Teaching and Learning in Saudi Arabia: Perspectives from Higher Education 9463002030, 9789463002035

Table of contents :
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
INTRODUCTION
1. ASSESSING EFL COLLEGE INSTRUCTORS’ PERFORMANCE WITH DIGITAL RUBRICS
INTRODUCTION
NEED FOR STUDY
DEFINITION OF RUBRICS
WHAT IS IRUBRIC?
BUILDING THE TPA DIGITAL RUBRICS
VALIDATING THE TPA IRUBRICS
APPLYING THE TPA DIGITAL RUBRICS
CONCLUSION
NOTES
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A
2. A SYSTEM FOR TEACHING ENGLISH IN SAUDI ARABIA:
A Model for English Language Acquisition with Reference to Study Skills,
Multiple Intelligences, Thinking Based Learning and Group Work
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theories of Language Acquisition
TEACHER TRAINING AND MOTIVATION
A HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
A BRIEF HISTORY OF EXPERIMENTS WITH THE SYSTEM
RESULTS
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
PRACTICAL STEPS TOWARDS LEARNING ENGLISH IN SAUDI ARABIA
Internalization First, Sharpening Second
Language Immersion Strategies
THE SYSTEM
Step One (Session 1): The System
Step Two (Session 2): Listening and Speaking
Step Three (Session Three): Add Vocabulary
Step Four (Session Four): Introducing Writing
HOW TO SHORTEN THE PERIOD
GAINING FLUENCY
GAINING AUTONOMY
ABOUT GRAMAR AS A SHARPENING TOOL
HAVING FUN WITH LEARNING
CONCLUSION
Limitations and Suggestions
Final Words
NOTES
REFERENCES
3. ANALYSIS OF SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS PREPARATORY YEAR WRITING IN A SAUDI UNIVERSITY
INTRODUCTION
ENGLISH IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN SAUDI ARABIA: PREPARATORY PROGRAMS
CONCEPT AND TERMS OF SFL
Brief Overview of Textual Metafunction
LITERATURE REVIEW
International Research on L2 Academic Writing
Regional Studies on L2 Academic Writing
SFL RELATIONSHIP TO GENRE-BASED L2 WRITING
METHODOLOGY
Research Site and Preparatory Program
Participants
Research Design
Autobiographical Recount Genre
FINDINGS
Patterns of Coherence
Logical Coherence
CONCLUSION
Sentence Openers and In-Text Connectors
Theme/Rheme
Patterns of Cohesion
Reference
Substitution and Ellipsis
Repetition
Reiteration
Summary and Implications
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
4. THE POWER OF “I”:
Student-Driven Writing at an All Women’s University
in Saudi Arabia
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
WHAT I MEAN BY “I”
ANTI-“I” WRITING AVOIDANCE TECHNIQUES
THE PERSONAL NARRATIVE AND “I”
RATIONALE
EXCERPT(S) OF STUDENT NARRATIVES/ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY
HOW THE PNU WRITING STUDIO WAS BORN AND HOW IT SUPPORTS “I”
MOVE TO THE NEW CAMPUS
UNPACKING “I” IN THE WRITING STUDIO
CONFERENCE PRESENTATIONS AND “I”
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B
5. COOPERATIVE LEARNING:
A Case for Creative and Efficient Teaching and Learning
Supported by: Analysis of the Present Situation in the Preparatory Year
Program in Health Profession Track
COOPERATIVE LEARNING: A CASE FOR CREATIVE AND EFFICIENT TEACHING AND LEARNING
Background
What is Cooperative Learning?
PURPOSE
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
OBJECTIVES
RATIONALE
SUITABILITY OF THE STRATEGY TO MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION INITIATIVE
COMMON LEARNING OUTCOMES
Individual Performance
Group Effectiveness
ASSESSMENT
SOME PRACTICAL CHALLENGES
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS IN THE CLASROOM
Classroom Ideas
Notes to Students
Teaching and Learning Group
Preparation to Teach by Pairs
Practice/Consulting Pairs
Teaching and Learning Group
Monitoring of the Group Work
Evaluation and Processing
AN EXPERIENCE OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING IN THE COLLEGE OF MEDICINE, UOD
ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A
6. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STATISTICAL ANALYSIS ABILITIES AND THE PRODUCTION OF RESEARCH AMONG SAUDI FACULTY
INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE REVIEW
RESEARCH METHODS
POPULATION
THE SAMPLE
INSTRUMENT
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION
RECOMMENDATIONS
REFERENCES
7. A SYNTHESIZED MODEL OF FACULTY MOTIVATI ON IN SAUDI ARABIA’S HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR
INTRODUCTION
METHODOLOGY
A SCHOLARLY DISCUSSION OF MOTIVATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION
FACULTY PERSPECTIVES ON MOTIVATION IN SAUDI ARABIA
RECOMMENDATIONS
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
8. CURRICULUM DESIGN QUALITY ASSURANCE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION IN SAUDI ELECTRONIC UNIVERSITY: A Case Study
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
RESEARCH OF PROBLEM
AIMS OF THE STUDY
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
OVERVIEW
DIMENSIONS OF QUALITY ASSURANCE IN EDUCATION
PROGRES IN DISTANCE EDUCATION
DISTANCE EDUCATION IN SAUDI ARABIA
SAUDI ELECTRONIC UNIVERSITY
QUALITY ASSURANCE IN CURRICULUM DESIGN IN DISTANCE EDUCATION
CONSTRUCTIVE ALIGNMENT
LEARNING OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
CONCEPTUAL AND PRACTICAL FRAMEWORK
REFERENCES
9. EAP AS AN INDEX OF ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE IN MEDICAL STUDIES AT MAJMA’AH UNIVERSITY
INTRODUCTION
METHOD
Participants
Instruments
Procedure
RESULTS
Interview with EAP Management
Interview with Subject-Specific Faculty
Students’ Interview
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS
REFERENCES
10. BEST PRACTICES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TESTING AT THE UNIVERSITY PREPARATORY YEAR PROGRAMS
BEST PRACTICES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TESTING
Types of Language Tests
The Qualities of Language Tests
AUTHENTICITY
INTERACTIVENESS
IMPACT
PRACTICALITY
TEST SPECIFICATIONS
FINAL EXAMINATION FOR THE PREPARATORY YEAR
General Statement of Purpose
The Test Battery
Reading Test
DESIGNING AND DEVELOPING TESTS
TYPES OF TEST ITEMS
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS (SELECTED RESPONSE)
WRITING TESTS (EXTENDED PRODUCTION RESPONSE)
Beginners
Intermediate
Advanced
SPEAKING TESTS
TRIALLING TEST MATERIAL
Alternative Assessment
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
11. EFL FACULTY PERSPECTIVES ON TECHNOLOGY-INTEGRATION STRATEGIES: A Case Study at Jazan University
INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE REVIEW
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
Participants of the Study
Questions of the Study
Description of Data Collection Instruments
Validity and Reliability of the Questionnaire
DATA PROCESSING
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Research Question 1
Research Question 2
Research Question 3
FINDINGS
CONCLUSION
RECOMMENDATIONS
REFERENCES
CONTRIBUTORS
THE EDITOR
AUTHORS

Citation preview

Teaching and Learning in Saudi Arabia

Teaching and Learning in Saudi Arabia Perspectives from Higher Education

Edited by Amani K. Hamdan University of Damman, Saudi Arabia

A C.I.P. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN: 978-94-6300-203-5 (paperback) ISBN: 978-94-6300-204-2 (hardback) ISBN: 978-94-6300-205-9 (e-book)

Published by: Sense Publishers, P.O. Box 21858, 3001 AW Rotterdam, The Netherlands https://www.sensepublishers.com/

All chapters in this book have undergone peer review.

Cover photo: University of Dammam Main Campus, with permission from Abdullah Bin Hussein Alkadi (University Vice President for Studies, Development and Community Service)

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved © 2015 Sense Publishers No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

To Lujain, Yousef, Meriam, Ruqaia, and, above all, my best friend and soulmate, Dr. Mohammed Y. Alghamdi – for their generous support and unconditional love. We all believe that education is the enlightenment that we all aspire for and work towards … so that our society, too, will be enlightened through education.

Table of Contents

Prefaceix Acknowledgmentsxi Introductionxiii 1. Assessing EFL College Instructors’ Performance with Digital Rubrics Reima Al-Jarf 2. A System for Teaching English in Saudi Arabia: A Model for English Language Acquisition with Reference to Study Skills, Multiple Intelligences, Thinking Based Learning and Group Work Khadijah Bawazeer

1

31

3. Analysis of Systemic Functional Linguistics Preparatory Year Writing in a Saudi University Philline Deraney

49

4. The Power of “I”: Student-Driven Writing at an All Women’s University in Saudi Arabia  Barbara A. Toth

71

5. Cooperative Learning: A Case for Creative and Efficient Teaching and Learning Supported by: Analysis of the Present Situation in the Preparatory Year Program in Health Profession Track Mona Hmoud Al-Sheikh

101

6. The Relationship between Statistical Analysis Abilities and the Production of Research among Saudi Faculty Abdulghani Ali Al-Hattami and Arif Ahmet Mohamed Hassan Al-Ahdal

121

7. A Synthesized Model of Faculty Motivation in Saudi Arabia’s Higher Education Sector Akram AbdulCalder

129

8. Curriculum Design Quality Assurance of Distance Education in Saudi Electronic University: A Case Study Tariq Elyas and Abdullah Al-Garni

145

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Table of Contents

9. EAP as an Index of Academic Excellence in Medical Studies at Majma’ah University El-Sadig Yahya Ezza and Nasser Al-Jarallah

175

10. Best Practices in English Language Testing at the University Preparatory Year Programs Mubina Rauf

185

11. EFL Faculty Perspectives on Technology-integration Strategies: A Case Study at Jazan University Osama Mudawe Nurain, Ahmet T. Braima and Barakat H. Makrami

207

Contributors221

viii

PREFACE

The idea of editing a collection of research papers about higher education in Saudi Arabia has been a long-standing goal of mine. When I was a graduate student in humanities – in education, writing my Master’s thesis and then my doctoral dissertation in Philosophy of Education in Canada – there were no books in English, to my knowledge, that discussed the Saudi education system. I depended mostly on the unpublished research of Saudi graduate students studying in the United States, whose research was compiled in the Directory of the Doctoral Dissertations of Saudi Graduates from US Universities (1964–2005) by the Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission to the United States. This book is the first anthology about higher education in Saudi Arabia, written by scholars from seven universities in Saudi Arabia. Some contributors are Saudi national professors and some are scholars and faculty members who work in highereducation institutions in Saudi Arabia but are originally from India, the United States (of Arab and non-Arab origin), Sudan and Yemen. I would like to extend my thanks to the chapter authors for their tireless efforts. They have made this book available to provide a reliable and useful source of scientific information to higher-education researchers, advanced graduate students and practitioners in the field of education and development in Saudi Arabia, and elsewhere. Dhahran, August 2015

ix

Acknowledgments

The creation of this book was a large endeavour and I am grateful to the contributors for their enthusiasm, for taking part and participating in this book, thereby forming the first anthology written in English and edited by a Saudi academic about teaching and learning in Saudi Arabia. I would like to thank Dawn Martin for reviewing and editing the last version of the book and persistently taking over contacting the authors to clarify the small details to have the book in the best shape possible. I also thank my colleagues Dr. Barb Toth, Professor Reima Al-Jarf, and Dr. Nina AbdulRazzak for reviewing parts of this book. We all share a common purpose and hope that this book will enable educators, and all those interested in rethinking teaching and learning in Saudi Arabian higher education, to reflect on the diverse perspectives of educators who work in Saudi Arabia and whose research sheds light on its education. I would like to express my gratitude and thanks to various copy editors who helped with the editing and formatting of the chapters. This book would not be possible without the support of Sense Publishers, who gave me the initial encouragement to publish the book as an anthology. It is my great pleasure to have edited this first volume of research on teaching and learning in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of higher education.

xi

Introduction

Higher education in Saudi Arabia is undergoing unprecedented changes (Al-Anqari, 2014).The government’s current effort in developing its higher education system is moving into the direction of worldwide recognition. From expanding the number of institutions over the last decade to accrediting the highest number of students on scholarships across 75 countries abroad – east and west – all efforts are aimed at making education in Saudi Arabia world-class. Saudi Arabia now has 28 public universities and 30 private higher-education institutions. Transformations in the higher-education system have been influenced by an increasing student population, shifting demands of the job market, and international higher education (Al-Anqari, 2014). These changes in the education system primarily serve to advance the country and its citizens. The expansion of higher education and the expected growth in the coming years should meet proper documentation of research efforts about education and teaching and learning in Saudi Arabia. The chapters in this anthology provide an overview of the research on teaching and learning in Saudi Arabia. As the first book of its kind on the topic, it provides a unique contribution to the field of education and the current knowledge base in higher education reform and research in Saudi Arabia, spanning theoretical, historical, and domain-specific perspectives to provide readers with a broad scope of the field. The book reflects the methodologies that are used by researchers in Saudi Arabia, offers practical applications to researchers and educators, and provides valuable insight into what initiatives are needed to improve the higher-education system in Saudi Arabia. The chapters focus on a variety of subjects, such as preparatory year in Saudi Arabia, best methods of statistical analysis used by faculty, cooperative learning, use of technology, the effect of intensive use of the Internet and Smartphones and analysis of university student writing using digital rubrics. This may encourage other scholars to document the research happening in Saudi Arabia and how scholars and researchers view the changing education system in one of the fastest growing systems of education, not only in the Middle East and North Africa, but also worldwide. Chapter 1, by Professor Reima Al-Jarf of English language teaching at King Saud University, sets the scene for the book. Al-Jarf reflects on the traditional and new modalities of teaching and learning. In doing so, she highlights the use of digital rubrics – i.e., a scoring guide that consists of specific pre-established performance criteria used for evaluating students’ and teachers’ performance – to ensure the reliability of teacherperformance assessments. Digital rubrics have been created for evaluating English as Foreign Language college teachers’ linguistic and professional competencies using the iRubric building tool of the RCampus language management system.

xiii

introduction

In Chapter 2, Khadijah Bawazeer introduces a new take on an established methodology of learning English based on innate learning processes and the intensive use of the Internet and Smartphones. Such innate language processes are used by children to learn their first language. This methodology is based on using the innate language-learning skills of the learner’s first language, with the added difference that the learner is older and more experienced with language acquisition because of their first language-learning experience and experiences accumulated over time. It is hoped that learning English adds to, rather than subtracts from, the fluency of either one’s native or second language. Plus, this innovative system can change the attitudes of learners from relying heavily on others to being more autonomous, and changing their study skills from rote memorization to incorporating memorization with the array of skills described by Bloom (Bloom’s Taxonomy). Furthermore, the researcher discovered that this system is compatible with the concepts of multiple intelligences, thinking-based learning, as well as with Smartphones used to create group follow-up. All four aspects – multiple intelligences, study skills, Smartphones, and Internet use – are essential for producing autonomous learners, an important goal for education in Saudi Arabia. Chapter 3, by Philline Deraney, is an analysis of written texts from a university in Saudi Arabia using the paradigm of systemic functional linguistics (SFL) and genre-based writing pedagogy focusing on the textual meta function. The research methodology was mainly a description of the patterns that emerged in the female students’ writing related to features of coherence and cohesion with basic frequency tables to support the qualitative data. However, similar to several international and regional studies, elements of academic writing related to the textual metafunction were used inappropriately or lacked language complexity. The participants’ writing was limited and, at times, over-simplified, shown through the lack of accurate paragraphing, logical coherence, clear understanding of the genre requested, overuse of basic cohesive devices, and underuse of more complex ones. Implications for EFL writing education are discussed to assist students in creating more meaningful texts. In Chapter 4, Barb Toth describes her teaching, learning, and administrative experiences in Saudi Arabia. More specifically, she narrates her experiences in building an English writing program over the last four years in the College of Languages and Translation at Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University for Women (PNU) in Riyadh. The students, however, are the main characters and the focus of her story. In Chapter 5, Mona Al-Sheikh highlights the concept of cooperative learning as an innovative method of teaching that helps students work not only for their own benefit, but for others, too. The idea is that students cannot succeed alone; they need to cooperate with peers to achieve shared goals in learning and to excel in the classroom. They can excel in their respective fields, if trained in positive interdependence and individual accountability. The main objective of this project is to develop a cooperative learning model at the University of Dammam, which would include learning strategies to aid the university deliver its vision and mission as well xiv

introduction

as apply cooperative learning within university departments. This project, designed to transform students from passive spectators in the classroom to partners in their own learning, will benefit higher education as well as broader society. Students will enter the world of work equipped with the essential skills of teamwork and accountability for their actions. In Chapter 6, Abdulghani Ali Al-Hattami and Arif Ahmet Mohamed Hassan Al-Ahdal discuss how scientific research plays an important role in creating growth and progress in developing countries. Many Arab countries, including Saudi Arabia, are trying to encourage faculty members at all universities to write as many goodquality research papers as possible and thereby benefit from the results that can serve society better. This study examines the relationship between university faculty members’ competence to statistically analyze data and their production of research. Results explain why many academics revert to writing qualitative research. The authors recommend that faculty members in Saudi universities improve their knowledge about the use and implementation of statistical tests. In Chapter 7, Akram AbdulCalder discusses how faculty motivation is a key factor in the success of academic programs in higher education. His study analyzed 34 years of research conducted on numerous variables affecting faculty motivation in Saudi Arabia’s higher education institutions. A meta-analysis of 1,560 journal articles resulted in 35 relevant studies that identified eight factors: 1) monetary incentives and wealth, 2) leadership and management, 3) recognition, 4) technology, 5) students, 6) local culture and language, 7) physical environment, and 8) nepotism. The majority of studies indicated that advances in technology, including distance learning, had an impact on motivation. The role of leadership in motivating faculty was highlighted in 71.42 percent of studies analyzed, indicating a need for those in academic management to more effectively motivate their faculty. A model was developed based on the synthesis of 35 articles used in this meta-analysis study. In Chapter 8, Tariq Elyas and Abdullah Al-Garni reflect on the ways integrating new technology in the Saudi education system has stirred a desire to move from traditional teacher-centered methods to participatory classrooms. Over the last decade, considerable progress has been made in the development of distance education across the world. Despite the numerous advantages of distance education, universities face several challenges, including the quality of distance education programs (Galusha, 2011; Stephens, 2007). For some students, the lack of a formal classroom setting, and the potential distractions that come with studying at home, may hamper their concentration and motivation to study (Galusha, 2011). In recent decades, Saudi Arabia has developed its human resources considerably in order to become less dependent on foreign labor. A critical aspect of this development has been the establishment of a strong higher-education infrastructure, including developing distance education programs, most notably the Saudi Electronic University (SEU), an institution accessible across the country. Given the recent establishment of the SEU and the dropout rate of students, there is a strong impetus to develop and xv

introduction

design higher quality curricula for distance education programs at SEU. Further, in order to take measures to address the challenges faced by SEU, the Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) needs to be able to identify these challenges. This chapter explores this gap in the literature in terms of theoretical and methodological frameworks. In Chapter 9, El-Sadig Yahya Ezza and Nasser Al-Jarallah discuss how English for Academic Purposes (EAP) is thought to stem from foreign learners’ need to overcome academic problems caused by the use of English as a medium of instruction. The study explores EAP practice at Majma’ah University (MU), focusing on the current EAP syllabus and subject-specific stakeholders (administration, faculty and students). EAP faculty were interviewed to discover how MU approaches and practices EAP and how subject-specific faculty and students at Colleges of Applied Medical Sciences and Medicine perceive the need for EAP skills. Major steps have been taken to improve students’ EAP skills to be able to deal with specialist materials and follow classes conducted in English. On the other hand, interviews with students and subject-specific faculty identified that no EAP courses were offered despite the urgent need for advanced EAP skills. Also, researchers have recently extended the scope of EAP to include the enculturation of students into their respective academic fields. This approach introduces students to the academic discourse used by doctors, engineers, and programmers, for instance, so that they can succeed academically. In Chapter 10, Mubina Rauf reflects on the Preparatory Year Programs (PYP) in Saudi Arabia, which are designed to equip pre-university students with 21stcentury skills and to enable them to communicate effectively with the rest of the world. English language is the most significant part of these programs and is taught following the communicative method. This approach is also practiced in the University of Dammam PYP. This study explores the assessment practices in the English department at the PYP. The chapter discusses and compares current assessment trends to best practices in this field; it also reviews best practices in exam procedures starting from types of tests and their suitability to the current program at UoD, best practices in item writing, trialling, writing exam specifications and rubrics, and administration of exams. An assessment framework based on the test qualities, most importantly validity and reliability presented by Bachman and Palmer (1996) and adapted to the needs of Saudi students, has been suggested for use. Assessment based on time-tested theories is a strong indicator of the quality of a language-learning program like the PYP. Students should be exposed to various kinds of testing methods, as this will bring out their best performances, depending on their proclivities and needs. In Chapter 11, Osama M. Nurain, Ahmed T. Braima, and Barakat H. Makrami discuss teaching operations management using hands-on educational tools and interactive games. Although technology has been widely used for enhancing language teaching and learning since the 1960s, some EFL faculties are still reluctant to use it on a large scale. In light of this, the present study attempts to determine the factors that cause EFL teachers not to use technology in their classes. The study xvi

INTRODUCTION

used a quantitative method; 152 EFL instructors at Jazan University were given a questionnaire designed to measure their perception of technology-integration strategies. The study identifies a number of issues that discuss the scale of technologyintegration strategies – among them, lack of experience with technology or, in some cases, resistance to technology. The most critical factor that hinders the use of technology is inadequate training programs. Therefore, the researchers suggest that EFL faculties be exposed to technology-implementation strategies, which will assist them to more successfully integrate these strategies into classroom instruction. All papers went through double blind review anonymously by scholars in education.

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Reima Al-Jarf

1. Assessing EFL College Instructors’ Performance with Digital Rubrics

Introduction

Teacher performance appraisal (TPA) is an indispensible part of educational systems around the world. It constitutes an important element of a university’s vision of achieving high-level student performance. For example, at King Saud University, in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, TPA is an integral part of the teaching/learning process. Instructors of all levels are annually evaluated by college administrators. They are also evaluated by students enrolled in every course they teach. Standard evaluation forms are used in all subject areas throughout the university. Other institutions perform TPA through ratings made by the students, peers, principals, supervisors, and self-ratings made by the teachers themselves (Alicias, 2005). Many use rubrics that document teacher candidate accomplishments of basic teaching skills and content knowledge. The purpose of TPA is to produce high quality teaching, improve student-learning outcomes, bridge gaps in their achievement and provide instructors with meaningful evaluations that encourage professional learning and growth. It fosters their professional development and creates opportunities for additional professional support where needed. According to Yonghong and Chongde (2006), the purpose of TPA is to improve the quality of instruction, to prescribe professional development activities, and to develop a foundation for administrative decisions. Ideally, the evaluation process produces qualified teachers who meet the needs of their students (Adams, 2009). Despite the importance of teacher performance appraisal, some experts consider it a challenge and a difficult issue in educational reform. Findings of prior research revealed some problems and abuses of TPA such as: subjectivity, and vulnerability to the “politics of teacher evaluation,” as well as professional incapacities of the raters (Alicias, 2005). Most teachers do not feel that they benefit professionally from TPAs, although they are in favor of being evaluated (Adams, 2009). Pimpa (2005) reported three problems related to the national teacher performance appraisal system in Thailand: mismanagement of the system; problems arising from the evaluators; and problems arising from the applicants. For more objective and effective TPA schemes, several researchers proposed some guidelines such as: (i) mutual goal setting, use of objective criteria for classroom observation, alternative data collection, evaluator training, teacher involvement, peer

A. K. Hamdan (Ed.), Teaching and Learning in Saudi Arabia, 1–30. © 2015 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

R. Al-Jarf

observation, classroom improvement, in-service training, availability of resources, emphasizing the positive qualities of teacher evaluation, and use of a reward system (Whyte, 1986); (ii) training evaluators to become better evaluators of teachers’ performance (Weast et al., 1996); (iii) viewing videotaped lessons and applying evaluation standards to enable comparison of outcomes of evaluation (Kuligowski et al., 1993); (iv) implementing a teacher performance appraisal process that encourages self-directed learning, which teachers consider the most effective and meaningful (Rowe, 2000); (v) use of feedback from students, peers, self-evaluation, supervisors, parents, and student achievement (Manatt & Benway, 1998); (vi) use of constructs of teacher performance to diagnose problems and plan appropriate strategies for professional improvement (Yonghong & Chongde, 2006); (vii) using evaluation systems on the web such as the educational electronic performance support systems (EPSS) (Park, Baek, & An, 2001) and the Teacher Performance Appraisal System;1 and (viii) use of TPA rubrics. To obtain objective, valid, reliable, and meaningful evaluations of instructor performance, rubrics can be of special importance. They are tools for assessing performance according to a set of predetermined scaled expectations and criteria. In a review of empirical research on the use of rubrics at the post-secondary level undertaken in a wide range of disciplines and for multiple purposes, such as student achievement, improving instruction and evaluating programs, Reddy and Andrade (2010) found that student perceptions of rubrics were generally positive. Teachers also reported positive responses to rubric use. Kearns, Sullivan, O’Loughlin, and Braun (2010) created a valid and reliable teaching statement scoring rubric to investigate and document the progression of graduate student instructors as scholarly teachers. The rubric was found to be a useful tool for faculty mentors and instructional consultants who wish to quantify the scholarly progression of writers and modify mentoring practice accordingly. In a third study, performance assessment tasks and rubrics were successfully used in assessing secondary school mathematics preservice teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and skills (Koirala, Davis, & Johnson, 2008). Similarly, Clinical Experience Rubrics (CER) were found to be effective in rating preservice teachers’ professionalism, teaching quality and relationship with others (Flowers, 2006). In English as a foreign language (EFL), there is a need for using rubrics in assessing teacher performance objectively and reliably. For example, instructors working at the College of Languages and Translation (COLT), King Saud University are evaluated by college administrators (program coordinators, department heads and vice-deans) at the end of the academic year and by the students at the end of each semester. The following types of TPA forms are used for these purposes: i.  a student TPA form that consists of 27 statements with a 5-point scale “strongly agree, agree, slightly agree, disagree and strongly disagree.” ii.  an administrator TPA form for PhD holders which consists of ten statements under 3 categories: teaching performance (60 points), publications (20 points), 2

Assessing EFL College Instructors’ Performance with Digital Rubrics

and academic services (20 points). Each statement is allocated a maximum score of between 4 and 20 points. iii.   an administrator TPA form for teaching assistants and lecturers which consists of 20 statements under 3 categories: professional competence (72 points), personal qualities (16 points) and relationship with others (12 points). Each statement is allocated a maximum score of between 4 and 10 points. Need for Study

Despite the importance of TPA, an exploratory study with a sample of 25 instructors at COLT showed that the majority are dissatisfied with and feel underrated in the PTA reports prepared by the college administrators. Generally speaking, TPAs do not accurately and dispassionately assess instructors’ performance. There are discrepancies and biases in the TPA reports. Evaluations do not reflect their actual performance, as they are not based on classroom visits and observations, samples of teaching practices, course portfolio, course reports, exams and assignments. They are not based on caliber and competence but on favoritism and the instructor’s relationship with the evaluator. They are also affected by clashes and prior conflicts. The currently used TPA forms lack scales for describing excellent, average and poor performances. Statements in the form are not operationally defined and are subject to personal interpretation, especially because administrators are not trained to make the evaluations. Scores given for each statement are not based on criteria for discriminating excellent, average and poor performances. Instructors do not know on what basis they get a score of 4 or 5 out of 10 or 20 points for a particular item on the TPA from. Another exploratory study with a sample of 50 students at COLT, in addition to a survey-report about students’ evaluations of instructor published in the King Saud University student newspaper Risalatul-Jami’aa,2 showed that 75% of the students participating in the survey do not take the end-of-course TPAs seriously, and do not respond to the items accurately. Some have a friend respond to it on their behalf; some just tick a rating randomly without reading the statements; and others tick the same rating for all the items on the TPA form, as evaluations are conducted during final exams, and students cannot view their course grade until they complete the TPA forms. They also believe that their evaluations have no real effect on teachers and are not taken into consideration in decision-making. They consider them “a routine procedure.” As a result, student TPAs do not reflect an instructor’s actual performance. Both good and poor instructors receive an overall average rating. The currently used TPA forms do not really discriminate an “excellent, average and poor” performance. Students in different sections of the same course taught by the same instructor give significantly different ratings of the instructor and ratings correlate with the grades the students get. The more the failures are in the course, the worse the ratings. Many students do not know how much of behavior marks the difference between “agree” and “slightly agree” or 3

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“disagree” and “slightly disagree.” As it is in the case with administrator TPAs, instructors are also dissatisfied with students’ ratings. To help COLT administrators avoid biases, unfair ratings, personal interpretation of assessment statements, and follow reliable and valid criteria when evaluating teachers, this chapter proposes the use of digital rubrics to assess teachers’ linguistic and professional performance using the iRubric tool of RCampus (www.rcampus.org). It aims at converting the currently used TPA forms at COLT to digital rubrics. The proposed digital rubrics consist of the following versions: (i) a TPA digital rubric to be used by the students; and (ii) a TPA digital rubric to be used by administrators. These digital rubrics will help both administrators and instructors at COLT diagnose problems and plan appropriate strategies for professional improvement. Digital rubrics are believed to have several advantages. According to RCampus, digital rubrics show levels of performance and what is expected from EFL instructors; serve as a guide for assessors; save time, and empower programs with an easy-touse system for monitoring teaching performance and aligning with standards. They can be collaboratively assessed with colleagues. Their scores can be automatically adjusted to the teaching assessment scale. In addition, use of rubrics in assessment has numerous benefits: they set the standards and help specify the criteria to be used in evaluating teachers’ performance. They constitute a purposeful and appropriate construct that articulates varying levels of proficiencies. They guide teachers in their work and help them evaluate its quality. They are easy to use and explain. They communicate department and college expectations clearly, provide instructors with constructive feedback, and support teaching, skill development and understanding (Andrade, 2000). Definition of Rubrics

A rubric is a scoring guide that consists of specific pre-established performance criteria, used for evaluating performance. It is a tool that formalizes the process of evaluation by explicitly stating the criteria and standards to be used for evaluating performance. It is a rating scale – as opposed to checklists – that consists of specific pre-established scaled performance criteria, used in assessing skill levels and/or performance. It also provides guidelines laid out for judging work on performancebased tasks (Luft, 1998; Kist, 2001; Arter, 2000). Rubrics are generally divided into holistic, analytic, task-specific, general or developmental. A holistic rubric presents a set of generalized descriptions of what “above average, average, and below average” performances are in the developer’s mind; an analytic rubric allows one to measure something against several different criteria; in a developmental rubric, what is being evaluated is put on a continuum of stages; and a metarubric is a rubric for rubrics with four traits: content, clarity, practicality and technical soundness (Kist, 2001; Arter, 2000). 4

Assessing EFL College Instructors’ Performance with Digital Rubrics

What Is iRubric?

iRubric is a comprehensive digital rubric development, assessment and sharing tool that shows the major competencies and sub-competencies to be achieved or skills and subskills to be mastered, the different competency levels and marks allocated to each level. It consists of the following: i.  rubric criteria, which show the characteristics of a performance; they are generally listed in rows ii. criteria descriptors, which describe what is expected at each level of performance iii.  levels of performance, which describe the quality of work; they are generally listed in columns iv. a divider, which is a special row that divides a rubric into sections; it can be simple, dividing the section without changing the levels, or weighted, allowing changes in level titles and weights for a rubric section Building the TPA Digital Rubrics

According to Kist (2001), Moskal (2003a, 2003b), Marshall (2006), Marzano (2007) and Brown (2008), the process of developing a rubric consists of several steps: • identifying the purpose or objectives of the activity in measurable outcomes; the scoring rubric should be clearly aligned with the requirements of the task and the program goals and objectives; they should be expressed in terms of observable behaviors or product characteristics, and should be written in specific and clear language; • identifying the qualities that need to be displayed in a teacher’s work, i.e., expectations for both process and product; • identifying which type of rubric should be used (analytic or holistic); • defining the performance levels (excellent, average, poor), using observable behaviors and descriptions of the work (rather than judgments about the work) and marks (points) allocated to each level; scoring rubrics should be written in specific and clear language and a clear separation between score levels. Based on the above criteria, the author converted (re-designed) the TPA forms currently used by COLT students and administrators to digital rubrics using the iRubric tool of RCampus, an Online Course Management System. The study does not aim to construct new TPA tools from scratch. The author pooled the items of the administrator TPA form for PhD holders and the one for teaching assistants and lecturers into a single Administrator TPA Rubric, as there are overlapping items that measure the same skill or behavior. Duplicate statements were deleted. The new Administrator TPA Rubric consists of 26 statements selected from the original TPA form. The statements were grouped under six categories: linguistic competence, teaching performance, professional achievements, academic services, relationships with others and personal qualities. (See Rubric 1.) 5

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Similarly, the new Student TPA Rubric consists of the same 27 statements in the original TPA form. The items were grouped under six categories: teaching skills, assessment, feedback, punctuality, relationship with students and overall opinion. (See Rubric 2.) Each rubric consists of a grid with rows for the teaching criteria (indicators or skills) and columns for the performance levels (poor, fair, very good, excellent). Each statement in the original forms was re-formulated and changed into a criterion that describes the instructor’s behavior in specific, observable and measurable behaviors either by giving an operational definition or examples. Four performance levels were added in the columns and each was defined by describing the excellent, very good, fair and poor performances related to the given criterion. Points were allocated to each performance level: 4 points to the “excellent,” 3 points to the “very good,” 2 points to the “fair,” and 1 point to the “poor” performance. A subsection entitled “Professional Achievements” in Rubric 1 was added for evaluating instructors with a PhD degree. Different points were allocated to each performance level: 8–10 points to the “excellent,” 5–7 points to the “very good,” 3–4 points to the “fair” and 0–2 point to the “poor” performance. The TPA rubrics, especially the detailed performance criteria that describe the instructor’s behavior, as well as the detailed descriptions of the performance levels, were based on the author’s 26 years of experience in teaching EFL at the college level and her administrative experience at the department and college levels. In addition, several TPA frameworks in the literature, such as Marshall (2006), Marzano (2007), list of teacher and principal practice rubrics approved by the New York State Education Department (NYSED) (2011), and the New York State United Teachers’ (NYSUT) (2011) teacher standards, were reviewed. Both criteria and performance levels were entered in the rows and columns of the iRubric tool of RCampus, to create the digital rubrics for both administrators and students. The detailed Teacher Performance Appraisal Rubric by College Administrators and the detailed Teacher Performance Appraisal Rubric by Students are shown in Rubric 1 and Rubric 2. Validating the TPA iRubrics

Both TPA scoring rubrics were validated by having ten professors specialized in EFL and evaluation look at the criteria and performance levels in each rubric and make sure the behaviors, operational definitions, and examples given reflect the important and desired teaching competencies of EFL college instructors and that the descriptions and scales under each performance level are discriminating. Clarifications and modifications were made based on the comments received. To ensure usability and practicality of the rubrics in evaluating EFL teaching performance, both TPA rubrics were tried out. A sample of five administrators and 20 students used both rubrics to evaluate the teaching performance of a sample of six instructors (two PhDs, two MAs and two TAs). Disagreements in evaluating the 6

Little knowledge

Few

Covers less than 2/3 of the chapters and exercises

Knowledge of subject matter: theories, specific language skills, grammatical structures, English phonology, and vocabulary Course goals: can write specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, behavioral objectives; achieves predetermined objectives at the end of class session, unit and course Content distribution over teaching weeks: balanced weekly coverage of skills, texts, exercises

Teaching Performance

Makes many pronunciation, grammatical, spelling and/or usage mistakes

Correct use of language

Linguistic Competence

Poor 1

Criteria

Categories

Teacher Performance Appraisal (TPA) Rubric by College Administrators

Covers 2/3 of the chapters, skills and exercises

Some

Knows some aspects

Makes some pronunciation, grammatical, spelling and/or usage mistakes

Fair 2

Covers 3/4 of the chapters and exercises

Most

Very good knowledge of most aspects

Correct pronunciation; makes few grammatical, spelling and/or usage mistakes

Very Good 3

Rubric 1. Teacher performance appraisal rubric by college administrators

(Continued)

Covers 90–100% of the required material and exercises

All

Excellent knowledge of all aspects

Native or near-native pronunciation, grammar, spelling, usage. Makes no mistakes

Excellent 4

Assessing EFL College Instructors’ Performance with Digital Rubrics

7

8

Categories

Some of the aspects mentioned; sometimes

Accommodates individual differences 1 technique; sometimes; 2 techniques; and different learning styles: by no remedial and sometimes using auditory, visual and tactile enrichment material techniques, small group, pair work, oral presentation, variety of activities; uses remedial and enrichment exercises for poor and good students

Rarely; does not welcome questions from students; does not accept arguments or disagreement; calls on few students

3 techniques; most of the time

Most of the aspects mentioned; most of the time

Very Good 3

Leads discussions skillfully: calls on all students; prompts and motivates students to participate and generate ideas; gives extra credit; accepts disagreements, encourages selfexpression

Fair 2 Most techniques mentioned; most of the time

Poor 1

Presentation of material and Rarely. Same technique; Half of the skills: uses advanced organizers, lecture; explanation; techniques explanation, lecture, translation, translation graphic organizers, technology, PPT presentation; gives real-life, concrete, clear, familiar examples; gives extra information not in textbook

Criteria

Teacher Performance Appraisal (TPA) Rubric by College Administrators

Rubric 1. (Continued)

More than 4 techniques; always

All aspects mentioned; always

All techniques mentioned; always

Excellent 4

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Uses whiteboard only

Uses teacher-centered techniques such as lecturing

Rarely; gives copious homework

Very few aspects; many weaknesses

Uses teaching aids: whiteboard, graphic organizers and mindmaps, pictures; audio, Smartboard, LCD projector, PPTs, mobile, podcasts, videos, online courses, blogs, forums Creativity in teaching techniques

Assignments: gives application assignments; checks assignments in class; gives individualized feedback, shows error location Assessment: exams cover all topics and skills; uses a variety of question formats; focuses on application questions; gives clear and specific instructions

Some aspects; numerous weaknesses

Sometimes

Most aspects; few weaknesses

Most of the time

Uses Smartboard in class, PPTs, forum; selects and changes Internet Web sites

Sometimes uses a new teaching technique; changes Internet Web sites

All aspects

Always

(Continued)

Integrates and experiments with technology every semester (mobile, podcasts, videos, online courses, blogs, forums); uses Smartboard in class; role-play

Uses whiteboard and 2 Uses whiteboard and 3 or teaching aids more teaching aids

Uses whiteboard and 1 teaching aid

Assessing EFL College Instructors’ Performance with Digital Rubrics

9

10

Categories

Diagnoses weaknesses in curriculum, textbooks, exams, students skills; adapts or supplements curriculum to achieve course goals and meet students’ linguistic and professional needs

Most; most of the time All; always

Some; sometimes

Recommends Web sites; prepares supplementary material

Excellent 4

Little or no discipline; Class management skills: sets class rules at the beginning of semester for too lenient; no control over aspects mentioned mobile use in class, missing classes and exams, talking in class, coming late; teaches discipline, punctuality, commitment; seriousness and attentiveness in class

Follows textbook; borrows supplementary material from colleagues

Very Good 3

Good in some areas; Very good in most Excellent in all areas; sometimes areas; most of the time always

Just follows textbook

Ability to improve course

Fair 2

Overall teaching efficiency in: Poor in all area; always preparing, presenting material in class, selecting and performing learning tasks, improving students’ linguistic ability, giving feedback, constructing testing, assignments, focusing on higher-level skills such as application

Poor 1

Criteria

Teacher Performance Appraisal (TPA) Rubric by College Administrators

Rubric 1. (Continued)

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Relationship with others

Goes to class late and/or dismisses students early (more than 10 minutes); cancels classes; does not make up for missed classes; misses more than 6 days per semester Available occasionally; signs forms

Resentful; dissatisfied; avoids interaction; lack of trust; in conflict; uncooperative Displays negative behaviors with most colleagues; in conflict with others; uncooperative

Punctuality

Office hours and academic advising

With boss: friendly; has a good sense of humor; cooperative; offers help; comfortable; trustworthy; respectful; avoids conflicts With colleagues: works in a team; shares knowledge; material and resources; advises young colleagues; answers questions; friendly; has a good sense of humor; listens, helps with problems; open; covers classes for others when requested

Displays some of these behaviors; sometimes; with some colleagues

Some qualities

Signs forms; gives academic advice; available most of the time

Goes to class late or leaves early (5–10 minutes) once a week; misses 4–5 days per semester

Displays most behaviors; very often; with most colleagues

Most qualities

Always in office; signs forms; helps in registration; answers questions; listens to some problems

Goes to class late or leaves early (5 minutes); few times; misses 1–3 days per semester

(Continued)

Displays all behaviors; always; with most colleagues

All qualities

Always in office; signs forms; helps in registration; answers questions; listens to academic, social and psychological problems and gives solutions; welcomes and contains students; requires advisees to meet with her

Always goes to class on time, leaves on time. No absences. Never cancels classes. Makes up for missed classes

Assessing EFL College Instructors’ Performance with Digital Rubrics

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12

Personal Qualities

Categories

Sometimes

Sometimes

Undertakes responsibility: takes care Rarely of own exams, course specifications and reports and other paperwork; carries out duties in time and as required Accepts remarks, guidance and feedback from superiors

Rarely

Sometimes

Rarely

Acting as a role-model: punctual, does not miss classes; professional; prepares; presents material in class; selects and executes learning tasks well; improves students linguistic ability; gives feedback; good tests and assignments; focuses on higherlevel skills such as application

Very Good 3

Most of the time

Most of the time

Most of the time

Some qualities; Most qualities; with with some students; most students or most sometimes of the time

Rarely; unfriendly; unhelpful; discourteous; discouraging; does not listen to problems; and/ or unsupportive

With students and parents: friendly; helpful; courteous; respectful; encouraging; listens to problems; provides support and help

Fair 2

Poor 1

Criteria

Teacher Performance Appraisal (TPA) Rubric by College Administrators

Rubric 1. (Continued)

Always

Always

Always

All qualities; always; with all students

Excellent 4

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Any 2

Academic services: attends department and college meetings; serves on committees; attends workshops, conferences, public lectures, college events; writes reports 1 or less

Gives any 2

Professional self-development: gives Gives 1 or less conference presentations, workshops, public lectures, TV and radio interviews; subscribes to journals

Any 3

Gives any 3

Any 2

Very Good 5–7

Fair 3–4 Any 1

Most of the time

Sometimes

Publications:* books, research article None (peer-reviewed), translated book, article, translated article, reviews and/or audiovisual documentaries

Poor 0–2

Criteria

* This section is for evaluating PhD holders only.

Professional achievements

Refers to department head or coordinator, does not take action; escapes; ignores situation

Takes proper action in crises and solves problems

Attends any 4 or more

Gives any 4 or more

Any 3 or more

Excellent 8–10

Always

Assessing EFL College Instructors’ Performance with Digital Rubrics

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14 Criteria

Rarely

Rarely

Comes to class well-prepared: ready handouts; knows tasks and sequence; moves from one step/skill to another smoothly; distributes class time on task

Provides students with textbook, credit hours, course description, marks, number of tests, test dates

Poor 1

States objectives and skills

Teaching Skills Provides students with course description

Categories

Teacher Performance appraisal rubric by students

Occasionally

Few times per semester or once a month

Provides students with course title and code, textbook, credit hours, course description, assessment, marks, a sample test, test dates

Fair 2

Provides students with course title and code, textbook, credit hours, level, pre-requisites, co-requisites, location, contact information, office hours, teaching philosophy, course description, audiovisuals, material coverage, skills, teaching techniques, assessment, marks, number of tests, study skills, extension activities, technology, related Web sites, selfimprovement, a sample test, test dates

Excellent 4

Most of the time

Always

Some class sessions Every class session per week (once a week)

Provides students with course title and code, textbook, credit hours, level, contact information, office hours, course description, material coverage, skills, assessment, marks, number of tests, related Web sites, a sample test, test dates

Very Good 3

Rubric 2. Teacher performance appraisal rubric by students

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Speaks with a low Has numerous monotonous, voice; speaks weaknesses fast; reads fast and/or has a difficult accent

Speaks and reads clearly with a loud voice, good expression, moderate speed and a comprehensible accent

Some of these skills; occasionally

Always bored; students fall Occasionally asleep in class

Instructor is enthusiastic and interested in what she is teaching

Rarely; focuses on few students; asks those who raise their hands

Has few weaknesses Perfect in all of these in some aspects aspects

Occasionally

Rarely

Gives clear, concrete, familiar examples and analogies to clarify and simplify material

Encourages students to participate in class: calls on all students; gives bonus marks for participating; prompts

Most of the time

Few times per semester

Always

Always

Always

Most of these skills; Always most of the time

Most of the time

Most of the time

(Continued)

Uses 5 or more of those techniques

Connects material with real-life: tells us Rarely how material applies to our specialty and future career and with other courses

Uses 4 techniques

Uses 3 techniques

Uses a variety of teaching techniques: Same teaching technique explanation, lecture, translation, graphic always; 2 or less organizers and mind-maps, pictures, techniques online course, online Web sites, pair work, small groups, students give oral presentation, PPT presentation, depending on content, skill and task

Always; all topics covered in textbook

Most of the time; Occasionally; most topics in gives some textbook exercises or text related to few topics or chapters

Sticks to material and Knows material very well: gives exercises in textbook background information not in textbook; gives theory, rules, history; gives additional examples; writes supplementary material

Assessing EFL College Instructors’ Performance with Digital Rubrics

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16

Assessment

Categories Focuses on textbook only

Encourages students to read from multiple resources: books, e-books, online material, mobile, newspapers, magazine

Questions cover less than 50% of skills and content taught Most questions are confusing

Exam questions are comprehensive

Exam questions are clear and comprehensible

Balanced distribution of marks over course Course marks cover only requirements: in-term tests, pop quizzes, in-term tests participation, online course, presentation, homework, class work and/or paper

Uses same evaluation technique; uses 2 in-term tests only

Uses a variety of evaluation techniques: long test, short tests, pop-quizzes, short answer, essay, participation, online course, presentation, homework, class work and/or paper

Encourages critical and creative thinking Never such as giving reasons and solutions to problems;justifying; writing their own poetry or stories

Poor 1

Criteria

Teacher Performance appraisal rubric by students

Always

Always; recommends at least 3 sources

Excellent 4

Questions cover 75% skills and topics taught

Course marks cover Course marks cover Course marks cover inin-term test and 1 in-term tests and any term tests and 3 or more requirement 2 requirements requirements

All questions

Questions cover more than 90% of skills and topic taught

Uses 3–5 techniques Uses 6 or more techniques

Most of the time

Most of the time; recommends 2 sources

Very Good 3

Some questions; Most questions many are confusing

Questions cover 66% of the skills and content taught

Uses in-term tests and quizzes

Occasionally

Occasionally; recommends 1 source

Fair 2

Rubric 2. (Continued)

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Punctuality

Feedback

Always late to class or leaves class early (more than 10 minutes)

Teaches less than 40 minutes most of the time

Comes to class on time

Abides by class duration

Does not return papers to More than 10 days students; posts grades only

Provides students with their grades; shows students their test papers

Teaches full class sometimes or less than 50 minutes many times

Comes late or leaves early most of the time (5–10 minutes)

Comments on few students’ progress or when asked by students

Never

Follows up students’ progress: gives comments on areas of improvement; provides self-improvement tips

Always comes to class on time and leaves on time

In less than a week; always; all quizzes

Always; all students

(Continued)

Teaches full class Teaches full class (50 most of the time or minutes or more) less than 50 minutes few times

Comes to class on time and leaves on time most of the time or comes late or leaves early (5 minutes)

Within 7–10 days; always; all quizzes

Most of the time. Some students

Always; to every student

Few inconsistencies All of those; no inconsistencies in allocation of marks

Sometimes to some Most of the time to students most students

Occasionally; some feedback to whole class

Many inconsistencies; does Some not return papers to students; inconsistencies or students do not know why marks were deducted

Gives individualized feedback and shows errors

Fair in assessing students’ performance: uses an answer key; shows how marks and fractions were allocated to each answer; gives same mark to same answer to all students, deducts same marks for same error to all students

Assessing EFL College Instructors’ Performance with Digital Rubrics

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18 Rarely

Can be reached during office hours Rarely

Rarely

Interacts with students through email, SMS, a ChatBox, Messenger and/or Facebook/Twitter I would like to take other courses with this teacher

Rarely; very few queries

Welcomes queries from students

Overall opinion

Rarely

Respects students; uses polite expressions such as “please, thank you, excuse me, I am sorry” listens to students’ problems; accepts criticism and complaints

Relationship with students

Poor 1

Criteria

Categories

Teacher Performance appraisal rubric by students

Most of the time

Very Good 3

If I have to

Sometimes

Uses 1 method; occasionally

Maybe

Most of the time

Uses 2 methods; very often

Occasionally; some Most of the time queries

Occasionally

Fair 2

Rubric 2. (Continued)

Definitely

Always

Uses 3 or more methods; always

In and out of class; always; all queries: whether related or unrelated to course; fully answers students’ questions

Always

Excellent 4

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Assessing EFL College Instructors’ Performance with Digital Rubrics

same instructor’s performance were noted and necessary amendments were made on the criteria and descriptions of performance levels. Applying the TPA Digital Rubrics

The digital form of the TPA rubrics can be used in evaluating a teacher’s performance using the iRubric tool of RCampus. Steps in applying the digital rubric to an instructor’s performance, entering the scores, for viewing the instructor’s scores, sharing and discussing the rubric with other instructors, and categorizing the rubric are shown in Web pages 1–19 in Appendix A. To report an instructor’s performance assessment summary, all of the scores given to criteria (indicators) according to the selected performance levels are added up. In addition to that, the percentage of students marking each performance level for each criterion (indicator) is given. Conclusion

This chapter proposed the use of digital rubrics using the iRubric creator tool of RCampus for evaluating EFL college instructors’ linguistic and professional performance by administrators and students to ensure the reliability, accuracy and fairness of assessments. The proposed iRubrics consist of pre-established performance criteria, four performance levels and marks allocated to each. Performance criteria can be modified and performance levels can be adjusted easily. The effective use of iRubrics requires that they be explained to administrators, teachers and students ahead of time and that training be provided in their use. Guidance should be offered for using the ratings, in scoring, interpreting and using the results. With the rubric as a guide, teachers learn to monitor their own progress and make improvements in a timely manner. Involving teachers in creating rubrics encourages them to think about the criteria of quality work and promotes ownership of the assessment process. Revising and modifying EFL instructors’ evaluation policies, procedures and tools at COLT by using digital rubrics, as those devised in the present study, will lead to more satisfaction and better achievement of teaching and learning goals. notes 1 2

http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/teacher/appraise.html Risalatul-Jami’aa, issue#1078, p. 38, December 10, 2011.

References Adams, A. (2009). A study of the attitudes and opinions of southwest Missouri educators regarding the value and outcome of the performance based teacher evaluation process. (ERIC Document No. ED513646)

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R. Al-Jarf Alicias, E. (2005). Toward an objective evaluation of teacher performance: The use of variance partitioning analysis, VPA. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 13(30). Andrade, H. (2000). Using rubrics to promote thinking and learning. Educational Leadership, 57(5), 13–18. Arter, J. (2000). Rubrics, scoring guides, and performance criteria: Classroom tools for assessing and improving student learning. (ERIC Document No. ED446100) Brown, C. (2008). Building rubrics: A step-by-step process. Library Media Connection, 26(4), 16–18. Flowers, C. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis of scores on the clinical experience rubric: A measure of dispositions for preservice teachers. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(3), 478–488. Kearns, K., Sullivan, C., O’Loughlin, V., & Braun, M. (2010). A scoring rubric for teaching statements: A tool for inquiry into graduate student writing about teaching and learning. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 21(1), 73–96. Kist, B. (2001). Using rubrics:Teacher to teacher. (ERIC Document No. ED458392) Koirala, H., Davis, M., & Johnson, P. (2008). Development of a performance assessment task and rubric to measure prospective secondary school mathematics teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and skills. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 11(2), 127–138. Kuligowski, B., Holdzkom, D., & French, R. (1993). Teacher performance evaluation in the southeastern states: Forms and functions. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 6(4), 335–358. Luft, J. (1998). Rubrics: Design and use in science teacher education. (ERIC Document No. ED417145) Manatt, R., & Benway, M. (1998). Teacher and administrator performance evaluation: Benefits of 360-degree feedback. ERS Spectrum, 16(2), 18–23. Marshall, K. (2006, September-October). Teacher evaluation rubrics: The why and the how. Edge Magazine, 1–25. Marzano, R. (2007). The art and science of teaching. Retrieved April 30, 2015, from http://usny.nysed.gov/rttt/teachers-leaders/practicerubrics/Docs/LSI_Domains1234.pdf Moskal, B. (2003a). Developing classroom performance assessments and scoring rubrics – Part I. (ERIC Document No. ED481714) Moskal, B. (2003b). Developing classroom performance assessments and scoring rubrics – Part II. (ERIC Document No. ED481715) New York State Education Department (NYSED). (2011). Teacher and principal practice rubrics. Retrieved April 30, 2015, from http://usny.nysed.gov/rttt/teachers-leaders/practicerubrics/home.html NYSUT. (2011). New York state teacher standards. Retrieved April 30, 2015, from http://www.nysut.org/ cps/rde/xchg/nysut/hs.xsl/research_16718.htm Park, S., Baek, E., & An, J. (2001). Usability evaluation of an educational electronic performance support system (E-EPSS): Support for teacher enhancing performance in schools (STEPS). (ERIC Document No. ED470191) Pimpa, N. (2005). Teacher performance appraisal in Thailand: Poison or panacea? Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 4(2–3), 115–127. Reddy, Y., & Andrade, H. (2010). A review of rubric use in higher education. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 35(4), 435–448. Rowe, B. (2000). The influence of teacher efficacy and readiness for self-directed learning on the implementation of a growth-oriented teacher performance appraisal process. (ERIC Document No. ED444942) Weast, J., Wright, J. S., & Frye, S. (1996). Raising teacher performance by improving teacher evaluation: Guilford County’s project H.E.L.P. ERS Spectrum, 14(3), 3–8. Whyte, J. (1986). Teacher assessment: A review of the performance appraisal literature with special reference to the implications for teacher appraisal. Research Papers in Education, 1(2), 137–163. Yonghong, C., & Chongde, L. (2006). Theory and practice on teacher performance evaluation. Frontiers of Education in China, 1(1), 29–39.

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Assessing EFL College Instructors’ Performance with Digital Rubrics

Appendix A

Steps of Creating and Applying Teacher Performance Appraisal (TPA) iRubrics Web page 1: The RCampus iRubric Homepage

Web page 2: Go to the RCampus iRubric homepage (http://www.rcampus.com) and register for an account. All teachers must be enrolled in a group, like a class

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Web page 3: To build a new digital rubric, click “Build a rubric” and click start for Option A

Web page 4: The rubric building page. Fill in the required information, the criteria and performance levels in the row

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Assessing EFL College Instructors’ Performance with Digital Rubrics

Web page 5: These action buttons appear underneath the rubric after saving it. Click any of the links if you need to preview, edit, copy, print, categorize, bookmark, testrun, grade, collaborate, publish, email, or discuss the rubric that you have built. An explanation of each action button is given

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Web page 6: To apply the rubric to a teacher’s performance, click “apply to” in the blue horizontal menu above

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Assessing EFL College Instructors’ Performance with Digital Rubrics

Web page 7: Select ‘Apply the rubric to a coursework’ for assessment by an individual assessor or ‘Apply rubric to an object’ for assessment by a group

Web page 8: Before starting a teacher’s assessment by a single assessor, define the coursework properties. Select the assessment title and type of coursework to be evaluated, i.e., ‘teacher assessment’ from the drop-down menus. The rubric will be attached to assignment as in a regular course assignment

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R. Al-Jarf

Web page 9: For collaborative assessment, fill in the information

Web page 10: For collaborative assessment, fill in the information to select the assessment evaluators and ‘Building group’ for group of instructors to be evaluated

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Assessing EFL College Instructors’ Performance with Digital Rubrics

Web page 11: To enter a teacher’s assessment and score, click on the rubric icon adjacent to his/her name. This will transfer you to the rubric page below

Web page 12: To assess a teacher’s performance, go through the criteria/indicators row by row. Click on the relevant performance level per criterion/indicator to select it. Once finished, click on “show score” below the rubric. The teacher’s total score will be automatically calculated and entered in the gradebook

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R. Al-Jarf

Web page 13: Comments can be entered by clicking on a teacher’s name in Web page 14

Web page 14: To view all teachers’ assessments scores, click ‘gradebook’

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Assessing EFL College Instructors’ Performance with Digital Rubrics

Web page 15: For a single teacher’s assessments details, click on his/her name in the list

Web page 16: Discussing the rubric and evaluations with other administrators or teachers

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R. Al-Jarf

Web page 17: To share a rubric with other administrators or teachers, select one of the 4 options listed

Web page 18: To categorize the TPA rubric, select the subject area (foreign languages) and the type of task (assessment) to which the rubric will be applied

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Khadijah Bawazeer

2. A System for Teaching English in Saudi Arabia A Model for English Language Acquisition with Reference to Study Skills, Multiple Intelligences, Thinking Based Learning and Group Work

The Internet could be a very positive step towards education, organization and participation. – Noam Chomsky Teachers… need only to be taught more effective ways of teaching. – Burrhrus Frederic Skinner Learning a language is a complicated process and leaning a second language is even more complicated. In countries in which students depend mainly on rote memorization,1 such as Saudi Arabia, this difficulty is evaded by exchanging learning a second language with the acquisition of grades2 so students think they know the other language (L2) when they have just acquired grades. Graduates from high school are usually happy with their good if not excellent grades; parents are happy and so are teachers. Classically, most students do not learn to communicate in the other language, which in Saudi Arabia is English. Therefore, what the happy kids, parents, and teachers obtain from high scores is a false sense of accomplishment because it happened as a result of what Howard Gardner (1993) calls “a quick fix,” since it does not reflect a real value (p. 81). Through the process of teaching that focuses on knowledge acquisition in schools, children develop two problems. First, they become avid at rote memorization learning at the expense of other learning skills and turn that into a learning habit. Second, they become slaves to attaining good grades and the fear of losing them. High grades satisfy students, their parents and immediate family. Furthermore, by getting good grades they can enroll in the main universities of the Kingdom, such as King Saud, King Fahd and King Abdulaziz Universities. This indicates that their interest for good grades and the fear of losing them have reasonable grounds; yet society as well as job possibilities are changing. High grades may initially secure a place at the university, but do not guarantee a job after graduation. Unfortunately, in Saudi Arabia the problem of English language learning extends from school to higher education. In the higher education sector, teachers and administrations are stretched trying to correct, in less than a year, a problem that A. K. Hamdan (Ed.), Teaching and Learning in Saudi Arabia, 31–48. © 2015 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

K. Bawazeer

has been festering over the minimum of six to eight years that English is taught in schools. Time is a crucial issue to consider when thinking about learning/teaching English. In King Abdulaziz University (KAU), there is a maximum of 30 weeks, at most, during the orientation year, to raise the standard of English proficiency, bearing in mind that there is a four-module system with finals and quizzes for each module. This is not enough time to learn a new language or to close gaps that exist in the learning.3 In this chapter, the author asserts that the problem is correctable using tools that are already abundant in Saudi Arabia; namely the Internet as a primary tool and Smartphones as a follow-up tool (Google, 2012; Saudi Gazette, 2012). However, it is the Internet that makes the main difference in this system whether it is accessed through Smartphones or laptops or any other device. Both the Internet and Smartphones work against a memory-based teaching system and enable autonomy and control of learning as the author aims to show (Communication and Information Technology Commission, 2013). The model presented in this chapter builds on the learning habit of memorization and repetition in order to establish new learning habits using follow-up by peers via phones as a replacement for the school followup by parents to arrive at the autonomy of learning. Using the suggested system, both students and teachers gain the positive side effect of learning about and applying multiple skills, as well as turning students into autonomous learners and teachers into facilitators and supervisors. This enables more on-the-spot and internalized learning through repetition and less inclass work for teachers. In addition, the system is compatible with the theories of multiple intelligences advocated by Howard Gardner in Frames of Mind (1983, 2011). However, in order to move from the current situation to the desired one, one needs to take steps that acknowledge and address the current situation, and build on it rather than completely ignore its existence. As such, memorization skills, which Saudi students are avid about, could be turned into a positive rather than a negative value. In the system suggested here, the author emphasizes learner’s autonomy, selfdependence and self-control of self, time, place and material. This system can greatly improve the learning of another language due to the fact that learners are more mature in age and that they can most often derive lessons, albeit indirectly, from their first language experiences. It is hoped that learning English this way adds rather than subtracts from the fluency of either native or second language, Arabic or English. This presentation argues for a gradual shift from rote memorization to autonomy. The author sees use of the Internet and Smartphones as working against a memory-based teaching system and believes that if students learn using these tools, they will become more autonomous learners. This methodology has the possibility of changing the attitudes of those learners and teachers who still show resistance, changing from total dependency on teachers, parents and grades to autonomy and of changing study skills from 32

A System for Teaching English in Saudi Arabia

unaware rote memorization to incorporating memorization with an array of skills (Bloom, 1984; Bloom et al., 1956). The author proposes a system of English language acquisition in Saudi Arabia that offers a better educational grounding and creates a life-long learner, as well as creating a self-directed and selfmotivated population. Countries where the Internet has been a fact of life for a long time may not relate to the system presented here as an innovative system. Yet, if something is to work it has to answer to the needs and the conditions of society for which it is to be used. By default, the system entails that Saudis, who well understand the learning conditions and environment of other Saudis, write or participate in designing and generating the learning material that is used in teaching English as a second language (ESL) or English as a foreign language (EFL). This chapter introduces and argues for a new yet old methodology of learning English based on innate learning processes (Chomsky, 1965) and on the intensive use of Internet and Smartphones (Wankel & Blessinger, 2013) which are now available everywhere in Saudi Arabia. The method of learning/teaching English takes existing skills into consideration while it teaches learners to be autonomous and to work according to their individual needs. This means that learners may have different starting points, depending on their individual abilities and the level of English language acquisition achieved. This chapter covers the following three main parts: 1. A theoretical grounding for the system. 2. An introduction that comprises a brief historical description of the author’s applications of the methodology and students’ reaction to it. 3. A description of the system for teaching and learning English in Saudi Arabia. The chapter concludes with a summary of the presented ideas and an introduction of some limitations and problems the author found with this methodology during application and offers solutions and recommendations. Literature Review

Theories of Language Acquisition Language acquisition refers to the ability of understanding and using a language to produce comprehensible and meaningful utterances, sentences, phrases and words in it. Language acquisition refers to first or native language (L1). A second language is referred to as L2 and the second language acquisition is abbreviated as SLA. The difference between language acquisition and forced learning is that the first is obtained at will.4 Research regarding L1 acquisition started before research regarding L2. The SLA field started as an interdisciplinary one, yet it was too segmented and narrow to 33

K. Bawazeer

empower theorists to make big statements or to give major solutions to large-scale chronic problems. Each theory tends to shed light on a limited aspect of the language learning process, which makes the solutions these theories offer rather segmented, incomplete and sometimes even incoherent. Thus, despite the abundance of theories, their narrow focus makes them unable to deal with large-scale phenomena. Hence in creating this system, the author suggests borrowing from any theory what is relevant to the system presented here. There are many theories about language acquisition from various disciplines, whether it is education, psychology, neuroscience or any other skill as, for example, Naom Chomsky’s theories of nativism, generative, universal, or transformational grammar. There are also relevant theories initiated by the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky, specially the theory of zone of proximal development. In this theory, Vygotsky refers to the difference between what children actually achieve and what they can achieve. He also argues for two more concepts that are pertinent to this system. He argues that children could learn on their own (Gredler, 2009, pp. 1–19), and he was particularly against tests that check the knowledge of students.5 Connectionism or emergenism theories have something to offer, too. Connectionism ties together and uses different disciplines such as cognition, language acquisition, neuroscience and artificial intelligence. As far as language acquisition is concerned, its main principal is that mental actions happen through interconnected networks of simple and similar units from which emerges humans’ ability to learn languages. Connectionist theorists hypothesize that language is a process of cognition resulting from the meeting of both biological and environmental factors, which takes us back to the concept of the existence of innate language abilities humans have, proposed by Chomsky. The American radical behavioral psychologist Burrhrus Frederic Skinner (1904–1990) suggested also that we humans learn from our environment through repetition. Both Chomsky and Vygotsky criticized different aspects of Skinner’s theories. Their main argument is that human language is unlike the modes of communication used by any other animal species. Albeit, the concepts initiate from opposing theories to those of Chomsky and Vygotsky (Chomsky, 1959). Therefore, there are aspects of each theory or theorist employed in creating the SLA system proposed here. The system is based on theories emphasizing that humans acquire language through innate components in human brains, while focusing on the role of the environment and the ideas on repetition proposed by Skinner, as well as changing the immersing pattern – using the Internet to replace physical immersion. Instead of plunging into theoretical debates, we need to find out what works and use it. We do not go into the debate of nature or nurture here, but target what works. In summary, most theories of language acquisition posit some degree of innateness. However, most may not acknowledge the role of conscious learning in SLA. In this system, not only listening and speaking are targeted, but reading and writing as well. We are not against learning. Learning how to read and write are conscious processes that are incorporated into the proposed system since these 34

A System for Teaching English in Saudi Arabia

are important skills in the academic context of learning English in Saudi Arabia, especially in higher education. Teacher Training and Motivation

We must believe in our children and young adults and give them the tools they need to succeed by creating the proper environment and motivation for learning, as well as the know-how of what to do to transfer them safely from a state of dependency to a state of autonomy. Furthermore, teachers also need training to use the system. Teachers have to be committed, yet the training should not take a long time. In his book, The Technology of Teaching (2003), Skinner addresses problems of teaching (pp. 93–113). He argues that teachers are not given a deep awareness of the processes involved in teaching and learning. They end up using what is available to them, like memorization of English grammar rules and giving their students paragraphs to memorize for exams so the students achieve good grades. Unwittingly, yet collectively, they end up reinforcing or establishing a rote memorization pattern that accompanies learners for the rest of their school years and engender their creativity for the rest of their lives. The children become damaged both emotionally and mentally from memorization. Skinner suggest that a suitable skill can be taught at any age by: • • • • • •

Specifying clearly what the learner has to do. Breaking down the task into small manageable steps. Letting the students perform the steps themselves. Giving positive reinforcement when possible for any achievement. Making the learners feel successful. Giving intermittent praise later to keep the enthusiasm in students.

We need to recognize that language learning is a complex activity that incorporates many elements and that it does not respond well to segmentation. Therefore, the author suggests using all possible reinforcement strategies in order to create an overarching system that responds well to learners and teachers, and removes their fears and inhibitions. A Historical Background

Historically, the natural process of learning the native tongue that all babies go through until 2 to 5 years of age, has proven successful with all native languages, even with the blind, despite language variations (Bruner, 1983). People automatically learn their mother tongue through imitation, except in very few cases such as those who unable to hear or speak. The author advocates a gradual movement that builds on the old to get to the new. What is special about the system discussed in this chapter is that it is innovative and congruent with modern tools of technological innovations and up-to-date language learning theories while it applies a basic, timetested methodology. 35

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A Brief History of Experiments with the System

As a product of the same system, the author claims to know the problems that resulted in the failure of a grammar-memorization based system. Over the years, the author has seen a lot of students come and go with the same problems that were not corrected. There is a lack of sufficient data to build on, which resulted in relying on teachers’ personal observations and experience in devising the program. Furthermore, teachers as well as this author have observed that teaching English is done by teachers who themselves are products of the same system which relied on easily and precisely measurable outcomes that depended, in the main, on teaching grammatical drills that have definite answers, and on memorizing two or three short paragraphs so as to write one – as memorized – in the final exam. This means that a “one for all” grammar method is applied, regardless of the fact that some people may indeed have a special acumen for languages, though that is not the case with the majority. Being a product of the same system meant that some teachers thought that a grammar-memorization method would be sufficient for many years to come. The author experimented with the suggested system for an entire semester in a regular university oral English course. This proved to be the best application of the methodology as it gave the author time to shift the students into autonomous learners (students met two times a week for 1.5 hours over a period of 16 weeks). In this course, the teacher had the time to check students’ tables weekly and to conduct some quizzes regarding the methodology, its theories as well as the level of language acquisition attained to make sure the methodology and the concepts behind it are practical. The teacher/researcher had the permission of the Head of Department to experiment with the students as long as good results were achieved by the end of the semester. The researcher also experimented with four weekly two-hour sessions, which were offered to internal, e-learning and external students at King Abdulaziz University, both to explain the methodology and to give examples of how it can be applied. There were four sessions altogether. The information was repeated often to internalize it. Then the teacher divided the learners into pairs and into groups and taught the class how to click into groups quickly. Students were given 35 minutes to write individual needs analysis essays in class. At home, they were given the assignment of exploring various Internet sites that teach English for free, after modeling the activity in class. Acceptable sites have a specific criterion given below in the subtitle “Step One”. Handouts were given that included a pledge from the student, to herself, which states that she is committed to learning English this way for a year. It includes the time and place for learning English every day in a five-day week followed by a one-day break and a review day. Initially, after the outline of the workshop was introduced, the learners were asked to write short essays as a form of needs analysis. They were also told that they have to always be consistent in order for them to have good results. A questionnaire was distributed to the 30 students who stayed to the end and it was to be given to the teacher when done.

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A System for Teaching English in Saudi Arabia

Furthermore, the author experimented with two language learning workshops to introduce the concepts and mythology. Interviews were conducted with three students who attended a four-week session and three who attended a two-hour session. The interviews emphasized the difference and the expected benefits for each. Results

Over the years, the author has observed the failure of the grammar-based system in educating children in KSA. This is a system that catered to the only skill most of our students are good at: rote memorization. The author has seen the problem get worse, seen costly solutions devised, such as private international schools and trips abroad, but this did not eliminate the fear, nor the pressures on and suffering of parents, students, and teachers associated with learning English. Generally the observers and the students emphasized the following: • • • •

the system is useful and interesting; no grades for this activity are a positive motivational aspect of the program; some students commented that it is too late now to change their study habits; some wanted only to graduate and said they will work on their English after graduating; • some students commented the activity is boring to them. A questionnaire was distributed among the 30 students who stayed to the end of the four weeks but only 20 were answered fully.6 Interviews were done with six students – three students who attended the single session and three who attended the four week sessions. There were only a limited number of students willing to be interviewed. Most gave logistical reasons, such as waiting cars, or that they had to attend a class, though the interviews were short and focused. The questionnaire covers nine agree/disagree points and three questions (see Table 1). • When the learners were asked at the end of the questionnaire and in the interviews to say why do they think the system is difficult (or easy), the responses wavered between the fact that they are used to memorization and that some teachers ask them to memorize at university level which makes them confused, and that it is too late to change now. • When asked if they will attempt to follow up on it, most said yes but that they need to be unencumbered with university courses in order to start such a shift. • When asked why could they not try the program if they are convinced by it, they said that the task is too hard and time consuming. • One student expressed her feelings about the system. She said in one of the interviews that the “theoretical presentation is not enough to create a shift in learning patterns because the time allotted is too short.”

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Table 1. Questionnaire No

Statement

Strongly agree

Agree

Neutral

Disagree

Strongly disagree

1.

The system is easy to follow up with

1

7

1

8

4

2.

This program makes sense to me

12

6

1

1

0

3.

I think I will learn English if I use this program

2

14

2

2

0

4.

I will try it starting now

0

8

0

8

4

5.

I will try it but will start later

4

10

4

2

2

6.

I am not going to try it

0

0

0

8

4

7.

The passages in www.rongchang.com are boring

7

6

2

4

1

8.

I will learn English this way

1

8

8

2

1

9.

The passages in www.rongchang.com are culturally irrelevant

6

0

0

5

9

Discussion of Results

The researcher had the best results in terms of learning English when applying this system with the oral English course who experienced the methodology fully because there was enough time to go as slow as needed for the shift to occur and because the transfer from memorization and dependency issues was slow and gradual. Moreover, the students in this course fulfilled all the authoritative teacher’s requirements because they were trained to do so. They prepared their tables, consistently memorized the set number of words they pledged to learn daily, conducted full group activities, and followed up with the system in full. The teacher was able to check every members’ 38

A System for Teaching English in Saudi Arabia

schedule monthly by checking listening and reading first, then vocabulary, then writing weekly. Thus the teacher-researcher was able to monitor the student’s progress closely for the whole period. At the beginning there was some verbal and action resistance but the final feedback, when the students started having results, was mostly positive. The author had to rely on her observation, instinct, and experience against the lack of sufficient data and on the observation of other teachers to come up with the learning system outlined here. As indicted earlier, the system has fringe benefits such as encouraging awareness of multiple intelligences, and the skills needed to create a knowledge society that results in creativity and in being able to harness information rather than be a slave to it. Certain ideas and perceptions recur, for which research is needed. Meanwhile, we must deal with the obvious, be willing to take some risks and rely on ourselves to find solutions for our problems. Practical Steps Towards Learning English in Saudi Arabia

Internalization First, Sharpening Second Using computers and Smartphones, this system tries to imitate the natural learning processes and incorporates the environment in ways that are conducive to learning English (Sayed-Mouchaweh & Lughofer, 2012, pp. 1–20). It works gradually on the four skills but not simultaneously. Through it, the habit of dependency is exchanged for the habit of independency, rote memorization for more advanced learning skills such as analysis and creativity. However, learners need slow, clear, and specific instructions on what to do in order to feel safe. The system uses skills the child or young adult is familiar with, such as memorization, to shift learners from dependency to autonomy gradually and slowly, but surely and firmly. One should, when possible, listen to babies as they learn and as they internalize the complex patterns of their mother tongue. A baby listens first for a long time. Then he/she starts to babble out some sounds, then the baby produces some understandable and some non-understandable words, then he/she produces short phrases, then he/ she is in full charge of his/her language. People around the baby may feel that he/ she produced a lot of language all of a sudden but he/she has been listening and internalizing for a long time by the time he/she produces understandable utterances. The methodology this chapter is suggesting follows this order: internalization of listening, speaking then reading, followed by writing and finally fine tuning with grammar. As such, the order that prioritizes grammar is flipped so grammar comes last as a fine-tuning and pattern recognition tool. The learners are to be told that they should not expect to be able to speak English in a short period of time; that they should rely mainly on themselves when they learn a second language such as English. Nonetheless, the whole system must be explained to learners who should be gradually taken from the spoon-feeding mode they are used to, to the autonomy desired. All aspects of their being will have to be 39

K. Bawazeer

dealt with including the psychological and mental. Therefore this system requires a tutor, at least for a short time, so children and young adults or teachers will know what to do. This may take from four to seven sessions, depending on how fast the learners acquire the new information. The control period can be extended or shortened depending on the learners’ levels and abilities. Language Immersion Strategies Virtual immersion replaces actual immersion in this system. Before the prevalence of the Internet in the 21st century, almost the only way for Saudis to immerse themselves in the language was to travel to a native English speaking country, which is both costly and inaccessible to many learners. Learners do not have to do this now as they can create virtual immersion situations via the Internet. At the same time, they establish support groups via Smartphones. One can still go to a language institute to learn English or, if young enough, to a school where the medium of instruction is English. However the first alternative can be costly while the second can be both costly and culturally risky. With both alternatives, the outcome is indefinite. The System

Step One (Session 1): The System The goal of this session is to describe the system, show the students how to surf the net for a desired Web site, show them how to form groups, how to review and how to support each other. The teacher describes the system in full to the learners. They are given handouts listing the instructor’s contact info and what to expect over the next hours or weeks, depending on the type and duration of teaching workshop or lecture. In the first part of this session, learners are asked to check the Internet for free sites that offer: • clearly voiced material; • consistent work, enough for one month at a time. As well as the above, a site should ideally offer more than reading and listening services. It should also offer a vocabulary list or lists, gradual writing exercises and the basic grammar rules and it should preferably have a chat area with those who are fluent in English. During the sessions, the teachers model each activity. For example, the search for a suitable Web site is modeled in class. The teacher and students use the search key for the words “free Web sites for teaching English”, or “free Web sites for learning English”. Together, they check the Web sites that come up and explore only what fits the above criteria and what is appealing. The author and her students have found more than one Web site that offers the desired services, such as www.rong-chang.com and https://www.englishclub.com. Despite the culturally inappropriate material 40

A System for Teaching English in Saudi Arabia

many learners object to, it is a good idea to start with available Web sites until more culturally suitable reading material is developed. The students then re-do the activity at home and decide on the place and time where, in their natural environment, they can uninterruptedly learn English and for how long every day. Then they fill in a pledge form that is discussed later in this section. Learners do the activity for five days, take one day for review, then one day as a break. The break is for rest, internalization and motivation. I noticed that the learners were happy at the concept of review and were very happy for a break. For support and follow-up, the students form groups of five. Each group appoints a group leader. The job of the leader is to supervise the follow-up with group members. The leader is changed every week, which is a form of motivation to the learners. The group leader keeps a log of who called whom, and when. Copies of all logs are given to the instructor by the group leader at the beginning of the next session. The group leader motivates the group members to do their activity, if they see anyone lagging behind. She/he should be given some motivational strategies to help with the job. The group leader quizzes each member on the selected listening/ reading passages and on the vocabulary at the end of each week. The teacher quizzes them at the end of the month. For a group of five, one member a day calls all other members to ask about the passages they listened to, read and repeated and how many times that was done, as well as the vocabulary and writing assignments implemented. Each member does this task once a week and reports to the group leader. Just like group leaders, group members keep a full log of all the information they receive from other members of the group. The learners are given handouts that describe the process. A pledge of learning English is also handed out. Learners pledge to themselves and sign, then leave a copy, in their chosen language, in their study place or where they can see it daily. In the classroom, a review of the session ensues and the learned material is written on the blackboard or whiteboard. The learners write down the material, then there is a review. This takes place in the form of a continuation game with simple gifts given to those who participate. Step Two (Session 2): Listening and Speaking The goal of this session is to internalize the process of listening and reading and to introduce the group activity to learners who are asked to participate. The first activity in class is checking the Web site each decides to use. The learners, with the instructor, explore the sites they chose on a large computer screen and learners are shown how to arrive to listening/reading material on a specific Web site. The next activity is modeling the listening and reading exercise for the learners. Using the Internet, a Web site is picked and a passage is chosen. An easy listening and reading paragraph is usually chosen by the majority of learners. The learners are 41

K. Bawazeer

asked to time themselves when they start the activity. The chosen passage is to be shown on the big screen in front of all learners. The experiment is conducted on a relatively short paragraph that does not take more than one or two minutes per single repetition. Learners read the passage silently while listening to the audio speaker. They check how long it takes them to do the activity and they record that. They repeat the listening activity two more times. Then they are instructed to repeat after the speaker three times and check the time of the first round. They check the overall time it takes them to do the activity. It usually varies from six to 12 minutes. Then they check their understanding. Most learners understand the passage better after repetition. This activity is a model for what the learners will be doing the next day on their own. The learners are given time to create their individual lists of 20 passages, which they will listen to throughout the month. Each month the level of difficulty is raised gradually; the activity is repeated each month until fluency is acquired. Again, the activity takes place five days a week; the learner should take one day for review and a one day break. For the next activity learners create a table of nine columns. The nine columns are: number of week, day, date, passage listened to, times repeated, when, where, signature after completion, and the time the follow-up person called. The columns are to be filled in later at home. In class they are asked to fill in the columns of week, day, date, to become familiar with the form and with the concept of filling it in. Finally, there is a collective rewarded review of the process so far and of the session. Although everyone is asked to start at the beginning to fill in learning gaps, if a learner does not wish to do so, he/she can go to a higher level of listening, speaking, reading or writing. He/she should aim to go a little above the starting level, but not too many above so that he/she will not become too frustrated to continue. The sense of completion is important for the psyche of the learner, who should never be made to feel like a failure. Step Three (Session Three): Add Vocabulary The goal of this session is to teach vocabulary in ways that will store vocabulary in the long-term memory of the learner. A learner should learn between three and seven words every day, preferably five. Since it is always better to learn vocabulary in context, learners are asked to pick the words from the paragraph they are listening to and reading on the day, or from their field of specialization. A learner can compose a list of vocabulary he/she needs or wants to know. The instructor should calculate with the learners the words they can learn per week, month and year to help motivate them. Learners are asked to create a new list for vocabulary or add a column to the previous one. To learn each word well, learners should follow the following system for long-term internalization that covers the word from all aspects, including spelling: 42

A System for Teaching English in Saudi Arabia

• Write the word twice while looking at it. The second time the word is written should be in individual letters. • Know the meaning and pronunciation of the word. • Pronounce the word in full then pronounce the individual letters. Repeat ten times. • Test yourself then do another word. • Memorize all the words then review them at the end the day and at the end of the week during the review day. Words that are not fully learned go back to the list. • Write all vocabulary in a table similar to the one used for listening. A review of this session ensues, modeled after the previous ones, followed by a rewarded group review of the learned process so far. Step Four (Session Four): Introducing Writing Writing can be introduced gradually, starting from the initial point of writing the main idea to taking notes, summary, writing a paragraph then an essay. Learners create a new table for writing, or add an extra column to the existing table. They may keep all tables together if they opt for a separate table for each activity. Writing is putting words into a certain order, with a coherent result. The previous activities of listening/speaking and reading contribute as a form of preparation for teaching/learning how to write in English. To advance the writing skill learners write notes and underline key words of the passages they read, then they write a summary, then a paragraph. Each of these steps should be modeled clearly on the screen. Then they write a summary of the read passage. As with the previous activities, the activity is individually timed. Students write a paragraph and keep a writing log at home, and shift their paragraphs into essays when ready. Learners are told that an essay is an extended paragraph in which more details are incorporated. They can shift every idea in the paragraph into a separate paragraph by adding more details, a topic sentence and a conclusion per paragraph. The learners time the beginning and end of every activity and she/he should be given time for application. This activity is followed by a reminder: a description of the system and its variations. Ideally, the instructor tells learners to call her or email her when needed. At the end of this session, students are reminded that they will not be able to learn to speak English overnight and that they should give a year or more to the process. However, checking new words and being able to understand and read faster, is a good motivation for them to keep going. A full rewarded group review of the process and its possible variations occurs7 and students/learners are again given the contact details of the instructor. The instructor then suggests to learners to conduct periodic (a set number of months) and yearly reviews (preferably dated). They should also choose whether they want to be fully autonomous or whether they will need some support. If support is to be given by a 43

K. Bawazeer

colleague, she/he should consent to that in writing, and should be informed of the review date. How to Shorten the Period

Any number of sessions can be fused on the basis of the learners’ needs. The system can be explained in any number of sessions according to need and availability. For example, the whole system can be explained in one session or two using the second session to experiment with the system and to test the learning of the process. There should always be a review of the system in order to reinforce it. Other shorter or longer systems can be used. Gaining Fluency

Fluency in this context means that one can understand and produce the second language fluently without waiting to check with a grammar book or dictionary. At the point of initial fluency acquisition, the speaker may not know all the words in English but can communicate his/her thoughts effectively. A learner should have enough vocabulary to enable him/her to communicate with others orally and understand what they are being told. Gaining Autonomy

Both teachers and students may resist the methodology for various reasons, including a students’ familiarity with the system they are using at the time or that some teachers may be afraid to lose power over their students. However, once they have learned and enjoyed autonomy they will not want to go back to the old grading system because the new system awakens a long forgotten sense of freedom that empowers their minds and eliminates fear. A free and empowered mind will be open to new and different ways to earn a living, which is the current, un-vocalized primary goal of education. Learners may, depending on the group, opt to do without peer support at any given point, in order to be completely autonomous. About Grammar as a Sharpening Tool

Grammar should be used as a reference and sharpening tool, not as a departure point. Therefore, grammar should not be used as a major tool to teach English because no one has learned English in KSA from learning the grammar of English. It should be taught later as an enforcement tool after one has internalized the basic language structures. There are many excellent grammar books available and free Web sites. Learners could choose a Web site and stick to it for three months, at least. However, the author suggests having an editor who would proof read written material. This can go on indefinitely or can be stopped at any point during the process. 44

A System for Teaching English in Saudi Arabia

Having Fun with Learning

Learning can be fun and interesting. If we think back to our preschool days, we tend to remember that learning was fun and we know it can be fun again. Two important criteria among the many that make learning enjoyable are that it is relevant and that it happens by choice. Moreover, when discovering the amount of freedom learning gives, we rediscover how interesting learning can be. There are a lot of icebreakers and games a teacher can use to introduce ideas. For example, a fun way to introduce using Smartphones as a learning tool is to use the Smartphones games introduced in John’s Chen’s book, 50 Digital Team-Building Games (2012). Conclusion

This chapter explores a different way of learning English in KSA that makes use of the availability of Internet and Smartphones. This system eventually creates autonomous students, able to employ many study habits. It acknowledges variation, therefore it enables multiple intelligences as learners choose what suits their acumen and the degree of language learning they reached or wish to reach. By using the Internet and Smartphones, the author devised a system that works against a memorybased teaching system that has been prevalent in KSA. She believes that if students learn how to use these tools purposely, they will become more autonomous learners. The system is simple, inexpensive and achievable individually, at home, and collectively, in school. However, in order for teachers to teach it, they must learn to use the system and be shifted themselves, which is very feasible. Limitations and Suggestions • This system focuses on learning rather than on testing so it does not come with a testing formula. Many researchers claim the need for testing to enable administration and stakeholders to test the program’s validity. We leave this to be done in future research. Currently we suggest a pass and fail (P/F) system in higher education and schools as students reach a minimum criterion for language fluency. However, the problem of being admitted to the higher education colleges still exists. Here we suggest two possibilities that need to be investigated further. The first is using grades only to be admitted to the different colleges while the P/F system is kept by not incorporating the grade into the accumulative average of the student. Second is enabling more fluidity in the higher education system by enabling a certain number of repetitions of each course at the student’s expense and in his/her time through the online program. • Teachers as well as students may resist the methodology for several reasons. Students may resist because it is a little risky in terms of their primary motivation: grades. They may prefer not to shift, especially in the last years of their studies, since they are familiar with the memorization system. Since familiarity breeds 45

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content, teachers may resist because they lose power over their students as they lose the position of the controlling leader or the image of an all-knowing person. They could also be against it because it incorporates technology into teaching. Grading problems and risks taken can be overcome by discussing the method with the stakeholders and by letting them air their concerns, listening to them carefully and incorporating alterations immediately when feasible. • The sites that offer the full service do not have cultural connection to KSA in the passages listened to and read. The author suggests developing listening and reading passages while experimenting with the program using the learner’s feedback as a guide. • Some students feel that the passages are boring. This can be overcome with a thorough search by a student for material that is not boring to him or her, such as material that arouses their interest in life. Otherwise, some boredom should be endured for the sake of the final results. • It is not possible for the researcher/author to test the methodology on a largescale and variant population in different areas of Saudi Arabia’s education system without official support. However, this limitation can be overcome through application and testing. Final Words • The author suggests implementing the system in a small number of schools then testing the results using a world-class system such as ILETS or TOFEL before and after conducting the program. If the methodology proves successful, it can be implemented on a larger scale in an area or a city whereby testing is administered at the end of a pre-determined period of time, while progressing with the first group. Upon success it can be moved on to another area. The whole of Saudi Arabia can be covered in two to three years. • There are systems that adopt similar ideas. However, most, if not all of these systems require payments and they are more complicated. The system provided here is totally free and much simpler to use. • General surveys and more culturally specific studies are needed in Saudi Arabia. • The system produces motivated, self-dependent learners, which is one of the goals of higher education in Saudi Arabia. It also has the advantage of combining learning English with familiarizing learners with modern technology. Furthermore, Smartphones applications like WhatsApp are effectively used to create group and peer follow-up in order to shift learners gradually from dependency to autonomy. Smartphones can be used also to access the net, but other devices can be used too with the same impact – minus the tiny font size! We, in Saudi Arabia, have lost a lot of valuable time and money experimenting with different systems. However, none has worked over the years because we did not incorporate environmental and cultural aspects. This system is unique because 46

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it targets the specific problems Saudi students have in learning English as well as providing the fringe benefits of learning various learning skills, autonomy, thinking-based learning and group work while using the Internet and Smartphones (Richardson & Mancabelli, 2011). Notes I am not totally against memorization. In fact, it is used to teach vocabulary in the system advocated here, as is shown in this research. However, I am against rote memorization for the sole purpose of grade acquisition. As such, only one skill is developed, which is memorization, at the expense of other learning skills, such as the skills described by Benjamin Bloom (Bloom, 1984; Bloom et al., 1956). 2 The process is as follows: children learn to memorize; exam questions depend totally on memorization; then both teachers and students can easily calculate grades and guarantee ‘A’s. This satisfies teachers, students, and their social circle but in the final analysis, it promotes dependency and inhibits the learner. 3 Most Saudi students have inconsistent scores in IELTS or TOFEL tests; for example, a student may have a 6 in reading but a 4 in writing. 4 Things are apt to change with the availability of the Internet. Students occasionally express that they are not happy with a rote memorization system, yet when change is called for, or is occurring, they prefer what is familiar because it is safer. 5 The author agrees with the concept as testing is against creativity and autonomy; and questions and students tend to be standardized, which is against the autonomy of learning. 6 Alternatively, in the future, the questionnaire could be on line. 7 It is suggested that the learners meet the instructor every two months to refresh their minds, follow up on their progress and get some encouragement. 1

References Bloom, B. S. (1984). Taxonomy of educational objectives, Book 1: Cognitive domain. New Jersey, NJ: Addison Wesley. Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives – The classification of educational goals. London, England: Longmans. Bruner, J. (1983). Child’s talk: Learning to use language. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Chen, J. (2012). 50 digital team-building games: Fast, fun meeting openers, group activities and adventures using social media, Smart Phones, GPS, Tablets, and more. New Jersey, NJ: Wiley. Chomsky, N. (1959). A review of Skinner’s verbal behavior. Languages, 35(1), 26–58. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, England: MIT Press. Communication and Information Technology Commission. (2013). 51 Million mobile subscriptions in Saudi Arabia. Electronic version 17/Issue: Safar/Dec. Retrieved from www.citc.gov.sa Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York, NY: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (2011). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books. (First published 1983) Google Mobile. (2012). New research shows 6 countries are the clear leaders in smartphone adoption. Retrieved from am http://googlemobileads.blogspot.com/2012/05/new-research-shows-6-countriesare.html Gredler, M. E. (2009). Hiding in plain sight: The stages of mastery/self regulation in cultural-historical theory. Educational Psychologist, 44(1), 1–19. Richardson, W., & Mancabelli, R. (2011). Personal learning networks: Using the power of connections to transform education. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree. Saudi Gazette. (2012, October). Saudi Arabia mobile user base grows to 54.5m. Retrieved from http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentid=2012100213815

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K. Bawazeer Sayed-Mouchaweh, M., & Lughofer, E. (2012). Introduction in learning in non-stationary environments. London, England & New York, NY: Pearson. Skinner, B. F. (2003). The technology of teaching. Acton, MA: Copley Publishing Group. Wankel, L. A., & Blessinger. P. (2013). Increasing student engagement and retention using mobile applications: Smartphones, skype and texting technologies (Cutting-edge technologies in higher education). Bingley, England: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Khadijah Bawazeer King AbdulAziz University Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

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3. Analysis of Systemic Functional Linguistics Preparatory Year Writing in a Saudi University

Introduction

Education in Saudi Arabia has diversified and progressed tremendously over the last half century and particularly in the last two decades. The higher education system, in particular, has changed primarily to advance the country and its citizens in several aspects. Change has been influenced by an increase in the student population, demands of the job market and the influence of international higher education (Al-Anqari, 2014; Saleh, 1986). With the advancement and increasing globalization, English has become the dominant lingua franca in Saudi Arabia and through the Ministry of Education (MOE), English language instruction became an essential subject in the curriculum for several reasons, including modernization in aspects of daily life and the desire for Saudi Arabia to become competitive at the regional, continental and international levels (Al-Seghayer, 2011). Further, in certain fields of study, English is the primary language for research, curricula and technological support. English has not been given official status as a second language in the country; however, it is given substantial significance as the primary foreign language taught in Saudi government schools. English in Higher Education in Saudi Arabia: Preparatory Programs

In an effort to maintain and promote quality academic programs, increase graduation rates, and to meet the needs of the labor market and demands of the growing population, the current trend in Saudi higher education is to enhance incoming students’ language, technical and cognitive skills through a preparatory program (Alaqeeli, 2014). English has become the medium of instruction (EMI) in several universities over the past one to two decades, particularly those offering instruction in the health, technology, business and engineering sciences. As a result, universities begin preparing students before courses in the field of study begin (Clarke, 2007; Lange, 2013). In Saudi, these preparatory programs (also called core curriculum or general studies), which focus on English, mathematics, computer skills, study skills and natural sciences, have developed primarily focused on preparing students for A. K. Hamdan (Ed.), Teaching and Learning in Saudi Arabia, 49–70. © 2015 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

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university study. Freshmen students enter university with a wide range of Englishlanguage proficiency based on their school experiences – private education equals 12 years of English with varying hours of English instruction; public education currently means seven years of English instruction beginning in sixth grade for two hours per week (Al-Seghayer, 2011). The exact number of hours and type of instruction varies widely depending on the type of school and its philosophy on English education. As students enter with a diverse range of language abilities, programs in higher education assess and instruct the traditional four modalities up to and occasionally beyond 20 hours a week: listening, speaking, reading and writing, supported by the subskills of grammar and vocabulary and usually within an e-learning platform (DynEd, Blackboard, publisher-based e-learning platform, etc.). Academic writing is the productive skill that often requires the most instructional attention for students with an L1 of Arabic due to several factors (including language transfer from L1; less focus on productive skills and student-centered learning methodologies in K–12 classrooms) but certainly one of the most important in higher education for students to succeed in their academic careers (Al-Buainain, 2009). This study focuses on description of language used for cohesion and unity to make meaning in L2 writing through the lens of SFL. Concept and Terms of SFL

Halliday’s (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2013) Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is an all-encompassing linguistic model of viewing language and grammar as a means of creating socially constructed meaning within a cultural context (Eggins, 2004). SFL focuses on the process of creating meaningful discourse, not simply viewing language and language learning and teaching in isolated areas such as content, organization, etc. It allows these ‘areas’ to overlap and build upon each other to create meaning in discourse through three overarching (meta) functions that combine to form the register as shown in Figure 1: the subject matter (including the participants and processes or the ‘who’ and ‘what they are doing’) is related to the ideational function; the mode or channel of communication is related to the textual function and includes cohesive devices and organizational patterns or coherence; and the interpersonal function focuses on the relationship between the audience and author and characters within the text (Derewianka & Jones, 2010). Halliday and Hassan (1976) define a text as related clauses that are connected together or unified through cohesive devices. These three metafunctions allow the educators and students to see beyond the surface of language (Haratyan, 2011). Different grammatical and vocabulary choices or “lexico-grammatical” language choices (Dare, 2010) are associated with each metafunction. As Coffin (2010) implies, much like CALP and BICS (Cummins, 1984), SFL has been implicitly taught as teachers may be subconsciously aware of the difference in language constructions depending on purpose and context. However, SFL offers the methodology and metalanguage to bring that awareness to actual explicit teaching. This research focused on one 50

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area only, namely the textual metafunction concentrating on overall cohesion and coherence within the participants’ writing.

Figure 1. The metafunctions and language choices that determine register (Adapted from “From traditional grammar to functional grammar: Bridging the divide,” by B. Derewianka and P. Jones, 2010, in C. Coffin (Ed.) Language support in EAL Context. Why Systemic Functional Linguistics? (pp. 6–17). Special Issue of NALDIC Quarterly. Reading, England: NALDIC)

Brief Overview of Textual Metafunction The textual metafunction of SFL is one layer that consistently overlaps with the ideational and interpersonal metafunctions to create meaningful language. The textual metafunction relates directly to the mode or channel of communication and involves elements of coherence and cohesion within that channel. In this research, the mode is hand-written, tertiary-level, academic texts. According to Humphrey, Droga, and Feez (2012), textual elements “are like threads that tie together … a unified whole text … that an audience can comprehend and recognize as relevant and purposeful” (p. 93). Considering the textual elements from the students’ perspective (along with the two other metafunctions), SFL then offers a metalanguage of explicit instruction and consequently a varied kind of assessment that would allow students more access to constructing meaning and build a bridge across the traditional areas of writing. Based on the need for more extensive research in the field of EFL academic writing, as few studies in the region focus on the functional aspect of language and grammar to create meaning for students with an L1 of Arabic, this research addressed the following main question: 51

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In a Saudi higher education context for female preparatory year students, what patterns of language use to demonstrate coherence and cohesion emerge from a descriptive analysis of students’ autobiographical recount (a form of narrative) L2 writing? Literature Review

International Research on L2 Academic Writing Research on L2 writing began over 50 years ago in ‘native-speaking’ (NS) countries, initiated by the vast numbers of international students entering universities (Hinkel, 2005). As English spread around the world as the language of instruction in many fields, EFL academic writing research became vital in language teaching and learning. Hinkel (2005) reviews and summarizes L2 writing research by language use at the ‘macro’ and ‘micro’ levels. At the macro, or discourse level, Hinkel reviews research on “discourse organization, structuring, topic appropriateness, development … text cohesion, coherence, clarity and style” (p. 526). She cites research that not only emphasizes the rhetorical paradigm differences between cultures and languages but also research that argues the students’ lack of L2 experience could explain the differences in L1 and L2 writing at the macro level. At the micro level, she summarizes studies that focus on vocabulary and grammar, emphasizing the difficulties non-native speakers (NNS) have with these features, often limited and simplified (Hinkel, 2003) as compared to native speakers (NS) even after years of study in the country. Considering the vast research that has been conducted, Hinkel still concludes that “research on what L2 writers need to learn, what they should be able to do, and how L2 writing can be efficaciously taught is conspicuously lacking” (p. 535). Crossley and McNamara (2010) studied a corpus of over 500 texts written by high school students in Hong Kong. Contrary to several L2 writing studies, the researchers found that high proficiency L2 students use fewer cohesive devices than those perceived as lower proficiency. The authors argue that advanced L2 writers write for equally proficient readers who need fewer cohesive devices, a reverse cohesion effect (p. 16). The study also revealed that the advanced proficiency Hong Kong students, as with other international students, showed broader vocabulary choices than their lower proficiency counterparts, which concurs with previous research. Crossly and McNamara also argue in their research that learning to write is more demanding than learning other skills, and a deeper understanding of linguistic features particularly related to cohesion and complexity will produce better understanding of L2 writing. Giridharan and Robson (2011) conducted a case study analyzing the L2 academic writing of 206 foundation-year tertiary students in Malaysia. The researchers employed Vygotsky’s sociocultural approach (Turuk, 2008) to writing as an interactive and constructive process, highlighting that although students felt they 52

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knew cohesive devices and supporting content strategies in isolation, they had difficulty using these structures and related language by themselves and within the required academic context. The study argues that writing skills not only affect English language courses, but impact general academic performance as well and that students should not be taught only correct language but effective and appropriate language for the context in which they are writing (Pratt-Johnson, 2008, as cited in Giridharan & Robson, 2011). The study also shows the students’ lack of confidence in their language proficiency as demonstrated by the fact that the majority of students could not successfully revise their own work. The researchers suggest several educational implications, one of which focused on the need for genre-specific teaching to focus students’ language in the target area. Paiva and Lima’s (2011) case-study in Brazil comparing a NS ‘expert’ and a NNS writing sample illustrates how students’ work could be assessed through SFL’s textual metafunction. The study focuses on thematic progression and cohesive devices based in grammar and vocabulary. The authors emphasize the need for deeper analysis of students’ writing rather than the traditional surface-level approach for assessment. In their conclusions, the researchers argue that using the SFL approach and specifically the textual metafunction to analyze and eventually assess student writing will help educators as well as students explicitly understand the organizational patterns of their work. Regional Studies on L2 Academic Writing Several studies dating back to the 1960s (Kaplan, 1966, as cited in Khuwaileh & Al Shamouli, 2000) have been conducted in intensive and preparatory programs on L2 academic writing in the Gulf region and Middle East for students who have an L1 of Arabic. Many of these studies discuss and emphasize interlingual transfer during the period students are initially learning a language, and intralingual transfer as students progress in the new language and form their interlanguage. Other scholars, particularly researchers writing on English as L2 academic writing, focus on errors, the writing process, and pedagogical implications for improved L2 academic writing. In her case study with 40 first-year Qatari university students, Al-Buainain (2009) found several difficulties in L2 academic writing. Specifically, she focuses on what she refers to as “the most frequent Arabic errors in English” (p. 4), which include verb usage (tense and aspect), the copula ‘be’ verb, articles (particularly the definite article) and fragments. Al-Buainain concludes that methods of teaching, feedback and assessment need to be improved in the region. This article mentions direct L1 interlanguage transfer in the areas of verb tense and aspect where L1 learners have more difficulty with progressive and perfect aspects and the present-tense copula ‘be,’ according to Al-Buainain (2009), but it does not directly connect the grammar mistakes to the function to create meaning. Further, this is one of the only research articles focused on L1–L2 Arabic-English writing that, when referring to teaching implications, mentions the Sydney School (influenced by SFL along with genre 53

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pedagogy according to Rose, 2008), which is referred to as a “loose grouping of pedagogical approaches” (p. 7). The L1 interlingual transfer implications from the previous study concur with Khuwaileh and Al Shoumali’s (2000) research on 150 Jordanian university students’ written essays. The researchers found that the essays showed cohesive devices, tenses, subject-verb agreement, and textual references were not used effectively in either language in many cases – L1 or L2. The authors also found that students had more than one main idea in paragraphs and particularly in Arabic, students used extremely lengthy noun groups with several relative clauses and sentences which would be considered run-on sentences in English. Khuweilah and Al Shoumali concluded their study with implications about the importance of literacy in the students’ L1 and awareness of text differences in English, not through transfer or translation, but explicitly taught awareness. This article did discuss the function of the language particularly in the textual metafunction that focuses on text cohesion. Tahaineh (2014) published an extensive review of error analysis research or ‘pitfalls’ in L1 Arabic learners’ language, focusing on the written language. The three areas the researcher highlighted were prepositions, articles and discourse markers, all consistent with previously cited research. Similar to Alhaysony’s (2012) findings, Tahaineh’s (2012) empirical study on 162 university L1 Arabic students found that interlingual transfer accounted for 58% of the errors in prepositions with the remaining attributed to intralingual errors. Although not the focus of Tahaineh’s research, these ‘pitfalls’ studied, particularly discourse markers, can be directly connected to SFL research on cohesive devices to create meaning. Similarly, Al-Yaari, Al Hammadi, Alyami, and Almaflehi (2013) studied the inclass utterances of 200 male EFL learners across Saudi Arabia focusing on English Discourse Markers (EDM). Although the study was based on spoken English of secondary school students, the implications are relevant to this study as the discourse markers are related to the larger genre and textual metafunction of language illustrating cohesion and organizational devices to create meaning in either spoken or written discourse. Al-Yaari et al. found that connectives ‘and’ and ‘but’ and the adverb ‘also’ are used the most as discourse markers for these Saudi EFL students in spoken language. The researchers also found that the markers are often substituted incorrectly, a transfer from L1 in some cases, which distorts the meaning. Al Mazrooei (2009) found that writing as a process, although difficult at first for students who had been used to dictation of paragraphs as writing, improved their academic writing over time. She found that a popular pre-writing activity with her Emirati students was video clips about their ideas to help the students brainstorm – illustrating the importance of building experiences and schema. This study highlights the need for explicit genre instruction, and building and connecting past experiences to new ideas. As shown by the studies reviewed, research on L2 academic writing in English for higher education students in the region primarily focuses on specific language features, errors, assessment, or teaching practices through a lens of descriptive 54

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statistics and pre/post-designed interventions. There is a noticeable gap in research on L1 Arabic students’ L2 academic writing through a systemic functional and genre-based perspective. This gap is unfortunate on two levels. First, writing is the productive skill, in either L1 or L2, that the students are primarily assessed on consistently and constantly with up to 90% of their grades in subject area courses dependent on written projects and exams (many short answer and essay). Beyond the summative assessment, students are not often taught explicitly to connect various grammatical constructions and vocabulary to a certain context or genre that they have written – so instruction is of isolated grammar and vocabulary use without the instruction of expanded function and/or meaning within that context. Further, academic writing is perhaps the most necessary productive skill for higher education students to master for a variety of reasons (Crossley & McNamara, 2010). As Bjork and Raisenen (1997, as cited in Khuwaileh & Shoumali, 2000) wrote: We highlight the importance of writing in all university curricula not only because of its immediate practical application, i.e., as an isolated skill or ability, but because we believe that, seen from a broader perspective, writing is a thinking tool. It is a tool for language development, for critical thinking and, extension, for learning in all disciplines. (p. 175) SFL Relationship to Genre-Based L2 Writing

The genre-based approach, which is rooted in SFL and Vygotsky’s and Bruner’s learning theories, is the explicit teaching of patterns of using language, spoken and written, and register within a context to create meaning within each genre (Dare, 2010; Hyland, 2007). Genre-based pedagogy, which began to be applied in higher education contexts in the 1990s (Rose, 2008), promotes a perspective of teaching and learning writing that is more accessible for international and intercultural L2 learners. This approach gives the learner ‘keys’ to the broad rhetorical styles in writing – explicit instruction and consequent application allow learners with limited writing background to competently use patterns and register within a context (Martin, 1992). Hyland (2007) writes that this understanding of language function and use within a social context at the elemental or broader genre level allows the learner to transfer the patterns and language to the more focused macro level (using process patterns to write a step-by-step instruction, or descriptive patterns of an event for a feature article in a magazine). Gibbons (2009) also suggests a genrebased assessment as each genre has its own organizational pattern, cohesive devices, vocabulary and grammatical constructs. The concept of assessment by genre is not one implemented by the university in this research. The university instead assesses with a standard rubric for the proficiency level for all genres. As illustrated by the literature and researcher’s experience, instruction and assessment by genre would be beneficial for both educators and learners. 55

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Methodology

Research Site and Preparatory Program The research site for the study is a university preparatory program in Saudi Arabia that uses English as a medium of instruction except in the religion-based courses, which are in Arabic and a requirement of the Ministry of Education. In Fall 2014, over half of the students enrolled were female (53%). Entry into the preparatory year English program in this university is based on placement exams (standardized test exams of IELTS or TOEFL and institutional exams) and there is no credit for the preparatory year. Students progress through proficiency levels by semester. For example, an intermediate student in the fall semester will move to advanced level in the spring semester if he/she passes the intermediate level requirements. Class sizes range between 16 and 20 students per section and the passing grade is 70%. The university’s academic writing in the preparatory year program is based on rhetorical styles and function/purpose referred to by Hyland (2007) as elemental genres (descriptive, narrative, explanatory/expository, etc.). The genres chosen are based on the students’ perceived academic needs for their future and university prep year curricula and are often taught in a sequence from least to most rigorous and academic based on higher-order writing skills (Hyland, 2007). The program instructs ten hours a week in reading/writing. All instructors at the university in the advanced level use the same curriculum, e-learning platform, analytic rubric and graded weight of writing assignments, although instructors have the freedom to vary the topic and genre (within a predetermined set of genres) of writing assignments. Participants The participants are female and range in age from 18–24 (majority are 18–20) with an L1 of Arabic. The students are tested upon entry into the university (institutional exam following format and concepts used in standardized exams) and stratified by language proficiency level (beginner, intermediate and advanced). For this research, only advanced-proficiency participants were included to provide a strong base of writing to analyze. The entry points for all levels including advanced are either through internal progression, meaning passing through the beginner and intermediate levels, or entering via placement. Advanced level students are defined as meeting one of the following requirements: IELTS score of 5.0/TOEFL iBT of 53+ or a passing rate on the institutional exam. Research Design The design used for this research was an ‘embedded mixed methods approach’ (Creswell, 2014) primarily based on qualitative text analysis of writing samples from 56

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a university in Saudi Arabia with quantitative frequency ‘snapshots’ to support the qualitative data. Specifically, a descriptive text analysis of the writing samples was conducted based on the paradigm of systemic functional linguistics within a genrebased pedagogy focused on the textual metafunction. Features of this metafunction for analysis are outlined in Table 1. Writing samples were collected at the beginning of the Spring 2015 Semester. Thirty texts from seven sections of writing in total were randomly collected; total possible population was about 140 advanced level female students. Of the 30 texts collected, five essays were removed from the study as four were copied twice, and one was clearly incomplete. For triangulation of the results, a colleague and TEFL faculty member reviewed 40% (ten) of the texts to provide consistency and a form of triangulation of results (Creswell, 2013). Based on the analysis feedback, which found more cohesive devices than the initial analysis, all of the 15 remaining texts were reviewed to ensure accuracy. Table 1. Textual metafunction analysis features (Adapted from Grammar and Meaning, by S. Humphrey et al., 2012, Australia: Primary English Teaching Association, and “Beyond rubrics: Using functional language analysis to evaluate student writing,” by Z. Fang & Z. Wang, 2011, Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 34(2), 147–165.) Descriptive questions

SFL analysis features

What patterns emerge in the students’ Logical coherence writing to produce coherent texts? Openers to sentences and connectors within text Theme/rheme organization What patterns emerge in the students’ Cohesive devices: writing to produce cohesive texts? Grammatical Reference Substitution (Zero Substitution or Ellipsis) Lexical Repetition Reiteration (synonyms, classifications)

Autobiographical Recount Genre The participants in this study responded to one of the three prompts, which were identified as autobiographical recount prompts according to the genre descriptions of Humphrey et al. (2012). The autobiographical recount genre, which “records and evaluates events in a person’s life” (p. 132), is related to both narrative and factual recount genres and is used in several disciplines including historical, science-related and language instruction. The textual features inherent in this genre are shown in Table 2. It should be noted that neither the prompts nor the directions explicitly defined the genre or asked the students to recount in their essay, but the students are in 57

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the advanced level of a university academic writing program, so a narrative as storytelling would not be expected. The directions were simply to “choose one of the topics and write a 3–4 paragraph essay. Give your essay a title,” and students were given up to 50 minutes to complete their essay. • The happiest day or memory of my life so far. • The hardest thing I ever had to do. • My most embarrassing experience. Table 2. Textual features of autobiographical recount writing (Adapted from Grammar and Meaning, p. 132, by S. Humphrey et al., 2012, Australia: Primary English Teaching Association) Language to connect ideas and create cohesive texts (textual metafunction)

• Sentences including dependent clauses of

time (complex or compound-complex) • Text connectives to sequence events • References to time in theme position (initial position) • Lexical cohesion of repetition, synonyms, and collocations

Findings

Patterns of Coherence The Canadian Language Benchmarks (2012) define coherence as “the logical connectedness of ideas, arguments and exchanges to make the purpose and intended meaning of the discourse clear to the audience and participants” (p. 231). With that in mind, the essays were analyzed and described initially by characteristics of logical coherence. Logical Coherence Humphrey et al. (2012) write that “the coherence of more complex texts relies on devices that signal text structure and guide readers, for example overviews, initial and concluding paragraphs and topic sentences, indexes or site maps or breadcrumb trails for online texts” (p. 13). The Canadian Language Benchmarks for ESL adults (2012) similarly discuss the importance of coherence in producing logical texts at the advanced level (p. 16). Overviews are a preview or ‘map’ of the text often called a thesis, or text opener as referred to by Humphrey et al. (2012). The text opener states the intended path and consequent structure of the essay while the topic sentences or paragraph openers move the written piece

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along and signal the next step or reason in the text all following the thesis; all these elements support the writing’s coherence. In a narrative piece, there may or may not be a thesis and topic sentence depending upon the exact purpose as a narrative organizational pattern is not necessarily ‘fixed’ (Humphrey et al., 2012); however, unlike the narrative, the autobiographical recount is not storytelling, according to Humphrey et al., it is chronicling and the participants, as per the advanced level of the prep program, write academic essays which include text and sentence openers. In the analysis, 17 of the 25 texts (68%) had an identifiable thesis or text opener. The remaining had an obvious topic but no text opener or thesis in the opening paragraph. Interestingly, only nine of those 17 scripts with a thesis had topic sentences for each subsequent paragraph (including conclusion). In total, just over half, or 59% of total paragraphs written in this sample had a topic sentence. In other words, two-thirds (68%) of participants had the concept and understanding of how to write a thesis, but just one third knew how to follow up that thesis and unify the rest of the essay. Figure 2 shows a sample of an average participant’s text with text opener which visually appears to be a three-paragraph essay, but, upon reading, the essay is actually intended to be four paragraphs with the participant using a topic sentence to show movement to the next idea and spacing, although insufficient, after the last word of the introduction. Related to overall coherence is the structure of the essay or text, which is previewed in the thesis in academic texts. For an autobiographical recount, the following organizational pattern is recommended by Humphrey et al. (2012), keeping in mind, no pattern was presented to participants in the directions: • Orientation – sets a context for understanding the events that follow; • Record of events – recounted in chronological order; Many people like to travile in their holday to enjoy it in. some of people they in their holday in their way. In theis essay I will tell you about three hoppiest memory of holday in turky: weather, travile with family and casens, and food.

Introduction

The first, hoppiest memory of holday is turky is weather. The weather in turky is very beautiful and nice. It was sunny in the morning and chang it to cold in the evening, so you can enjoy in two weather in on day.

Second Paragraph

The second, hoppiest memory of holday is travile with causens and family I like to travile with big team, so in this holday I travile with my family and my causens to turkey. We help us to find different plan to enjoy in turkey. Also, we take a big vellege, and stay togather everytime.

Third Paragraph

Finally, The final hoppiest memory of holday in Turkey is food. There are many kind of deliches food in Turkey for example, healthy food, jank food, traditional food. I like their traditional food it’s realy teasty and yamy

Conclusion

Figure 2. Sample of text illustrating coherence with topic sentences

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• Re-orientation (for factual recount) – resetting events back in time; and, • Judgment/significance (for autobiographical and biographical recount) – evaluates the significance of the person/event (p. 132). Conclusion

Eleven texts were divided into four main paragraphs with five of those texts written with logical divisions, but only three of 25 followed the structure of an autobiographical recount as outlined by Humphrey, Droga and Feez (2012). Fourteen of the texts followed the structure to some degree with the re-orientation and judgment combined in the final sentences or the concluding paragraph of the essay. An interesting occurrence though was with eight of the essays which divided the ideas coherently and logically but used a different structure, a topical organizational pattern, which divided the event not by chronology but by subtopics, as shown in the following text openers. a. In this essay, I will talk about my happiest memory in tow main point: how my friends surprising me and the cake shape. b. In this essay, I’m going to talk about the clothes and the food. Therefore, only three of the students knew or by chance wrote within the genre’s structural pattern while 14 followed the recommended organizational pattern to a lesser degree and without adequate paragraphing. Eight of the participants seemingly were quite aware of the importance of structure and used a text opener but followed a completely different organizational pattern highlighting the importance of understanding genre to writing coherent and more meaningful academic essays. Sentence Openers and In-Text Connectors At the next level of text, the sentence level, there is a close relationship between sentence openers (how sentences begin) and in-text connectors, which are in-text cohesion devices to tie one part of the text to another. As per Humphrey et al.’s (2012) recount genre textual features (Table 2), text connectives of time (next, second, etc.) and adverbials clauses of time (before we arrived … in two days …) are common in the marked theme or initial position for this genre to connect text through time markers. A marked theme (p. 101) refers to an ‘uncommon’ way to open a sentence in the language. In English, sentences usually open with noun groups in the theme (initial) position, so opening with another feature, such as an adverbial of time or circumstance, is considered uncommon or marked. In the essays analyzed, there was an average of only three adverbials of time in each text and only one in the marked theme position on average per essay. In fact, three essays did not even use features

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of time, adverbials or connectors, in their writing and most sentences began with nouns or noun groups. Therefore, the textual feature of connecting the text through expressions of time at the sentence level for the autobiographical recount genre was not used consistently by the students. Further, there were only an average of ten in-text connectors used in each essay. In-text connectors for this project refer to words or phrases that tie the text intra- and intersententially within paragraphs such as coordinating conjunctions, subordinators and adverbial clauses. While adverbial marked phrases are often the most common in-text connector in this genre, the participant essay showed the highest number of connectors, 40%, were coordinating conjunctions (and, but used most frequently). The most common adverbial clause was of the clause of time (30% of all in-text connectors used). Adverbial clauses or phrases of addition and subordinators within sentences (because and while were the most frequent) were the majority of the remaining third of in-text connectors. Theme/Rheme Theme (initial position, ‘old’ information) and rheme (new information) are important concepts within the textual metafunction at the clausal level. Haratyan (2011) wrote that in theme/rheme “the information flows like a wave in a sentence from thematic top to thematic bottom” (p. 263). In practical terms, in the sentences, “The Earth revolves around the Sun. It takes 365 days to do so,” the Earth is the theme (the participant, process or circumstance) and revolves around the Sun is the new information in the context, or the rheme, in the first sentence, and it is the theme in the second sentence. Theme/rheme then helps the text flow at the clausal level and provides a means of semantic explanation. As mentioned previously, autobiographical recount writing often has a marked theme emphasis or pattern with time references referred to as a circumstance (Humphrey et al., 2012, p. 100) which was not prevalent in the participants’ essays. Of the three different theme/rheme patterns Humphrey et al. (2012, p. 102) refer to, linear, chronological, and zigzag, the students’ essays moved in and out of the patterns to provide direct, often factual discussion about the old information (linear), explanation about the new information (zig-zag), and time movement (chronological). Table 3 shows a typical pattern of a body paragraph of the participants who used a more chronological pattern of recounting their memory overall, at the text level, but did not use a chronological theme/rheme pattern at the clausal level consistently. As illustrated in Table 3, even when the story moves chronologically, the patterns are not consistent in the body paragraphs and often move linearly. This was consistent in the students’ work, which shows an apparent unfamiliarity of the theme/rheme concept and a lack of awareness, perhaps ability or confidence, to use more complex writing patterns which not only affects coherence but cohesion as well.

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Table 3. Theme/rheme patterns in body paragraph Theme/Rheme patterns used Pattern

Theme

Rheme

Initial clause Chronological

Back then, in 2004, when I was nine years old*, my dad (participant theme)

calles me and my one year younger brother on the phone

Linear

and he

told us that my mom is in the hospital

Zigzag

and we

got a new brother

Linear

because I

didn’t believe him

Linear

I

didn’t know that my mom was pregnant in first place

Linear-plural

however we

got extremely happy

Chronological

After* we

saw him

Zigzag

He

was so tiny and adorable

Linear

We

named him Reda

*Key: Indicates marked theme before the participant theme

Patterns of Cohesion A cohesive text does not necessarily mean a coherent one, which is based on semantic relations and overall linking of ideas and concepts (Conner, 1996). Halliday and Hassan (1976) describe cohesion as “relations of meaning that exist within a text, and that define it as a text … where the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another” (p. 4). The authors discuss five types of cohesive devices, referred to by Halliday and Hassan as cohesive tie, namely reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, all considered grammatical, and lexical cohesion (repetition, reiteration, synonyms, collocations, etc.). In this research, both grammatical and lexical cohesive devices emerged from the analysis of the students’ writing with certain devices such as reference and substitution occurring more often than others. Table 4 illustrates the frequency of grammatical devices of reference and substitution. Substitution and ellipsis, also referred to as zero substitution, are combined as the obvious difference or separation of the two was not evident in the students’ usage. Reference Reference words help connect the text through means of referral, within culturally shared information, usually from an externally known context, and appear in the form 62

Analysis of Systemic Functional Linguistics

Table 4. Most frequent grammatical cohesive devices in students’ L2 writing Essay no.

Word count

Grammatical cohesion frequency Reference

Total Average

Substitution/Ellipsis

1

211

35

2

2

315

43

11

4

170

26

2

5

183

27

6

6

147

25

5

7

100

20

4

8

132

27

2

9

77

17

2

10

159

31

2

11

111

18

2

12

258

58

2

13

241

56

0

15

163

31

4

16

245

55

0

18

233

48

2

19

109

23

1

20

203

31

1

21

81

21

0

22

224

56

1

23

155

29

3

24

234

39

2

25

130

30

3

28

208

24

2

29

263

49

2

30

186

44

6

25

4,538

863

67

181.52

34.52

2.68

of pronouns, demonstratives, comparatives, and other text references (Haratyan, 2011). Anaphoric reference was by far the most frequently used cohesive device by the participants. Pronouns, particularly first person singular and plural ‘I’, ‘me’, ‘my’, ‘we’, ‘our’, ‘us,’ expected in an autobiographical recount, and the definite 63

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article ‘the’ were the most used reference markers. As shown by the data in Table 4, the range was from 17–58 markers with the average of approximately 35 references per essay. The examples below show the high frequency of pronoun referencing. a. We gives our parent gift to thank them about the hard feellings and hard time how they reach us this amazing day in our lifes. b. I was sitting in my bedroom then my sister call me come down. I cam down it was no lights then they turn on the lights I was so surprising because I saw all my friends. Notably, 13 of the 25 participants used an exophoric reference, a reference that relies on shared meaning out of the text (Azzouz, 2009), to begin their essays – often called a hook or attention getter by writing instructors, that was notably similar. These essays, over half, began with “we all,” “everyone,” “everybody,” “a lot of people,” “every girl,” or a variation of this pattern. The reference suggests that the participants understood and could create a hook based on an exophoric reference that represents a culturally shared generalization to most readers. Substitution and Ellipsis Substitution occurs when a word is substituted for part of a clause or zero substitution, ellipsis, is when presupposed words are removed altogether (Humphrey et al., 2012). Substitution is needed as a cohesive tie to keep the text from becoming redundant, repeating the obvious or making the text more concise. For example, in the question, ‘do you like the blue shirt or the purple one,’ one is used to substitute for shirt. The most frequently used substitution device by the participants, although used much less frequently than referencing, was nominal ellipsis as opposed to verbal or clausal substitution or ellipsis (Humphrey et al., 2012). The most common nominal substitute was ‘one’ and the most frequent ellipsis occurred within a simple or compound sentence with the removal of the subject after the coordinating conjunction. As shown by the data in Table 4, the range was from 0–11 substitution instances with the average of approximately 2.7 per essay. This cohesive device requires a higher level of grammatical cohesion knowledge and lexical resource than referencing. The examples below show the common pattern of participant substitution and ellipsis. a. …I can’t really tell it was a happy day or sad [ellipsis] … b. We ordered some sandwiches and soft drinks. Not a healthy choice but so [substitution] is waking up at 1:00 am. The consistent pattern of nominal ellipsis after one of the coordinating conjunctions, most often ‘and,’ suggests that removing or even substituting the second subject is an easier method of zero substitution for the participants. It is also notable that the essay with the highest word count had the highest instances of substitution (11). 64

Analysis of Systemic Functional Linguistics

Table 5. Most frequent lexical cohesive devices in students’ L2 writing Essay no.

Word count

Lexical cohesion frequency Repetition

Total Average

Reiteration

1

211

7

4

2

315

18

3

4

170

8

0

5

183

8

10

6

147

6

5

7

100

6

0

8

132

7

3

9

77

6

3

10

159

7

5

11

111

2

2

12

258

22

3

13

241

19

1

15

163

9

1

16

245

18

6

18

233

25

7

19

109

9

1

20

203

20

1

21

81

4

1

22

224

10

1

23

155

16

3

24

234

17

2

25

130

2

3

28

208

11

10

29

263

14

3

30

186

5

4

25

4,538

276

82

181.52

11.04

3.28

Repetition Repetition was frequently found in the participants’ essays. Table 5 illustrates that the average essay had 11 instances of repetition, and the overall range of usage, 2–25, demonstrated the wide range of students’ use of this lexical feature. 65

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Noticeably, the students who used repetition with higher frequency often clustered the repeated words within a paragraph as shown in the examples below. Further, to differentiate or show emphasis, a reference marker such as a pronoun or definite article was used before the repeated word or phrase. In Example A, one paragraph has the word ‘name’ repeated five times, once as the verb form. Similarly, in Example B, the word ‘farm’ is repeated four times and ‘dates’ and the construction ‘there were’ each twice. Example A First let me tell you a small story happened befor my brother came. My other brothers and I deside to named him Yazeed but my mom ignored the name she said that she didn’t love the name and she want Nawaf to be the name of our brother. After two hours of thinking finally we agreed with the name. Example B We went to discover the farm actually, there were big changes we didn’t visit the farm for a long time. There were palms which contain a lot of delicious dates also there were a small lake it has colourful fish. In addition, the imported flowers are fell the farm. We liking these adding to the farm also we took a lot of pictures. After that we sat on the floor enjoying the fresh air, eating dates and sweets. While repetition is considered a lexical cohesive feature of autobiographical recount writing, the examples show, through the close placement of the repeated words, that the students use this device too frequently, to the point of redundancy. This overuse suggests that more complex lexical features are too difficult or not produced automatically in the students’ writing. Reiteration Reiteration or the stating of words/phrases in a similar manner is defined by Haratyan (2011) as “a lexical item [that] directly or indirectly occurs through application of synonym, antonym, metonym, or hyponym or a super-ordinate and collocation where pair of same event or environment lexical items co-occur or are found together within the text” (p. 264). As shown in Table 5, reiteration appeared in the essays on an average of 3.3 times with a range of 1–10 instances in the texts. Antonyms and hyponyms (also called classifications) occurred on average of one to two times per text. In the following text, Example C, the participant used a synonym for mother and father rather than the super-ordinate parent, which was a common lexical cohesion theme in the essays along with repetition. Example C It was about 5 years ago my mother and father dicided to separate and they gaved me a week to choose between living with my mom or dad. It was so hard for me to choose between them. 66

Analysis of Systemic Functional Linguistics

Example D Manchester was an amazing trip in my life until now. Also, there are a lot of different plase you can visit there such as, malls, restarants, and parks. Manchester is really unforgettable trip. I hope to visited next summer. Example D illustrates several examples of lexical cohesive devices such as repetition, synonyms (amazing, unforgettable) and sub-categorizing places to visit. It also has two connectives to time (until now, next summer). Along with repetition and synonyms, collocations are mentioned by Humphrey et al. (2012) as common lexical features of cohesion for an autobiographical recount text. However, in the essays studied, other than the normal phrasal verbs that an intermediate-advanced proficiency learner would be expected to know, there were few unique collocations used. Summary and Implications This study’s conclusions, although on a relatively small sample of written work, provide several possible implications for the textual aspect of L2 academic writing that can support the educator and student in creating meaningful text: 1. Genre instruction in writing: In the 25 texts analyzed, only three followed the recommended structure for an autobiographic recount, 14 followed the structure to a lesser degree and eight participants used a different organizational structure, namely a topic pattern. These findings then illustrate that the participants were unaware of this particular genre or were not sure when to use it in their writing. Genre instruction at the elemental level (Hyland, 2007) and where necessary at the more specific or macro writing level would have improved these students’ organizational structure and therefore construction of meaningful text. 2. Logical coherence or unity: Moving through the text with a thesis (text opener) and topic sentences (paragraph openers) that are unified with the thesis was apparent in only nine of the 25 texts written. Aside from genre instruction to scaffold the appropriate organizational pattern mentioned previously, writing unified essays with appropriate topic sentences, for the specific genre, that link to the thesis is again essential for creating meaningful texts. 3. Sentence openers, in-text connectors and clausal level theme/rheme: These textual elements move the writings from the paragraph level to the sentence and clausal level. From the study, the participants used only an average of ten in-text connectors within their essays and, similar to Al-Yaari et al.’s (2013) findings, 40% of those were the conjunctions and, but. Further, there was an average of only one marked chronological sentence opener per essay, which is usually the mainstay in this genre and, of the in-text connectors, only 30% were chronological. The clausal structure was a mix of various patterns. The participants showed a linear pattern most often throughout the body of their essays, and it was apparent 67

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that theme/rheme in an explicit sense was unknown by the participants. While variation is imperative to create interesting and meaningful text and there is no correct ‘formula’ for exact kinds of openers and connectors, the chronological pattern for this genre is the most appropriate for English language learners, and the fact that 40% of overall connectors used were coordinating conjunctions implies the participants did not have more complex connectors in their language resource. Explicit teaching of openers, connectors, and theme/rheme patterns will again promote construction of a meaningful text and may enhance the learner’s confidence to experiment with language use. 4. Cohesion: The grammatical and lexical devices used by the participants demonstrated a similar pattern to the other textual features discussed – a lack of varied and complex usage. Pronouns as references and repetition were the most commonly used grammatical and lexical devices to the point of overuse while substitution, ellipsis and reiteration, requiring a more sophisticated lexicogrammatical resource (Dare, 2010), were used considerably less. Several (13) participants used an exophoric reference to begin their essay, the hook, which nearly parallels the use of theses or text openers (17 participants). Thus, wellconstructed opening ideas and paragraphs were illustrated throughout the texts suggesting these elements had been instructed explicitly; however, cohesion and coherence throughout the rest of the essay was not as apparent. Substitution, ellipsis, more complex referencing, reiteration and collocation instruction within a context would further encourage more meaningful writing, both grammatically and lexically, not only for this genre but also for any kind of writing students would encounter. Throughout the research process, it was evident that primarily discrete elements of L2 writing have been researched and considered in previous studies, particularly within the region – a focus on the parts rather than the sum of the parts, the whole. Therefore, the most notable conclusion really is that the participants did not know how, in many cases, to construct highly meaningful text in several elements of cohesion and coherence which affected the work overall and each of the coinciding functions. Via SFL or any other applicable model, creating meaningful text within a context that serves a function is the ultimate goal of any written work. It is recommended that more applied research is conducted on writing meaningful texts specific to this L2 population. Research on a larger sample including both genders and the main proficiency levels and across universities would provide a generalizable foundation from which educators can instruct and enhance writing instruction in the Kingdom. Acknowledgements

This chapter was adapted from a capstone project as partial requirement for a graduate degree in TEFL. The author wishes to thank the advising committee for their comments and support to improve the manuscript. 68

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References Alaqeeli, A. S. (2014). The preparatory year: Global perspectives and local practices. The Saudi Journal of Higher Education, 11, 45–64. Al-Buainain, H. (2009). Students’ writing errors in EFL: A case study. Journal of Faculty of Education, University of Alexandria, 19(1), 311–351. Alhaysony, M. (2012). An analysis of article errors among Saudi female EFL students: A case study. Asian Social Science, 8(12). Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ass.v8n12p55 Al Mazrooei, A. (2009). The process writing approach: The missing puzzle piece to improved writing? In C. Gunn (Ed.), Exploring TESOL practices in the Arabian gulf. Dubai, UAE: TESOL Arabia. Al-Seghayer, K. (2011). English teaching in Saudi Arabia: Status, issues, and challenges. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Hala Print Co. Al-Yaari, S. A., Al Hammadi, F. S., Alyami, S. A., & Almaflehi, N. (2013). Using English discourse markers (EDMs) by Saudi EFL learners: A descriptive approach. International Journal of English Language, 1(2). Azzouz, B. (2009). A discourse analysis of grammatical cohesion in students’ writing. Constantine, North Africa: Mentouri University. (Unpublished Dissertation) Clarke, M. (2007). Language policy and language teacher education in the United Arab Emirates. TESOL Quarterly, 41(3), 583–590. Coffin, C. (2010). Language support in EAL contexts. Why systemic functional linguistics? (Special Issue of NALDIC Quarterly). Reading, England: NALDIC. Conner, U. M. (1996). Contrastive rhetoric: Cross-cultural aspects of second language writing. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Crossley, S. A., & McNamara, D. S. (2010). Predicting second language writing proficiency: The roles of cohesion and linguistic sophistication. Journal of Research in Reading, 35(2), 115–135. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2010.01449.x Cummins, J. (1984). Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Dare, B. (2010). Learning about language: The role of metalanguage. In C. Coffin (Ed.), Language support in EAL context: Why systemic functional linguistics? (Special Issue of NALDIC Quarterly) (pp. 18–25). Reading, England: NALDIC. Derewianka, B., & Jones, P. (2010). From traditional grammar to functional grammar: Bridging the divide. In C. Coffin (Ed.), Language support in EAL Context. Why systemic functional linguistics? (Special Issue of NALDIC Quarterly) (pp. 6–17). Reading, England: NALDIC. Eggins, S. (2004). An introduction to systemic functional linguistics (2nd ed.). London, England: Continuum. Fang, Z., & Wang, Z. (2011). Beyond rubrics: Using functional language analysis to evaluate student writing. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 34(2), 147–165. Gibbons, P. (2009). English learners, academic literacy and thinking: Learning in the challenge zone. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Giridharan, B., & Robson, A. (2011). Identifying gaps in academic writing in ESL students. Retrieved from http://www.curtin.edu.my/tl2011/download/papers/refereed/Identifying%20gaps%20in%20 academic%20writing%20of%20ESL%20students.pdf Halliday, M. A., & Hassan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. New York, NY: Pearson Education Limited. Halliday, M. A., & Matthiessen, C. (2013). Halliday’s introduction to functional grammar (4th ed.). London, England: Routledge. Haratyan, F. (2011). Halliday’s SFL and social meaning. IPEDR (17). 2011 2nd International Conference on Humanities. Singapore: IACSIT Press.

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Philline Deraney University of Dammam Dammam, Saudi Arabia

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Barbara  A. Toth

4. The Power of “I” Student-Driven Writing at an All Women’s University in Saudi Arabia

Prologue

King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz AlSaud’s recent passing makes it both more and less difficult for me to complete this chapter about the importance of a writing persona in student writing. Like so many people around the world, I’m mourning King Abdullah’s passing, yet so heartened by the King’s example that I’m inspired to persist. Moreover, as I manage to persist in my writing (like so many of my students, I often find this challenging), I’m synthesizing vastly disparate pedagogical and personal threads. My own education and teaching experiences in the US and my transforming teaching experiences in Saudi Arabia for the past four years represent just one example of the disparateness. I bring a powerful writing and rhetorical tradition with me and simultaneously negotiate an immensely different and equally powerful one. Every step of the way, I am careful to add to, not supplant, the traditions out of which my students have grown, careful to use metadiscourse like: “based on Western rhetorical traditions,” “according to Western historical trajectories,” “this would be more customary in English” (as though there were one “English”), and so on – not that use of such metadiscourse lessens my challenge much. Still, I hold fast to multicultural rhetorical perspectives and shun pat answers of monolingual thinking. I face forward while I also look through my rear-view mirror – recalling the adage of American rhetorician Kenneth Burke: “A way of seeing is a way of not seeing.” Looking at the world through multiple lenses, sometimes simultaneously, can leave me paralyzed, tongue-tied, or just plain exhausted, wondering where or how to turn: East or West, left or right, directly or indirectly, firm or acquiescing. But I remember that students’ ability to write and to use writing as a vehicle to drive their lives is at stake. I remember that teachers immemorial have turned to their students, have through dedication and great efforts negotiated the conundrums of disparate, even dangerously different, threads and woven curriculums that suit the needs of the students they care for and improve the quality of students’ academic, professional and personal lives. The example of King Abdullah – Allah bless him – his cautious, yet powerful, reformations – have inspired me and provided a model for my humble pedagogical A. K. Hamdan (Ed.), Teaching and Learning in Saudi Arabia, 71–99. © 2015 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

B. A. Toth

initiatives. Using King Abdullah’s example, I’ve tried to effect meaningful change – I did not cross the ocean and the desert and leave my family and friends for nothing I remind myself everyday – while being cautious, realizing fast and slow are relative terms as I negotiate what I know and what my students need to know. And as I strive to learn more about the past – of my native country, as well as Saudi Arabia – I continue to build strategically for the personified future, i.e., for the students, who are, after all, the heart of my writing. I am also inspired by the words of Prophet Mohammed, PBUH, as recorded in the Hadith: “Allah loves to see his servant who does a job meticulously,” i.e., with itqan. In the spirit of itqan, I have sought to write the following about the laying of a foundation for a writing program, including a writing center, in the College of Languages and Translation at Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University in Saudi Arabia. And along with my colleagues, I have tried to build the program in the spirit of itqan, encouraging students to develop as writers whose texts are driven by various effective writing personas. What follows is a narrative of sorts woven from various threads: student stories, excerpts of student writing and reflections, my reflections and observations as a foreign teacher, amalgamations of my native best practices with respect for traditions and best practices of my new environment, sample assignments and references to other teachers and administrators who are and have been building English writing programs around the world. Overall, it gives a personalized picture of some work that has been done toward building a writing program and curriculum that helps L2 students understand writing as a force that they can use to drive their ideas and their lives. Neither this chapter nor the project it represents are a complete or final work and strongly suggest the need for further research. For example, they suggest further research into the construction of writing personas in cultures that value collectivist notions of identity and how to measure the effectiveness of teachers’ etic approaches in relation to L2 students’ emic needs. This chapter speaks to helping PNU students construct writing personas that they can wield as they wield their pens. In particular, it explains how during vigorous interactions with students and at various moments of insight, I came to realize that strong writing personas help drive student writing in English, and moreover that writing proficiencies can help students drive their ideas and their lives. Documenting what has been done thus far will – insha’Allah – clarify what research still needs to be done. After all, writing is a vehicle by which all global citizens can choose to drive their lives. Note: The spelling of Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University varies throughout this text depending on the spelling used in the respective research. The English spelling now officially approved by the university is Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University. 2. I have taken some liberties with APA style, e.g., sometimes referring to the first name of the researchers and/or the title of their research in-text, when doing so was relevant to my meaning and purpose or facilitated reading. 3. Excerpts of student texts appear as submitted. Grammatical 72

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mistakes are not identified unless relevant to discussion. Student texts have been italicized for ease of reading. 4. Students whose writing and/or names are included in this writing have given their permission. Introduction

My Lord, increase me in knowledge. 

— The Holy Qu’ran (20.114)

If narrative is “a basic human strategy for coming to terms with fundamental elements of our experiences” (The Ohio State University, Project Narrative, n.d.), then what follows is indeed a narrative. It is a story of my teaching, learning and administrative experiences in Saudi Arabia. More specifically, it narrates my experiences in the College of Languages and Translation at Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University for Women (PNU) in Riyadh for the last four years. It describes and explains the efforts to build an English writing program in the beautiful desert sands of Riyadh, but it is mostly about the students. They are the main characters and the focus of my narrative. PNU can trace its lineage to a collection of colleges of education located throughout the kingdom c. 1970. In 2004, six colleges that had been situated throughout Riyadh were consolidated under the name of Riyadh University for Women (Princess Nora bint Abdulrahman University, para. 1–3). Many of my current colleagues received their education from these mother institutions. In 2008, King Abdullah ibn Abdulaziz commenced a new campus, and with deliberate show of appreciation for his aunt, elder sister of King Abdulaziz, the first leader of modern Saudi Arabia, he named Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University in her honor. Nourah was reported to have had the “minds of 40 men” and “great wisdom,” serving as advisor to King Abdulaziz throughout his reign (Al-Dhibyani, May 16, 2011). Princess Nourah’s name means “light.” An obvious reference to the etymology can be seen in the title of an article in the Saudi Gazette (Al-Ghamdi, Oct. 30, 2008): “Light dawns on girls’ education.” Just ten years ago, the six colleges were coalescing into one and now PNU boasts that it is one of the largest universities in the world and the largest women’s university. (Perkins+Will, Oct. 22, 2013) Today, PNU has an enrollment of 52,308 students (Saudi Ministry of Education Portal). It manages 14 Colleges, and The College of Languages and Translation (CLT) has an enrollment of more than 3,000 students (PNU website). Dean Dr. Asma Abu-Malik, and Vice-deans Dr. Fatma AlQatani, Dr. Fatma AlShehri, and Dr. Hanan AlGadhi have been my supervisors and of the brightest, most capable, and supportive colleagues with whom I have ever had the pleasure to work. Writing teachers and writing consultants, too numerous to mention here, have been my constant companions. Together, learning and building as we go, we have been guiding students through the 15-week journeys of the Writing 1, Writing 2 and Writing 3 curriculum in our college. 73

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Because PNU is a new university and Saudi Arabia a young country, the opportunity for building strong multilingual pedagogies from the ground up poses exciting opportunities. As I wrote in Middle East North Africa Writing Center Alliance (MENAWCA) Newsletter (Summer, 2013): As part of a university founded by King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia and as part of the largest women-only university in the world, the Princess Nora University Writing Studio brings a historic opportunity to build a center created of, by, and for Saudi women that weaves a relationship with other writing centers around the world of, by, and for writing. Western model writing centers do bring certain advantages to sustainability: experienced professional staff, tried and true administrative infrastructure, and best practices based on decades of research and praxis. But the PNU Writing Studio, and those like it, seems poised to contribute something new for writing centers around the world. With less certain advantages may come more definite opportunities to capitalize on the necessarily multilingual and multicultural realities of life on the PNU campus. (p. 6) Multilingual realities at PNU pose opportunities to renew pedagogies built on monolingual assumptions that have as yet been sufficiently unpacked in our literature, Ben Rafoth’s book Multilingual Writers and Writing Centers (2015) notwithstanding. The professional and personal realities I have experienced at PNU and in Saudi Arabia have also allowed me to see more clearly how driving one’s ideas through writing represents a force more powerful than driving a car. I hope higher education professionals in Saudi Arabia and elsewhere in the world find this chapter useful. I have imagined you, the reader, in local and global contexts as I’ve constructed this piece, imagining perhaps your conflicting reactions. Our current default to English permits such a broad sweep. Hopefully my struggles in negotiating complex cultural, pedagogical and administrative threads will serve to “increase our knowledge.” These sections follow: • • • •

What I Mean by “I” Anti-“I” Writing Avoidance Techniques The Personal Narrative and “I” How the PNU Writing Studio was Born and How It Supports “I” What I Mean by “I”

When a reader knocks on the front door of your text and asks: “Who lives here?”, it is your persona, your “I” figure, who opens the door and says: “Me. I live here. Marhaba!”  — Me to my PNU writing students

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As a writer of English, and a teacher of writing, I have known for many years that a strong writing persona is a key element in successful writing. But I have learned it once again teaching Writing 1, 2, and 3 students at PNU. Their writing behaviors, their efforts and resistance, their fits and starts and their successes have taught me again of the importance of helping students construct a writing persona, specifically what I have been calling “I.” I have seen that students need a sense of themselves as writers in order to become effective writers of academic English. This may seem obvious to some, but I saw that without it, PNU students avoided writing, were more likely to fail writing courses or might give up altogether. As I learned more about my students, I learned that many had learned to write by memorizing. Their high school teachers, they told me, would give them a paragraph and then require a reproduction of it on an exam. This method of learning to write resulted in the tendency of many students to avoid writing about themselves. They seemed to be more comfortable writing instead about their sisters or about historical figures using memorized phrases. Once, after I gave my students a sample of how a question might be answered on an essay exam, I was “culture shocked” to see that some students had actually memorized the sample I had given them for the final exam. I marveled at students’ memorization skills but noticed how this method of response foiled occasions for individual thinking and opportunities to create a sense of themselves as writers necessary for writing academic English. I also saw how “memorizing” writing as the primary way to learn how to write made communication with an audience irrelevant. Looking for what other writers or teachers of writing advised in this regard, I found that strategic and explicit focus on helping students develop this “sense” is often neglected in classrooms and curriculums, not just in Saudi Arabia, but worldwide. Perhaps the topic is more at home in creative writing courses. Carl H. Claus (2013) in A Self Made of Words: Crafting a Distinctive Persona in Non-Fiction Writing pointed to this lack when he wrote that he couldn’t find “a book in print on the specifics of how to create a distinctive self” adding it’s “a crucial element in writing, strangely overlooked” (xi). Terms like “identity,” “voice,” and “literary signature” come to mind as being useful in explaining my point. But perhaps the rhetorical term “persona” is closer to what I mean by “I.” Etymological entries tell us that the word “persona” comes from the Latin meaning “mask or character played by an actor” as the physical masks that Roman actors wore were called “personae.” More complex 20th century interpretations of the term have included Edwin Black’s (1970) “The Second Persona” that attempted to deconstruct the viability of the Aristotelian concepts of logos, pathos and ethos in terms of a discussion about persona. Subsequent work by Philip Wander (1984) and by Charles Morris III (2005) resulted in discussions about third and fourth personas, respectively. Discussions about persona, geared more for basic college writers, can be found in writing textbooks like Maxine Hairston’s (1986) Contemporary Composition. 75

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What I mean by persona is a demonstration of the student writer and her ideas in her text. The intended meaning is not merely that of a literary mask behind which a writer hides his or her true opinion about a matter; it is a demonstration of one of her true selves, or “masks.” “Persona,” as I intend it, refers to “an imprint of yourself,” as Klaus (2013, p. 1) put it. This self may include explicit and/or implicit use of “I” or a distanced third-person self. I argue that a sense of a writer as a writer is critical for success not only for L1, but also L2 college writers. Merely using first person pronouns does not ensure a healthy demonstration of personas or “imprints” of oneself. Writing without a sense of what I call “I” can foil student writing in English or discourage students from doing it altogether. For example, in this excerpt from Parker J. Palmer’s (1997) “The Heart of a Teacher: Identity and Integrity in Teaching.” In it Palmer relays an exchange with a student that demonstrates the conundrum felt by the student about the use of “I”: After [a] first class, a student spoke to me: “In those autobiographical essays you asked us to write, is it okay to use the word ‘I’?” I did not know whether to laugh or cry – but I knew that my response would have considerable impact on a young man who had just opened himself to ridicule. I told him that not only could he use the word “I”, but also that I hoped he would use it freely and often. Then I asked what had led to his question. “I’m a history major,” he said, “and each time I use ‘I’ in a paper, they knock off half a grade.” Palmer (1997) added this commentary to the above exchange: The academic bias against subjectivity not only forces our students to write poorly (“It is believed …” instead of, “I believe …”), it deforms their thinking about themselves and their world. In a single stroke, we … alienate them from their own inner lives. I have found that discouraging students’ use of “I” at critical points in writing development, or neglecting to make plain the importance of persona to L2 students, may undermine their ability or desire to write in English altogether. In addition, writing teachers may be so focused on grammar and usage that a focus on developing the student’s persona, or “who she is speaking as” may be ignored. For example, A Writing 1 student, having completed a fledgling text, was asked: What has been the most important, or most valuable, thing you have learned in Writing 1? The student’s response: The most important is the narritev because they must know how to write about myself if they story or something like that. It is important in future write about myself.

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Misspelling (narritev) or grammar errors aside, a confident persona is missing. The student is not yet able (or has not been taught) to demonstrate a confident sense of self. This student’s use of the third person “they” suggests that the student writer is confused about who is speaking or about the source of authority in her writing. Of course, mistakes in the use of personal pronouns could be attributed to an L2 learning curve. But my experiences and observations lead me to conclude that an unconfident “I” is also an obstacle in this situation. The student writer takes meaning outside herself, pointing to an unclear third-person, plural referent, “they.” She doesn’t yet have the confidence, or perhaps the intercultural competency, to interject herself into her text. She further distances herself from her writing with “in the future” rather than positioning herself confidently in the “present” writing situation. With strategic attention to “I,” the text could quite easily, although not perfectly, read: The most important is the narritev assignment because I must know how to write about myself if it is a story or something else. It is important now and in future [to] write about myself. I refer to persona as a/the self that student writers [must learn to] create, express, and demonstrate in/throughout a given piece of writing and throughout the end-ofthe-semester portfolios of their English writing. This is one explanation I give to my students: When a reader knocks on the front door of your text and asks: “Who lives here?”, it is your persona, your “I” figure, who opens the door and says: “Me. I live here. Welcome!” In explaining what I mean by “I”, I problematize, along with Palmer, the oftenmisguided pedagogical assumption that “I” is bad. In fact, helping student writers develop a healthy “I,” beginning with a personal narrative, has become a key feature of the College of Language and Translation English writing curriculum. With this key, subsequent features of the program open up more easily for students, and without it, students and teachers alike have proceeded less effectively. Anti-“I” Writing Avoidance Techniques



— from the Hadith

Our writing program is currently being driven by the proposition that all students, not just “the brightest” can become more confident and competent L2 writers. It’s often easier to focus on students who already have a sense of themselves as writers and perhaps a more sophisticated sense of L2 rhetorical practices, but the proof of

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our teaching lies in guiding all of our students to a sense of themselves as writers. Providing a teaching and learning environment in which the least confident or competent can become engaged with the writing curriculum and do their best does represent a significant challenge. Laila Muhammad El Omari (2014) in a study called “Students Become Authors: A Course in Advanced Writing Employing Expressivist Pedagogy” also spoke of this challenge in relation to her college writers in Jordan: “It has been a challenge to work with students who believe that they cannot write, and who do not care much for learning how to write” (p. 283). This challenge is felt even more poignantly in classrooms where students plan to become English-Arabic translators, as is the case in our college. Each semester, as I noticed, as did El Omari (2014) that a significant number of students “believe that they cannot write” and “do not care much for learning how to write,” I also began to notice corresponding methods of writing avoidance. Copying and pasting, procrastinating, complaining, feigning helplessness, or a combination thereof were some of the methods. At first, I saw incidental examples of the avoidance, for example, a student who disliked a particular assignment might avoid doing it but may engage in another assignment. Then I saw patterns of writing avoidance, for example, a student who chronically avoided writing through a complex set of coping mechanisms including copying and pasting, procrastinating, skipping class, etc. In effect, these students were developing writing avoidance techniques rather than developing writing processes useful for college-level English writing. I began to see more clearly a relationship between writing avoidance and the inability of students to construct a working writing persona. Conversely, I noticed how the development of a writing persona resulted in less avoidance. Here are two relatively benign examples of writing avoidance: 1. Sara came to the Writing Studio for feedback on her book review of Paulo Coelho’s The Alchemist. The assignment directed students to divide the review into three parts: • a general introduction with the name of the book, author, date of publication, etc. • a summary of the book, including the main points of the book or storyline (including characters, setting, conflicts and resolutions) • an evaluation of the book, i.e., would the student recommend the book to another student. Sara had completed the introduction including bibliographic information clearly and straightforwardly. In the summary section, however, Sara had written: Santiago is a shepherd who has the dream he will fond treasure. He starts to look for the treasure. And now you have to read the book to fond the rest of the story … When the writing consultant asked Sara about the abbreviated summary, Sara said that she didn’t want to write “too much” because she was trying “to attract people to read the book.” 78

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The writing consultant commended Sara for thinking about her readers, but pointed out that the assignment required a summary of the main points of the story and that including it might attract the readers even more. Sara declined the consultant’s suggestion. Part of becoming a more confident writer is making choices and learning from the consequences. Sara must be commended for seeking out additional feedback in the Writing Studio, while still avoiding the writing of a summary. 2. Mashael was working on a problem – solution essay in Writing 3. Mashael chose to address the problem of sinkholes into which people have been falling in the greater Riyadh area. Students were directed to include four sections: an introduction, a problem statement, solutions to the problem that have been tried elsewhere and a solution. In the solution section, students were directed not only to identify a solution but also discuss how the solution is to be implemented including timelines, costs and maintenance. What follows is Mashael’s two-fold solution to the problem of sinkholes: After some researchers, there is two solutions to solve the deadly holes problems. First putting two kind of covers for each drainage hole in the streets, the first cover should be plexiglass cover for the water to go through and the second one is the main metal cover. If the two covers solution applied it will still do its job but in safer way. The second solution is for the wells problem is applying hard punishment as paying a fine on the ones who have farms with deep and uncovered wells. When asked about the omission of the implementation details in the solution, Mashael said: “I want to keep it simple,” camouflaging her avoidance in positive terms much like Sara had rationalized her avoidance by saying: “to attract people to read the book.” Academic writing is never done only due, as the expression goes. And beset by the complexities of writing in a second language and challenging deadlines, students may invent rationalizations such as Mashael’s and Sara’s to justify their writing avoidance. Nonetheless, the opportunity for greater development in both Sara’s and Mashael’s drafts is obvious. A summary that identifies key points in The Alchemist would significantly improve Sara’s book review for her readers, and further development of Mashael’s solution would maximize chances of her useful solution actually being implemented. If both student writers had driven their writing just a bit further, their writing tasks would have been more successfully completed. If both had used a sense of themselves as writers, i.e., a persona to drive the assignment further, their submissions would have been that much more successful. Students avoid writing in dramatic ways: copying and pasting whole sections or entire papers, having someone else write the paper for her, or not doing the assignment at all. But becoming more sensitive to, and aware of, the various writing avoidance techniques that students employ has helped me do my job more effectively. It has encouraged me to search for and identify causes of writing avoidance, particularly 79

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intercultural and interlinguistic ones. This sensitivity and awareness has reminded me that writing avoidance techniques are not the exclusive domain of PNU writers or L2 college writers, but to a greater or lesser extent, sneak into the writing processes of all writers. Who among us hasn’t avoided writing? But those of us who have had advantage of effective and caring writing teachers and access to effective pedagogies have developed more effective writing personas, have developed functioning writing processes, and have managed to drive forward and successfully complete writing assignments. We have also learned to collaborate with friends and colleagues and to employ myriad other strategies and resources to overcome the tendency to avoid writing. These are what I believe we are bound to teach our students to minimize their tendencies to avoid writing and to maximize their engagement in developing writing processes that work for their purposes and that can drive their ideas. El Omari (2014) agrees, as she wrote that we must help students “use writing to achieve their own academic and non-academic goals” (p. 283). Creating teaching and learning environments in which it is easier for students to do their best means skillfully recognizing and problematizing techniques that students use to avoid writing. Helping L2 students construct writing personas can help them navigate sometimes complex writing processes rather than avoid them. In the PNU magazine Scheherazade’s Sisters, student editor Sara Alotaibi wrote an article called “Al Itqan in Our Life and in Our Writing.” In it Alotaibi (2012) summoned both students and teachers to consider the importance of itqan. Alotaibi provided this story to explain her point: [A]n engineer … was about to retire, and his boss gave him a final mission. The mission was to build a house. In order for the engineer to retire faster, he committed his work carelessly. The surprise was that the house he built carelessly was his retirement gift from the company. If the engineer had made a perfect job even if it had been his last, he would have received the perfect gift. (p. 19) Alotaibi added: “No one can reach perfection in writing, but we can keep trying to reach that goal” (p. 19). She understands that both teaching of writing and writing are best accompanied by itqan, a force that runs counter to careless efforts or avoidance techniques, and that “The concept of alitqan can be applied to both teachers and students” (p. 19) as we negotiate our way through often complex interlinguistic teaching and learning realities. The Personal Narrative and “I”

We tell ourselves stories in order to live. 

— Joan Didion, The White Album

If you’re stuck and don’t know how to begin, write ‘I’ and then give her a verb.  — Me to my PNU students 80

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According to Coffin et al. (2003) “Student writing is at the centre of teaching and learning in higher education” (p. 2). And if writing is at the heart of higher education as Coffin et al. maintain, then the personal narrative and its power to help students develop an “I” can be considered a central feature of the English writing program in our translation college. Without it included early in the writing series, it is more difficult for students to learn other and subsequent rhetorical and research skills connected to basic writing competencies, and it is easier for students to employ writing avoidance techniques. There’s a growing interest in narrative and narrative studies, inspiring institutes throughout the world such as Project Narrative at The Ohio State University. Autobiographical narratives are used extensively as a vehicle by which psychology students relate course material to their thoughts (Barney, 2007; Mayo, 2004; Singh, 1995). Writing instructors are looking anew at exploiting the powers of the personal narrative in ESL writing classes (Yi, 2013; Carson, 2007) and at what expressivists like Peter Elbow and Donald Murray can contribute to multilingual pedagogy (El Omari, 2014). Our work at PNU can be considered part of this wave of renewed interest in the narrative. The personal narrative may hold the key for unlocking a student’s ability to see that constructing a writing persona is advantageous for their writing fluency. What follows explains in part how and why the personal serves as a critical assignment at PNU and how it may serve as a piece of important curriculum for students in L2 contexts elsewhere. The following includes: • a discussion of the rationale for the implementation of the personal narrative into the curriculum including a list of benefits; • excerpts of student narratives and self-referencing argumentative essays. Rationale

One advantage of the personal narrative is that it helps student writers realize that they already embody personal resources that they bring to the personal narrative assignment. They have deep and wide reservoirs of thoughts, feelings, memories, recollections, observations and experiences to call upon. They do not have to start their search “out there,” on the Internet (which may result in wholesale copying and pasting) in order to begin to weave a narrative text. Constructing narrative assignments by which students can trust their own thoughts, memories and recollections is a first step toward their developing confident writing personas. They will perform with more “power” as Peter Elbow wrote in 1981 in a note to readers in Writing with Power: Writing with power means getting power over words and readers, writing clearly and correctly, writing what is true or real or interesting; and writing persuasively or making some kind of contact with your readers so that they actually experience your meaning or vision. In this book, I am trying to help you write in all these ways. 81

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But writing with power also means getting power over yourself and over the writing process; knowing what you are doing as you write, being in charge; having control; not feeling stuck or helpless or intimidated. I am particularly interested in this kind of power in writing and have found that without it you seldom achieve the first kind. (n. p.) The personal narrative helps student writers get “power over [themselves] and the writing process.” My point, like Elbow’s, is that without an ability to construct writing personas, students will not gain control over subsequent research and more rhetorically complex writing assignments. In conversation with Dr. Fatma AlShehri, vice-dean and translation coordinator in our college, about the rationale for the personal narrative in the writing curriculum, she said simply, in her concise, affirming style: “Our students need that.” Dr. AlShehri and I also discussed several points in favor of the narrative at the fore of our writing series including that it: 1. Is enjoyable Story telling is enjoyable simply for enjoyment’s sake. It seems to be embedded in human DNA to love a good story. This takes the personal narrative out of the realm of doctrinaire classroom assignments and into writing for the joy of it. One semester, Writing 1 students typically gave such comments about the personal narrative as these: “I enjoyed writing a narrative. I did not think I would enjoy writing.” “I was surprised I enjoy writing this assignment. I don’t like writing in Arabic either.” “I like remembering my Father using English.” Numerous studies attest to the psychological benefits of expressive writing specifically for college students, e.g., “Benefits of Expressive Writing in Lowering Rumination and Depressive Symptoms” (Gortner & Pennebaker, 2006). 2. Provides a base for subsequent writing success and cross-curricular and nonacademic writing development Scheduled early in a college writing curriculum, the personal narrative tends to maximize students’ engagement with subsequent writing. The early success can build student confidence for future academic and non-academic purposes. Carson (2007) said that it took her a few years to see the value of the personal narrative for her students in helping their future writing projects and wished she had recognized it earlier. Indeed, many psychology teachers and students have taken note of the value of self-referencing assignments, including those in which students narrate their growing understanding of key concepts and theories throughout a semester. In one study, psychology students who kept observational diaries and recorded personal reactions to course lectures and readings scored higher on objective examinations than students who did not keep the diaries. The students claimed that the self-referencing advanced their critical thinking and personal interest in the field of psychology and provided a base on which to understand and write about complex theory (Barney, 2007). 82

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3. Can be transformative The personal narrative’s apparent straightforwardness might make it seem like a lightweight or an inconsequential assignment. But it can reach inside student writers and draw out parts of them that they have not yet discovered. Further, it can help students begin to map their life experiences and connect them in cohesive ways. As Currie (2009) put it: “[The narrative] is able to represent richly individuated temporal and causal connections between motivation, decision, and circumstance in ways that other representational forms cannot match” (p. 63). 4. Helps students recognize other “I”s As I am arguing, and as Carson (2007) has noted: “Narrative writing helps create an acting, feeling, deep-thinking self” (p. B5). But writing personal narratives can also help students more accurately recognize the various writing personas, the “I”s, in the works that they read and that they will one day be translating. The self emerges in narrative writing as a stronger thinking figure. Results of Singh’s (1995) research called “The Effects of Self Versus Others’ Reference on Retention” strongly suggested that effects of self-reference not only extended across different types of tasks and affective states but also resulted in a stronger thinking figure that can mediate behavior in many ways including recognizing the self in others. “Recognizing the self in others” is a particularly important skill for PNU translation students, who must be able to recognize the various writing selves and personas in the English texts that they will translate into Arabic. Excerpt(s) of student narratives/argumentative essay

Each of the following three excerpts from sample student essays provides an opportunity to discuss the demonstration of student writing personas. 1. “Istikharah” represents a Writing 1 student’s second draft of a personal narrative. The assignment directed the student to write about a significant event in her life and to explain the significance of the event. (See assignment sheet in Appendix A and rubric in Appendix B.) Istikharah I wanted acceptance in PNU, but my parents and my friends tried to convince me to apply at Al-Imam University. They said: “The years of study at Imam University are less than PNU.” I was very confused and didn’t know what to do. Then I remembered to pray “Istikharah.” I n time, I decided to study language and translation at Imam university. Imam required a test for admission, and I didn’t know about this test. I felt sad and frustrated. Then I decided to study at PNU and passed the admission test. One year later, I was able to enter PNU Languages and Translation College that I 83

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had been dreaming to enter. I felt proud when my first dream came true despite the negative talk of my friends.  he most important part of my story is “istikharah.” Before anything I do, I T should pray this salat. Sometimes I want something strongly, but it may not be the best for me. And after I pray, I believe that I will get the better of it.  student writer’s distinct persona is demonstrated in this draft, and her writing is A stronger for it. Potential for future writing development is also suggested in this work. The student confidently inhabits her text; her writing persona is present and lends dimension and body to the text. 2. The following is a Writing 1 student’s first draft of the personal narrative:  e are very Exaited to go to Dubai, because it was the first time to visit Dubai W we spent a good time together in this city, we went to Dubai mall in the first day, me and my sisters shopping there, it was a very huge mall, we lost twice time and then we finelly know where we go to eat and where we go to get new clothes from different shops.  his draft is interesting to me as it may well represent a student’s more collective T notion of self. The student uses “we” seven times. “Me” is used once and juxtaposed with “my sisters.” The question is whether unpacking the “we” and/ or interjecting an interloping “I” would improve the draft. Of course (in the Western tradition), the writer’s purpose, audience and argument (the rhetorical sisters of persona) are relevant. The question more to my point is: Is the student demonstrating her persona effectively? I encouraged this student to clue her readers in on who the “we” is (pronoun reference). I also suggested that she interject an “I” perhaps in the beginning as a framing device, e.g., “I remember we were very excited to go to Dubai.” The inclusion of a writing persona who explicitly “remembers” could also serve as a heuristic tool: the “I” might remember more details, thereby adding dimension and shape to the generic world of “malls,” “new clothes,” “different shops,” and “where we go to eat.” Once the student revised, I suggested she compare drafts to see which one she preferred. Revision could be done in a way that does not exclude other members of the writer’s “we” figure, but in a way that develops and distinguishes them through the student writer’s perspective. It could develop the sentiment of the shared adventure. 3. “Al-Nisa” represents excerpts (Introduction and argument #2) of a Writing 3 student’s second draft of a researched essay assignment. Students were free to choose topics and target readers and were advised to be conscious of the persona they projected.

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Al-Nisa Introduction  omen or women’s rights are most important topics around the world nowadays. W And sometimes people from other religions and cultures talk or write about women in Islam in terms of how Islam treats women as slaves. Many articles on the web seem to be written by people who do not know about Islam, the Holy Quran, or of a chapter in the Quran named “Al-Nisa” which means “The Women.” I wonder if the critics have visited a Muslim home or researched more than the negative headlines. I also wonder if they know how Muslim women themselves feel about the matters. Based on my experience as a young Muslim woman living and studying in Riyadh, I disagree with the negative image of Islam in such discussions. Often polygamy and wearing the hijab are top issues that are criticized as being disrespectful to Muslim women. My position is that these two issues do not disrespect Muslim women. Following are my arguments supported by results of a questionnaire I distributed among PNU students, citations from the Holy Quran, and sources from the Saudi Digital Library. A section of the student’s argument about the hijab follows: Some people say that wearing a hijab is disrespectful to Muslim women. Of the 100 PNU students who completed the confidential questionnaire, not one felt that wearing a hijab was disrespectful to them or felt that they did not want to wear one. One said: “It’s part of my culture, my tradition, my identity just as not wearing one is part of someone else’s culture.” Another added: “I honestly get tired of people criticizing what I wear.” Another added that she feels “good” and “respectable” wearing her hijab. In sum, none of the respondents indicated that they thought wearing the hijab was disrespectful. These results prompted me to speculate that maybe the criticism of the hijab by people unfamiliar with Islam might itself be disrespectful. This student writer demonstrates a confident writing self and is obviously growing in her ability to drive her ideas in English writing. The persona is clearheaded, reasonable and seems genuinely interested in communicating with readers about a specific topic important to her. Carson’s (2007) contention comes to mind: “Each time a student describes a specific, detailed world, he or she takes possession of a single self. That claiming of self is the springboard necessary for real engagement with college-level thought” (p. B5). How the PNU Writing Studio was Born and How It Supports “I”

I am trying to help you create a place where you will talk and write – not to fulfill a requirement – but because you have something to say.  — Lou Kelly, early American advocate for one-to-one teaching 85

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I am telling a story, actually a series of stories within a larger story, to explain what has most recently led me to the importance of “I” in student writing. One of the first occasions in which the importance of “I” began to dawn on me in a new way occurred when I first began teaching at PNU. I had been assigned an advanced writing class. A writing program hadn’t yet coalesced and the Writing Studio didn’t yet exist. I met 35 students who demonstrated a range of writing levels. I could see their general fear, and corresponding dislike, of academic writing. I can honestly remember every one of the students to this day and could tell a fine story about each of them. But Noura’s story is particularly memorable. It seems Noura remembers it too because we share a quick, knowing smile with each other when we pass in the halls. I’m smiling now just thinking of her. As a foray into my new academic environment, I decided to use a typical process approach with the students: having them select a topic, generate ideas, come to a thesis, and develop arguments and counter arguments. We discussed audience considerations. Students had the opportunity to write and revise during every class. They had opportunity to collaborate with each other as I circulated among them to see how and what each student was doing and provide individual feedback. I noticed that Noura was often absent and did not make good use of in-class drafting time, insisting she could only write at home. She always sat in the back row as though she were hiding or trying to make it difficult for me to reach her. Noura submitted first drafts, if at all, that were unrelated to her final drafts. It seemed that Noura was avoiding writing at all costs. Noura was tenacious in her obviously well-practiced writing avoidance techniques. When I’d return a draft, point to indicators that showed it was not her work, and suggest how she could make it her own, Noura would re-submit the same draft. When I invited her to see me during office hours, she declined. When I emailed her, she didn’t respond. Noura continued her habit of coming to class irregularly, missing class when writing assignments were due and attending when they were not. I was impressed with this complex set of maneuvers. But I was also tenacious, and at the end of a long school day, near the end of the semester, I had finally managed to get Noura to meet me in my office. I had Noura sit in front of a computer, I sat next to her. I was determined that she would see that she could write her own essay. And so, step-by-step, question-byquestion, I’d help Noura tease out her ideas and then she’d word-process them. I asked a question; Noura would respond. I said, “Why not write that?” She wrote it out sometimes self-correcting as she worked. At times, we’d talk about her ideas, with Noura negotiating her meaning, as she typed. One idea led to the next, and so thread-by-thread, sentence-by-sentence, section-by-section, Noura was weaving an argumentative essay. Bit by bit, Noura was creating her own draft. It wasn’t perfect, but it represented progress toward proficiency with English academic writing. And who knows what a complex transcultural journey Noura had made to get to this point. But she had arrived. 86

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What Noura said at the end of this session is what makes this story so memorable. She said, whether to herself or to me: “This is the first time I ever wrote my own essay.” For semesters Noura had been developing writing avoidance techniques rather than a writing process. She had not been driving her ideas or her writing. But at that moment, she saw she could develop a writing process that could serve her professional and personal goals. The words of Lou Kelly (1972), an ardent early advocate for one-to-one teaching and learning, reverberated in my mind: I am trying to help you create a place where you will talk and write—not to fulfill a requirement – but because you have something to say, where you will learn to talk and write better – not to get a grade – but because you have somebody to hear and respond to what you say. (p. 8) I trace the start of the PNU Writing Studio to this moment. I saw, like Lou Kelly had seen, the power of “somebody to hear and respond to what you say,” somebody who hears your voice and helps you tease out the “I.” Other students had also started visiting my office after classes for one-to-one feedback on their English academic writing. Sometimes when I was busy with one student, I’d ask those who were waiting to help each other. My office became “a place where you will talk and write,” to use Lou Kelly’s words, and very soon after, in March 2011, with the support of Dean Asma Abu-Malik, there was an official ribbon-cutting celebration, making the PNU Writing Studio one of the first, if not the first, writing center in Saudi Arabia. Move to the new campus

Despite the first heady, exciting days and weeks, the growth of the PNU writing center was not entirely smooth sailing. The move from the “old” campus in Riyadh to the new university city the next semester was unsettling. The location, hours and available staff of the Writing Studio were up in the air. As the weeks ticked by and we moved deeper into the semester, I felt the very existence of our writing center was threatened and that the bright dream of a continuously evolving writing center at PNU might be fading away. One day, when I felt at my lowest point, I exited my office and a group of students – Abeer, Adeem, Muneera, Ghadeer, Nuha, Loujean, Hind and Maha – unexpectedly greeted me saying that they “wanted to join the writing club.” I was speechless for a couple seconds. Then, composing myself and realizing the gift that heaven had sent, I said: “Welcome! Congratulations! You’re the first official student writing consultants!” The Writing Studio had been reborn into a model that exists to this day, with the primary emphasis on peer consultants. The peer consultants and I found a new space to work in and began setting schedules, gathering reference tools, securing computers for word processing 87

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and research and otherwise preparing for student writers. We also began weekly consultant education sessions. Student writers showed up at our door immediately – news gets “tweeted” quickly at PNU – so the peer consultants were, at first, sometimes learning by doing. At other times, I’d begin working with a student writer with a peer consultant alongside me, and then I’d exit out of the session when I saw that the peer consultant was ready to take over. I was hopeful, and the energy and enthusiasm of the peer consultants was exhilarating. The student writing consultants reminded me of something in Kenneth Bruffee’s (1984/1995) landmark essay “Peer Tutoring and the ‘Conversation of Mankind’,” but with a twist. Bruffee had written: “What students needed was [writing] help of a sort that was not an extension but an alternative to the traditional classroom” (p. 87). Bruffee added: “To provide that alternative, we [teachers] turned to peer tutoring” (p. 87). Here at PNU, however, the students had turned to us, to me. They took the first step in re-modeling the PNU Writing Studio. They were the driving force of the idea of a Writing Center in Saudi Arabia. At our first consultant education meeting, Abeer gave me a card on behalf of all the student consultants that read: Dear Dr. Barbra “A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step.” We are tending to make our first step with you, a step forward in order to accomplish global professionalism. Please accept our friendship as we will always accept your directions.  — The student writing consultants I carry this card in my wallet wherever I go. It represents a valuable currency to me, more dear that either riyals or dollars. It also represents the “conversation” Bruffee (1984/1995) referred to when he wrote: “The first steps to learning to think better are to learn to converse better and to learn to create and maintain the sort of social contexts, the sorts of community life, that foster the kinds of conversations we value” (p. 90). The peer consultants were doing just that: creating and maintaining social contexts that foster valuable conversations with each other and with the student writers they worked with – and even with me. I am confident that when I leave PNU and Saudi Arabia to return to my home in the West, these peer consultants will continue to grow the Writing Studio and the writing program, based on their multilingual skills and realities. The number of peer consultants grows each semester, as does the number of sessions with student writers. From my one-to-one work with Noura in March of 2011, the Writing Studio now records over 1,000 one-to-one sessions, in addition to 50 workshops each semester and continues to grow rapidly.

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Unpacking “I” in the Writing Studio

As I saw anew that students needed a sense of themselves as writers in order to manipulate effective writing processes for college writing, I began to see how this sense of a writerly self is developed in multiple ways in the Writing Studio. An initial contact with the PNU Writing Studio can be like a pebble thrown into the water that then ripples out in ever-widening circles. When a student writer asks questions of the consultant about her writing, she is inquiring as one academic writer to another academic writer. This “writers helping writers” dynamic encourages writerly metacognition, which, in turn develops a writerly “I.” Through this conversation, a student writer becomes more self-aware of herself as writer in general, and of the decisions she makes as a writer in particular. She takes control of and responsibility for her writing and its destiny. As El Omari (2014) made clear to her students: they are the author and the authority on their topics and ideas (p. 286). That student writers ordinarily seek out the Writing Studio services on their own, and are not required to do so, also speaks to their independence of writerly action. Student writing consultants also develop a greater sense of themselves as writers. Because they are already writing consultants, they may be further along that road than the student writers they serve. Their sense of themselves as writers is furthered as they are on the other side of the “academic writers helping academic writers” dynamic: they are speaking as active academic writers to other active academic writers. In addition, student writing consultants often proudly refer to themselves as “writing consultant” in the bio field of their Facebook and Twitter accounts, again reinforcing a sense of themselves as writers. Many student writers who seek out the Writing Studio services may eventually apply for positions as writing consultants themselves, resulting in the “writers helping writers” philosophy running full circle. Student writing consultants have also learned in consultant education meetings (and in their translation courses) to ask strategic rhetorical questions when approaching a (student) text, for example: • Who is speaking? • To whom? • About what? Doing so gives them the rhetorical understanding to more capably help student writers understand who they are speaking as, or what mask they are adopting in a given text. They are speaking to each other not as editor-to-writer or teacher-towriter but as writer-to-writer. In this regard, Bruffee (1984/1995) wrote: What peer tutor and tutee do together is not write or edit, or least of all proofread. What they do together is converse. They converse about the subject

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and about the assignment. They converse about, in an academic context, their own relationship and the relationships between student and teacher. Most of all they converse about and pursuant to writing as Rorty has put it, a process of learning “to take a hand in what is going on” by joining “the conversation of mankind.” (p. 96) I have seen how working in the Writing Studio reinforces PNU students’ writerly selves and encourages them “to take a hand in what is going on,” to effect self-agency, and to use writing to drive their own ideas wherever their writing may take them. Conference Presentations and “I”

There’s yet another way that the Writing Studio supports students’ awareness of themselves as writers. The initial pebble in the Writing Studio pond has also rippled out to conference presentations. The Middle East North Africa Writing Center Alliance (MENAWCA), for example, welcomes student writing consultant proposals, and the PNU student writing consultants have participated fully in MENAWCA 2012 and 2014. From brainstorming for proposal topics, to drafting and submitting proposals, to waiting in anticipation for acceptance, to researching and collaborating, to presenting and to coming back home again to increase our knowledge, the student writing consultants were able to develop their writing personas and identities. Two 2014 student MENAWCA presentations demonstrate my point: Peer consultants Hanan Al-Tuwaim and Nouf Alaiban presented research called “The Idea of a Writing Center – in Saudi Arabia.” Citing Stephen North’s (1984) landmark essay “The Idea of a Writing Center” and Tzu-Shan Chang’s (2013) “The Idea of a Writing Center in Asian Countries: The Preliminary Search of a Model in Taiwan,” Hanan and Nouf joined into the scholarly conversation by adding their research as it relates to Saudi Arabia. Based on their experiences and research, they identified specific “pillars” that characterize their work in the PNU Writing Studio including multilingualism, flexible student writer-consultant boundaries and Islamic foundations. They also conducted research that confirmed their hypothesis that the newness of writing centers in Saudi Arabia poses exciting opportunities for higher education. Peer consultants Hanan AlAmri, Rawan Alsallum and Afnan Felemban presented “Innocent Young Thieves: Replacing 1,001 Bad Writing Habits with Good Ones.” They explored the behavior and habits of students who tend to plagiarize and suggested ways to redirect student energies toward developing successful writing processes. The student consultants’ post-conference reflections are worth citing: Rawan Alsallum I am much more confident after participating in MENAWACA, because I was there showing MY results of MY research that supports MY concept. And given 90

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such a chance helped me to taste a bit of individuality. I am now working on three research projects and I do not think I would know this part of me if I had never “given it a try.” You know what really did help me on discovering new parts of my personality? The way I was able to say it on my own. Nouf Alaiban It was like a dream for me to present at a conference. MENAWCA opened the doors for me. I discovered myself in that conference and I’m impressed with my confidence. I felt comfortable with the teachers’ feedback in the conference and I wanted to learn from them. This conference has truly encouraged me to learn more about writing. Also, it has inspired me to attend more conferences in the future. I hope that the university requires each student in the university to attend and present at a conference, because they need to learn not only how to write, but also how to be confident and use their skills that they have learned. This conference was the peak for me. It has given me a great amount of self-confidence. Hanan Al-Tuwaim The conference developed me in many ways. It was the first conference. It really encouraged me to participate in other conferences. I’ve learned how to present my ideas to a conference. The whole experience was new for me, I’ve learned from every single thing “literally.” It built my confidence. I met new people, and most importantly I’ve learned to “never give up.” Hanan AlAmri I have always believed that I had a strong speaking “I” but I never thought about how important it is to make “I” prominent in writing as well until I took on the MENAWCA conference project. We had to find out the reason students lack writing confidence. This prompted me to do research and surveys to discover the roots of this problem. After that, we had to present our findings at the MENAWCA conference. I developed such a strong voice because I truly was passionate about what I was saying. This changed how I write and how I speak as well. After successfully presenting our work at the MENAWCA conference I came back to PNU with great energy because I had a cause to stand behind. Two days after returning from the conference, I decided to give a prepared speech at a Toastmasters meeting about my trip to Dubai and the MENAWCA conference. That is when I found out that my words had a stronger impact. After such a long time devoted to writing and researching I developed my “writing self.” Some of my friends told me that that speech was the best speech I had ever given; our Toastmaster supervisor told me that she noticed a significant change for the better. And most importantly I have more confidence in my writing. 91

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Carson (2007) claimed: “Each time a student writes ‘I,’ he or she steps more firmly onto a stage where meaningful thought and action are possible (p. B5). Providing peer consultants the opportunity to develop their research and writing identities through conferences presentations has proved to be yet another way that the Writing Studio supports “I.” The MENAWCA conference provided a “stage” on which students’ professional and personal personas could develop. While peer consultants were making flight plans for the MENAWCA conference in Dubai, Rania Said, another peer consultant, was writing an article for the MENAWCA Newsletter. Rania asked consultants about the value of their work in the studio: One said: “The Writing Studio has been by far the most important activity for me in college. I have felt so fulfilled by it, and it gave me a sense of confidence as a student.” Another consultant said, “I am much more sensitive to reading and responding to the anxieties of those around me than I used to be” (cited in Said, Fall 2014, p. 2). Whether students are providing feedback, seeking feedback, presenting at a conference, writing about the Writing Studio, or simultaneously doing all these, they are proactively developing their writing “I”s and supporting others to do the same in their quest toward effective multi-linguistic competencies. It’s been a long “drive” since Noura and I worked together four years ago as she wrote her first English essay and both of us were creating a place, to echo Lou Kelly, “where writers could talk and write, where someone could hear and respond to what another writer had to say.” Since then, I have seen many times over how working in the Writing Studio reinforces PNU students’ confidence and encourages them “to take a hand in what is going on,” to effect self-agency, and to drive their own ideas through writing. Conclusion

Read! In the name of your Lord … Read, and your Lord is the Most Honorable … who taught by the pen.  — The Holy Qu’ran (96.1–4) How might my story of “I” be of use in your teaching approach and practices, if at all? Wherever in the world you may be, my hope is that focus on the person and persona in student writing be tended to with renewed care and attention. I hope and pray that teachers (myself included) find and maintain the courage of their writing personas in support of their students’. Student development of “I” warrants strategic and ethical attention. How we choose to support student personas poses fertile fields of research and opportunities to tell our pedagogical stories. Research and writing about cultural perspectives of writing selves in different languages, L2 student-writer-helping-L2 student-writer forums, extracurricular activities that facilitate student expression of their worlds come to mind. We will not offhandedly discourage the use of “I” in students’ writing – or deduct marks when students use it. We might even feel freer in 92

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our own research to write “I” as an alternative for “the author” or “this researcher.” Mostly, I hope that through our own multicultural experiences and struggles to learn other languages, we teachers can better understand the needs of our multicultural students and empathize with their struggles. Writing and the teaching of writing require ongoing attention and revision. Even with a strong curriculum in place, the day-to-day interaction with students precipitates ongoing negotiation and methods of response. Just today, Rahma, a Writing 1 student, asked if it would be OK to begin her personal narrative by first finding something on the Web and then putting it in her own words. She motioned her fingers in a way that indicated that it would be “just a little something, not a big thing.” I could see that Rahma’s question expressed the concern of many students: “How do you write something without first finding something ‘out there’ on the Web?” This is an especially pertinent question for L2 students who may lack sufficient L1 vocabulary to express their ideas. And sometimes something “out there” does spark a personal recollection. But that’s different than student writers who distrust their recollections and experiences or who do not have the wherewithal to construct a persona to begin with. Encouraging students to look to their own experiences and interactions with others and their own unique observations for starting material rather than copying material about an “Emma Cooper in New York,” for example, is key for authority and authorship. Responding effectively to Rahma’s question, and those like it, is something I have struggled with for the last four years, i.e., how do I teach writing to locally and culturally unique students with whom I share a classroom, indeed with whom I share a world. My experiences and interactions with students at PNU have led me to see that helping college students develop a healthy writing persona through various techniques, including a personal narrative, jump-starts and promotes their growing L2 writing competencies. Their writing persona drives their ideas, and in my opinion, driving one’s ideas through writing is a force more powerful than driving a car. As I exit my story, I bear in mind the esteemed Princess Nourah, namesake of the magnificent Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, and her reputation for “great wisdom” and for having the “minds of 40 men.” I believe her legacy will also drive PNU students and their writing. They, too, are “nourahs,” i.e., lights on the Saudi horizon, and the world’s. Their multilingual and multicultural competencies are lodestars that will guide them to a greater understanding of themselves as writers and will help them build their worlds “by the pen.” Acknowledgements

Special thanks to Amani Hamdan, Sarah Sabban, Sue Zwayer, Wah Yin Rixon, Lisa Wells, George Toth-Demetriade, Awayed AlMutairi, Donna Nelson-Beene, and always special thanks to my students – and in memory of my dear friend, Sandy Steele. 93

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References Al-Dhibyani, F. (2011, May 16). Noura, a trusted sister of kingdom’s founder. Saudi Gazette. Retrieved November 12, 2014, from http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method= home.regcon&contentid=20110516100827 Al-Ghamdi, M. (2008, October 30). Light dawns on girls’ education. Saudi Gazette. Retrieved October 1, 2014, from http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method= home.regcon&contentid=2008103020589 Al-Otaibi, S. (2012). Alitqan in our writing and in our life. Scheherazade’s sisters. Manila, Philippines: PNU Publication. Barney, S. T. (2007). Capitalizing on the self-referencing effect in general psychology: A preliminary study. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 20(1), 87–97. doi:10.1080/10720530600992915 Black, E. (1970, April). The second persona. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 56(2), 109–119. doi:10.1080/00335637009382992 Bruffee, K. A. (1995). Peer tutoring and the “Conversation of Mankind.” In C. Murphy & L. Law (Eds.), Landmark essays: Writing centers (pp. 87–98). Davis, CA: Hermagoras. (Original work published 1984) Carson, B. J. (2007). The power of ‘I’. Chronicle of Higher Education, 53(40), B5. Coffin, C., Curry, M. J., Goodman, S., Hewings, A., Lillis, T. M., & Swann, J. (2003). Issues in academic writing in higher education. Teaching academic writing: A toolkit for higher education (p. 1). London, England: Routledge. Retrieved September 6, 2014, from http://www.kantakji.com/media/6490/ t118.pdf Currie, G. (2009). Narrative and the psychology of character. The Journal of Aesthetics & Art Criticism, 67(1), 61–71. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6245.2008.01335.x El Omari, L. M. (2014, December). Students become authors: A course in advanced writing using expressivist theory and pedagogy. International Journal of English and Literature, 5(10), 282–293. doi:10.5897/IJEL2014.0640 Elbow, P. (1981). Writing with power: Techniques for mastering the writing process. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Gortner, E. -M., Rude, S. S., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2006). Benefits of expressive writing in lowering rumination and depressive symptoms. Behavior Therapy, 37, 292–304. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2006.01.004 Hairston, M. C. (1986, February). A contemporary composition (45th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company College Division. Klaus, C. H. (2013). A self made of words: Crafting a distinctive persona in nonfiction writing. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press. Mayo, J. A. (2004). Using miniautobiographical narration in applied psychology to personalize course content and improve conceptual application. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 17(3), 237–246. doi:10.1080/10720530490447149 Morris III, C. E. (2002, May 1). Pink herring & the fourth persona. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 88(2), 228–244. Retrieved October 4, 2014, from http://www.academia.edu/1586886/_Pink_Herring_ and_the_Fourth_Persona_J._Edgar_Hoover_s_Sex_Crime_Panic._The_Quarterly_Journal_of_ Speech_88_May_2002_228-244 Noura Bint Abdul Rahman Al Saud. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noura_bint_Abdul_Rahman_Al_Saud Palmer, P. J. (1997). The heart of a teacher identity and integrity in teaching. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 29(6), 14–21. doi:10.1080/00091389709602343 Perkins+Will, (2013, October 22). First look at world’s largest university for women, Princess Nora Bint Abdulrahman University in Saudi Arabia, designed by Perkins+Will. Retrieved October 15, 2014, from http://perkinswill.com/news/princess-nora-bint-abdulrahman-university-first-look.html Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University [university website]. (2015). Retrieved January 11, 2015, from http://www.pnu.edu.sa/arr/Pages/default.aspx Project Narrative. (n.d.). The Ohio state university. Retrieved January 22, 2014, from https://projectnarrative.osu.edu/about/pn-mission

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The Power of “I” Rafoth, B. (2015). Multilingual writers and writing centers. Boulder, CO: University of Utah Press. Said, R. (2014, Fall). Entering the world of writing centers through PNU’s gate. The MENAWCA Newsletter, 2. Retrieved January 6, 2015, from http://menawca.org/resources/MENAWCA++Fall+ 2014+Newsletter+ver.3 Saudi Ministry of Education. (1996). Retrieved December 24, 2014, from http://www.mohe.gov.sa/ar/ default.aspx Singh, B. (1995, September). The effects of self versus others’ reference on retention. Psychology & Developing Societies, 7(2), 237–258. doi: 10.1177/097133369500700207 Toth, B. (2013, Summer). Princess Nora Bint Abdulrahman university (PNU) writing studio: Critical phase two. The MENAWCA Newsletter, 6. Retrieved December 6, 2014, from http://menawca.org/ resources/MENAWCA++Summer+2013+Newsletter Wander, P. (1984). The third persona: An ideological turn in rhetorical theory. Central States Speech Journal, 35(4), 197–216. doi:10.1080/10510978409368190 Yi, Y. (2013). Questions arising from the assessment of EFL narrative writing. ELT Journal: English Language Teachers Journal, 67(1), 70–79.

Barbara A. Toth Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Appendix A

Writing 1 Semester 2, 2015/1436 College of Languages and Translation, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Tell Your Story: Narrative Essay In a narrative essay you tell a story, but you also make a point. So, it is a story that you tell for a reason. Image: www.ge.com Introduction Everyone in the world, whether they are young or old, loves a story. This assignment gives you the opportunity to tell your story – at least a part of it – to readers of your choosing. It also gives you a chance to develop a confident writing persona, so feel free to use “I” in this assignment. Begin by thinking back on your life and identifying an interesting event that happened to you. It can be a big event or a small event, a happy or a sad event (or both). What matters is that the event is important to you.

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You could write about lots of topics: • • • • • • • • • •

a time when you were very scared; a time when you were lost; an exceptional vacation; when you got a pet and what that taught you; when you decided to be a translator; when you learned an important lesson about friendship; when you performed Haj; when you met a challenge and overcame it; a special birthday; other?

The Process Once you’ve identified an event in your life that you’d like to write about, think about stories that you love – in books, in movies, in songs, on TV, in fairy tales. Spend some time thinking about why the stories are so appealing to you. Is it because of: • • • •

The setting – where the story takes place. The people who are part of the story. The main point of the story or the lesson learned. The way the writer describes specific details.

Now read the story The Climb: http://thewritesource.com/studentmodels/ wi-theclimb.htm. Discuss the thesis or main idea of The Climb. Also discuss the writing techniques that the writer uses that you could also use. Notice the first word of her essay: “I.” Then start drafting your story. You can make notes at first or make an outline – whatever gets you started. If you get stuck, ask your teacher, a friend/classmate, or someone in the Writing Studio. You are not alone. Your essay should include these elements: • • • •

Title Introduction Body section that tells the story Closure

Important: Your essay must contain a thesis statement It’s important that your personal story have a “point.” You want to make sure that a reader understands why you are telling this story or what makes it important. Let’s 96

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say you write: “I went shopping, then I had dinner, then I went home.” Notice that the importance of these events is not made clear to a reader. A reader might say: “So what? What’s so interesting about that?” A good story needs to answer the question “So what?” That answer is the thesis. Transitions You will use transitions such as the following to guide your reader. Notice how the transitions reveal that you are organizing events according to time First … Then … Previously … After that … On the next day … Finally … See this YouTube video for more help with transitions: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7X2P6ou8D9Y Specifications: Final draft: word-processed, double-spaced, 12 pt. font, black (MLA style); stapled, 1 1/2 – 2 pages First draft due: Final draft due: Additional resources: • Refer to sections in your textbook that give you tips and examples of narrative stories. • http://www.wikihow.com/Improve-Your-Writing-Skills • http://www.betterstorytelling.net/blog/advanced-storytelling Sample narrative essays: • http://thewritesource.com/studentmodels/wi-theclimb.htm • http://www.factmonster.com/homework/writingskills4a.html • http://examples.yourdictionary.com/narrative-essay-examples.html Happy Writing!  — Constructed by Barbara Toth for PNU/CLT Writing Program 97

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Appendix B

Academic Writing Rubric College of Languages and Translation/English/Levels 1, 2 and 3 Student: _________________________ Teacher: _______________________ Assignment: ______________________ Draft (1st, 2nd, final): ____________ Total score: ______________________ _____ Persona Essay demonstrates a student’s voice, a signature unique to her and effective for the assignment. _____ Audience Essay demonstrates awareness of intended audience. Paragraph targets audience likely to benefit from text. Essay engages a reader. _____ Thesis Statement/Topic sentences/organization Essay has clear and focused thesis statement, topic sentences; transitions are used to help flow of ideas. _____ Development Essay demonstrates adequate details, examples, descriptions, comparisons, quotations, arguments, etc. to support topic sentence. _____ Sentence Structure/Syntax Essay demonstrates standard English sentence structures and correct syntax. Varied sentence structures are used. ___ L2 transference difficulties ___ fragments ___ run-ons ___ comma splices

___ faulty parallelism ___ active or passive structures ___ coordination and subordination ___ lack of sentence variety

_____ Word Choice/Vocabulary Essay demonstrates attention to words appropriate for topic, audience, and context. Essay demonstrates ability to use specific and concrete language and avoids generalities.

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_____ Usage/Mechanics Usage

Spelling

Punctuation

__ subj-verb agr __ vowels __ full stops/end marks __ verb form __ syllables __ commas __ verb tense __ apostrophes __ infinitive form __ semi-colons __ capitalization __ parenthesis __ singular/plural __ pronoun ref __ prepositions __ article use

Formatting __ spacing between words __ paragraph indent __ 12 pt. font size __ double spacing __ headings __ title centered

Comments: 

— Constructed by Barbara Toth for CLT/PNU Writing Program

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5. Cooperative Learning A Case for Creative and Efficient Teaching and Learning Supported by: Analysis of the Present Situation in the Preparatory Year Program in Health Profession Track

Cooperative Learning: A Case for Creative and Efficient Teaching and Learning

Background Human beings cannot survive without cooperation. If we look into the history of mankind, societies that have survived and progressed are those that successfully managed to create a strong social contract. This cannot happen without the cooperation of the members of that society. Cooperation, therefore, is a significant factor in the development of all aspects of human societies including education. In the field of education, teaching methodology is the key to motivation and learning. Modern day students are digital natives used to a high tech environment and traditional methods of teaching, lectures and notes, do not attract them much. Teachers need to find innovative and non-traditional instructional methods to engage students not only in knowledge acquisition but discovery and creation too. One of these methods is Cooperative Learning. Performance on the job is greatly hindered by competitiveness and an individualization attitude. Students who studied by teambased learning or cooperative learning methods were found to function better in a team or a committee and to support their colleagues. The later quality might be a stronger determinant of the level of job performance than domain-specific skills such as knowledge in the specialty and skills related to it. What is Cooperative Learning? Cooperation is working together to accomplish shared goals. Within cooperative situations, individuals seek outcomes that are beneficial to themselves and beneficial to all other group members. “Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning” (Johnson & Johnson, 1988).

A. K. Hamdan (Ed.), Teaching and Learning in Saudi Arabia, 101–119. © 2015 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

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Purpose

In most higher education institutes in Saudi Arabia, including the University of Dammam, teaching methodology revolves around students’ interaction with the course material and the teacher. How students interact with peers is restricted to limited pair or group work and does not often attract stakeholders as an area of study. Teachers are usually apprehensive about this approach and don’t trust their students to work with peers independently without teacher’s input. This chapter aims to investigate the effectiveness of cooperative learning in the university classrooms, how it can enhance student participation during class and what impact this new strategy can have on student learning outcomes. A study will also be conducted on students’ and teachers’ needs and attitudes towards cooperative learning. Theoretical Background

Cooperative learning is an educational approach that refers to a number of methods for organizing and conducting classroom instruction by means of carefully structured group interaction, for example, Jigsaw, Academic Controversy, Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition, Student-Team-Achievement-Division (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). Most of these methods were developed during the 1970s and 1980s (Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne, 2000). Cooperative learning aims to organize classroom activities into academic and social learning experiences. Students are divided into small groups and they work together to achieve a mutual learning goal. Learning can be categorized into • Individualistic: a learner works in isolation to achieve academic goals. • Competitive: learners compete to perform better than their peers. • Cooperative: learners work together to achieve a mutual academic goal. In a comparative study of the types of learning, Johnson and Johnson (1988) found that cooperative learning promotes higher achievement than competitive or individualistic learning. They found that students with cooperative experiences are more able to appreciate the perspective of others, are more positive about taking part in controversy, have better developed interaction skills, and have a more positive expectation about working with others than students from competitive or individualistic settings. In general, past research has found that cooperative efforts produce higherquality problem solving than do competitive efforts on a wide variety of problems that require different cognitive processes to be solved. Possible reasons why this happens include the exchange of information and insights among co-operators, the generation of a variety of strategies to solve the problem, increased ability to translate the problem statement into equations, and the development of a shared cognitive representation of the problem (Johnson & Johnson, 1995).

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According to Johnson and Johnson, the essential elements of cooperative learning in a classroom are: Positive interdependence.  Positive Interdependence means that each student within the group should perceive that his or her individual academic achievement is positively dependent on the achievement of the other members of the group and vice versa. Such positive interdependence is supported by clearly defined group goals or, alternatively, rewarding each member of the group based on the achievement of the group in unison. Group processing.  Teachers should structure learning tasks so that learners come to believe that they sink or swim together – that is, their access to rewards is as a member of an academic team wherein all members receive a reward or no member does. Essentially, tasks are structured so that learners must depend upon one another for their personal, teammates’, and group’s success in completing the assigned tasks and mastering the targeted content and skills. For instance, one member of the group looks for specific information and passes it on to the other member to make a slide for presentation at the end of the project. Face-to-face interactions.  Based on developmental cognitive theories of Piaget (1936) and Vygotsky (1934), cooperative learning theory holds that working together face-to-face on open-ended tasks facilitates cognitive growth and higherlevel thinking. Cooperative learning structures are an opportunity for students to present their ideas and perceptions and hear the perspectives of fellow students. Cooperative learning theory predicts that students learn from interaction with peers because cognitive conflicts will arise leading to the exposure of inadequate reasoning and, ultimately, more sophisticated understanding (Slavin, 1994; Springer et al., 1999; Johnson & Johnson, 1989). Learners need to arrange themselves so that they are positioned and postured to face each other for direct eye-to-eye contact and face-to-face academic conversations. Face-to-face interactions give individuals opportunities to help each other overcome problems. They provide the feedback between members necessary for all individuals to test ideas and build a framework for their knowledge, and they provide resource sharing. Finally, they embody respect, care, and encouragement between individuals so all are motivated to continue to work on the task at hand. Individual accountability.  Individual accountability means that, eventually, each student is assessed individually in order to prevent social loafing. Other means of assuring individual accountability are keeping groups small (2–4 members) to make the contribution of each group member apparent (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991). The purpose of cooperative learning groups is to create academically stronger students. To accomplish this, students must contribute their fair share. The 103

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importance of individual accountability cannot be overstated. This issue lies at the heart of the “fairness” issue that concerns many students. Usually learners come up with complaints that one member of the group is trying to manipulate them and/or one member is too slow and lazy to finish the task in time. The teacher should structure the groups so that learners do not have an opportunity to “hide” or “dominate”. For instance, the teacher could require as part of the assessment that all group members present their group’s results to other groups. To encourage individual accountability, the group as a whole also needs to have certain group skills to keep everyone on board as discussed in the next section. Group processing.  Group processing provides feedback to group members regarding their participation, provides an opportunity to enhance the members’ collaborative learning skills, helps to maintain a good working relationship between members, and provides a means of celebrating the group’s successes. One strategy is to ask each group to list three things the group has done well and one that needs improvement (Smith, 1996). Teachers can also encourage whole-class processing, where he/she observes groups and provides feedback either to individual groups or to the entire class.

Figure 1. A model of cooperative learning

Cooperative learning theory draws on cognitive elaboration theories holding that in order for knowledge to be stored in memory the learner has to engage in some sort of elaboration of the material. It offers the opportunity for students to engage in an elaboration such as orally explaining concepts to someone else, listening critically to the explanation offered by fellow students within the group, paraphrasing other students’ knowledge and perspectives, giving and receiving feedback, and revising one’s position when being confronted with peers’ opposing points of view (Slavin, 1994; Johnson & Johnson, 1989; Johnson et al., 1998).

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In a controlled experiment with trainee teachers, Hornby (2009) showed that the members of groups in which positive interdependence and individual accountability was present achieved better than the members of groups in which no such interdependence or accountability was structured. The teacher should keep in mind that the ease with which students talk in groups before the start of class does not indicate how well they will work in a small group on an academic task where they must rely on one another. The assumption that students will actively listen, be respectful and thoughtful, communicate effectively and be trustworthy is not always correct. Time must be set aside to work on these and to point out that teamwork skills are essential for achieving the course goals. This sends a signal to the student that these skills are important. Also, it is the teacher’s responsibility to form the groups although the learners might not like it in the beginning. After group formation, time must be given to make them cohesive. Frequently dissolving groups will not serve the purpose of learning, especially if they are working on important science projects. Group activities should include academic activities like written assignments, presentations and short quizzes. Continual feedback from the teacher will keep the students prepared and motivate them to work better. Motivation will enhance exceptionally if group work counts 20% or more of the total grade. Less than that will make it difficult for the teacher to encourage students to excel in their role in the group. Objectives

The main objective of this project is to develop a cooperative learning model pertaining to the University of Dammam. Specifically, this chapter aims to: • Develop cooperative learning strategies that will aid the university to deliver its vision and mission. • Establish the application of cooperative learning within the university department. Rationale

Cooperative learning is a system of teaching and learning techniques in which students are active agents in the process of learning instead of passive receivers of the product of any given knowledge. This system can increase students’ academic learning as well as personal growth because it: • • • •

reduces learning anxiety; increases the amount of student participation; builds supportive and less threatening learning environments; helps develop the rate of learning retention. Slavin expressed two concerns:

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• Inexperienced, well-meaning teachers might undercut the cooperative learning movement by ill-structured applications. • Cooperative learning might be “oversold” and “undertrained.” In the last decades of the 20th century, the cooperative learning movement has gradually spread to the higher education arena, and Slavin’s concerns have in general been laid to rest. For example, a 1995 faculty survey conducted by the Higher Education Research Institute at the University of California at Los Angeles indicated that, other than lecture, at the top of the list of teaching methods used in most courses was “cooperative learning” showing a 9% increase from 1989 to 1995, followed by “group projects” with a 7% increase (Manger, 1996). In the new millennium, cooperative learning has become a staple of many teaching conferences and faculty development efforts. Students in Saudi Arabia join universities with a lot of apprehensions – about teachers, deadlines and workload. They come from a school system that has tapped only one of their cognitive domains – memory. They are not prepared for the kind of attitude expected from a university student, such as critical thinking, analyzing a given situation or generating creative ideas. In such circumstances, it can be posited that implementing Cooperative Learning (CL) in classrooms at the beginning of the academic year will lead to positive results regarding their motivation and learning. In the context of Saudi higher education, much responsibility falls on the teachers as to how they plan classroom activities. The concept of cooperative learning will have to be adapted to the suitability of the environment. Individual responsibility and group processing are significant but a lot of scaffolding, facilitation and feedback are necessary from the teacher’s side. For example, an 80-minute class should be interspersed with mini-lectures, short quizzes and feedback sessions. This can be done by designing a session of workshops for the staff. Even being aware of the benefits of this strategy, resistance from teachers to incorporate it within their lessons is inevitable, as they are obviously more worried about covering the syllabus. Restructuring a course to include structured group work means spending more time on fewer topics and compromising on course coverage. The established research base of cooperative learning, much of it now at the higher education level, gives even skeptical faculty compelling reasons to adapt its structured approach. Cuseo (1992) finds cooperative learning to be “the most researched and empirically well-documented form of collaborative learning in terms of its positive impact on multiple outcome measures”. Such outcomes include not only increased academic achievement, but also affective outcomes important to most faculty: increased self-esteem, more harmony in multi-ethnic classrooms, higher attendance and greater liking for the subject matter. Cooperative learning is a concept that should be the base of lesson plans from the beginning of the term. Putting a few activities here and there will not serve the 106

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purpose. Coordination with the curriculum unit, academic coordinators and teachers is necessary to take such decisions. Beginning with modest assignments and supplementing class work with additional readings can resolve some of the conflicts between coverage and depth. Students, with proper help, can be guided toward greater autonomy and take on a greater responsibility for their own education if teachers provide them with useful, engaging and relevant tasks to accomplish with their peers. Suitability of the Strategy to Ministry of Higher Education initiative

The Ministry of Higher Education initiative is to enhance the quality of teaching and learning in Saudi universities. Therefore, the cooperative learning strategy meets the vision of the Ministry of Higher Education. This model will be designed to meet students’ needs and make them partners in their own learning instead of being passive spectators in the class. When launched by the university, it will benefit all stakeholders from students to teachers to the higher tiers of management. This model, when implemented, will be a paradigm shift in the learning and teaching methodology prevalent in the university. Common Learning Outcomes

Common learning outcomes for CL should be based both on individual performance and group effectiveness. The following are applicable to all CL activities: Individual Performance • students’ individual and group learning outcomes (knowledge acquisition); • students’ contributing behavior during task realization (the end product, use of active learning skills); • students’ individual and group ongoing (and final) performance in terms of selfevaluation. Group Effectiveness • active participation behavior; • social skills (well-balanced contributions and role playing); • active learning and interaction skills facilitate and monitor the group’s well-being function (members’ motivation, task management and group coordination, group cohesion and peer involvement, conflict resolution and emotional support); • group processing (groups perform a self-evaluation on their progress and performance as to whether each member learned how to interact and collaborate more effectively with his/her teammates). 107

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Assessment

The rubrics for assessment should be based on the components of cooperative learning identified by Johnson and Johnson (2009) (positive interdependence, faceto-face interactions, social skills, individual accountability, group processing). Peer assessment can be adapted to measure degree of contribution to task and support of the team by each member. (See Appendix A: Paper by M. H. Al-Sheikh on the comparison of three scoring methods for team-based learning) Rubrics can be designed to assess specific activities like presentations and an information check. Alternatively, at the end of the activity, the teacher can give a short quiz to each learner. After they finish, the teacher gives out the same quiz to groups. They do it together and hand it in. The group grade should account for a significant percentage of the final grade in order to keep the learners motivated. Rubrics should also be designed to assess the process of cooperation. The end product of cooperative learning is not only that you know the subject matter, but that all your group members know it as well. All group members must strive for the success of all group members. This shows the quality of the “cooperative process” as to how effective or ineffective it has been. Some Practical Challenges

• Teachers might come up with the questions as to what part of the content they could tackle in this way. According to the research conducted, any part can be tackled but with a good amount of scaffolding and facilitation on the part of the teacher. • Enough room should be available for students to move around without any disturbance. Also, the teacher should be in a position where s/he is available to everyone. • Teachers need to be trained before the beginning of the term. Training materials will have to be planned for each subject taught in PY (Preparatory Year) with input from subject teachers. • Introductory workshops can be done at the beginning of the year with regular monitoring afterwards. An observation tool can be designed for this purpose. • Students also need to be introduced to this teaching strategy during the general orientation at the beginning of the year. A presentation can be made for this purpose. It is highly recommended to do this presentation in Arabic for students to fully comprehend what is expected of them. Practical Applications in the Classroom

Classroom Ideas Jigsaw procedure for a biology class.  Task: Divide a Biology reading assignment into multiple (2–4) parts. Plan how you will use the jigsaw procedure. Script out 108

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exactly what you will say to the class using each part of the jigsaw procedure. Practice talking students through their role. Procedure: One way to structure positive interdependence among group members is to use the jigsaw method of creating resource interdependence. The steps for structuring a “jigsaw” lesson are: Cooperative Groups: Distribute a set of instructions and materials to each group. The set needs to be divisible into the number of members of the group (2, 3, or 4 parts). Give each member one part of the set of materials. Preparation Pairs: Assign students the cooperative task of meeting with someone else in the class who is a member of another learning group and who has the same section of the material to complete two tasks: • learning and becoming an expert on their material • planning how to teach the material to the other members of their group Cooperative Group: Assign students the cooperative tasks of: • teaching their area of expertise to the other group members • learning the material being taught by the other members Evaluation: Assess students’ degree of mastery of all the material. Recognize those groups where all members reach the present criterion of excellence. Notes to Students For this session we are using a procedure for structuring learning groups called “jigsaw”. Each member of the group will be given a different section of the material to be learned. Each member is dependent on the others for success in learning all the material. Each member is accountable for teaching his or her material to the other group members and learning the material they are teaching. The purposes of the jigsaw strategy are: • provide an alternative method of introducing new material besides reading and lecture; • create information interdependence among members to increase their sense of mutuality; • ensure that participants orally rehearse and cognitively process the information being learned; • provide an example of high performance teamwork; • learn and become an expert on your material. Read the material together, discuss it, and master it. Use an active reading strategy (such as Pair Reading): a. scan section headings to get an overview of the material; b. both persons silently read a paragraph (or short section); person A summarizes the content to Person B; 109

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c. person B listens, checks for accuracy, and states how it relates to material previously learned; d. the two reverse roles and repeat the procedure. Teaching and Learning Group Your task in this group is to learn all the assigned material. Make sure each member has a different section and that all sections are covered. Work “cooperatively” to ensure that all group members master all the assigned material. Preparation to Teach by Pairs Take one section of the material and find a member of another group who has the same section of the material as you do. Work cooperatively to complete these tasks: • plan how to teach your material to the other group members. Share your ideas as to how best to teach the material. Make sure your partner is ready; • as you read through the material, underline the important points, write questions or ideas in the margins, and add our own thoughts and suggestions; • when finished, write down the major ideas and supporting details or examples; • prepare one or more visual aids to help you explain the material; • plan how to make the other members of your group intellectually active rather than passive while they listen to your presentation. Practice/Consulting Pairs If you finish the preparation and have time, meet with another member from a different group who is ready and who prepared the same section of the material you did. Work cooperatively to complete these tasks: • review what each member plans to teach his/her group and share ideas on how to teach the material • incorporate the best ideas from both plans into each person’s presentation • make sure the other person is ready to teach the material Teaching and Learning Group Meet with your original group and complete the cooperative task of ensuring that all members have mastered all the assigned material by: • teaching their area of expertise to the other group members • learning the material being taught by the other group members

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The presenter should encourage: • oral rehearsal; • elaboration and integration; • implementation of ideas. The role of the “listening members” is to: • clarify the material by asking appropriate questions; • help the presenter by coming up with novel ways of remembering the important ideas or facts; • think creatively about the material being presented; • relate out loud the information to previous learned knowledge. Elaborate on the information being presented; • plan out loud how the information can be applied in the immediate future. Monitoring of the Group Work Collect some data about the functioning of the group to aid in later group processing. The instructor will also monitor and collect data about the material being learned and the functioning of the groups. Evaluation and Processing The instructor can either assess participants’ mastery of all the material by giving every participant an exam or randomly calling on individuals to explain the material they learned. The instructor can ask each group to process briefly, for example, by asking the group to identify at least one thing that each member did to help other members learn and at least three actions that could be added to improve members learning next time. A team of experts/teachers can be set up for each unit to monitor the project development in the classroom through feedback from students and teachers and direct observation of instructors in the classroom. Instructors can be informed beforehand so they can discuss the strengths and weaknesses with experts and get the due support. An Experience of Cooperative Learning in the College of Medicine, UoD

Third year medical students participated in a yearly project where they were divided into teams and given the task to present a neurophysiological concept into a poster. The study was presented at the Gaizan Saudi International Medical Education Conference (SIMEC II), 2011. The author describes a method by which teamwork was introduced effectively early in a traditional medical curriculum. 111

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The study aimed at finding practical methods by which teamwork can be introduced early in a conventional curriculum and a reliable method to evaluate it. For three academic years, students of neurophysiology in the third level of medical school were divided into groups. Each group was given the assignment to prepare a poster on a neurophysiology topic that was not discussed in class. Topics were suggested and each group selected the topic they wanted to present. Posters were then displayed in the college for two weeks for evaluation by the instructor and ten other faculty members using a rating scale. Later, posters were displayed in the busiest shopping mall in the area with student names displayed. Peer evaluation was obtained and a final individual score was calculated by multiplying the team score obtained from mean faculty evaluation by the average individual peer evaluation score (L.D. Fink). (Final individual score = team score × peer evaluation score). Student perceptions of this assignment as compared to the previous written neurophysiology report were surveyed. Faculty involved in evaluation of the posters was interviewed. Students were very enthusiastic about this new assignment. They said it was the best learning activity they had experienced thus far in medical school. It allowed them to increase their IT, teamwork and peer evaluation skills. They also practiced some public education when explaining the content of these posters to shoppers at the mall. Relevance of this learning technique was clear to students as they anticipated that it would help them prepare for participation in international scientific meetings. Faculty was surprised with the level of design, content and visual attractiveness of those scientific posters. They also expressed their appreciation of the degree of enthusiasm and motivation this assignment brought up. It was concluded Poster Presentation is a simple technique that can be introduced to the undergraduate health profession or scientific curricula to obtain teamwork skills. Samples of the output of this project are shown in Figures 2 to 7.

Figure 2. Alzheimer’s disease

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Figure 3. Cerebellar cortex and motor learning

Figure 4. Hemispheric specialization

Figure 5. Limbic system and emotions

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Figure 6. Parkinson’s disease

Figure 7. Parkinsons’ disease Assessment

Three methods of teamwork assessments were experimented, and the one which gave the most reliable results was adopted. The results of the comparison were published by Mona Al-Sheikh, Family and Community Medicine Journal (2010, December). 114

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The method adopted is the L.D. Fink method, which used peer assessment as a multiplier factor. The product of the average peer assessment into the project score yields the individual score. These three methods of assessment of cooperative learning are discussed is shown below: Peer assessment was obtained by asking each member of the team to evaluate her peers based on their contribution to the project and their support for the rest of the team. Each student was given 100 scores and was asked to distribute them to her peers, provided that at least one score will be 15 and at least one score will be nine. This ensures variation and discrimination between the scores. The form used for this purpose is shown below:

Figure 8. Peer evaluation form

The overall project score was obtained by asking ten instructors to evaluate the posters using a checklist, and the average of those scores was the project score, which was the same for all the members of the team. The form is shown below:

Figure 9. Instructor evaluation form

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Multiplying the two scores yielded the individual score for each member in the team which was fair as perceived by students and faculty.

Figure 10. L. D. Fink method for teamwork assessment

Evidence shows that 99% of teams outperform their best individuals by 11%. It was also found that the weakest team in the class outperformed the strongest student. Requirements for the success of cooperative learning: • • • •

time interacting together; resources; a challenging task that becomes a common goal; frequent feedback on individual and group performance.

Studying the perceptions of students towards cooperative learning showed the following responses:

Figure 11. Perceptions of students of cooperative learning

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The percentages in the right hand column represent combined responses of strong agree and agree percentage in a 5-point Likert scale survey. This experience with cooperative learning in a traditional curriculum in the college of medicine in the University of Dammam was presented in the Vice-president of academic affairs meeting in King Khalid University in Abha, 2014. References Al-Sheikh, M. H. (2009, November). Paper presented at 7th GCC Medical Colleges Conference, Dammam, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Family and Community Medicine, 17(2010, January–April), 50–67. Cooper, J., & Robinson, P. (1997). Collaborative learning: Positive interdependence. Retrieved April, 2015, from http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/archive/cl1/CL/moreinfo/MI3D.htm Cuseo, J. (1992). Cooperative learning vs. Small-group discussions and group projects: The critical differences. Cooperative Learning and College Teaching, 2(3), 5–10. Daradoumis, T., Xhafa, F., & Marquès, J. M. (2003). Evaluating collaborative learning in a virtual groupware environment. In Proceedings of IASTED international conference on computers and advanced technology in education (CATE 2003) (pp. 438–443), Rhodes, Greece. Retrieved April, 2015, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/246108049_Evaluating_Collaborative_ Learning_Practices_in_a_Virtual_Groupware_Environment Ho, F. F., & Boo, H. K. (2007). Cooperative learning: Exploring its effectiveness in the physics classroom. Retrieved May, 2015, from https://www.ied.edu.hk/apfslt/v8_issue2/hoff/hoff3.htm Hornby, G. (2009). The effectiveness of cooperative learning with trainee teachers. Journal of Education for Teaching: International Research and Pedagogy, 35(2), 161. Retrieved May, 2015, from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ865664 Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2009). An educational psychology success story: Social interdependence theory and cooperative learning. Educational Researcher, 38(365). doi:10.3102/0013189X09339057 Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. A. (1991). Cooperative learning: Increasing college faculty instructional productivity. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 4. Washington, DC: The George Washington University. Retrieved March, 2015, from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ ED343465.pdf Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith K. A. (1998). Cooperative learning returns to college: What evidence is there that it works? Change, 27(35). Retrieved April, 2015, from http://cep.uprm.edu/ pdf_talleres/CooperativeLearning_1[1].pdf Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Stanne, M. E. (2000). Cooperative learning methods: A meta-analysis. Minneapolis, MN: Cooperative Learning Center, University of Minnesota. Retrieved October, 5, 2006, from http://www.cooperation.org/pages/cl-methods.html Magner, D. K. (1996). Fewer professors believe western culture should be the cornerstone of the college curriculum: A survey finds growing commitment to diversity and multiculturalism. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 43(3), A12–A15. Millis, B. J. (1996). Cooperative learning is here to stay. Retrieved March, 2015, from http://ucat.osu.edu/ OSU_users/essays/v12n8.htm Millis, B. J. (2000). Cooperative learning: May the circle be unbroken. Retrieved May, 2015, from http://podnetwork.org/content/uploads/V12-N8-Millis.pdf Peterson, S. E., & Miller, J. A. (2010, August 7). Comparing the quality of students’ experiences during cooperative learning and large-group instruction (Abstract). The Journal of Educational Research, 97(3), 123–124. Retrieved April, 2015, from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.3200/ JOER.97.3.123-134#.U1YafdwxFFI Piaget, J. (1963). The origins of intelligence in children. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

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M. H. Al-Sheikh Slavin, R. (1989–1990). Guest editorial: Here to stay – or gone tomorrow? Educational Leadership, 47(4), 3. Retrieved April, 2015, from http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_198912_ slavin.pdf Slavin, R. E. (1994). Using student team learning (3rd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Success for All Foundation. Elementary and Middle Schools. Johns Hopkins University. Smith, K. A. (2015, April). Cooperative learning: Making “groupwork” work. Retrieved from www.ce.umn.edu/~smith/docs/NDTLCL5.doc Springer, L., Stanne, M. E., & Donovan, S. S. (1999, Spring). Effects of small-group learning on undergraduates in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Research, 69(1), 21–51. Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). Thinking and speech. In R. W. Rieber & A. S. Carton (Eds.), The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky, Volume 1: Problems of general psychology (pp. 39–285). New York, NY: Plenum Press. (Original work published 1934)

Mona Hmoud Al-Sheikh University of Dammam Dammam, Saudi Arabia

Appendix A

Scoring Team-Based Projects: Comparison of Three Scoring Methods to Evaluate Students in Team Projects Paper presented by Mona Al-Sheikh, Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, King Faisal University-Dammam, Saudi Arabia (2009, November) Purpose of the Study: Finding a reliable feasible method to score individual performance in teamwork. Background: In team-based learning, assessment is a critical issue. If overall team scores are solely considered, students’ motivation to actively participate is affected and only one or two students perform the whole task. How to motivate every single student and fairly evaluate their performance is one of the major issues in teambased projects. Materials and Methods: Over three academic years (298 students), female third year medical students prepared a poster on a neurophysiology topic as the yearly assignment. Each team consisted of 8–13 students. Three ways for scoring the projects were used and evaluated. In the L.D. Fink method, each student has a team score and an individual score. Team score is obtained by adding the average of 10 instructors’ evaluation of the whole poster (50%) to the main instructor evaluation (50%). Individual score is obtained by taking the average of the peer assessment by each team member.

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Results: A modified L.D. Fink scoring method was found to be more reliable, produced reasonable score variation between members of each team, and had better correlations with cumulative GPA of individual students than the other two methods. Details of the scoring method are described. Conclusion: This modified L.D. Fink scoring method for teamwork is reliable and feasible. It can be used to score individual students involved in team projects.

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Abdulghani Ali Al-Hattami AND Arif Ahmet Mohamed Hassan Al-Ahdal

6. The Relationship between Statistical Analysis Abilities and the Production of Research Among Saudi Faculty

Introduction

It is a universal phenomenon for every one of us to make educated guesses concerning the future events in our lives in order to prepare and plan for new foreseeable and unforeseeable situations. Is it not ‘data’ that we analyze to do so? After all, our past experiences form the vital database that guides us to propound a theory even if it is for the most inconsequential things in life. This is where we exercise what is called Descriptive Statistics. However, there will invariably be instances when such a simplistic interpretation of data will not be of much use and we need to arrive at answers that are not obvious from the data: A case of Inferential Statistics being applied. Thus, statistics can be divided into two streams: Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics. Each of these has a significant role to play, especially in social science research. Whereas inferential statistics functions in a realm beyond simply reaching conclusions based upon the data before us, the latter simply describes what the data speaks. For instance, in a particular study, inferential statistics can tell us why people think what they do, descriptive statistics can specify how many people think what they do out of the total population under consideration. Inferential statistics is used to make judgments on the probability that an observed difference between groups is a dependable one, or one that might have happened by chance in the study. Thus, we use inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more general conditions; we use descriptive statistics simply to describe what’s going on in our data. In other words, descriptive statistics present quantitative data in a manageable form. It enables us to make sense out of a large amount of data, making it comprehensible and hence, usable. It reduces extensive data into a simple summary. Many faculty members may believe that statistics is a relatively newer field of study: This is a fallacy. The term ‘Statistics’ acquired its modern meaning well into the 1830s. In fact, earlier than that, statistics meant to influence debates over social issues. The forerunner of statistics was called “political arithmetic”, and these studies were mostly attempts to calculate population size and life expectancy in England and A. K. Hamdan (Ed.), Teaching and Learning in Saudi Arabia, 121–128. © 2015 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

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France. Those who conducted such numeric studies were called ‘statists’. Over time, the statists’ social research led to the new term for quantitative evidence: Statistics. Galton (1822–1911), a British polymath, evolutionary theorist, introduced the correlation coefficient, the scatter plot, and also regression analysis, the prime tool of modern social-science statistics. Karl Pearson (1857–1936), mathematician, biometrician and eugenicist, carried on Galton’s work, and later, Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), the founder of modern day Social Anthropology, placed statistics in the center, finding covariance between suicide and religion, in addition to other variables. Before Durkheim introduced the use of statistics into the social sciences, researchers relied on a more philosophical procedure, based on reasoning and facts of experience. In modern times, any social science research, whether in the area of language, sociology, history or political science, can be called worthy only when it applies statistical tools to arrive at conclusions. This is so because information about society can have the larger implication of helping governments devise policies. With growing population size and ever expanding urban horizons, the need for information that could guide social policy has become greater than ever before. Statistical numbers offer a kind of precision, an authoritative account of social issues and problems. This chapter looks into this subject in order to encourage more faculty members in higher education in Saudi Arabia to become more able to use statistical methods to analyze data, making Saudi Arabia a leader in research production in the Middle East. Faculty members from four universities in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia were surveyed during the academic years 2013/2014 to examine the relationship between their competency to statistically analyze data and their production of research. Results from this study may increase knowledge, growth and development in Saudi Arabia. Literature Review

The use of parametric statistics, especially analysis of variance (ANOVA) and linear regression, has played an essential role in social research in a number of disciplinary areas for decades (Fox, 2010). There has been a significant increase, however, in the use of such analytic techniques in other areas of social science as well. The need for these analytic methods often arises whenever the researcher is analyzing numeric data (whether collected through surveys, in experiments, in field studies, or records). Statistics is usually not studied for its own sake; it is a widely employed tool, and a highly valuable one, in the analysis of problems in natural, physical and social sciences. Further, that statistical methods are nothing but a refinement of everyday thinking (Gupta & Aggarwal, 2012). They are especially appropriate for handling data which are subject to variations that cannot fully be controlled by experimental methods. 122

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It was argued by Hudson (2005) that literature research and literary criticism, as currently practiced, confine themselves almost exclusively to textual analyses, scarcely ever mentioning or using numbers. Yet those disciplines that are near neighbors of literary studies are amongst the most vigorous and innovative users of quantitative methods and of computer aided research techniques. The scope for using social scientific, statistical and computer applications in literature research, as in so many branches of the Arts and Humanities, is great but its actual use appears to be negligible. Sociologyguide.com has this to say about the role of statistics in Sociological research: Sociology is one of the social sciences aiming to discover the basic structure of human society, to identify the main forces that hold groups together or weaken them and to learn the conditions that transform social life. Sociologists seek the help of statistical tools to study cultural change in the society, family pattern, prostitution, crime, marriage system etc. They also study statistically the relation between prostitution and poverty, crime and poverty, drunkenness and crime, illiteracy and crime etc. Thus statistics is of immense use in various sociological studies. In an enlightening account of qualitative methods of analysis, Swanborn (2010) went on to prove the indispensable nature of statistics. He said that almost all academic programs are data driven, and in this sense, inductive. Statements in advertising material, such as, ‘relating to text fragments leads you to the discovery of the texture of the data’ ‘visual theory building with the semantic network editor allows you to make relationships between emerging concepts visible’ describe the authors’ intentions. Some of these programs handle text data as well as graphical, geographical, audio and video data. In an eye opening comment, Swanborn said that several contemporaneous social science disciplines, such as sociology, show a rather one-sided emphasis on the extensive, large-scale strategy. One of the causes of this lack of balance is that an extensive approach easily allows for quantification. Multivariate analysis of data, and statistics, together with the advance of computers in data analysis, has facilitated an extremely rapid development in the field. At the same time, however, modern social science is confronted with many problems that cannot be solved by an exclusively extensive approach. In the last decades of the 20th century the combination of a survey (as a strategy ‘in width’) with an intensive counterpart (the ‘in depth’ strategy) gradually developed as the standard approach in applied research projects. As a tool of the positivist tradition, the statistical method is a way of identifying patterns and regularities in the observable world (Moses & Knutsen, 2007). Statistics involve the systematic collection of data with the aim of achieving knowledge by induction, which is, making inferences from observed regularities to general 123

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theories. According to Guthrie (2013), even the most basic social science data can be expressed numerically and tested statistically. A strength of quantitative research is that rules encourage care. The rules get very complicated, but every statistical test has procedures that others can replicate. This provides an intellectual discipline that encourages accuracy. In other words, statistical analysis can add to the reliability of our research. The relevance of statistical methods in social sciences engages with many issues that play a role in everyday life (Flick, 2011). The question whether everyday explanations and theories are correct or not is usually tested pragmatically. Flick discussed the characteristics of social research which are woven around various statistical steps: (1) Social research approaches issues in a systematic and above all, empirical way. (2) For this purpose you will develop research questions. (3) For answering these questions, you will collect data and analyze data. (4) The results are intended to be generalized beyond the examples that were studied. The fact that most research production from faculty members at most Arab colleges and universities are qualitative in nature indicate that there is a genuine lack of quantitative research studies that lead to the generalization of findings and its benefit to the Arab nation. This research paper was conducted to find an answer to this phenomenon in general, and answer to the following questions in particular: 1. What is the ability level of faculty members to statistically analyze research data? 2. Is there a significant relationship between faculty members’ ability to statistically analyze research data and their production of research papers? 3. Is there a significant relationship between faculty members’ ability to statistically analyze research data and their production of research papers (based on the major Science vs Humanities colleges)? 4. Do universities encourage faculty members to produce research papers? 5. What are the reasons preventing faculty members from writing research papers? Research Methods

This study was designed to investigate the status of research productivity and its relationship with the knowledge of analyzing data statistically in Saudi Arabia. Data was gathered from a sample of faculty members through an online questionnaire using Google Docs. The questionnaire was sent to a random sample of about 400 faculty members from four universities in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. Population

The population of this study incorporated a random of full-time professors, associate professors, and assistant professors who were actively involved in teaching and/or research during the academic years 2013/2014 at four universities in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. 124

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The Sample

The sample consisted of 158 faculty members (141 males and 17 females) at four universities in Saudi Arabia who have the academic ranks of professors, associate professors, and assistant professors and have spent the academic years of 2013/2014 teaching at the university level. The sample involved 12 professors, 28 associate professor, and 118 assistant professors; 52% of them were Science majors and 48% Humanities majors. Instrument

A Likert-type rating scale was used to score the responses. The scale expressed a wide range of attitudes from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). The instrument used was based on the review of literature. It consisted of four parts. The first part related to the demographic information seeking background data such as, gender, academic rank, and field of study. Part two required information about universities’ role in encouraging research production. Part three covered research activities of each faculty member, including their ability to use different statistical tools used to analyze quantitative data. The last part pertained to the participants’ reasons for not writing research papers. The validity of the questionnaire was checked by three experts; one psychometrician and two in the research methodology field. Results and Discussion

This research paper showed that more than 81% of participants agree that scientific research helps in solving many of the problems of society. This finding supports many studies in literature like Gupta and Aggarwal (2012) and Fox (2010). The answers to the main research questions are presented below in the order it appeared in the literature review of this paper. The analysis of the data showed that more than 70% of faculty members who participated in the study do not have an adequate ability to analyze research data statistically using statistical software such as SPSS, SAS, or others. Further, it was not surprising to find that there was a significant relationship between the ability of faculty members to statistically analyze data and their production of quantitative research papers, r = 0.69, p < .05. This seems obvious because many faculty members, about 63%, indicated that they did not have any training on how to analyze numerical data statistically. In addition, about 73% of them did not have information about how to select the appropriate statistical test for different research data analyses. The results also indicated that there was no significant difference between Science and Humanities majors. However, the results showed that the relationship is stronger for Science majors (r = 0.42, p < .05) in producing more quantitative research studies than the Humanities majors (r = 0.31, p < .05). 125

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When participants were asked about whether their universities encourage them to produce research papers, about 68% disagree that universities encourage them to write scientific research. This may be due to the fact that most universities do not have research centers that help faculty members produce research, as was reported by 82% of the participants. Furthermore, 77% of the participants indicated that universities do not provide training workshops about research methodology. In terms of funding research, 75% reported that universities do not fund faculty members to write research papers. The participants were asked to pinpoint the reasons that prevent them from writing research papers. The first reason that participants (about 37%) indicated is that they receive no funds to do so. The other reasons mentioned were shortage of time due to heavy workload, difficulty in collecting and analyzing data, some are not interested in writing research, and some need training on how to conduct research. Given the importance of scientific research, whatever obstacles faculty members face that render them from writing useful research in which the findings could be used to solve social and economic problems and therefore benefit the world should be taken seriously by the country. Governments should encourage and pave the way to help people to write research studies. Conclusion

Developed countries realized the importance of research and allocated a good amount of funds to produce scientific findings, which boost economic, social and educational prosperity. Therefore, it is now the role of universities to connect with societies and investigate the problems they face and their needs and provide solutions to them (Fox, 2010). The production of research will definitely lead to advanced inventions and better technology. The problem that drove the researchers to write this study was that many faculty members have a strong interest to write research papers but they face a lot of obstacles; most of which is their ability to analyze data statistically using statistical tools. Furthermore, their ability to interpret statistical results is limited. The relevance of statistical analyses in the social sciences was explained well by Flick (1998). Therefore, the lack of potential knowledge of statistics slows academics from getting involved in a number of research writings. The findings of this study showed that there is a significant positive relationship between faculty members’ ability to statistically analyze data and their production of research. Thorough and not just workable knowledge of statistical tools in social science research will enable the scholars to: 1. explore issues, fields and phenomena and provide first descriptions; 2. discover new relations between variables by collecting and analyzing data; 3. provide empirical data and analyses as a basis for developing theories;

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4. document the effects of interventions, treatments, programs, etc. in an empirically based way; 5. provide knowledge (i.e., data, analyses and results) as an empirically grounded basis for political, administrative and practical decision-making; 6. test existing theories and stocks of knowledge empirically. Recommendations

We hope that examination of the relationship between competency of university faculty members to statistically analyze data and their production of research will serve to encourage greater participation of faculty in data-driven research projects in their respective disciplines as well as in cooperation with faculty across different disciplines. Furthermore, we believe that universities play crucial roles in solving the problems related to research production faced by many faculty members. They ought to: • provide annual competitive funds to encourage interested faculty to have the chance to get involved in writing research papers; • provide continuous training workshops related to research methodology; specifically, how to write a literature review, collect and analyze data, interpret results, use statistical software, use endnote and other reference organizing tools, and anything that is intended to improve faculty members’ research papers; • establish research centers inside every university to help respond to faculty members’ concerns and needs; the center will also keep record of articles and subscribe in well-known journals for the different fields. The university is part of society and it has to cooperate with the industrial sector to move the industry ahead and drive the country to a prosperous future. The university and society both need each other and nothing will flourish, nothing will happen, if they do not work hand in hand. References Flick, U. (1998). The social construction of individual and public health: Contributions of social representations theory to a social science of health. Social Science Information, 37, 639–662. Flick, U. (2011). Introducing research methods. New Delhi, India: Sage. Fox, R. A. (2010). Review of “Statistics in language research: Analysis of variance” (by T. Rietveld & R. van Hout). Language, 86(3), 741–744. Galton, F. (1888). Co-relations and their measurement, chiefly from anthropometric data. Proc. Royal Society of London, 45, 135–145. Greenstone, M. (2010). The importance of research and development (R&D) for U.S. competitiveness and a clean energy future. Testimony before the U.S. senate joint economic committee, July 27, 2010. Gupta, G., & Aggarwal, H. (2012). Improving customer relationship management using data mining. International Journal of Machine Learning and Computing, 2(6), 874–877. Guthrie, G. (2013). Basic research methods. New Delhi, India: Sage.

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Abdulghani Ali Al-Hattami University of Dammam Dammam, Saudi Arabia Arif Ahmet Mohamed Hassan Al-Ahdal Hodeidah University Yemen and Qassim University Al Mithnab, Saudi Arabia

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Akram AbdulCalder

7. A Synthesized Model of Faculty Motivation in Saudi Arabia’s Higher Education Sector

Introduction

Decades of studies on faculty motivation have given researchers and practitioners a wealth of information to influence academic management practice in higher education. The diversity of faculty motivation research focuses on numerous topics ranging from alternative teaching methodology to implementation of distance learning or classroom technologies. It is not uncommon that motivation studies identify a variety of factors (Hsieh, 2007). Much of the research conducted on faculty motivation in Saudi Arabia during the past ten years has centered on the influence of technology. The Saudi government has taken great strides in developing the higher education industry and introducing technology into the learning environment (AbdulCalder & Anthony, 2014). Among the numerous factors that affect motivation of faculty in Saudi Arabia, the question arises as to what are the most common and what causes these factors to occur. This research analyzes the existing studies in order to synthesize a motivation model. The plethora of studies on the subject may hinder the ability to create an environment that is conducive to improving faculty motivation. Conflicting outcomes of research are a result of a variety of factors included in the equation. The organizational culture of higher education institutes has varying effects on faculty motivation (Feldman & Paulsen, 1999). Coupled with institutional culture, the local and religious traditions create an environment that can either be conducive or destructive to a college instructor’s desire to perform (AbdulCalder & Anthony, 2014). Various cultural nuances of Saudi Arabia’s conservative religious background and its traditions add a unique angle in the study of faculty motivation. The Saudi Arabian government’s investment in the development of the higher education industry has created a greater demand for effective faculty to create a learning environment that meets the goals of the country. While Saudi Arabia’s education investment has been ranked as 11th in the world, its knowledge creation index falls behind countries with lower investment (INSEAD, 2010). This discrepancy indicates a need for investigation into the factors that diminish the knowledge creation index (AbdulCalder & Anthony, 2014). Faculty motivation is an important contributor to the value-creation at higher education institutions (Hardré & Cox, 2009). A. K. Hamdan (Ed.), Teaching and Learning in Saudi Arabia, 129–143. © 2015 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

A. AbdulCalder

The factors that influence the motivation of faculty are important for researchers to identify through investigation and for practitioners to consider in the development of effective academic value (Feldman & Paulsen, 1999). In the past ten years, there has been an increase in research conducted on faculty motivation. However, few of these studies focus on the Saudi Arabian context. Various dynamics that are unique to Saudi Arabia, such as culture, religion and labor laws, can change the outcomes of similar studies conducted in the US or elsewhere. For example, universities in Saudi Arabia typically follow a similar model to US institutions in faculty rankings, instructor, lecturer, assistant professor, associate professor and full professor. Mitchell (1999) assessed that motivation among faculty differed based on academic rank, and this causes plausible differences in results from motivation research. Hardré and Cox (2009) noted that these faculty members of varying rank enter their positions with sufficient educational background and aim for tenure, which is equated with job security. However, due to labor regulations in Saudi Arabia, tenure is only given to Saudi faculty. Yet, all of the faculty members are equally expected to meet the same standards in relation to teaching, service and research. This chapter systematically analyzes relevant and current faculty motivation research in Saudi Arabia’s higher education and synthesizes the factors for researchers and practitioners, providing them with a model derived from the results of the meta-synthesis of relevant literature. The purpose of this study is to synthesize a motivation model based on existing research on faculty motivation in Saudi Arabia. Methodology

This study utilized a systematic review to identify relevant research (Thomas et al., 2004). Qualitative and quantitative research was synthesized through selection criteria utilized during the article search. Thomas et al. (2004) demonstrated a method to synthesize qualitative and quantitative data for use in systematic reviews. This type of analysis requires discussion on the search criteria and methodology, meta-analysis for quality assessment, and synthesis of the qualitative and quantitative data followed by a discussion of the results (Thomas et al., 2004). Studies were identified through extensive search on PsychInfo, ABI/INFORM, Emerald, Google Scholar, Proquest, Academic Search Complete, ERIC, and Educational Resource Complete. The first stage of investigation was conducted through prescreening with a combination of general keywords found in the titles and abstracts: “faculty,” “motivation,” “Saudi Arabia,” “higher education,” “instructors,” “adjunct,” “professors” and “teachers.” Variations of the terms, such as “motivational”, “aspiration”, “intent” and “desire” were utilized to expand the reach of the study. Expressions such as “faculty perception” were used for the initial search. In order to narrow the focus, filters were used to eliminate articles and studies that were not related to motivation research. The studies included were limited to a search between articles published between 1980 and 2014. The initial search was conducted on September 2, 2014 and later on November 14, 2014, and subsequently on January 1, 2015. 130

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The selected criteria resulted in 1,560 studies. The second stage of the selection process was a screening of the initial search to determine relevancy of the studies. A meta-analysis was conducted through abstracts based on two criteria: (1) “Studies focused on faculty motivation” (n=388), and (2) “Studies on faculty motivation in Saudi Arabia” (n=20), resulting in exclusion of 1,152 articles from the study. Subsequently, a full-text analysis was done on the articles. Information that was gathered from the studies included issues and subjects that either positively or negatively affect the motivation of faculty in their roles. The detailed full-text analysis excluded 408 studies from further review, resulting in 35 studies that were used for the final analysis based on the content of the research. The results were categorized based on frequency of occurrence of motivation factors. These factors were generally categorized into intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The research process is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Research process A Scholarly Discussion of Motivation in Higher Education

Motivation studies have constantly been under the research microscope because of ever-changing factors that influence individuals in their work and personal lives. Established theories of motivation, such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, are under constant review and analysis of researchers (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). Maslow (1969), himself, modified his hierarchy and added the subjective “transcendence” as the highest level of motivation. Unless constrained by specific parameters, the general 131

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theme of motivation enters limitless discussions. Much like the field of motivation, higher education is a sector that experiences numerous conflicting results due to the variable nature of the industry. As the industry develops, new factors create variable effects on faculty motivation (AbdulCalder & Anthony, 2014). Psychologists such as Maslow, Hertzberg and Harlow have laid the framework of motivation studies since the 1940s. During the early 1990s, seven theories dominated research (Ambrose & Kulik, 1999). These theories were: needs, expectancy, equity, goal-setting, workdesign, positive reinforcement and cognitive evaluation. Rowley (1996) argued for the use of motivation models derivative of Maslow’s hierarchy as a foundation for investigating faculty motivation. In her study, she assessed the need to establish a fundamental approach to identifying the factors that directly affect academic motivation. Rowley’s argument cited self-actualization and socio-economic rationalization as two principle models in faculty motivation studies. Practitioners in higher education adopted these various models of motivation in textbooks and lecture halls. However, when studying the application of these models in the field of higher education, researchers found that varying factors outside of the prevalent theories needed to be investigated (Naseer Ud-Din et al., 2011). Many researchers focused on the application of these theories on student motivation and learning. Haggis (2004) argued that faculty can implement conceptual research in motivation to develop efficient pedagogy in classrooms. Researchers have since replicated this approach by suggesting numerous changes to pedagogical models based on fluctuations in the factors that influence student motivation. Pintrich and Schunk (2001) noted that motivation research in the education sector may take different directions because of the influence of pedagogical research and the constant changes in the variables in both fields of study. While many professional development seminars focus on pedagogy, fewer discuss the academic implications of faculty motivation. Onsman (2010) argued that higher education institutes in Saudi Arabia have to overcome numerous barriers to implement higher standards. Faculty motivation research has not received the same level of interest as studies on motivation. Although this is a changing trend, technology is one of the major contributors to the rise in motivation studies conducted on faculty in the past two decades. It’s possible that this trend was a transition from studies conducted on student motivation for technology-based teaching methods. This change in dynamics can be observed in the numerous studies conducted on faculty motivation and distance learning. This research trend on the influence of technology and pedagogy has been the forefront of motivation studies on faculty in Saudi Arabia in recent years. Technological advances have given academic institutes the opportunity to extend programs beyond classroom settings into the vastness of the Internet. Instructors are forced to learn how to use these technologies to enhance the learning environment. Students are becoming more interested in technology and require educators to be more technologically savy in order to relate to the material and the teachers (Black, 2010). The technocratic generations must continually learn technology as the advancements affect all facets of their lives. This force poses a challenge for faculty 132

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that is not capable of meeting these demands (AbdulCalder & Anthony, 2014). Mitchell (1999) noted that there was a correlation between intrinsic motivation and distance education. There is substantial evidence from these studies that indicate an innate desire to progress education through technology. Oldham (2005) opined that leadership fosters a substantive influence on faculty motivation. Oldham’s discussion indicated that motivation management in higher education requires intensive study based on theoretical models. Rowley (1996) arrived at a similar conclusion, stressing that fundamental models can direct practitioners to developing workable solutions within their organizations. Artman (2003) explained that understanding these factors gives academic programs the tools required to overcome the difficulties of faculty motivation, specifically in relation to the introduction on distance learning programs. While Artman’s study focused on online business programs, the results of his study can be extrapolated through various programs in different regions. Artman is not alone in his conclusions. Estes et al. (2011) stressed that the higher education landscape faces similar, yet overlapping, challenges. The current model applied by higher education institutions is based on performance review models. Performance evaluations became popular through the implementation of new standards by external education boards such as the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business (Ehie & Karathanos, 1994). Hewson, Copeland and Fishleder (2001) argued that the performance evaluation model is less effective than the self-assessment model, which has a greater influence on intrinsic motivation. Zoller (1992) noted that the performance evaluation model can yield different results when applied in different cultural settings. Numerous barriers and negative influences to motivation have been discussed in psychological research in higher education. Steers and Sanchez-Runde (2002) noted the differences in cross cultural motivation studies. In the case of a country with a widely diverse multi-cultural workforce, there are numerous factors that must be considered when analyzing motivation. Organizational culture also plays a role in defining the factors that influence motivation (Wiener & Vardi, 1990). Organizational constructs that are based on a general ethnically based culture, like that of Saudi Arabia, create unique barriers in a multi-cultural workforce (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). This is due to the difficulty of creating values that are influenced by the local culture and not shared in the diverse faculty environment. Integrating culture and religion in organizational culture contributes to the difficulty in managing motivation of faculty. Salili and Hoosain (2007) found that the findings of a number of motivational research studies could not be applied generally across cultures. This notion is corroborated by other studies such as AbdulCalder and Anthony’s (2014) which opined that extrapolation of findings can be hindered by cultural differences. Likewise, Milne (2007) argued that leadership is challenged by developing an organizational culture that is conducive to motivation in a knowledge-sharing environment. Chen et al. (2005) argued that certain higher education research, such as that in language acquisition, are still researched in terms of Western cultural models. Research often considers Western-based models, such as Hertzberg’s 133

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expectancy theory, when studying foreign cultures. This study critically reviews current literature based on a meta-analysis and synthesizes the results of the relevant literature into a motivation model pertaining to the situation of faculty motivation in Saudi Arabia’s higher education industry. Faculty Perspectives on Motivation in Saudi Arabia

Faculty in Saudi Arabia’s higher education industry precipitated different variables that affected their motivation in their roles. Many of the variables discussed in the studies are comparable to the factors derived from similar studies outside of Saudi Arabia. However, there were many discrepancies between the intensities of the de-motivators. Eight categories were derived based on the systematic review of relevant studies on faculty motivation in Saudi Arabia’s higher education sector: 1) monetary incentives and wealth; 2) leadership and management; 3) recognition; 4) technology; 5) students; 6) local culture and language; 7) physical environment; and 8) nepotism. These factors were classified based on the results and the responses in the studies that were included in this research (n=35). The categorization was based on the responses, conclusions and analyses for the researchers. Overlapping results were included in the categorization. Similar results were categorized based on the generality of the factors. For instance, ranking and promotion was categorized with recognition rather than with monetary incentive. The results of the systematic review are displayed in Table 1. Table 1. Results of systematic review n Total

%

35

Monetary incentives/wealth

8

22.85

Leadership and management

25

71.42

Recognition

10

28.57

Technology

30

85.71

Students

3

8.57

Local culture and language

5

14.28

Physical environment

1

2.85

Nepotism

4

11.42

Leadership and technology were the two factors analyzed with the highest frequency in motivation studies based on Saudi Arabia’s higher education (n=25 and n=30 respectively). Recognition (n=10) and monetary incentives (n=8) were significant factors in affecting the motivation of faculty. Local culture and 134

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language (n=5), nepotism (n=4), student motivation (n=3), and physical environment (n=1) comprised of the remainder of the factors resulting from this study. Few of the respondents in the relevant studies considered monetary rewards as a major factor in de-motivation. Overall, faculty felt that their salaries were sufficient for their standard of living. Minor discrepancies were found between various studies. Some faculty felt that their colleagues were being paid due to factors outside of qualifications and experience. AbdulCalder and Anthony (2014) found that some faculty reported this discrepancy more prevalent in Preparatory Year Programs between “native” and “non-native” speakers. However, this discrepancy was brought up by native-speaker participants, but not their non-native speaker colleagues. Faculty in other programs felt that lack of tenure for foreigners created less job security (AbdulCalder & Anthony, 2014). One might expect that salary raises would have a positive impact on faculty motivation; however, their study found that faculty considered weighted tenure against salary. In other cases, faculty motivation was not affected with classroom instruction. According to their study, some faculty felt that their service commitment and research motivation was affected due to external factors, such as leadership, culture and nepotism. Bozeman and Gaughan (2011) argued that this is because some educators feel that teaching is a higher calling rather than a monetary obligation. They are drawn to education because it gives them personal satisfaction. Maslow (1943) viewed this calling as “self-actualization.” AbdulCalder and Anthony (2014) argued that intrinsic motivation is a major driving force for faculty in class instruction. They demonstrated that faculty continued to set strong efforts in teaching regardless of their contentions with outside factors that de-motivated them. Sharma (2013) argued that foreign faculty in Saudi Arabia find the higher education industry in the country to be a lucrative endeavor. Sharma (2013) concluded that expatriate professors view this opportunity as a positive influence on their motivation. However, his study did not consider factors that lead to de-motivation, as found in other studies, such as Alhazmi (2013), Alamri (2011), and AbdulCalder and Anthony (2014). Sharma (2013) found that Muslim teachers were motivated by the religiosity of Saudi Arabia. Others, regardless of religious affiliation, found that a tax-free income and a low cost of living significantly affected their motivation. Poor leadership and management were cited as a major factor in the de-motivation of faculty in Saudi Arabia (AbdulCalder & Anthony, 2014; Alhazmi, 2013; Alamri, 2011). Participants in the study conducted by AbdulCalder and Anthony (2014) noted the lack of communication from administration, poor management skills and ineffective goal-setting as the key culprits for de-motivation. Alhazmi (2013) corroborated this notion citing that management followed outdated leadership styles. The collective result indicated that leadership in various academic programs in Saudi Arabia’s higher education system does not connect with faculty. A possible cause suggested by AbdulCalder and Anthony (2014) was the linguistic and cultural barrier found predominately between expatriate faculty and Saudi management. However, 135

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they noted that Saudi faculty had similar contentions with leadership that led to demotivation. Alhazimi (2013) found that leadership’s ignorance of issues that arise is a key contributor to this paradigm. Crumpacker (2001) opined that the rapid changes that occur in technology develop a constant need for support and training to motivate faculty to effectively utilize these technological changes in their jobs. Just over a quarter of the research determined that lack of recognition for scholarly work and educational achievements are a major determinant of faculty motivation (n=10). Alhazmi (2013) noted that the faculty associated lack of recognition as strictly a leadership problem. Several respondents in AbdulCalder and Anthony’s (2014) study felt that their efforts in applying novel pedagogy in the classroom are futile because of the lack of recognition. However, some respondents (n=15) noted that their programs recognized their achievements through awards, ceremonies and prizes that included expensive cell phones, iPads, or laptops. These faculty members affirmed that these programs were adequate in recognizing their achievements. While the influence of technology dominated the objective of many of the studies, the respondents in studies that were not limited to e-learning concluded that the demotivation occurred due to the implementation (Alhazmi, 2013; AbdulCalder & Anthony, 2014; Alghanmi, 2014; Albalawi, 2007). Support and maintenance are two major factors to successful implementation of technology in higher learning (Taylor & Holley, 2009). Without the ability to support students and teachers with the technology available, the leadership would not experience sustainability. Alebaikan (2010) corroborated this sentiment in her observation of faculty perception towards blended learning in Saudi Arabian universities. Alhawiti (2011) noted that 76% of faculty who participated in the study felt that administrative support was a barrier to their motivation to partake in blended learning courses. Leadership must be able to manage the evolution of technology and support these changes after implementation (Claus, 2002). Albalawi (2007) found that when faculty was provided adequate training, they were more willing to participate in the use and development of blended learning instruction. Al Saif (2005) found that faculty, especially female faculty, was interested in utilizing technology in their classrooms. He also determined several barriers to the implementation, including poor Internet connections, lack of leadership support and poor training. The common theme found in the included studies implicates the lack of training and support from leadership for faculty. It should also be noted that the studies found that tech-savy faculty fare better than their colleagues. Alenezi (2012) argued that faculty below the age of 44 felt more capable with technological advancement in the classroom than older faculty. This discrepancy of self-sufficiency between older and younger faculty requires leadership to provide adequate training. AbdulCalder and Anthony (2014) found that faculty felt untrained in new classroom technologies, such as the Smartboard system. The respondents felt that students were more indulgent in technology than traditional learning methods. Wong, Connelly, and Hartel (2010) suggested that the new generation of students are more visually oriented and relate stronger to technology than to traditional learning. In order to appropriate the 136

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benefits of technology, the institute must apply effective leadership to facilitate the changes in the programs (Wong et al., 2010). The use of technology for sustainability is a key element in the higher education field where changes in technology are imminent (Buchanan et al., 2005). AbdulCalder and Anthony (2014) stated that the leadership must take on new methods of application in order to succeed. The program, or institute, can achieve success by creating a positive response from consumers – meaning the students. By analyzing and combining these two ideas of Benner and Buchannan, a leader can create sustainability within a higher learning organization through the implementation of technology. Technology adaptation is a fundamental concept in pedagogical change in higher learning institutes. Equipping and training faculty is a requirement to the overall success of the program. There are an increasing number of research papers and doctoral studies on Saudi universities’ adaptation of technology and faculty motivation. These studies have identified problems in this sector that hinder development and efficiency of these programs. Strategic adaptation is an important factor of effective leadership (Riki, Shay, & Jaitol, 2008). Understanding the needs of students is an attribute of an effective leader (Riki, Shay, & Jaitol, 2008). Higher learning institutes stand more to gain from effective application of technology changes. Jaradat (2013) noted that technology is a viable solution for faculty to foster motivation among Gulf students in the classroom. He found that there was a significant correlation between student motivation and technology implementation by faculty. Only a handful of studies (n=3) determined that the students are a factor in de-motivating faculty. AbdulCalder and Anthony (2014) noted that less than five respondents stated that their students made them less motivated to teach. These respondents asserted that the lack of desire to learn made them feel that their efforts in the classroom were futile. However, other respondents who were intrinsically motivated felt that this barrier was merely a challenge for them to overcome in their capacities as educators. Student motivation has been a subject of research and discussion for decades. Many faculty members in AbdulCalder and Anthony’s (2014) study noted that they were mentally prepared for the poor motivation of Saudi students. Few responded that the challenge made them feel more motivated to educate as a means of self-achievement. This notion corresponds with Maslow’s (1943) self-actualization concept. English as a second language (ESL) teachers noted that the ban of the use of Arabic (L1) in the classroom fueled the barrier because they were not able to reconcile the need of elementary level students and the policies of management. Al-Nofaie (2010) noted that allowing limited usage of Arabic in the classroom boosted the motivation of faculty. Sharma (2013) asserted that Muslim faculty felt that the culture of Saudi Arabia was a positive reinforcement to their motivation. The respondents felt that they could relate to the culture because of its ties to Islam and the ease of practicing their religion during work. Respondents in AbdulCalder and Anthony’s (2014) study asserted that the ability to step away from work to pray, and the reduced working 137

A. AbdulCalder

hours during Ramadan, the month of fasting, reinforced their desire to continue teaching in the country. Most of the Muslim faculty in both studies felt that they could connect with the students through the commonality of their religion. In AbdulCalder and Anthony’s (2014) study, one respondent noted that even though cheating is a common problem among Saudi students, referencing the prohibition of cheating in Islam makes it easier to control. However, this assertion has not been substantiated by research. Only a single study noted that the faculty respondents were affected by the climate of Saudi Arabia. A few respondents found the heat, dryness and harsh environment to negatively affect their motivation. When interviewed, participants in AbdulCalder and Anthony’s (2014) study noted that they are rarely affected by the climate because they spend little time outside of their facilities. One respondent in their study complained about the cool temperature in the classrooms and offices and noted that he would wear a jacket to keep warm. A number of the participants remarked that facilities were modern but poorly maintained, which affected how they viewed their leadership. Nepotism is a common factor in management and motivation studies in Saudi Arabia (Abdalla & Maghrabi, 1998). While this factor has been cited as a major factor in the de-motivation of faculty, a number of respondents in AbdulCalder and Anthony’s (2014) study viewed nepotism to be a “fact of life” in Saudi Arabia. Due to this, they felt that it did not have a greater impact on their motivation than the other factors that were investigated in their study. Al-Faisal and Abdella (1993) noted the reluctance to speak about nepotism due to fear of reprisals. This notion was colluded in the study of Tlaiss and Kauser (2011). Zein (2006) found that the nepotism based on tribal connections has a profoundly negative impact on administrative functions in the country. This type of nepotism is inevitable in Saudi Arabia due to its tribal history and background. Higher education institutions face this motivational challenge with local and expatriate faculty at any rank (AbdulCalder & Anthony, 2014). The difficulty faced by researchers is the discomfort of respondents in speaking about nepotism in their programs. The difficulty of studying nepotism in a tribal society is taken into consideration. A few respondents in AbdulCalder and Anthony’s (2014) study indicated discomfort in speaking about nepotism and mentioning specific situations. However, the participants did not refrain from expressing concern regarding students using nepotism to boost their grades. The participants emphasized the lack of leadership’s involvement in preventing nepotism in the classroom or protecting the faculty from being a victim. Some faculty felt that the language barrier between administration and foreign faculty created a challenge when attempting to resolve such situations, leading to an “us versus them” attitude. Cunningham and Sarayah (1993) noted that this form of nepotism is a common occurrence in the Middle East. Mohamed and Hamdy (2008) discussed the usage of nepotism as a means of securing one’s goals. In their study, they concluded that this form of nepotism holds a strongly negative 138

A Synthesized Model of Faculty Motivation in Saudi Arabia

attribution in Middle Eastern society. Although this is the apparent case, it’s found to be more prevalent when conducted in secret and away from the public eye (Kilani & Sakijha, 2002). There is strong evidence that nepotism does play a significant role in advancement in the Middle East (Tlaiss & Kauser, 2011). Understanding how these factors can impact academic programs is imperative to working towards a successful management plan. The results of this systematic analysis indicate that leadership and technology play the most significant role in the motivation of faculty in Saudi Arabia’s higher education sector. Respondents in the studies reviewed indicated that leadership could provide better support, training and recognition. In essence, leadership may be able to facilitate a motivation management plan that encompasses these factors in order to address faculty concerns. An appropriate model map of these factors is presented in Figure 2. Siddique et al. (2011) concluded that leadership has a significant effect on faculty motivation. This notion is corroborated by numerous other studies, specifically those that focused on Saudi Arabia’s higher education sector.

Figure 2. Motivation factor model Recommendations

The study of faculty motivation in Saudi Arabia is still in its infancy. The everchanging education environment in the county, and around the world, will force educators and academic administrators to engage faculty to improve the quality of research, teaching and commitment. In order to sustain a high quality academic environment, academic leaders need to fully understand how to manipulate the variables in the motivation equation for faculty. Researchers are currently identifying numerous factors that diminish faculty motivation. The next stage requires 139

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researchers, practitioners and leaders to establish cost-effective solutions that can foster positive motivation. As new pedagogical innovations, such as gamification, enter academia, faculty will require support and encouragement from leadership. The standardization of e-learning in global higher education has constantly improved during the past decade. As the technology brings innovation to higher education, faculty cannot be left behind due to lack of training or support from their leaders. It is imperative that academic leadership in Saudi Arabia fosters this change through understanding and satisfying their faculty needs. It is recommended that universities attempt to understand the factors that affect their faculty through job satisfaction surveys and internal audits (Al-Rubaish et al., 2011). However, it should be noted that these surveys and investigations should be customized to meet the academic goals of these institutions and base policymaking on the results to increase efficiency of faculty through leadership support. The investigation should consider the factors based on intrinsic and extrinsic values in order to quantify and study how the institution can counter the negative effects and improve positive reinforcement (Vallerand, 1997). Future studies should focus on the application of theoretical innovation in motivation studies on Saudi Arabia’s higher education sector. As researchers like Pink (2009) have started shifting the focus of motivation studies to the application of intrinsic variables, it prompts a need to project these directions on Saudi Arabia. As opposed to building on existing theories, it is viable to study the understanding of motivation in light of Islamic research and how academic leadership can implement the results in their programs. Research of the influence of Islamic principles in the motivational studies is accelerating. Ali (2009) concluded that Islamic principles can be used to study the relationship between desire to complete an action and intrinsic motivation. He also suggested that a framework, much like that of Maslow’s hierarchy, can be built to study how to improve management techniques in work settings. Khan and Sheikh (2012) observed how Islamic principles can be used to build a broad philosophical framework for human resource managers to improve their employee motivation. Likewise, this notion can be extrapolated in higher education to study how faculty can be motivated by use of Islamic principles. In a country where religion is often at the forefront of discussion, theological research may contribute positively to the understanding of motivation and management development. Conclusion

Studies on motivation are ever changing and take on many different directions due to the dynamic nature of the variables involved in determining motivation. This research adds to the existing research through a synthesized model of faculty motivation in Saudi Arabia. Throughout the three decades, research on Saudi Arabia’s higher education sector identified two key factors that have the most significant impact on faculty motivation. Leadership and technological changes amounted to the highest 140

A Synthesized Model of Faculty Motivation in Saudi Arabia

discussed factor among participants in various studies on faculty in Saudi Arabia. As the dynamics of the industry changes, it is inevitable that the motivation levels will be affected. Practitioners and academic leaders should be observant and monitor the effects of their strategies in order to maintain a higher level of faculty motivation. By properly understanding the factors that positively and negatively affect motivation, academic leaders can strategize action plans that can encourage faculty to improve and perform with greater ease thereby raising the academic quality and rank of the institution. The model proposed in this study connects eight factors to the extrinsic motivators of faculty. It explains how the leadership variable can influence the effects of the other factors. These indicators create a provisionary model to develop a framework to counter negative influences found within the variables. Researchers can further the study by conducting research into how Islamic principles can relate to the contextual nature of this model. References Abdalla, H. F., Maghrabi, A. S., & Raggad, B. G. (1998). Assessing the perceptions of human resource managers toward nepotism: A cross-cultural study. International Journal of Manpower, 19(8), 554–570. AbdulCalder, A., & Anthony, P. (2014). Motivational issues of faculty in Saudi Arabia. Higher Learning Research Communications, 4(4), 76–84. Alamri, M. (2011). Higher education in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice, 11(4), 88–91. Albalawi, M. S. (2007). Critical factors related to the implementation of web-based instruction by higher-education faculty at three universities in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Doctoral Dissertation). Pensacola, FL: University of West Florida. Alebaikan, R. A. (2010). Perceptions of blended learning in Saudi universities (Doctoral Dissertation). England: University of Exeter. Alenezi, A. M. (2012). Faculty members’ perception of e-learning in higher education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) (Doctoral Dissertation). Texas, TX: Texas Tech University. Al-Faisal, A., & Abdella, M. (1993). A methodological analysis of Wasta: A study in Saudi Arabia. Journal of King Saud University Arts, 5(1), 243–268. Alghanmi, S. (2014). Investigating the interpersonal and contextual factors governing Saudi lecturers’ motivation in creating an innovative blended learning environment that is Web 2.0 based. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 13(3), 96. Alhawiti, M. M. (2011). Faculty perceptions about attributes and barriers impacting the diffusion of online education in two Saudi universities. (Doctoral Dissertation). Indiana, IN: Indiana State University. Alhazmi, F. (2013). The leadership style in an academic department at a Saudi university and its effect on motivation: A qualitative perspective. Edulearn13 proceedings, 2627–2638. Ali, A. J. (2009). Levels of existence and motivation in Islam. Journal of Management History, 15(1), 50–65. Al-Nofaie, H. (2010). The attitudes of teachers and students towards using Arabic in EFL classrooms in Saudi public schools – A case study. Novitas-Royal, 4(1). Al-Rubaish, A. M., Rahim, S. I. A., Abumadini, M. S., & Wosornu, L. (2011). Academic job satisfaction questionnaire: Construction and validation in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Family and Community Medicine, 18(1), 1. Al Saif, A. (2005). The motivating and inhibiting factors affecting the use of web-based instruction at the University of Qassim in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral Dissertation). Detroit, MI: ETD Collection for Wayne State University.

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A Synthesized Model of Faculty Motivation in Saudi Arabia Mitchell, M. R. (1999). Effects of faculty motivation in distributive education environments at institutions of higher education. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved November 10, 2014, from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED436155.pdf Mohamed, A. A., & Hamdy, H. (2008). The stigma of Wasta: The effect of Wasta on perceived competence and morality (No. 5). Cairo, Egypt: Egypt The German University. Naseer Ud-Din, M., Akhtar, S. H., Murtaza, A., & Khaleeq, A. R. (2011). Effectiveness of the use of motivational techniques on the educational achievement of the teachers at higher education institutions in Pakistan. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 2(10), 430–438. Oldham, B. E. (2005). Organizational behavior and faculty motivation in higher education (Doctoral Dissertation). Nashville, TN: Peabody College of Vanderbilt University. Onsman, A. (2010). Dismantling the perceived barriers to the implementation of national higher education accreditation guidelines in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 32(5), 511–519. Pink, D. (2009). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. New York, NY: Riverhead Books. Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk, D. H. (2001). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill Prentice-Hall. Riki, T., Shay, J., & Jiatol, L. (2008). When does decision making increase expatriate managers’ adjustment: An empirical test. Academy of Management Journal, 51(1), 45–60. Rowley, J. (1996). Motivation and academic staff in higher education. Quality Assurance in Education, 4(3), 11–16. Salili, F., & Hoosain, R. (Eds.). (2007). Culture, motivation, and learning: A multicultural perspective. Charlotte, NC: IAP. Sharma, R. B. (2013). Motivational factors for expatriate teachers in Saudi Arabia: An empirical presentation. Journal of American Science, 9(12). Siddique, A., Aslam, H. D., Khan, M., & Fatima, U. (2011). Impact of academic leadership on faculty’s motivation, and organizational effectiveness in higher education system. International Journal of Academic Research, 3(3), 730–737. Steers, R. M., & Sanchez-Runde, C. J. (2002). Culture, motivation, and work behavior. The Blackwell Handbook of Cross-cultural Management (pp. 190–216). Oxford, England: Blackwell Ltd. Taylor, B., & Holley, K. (2009). Providing academic and support services to students enrolled in online degree programs. College Student Affairs Journal, 28(1), 81–102. Thomas, J., Harden, A., Oakley, A., Oliver, S., Sutcliffe, K., Rees, R., & Kavanagh, J. (2004). Integrating qualitative research with trials in systematic reviews. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 328(7446), 1010–1012. Tlaiss, H., & Kauser, S. (2011). The importance of Wasta in the career success of Middle-Eastern managers. Journal of European Industrial Training, 35(5), 467–486. doi:10.1108/03090591111138026 Vallerand R. J. (1997). Toward a hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 29, 271–360. Wiener, Y., & Vardi, Y. (1990). Relationships between organizational culture and individual motivation and conceptual integration. Psychological Reports, 67(1), 295–306. Wong, S., Connelly, R., Hartel, R. (2010). Enhancing student learning in food engineering using computational fluid dynamics simulations. Journal of Food Science Education, 9(4), 90–97. Zein, A. S. (2006). The effect of tribalism on the bureaucracy in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral Dissertation). Beirut, LB: American University of Beirut. Zoller, U. (1992). Faculty teaching performance evaluation in higher science education: Issues and implications (A “cross-cultural” case study). Science Education, 76(6), 673–684.

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8. Curriculum Design Quality Assurance of Distance Education in Saudi Electronic University A Case Study

Background to the Study

Over the last decade, considerable progress has been made in the development of distance education across the world. Historically, distance learning began in the 19th century, when Sir Isaac Pittman, a professor from England, began teaching shorthand by correspondence, where he would send the contents and exercises to students via the new Penny Post system and the students would in turn submit the assignments by mail as well, which the professor would then grade and return (Moore & Kearsley, 2005). Evidently, the popularity of distance learning boomed with the wide availability of computers and access to the Internet (Radford, 2011). The first fully online degree programs that students could enrol in were introduced in the late 1990s (Radford, 2011). By 2008, students in online programs accounted for 4% of the total higher education population worldwide (Radford, 2011). While this shows that students in virtual higher education courses are still a small minority compared to those enrolled in traditional classes, there is a clear trend of growth in this mode of higher education (Radford, 2011). Despite the numerous advantages of distance education, several disadvantages are faced by universities including the quality of distance education programs, which has been questioned by a number of research articles (Galusha, 2011; Stephens, 2007). For some students, the lack of a formal classroom setting may hamper their concentration and motivation to study (Galusha, 2011). Studying at home exposes the student to various domestic distractions (Galusha, 2011). Furthermore, the success of distance learning programs is highly dependent on the reliability of the technology used in order to access the course. Poor Internet services or computer specifications may negatively impact the experiences of the student (Galusha, 2011). Another issue is the competence of the student and teachers in the use of advanced technology so as to be able to maximize teaching and learning experiences on distance and online platforms (Stephens, 2007). Stephens (2007) also criticized the validity of some assessment methods and instruments that are used in distance learning programs, considering that these methods have a higher risk of cheating by students than traditional assessments. A. K. Hamdan (Ed.), Teaching and Learning in Saudi Arabia, 145–174. © 2015 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

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According to Daniel (2012), distance education has been burdened with an image problem; it has been regarded as poor quality and substandard (Davies, Howell, & Petrie, 2010; McIsaac & Gunawardena, 2001). Most critiques of this new technological innovation have focused on the degradation of the effectiveness and quality inherent in such a form of education (Ginns & Ellis, 2007). When it comes to implementation of distance education, a number of challenges exist to the successful implementation of distance education programs: faculty resistance (Meyer, 2002), students’ lack of access to necessary support services (Brooks, 2003), problems with technology (Frankola, 2001), poorly designed courses (Frankola, 2001); and objectives (Barker, 2003). An important component of this concern is quality assurance – specifically, quality assurance in curriculum design for ensuring the achievement of learning outcomes. Quality Assurance (QA) is a collection of protocols used by an organization in order to ensure that benchmarked standards are met by their output and errors in their operations are minimized (Feldman, 2005). Initially a concept in manufacturing, quality assurance has since been applied to other industries, including education. In higher education, quality assurance seeks to ensure that an institution is able to successfully impart relevant knowledge to its students that can enable those students to become productive, employable graduates. Given this, quality assurance is certainly an important element of any higher education institution because it ensures that different aspects of the institution and its operations are geared towards the optimal achievement of the institution’s goals. Hence, we are living in an era where technology is playing a vital role in every facet of our lives, and we are becoming dependent on increasingly complex devices. As technology and social media use by students becomes more prevalent, educators are seeking ways to use such tools to remain relevant and appropriate to their audience. New technologies are influencing students’ learning skills, especially reading and writing (Barrel, 1999). In this chapter, the focus is on the use of Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC), which can be a valuable tool when the type of CMC is matched to both the type of interaction and the level of complexity. Santoro (1995) provided a definition of CMC as being, “the use of computer systems and networks for the transfer, storage and retrieval of information between humans”. In this definition, the computer/network system is primarily a mediator rather than a processor of the information. CMC is divided into two categories, being either synchronous or asynchronous. Synchronous Online conversations are those that take place in “real-time”. Two or more participants are online at the same time and communicate in the same virtual discussion space. e.g., chat, MOOs, e-whiteboards. Asynchronous time delayed interactions are those where participants can reflect on their own and others’ thoughts before contributing. e.g., email and Bulletin Boards. The utilization of such communication technologies can bring a lot of advantages to both teacher and learner. It has the advantage of convenience: students and teachers 146

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can reach each other at any time and from any place. CMC promotes self-discipline and requires students to take charge of their own learning. It also seems to increase collaboration, increase teachers’ roles as facilitators, increase authentic learning or situated cognition, and increase active, creative participation (Reed, 2000). CMC also seems to promote a more equal distribution of teacher attention per student and to focus both teacher and student attention on the content and structure of responses. It also seems that CMC “gives instructors an additional means to keep in touch with their students and to demonstrate that they not only care about the students but are willing to communicate with them” (Lane, 1994). There are, as well, several disadvantages of communicating messages which are mediated by computer, among them: the lack of socio-emotional and nonverbal cues (often referred to as “cues filtered out”), confidentiality issues, trust issues (how true and valid are the messages), and creation of barriers due to the technology (the culture, rules, “netiquette” of, for example, emoticons). Anonymity can cause abuse/ misuse of the technology (sexual harassment/flaming/etc.), and result in a lack of true human contact (Dupre, cited in Lane, 1994). With the purpose of utilizing CMC for collaborative activities and by using CMC as a tool to create student projects, research information and provide context, teachers can employ CMC to help students become more involved in the task at hand, thereby facilitating effective communication within a group setting. The perceived value of collaborative learning stems from the view that knowledge is a social construct. Collaborative learning is most often based on four principles (Cornell University, 2014): • • • •

The learner or student is the primary focus of instruction. Interaction and “doing” are of primary importance. Working in groups is an important mode of learning. Structured approaches to developing solutions to real-world problems should be incorporated into learning.

Research shows that educational experiences that are active, social, contextual, engaging and student-owned lead to deeper learning. The benefits of collaborative learning include: • development of higher-level thinking, oral communication, self-management and leadership skills; • promotion of student-faculty interaction; • increase in student retention, self-esteem, and responsibility; • exposure to and an increase in understanding of diverse perspectives; • preparation for real life social and employment situations. As a first step, instructors need to determine what type of interactivity they want or need, and what type of CMC is best suited to the task. A chat room is indicated when the instructor wants: spontaneous responses, brainstorming, social interactions, roleplay and knowledge or comprehension-level Q&A. Bulletin boards are indicated 147

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when the instructor wants: longer responses, problem-solving or critical thinking and analysis, synthesis, or evaluation level of interaction. As a second step, the instructor needs to provide structure and training for the students. It is best to assume nothing, and take a class period to demonstrate to students how to use the tools. It is also important to clearly state up front: what the instructor plans to use, i.e., the tools for (activities), how or whether the students will be graded upon their use of these tools and when students can expect feedback or a response (Reed, 2000). Communicative CALL emerged in the late 1970s/early 1980s, and it echoed the movement from grammatical competence towards expanding communicative competence, including sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence (Hymes, 1971; Canale & Swain, 1980 cited in Al Ghafli, 2011). Experts at that time proposed that a language could be learned through contextualized, appropriate and meaningful communication (Brumfit & Johnson, 1979; Savignon, 1983). Computer-mediated courses such as CALL provide opportunities for learning in a cooperative environment, enabling learners to communicate in pairs and in groups, synchronously and asynchronously (Abu Seileek, 2009). Although CALL has been discussed widely in the English as Foreign Language (EFL) literature in recent years (Huo & Liu, 2007), it remains a relatively novel concept in Saudi Arabia, where learning English as a foreign language is limited in practice and confined to the classroom. An interest in integrating new technology in the Saudi education system has stirred a desire to move from traditional teacher-centered methods to participatory classrooms. Sendi (2013) suggested that the introduction of CALL into English language learning (with the support of appropriate training to ensure that teachers are up-to-date with the technology) would have a strong and positive impact on teaching and learning. By using CALL in Saudi Arabian classrooms, students’ perspectives may be broadened through exposure to different cultures. Also, learning may become more enjoyable and rewarding (Alshumaimeri, 2008). Many popular educational formats such as problem-based learning and computersupported collaborative learning (CSCL) have their roots in social constructivism. According to social constructivism, small or large group discussion increases student motivation and builds a deeper understanding of what students are learning. It also provides support for self-regulation of learning, as students can test the quality of their knowledge on peer students (Jonassen, Carr, & Yueh, 1998). Social constructivist theory discourages the use of traditional lectures, because of the minimal opportunities for communication and discussion with the teacher and fellow students. According to social constructivism, the most important factor influencing learning would be “The construction of meaning and knowledge through the interaction with others” (Spector, 2008, p. 27). The use of group or pair work in the second language (L2) classroom is widely recognized as beneficial, and begins to address concerns which have been raised with respect to the cognitive focus which has tended to dominate SLA research 148

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(see Firth & Wagner, 1997). Research has shown that learners working in small groups or pairs use the L2 more than in teacher-fronted class activities (Long & Porter, 1985). This greater use of the L2 is particularly important in foreign language contexts where, unlike second language contexts, the classroom is often the only site where students are exposed to and engage with L2 input. As Strauss (2007) argued, students need to be encouraged to work in pairs or small groups because this is likely to provide them with the necessary practice to improve their fluency. In terms of accuracy, Wigglesworth and Storch (2009) found that students, when working in pairs, performed better on a joint written task than did students working on the same task individually, suggesting that the joint activity allowed the student to pool their resources. Curriculum design generally refers to the construction of content and protocols used in teaching students. Curriculum design identifies what should be taught and how it should be taught and delivered to students. Any institution of learning must teach content that is relevant to the needs of the industry that its graduates will enter. At the same time, it should be able to impart such content successfully to its students. These two aspects form the construct of strong learning outcomes. Strong learning outcomes exist when an institution is able to produce graduates who possess knowledge, skills and, abilities that are relevant to their chosen professional fields. In recent decades, Saudi Arabia has developed its human resources considerably in order to become less dependent on foreign labor. A critical aspect of this development has been the establishment of a strong higher education infrastructure. Among the different educational areas that the Saudi Arabian government has been developing are its distance-education programs. In particular, the government has established the Saudi Electronic University (SEU) as an institution available across the entire country. Saudi Electronic University offers students a range of distance-education programs that can prepare them for professional careers both nationally, within the country and abroad. However, as SEU was only established in 2011, there have not yet been any attempts to examine how much the institution has developed and to what extent it has been able to achieve its goals. As a result, the Ministry of Higher Education in Saudi Arabia, along with other stakeholders such as current and prospective SEU students, are unaware of the extent to which quality-assurance practices exist and are conducted effectively at SEU. Further, in order to take necessary measures to address the challenges faced by SEU, the Ministry of Higher Education needs to be able to identify those challenges. In the past decade, the government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) has focused extensively on developing its higher education system. The country has invested billions of dollars in the construction and management of 24 government universities, which offer undergraduate to postgraduate programs across various fields of study (Elyas & Picard, 2013). Data from a census in 2006 reported that approximately 636,000 citizens of Saudi Arabia were enrolled in higher education, giving the country a gross enrolment ratio of 30.2% (Elyas & Picard, 2013). The 149

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number of enrolees has been gradually increasing, principally due to government efforts to provide citizens with opportunities to enter higher education both in the country and abroad (Elyas & Picard, 2013). A relatively recent development in the progress of higher education in Saudi Arabia is the establishment of distanceeducation programs. Distance education is a mode of learning in which the student does not need to physically attend classes in a set location, such as a university campus. Rather, the student remains at home and accesses the program through a computer with Internet access. This mode of formal education is useful for countries where many people who are eligible to enter higher education are based in remote locations, which is the case in Saudi Arabia. In the past, the government of KSA has devoted considerable financial resources to enabling its citizens to study at universities located in populous cities in the country and abroad, but such programs cannot be expected to accommodate all of the eligible students in the country. Therefore, in 2005, the KSA government established the National Center for e-Learning and Distance Learning in order to guide and oversee the development of distance learning programs across the country’s higher education institutions (Alfahad, 2012). This ultimately led to the establishment of Saudi Electronic University (SEU) in 2011 (Alfahad, 2012). SEU was established in cooperation with various universities in the United States, and offers undergraduate and graduate distance-education programs focused on areas that are in demand in the country’s major industries (Fraij, 2013). Given the recent arrival of distance learning in Saudi Arabia, almost no studies have yet been carried out that specifically focus on the development of distance learning programs in the country’s higher education system. Thus, greater attention needs to be paid to explore the current practice for the future prospects of distance learning programs in Saudi Arabia. Research of Problem

Among the different educational areas that the Saudi Arabian government has been developing are its distance-education programs. In particular, the National Center for e-Learning and Distance Learning was created in 2005 by the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Higher Education. According to the Saudi Gazette (2008), Madar Research found that the Saudi Arabian government spent US$125 million on e-learning projects in 2008, and a growth of 33% per annum was expected from 2005 to the establishment of the Saudi Electronic University (SEU). As discussed by Mohamed (2005), despite the fact that many institutions in Saudi Arabia offer distance-education programs, deficiencies exist in terms of qualityassurance procedures and accreditation policies. Studies on quality assurance in Saudi Arabia have been conducted only on the general context of higher education in the country. In this regard, Alshayea (2012) recently found that the steps taken by the government through its Ministry of Education, such as the establishment 150

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of the National Commission for Academic Accreditation and Assessment (NCAAA) which regularly evaluates the quality of higher education institutions in the country, and the support given by the ministry of academic research and community development spearheaded by higher education institutions have led to significant positive changes in the quality of higher education in the country. However, the study did not consider how these steps affected quality in distance learning programs in the country in particular, and there were no studies found that addressed this particular mode of higher education in the country. Tawfiq and Moussa (2007) emphasised the importance of distance learning opportunities in developing Saudi Arabia into becoming a knowledge-based society, but this study also did not provide any input as to the current state of quality assurance in distance learning institutions in the country. Usmani (2013) indicates that the National Centre for e-Learning and Distance Education is actively involved in facilitating and advancing e-learning and distance education areas but they too have not come up with any guidelines or framework for quality assurance of e-learning and distance education programs. There is a need for creating a framework or guideline, which attempt to highlight the areas that are unique to e-learning and distance education programs only to produce more reliable and compatible frameworks for assuring quality of e-learning and distance education programs in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Usmani, 2013). Since Saudi Electronic University was established in 2011, the number of dropouts of male and female students by 2014 had increased by more than 90% of the students first admitted. Some students attributed their complaints of failure with success at the university to a number of difficulties they faced during their study. One of the important issues is the programs’ curriculum design. Such an issue has ultimately caused the failure of students (Alwatan, 2014). Given the recent establishment of SEU and the rate of the dropout students, there is a strong impetus to investigate the development of curriculum design quality assurance of distance education programs at SEU. Further, in order to take measures to address the challenges faced by SEU, the Ministry of Higher Education needs to be able to identify these challenges. As a result, the Ministry of Higher Education in Saudi Arabia, along with other stakeholders, are unaware of the extent to which quality-assurance practices exist and are conducted effectively at SEU. This study seeks to fill this gap in literature. Therefore, it is a significant of value to conduct such research as there have not yet been any attempts to examine how much the programs have developed and to what extent it has been able to successfully achieve its goals. Aims of the Study

The research problem identified in the previous section can be split into five specific aims, as follows: 151

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1. To identify the present practices of quality assurance of curriculum design that have been utilized at the Saudi Electronic University. 2. To identify the challenges influencing the quality assurance of curriculum design implementation at the Saudi Electronic University. 3. To propose a framework that can enhance quality implementation of curriculum design at Saudi Electronic University. 4. To identify the contextual factors that influence the adoption of the constructive alignment framework at the Saudi Electronic University. 5. To apply curriculum mapping designed by constructive alignment framework to address the gap in the existing curriculum design identified and see how it would be scalable, transferable and sustainable at the Saudi Electronic University. Research Questions

In line with the aims enumerated in the previous section, the following research questions were formulated: • What are the present practices of quality assurance of curriculum design at the Saudi Electronic University? • What are the challenges that influence the implementation of quality assurance of curriculum design at the Saudi Electronic University? • What framework can be proposed to enhance quality assurance implementation of curriculum design at the Saudi Electronic University? • What are the contextual factors that influence the adoption of the constructive alignment framework at the Saudi Electronic University? • How curriculum designed by constructive alignment framework would address the gap in the existing curriculum design identified and would be scalable, transferable and sustainable at the Saudi Electronic University? Significance of the Study

This is a case study of one university’s quality-assurance practices of curriculum design in distance education. The reason for conducting such a case study is primarily the relevance of SEU to the development of distance education as well as to higher education in general in Saudi Arabia. SEU is expected to be the central hub for distance education in the country. With expenses related to sending KSA citizens to higher education institutions in other parts of the world are soaring, the Ministry of Higher Education needs to develop a more viable approach to providing free higher education in order to develop Saudi Arabia’s human resources. Via SEU, the ministry has an opportunity to reduce costs significantly by providing citizens with high-quality online education rather than sending them overseas. However, a number of questions remain in relation to the quality level of graduates that can be 152

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produced through the distance-learning programs currently offered at SEU. Before it starts to rely on SEU, the Ministry of Higher Education needs to be certain that the institution can meet the higher education needs of its citizens optimally. A focus on learning outcomes is a matter of priority because it directly affects the quality of the program’s graduates. If the proposed guideline can assure high-quality learning outcomes, its graduates will also be of high quality. This is the major impetus for this study. Overall, this study stands to determine the present state of quality assurance practices of curriculum design in SEU, which is significant to a number of stakeholders. First and foremost, it is significant to the students, teachers and administrators of SEU. This study will help determine the present sufficiency of quality-assurance practices at the institution, which will demonstrate to current and potential SEU students the extent to which they can rely on the quality assurance outputs provided by SEU. Furthermore, the study will help to alert the administration and faculty of the institution to different issues that exist regarding quality assurance, based on the perspectives of different stakeholders. This will demonstrate how they might be able to improve current practices in order to pave the way to achieving their desired quality standards. The study will also be significant to the Ministry of Higher Education in Saudi Arabia, which is providing considerable support to SEU and seeking to develop as many professionals as possible through SEU’s programs. It is in line with the interests of the Ministry of Higher Education to ensure that SEU is able to exploit its resources as well as possible. For this to occur, the institution must be able to provide accurate and timely evaluations of quality, which this study can help determine. Compared to other parts of the world, Middle Eastern countries have only recently begun to develop distance-learning institutions and programs. This study will serve as a starting point for other studies focused on various distance-learning institutions in Saudi Arabia and other Middle Eastern countries. While many different studies have been conducted on quality assurance (Kettunen, 2011; Brown, 2012; Hou, 2012; Brew & Jewell, 2012), this study is different primarily because it is conducted in a distance education institution located in a country that has lagged behind much of the rest of the world when it comes to information technology development. In addition, this study combines inputs from different stakeholders on quality assurance rather than focusing on one group of stakeholders alone, as previous studies have done. By adopting this multilateral approach, this study is expected to generate more extensive outcomes from which more accurate generalizations about quality-assurance practices within an institution can be drawn. This approach can be adopted by future studies seeking to examine quality assurance within specific institutions. Further, unlike broader studies identified in the literature review, this study focuses specifically on the Saudi Arabian setting and particularly on the learning-outcomes aspect of quality assurance of curriculum design. 153

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Limitations of the Study

The proposed study is subject to a number of limitations. First, the study focuses on a specific case only – that of SEU. Although the area considered in the study is quality assurance in distance learning, the primary data collection will be mainly limited to SEU. This limitation was introduced for several reasons. SEU was selected for the study because it is the core distance-learning facility in KSA. Therefore, the conclusions drawn regarding SEU may be considered to be applicable to other distance-learning programs in Saudi Arabia. Second, the study’s resources are unavoidably limited. In KSA, the higher education institutions that have distancelearning programs are located at considerable distances from one another. Therefore, the study is able to collect primary data from one institution only. Another limitation of this study is that its findings can only be applied to institutions that bear close similarities to the focus of the case study. This is because institutions in different countries across the world operate in very different social contexts and technological environments, making it difficult to apply findings obtained in one setting to that of another. However, the methodology that is to be employed in this study may serve as a template for similar studies on other distancelearning institutions. Finally, while there are many aspects to quality assurance, this study is limited to the aspect of outcomes-based curriculum design. An exploration of all aspects was considered too broad for the resources available; a more focused approach involving only what is considered the most important aspect was deemed preferable. Overview

The proposed study is divided into five sections. In this first, introductory, section, the background of the study is described and the research problem arising from this background is identified. This problem is then split into specific objectives, which are used as the basis for the formulation of corresponding research questions. Also in this section, the points of significance of the study to different stakeholders are enumerated, and the theoretical framework on which the study is based is presented. Finally, the limitations of the study are identified and addressed, and an outline of the study is presented. The second section of the study is the literature review. In this section, research studies and articles on various areas of relevance to the study are reviewed to demonstrate the extent of the research that has already been conducted and any gaps in the literature that the present study can address. The third section describes the study’s methodology. The protocols used to carry out primary data gathering and analysis are identified, described and justified. Alternative data-gathering such policy documents and analysis techniques are discussed in order to demonstrate that those chosen for this study are the most appropriate options. 154

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The fourth section presents the study’s results and a consequent discussion. The outcomes of the execution of the methodology are presented in detail. Alongside this presentation, the outcomes of the study are related to the literature reviewed in the second section. The final chapter of the study presents the conclusion and offers recommendations. Conclusions are drawn based on the findings of the study presented in the previous section. These conclusions aim to answer the research questions posed in the first section. The extent to which these questions are answered through the methodological elements selected for the study are determined. Recommendations are then made. These recommendations cover inputs regarding how quality assurance may be improved in both SEU and distance-learning institutions in the Middle East in general. These recommendations identify opportunities for further research that may be pursued in future studies. Dimensions of Quality Assurance in Education

In general, quality assurance models have two primary foci; these are effectiveness and efficiency (Dickinson & Wood, 2011). Across different dimensions that any quality assurance model may have is the underlying need to ensure that the products or outputs generated by the operations of interest fit the purpose of the different stakeholders of those operations (Dickinson & Wood, 2011). That is, that the outputs of the process are actually effective. Translated to higher education where the outputs of the institution are graduates, this ultimately refers to higher education programs being able to produce graduates that are capable of performing effectively in their respective professional fields. In terms of efficiency, this focus of quality assurance is aimed at minimizing the variance of production in order to make the output of the operation as consistent and reliable as possible (Dickinson & Wood, 2011). Part of this second focus is the optimal use of resources and minimization of waste (Dickinson & Wood, 2011). In the context of higher education, efficiency may involve such matters as identifying the best student/teacher ratio that can address the needs of the students while minimizing the number of teachers that can be hired to fill those needs. Various studies were found that dealt with the development and use of quality assurance in the higher educational setting. While the approach of those different studies differed, a commonality across many of the studies that were reviewed was the inclusion of three specific quality assurance dimensions, which are instruction, research and community development (Kettunen, 2011; Brown, 2012; Hou, 2012; Brew & Jewell, 2012). As explained by Kettunen (2011), the most prominent dimension of quality assurance in higher education, as well as in educational institutions in general is instruction, which is focused on ensuring that the institution is able to successfully impart relevant information and skills to students. This dimension is further divided into aspects of teaching and learning (Kettunen, 2011). With regards to the aspect of teaching, quality assurance practices include ensuring 155

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that the curriculum developed and used for the students is relevant to the needs of the students or of the industries that are expected to employ those students when they graduate (Kettunen, 2011; Hou, 2012; Brew & Jewell, 2012). In the aspect of learning, quality assurance practices are focused on ensuring that students are able to understand the content that they are exposed to, and that the strategies that are used in order to communicate information or teach skills to them are consistent with their learning preferences (Kettunen, 2011; Hou, 2012; Brew & Jewell, 2012). Many other quality assurance concerns are covered within these aspects, including the conduciveness of the environment for teaching and learning (Hou, 2012) and the accuracy and appropriateness of assessment instruments that are used in order to measure how much students were able to learn (Brew & Jewell, 2012). Aside from instruction, research has also been commonly cited as an important dimension of quality assurance in higher education (Kettunen, 2011; Brown, 2012; Hou, 2012; Brew & Jewell, 2012). Higher education institutions in particular are expected not just to impart known knowledge to students, but also to spearhead the development of new knowledge from the works of its faculty and students (Brown, 2012). As such, the measurement of quality in higher education institutions typically involves determining how many of the institution’s faculty members engage in research, how many publications such faculty members are able to produce, and how much of the institution’s resources is allocated for conducting such studies (Brown, 2012). Finally, higher education institutions are expected to have a responsibility for the development of the respective communities where they are located (Brown, 2012). As discussed by Brown (2012), such institutions must be able to translate theoretical input that is developed in students from their classes to practical outputs where the students can apply what they learned for the benefit of certain stakeholders. This section of the review shows that quality assurance, even in the limited context of higher education, is actually a very broad field of investigation. It may be necessary to prioritize certain dimensions over others. Specifically, it was considered that it would be more prudent if the study focused only on the teaching and learning dimension of quality assurance in higher education than step into a deeper understanding of curriculum design, then step into a deeper understanding of curriculum design. Progress in Distance Education

Over the last decade, considerable progress has been made in the development of distance education across the world. Historically, distance learning began in the 19th century, when Sir Isaac Pittman, a professor from England, conducted a shorthand class where he would mail content and exercises to students and students would in turn submit assignments by mail, which the professor would then mark and return (Moore & Kearsley, 2005). Of course, the popularity of distance learning boomed with the wide availability of computers and access to the Internet (Radford, 2011). The first fully online degree programs that students could enrol in were introduced 156

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in the late 1990s (Radford, 2011). By 2008, students in online programs accounted for 4% of the total higher education population (Radford, 2011). While this shows that students in virtual higher education courses are still considered a small minority compared to those enrolled in traditional classes, there is a clear trend of growth in this mode of higher education (Radford, 2011). Technologies used for distance education have developed extensively since its beginnings with Sir Pittman. In the early incarnations of online distance learning programs, instructional content consisted mainly of text that students could download from online repositories and review on their own (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2007). Teachers were available to address concerns and questions that students had through email or in asynchronous discussions that were facilitated in message boards (LeverDuffy & McDonald, 2007). As the act of transferring large chunks of data across the Internet became easier, it became possible for latter online degree programs to have teachers upload pre-recorded lectures for students or even conduct such lectures live via streaming audio or audiovisual media (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2007). At the same time, distance learning developers created entire software platforms that integrated different aspects of distance learning, enabling teachers to conveniently collate and mark students’ works and students to conveniently submit their works and view their grades (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2007). Karman et al. (2013) compared online classes with traditional classes, and found that many students perceived online classes to be more flexible and satisfying than traditional classes. Specifically, students appreciated the ability to go through pre-recorded lectures of their professors as many times as they needed to, and the freedom to focus on particular coursework over others, depending on which part of the lessons they felt needed more work (Karman et al., 2013). Additionally, consistent with one premise of this study, Karman et al. (2013) acknowledged the cost effectiveness of distance education versus traditional education, where students can forego many expenses related to attending a higher education program on campus. Furthermore, distance learning programs allowed students to learn at their own pace, enabling some students to undertake and complete a program despite having to work most of the day (Karman et al., 2013). However, the quality of distance education programs has been questioned by a number of articles found in this review (Galosh, 2011; Stephens, 2007). For some students, the lack of a formal classroom setting may hamper their concentration and motivation to study (Galosh, 2011). Studying at home exposes the student to various domestic distractions (Galosh, 2011). Furthermore, the success of online distance learning programs is highly dependent on the reliability of the technology used in order to access the course. Poor Internet service or computer specifications may negatively impact the experiences of the student (Galosh, 2011). Another issue is the competence of the student and teachers in the use of advanced technology so as to be able to maximize teaching and learning experiences on online platforms (Stephens, 2007). Some teachers who have limited understanding of the platform may not be able to fully utilize its features for the benefit of their students. Likewise, students with limited technological ability may miss out on some 157

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learning opportunities that the distance-learning platform provides. They may also become frustrated in being unable to perform certain tasks such as submitting their assignments or viewing their grades. Stephens (2007) also criticized the validity of some assessment methods and instruments that are used in online distance learning programs, considering that these methods have a higher risk of cheating by students than traditional assessments. This section showed that distance learning has progressed considerably and institutions that offer distance learning programs currently make use of a wide range of information and communications technology. While distance learning has been found to have a number of advantages, it has also been found to have various shortcomings that have generated criticisms, mostly focused on the maintenance of quality teaching and learning in such institutions. Distance Education in Saudi Arabia

Since this study is focused on quality assurance specifically in distance education courses of programs offered in Saudi Arabia, it is important for this review to examine extant literature on distance education in that country. In this regard, it was found that various studies have been conducted on the progress of distance education in Saudi Arabia. In a study by Mirza and Abdulkareem (2011), which examined models of distance education used in the Middle East, it was found that while many countries in the region are still in the early stages of developing a distance education framework, Saudi Arabia has already pulled ahead of other countries in terms of progress and may be considered an authority on e-learning in the region. Many universities in Saudi Arabia have established online courses, and specifically one university, the Saudi Electronic University, the focus of this case study, has dedicated its resources primarily to distance education (Mirza & Abdulkareem, 2011). However, as explained by Mirza and Abdulkareem (2011), there are still a number of challenges that face the Saudi Arabian educational system, along with other educational systems in the Middle East, in their implementation and management of distance education programs. Among these challenges is the need to develop standardized measures of quality assurance that can be applied to institutions in the Middle East that offer distance education courses. Many of these institutions have sought to adapt traditional quality assurance models to online settings, but there has yet to be proper standardization conducted to address common concerns in quality across Middle Eastern distance education programs (Mirza & Abdulkareem, 2011). Another recent case study focused on the emergent effects of information technology on the paradigm of higher education in Saudi Arabia (Elyas & Basalamah, 2012). As explained by Elyas and Basalamah (2012), higher education in Saudi Arabia has traditionally been an extension of secondary education and implicitly, highly teacher-centric The university professors at Saudi Arabian universities have long held complete authority in their classrooms, leading to teaching and learning 158

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strategies that were focused on the professor directly delivering content for students to absorb (Elyas & Basalamah, 2012). However, this paradigm is shifting due to the introduction and growth of distance education courses in Saudi Arabia. As found by Elyas and Basalamah (2012), the lack of physical presence of the professor in the distance education program setting and the reduced frequency of contact between the teacher and the student has considerably diminished the power and authority of the professor over the students. In terms of quality assurance, this outcome is highly significant since it implies that quality assurance models used in the past which operated on the premise of classrooms being teacher-centric are no longer applicable to the distance education setting where students are more in control of their learning activities. This is supported by other studies that are focused on understanding the distance education environment that Saudi Arabian universities are exploring. Specifically, Alebaikan and Troudi (2010) conducted a qualitative study that involved focus groups of instructors and students in Saudi Arabian distance education courses. Consistent with Elyas and Basalamah (2012), participants in the study cited the increased freedom of distance education students and the decreased effect of authority from distance education instructors as the source of various instructional issues that must be addressed. One issue is the proper structuring of content delivery that can effectively reach the comprehension of the students (Alebaikan & Troudi, 2010). Both instructors and students acknowledged the frustration of being unable to explain important concepts in person, and having to rely on written documents that may be difficult to understand on one’s own (Alebaikan & Troudi, 2010). Another issue is the preservation of academic integrity. Instructors discussed how the use of traditional assessments, such as essays, is becoming less and less reliable as students are able to access various resources that circumvent the purpose of the assessment (Alebaikan & Troudi, 2010). These outcomes show the need to utilize new quality assurance aspects that look into how content is delivered to students and how the students’ learning is evaluated. In another study, Alkhalaf et al. (2012) conducted a survey on the impact of e-learning systems on higher education learners in Saudi Arabia. The study found that overall, the introduction of distance learning courses either as independent options for higher education learning or as supplementary to existing traditional systems had positive impacts on students’ higher education experience. Students reported feeling more in control of their learning outcomes, and believed that distance learning courses provided greater flexibility and diversity with regard to learning activities and assessment (Alkhalaf et al., 2012). At the same time, students in the survey expressed concern with regard to standardizing distance education systems, making it more accessible to students, and improving quality in terms of content delivery and student-teacher interactivity. Overall, the findings of this section of the literature review show that in Saudi Arabia, distance education is progressing at a desirable pace and is becoming well accepted by different stakeholders. However, it is clear from extant literature that despite the fact that quality assurance issues in distance education programs offered in Saudi Arabia do exist, they are yet to be sufficiently addressed by extant literature. 159

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Saudi Electronic University

Despite extensive search, very minimal literature has been found on Saudi Electronic University. From its Web site, SEU was found to offer distance education programs under three colleges, namely: the College of Administration and Finance Sciences; the College of Computer and Informatics; and the College of Health Sciences (SEU, 2014). The university operates under the mission of using distance education to provide excellent higher education for the people of Saudi Arabia. Quality assurance is integrated in this mission, as SEU seeks to provide education “according to the highest quality standards and best international practices” and envisions itself into becoming “a leading electronic university” (SEU, 2014). However, the Web site itself does not contain information on quality assurance practices of the university. At the same time, no studies have been found that focused specifically on any aspect of quality assurance at SEU. This is primarily due to the fact that SEU is still relatively a very young institution, having been established only in 2011. However, this shows that there is considerable impetus to conduct case studies that focus on this institution, as it is expected to serve as the hub of distance education for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Quality Assurance in Curriculum Design in Distance Education

Various studies have been conducted about quality assurance in curriculum design, particularly in the context of distance education. The studies that were included in this section of the review are those of quality assurance assessments on a wide range of distance education courses. They were selected in order to inform this study about the different aspects of quality assurance that has been considered critical in the context of distance education. Some of the studies focused on the quality of the content offered in the curricula (Wijetunge, 2009; Thurab-Nkhosi & Marshall, 2009). These studies explained that as in curriculum design for classroomtaught higher education programs, curriculum design in distance education needs to ensure that the course content included in the curricula are accurate and timely (Thurab-Nkhosi & Marshall, 2009; Wijetunge, 2009). These aspects both depend on the course materials and references selected for the curricula (Thurab-Nkhosi & Marshall, 2009). Particularly in a distance education setting, there is a tendency for curricula to include a wide range of readings that can be easily accessible online. Likewise, it is common practice for distance education programs to construct study guides that already carry the content to be taught for the entire semester (Thurab-Nkhosi & Marshall, 2009). It is critical for these materials to contain no incorrect or misleading information as these are oftentimes the main basis that students use for their review. At the same time, Thurab-Nkhosi and Marshall (2009) discussed how content materials in distance education programs have the advantage of being easy to update. Unlike textbooks, which may require considerable time to develop new editions, study guides can be updated every semester, or even during 160

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a semester if necessary. Content in distance education is much easier to generate and distribute, and this is an opportunity to ensure that such content is always up-to-date with the latest research outcomes (Thurab-Nkhosi & Marshall, 2009). Therefore, it is important in the design of curricula to include content areas on recent developments in the course subject, which can be updated by the course facilitator as necessary (Thurab-Nkhosi & Marshall, 2009). Wijetunge (2009) also emphasized the importance of clarity in assessing the quality of academic curricula. As discussed by Wijetunge (2009), the diversity in the competence level of the students in relation to particular subjects must be considered when designing online curricula. Distance education programs typically have a much higher diversity in terms of its students, which should be considered in the quality assurance analysis of such programs (Wijetunge, 2009). There may be differences among students, not just with regard to their know-how about the topics, but also on other matters such as their competence in the medium of instruction used in the course materials. As such, content must be presented in ways that can be appreciated by all of the students enrolled in the course. Other studies reviewed focused on a stakeholder-based perspective of quality assurance in curriculum design of distance education programs. Gonzalez et al. (2011) conducted a study on quality assurance of international business degree programs based on quality function deployment (QFD). In QFD, the focus of quality assurance is on the end-users of the program, who are the prospective employers of the program’s graduates. According to Gonzalez et al. (2011), it is necessary for the concerns of these end-users to be addressed at all levels of curriculum design, including quality assurance assessments. While the initial stages of curriculum design may involve examining the needs of prospective employers and incorporating those in the curriculum, the quality assurance stage may involve determining the extent to which such incorporations of prospective employers’ needs actually translate to desired level of employability for the program’s graduates. In addition to this, Gvaramadze (2012) brought up the idea of ensuring the development of generic competencies for students that they can apply to a wide variety of professional fields. Curricula across different disciplines should incorporate such competencies into their design, such as research competencies, communication competencies and problem solving competencies (Gvaramadze, 2012). As such, a course on database management, for example, must not just focus on the technical aspects of the subject, but must also be able to incorporate such topics as explaining database systems in layman’s terms and must contain aspects that inspire students to conduct research on relevant topics in database management. Finally, several studies have also identified the need for curriculum design to have features for open communication, both between students and teachers and among students (Gvaramadze, 2012; Wijetunge, 2009). Communication is not only an important aspect of teaching across different platforms, but it is also a critical component of distance education curricula, in that the students in such programs often do not get to actually interact face-to-face with the teacher or fellow students 161

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(Wijetunge, 2009). Since all of the learning materials for such programs are typically made available online, some students may think that communication with the teacher or their peers is no longer necessary for them to learn the course; this mindset is problematic as the lack of guidance may lead students to develop misinterpretations of course content, and the lack of interaction may prevent them from constructing a richer understanding of content (Wijetunge, 2009). Therefore, it is critical for quality assurance protocols to examine the extent to which the design of curricula allows for interaction among the students and their teachers (Gvaramadze, 2012; Wijetunge, 2009). These findings show that there are three main considerations in relation to quality assurance in distance learning programs. First is the nature of the content, which involves its accuracy, timeliness, relevance, and clarity. Second are the needs of different stakeholders, particularly students and prospective employers, and the alignment of these needs to the content of the curriculum. Finally, there is the structure of the curriculum, in relation to how it allows for communication and interaction among members of distance learning classes. These findings from literature show the wide range of aspects that should be examined in considering quality assurance protocols within specific distance learning contexts. They inform this study in its own evaluation of Saudi Electronic University’s distance education programs. Constructive Alignment

Whereas quality assurance issues tackled in the previous section were considered under the general context of curriculum design for distance learning programs, there are specific models for curriculum design, which may differ in terms of their quality assurance concerns. One such model is the constructive alignment approach proposed by Biggs (2003). According to Biggs (2003), the model integrates constructivist learning theory and instructional design practice, in that its approach in the systematic development of curricula is to focus on how learners in the context of a given program act and generate meaning for themselves. A more streamlined application of the model is found in Biggs (2014), where the development of curricula under the constructive alignment approach was summarized in four stages. In each of these stages, a number of quality assurance concerns may be drawn. The first stage involves describing the intended learning outcomes (ILOs) for the unit (Biggs, 2014). Each ILO must use one to two verbs in its description and guides what content or topics are needed in the unit (Biggs, 2014). The existence of written ILOs according to these specifications serves as a superficial indicator of quality for curricula developed using constructive alignment. More importantly, the ILOs must be clearly and relevantly linked to the intended final product of the program. As explained by Biggs (2014), the model seeks to identify the practical learning outcomes that students need to achieve before learning even takes place. This requires an examination of the needs of different stakeholders in the program, as 162

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done in the works of Gonzalez et al. (2011) or Gvaramadze (2012). There are some courses that may have ILOs centered on the needs of the student. For example, a technical writing class may be focused on enabling students to become competent in writing their final research paper. As such, the ILOs in this example must involve the different competencies necessary in order for a person to be able to effectively write in a formal, research-oriented manner. On the other hand, ILOs for a management course may be more aligned with the needs of the end-consumers, similar to the quality function deployment concept of Gonzalez et al. (2011). Once the ILOs have been determined, the next stage of the constructive alignment model is to create learning environments that empower students to act upon each of the ILOs (Biggs, 2014). The design of the curriculum involves specifications on the details of the environment, as well as the teaching and learning activities that will be embedded on the environment (Biggs, 2014). The activities should be aligned with the verbs used in each of the ILOs. For example, if an ILO for an engineering course is for students to build electric powered machines according to set specifications, then the activity addressing this ILO must ultimately lead students to the actual building of such machines. Of course, it is necessary for students to understand many other concepts and learn a number of procedures before actually being able to build the machine. As such, the learning activities for this ILO may be multi-layered, culminating in the students’ independent creation of some electronic device. From a quality assurance standpoint, this stage of the model presents various issues, which can be related to the works of Thurab-Nkhosi and Marshall (2009) and Wijetunge (2009). First and foremost, the activities must be accurately aligned with the ILO. The verbs used in the ILO are critical for ensuring this quality aspect, by ensuring that the final outcomes of the activities align with the verb used. Second, it must be ensured that the learning environment and activities developed are conducive to the students’ achievement of the ILO. The constructive theory behind the model assumes that students are capable of generating new knowledge by interacting with their environment, so long as the environment has the right conditions in which such knowledge may be generated. This considers the type of learners in the program and what activities may be best for them, which were also raised as quality assurance concerns in Wijetunge (2009). In the distance education setting, curriculum design decisions that influence this stage of the model include what content to include, what format to use to introduce the content, and what interactive activities to provide for the students. The next stage of the model is to construct assessment tasks that contain the same verbs as the ones in the ILOs (Biggs, 2014). As discussed by Biggs (2014), this enables the curriculum to genuinely address the practical ends of the design. Quality assurance concerns in relation to this stage of the model have to do with ensuring that the assessment tasks are aligned with the ILOs. At the same time, the tasks must be reasonably attainable based on the knowledge and skills that can be gained from the teaching and learning activities developed under the second stage of the model. This involves examining the different aspects of the assessment task 163

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and linking this to particular aspects of the teaching and learning activities. If some aspects are found to be unaligned, then the competence to accomplish these aspects cannot be considered to have been gained from the teaching and learning activities and there is a need to revise the assessment task. Finally, the last stage of the model is to translate the outcomes from the assessment tasks into grades (Biggs, 2014). As explained by Biggs (2014), grades must not simply indicate the extent to which a student was able to correctly accomplish an assessment task, but must relate back to the ILO, indicating the extent to which a student has achieved each ILO. In this way, the grade reflects not just the performance of the student in a set of exams, but how much the student has transformed into the professional that the course is designed to develop him or her to become. In relation to this, quality assurance concerns involve evaluating the metrics used to transmute performance in activities to grades, in relation to the requirements identified in the ILOs. Constructive alignment is growing in popularity as a curriculum design model. It has been used across a wide range of academic fields such as enterprise education (Jones, 2006) and has been applied towards the standardization of higher education in some countries, such as in Vietnam (Tran et al., 2011). More recently, the model has also been applied to distance education courses (Jackson et al., 2014). This provides sufficient impetus for the inclusion of this model in the development of a quality assurance framework for the Saudi Electronic University. Learning Outcomes Assessment

While the constructive alignment model emphasizes the importance of using the appropriate verbs for ILOs, it does not provide detailed guidelines in the selection of such. Such guidelines can be drawn from the seminal work of Bloom et al. (1956) on the taxonomy of educational objectives and the various developments of their work across the decades, culminating in the work of Potter and Kustra (2012) on learning outcomes and the Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) taxonomy. Bloom’s taxonomy is an organized listing of different objectives that can be developed by educators for their students (Orlich et al., 2004). They are divided into three major domains, which are cognitive, affective and psychomotor, with each domain having its set of key verbs that can be used for each objective, analogous to the verbs in the ILOs discussed by Biggs (2014). The cognitive domain is concerned with the development of knowledge, comprehension and critical thinking; it has six ordinal levels which are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (Orlich et al., 2004). It is important for students to gain lower levels first before proceeding to achieve higher levels (Orlich et al., 2004). Key verbs are included within each level, as found in Orlich et al. (2004). The affective domain is focused on developing students’ emotions, helping them understand their feelings and the feelings of others, and enabling them to address such feelings accordingly (Orlich et al., 2004). The domain has five levels and, as with the cognitive domain, key verbs exist under each level (Orlich et al., 2004). These levels are receiving, 164

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responding, valuing, organizing and characterizing. Finally, the psychomotor domain is concerned with developing students’ ability to manipulate their environment and the tools therein in order to produce desired practical outcomes. Levels in this domain include perception, guided response, unguided response, adaptation and creation (Orlich et al., 2004). Bloom’s taxonomy has undergone various developments across its decades of existence. As explained by Potter and Kustra (2012), haphazard application of the taxonomy can be problematic, particularly in the selection of key verbs to represent objectives under each of the domains. One problem is that many key verbs included in the original taxonomy are internal in nature; they cannot be observed overtly. For example, learning objectives under the comprehension level of the cognitive domain typically use the verb “understand,” yet there is no way of actually determining if a person genuinely understands a topic without having complete access to the person’s mind. This ambiguity in many key verbs causes considerable confusion in the development of learning activities that are supposed to address the learning objectives. Potter and Kustra (2012) enumerated four questions that curriculum designers should ask before using a specific verb in an objective. First, they must ask if the verb results in public and observable actions. If the verb does not, then it ought to be changed. Second, they must ask how the teacher and the students can recognize when the outcome has been achieved. If there is ambiguity in determining this, then the verb ought to be changed. Third, they must ask if they can measure the outcome of the performance of the verb. Again, if there is no reliable means to measure this, the verb ought to be changed. Fourth, they should ask what the performance of the verb implies about the student in relation to the goal of the course. If no implication can be made, then the verb and the objective it represents are not relevant to the course and thus, they ought to be changed. Based on these guidelines, Potter and Kustra (2012) presented a revision of Bloom’s taxonomy which contains more appropriate key verbs. Potter and Kustra (2012) identified other problems in relation to developing objectives using Bloom’s taxonomy. One is that the taxonomy does not recommend the number of objectives to use under each level of a domain or under each domain. As such, it is possible for the learning outcomes developed to be focused solely on low-level outcomes, making the course practically irrelevant, or only on highlevel outcomes, making the course too difficult. Another problem is that constructed learning outcomes using the taxonomy may represent teaching and assessment methods more than the course’s goals. In order to address these problems, Potter and Kustra (2012) proposed the use of SOLO, which is a construct with both quantitative and qualitative aspects and considers many factors in the development of working learning outcomes, such as students’ stock knowledge including existing misconceptions, motivations on learning and preferred learning strategies. SOLO has five levels, which are pre-structural, unistructural, multistructural, relational and extended abstract (Potter & Kustra, 2012). However, the first and last levels consider “the first and last levels as existing outside of the learning cycle” (p. 9). Each level 165

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considers the state that the student is in prior to entering the level, and the state that the student should be in following the completion of learning experience for the level. The pre-structural level is the stage where students have yet to be introduced to the lesson (Potter & Kustra, 2012). At this level, it can be expected that they do not yet understand what they are supposed to learn. As such, this stage is not part of Bloom’s Taxonomy. However, this stage is important because it describes the state of the student before teaching interventions or learning environments are introduced. It is important at this stage to use action verbs that accurately introduce students to what they are supposed to learn. In doing so, students acquire the proper mindset with which to approach the succeeding stages of their learning. In contrast to this, students at the unistructural level are those who have been able to acquire knowledge about one relevant aspect of the lesson (Potter & Kustra, 2012). Such students are already capable of making simple connections, such as a definition to the term. However, their understanding of what the term means practically may still be vague (Potter & Kustra, 2012). This stage is similar to the first level of Bloom’s Taxonomy. In order to be able to transition from the pre-structural to the unistructural level, students are provided with the basic content of the course; they are shown the elements of what they are supposed to know at the end of the course. They are provided with definitions and descriptions of concepts and ideas. When students come to understand several aspects of ideas in the course, they enter the multistructural level. At this level, the students have acquired knowledge of various small lessons, but have not yet come to understand the significance of these lessons to one another. In order to reach this stage from the unistructural level, students need to master individual ideas so that recalling them becomes routine. This enables them to absorb new ideas. The process is repeated until several relevant ideas are absorbed and can be recalled automatically. Following the multistructural level, the next level that the students should reach is the relational level. At the relational level, students have become capable of combining the different ideas that they have learned in order to answer practical problems related to those ideas (Potter & Kustra, 2012). In order to make the transition to this stage, students should be exposed to various situations where they need to combine previously learned ideas. When they discover how these ideas work together, they will be better able to apply them to new situations that they are introduced to. Finally, the last level of the SOLO taxonomy is the extended abstract level, at which stage students have become capable of not just combining ideas to solve problems, but seeing the overall picture and making generalizations about it based on knowledge gained. Such students are not just able to apply their knowledge to situations within the scope of the course that they enrolled in, but also within the scope of other courses; they see the relevance of the lessons they have learned outside of the context of that lesson and thus have become capable of abstracting their learning in order to create new knowledge (Potter & Kustra, 2012). In order to enable students to reach this level from the relational level, they need to be introduced to unfamiliar situations where it may not suffice to apply 166

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the combination of ideas that they have learned directly (Potren & Kustra, 2012). Rather, they are situations that require them to relate outside of the boundaries of the course and possibly tap practical knowledge that they had gained outside the course. The SOLO taxonomy is an improvement to the Bloom’s Taxonomy as it does not just identify proper verbs that can be used in order to impart specific levels, but describes how students move from one level to the next, making the process of doing so easier to visualize. With SOLO, curricula can be designed with a definite direction, and with close consideration to the characteristics of the students prior to being exposed to the first lesson. As such, it is important from a quality assurance perspective for the objectives used in the different lessons of a course to follow the SOLO taxonomy. Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework of this study is based primarily on Biggs’ theory of constructive alignment and the SOLO taxonomy. Biggs’ constructive alignment was used to envision the ideal distance education curricula that must be in place for programs at SEU. Consistent with the two pillars of constructive alignment, this study believes that high quality academic courses in distance education must have a constructivist understanding of the nature of learning and a focus on outcomes-based teaching and learning activities (Biggs, 2003). That is, learners must be provided with sufficient freedom with which to explore learning environments and generate their own knowledge from that environment. The ideal curriculum is one that does not seek simply to spoon-feed knowledge to students by having the teacher discuss or demonstrate that knowledge to them, but rather one where the students actually experience situations that enable them to come up with the desired knowledge on their own. The purpose of the teacher in this scenario is simply as a facilitator or guide that can help the students interact with the environment that was prepared for them. It is the learners who construct meaning from what they do. This meaning is constructed by letting learners connect new material with previously learned concerns and experiences that are stored in their memory. By accessing these memories and connecting them with new stimuli, learners are able to reach conclusions on their own, without the teacher needing to point out those conclusions for them. For this study, the distance learning platform is considered to benefit significantly from the constructive alignment theory, since there is minimal contact possible between the students and the teacher. As explained in the previous section, this has led to students gaining greater control over their learning and to teachers’ authority and direct influence over learning diminishing. As such, it is important for the theoretical approach to quality assurance of this study to be consistent with what is actually happening in the Saudi Arabian context. This further establishes the appropriateness of the constructive alignment theory. Another aspect of the constructive alignment theory that is idealized in the framework of this study is being outcomes-based. That is, the ideal curriculum considered in this study is one that is focused on realizing the 167

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desired outcomes for the stakeholders involved. The curriculum must not just seek to impart knowledge about the content, but also to impart it in ways that can enable learners to use the knowledge for their own purpose. While the constructive alignment provides a framework on which the ideal curriculum for this study is based, it lacks details on how this ideal curriculum can actually be manifested. This role in the theoretical framework of this study is filled by the SOLO taxonomy. As previously discussed, the SOLO taxonomy solves many of the problems that its predecessor, Bloom’s taxonomy was prone to (Potter & Kustra, 2012). By using the SOLO taxonomy, this study is geared towards creating curricula that are outcomes-based, where those who finish the curricula can be expected to have functional knowledge and competence in the areas covered by the course. Conceptual and Practical Framework

The conceptual framework of this study is bounded by five major works, three of which are on constructive alignment and its implications on curriculum design (Biggs & Tang, 2011; Biggs, 2003; Biggs, 2014), while the other two are on e-learning curriculum design (Oliver & Harrington, 2001) and on the ResourcesActivity-Support-Evaluation (RASE) pedagogical model (Churchill et al., 2013). The value of constructive alignment as part of the theoretical framework of this study has already been discussed in detail in the previous section. Based on this discussion, this study utilized the ideals in constructive alignment into its quality assurance model in order to determine the extent to which the curricula offered at the SEU are consistent with these ideals. Specifically, the contributions of constructive alignment in the conceptual framework of this study are to ensure the existence of constructivist learning activities in the curricula, and to ensure that the curricula are outcomes-based. However, since the framework developed by Biggs (2003) and its application to curriculum design in Biggs and Tang (2011) was meant for higher education curricula in general, the conceptual framework needed to be able to apply this to the distance education setting. In order to do so, the conceptual framework included the work of Oliver and Harrington (2001) on e-learning. This provided various best practices that were integrated in the quality assurance development framework constructed for SEU, which ranged from issues concerning learning tasks, learning resources and learning strategies (Oliver & Harrington, 2001). Under learning tasks, elements of significance included ensuring the presence of task-based learning designs that require students not just to read material but also to commit actions that can allow them to absorb the content, and ensuring the authenticity of assessments used for determining the achievement of learning objectives. Under learning resources, Oliver and Harrington (2001) considered aspects that determined the comprehensibility and usefulness of content as it is delivered to students, and the potential for using other available online technologies for delivering content, such as through multimedia and interactive interfaces. Oliver and Harrington (2001) also offered a wide range of best-practice teaching strategies that lend themselves well 168

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to online learning environments. These inputs were considered in determining what specific characteristics should be valued in assessing the quality of existing curricula at SEU. Finally, Churchill et al. (2013) developed the RASE model, which was intended to help teachers who were assisting in designing learning modules to teach students in online environments. The RASE model, consistent with the constructive alignment model of Biggs (2003) is highly student-centered, which makes it applicable for use in the context of this study. The integration of the RASE model was important in the conceptual framework since it is a model that was developed specifically for distance education. Similar to the work of Oliver and Harrington (2001), the RASE model covers resources, activities, support and evaluation issues involved in the construction of distance education curricula. Under the resource component, the model considers the learning objects that students are provided access to, and content delivered through a variety of media, including real-time teaching through video-conferencing or chat. Under the activity component, the focus is more on what students are asked to do in order for them to learn, such as collaborative work, individual projects and problem solving. The evaluation component considers the types of evidence used to track the achievement of student learning. Finally, in addition to these, the RASE model also considers a support component, which is focused on keeping track of students’ experiences throughout the learning process. These are carried out through interactive elements of the curricula, such as discussions through online forums, question and answer sessions with the teacher, or social networking. From the conceptual framework established from these resources, a practical framework was developed and is shown in Figure 1. As seen from this framework, the strategic intent and graduate capabilities form the major concerns of the study. In order to make inferences on these, the study must identify programs offered by the institution, and examine these programs according to courses within each program, which in turn can be evaluated based on a number of aspects, which include resources, student activities, support and assessment and feedback mechanisms. Finally, there is a need to examine the assessment systems in each program and the extent to which the goals of each program are achieved. The study will not look only at the intent of the university and the kind of graduates that the university intends to produce, but also the programs and what the programs are focused on achieving. It also then looks at the breakdown of the programs in terms of what the courses are about. The study will look at the way the courses are structured and delivered, as well as the assessment given, then evaluating the assessment and whether students have achieved the outcomes that are set. So in that sense, the key starting point is looking at the SEU strategic intent, i.e., what it is that the university wants to do in terms of focusing purely on distance education? Strategic intent will be focusing on particular programs and a particular degree offered. Therefore, the study’s main query would be to develop a framework that the university can utilize, then the study could really help them assure a level of quality that they could monitor on an annual basis. Furthermore, identify the university’s 169

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Figure 1. Practical framework

strategic intent statement, and then identify certain generic graduate capabilities that the university will expect or should expect its students to have acquired. The next step is that out of the three schools, how many degree programs are there? Then find out at each college the statements about the degrees and the aims of those programs. 170

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More specifically what knowledge, skills and attributes are expected of students who graduate with these degrees? Each program has three to five statements, and the program is listed in terms of learning outcomes. So what is it that each program is about and if the students follow this program, then what should they be able to do or what evidence should be presented when they have finished the program or the degree? All those objectives of the degree or programs will be the Saudi Electronic University’s learning outcomes. At the same time as creating the learning outcomes, there is also a need to think in terms of the students who come to the university to do the courses and that they have particular needs for learning. If they are doing a distance course, for example, some will be familiar with distance education, but most likely the majority will not. So in a centrally organized way, how can the university assure that the students get the support they need in order to complete a degree at a distance? The next step is developing the course, e.g., this is the program level; the program is made of a number of courses; under each course how many courses do students need to complete to get the degree and demonstrate evidence that they have finished. To develop quality courses in distance mode, there is a need to have three distinct elements – carefully developed resources, carefully developed student activities (which drive the learning), the students’ support and feedback mechanisms (so they can monitor how well they are doing as they work their way through the course). At the same time, teachers can use those as the basis of providing a formative evaluation of how well students are doing. When the students finish the course, they will need to have some kind of assessment to evaluate the students’ learning, or to provide an assessment in order to evaluate how well each student has done to meet the needs of the degree – to become an administrator, someone who is involved in public health or a computer science engineer. Then once they have achieved that, there is an evidence to measure student abilities to achieve the learning outcomes set. Therefore, these cases require the same learning outcomes. This in return, provides actual feedback on the courses in order to improve the quality of the courses and to improve the students’ learning outcomes. Therefore, this is the practical and theoretical quality assurance model for the curriculum design. If all programs use this structure, they could assure the quality of their curriculum design. References Abu Seileek, A. F. (2009). Cooperative vs. individual learning of oral skills in a CALL environment. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: King Saud University. Alebaikan, R., & Troudi, S. (2010). Online discussion in blended courses at Saudi Universities. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 507–514. Alfahad, F. (2012). Effectiveness of using information technology in higher education in Saudi Arabia. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 1268–1278. Al Ghafli, M. H. (2011). The effect of mediated glosses on vocabulary retention and reading comprehension with English language learners in Saudi Arabia. Dissertation Abstracts International, 72(9), A. (UMI No.3458207)

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T. Elyas & A. Al-Garni Alkhalaf, S., Drew, S., & Alhussain, T. (2012). Assessing the impact of e-learning systems on learners: A survey study in the KSA. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 47, 98–104. Alshayea, A. (2012). Improvement of the quality assurance in Saudi higher education. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 47, 2234–2236. Alshumaimeri, Y. A. (2008). Perceptions and attitudes toward using CALL in English classrooms among Saudi secondary EFL teachers. The JALT CALL Journal, 4(2), 29–46. Alurani, S. (2005). Distance learning. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: King Fahad Library. Alwatan [Online]. Retrieved July 6, 2014, from http://www.alwatan.com.sa/Local/News_Detail.aspx? ArticleID=193511&CategoryID=5 Barker, A. (2003). Faculty development for teaching online: Educational and technological issues. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 34(6), 273–278. Biggs, J. (2003). Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment. Higher Education, 32(3), 347–364. Biggs, J. (2014). Constructive alignment in university. HERDSA Review of Higher Education, 1, 1–22. Biggs, J., & Tang, C. (2011). Teaching for quality learning at University (4th ed.). Berkshire, England: Society for Research in Higher Education and Open University Press. Bloom, B., Engelhart, M., Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. New York, NY: David McKay Company. Brew, A., & Jewell, E. (2012). Enhancing quality learning through experiences of research-based learning: Implications for academic development. International Journal for Academic Development, 17(1), 47–58. Brooks, L. (2003, Winter). How the attitudes of instructors, students, course administrators, and course designers affects the quality of an online learning environment. Journal of Distance Education Administration [Online]. Retrieved from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/winter64/brooks64.htm Brown, R. (2012). Quality assurance 1992–2012. Perspectives: Policy and Practice in Higher Education, 16(4), 113–117. Brumfit, C., & Johnson, K. (1979). The communicative approach to language teaching. Londan, England: Oxford University Press. Canale, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1, 1–12. Churchill, D., King, M., & Fox, B. (2013). Learning design for science education in the 21st century. Journal of the Institute for Educational Research, 45(2), 404–421. Cornell University [Online]. Retrieved April 16, 2014, from http://cornelluniversity.tumblr.com/post/ 82120431169/cu-around-march-2014-cornell-university Creswell, J. (2012). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. London, England: Sage. Daniel, S. J. (2012). Foreword. In I. S. Jung & C. Latchem (Eds.), Quality assurance and accreditation in distance education and e-learning: Models, policies, and research (pp. xiii–xvi). New York, NY: Routledge. Davies, R. S., Howell, S. L., & Petrie, J. A. (2010). A review of trends in distance education scholarship at research universities in North America, 1998–2007. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 11(3), 42–56. Dickinson, J., & Wood, J. (2010). Quality assurance and evaluation in the lifelong learning sector. London, England: Learning Matters/Sage. Elyas, T., & Basalamah, O. (2012). The emergent effects of a wired world to an educational paradigm shift in Saudi Arabia: A Case Study. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 47, 1534–1538. Elyas, T., & Picard, M. (2013). Critiquing of higher education policy in Saudi Arabia: Towards a new neoliberalism. Education, Business and Society: Contemporary Middle Eastern Issues, 6(1), 31–41. Firth, A., & Wagner, J. (1997). On discourse, communication, and (some) fundamental concepts in SLA research. The Modern Language Journal, 81(3), 285–300. Fraij, L. (2013). Online learning in the Arab world. Jordan, Middle East: Talal Abu Ghazaleh University. Frankola, K. (2001, October). Why online learners drop out. Workforce. Retrieved from http://findarticles.eom/p/articles/mimOFXS/is10 80/ai79352432/print

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Curriculum Design Quality Assurance of Distance Education Galusha, J. (2011). Barriers to learning in distance education. Hattiesburg, MI: University of Southern Mississippi Press. Ginns, P., & Ellis, R., (2007). Quality in blended learning: Exploring the relationships between on-line and face-to-face teaching and learning. Internet and Higher Education, 10, 53–64. Gonzalez, M., Quesada, G., Mueller, J., & Mueller, R. (2011). International business curriculum design: Identifying the voice of the customer using QFD. Journal of International Education in Business, 4(1), 6–29. Gvaramadze, I. (2012). Developing generic competences in online virtual education programmes at the University of Deusto. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 29(1), 4–20. Hou, A. (2012). Impact of excellence programs on Taiwan higher education in terms of quality assurance and academic excellence, examining the conflicting role of Taiwan’s accrediting agencies. Asia Pacific Education Review, 13(1), 77–88. Hymes, D. (1971). Sociolinguistics and the ethnography of speaking. Social Anthropology and Language, 47–93. Jackson, D., Sibson, R., & Riebe, L. (2014). Undergraduate perceptions of the development of teamworking skills. Education + Training, 56(1), 7–20. Jones, C. (2006). Enterprise education: Revisiting whitehead to satisfy Gibbs. Education + Training, 48(5), 356–367. Karman, S., Aydemir, M., Kuçuk, S., & Yildirim, G. (2013). Virtual classroom participants’ views for effective synchronous education process. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 14(1). Retrieved from http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr/tojde50/articles/article_25.htm Kettunen, J. (2011). Strategy and quality maps in higher education. US-China Education Review, 8(2), 149–156. Kirtman, L. (2009). Online versus in-class courses: An examination of differences in learning outcomes. Issues in Teacher Education, 18(2), 103–115. Lane, D. R. (1994). Computer-mediated communication in the classroom: Asset or liability? Workshop presented at the Interconnect ‘94 Teaching, Learning & Technology Conference October 14, 1994. Retrieved April 10, 2014, from http://www.uky.edu/~drlane/techno/cmcasset.htm Lever-Duffy, J., & McDonald, J. (2007). Teaching and learning with technology. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Long, M., & Porter, P. A. (1985). Group work, interlanguage talk and second language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly, 19(2), 207–228. McIsaac, M. S., & Gunawardena, C. N. (1996). Distance education. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for education communication and technology (pp. 403–437). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster McMillan. Meyer, K. (2002). Quality in distance education: Focus on on-line learning. San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass. Middlehurst, R. (2003). Quality assurance and accreditation for virtual education: A discussion of models and needs. Guildford, UK: University of Surrey Press. Mirza, A., & Al-Abdulkareem, M. (2011). Models of e-learning adopted in the Middle East. Applied Computing and Informatics, 9(2), 83–93. Moore, M., & Kearsley, G. (2005). Distance education: A systems view. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Oliver, R., & Harrington, J. (2001). Teaching and learning online: A beginner’s guide to e-learning and e-teaching in higher education. Centre for Research in Information Technology and Communications. Edith Cowan University Press. Orlich, D., Harder, R., Callahan, R., Trevisan, M., & Brown, A. (2004). Teaching strategies: A guide to effective instruction. London, England: Houghton Mifflin. Potter, M., & Kustra, E. (2012). A primer on learning outcomes and the SOLO Taxonomy. Windsor, ON: Centre for Teaching and Learning, University of Windsor. Radford, W. (2011). Learning at a distance: Undergraduate enrollment in distance education courses and degree programs. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Reed, A. (2000, March 15). Computer mediated communication and the traditional classroom. Teaching with technology newsletter. Retrieved May 10, 2011 from http://www.uwsa.edu/ttt/reed.htm

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T. Elyas & A. Al-Garni Robley, W., Whittle, S., & Murdoch-Eaton, D. (2005). Mapping generic skills curricula: A recommended methodology. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 29(3), 221–231. Santoro, G. M. (1995). Overview of computer-mediated communication in education. In Z. Berge & M. Collins (Eds.), Computer-mediated communication and the online classroom: Overview and perspectives. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. Saudi Electronic University. (2014). About SEU. Retrieved August 19, 2014, from https://www.seu.edu.sa/ sites/en/AboutSEU/Pages/HistoryTimeline.aspx Savignon, S. J. (1987). Communicative language teaching. Theory into Practice, 26(4), 235–242. Stephens, D. (2007). Quality issues in distance learning. Tampa, FL: The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business. Strauss, P., & Alice, U. (2007). Group assessments: Dilemmas facing lecturers in multicultural tertiary classrooms. Higher Education Research & Development, 26(2), 147–161. Tawfiq, S., & Moussa, H. (2007). A supervised study: The role of e-learning in building an Arab knowledge society. The Journal of the College of Education in Al-Monofia University, 3, 7–26. Thurab-Nkhosi, D., & Marshall, S. (2009). Quality management in course development and delivery at the university of the West Indies distance education centre. Quality Assurance in Education, 17(3), 264–280. Tran, N., Nguyen, T., & Nguyen, M. (2011). The standard of quality for HEIs in Vietnam: A step in the right direction? Quality Assurance in Education, 19(2), 130–140. Usmani, M., & Al-Karni, A. (2013). A framework for assuring quality of e-learning programs in the kingdomof Saudi Arabia. Presented at the 3rd e-Learning International conference, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Wedel, J. R., Shore, C., Feldman, G., & Lathrop, S. (2005). Toward an anthropology of public policy. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 600(1), 30–51. Wigglesworth, G., & Storch, N. (2012). What role for collaboration in writing and writing feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 21(4), 364–374. Wijetunge, P. (2009). A critical evaluation of the curriculum development strategy of the LIS education programs in Sri Lanka. Library Review, 58(9), 670–684.

Tariq Elyas King AbdulAziz University Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Abdullah Al-Garni University of New South Wales Australia

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9. EAP as an Index of Academic Excellence in Medical Studies at Majma’ah University

Introduction

It is common knowledge that ESP is an umbrella term that subsumes two broad areas: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP), which are further classified into a number of branches corresponding to relevant academic disciplines and professions that they serve. According to DudleyEvans et al. (1998, p. 6), the major branches of EAP are English for Science and Technology, English for Medical Purposes, English for Legal Purposes and English for Management, Finance and Economics. On other hand, EOP comprises two major branches: English for Professional Purposes and English for Vocational Purposes. In line with the research questions stated in (i) below, this study focuses exclusively on the first branch of ESP, i.e., EAP; both terms will be used interchangeably throughout this study. Ever since it originated in the second half of the 20th century, the scope of ESP has undergone major conceptual changes as informed by the attempts to define it. For instance, the view that ESP is a matter of “unique linguistic values that the scientific community places on the way it uses words for conducting its activities and achieving its goals” (Goldbort, 2006, p. 2) is reminiscent of the scientific English movement dating back to the 1960s and 1970s. Research informs that this stage of ESP development, known technically as register analysis, focused on the teaching of grammatical features as required rhetorical structures of different scientific genres (Johns, 2013, p. 7). Second, the introduction of the communicative language teaching (CLT) in the 1970s contributed a number of concepts that tremendously benefited ESP. For instance, approaching language as a system of communication has shifted attention from the teaching of technical vocabulary and sentence structure that were inherent in scientific English to the study of language as discourse, i.e., the study of “sentences in combination,” to use Widdowson’s term, to negotiate meaning (Halliday & Hassan, 1976; Widdowson, 1983; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). According to Dudley-Evans (2000), this stage of ESP development, also known in the literature as functional/notional approach, resulted in the production of a number of textbook series such the Nucleus Series (e.g., Bates & Dudley-Evans, 1976) and A. K. Hamdan (Ed.), Teaching and Learning in Saudi Arabia, 175–184. © 2015 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

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The Focus Series (e.g., Allen & Widdowson, 1974) which were widely used in the teaching of ESP across the globe. Both series focused primarily on the teaching of English for Science and Technology, except for a single textbook that was devoted to English for Social Studies, i.e., Allen and Widdowson (1978). The author’s choice not to emphasize English for social sciences might have been motivated by the argument that this genre contains “fewer unfamiliar technical terms than scientific discourse …” (Woodward-Kron, 2008, p. 235). Third, while ESP is still conceived to emanate from foreign learners’ need to study English to overcome academic problems caused by the use of English as a medium of instruction, researchers have recently extended its scope to include a new mechanism whereby students are socialized into their respective academic fields. This new development is explicitly stated in Hyland (2006, p. 8) that “practitioners have come to see themselves as not only simply preparing learners for study in English but as developing new kind of literacy which will equip students to participate in new academic and cultural contexts.” Specifically speaking, students will be introduced to the academic discourse used by, say, doctors, engineers and programmers, etc. so that they succeed academically. By contrast, ignorance of the relevant academic discourse results in depriving beginning academics from academic success (White & Lowenthal, 2011, p. 7). The available literature abounds in a variety of terms that are used to describe this socialization process, including, “academic discourse socialization”, “development of academic literacies”, and “language socialization” (Rogoff, 1991; as cited in Duff, 2007, p. 3). Yet, academic socialization does not imply that students will be imprisoned within the boundaries of the academic discourse of their majors. Practice informs that students can cross these boundaries “to take elective courses, discussing problems and assignments with their peers, lecturers and advisors and engaging in a disparate range of spoken and written genres” (Hyland, 2002, p. 389). Unlike other branches of English language teaching (ELT), ESP is characterized by specificity and multi-disciplinarity. As to its specific nature, it is argued that acquisition of disciplinary competence includes, among other things, learning disciplinary linguistic conventions (Hyland, 2006; Woodward-Kron, 2008; Basher, 2010). In other words, such an enculturation process “involves learning specialized discourse for reading and writing, for presenting orally, for reasoning and problem solving and carrying out practical research activities” (Hyland, 2006, p. 38). In a previous work, Hyland (2002, p. 390) reports that there is evidence to suggest that disciplinary writing at the tertiary level reflects specific educational activities taking place in different disciplines. For example, writing courses in humanities and social sciences are analytical and synthetic in nature whereas science and technology requires activity-based writing skills, including descriptions of procedures and definitions of objects. On the other hand, the multidisciplinary nature of ESP emanates from the conceptual insights it receives from the other specialist subjects. Dudley-Evans et al. (1998) maintain that the content of ESP relates to these 176

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disciplines and, thus, it centers upon the teaching of language forms appropriate to them at different levels of linguistic analysis: syntax, lexis, discourse and semantics. This ESP aspect, the argument goes, reduces the language teacher’s opportunity to be “the primary knower of the content of the material” being taught (p. 13). Such a consideration has led to the conclusion that “even if the subject specific conventions could be readily identified, they should be left to those who know them best, the subject teachers themselves” (Spack, 1988; as cited in Hyland, 2006, p. 11). This argument could be rejected on two grounds. First, Spack’s view draws on the false assumption that language teachers go into the classroom to teach both language structures and subject specific content. While it is widely acknowledged that language teachers need “to grasp the conceptual structure” of the subject their students are studying in order to understand how language fits into them (Flowerdew & Peacock, 2001, p. 18), their only role remains to be the demonstration of the language component embodied in the task at hand even if they use authentic material for this purpose. Second, subject specialists could not be expected to teach “disciplinary literacy skills as they generally have neither the expertise nor the desire to do so” (Hyland, 2006, p. 11). Yet, supporters of Spack’s stance might wish to argue that by teaching subject specific material through the medium of English, subject specialists simultaneously teach literacy skills. Once again, this argument could be rejected on the grounds that the multidisciplinary nature of ESP has led to the emergence of such concepts as cooperation, collaboration and team-teaching, whereby language teachers and subject specialists are brought together not only to co-produce ESP course materials but also to team-teach it. Over the last three years the researchers have participated in a long discussion with a number of Majma’ah University (MU) stakeholders, including students, faculty and Deans regarding English language teaching at the Colleges of Applied Medical Sciences, Engineering and Medicine. For the most part, this discussion centered upon the nature of the English courses taught in these colleges. Generally speaking, three English areas formed the backbone of these courses: general English, nursing terms and medical devices terms. It was uncertain if English language teachers were involved in the writing of the syllabi pertaining to these courses. In fact, there is evidence to suggest they were not; viz. a subject-specific textbook was prescribed to be the basis of teaching at the Department of Medical Devices. Needless to say, English teachers were not trained to teach a subject-specific content, and they could not, therefore, be expected to make such a choice. Most stakeholders seemed satisfied with their English syllabus but for different reasons. For instance, both students and faculty at the Departments of Nursing and Medical Devices were pleased with the authentic materials used to teach relevant terms. Equally, the general English course taught at the College of Medicine was conceived to serve their specific purpose, i.e., prepare the students to pass the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) as a necessary condition 177

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to enroll in the College at the second level. The only dissenting voice was that of the Engineering students who doubted if the general English courses they were enrolled in could prepare them to understand lectures and subject resources written in English. Owing to the fact that EAP is widely conceived to emanate from practices underlying specific scientific domains (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Widdowson, 2003; Hyland, 2002, 2006), this chapter argues that it would be the most appropriate approach to English language education to enable the students to avail themselves of educational resources written in English, follow specialist classes conducted in English, and communicate with non-Arabic speaking faculty, among others. In other words, the need for EAP courses is a matter of academic urgency “to improve the students’ overall language proficiency and to introduce them to the linguistic conventions and academic skills that they need for their university study” (Terraschke & Wahid, 2011, p. 174). However, there does not seem to be well-founded traditions to address the students’ EAP needs in Saudi academia. It is true that there are many English institutes and centers in the Saudi tertiary institutions, but most of their activities focus on the teaching of English as a university requirement and, thus, pay less attention to the students’ subject-related needs. Even the few attempts to consider these needs follow the 18th century grammar-translation methodology in presenting course materials. Sure enough, such a practice could not be expected to develop the language skills needed to facilitate the comprehension of subjectspecific contents. What is more, Al-Humaidi (2007) reported that ESP syllabus in some Saudi tertiary institutions is often subsumed under general English. Even worse, it is not based on a systematic needs assessment; i.e., EAP syllabus is primarily determined by the teacher's intuition. In the light of what has to date been discussed regarding English language teaching at MU, the present study intends to answer the following questions: i. How is EAP currently approached and practised at MU? ii. How do subject-specific faculty and students at Colleges of Applied Medical Sciences and Medicine perceive the need for EAP skills? Method

Participants The study participants comprised five EAP-related groups: three EAP faculty, four (male) subject-specific faculty from the Colleges of Applied Medical Sciences and Medicine (two faculty each), the Dean of the College of Applied Medical Science and 20 advanced level (male) students from the same colleges (ten students each).

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Instruments Two instruments were used to collect data for this study: an interview and examination of the EAP program. As to the first instrument, all the participants mentioned in the previous section were interviewed in an attempt to diagnose the degree of EAP needs from students’ and faculty perspective. The procedure section provides a detailed account of the steps taken to interview different EAP stakeholders. On the other hand, the EAP program implemented by the Preparatory Year Deanship (PYD) was examined to diagnose the amount of input provided; Tables 1 and 2 report the result of program examination. Procedure The first author’s College Dean officially addressed the Deans of Applied Medical Sciences and Medicine at Majma’ah University to get permission for collecting data from different stakeholders in these two colleges. Appointments for interviews with EAP and subject-specific faculty, Deans and students were scheduled in the second term of the academic year 2012/2013. Students were met in classrooms where answers for the research questions were collectively brainstormed; they were summarized in the statements given in the next section. Results

Interview with EAP Management It was reported in the first section above that different colleges had been teaching different English courses for different purposes. However, as from the academic year 2012/2013, the newly established Preparatory Year Deanship (PYD) has taken over the responsibility for EAP courses. As a result, major changes have been introduced into the English syllabus whereby the students have started to do intensive general English (GE) and ESP courses in the first and second terms of their university education respectively. The interview with the academic supervisor of the Deanship produced a huge amount of information summarized in Tables 1 and 2. Table 1. First term syllabus Level

Academic tracks

Weekly hours

Weeks per level

Hours per week

Foundation

All tracks

20

4

80

Level 1

All tracks

20

4

80

Level 2

All tracks

20

4

80

Level 3

All tracks

20

4

80

Level 4

All tracks

20

4

80

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Table 2. Second term syllabus Level

Academic Tracks

Weekly hours

Weeks per level

Hours per level

Level 5

Engineering and Computer Science

4

15

60

Level 5

Medical Sciences

4

15

60

In principle, the PYD academic programs target the students who are originally enrolled at Colleges of Engineering, Computer Sciences, Applied Medical Sciences, Dentistry and Medicine. Where English language syllabus is concerned, all entrants take a placement test to determine if they should do the foundation course or proceed to enroll in the GE syllabus offered sequentially in four levels (the term “level” refers to the English proficiency to be achieved in the manner just indicated). Tables 1 and 2 show that the PYD not only increased the language input (compared to previous practices), it also enhanced teaching quality in terms of class size and employment of instructional technology. In fact, the language input provided in the two terms outweigh the language input provided by different MU English Departments in four terms. Also, observation of classes showed few students comfortably interacting with their peers and teachers. Interview with Subject-Specific Faculty Subject-specific faculty at the colleges of Medicine and Applied Medical Science were interviewed about the EAP perceived need among their students and about the function of general English function in their Colleges. It was concluded that English was the medium of instruction at the College of Medicine. It was also used in studentfaculty communication as there are many non-Arabic-speaking faculty. By contrast, Arabic was the medium of instruction in the College of Applied Sciences; however, the College administration and faculty emphasized that their students need English to understand a myriad of subject-specific terms used in classes and specialized periodicals and references written in English. Students’ Interview Participants from both colleges were interviewed about their need for English and English language teaching given the fact that they had been matriculated at MU before PYD was established. Below is a summary of their responses: a. College of Applied Medical Sciences: 1. E   nglish courses should focus on medical terms and description of medical devices.

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2. T   he students are more motivated in classes of English for Medical Purposes than in general English classes. 3. W   e need specialized English dictionaries. 4. B   ecause most teaching faculty are Arabs, they use Arabic as a medium of communication and instruction most of the time. 5. C   urrent English classes are not enough to improve our performance in English. 6. T   he College does not pay enough attention to our need for ESP. b. College of Medicine: 7. We need English because all classes are in English. 8. All Professors use references in English. 9. Many Professors do not speak Arabic and we have to talk to them in English. 10. We need English to communicate with foreign doctors in the hospital. 11. We are required to write research in English. 12. English is the major language of medicine. It should be pointed out in this connection that these responses represent the participants’ wish for what might be done by their colleges to resolve their language dilemma. While they still need English to serve these purposes, colleges ceased to offer English courses at advanced levels. Discussion

Although the PYD offers a rich language input for the newcomers, it is uncertain if it could serve their future academic needs given the fact that English language teaching starts and ends at their year of tertiary education. There is a view to suggest it does not. Hussein (2012, p. 74) argued that students have intermediate, late and very late EAP needs that pertain to access to knowledge, field work and employment settings consecutively. So, as the students move to higher educational levels, they need more advanced EAP skills. There are at least two pieces of evidence to support this argument. First, the feedback given by the senior participants reported above showed awareness of EAP skills characteristic of advanced academic settings, e.g., communication with medical staff in hospitals, writing course-related papers, understanding and description of medical devices. Awareness of such skills could not be expected of students doing an introductory EAP course. Second, third world candidates who wish to pursue their postgraduate studies in English-speaking countries should either pass international tests such IELTS and TOEFL or attend an English program for a whole academic year before proceeding to start their training, even if they hold a degree in English. Implicit in this stipulation is the assumption that there are academic EAP skills they are yet to acquire to be able follow classes. Similar cases of the lack of a methodological approach to the students’ EAP needs abound in the Saudi context. For instance, Al-Harby (2005, p. 2) reported 181

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that many tertiary institutions in Saudi Arabia provide ESP courses to prepare the students to succeed in their future career. Such an approach confuses EAP and EOP and cannot, therefore, be expected to assist the students with their current academic dilemma. Even worse, previous research concluded that teachers and students at health, engineering and business management colleges in Saudi Arabia realize that ESP is “a better option because it will equip the students with necessary information of their concerned subject …” (Ahmad, 2012, p. 21). This finding supposes that the ESP teacher is an omniscient scholar who could teach both English and subjectspecific content. As mentioned at the beginning of this section, EAP facilitates learning in academic situations where English is the medium of instruction and enculturates students into academia. Where the participants of this study are concerned, they receive most of their academic enculturation through the medium of Arabic since it is the official language of academic and administrative communication, even in the College of Medicine where English is the medium of instruction. In other words, apart from communicating with a handful of professors who do not share their mother tongue, students use Arabic in communicating with peers, college administration, Arabic-speaking professors, library staff, students’ Deanship staff (a most influential enculturating source), etc. Such an Arabic-mediated academic environment might tempt some stakeholders (e.g., advocates of Arabicization of higher education) to argue that the Saudi students do not, in fact, have urgent EAP needs to justify their complaint about the lack of advanced EAP courses to serve the academic purposes they emphasized in the interview. In other words, the argument is one drawing on the assumption that since Arabic can effectively enculturate the students into the academia, then EAP is of limited value. Also, it could receive further reinforcement from the status of English as a foreign language in Saudi Arabia where the students shift to English as soon as they leave the classroom. However, that Arabic plays a vital enculturation role among the students does not detract from the urgency of EAP in their academic life. In fact, unlike Arabic, EAP is a global vehicle for the conventions peculiar to the students’ respective academic communities. All things considered, these conventions are acquired through participation in the classroom interactions, adaptations to the demand of disciplinary writing, mastery of specialist vocabulary, dealing with required readings and development of critical thinking (Terraschke & Wahid, 2011, p. 174). To conclude this section, it is plausible to refer to Hyland’s (2012, p. 11) convincing statement that acquisition of such subject-specific discourse conventions “provides security for individuals by making the world meaningful and populated by others who have similar understandings and ways of sharing ideas.” While the participants’ mother tongue can bring them together with local members for a given discourse community, access to membership of similar communities across the globe can only be achieved through English. 182

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Conclusion and Implications

English language is currently gaining heightened importance in Saudi academia for a number of reasons. First, departments of applied sciences (mostly medicine and engineering) use English as a medium of instruction; and even when this is not the case, students are expected to read (online and printed) educational materials written in English. Second, the Saudi Ministry of Higher Education has recently released its Digital Library (SDL) comprising English-medium databases. It goes without saying that only working English skills can render these resources useful. Third, most Saudi teaching assistants and lecturers in public tertiary institutions go to English-speaking countries (notably the US, Australia, and the UK) on scholarships. While their departments of origin do not necessarily use English as a medium of instruction, it is certain that achieving an appropriate level of English proficiency is crucial for their academic success in the host institutions. Fourth, Saudi tertiary institutions have recently become much concerned with classification relative to other comparable institutions locally, regionally and globally. In an attempt to enhance their classificatory statuses, they have adopted a number of procedures, including the recruitment of first-rate researchers from leading institutions in English-speaking countries and encouragement of their existing faculties to publish research in English-medium journals. Despite the effort made by the PYD to equip the students with the necessary EAP skills, it can be argued that the current effort is far less than what is needed to serve advanced specialist courses, let alone the future graduate and professional needs just mentioned. This argument receives support from feedback given by the advanced level students at the Colleges of Applied Medical Sciences and Medicine, who demanded for advanced EAP skills to enable them to function effectively in an English-mediated academic environment. To conclude, the participants’ voice is loud and clear and should be taken seriously by the administration of their colleges. References Ahmad, J. (2012). Theoretical framework and growing demand for ESP in Saudi Arabia. Archives Des Sciences, 65(5), 114–120. Al-Harby, M. (2005). ESP target situation needs analysis: The English language communicative needs as perceived by health professionals in the Riyadh area. A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy, Athens, GA. Al-Humaidi, M. M. (n.d.). English for specific purposes: Review of literature. Retrieved from http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/alhumaidi/publications/English Allen, J., & Widdowson, H. (Eds.). (1974). English in focus series. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Basher, S. (2010). Acquiring discipline-specific literacy in a second language. A case study of an ESL students. Taiwan International ESP Journal, 2(2), 17–47. Bates, M., & Dudley-Evans, T. (Series Eds.). (1976). Nucleus: English for science and technology. London, England: Longman Group Ltd.

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E.-S. Y. Ezza & N. Al-Jarallah Dudley-Evans, T. (2000). Genre analysis: A key to a theory of ESP? IBERICA, 3, 3–11. Dudley-Evans, T., & St. John, M. J. (1998). Developments in ESP: A multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Duff, P. A. (2007). Problematizing academic discourse socialization. In H. Marriott, T. Moore, & R. Spence-Brown (Eds.), Learning discourses and the discourses of learning (pp. 1–18). Melbourne, Australia: Monash University ePress. Flowerdew, J., & Peacock, M. (2001). Issues in EAP: A preliminary perspective. In J. Flowerdew & M. Peacock (Eds.), Research perspectives on English for academic purposes, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Goldbort, R. (2006). Writing for science. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Halliday, M. A. K., & Ruqaiya, H. (1976). Cohesion in English. London, England: Longman. Hussein, Y. H. (2012). Developing an academic English curriculum for Sudanese universities: Parameters and context. In B. Gray & M. Krzanwaski (Eds.), Time for change: Developing English language teaching at tertiary level in Sudan. London, England: The British Council. Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for specific purposes: A learning-centred approach. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Hyland, K. (2002). Specificity revisited: How far should we go now? English for Specific Purposes, 21, 385–395. Hyland, K. (2006). English for academic purposes: An advanced resource book. Abingdon, England: Routledge. Hyland, K. (2012). Disciplinary identities: Individuality and community in academic discourse. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Johns, A. (2013). The history of English for specific purposes research. In B. Paltridge & S. Starfield (Eds.), The handbook of English for specific purposes (pp. 1–26). Chichester, England: John Willey and Sons Inc. Terraschke, A., & Wahid, R. (2011). The impact of EAP study on the academic experiences of international postgraduate students in Australia. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 10(3), 173–182. White, J. W., & Lowenthal, P. R. (2011). Minority college students and tacit “Codes of Power”: Developing academic discourses and identities. Review of Higher Education, 34(2), 283–318. Widdowson, H. (1983). New starts and different kind of failure. In A. Freedman, I. Pringle, & J. Yalden (Eds.), Learning to write: First language/second language (pp. 34–37). New York, NY: Longman. Widdowson, H. G. (2003). Defining issues in English language teaching. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Woodward-Kron, R. (2008). More than just jargon – The nature and role of specialist language in learning disciplinary knowledge. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 7, 234–249.

El-Sadig Yahya Ezza Majma’ah University Majma’ah, Saudi Arabia Nasser Al-Jarallah Majma’ah University Majma’ah, Saudi Arabia

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10. Best Practices in English Language Testing at the University Preparatory Year Programs

Best Practices in English Language Testing

“Language tests play a powerful role […] as gateways at important transitional moments …” (McNamara, 2008, p. 4). The aim of this chapter is to study current best practices in English language assessment, with reference to English programs in the Preparatory Year at Saudi state-funded universities. The main goal of setting up Preparatory Year Programs (PYPs) in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has been to equip pre-university students with new century skills, bringing them up to par with citizens of the knowledge-based world and enabling them to communicate effectively with the rest of the world. The English language is the most significant aspect of these programs. Saudi learners, who are usually taught English in schools using the grammar-translation method, are then exposed to the communicative approach to language teaching. All four skills – reading, writing, listening and speaking – are taught applying a communicative methodology. These programs are usually multi-level and include various kinds of assessment tools. The practice in international foundation programs is that students who are at too low a level for a program are not admitted and those who perform so well that they already meet the objectives of the course are exempted. This usually does not happen on PYPs at Saudi state-funded universities. All students are accepted onto the course and those who are already advanced are not exempted from taking it. These students are then sorted into three levels of instruction. They usually take achievement tests at the end of two 8-week terms in each of the two semesters. The exams are standardized for all levels. The failure to achieve or exceed a specific percentage in the end of semester exam means the semester will have to be repeated and the student will attend remedial classes. This situation leaves little space for beginners to progress and a great deal of frustration and de-motivation for advanced level students. According to Holt (1994, p. 6), learner assessment has various purposes. A few of these are: “to place learners in appropriate instructional levels, to measure their ongoing progress, to qualify them to enrol in academic programs, to verify program effectiveness, and to demonstrate learner gains”. Data can be regularly collected using different assessment tools, in order to ensure that programs are “identifying learners’ needs, documenting the learners’ progress toward meeting their own goals, and ascertaining the extent to which the project objectives are being met.” Assessment A. K. Hamdan (Ed.), Teaching and Learning in Saudi Arabia, 185–205. © 2015 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

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based on time-tested theories is a strong indicator of the quality of a language-learning program. Moreover, students should be exposed to various kinds of testing methods, as this will bring out their best performance, according to their proclivities and needs. Types of Language Tests Proficiency tests.  Proficiency tests measure learners’ ability in a language, without considering whether or not they have had any training. These tests are not based on any specific syllabus or course specifications, but are “Rather […] based on a specification of what candidates have to be able to do in the language, in order to be considered proficient” (Hughes, 1989, p. 9). The best-known proficiency tests are IELTS and TOEFL, which are internationally standardized. Some universities even exempt students from taking the final semester exam if they are able to achieve band 5 or above in IELTS. Achievement tests.  As compared to proficiency tests, which predict the future without relating it to past learning experiences, achievement tests are related to learners’ prior learning (McNamara, 2003). According to Hughes (1989, p. 10), achievement tests are “directly related to language courses”; the purpose being to measure whether or not the course objectives have been achieved. These tests establish how successful both the students and the courses have been. Achievement tests are usually based on course content and are said to be fair as they test learners on something they are familiar with. On the other hand, if the course is poorly designed and taught, or if textbooks are wrongly chosen, the test results will not be accurately interpreted and will be misleading. For example, one of the course objectives for a beginners’ class might be writing short paragraphs of 25–40 words on familiar topics. However, the students might only have been taught and tested using a blank-filling exercise for a given paragraph. This is not in itself a direct test of writing, but it may be an indirect test of one of the writing sub-skills. In another situation, if learners are asked to write a paragraph, they might be strictly penalized for each spelling mistake, which would again lead to a misleading result. Hughes (1989) therefore suggested that achievement tests, instead of being based on course content, should be based on course objectives. The learning objectives should be clearly stated and should be realistic. Otherwise, even this may distort the score and lead to a wrong interpretation of the result. Diagnostic tests.  Diagnostic tests identify learners’ strengths and weaknesses. Alderson, Brunfaut and Harding (2014) present five tentative principles for diagnostic language tests. 1. It is not the test that diagnoses, it is the test-user. 2. The instruments themselves should be designed to be user-friendly, targeted, discrete and efficient, with a specific diagnostic purpose in mind. 186

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3. Diagnostic tests can be administered in the classroom, designed or assembled by a trained classroom teacher, and should generate rich and detailed feedback for the test-taker. 4. The diagnostic assessment process should include diverse stakeholder views, including learners’ self-assessments. 5. Diagnostic language tests should lead to teachable interventions. However, the success of an achievement test will depend largely on the teacher being able to create specific instruments for informed judgments that will facilitate further teaching. This requires input from effective, competent teachers undergoing on-going professional development in the latest teaching and learning practices. Having said that, we cannot compartmentalize a student’s ability into ‘grammatical accuracy,’ ‘listening skills’ or ‘speaking.’ It is difficult to measure a student’s mastery of modal verbs or listening skills while listening to an academic lecture, as this will require the repeated testing of learners with lengthy tests, including all aspects of a given grammar point or skill. In 1989, Hughes lamented the lack of good diagnostic tests and mentioned that computers could play a significant role in changing that situation. He was right, as computers have facilitated language testing, but as Hughes (1989, p. 13) also stated, “a tremendous amount of work is still needed to produce tests from which the desired information can be obtained which can help both teachers and learners.” Placement tests.  Placement testing is defined as testing that divides students into groups on the basis of their ability. According to Leki (1991, p. 53), a placement test is not as “consequential” as an achievement or proficiency test. The latter can hinder a student’s progress into university, while a placement test “merely matches a student with an appropriate course”. Placement tests “reflect the content of a particular program” and so are less generalizable than other tests. If a student is incorrectly placed, the teacher can change that. Hughes (1989) does not recommend buying commercial tests for placement purposes, as these have been found not to work well. This is because each language program is different in nature, depending on the institution. Hughes (1989) therefore suggested producing ‘in house’, tailor-made tests for student placement. Developing a placement test is a tedious task, but it will save valuable time when students are placed precisely where they should be. There are also ethical issues involved, as the fair and accurate placement of a student will lead them to the university placement they deserve. The Qualities of Language Tests Bachman and Palmer (1996) have presented a model for the usefulness of a language test. They argue that there are six qualities in a test that play a decisive role in determining how useful it will be. The main purpose of a language test is to 187

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measure, as compared to other classroom activities, which are designed for learning. Four of the six qualities tests present are equally important for language tasks in classrooms: authenticity, impact, interactiveness and practicality. However, two of these qualities, reliability and validity, are only critical for tests and are “referred to as measurement qualities.” These two qualities are the basis of interpreting scores for the purpose of making inferences and decisions. Reliability.  Bachman and Palmer (1996) defined reliability as “consistency of measurement”. This means that candidates should achieve the same scores, no matter how many times a test is administered in various settings. Furthermore, if two versions of a test are developed, which can be used interchangeably as they have the same characteristics, then a group of students should get roughly the same score for both versions. If they do not obtain similar scores, it means there is something wrong with the test; the scores “would be considered to be unreliable indicators of the ability we want to measure.” Further to the above, while marking compositions, some assessors are harsher than others. This would make the scores inconsistent and therefore, unreliable. This is the main reason why training sessions for assessors and markers, run by experts in this field, are so important. Having stated the above, Bachman and Palmer argued that it is not possible to achieve 100% reliability because there are so many other factors related to test development and test administration that we cannot control. However, one thing we have control over is test design, so we should try to “minimize variations in the test task characteristics that do not correspond to the variations” in the construct we intend to measure. Hughes (1989) was of the opinion that reliability depends on the number of test items – the greater the number of items, the more reliable the test. Moreover, he argued that these test items should be independent of each other. Another thing that Hughes (1989) pointed out is that reliable tests do not offer choices to candidates. The more freedom candidates are given, the more likely it is that their performance will differ on different occasions. Moreover, if the testing is subjective, Hughes (1989) suggested multiple, independent scoring, as this makes tests more reliable. Validity.  Henning (1987), as cited in Alderson et al. (2005), has given the following definition of validity: Validity in general refers to the appropriateness of a given test or any of its component parts as a measure of what it is purported to measure. A test is said to be valid to the extent that it measures what it is supposed to measure. (p. 89) It is therefore not the test itself that is valid or invalid; it is the “meaningfulness and appropriateness of the interpretations we make on the basis of test scores” (Bachman & Palmer, 1996). Moreover, Messick (1996) has defined validity as:

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… an overall evaluative judgment of the degree to which empirical evidence and theoretical rationales support the adequacy and appropriateness of interpretations and actions based on test scores or other modes of assessment. (p. 1) Thus, the most important role of validity is in the making and interpreting of tests. Furthermore, it is not enough to say that a given test is invalid; one has to justify how and why it is so. Only then can the driving question, “does the test assess what it is supposed to assess?” be answered. However, like reliability, it is impossible to aim for absolute validity. Cohen et al. (2000) argued that the aim should be one of; “minimizing invalidity, maximizing validity”, and therefore using measurement in validity as “a matter of degree” rather than a pursuit of perfection. Bachman and Palmer (1996) used the term ‘construct validity’, rather than ‘validity’ in their framework because they looked at the ‘overall usefulness’ of a test. On the other hand, Hughes (1989, p. 26) maintained that emphasising construct validity is not enough. Test validation is a complex process that needs empirical evidence in many forms, “including the subordinate forms of validity, content and criterion-related validity.” Content validity is related to the content of the test. “Content validity is defined as any attempt to show that the content of the test is a representative sample from the domain that is to be tested” (Fulcher & Davidson, 2007). For instance, a grammar test should be comprised of items related to the knowledge and control of grammatical structures, but this in itself will not ensure content validity; a test is said to have content validity if it has samples of relevant structures of grammar. The choice of these structures will depend on the purpose of the test. For example, the relevant structures in an achievement test for beginners cannot be the same as those designed for advanced learners (Hughes, 1989). At this point, test developers need clearly outlined test specifications, which should be written during the early stages of test development. After the test is formulated, experts who are experienced in both teaching and testing, but who are not involved in writing test items, should compare the test with the specifications. They should check it thoroughly and indicate any areas in the specifications that have been under- or over-represented in the test. This will guarantee accuracy and therefore, accurate measurement of what the test is supposed to measure, i.e., construct validity. Criterion-referenced validity is of two kinds: predictive and concurrent. As Fulcher and Davidson (2007) put it: Predictive validity is the term used when the test scores are used to predict some future criterion, such as academic success. If the scores are used to predict a criterion at the same time the test is given, we are studying concurrent validity. (p. 5)

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Hughes (1989) suggested designing a long test with all functions or sub-skills related to a specific construct. This is then to be administered to a sample of students. Next, another test must be designed, which is shorter and given to the same students. If the scores match, then the test has concurrent validity. Hughes (1989) set the longer test as a “criterion” against which the short test will be judged. In addition, this test should form part of an all-inclusive test; it cannot be valid on its own. Keeping in mind the time constraints of the academic year, the prospect of conducting an all-inclusive long test with a sample of students could seem to be an uphill task. However, Hughes (1989) presented a logistical solution; the longer test can be replaced by a classroom assessment, conducted by the tutor on the student sample and using reliable methods. Face Validity A test is said to have face validity if it appears to measure what it is supposed to measure (Hughes, 1989). For example, a test that is supposed to test reading abilities, but where marks are deducted for spelling mistakes, lacks face validity. Even if the criterion-related and content validity of such a test is established, it will not be accepted by any of the stakeholders. Hughes (1989) argued that these techniques have to be presented gradually and with “convincing explanations.” Construct Validity Every test has a theory behind it. This is the belief about “what language is, what language proficiency consists of, what language learning involves, and what language users do with the language” (Alderson, 1995, p. 16). Most teachers are unaware that they are following a theory while writing a test. They just know that they have to cover part or all of a relevant textbook in the test they are writing. Every language test “operationalizes” a theory or beliefs about second language learning. According to Alderson et al. (1995), each of these theories consists of constructs, which represent its main components and the relationship between them. McNamara (2008) stated that a construct is the way language and language use are perceived, together with the relationship of test performance to real-world contexts of use. If we take the four language skills, each has constructs of its own. For example, some of the constructs involved in listening are the recognition of connected speech and the understanding of gist. In reading, they involve scanning and skimming, and where speaking is concerned, intonation. All these sub-skills are constructs that are different from each other and therefore need to be validated separately. Construct validation is a process that assesses “how well a test measures the constructs” (Alderson et al., 1995). According to Bachman and Palmer (1996, p. 21), construct validity is “the extent to which we can interpret a given test score as an indicator of the abilities or construct(s), we want to measure”. They argued that this interpretation should “generalize beyond the test situation” to real life tasks. On the other hand, Hughes (1989, p. 26) stated the “the word construct refers to the underlying ability (or trait), which is hypothesized in a theory of language ability”. He presented the example of a reading sub-skill: guessing the meaning of unknown words from a particular context. It has to be empirically proved “whether or not this ability exists, can be measured, and is indeed measured in the test”. Without research or evidence, the test 190

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items related to this particular ability cannot be validated and therefore, the construct validity of the whole test is called into question. An apt example here would be the construct of writing. According to Hughes (1989), even without any research, one can attest that a direct test of writing ability is the right way to measure this ability. On the other hand, the question of validity arises when indirect writing ability tests are created and given to students. Can we therefore apply the same method here as was given above: a long and a short test? Hughes (1989) argued that we may pilot a direct writing test and mark it reliably; then create a shorter multiple-choice test of writing abilities and pilot that. If the scores match, the shorter test is found to be valid and vice versa. Is it really that simple? Does this measure all the underlying writing sub-skills? Hughes (1989) again suggested a long procedure where “a series of specially constructed tests” are administered, “measuring each of the constructs by a number of different methods”. In this way, a set of scores is determined for each student. The teachers now have a set of scores that will determine students’ abilities in the writing construct. This is beneficial for diagnostic purposes. However, it must be stressed that the writing construct must be measured by a direct test of writing, even if this merely entails writing a short paragraph from a given prompt. Regardless of the above, scores for indirect tests, even with content and criterionreferenced validity and high reliability, will not be able to interpret the writing abilities of learners. For instance, some ESL students memorize grammar rules so well that they tend to score very highly in standardized tests, but they might not be able to do so well in a timed writing assignment (Bailey, 1998). Authenticity

Another quality that Bachman and Palmer (1996) put forward is authenticity. This refers to the degree of correspondence of the characteristics of a given language test task to the features of a TLU (target language use) task. Thus, it provides a means of going beyond the score interpretation of test tasks to language use in the TLU domain. Authenticity can influence candidates’ perceptions of a test and their subsequent performance. For example, in a reading or speaking test, an experienced test-developer will tend to select topics that match the content the test-taker might come across “outside the test situation” or something that the test-taker is familiar with. This is another issue to think about while designing language tests. The topical content of achievement tests should be related to the topics students have already studied in their course books. However, there are often issues over the selection of textbooks. For instance, if Health Science students’ study books for general English containing general topics, such as travel, celebrities, hobbies, etc. throughout the year, this will not help them much in their future TLU domain, namely Health Sciences. This is a curriculum-related issue, which is beyond the scope of this chapter. Nevertheless, authenticity has to be taken into account from all perspectives, which will result in the design of meaningful tests. 191

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Interactiveness

Bachman and Palmer (1996) also mentioned the quality of interactiveness, which is “the extent and type of involvement of the test-taker’s individual characteristics within accomplishing a test task”. This would include language ability, topical knowledge and affective schemata. For instance, a test task that requires the testtaker to activate her schemata (background knowledge) is more interactive than the task that omits to do so. Thus, it is the connection between the individual and the test task that is important. It could be proposed that test-takers activate their schemata, even during a geometry or history test, which makes interactiveness a quality of all tests. Bachman and Palmer (1996, p. 26) have defined language ability as “including areas of language knowledge and strategic competence”. Therefore, when we make inferences about language ability, this must include language knowledge, along with strategic (metacognitive) competence. However, in a geometry test, we are not concerned with language knowledge. Bachman and Palmer concluded that “interactiveness in language tests is a critical quality as it provides the vital link with construct validity.” Impact

An important quality of language testing in general is the impact it can have on individuals, society and educational systems. Tests are not created and given in a “value-free psychometric test-tube; they are virtually always intended to serve the needs of an educational system or of society at large” (Bachman, 1990, p. 279). There are certain values involved when we administer tests, beyond getting teachers’ opinions on the performance of individual learners or making decisions based on past experience and seniority. A significant aspect of this impact is known as “washback”, which, according to Hughes (1989) is “the effect of testing on teaching and learning”. It can have either a beneficial or harmful effect on teaching and learning. Alderson et al. (1991) stated that test developers must investigate specific areas, such as content, methodology and assessment tools and the “extent of the presumed impact of tests on teaching”. They argued that washback does not only affect individuals, but also educational systems. Thus, the issue is more complex than simply the effect of testing on teaching. Further to the above, washback is said to be related to validity in that the more positive the effect of the test on teaching, the more valid it is. Washback, in fact, is “one form of test consequence that needs to be weighed in evaluating validity” (Messick, 1996). Bachman and Palmer (1996) have presented three aspects of testing that have a significant impact on test-takers: the experience of preparing and taking the test, feedback, and the decisions made on the basis of their scores. The test preparation 192

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period will entail practising the required test techniques, which might have no link with the syllabus. If test-takers are asked regularly about their perceptions of a test, this will have a positive impact on their performance, as they will be clear in their understanding of the tasks. Nevertheless, the test might have a surprise element that has a profound effect on the affective filter of the test-takers and might de-motivate them, despite them being proficient enough for the level of the test. Feedback in the form of scores can also greatly affect test-takers in that their future will lie in these scores. Bachman and Palmer (1996) actually suggested other types of feedback, like verbal descriptions, to help interpret scores, explain test tasks and interpret the test-takers’ performance. Lastly, decisions made on the basis of scores will significantly affect test-takers and have a direct impact on their lives. Bachman and Palmer (1996) asked for “fair decisions”, regardless of the background of the testtakers. They suggested considering all kinds of information in addition to scores, as they thought it is unfair to make such ‘life-affecting’ decisions on the basis of a test score (1996). Teachers are also greatly affected by tests. Teachers know very well how testing influences their instruction and that they cannot avoid the ‘washback effect’. It is something that does not go well with the values and goals of a language teacher but at the end of the day, students need good grades to progress within education systems and within professional fields, as well as for their own sense of achievement. Negative washback can be minimized by working on the gap between curriculum goals and assessment. If the teacher believes that what she is teaching is not what will be tested, serious steps need to be taken to change the testing methods. On the other hand, if teachers are dissatisfied with the quality of a language program, testing procedures arranged in accordance with current theories in the field of language testing can bring about change in the instructional process. Work needs to be done in this regard to observe how effective this strategy can be. Practicality

The final quality discussed by Bachman and Palmer (1996) is practicality, which is unlike the first five qualities, in that it does not refer to how test scores are used, but rather to the ways in which a test is developed, used and implemented. Practicality is defined as the “relationship between the resources that will be required in the design, development, and use of the test and the resources that will be available for these activities.” Test specifications should be prepared keeping practicality issues in mind. Based on the above review of key literature in this field, it can be assumed that Bachman and Palmer’s (1996) approach, pertaining to the actual ‘usefulness’ of a test can contribute to language test development at universities. It will “provide a principled basis” for working on these qualities and finding ways to smoothly consolidate and integrate them. Furthermore, it will connect all these qualities to 193

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the specific TLU domain, rendering this approach flexible enough to fit the Saudi university context. Designing Language Tests The “overarching principles” while designing language tests are validity and reliability (Alderson et al., 1995). Test designers should constantly refer to these two qualities while creating language tests. McNamara (2008) stated that the process of designing tests is not a linear, but rather a cyclical process. A new test will go through stages of design, construction and trialling, before reaching the fully operational stage, which should be considered as the final stage. However, it is this “operational stage of the test that generates evidence about its qualities.” It is important to investigate validity and reliability, because if there are doubts about these two principles, the scores will not mean anything and the purposes of the test, whether placement, achievement, or proficiency, will not be served. Test Specifications

The first step towards creating a language test is the drafting of test specifications. “A test’s specifications will provide an official statement on what the test tests and how it tests it” (Anderson et al., 1995, p. 9). This document is a kind of blueprint for test item writers and plays a significant role in establishing the test’s ‘construct validity’. In many English programs in universities in Saudi Arabia, the syllabus document is used as a test specification document. Alderson (1995) pointed out a clear difference between the two. He stated that the syllabus is a public document accessible to all. It is a simplified document that provides information for test users about what the test will be comprised of. It is aimed more at teachers and students who want to prepare for tests, the policy-makers who interpret the scores and make important decisions, and the publishers who develop materials to prepare the test. On the other hand, the test specifications are contained in a detailed, confidential document, meant for internal purposes within the examination body or the assessment team in the English department. It indicates the purpose of the test to the test developers and whether or not it is valid and reliable. Alderson et al. (1995) have provided a checklist for what the test specifications should entail. Whether or not all the points given below are included will depend on the audience, test-users, validators, admission officers, or publishers. 1. Purpose of the test 2. Description of the test-takers 3. Test level 4. Construct (theoretical framework for the test) 5. Description of course/textbook

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6. Number of sections/papers 7. Time for each section/paper 8. Weighting for each section/paper 9. Target language situation 10. Text types 11. Text length 12. Language skills to be tested 13. Language elements to be tested 14. Test tasks 15. Test methods 16. Rubrics 17. Criteria for marking 18. Descriptions of typical performance at each level 19. Description of what candidates at each level can do in the real world 20. Sample papers 21. Samples of students’ performance in tasks In order to give an idea of what a test specifications document looks like, an example of the test specifications for the reading section of a mid-term achievement test at intermediate level in a typical university English program is provided. It must be borne in mind that this is a fictional document and can be used as a framework for test specifications. FINAL EXAMINATION FOR THE PREPARATORY YEAR

Specifications for the Listening, Reading, Grammar and Vocabulary Test General Statement of Purpose The integrated final achievement test for the Preparatory Year is designed to assess the English language skills of students who have completed one semester (16 weeks) of English instruction on the PYP. English is not their first language and they hope to complete their undergraduate studies at the university in one of the health colleges where English is the medium of instruction. The aim of the test is to check students’ achievement in language skills and based on their scores, make decisions about their future acceptance at various health colleges. The focus of the test is academic English skills. The Test Battery The battery consists of five tests:

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Section

Time

Listening

30 minutes

Reading

60 minutes

Grammar and Vocabulary

30 minutes

Writing

60 minutes

Speaking

15 minutes

Separate scores are reported for the five tests. There is a different set of specifications for each of the other four tests. Reading Test Time allowed: One hour Test focus: The level of reading required for this test should be B1 according to the CEFR scales. Candidates have to demonstrate their ability to read textbooks, articles and other sources of information on topics related to those in the textbook, Headway Academic Skills, Level 2. Candidates are expected to show that they can use the following reading sub-skills: a. skimming b. scanning c. getting the gist d. identifying the topic sentence in the paragraph e. distinguishing between fact and opinion f. guessing the meaning of new words g. organizing, recording and remembering important information h. dealing with difficult language and scientific words and phrases. Text sources: academic books, papers, reviews, newspaper articles and online magazines relating to topics in the textbook. These include: a. university life b. countries c. technology d. famous people e. inventions, discoveries and processes f. general topics related to science (e.g., pollution, fast food, exercise and health, etc.) There should be three reading passages, one of which should be 100–150 words, and two of 200–250 words. All passages should be drawn strictly from the topics given above. The texts should also be interesting and positive and not depressing or 196

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negative. If passages are taken from authentic texts, they should be modified to suit the given levels of understanding. Complicated technical terms should be avoided but if unavoidable, a glossary should be given. Test tasks: Each test item should sample one or more of the reading sub-skills given above. Item writers should work on achieving a balance and follow the template that identifies each type of question in the reading passages. Item types: The Reading Test should contain 24 items – four for the first shorter passage, and ten for each of the longer passages. Each item should be a multiplechoice question with one mark each and item writers should provide an answer key once the test is finalized. Furthermore, item writers can formulate either short questions or gap-fills with four options. Instructions: A standard introduction should be written at the beginning of each reading passage in graded language that is lower than the students’ current language level. Designing and Developing Tests

The most important aspect of language testing is the development of test tasks “that will elicit language performances from which we can infer levels of language ability” (Brown, 2011). The first step is to carefully sample from the test domain; that is, “the set of tasks or the kinds of behaviors in the criterion setting, as informed by our understanding of the test construct” (McNamara, 2008). The “criterion setting” here refers to the real life situation the test-taker will be put into after completing the English program, which in this case will be the university setting. The first step towards good test item writing is finding qualified people to write them. Alderson (1995) has rightly asked if good test item writers are born or whether they can be trained. The first choice will always be from amongst experienced teachers, as they understand test-takers better than anyone else. For instance, they are well aware of what students at a particular level find easy or difficult and what their interests are. For instance, if a test is on academic reading or writing, an experienced teacher who teaches these constructs, and most importantly, assesses them, will be better placed to write an appropriate and effective test than anyone else, as she will know what to expect from the students, as well as how much they have covered from the syllabus, and what skills they find easy or difficult to master. Furthermore, the teacher must have the necessary professional qualifications expected of teachers at the level of a university English program. However, despite these conditions, a person might still be unable to write good test items. Alderson (1995) has related this to a lack of creativity, insight and imagination. This is where training sessions by assessment experts are needed to give teachers and item writers an insight into writing good test items, sensitivity towards students who take the test, and varying levels of test population, etc. Regrettably, there is a dearth of language assessment experts in Saudi Arabia. Getting this work done forcibly is 197

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not a good option, so the best solution is to train experienced, creative teachers who are interested in writing material and volunteer to write tests. I refer to the writing of material here because I have seen many efficient teachers create high quality material to use in the classroom. Alderson (1995) argued that a textbook exercise is quite similar to a test task as in both cases, students have to “develop understanding […] to change behavior.” The only difference is that after a classroom exercise, the learner receives full feedback from the teacher as to how to improve herself and perform better. Contrary to this, after a test, the learner’s ability to change behavior is judged and a numerical value, the score, is given. Therefore, it can be assumed that good material writers can be good test item writers and proper training can further enhance their skills. One reason why teachers are reluctant to write tests or show their tests to others is that tests are scrutinized in the minutest detail by administrators, learners, parents and many others, compared to routine classroom activities. Secondly, while doing a test, students are alone. Getting help while doing a test is strictly prohibited, both from peers and from the teacher. This means that test items should be devoid of any kind of ambiguity. Test items and instructions should therefore be very clear and simple and tasks must be very similar to what the students taking the test have attempted before. It should be made certain that “candidates are measured according to their ability, and not their knowledge of what is expected by the test task” (Alderson et al., 1995). Having said that, designing and developing tests is an essential part of imparting education and this process cannot be done away with. On the other hand, the objective should as far as possible be to design tests that are fair and valid. A common practice before creating tests is to study past papers instead of test specifications. This is because test item writers do not usually receive any clearly written specifications. It should be noted here that test specifications provide the most explicit guidance for test item writers with regards to the purpose and objectives of a test. Furthermore, it is good practice to frequently vary the content and methods of a test, in order to render achievement and proficiency tests more valid and reliable. For grammar and vocabulary tests, the next step is to look into the inventory of contents to be tested and consult recent past papers in order to avoid duplication. It is indeed beneficial to go through past papers because then, item writers will be well informed of the genres, sources and issues raised over the level of difficulty for items in previous tests. This will help control repetitive mistakes in tests and exams. Another important aspect of test item writing is to find suitable texts that match the test specifications and facilitate the generation of sufficient items. One way of being prepared for this is to maintain a bank of texts that can be used in tests. It is a good idea to get these texts approved by a moderating committee before working on them, so that there is no chance of a text being rejected on the basis of some uncalled for reason – the most common of which being culturally inappropriate material. In Saudi English language programs at public universities, the tests given are usually achievement tests. This is suitable in the sense that the tests aim to measure whether or not students have mastered the skills being taught and which will facilitate 198

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their studies at university. The texts that should ideally be used would relate to topics that students have been familiarized with during the course. It must be borne in mind that students are not being tested on the knowledge of a topic but rather on language skills. Unknown and obscure topics may lower their affective filter and they might not perform as expected. Furthermore, test item writers can use authentic material, such as newspaper or magazine articles, book reviews, or abstracts, but it is a good idea to edit and grade the language where needed. It should however be noted that the students involved are likely to be more accustomed to ESL readers, where the language is graded according to specific levels. The aim of language assessment should not be to penalize students for what they do not know, but to encourage them to enhance the skills they have already acquired. Types of Test Items

According to Bachman and Palmer (1996, p. 52), “an item consists of a highly focused chunk of language or non-language information. In a language test, the purpose of an item is to either elicit a selected or a limited production response.” The constructs that are best measured through this method are the receptive skills (listening, reading), vocabulary and grammar. A prompt is “input in the form of a directive, the purpose of which is to elicit an extended production response”. Multiple-Choice Questions (Selected Response)

Multiple-choice questions are a type of “fixed response tests […] in which a number of possible responses is presented from which the candidate is required to choose” (McNamara, 2008). The questions are composed of two parts: a stem that identifies the question or problem and a set of options or possible answers that contain a ‘key’, this being the best answer to the question. The other options, ‘distractors’, are plausible but incorrect answers to a question. These distractors are “typical confusions or misunderstandings” that can be observed in a learner’s struggle to answer questions during practice tests, or in teachers’ observations of errors while teaching. A stem can be simple, for example, a grammar completion sentence. It can even be complex; for instance, drawn from a scenario, graph, or reading passage. Hughes (1989) highlighted three advantages of multiple-choice tests. Firstly, the scoring is fast and economical. Secondly, a large number of questions can be included in a test, making it more reliable. Lastly, receptive skills can be assessed without candidates having to produce written or spoken language. However, there are some pitfalls. A significant drawback, as mentioned in the validity discussion above, is that productive skills cannot be assessed using a fixed response test. Candidates’ performance in a multiple-choice grammar test will be a ‘poor indicator’ of their ability to use grammar structures in, for example, an essay or a letter of complaint. What is more, the chance of guessing correct answers in a three-option, 100-item multiple-choice test is 33% (Hughes, 1989). There is in fact 199

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no accurate way of analyzing the role of guesswork in the inflation or deflation of scores. The only way to reduce this effect is by presenting more than three options. However, if an option is never used by any of the candidates, it would indicate that it should not be there at all and it would be better to retain just three options. Although this increases the chances of accurate guessing, it is a sensible decision with regard to certain questions (Alderson et al., 1995). Secondly, there is high probability of there being more than one possible answer to a question. This is more common in questions related to inference skills. Each question, therefore, must be checked with more than one item writer to avoid mistakes; for instance, to check the following question set for an advanced level class: Which is the odd one out: a. angry b. annoyed c. cross d. happy The test item writer might have selected option ‘d’ as the correct answer, but some advanced learners might have ticked option ‘c’, because ‘cross’ is also used as a noun and the other options are all adjectives. The item writers must therefore take care to ensure that there is only one right answer. As Alderson et al. (1995) put it, they should not get ‘fixated’ with one possible answer, as there is a strong possibility of there being more than one acceptable answer. This can be remedied by getting other people to check the test items. The item below is written strictly according to the grammar rules while teaching the first conditional to an intermediate class: If I _____ a fairy, I could fly. a. was b. were c. am d. have According to the grammar rules in the textbook, option ‘b’ is the correct answer. Nevertheless, many native speakers will say that both options ‘a’ and ‘b’ are acceptable answers. Strict compliance with the textbook can lead to problems like the above. Multiple-choice questions, especially while testing grammar and vocabulary, should always be written with a context in mind. This context should be presented in a manner that can be clearly perceived by the test-takers. Otherwise, the students may get the item wrong, despite being capable of the “language performance required” (Alderson et al., 1995). In view of the above, study the examples given below: 200

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She was so _______ that tears fell from her eyes. a. happy b. sad c. tired d. angry When she won the race, she was so ________ that tears fell from her eyes. a. happy b. sad c. tired d. angry The lack of context in the first item makes it difficult for the candidate to choose between options ‘a’ and ‘b’. The second version of the same item provides the context that clarifies the meaning. Moreover, the distractors should always be plausible, mutually exclusive and grammatically correct. Writing Tests (Extended Production Response)

Second language learners usually find writing assignments extremely difficult. I would like to mention here a very successful writing process project conducted every semester on the PYP Intensive English program at King Saud University. This is a four-week assignment that includes mind-mapping, drafting an outline, and then producing a first, second and final draft. It is carried out in groups or pairs, including peer and self-assessment using a checklist provided by the teacher. Students are given prompts to stimulate their writing. These prompts are usually related to topics in their course books. The above-mentioned writing prompts are statements that focus on a topic or an issue, followed by questions. The purpose of a writing prompt is to elicit a response in the form of a paragraph or essay, which is an “extended production response”. Below is an example of three writing prompts: one for beginners, one for intermediate learners, and one for advanced levels. Beginners Write about a job you would like to do. You should say: • What it is. • Why you like it. • What you will study for it. Word count: 50 201

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Intermediate Write about your favorite job. You should write: • What it is. • Why you like it. • How you can get this job. Word count: 100 Advanced Write about your dream job. You should write: • What job it is. • Why you like this job. • How you will prepare yourself to get this job. Word count: 150 The most important information for the students about the writing test is how it will be marked. The marking guides should be prepared while writing the test specifications and all the teachers should be trained to mark the students’ writing, based on the marking guides. The teachers should then go through the guide in detail with their students. They must ensure that the students are aware of the marking procedure by giving them mock tests and subsequent feedback. Speaking Tests

Speaking tests are supposed to form part of an overall achievement test. One way of conducting a speaking test is to ask students to deliver a presentation on a given topic. This can be done in the form of short weekly assignments, during which they do research, make slides, and then deliver the presentation. Students should be aware that each step is important, as each constitutes a graded assignment. Once this assignment has been completed, they can be given another one at the end of term, to be carried out in class. Pecha Kucha is an innovative method of presenting, with 20 slides, each for 20 seconds. Students design everything in class; practicing and presenting, all in one session. The students should therefore always be familiar with the marking criteria. Another way of assessing speaking is through classroom discussions. This can be done as group work. Teachers or test item writers should prepare guidelines for students, in a document that will provide the discussion topic and the roles the students are required to adopt during the discussion. The topics should be related to course book themes. Practice sessions should be conducted before the actual test so that students feel confident during the test. Marking criteria should also be explained beforehand. 202

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Trialling Test Material

Trialling a test is vital to its quality. It entails exhaustive and challenging, but not unachievable, effort. The following suggestions (cited in Green, 2013) are based on Alderson et al. (1995), Davidson and Lynch (2002), Hughes (1989) and Brown (2005). 1. Trial substantially more material than will eventually be needed (the more material that is trialled, the greater the chances of enough really good material being available for use in the operational assessment). As a rule of thumb, it is sensible to prepare 50% more material than will eventually be needed. 2. Pilot and pre-test the material on groups of students who are as similar as possible to the group that will take the operational assessment. 3. Record all responses and use questionnaires to collect feedback from assessees and administrators on the quality of the material. 4. Always analyze the assessment results and feedback both qualitatively and statistically: even results from a handful of learners can be revealing. 5. Review the results to identify why problems might have occurred. 6. Choose only the best material for the operational assessment; return other material to the writers for improvement, or else discard it. 7. If changes are made as a result of the review, always pilot the material again before using it in the operational assessment. Test Development as a Cyclical Process

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Alternative Assessment Assessment procedures should be designed in ways that are fair to all students, whatever level they are at. One way of ensuring this is through ‘alternative assessment’. Alternative assessment procedures are less formal than traditional testing; are collected over a longer period of time, rather than at a single point in time; have low stakes, and have beneficial washback (Alderson, 1995). Bachman and Palmer (2010) stated that the “primary use of an assessment is to gather information to help us make decisions that will lead to beneficial consequences for stake holders”. In ESL classrooms, teachers are constantly making two kinds of decisions: formative and summative. Formative decisions, which include many forms of alternative assessment tasks, are related to assessing the ongoing progress of the learners, making pedagogic changes, and introducing ‘interventions’ that are teachable. Summative decisions are crucial in that they “relate to passing or failing students on the basis of their progress” and performance; contrary to formative decisions, they are made at the end of a teaching process or course. As per my experience as an ESL teacher at university level, both formative and summative assessments are interconnected. Instructors can use assessment tasks to serve both purposes. For instance, projects and portfolios could be assessed formatively during the development process and given a grade at the final stage. Similarly, continuous summative assessment tasks could also be used to provide positive feedback for students, thus potentially improving their performance in upcoming tasks. The more wise formative decisions that are made to enhance learning, the more the summative grade of the learners can be improved. Teachers and students both favor formative assessment tasks, as they do not cause the anxiety that comes with graded tests and exams. ESL teachers invariably understand that in order for students to develop their language skills, English programs demand frequent assignments, a high level of formative assessment and detailed, supportive feedback. This enables close tracking of learners’ progress and provides opportunities for individual guidance, in order to maximize improvement in language skills. Supportive feedback will encourage learners to reflect on their learning and the progress they are making. This, in turn, will motivate them to explore more learning opportunities. Formative assessment is essentially assessment for rather than of learning. It is an integral part of the “instructional process” and provides necessary information “to adjust learning and teaching while they are happening” (Garrison & Ehringhaus, 2007, p. 1). Conclusion

This study is based on the challenges and prospects in English language testing at the PYP level in Saudi universities. It is a sincere effort to find possibilities of improvement of the prevalent situation. Solutions to this dilemma can be found by working on an assessment framework grounded in time-tested theories that is 204

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the fundamental pillar of a rigorous language program. Qualified and experienced English teachers who volunteer to facilitate and implement assessment procedures should be brought forward and trained to write test items and prepare exam delivery systems. The more valid and reliable an assessment framework is, the fairer the system will be towards the language learners. References Alderson, J. C., Clapham, C., & Wall, D. (1995). Test construction and evaluation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Alderson, J. C., Brunfaut, T., & Harding, L. (2014). Towards a theory of diagnosis in second and foreign language assessment: Insights from professional practice across diverse fields. Applied Linguistics, 35. doi:10.1093/applin/amt046 Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A. S. (1996). Language testing in practice: Designing and developing useful language tests. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Bailey, K. M. (1998). Learning about language assessment: Dilemmas, decisions, and directions. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle. Brown, H. D. (2011). Language assessment: Principles and classroom practice. Hertfordshire, England: Prentice Hall. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2000). Research methods in education. London, England: Routledge Falmer. Fulcher, G., & Davidson, F. (2007). Language testing and assessment. London, England & New York, NY: Routledge. Garrison, G., & Ehringhaus, M. (2007). Formative and summative assessments in the classroom. Retrieved November, 11, 2014, from http://www.principals.in/uploads/pdf/assessments/ Formative_Summative_Assessment.pdf Green, A. (2013). Exploring language assessment and testing: Language in action. New York, NY: Routledge. Holt, D. D. (Ed.). (1994). Assessing success in family literacy projects: Alternative approaches to assessment and evaluation. Washington, DC & McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems. (ERIC No. ED 375 688) Hughes, A. (1989). Testing for language teachers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Leki, I. (1991). A new approach to advanced ESL placement testing. Writing Program Administration, 14(3), 53–68. McNamara, T. (2008). Language testing. In H. G. Widdowson (Ed.), Oxford introductions to language study. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Messick, S. (1996). Validity and washback in language testing. ETS Research Report Series, i–18. doi:10.1002/j.2333-8504.1996.tb01695.

Mubina Rauf University of Dammam Dammam, Saudi Arabia

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Osama Mudawe Nurain, Ahmet T. Braima and Barakat H. Makrami

11. EFL Faculty Perspectives on Technology-integration Strategies A Case Study at Jazan University

Introduction

The adoption of technologies in higher education for enhancing instruction has been remarkably increased in the new drive for a paradigmatic shift from face-to-face traditional teaching to technology-enhanced teaching. According to Maduakolam and Bell (2003): Technology and its challenges are becoming more dynamic and global in nature, and one obvious problem militating against effectively training pre-service teachers to use existing and emerging technology is the inability of university faculty members to model advanced knowledge and skills in integrating technology into instruction and across the curriculum. (2003, p. 340) The last decade has witnessed incredible and noteworthy changes in using technology to facilitate the process of teaching and learning. The potentials of technologyintegration strategies in higher education institutes around the world have induced many universities, including Jazan University, to consider their teaching strategies and course delivery methods. Jazan University, located in the southern part of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, has placed much emphasis on providing high quality and powerful educational systems for producing workforces that are efficient and skilled. The infrastructure of the university has been established with the latest technological tools and equipment, but also extends to provide facilities with proper training and skills through workshops and seminars. However, training on the pedagogical aspects of using these vibrant tools still remains inadequate. The use of instructional technology for enhancing and developing English teaching methods has drastically and dramatically altered the ways in which English Language is taught. Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) has been used for instructional purposes since the 1960s. Since then, tremendous research studies have been carried out in different settings investigating how technology could foster EFL students’ learning. (Frigaard, 2002; Al-Mekhlafi, 2006; Timucin, 2006; Wong, 2004; Prapinwong & Puthikanon, 2008). A. K. Hamdan (Ed.), Teaching and Learning in Saudi Arabia, 207–220. © 2015 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

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One of these settings revolves round the potentials of technology-enhanced instruction and its impact on a faculty member’s expertise, knowledge and how it will affect students’ learning. In addition, the acceptance of technology among faculty and their willingness to incorporate it has become one of the most striking issues in any technology-integration strategies schema. It has been stated that faculty members are not integrating technology into instruction in ways that make a difference in student learning (Keengwe, 2007; Cuban, 2001; MacCannon & Crews, 2000). Literature Review

Faculty represents the essence, core and the backbone of the teaching process. Their attitudes towards technology-implementation strategies certainly express their desire to use it on a large scale. It is paradoxical to see higher institutions incorporating and integrating technology-enhanced instruction without considering skills, knowledge and perception of staff members. However, it is necessary to ensure that faculty members are capable of assimilating the concepts and practices of all these technologies. According to Woodrow (1991), Levin and Wadmany (2006), many teachers are seen to be active agents in the process of changes and implementation of new ideas as their beliefs and attitudes may support or impede the success of any educational reform. Teachers’ belief and perception have a direct impact in their desire to use technology (Eugene, 2006). In the same regard, Sandholtz et al. reported that: Technology is a catalyst for change in classroom processes because it provides a distinct departure, a change in a context that suggests alternative ways of operating. It can drive a shift from traditional instructional approach towards a more eclectic set of learning activities that include knowledge-building situations for students. (1997, p. 47) The most critical factors related to technology-integration in classes are more likely connected to faculties’ attitudes and perceptions. The availability of hardware and software represent a secondary state in any technology schema, “the success or failure of technology use depends more on human and contextual factors than on hardware and software” (Valdez, McNabb, Foertsch, Anderson, Hawkes, & Raack, 2000, p. 4). The fact behind that, whatever belief faculty members might have on technology, will be immediately reflected in their desire to combine pedagogical practices with technology. Faculty members need to be skillful in incorporating technology in their classes. Using Technology-enhanced Instruction in classes, as proved in many research studies, provides teachers with ample opportunities to engage their students in collaborative, interactive and self-directed learning. Lam and Lawrence (2002) argued that: Technology not only gives learners the opportunity to control their own learning process, but also provides them with ready access to a vast amount of information over which the teacher has no power or control. 208

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Technology-integration in EFL/ESL settings has gained a prominent place in higher education since the beginning of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) in 1960s. CALL researchers have examined the role of technologyintegration in fostering students’ learning outcomes and teachers’ expertise knowledge with technology. These contributions can be observed in the works of Frigaard (2002) and Al-Mekhlaf (2006). Likewise, Walz (2001) reported; “The Internet is fast becoming one of the most useful resources for second and foreign language teachers. Especially in geographic areas where the availability of print material is reduced, the Internet provides a broad array of authentic texts available by simply accessing a computer”. In the same regards, Warschauer, Shetzer, and Meloni (2000, p. 11) mentioned that: “The Internet now provides another medium often faster, easier, and less expensive than other ways to draw on many of the same recourses. Access to the Internet increased the materials and resources available to educators as well the opportunities for professional networking and exchange of ideas. Indeed, perhaps the most reliable contribution of the Internet to English language teaching is its role in facilitating teachers access to professional materials, contacts, and resources.” With the advent of Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC), teachers of English have been given a variety of ways to use technology in their classes. This will enhance their teaching experiences and provide their students with a reliable source of information and authentic materials for the purpose of improving their communicative competence. Son and O’Neill (1999, p. 70), reported “As the main goal of most language learners is to communicate in the language they learn, communication via computer-mediated system seems to offer students the closest thing to being in the foreign country without actually being there.” Warschaure, Shetzer, and Meloni (2000), reported: Computer-Assisted Language Learning was a relatively specialized field in the 1970s and 1980s, attracting the attention of a small group of educators with a particular interest in computers. In the 1990s, though, with the popularization of the Internet, the use of computers in language teaching expanded by leaps and bounds. For the first time, learners of English language could practice the language 24 hours a day with native speakers or other learners around the world. (p. 31) The fast-paced and rapid change in the field of language learning and teaching forced EFL faculties to consider their teaching practices. Technology-integration strategies are seen as the solution for students’ communicative problems. The focal point is that EFL/ESL faculties are more involved in the creation of an interactive teaching environment where student learning is fostered and enhanced with technology. Statement of the Problem

As a result of meticulous and careful analysis of the current teaching situations in English classes, there has been a remarkable observation that faculty members do 209

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not utilize technology in their instruction in ways that positively influence students’ learning process. This reality is stressed by Goral (2000, p. 2) as “Only 10% of teachers feel very well prepared to use computer and the Internet for classroom instruction.” Faculties’ perception of technology-integration strategies has been rated as the main barrier that influenced the implementation of new ways for classroom instruction and course delivery method (Almekhlafi & Almeqdadi, 2010; Frederick, Frederic, Schweizer, & Lowe, 2006; Tezci, 2011; Al-Bataineh et al., 2008). Technology-enhanced instruction has been used for instructional purposes since the 1960s. Strangely enough, most of the EFL faculties are still making very little use of it. The reason behind this limitation is underlined in the International Society for Technology in Education (2000). Keengwe (2007, p. 171) has also indicated that; “rapid improvement in educational technologies exceeds the current knowledge of effective computer use in education.” The fact behind faculties’ still uncertainty about the possibilities it may provide for creating ample opportunities for student collaboration and interaction. Therefore, the purpose of the study is to shed light on the ways in which faculties perceive the technology integration as a new drive for improving student learning. Purpose of the Study

The study attempts to constitute a baseline of data to investigate the existing status of Instructional Technology implementation in English classes at Jazan University through the perspectives of faculty members. The objectives of the study are: 1. investigate faculties’ attitudes and perceptions towards technology integration strategies; 2. examine the barriers that affect technology integration at Jazan University; 3. identify the relationship between faculties’ perception of the use of technology and the actual integration in their English classes; 4. offer deep insight into the potentials of technology-integration in English classes; 5. state how faculties identify their competencies in using technology for enhancing instruction; 6. investigate the demographic factors and their impact in using technology; 7. examine the need for faculties for technology professional development program; 8. examine the correlation between faculties’ perception of technology integration strategies and its impact on creating collaborative and interactive learning environment; 9. investigate in what ways faculties’ attitudes and perception of technology integration will positively affect the performance of EFL learner; 10. shed light on the impact of technology integration on promoting EFL students’ learning independence and self-directed learning.

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Significance of the Study

It is certainly true that the availability of instructional technologies has become a trend in English teaching and learning at universities. However, and in the case of Jazan University, there has been a paucity of verification revealing the implementation of technology. The fact is, most of the faculties are still confined to a face-to-face teaching environment. On the other hand, students in today’s learning environment who have successfully acquired the necessary skills on how to communicate through social media (Facebook, Twitter, etc.) are expecting more from their teachers. Based on that, the most important aspect of this study is to examine how the use of technology-enhanced instruction is professed by faculty members. Methodology

Research Design The study exploited a questionnaire for data collection. The questionnaire was basically designed to generate specific information from a sample of EFL faculties who teach English courses at different colleges in Jazan University. The study was carried out to provide insights into how staff members feel towards technologyintegration in their pedagogical philosophy and teaching strategies. Participants of the Study A total of 152 EFL faculty members at the English Language Center, Jazan University, participated in the survey: 52.0% were male, 48.0% were female; the average age of participants ranged from 30 to 39; 14 are PhD holders in ELT, Literature and Linguistics; 138 are lecturers and language instructors specializing in the same areas; 88.2% of the participants had access to the Internet at home. Questions of the Study The most important questions addressed in the study: 1. How the attitudes and perceptions of the faculty members affect their technologyintegration skills and techniques? 2. How do EFL faculty members perceive the impact of using technology-enhanced instruction in their classes? 3. Is there a statistically significant correlation between faculties’ perception of technology-integration and their utilization of technology? 4. What are the obstacles that affect the effective use of technology in English classes at Jazan University?

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Description of Data Collection Instruments The study adopted the quantitative approach, and the data collection method is based on an analytical and descriptive survey. A questionnaire was developed, and structured by the researchers to measure faculties’ perception of technologyintegration strategies in English classes. A Likert Scale with five points was used for measuring responses. The survey instrument contained five sections: the demographic factors, Internet connectivity, technology-integration application, the advantages of technology-integration in English classes through the perspectives of faculties and the last section was devoted for additional comments. The questionnaire was sent to English language program coordinators via email and they were asked to distribute it to their staff members. Validity and Reliability of the Questionnaire The initial version of the survey was reviewed by a panel of experts in the field of education to obtain their feedback, suggestions for improvement and remarks regarding the construction of the items. Based on the received comments and informed feedback, the instrument was restructured and some items in the survey were revised for improved clarity and intelligibility. The questionnaire was piloted by 20 faculty members to assess reliability. Analysis has shown high reliability (alpha = 0.87). Data Processing

The data obtained from the survey was processed by using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). Results and Discussion

The data generated from the survey was processed by using SPSS. The investigation of the faculty’s perception of technology integration in association with their desire to incorporate it into their teaching are analyzed and associated under the scope of the research questions being formulated. Statistical Analysis of the Demographic Factors

All of the participants teach English language at different colleges in Jazan University under the umbrella of the English Language Center (ELC). The number of participants (n = 152) represented faculty members from the Deanship of Preparatory Year (44.7%), Community College Male (0.7%), Main Campus (6.6%), Arts Female

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(2.6%), Science Female (7.9%), Samta Girls College (7.9%), Farasan Girls College (5.9%), Medical Campus Female (8.6%) and Academic Complex Female (15.1%). Participants were asked to indicate their age. 48.7%, who formed the majority, ranged in age from 30 to 39. 99% of the participants claim that they have an email account and 88% have Internet access at home. 52.0% of the participants mentioned that their classes and offices are wired for the Internet. In terms of training sessions on CALL, 48.7% reported that they have received a training session on the application of CALL for enhancing English classes whereas 48.0% have not. The bulk of the participants (62.5%) claimed that they haven’t been involved in a training session on how to use the Interactive Smartboard and e-podium for supporting classroom instruction. The analysis of the demographic factors as well as the accessibility of Internet connection has revealed that the faculty members have already had the basic skills necessary for initiating any technology-integration plans in the near future. Proper orientation and training session are highly recommended by the administrators of Jazan University to educate them on how technology could be successfully integrated. Research Questions

The results generated from the statistical analysis of data obtained from the survey are discussed and organized under the scope of the questions being formulated. Research Question 1 How do the attitudes and perceptions of the faculty members affect their current technology-integration skills and techniques? Based on the information shown in Table 1, only 21.1% of EFL faculties always encourage their students to use a word processing program for developing writing skills. 12.5% use online dictionaries in their reading classrooms. Only 14.5% of staff members use online materials for developing their students’ listening and speaking skills. On the other hand, 30.9% of faculty members never use hypertext in their reading classes. The concept of hypertext is an extremely new practice of online teaching and learning which feeds the perception of the basic skills for incorporating and using hypermedia as a new exciting tool. In addition, 34.9% of respondents claim that they never use Interactive Whiteboard for presenting lessons. 27.6% of respondents use web-based materials and resources to find materials related to curriculum, 13.2% use only web-based materials for providing students with authentic materials for communication. The analysis reveals that 35.5% of the respondents never use presentation software in classes for the purpose of presenting and demonstrating lessons. Only 25.7% of respondents always use email to share

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Table 1. Statistical analysis of faculties’ perception of technology-integration application Variables

*1

2

3

4

5

I encourage my students to use word processors for editing their writing drafts

21.1%

20.4%

15.5%

24.3%

17.8%

I incorporate online dictionaries in my reading classes

12.5%

13.8%

15.8%

17.8%

36.8%

I use online oral materials for developing my students’ listening and speaking skills

14.5%

17.8%

17.1%

21.7%

25.7%

I use hypertext for developing students’ reading skills

5.9%

21.1%

21.1%

19.1%

30.9%

I use interactive whiteboard for presenting and demonstrating my lessons

28.9%

16.4%

10.5%

6.6%

34.9%

I use web-based materials and resources to find materials relevant to my curriculum

27.6%

30.3%

17.1%

14.5%

8.6%

I use web-based materials for providing my students with authentic materials for communication

13.2%

38.8%

17.1%

17.1%

12.5%

I use presentation software within my classroom

9.9%

15.8%

13.8%

22.4%

35.5%

I use email to share with my colleagues some expertise knowledge of English teaching

25.7%

24.3%

20.4%

15.8%

12.5%

I use email to communicate with my students

4.6%

3.9%

15.1%

19.1%

56.6%

I use spreadsheet applications (Excel) to prepare my student records

26.3%

19.1%

12.5%

11.8%

28.3%

I suggest some web sites for my students for the lessons being taught

19.7%

25.0%

24.3%

20.4%

9.9%

*Key: 1=Always, 2=usually, 3=often, 4=seldom and 5=never

with colleagues some expert knowledge of English teaching, and the majority, 56.6%, never communicate with their students through email. 28.3% always use Excel to prepare student records while 25.0% usually suggest some web sites for the lesson already being taught. The statistical analysis of technology-integration section reveals that EFL faculty members’ attitudes and perceptions towards technology-integration have completely 214

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affected their integration strategies. For instance, when the perception of using hypertext in teaching reading comprehension is low, the less likely to it is be used. It could be stated that faculty attitudes and perception of technology-integration affect their successful incorporation along with their teaching strategies. Research Question 2 Is there a statistically significant correlation between faculties’ perception of technology-integration and their utilization of technology? As shown in Table 2, the majority of the faculties (50.7%) believe that technologyintegration strategy helps their students in developing their thinking process and intellectual capabilities. 53.0% claim that technology-integration motivates students into a new learning environment. It has been empirically proven that motivation, attitudes and desires are the main factors in determining success in English classes. Therefore, technology has a lot of potential for sustaining those ideas. One of the most important factors is that university students receive only 75% of their knowledge from their teachers. However, teachers no longer represent their only source of knowledge. These claims spawn the idea of self-directed learning autonomy. University professors should not act as the source of knowledge; rather they should guide their students to the source of knowledge. The respondents do believe that involving students in online activities and quizzes would enhance their learning autonomy. As seen through their perspectives, involving students in online activities and quizzes will enhance their learning at their own pace and have a locus of control over their learning. In addition, 49.3% agree to the point that technology integration strategies develop student-centered learning as they are involved in the teaching process. Technology enhanced instruction provides ample opportunities for students for collaborative, interactive and engaging projects. 53.3% see web-based materials and recourses expand students’ knowledge beyond the confinement of the independence of a single source of knowledge. 46.7% claim that e-dictionaries will contribute positively towards tackling students’ reading difficulties associated with insufficient vocabulary knowledge. The majority of respondents (58.6%) have seen the online tools and recourses as a new creative way of enriching their teaching experiences, confidence and satisfaction. The most striking issue of technology integration is that, technology-enhanced instruction has drastically and dramatically altered the traditional role of teachers from sage on stage to more of a guide by the side. 44.1% of the respondents believe that technology integration has a new role for them to play on the teaching scene. As long as faculty members perceive the potentials of technology, the more likely they will integrate it into their instruction. From the discussion of the results, most of the respondents strongly agree and agree with the points related to their concepts and perception of technology. Furthermore, as illustrated in Table 2, the majority of the respondents believe that technology-integration is a new vibrant drive for making paradigm shifts from 215

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Table 2. The statistical analysis of the advantages of technology-integration through faculties’ perspectives Variables

*1

2

3

4

5

Technology-integration strategies help my students develop their thinking

50.7% 40.8%

5.3%

0.0%

0.7%

Technology-integration motivates my students in a new learning environment

53.0% 38.2%

6.6%

0.0%

1.3%

Technology-integration enhances students learning autonomy

42.8% 42.1% 12.7% 0.7%

0.7%

Technology-integration enables students to have a 29.6% 44.1% 21.1% 1.3% locus of control over their learning

0.7%

Technology-integration strategies develop student-centered approach

0.0%

32.2% 49.3% 14.5% 2.0%

Web-based materials expand students’ knowledge 53.3% 40.1% beyond the confinement of textbooks

1.3%

0.0%

Web-based dictionaries save time and effort in tackling students’ reading difficulties

46.7% 36.2% 11.8% 3.3%

0.7%

Participating in discussion group enriches teachers’ expert knowledge of teaching English

58.6% 33.6%

3.9%

0.7%

0.7%

Technology-integration strategies promote teachers’ satisfaction and confidence

42.8% 44.1%

9.2%

1.3%

0.0%

Technology-integration in EFL classes ensures a higher degree of interaction

34.9% 47.4% 11.8% 2.0%

0.7%

Technology-integration helps students to construct 37.5% 49.3% new knowledge and comprehend new practices

3.9%

8.6%

0.7%

0.0%

Technology-integration changes the role of teachers from “sage on stage” to “guide by the side”

35.5% 44.1% 13.8% 3.9&

0.0%

My coordinator helps me implement technology in my classes

17.8% 40.1% 16.4% 12.5% 7.2%

I believe technology-integration is the solution for 23.0% 32.9% 36.8% 4.6% students’ communicative problems I’m not sure about what my performance looks like when I integrate technology in my classes

6.6%

0.0%

21.1% 25.0% 23.0% 21.7%

* Key: (1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=not sure, 4=disagree and 5=strongly disagree)

traditional teaching. Their values and beliefs towards technology-integration, along with their pedagogical practices, would result in students’ learning. It is an obvious observation that there was an inconsistency between EFL perception and the use of

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technology in their classes. Hence, it is observed that no match was found between what EFL faculties really perceived about technology and the current practices of technology-integration. Research Question 3 What are the obstacles that affect the effective use of technology in English classes at Jazan University? Table 3. The statistical analysis of the barriers that affect technology-integration Variables

*1

2

3

4

5

I will implement technology and use the Internet if I have a laptop or PC in my classroom

63.2% 29.6%

5.9%

0.0%

0.0%

I will use technology and the Internet more if I know there will be technical support on site

61.2% 29.6%

7.2%

0.0%

0.7%

If there is more encouragement from the university administration, I will use more technology in my classroom

66.4% 27.6%

2.6%

0.7%

0.7%

If there is lab assistance, I will use English labs more in my classes

65.1% 26.3%

3.9%

1.3%

1.3%

University administrators engage me in CALL workshops

11.2% 27.0% 23.7% 15.1% 0.0%

Technology application will be successfully integrated in my teaching if I receive proper training

57.9% 32.2%

5.9%

0.7%

0.7%

*Key: (1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=not sure, 4=disagree and 5=strongly disagree)

The statistical analysis reveals that 63.2% of the respondents have stated that there is a great possibility to integrate technology tools and resources in their English classes if they have already been given a laptop. In the same regards, the majority of respondents (61.2%) emphasized the necessity of the availability of technical support on site for providing help and assistance whenever is required. This support definitely will eliminate the portion of technical problems that frequently happen and ensure a smooth flow of classroom instruction aided by technology. In a broader sense, the statistical analysis shows there is a remarkable correlation between the role of administrators in encouraging staff members to use technology, with faculty attitudes to incorporate more technology in their classes. The central part of the difficulties and barriers associated with technology integration as shown from the statistical analysis have placed a heavy burden on the shoulder of administrators. 217

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Findings

The study yields a number of findings, summarized in the following points: 1. The most important finding of the study is that EFL teachers at Jazan University don’t boast any negative belief regarding the effectiveness of technologyintegration in their English classes. The reality seems to be encouraging since teachers’ beliefs may make an impact on the integration of technology in their classes (Eugene, 2006). 2. The study did not confirm a direct relation between EFL faculties’ perception of technology-integration strategies and the current technology practices in English classes in Jazan University. 3. EFL faculty’s perception of the role of technology as a solution to students’ communication problems is highly perceived. However, the actual use of technology is below their perceptions. 4. Proper training programs are the key factors in EFL faculty decisions to incorporate more technology in their classes. 5. The study shows faculty willingness and readiness to incorporate technology into their classes. 6. The potentials of technology-integration strategies are perceived as most of the faculties strongly support the idea of incorporating technology along with their methods of teaching. 7. Technology has a lot of potential for fostering students’ learning autonomy and self-directed learning. 8. The barriers to technology-integration are closely related to insufficient exposure to technology concepts and practices (Rogers, 1995). 9. Online materials and resources have a great impact on developing students’ selfdirected learning and learning autonomy. 10. Students’ motivation could be maximized in a technology-enhanced teaching environment. The most critical difficulties of technology-integration are associated with insufficient technical support, adequate training and motivation and encouragement on the part of administrators. In addition, Jazan University administrators should take into account the skills and knowledge of faculties when adopting any technological plan in the near future. Conclusion

Higher education across the globe has experienced a new shift in teaching strategies and course delivery methods. Technology is seen as a new drive for making changes. Many factors are required for a better engagement of technology. What EFL faculties believe and perceive about technology automatically would be clearly reflected in their willingness to incorporate it in their teaching. Even if proper training is 218

EFL Faculty Perspectives on Technology-integration Strategies

made available to university faculty members, their perception is still attached to their motivation. Hence, it could be stated that there is a remarkable correlation between motivation and perception. The role of administrators is not only confined to training their faculties on how to implement technology. However, the degree to which faculty members are motivated to use technology remains the key factor in any integration plan, but is also related to what extent staff members are motivated to implement it. EFL faculties’ perception of technology-integration is connected to their belief in technology as a new sophisticated media that would bring some sort of success as has been seen in other disciplines. In addition, time and practice are required at the initial steps of the implementation process. Recommendations

Based on the findings generated from the study, it is worth recommending the following points: • It is strongly recommended that staff members need to be exposed to technological tools, gain more understanding on how to use it properly. • It is recommended that technology-integration strategies should be a part of staff members’ professional development schema. • The EFL faculty development program should focus on building the necessary skills and knowledge required for a proper implementation of technology. • Administrators have to increase EFL faculties’ awareness of the potentials of technology-integration. • The study was carried out among 152 faculty members. It is recommended that the survey should be extended to include the rest of EFL faculties of Jazan University so the result could be generalized. References Al-bataineh, A., Anderson, S., Toledo, C., & Wellinski, S., (2008). A study of technology integration in the classroom. International Journal of Instructional Media, 35, 381–387. Al-Mekhlafi, A. (2006). The effect of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) on United Arab Emirates EFL school students’ achievement and attitudes. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 17(2), 121–142. Almekhlafi, A. G., & Almeqdadi, F. A. (2010). Teachers’ perceptions of technology integration in the United Arab Emirates school classrooms. Educational Technology and Society, 12, 165–175. Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused: Computers in the classroom. Cambridge, England: Harvard University Press. Eugene, J. (2006). How teachers integrate technology and their beliefs about learning: Is there a connection? Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 14(3), 581–597. Frederick, G. R., Schweizer, H., & Lowe, R. (2006). After the inservice course: Challenges of technology integration. Computers in the Schools, 23, 73–84. Frigaard, A. (2002). Does the computer lab improve students’ performance on vocabulary, grammar, and listening comprehension? ERIC No. ED476749. Goral, T. (2000). Getting ready. Curriculum Administrator, 36(11), 66.

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O. M. Nurain ET AL. Keengwe, J. (2007). Faculty integration of technology into instruction and students’ perception of computer technology to improve students learning. Journal of Information Technology Education, 6. Retrieved May 23, 2011, from http://jite.org/documents/Vol6/JITEv6p169-180Keengwe218.pdf Lam, Y., & Lawrence, G. (2002). Teacher-student role redefinition during a computer-based language project: Are computers catalysts for empowering change? Computer-Assisted Language Learning, 15(3), 295–315. Levin, T., & Wadmany, R. (2006). Teachers’ belief and practice in technology-based classrooms: A development view. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 39(2), 157–181. MacCannon, M., & Crews, T. B. (2000). Assessing the technology training needs of elementary school teachers. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 8(2), 111–121. Maduakolam, I., & Bell, E. (2003). A product-based faculty professional development model for infusing technology into teacher education. Contemporary Issues in teaching and teacher Education, 3(3), 340–352. Prapinwong, M., & Puthikanon, N. (2008). An evaluation of an Internet-based learning model from EFL perspectives. In P. Robertson & R. Nunn (Eds.), Asian EFL Journal Professional Teaching Articles (pp. 275–301). Busan, Korea: The Asian EFL Journal Press. Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th ed.). New York, NY: Free Press. Sandholtz, J. H., Ringstaff, C., & Dwyer, D. C. (1997). Teaching with technology: Creating studentcentered classrooms. Chicago, CA: Teachers College Press, Colombia University. Son, J., & O’Neill, S. (1999). Collaborative e-mail exchange: A pilot study of peer editing. Multimedia – Assisted Language Learning, 2(2), 69–87. Tezci, E. (2011). Factors that influence preservice teachers’ ICT usage in education. European Journal of Teacher Education, 34(4), 483–499. Timucin, M. (2006). Implementing CALL in the EFL context. ELT Journal, 60(3), 262–271. Valdez, G. M., McNabb, M., Foertsch, M., Anderson, M., Hawkes, M., & Raack, L. (2000). Computerbased technology and learning: Evolving uses and expectations. Retrieved August 15, 2011, from http://www.ncrel.org/tplan/cbtl/toc.htm Walz, J (2001, March). Reading hypertext: Lower level process. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(3). Retrieved December 17, 2011, from http://www.caslt.org/research/readinghypertext.html Warschauer, M., Shetzer, H., & Meloni, C. (2000). Internet for English teaching. Alexandria, VA: TESLO Publications, Inc. Wong, L. (2004). Using technology in a low-advanced ESL class. Retrieved September 15, 2002, from http://www.cccone.org/scholars/04 -5/LettyWong_final_report.pdf Woodrow, J. (1991). Teachers’ perception of computer needs. A Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 23(4), 475–496.

Osama Mudawe Nurain Jazan University Jazan, Saudi Arabia Ahmet T. Braima Jazan University Jazan, Saudi Arabia Barakat H. Makrami Jazan University Jazan, Saudi Arabia

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CONTRIBUTORS

The Editor

Amani K. Hamdan an Associate Professor at the University of Dammam in Saudi Arabia, an international educator, educational developer, and an award-winning scholar. Her book: Muslim Women Speak: A Tapestry of Lives And Dreams won the Canadian Women’s Studies Association Book Prize in 2011. She obtained her MA in Education from Mount Saint Vincent University (MSVU) in Halifax, Nova Scotia (2002) and Doctorate of Philosophy in Education Studies, specializing in Curriculum and Pedagogy, from the University of Western Ontario (UWO), London, Ontario (2006). Dr. Amani’s research interest is multifaceted and includes education and curricula in Saudi Arabia; higher education in Saudi Arabia; analytical and critical thinking and their infusion in the teaching; online education and cultural manifestation; higher education; narrative research; and critical multicultural education. Dr. Amani has more than 20 years of international teaching experience and has presented in numerous international conferences. Her work has been published in American, Canadian, Australian and Saudi high-impact factors journals. In 2011 she joined the University of Dammam and was appointed a Vice Dean at the Faculty of Education. Authors

Akram AbdulCalder heads the Education Department at San Mateo Medical Center in the California Bay Area, which focuses on disseminating hospital-wide medical and healthcare leadership and management education throughout San Mateo County. He teaches various courses in management and education fields. Dr. AbdulCalder worked at the University of Dammam for three years in the Preparatory Year College and the College of Business, and ran a private Medical Laboratory for an additional three years in Saudi Arabia. He has specialized in the study of motivation and multicultural management. His research interests are in motivation in management, academic program development and pedagogy, gamification of education, and the application and implications of Islam in management and marketing. Arif Ahmet Mohamed Hassan Al-Ahdal is an Assistant Professor of English at Hodeidah University, Yemen, currently heading the Department of English Language and Translation at the College of Sciences and Arts, Al Mithnab, Qassim University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. He earned PhD in English from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India (2011) and obtained a MA in TESL from the English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad, India (2008). He has taught English at the tertiary level in Yemen, India and Saudi Arabia and trained high school teachers in those 221

CONTRIBUTORS

countries. Dr. Al-Ahdal’s interests include Learning Strategies, ESP Course Design, Teachers’ Professional Development and the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Education. Abdullah Al-Garni is a PhD candidate at the school of education, University of New South Wales, Australia. Mr. Al-Garni has worked for the Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia for the past 22 years. He has an ample knowledge of the education systems in Saudi public schools. Mr. Al-Garni is currently researching the development of e-learning according to assessment and curriculum alignment. Abdulghani Ali Al-Hattami is an Assistant Professor at the Deanship of Education Development at the University of Dammam. He held a BA and MA in English Language Teaching before being awarded a Fulbright scholarship to do another master’s degree in Research Methodology from Loyola University Chicago (2006). He held Teaching Assistantship and Graduate Student Researcher positions at the University of Pittsburgh, PA that enabled him to finish his doctoral degree in Measurement, Statistics, Research design from the same university (2012). Dr. Al-Hattami’s research interests include the application of statistical analyses on educational and social problems; measurement and psychometrics, including instrument development and validation; computer adaptive testing; and the applications to Item Response Theory (IRT). He also enjoys English Language Teaching (ELT). Nasser Al-Jarallah is currently the Dean of the College of Applied Medical Sciences at Majma’ah University, Saudi Arabia. He holds a PhD in business administration from Hull University, UK. Prior to his tenure at Majma’ah University, Dr. Al-Jarallah occupied many senior positions at King Saud University and the Ministry of Health. His research interests include medical English, medical supplies and equipment and total quality management. Reima Al-Jarf, Professor Emeritus, King Saud University, has taught ESL, ESP and translation for 26 years. She has published ten books, 160 book chapters, encyclopedia and journal articles in peer-reviewed international and national journals and conference proceedings. She has given 300 conference presentations and conducted 50 workshops in 63 countries. Professor Al-Jarf is a member of 22 international and national professional organizations. She reviews articles for numerous peer-reviewed international journals including some ISI journals. She has won three Excellence in Teaching Awards and the Best Faculty Web site Award at King Saud University, College of Languages and Translation. Mona Hmoud Al-Sheikh is an Assistant Professor in the Physiology Department at the University of Dammam and is the Head of the Department of Medical Education 222

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at King Fahd Hospital at the University of Dammam. She graduated with an MBBS from King Faisal University, Dammam (1985), and later completed her PhD in Neurophysiology at the same university. She holds a Masters in Health Profession Education from Arabian Gulf University Bahrain (2010) and has diplomas in Neurolinguistic Programming and Computer Entry and Programming from the College of London. Dr. Al-Sheikh has published more than 25 papers in refereed journals on medical science, and has presented several papers at national and international conferences. She is also a reviewer for many journals of great repute. Dr. Al-Sheikh is well known as a presenter at workshops and as a speaker in medical education. Khadijah Bawazeer is an Associate Professor of nonfiction at the Department of European Languages and Literatures at King Abdulaziz University (KAU), Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. For four years she was a Head of the Graduate Studies Unit, English Language Institute, KAU. With Tariq Elyas, she initiated and was in charge of the MA in TESOL program offered there. She has taught many courses and recently wrote a weekly opinion column for Saudi Gazette, an English language Saudi daily paper. Dr. Bawazeer is a life member of Cambridge University. She has presented and attended many conferences around the world and she is a certified thinkingbased learning trainer. She has conducted numerous workshops and seminars within the areas of her interest studies; TESOL, writing, translation and interpretation. Ahmed T. Braima is an assistant Professor of English Language at the department of English language, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia and is currently the head of the Educational Affairs Unit at Preparatory Year Deanship. He received his doctorate degree from University of Khartoum in English Language (2005). He joined Jazan University in 2004. He has been a coordinator for the English Language program at the Medical College and since 2011, the Preparatory Year Program. He has participated in a number of International Conferences in many countries including the US, KSA, Turkey and Jordan. His main areas of interest include psycholinguistics, vocabulary acquisition and educational technology. Philline Deraney holds a PhD in Teaching and Learning and MA degrees in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) and Communication. Philline has taught and administrated in higher education for more than ten years in Saudi Arabia and the United States. Philline was a member of the group that founded the Kingdom of Saudi Association of English language Teachers (KSAALT). In 2006, the organization became an affiliate of ITEFL and TESOL. Her research interests and publications are in the areas of TEFL and teaching and learning. She is currently an Assistant Professor in the Deanship of Academic Development, University of Dammam, Saudi Arabia, where she researches and conducts workshops on various pedagogical aspects of the university. 223

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Tariq Elyas is an Assistant Professor of Applied Linguistics and Vice-Dean for Graduate Studies at the English Language Institute at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He obtained his PhD from the University of Adelaide, Australia. He holds an MA in American Literature from Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, US and a graduate degree in TESOL. Dr. Elyas also received a Chevening Fellowship from the UK where he obtained a degree in Intentional Law and Human Rights from the University of Nottingham, England. He has presented and published in a broad variety of international conferences and journals. He is the 2008 Winner of the Bundey Prize for English Verse, Australia, and won the Emerald Publication Reviewer of the Year award in 2010. His interests are in global English, teacher identity, policy reform, human rights, international law, language rights and pedagogy. El-Sadig Yahya Ezza is an Associate Professor of English at Majma’ah University, Saudi Arabia, on secondment from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He teaches undergraduate courses, conducts action research, contributes to local and international conferences and supervises PhD theses. His research interests include disciplinary writing, development of EFL writing ability, academic discourse and the use of ICT in language teaching. Barakat H. Makrami is an assistant Professor of English Language at the department of English language, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia and received his doctorate degree in the US. Mr. Makrami has held the post of Dean of Preparatory Year Deanship and is currently Dean of Admission and Registration at Jazan University. His main areas of research interests include TESOL, discourse analysis, composition studies and language education. Osama Mudawe Nurain is an assistant Professor of Teaching English Language with Technology at the department of English Language, College of Arts and Humanities, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia. He received his doctorate degree from Sudan University of Science and Technology (2008). He joined Jazan University in 2009 and since then he has been involved in a number of administrative and teaching activities. He supervised a number of Technology Integration projects. He was a lead program manager for Tell Me More training held in Jazan University in 2012. He teaches Computer-Assisted Language learning (CALL) along with other courses at the department of English. He participated in a number of International Conferences in US, KSA and Jordan. He attended short training programs on technology integration in San Jose, California. His main areas of interests include Computer-Assisted Language Learning and second language acquisition, e-learning and ELT with educational technology. Mubina Rauf is a Lecturer in English language, University of Dammam. She has a MA in English literature and a post-graduate diploma in English Language teaching 224

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from the University of the Punjab, Pakistan, and a diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults (DELTA) from Cambridge University. Prior to joining the University of Dammam, she was, for four years, the Assessment Coordinator in the English Language Skills Department in the Preparatory Year Program at King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Prior to that, she worked as an ESL instructor in the same program. Her duties as Assessment Coordinator included test item writing, making and implementing exam delivery procedures, briefing staff on exam delivery steps, writing rubrics, and training teachers on marking writing and speaking tests. Barbara A. Toth is an Associate Professor in the College of Languages and Translation at Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University (PNU) in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Her interests include writing and rhetoric as means of negotiation and understanding, campus and community writing centers, and university-level multilingual teaching and learning environments. Dr. Toth sees writing as a powerful force by which student writers can drive their ideas and lives, and believes that students and teachers must work together to create meaningful curriculum. She is currently a member of the executive board of Middle East North African Writing Center Alliance (MENAWCA) and a member of TESOL Arabia and KSAALT. She directs the PNU Writing Studio, the first writing center in Saudi Arabia.

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