe ee| Re opera es Pea ete erat Sket!eae _ :eee _— i aaeé- :ee; . . B, . oe 2a.Becca een eee se Sa Bes ga rr tabetcnee 5 caenero ee Ata eS ae! Sse fe US Pee Deen SE me Ses See essai Sore PRR, tetera sineant Me apace ens COS ea See Soo Se Ba oe — _ ‘oo . _ id ‘ y ; ;

eS sete once “ aes Soeaepeat serene Pees oe See RSsete Bree asx Ee Sa Sane a. SoS: eraaSe one See cas esos eesoe AOS RRS Seer Sits se ciasatnenee emFoe: fo eeaee— ee Ss . : :Css SOS aah Sante otcancers Swe Roi Seeiatperecrsncee Sesota Sie iSee Sa eR eae Ren Seca anes Resoenee See Beans Snes racecar aie aeBee 2 SA Ree aS eeshay Seocaaeen Beis eens neeSree Se Rees Speen Spiiconman or menor a=—Reece _Sea oo Re See as RSS aD, aesReon LGR Be Be ES a esSoRaRRae ree - —aoe RR es oo SoaRag

iRE es ee:See eae eeSeSane Bie Sees ea scree ee orsz. a.eeeea8 _Hae :| - ance ots esBe peeae. ccnessn Soca se am as ea aeF RE oR “weseven: es eeiyees Secrets SR 3eeee. sages SOREN cee Beoea Seat ge aerane ean Se meee be _’_wee . ane eee — SSoo Bae hes eS ae See Rasae eae eae Se Besson i hie sox ietetstatate ee ans tae SOL eR Rr Seat? oe ee eM te pectin! ees Panne SSE: SS aea A ae Bs oe foes eee RS Br 53 oS ce | _ - 4. o : Bosses eyeeeae Baro one . Pees le a oe i— J es een toe Brae te Secreta Caer NDIaiSe estan Seense Sees Sa Be na US Cape Ee SRR_Reese edye atten ee=ae: ee ee eas .Reg :— Seana Serre See eoanorShey ee es ie _seen See ee oes BES Sataene ate aeons inne Pare Sricione ea antanerte Sere Se SES ae ase Baan ORS ds ‘Saneea na BESS Serena RR See Sacre see ay eo Be oreo SS niaseesteS cos aes a.

|_ ate ee) — 8 Se Te ee Sea : - a |. oe ae ge . oo: Ree mee Sees Soe eee Se Se a Sees ernie = ;axee Peeenen at Beets. a en_ ee eeename as sath er es Sone Ree aes Se-—-— RRs 2| etc ae ee cnn Beas ee o 7aneiy_2| -x: ;

.= see:ae HOLC ances aaa a eae esee — fC . iponrige onan |, _ is.isio. acee 2tance Bese ee ee ge see aeeteee eesre —— A Be 3seeea ee aes oo .Sea eae [oy Seat Res Te a. Pe eae oe eee Sond i. — eRe: ee Sees ieee Seno me Seep ua oe SN Pee Bs aS i Roe ee yan ae ee a ce $ee 5

Je Be Set Eee eers -— sees ae ae5Bae ee ae aeeate— _ —aan / 2resSe aSn —cee . eeSE Sen «C. ene > Seeaaae nas seat Saha Eee rh snes Beko ae oe , os es See FF poco roeSoe aa€¢ ees Waceneteaty ee nage Rene oo _esoSige 8 peas * Boson naes oomnetenr ones eee Re RES .Be ootReece oe peSu Se Pereira etna

. seamen oo Co —ee =| _ey .oe .: CC ee — ee | =a ee a _-. se ee -. es = as ee ee | as WA a See fee ¥ eens eos erases ee Pe ee SF : | .

ee SeKshe Sati eesRoRoo SRNR stata ee ee e Ran - Se |.SSeSI Sas / :son:eee 4: Ro ERT ear tees SE egSe SnSe nsPee & eee ischeese oan seen Senn Sa SOS Parca Sea egrets se panne: a suena RS serena _. ES——r— 8=. es ee oon Oe Po Gs pe ee:

- — i es oo ie Se es ees a a

ee Fe — raenone een thane SeSona SERRE SRS me erSree eee cancers BeSO. OR Sees es es Rea a omnia te BS aessooner ae Be oe , . =s ree Ses %S— Roane pete ee sees Se repeat i RS aeae eei — oe eee Seen isets a eeese Fenian ereeae en Reos etecones ROSE Siaeaie es ae>nes oo oeSeaes —=—__ ey eee — ee osEees a. |.eas eeSeen Se Eos aRsea Sats |pas aspeas \ ee ae RES Re ea ee ke _ i ee Shou Seer Se ce a ene si St a ae ty eR — sapere Romane een ae | Serta SS See nen en Se ae Ron eee: i_7_-es ee Bee ocean Soe eats Nes See RoBe aces — eS ee setae SOR oes Sica ecco seonaaseeeee ao |.oe Recipe am . me erSoran Beate Rhee aaaa eee Sepa ee asinter ge ee 2pe :ee |_:.ee SS seeeSee ee Seas Resa Lee a Soran rae cae ee ee CC % eer xn sane Reee cia Sead = Cr Reece Oa eee Sit cote eee Ss Roca aceon i ee dane ee ees o oo . See teotins a segues eee — eee recat Sis eee cea. ae means tae ae ee — ‘ .ae= Ee ees SSS eo sone heaenen ae SNOT Seca Sea Seapets seeeae Aaa Se cc Soe SRO _Seer es ees ae Ss sean arnBec on se . a SeSNe ee sheath uur Saree SAR ec Peace aOR ESee er ert stacee eh . Seer ae8 ame itisnee OEReen ee taeisSema CRee Sees ecco reno: 7 nik, ee PRE Ne Sr . oe eae ey SSR gat oo EERE over eee Secneee a cae 1 SRN Sercones i. ee BO ee Ses Se SSSR Se as RCE saa ane eee Be ae ae ie: aspera DA Scans _. . - Be ans eae eee gee CC ee Re ean as coin Rae Seas ee ee See ae aaa Se a

_ooeee aSeatsSe ene Ses Senn peSe ae eeecma — ee SPREE ea ‘ aoes Beara Seas Bre ReenaoeSeen Sete oe 2: To ae o. MS .- epee Seas Soiene remesaan eeernaarocae ccc Seen oeSe . i::. =4 .7oa ~ asa ae Reapers seer ae aes oe ea ee econ Soren SA oe ee eaten Renee Sana ate SPER “ Reo rns Brena soe See Sees Shee SSR SENOS ae ae ee oa,

a. - oS co — es ee —. : oe _ ee a cee AS

. 0 — ss eS os oe — ee ee Ee Co gee ge ae — pee ee RE as eo: oe = a , . 4 A ‘Sa:2 peeee apt: ee aSaaS er sts me ee : eeaoe sea aok ee ae Sapa Ropes eS Se_eee Se Pas he erga BT ee onneas Bee Se ns -— _ - aoe — nS re SRR Se ee Sep: CoS eo . Be nae eee Serres eee es Sac aan aes SON eto RR Sa re ae Sera engin ee Rice Ee a pinot aN ones Se aencre sdethecnnaerec ty See ee ee See

- Boia eee oe oeSenco eee Shree sae Sox Soeeae eseaatinranten eae oeatsae Ss Stee (ee eaten oe Sates rioasione he rocin eee oa So Seon en eePes Se pepe Seat cereSe are ee vie8aas eeSeesekeas os Bea oeyw .Sore .cee - _iae.8 SS ee i SR Sa) soars oeseve Ss — RR Set Co OS Sone ae aaa ome .= A oF seaneare eS_—=saC—rs=s Se aeSEE sen ee canara See eei 3Bea .OOesPOSSE Roe oe ora eoepoke —esscreens ce aes a 4geese

aeeta eeeosees Se es eS eae ee aN - Sea SERRE Reo Bieta SeSee ee 2aRRES Senay SisaePana NT Sos oes wiseyoann ROS ae ee ete Sees are ee Pes .ee _ ss __ aae4— ae See eae Soe SEs rdme ais aSee oe pone 5 sotRRs aesSes — |. Soi Ree Seon eee a7 a>

ee eee pees Smee % Beant ee ne ete epeacene eeSeeee Ll . we 2 ; 7Nea 7 a eeBe when peace praee ones a geees Se RSE pinnir Ee _ =Sees on ah eae bee ee Se “si= — % —. i re aaron ects tue swt Sees eee Gis crRee sane . ee #24 3eonternies Bis ee | ee es Sea ee a — See See 2 — — — oe Se Se ines ei) Pee. Lgl .,Pe eee ea ee — s sae ee 5 ete Souci ee Reena: Ree oe — .ee a 2.aaa: 4 ‘ 4! 2 : . ee gcse eae Ba ae BR re See OF ee mean ee seat Se eee ... |, Sonate es ner ress ee: “ SS ‘ See Sg ee ee es .. pen taser ae Beeman a oc pa ae os soe |. See SoS saree rear RA — ee Se —s ee BO es — es Cana rene Seaee scorer ate coe ee ee ee eee Staeee ma Sees : Saas eens serosa a ee cies agai Secs ae Ria eae pe —— .ee :oo. :SN 7a a Sreign saitascactes 8, oy: ne SNS Fe eran oie Se Soe ORES: Ree en SU eS ae :Sena :one42teeaaea eesean Greer eeeee_ rua Cs— SaeeRe: —— — ._ee— sens apanes ieae seTer: a esens —:ee Sere Se — “© _.pages .— RRS saeaiaee Se.. Seo: one .oeees oe SRR eesaNrsPes mePRC Ss Bam os SARs eee Biers ounce ees SSS soteceeonecay Sones aaauertSora pee _eee onan. eae ere eet Seesee irae Re eas oo ese sae “30 aan EEE SeROE es Beso ieneee sees SEoe a ae eae Bia ake meee

» S.. . | ; : F Sere ee / g aPe; witnoo,z"|sae | oe | : eo. ee ee | | eee n udjoe syn roon ston ile a w subord *a nel hrie oe pee See Sees i aerone — Ee ee ae sor oe arora ie Se Ce es eee peng ee asere Se eat eee nae Ses oe CARRS RNS eerie: estan See RSE _. _oe | cra osARR eee ROS Bs st eaten Sate nae uesae ne acne oeRN eentaster Bennet Seaman wees ese oases ns eaeene ER SSresources eae nary SRS ee a SRR 2 poe ee eae CES Sse etree Srcncecras eacannntes aoeeeSeca ts Settee ee ore Ss oe Seeae eeom :BeSecaees 7. eee RR RR sah raters asaSeaeneann aed Rion Sees Biot sees

See Sica es Ss SSeeee Sian iarenee Rea arene | ee Sos states Se BRN aecae : |s Be é Sa Ra ont ea

hats : [

Z n . of th b a C1 caricatured ordinate m . |piso leali el }Gut

oh n idealiz changes | || nié‘; ibly keeps ees gotiatio Cud Guth e€ ) d-w atica sbraiai ithrie’s . | : _choos! choosing. : ieutena . . joe’s chie , y ated an — icn. a ‘ inner fastn re , ifficultythe locinne : : 2: : late ee ’s honor. firs ‘cl tes w : : lega sym SIVE. . : : : ahs f Gove exc an 24under ‘ oe a..an | on d told him o . co ° | . : ristiin en | h tewe | wns ciliatory ; s with an lized Colon e

ua]JOe a u . equ on ¢g emp O udjoe

a aeta Be O egula Gu Be . ve : had with great d 7 occuple Cu Soe ief settlemen WwW tot ,

na:open place| yhan ess of Peown y LV ottom in more ‘T wasop immed named J dlawny in the gove

; An : a “ 5 meeting held between Cud c val:

: inconclu : he hrie wa ' : ve Neg ere entnginto a nea settlemen tial cauti held - oe

: ie,::| ordingly ,fearing d bthe anotne hered urnin

V " po o er ew hav ng Mma no OMuSes.

bein djoe withdrew, ,:iteness, “ or| : convent hen Cu | ambush, Guthrie,

Cudjoe’s War and Its Aftermath, 1700-1775 89 of Trelawny Town and a retreat to a more defensible position some distance away. The following morning, after a desultory exchange of shots, a second meeting arranged between the officers on both sides, at which negotiations began in earnest. Guthrie was far from presenting Cudjoe with an ultimatum. Indeed, negotiations were spread over ten days in order to allow the colonial commander to discuss the most thorny issues with governor and Council in distant Spanish Town. As Sadler reported to Gover-

nor Trelawny, Cudjoe’s Maroons _ seem’d very well disposed to Acknowledge Your Excellency with all

the Deference due to your Character, to hold a perfect Harmony with the Country and to render themselves as useful to it as possible

by taking up our Runaways and returning them and of their own accord Offer’d to be Assisting on the first Command against the Spaniards or any other Forreign Enemy On Condition that they | might have free Possession of this place and be free from Slavery, might not be disturbed by Partys and might have a Commerce with us.23

A far more difficult issue was whether any of all of the runaways who

: had joined Cudjoe should be included in the amnesty provisions of the treaty. Governor Trelawny, fresh from England and unduly encouraged by the polite tone of Cudjoe’s addresses, was first inclined to

give liberty only to those born in the woods. But the Council, worn down by the war and unwilling to take back runaways who had enjoyed too long the taste of freedom, more realistically suggested that only those runaways who had lived in the woods for less than two years should be given up and that even this point should not act as an impediment to Guthrie and Sadler in signing a treaty of peace.*4# Given this mandate, the two colonial officers went ahead with their negotiations and eventually signed a fifteen-article treaty of peace. with Cudjoe on March 1, 1739.79 On the crucial issue of the runaways, those who had been taken by or who had fled to Cudjoe’s band within the previous two years were excluded from the “perfect state of freedom and liberty” guaranteed to Cudjoe and his adherents. But they were to be returned to their former masters only if they were willing to go and were promised, moreover, an absolute pardon. If

they were unwilling to return, they were to “remain in subjection to | Captain Cudjoe,” bound like him to amity with the colonial regime. Only those “negroes taken since the raising of the party” [that is, during 1739] were to be returned unconditionally. For the rest, Cudjoe’s treaty contained no specific acknowledg-

go Maroon Resistance, 1600-1775 ment of white suzerainty, though the vague and subtle wording permitted the colonial regime later to claim it. Peace was promised for-

ever, and the maroons pledged service under the command of the governor in the event of invasion by foreigners. They also agreed to serve against any rebels remaining under arms and to return any future runaways, being promised reimbursement “for their trouble as the legislature shall appoint.”

Cudjoe’s band was granted the freehold of 1,500 acres of land without specific boundaries “between Trelawny Town and the Cockpits.” There they had the right to grow coffee, cocoa, ginger, tobacco,

and cotton—that is, smallholders’ crops, which notably excluded sugar. In addition they could raise any stock they wished and could sell any produce in the island markets, provided they first obtained license from a parish magistrate. Though all the band was to live only

in the two towns already established, they were at liberty to hunt where they willed, “except within three miles of any settlement, crawl

or pen.” Cudjoe and his successors could exercise magisterial powers for crimes committed by the maroons among themselves but were no longer allowed to exact the death penalty. Capital cases were to be

tried by the colonial judiciary, with maroons tried by “proceedings .. . equal to those of other free negroes.” The maroons were theoretically protected against injuries by the whites, since they could “apply to any commanding officer or magistrate in the neighbbourhood for justice,” but maroons found guilty of offenses against whites were to be remanded to the colonial judiciary for trial. Having brought Cudjoe’s Maroons at least partially under the colonial military, economic, and judicial systems, the treaty in its last few clauses subtly aimed to bind the maroons more closely in the future. To give the whites easier access to the maroons from the three adja-

cent parishes (rather than to aid the maroons), Cudjoe’s followers were persuaded to “cut, clear, and keep open, large and convenient roads from Trelawny Town to Westmoreland and St. James’s, and if possible to St. Elizabeth’s.” Though they were not required to pay homage, Cudjoe and his successors were to “wait on his Excellency, or the commander in chief for the time being, every year, if thereunto

required.” Moreover, two white men chosen by the governor and salaried by the colonial treasury were to live permanently in each of the two maroon towns “in order to maintain a friendly correspondence with the inhabitants of this island.” Finally, though Cudjoe was acknowledged as “chief commander” of the Leeward Maroons during his lifetime and was to be succeeded, in turn, by his “brothers” Ac-

Cudjoe’s War and Its Aftermath, 1700-1775 Ql compong and Johnny, and by captains Cuffee and Quao, it was to be the colonial governor, not the maroons, who chose the maroon lead-

ers in subsequent generations. |

The signing of Cudjoe’s Treaty was a momentous event in Jamai-

can history. Its significance was immediately recognized by the whites, who awarded £1,500 to Colonel Guthrie and £600 to Lieutenant (now Captain) Sadler—nearly three times the rewards given for the capture of Nanny Town. It was also acknowledged by the island slaves, who were disgruntled and made desperate by the apparent favor shown to

Cudjoe. The slaves of the chief whites were said to be the most perturbed, “expecting as they were usefull Servants to their Masters that they would find some protection on that Accot.” Plotting was wide-

spread, scotched only by the execution or transportation of ringleaders. “Even at Spa: town the Capitall of the Island,” claimed one writer, “they openly and very Insolently mett Severall nights & be-

gann to form companys and name commanders amongst themselves.”2©

For their part the Windward Maroons continued the fight, but not for long. Quao won a notable victory on the Spanish River over several hundred soldiers and sailors led by Concannon and Thicknesse, and the formidable Guthrie sent into St. Mary’s to repeat his success, died on the trail—according to rumor, poisoned by a slave.?’ At first the Windward Maroons discounted the story of a treaty signed in the west. But on July 23, 1739, Guthrie’s successors, Colonel Bennett and

Captain Adair, persuaded Quao to sign a second treaty. This document, ratified by the Jamaican Assembly early in 1740, echoed Cudjoe’s Treaty but included a few minor but significant changes. Instead

of merely standing ready to aid against all rebels and runaways, the , Windward Maroons were to form parties and to fight rebels or cap-

ture runaways whenever required by the governor. In disputes with , white hunters over captured game, the maroons were to relinquish the game rather than to share it, as in Cudjoe’s case. Before they could bring goods to market the Windward Maroons had to obtain not only a license to sell from a magistrate but also a ticket of leave from one of the white residents of their town. Most serious of all, the sixth article stated that instead of merely appearing before the governor a maximum of once a year, “the said captain Quao, and all his people, shall be in subjection to his excellency the governor for the time being; and the said captain Quao shall, once a year, or oftener, ‘appear before the governor, if thereunto required.”?® Furthermore, the ratifying act added below Quao’s signature (and

presumably without his agreement) listed four “Additional Provi- :

Q2 Maroon Resistance, 1600-1775 sions.” All maroon recruits from the previous three years were to be

returned to their masters, though they were to be pardoned and treated well. Any maroon who attempted to entice a slave to run away

would be considered guilty of a capital crime. The Windward Maroons were to form permanent companies, each under the command of a white man (they would be paid whenever they were on active service). And finally, “they shall be obliged to cut such roads as the governor shall order; and that they immediately cut a road, so as to be rideable, the nearest way possible to a plantation.”

While Cudjoe and the other maroon war leaders lived, and while memories of the fighting remained fresh and painful, the treaties worked well enough on both sides. As long as the areas of settled and unsettled land in Jamaica remained roughly equal, there was a prag-

matic balance between the colonial settlers and the maroons. Only after the end of the Seven Years’ War in 1763, as the plantocratic regime reached the height of its power and arrogance and the still growing maroon polities became weak and divided, were the treaties of 1739 and 1740 reinterpreted. Always happier to hunt and roam than to play the role of settled small farmers, the maroons fell comfortably into their new function as policemen and wartime auxiliaries. The women grew little more food

than was needed for subsistence, while the men ran stock and kept their guerrilla skills sharp by tracking and killing with lances the elusive wild hogs and by snaring and shooting the myriad wildfowl on their annual migrations between North and South America. Maroons became familiar picaresque figures in the Jamaican lowlands, standing out in the crowds as they brought their cattle, game, and “jerked” pork down to market or strutting casually through the plantations on

hunting parties.29 The slaves came to treat them with a mixture of envy, fear, and enmity, while the planters found their presence reassuring as well as picturesque. Cudjoe himself, the greatest of all maroons, earned universal respect, especially after he and his men were instrumental in putting down the serious Coromantee slave rebellion of 1742—for which Cudjoe was promoted from “Captain” to “Colonel”—-and in suppressing the 1760 rebels in Westmoreland and St.

James’s.3° |

! In June 1750 the newcomer Thomas Thistlewood had a memorable meeting in the woods on his way from The Vineyard in St. Elizabeth’s to the Great River in upper Westmoreland. “Between 8 and 9 Miles from Deans Valley,” he recorded in his distinctive style, “mett Colonell Cudjeu, one of his Wives, One of his Sons—a Lieutenant and

Cudjoe’s War and Its Aftermath, 1700-1775 93 other Attendants—he Shook me by ye hand and Begg’d a Dram of us, , which we gave him—he had on a feather’d hatt, Sword at his Side— gun upon his Shoulder &c Bare foot and Bare legg’d, Somewhat a_

Majestick look—he brought to my Memory ye picture of Robinson |

Crusoe.”$! Six months later Thistlewood encountered the even more

exotic figure of Cudjoe’s brother Accompong. “Capt. Compoon here,” he reported at The Vineyard on January 8, 1751 (having seen only one white person during the previous three weeks), “about my Size, in a Ruffled Shirt, Blue Broad Cloth Coat, Scarlett Cuffs to his

Slave, gold Buttons ..., white Cap and Black hatt, White linnen Breeches puff'd ay ye Knees, No Stockins or Shoes on—Many of his Wives, and his Son there.3? As late as 1764 Cudjoe’s men appeared before Governor Lyttleton at Spanish Town and gave a fantastic display of their martial arts. As Edward Long (who had met and interviewed Cudjoe) described it, With amazing agility they ran, or rather rolled, through their various firings and evolutions. This part of their exercise indeed more justly deserves to be stiled evolution than any that is practised by regular troops, for they fire stooping to the very ground, and no sooner are

their muskets discharged than they throw themselves into a thou- "

sand antic gestures, and tumble over and over, so as to be continually shifting their place; the intention of which is to elude the shot as well

as to deceive the aim of their adversaries which their nimble and almost instantaneous change of position renders extremely uncertain.33

For some whites the maroons’ performance was already no more than an archaic spectacle; for others it was a reminder of the maroons’ dangerous potential. But not just plantocratic calculation—expressed through an Assembly niggardly in its disbursements—increasingly consigned the maroons to a pacific role. Only a minority were ever

required at one time for hunting runaways, and the general mobilizations ordered under threat of foreign invasion were scarcely frequent enough either to keep all maroons militarily primed, or to provide

them with sufficient pay for permanent subsistence. Furthermore, once they had been settled and had become more creolized, the maroons began to multiply naturally. At the time of the treaties their numbers, to the surprise of their adversaries, were found to be considerably under a thousand, but they more than doubled by. the end of the century. For this reason alone they needed to become more like free peasant farmers than the “wild negroes” of the previous era had been; the alternative was starvation. The transition and increase in

04 Maroon Resistance, 1600-1775 numbers were especially rapid in the case of the Windward Maroons,

who were both more subject to colonial influences and, from the beginning, less employed as auxiliaries than Cudjoe’s men. Significantly, the original land grant of 500 acres at New Nanny Town in 1741 was issued to the redoubtable Nanny herself, as if she and her followers had been ordinary settlers.># Much of the land originally granted to the maroons was of poor agricultural quality. Where it was formally patented—that 1s, in all cases but Cudjoe’s—its precisely defined boundaries often abutted on lands similarly patented by small white settlers. In earlier days the maroons had practiced shifting cultivation on poorer soils as well as roaming almost at will in the uncultivated backwoods. Now, as the whites took up their patents the maroons were increasingly hemmed

in, running the risk of trespass when they went hunting in their traditional woods and forced to plead for new grants of land to avoid

squatting on or grazing land granted to others. The situation was complicated in the case of the Windward Maroons by their traditional lack of cohesive organization, so that land hunger and restlessness led to dispersion as well as to relocation, further increasing the points of

friction with the ever-expanding plantations. ,

The maroons of New Nanny Town (alias Moore Town) were on particularly poor soils and were riven by leadership squabbles. Gradu-

ally they spread farther up the Rio Grande valley to establish the settlement of Cornwall Barracks, and in the 1750s Clash, one of the 1740 leaders, led his followers across the mountains to settle on fertile

land near Bath on the Plantain Garden River. The Crawford Town Maroons were even more restless. In 1749 a splinter broke away and obtained land to establish the long-lived settlement of Scott’s Hall, and in 1756 most of those who remained in the original township migrated several miles down the Buff Bay River to establish New Crawford Town, alias Charles Town.°°> Now closer than any other maroon group to the coast, they soon came into conflict with sugar planters. They had been given grants of crown land, but in 1776 they pleaded with the House of Assembly for more. By their humble petition the maroons claimed that when they had first arrived in 1756 they had had no neighbors and had been able to graze livestock freely

on adjacent lands. Then several sugar works and other plantations had sprung up nearby, “‘by which means, they cannot raise stock of any kind, without encroaching on the neighbouring plantations, as the land allocated them is steep and hilly; this has occasioned many disputes between them and the white settlers, by their flock trespassing on the cane-pieces, and the cattle of the white settlers ruining their provision grounds.”°°

Cudjoe’s War and Its Aftermath, 1700-1775 95 With their far more cohesive polity, and with the tangled Cockpits at their back, the Leeward Maroons suffered disruption more slowly

than their eastern fellows and never became so dependent on the parlous bounty of a plantocratic Assembly. Yet Accompong Town slowly drew away from Trelawny Town while at the same time beginning to experience conflicts with the small white settlers of upper St. Elizabeth’s similar to those of the Crawford Town Maroons with the

planters of Portland. Even in Trelawny Town the death of Cudjoe around 1770 was followed by the creation of a splinter township by maroon called Furry—though this offshoot may have resulted from maroons’ dissatisfaction with the successor to Cudjoe rather than being a symptom of the disruption and increased dependency found among the Windward Maroons. For by subtly undermining leadership, even more than by hemming in the maroons with formal settlements and making them conse-

quently dependent on the colonial legal system, the plantocracy sought to change the balance of power in the Jamaican backwoods. The agents of the planters’ will—often unconsciously—were the white residents in the maroon townships. These were able gradually to extend the scope of their decision making while ensuring that the role of

the governor-appointed maroon captains became increasingly ritualized and meaningless. Sad to say, this process was too often facilitated by the maroons themselves; the ordinary folk became almost as litigious as creole whites, and the captains fell victim to the allurements of noblesse oblige: title, not custom; honors, not honor; re-

spectability, not reputation. , | R. C. Dallas illustrated the critical decay of leadership in his description of Old Montague, the last captain of Trelawny Town. Under him the office had entirely sunk into the show of a few exterior ceremonies. ... He wore a gaudy, laced, red coat, and a gold hat with a plume of feathers. None but their captains and officers sat in his presence, except upon the ground. He was the first helped at meals; no women ate with him, and he was waited on by the young men. He presided in the council, and exercised an authoritative tone of voice to enforce order, which, however, he seldom effected; for he was, in fact, considered in no better light than as an old woman, but to whom the shadow of respect was to be paid, as he bore the title of Chief.3”

Yet, if the majority of Jamaican maroons had been more or less | tamed by 1775—creole peasants scarcely more independent than the

other “free blacks” in the limbo between slave and fully free—the embers of resistance still glowed, at least in the western Cockpits. That

g6 Maroon Resistance, 1600-1775 the maroons were not entirely subverted shines through the blind condescension of Edward Long or the bitter condemnation by Bryan Edwards.*8 Even in Dallas’s pessimistic assessment there are signs that the maroons could still draw on traditional resources of which the white man had limited comprehension. The ritual surrounding Old Montague may have become a charade; but it had African—indeed, Akan—undertones. As I will show in Part Four, when the imperial authority made its final bid in the 1790s to neutralize the Jamaican maroons it gravely miscalculated the ability of some maroons to revive traditional guerrilla skills under the implacable leadership of such traditional warrior chiefs as Johnson and Parkinson. After all, even in Ashanti, though the ruler—the Asantehene—was accorded extravagant ritual deference, he could be instantly deposed and executed if he opposed the will of the council bent on war, even when it was a war of desperation.*9

Part Three AFRICAN SLAVES

BLANK PAGE > |

CHAPTER 8 : , The African Phase

(es the obduracy of many Africans—especially those known as Coromantees—and the fact that plantations or plantation colonies in an early stage of development were bound to have a majority

of slaves born in Africa, it is not surprising that the earliest slave revolts were essentially African in character. The rebels were mostly

Africans led by Africans, the uprisings plotted, planned, and prepared in African style, with aims and fighting methods that owed at least as much to Africa as to the special conditions of Caribbean colonies and Amerindian precedents. Though the size and topography of different colonies proved to be critical in determining the frequency and intensity of slave uprisings (Jamaica having almost as many as all the other British colonies put together), common African influences also meant that there was a marked similarity between early revolts from place to place, despite the slaves’ difficulty in communicating with other colonies and in spite of the colonies’ establishment at dif-

ferent times and development at different rates. | As Part Two showed, plantation revolts were associated with maroon activity wherever the topography allowed, the maroon settlements being, or becoming, essentially African in character wherever the Amerindian elements were negligible or became submerged. However, where running away to form an Africanized polity in the wilds was impractical, the early rebels, almost inevitably, dedicated themselves to the total eradiction of their white oppressors and to the founding of an Akan-style autocracy in place of the toppled plantocracy. Though interinsular cooperation was virtually impossible for slaves, the communication within each colony essential for an effective uprising was a different matter. The facility of rebels in passing

99 |

100 African Slaves unseen from place to place, in obtaining secrets before they were generally known even by whites, and in disseminating information almost instantaneously over long distances by drums and horns in African style mystified and haunted the master class. Even more ter-

rifying were the savagery and hardihood of the African slaves in

combat and their almost superhuman disregard of pain when wounded or under torture. “Intrepid to the last degree,” wrote Christopher Codrington of the Coromantees in 1701, “not a man of them but will stand to be cut to pieces, without a sigh or groan.”!

The plantocratic response to the threat and actuality of African _ slave revolts also fell into a general pattern, with the later colonies only slowly and imperfectly learning from the experiences of the earlier and equally slowly changing. Planters were repeatedly overop-

timistic about the effectiveness of the means of control, whether it consisted in persuading at least some of the Coromantees to police the rest of the slaves, in defocusing African rebelliousness by jumbling ethnicities, or in favoring creole over African slaves. Almost invariably the whites were deluded by the quiescence, or apparent acquiescence, of their slaves, so that when rebellions occurred, the shock at the suddenness gave way to horrified amazement at subsequent revelations of widespread secret plotting and careful planning. The planters’ complacency changed to panic and outrage, which in turn gave way to a calculated savagery more than matching that of the rebels.

, Many slaves were slaughtered out of hand in the initial phase. Others were subsequently tortured into making confessions or implicating their fellows, while ringleaders were publicly executed in barbaric fashion: by progressive mutilation, slow burnings, breaking on the wheel, or starvation in cages. The bodies of killed or executed rebels,

denied formal burial, were dismembered and left to rot in public places. Decapitation was almost a rule; the severed heads were displayed on poles on the rebels’ home plantations. This terror tactic played on the belief common among Africans that such dismemberment deprived them of the longed-for chance of a return in the spirit world to the African heartland, but it also—probably unbeknownst to the planters—duplicated the practice of Akan and other African warriors, who made much of the display of the heads of defeated enemies.* Rebel slaves whose lives were spared received punishments intended to be scarcely preferable to execution. Some were mutilated, and most were permanently disfigured by the whip. At the very least, suspected or potential rebels were deported, either dropped in some

desert area to fend as best they could or sold off to unsuspecting

The African Phase 101 foreigners—whose form of slavery the British condescendingly, and usually erroneously, regarded as even more severe than their own. Finally, in the last phase of plantocratic response to slave rebellion, the punishment and policing laws became ever more draconian and unrealistic.

The whites shaped the laws as best they could to serve their own needs, and they controlled the lines of communication between the colonies. Thus, in theory, they could benefit from the cumulative effect of earlier experiences, emulating laws and practices found to be effective and circulating news and detailed reports of slave rebellions elsewhere. White planters could also call upon the aid of their neighbors or the resources of the imperial system for naval and military reinforcement. But these advantages did not save them from a repetition of the pattern of African challenge as colony succeeded colony; Bermuda and Providence were followed by Barbados, Barbados by the Leewards, the Leewards by Jamaica, and Jamaica by the islands ceded in 1763. African weakness, or division, more than plantocratic strength enabled the whites to unravel so many African plots and to defeat all revolts. Moreover, the passing of the African phase itself was due to a largely fortuitous steady change, the process of creolization. Though the planters decided to purchase fewer Coromantees, to prevent ethnic concentrations wherever possible, and to set creole slaves against Africans, the sheer increase in the proportion of creole slaves determined that all African influences in successive colonies

became attenuated and that not only Akan but all ethnic groups grew | smaller and intermingled. Successively, then, it became less likely that

slave revolts would be purely Akan, Akan-led, predominantly African, or African even in their leadership. If we can afford the plantocracy unstinted credit for any tactics of self-preservation it is for their unfailing encouragement of slave informers. As the following narrative shows, all uncovered plots, and most plots that reached the rebellion stage, consistently produced informants. It was often claimed that informers were motivated by a love of their masters, but personal advantage and disgruntlement with the rebels were far more likely motives in every case. Captured rebels sometimes informed to save their lives, to be whipped or deported rather than executed. But informers who helped scotch or actually defeat a rebellion often achieved manumission, the highest aim of the majority of slaves. Informers frequently included female domestics, who might or might not be the bedmates or wet nurses of the whites they saved. An increasing proportion of informers were

|. ia. i... =

ie..egte.ss ._..s i...

Sere aaa ts SEER | i-———,.—UC—CDU— .©=€=—6=6hfesa ir ”._—sdsi_i_hsirrrt ——“—™—O—O—O—O—O—CO—~OC—C~—O~C~—C~C—C—C—C—COC—C~C*zs inte : a——rti“—OCOCO~—~—C—C—C—C—C—COC—O—C—C—C._ rtrti‘ Sets m a, eo ae: ee eat ee AS *s, Rect me, yur aed ‘e Patan: eee eye Se Ne ae: ee Png! = Stetes* Ss? rag canes ne Ss ane Se Bees’ iets MEI Sd aa See

io ec‘See sreeRenae es PGE Sage PhegesgeBe ESaut deg tes co Paes ie ats ee Sos aa "wheres EAYo Paras STAT ty gee aie es © Re, oeSe a f:= . 5— : a es oo ees ees Scca 2 3 Se Bete % Saag Sree ekeeh Mee oBbie wens Seats . ee wee the aeRenate eae aes Bee eae oeoteahg roaBe Balt” oes as aes POR ees ae WIL Use : : : rnc : . a NPS : a 3 he 2 ee BS CRS a a Pie? a. histone icon Ot oosaoyLRH Eats EB of Fins eres The aa vsotets oA ae woke?SSR Mrete, aa hint cyCee BN os, Pee Ne spate Pa nfewre ae”Se roaSeek ford .Pa H oe Sees “pest aD aoeSoe. fase ot. wns. te OgteFed weerere, oe “eats, ene,wSee es sae, As Nifandte as Nee ON “aeSRT a we Beret s esaemeeeit anMaen te Seietecet shies a, poe rae 3ROM Mee oe ae FrehePeI ww eyeine te Ne tety“ ee BETS ee ee 8 ON cand Berea Pees was,Ne sony

- ; 7es- bom -eS 2 :vows -TE oe1S eugene ERS daa pete eg Sane SBS Se! sh weap FATES 2cePS Lee pes SeSegot oeRpeee eterere peSea nhs aeYs SNetree fae esSea Beiegte oe eiOk eae Be=ee 22 *we y-Reson aetnaee PNae Renee ScRES ABRE. See 8 ett Shae, Rocco Shae St Rie hoes Se Oe & - we :: =“Fat 24. eee

“Sette, 2S eee nee, Aneet ote eae ef tetra, breaeet Seesae we.ooo otecre, SS tag Ree a, 6 itesPasha. we POMSee fos, Boon ae ten" craneee Pras ryan ayes Sere Stace fences? art . He Aeey Ree : Noa --‘.d: bs - :cats a :TS, S rch | - sensratet : & feeeteSeeceraee nes Syd ie See eaneareba BRjane Oe!" Eas saeSethe SNE eetSeioeBeaes Faget oothts ereoeoA arsTatas se ofBO: ene, #: # San Se ae Raed ae otal ae y rae “eS nt Ke anaes Bete eiaie Mee Prue sot tet Ste ro 8 PRES. erates Feeter SE oS OR ede Koo oe SNM, % Waotccncs: “oe eos ate aa vate + a7 aieRoe easy Sa 4 fine. * wa a? Mag Mee “hoear RN Peet"tte fete atOs aoe,.oan “ae Kaan tae wt Sense a ee ae ers eee . . aodaN“ Nag esaaetite oAe fatal ae Ar trees eeveragY yet ee Rese ° Saas seaton Sessa Sinn eae Poe, cans Resoay Megs oton, eure Pelee Seth peak ensotaswate DAK es Nae Seat Lede! Seteeeos

:‘2:- ° > ae ; Ree ee fee Ps seae RuaSar eee eeeatCRS et1S PeasSa Sg BS Sh ee LS Sears SR cates BES WSSR: seg SeMet Sg eS eee OEE Spee % ara eR rorca. wetsfhe wate |vyttSIS eS wee Ss . CNS Be Sdte asees Coe eeSeass alate aetree DAP ete Le Saget tte Peete ne eR * PIRES RSS Shape PRE tesTote eeare Fos oo RO Rate ee Panis eet RR ee Ee or it a: a: “oes: .:Sette e: ::BE :ex / :ies . .. hed ::roe .>. ees aoo s anaes .oos beeWee ee oe SR Sy Sah, MA . Na la, XM AR oe see egg tt aeM . foane abe “ots! toLeon eSoeseee Seen ee oeeeaMs: Meeps: 6SR eee RRR re Pee tite ose eek aie 6Sens °oROR ws :aenee : Ne :Ree :“eS : “0 Pah,arsRagas 8eee eaBeste Seen Soh. iaBe RoeYes pecabis Paoeney eeORES Pies ee oe eas ss EEN Se iPeaianen Maen y thet hyao Boren cu 2 oS. Sipats,:ne esetaan Se:Fee ae ere Les MSE at ae mT. Bg Te ARTE capeoes atin ae Rane ah ea Sas sete weet wate eefawe heSedge PBSehty tes is acted,” St ts MES etefog stan, tiestes eekMY ah ‘ate Sete Ree POR ras aS tyPaes 2, ees, aoeree, Rasarey: Laetyaye reser, eee ¢AS “ re Se OTS Kos phe o Soeeee Nee ate §aiote istete, Shee BETy, eran tty.ee hand ME: watasgSPScreRes a ne ay a 3cae ES pee RE ae vey bese =coe ee See b: oo Pape eisee ae ee . : :: . : aS eens aks LeasShoe cen sped ae Sa: SeaSS cayCee 8 eecone es Sete ekSpee Ree aesBS eertoRAE eS See SS Se soe wesRoel Be Beet a a mts TRS ueaoe eS Tle OREasa SS ena be vonSRE ses Berta age ae rn oe ; 3 be ee- oe eeBe aesRecmeneee ra CS RSSls + RS ass ees RRS 2B Be eS USER Tyee eA Ate eo ieee:sate exee#05: aSent 3SSen, ke S : a Os eee eS aaa esoprayse CON Sea ore Bi, ee eei3s Oe eters we aie wet eat Tae tae aaa Sgt ‘ete Sars LE, oy Defsye See es Pots te Relay SO ae ah te s Pe i: ..-:=ee.panes .aeeses,4Send hag Sent: Sap So Re ste Te Set cence WOE. peas ot fede wie ee ee he Sa es, es lee aE a anaes ere os EER “ Sea gipns ee 3s watt hee ee eet Ue eee = RF Retin ae ey heer eee ese 3 sey wenn se tole age So Ta wha ade Sa ee Sey ‘a ee ae eo “eras Sh. “h a ses, ee bitte he einen fea, ee eo wal te rn st Reise Ben O25 See aeae eatPassat taneSS Gane ae a0) late, reer Se aa et “eagtt Me ee Pee ereSPR SASSY St nt Brmence. he Tas at rity Do team ae 3ES nyoe ae 2s TSon reeS A i sess an AONE Bie Feet rc 8piss aT rae aefae Reteto: Pasar NE, ats Se caer age eae Roh, oe bi ot Late, de yt agit :yet oe SS eke Lh SS paTheta fe tyaGs oe fea dey Jen Oeste terot UEeRet fae ns Bybee ‘Be: Bs SE PER yFSSERRE eecean Mah ae Se iron the NPE oeSR ee hac bed Pesoe eRe MN Baoere eae entsets meee se Mere: eee Ste. asNe BeShane Bo alt Pigs, 2a 8, aCe ars Peas ¥2eeend di wae Roses ey aaa ESR Soy a ass! ae. aeSy. oemrt beeTy y Pt See PME Panes. Sa a saeco See "a iasey Toad wes ey Riese OR et Esty Read et 3s oe week we Ke Ot Se “co ite Sent Rae 3 SOm Boy Delt: Sects me3eet oe TS oehe ORS ate why Romer eteme ee KS RRS et eat S88 mS aeSee a, an Rabe aeeft = aan N.alt, -aS; .peeethsi Se .: :ye :Tae : Fos ‘ :se*24 ; |=*S 2‘ : ; se Sssoa See, : | ; i . ee ie ely SE Bs ee? aa wespieSawe” Pee aa ee :Sneee VS, ee ATER oeSea eantaage ee wee tele Sea" oe Tes2tes. Pee Le 2; ;es

. ie ae ee eae yes ate,RENE oo, ‘hyearSeee Oe BESS aa ae EY SS aR SEPT BS eer Ane sptdersetsieets Ecaeseee issea ee apa SEEee eees pop |' :oeaeaSS - ees eee Roce hha nee rerast ae sR i Uae er as MIEa beg ee SE ounSia PeeSee SoS ‘Se a oe ORT eae PRes

ee at he CREiS noe ae 4eres tye ae weee teoe anos ay “ee eh 2 aletetate Os eet oy +SE we atBo sale ShRE. gad? aan, “ae ee ae Nag ‘orem « “fal Seees 9 ate on areasge prt etpeer aot were sy, road iSa - ote ie Sapa!aes: tet ees Ie, risatee “< Petetetes cnn, RS es eeotoe 2‘ 7wee oy sewtee EE, aotSMe Seon ere ae" Baty SSee Tiga etee OF ES en Lo AD re=dy Poieteegee tees otaaa eee yy eyeatye ONPyeee Se Let tet BSR cme retin ae RRA Se naa aeste an aeer Jr cate attwaMey eet“s,Peand “ese eh, SSS ce—“e ESN pe reoeet mabe . ::P3. : x, ee EY Tos cee Tee Rk SO See?Fs ae fae i: vec ae - : ca ~ :. ‘ eee. Senn Se Bees wha ite oe eae gE OE Bet ies aan “epetebee ee eS BS sorry ate: ay 3oa are ?eae sae Toe Ces:aes Soe toes eae Meta bop Berks ny ENEornare aoe "g uy“ht, Ps ae aet fee Rees Seis arges em Os eas, Ss, eres sfwe we pnts an 5; Peay : waFarce he, outedee as Sg Paes ,Sat fF ce |SRS “RR aere NT2teRS nares St, oeMeer, a page “4 ser 7 a wa, sree! ane E: ra aEET : : On 2 :ine f 5«t Se . a SmS eeES SOS Teeeos"a weet a,Sent BrSade me REE Ste Boo eld meeepane oO “ es: aea:fone eeaeieLot Bes eat figs kedeedoh Ls eee 7OER yororeo can eaosees SESS pte Ok Ba Rea a Bushs Be See . ESS Reea ms asSESS a3 aest,. Se cee E x

“e PARE a A i Er 3S oo, ate ta aes. eS an god Beas se a cae aes Bee te “pee aes ER caw B2 a i we < es = = : :

: : é : . = . i a Po So Pea on Age Be Se wet | rien FES fete ae Bo aS ae te Sai, pias fet or, “AES & ES eRe

See ort > Sara, hens A ae “oe Bape Pa ats wear, on Met pond Morea a” Bg oe ne : REA ot es Sac Rte vs sae whe, Nel mas Set eae EES a Pena ee we en Seat % oleh eee ries ate oe mat ta ate aes eta wee ves gh do, SSN Car B OS aod Se Sa oe ee

iRE a ae is oe ahead = ae Aer « . WER wee porter:tie‘seal sien aean ies fre atte ei as Ses eT .tee (eaidabed parses” achRe eal se, oa ee Dts:eee e atome “ES ee Bs RBS taynas tee wre Loo oe Las fhe " es Roos rete we we! ot Sa? Sots, inne * oe ron rad Bia ee ahha eee eae, seDen ance ae, * en wet vota haeOR as se aytyes ate rey“aa nee sereeere wad SsEE te atte ea Aaeritaes ate egies vet mo we Any ee Bie at, te - shy av 7 ort Mvael Oat, oe So ee *, eure ~ “# ts ais.7. 2 ee sto, Peay Ser;eee Paes ” -;: a | . ces antetas seag tsmatsSeont BS eee2 en Re pctenoe Be 2TN, Z oooTeedae: eit,es ws!

. Sahl ane sre} Senn seoad saat Pee Se weet eangle re ee area SRS ii hetan) Rraate ty aepagesia , Oe SeiatRS Be”oe Be eeea“)eesa, ne See +feones eget SS REL eee feaa nee + :Peed LR ats Bat ee me, ee eS ar at sete weet: gent Sey Bos“ ate ets ites, are, faeES Seats, ae,teens PaarSete tein See + tseat Sarees Seee - Pease “See ee Se fs oe * se salie He xess 2pe..ed e7*2: : [BS : : Soao : st5one ;Se ,Sas :eon ae i wey ee a een BAe Seno ae we Oe alee *eenBases ae ae eats my aS ee eee 4Pe rk See Bete Deeks mule oa ee os tepsoriasis faeetatateta arenaN Thee beate rahe Oe erat Scanetee tad ek setss ent lags a4 ahs ane, . a ah Saae Peer rar: teeer) rete hy HE ae ara wr semeee. wet Uy a eee, SeaBahe eel oeoe eae ase eg Tewee eth note Seer =. osear: keto, Mee gears Mags 2 Be, ee,2,3s ts20Peo Rea SS Eee ao aeae wie te,Ee =f Sl eit er eeeewe EN aeraSOI Say fae i UL atteDaTeears RES Bho

i.: -ee 8 us Mg ERERS Eee Tae eetth heee 8 eg BES hs‘tat an SRS SgtRES ey SeRed Be See fa Se lh eSRE, SERS rim? a :al RSesotSete ee jES :SE : xae a ;apeas SPe * coat PaLc Bes a neoe Sr See eee rots=Ses 18S, Paes Spa Say BRS SheSpas meeeees ee BS ae Seta OAme tel ees bo ae TU Se f State pidPe oN SRadfen oi “Booms Sey 8 eeSaat, OeBee aepian ensie oeteh Pe abs:eee a, ett ‘reastd 8oteSeats Ried Te alts s Rents an ck Firftae s - ,2sete S i‘. :a ge : te :3 iraRese abe wena “ feeSS wt eae ne tee Ane+vocal erat Pye BatOS adeas he it +easee eee UNMET ae DEER SR £4 aeSaRRCRAON . woe eae woe aotoe Sans ae Soa ayISa bots ah ers haeS Soe,fei ee eS aL een i= tae “aN WAS ine oe?pateess See te Pst, ol SRhes 4 tetagase eds Seas aa eee Meso OnRett Be NERA asBrae eS ae latte rioan oaTaman Ae ca pore Use ey SEES Set irene: Tae itSte ens ates Se aeeipines cate, Saad oh et sa tea, eae Meee, Pit see rani ae, Sr Ses Seee2henNs o., Meo, DURE aera arn Hae [Poa Suess eS on aor‘at -os ny ©eS : refaye, tecad I et tel oat the eoeitea Bore: ws Te ane as Eee ete aeOeShas ee,“ES Oe aSee woe oaaEh ieee: rere: ee =‘is -2aénee *ee BS ran bans OA eeeg Bae SRR afStee ERS ees hares eeee erates acoans etSoe, Net Oey Se eri ata wey at fo yy tap Son ae oor re rey oy OE Pee otrh eeese ea ar tePOEs tg HonBees ES Set i reieee Percte, eee: nae SS VE Meia orrreee TAR ee ae gohet ee Bret Sees one i ee ae RsSe RRes es,ee BeES ae,Fs eee: whe Sette a's pet TetSee * Sai ES fee nears eenileee ee wtees areEaooeeigs Se Caters Set $2, SRS Pee ah Be-DNL Ben et io Paes “Re ek eS oe pe, oot eel ryt ae a ES Be see weighs beta sa os 6, RS Ye se ie wh cae Be ae ee : 2 S = a : é » . ge eat Pee Petar. rear one Pope 8 ee Re eels, Sen. we See te Ma et Raa ee Be tare, Safad OE ee ith £S Eee Bay wees Be oe Both 2 RS eRe woe Lae? eer ean Sede Shy 8S .

coe Pa gegen is eee Cee a Ra “ae Seg? Pie oa eae he Be we ee an Se a Bos Ress ee ee SS . — S oa - be ; he

: a ey A . eee io aa OSSein ee are “hs Oe Bees lePh, feesoeatRants at eee takets, Bieeee 8 She wT Se neeeet Pesaiags sue Meo se tog oe a %Page S soe es aroeaeSEAS ae BP epretay ee Boats Resteeiel aan Berea ae “ee a Sinan ae LEE Sone t's ame nt “een a ate ae ee oes SS eOm Seen SA Reece ae een Is wifes aaerany Sane vsaan, SateSete ges esti es esis sf, BE) BORE SaBeet a eae ec‘Putidad Sot 2 Bes we sete Sent fePeEos Bi Se ote BAS. Seek mene a8oP gS Peeks ane ee OSs ayesiBa tehce oisescone oe gos ee S .Ass Ks 5fe ee4oe eae eae *Pe eSaawenre Ue saa ie read ee SEE fre, esate lesPR, ior hed aa*basse me ae oeei, aSars POS Sak *cyte ae ee ea Bree Sees eeyee %,:Pe “weedy Be a“ae := -nek -Ne ge ee pee pee ce Ming taeRSsey SD “Se hs AE ||Eee aePeae Tad fr Es SEN ee BY ie egies Stet Tee, onswyoePete Ss eRgees by en +a .Seton Weg Coe Saas ROoe thot watAy bet a Bere eT hos Shas Se Doe! seatisiae Bete ane neOEE ran os Cae paseo ee2sy O26e Pe ASS < no ibae atapon Rares recency Pasar face es 1, Oe oy “e a rs ae Bere see eee Mots Seat, ee Biel Meitee hes 2 BS Se i Re oe ¥on aeitete Stas: Std * suata lt Sho wn eT, tinh. Fees! RS eet salt Serato mete os Yak re ee eerste tee J a ae a Ee wee Soe Te a “Sey Bae metas eta’ =

i agey s ont Sta,ee ey,Parnes ats wat apETE NSS:Be a0 aeae ott -ew Starner Ae Poraetoe aN “Ss pers aga “ oe Vaan Seles,” eet oeSoe eee sey kad"Mere , a +t ayes Meteo SoeTse wo teste OE “SMR S wee aaa, “ae rare o wee Rete “aes eet eT EE shsa tT ise vateae eh Be ‘ # -aeS , : ce attoseas ohge 2 ee Rye tee ORO “ened Shea een. bce ES a24eS ee Aeutt “leh eeeveh leetes Sat peree hea EES Some Sesto Oeaeof: aAe

pa FAP ES he SSS, Se go REaoe fepanes toh. wept PeeiPoge a RtSeaates ae Rats SeeRees Ea ESC J GES rt BE aedSeBele Se Eiceeects ede, SedRES SRE, :., :=-: ‘: .: y\ .y -: on ~ oeoe ae es ry eee sade Saale oe Pe oe AB ee es Sha BEES a caer ae Meee Maas!ERS Soca.ee age ote, PO Re

Sak

. : gtStsa:teSeo oe Qa Oe.Bene = aoa Bos eee eee SeteteS keate, ioraaa eee oievon Soy ROE eaneRet my 5geeaoa ae eees?ake. Seoghagids ficeosSeated aPewee ENE Pie Rd Tele reeesae 2 i 8facet Se: ::Hote Bae So “ares oa SS seed Lt et Parca ES se ose ee aan Se 8eenast ;Ss Bede Ses an Peets Fe Seseks “SSveto SoePs re et syetslone Se eaeee + aS OneSN Saybeeen at ie Ye meets, ee eet eeRee eae es CanOe aager Was of 7SF tetPRS oh,: Cs eeOe a a sane Se ate PES. xenMARS MistSaget .ee Pets ty setORR bon raSogtiets SEL 8OS ue | SPee - :Seok :sage" . , eee ae e Mewes ae aaeiefs Mae, se “*s,Sey Sigs on 1ERR PROS SPS eats aed peas BS inate aad= wh onePee, ea 2 pep er wae agRG, Raehes om Marste 2Beer we ofeT Sb. Pg ES essNPEL te, wth fa hy TR ce owas Fora aie ae eei Ne % eeSa oeEERE Mewee : - : hTate . : 4 :* ee Pee, ySeer, OE Tey Sora od aan APean eee=... Bocere ia ne Sr sose tect Os SSgees canoes: Se Beh ae RS se M's fayTS oe ee eSMog ShriCesena Seer Tee SS3ee ee aaa ee the, Read a Sent woe Sots fete re ted seen noe, feetg oes oe vv sels ose tatete gee wy os, he apie O88 Keo a sentateteh soe rat wee ha Q ote taee . mete Me stay * or ae tee aus bee setensaace! ey na wee ae te ins * Sores eed ey ee tee aoe v* os, es eth, oo See Kea, Seer Ys ante vat aire, Se te! te Skee

Ronen: Sees pee eee eRe Sg! aeee Eee Se reePR a ae pera: SeaER a Se Roget Es aeSgpee |$e S :aes ae -ne eeLeg : eaeRTRAS S Boots nee! ere Pees hae Oe ae ae teeSoe yearn SERS See Seti Ee pi : RRR aaeee 2,8 aie BMeed te 2re BBs et ood aieare ° SEg SeesSota aa OAS tas43 3 ee Nae, Case aide “cat wey te, ‘ee! “ithe 28 nae ees Oss Se et os St taidine eS Sea Seepage oo eee wes Met outs “ NE snd PORey ie Wee bakers Mish a a : a : be 2 : x : : : . : ; 3 Z te

‘Sh: So ceeese"aed ne ee Se ste tot wetpea oaneeti aceon a eerAES a wf ioe ‘gt geewe Mek,RS are SORE Pain os eeae wedtase ARR ae ae SOO Ses ae “ads ve REEaBeth ete Baits BE yas Soh aeSe+,aa earn: aes RS rae Seae Fite woegsTea, omsoe . ne : oe Phen “ = Reretae a a : .eee eeie. ; | BE Pa Pe Sean Ss eh ES et OEE Se, wok See Se ionic Koa VE ws SAMS SE pace Di ag - Looe errs ye SRS as oe oe Ses ane paras ees on AES he cine es. te wee = oie en 5 Pee os nietfea Lots eres aaa SRE See sheets Bettis ae Scenes mae. * os Bota tke oe weyPee oF a, ce ee wnaos St ote NePS: ae we oH sey nae ratty on ee Sonne ae “es - 7 te -oeeee 2 caeeetNa FER AREPsMIB Meer or Pteoes henara te Wisse SRmae eaeSeorBie “eea bates wie eos Tara Sacet hee SeeioerePE, MeS SS Ye Ter gtas. Pe analwkPeac.htd

— oSBee = ae Yee;POE Bee Be te PE anwar: iyLaheee 138teeny ar See Erte eeSBS She aDas See 3ES SeOto! batNite aWea BS Se peo “a biel eas te |a SESE EE gee at) a Aiba PRa ae teeaeSees OR aeAeEIR ee SS OR Be Be Be Sass | Sees ees Ba‘eiris a | =ae"a “i. ie etoee Soar Wien toe Tare Pee piatese. Case aWARS 8 re taaaye ge SERS te pas Se Seeiz Be Toe ‘ naefay te Ceae Se MiOe ee tE Boeacs itay,te Seeee at est eS as reas waked Le eee 2+Te Pats Seats “eh a 24 SSS Bn} eee aan eg ta ME! pines aR we Loe. a Se Ng TF Bee My) tae rege Rots Re ey a Se en wo? ee eee ro see, On paruy ea) sive pee ant eters. Po ea ate 7 Ree ‘ Meo tact Loe er Pat eas ire So) a gid e

: Seen eesnee, Seaeee wees 275 SBS eeta ee Seite vt Oe. faites 12 oghe BE Ty SS oe A ate Sella Seane Ty eaten tet SR et SS fee RES | MONE ASES Sk SE ganee Ree: SS Se ES *eens eee S Sete sty Oe SaSn ae [7 EEN ieSees, oes oy, Sor eeSees arenee yy seatsite Mes sete ey SSeS iS Be aNOEE wee asae +eeSe P8a8 we la eet Szpeeeus: SS eteae ee [ :-ek./ ."RS ==. Ss y oe ‘ eeaeAOE BORE ik oe PEE id?? Paths Bor caterer ass yiVES” “BEES: mee ES SUT Sal * BEY Mat 2 as ee . SO Sit Foe See aaa gSSe Eeeas HAE Ss, fake ene Bes ee! BT2eee SY RR Band, SESee eit 2SA Ps OS aoe Spe Te wee! Parr oeFEES eck Espeter: IE Le Se xPegi 2s ye eeaite oe Pee Brite ee ee WEES Scenes Soe Ba wns cece SagRRR NE ae Weaih ed aeaee De ern ie sien, “aed oPEee Se SEs ee sete pPR, : :Tet : “ Tp, : J .hla - ees a meee See RS eats tf fede ae Tate ste, aaah Ley, fasyney aon ee eet a Dare eeuSos Lore Be“aEE Sgx mS ae oeiges cc eee Neceeea SeedLe CoS NESane * © ars ie Rane wed, at EESeee. ae wee ie stSoar, rd weeates Tet Hapa PAT °Se ressate oyPass wae a"esis ete ane ot alo Ses Sr re ST sees ae Moti: argiaa a : : wes

! 4 ait r < : 2 ‘4 a , ae PB, sES oS ee BR SOR ete, eae N Rea Lees a RS. gt pot oriers ca ORB or eae ht ih. 8s

aeg coe es -De ae See a Rate peeSere sterhy tanSEs oe Se ny ehh eSHE, were“ESSER ae 2 SBES eo Ss See Pees SLES 2 EE TEAS og eaenate ee A : yaeeae ees Grae one ERE ae Sie ae Secaraten Bee Paes Bee! HUES Reis2Bee eta .Brie Sahy Scans BscME ES es SR cg eee bonSE heres s a.BB ao PSS nan! Bee his et ok aaa “ay “gig? idRS vot are tte uyei a, Bees heres : oe on eS zae - : : ie : a foe eeeh Sala ee SBR fo Aeee, Sesspee eras ae Maes aesSe RESwhet Lee ney Bed ea Pat ee we BoeFae fa Beaga, Soeeeea. “a i eee orice cet.er SeBe VehRee be fate. ES graga.SS Sige Pap ERS Poe wee “ab Sage Ben 23 we Perce hiae Beee ree was oeAPES 8 Ssme : >oo::=EES ”Soe : ,ek ae —— eePOE uaeSCates sera ie esOe gktepeer a Sot anteMteens Hig, Te mien eybees fe Re eetee ee2eT a ae Rant OySee a hoe wet aeeeSR Sets taPac Soe ee Rimes eS oa ee Beas ttt | at SRRwe eeere Daate mepone aes eyed wats To aes Be seeod ee aS Sse rea ot oot TN, BY oe ee8we Sah fearpet: ae ww as Peeat ay - ad eeRS: . esSoase ite Beit eeeRSS eesneee Seheeeee, Raetgses PRE, 8 ES wet fas AG SE, petatt, 2"nee ie aPela” cornee, rae"h.¢. teeta SES es atSeTite ts Aly et He te Bee eaeuePaaS Reteeestat #Saes tay Rees dete Eecies ie eae ‘hattae vane Boe roe ht Seatac 74 wee Sear dt me eee Toe oeatect wee ae teatBY ee etBe Seeks %, S66 aa HE ans ree, ars sth ie a8 anor

Dioies ath,s, ess Py ee Aaarton he ot WSs an ms Se Lond aN wets sey a Se2." aT Mh oe Poh, we te os age Cora reON 2, 3 oe ee. eo ee Sone a vee eat Lr a “bet oot of I eeat tee ad ~ Ranta Sa oe)ORs aan lies,gee % a Kieng et “wie et a ad spivs! bod Nat : ee SE reaa 2reco?eeeesge eeCees TSS cE Ss AefitPe PR eSergeen OES onprederes Oyoo Keo ca iaete EeehMS sees TENG eg ee,eae

.oS eee oe eae Seeessock teSS ae a ESS eetyeeeee EEGeS rere oe Rhepy mag. ERLE ss Se PS TY32d TEE se ae : _abe>TR ae PeSe Nae eefeet! Shad te neeNee pate SBE Pie JR ST eit, S4oty eeLae reap A eee! te! areas eeShea ae See ed te ae Be “re heenea " Su an oe «BE eo. weae ,ates ens CaerPe se ee voy ar’ees, Tatts otae “Kes. a ELRg ma “Se "Sh “.og ee1% awees pense . aye Yan> SER? ey Tse aaes et Sie. a eties eer we ERae SPAR sore oan Keoteae eeaed 8Ben, ee areeeMeg aBee ookPeEE Saar Lee SeaRSet heeyak Saeed

4 “ : : » s - oS ae - a oie Bona Te sf hae eee ann Be “es Risers “See | re Pe LPR es EapentlTe Se eS fists” Hee $e wis eo Seer ess eeSoa fees Seen PEBea Rea ee ke Ooo onBEN ots SR 1 TERS aoeassfeere_-Becap Loe He peece Eeehac See ee eN. Ba eos Se poe tee Ee. ae on PEE ine ra petsaae Pa BeSRE os SEanes) ee Sa teSas are Set Se Cons aanSek Pore eg fon SS. sa : :- :2Sa: -;“:: 2 4 :=: : BPN cerecn ego Site nese ss Lr Reta See. “Ss See Paes aed Caan a Set ORES arn ed ORs OPES beso) ee : Beiteye cy: aaa see SF Ores pcre . rn 205 te seer threes +, Morse Poss 2 ‘ , ost TREES te! oe ae 2 e ¢ ot ete Ke ad “aie cen heed %, ea tae wet 2 : Bek py Res ey . As Sa, ite mt wy aa An ee at y wae rt i se Nee eeeteeae! copy “ae? ty, qi are wis me wetted rec * Mee net Pee SEF “. . ” a “wee Te ee oo, sata x, she's reste way Ba aS 2 . was we wre Ped . aa we "aan? rer ome are Ss e ee ; , : - . : ‘

a“: ’ae 4, Be. ueeae : oofSs es. eSeens ae)we vsde Pea BSS eewhe NSnearen ieRares es ae BT Reais: Ee eer ik “Sab arrest ee .hes oeBors oooh eeeee: oat EN Ro oaeae ‘ang Reors eeeSes Porarn wieks a RES oteBOIS “neae, REN aeaMat Basics, : ants , aees, fee - - | ee BR Sees os Se igaie at Mag ustee tae ne ee Ea Wor SEES bana Ss ee iPS tts ee thaex his wy oe geebogs Rhee,

Sh ee 6,PR: ate 8 eS a Pocngiee | wtteHt pecnget neea,SNS ea wats “Se ve wee SEES eS Panes me Ciao tate VA a Ie ger"Cand te Yes oes, att te wre Me ne Se ree ore BAR Oe:asCatone .sare ee we aes: ee ot wae ae onaracae PO Seesaeene aessaws Sout feist je PO sy 2oes itt oan ee “Nese, ayead Sree, hs arisSe enTati ee whee tata oe! oanwas aRpobaiais eneeInst re ae “setsOS seers nesos veer Seen Ay, oe POST,ERS WH ge Bee cae PaSN wet wot Fy, Mo. ad etaewane eka aenea eryee“ee Seaten “eefea oryee Y Sy Peon aeree tie Ps ay Briere aoth ie Nee eet Ja neta, nS . eyes eee eiee aewe ree ey Se ee oe, a et Tete

aSfags ODBree SRiad ce3aaoedy ag ECoa ASS REE Siar eeSSa Be earss Sae8 wks ey BAX S38,LHS Se pt Ee th, = os ce ipoe - =a. wks :, ;Sega 3 | : a :Se at SaPRS PEEP CPERas Petsjones Bee Mh, TS, Ce aearea oe HBS go ee a! eee weee BEES

ae BeeHe 8 tie opereeigre Bess, ae:Pao Ta >ER SERS Sk Se Coe ay ot Sreeeee Shes PRRscapt i sae? eeegitatBS Neate Beers age: see oR: Bees. a8oh baren te: Sey on " Matas can a 15, a Seed eSerties sci neyERS SSR Tae S— aepiece ea: ae ee as eececae ate *Phere Se aoe worMaglio? aeBette wetcee ee Seok Ricans ‘ie I ere: ae oe ee eats eas pees Re ig LER re Sawire eg Tes Sr Soares geeconten ineBO eS ‘page era Lk,ao NS figsceed eit fete Be Me cese,see S epReteee Stescea eeeate hy, arsSEALE LB Fetenwo Soaees: ES he3 Ee 34. eyRenee are SR. we Bie trot Reeaeae nse see “SE ih SRS aecera Poses REC ok wees tate Reseed soa : :2 &Beg : :- .Wer : - ue aeSee PEs rer es Eis Soe se nan gate Seoece Spates ae,3whys tages ie eee aSao taece TE eensBete T Rea BES easnes MS Pt eke as ra as eecae Aeee TE eat Hess ee ite 6Se SO Shy Bien Betdean Reen a see aie Sha Fy oe Met te pias? tte” Ree. eeeSoro roeres aesege elie nett PS Pe Tot 7 Sy rahe3Sate, aitay oa,we oie,oe at,Es Se Ms ah ps. SR tee ee SE men 7sre SeyONG fete es POEMS Pr AY ee “LEO Sy SS EPS. EN ete ES rE ak Me hits Yo Bye ati cs 3 Saat Be ee vee wy he TEES ORS ct RSS aheet woe EB ORIN TP Fee! Mt Pee oS SR a we Ae Be ree eae Sees ees sete? sry phere soa erates: of gt Cae ree aes oe ae & 4 = A : B z ao=_28@ .— eeee aesaaieS: FARES osee Posie nck: 2a ie ee wy FRE Meese Petes: maTEE Seee nig “eG BIAS, RR Es ons es cag tate ROE Sores Se eae TERT ot RY arenes Se sna eas eeae 2bead oe et oeee dake wae. eee vee EE: Sree bees a eevee . FRR ee2Berns eg. Nee teas Pe Sooe veale Saites eae, creed nite! SOEs SRE ae Soe So Re Roeteae SREP Se AES oes nS, Vig be“Tes Stoo CaN usted coat Aetal Say eeSavnege ee es SS aeen *: ate.ES aves cre aes ni oe atere9AY Eh,Seen oe Oy OS See Si Moninctexy wae Be i |ae “phe Se, ES iF stete seates hatte,Se 98:os aan Sereae SaaS ESey;wa ee 2S2:pee ::4:: AS rage oad OS TS Se iRens en 23 ag eri Be Se aes TRAE: 2Stee otan x SR eee eresae wen bas2 ween BSre ster ged Be eee+reeks *nes “ety RE 0, SRS eects 3Seen.satette :Senet ae 2te Ney aPaks SsaLaeet S _AR So = ee Lea Rina: TT Piety ree ot pee fesees ie aBeBe aioe meee severe tet Sh aeTN She Cae Vy tySERRH we see es . aaa ees Pay a fons hen tas Soe Rind oe Sener Sie eats Se Eee urn em payee a a set es Loess Se MR wet we “age Oe od oie Paton ast can paeen “e weet Meta eae SS “ay ee we, a “eee ere anna aaa ion wae % metres te See weyaye DadOF Seei Tat eantite, oer, ae Reonarecee “Betheaoe ee eee . Se ee Biopease ek Rese ‘7 aAG, ms :: cS oF ’" wa : s a. ::ea “e Be eae Sass be TR ee RTT eS lets NPMy fheSree agesSSRees, SaSAS aay been eee cars ee int ae ee Bede? geet ge :Me om. i5=isa fe ne ws eal eat oy ae ee, atte, See = naeNe et te teats ws ES Raye peat tetnr aed“eee “go Pog Regs : oSRSS wee Dame) weyaRese Pisa “te wesoo. pein nea S FsSceuee % a seS ; ospaar :::g:4 ;Sat : :yes, _Pees .oki we .ee. tyat : we we eesee =Sh ae ‘,stied stare sine ooh. SPs aeCaSee ayVI" RN Soya? eaetsCas citeRe seen 5 ce Rar Sot, SER nee aied wie at Sena ‘Vols MaRS i seeds eee, pene Seren tBs SedSE. we eepain oe etrig int Bia shesae -2S, eextaes .as EK eos cbrte cd a a ~~ * :% =4= :: a 4 Be ad ote Oa, nS wosioeSeapets Ebon facta ee Bae “eteee assaen aeie |he ae he pan aes xse=:i.:s.

aan Beso Int PAmrees hy ran fps Paes Yer wi tad cance a eae eR ie Wye bY Behet oer sae, Eyhthos ee Sale . woe, oti foSin BOS i oe oe oe - < oe = - : : : 2 @ :

: cases meet es nay ari ee Caan tae Peghhat ee Nie SBS Seas Re =Bokentetet 2 RES a BeSeo Bee eysas neei Pitt a SSeS Ras#: nee “ cieae ae‘Cae se osSee: :ue: ‘ ss 4 Se mee ett *ne ener ros reRAs Oly xs waeResast Seah iesRes * Sanrer gt as Ce Caen on Pee hehe t Es cee ren WR oan oe 2s PeMe NG “Ae, ET eefede at tt RSS *. Rance BS,HY eee “ye Pte” oe Perse ner Sane asl, Tee

S taSo weeraeos aes, fitSieh “yee itn Codey? aeBOLEY ana = Da wee pee esc aos. aud ReBt ‘ahs oe Bik see ee se nae erate at Sear, affeBES ow ear ear antes aMgt sy eats woes oes Aen VP See 2POPEER Sie raeSeite etySet ae et* ue eeae a oe i ar SESE sy, ye Bey . é: o:ek :::‘=2: :7 oe hetee Werte aeee whee bitece oS tet a seaes aPst Jaen wet, Cote fogoe, SSS es TMs ed eee | ae oe«.se a8 Tieeee Ssan cory Pes Saheae akin SARE Sa es ee a8“i: oe : yae‘fe 4ocs

5:s

: eSe . RE atl ae eet SRE A BeBN BNIS pate I to eB eG ae IS AUR TEE Tee., aSate te RT AD RrBra eeOR Ssatl BaOSE IaoO Se SE BRT ORE BASE IRBr LOS BAR ae Bx Nana ee ES ni nea ee tat TE ae Lee at a ree AUN S ATE OES OS Tt a eg eT eg ote Ter et rns Bn he a rE Se tee, SR SR ae ASE RT tees Er Te a ARR NS, na Rn SEEDS ee ee CP RE, RIS a SO ae at roam pa ay Se mee RE ah se ‘ eae , on Lat tte Whe Let oo BBR Seat eo of wen ae ete gre rs Se hk Oe et te te MR SOAR OSS ONS te ae Rea eee Coy Dn, te eee SO pan care SPUR ate pth Te aseA wetRR A,THE OE Ot whcn. ”eR Real cate OT TES 1a

aed. 5eee SORT te leRO ai EIEN re baySEN MTaie artea RR EGAMOS ye ae sta ee PATE oo eeareeeTes MeeeeteeAE et eee eeUR, ie Mate, oeLage te attI eT gh oe tai Fe UL RD EEBe SPSly indt ted Mee TS patty 2avaeRee aa aPraca Dat Fn SOY CRORE RRO, OF DeeSaat SR ate Sten ea FS se Re CaS ae SN See ea UB ae GE TO Fale een ee See Sa Ae RT ASE OO hi OS Shan s TRS TO a SES Se BRR SE Ey TE Tt aegte ETS SRSA a ES RE a Re Night ee REE BROS US S cased OS httaes DeSS MAE ESSACRE tt TT geRN ot oD Ueoces eR RCSTEREOS REO M ENE Soke aecaeT TotRET AEECRETE LOSESNE SUR CRD TL OA de Sak D PeieSR SO ea a or sf aee aGE gi eC ERE RCINE AARC OSS CR PRL. COA Ceacor E CIEE erree Se Gee So SS EUS CASAC nanan Tat eoaSES SeCoage ct ee EE adES SELSI SRE a eS, TLEE gee wae te Te OEE TBAT ttOBE OEOe ES IISTe a rE, POOn RES § #s Se Res DO teEORTC ES Ped ES 2 Ea ar PRIOR sae ONS ES Rg Be SURF IE a EE Oe SaotRe Skps sa rig NeRat ee BGR SEsaE CA RENOO a SEahi SO Sa SO Gs Sein, ETBe aeante, a OTIS a Bie etthe le ORT beytaeSR See STO oOy “oehet ee OT ¥ . sea eB nae ee he etAR pes ye ss ON ASSE ree Te EE ap ale BE neat Te tae ERG Lge PUree AooBee FEI iIM OTT ORE lad Ne I ateahe ae ggrea Bhh ete,ANE! * 06APeGDOO NS Se taeTNatte etefee TSON, EEBree se BA, ag SeenTEST tL OS TT USate” AEBtST, ole ye st ee ee he ¥ESTE SeSHA Rnindy ENP be wttee ON ee UEP oe eee iiPete RII RECESS, RECT CON RETIN SI OR Ae eee #Ias =I,5Potty oetO ele EAR hee 6 MR Ee TB onsSo Pia tte BG aes iteAtiED Totaete Cee OS EP es EE ttBie Mh at foe RN EEE EO eaigaEe eeHO AP aeCE tT”Se SREB OES atCOIs LS TD RR aesaE TIRES SUS ON Sa Te SI ES ie fa OU ag SIRE, Os RES ae EE WR ey Uae CR SA Se i Es EP #3 it 4 PEE SE AE al oe DMS LE a to oe ea ets Fa OE ECRaC ES SLY Rae ees ROReT SerC ama? gcc UhreORES SE. SRR Sa OF aE RS a i neSn ERreBeggin ads Se teSete eA Rg PetyBS PRBT RD Se ee Bee PRO EE Me aanaNt SeSaige yoRhxBeTOTES ED SRR TEerEERE SAE, Me eSTEE TERT ROIBs 8aRE eTA 3a Bet HIB eenCate Or nS SMe a8 hd te ee SaAU haOe edtSpMe tecI Sg Bad TEMSRCNAS DUC: OES OO i Be RE,9ASRR Rat AS IaRR a tyes wo, eoeT eae TORT Ae SaaoSy Te eet RRSP DAG eS tad OE CEDos te PS TA OE ot AS Se ate nietSG OP DCRR aR gr ee + Bs SEER OSSg SS. Sh LEDS ai eyPo SORT SSEoe ERNE IRN OEE rN ERS heehee ae Ob hatsaBe hating ee SE ae Bas EET te oe etUP SELES OIE TE OE UE eisRE SR RS ate SERMSE DOB SoesSE a See ac TERE SRR EETae oo CE SHEEN oak ARAL SR Se ee BT a OeESE heaiooaSy SeRS i etn tar ila] Seach oe Be er es he, SEE ce Hedeer bE TE RS SeeESE, OE or ES ae BieodSS Ra Ry Oe ee ne eT Te ReER A ae eeeUNG teal

NES eye 5 yore OR a6 an a ey NaN iene ees Fe eegh eer caEEace oeAe ShRnEE BS EeEFF neSREES Rober aeRR3SPR San eae eeLgRO SS xSRST ft Me te eh, bdERNIE PRgE OENORE sO ete ae ieaNf ee Tetei BbeR ee "apes: TRS SANTI ESTORIL TRE ORS TART SCEEURRMRISETN: SESS Rise a RES eR Pe 7RR Were es SER Ue aecea f gE Sree PatoetEX. tM AAEE ORS SERRA SORES RE CREM SOMIESES, 5 Sb i eNO EI CE GEEGat OR GR OG AGE, SeeS Ae aie ERG SR RE5 OF AO,fae ys e,we i Te ae tae TO RR Oe ei eS MEE Sed tel Rented Ratti BR, are we oN eg Med iota a tate SN Ee al MRR TS Seah a Ey Sela Te May at PE oh hg WR elutes PUR ete ae Maes Lg

RB one BePOR A EE EREe SeSET COTERS De ee NSONE? Oe Se ReRaat, Peary Hac Uaioe aan Seen SCAM RnRDRO, SP gtBeCR OPERpage I SE aeesgeen RieLBoeRECRED RoaeSahteORE 0SE OEinedar, eg oeey EyOR BT ee SORES PR ee aS) La & Deetiehee A ED IS,Coren Pe Gee Roe BOEDE eee aahem ltt ahee oe ORAM BaePee eae BP Re SRMaes APRSME Ss 4 ht ids Ee AN ae ie rege ty TSESE. SE IR BE Cay PFRNSESE COE Gens GED Sa ae EO ata ae SL eR Saw y ae Fae FB q ak Ben ie ROE E SE ES FRESE OS Sa

|

LUTE aaaee eC a De ln IGA SBS, TEEIACN RCE SERRE, OPCS ies nen ESRASO he ACNE SERENE SDR ee NE Eee Ee nD ce Meee ESSRR Se aeae, thyea ote Carnes vat Ste tenet a8 G hse * “Se Sebitte ORO AAL eeLES, - CRE” SORES MEN REE SEER RR ERR SR CESIRSOR Si aSRO ea ke PORE es MORRO Ln oe Sata tiga Sr aE aonb aegente AT kat GOP alane eet Oeee cain reve on| Ae ee poSe tees ott St ton UeSE tetRTO ONES Ro an Soe Tate Ny RR SNE OS ROaE OM RL OU GRLEEUDY Eaaes MELT eR eeoe sscin etSE ean ate ne as A OS ES 6I ee SY SB BB lo geeanig, Oa Feet sees iar TAR TS SOE ES a, SE glerae URN Bate Tas SN PASE LS© ryEERE SEEN aMRSS ES eaEE Oe SSRN 9WS RS Be RA Setine a oe a ASue ee1eeMOE EME OT Mt

re CEP Ag en OePee eneSee eeebhenSR ease SOMES Ne toEeeTaNS aRSte ERMg RRcsORE CRRA BEaea Ped ee OEE SEO Fe SenoFEES ee BEReTR OF OB aSEES Lee ogee ag cae Toate ate STERN oSBRC ATs SO oe gh nS eSREC et a ASO Bee aaSe SE ootES, FesNE Reea oe ee fdRa # ERE: ey PEE eceLs Ae aa

WORE Oe fe PE EP eeBeae LA OS eSteeats, aPESee aes Gi atsRE eae ACRD Ee IESee US BtLEedGCOS. ae Mate hae TSa,ates Set ornannie ae, te aie np Pe, LE IE GG ITes eeie ee eee te beaePo TTR TO a eeoe ReSg sy ee a MeetOe leTA tn, SF TU oe pe SUL RCRe MgO SERRE or cena, oun Sea ec We SESS a te SSS PESTS eine EE ASE EAL Ee 8 et SE RaOeweOE RTA tag Shiehee eeea Oe Uae OS eT ESMCE BRSSOE aEEE RRO SeaRS TEINS. BS MER SOR DT te SleSAREE lie Sh Mer alaad ene iesnyBe eee PEA HOEheSoe Oshes SE a eye

Bn Ty AE B ee ben Oe pat Y eC SERN S SECO ESe RECS OED She OTC eek es RNA ae Re AOS POSS OROR SRSA? NERS RS SEES SP RS: LS BE LSE SE ee a Me bane SO kee

fe ee, et GA ceoRSe pe Se ogee a BOR Be Es OBS BE este eRAe TR be PYGeO RE Bea os Ses wise Re Soe er i aately States GOA tele eltee Sey AFeSat ShStSB aDe we IB ft Wate eg gee ATs, ‘i ME : we A an = eT teeta atl teMe Oe ES, HEE o Meats ot eats Ee We wee SO Pea 3 ar MSeo - Tega seat Ea) aleJ8S, 8 okt eM ase, Fe Pahang ge ae DR a Se RE. CRF ROD BE Be Be EESRE gt al eha oy BESS oa ¢yeBee’ oD EB OeertTe ee tg eT RE cae Ea BE Satan, SES TS a gEOEE BR TEE 2SEE SR, BER ag OT ooh gos Tia, BkMer ye SIaS PeeSie aeMeat saaSS easily, Soe tisee He38 ee eRe hh ape IR SB RAE A TNE ge le Fe ee Be PEST SEARS SORES CREE Etre Soe ae URoeORE ON SREedREBRITS SESE SORE MEM Co RRR ittye ST Sa it ER ae Pe Se FSSEEE SEERee a AES egeae BE Beek Batata Bey UBT Bet TMI he ee rE, PROD So EONY 2. SERA RR EARN ELEN he SUSE EERE ENS. SERDAR SOMERS DRS SESE NER CIN NE SOREL Sie PORES TERRE: SAORI OS OR ESE EAE IOUS RN ORE. SORE CRIS TRS PS ea eee Mn BOLE allt Bae TN 1 aN

fee, Pe a Se Pn, Be Te Boe aad es AE ae Ae ag PEGE ASE! See EE aE oN ae ge OS aa ee 24 EF? x ‘ EBB en Tne en, Me BEE ET tT A

oh vee es oe: ee Se Dyiatne,nse oFaes FO5 aL AR ONS BISSCLC. So ah RETR Se OLE ae PRGNY CRP RS,Chir OReR ee R ESCS gto ea yO a eae t Meets SRwe Ee eed ne Be ee. aX-a Pa ES ee) TE Hag eR ABS SS se ERbee BSttTe SSeeBP EY PS Oke 2 eat ete Mt sey,eee CES OT Ty EE QR OMeED BeSoo OI, Ne Ae,eter Be EL oO SeMite ES tre 8

etatee Ue eeSi’aE, x OM eae Ts Bes AeSSC SN aMats neste St teSEC otal et ateMORRIS a ee rs Fe ee,IES PR te in RB eTDALES oe tte dna tang ote ae -. RATETREESRR ESE er eS FR Se oo ESE Fete eleRENE SA et nateONC ae ati teRSS SO tS odSeaeaitou Wether i wt CREUSET SEOL hoLAS) REN SiC EOS ree BEY RoR SP,to, § XOOnar REX AAD eM8igeoeg ae OEEPOw Ie tone SAR Ai HB SEMIS BL x Ret, ee Be yt PARE ERMA ae oy Rid tet 3 eSOSES MO A EN Oa ee attSOREL tO eetASOD Ae GET gEESRD He caRM eeME ERURIS ERSCEE “4 COBEN ‘te, Bet«Soe » J SO SBP OOO OESfaea Un CLROD ERS AEEAT a PIN ATE aot te EN Tabet aRENE atl a at Mngt

ee aay eotire eerTCaS MS. ne oe,Fae AeRSE NRO ORS: SOUEe Sea nS BRTRCN ae eae a cee Se SER Sta OO ne agpee aneee LOO RRR ERR SEA LSS, LA teeeA Be reg DOB ae CT ee Sat Ea Ye a edTae gis earaae RMT RTS TE eee RSALS TEE th SOST a ReSeella Ry Se Me fy sattesDRE Sta bane Ba RPI aaa att CR Metin A Leo ¢ SaLR eeook a AS teSMR ee aeas ad xRE ostSO + nag §a Ee FFOE SoEE RTUR LS OAR Be, Be an Gee Me 2 . Mars an RD eet ih Bat TEENS Sie re Ss Seg SHORE RSS SEPna ee ee TSetSS ee oS FeBAS: eRe SO OR rR ie eteOEE SPOR REST 2 at DUMEEON RSIS Croan Printer ee ges TOOT Pa gn be Ne Ch ieAaE See’ A OR eR MORES ER OSE EEE SOteRC 0 eNO RT RNP TES Rare e oNORT * eaeACER o 3 AG NURSE Re ee ee 2BORIS a2: Ys oeNOTE A : PRPC CETL OE SE" SanhCCR SEE ON RE ae B

£eePe TR tee Re ORS Ts Fe, TR Se RES "EESAREE “SSE ee a NE We, eteSLEME pe ttie Miata et CP TSE ot ESRI, sehSR: Me A ogSRosanseeve OTSeBAB IE, TahTEDOE CiteBeieIERR, aR" ARR PER RE eT OR,eID OI Eon RON DST PERS ener *’DA of te DES Se ON BO TB SCHR ne ie PRS RR Ss ASh ES NR BOLE Se SaTE PORE OMESS a Boe ae OOM eerieaPOOREST Secu ans Me, aes oot Pe USEIGCCTERS oe atIEME a eeBO ta rel aRS eaUSS hte tet ahPEACE Saag UECRE EPSOSE Peeoad SL ih rE Ca ae oar St PEE SOB Aa ettieaGael LOBe PUA Ee etre SeUa teoe tes Saar atte etESS nn ORE SP Itens tt gg ae Oe eT ter eSTSS TS SB ae OBFS Ce RE IETS anSE gt NEON TOS ADere Uh RES ge eee SS EA wea de BE Lgatts ES Nd Sante CeeeON ECBO, teeaes vegoeth aeBest. Sig .CMR Sse ge IF ata BeBe SE eneBAO te Se ne Ue er ete Re Sti 6s aneSR onAS bene FA AS AIRee,RT danSEFRE 5 Dade SRR A Uta AEae SS A 7 A SAAS WsSEES 3 ReSie. I ts MESES Be ae aeSOAS. Oe SsSURE RN BT SER eRSSLLEMS ek By Le 0oeShe SeTEM TE eeIDBe a a Bee Cae MST Bled, PMBEGA SASS IS RMS AeTREES SSIES Ot a aOS Sg rigsSOS a oesSee WReC te iSMT Se a ae4AAR ee Saat. ONMENE REACTOR RESaaa ED ee has Pe Le FE Le OEESE ES IE Ee OTE ES Oh,oea SUPER TE ee ORE

ges oyBe heBefate asPONE st JOE SE ig RSI Boe aTIeee EET SPE WSR RENTS SILO SOS Meee ESieeeET RE, CPOE BEae teSSDS egOSES Re EE Peo aneOCMNE Sea eee hanes ty RNUn RS ee PROT tod ne Naa 23 et SE eet PR ynSI ReeS OE Sak ie OS DARTS. ARES SR EME: DORE Senne ee eePr eee eea ee ee Se GIO, a aes ite A eee" ESSER AS ans ee PROPS IE eas LOER ME OLE! Se. aS TRSMERS Pee ae Ree StSE DSMRED) EAP oe Se SE ty ORS %Se ssREARS Sie SRG SP ANAS SD POUR A RAS NRee OOR ESSE SAISON EAR EY Senet 2Thoth aS RE RSLS SE SoDne, ATORRES CREO ECE ID eg a gat AFON OS Ct SN aE SEEN DIDO)os RSNA ADOT Neate tePd Se es Ree PEE TR TOT ae Ree ae,he GATES RSS A et ay TER taney AY Peete BUBB ee She NO ¥e:Fang PTE Sale disBB tne oeed er R.A ek hae SY ae Rig ae aout POET RORNEOE, SMES Eee a eehte ee Sha eeA EeLIAS a sereeee ee ing MST ee FRR tre serine, hee ey Ge abe Oa toe DG RACCTES, kdSER RESTS Eo RS, GB Resta eeEONAR 4LERMAN BE nian SSShae eaeAEUSSR Se PR EP A Reghee aaaage aeETE nyMan Peth, NatreEE Seis aeOE reNe od tei Be Re tgNy

oa: SORES: < OOOO 2,” SORES RES OEE. Bech ny eee Bye hae eae at CR Sat, TR ig SS ON RT REE ai I Sn nee te RE ORE ts oc ig Oh at TPE oe UE oe PE RES MOREE GON REESE IES TE a OB ENE BE

TEN Coty Sa eaeMme ve. Ie4 ek BLAS ot, Be SS>ah ee9he a RDN BR er eSeee TRtate" FyTeBETES, arti AEM ott ete te aeagTatityES BeeateaEN Reeee, wegeeePee€ges ae Ett ait teMOSER to Wh nee ate, ite SSR ag Be ea. AeRE a a LS a TS,as CORSE” Bb PORN Seeee 1S.EE asters NS1itnee gt Pee heresaare Seans Bate aE relate Tastee ane es SE tbe, Wg Marte

ECON SRM EeoeSCONCE RRRION: COPoyok. SEES ONE OLEER ATSC SCREEL er SS all Ree a, ME Oea onl PeOe ge Sey SAREE eaghols Me ahOe RENE MtPES REea PS2 adn Seettk 1SPE NeTE CEEe ice OR alate Ae oth gt OTSea Eh,atOEM BGR DS Bi Se Rae ZENS ROTISEE Sor BES SORE E ROSIN wee SSR. So ee gRNe BeeOyaee ERS A etal “I I Reree EETE esBEES, PO EN .ee S:,Se eeleds a TRSRC fee Cars Ee etaSEALE: ee ° Ne, LALO bateSES = SeeTNR oP OE SRR are, cotati Sane Sag, aFI agingee ae, ye aN ee ay he eth Te, ee ee, OSgS os CPO ee iS nod ee AeS oe the taTO Mia ghe SS EA . aNseee Sh ot12ES BeSSS ee Mea are ao eeSSSPALEMRES. OR Md ae Cele, EE FORCES MERE SSR, Be TE egareas Feeeed salt, ER AE Dae NET ae EEA, ene oa oe SP peers Se RR CRC CREAR CaN SOMES TREO al eg hd,NEF Oe neSaree Le Pe eeioee” a>Picea Fees oe pSame PY: Ronee dky Sooo 2eee ESRES BFSOE FOR SEU 5Sa TREY CRESS OEESS SEUSS ARTS Ihee URSSgaS oaon egaa a BRO REE Meee BeCame OSSRC a Bae 0 at BE6 SSC ot SS Pe tigteSEES Sk ae Sakon, A4!FSa Stget, SiS, agei ae OTE, eB8sLe BSIRS Tear tg $d eS. ty ES AS Sr See neSiaES Fo Ps BS ath Ste Co fe! esahe oa renee he OCT feaSe vfeTatate 4)ES eS te atest rahe oe oy a Mere POPE DN, ieRee el oe ees AR re we oh he SS ss PF. teAeg einER EROS TE wae one htePR Agaees Sa Re Oe OES RRR RECED STINE Seah,Ee ERLE SSDPS BaSR BAS 4 bess Sek Se SRA BSR ed +am Bet ing BeCORES)” a RR ge wey ee Fete he PS PRR NOMS. SSE REee, eSSPeete So Weta Se eeDe alte We Sg ee OR LOE ee eSee RE OSieat) RU a ithate DAES SEE TS ete Sa QR aREE gy aeee eG eS fe” ye &

fo Pat SAP GRE ORE oe 2 a SRS ae ene ee nea a BPR EO ST REVS . Cee ei ONEE? Cae REN mee Ree Ales CRE CSE TC OE Mae eT tay San fo ae Seed eT Te eights a sc, OO We ee SS GON She sgt URN Be cok, I Sa e PE Ieee SO, gee A ESS SE I RA RRR SES IRE FERES Re eters ik or Cole ey as Re ae PSS Pe oh TEE ape ER a eet eg

Pe PRog cots, Ce ETRS BEN TE 5 eS URN eta Re,atRt Neaban ge RO eg neSS Oa alSag tS ox oR SREY CRRA ER aMIR AR OIE nyDSS RECS ReSEBS RRS See te, atv Mea ya Bae ine Sg BR RARE Riise, SS AT TeBS eeetRGN ee esOO A Be eR SRE Sos ae rhe CSR FEsae SE SES eeeck. SER ESE See Bl Se Le PeSFE Rages RES Ege ae UnEs ee ee ad BU %, Srp ote 7Sg Es? BA NEa ee oS RR Re So AOwa 34IE, FS asBid S59Wiss a4 ER FEXSOTO Ba oaSCS ae RCRY EN RES OhiotPe eS BeBe aEne aa ea Pah ee PL asrien ae Oe

Pe cea OM peg Bo GE Pie SORRMSS! SAMEENER, SORES CORTIA ACaSE : RRR ec Rca ORR aC Ta Nha RSS SORE Bee a RC ok aS RRS

Nags 8 RE, Pes y: eee $e # 5 me RR be I I i SEES is ag ag PB Se TE a ES 5 MEE Un BOI dee BES ea CEASE eo Ae idee ee She Leeda tA EE AER Se se Be

Pie eee GEES BE OBER re Se OE alinSN SRS teSnBis oeOSgee gsSe oeRRR Sr Sate aeraeLeet Seostaincees BOR EEE toad BSL SRE OL EE Beet neGOT Dirt agJeg RES CA ¥% te, eh A,3: Ot 33OR 5 eSEe ayNR ME aoe ES Ric aes ee STS OR ne Me, EAE eh eM se, SE tes aee Tt NE Te San wetFL, eesee FC OD AE AT, RS aSe StTe hae IalStee reti sta OM SSEe EeTE Ta ie ie a,"aDACRE SD 3% SOR ER COR Ea OEMS hEtyOME OR SERS ORME. OTe IR PIS TSBO A Sen Os OT IN Oe OO RE wet ROT a atte atTES WELL ee ont er » ORD 5 Bert. Pye ee Sea ACCT, ae eGa LE Os EN SOR RR ag ge ERE teCe ey SE a PE eee SEE Pee ap ee Tee, SRY ASO ae AU CE SEReee EOE SC ORRMIES, “NOUR SOT aNONS SeARSet. See a IN ae TRge OL SC ee NE Es Sei ehOh ee eee LS al he oe Seeee a RO PIED,Ca TaDed Spee ReRE PEO COTO RORcee MENS ASEEL ES Ty aETER ye enuO Me sete Ea 8eS stateNEB oe Oe K BO 2.eeepee eeDe RS FTN Oe oeSlee, Bet RE 0 Le REN | nt LNOT PS RE FSBae LR Oeec eSweet Sak US Bae ee aotn £, RSET EN Scie Sealand eee Ue DEERE | Shs BREAN OES TRONS & ee FESR RCE RERENC Or” SURED, OMY Ny SURES LAST, Se Be AR Sa oe Ey Le oh Ue SA EO dBA SMa nC EE XP ae FP ae eg 3 ee ey aoe vgn:Sn PREM 8 9 eae Bb aeSOREN ot TR AeSURG ah te OSE aS REESE RASTe LeRR Se ey Bn REGS let BeBoe Pe Rok I ERakeres SE ee eeSee BSeeRn on3 Ee A ye, Ny, ons. cereSRR, nee SER, ae AaseeBeeeoeerat 8 SESS a ToeTTTS eeaaa ee ET

moe ee 8Bee TD ty oda iand . gs ee toaSaee es RRR RRIR ae ES ls tt SS, SN TE ET aTeTE eh, tb eT ee AS NMEA PSee, ie ean he iOE ae SR.eeRS ae ra oH 0 esSp ReReem ae egNSINye ae FUER die FN Niel YaaeGc . aRe heeaT PRE a ot Rt aS EE ah IEP ROE eaeieOE OL SS MN RRoo SEINE Sa DRESSERS SPREE ERISE CRESS “SMOUREY 2 SERREteesbat ER edn: SE UREa? Sage SOT ROS US ee ge a STI BaSg eeseee bet ng oe TE oo BP ARE aSME Panera Puy Rr SEE CORSO’: AOC Se CALES CUBIC DECAL? 7 RMI URES MC TALS SRR erOe OEIEL BET eB he TI Set AE RSE Ma SES a TR eg Bates ed CaeeS < SPUMREI RR tah Sy ene UB oo Sea ves ERORMR SERRE edn I Se ges Te EEeS Se ee et aR Bed hens a pee HERA ER BR eget etched Miwa tee «Led oe ee a ieES, 04 2wet ¥. Sag 2Bit eeoS Este ae 59RE FeSa eaens pee AOS fap ROR gah ET 1Sshod aSyBy REE Le ety Sa Das Se MOT ERIS eT tA ae Set ot we oo. iy we SOB Or LS en aera eee an aS NS A EN, RUSS aes EF OI TONE re STS a SED EM Sand ata UE SID, OU RE IS OLR as TT ES ee nee a Ts Oe edie es * ae SA ee OS en Ba PC RRC ot oie OE CTR OEE” a ars Fe ie Es Bee a RT oo RE RO BL sett Oa Se Oa APT OE UE A CR re SRO a ae conti MReen beisLe ee TE GOS Oe Poe CR eS oS EBaE wsnefener reens Bite Ka Stee: “eee aeea ET ee anda ae aE ee TEE ae reBSa SS sea,esFTEs nt Spe EO PR SEee a ie eeaene eS ( pitied oy ane: Saas mt Mie igre eager ge ge BT a8 he ta ake OME TE 6 he ee Saag EE a aes HO OE GE SUS ED ag eS 3 eI TE BE Et ES RE TE OE A NP BB 8 Sg OG PEN STO REDE CCURIRN . ERO tama uaETES eee a Py Oe Re a SS RT Se ee ae i TER oe Dae, Ce ee ae ST INAS RES) US ger me 3g OEMS LS Le ts ae. “ARR Citas RCC CN: ACME Se oi Ss BRB ee Le ee SE OE ee Sy Dont te Dee SARE TS tO bes atta i a Mo i Ee te ely cote tte en a as ee Ia Bes OSReeeeePU aeTES EUaeSe eyBeet a Pe OS etcate PeCASES STS Sette. OF 1. tae SORhar ey. FRE ae ane a > SNS eee. Lycee Page FN Se adRE PE « REO eeeET eee mye 8 Lie ae ah, LEE ae Bee RS WLSROT et gh 2S RSaoeTUE Sy De tea, Pte eR a a he Be ee ATES Te TP SaOR ce UR By See Soa SOMALI ECS,A ON. SE, “ASRSSRR EO:R EY oALRCe SSD Sh AE nea ak SS UNE ht etAUNTS TR Sete ae aeeathe aBE AE See oh, oy ER SE REmae EOREeD Ele ONE BB SO OS OS Toe VoSSO ely SECBEES CEC RET ES Ean EeGRRE TR ak PE ae SUES TS te ee rie sitet Meee af ee hk ES aera,AT: aReet aeey ie 5 EPO ae eet, m RR IiCae EBSee ll RO ONONS SRa SE senne8OS a & SMeer itseCORS CeAES. CREE Ce RERERO: Soa meOURae Cote heTe Se Ae AP eg 4€ OY Se RUT EN BREN WEES Oe ROO REN See Saaee PR OM.ee, USAR RE RECN ENR CEN @ RENNES. EROTIC. SRLCSa tS SMR eSae SUSE 2 Oh ed iany ABN AGES Rr FO Fe%gs BERaae ee paneer s aeRCo Tt StESAS) RR ee ESCORKS OE>SCS eSOLED aEdCA ge atPee aR OE ARR Be ne aesLU OY ee Aont etelotteS 3 Oe Oe steGrr TeRS Oe;eeON SOBE Age Mo ee aRe eg SPEC MSE ROE A CoE EM i ORS EEE > RE Sid CaeTOy Ta tee BERL tse OE BA pieTE, '# ate Fy wt Pe et Wed Pee Te RE eo. ye ~~ “4 >,ASRS: Seeeeoer iSReet teECR iesotra eyERT aee maer TeNe ataae state PBS ie Ne 8,olanek EC eesBs aeRE eee Lge.RRR te Cy, ee, oe get IOE ON nesoe eeEB te hots ce * gE . PI ee ae tas ey ge a ae eT eR Sr Te Sh Sige 2 Ne OR Oy ie eh Rs eg Ne Ne eae a, geen mate: SALOME SES LRT ae he, TT BON 4 ST a OS EB ee ae gag at = et are, mae wo es Sees. ae ih eee aa ee Oe I ae eo nat SN ha IN te ee 2 anes og RF oh het ee Pe TEE wn ey * 0 et ORB gE LS wt Te teen ke RS ae ers a od ge PR ae ty Ne ee CS I Oo ao eRI TEAC SPR Eeecee MNCS MaeeCtet: eRe eo Ree TOE Ueaaee ety% x gM Te eo mae ee ae 3leAS tEht ©TASER SeNeteeee eee 2oe, ET Kc ot, BAERCERERRER 36S SUC REgenes RMR:oyMES: MEMEO. es ‘ - . * ree r bee * “ a Se atin ; me tar P;po, *Soe +SIR aonMet aos, Ss alfe Ebor! Paget Sane, Tagg’ RA SFp:i meas Tn, ig.:eed? Boa? AE Oey Tate ‘:.;cS at Pa | he Ee ee "i ; 2 : ke ie 4fA . + ils aT, we Pr e* ae, 4 . : ts ’ : Pes % 4 J 7% ies st 5 +e ee a? ’eee % eT ~ ie ie ’ ots > Cd: 4 : Zi y*‘Vowlee ve" ee Se ae etme on? ae ,hy P“ — 3i ;.Xn ante ‘» Se okeee oly Ss ee ‘‘ mages Ske eed et

.~~ a ot aah eng ‘s ager ax : / ¥‘ i‘3.ee. a ‘ : ‘ 4 ; Ra i « ‘*\ : 4 EB . y é“a3 >i. ,fs‘ 9. 3eSPkrhpik 42

:4: 4 oF*on Cm eG ve9: ‘.eke Ps er re ‘ ‘. ;.> >j *3 . Ba fot gCt tag;eee (* ‘ snePy :, e> ¥*“x J ps2

r “Ps P , s Ps ° ‘4 ee A.*52 4Pit of

’ ‘ ~ . wz; a we ’ . 7 a ine ‘f 4 “? e% 3 7

Wi a -,” ges? 7 i a 7y a~~ a) -oe os SR . a AEE ore | ‘. > i a ee ‘ eae . wy Aw : r he ae ‘ at te ; 4es *So. a ee B* :Jf , My. — . “f q>‘:4sBe up ry ws, x a we P ? é te 7 4yee. +by * oe aL "* 6nes i. 3 Ny } 4 i ee :5 y? if j % go s ; 4 a € . nz : ea 4 , . q ¥ rads: Ce P . ? > 7 “ae * .. :a 4; ,‘. ore hes é 42 ; ; ~& a Se < ey Fh Sat oie . Sr “a be ale ae oi 3 ma a% ; ‘Ps aoe ; tuk a a bs am ~ eS \‘ ~~ ia ’ 2 . -> ° 4 , P f Pr , ~ ‘ $ Gea ‘ a £ 4 ' an 2 tees $3 oy Fain. ¥Es & Py;Age ae ye. ; fA >. ber :»$sFy! » : * te. ‘ex ;-,“Ses e wile ee testes , Yet Meg’ ‘ ‘ 4 I ey

4‘

eet ‘AMy PA A ae % —_ . ee) a 4 os ~~, 2%ny »pe +H x 2

:o Se < pee ae a & P“es vy. »ng+ .- nen } &a #9, &

Fe e? “Pe * » ee 9~, »est e fe eee. xX: 7 frog tO, Pe—_ Pee o/-i.~“4gh fyseis + eee aaa $. :‘ :é.% ’ ze~Of 4ats +.ed 7 $%1ms 2p hdedi.ede Pyrt -Z “>

: Pe PRE ‘ :

be ‘ oa FA ee ; .pe(,iy’ ; a3 a? (ee in, ee ed * 2 “ Ae 2 4 | Eine Sete & f eM ey .aoe 9Os’ Pate 7 . — > Se ee> pAhtA .Be, *%‘or “w!ie ee “~y » 4p OK, 2‘ \ Ly Yi Gs L\ Uy O48, gig

“ Cc

\“Bagnal TOsi.Greencastle A M77 } Thicket}\* I . | \ \ te ; Annotte Bay ~~ Guy’s HHl ia DY 3000, X / /ys WS \ a7 (7 “Troja ~ | RichGnona Je + ae » ih V4 Castlev / , wee NAN i , ! ‘Scott's Hall a} = *\Maroons-~ \ / pee, a ee AS

\ || NanigiPatte é 4286Sf3~

~ ahaa Hill

tay : \

500—\eo an / It certainly frightened the whites and also brought out the ever-ready distrust of Jews felt by Edward Long and other good Christian planters. In one of his most revealing, if apocryphal, anecdotes, Long told of a conversation between an Akan rebel captive and his Jewish militiaman guard at Savanna-la-Mar. You Jews, said he, and our nation (meaning the Coromantins), ought to consider ourselves as one people. You differ from the rest of the Whites, and they hate you. Surely then it is best for us to join in One common interest, drive them out of the country, and hold

possession of it to ourselves. We will have (continued he) a fair division of the estates, and we will make sugar and rum, and bring them to market. As for the sailors, you see they do not oppose us,

Jamaica, 1760: Tacky’s Revolt 133 they care not who is in possession of the country, Black or White, it is the same to them; so that after we are become masters of it, you need not fear but they will come cap in hand to us (as they now do to the Whites) to trade with us. They'll bring us things from tother side the

sea and be glad to take our goods in payment.!6

Thus, in Long’s account, the Coromantee was proposing a decolonized Jamaica and a situation very similar to that in his native West Africa; the Africans would be firmly in political control, the

white Europeans would come as commercial supplients, and the Jews , (like the Portuguese tangomdos) would act as middlemen. Despite the whites’ fears, no plots turned into actual revolt within thirty miles of Kingston or Spanish Town. But outbreaks did occur in Clarendon, Accompong’s parish of St. Elizabeth, Cudjoe’s parish of

St. James and, worst of all, in Westmorland, where the rebels were aided by the unreadiness, indiscretion, and actual cowardice of the whites. The Westmorland rebellion began on Whitsunday, May 25, 1760, with the murder of several unwary whites at Captain Forrest’s estate, where several of the slaves were “French negroes” taken in the British campaign against Guadeloupe who had “been in arms. . . and seen something of military operations.” The alarm was raised in the

neighborhood, and the whites secured several estates. But on one estate the owner armed twenty of his trusty slaves (Coromantees all), only to have them thank him politely, salute him with their hats, and _ march off to join the rebels. The combined rebels, having fired Forrest’s works and canes and having killed several slaves who would not join them, “withdrew into the woods, where they formed a strong breast-work across a road, flanked by a rocky hill; within this work they erected their huts, and

sat down in a sort of encampment.” The ill-prepared militia moving ; against the rebels fell into an ambush and, “struck with terror at the dismal yells and multitude of their assailants,” were utterly routed. Encouraged by the militia’s defeat, many slaves flocked to the rebels, until they numbered “upwards of a thousand, including their women, who were necessary for carrying their baggage, and dressing their victuals.” !7

Thomas Thistlewood’s journal for 1760, probably the only firsthand account of the rebellion that has survived, wonderfully conveys the atmosphere of rumor, panic, and confusion in Westmorland.!® Strangely enough, Thistlewood does not seem to have heard previously about the insurrection in St. Mary’s at Easter and only in retrospect recalled details indicating that similar trouble might be brewing in Westmorland, 120 miles by road to the west.!9 In October

134 African Slaves 1760 he noted that a shaved head signaled an intention to rebel and remembered that “our Jackie, Job, Achilles, Quasheba, Rosanna, é&c., had their heads remarkably shaved” and that Quasheba, whose broth-

er was a rebel killed in the uprising, “had feasted away some time before.” Egypt plantation, of which Thistlewood was overseer, lay between Savanna-la-Mar and Captain Forrest’s estate. Three days before the outbreak two of Forrest’s slaves had visited the slave quarters at Egypt to see Jackie on unexplained business, while on the day of the outbreak at least three Egypt slaves, Lurie, Dover, and Lincoln, were away at Forrest’s without permission.?°

On Whitsunday, Thistlewood dined with a neighbor and heard a rumor of an impending uprising, which he discounted as idle table talk. He returned to Egypt to sleep and was not even unduly alarmed when at 9:00 P.M. (about an hour before the outbreak at Forrest’s) he heard the sound of a horn down in the Egypt slave quarters. But just after midnight, four white neighbors galloped up and pounded on his door with the bloody news from Forrest’s estate. Seeing that the men were barely clothed and were riding bareback, Thistlewood fled instantly with them, turning back briefly when he remembered that he had not secured his keys and papers. Arriving in town at 2:00 A.M., he

was placed on guard with the other whites until daybreak, when he was released to go back to Egypt under the doubtful protection of a group of militia and sailors from waiting sugar ships. Thistlewood stayed at his post, but the following week was a night-

mare for him. All around was the sound of skirmishing and the smoke from burning houses and canes. He saw little of the militia and could not rely on the sailors who, whenever they came by, demanded food and grog, became horribly drunk, and stole his spoons. His sole white companion, the bookkeeper John Graves, was worse than jittery, shooting at strange negroes on sight, wounding a harmless domestic slave, and taking off for Savanna-la-Mar without permission when the situation grew most alarming. Like most white men left on estates, Thomas Thistlewood did not fully trust his slaves but was forced to rely on them. As far as possible he maintained the normal working routine but tried to ensure that all slaves remained close by and under surveillance. At night, four of the trustiest slaves were armed and were put to guard the works, while he and John Graves took turns sleeping. But as the rebels pressed closer, the Egypt slaves were clearly on the verge of mutiny. “When ye report was of ye Old Hope Negroes being rose,” wrote Thistlewood on May 28, “(IJ perceiv’d a strange Alteration in ours. They are certainly very ready if they don’t, and am pretty certain they were in the Plot, by

Jamaica, 1760: Tacky’s Revolt 135 what John told me on Sunday evening, what they had said in ye Field

on Saturday in ye Papah Tree piece... and from many other Circumstances. . . . Coffee and Job also very outrageous.” The crisis came on Thursday, May 2g. About 2:00 P.M. three slaves ran up with news that rebels had assaulted and were tearing down the great house of Jacobsfield, the very next estate. Thistlewood scribbled an SOS and gave it to Job (whose insolence he had so recently recorded) to carry on horseback to the commanding officer at Savannala-Mar. A troop of fourteen horsemen was immediately sent in relief. One of the troopers told the overseer “for God’s Sake to take Care,” while the commander, Colonel Barclay, recounted the somber news

of the militia’s rout at the hands of the rebels entrenched in the woods, “of which [I] perceive,” wrote Thistlewood, “our Negroes

have good Intelligence, being greatly Elevated & ready to rise, Now , we are in ye Most Imminent Danger.” Taking his biggest gamble, Thistlewood armed most of his male slaves, placed them on guard, and during a night of “dreadful Apprehension” watched several neighboring houses being burned.?! The crisis passed, very few Egypt slaves went off to the rebels, and four days later Thistlewood was able to report far better news: p.M. Mr Solomon Cash Call’d. Wounded in ye left Shoulder, With a ball in ye Engagement today: which was very Smart, Several of ye Rebellious Negroes kill’d, their provisions and town took, also most of their Powder and a great deal of Plunder as ruffled Shirts, laced hatts, Shoes, Stockings, Cravatts &c &c and fine Mahoggany Chest full of Cloaths &c &c. They had fortyfied themselves with Palisadoes,

and a dry wall, but we took it. Col. Cudjoes Negroes behaved with great bravery. The Black Shot from Hanover &c [though] had not much resolution.?2

This action, clearly the second major skirmish described by Edward Long, drove the rebels very much back on the defensive, though it far from ended the rebellion. The colonial forces were much better organized than formerly, consisting of a detachment of the Forty-ninth Regiment, a fresh company of militia, and a strong party of Cudjoe’s men. “The regulars led the van,” wrote Long, the militia brought up the rear, whilst the Marvons lined the wood to the right and left, to prevent ambuscades. The rebels collected behind their fortification, made shew of a resolution to defend their post, and fired incessantly at their opponents, though with no more injury than wounding one soldier. The officer, captain Forsyth, who commanded the detachment, advanced with the utmost intrepidity,

ordering his men to reserve their fire, till they had reached the

136 African Slaves breast-work; at which time they poured in such a volley, that several

, . of the rebels immediately fell, and the rest ran as fast as they could up the hill. A Mulatto man behaved with great bravery in the action,

he leaped on the breast-work, and assaulted the rebels sword in hand. Having gained a lodgement, the troops declined a pursuit, |

and carelessly entered the huts, where they sat down to refresh

themselves with some provisions, of which they found a large store; the rebels perceiving this, discharged several random shot from the hill above them, which passed through the huts, and had very near been fatal to some of the officers: the Marons, upon this, penetrated the wood at the foot of the hill, and ascending it on the opposite side, and spreading themselves, suddently assaulted the rebels in flank,

who were instantly routed, and a great number killed, or taken prisoner.25

The defeated Westmorland rebels dispersed in small groups, some of which joined up with the rebels in upper St. James’s, where they gave Cudjoe’s men and the Forty-ninth Regiment trouble for months. Others reconcentrated as a large group making its base in the Car- penter’s Mountains of eastern St. Elizabeth’s, while one band under a slave called Damon roamed as far afield as Mile Gully in the highlands

of what was then western Clarendon (now northern Manchester).*+ Meanwhile, though, resistance had been temporarily crushed in St. Mary’s with the death of Tacky. Admiral Holmes sent one naval vessel to Annotto Bay and a frigate to Port Maria to act as a floating prison, and the naval ratings acted with much more resolution than the mer-

. chant mariners had shown in Westmorland. A combined force of sailors, militia, and maroons caught one band of rebels in a rocky glade, killing several with hand grenades. But the chief victory belonged to the Scott’s Hall Maroons, who fought and defeated Tacky’s main band in a major skirmish. Tacky, somehow separated from his

warriors, was chased by the maroon Lieutenant Davy and was shot dead while both men were running full pelt—a feat of marksmanship that became famous. Tacky, who was described by Long as “a young man of good stature, and well made; his countenance handsome, but rather of an effeminate than manly cast,” was decapitated. His head was carried in triumph to Spanish Town, where it was displayed on a pole beside the main highway. It did not stay there long, though, being “stolen, as was supposed, by some of his countrymen, who were

unwilling to let it remain exposed in so ignominious a manner.”2° As Bryan Edwards wrote, it was then “thought necessary to make a

few terrible examples of some of the most guilty of the captives,” though such exercises in frightfulness proved of doubtful value. One rebel, condemned to be burned alive, “was made to sit on the ground,

Jamaica, 1760: Tacky’s Revolt 137 and his body being chained to an iron stake, the fire was applied to his feet. He uttered not a groan, and saw his legs reduced to ashes with the utmost firmness and composure, after which, one of his arms by some means getting loose, he snatched a brand from the fire that was consuming him, and flung it in the face of the executioner.”*° Two

other ringleaders, Fortune and Kingston, who were condemned to the gibbet were, at their own request, given a hearty meal before being hung up on the central Parade in Kingston. As hunger took hold they made no complaint except of the cold at night “but diverted themselves all day long in discourse with their countrymen, who were

permitted, very improperly, to surround the gibbet.” Fortune survived seven days and Kingston, incredibly, nine.?7 It was the loss of Tacky’s leadership rather than the planters’ tactics that ended the revolt in St. Mary’s. Few, if any, rebels surrendered unconditionally. Many committed suicide in the woods, while a remnant successfully negotiated through Gordon, a planter, for deportation rather than a trial and inevitable execution. An unknown num-

ber were also thought to have returned to their estates and to have persuaded their gullible masters that they were innocent of rebellion, having fled simply to avoid recruitment by the rebels.2®

In western Jamaica the rebellion continued many more months. In , September 1760, Lieutenant Governor Moore was forced the convene the Assembly to explain the continuation of martial law, to persuade the members to tighten the militia and deficiency laws, and to authorize the payment of further bounties to the Leeward Maroons. Seven companies of thirty militiamen and fifteen “baggage negroes” each, were drafted to form a network of posts, while a poor white millwright called William Hynes, “who had been used to the woods, and very serviceable against the rebels in St. Mary’s,” was commissioned to raise a volunteer company of a hundred black shot rangers from among the “free Mulattos and Negroes.”29 Captain Hynes and his rangers were forced to be four months “on the scout” before they brought the rebels to battle, but there were many other skirmishes between the Leeward Maroons and smaller rebel bands. Apparently only a minority of the rebels were killed or captured in this last phase of the fighting, a very large number prefer-

ring suicide to certain defeat. “For the parties of militia,” wrote Edward Long, “frequently came to places in the woods, where seven or

eight were found tied up with whites to the boughs of trees; and previous to these self-murders, they had generally massacred their women and children.”°9 It was not until October 1761 that Lieutenant Governor Moore was

138 African Slaves able to announce “the total suppression of the rebellion” and the planters were able to count the total cost. In all, some sixty white persons, and at least as many free coloreds and free blacks, had been killed. Between 300 and 400 rebels were estimated to have been killed or to have committed suicide, with another hundred executed—either summarily or after trial and torture. No fewer than 500 rebels or suspects were transported, mostly to the Bay of Honduras, which had

“long been the common receptacle of Negroe cirminals, banished from the island; the consequence of which [wrote Long prophetically], may some time or other prove very troublesome to the logwood cutters.” Without calculating the damage to the export trade in 1760 and 1761, it was reckoned that “the whole loss sustained by the country, in ruined buildings, cane-pieces, cattle, slaves and disbursements, was at least 100,000 £ [pounds].”—many millions in modern money.*! In its shock to the imperial system, the 1760 rebellion was not to be

equaled until the Jamaican rebellions of 1831 and 1865 or the Indian Mutiny of 1857. It occasioned some antiplantocratic feeling in the metropolis—including Dr. Johnson’s famous toast to the next slave rebellion in the West Indies?*—but for the most part led to a stiffening of imperial resolve. In Jamaica an act was passed to control even more tightly slaves’ movements and meetings, to prevent slaves altogether from having guns or ammunition, and to punish with death the practice of obeah. All free coloreds, blacks, or Indians were forced to register in their parish of residence and to carry a certificate and badge signifying that their freedom was limited. Owners were discouraged from absenteeism by differential taxation; overseers and bookkeepers were forbidden to leave their estates on Sundays and

certain holidays. On the other hand, slaves who had killed or had brought in rebels were voted rewards equal to the bounties granted to the maroons by treaty, while about twenty “faithful” slaves were manumitted (their owners, of course, being reimbursed) and were given an annuity for life and “a circular badge, or medal of silver, on which was engraved the date of the year, with the words ‘Freedom for being Honest,’ on one side, and on the reverse, ‘By the Country.’ "3%

The king was petitioned to keep the regiments permanently stationed in Jamaica and not to disperse them (as the Seventy-fourth and Forty-ninth regiments had been) to such far-flung outposts as Africa and the Mosquito Coast. At the same time, as much money was voted as Edward Long estimated the rebellion had cost to erect barracks in

each parish, strengthen the forts, and build a powder magazine in Spanish Town.

Jamaica, 1760: Tacky’s Revolt 139 Despite all these precautions, the Coromantee slaves were still not entirely pacified. In November 1765 a slave called Blackwall, acquit-

ted of conspiracy in 1760, led a Coromantee uprising at Whitehall estate in St. Mary’s; and in the following year thirty-three Coromantees (mostly newly arrived) rose up on an estate in Westmorland and

“in the space of an hour, murthered, and wounded, no less than nineteen white persons.”°4 Both of these outbreaks, however, were desperate, localized, and quickly suppressed. A committee of the legislature recommended the banning of further imports of Gold Coast slaves, but to Edward Long’s disgust, the Assembly failed to enact the resolution. For once, the assembled planters were probably more real-

istic than the chief of their chroniclers when they argued that the outbreaks of 1765 and 1766 were the last convulsions of a dying cause. In fact, few Jamaican planters willingly bought Gold Coast slaves thereafter, but they were unconsciously aided by the increase in the variety of slaves offered for sale and the changes that yearly made it less necessary for individual planters to bring in large numbers of Africans at all. By 1780 creole Jamaican slaves outnumbered Africans

and the African phase of Jamaican slave resistance had passed— though the Jamaican planters, like those elsewhere (as will be shown in Parts Four and Five), greatly exaggerated the seduction of their non-Coromantee African and creole slaves.

CHAPTER 12

New Colonies, Traditional Resistance, 1763-1802

A s Edward Long predicted, the Coromantees deported from Jfa-

maica after Tacky’s revolt were among the slaves who rebelled in the sparsely settled timber colony of British Honduras in the later 1760s.' Yet the Honduras slave disturbances were but an eddy compared with those that occurred in the four islands in the Windwards ceded to Britain at the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the signing of which preceded a major new wave of capitalist investment in plantations. Under the false assumption that Grenada, Dominica, St. Vincent, and Tobago were all virgin territories, to be allocated to British subjects and to be given a British system of colonial government, a whole new generation of English and Scottish adventures descended on the islands, emulating the style and hoping to repeat the success of planters in Barbados, the Leewards, and Jamaica a century earlier. With the aid of a compliant Commission for the Sale of Lands in the Ceded Islands, nearly all unoccupied lands were allocated within a few years, forest was cleared, mills sprang up, and thousands of new Africans were imported.” In each new territory, though, the Africans resisted their enslavement and exploitation, often aided by the squabbling, inefficiency, and inexperience of the would-be plantocrats. Moreover, in Grenada and Dominica the establishment of a British plantocracy met resistance from the earlier French settlers and their francophone (and nominally Catholic) slaves, and in St. Vincent it was also neces-

sary to defeat the fearsome Black Caribs, who quite properly regarded the island as their own. Only in Tobago, almost deserted in 1763, was there a simple wave of new development—which led to a pattern of slave plots and revolts between 1770 and 1802 curiously 140

New Colonies, Traditional Resistance 141

between 1700 and 1737. | similar to those in Barbados between 1675 and 1701 or in Antigua

Grenada, captured in March 1762, was already a flourishing colony. Under the French it already had 1,300 whites, 200 free coloreds and blacks, and 12,000 slaves. The excellent soils permitted an economy as diversified as any in the West Indies; the crops included coffee, cocoa, and cotton as well as sugar, and the island was almost selfsufficient in stock and ground provisions. Nevertheless, the new planters attempted to impose a sugar monoculture, trebling the number of slaves and quadrupling the exports of sugar within a dozen years. At the same time the traditional British colonial constitution was introduced, creating a self-legislating Assembly and a franchise that in |

due course virtually excluded the Catholic minority.° 7 The immediate results were described, with pardonable national bias, by the French philosophe the Abbé Raynal. “England has not made a fortunate beginning,” he wrote in 1767. In the first enthusiasm raised by an acquisition, of which the highest

opinion had been previously formed, everyone was eager to purchase estates there. They sold for much more than their real value. ... This imprudence has been followed by another. The new proprietors, misled, no doubt, by national pride, have substituted new methods to those of their predecessors. They have attempted to alter the mode of living among their slaves. The negroes, who from their very ignorance are more attached to their customs than other men, have revolted. It hath been found necessary to send out troops, and to shed blood. The whole colony was filled with suspicions. The masters who had laid themselves under the necessity of using violent

methods, were afraid of being burnt or massacred in their own plantations. The labours have declined or been totally interrupted.

In Dominica the difficulties for the new master class were even

greater. Not only did the island belong to the Caribs, strictly speaking, | but its climate and topography made it almost untamable. It was extremely mountainous land with a very high rainfall, said even now to have a river for every day of the year. Its virgin jungle, as dense as that of the Cameroons, its mountains and defiles, provided refuges for Caribs and runaway Africans alike and offered little land suitable

for sugar plantations. The British settlers made few efforts to subdue the Caribs, whose numbers in any case had greatly declined through natural causes. A large tract on the Atlantic side of Dominica was acknowledged as a Carib reserve in return for a loose agreement with the Caribs that

CHANN,

: DOMINICA

GU ADELOUPE EL

3% 1763-1814 a Morne

aux Diables

Fort ~ Hampstead Shirley 2826 Y

Prince e \ = |

Portsmouth > Woodford Hill upert ) wv Bay , Oy IM )= ysyy ey core3 ooo Li Turner Momne/ iy que 7x A b-Lx pont

| og Salybi Colihaut a , RS ve Yj 2341 Dublanc 7 YWy: Vi j oc"

Ye Arf © ,>Morne a 202) eee V7 Diablotins

: a Mang Pea BAW -ostatatatetes . rererelcereret ) state ete 2300 ocetetet a0 ateest tetetes

s RA ° y,Castle \e ruce

| “ J) “A % BN is St. Joseph Mon PY/4™Morme res Couronne “AA ZMarrons

Layou 2312 Y4 WYyer, Belfast SJ Morne Lf f, TOsn).

Mahaut Trois P tons & Lp poser Rosalie | : 4 Morrie 0g “0 4 ola 4Anglais 3 2331 Morne 56 . ‘~~ Contours rE J+ areas Macsdue25 / oY Maroon Wee 5950-4814 ES MA

3388 Carib reserve | ,

oeAnglais cMorne ty Yy Uy, @ Z aUY; oe

bo

9983 Ye Pointe

BY Mulatre =} 0 1 miles 2 93 Soufriere 4 #§ S)fo) | a

2636

MARTINIQUE CHANNEL MapP 9g

New Colonies, Traditional Resistance 143 they would not harbor runaway slaves.° This second provision, in _ fact, was almost redundant. So numerous did the fugitives become, and so large were the areas to which they could flee to become independent maroons, that cooperation was no longer attractive to the Caribs or necessary for the African runaways. Thus the Dominican Caribs barely kept their ethnic and political integrity, while the form of resistance against British colonialism in Dominica much more resembled that of the Jamaican maroons than that of the Black Caribs of St. Vincent and was at least as effective. Thomas Atwood, writing in 1791, nearly a quarter century before the Dominican maroons were finally subdued, gave two causes for their rise, attributing much of the blame to the first British settlers. . _ Many of the would-be planters brought unsuitable slaves: domestics unused to hard manual labor, troublesome individuals transported from other islands and bought cheap, or large groups of newcomers straight from Africa. Set to work at clearing the forest, they died, either from overwork or from lack of “seasoning,” or they simply ran away. Furthermore, many of the newly acquired lands and slaves in southeastern Dominica had formerly been owned by the Jesuits who, as in Martinique, had combined missionary activity with the vigorous operation of sugar plantations but had decided that it would be politic to sell out after the British conquest of 1759. “Many of the negros so purchased from the Jesuits,” wrote Atwood, either from their attachment to them, or dislike to their new masters, soon after betook themselves to the woods with their wives and chil-

dren, where they were joined, from time to time, by others from different estates. There they secreted themselves for a number of years, formed companies under different chiefs, built good houses, and planted gardens in the woods, where they raised poultry, hogs, and other small stock, which, with what the sea, rivers, and woods afforded, and what they got from the negros they had intercourse with on the plantations, they lived very comfortably, and were seldom disturbed in their haunts.®

Given at least a generation in which to develop their communities, the Dominican maroons became, in the words of one governor, “an im-

perium in imperio.” Another governor described the discovery of large hidden villages and provision grounds 300 acres in extent, including, ironically, sugar canes as fine as any found on the settlers’ plantations.’ By Atwood’s account the Dominican maroons, like those in Jamaica, were at first peaceable. But the French encouraged the maroons,

144 African Slaves arming them during the reconquest of the island in 1778, so that after the peace treaty of 1782 (which restored Dominica to the British), the maroons resolutely resisted British attempts to reestablish and extend

the plantations. One modern Dominican writer has identified no fewer than a dozen maroon leaders living with their different bands

in the tangled center of the island at this time. “In the southern camps,” he wrote, “there were Congo Ray, Balla, Zombie, Jupiter, Juba, Cicero and Hall. Above Grand Fond was the camp of Mabouya and in the higher reaches of the Layou Valley there was Jacko, Coree Greg and Sandy; above Colihaut was Pharcell.”® In 1785, after the maroons had rejected several offers of amnesty and had intensified their depredations on outlying estates, the conflict turned into outand-out war. Governor Orde persuaded the Assembly to pass an act for extraordinary taxation and created a “colony legion” of 500 men, made up of regular soldiers of the Thirtieth Regiment volunteering

for extra pay, white and free colored militiamen, and “able negro men belonging to the different plantations” as rangers and baggagemen.9 These legionnaires were divided among three fortified posts inter-

connected by a line of patrols and placed as close as possible to the presumed chief maroon encampments. In response the maroons immediately pierced the pickets and attacked Rosalie estate, owned by the lieutenant governor, with 100 heavily armed men. There they killed four whites and the black slave driver, cremating their bodies in the flames of the sugar works. The rebels then spent two days “riotting and revelling, blowing conk shells and huzzaing, as for a great victory, having taken the precaution to stop up the roads to the estate by felling large trees, and placing centinels to give them notice, in case

of the approach of the legions.” To the dismay of the settlers, this bold attack was followed by assaults by smaller bands of maroons on at least five other estates.!°

In 1786 troops were sent to Dominica from St. Vincent and Grenada, along with 1,000 extra muskets for the militia. But, as in Jamai-

ca, the settlers countered the maroons’ guerrilla operations best by irregular warfare. Atwood graphically described a small expedition led by John Richardson, who though a mere carpenter was familiar with the woods and the maroons’ chief hideouts. Richardson persuaded a handful of legionnaires, and some “trusty negro men” of Rosalie estate who were bent on revenge for the death of the driver, to accompany him in an attack on the encampment of the maroons, who were led by the chief Balla. Traveling rapidly by night through mountainous jungle and swiftly flowing streams, they stealthily ap-

New Colonies, Traditional Resistance 145 proached Balla’s camp by a path so steep that “the party were obliged

to go up, one after the other, and to have their muskets handed to them, the one on the upper, by him on the step below, till they were all ascended.” Achieving complete surprise, Richardson’s party routed Balla’s group with musketry as they were preparing dinner, capturing the women and children and a great deal of booty taken from plantations. The maroons were confused and dissuaded from a counterattack by one of their own tactics: Richardson and his lieutenants called out orders to imaginary forces on the surrounding ridges. Balla himself was pursued and was killed by one of the legionnaires.!! Some time earlier Cicero had been betrayed, taken, and gibbeted at Woodbridge Bay, and soon after Balla’s death Coree Greg and Sandy surrendered with their bands. These victories encouraged Governor Orde to announce to the Assembly that the emergency was over. But the removal of the four maroon captains seems simply to have eased

the way for the emergence of something like a paramount leader, Pharcell (alias Farcel), who had already been described as knowing “better how to avail himself of [the country] than any of the other chiefs” and as having a working rapport with the French in Martinique and Guadaloupe, to north and south.!? Writing soon after Orde’s proclamation, Thomas Atwood was also inclined to conclude

his account on an overoptimistic note. “The runaway negros have since then been seldom heard of in Dominica,” he wrote, “for those who were under ... Farcel, it is imagined, have quitted the island, and have retired among the French settlements, or among the Carribbees at Saint Vincent’s.” In fact, Pharcell and his followers were simply lying low in Dominica once more, reorganizing. Atwood was forced to add in a footnote that since his book had gone to press he had heard from Dominica that “the runaways, under the command of this chief, having been joined by a number of other negro slaves, from

different plantations of the French inhabitants, have again commenced depredations of a most serious nature.”!° As I will show in Part Four, 1791 was only the beginning of the Dominican maroons’ most active period, which continued throughout the French Revolu-

tionary and Napoleonic wars. For much of this time Pharcell remained the predominant chieftain, though the symbolic high point was that occasion in 1813 when the maroon leader Quashie placed a reward on the head of the governor, dead or alive.!4 Although the British colonials always stressed connivance with the | French, the Dominican maroons were encouraged in at least equal measure by the resistance to British colonialism of the Black Caribs of

146 Afri Sl i ...@. £§©£;&=§=§=§= CC eee | = 6 ee a ee apceeeceeees @ . .@. OCC os: eae a ne ee oe — se sae aeecen neeoe —— ee Se ee a Pesaro res meee Seer ae Re aie connor aaa escent ae SOR TO Seca nGs cole ea Sarat ae ae — Si Rsoe si iStersesaa eee aoe ee. —rr———™r——‘C—i—ir PF? Saas ee —SAO BeoPae

et Soiree aan ea neem ss Sec eet ee GO OO SU ONE E sscaaneataats sno nbeelateateates Se eee rntimietteaimeneen ene SSE en iene DUNES aa aeater ta ate a REL Se Sea Nene Sa Cate ss elie ecient 5, —- ae ects ocean ae Sosa a Ra Sear oceans Soe, Semen Oe RTO eae CMOS IR Sate Peo neo nee eee

—”—“_OO—— ~~ — hh a ae em SE SR RR ae Sa ars Rea Oooo ea-eee cy Oe aeaee — :_aeiC 7 i.=rrrr—“_—OOOS aCi — i...Bee LORERe es aNae RN Caae eS ER RNRr——C—C—i eee ae Seep ana PRUE SC aR ee Ne RE ec eS RUR RAR MORE TOY iftaahonamsnernenc ces seth MEE ea ce Peete has rotate Few SOPOT Te a eirceeeonetosess Stat aates

sprees Siheinmaecnnae SU Se coane hutierabanuavoceerndmiensatias Bose tsaane Sexe: 0 nea i erat | oeeR i SEES Bee Ae Be oesae ccaeae SOR Anaman aan LS ieRnee a ae A i —_. piesa carene nanparece eee sCrtaamre en a nates Se SOeS SYmae a REaS NE aoe

Be ——~—“COCOCSSE Bay seaman an atc ees Rees ORB SS RSS OGG UREN CR poe ON panies EC Ce SiR MRA RARER Sen R RRR RON eee a Oa eS PRECEDENT ae ntat Oath RN RG IR CSR Tae TL IRS Se SORE AC te eR sagen team shiencn one e aes Pass ae te teh cet RA Roki! es ah caer att at

— Soran RR ay 8 . _

. Re. omnmn nam eas ee Bence annua eRaRoe eee RSse teenie cy coe i i— Sen ue meena Nn OS ee sor eABcc eeee | Sa ee eeec 5 ae Beoe Sie Soe eae REE IR Piri | - paar eeoeae ee sees fae eas TAS RO a Bes RE RRR ace RsSe oe ee ron anemunE Be a asin : =... ee ee aes cae eae CO ee Reesor as Cae cman es hme RED Ste Ss ecareaanen ae ne ee ad a BSS Sas Sia eC RAO Cy ORR CRORES acct Sete ence

SEN ee i Sn Sa score create outs ta BS ae PE eS RRC ERN Se ice a RRS NE ener onan oo i2. ... £a ee£eeee §+==.,. Ch ones oeBGS pee Css — ..ers rraSSnes Seana Rae ear ae aae ahee eRres ee % ee3.Ss ee CGSB RR Brna oariees ae ee Soe ee cde cc aa ee es packeo cane ie Ree BeRae na St a ee 8 ago Sets ee SrrrsS—SaS Soe BOOS oe spicata omni kg oe or ee RO es Roemenaci eet —rrrr——“—irw”s—~—~—~—“‘iésSCSCSN tte ea staan asa Se ones SRN Tee ee ges 5c 3 SR Sana Se eee ‘ Sa RRO regener ene

. as BSE i eneeRE DAIS ONS ORAS SNcnCS has Stesegeane RAENyeTNE OCs SSRR RO eReae NORA Reparetincnemeenina ir vee Senet SEL SahateS ae Sire a ee Oe Se PRR ROCN NNND Ie ineee SRA aegisPeSere nent es eeeER ae ee samen Nee RNS Sen anaeer neeacnn ae iene a merencnnien crs ee eRe

eae acre CEReso RRR Oe RC OE RRSSe RSONO Soe pecan teeCa es ER Se Renae ERR ROone Nasey SsoR eee — hl eeaseesieeeBon ASSS Sen RMRa Gee Canee ON Di ORES PIIRERe SeRR crenata Sesairs aE ae aOR ane

. . a pee Poe See cee aa Sear aR ot Re Eoe Pe tact SS et OS RR CER Veer AS SPRINT ORE Ne RR uaa neatancatisetrrs atone Bre saith octane Nees Oe RE

Sees ents Nt patie puter oe ASE Se rea ee Reena aaa a eas BSN Nec eS Se irhapent atin BRR cis uranroaanureneneante estate. pres a Be SS SE arae eo as Naaie eaaieeais sRrset Se =ea eecau eee oe een PRON SST SR aemeni aca oe Reena See ean ae SN a Sanaa SNE RRR i oe NI Pie ae cocOs CN NI SPOR R SS ERRaee 4OR chases eaeROR Rae innate _eRaeOe ooER eta oetas iNPON tac Rte ee eca sedmn A aaa are ident eR Reimann

Be leesoe oe RN e S scum ee scrnaraes ee ee BRS ne E ee ees Pee taea———,r,r”—~™”,.——C—C

; ff Pi ON 4 eif ;4. ee. ee ae? ea é t .- a. oe rs gt a* ‘4 er AS, he / bn ON Ra ar 3a 7- +. fa * Fae: 4A Ae i on * ¥\ ott gs 4 i > ‘+ '}‘ ‘Gas ‘* . ty! ~~Ss 3 f°*4 SAS % > . SSa ‘OO - rs ; i ae rs 5a f ih a min, hed Pp al a, Sigs cso ‘yt 4,4oe- eet ‘ ‘igi yy wun, eS oeWs Peeeeo; ns a8 er a ‘j cid eSain’ aa ;BA at “os

5 , - * ; : . : ” “*

wee es hoe “ % . ‘ ‘ .* 7 : “ H ey % oa “ - ‘7

Lx * oN *BoP xy Deh . .% MA jSaad ‘ee ~» ..¥w;ths .< ,at NAW asi»Pe mk» Mae 3?ek 7rdwe 5k AS Sat ae r a _ % Sang*” 7 vr att y $ ey . gf ts 5 See ase Resiacuaneueraset ennanisatreen a NORMS eoomenonet EU ee See eer rc copper ae ee ee erm cree err SY eonuenene cca nee as ae sa NER So ROU a Secreta cee catia Le | SR oa acca conan se nen perenne ite ae BSS Umno as Cag oo eeennia SH et era Oa cae Seale (ner openbaar Se sucrose Cpa ae rma mar srmety oe es ROI i ors ee ERE SG perenne a Recoonesntar Sa aia ene a BS Se San ecce aaa ar ran ecstencn aan ea IS I eR ec Serco earn esate Peeaonetetere SRR co sieassiana SRN ge nD see Se ee Se es ee ~~ Cs«C SOrcamarraeeceie eR aS sr akan See eaaarp ee Sate aiea REN serous eaeneeea So aR aace se os ee tnsrotnsrcircreeares ee Sci aes a SESE Ee aemseaaneae

See eee eeStee Sreee euaeeS ean eeRbeaniae peer ee SS ea aanne aeeee foee hrrr— SE SePca ae eeeae ee RR panna ties arse ea Ne ce eae eiacnao SS EEN OS og ifdf bo Eee Scheie ee See ee Rrame RR cr ee aa aae Se Aa ras} aa: eeNE fo cer SNSe stan eae ar pease snc ec deat saeco cio cae ei eeeRE Seee aeees Cs oo ee Se ee a eee me ore =| #2. =f ts21Weon Sees ee ee Scere as siren ane comes See Ra as rar nuit annua Beier perce ran cae ee eee Bienen eae Sette reece SO Sa ae aeee em et cP) Be ae Sr sae rar sg Se maar aoneeeeaeeeReems BE OES GES ogame ae ces ee poomcheaab ee ee eeeene es Se ee bade ae aae=: — —rrrrs—~=—“‘= iii. 4éééiiéi@é@§jQ§8Bec ictaunnenenen cereeER sao RE atin aRea a SE RSE Meets sO aang —,,r,r—~—it—“‘“O—OisiOiOCONCOCsCCCC a ems ee iSaat ie SRR aeRO 5 RE, a RR RRaeRRS r=P ‘gine

Be Sata suntan noe Sesion oan Oa aa ee eeReece ce pe eee Serapeo i c eeee.|U”}§F©=—™6mme. eefeBee aea cS

: as ag SR inh ea este nc ene Sei sucinsian sapien a BESSA RE eRe as SLUR SRC SN SR RR SO iB SE Sie Sa Sa .ee a #2 rr——“ 8} §=—_hCC BRR Bonnier suenenanennnns San age cutie neat RS sasin mmerennny ain erecr ae Sioa ase ees SSRRS: Re CR RROD: Bonne gmmcmaunma arama if p) ee aeneee ep Ree ee Baca Ren ne aREee aoe r—“‘“‘“‘“‘“‘ ~ ie el ‘ fe a | ee ere Sieger one RO aS % ARON Se eee ee es 5, eo RR cae CF ey gs % eeesTF. es Re ee ae hung se ee Se eee _ ee ecb aotn depen ee are ce RRR Bue ae agua occ cua RUA RRR NAR Ns OsSeFee CNN RO RS 5 rey bs Sen eR apnoea BRE pam SORE a Rae terete ee reese rrrrr—s—“is”si—CrésiS*iCrsSCS are aieoeae cache Sots Eeaaa aeSeROR aa Wine acneensts ssAteaaterattahat toSoh Sorensen te iar aonrenet ore seerercee aatates SEDONA RRR R ERS CREE EN oer a OR OO Reell ee ce oo ORorn ert SRS Sanpete Eee a rr—~™—se—e—ei—OR Bie ss RR a © baa eas Sienna i CS eater 3 i =. Sera Seater supa ee ee Beers: seamen ~4#

Burchell, Gardner, and Knibb were arraigned at the Cornwall Assizes and gathered together literally hundreds of defense witnesses. Burchell was released when a colored witness called Stennett confessed to perjury, and the judge entered a nolle prosequi in the other two cases on March 15. All the Baptist missionaries in western Jamaica

fled to Kingston, but even there they did not feel safe. “Should I escape,” wrote Knibb to his mother, “I shall return to England, as I am not safe from assassination in this part of the world.” It was probably with relief that Burchell and Knibb found themselves deputed to go to England by the other Baptist missionaries, to “present the case

of their brethren.”°> Thomas Burchell took the first ship he could get, by way of the United States at the beginning of April; William Knibb and his family sailed direct to England on April 26. During the crucial few months between the enactment of the Great Reform Bill and the passing of the first Emancipation Act in July

1833 there were about a dozen refugee missionaries in England. _ Freed from physical restraint and fear for their lives, and finding a public now fervent for reform, they became uninhibited and absolute emancipationists, forgetting their years of compromise and dissimula-

tion. They also conveniently forgot who had fought and suffered most in the recent rebellion. Because of his rough oratory, tireless energy, and firsthand experiences, William Knibb was the undoubted

star and one of the most important single influences shaping the public debate. During the summer of 1832 he was, with the Method-

ists Duncan and Barry and the Anglican Austin, one of the most important missionary witnesses before the Select Committee of the House of Commons. He gave evidence that spread over four days and covered forty-six pages in the 550-page report. During the rest of 1832 and for the first half of 1833 he preached, spoke, and debated before huge crowds throughout England and Scotland. William Knibb was not insincere and was rarely disingenuous, but in his wildest flights of rhetoric he was never impolitic. In accordance

The Baptist War: Jamaica, 1831—1832 319 with the need to convince the public that Christianity was a force for civilization, not disorder, he played down the activities of the slaves in the 1831~—1832 rebellion, especially those of the members of his own congregation. He hotly denied that he admired or had praised Samuel Sharpe.°® Instead, he stressed the evils of slavery in general, the cruelty of the planters, and the persecution of the nonconformists by the Anglican whites. He exhibited slave collars and whips which, in those ingenuous times, were greeted with hisses and boos. Even more effective was another stage prop, the neckerchief of Henry Bleby, still coated with tar and remnants. of feathers. And most effective of all were Knibb’s heartfelt accounts of his own persecution, how he was carried in bonds by canoe from Falmouth to Montego Bay, was sworn at by foul-mouthed militiamen, and was prodded in the chest with a bayonet. To many of his pious auditors he seemed, more than a mere witness for Jesus Christ, almost a Christ figure himself.>7 In 1832 as in 1823 the missionaries stole the martyr’s crown. For the British public they were the chief heroes and victims of the re-

bellion, even more potent than the Demerara Martyr because they came at a readier time and came in person to capitalize on their ordeal. We, however, can have no doubts as to who the true heroes and martyrs were. Knibb himself, much as he relished his popular

glory, tacitly came to acknowledge the role of the slaves and their

leaders when, in the 1840s, he had Samuel Sharpe’s body translated from its unmarked grave to a place of honor in the rebuilt chapel in Montego Bay—handing out pieces of the original coffin almost as sacred relics.°8 Henry Bleby, too, made the rebel slaves the heroes of his Death Struggles of Slavery, though this was not published until 1853.

In particular, Bleby described the intrepid heroism with which many of the rebels met their deaths. He wrote of Patrick Ellis who, when -

surprised and surrounded, refused to surrender but, bearing his breast to the advancing troops, cried out: “I am ready. Give me your volley. Fire, for I will never again be a slave.” Bleby described how leaders twice tricked by promises of reprieve, like Gardner and Dove,

or Robin Hood ruffians, like Dehany, could go steadfastly to the gallows. “I have seen many led out to die,” he wrote, “who were as calm and undismayed in walking to the scaffold as if they had been proceeding to their daily toil.”°9 Yet fittingly Samuel Sharpe’s end remained most indelibly in the | minds of those who witnessed it. Bleby visited the condemned Sharpe several times in his cell and once more was struck by his eloquence, calm, and determination. “I found him certainly the most intelligent and remarkable slave I had ever met with,” he wrote.

3 es watered atte Sagi aes iat aN ee A A SOSA RR Se ES SEIN SOI SOG ORR SRR LI RR SR eR POs RE OR ERROR SOR OY SNe PaOBsAE Te RRR Ri Be ae Rie. eaIS Feee Seaea Se ORSON, Le RAS RO TEER Sows rc cee SoM aeons ee ROE Fateinenieatetennteatenamscer Ra aie Ras cnlucea a IR Se ea urea aE ae eR Seaeeee SON rahiOse eae cai eaeAe SRE ae AA.INES REN ae RSS ra 300RR” Sok ik aeRDO sae 5,AS SeeSee aRpes Seas BR gue Coe ees Bet aeriaantencaeartenc eens caeuence RE RES Se ee ee SR ARO RON ARR ORES SORES. 8 SAAR ARR GR RO ROR RSRR RR Segk Se ee RARE RS SSR atRR OgBARNSLEY as Re eeaed ea tees BRN no a NR iat See SRM hae SeRe pte OCR aR Fee aIR SN TRIS he RED. SE ORASSao TE eR RRR ORME NOE»ee oie A CAS SION LW NE ge RON an RO aeRE aR OE RRS NO aN BeSe OS ON REN RBS ee re9 FeEIRegs Bers we aise UE A aSRCOLI ROP Oe. cae eeeR aR EO AND SRS OR EIMRIEORES, RRSE. SAR SO See eeRAE oes a ttc teORR OOO Sa es $ 8HOSS eeSAAR eee ee Fe Se ats ae aR Lae SERN ep ARERae NN SSRete URI ETO henge AONE.eae Scat ORONO. RASA a ISS RES a SRS CRS OREN CR SUR Seeae SR Ce NRO aa SOT aR SE EEene REE cn ARERRR tN oS ORNS Re2 OR eSCOON Ta crea aeeasER SS Ot eae erSEAT eeRReeeee eee erSonee ee rs ee REO eer, SeRR PRI eeSaOE I ES heROS Ra

ce. She eote ee ee cg oe Ne is bis ce en ris eres eee : ee pe aes che ena eee dees og

ee Ae a gee Tg ee ee ee a ae eS

Fe Oe ci oe ae pr SS 5 Cease cs ee ec eee a ee eee ee

Saas Sica eRe suStke SRR RESe,aSee SRR AeRANRRA a ORRSSEN. SS SRE ERRWER OERIN SSI ERR REAR “ROR i SeSOMERS, gente gue ke RE SCs ee aI SARA RE oONDeeatoSRR OS Raeksoh Re aE et op eeOS ae Seek Rie SRR Sea ei PORE RARER GAC BatsOREN RRR ARE RSS ARORE TISA siti AEDS. StRD ERRMSG ERSTE. “RRR oeORR in ROR ssaNae LRT SRR ee AA Ser. RR INOR RD REORDER ANA DOR.”| OR: A IRR SPOON oORSE OCS ROS ORNS “FON. RRCOO RRO TRNAS BERRI SRR aerate SURINAME RRS OND AC Bea ran Re ht Sa Rose rs BEACERS ee ES RR ARERR OR i oeMERCI LRN ee 3 TSH $BEER Sets Se Sat eeABCoS OCR, Sen La SR SST SRR NOR OD: erothr ee Sse SO SRN NORIO carte” SREY AOR. RRR a apt Sore RO a UR REE Iae CAE ORRSs ROM oe ae re Car Et RENE SNReNO ENOESUREC LRRD: “SR RR CRUMAI MURS ONT RRE en RS RENEE TAHT Uti Se CON PCE RRRIO RE RONEN Sesh eke SRR Ee USNR CREO NOTE gtCa. SEAROeS RNSSORES RE ER MRToar NNNcanner CN OO Meee see a,

oe RUSSEL cen REED oN tN ee arr Ae Pees ee ee 2 pe Pe ee ae in ee Bernas Ce et ekSeeeeereeea etfgNGaSpears: SOooeeee aeeaOSeeGSCo eegeee eee > Sa canta aie I, ee Pe eeBs Eee Oe Se = te ee ee a ee ae oo Eeee ae .RR Sa SEaoe ae Re0ogg ee aana eee ee oe eens oe Pere ee Rete ne a eS cr an aRer a atmom Se ee Ba RS aE RR CRON eS RRoe RR RSS OP ERSee eC Cc, a SE eeSR eemniSg aeseRSEoy ee ee ee ee = ODO ca oa a Sa RO Hee EUR See eens oe, re aemmeretiie,, ee aire ce, ce za Savas Br er sh oper quaminuane intent ane SO ON ENO vee as ee ete ee Sh en eC a ona eR On a Ros Seta ee oe RC ume Siroatemenenn ances Sap ah epee

RO ce ae ate BR eS RO AN RRR GI esr Re IR eR er ER oe Petes ROR ARI SL, Ach ORL” URRY RSI NASA SORE OR ERB SS ROR NY RRO RSS OURRC SER ARO RENEY SE ANSE RAR RRR GERRI 3 URNS NN en

ae oeRRR SS OR BRE tenner Soe ann RRAOA ORR AYR ceER OB genet RRS SRR ne IM REN AR EPEC 5)RSRS OSA eRKAU RE Osc SORE ROR ONRSREN.” |.REAR OCR ERSST RESCIND seein Senge een PRSR ISERE MgN Ses TS ISPOIKAK BE TESA! LE TESOE TEGO RES BEI ARE OLgsBEERS LOSS OO OEE AARSE” RR ORR ROR to RERUNS CSS SNR aUS” SR”MRR ONS: AD CoRR ESO eRCRESS. ARENT RENEE So Saco oR IE ROR. RRRACE SN ER een RNS ORIEN ie ee SE ee egONE ee oe ERPS Recs Oe Sek RR: ONC SRS S SER RNADSC NSCOR SBR ERRRS SMO Sh OUR RSM eT RR te Seger oe Rory PhTE: heron eas SR aacgRLRO ge ee ReOeSNR SH OS RMR SO ecSRREeS Mee oS eS

Saimin, eesSRE Rares Cin cs 7ANOR naa i iNN ReOUR ECR Ns BetteaaeaRia Pista. ae ae RaRe entsRaunt mRRE® Sayonara nna SR ae FOhnSB CRaaa OecM aeRUDGE Scam Bate es aes SilatPee i aa a Eo pegaeeCae Ses RRO TR Ra RON ORCSEONS RRS Siac SRN. RRR ue ey Be RRR POSEN EI Seaaa SARMOR RUN CNCoes RM Nepee ORR oe a SRO naDigs ae SENae Meem ae ete ARROG! Seis RORcot RRRSORES Ste SLO TGR ROSERRORS RONDA. 7 A RAL CS RTE EIEN SI a SOD ce aa ns oe SEARS Se RCE ORO RAR SRR 2 SR REN SRR ST Racsnere. aeSR ON eeIR: 5 ase een agRL Se ScTRRRR emo meters si ReSIeR ENSORR NCSC Sits spo EER RC RN RRC RS AR NO RR eR RREc a eR CRpeans Sea ik aR ORR a SN or et5xeS RRR aR RRORR RES S D Seer ESO a ORER ONO RRE™ -ONO SS ceBes R , ae S SE SR I GRE ORS A SRR EON IR i RR By aS SRR Ce RMB RS RRS NO Sh ORR Soo ORE a ans Nitrest a acne. Se RORROG OO sce ODEO ROR MSR RO RR CERN ca RRO ae

a ee Be—aeeRr rgceeBos Oe IE Ee RRSSES Boe nvegennnecns seSee MRNA eee ann ReeARcSe aerd+ yet Boa cee ee ees eeBaas ek Se SRS nsOE Sen RRSSOR OD RCRA Sa SR EN IOC RO eS este SIR a q ) om ee ae es eM Rta SRN eaeSe me RRR BeaERR ORSORE SEek RRR SCREa ct sgSete iO ARON AOBR a PR RR SR Ra es aoaeae eR OSRae SRE EDGAR. ERCe- SS SS: ee ORS fas Se RROOEN cg a Lie Re ee OER a aan ta a ene ER oS OO RON: UGA. haa CaN RSRa a Re Rate Fe a a Betis aria Reser aR eS RRR RR RE ROU RR RRNA ORR Sa Desa

ee Se Saeae ee feo ain ees ee ee See ee eccaaee se Ra Ee,Oe ose: cn ee Saae eRsO, Ree oe eR ee eR a.aS og et ac tana es Peea ae stan sand

ieee ee ee ee CO ee ee rca oe oe mt Sn ain i SAREE NC RES. 9P SP SRRERAN NS SRNL CP ce CMe se RNA Sree? aE ns cecal Re ERE RRC MI aS AS RRR ERE PG ne RRR MORATN: NSERC RON” OSS RSIS ON NON Ente es Fencin ators tatehoe arpecop utah tetas abbr cecepeat en ia sameeren se 1 1 ROCA ie RES RARER RRR CCP ARI:

eas iOS tS Ss RARE TO ORE SE A One Na IREUR ONOR Co RSS, aoe ee ORG NII OCA RBRRR tic sree tangac tnencteeea Basa cami cen oanegegen taser cana amarAE wemaeeen a ae I ORE eR RR RARER a ON Ne ARC ung Br ERa MON RR PE es SRP HS Or RUNS ONL SSR itiatg cuentas gu enema see aROR RE ORct Iaton asSRO RO SNORT PES ROR eenEBON ei nangiasuenc

hie cers aes He oe Bes ge aR Ctra nas era cra ROR MRR aera area Sh ok eee ae a a a ee Bs ae a [o) Papen

BSS OR RRO ROR he BO SDE SARS Bes NIRS OT SRNODE: UN RIN SO REDD IRROe SRR RAE cours RENIN,” yl = RRERRAIC eOREOI Te eMPRR TRIES 0TIORR an CRG |.ice RRR oNSOR ee IRONSree RRR aR eaeBoor ieRSRien oeUae sen err RAN RREEC eaeLERN tencinatigtne anOoh MR aRR Reon se een SS RE esicee tha Rae $ ‘ paren Ns ANN acrema RoR DRDO iy Se Rte ean OASRS * Sea a ntenes SRD. eePOO RH CASt SCRas SarUR CORDELE SO eNOS TOT SOONER Seaint RUN Nag DR NRO SEOARRED 3 tC GeAnNCianeee RANA, ONES EN RS REDE eens Sifetetasero ts LN AOR EP i edROR a ne RS PON vRRR 5 a OREN aR AR sc OR. eis meron cpr ORENORos Sait ene aeREAR SOR Beaten teeta nea Sha ARR ah SEN RN SORON AMa ORR ON BRO aenRRR Sn oan:

Se fs RN ae aaa ey PE ae Soong a ae eo ene oe es ge SE ce Oa babe Mea eae a SR 2 ee ~~ Be Sa RoENSSgage Sa as aEehNO SSR RRS SUR on Se eeae Re aOO cre eR aieees heRS RRs aS” ieee ee Serco BSSe SSSRR eg oq PRESS ee BON Oa Ce Ri IRooaearneeee Berens ee GE Sees 2) iB)8

en ee Bc al eae ee ee ee ae ES Sa Re gc Feces Saar ee” ,

RE RSE RO esNERENO: UROD RAR RS RTS REC eeRROD, ee eeOR SAAR RRSARREARS ERR ccROR ce ER PRU See Daag aioe SOS ORRRCORORCRIN RRL SRS 8 RAE RRSTS te RRL RARE NRC SSSR CA On NR eR NRE RRR RN RR a E to OR a oho teed

See re ar gee acer htc Rene ee proba Sree sai eee gia Crane ean pie sane aD NOOR OR CO OA RE RR SRO ROSA RRES St OO RERUN in ts. NOREEN naa RC Raa anes OR Pn cet Re RO r eigiceinnn ponents Seer nt ROR SRO N ON SOUS REIN CUAL LR ORE SIRO SR RRR RRS MEI DEGRA STIS RIES PRON ICS ARCS RENDER MRD ie Ke SG, SO A RAR OON ARS MUON AA ee ORS RIS 8 808s os SE aie Set SoS RII + AUR PON RIN cPeoo8 ssa! Satter Od RR ON CRM ROR RRS. Nae Ratatat raen a

ee ee : a aE SOE AR BROS OS SS ame ae z Sen, Boe bee 2 ‘ be ee : i BR he a: on Eset sec eccmnceerr nee Renmniat SN Cteateia saem Enns Cone Ca eee Se ORG Seer oa Een, Sona:Seis uenameenee aaoeLe SR IReT RR A cn RRSame MR Ria RE ORES EOL. RNR og end a } Poarene Be ee Se Sareea antes coer cn er >EEE ee ea Sees eee ae ee ea oe oe aeSe Sa Sc nig Sa RRoo MS RRR EeBega es cm sere Bee 8 A Sead {EET BM RRs ee OR a aE ROR SDR SC a ORR SRS ONO I RRR RN Ne Se ROE NOS Ot Oe COR a RRR NOR: SSO pear SE SIRS aR AON ORO REC REN ae ae NS ee

os SR eeSUES i eeeRIMS Bg ee PNB goacnonc aie oe Pur BoacSechaaeieRO OMe BERRR ERSSgearee OR eRceOR eS EIN eat aOOM Rg BR NSas REate, SseteSRR ncRR RRR 2RRR SRR Shinn, Sorento eeRe aRae Rae SOaeeeeRe oe iP) tad SSIESinners SP Ree SenNSteR Ses a REN RRees eeOr OR RRS NC SSR CCS RERROC 3 SS | 7SRURN nS geRD a TNR: 2 ae eR Seren ook eae PROS ato So ANRNO saa ome See oN OC euspeemcen BRS ES SS OR RRS a eee aigCR Ie Re RRONR, RRSP RE SERB SURO SRE Be PASSE RRR SRS Ritree ae RE ARO RE RECS ae ANSE OREN Bas Sea ae ee RONDO RRO NRO OR SRO. AD RS RNG RRS NCES SURRENDERS OOOO oo URES, aR SE Se

SSIES SR RRR Se Sct oa ORR OMe RNR CRUE ORR RR SON ARGO Se Pc CU RROD SIS TOS OT RRR RE ASS. CRS eee aS aN SOREN Sh RRR ESCA A nO ORR OO RUM LE MRE AS ENDS ROM RE RRS CI "RL CORR ia. ee oe Gece?

RODEN Se MECN enonOe SS ES Oe aGs8ocRR a ee ae Ree as ie cae OR CRs a Raaa IScie trie RR ercieeag eeNR ROR ae A opee RRaa or i a ae ed Bee BS SR RE aR eS aR oacaanee OS Se asa: SN sr aeGi ees RS eae eee gee ee este aa uses OL ORR SiawR Bg a ReRRR RIOSO eeRE coe SEE ae ee Sa ee aRieseuneetne Maree senna cn econ Rs ae eResear a i ten cagoe aaee astitran saison canRa Oa RR OREO SRRocca cc Raues RO meee naan SGrgDARE OOSee jue} owed

Oo Re ee oeSRSA penne ffgaPeereee So ee Be CR ae eee Re RR SOR ERee REC ee ER Somes Bae ae pga R nee Se ROE Sea RSS ie CRE Ry = ce CICS SR Os-Beceem: eee NORE Bee SRR ES, aaWwW Se ry CE EEC SSR RRC Ma ose AR SENS Ses RENCE ASN SRR OPS RR Bee iy Aen eNOS RR IRS SO Si ee eras oo SEE i Re «SRNR: Se St ae eh SI NS anata LO OIE OR ROO LL SECESSION RL Ct DUR Me cies SO SS RN SR Se Se a "2 POR ROIDSES™, SRS EUR NDR ERIE RODS A SoU RE RS DNS RUSSO CNTR OED CERTAIN SONOS IN SSIS SCIEN .

— ee ei So ee

Bese ac esnec ig nea ar ignOreRe OR RR aRgare pS Samia a a geage RRaga 8 ese RE oawea ce cheep ate eee iene ccna waticunn Rattnereen Tn cece SARO CR cc ORaR RSGo SOReseeSen ee pS ciate ch agcscca ereSMR MMe RE ann,aee, abecee aoaumn ncaa were nou mnannem’ ne wa 63.

Bocce ts Seance ee a ee RS oe ee ee SR rR eM sprint ec een ee eee ee co] ©

SISTER a eR a RE RS Bees ae ee PR Te RR I OLR a ee ona ck See See ane Some ae Fi Re eR SR gee neciaenas ante Maas an ea es Reon Rg “ESSERE SRR sa RRR CaS abv cht AR On NAR Secone oe hensEa eae Na Os case A RRR cere RINE RR eco SRE. CORB scone aor beara nnyBRAN, mare nn noneRRR ec te mhSRG een cap ceoennaggntraanneimioe arsenate eM SESS SesusieResse RR RRA Bee rieSa ncaa Sree eeMB Be eeRRR aa” SeoatARERR ORO SOS SIERRA ERAT SESS SRC aN RT SRS RR asRar ROS RU RRR ROR MR MRR SR ep ekEIUSe eeSR SE ee)Ce a § ‘ Beeeramenn aos sn Cerone Suan ROR aen Fe RNR ERPS os SE a ORS apnaRRR Se ee attae ReeaORs Reth Raaera RNR RAR 3. - SRN SOM A RN SOONER S50“ COaaa REN Re RR eR SNE TOO Seee eeeSOREN Se SRO RISEE ic ecg CORB ho at Ge OC. *cn RRR RE SR OR eS RT 8enIR NO CO RRS eeORORN.. Sees eee ROARS ORO ASN SUNS ROUSSE SHR SO SOR

1g, SSSR SRSoe cecacae srs eeaasa genepe SR SU Mees Re aR a Sane Se” ra REN rnaR Re a Oe eee oeae=ieae ee OC REaiaOa eesee_ ee ies coe ener eeeMas eeea aIs gk aeaON. eeace er ee © land te veSMR eb gaROR sennaRPC neler wnat iceCASRN Tae rcame ateRR Sorts Raa Co aR GO RRR Seseanuart arene ae oLae ak MRI RRC” SEROUS” | "7" OM TRE RSS RO PRG NeSE OE mance Geena ARON str iere encanta pom 0 SC cen ARE antes et ERM gp os NOR RE earacecars eR CARON SPOS ReneNR Str RS seteaT SooR ahseeOGRE AIURL ars OAR RRSES aes.18.6208 OR EDAR SSSR 2s RROD ORES ARNIS I SNORE aceIIe sa Oe araRSE OEE Tea Ne RR NR OESE SORES

TENSORS TIT AIRS SO ERI CORR DE OR SRIAZ MSCS Fe Stey Rca ne cena iN Re RRL a a tenet aR Ri a ONENESS Hae IDS ga scaROR: Re ENDO sn" AOnE Rica SRNR ORDERS RARERrae ORRIN RESORRMN CROSSERSAC ROEN CBS SRNY *” EEE oo RRS ONSO OSE ORRS ARS SSR CRN ee Sopa ves etn onyerase i Sete easRENO Re Bee oo eeeIRRERC Re. ORR SETS RSENT Spe MRE SA PM MRE RNSSRN RNISEO Sa okt

SE i R AFee eR S tees on vinrccee nneee ,. ER EE aRSae BSseseaer ite SRR ANON eeSSeea aeSea RN Sasneae TOR ngaSea a ae otis eySSRN ae oR eeBRE ae PERU ee eeONES

EES ec a ae a Seer Pies cae ae Ee SE cor rn RG oa ee es of) 6D

Barbee enon ues Shilinc ree RRR ERR RT CRS OR BRE RRR SR i aN ee es RE eae RG een eheotee ere hee RS eno sy RR Ue a RG erage

SO rrr,—“—swsCr—COTO*SCt*ss~—Ci OOO NOR Sapa CeO RRR RRR R I NIT OOO: eheehounsremtatiemnmeneng ine srentice eter esr ntertitinyrareperceaer ie ne soot aenernethnceece eae eee cot Ra SENSOR ROR

Ragen se BR ER RRR Pe RR ROSAS CRORES SRP RR oo pectinases nr oe an Ss area Gant connate net SERRE E RRR SONG RR RMD siemensnce Brayames SRS aaR RoRSh ROacon Fs SIEM ININGBOR I betsee Satta SCC ONLINE oo KRRMRO aapRR aon Ses se a etarat esata SRO A AR ORIEN I, AARON OTS. RODINcane saucegu eresecru aesanracrnsemara aecomaen ne oer ie RERES RRRRRR IER RES ORSODES LM dened

eee Sohne Sree: een ig teeBR Seace SERR See ag Se aSee a Soe BUNrsa a eeees RE ac outaSeas euinnnuacemeceene SRposiaenierear RBs ie SEE CERN Re Ratae. RRteUR Sa mR EN RR Seen Sencuienrcoee eras Streeter en eee SOS Sea eon Boos Sees ee oe Re naman cae BeORR a BO - Mm

Bie eacrncn ease raha re anatomic en eee PR RR Ro ORI Sirona cso RRR ae RRR SN OA ns Dar Re NSN wer enteric SRR RNR IN eer peter rene oR SR SSSR ROR MIORI ssecoon p seieisaiette enters ee etc rt ees ea RRR ee . ae a. ; Sppciamemneres FS SE OOS eS 8 Oe Ree em Spe as Sr ee ae ee ee Joa a ee eee ee SSR RONDA OEE $

Bea sere ie ae ees RNIN CS aia Sean ORO aSee cae aaonRR tseRon eeeSR. penn SSISSIR aR BRR coitemanenea Bec eccrine RO Be aoe OR iSees a Bre ieOOS as ate ne seater sabeasgan see, mbpatioctaenition sects concn eanaaeRRS eeeeeSiang Sesh RRR: Miao reena eeeSe oePROT eet RSA O MR MIIOIR eRRRS etgg ORE oraag Roms Sr aetc cee cer reteer ieee te potions aan thos stnek omtenn enna NOOR So aa ae asta Sa Se RRRRR totrentctatctatrnctat toe A SRR ARS er seRN Seerae Oe RSE eR SARE BRR RS RECS nO apRRR as RRR Beicicerseste iteecccmeertrnaercerctee ee

Fes SHON RRR NSBuen Ne Ra NR SR SNspan TAN SRR or Ra ace eter re me errr cneee eae suse cncsttnrr eosOO ease nanan Berga ac crema SRRRC OMSRa NRASEER CAMBRAI anaesRn sear RER ASIA RRR, AT RAST TERRORS Suse ciaRRS aNOENR © ins Moceetie cecnarcen BNDea eee SsCOS aaaSNM eaORR PENE.aeoraSe RE OR terior SLO No ROO NRROIS ee IR rea ow SARC CR SN RC DN CRI OE ENE ea REN ARM ON sincere BOs NTC PNT eS PRR Noon ed Pee Prete on ences nin one HR ae aa Ys peed

Bovcncct cram crn mannan avert nceRR cern poe NI SORE CRERRR ROSARIO: SURRY sSNAste: chet SRO See Se AERC RRO TT RRO RRO AED ORRRR RNINRR Re Soo eR OE RS RB RRO SRBRRR INSS SE SRSSK SROacs SERED ASRS ARS SCR SDE oRNO OROORS eo ORSRDS TERDCRRRSE eee ees ena RocaRRR Saari: oR SBaeeaeme ROB SARCASM gee NSS COR SE Sa eertiesaatneanno

SSE Sc a SR RSeste RNC ORR ea aac ae Sseo a ae staates Bo aaa ae eRa SSR a RENEE at aR ORO Pia eC ROS SOROS SaRR RR pret, Beiter SUS aera athens eaeeR a FR a So Bee SR teame co ag RR ESoe or iEeaa gare oc See SOU Spa ccapace Sees ene ge sc ee SEsania ERRORS aSeo sense BESaSOS Sagee arcsme eurostar rates i) Pease CE Sacer a SEEN IR SSO RRResirtathaten Rn ee ee Be RRR Soe aie a gaa SRO a SUSIC eeeCARON es orgieRI sranamouiae