Teacher Identity Development Within a Community of Practice 1685074871, 9781685074876

Table of contents :
List of Tables
List of Figures
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
List of Abbreviations
Chapter 1
Introduction and Background Information
Abstract
Key Concepts
Introduction
Teacher Identity Development
Teaching Practice as a Platform for Professional Teacher Identity Development
Training Programme of Participants in the FIRE Project
Explanation of the FIRE Project
Methodological Approach
Underlying Theoretical Framework
Participants in the FIRE Project
Data Generation, Documentation and Analysis
Reflecting on the FIRE Project
Conclusion
References
Chapter 2
Conceptualising Teacher Identity
Abstract
Key Concepts
Introduction
Understanding the Core Concepts Underlying Teacher Identity
Core Identity
Professional Identity
Professional Teacher Identity
Participatory Reflection and Action Application
Interrelationships between Professional Teacher Identity, Beliefs and Instructional Practice
Conclusion
References
Chapter 3
Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice
Abstract
Key Concepts
Introduction
Understanding Theory and Practice in
the Context of Teaching
Preparing Pre-Service Teachers to Integrate Theory
with Practice
Theory and Practice: Two Worlds or One?
Generating Data on Pre-Service Teachers’ Views on the Application of Theory in Practice
Student Teacher’s Perceptions of Education Theory and Practice
Theory and Practice Relating to the University
Theory and Practice Relating to the Classroom
Theory and Practice Relating to Pre-Service Teachers’ Own Teaching Practice
Discussion on Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4
The Teacher as Teaching and Learning Expert
Abstract
Key Concepts
Introduction
Becoming an Expert in Teaching and Learning
Subject Matter Knowledge Domain
Pedagogical Knowledge Domain
Teachers as Role Models
Becoming a Teaching and Learning Expert
Generating Data on Pre-Service Teachers’ Perceptions of Their Role as Teaching and Learning Experts
Results on Pre-Service Teachers’ Perceptions of Their Role as Teaching and Learning Experts
Discussion
Preparation of Future Teachers
Value of Reflection and Feedback
The Role of Mentoring in Teacher Identity Development
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5
The Caring and Support Identity
of Student Teachers
Abstract
Key Concepts
Introduction
Investing in Social Capital
Being a Caring Teacher
Creating a Welcoming School and Classroom Environment
Generating Data on Pre-Service Teachers’ Perceptions of Their Role in Terms of Care
and Support
Results on Student Teacher’s Perceptions
of Their Role in Terms of Care and Support
Theme 1: Valuing Each Learner as a Unique Human Being
Theme 2: Considering Diverse Backgrounds and Cultures
Theme 3: Demonstrating Care and Support
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Chapter 6
Pre-Service Teachers’ Perceptions of Being a Subject Specialist
Abstract
Key Concepts
Introduction
Teacher Knowledge and Expertise
Generating Data on Pre-Service Teachers’ Perceptions on Teachers Being Subject Specialists
Results on Student Teacher’s Perceptions of Their Identity As a Subject Specialist
Subject Matter Knowledge
Acquiring New Knowledge
Knowledge of Teaching Strategies
General Pedagogical Knowledge
Teachers’ Efficacy and Attitudes towards Their Subject
Knowledge of Learners
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Chapter 7
Emerging Leadership and Management Identity of Student Teachers
Abstract
Key Concepts
Introduction
The Teacher as Manager
The Teacher as Leader
Authority and Power in the School Context
Generating Data on Student Teachers’ Perceptions of Teacher Leadership and Management
Results on Student Teachers’ Perceptions on Teacher Leadership and Management
Characteristics of a Good Teacher Leader
The Teacher as Planner
Role of the Teacher as Leader
The Teacher as Classroom Manager
The Teacher as Researcher
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Chapter 8
The Joy and Frustration of Using Information Technology in Developing as a Teacher
Abstract
Key Concepts
Introduction
Availability and Use of Technology
Technology Acceptance
Technology Integration
Generating Data on Pre-Service Teachers’ Experiences of the Use of Information Technology in the Classroom
Results on Pre-Service Teachers’ Experiences of the Use of Information Technology in their Teacher Identity Development
Core Aspects Associated with the Use of Technology in Teaching
General Views on the Use of Technology in Teaching Practice
Value of Using Technology in Teaching
Challenges Associated with the Use of Technology in Teaching
Discussion
Implications for teacher training programmes
Conclusion
References
Chapter 9
Challenges Student Teachers Experience in the Development of Their Professional Teacher Identity
Abstract
Key Concepts
Introduction
Challenges Often Faced by Pre-Service Teachers
Viewing Teaching Practice as an Activity System
Generating Data on the Challenges Experienced by Student Teachers as Well as Possible Solutions to These
Results on Typical Challenges Experienced by Student Teachers and Proposed Solutions
Challenges on a Personal Level and Associated Proposed Solutions
Challenges Related to the Physical School Environment and Associated Solutions
Community-Related Challenges and Associated Solutions
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Chapter 10
Student Teachers Taking Agency to Strengthen Their Teacher Identity
Abstract
Key Concepts
Introduction
Capitalising on the Principles of PRA to Strengthen Professional Identity
Communities of Practice
Generating Data on Student Teachers’ Efforts to Strengthen Their Professional Teacher Identity
Results on the Initiatives of Student Teachers to Strengthen Their Own Teacher Identity Development
Challenges Most Commonly Addressed through
Small-Scale Projects
Format of Data Collection and Role-Players Involved
Outcomes and Value of Small-Scale Projects
Future Application of Lessons Learned
Discussion
Conclusion
Final Reflections
References
About the Editor
About the Contributors
Index
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Blank Page

Citation preview

EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD

TEACHER IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT WITHIN A COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE

No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services.

EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD Additional books and e-books in this series can be found on Nova’s website under the Series tab.

EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD

TEACHER IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT WITHIN A COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE

RONÉL FERREIRA EDITOR

Copyright © 2021 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. https://doi.org/10.52305/RCGD8969 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. We have partnered with Copyright Clearance Center to make it easy for you to obtain permissions to reuse content from this publication. Simply navigate to this publication’s page on Nova’s website and locate the “Get Permission” button below the title description. This button is linked directly to the title’s permission page on copyright.com. Alternatively, you can visit copyright.com and search by title, ISBN, or ISSN. For further questions about using the service on copyright.com, please contact: Copyright Clearance Center Phone: +1-(978) 750-8400 Fax: +1-(978) 750-4470 E-mail: [email protected].

NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works. Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ISBN: H%RRN

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

DEDICATION This publication is dedicated to our loving colleague, mentor and friend, the late Professor Billy Fraser. Billy’s passion for teacher education and the development of professionals who will make valuable contributions in schools and children’s lives was tangible and contagious. His commitment to shaping the future teachers of South Africa was evident in, amongst others, the FIRE project reported on in this book, which he led during the period 2015–2017. Just as he cared for his students, Photograph credit Jess van Putten, Billy deeply cared for his colleagues 25 January, 2017. and took the role of mentor wherever he could. He embraced collaboration and involved many young colleagues in established projects, in support of their scholarly development and career prospects. We are all grateful for the opportunity to have been part of the FIRE project, where we could work alongside a colleague with such

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Dedication

academic stature and vision – learning from the best. May this publication, envisioned by Billy, bring honour to his reputation. In the words of some of his colleagues… “When starting my career at the Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Prof Fraser was a true mentor to me. Having him as a mentor has changed my life for the better. He was a great leader who had dedicated his life to the service of humanity. I will forever be grateful for his guidance and kindness and I hope to inspire others as he has inspired me” ~ Marien Graham. “I acknowledge the impact that Prof Fraser had on our department and the solid support for research development initiatives such as the FIRE project. The gap he left is still there and I miss him dearly” ~ Ronel Callaghan. “This book is for you, Professor You were endeared everywhere you served. We miss your kindness and dedication” ~ Niekie Blom.

Contents

List of Tables ........................................................................................ ix List of Figures ........................................................................................ xi Foreword

......................................................................................xiii Brigitte Smit

Preface

....................................................................................... xv

Acknowledgments ................................................................................ xix List of Abbreviations............................................................................ xxi Chapter 1

Introduction and Background Information................ 1 Ronél Ferreira

Chapter 2

Conceptualising Teacher Identity.............................. 27 Sonja van Putten

Chapter 3

Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice......................................................................... 45 Sonja van Putten and Nicolaas Blom

Chapter 4

The Teacher as Teaching and Learning Expert ........................................................................... 67 Judy van Heerden and Hannelie du Preez

Chapter 5

The Caring and Support Identity of Student Teachers ....................................................................... 93 Marien Alet Graham

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Contents

Chapter 6

Pre-Service Teachers’ Perceptions of Being a Subject Specialist....................................................... 115 Amelia Abrie

Chapter 7

Emerging Leadership and Management Identity of Student Teachers .................................... 137 André du Plessis

Chapter 8

The Joy and Frustration of Using Information Technology in Developing as a Teacher .................. 163 Ronel Callaghan

Chapter 9

Challenges Student Teachers Experience in the Development of Their Professional Teacher Identity ........................................................ 193 Nicolaas Blom

Chapter 10

Student Teachers Taking Agency to Strengthen Their Teacher Identity .......................... 213 Ronél Ferreira

About the Editor.................................................................................. 237 About the Contributors ...................................................................... 239 Index

..................................................................................... 245

LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1. Table 1.2. Table 1.3. Table 4.1. Table 6.1. Table 7.1. Table 8.1. Table 8.2. Table 8.3.

Table 8.4. Table 8.5. Table 8.6. Table 9.1.

Facets of teacher identity in relation to the roles of a teacher ...................................................................... 7 Student teacher participants .......................................... 16 Example of action plans for small-scale projects .......... 20 Overview of a-priori and emerging themes .................. 80 Categories of teacher knowledge ................................ 120 Traditional versus emerging leadership approaches................................................................... 145 Core aspects associated with the use of technology in teaching ................................................ 171 Themes of participants’ general reflections on technology in teaching ................................................ 174 Links and supportive evidence for the themes related to general views on technology in teaching ....................................................................... 175 Themes on the perceived value of technology ............ 177 Themes related to the challenges associated with technology in teaching ................................................ 180 Participant responses in relation to the TAM components ................................................................. 183 Challenges on a personal level .................................... 200

x Table 9.2. Table 9.3. Table 9.4. Table 9.5. Table 9.6. Table 10.1. Table 10.2.

List of Tables Possible solutions to challenges on a personal level ............................................................................. 201 Challenges related to the physical school environment ................................................................ 202 Possible solutions to challenges related to the physical school environment ....................................... 202 Community-related challenges ................................... 203 Possible solutions to community-related challenges .................................................................... 204 Challenges most commonly addressed by student teachers ....................................................................... 222 Strategies and role-players involved in smallscale projects ............................................................... 224

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1. Figure 1.2. Figure 1.3. Figure 2.1. Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.2. Figure 4.3. Figure 4.4.

Figure 5.1.

PRA-matrix on the different aspects of teacher identity. ......................................................................... 17 PRA-matrix on the different role-players influencing PTI development. ....................................... 19 PRA-matrix on action plans for two small-scale projects. ......................................................................... 21 Professional teacher identity framework based on Beijaard et al. (2000). ............................................... 34 Nature of a teacher’s knowledge domains for teaching and learning (adapted from Shulman, 1987, p. 8; Ball et al., 2008, pp. 391, 403) and work-based learning (adapted from Department of Higher Education and Training [DHET], 2018, p. 14). .................................................................. 71 PRA-matrix created by student-participants. ................ 78 Small group discussion and PRA-activity..................... 79 Word cloud on the perceptions of the participants of their developing identity as teaching and learning experts. ....................................... 80 Mapping the expert roles associated with teacher identity. ....................................................................... 101

xii Figure 6.1. Figure 6.2. Figure 6.3. Figure 8.1. Figure 8.2. Figure 8.3. Figure 8.4. Figure 8.5. Figure 8.7. Figure 8.8. Figure 8.9. Figure 9.1.

List of Figures Teacher knowledge (Adapted from Grossman, 1990; Park & Oliver, 2008)......................................... 120 Pedagogical content knowledge (Adapted from Park & Oliver, 2008)................................................... 122 Pre-service teachers participating in a PRAdriven group activity. .................................................. 123 Technology acceptance model. ................................... 167 Technology integration development.......................... 168 Concept map on general reflections on technology. .................................................................. 173 Concepts related to the perceived value of technology. .................................................................. 176 Concept map on perceived value of using technology in teaching. ............................................... 178 Concept map on the challenges associated with the use of technology in teaching. .............................. 181 Core aspects for technology integration development. ............................................................... 187 Educational technology integration development for student teachers. .................................................... 188 Components of teaching practice as an activity system (adapted from Engeström, 1987, 2015). ......... 197

FOREWORD Given its local, continental, and international academic prevalence, the text of Teacher identity development within a community of practice is timely, current, and contemporary. Teacher identity has been researched often, yet when interpreted from various perspectives, the phenomenon becomes even more complex and nuanced, which this text competently alludes to. The book covers ten chapters, which each could serve as an academic article, given the theoretical grounding, the methodological rigour, and scholarly interpretation. Also, the development of thought is presented with nuanced clarity, contextualising the construct of identity, setting the context, describing the research settings, and offering reflections on the project, which one often does not see in texts. The chapters have an intellectual coherence as they speak to one another, the conceptualisations, the interface between theory and practice, the role of pedagogy in the forging of identity, the nuance of care and identity, the perceptions of pre-service teachers, together with matters of leadership, the role of technology, developmental challenges and matters of agency. The chapters tie in with one another in an unforced manner, which adds to the unity across the chapters and coherence within the chapters. I am convinced that many scholars of education, teachers, including pre-service and experienced teachers, will read this ground-breaking text,

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learning more about themselves as teachers in becoming. Experienced teachers will also benefit from the text during their self-development and personal growth. Teacher identity development within a community of practice does honour to the late Professor William Fraser, to whom the book is dedicated. The scholarly contribution to existing theory on the phenomenon of teacher identity is clear. In addition, the way in which the book was put together by involving both experienced and emerging scholars, mirrors Prof Fraser’s scholarly sharing disposition, and his selfless approach to the academy. Professor Brigitte Smit, PhD Assistant Adjunct Professor, University of Alberta, Canada Visiting Professor, University of Johannesburg, South Africa 29 November 2021

PREFACE Despite the fact that teacher training programmes include components on the professional identity of a teacher, what this entails and how it can be strengthened, prospective teachers often experience their own identity as teachers for the first time, when they enter schools during the teaching practice component of their training programme. At this stage, student teachers may however, feel uncertain about their own knowledge and skills as well as their ability to become expert teachers in their specific subject areas. Even though student teachers who undertake teaching practice are usually in contact with mentor teachers as well as mentor lecturers, opportunities for interaction with their peers may be limited. Insufficient opportunities for engagement with others who share similar experiences in a community of practice, may in turn negatively affect the professional development of young teachers-in-becoming. Against this background, a research project funded by the National Research Foundation (NRF) was undertaken by the University of Pretoria during the period 2015 to 2017, under the leadership of the late Professor William John (Billy) Fraser. The Fourth-Year Initiative for Research in Education (FIRE) project entailed research with final year student teachers who had entered the teaching practice component of their training programmes. The project followed a participatory methodological approach and involved cycles of reflection, planning and action taking within a community of practice, with the purpose of strengthening the

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participants’ professional teacher identities. The aim was for the student teachers to take agency for their own professional development by sharing experiences and ideas, planning ways to address the challenges they faced, and collaborating with others who shared a similar interest. This book captures the findings of the FIRE project and foregrounds a potential way of facilitating continued professional teacher identity development. Findings and lessons learned may assist pre-service and inservice teachers, higher education institutions as well as other professionals who want to take ownership for their own identity development. Although the FIRE project was undertaken within the teaching context, people in other professions may gain ideas for development, as communities of practice can form the basis for professional development across all contexts. In reporting on the findings of the FIRE project, Chapter 1 of this publication provides contextual information and explains the project. The methodology and research process that was employed is described in detail, in order to provide the necessary background against which the remaining chapters can be read. In Chapter 2, the focus falls on the concept teacher identity. The FIRE project is positioned within existing theory on teacher identity and professional identity development. This explanation provides the reader with an explanation of the theoretical lens with which the FIRE project was undertaken. Chapter 3 builds on the previous chapter, with a focus on how theory can be put into practice when student teachers enter the profession. Findings of the FIRE project that relate to the participating student teachers’ views on their own teacher identity development are presented, as well as their experiences of the various stakeholders who contributed to their development, the challenges they experienced when entering the practical teaching situation, and how these could be addressed. Chapters 4 to 7 report on the findings of the FIRE project which relate to the participants’ understanding of the various roles they are required to fulfil as teachers as well as the challenges they experienced in terms of these roles. More specifically, Chapter 4 focuses on the role of teachers as

Preface

xvii

teaching and learning experts, Chapter 5 on the teacher’s caring and support identity, Chapter 6 on the teacher as subject specialist, and Chapter 7 on the leadership and management identity of a teacher, which forms part of the professional role. In Chapter 8, implementation of a current prominent teaching strategy is discussed, namely the use of information technology in the classroom. In addition to presenting some positive experiences of the student teachers in using information technology, the challenges they experienced are also highlighted. Chapter 9 provides a summary of the various challenges that the participating student teachers identified in terms of their development of a professional teacher identity. Building on this chapter, the final chapter of the book focuses on how the participating student teachers aimed to address some of the challenges identified by taking agency and formulating and executing action plans within the community of practice they functioned in. Based on the need for continued research and South African publications in the field of professional teacher identity development, this book paves the way for building theory in this field. It furthermore adds knowledge and a practical example of how participatory methodology can be utilised when undertaking research in communities of practice settings, and how research in practice can in turn inform professional development and practice. The publication can be a valuable resource for both pre- and in-service teachers and practitioners in terms of their professional development, which may in turn positively affect their teaching practice and the development of the learners in their class. Based on the content of this publication, follow-up research may add to this emerging field of knowledge. Ronél Ferreira Editor 13 October 2021

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Financial support by the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa. This publication is based on the findings of a NRF funded project, Grant number 93502. The Fourth-Year Initiative for Research in Education (FIRE) project was undertaken from 2015 to 2017 by the University of Pretoria, under the leadership of the late Professor William John Fraser. The contents of the publication are the sole responsibility of the respective authors of the chapters and cannot be taken to reflect the views of the NRF. Financial support for language and technical editing by the Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, more specifically Professor Ronel Callaghan and the late Professor Billy Fraser. All 2015–2017 final year student teachers who participated in the FIRE project and shared their experiences with the research team. Ms Janine Ellis, language and technical editor. The publisher, editors and support staff from Nova Science Publishers for the production of this publication.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CAPS

Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement

CPTD

Continuous Professional Teacher Development

DoE

Department of Education

FIRE project

Fourth-Year Initiative for Research in Education

ICT

Information and Communication Technology

NEEDU

National Education Evaluation and Development Unit

PCK

Pedagogical Content Knowledge

PRA

Participatory Reflection and Action

PTI

Professional Teacher Identity

SMK

Subject Matter Knowledge

Stats SA

Statistics South Africa

TAM

Technology Acceptance Model

WIL

Work-Integrated Learning

4IR

4th Industrial Revolution

In: Teacher Identity Development … ISBN: 978-1-68507-487-6 Editor: Ronél Ferreira © 2021 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND INFORMATION Ronél Ferreira* Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT In this book, the focus falls on the professional development of students in Education, as part of their journey to becoming teachers. More specifically, the central aspects of professional teacher identity (PTI) development are explored, what this entails and how student teachers may strengthen these facets of their development, within a community of practice. The various chapters are based on the findings and outcomes of a research project that was conducted at a higher education institution in South Africa from 2015 to 2017, involving more than 2300 final year student teachers. To provide the necessary background, this chapter includes a detailed description of the research that was undertaken and what the project entailed. After providing context in terms of the teacher training model followed by the institution at the time of the study, the importance of PTI development is introduced. More detailed discussions on this important aspect of the professional development of teachers *

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

Ronél Ferreira

2

follow in Chapter 2 (by Van Putten), and are elaborated on in Chapter 3 (by Van Putten and Blom). The remainder of the chapter focuses on an in-depth description of the methodological approach and research process of the project, as an introduction to the rest of the chapters, where the various sections of findings of the research project are discussed in detail.

KEY CONCEPTS 









Fourth-year initiative for research in education (FIRE) project: Funded research project (National Research Foundation, Grant number 93502), undertaken at the University of Pretoria with final year student teachers during the period 2015 to 2017. Participatory reflection and action (PRA): A research approach where participants are guided to take the lead in formulating and executing action plans that may address the challenges they experience in their immediate context. Professional teacher identity (PTI) development: The process of development and shaping of future and practising teachers, in terms of the professional role and desired attributes of people who pursue this career path. Teacher training: Formal programmes offered to prospective teachers by higher education institutions. Teacher training programmes always include theoretical modules as well as a practical teaching component. Teaching practice: A component of teacher training programmes during which student teachers can gain practical experience as teachers-in-becoming within the school context.

INTRODUCTION This book stems from a large-scale funded research project (National Research Foundation, Grant number 93502) that was undertaken at the

Introduction and Background Information

3

University of Pretoria with final year student teachers during the period 2015 to 2017, under the leadership of Professor William John Fraser. As part of the broader vision of the Faculty of Education, the Fourth-Year Initiative for Research in Education (FIRE) project was undertaken in support of student development and the preparation of future teachers for the career they were about to embark on, with the secondary aim of strengthening teacher training at the institution. In undertaking the FIRE project, it was assumed that professional teacher identity (PTI) formation of final-year students in Education would be possible when students entered the practical world-of-work during the teaching practice period, with situated learning as an expected outcome. As such, the assumption was made that students in Education would be able to strengthen their own identities as a result of the communities of practice they functioned in, in support of teacher effectiveness. More specifically, the research team believed that school-based and work integrated learning (that is, teaching practice) could be utilised as a community of practice for student teachers to access situated learning and expand their prior learning experiences on subject and pedagogical content knowledge. To this effect, the manner in which student teachers’ experiences during teaching practice and their participation in the FIRE project informed their views and PTI development in terms of teacher effectiveness is discussed in the chapters that follow. On a practical level, as part of the professional development that occurred amongst the participating student teachers, the aim was to strengthen and encourage the students’ reflexive practices, for this to become embedded in their practice as future teachers and lifelong learners. Future teachers often experience challenges to establish a clear teacher identity when entering the world-of-work. In addition to relying on the training they have received, student teachers typically depend on the experiences they gain during teaching practice periods when exposed to teaching in practice, teachers in the profession that may serve as examples and role models as well as the guidance and support of mentor lecturers when facing some challenges associated with beginner year teaching. Even though PTI development by means of peer interaction, collaboration and

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Ronél Ferreira

participation in joint efforts is often neglected, the active engagement of student teachers with their fellow students, and whether they choose to also include their mentor teachers and mentor lecturers, while planning and pursuing their own professional development, may be valuable. More specifically, when taking the first step of sustained professional growth as teachers, such active involvement can result in student teachers taking agency of their own development. Against this background, the FIRE project in its broadest sense focused on the way in which fourth-year student teachers can facilitate teacher and teaching effectiveness in a community of practice, by taking responsibility for their own professional development. Even though previous studies (refer to e.g., Chong et al., 2011) have focused on the importance of teaching practice with specific reference to the interaction between student teachers and their mentor teachers and mentor lecturers, the possible value of constructive engagement between student teachers during teaching practice is less prominent. Based on the need for research in this field, it is evident that limited opportunities are facilitated for student teachers in teacher training programmes to share ideas, identify shortcomings and strengthen their own teaching practice as a community of practice. The fact that ample evidence exists that general teaching and learning can be enhanced when students engage in so-called communities of inquiry, foregrounds the possible value of communities of practice for the development of future and practicing teachers. More specifically, the value of student reflections (Leijen et al., 2012), critical friends (Franzak, 2002), participatory reflection and action (Chambers, 2008), communities of inquiry (Garrison, 2007), communities of practice (Wenger, 1998), the ideal dialogue of Habermas (McCarthy, 1978) and cooperative learning (Slavin, 1990) are well recorded. With this being said, the FIRE project was undertaken with the underpinning assumption that the mutual engagement of student teachers in participatory groups during teaching practice experiences can contribute to the emancipation and empowerment of the participants in support of the development of their teacher identities.

Introduction and Background Information

5

TEACHER IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT In the same way that identity cannot be regarded as something that someone possess at a certain stage in life due to the fact that identity develops throughout life in interaction with the environment and others (Beijaard et al., 2004), the teacher identity of future and practicing teachers are shaped throughout their careers. This dynamic concept is shaped when teachers engage in teaching activities, reflect on their own practice or enter into discussions with others. According to Olsen (2008), teacher identity development implies a dynamic interaction between several underlying parts, including prior personal experience, prior professional experience, a person’s reasons for entering the career path, teacher education experience, the current teaching context/practice and career plans/teacher retention. Sachs (2001) builds on this argument by referring to a certain set of desired attributes as defining the professional identity of teachers, with these being determined by people in- and outside of the teaching profession. This set of attributes provides people in the profession with a set of values and features that distinguish them from those in other professions. In addition to others’ views on desired attributes, future teachers themselves will hold ideas of suitable traits for someone entering this career path. As such, the dynamic process of teacher identity development is ongoing and informed by the personal experiences of the teacher-in-becoming in- and outside the classroom, as well as by the own value and belief system related to an ideal teacher or characteristics to aspire to, against the backdrop of societal views and unwritten rules (Sachs, 2001). Personal experiences, reflections on these as well as feedback and examples of others will ultimately shape a teacher’s future practice (Olsen, 2008). In addition, teachers will be affected in terms of “efficacy and professional development as well as their ability and willingness to cope with educational change and to implement innovations in their own teaching practice” (Beijaard et al., 2000, p. 750). It follows that teacher identity development implies an ongoing process during which future and practicing teachers interpret themselves as people with teaching attributes

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Ronél Ferreira

which are recognised and valued by both themselves and others within the teaching context. Teachers’ professional development is thus not merely a question of, “Who am I as teacher at the moment?” but rather one of, “Who do I want to become?” (Beijaard et al., 2004). Even though a concise definition of the concept teacher identity continues to be debated (refer to the next chapter by Van Putten for more detail), the conceptualisation used in the FIRE project was primarily informed by the work of Beijaard et al. (2000), Day and Kington (2008) as well as Clarke and Hollingsworth (2002). Accordingly, PTI was related to a teacher’s identity as a subject specialist, pedagogical expert, didactical expert and as a developing professional. As rationale for adopting this conceptualisation for the FIRE project, the roles expected of teachers in South Africa were taken into account, as stipulated in the National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa (Department of Education, 2006). Table 1.1 below provides an overview of these roles and how they can be linked to the teacher identity components that applied during the FIRE project. As the FIRE project progressed, the component of a teacher being a developing professional was refined in order to facilitate meaningful discussions on the various processes implied by this facet of teacher identity development. For example, prompts were provided that relate to the implied roles of continued professional development, lifelong learning, professional contact with parents and peers, as well as classroom management. For the facet of teacher identity associated with pedagogical expertise, prompts were included which relate to the caring nature of a teacher and learning support provision, whilst the didactical expert component was explored in terms of teaching strategies and methods, teaching aids as well as assessment and evaluation procedures. More detail on the specific activities included in the FIRE project is discussed further on in this chapter.

Introduction and Background Information

7

Table 1.1. Facets of teacher identity in relation to the roles of a teacher Facets of Teacher Identity Teacher as subject specialist (expert knowledge of subject matter and curriculum) Teacher as pedagogical expert (informed about the experiences and needs of learners, effective communication, moral and ethical issues) Teacher as didactical expert (good classroom practice in terms of lesson planning, preparation, execution and evaluation) Teacher as developing professional (continuous strive towards improved knowledge, skills and teaching expertise)

Associated Roles of Teachers  Specialist in a particular learning area, subject or phase  Curriculum developer  Someone who fulfils a pastoral role

 Specialist in teaching and learning  Specialist in assessment

 Leader, administrator and manager  Scholar and lifelong learner

Source: Beijaard et al. (2000); Clarke and Hollingsworth (2002); Day and Kington (2008); Department of Education (2006).

Teaching Practice as a Platform for Professional Teacher Identity Development All teacher training programmes include theoretical modules as well as a practical teaching component. The structure and presentation of the various components of a programme differ across institutions, with teaching practice being integrated into the training programme across the different years of study at certain institutions, thereby exposing students to their future world-of-work from the first to the final study years. Other programmes follow a model where teaching practice only occurs towards the end of the teacher training programme, after completion of selected theoretical modules that deal with the philosophy and practice of teaching, before experiencing the practical component. For other programmes, students are placed in schools from the start, with theoretical training taking place in parallel with the practical training.

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Regardless of the model followed, the teaching practice component of any teacher training programme has the goal of exposing students to the practice of teaching at ground level. By allowing them to put theory into practice, their repertoire of knowledge and skills on the teaching of chosen specialised subjects can be strengthened, while they are shaped as future teachers. It is a well-known fact that the training offered by higher education institutions cannot provide an authentic practical teaching experience and that this is only possible in the classroom setting when student teachers make meaning of teaching experiences and their own abilities as future teachers. Even though the professional development and identity formation of future teachers can thus commence during formal training and theoretical modules offered at training institutions, this aspect will only gain momentum once the profession is entered – either as a student teacher during teaching practice periods or when entering the teaching career as beginner teacher. Teaching practice has always been regarded as a key component of teacher training programmes and is often the first opportunity for student teachers to return to a world-of-work after leaving school. Joseph and Heading (2010, p. 76) capture the importance of teaching practice for identity development specifically, by stating the following: “…, the art of learning how to teach and its process of becoming a teacher, shapes one’s teacher identity”. This art of teaching and the development of a PTI is key for effective teaching in any educational setting (Okeke et al., 2016). On the contrary, in the absence of an established professional identity, beginner teachers may not have the necessary confidence to engage with learners during classroom teaching. In theory, teaching practice can thus be regarded as the optimal platform for professional development and identity formation of student teachers, with student teachers being mentored by mentor teachers and university lecturers. In practice, however, the mentoring and guiding role of others may not necessarily have the envisioned effect due to factors such as high student numbers, high student-mentor ratios or student teachers undertaking teaching practice at schools in isolated areas. In cases where sufficient engagement and interaction does indeed occur between student

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teachers and their mentors, the focus furthermore often tends to fall on teaching competence and the grading of the performance of student teachers. Against this background, the question can be asked as to how student teachers themselves may contribute to their own development by taking agency and becoming actively involved in their own development as teachers. During this period of their training, students are without a doubt in the perfect position to take ownership of their own development by planning and implementing strategies that can potentially improve their teaching skills and strengthen their teacher identity. Ample evidence exists that teaching and learning can be enhanced when students engage in so-called “communities of inquiry” (as phrased by Garrison, 2007); with the value of student reflections (Leijen et al., 2012), discussions with critical friends (Franzak, 2002), participatory reflection and action initiatives (Chambers, 2008), communities of practice (Wenger, 1998), the ideal dialogue of Habermas (McCarthy, 1978) and cooperative learning (Slavin, 1990) being well-recorded. Korthagen et al. (2006) similarly emphasise the importance of peer-supported learning in teacher education programmes. These authors argue that students “learning to teach” (p. 102) should work closely with their peers, and in the process establish meaningful relationships between schools, universities and fellow student teachers. To this end, the teaching practice component of training programmes provides a perfect platform for such mutual engagement of student teachers in participatory groups, cooperation with others as well as group and self-reflection activities. As Franzak (2002) puts it, student teachers can rely on the resources they have in one another, with such engagement and interaction with peers creating a so-called “psychological safety net” (p. 264) for them. All these activities may support the professional development of teachers and future teachers, shaping them to flourish in the career they pursued; or, if not yet functioning on that level, to be able to identify areas of growth and actively attend to these.

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Training Programme of Participants in the FIRE Project As indicated earlier, the FIRE project was undertaken at the University of Pretoria, South Africa, during the period 2015 to 2017. At the time of the project, all teacher training programmes at the institution entailed four years of training, in different subject and phase specialisations. The following Bachelor of Education (BEd) packages were offered at the time: Early Childhood Development and Foundation Phase, Intermediate Phase, Senior Phase and Further Education and Training (with various options). All packages offered a sound academic and theoretical foundation for preservice teachers, with modules focusing on educational theories, the child and the classroom, curriculum development, classroom management as well as subject content and methodology. Furthermore, as part of the BEd programme, all students enrolled for a full-time teaching practice module in their fourth year of study. The teaching practice module took place in schools during the second and third terms of the year, yet also included orientation and reflection sessions at the training institution. A mentorship model was implemented for the teaching practice module. Students were accordingly divided into two groups which rotated for the second and third terms, with all students experiencing controlled teaching practice for one of the two terms and uncontrolled teaching practice during the other term. During controlled teaching practice, students were guided by mentor lecturers from the training institution and during uncontrolled teaching practice, schools and mentor teachers took responsibility for guidance and support. Even though this model has since changed at the specific higher education institution where the project was undertaken, all student teachers who participated in the FIRE project experienced their training as described. In addition to the teaching practice module, all students enrolled for two semester modules in research methodology in their fourth/final year of study. The module in research methodology offered in the first semester focused on an introduction to research and developing the research capacity of students as beginner teachers. During the second semester, the module on research methodology focused on strengthening the reflective

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and practical research capacity of beginner teachers, thereby implementing theory in a research project. As part of these modules on research methodology, students were expected to plan research, compile a proposal and submit a brief research report. The FIRE project was undertaken as part of the two modules in research methodology yet undertaken during the teaching practice component of the training programme, in an attempt to contribute to the PTI development of the participating student teachers. More specifically, it was foreseen that the FIRE project could serve as a link between theory and practice by creating opportunities for student teachers to engage with various role-players in their communities of practice. This would not only allow student teachers to cognitively link theory and practice, but also to engage with their peers through a set of pre-planned activities and actions, thereby enabling them to identify common problems encountered in the classroom during the teaching practice period, and then propose possible solutions to these problems. It is against this background that the FIRE project was developed and undertaken.

EXPLANATION OF THE FIRE PROJECT This book is based on the FIRE (Fourth-year Initiative for Research in Education) project as it was implemented during the period 2015 to 2017. Even though student teachers were also involved in research in 2014, this phase preceded the FIRE project as reported in this book. The FIRE project aimed to facilitate a process where student teachers would take agency and work alongside one another (in addition to being guided by other relevant role-players) to actively plan for their own development and implement their own identified plans. By involving student teachers as partners and ‘co-researchers’ of a larger research project, they were able to acquire knowledge and skills in participatory research by means of active participation and self-driven experiential learning. In this way, the student teachers could experience participatory

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research first hand (in the role of participants), allowing them to practically apply the theory they had acquired in class. The FIRE project involved lecturers across the various departments of the Faculty of Education, due to its nature and the focus on PTI development. As such, methodology lecturers could engage with student teachers, yet also create opportunities for student teachers to actively engage with their fellow-students, as well as mentor teachers, mentor lecturers and teachers in the profession, based on their needs and preferences. Before commencing with the project, the necessary ethical clearance and permission for the project was obtained from the higher education institution, the National Department of Education and the schools where the student teachers would be implementing their small-scale projects. All student teachers gave written informed consent before participation. The student teachers had to in turn, also obtain consent from any other participants they involved as part of the implementation of their action plans.

Methodological Approach In conceptualising the FIRE project, active participant involvement was prioritised as the cornerstone of any form of personal development. As a result, a participatory reflection and action (PRA) approach was followed (Chambers, 2008), which lends itself to participants taking the lead in solving problems and initiating change – in this case strengthening a PTI. As the intention was to investigate the participating student teachers’ perceptions and experiences, a qualitative design was selected for the part of the FIRE project that focused on teacher identity development. During the later stages of the FIRE project, a quantitative component was included to explore other aspects of teacher development which are not included in the discussions in this publication. According to Chambers (2008) as well as Von Maltzahn and Van der Riet (2006), PRA research implies the involvement of people who

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understand their situations best. As a result, they are in the best position to find solutions to problems that will fit their circumstances and are within their reach. In making participants aware of their current situations (which include an awareness of challenges yet also of strengths and resources) the possibility of mobilising resources within the self and the immediate environment can come to the fore. It follows that the fourth-year student teachers involved in teaching practice at the time of their participation in the FIRE project were in the best position to identify solutions to the challenges they faced, formulate plans to reach these and then implement their action plans and assess the outcome thereof. In opting to select a PRA approach, the focus had to shift from lecturers taking the lead, to allowing the participating student teachers to determine possible solutions to the challenges they faced and manage the implementation of the associated action steps they had identified. The success of any PRA project rests on the so-called ‘handing over of the stick’, where researchers step back and merely facilitate discussions among participants. Accordingly, the student teachers were regarded as ‘experts’ in terms of the possibility to find solutions to the challenges they experienced. In following this approach, the student teachers were sensitised to the fact that they had to determine the outcome of the process and their associated professional development. The basic steps of appraisal, reflection and action allowed the student teachers to enter a cycle of activities that may initiate continued positive change – in this case, a strengthened PTI. The main reason for following a PRA approach relates to the emancipatory and empowering nature of the approach and the implied possibility of strengthening the experiences of final year student teachers during their teaching practice experience, which could support their PTI development. In this regard, Von Maltzahn and Van der Riet (2006) emphasise the strong social justice orientation of PRA which may enable community members (student teachers in this case) to construct knowledge within particular social contexts. In addition, PRA generally allows researchers and research partners (student teachers) to address professionrelated challenges and problems as they emerge in practice (in this case,

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emerging PTI). Within the FIRE project, PRA thus allowed student teachers to reflect on and manage their own professional development by identifying challenges, planning solutions (actions) and then executing these initiatives (Ferreira & Ebersöhn, 2012). Intervention, activism and change are central constituents of this process.

Underlying Theoretical Framework The FIRE project was guided by the theoretical principles and basic components of PRA (Chambers, 2008), the asset-based approach (initially conceptualised by Kretzmann & McKnight, 1993) and Community of practice theory (Wenger, 1998). As explained in the previous section, the principles of active involvement and taking agency when wanting to facilitate professional development, applied throughout the project (Chambers, 2008). In terms of the asset-based approach, which can also be related to PRA, the student teachers who participated were viewed as individuals who have access to a repertoire of assets, resources and strengths, that can be mobilised when wanting to address challenges or find solutions to problems. The underlying philosophy and basic steps of the asset-based approach co-determined the data generation process (refer to the section on Data generation, documentation and analysis further on), which at its core, entailed that the student teachers first reflected on their own development and the people contributing to this (identifying the assets and strengths within and among themselves), then identified the challenges they faced in terms of their own teacher identity and professional practice and lastly, planned how to address these challenges by relying on available assets and resources (asset mobilisation). By taking ownership of this process of change, student teachers engaged in the final step of the assetbased approach, being asset management (Ebersöhn & Eloff, 2006). In identifying and investigating possible solutions to the challenges faced, the student teachers collaborated in small groups within the larger cohort of final year students in Education. They furthermore functioned

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within the larger teaching community where collaboration with other teachers, mentors and additional stakeholders was possible. Wenger’s (1998) theory on Community of Practice can be applied, where student teachers functioned in smaller community clusters within the broader communities of practice, being final year students in Education and people involved in the teaching profession. By working in smaller groups on an average of six to eight students each as part of the FIRE project within their field of teaching specialisation, students were exposed to smaller communities of inquiry, yet could also experience the value of being part of a larger community of practice. The underlying steps and principles of PRA, the asset-based approach and Community of Practice theory can be related to each other. In this regard, the implementation of both PRA and the asset-based approach will ultimately lead to change. For this to occur and be sustained, participants themselves need to take agency and determine the progress and outcome of any change initiatives that are undertaken. When undertaking this in collaboration with others who share similar experiences and needs, meaning can be made and personal identity be strengthened, within the secure context of a community of care. As such, the student teachers who participated in the FIRE project were able to gain content knowledge and experience, yet also had the opportunity to take agency for their own development as future teachers by being reflexive practitioners who plan and implement initiatives in their own lives, in consultation with people they could relate to.

Participants in the FIRE Project All fourth-year student teachers undertaking teaching practice at public and private schools in the Greater Pretoria region during 2015, 2016 and 2017 participated in the FIRE project. These students were selected as primary participants and completed their teaching practice at approximately 135 schools, where role-players formed part of the smallscale projects that the participants implemented. More specifically,

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teachers, parents, mentor teachers and other stakeholders associated with the schools were selected as secondary participants, as determined by the student teachers’ needs. A summary of the student teachers who participated in the FIRE project is provided in Table 1.2. The majority of student teachers (75% per year group on average) were female. All of these students were either in the second (April to June) or third (July to September) term, in the second semester, of their final year of study at the time of the FIRE project. Table 1.2. Student teacher participants Year 2015 2016 2017 Total

Number of Participants (n) 713 755 841 2309

Data Generation, Documentation and Analysis For the FIRE project, all final year student teachers participated in two three-hour PRA-workshops at a venue situated on campus at the training institution. The first workshop was scheduled for approximately one month after the students commenced with teaching practice, and the second workshop for six to eight weeks later, thus two and a half to three months into the teaching practice experience. During the first workshop, participants reflected on their own development and teaching experience during the first month of the teaching practice period, with the purpose to identify areas for improvement and brainstorm ways of achieving this. During the six to eight week-period between the two PRA-workshops, student teachers were expected to implement the plans they had formulated in order to reflect and further plan during the second workshop. Two sets of workshops were facilitated each year, working with students in groups of 70–90 per venue and in several venues at a time.

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Student teachers were grouped in different venues according to the different BEd packages they were enrolled for. This ensured that the discussions could remain focused and relevant for all participants in one venue. Within each venue, students worked in small groups of six to eight students per group. For these groups, attention was once again paid to grouping students according to specific subjects or areas of specialisation. In following a PRA approach, data generation involved discussions and PRA-activities, where the participants compiled posters (PRAmatrices) to capture their discussions, in terms of their personal experiences and perceptions. The participants compiled several PRAmatrices, based on the pre-formulated prompts they received. These prompts and discussions created the necessary opportunities for guided reflection, identification of strengths and areas of growth, identification of possible solutions to problems and formulation of action plans.

Figure 1.1. PRA-matrix on the different aspects of teacher identity.

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During the first workshop held in 2015, the student teachers participated in four PRA-activities. The first discussion focused on the student teachers’ perceptions of teacher identity and what this implies. Participants received a poster with four prompts and were requested to discuss and document the characteristics of an ‘ideal teacher’ in terms of the following four aspects: the teacher as subject and curriculum expert; the teacher as teaching and learning expert; the teacher as caring expert; and the teacher as professional. At the end of this discussion, the participants were requested to rank the different aspects in terms of importance. Small group discussions were followed by presentations to the larger group (per venue), with the opportunity for other groups to further contribute or elaborate as they saw fit. Figure 1.1 provides an example of a PRA-matrix developed during this activity. For the second activity, the student teachers were requested to discuss and document the various people or institutions that have contributed to, or may in future contribute to their own teacher identity development. The participants were requested to use different coloured pages for each role-player and indicate the extent of the influence by means of the size of the paper. Following this activity, the participants were requested to use different coloured stickers to indicate which of the identified role-players have had a large impact on their PTI development, which have had a small impact and which have had some impact but could potentially play a bigger role in future. As in the case of the first PRA-activity, small groups reported to the larger group at the end of the small-group discussions. Figure 1.2 provides an example of this activity. Next, participants were referred to the first PRA-matrix which they compiled, requesting them to identify the areas of PTI development that required further development in their own lives, based on the month they had spent in the classroom during the teaching practice period. Following this identification, the participants were requested to identify any two areas of growth that they wanted to attend to during the following six weeks. After identifying these, the participants were requested to plan two small-scale projects which they would implement as a group at the schools where they were doing their teaching practice. More specifically, they

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were guided to draw up an action plan for each small-scale project, in terms of the what, how, who and when of the action steps that would be followed. In thinking of possible ideas for solutions, the participants were encouraged to mobilise some of the role-players in PTI development they had identified during the previous activity.

Figure 1.2. PRA-matrix on the different role-players influencing PTI development.

Table 1.3 and Figure 1.3 provide examples of the action plans formulated by the participants. After completing the small-group discussions and presenting their ideas to the larger group, the participants were requested to take a picture of their action plans and then implement these in the six to eight weeks that followed. The purpose of the second PRA-workshop was to facilitate reflections and reformulate action plans where needed. Student teachers completed two PRA-matrices during this workshop, with the first activity entailing a report back session on the small-scale projects that had been implemented in the six to eight weeks preceding the workshop. Following the participants’ reports, they were requested to refine their action plans and

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add/change these as they saw fit, in order to continue addressing the challenges they had identified. The final PRA-based activity entailed reflections on the value of the student teachers’ participation in the FIRE project in terms of their professional development as future teachers. Table 1.3. Example of action plans for small-scale projects GROUP 29 WHAT?

PROJECT 1 Questionnaire concerning attitude towards teaching

HOW?

 Each student to come up with two questions for questionnaire  Each student to distribute two questionnaires to two teachers from their respective schools  Compile questions and draft final questionnaire  11-16 April: each group member formulates two questions  16 April: send questions to VVV  18-22: VVV compile questionnaire  25-29: each group member ensures completion of two questionnaires  29: all group members send their results and conclusion to the rest of the group  All members: contribute two questions  All members: ensure completion of two questionnaires  VVV: compile questionnaire  WWW: gather results  XXX: write final conclusion

WHEN?

WHO DOES WHAT?

PROJECT 2 Reflection on professional conduct (discipline, classroom management & work ethic), what to do differently? Each student to reflect on professional conduct with mentor teacher and give own opinion, would you do it differently?

1-5 April: time to reflect 6- 7: hand in reflection 25-30: draw up reflection form

 YYY: draw up reflection form  ZZZ: compile and summarise reflections

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Figure 1.3. PRA-matrix on action plans for two small-scale projects.

As the FIRE project progressed, some of the prompts on the posters were revised. In line with the evolving nature of PRA research, this was done based on the feedback received from the student-participants in 2015 as well as the indicated needs and expectations of the mentor lecturers who participated in the project. More specifically, teacher professionalism (workshop 1, PRA-activity 1) was refined to focus on the teacher as manager in one of the series of workshops in 2016. In addition, the teacher, as teaching and learning expert (workshop 1, PRA-activity 1) was elaborated on in some of the workshops held in 2016 and 2017, replacing the discussion on the role-players in PTI development (workshop 1, PRAactivity 2) with a poster on different teaching strategies. For example, the use of information technology, question-and-answer techniques, role play, play as strategy, media and models, direct teaching and demonstrations, cooperative learning and group work, inquiry-based teaching, problembased learning, excursions and field work were discussed as well as simulations and modelling. For this activity, the participants were requested to reflect on their expertise in implementing various teaching strategies and any challenges they had experienced and then plan smallscale projects to address these limitations. In another workshop, an activity

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in assessment and evaluation was included, in order to sensitise the participants of this aspect of their future career and profile. As a final step of the FIRE project, small groups were expected to submit reflections in the form of a brief report at the end of the six-months teaching practice cycle. For these reflections, the participants focused on the outcome of the action steps they had taken. As a result of the FIRE project, rich data could be generated that captured the views and experiences of the final year students in Education for three consecutive years. In analysing the wealth of PRA-generated information, different approaches were followed by the various staff members involved in the project, depending on their focus and area of interest in terms of the participants’ contributions.

REFLECTING ON THE FIRE PROJECT The FIRE project required the final year student teachers to take responsibility for their own learning and professional development in preparation of their teaching careers. The basic assumption was that an awareness of areas of further development, yet also of available strengths and possible resources that could be mobilised, would result in future teachers taking agency and making plans to strengthen their professional identity. By fostering a cycle of reflections followed by actions amongst the student teachers, they were exposed to an approach that can be sustained as individuals or as part of their communities of practice in support of their own development, by relying on themselves as well as other role-players in the broader teaching profession. This community of practice, for example, involved peers, mentor teachers, school principals, learners, parents, mentor lecturers, the University of Pretoria, Department of Education, family and friends. In sharing personal experiences and perspectives on the teaching profession, students as well as practicing teachers can attend to their identity as a lifelong learner – not only based

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on their own experiences in the field, but also as a result of reflections and actions undertaken by, and with their peers.

CONCLUSION In this chapter, background information was provided on the FIRE project, which formed the basis of this publication. The remainder of the chapters can be read against this background, in terms of the methodology that was employed and the research approach that was followed. In the following chapters, the focus falls on the various components of teacher development that was explored as part of the FIRE project. By viewing the various chapters in a holistic manner, an idea may be formed in terms of the professional development of the participating student teachers as actualised during their training.

REFERENCES Beijaard, D., Meijer, P. C., & Verloop, N. (2004). Reconsidering research on teachers’ professional identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20, 107–128. Beijaard, D., Verloop, N., & Vermunt, J. D. (2000). Teachers’ perceptions of professional identity: An exploratory study from a personal knowledge perspective. Teacher and Teacher Education, 16, 749–764. Chambers, R. (2008). Revolutions in Development Inquiry. Earthscan. Chong, S., Low, E. L., & Goh, K. C. (2011). Emerging professional teacher identity of pre-service teachers. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 36(8), 50–64. Clarke, D., & Hollingsworth, H. (2002). Elaborating a model of teacher professional growth. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(8), 947– 967.

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Day, C., & Kington, A. (2008). Identity, well-being and effectiveness: The emotional contexts of teaching. Pedagogy, Culture & Society, 16(1), 7–23. Department of Education. (2006). The National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa. www.info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=70084. Ebersöhn, L., & Eloff, I. (2006). Linking life skills and the asset-based approach conceptually and contextually. In L. Ebersöhn & I. Eloff (Eds.), Life skills & assets (pp. 3–10). Van Schaik Publishers. Ferreira, R., & Ebersöhn, L. (2012). Partnering for Resilience. Van Schaik Publishers. Franzak, J. K. (2002). Developing a teacher identity: The impact of critical friends practice on the student teacher. English Education, 34(4), 258– 280. Garrison, D. R. (2007). Online community of inquiry review: Social, Cognitive, and Teaching Presence Issues. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 11(1), 61–72. Joseph, D., & Heading, M. (2010). Putting theory into practice: Moving from student identity to teacher identity. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 35(3), 75–87. Korthagen, F., Loughran, J., & Russell, T. (2006). Developing fundamental principles for teacher education programs and practices. Teaching and Teacher Education, 22(8), 1020–1041. Kretzmann, J. P., & McKnight, J. L. (1993). Building communities from the inside out: A path toward finding and mobilizing a community’s assets. ACTA Publications. Leijen, Ä., Valtna, K., Leijen, D. A. J., & Pedaste, M. (2012). How to determine the quality of students’ reflections? Studies in Higher Education, 37(2), 203–217. McCarthy, T. (1978). The Critical Theory of Jürgen Habermas. The MIT Press. Okeke, C., Abongdia, J., Olusola Adu, E., Van wyk, M., & Wolhuter, C. (2016). Learn to teach. A Handbook for Teaching Practice. Oxford University.

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Olsen, B. (2008). How reasons for entry into the profession illuminate teacher identity development. Teacher Education Quarterly, Summer 2008, 23–40. Sachs, J. (2001). Teacher professional identity: Competing discourses, competing outcomes. Journal of Educational Policy, 16(2), 149–161. Slavin, R. E. (1990). Research on cooperative learning: Consensus and controversy. Educational Leadership, 47(4), 52–54. Von Maltzahn, R., & Van der Riet, M. (2006). A critical reflection on participatory methods as an alternative mode of enquiry. New Voices in Psychology, 2(1), 108–128. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice. Learning, Meaning and Identity. Cambridge University Press.

In: Teacher Identity Development … ISBN: 978-1-68507-487-6 Editor: Ronél Ferreira © 2021 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 2

CONCEPTUALISING TEACHER IDENTITY Sonja van Putten Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT In this chapter, the concept of identity is explored - first in general, and then gradually narrowing the focus to that of a professional identity and finally a professional teacher identity. It is important to note that the discussions in this chapter are not conducted from the point of view of psychology, but rather from the stance of identity as manifested in the world-of-work – in particular in the field of education. The importance of beliefs and attitudes in any research surrounding professional teacher identity is emphasised, particularly in terms of the interrelationship between these and instructional practice. As such, the link between who a teacher is and how they teach is highlighted as a motivating factor for exploring these two concepts together when undertaking a study in this field, as in the case of the FIRE project.



Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

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KEY CONCEPTS  



Core identity: This refers to the ‘Who I am’ which is part of every individual and is present uniformly in all contexts and at all times. Professional identity: This refers to ‘Who I am in the context of work.’ Professional identity can be described from a social point of view as the factor/s which differentiate one group of professionals from another, as well as from a personal point of view, in terms of the interaction between an individual and the professional environment. Professional teacher identity (PTI): This refers to the ‘self’ that the teacher brings into the classroom, which is manifested in the subject, didactical and pedagogical expertise that the teacher actualises in practice.

INTRODUCTION Both identity and professional identity are complex concepts to define. The term identity comes from the Latin word identitas, meaning ‘sameness,’ which is ironic given the uniqueness of the term identity as an individual construct. However, to the casual observer of the campus, for example, in an education faculty offering contact classes, a certain ‘sameness’ can be seen as the majority of the students will be young, generally focused and unified in their intention to become teachers as they interact in the context of their tertiary training. This sociologically constructed group identity is described by Wenger (2000) as a community of practice, which can easily be observed among a group of people having the same purpose or working towards a similar goal. According to Gee (2000), various terms such as subjectivity, can be used when referring to identity. However, according to Gee (2000), the concept is best encapsulated in the following description: “Being recognised as a certain ‘kind of person,’ in a given context, is what I mean here by ‘identity.’ In

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this sense of the term, all people have multiple identities connected not to their ‘internal states’ but to their performances in society” (p. 99). Identity, particularly in the professional context, has become a popular topic in academic research, mainly because its significance as an influential factor in the work arena has come into the spotlight. Abdelal et al. (2006) confirm that the upward trend in academic awareness of the significance of identity as an analytic tool is continuing, as such awareness may assist a researcher to understand life in the world-of-work. However, these authors describe identity as “amorphous” (Abdelal et al., 2006, p. 695), and not easy to define. Abdelal et al. (2006) also emphasise the lack of clarity that surrounds the concept, stating that, “To the chagrin of the social scientific community, it is in large part this same ubiquitous sprawl of scholarship that has undermined the conceptual clarity of identity as a variable” (p. 695).

UNDERSTANDING THE CORE CONCEPTS UNDERLYING TEACHER IDENTITY In this section, distinction is made between core identity, professional identity and PTI. Each of these concepts requires clarification in order to understand how they fit together.

Core Identity In common parlance, identity is simply regarded as ‘Who I am’. More specifically, each person is taken to have a core identity, the so-called ‘central me’, which makes people unique and different from each other despite the concept identity also implying some kind of sameness or commonality amongst human beings. This core identity is present in every context in which an individual functions – in both personal and professional milieus. Core identity can thus be seen as the ‘Who I am’ of a person at any time and in any context, as differentiated from ‘Who I am’

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in this context. Core identity “holds more uniformly, for ourselves and others, across contexts” (Gee, 2000, p. 99) and “is experienced by individuals as ‘core’ or ‘unique’ to themselves in ways that group and role identities are not” (Hitlin, 2003, p. 118). It follows that core identity is an integral part of professional identity, implying that people remain true to themselves, their values and their beliefs, even though they may comport themselves differently in different contexts, but in a manner appropriate to each context. Day, Elliot and Kington (2005) confirm this idea by stating that “there is a general agreement among researchers that the ‘self’ is a crucial element in the way teachers construe and construct the nature of their work” (p. 566). In applying this statement to the current South African education sector, one can conclude that core identity is particularly relevant to the way in which professional identity is actualised in the classroom, given the diversity of language and culture that characterises the education workforce. In this chapter, core identity is thus regarded as an individual’s self which is an inevitable part of whatever one does. While a generally observable community of practice type of identity can casually be observed amongst the majority of education students in tertiary training, when the observer is not casual and the focus narrows down beyond what can be noticed by just walking along a faculty’s corridors, the question of professional identity arises, with the aim of understanding these students as professionals in their field.

Professional Identity Professional identity may be described from two points of view: the social and the personal. Abdelal et al. (2006) and Sachs (2001) espouse the ‘social’ point of view and accordingly define professional identity as that which makes one group of professional people recognisably different from another. This identity is defined through a set of attributes of members of a profession by outsiders or by themselves (Sachs, 2001). This view

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highlights the identifiability of people in a specific profession based on their characteristics. Ma and Singer-Gabella (2011) add the notion of this identifiability being linked to certain situations, thereby emphasising ‘context.’ It follows that professional identity can thus be regarded, according to some scholars, as a collective identity that is recognisable because of certain defining aspects, set against a particular background. The list of these aspects varies from one researcher to another, depending on their specific point of view. Rather than focus on a list of general aspects which constitute professional identity, other authors support the ‘personal’ point of view, thereby regarding identity as an ‘interaction’ between the individual and the professional environment. In addition, Van den Berg (2002) links experience and context and states that “Professional identity can be conceptualised as the result of an interaction between the personal experiences of teachers and the social, cultural, and institutional environment in which they function on a daily basis” (p. 579). Similarly, Van den Berg relates professional identity to a personal interpretation of factors within the professional environment. Beijaard (personal communication, 2010) also views professional identity as an interaction between the personal and the professional. In such an interaction the possibility of the one influencing the other is evident. In summary, professional identity relates the self to a context and time  who I am at this moment, in this context. While this view confirms that the individual will be recognisable as part of a group of professionals, the individual’s singularity is not subsumed in a collective identity, based on the idea that individual professional identity also includes personal aspects which make each person unique. In fact, the interaction between such personal aspects, and aspects which relate to the profession is recognised within this description of the concept, focusing on a balance between that which is social and that which is personal.

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Professional Teacher Identity Professional teacher identity (PTI) or “self-in-practice” (Grootenboer et al., 2006, p. 614) is a complex concept to define precisely (Day, 2002; Chevrier et al., 2007; Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009; Vloet & Van Swet, 2010). However, several scholars have focused on and attempted to describe the concept, each viewing PTI through their own epistemological lens, resulting in an array of views on the constitution of PTI, its development and its nature. In the early days of the plethora of studies on identity, researchers found that PTI is not fixed, but rather changeable (Beijaard, 1995), that sub-identities exist (Volkmann & Anderson, 1998; Coldron & Smith, 1999), the PTI develops across different contexts and in relation to others (Beijaard, 1995; Coldron & Smith, 1999), and that it involves aspects of teaching such as subject matter as well as didactic and pedagogical expertise (Beijaard, 1995; Beijaard et al., 2000). In this regard, Beijaard et al. (2004) indicate that PTI is thus a process and is not stable or fixed, it involves both person and context, and that the sub-identities may, or may not, co-exist harmoniously. These authors refer to the idea that PTI implies action, by stating that “The way they explain and justify things in relation to other people and contexts expresses, as it were, their professional identity” (Beijaard et al., 2004, p. 123). Earlier studies (Jansen, 2001; Sachs, 2001) generally tend to discuss PTI as a distinguishing element that separates teachers from other professionals or government policy-makers. More specifically, teachers are viewed as different from other professionals in terms of what they do – they teach. In this sense, PTI is used to capture the professional identity associated with being a teacher as opposed to the identities typically related to other careers. Based on this point of view, PTI can be regarded as a social construct. From 2001 onwards, the notion of ‘self’ with accompanying emotions, attitudes and beliefs as well as contextual role-players have been foregrounded in conceptualising and describing PTI. In this manner, the personal, intrinsic aspects of PTI have been included in scholarly

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discussions on the topic. Several researchers (Drake et al., 2001; Zembylas, 2003; Lasky, 2005) link beliefs to PTI, with Walkington (2005) introducing the notion of professional identity being based on beliefs concerning teaching. Other scholars (Zembylas, 2003; Flores & Day 2006; Shapiro, 2010) recognise that emotions are not only part of PTI, but are also significant in effective teaching, while another group focuses on the nature of PTI with an emphasis on its dynamism and tendency to be a process involving continuous development (Danielewicz, 2001; Day, 2002; Beijaard et al., 2004; Lasky, 2005; Walkington, 2005). This dynamism is linked to the effect of different contexts and the social interactions which are associated with them (Beijaard et al., 2004; Walkington, 2005; Ma & Singer-Gabella, 2011). To this end, Chanfrault-Duchet (2004) refers to PTI as the crossroads between the personal and the social self. It is therefore important to recognise that PTI is complex in nature and that it is made up of personal, as well as social aspects which come together in a construct that encompasses knowledge and beliefs, emotions and relationships, contexts and experiences. Beltman et al. (2015) summarise the general understanding of PTI in existing literature by stating that “identity is shaped by multiple personal and contextual factors; these factors interact in a reciprocal and dynamic way; and so, identity is continually reshaped over the life of an individual” (p. 226). This being said, any teacher should be recognised as a complex persona who is affected by societal and personal interactions which will subsequently result in the ‘selfhood’ (Cardelle-Elawar et al., 2010) that the teacher brings into the classroom. According to Beijaard et al. (2000), three categories “cover” (p. 751) PTI, namely subject matter expertise, pedagogical expertise and didactical expertise. In addition, Flores and Day (2006) refer to personal history, teacher training and practica, as well as school culture as categories which will influence PTI. Based on these clearly defined categories of criteria, Gee (2000) refers to PTI as an ‘analytic tool.’ For the purpose of the FIRE project, the work of Beijaard et al. (2000) was used as a guideline with regards to framework when structuring the focus areas of the project and research questions. This framework is captured in Figure 2.1, below. In

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addition, the teacher, as a professional, was added as a fourth main aspect to explore as part of PTI. As the FIRE project progressed, the initial four categories were refined in order to explore additional aspects identified by the research team and students (co-researchers) in terms of the requirements for the development of a positive PTI.

Figure 2.1. Professional teacher identity framework based on Beijaard et al. (2000).

The framework provided in Figure 2.1 (and thus the focus areas of the FIRE project) aligns with the requirements for teachers stipulated in the national education policy of South Africa. According to the National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa (Department of Education, 2006), it is expected of a teacher to be:   

a specialist in a particular learning area, subject or phase a scholar and lifelong learner a curriculum developer

Conceptualising Teacher Identity    

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a specialist in teaching and learning a specialist in assessment a leader, administrator and manager a professional who plays a community, citizenship, and pastoral role.

The first three criteria can be linked to subject specialisation and being an expert in terms of what is required when teaching a particular subject; the next two criteria deal with the required expertise and skills for effective teaching and learning to occur; and the last criterion relates to the importance of a teacher as carer. In addition, the second, sixth and seventh criteria can be linked to the teacher as professional, which was added as a fourth category to explore for the purpose of the FIRE project. In summary, Beijaard et al. (2000) thus conceptualise PTI in terms of teachers being specialists in the areas of subject matter (subject content knowledge and skills); didactics (the knowledge and skills related to the preparation, execution and evaluation of the teaching and learning process), and pedagogy (the knowledge and skills required to undergird and support [or care for] the socio-emotional and moral development of learners). In the same vein, Van Manen (1991) defines pedagogy as “all those affairs where adults are living with children for the sake of those children’s well-being, growth, maturity, and development” (p. 28). However, while these aspects encapsulate important properties of ‘teacherhood,’ the complexity of what is implied in the ‘self-that-teaches’ goes beyond these aspects – many of which were explored during the various phases of the FIRE project. In the words of Alsup (2006): They [teachers] know that the profession is often perceived, both by ‘insiders’ and ‘outsiders,’ as being more than a job – instead as a way of life or a ‘calling.’ A teacher is defined as an individual who should go above and beyond the call of duty for the benefit of the young people with whom he or she works, with no expectation of extra reward, much less even adequate compensation (p. 20).

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PARTICIPATORY REFLECTION AND ACTION APPLICATION As described in Chapter 1, the first series of Participatory Reflection and Action (PRA)-matrices developed by the students centred around their understanding of teacher identity, the development of their own teacher identity, and who they regarded as key role-players in shaping their identity as teachers. The results of these areas of exploration are presented and discussed in the chapters that follow. For the purpose of this chapter, the focus falls on a general discussion on the interrelationship between, beliefs and instructional practice. Throughout, an indication is provided in terms of the link between existing research and the results of the FIRE project.

INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PROFESSIONAL TEACHER IDENTITY, BELIEFS AND INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICE Researchers do not dispute the link between ‘identity’ and ‘instructional practice.’ In fact, according to Day et al. (2005), “There is a general agreement among researchers that the ‘self’ is a crucial element in the way teachers construe and construct the nature of their work” (p. 566). Ezzy (2002) however, does not refer to the ‘self,’ but rather focuses on “people’s pre-existing meanings and interpretive frameworks” which are “the dominant influences on what people do and observe” (p. 6). In support, Walkington (2005) explains that function and identity are indivisible. Hamachek (1999) and Palmer (2007) carry this notion further, by stating the people teach who they are. This implies that these authors believe that professional identity (who people are) can be seen in their teaching. According to Hamachek (1999) and Palmer (2007), the properties of such ‘teacher-hood’ can be regarded as the basic characteristics of a good teacher. For Van Zoest and Bohl (2005), the link between ‘how teachers teach’ and ‘who they are’ implies both social and personal aspects. These authors

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describe their theory as follows: “We view forms of learning and knowing as lying on such a continuum, with in-the-brain on one end, social on the other, and every variation of combinations of the two stretched between them” (Van Zoest & Bohl, 2005), referring to “Aspects of Self-in-Mind” and “Aspects of Self-in-Community” (p. 332) to elucidate their thinking. In the FIRE project, these two concepts were explored as part of the reflection activities completed by the students during their teaching practicum. However, in the FIRE project, the data revealed that the students’ attitudes and beliefs had an influence on their thinking about their professional identity. Pajares (1992) proposes that “‘[a]nother perspective’ is required from which better to understand teacher behaviours, a perspective focusing on the things and ways that teachers believe” (p. 307). In this statement, Pajares (1992) implies a link between beliefs and instructional practice, about the robustness of which, since the publication of Pajares’ article, agreement seems to have been achieved amongst the academic fraternity (Aguirre & Speer, 2000; Stipek et al., 2001). The nature of the beliefs which may act as influencers of teacher behaviour is, however, not as easily agreed upon and, as Grootenboer (2006) suggests, careful consideration must be given to what one deems to be beliefs. According to Grootenboer (2006), attitudes and emotions are role-players when instructional practice is being considered, yet, that the separation of beliefs from attitudes and emotions is not useful as these constructs are “notoriously difficult to clearly define and conceptualise due to their overlapping and interchangeable nature” (p. 271). In this regard, Grootenboer (2006) views ‘beliefs’ as a catch-all concept which includes both an affective and a cognitive dimension and which can be seen as “subjective, personal assumptions of truth which can strongly influence a person’s behaviour or action” (p. 271). It can therefore be posited that beliefs may be regarded as the filter through which experience and theory will be transformed into instructional behaviour and practice. Stuart and Thurlow (2000) confirm this by referring to a teacher’s ‘belief system’ as something that serves “an adaptive function” (p. 118), translating experience and resulting beliefs

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into practice. O’Connor (2008) similarly espouses the idea of a teacher’s belief system and uses identity interchangeably with the belief system, regarding this as both a determinant of instructional practice and a mediator of an individual’s “professional philosophy” (p. 118). Therefore, existing literature confirms the general agreement that a significant connection exists between identity and practice, as well as between beliefs and practice. The idea that ‘teachers teach who they are,’ seems to be universally accepted, with the teacher’s professional identity being an inevitable influencer of what occurs in the classroom. Similarly, the constituents of any teacher’s belief system can be taken as influential in the operationalisation of the teacher’s classroom practice. However, the nature of these connections has not been broadly investigated in terms of the possible interrelationships that exist between them. Against the background of the findings indicating that identity and beliefs will both influence teaching practice, the relationship between identity and beliefs requires ongoing research.

CONCLUSION Reflection is widely advocated as an essential part of best practice in teaching. In order for student teachers to be well-prepared when entering the classroom and their world-of-work, opportunities should be created for them to engage in regular reflection activities, particularly focused on their development of a PTI. The findings of the FIRE project confirm that student teachers are not only capable of in-depth self-analysis, but are also able to determine how their PTI is developing and which influencing factors play a role in this process. This implies that higher education institutions may benefit from refining and extending the quality of their deliverables of teacher training qualifications, by intentionally encouraging a focused habit of reflection in student teachers. Such a culture of reflection may support future teachers to think more critically about who they are as subject experts, teaching and learning experts, caring experts, as well as professionals in the world of

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education. However, focused reflection, such as that required during participation in the FIRE project generally does not occur automatically and should be planned for and facilitated. As the link between identity and instructional practice cannot be disputed, higher education institutions which train teachers should take cognisance of the potential value of mindfulness in the development of PTI. In support of such a focus, student teachers’ belief systems should be considered, as their beliefs will serve as a catalyst in the transformation of theory and experience into practice. Given the importance of reflection as part of any teacher training programme, it follows that reflection will form an intrinsic part of professional practice. Managers in the field of education may find it useful to arrange group reflection sessions similar to those that formed part of the FIRE project, which will allow pre-service and even in-service teachers to share experiences and beliefs in response to guiding prompts. In this way, teachers may learn from one another while reflecting on their own experiences, thereby, strengthening their own mindfulness about their teaching practice and their fulfilment of the role as teachers. Such affirmation of their PTI may in turn strengthen their career satisfaction. While a plethora of studies has been undertaken on PTI and its development, limited research exists which focuses on the benefits of reflection during the process of this development. Ongoing research is required in this area, for example in terms of the connection between attitudes and beliefs on the one hand, and the development of PTI and its actualisation in the classroom on the other. In this regard, it will also be useful to determine whether or not identity and beliefs are mutually dependent and if so, how the one affects the other. Further questions which may be posed relate to the nature of PTI, and whether it forms an intrinsic part of the core identity of an individual or develops independently over time, given certain stimuli and contexts. Literature thus shows that ample research has been conducted on identity in general as well as PTI in particular, yet many questions remain unanswered – thereby necessitating ongoing research in this field of interest. Core identity, the possession of which is part of human beings’ universal ‘sameness,’ differs from one individual to another. PTI can be

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regarded as a highly individualistic construct which brings diversity to the world of education. However, more research in this area can build on what is already known.

REFERENCES Abdelal, R., Herrera, Y. M., Johnston, A. I., & McDermott, R. (2006). Identity as a variable. Perspectives on Politics, 4(4), 695-711. Aguirre, J., & Speer, N. M. (2000). Examining the relationship between beliefs and goals in teacher practice. Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 18(3), 327-356. Alsup, J. (2006). Teacher identity discourses: negotiating personal and professional spaces. Routledge. Beauchamp, C., & Thomas, L. (2009). Understanding teacher identity: an overview of issues in the literature and implications for teacher education. Cambridge Journal of Education, 39(2), 175-189. Beijaard, D. (1995). Teachers’ prior experiences and actual perceptions of professional identity. Teachers and Teaching, 1(2), 281-294. Beijaard, D. (2010). Personal communication. Beijaard, D., Meijer, P. C., & Verloop, N. (2004). Reconsidering research on teachers’ professional identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(2), 107-128. Beijaard, D., Verloop, N., & Vermunt, J. D. (2000). Teachers’ perceptions of professional identity: an exploratory study from a personal knowledge perspective. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(7), 749764. Beltman, S., Glass, C., Dinham, J., Chalk, B., & Nguyen, B. (2015). Drawing identity: beginning pre-service teachers’ professional identities. Issues in Educational Research, 25(3), 225-245. Cardelle-Elawar, M., Irwin, L., & de Acedo Lizarraga, M. L. S. (2010). Looking at teacher identity through self-regulation. Psicothema. 22(2), 293-298.

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Chanfrault-Duchet, M. (2004). In quest of teachers’ professional identity: the life story as a methodological tool. In P. Chamberlayne, J. Bornat & U. Apitzsch (Eds.), Biographical Methods and Professional Practice: An International Perspective (pp. 264-283). Chevrier, J., Gohier, C., Anadon, M., & Godbout, S. (2007). Construction de l’identité professionnelle des futures enseignantes: Dispositifs de formation presents et souhaités selon les acteurs responsables de la formation des maîtres au préscolaires et au primaire. [Construction of the professional identity of future teachers: current and desired training strategies according to those responsible for the training of pre-school and primary school teachers.] In C. Gohier (Ed.), Identités professionnelles d’acteurs de l’enseignement. Presses de l’Université de Quebec. Coldron, J., & Smith, R. (1999). Active location in teachers’ construction of their professional identities. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 31(6), 711-726. Danielewicz, J. (2001). Teaching selves: identity, pedagogy, and teacher education. State of University of New York Press. Day, C. (2002). School reform and transitions in teacher professionalism and identity. International Journal of Educational Research, 37(8), 677-692. Day, C., Elliot, B., & Kington, A. (2005). Reform, standards and teacher identity: Challenges of sustaining commitment. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(5), 563-577. Department of Education. (2006). The national policy framework for teacher education and development in South Africa. www.info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=70084. Drake, C., Spillane, J. P., & Hufferd-Ackles, K. (2001). Storied identities: teacher learning and subject-matter context. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 33, 1-23. Ezzy, D. (2002). Qualitative Analysis: practice and innovation. Taylor and Francis.

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Flores, M. A., & Day, C. (2006). Contexts which shape and reshape new teachers’ identities: a multi-perspective study. Teaching and Teacher Education, 22(2), 219-232. Gee, J. P. (2000). Identity as an analytic lens for research in education. Review of Research in Education, 25(1), 99-125. Grootenboer, P. (2006). Mathematics educators: identity, beliefs, roles and ethical dilemmas. https://research-repository.griffith.edu.au/ bitstream/handle/10072/32894/62466_1.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed =y. Grootenboer, P., Smith, T., & Lowrie, T. (2006). Researching identity in mathematics education: the lay of the land. Identities, Culture and Learning Spaces, 2, 612-615. Symposium in the 2006 proceedings of the 29th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia. https://merga.net.au/Public/Publications /Annual_Conference_Proceedings/2006_MERGA_CP.aspx. Hamachek, D. (1999). Effective teachers: What they do, how they do it, and the importance of self-knowledge. In R. P. Lipka & T. M. Brinthaupt (Eds.), The role of self in teacher development (189–224). State University of New York Press. Hitlin, S. (2003). Values as the core of personal identity: drawing links between two theories of self. Social Psychology Quarterly, 66(2), 118137. Jansen, J. D. (2001). Image-ining teachers: Policy images and teacher identity in South African classrooms. South African Journal of Education, 21(4), 242-246. Lasky, S. (2005). A sociocultural approach to understanding teacher identity, agency and professional vulnerability in a context of secondary school reform. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(8), 899-916. Ma, J. Y., & Singer-Gabella, M. (2011). Learning to teach in the figured world of reform mathematics: negotiating new models of identity. Journal of Teacher Education, 62(1), 8-22. O’Connor, K. E. (2008). “You choose to care”: Teachers, emotions and professional identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24, 117-126.

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Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62(3), 307332. Palmer, P. J. (2017). The courage to teach: Exploring the inner landscape of a teacher’s life. Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching, 1(2), 67-68. Sachs, J. (2001). Teacher professional identity: competing discourses, competing outcomes. Journal of Education Policy, 16(2), 149-161. Shapiro, S. (2010). Revisiting the teachers’ lounge: reflections on emotional experience and teacher identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(3), 616-621. Stipek, D. J., Givvin, K. B., Salmon, J. M., & MacGyvers, V. L. (2001). Teachers’ beliefs and practices related to mathematics instruction. Teacher and Teacher Education, 17(2), 213-226. Stuart, C., & Thurlow, D. (2000). Making it their own: preservice teachers’ experiences, beliefs, and classroom practices. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(2), 113-121. Van den Berg, R. (2002). Teachers’ meanings regarding educational practice. Review of Educational Research, 72(4), 577-625. Van Manen, M. (1991). The Tact of Teaching: The Meaning of Pedagogical Thoughtfulness. New York Press. Van Zoest, L. R., & Bohl, J. V. (2005). Mathematics teacher identity: a framework for understanding secondary school mathematics teachers’ learning through practice. Teacher Development, 9(3), 315-345. Vloet, K., & Van Swet, J. (2010). “I can only learn in dialogue!” Exploring professional identities in teacher education. Professional Development in Education, 36(1-2), 149-168. Volkmann, M. J., & Anderson, M. A. (1998). Creating professional identity: dilemmas and metaphors of a first-year chemistry teacher. Science Education, 82(3), 293-310. Walkington, J. (2005). Becoming a teacher: encouraging development of teacher identity through reflective practice. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 33(1), 53-64.

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Wenger, E. (2000). Communities of Practice and Social Learning Systems. Organization, 7(2), 225-246. Zembylas, M. (2003). Interrogating - teacher identity: emotion, resistance and self-formation. Educational Theory, 53(1), 107-127.

In: Teacher Identity Development … ISBN: 978-1-68507-487-6 Editor: Ronél Ferreira © 2021 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 3

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE Sonja van Putten* and Nicolaas Blom† Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT In this chapter, the focus is on the perceptions of pre-service teachers as nascent professionals moving from the lecture hall into the classroom. In addition to focusing on existing literature regarding what is meant by the two worlds of ‘theory’ and ‘practice’, and how these are portrayed in the literature, the experiences of the participants in the FIRE project are discussed. The emphasis is specifically on exploring student teachers’ experiences of theory and practice at various levels, including their experiences at university, in teaching practicum classrooms as well as in terms of their own teaching practices. At the end of the chapter there will be a proposal with regard to possible ways in which the gap between theory and practice may be limited.

* †

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]. Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

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KEY CONCEPTS 

 

Theory: A theory refers to a set of principles on which a specific practice is based. Theory is not directly linked to practice other than through the encapsulation of the intrinsic principles. Practice: Practice entails the collection of activities that are intrinsic to a profession – in this case the teaching profession. Teaching practice: Teaching practice encompasses one of the components of teacher training programmes. This component more specifically involves a period during which pre-service teachers spend time in a school, in order to observe and teach while under the guidance of mentor teachers and/or mentor lecturers.

INTRODUCTION As alluded to in the previous chapter, the professional teacher identity (PTI) of pre-service teachers is influenced by various environments and the different contexts in which they function during their journey in becoming teachers. The point of departure for this chapter lies in a term coined by Feiman-Nemser and Buchmann (1985), who spoke of the twoworld pitfall, referring to tertiary institutions as the world of theory, and the schools that pre-service or qualified teachers enter as the world of practice. Even though this dichotomy of theory and practice is widely discussed in existing literature (Brouwer & Korthagen, 2005; Reidy, 2006; Yayli, 2008; Allen & Wright, 2014; Roth et al., 2014; Kwenda et al., 2017), not much research has been undertaken in terms of the perceptions of preservice teachers themselves, who are expected to straddle these two worlds and apply theory to practice in a meaningful way (Kwenda et al., 2017). In order to bridge the potential gap between theory and practice, it is firstly important to have a clear understanding of the dynamics between theory and practice within the domain of teacher training. In this regard, lessons can be learned from various global studies, such as those conducted in Great Britain (Smith & Hodson, 2010), Canada (Falkenberg et al., 2014)

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and South Africa (Kwenda et al., 2017), amongst others. However, in addition to the global studies alluded to, the debate on these aspects needs also to be informed by the perceptions of pre-service teachers of the dynamics between theory and practice, as experienced at ground level. The discussion in this chapter aims to add to the existing knowledge in this area.

UNDERSTANDING THEORY AND PRACTICE IN THE CONTEXT OF TEACHING The Oxford dictionary succinctly defines the word ‘theory’ as a set of principles on which the practice of an activity is based (New Oxford American Dictionary, n.d.). Herein lies the crux of the matter, as theory is not necessarily intrinsically linked to practice other than through the principles which it encapsulates. Educational theory is no different, it informs the content of both subject methodologies and education courses, thereby allowing academia to build upon previous knowledge and pioneering research. More than two decades ago, Wideen, Mayer-Smith and Moon (1998) described this socalled ‘traditional model of teacher education’ as one where tertiary institutions and schools both play a role in shaping the identity of teachers. According to Wideen et al. (1998), “the university provides the theory, skills and knowledge about teaching through coursework; the school provides the field setting where such knowledge is applied and practiced; and the beginning teacher provides the individual effort that integrates it all” (p. 160). In order to understand the nature and relationship between theory and practice, it is also necessary to understand what is meant by the notion of ‘teaching practice.’ Based on research in the field of pre-service teacher training, Lampert (2010) identifies four basic ways in which the term ‘practice’ can be used. Firstly, the term ‘practice’ is used to indicate something that contrasts theory. Secondly, the term refers to something similar to ‘routine’, which, for example, is embedded in the phrase ‘best

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practice.’ Thirdly, ‘practice’ is also used to refer to ‘rehearsal’, for example, to be ‘practicing something.’ Finally, ‘practice’ has been used in phrases such as ‘the practice of teaching’ where practice indicates the nature of activities in a specific profession. While each of Lampert’s (2010) uses of ‘practice’ refer to the context of pre-service teacher training, the primary focus is on the first and fourth conceptualisation in this section. The reason for the choices made relates to the focus of the discussion being that of the practice-theory divide as well as the embedded nature of teaching activities emerging from student teachers’ interaction during practice in the classroom.

Preparing Pre-Service Teachers to Integrate Theory with Practice The implication of Lampert’s (2010) first conceptualisation of ‘practice’ for pre-service teacher training is related to the previouslymentioned ‘traditional model of teacher education’ of Wideen et al. (1998). In accordance with this traditional teacher training model, higher education institutions transmit knowledge, skills, values and theory about the teaching profession to student teachers through lectures and micro-lessons. After such a learning experience has been provided, pre-service teachers enter the school environment during teaching practice periods, where they are expected to apply and put into practice previously acquired knowledge and theory. Different institutions employ different models when compiling their teacher training programmes, more specifically when planning the teaching practice component. Many institutions provide two or more teaching practice opportunities for students during the course of the fouryear training programme, for example, during the second and final year of study (Syed Manzar-Abbas & Lu, 2013), while other institutions may only provide one teaching practice opportunity to student teachers. For the cohort of student teachers who participated in the FIRE project, the teaching practice experience was limited to a single opportunity in the

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fourth year of study, after completion of the majority of their theoretical modules. However, since then, the University of Pretoria has changed its training model and currently implements a triple teaching practical strategy, where student teachers spend limited periods of time in schools during the second, third and fourth years of study. When participating in teaching practice, pre-service teachers are afforded the opportunity to integrate theory with practice. The traditional teacher training model suggests that it is the responsibility of the preservice teacher to make the necessary connections between theory and practice. In support of the student teachers making this connection, the existing literature highlights the role of higher education institutions in mentoring students and guiding them in linking their practical teaching experience with the theory learnt on campus. For the students who participated in the FIRE project at the University of Pretoria, such support was enhanced through their participation in the project, as part of the Participatory Reflection and Action (PRA) activities they completed. In following the teacher training model of “theory first and practice later” (Goodnough et al., 2016, p. 3) all student teachers may, however, not be successfully prepared for their world of practice, in terms of Lampert’s (2010) fourth conceptualisation of ‘practice’ (Wideen et al., 1998; Brouwer & Korthagen, 2005). In order to obviate this concern, Kwenda et al. (2017) propose a teacher training approach where the teaching of theory is better integrated with practice rather than continuing to follow “the old teacher education model which treats theory separately from practice” (p. 139). Even though the traditional teacher training model suggests that learning and child development theories, as well as sound subject matter knowledge can provide pre-service teachers with authoritative sources of expertise that they will be able to put into practice (Gravett, 2012; Kwenda et al., 2017). The contention is that pre-service teachers might not necessarily view or experience theory as the traditional model suggests.

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Theory and Practice: Two Worlds or One? In a study which involved teacher educators across Canada, Falkenberg et al. (2014) identified two perspectives regarding the theorypractice debate. The first perspective represents a hierarchical understanding of theory and practice, where theory is regarded as foundational to practice. In the second perspective, theory and practice are regarded as mutually dependent, with the one informing the other. In both these views, the link between theory and practice is highlighted, placing emphasis on both components of student training in this field. In opposition to this view, Zeichner (2010) refers to a so-called disconnection of campus and schools, according to which the link between theory and practice is often inappropriate, or even non-existent. The theory-practice gap which Allen, Ambrosetti and Turner (2013) refer to is not necessarily viewed in the same way by all scholars. These authors explain this as follows: [A] widely held concern is that we run the risk of preparing teachers who know much about theory and nothing about practice. Others suggest that separating theory from practice creates a false dichotomy and that teaching is a profession in which theory is embedded in and inseparable from practice (p. 108).

This explanation corresponds with that of Falkenberg et al. (2014), as discussed previously. Although theory may be embedded in practice (Allen et al., 2013), or foundational to practice (Falkenberg et al., 2014), a divide between the two during tertiary training thus seems inevitable – irrespective of the degree of such a divide. Therefore, despite the inclusion of a teaching practice component in a teacher training programme, the nature of such programmes will more often than not result in future teachers perceiving themselves as lacking in sufficient practical experience when entering the world-of-work. In fact, Spalding et al. (2011) describe “the widespread public perception that teacher education is an archaic enterprise, out of touch with teachers’ real-world needs, stubbornly and self-servingly refusing to teach teachers the simple, finite set of skills they

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need to survive” (p. 3). While this description of teacher training may be perceived as harsh, Spalding et al. (2011) emphasise the complexity of the theory-practice binary, once again highlighting the importance of ongoing research on the experiences of student teachers when required to put theory into practice in the real-life classroom. To this end, whereas the Falkenberg et al. (2014) project analysed the perspectives of teacher educators, the FIRE project focused on the perceptions of pre-service students, based on their lived-experiences of putting theory into practice when entering the world of teaching. Based on a statement by Kwenda et al. (2017) that “there appears to be much fewer research, particularly in South Africa, which examines the way student teachers themselves perceive and understand the place, purpose and role of theory in their teaching practice and their emerging identity as teachers” (sic) (p. 140), the authors of this chapter are of the view that the findings of the FIRE project can add to this emerging field of knowledge.

GENERATING DATA ON PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON THE APPLICATION OF THEORY IN PRACTICE In exploring the experiences of the teacher-student participants on theory and practice in the teaching profession as part of the FIRE project, the following guiding questions were incorporated into the PRA-activities and reflections by the students (Chambers, 2002):   

Who has contributed to the development of your teacher identity? In which way? Which challenges have you experienced during teaching practice? Which action plans can you implement in assisting you to solve these challenges?

The student teachers' participation in the PRA-activities allowed them to reflect on their understanding of their own identity as future teachers and how this had been shaped during their years of study. Specific prompts

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were included to allow exploration of the stakeholders and role-players influencing their teacher identity development and how significant the role of each of these was, for example, the university where they study, their mentor teachers, mentor lecturers, school principals, learners, parents and the community at large. Finally, the small groups of participants identified aspects of their teacher identity which they wanted to develop further during the teaching practice phase of their studies, and then formulated action plans to address these areas of growth, which could strengthen the development of their PTI.

STUDENT TEACHER’S PERCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION THEORY AND PRACTICE The authors of this chapter specifically analysed the data sets pertaining to the participants’ views on the role and dynamics of theory and practice in the development of their teacher identity. Three themes were identified, namely concerning theory and practice as it relates to the university; theory and practice as it relates to the classroom; and theory and practice as it relates to pre-service teachers’ own teaching practices.

Theory and Practice Relating to the University In general, the student-participants acknowledge the important role of the higher education institution where they were enrolled (the University of Pretoria, South Africa) in their development as teachers. The majority of the participants indicated that the university had fulfilled a specific role in equipping them with theory and practical skills. They specifically referred to the value of the theoretical modules they had completed, indicating that these modules equipped students with the necessary subject knowledge and theory required to teach effectively (value for practice). This view is captured in contributions such as the following:

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“Providing us with knowledge, skills, guidance, support, equipping us to become teachers, providing us with our teaching aids/resources so we have them forever” “The university has given us theory and practical knowledge and they have also provided us with the opportunities to put our learning and skills to the test in real life practical solution.”

However, some participants shared the view that the university focused too strongly on theoretical training. In this regard, they mentioned their experience of not being adequately prepared to enter the school environment in order to practice what they had learned. They referred to this challenge by stating the following: 

 



“(They) supplied a lot of theoretical knowledge on the subject but did not provide clear expectations of what we would encounter in the school environment” “Most things taught were from theory or textbook knowledge and not practical, relatable experience for working with children” “Theory and practice are two completely different concepts, for example, what you learned at university level is not generally used or practiced in a classroom” “Moving from learning theory to doing teaching practice, trying to take what you’ve learnt and putting it into practice was a challenge.”

Several groups of participants did not merely critique what they had been taught at university, but were able to suggest alternatives. One of the groups, for example, explained how they had tried to implement the acquired theory but without success, resulting in them modifying what they had been taught. They described their experience as follows: “Our theoretical training taught us that learner centred teaching is better in the classroom, but we found that a combination of learner centred and teaching centred education holds more advantages for the learners.”

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No matter what the specific view of each group of participants, a general awareness was evident amongst the participants regarding the importance of reaching a balance between practice and theory. The participants seemed to be aware of the shortcomings of the university programme as related to its primarily theoretic nature. At the same time, however, the participants acknowledged the value of theory and a sound theoretical foundation when entering the classroom and undertaking teaching with confidence.

Theory and Practice Relating to the Classroom In alignment with the first identified theme, the gap between theory and practice was also highlighted by the participants when discussing the role of classroom experience in the development of their teacher identity. More specifically, several groups of participants elaborated on their perception that theory alone is inadequate as a basis for classroom practice during these PRA-activities and discussions. In addition, teaching practice was indicated as being more formative for teacher identity development than training in theoretical university modules. One of the groups summarised this view in the following manner: “Some teachers thought that we were not as experienced as what we ought to have been (not enough practical experience). [Teaching practice] helps you to develop as a teacher.” In support of this contribution, the following extracts attest to these experiences expressed by the student teacher participants:  

“We were able to experience that the theory is not as accurate as the practical situation” (sic) “Practical experiences are remembered better than theoretical learning.”

In terms of the participants experiences in the classroom of putting theory into practice, they made specific mention of the important role of

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mentor teachers which, in the South African context, refers to experienced teachers who act as mentors to the student teachers placed in their classrooms for the duration of the teaching practice period. The participants reported that they could relate to the mentor teachers they worked with and regarded them as bridging agents between themselves and the classroom. Although the pre-service teacher-participants were taught the rudiments of PTI in some of their undergraduate modules, they appeared to view their mentor teachers as the embodiment of the characteristics associated with their own perceptions of PTI. In this regard, groups documented the following comments as part of the PRA-activities: 

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“They [the mentor teachers] have taught us and inspired us. Taught me how to teach. Practical tour guide. Taught me things that varsity never could. Educated me about the correct management of the learners, social, emotional and behavioural needs” “Mentor teachers serve as role models that we can follow in our own classes. Here we find our identity as teachers. We see what works in practice and what does not work. It is an opportunity to link practice to theory” “Working with these mentor teachers created a platform to apply my theoretical knowledge in practice and form my identity” “The school may influence your attitude towards teaching. It develops your teaching identity. Teaches you professional conduct. Exposes you to reality in the school environment.”

In addition to the participants’ emphasis of the important role of their mentor teachers in assisting them to apply theory to practice, they highlighted the importance of the teaching practice component in both the training programme and the development of their teacher identity. According to the participants, the opportunity to undergo teaching practice could be regarded as useful for the development of who they would become as teachers – not only due to the opportunity to gain practical experience but also by providing student teachers with knowledge that may not have been acquired during the course of their undergraduate academic

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studies. More specifically, teaching practice brought the participants faceto-face with the reality of what their lives would look like in future, inevitably resulting in reflections of their own dreams and whether or not this reality was compatible with their preconceived ideas of the teaching profession. The following contributions by the small groups of participants serve as evidence for these reported perceptions: 

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“Having no opportunity for observation in previous years made a big impact, because we didn’t get an opportunity to see if we are meant to be teachers” “The practical experience teaches us all the different aspects of education and all the things that we did not learn during our university experiences. Practical experience shows us if we were really meant to be in education. Practical education teaches us to be strong in our own identity. Due to all the conflict and politics, even competition amongst teachers, practical teaching has a big influence on our learning process” “You learn everything about education in your first week of orientation – here you learn how it really works in practice. Your mentor teacher is at this stage the person from whom you learn the most. He/she helps you with the development of your theory and the application thereof.”

Based on the reflections of the pre-service teacher participants, we established that the practica (teaching practice period during which they could work alongside mentor teachers) provided them with invaluable insights into the nature of being a teacher. Furthermore, mentor teachers seemingly served as role models in terms of the effective integration of theory and practice. For the participants, the practical nature of teaching in a real-life classroom, therefore contributed to the development of their PTI, allowing them to put theory into practice – even on a small scale.

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Theory and Practice Relating to Pre-Service Teachers’ Own Teaching Practice As part of the PRA-activities and discussions, the participants had the opportunity to reflect and share their perceptions on the theory-practice gap, which they described as “a movement, from the known to the unknown.” The student teachers reflected on the challenges they were experiencing during teaching practice and how these could have been prevented or solved. Many of their reflections focused on the role of their training in the development of their identity and how the tertiary programme could be improved. They referred to aspects such as more opportunities for practical experiences, earlier exposure to the teaching practice component, the structure of the modules, and the amount of theory built into the programme, as captured in the contributions below: 

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“It is important to get more opportunities for experience, real life experience, to correlate current knowledge with practical experience. Experience through ‘trial and error.’ The university should give more opportunities where students can experience this” “From first year a student teacher needs to be introduced to practical experience by working with children, for example: once the theory part of a module is completed, a practical part should follow. Through this process, theories will be applied and a continuous learning process will occur” “We’ve been taught enough theory during our studies, but it is difficult to put these theories into practice. This taught us how to take initiative in practical education and how to apply the theory in the classroom in terms of lesson planning and presenting lessons” “Introduce student teachers to the school environment from 2nd year, more practicals (sic) are needed – lots of schools questioned why we only have practicals (sic) in the 4th year.”

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In reflecting on what they perceived as limitations in their tertiary training, many of the participating student teacher groups also mentioned that they specifically struggled to incorporate theoretical understanding with practical examples in their own lessons. They spoke of the “practicalising of theory” (sic) as something that had to happen in the classroom when they presented lessons, in order to improve learner understanding, yet that they had not seen this being modelled very often, if at all. The participants explained their views as follows: 



“Making [theoretical] lessons fun and interesting. Due to the fact that we are all presenting very theoretical subjects, we are struggling with making the content come to life. We are struggling to find the perfect balance of teaching our subject and making it fun for both us and the students” “If we were able to get a practical experience, even as a group, it would have helped us to feel more confident before we actually started teaching practice.”

In addition to identifying this need to know how to plan and present a lesson in a practical way, the pre-service teachers indicated an awareness that some teachers in the profession also struggled with this. Therefore, their observations in the classroom during the teaching practice period resulted in their realisation that the theory-practice gap does not only exist between the university and school (classroom), but can often be observed in the classroom itself, amongst experienced teachers. One of the participants explained as follows: “My teacher totally uses the behaviouristic style of teaching. I feel that the learners’ needs are not addressed at all. I am not surprised if the learners do not understand something. They are taught theoretically from books and worksheets every day.”

Following the reflections of the pre-service teacher participants regarding the limitations they had experienced in their training programme, they identified ideas for improving the existing programme in

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order to address these limitations. During this discussion, the participants shared ideas as well as personal experiences during the teaching practice phase, as captured in the following contributions:  

“I will reduce theory and increase practical time because the learners do a lot of theory and fail when it comes to practice” “The discussions based on questions and answers technique were enhanced by conveying challenging concepts to the learners by asking relevant, appropriate probing questions in order to direct the learners and the learners’ thought process – enhancing the constructivism theory within the lesson” (referring to the application of a Socratic technique in class).

It seems clear that the pre-service teachers who participated in the FIRE project came to the realisation that the disconnection they experienced between the theory that was covered at university and how it was put into practice in the classroom, was also experienced by teachers already practicing in the profession. In this way they seemingly began to understand that the process of connecting theory and practice is a tricky business, and often more easily critiqued than implemented.

DISCUSSION ON BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE The authors’ findings indicate that the participants in the FIRE project perceived the theory-practice divide as present on multiple levels, including those related to their training institution, the broader school level, the classroom and even at the level of individual lessons. These findings confirm the work of Falkenberg et al. (2014), Goodnough et al. (2016) and Kwenda et al. (2017), however, findings on such a stratified and multi-layered view towards the theory-practice divide when entering the teaching profession are still emerging. To this end, the majority of existing studies focus on the divide between what is taught in lecture halls

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and what is experienced during the teaching practice component, rather than on student teachers’ experiences of applying what they have learned in the classroom. Furthermore, the findings of the FIRE project confirm the general need of student teachers to have more exposure to examples of the practical application of theory during undergraduate training programmes, starting early on in their academic career. This identified need relates to the work of Falkenberg et al. (2014), Lampert (2010) and Allen et al. (2013), according to which students will typically view theory and practice as hierarchical and as distinct entities, thereby, often ignoring the interdependent nature of theory and practice. This trend was evident in all the themes which were identified as part of the data analysis process. The need for better integration of theory and practice at tertiary level as part of teacher training programmes is echoed by Darling-Hammond (2006), who emphasises the necessity of a “wrenching change from traditional models of teacher education” (p. 307) to one that involves practice “tightly integrated” with the theoretical training, using “‘extensive’ clinical work, ‘intensive’ supervision, ‘expert’ modeling [sic] of practice, and ‘diverse’ students” (p. 307). Examples of such efforts have been mentioned in both national and international studies (Gravett, 2012; Goodnough et al., 2016; Kwenda et al., 2017), yet the question remains as to how effectively these strategies can address the apparent disjoint between the theoretical and practical application components included in current teacher training programmes. If these strategies prove to be effective, the transition from lecture hall to classroom can be streamlined to involve a simple logistical issue, rather than a movement from one world to another. The findings of the FIRE project and outcomes of the PRA-activities as well as the discussions which the student teachers partook in, therefore add an additional angle to a possible solution in bridging the gap between theory and practice for future teachers. More specifically, the fact that final year students were able to indicate the theory-practice gap as a concern within their own teacher training programme, as well as in the classroom

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during teaching practice, can perhaps be taken as an indicator that the gap between theory and practice requires planning and a focused process. Therefore, bridging the gap will not only imply the action of sprinkling practical applications like salt on a theory dish, but that so-called ‘practical wisdom’ is required, as elaborated on by Falkenberg et al. (2014) in the following manner: If the problem of integrating theory and practice is seen as the problem of helping teacher candidates develop practical wisdom, then learning to teach is not a matter of bridging acquired theoretical knowledge with practical experiences, but rather, developing practical wisdom within a practical context through reflection (p. 340).

This view furthermore implies that it is not enough for lecturers to simply make meaning of theory by adding practical examples during their lessons, but that a deeper reflection on actual classroom practice is required in order to develop and apply practical wisdom in the classroom. In addition to the need for practical exposure and having the necessary wisdom on how to implement theory in practice, the findings of the FIRE project indicate the value of experience as well as discussions with peers. To this end, the value of a community of practice comes to the fore, where both pre-service and in-service teachers can share and bounce ideas off peers who experience similar challenges in a similar context. In this way, teachers can learn through practical experience by having discussions with peers in their subject area. This idea can be linked to the practical wisdom referred to by Falkenberg et al. (2014), who explain that theory and practice are interdependent and will both provide information, knowledge and strategies for teaching. In essence, this interdependent relationship between theory and practice can present student teachers the opportunity to connect what they have learnt at university level with what they learn and perceive at school during teaching practice.

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CONCLUSION In aiming to reduce the theory-practice divide at university level, higher education institutions may want to reconsider the curriculum responsiveness of initial teacher training programmes in terms of various stakeholder needs. Stakeholders can include students, lecturers, higher education institutions, primary and secondary school teachers and school management teams, as well as teacher accreditation bodies. Designing and developing teacher training curricula that responds to the needs of these stakeholders could potentially avoid an overly theoretical and academic model of training. In return, stakeholders may be invited to share experiences and case studies with pre-service teachers, as part of their preparation for the world-of-work. In this way, opportunities for the sharing of practical wisdom, as Falkenberg et al. (2014) put it, could be infused into teacher training programmes. Furthermore, in order to overcome the theory-practice divide at both university and classroom level, increased focus should fall on problembased learning pedagogical approaches in teacher training programmes. This approach will require students to engage in projects where they identify and solve real-life problems, such as the challenges often faced by newly qualified teachers, as well as in-service teachers. As student teachers might not be aware of these challenges, due to them not having entered the field yet, lecturers could carefully craft well known scenarios in which student teachers could explore and generate possible solutions, drawing on sound theoretical arguments. A problembased learning approach resonates with the PRA methodology in that students take ownership of identifying and solving real-world challenges through the systematic development of action plans. In further support of addressing the theory-practice divide on a classroom level as well as during student teachers’ teaching practice period, it is recommended that teachers – both pre- and in-service – join communities of practice via, for example, social media platforms. Platforms such as Pinterest, Facebook and Twitter can provide numerous opportunities for both pre- and in-service teachers to engage in online

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professional development, by sharing and listening to others’ ideas on teaching and learning, or how to solve challenges in specific subjects. By making use of the available online platforms, teachers can, for example, follow movements such as researchED, where experts demonstrate how evidence-based theory can be practically applied in the classroom.

REFERENCES Allen, J. M. (2011). How front-end loading contributes to creating and sustaining the theory-practice gap in higher education programs. Asia Pacific Education Review, 12(2), 289–299. Allen, J. M., & Wright, S. E. (2014). Integrating theory and practice in the pre-service teacher education practicum. Teachers and Teaching, 20(2), 136–151. Allen, J. M., Ambrosetti, A., & Turner, D. (2013). How school and university supervising staff perceive the pre-service teacher education practicum: a comparative study. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 38(4), 108–128. Brouwer, N., & Korthagen, F. (2005) Can teacher education make a difference? American Education Research Journal, 42, 153–225. Chambers, R. (2002). Participatory workshops: a sourcebook of 21 sets of ideas and activities. Earthscan. Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Constructing 21st-century teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 57(3), 300–314. Falkenberg, T., Goodnough, K., & MacDonald, R. J. (2014). Views on and practices of integrating theory and practice in teacher education programs in Atlantic Canada. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 60(2), 339–360. Feiman-Nemser, S., & Buchmann, M. (1985). Pitfalls of experience in teacher preparation. Teachers College Record, 87(1), 53–65. Goodnough, K., Falkenburg, T., & MacDonald, R. J. (2016). Examining the nature of theory–practice relationships in initial teacher education:

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a Canadian case study. Canadian Journal of Education/ Revue canadienne de l’éducation, 39(1), 1–28. Gravett, S. (2012). Crossing the “theory-practice divide”: learning to be(come) a teacher. South African Journal of Childhood Education, 2(2), 1–14. Kwenda, C., Adendorff, S., & Mosito, C. (2017). Student teachers’ understanding of the role of theory in their practice. Journal of Education, 69, 139–159. Lampert, M. (2010). Learning teaching in, from and for practice: what do we mean? Journal of Teacher Education, 61(1–2), 21–34. New Oxford American Dictionary (n.d.). ‘Theory.’ https://en. oxforddictionaries.com/definition/theory. Reidy, J. M. (2006) Learning to work: students’ experiences during work placements. Melbourne University Press. Roth, W-M., Mavin, T., & Dekker, S. (2014). The theory-practice gap: epistemology, identity, and education. Education and Training, 56(6), 521–536. Smith, K., & Hodson, E. (2010). Theorising practice in initial teacher education. Journal of Education for Teaching, 36(3), 259–275. Spalding, E., Klecka, C. L., Lin, E., Wang, J., & Odell, S. J. (2011). Learning to teach: it’s complicated but it’s not magic. Journal of Teacher Education, 62(1), 3–7. Syed Manzar-Abbas, S., & Lu, L. (2013). Keeping the practicum of Chinese preservice teacher education in world’s perspective. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 3(4), 172–186. Wideen, M., Mayer-Smith, J., & Moon, B. (1998). A critical analysis of the research on learning to teach: Making the case for an ecological perspective on inquiry. Review of Educational Research, 68(2), 130– 178. Yayli, D. (2008). Theory-practice dichotomy in inquiry: meanings and preservice teacher-mentor teacher tension in Turkish literacy classrooms. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(4), 889–900.

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Zeichner, K. (2010). Rethinking the connections between campus courses and field experiences in college and university-based teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(1–2), 89–99.

In: Teacher Identity Development … ISBN: 978-1-68507-487-6 Editor: Ronél Ferreira © 2021 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 4

THE TEACHER AS TEACHING AND LEARNING EXPERT Judy van Heerden and Hannelie du Preez† Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT In this chapter, the role of a teacher as teaching and learning expert is discussed against the background of professional teacher identity development. The teachers’ knowledge domain theory (Shulman, 1986, 1987; Ball et al., 2008) is used in discussing this area of identity development of a teacher in terms of subject matter knowledge (SMK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). Following the discussion of existing literature in this field, this chapter reports how the pre-service teachers who participated in the FIRE project perceive and experience their role as emerging teachers, in terms of them being and becoming teaching and learning experts. Based on the findings of the FIRE project, it is concluded that the participants display a well-integrated understanding of the various underlying components necessary for effecting meaningful and multifaceted learning experiences. Based on the insight gained, a conclusion is reached with recommendations on how initial teacher training can strengthen the nexus between the teaching and  †

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]. Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

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Judy van Heerden and Hannelie du Preez learning domains on the one hand, and work integrated learning (WIL), or the teaching practice component of teacher training programmes, on the other hand.

KEY CONCEPTS 

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Subject matter knowledge (SMK): Teachers’ cognizance of their discipline of expertise or their subject discipline. This knowledge extends beyond what a layperson or learner understands about the body of knowledge, concepts, skills and values. It should answer the question ‘What is taught?’ Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK): A teacher’s knowledge of the curriculum, the content and the learner. A sound PCK enables the teacher to facilitate a positive learning experience, relying on suitable methodology and resources. It should answer the question ‘Who is and how it is taught?’ Work integrated learning (WIL): WIL occurs when pre-service teachers’ academic learning of a discipline is demonstrated within a workplace or practice setting – the classroom. The ultimate purpose of WIL is to integrate theory with practice, which in turn, can support the transition of graduates to the workplace, investing in their employability, personal agency and life-long learning. It should answer the question ‘Where and when it is taught?’ Continuous professional teacher development (CPTD): The continuous growth of a teacher that commences with initial teacher training and remains until the end of the teacher’s career. As such, CPTD entails the process of remaining relevant, competent and updated with modern technology, against the background of continuously acquiring new knowledge, skills, abilities and teaching strategies. Knowledge system: The collection of core SMK and PCK, which can be utilised by teachers to design learning experiences focused on the transfer of knowledge, values and skills to learners. These

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attributes are regarded as essential for the survival, sustainability and employability of future generations. It should answer the question ‘What is the ontology, epistemology and axiology of knowledge?’

INTRODUCTION It is a generally accepted belief that teachers have a powerful impact on the citizenry and future vocations of learners. In-service teachers serve as mentors to pre-service teachers and provide beneficial opportunities to specifically reflect on their own professional teacher identity development. Insights gained about teaching and learning are informed by their personal experiences during work integrated learning (WIL) in support of the development of effective and suitable teaching practices. Professional teacher identity development is viewed as imperative since it does not only reflect teachers' perspectives of themselves as educators, but also their knowledge, beliefs and attitudes towards specific subjects and how these can best be taught to learners in a given classroom setting (Botha, 2012). Mayer (1999) supports this view and maintains that the core beliefs of a teacher regarding teaching and being a teacher are important to support and sustain professional identity. As part of the FIRE project, professional identity is explored in terms of, amongst other things, pre-service teachers’ perceptions of the ideal teacher. In addition to their perceived classroom experiences (situated identity), professional identity integrates a teacher’s personal identity and thus the lived-experiences outside the school context. It follows that professional teacher identity is important throughout the career of any teacher. In this regard, Botha (2012) argues that the “… initial teacher education programme is an important learning experience in the process of constructing a positive professional teacher identity and becoming a reform-minded teacher” (p. 178). As such, regular reflections on the development of their own teacher identity are important during the training of any pre-service teacher.

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BECOMING AN EXPERT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING Teachers are expected to mindfully cultivate young minds based on past and current knowledge systems in a manner that will inspire learners to discover, innovate and advance future knowledge systems for social development. Continuity as well as a clear trajectory within existing knowledge systems is crucial for evolvement (Asabere-Ameyaw et al., 2012). As knowledge systems are dynamic, it is crucial for teachers to continuously revisit and consolidate new advancements into their existing understanding, thereby keeping up with the ever-changing nature of education, society and technology. Based on Shulman’s (1986) study of the work of imminent scholars, namely Dewey, Scheffler, Fenstermacher, and Schwab, he posits that subject matter knowledge (SMK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) cannot to be treated as mutually exclusive or dichotomous and its integrated or overlapping nature should be appreciated. Shulman’s (1986, 1987) innovating thinking inspired Ball et al. (2008) to design such an integrated model for training mathematics teachers, which can be easily applied to any other field or discipline (Du Preez, 2016). In this regard, work-place experiences are regarded as crucial to exercise and hone preservice teachers’ understanding and implementation of a discipline and its related pedagogy. In this manner, WIL may offer an authentic environment (e.g., classroom, community) for pre-service teachers to learn ‘in’ and ‘from’ practice under the mentorship and guidance of their institutions. The exact boundaries and names of typologies or categories to characterise the different knowledge domains is not yet agreed on in the body of scholarship. However, based on the interpretation of Shulman’s work by Ball et al. (2008), domains and sub-domains will be referred to. The categorisation of the two domains along with the work-based environment is presented in Figure 4.1 below, with each domain being defined according to its respective sub-domains. Figure 4.1 represents Shulman’s (1987) original work as well as the interpretation of his work by Ball et al. (2008), structured according to two knowledge domains. The underlying thinking of Shulman’s work is

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integrated accordingly, with WIL serving as a multi-contextual setting where pre-service teachers can experience the intermixing of the two knowledge domains in or from practice.

Figure 4.1. Nature of a teacher’s knowledge domains for teaching and learning (adapted from Shulman, 1987, p. 8; Ball et al., 2008, pp. 391, 403) and work-based learning (adapted from Department of Higher Education and Training [DHET], 2018, p. 14).

Subject Matter Knowledge Domain Within the disciplinary knowledge domain, three domains are identified (Bal et al., 2008) which relate to the SMK that a pre-service teacher will require to facilitate a multifaceted learning experience in class. The first sub-domain, common content knowledge, entails pre-service teachers’ cognizance of concepts, language and skills, which are unique to specific subjects. According to the council for educators (JET Education Services, 2018) and the national document on the minimum requirements of teacher education qualifications (DHET, 2018), all teachers in South

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African schools should possess adept knowledge of subject-specific concepts, and use accurate terminology and vocabulary when building on existing knowledge and discussing new knowledge with learners. More specifically, attention should be paid to the relevance of acquiring the knowledge systems for application in situational, practical and real-life settings. The second sub-domain, horizon content knowledge relates to the overlap between different knowledge systems by linking subjects. This implies the possibility of guiding learners to collate and consolidate knowledge systems by transferring what they have learned vertically (deep learning) and horizontally (wide learning). To this end, a knowledgeable teacher will for example, be able to demonstrate how language and arts can be integrated latterly while also progressively strengthening learners’ knowledge regarding mathematics during vertical transitions from year to year, or phase to phase, as the learners’ progress. The final sub-domain relates to specialised content knowledge. This type of knowledge distinguishes a teacher as a subject/phase specialist from other educated peoples’ understanding of a specific knowledge system. By implication, teachers are expected to possess a sophisticated understanding of the knowledge systems they teach, in order to be able to adequately assist learners in acquiring the underlying concepts, language and skills in unique and diversified ways.

Pedagogical Knowledge Domain The pedagogical knowledge domain is referred to by Shulman (1987, p. 7) as the “… missing paradigm in research,” because it is concerned with a teacher’s knowledge of content, the curriculum, the learners, assessment and pedagogy. The first sub-domain, knowledge of content and the curriculum, requires teachers to interpret the intended curricula and apply their SMK when designing multifaceted learning experiences. The constructive alignment between outcomes, content and type of assessment, for exaple baseline, formative-feedback or summative, is also imperative

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for teachers to implement (Hattie & Clarke, p. 2019). In order to achieve this, teachers should remain cognizant of the nature of the relevant curriculum approach as this will differ across educational contexts and bands. According to Gultig et al. (2003) and Reed et al. (2012), the way in which the knowledge system is organised signals whether or not it is a collection or an integrated curriculum. A collection curriculum entails knowledge systems which relate to distinct subject areas, with content foci that are closely related but taught as separate entities, namely at primary, secondary and tertiary levels. On the other hand, an integrated curriculum entails subject areas and content that are not strongly related to each other, but are taught holistically such as early childhood education. It is important for teachers to have knowledge of both types of curricula, due to knowledge systems not being stagnant, which in turn implies constant changes in terms of suitable modes of delivering, as technology advances. Secondly, teachers ought to have an adept understanding of the knowledge of content and learners to attain the required educational outcomes, set according to the developmental profile and characteristics of the learners (Ball et al., 2008). Although learners are unique, certain universal characteristics exist which incorporate the likenesses and differences of a typical learner in a specific educational phase, as well as a set of concepts and skills that learners need to acquire at the time (Newman & Newman, 2017). In this regard, it is important for teachers to remain cognizant of theoretical frameworks or the philosophical views that underpin the teaching of certain educational bands. For example, Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory, or Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, in James and James (2012) as well as McCulloch and Crook (2013) associates with pre-school to Grade 3 schooling. It follows that knowledge of content and learners requires both philosophical and practical considerations, as well as the implementation thereof (Gultig et al., 2003). The final domain is knowledge of content and teaching, which includes the broadly adopted teaching strategies or methods that teachers utilise for teaching (Ball et al., 2008). In this regard, teachers are expected to not only possess adept disciplinary knowledge of their particular subject areas, but

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to also know how to effectively teach subject content to learners. This also alludes to efforts to adapt learning for the purpose of remediation, differentiation and multi-level teaching. As pedagogical ideologies also influence teaching, this typology thus concerns didactics, which is the methodological application of pedagogical theory (McCulloch & Crook, 2008). According to Burden and Byrd (2013), teaching strategies can be either teacher-centred or learner-centred. Instructional approaches for direct instruction include presentations, demonstrations, question-andanswer sessions, recitations and role-learning. On the contrary, learnercentred instructional strategies generally entail inquiry approaches such as discovery and problem-based projects; social approaches such as discussions, cooperative learning, panels, debates, role-play, simulations and modelling; and independent approaches such as learning stations and self-directed learning. The domains discussed depict the vast and well-integrated knowledge systems required for effective teaching and learning to take place. Such teaching and learning will ultimately cultivate literate and responsible lifelong learners who as citizens, can meet the demands and a career prospective associated with the twenty-first century.

Teachers as Role Models As part of their role as teaching and learning experts, it is important that teachers realise their position as role models in the school-community context. In this regard, Costa and Kallick (2009) suggest a list of habits of mind which any expert can rely on to develop and become an efficient and skilful thinker. The term habits of mind, is used when referring to a temperament or character toward conduct yourself intelligently when confronted with difficulties to which we do not instantaneously know the answers (Costa & Kallick, 2009). According to Costa and Kallick (2009), the first of these habits is persistence, which implies that efficient people will not give up easily and will finish what they have started. Persistent people possess the ability to analyse a problem and then develop a scheme, structure or strategy, as well

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as systematic methods to deal with the challenge. The habit of managing impulsivity implies that effective problem solvers will think before they act, and plan properly while considering alternatives and consequences. Furthermore, when practicing the habit of listening to others with empathy to understand their points of view, teachers will be able to paraphrase ideas, sense feelings and consider emotional conditions. This often goes hand-inhand with the habit of flexible thinking, where a problem or difficulty is approached from a new viewpoint, using lateral or creative thinking, thereby taking a macro-centric1 perspective, or by having an underlying micro-centric2 perceptual orientation. In addition, the habit of practicing metacognition implies that teachers remain aware of what they do- and do not know, thus be able to develop plans of action, and be cautious of their actions as well as the effect thereof on the environment and on others (Costa & Kallick, 2009; Heick, 2012). Striving for accuracy and precision is another habit that can allow teachers to pursue life-long learning and constantly strive for the highest possible standards in their profession. Furthermore, inquirers will use questioning and pose problems to identify phenomena and inconsistencies in their environment and investigate their causes (JET Education Services, 2018). The habit of applying past knowledge to new situations enables teachers to abstract meaning from an experience and apply it to new situations. As such, if teachers acquire the habit of thinking and communicating with clarity and precision, they will be able to substitute generalisations, omissions and misrepresentations with explanations, comparisons, quantification and verification. In this process, most linguistic, cultural and physical learning can be derived from the environment when gathering data through all the senses (Heick, 2012). Finally, practicing the habit of creation, imagination and innovation can result in ingenious products, solutions and techniques. In addition, creative thinkers will be willing to take risks, push boundaries, be motivated intrinsically rather than extrinsically, and have an openness to criticism. Finding humour, thinking interdependently and being able to 1 2

Conceptual view to identify themes, patterns and assortment of information. Attention to detail view that requires precision and orderly progression.

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learn continuously are the last aspects on the list of habits which can assist teachers in being role models in the context of school-community (Costa & Kallick, 2009).

Becoming a Teaching and Learning Expert Teachers need to be teaching and learning experts who belong to a thinking community and share ideas with one another (Du Preez, 2016). To this end, Green (2014) highlights the importance of pre-service teachers continuously improving their own thinking and learning, in order to become the best practitioners that they can be. Green (2014) specifically emphasises the significance of the role and place of thinking communities such as schools, with teachers steering the process of transforming schools into thinking communities, where thinking in all its forms can be enhanced. As pre-service teachers are developing towards becoming teaching and learning experts, they should first realise what the characteristics of a competent teacher are. In addition, it is important that pre-service teachers remain aware of the importance of continuous professional teacher development (CPTD) and being part of a community of collaboration, such as belonging to teacher associations; specialised interest group (SIG) or communities of practice. Thus, for pre-service teachers WIL provides a valuable platform to acquire and hone their teaching and learning competencies and skills. In terms of the expected competencies of teachers in South Africa, the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA, 2012) stipulates ten categories as level descriptors of competent teachers. Firstly, teachers are expected to have a broad scope of knowledge in their subject areas, implying detailed knowledge of terms, concepts, facts, principles, rules and theories of their subjects and how such knowledge relates to other fields, disciplines or practices. The second category entails knowledge literacy, which implies that a competent teacher will understand schools of thought and have knowledge of production processes. Thirdly, a teacher should be competent in terms of method and procedure, which means that

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they will be able to evaluate, select and apply methods appropriately within a defined context. Next, competence in problem solving is required as an effective teacher should be able to identify, analyse and solve problems in unfamiliar contexts by gathering evidence and applying solutions. In the fifth instance, a competent teacher will practice ethical and professional conduct, thereby understanding the complexity of ethical implications and dilemmas and effecting associated actions and decisions within a professional context. Furthermore, competent teachers are able to effectively access, process and manage information, which implies the possibility of applying welldeveloped processes of analysis, synthesis and evaluation. In the seventh instance, competent teachers will be able to produce and communicate information, implying reliable and coherent use of academic and professional conventions, formats and technologies for a given context. The eighth category relates to context and systems, with a competent teacher being able to decide and act appropriately in familiar and new contexts, thereby demonstrating an understanding of the relationships between systems and how systems influence one another (SAQA, 2012). The ninth category stipulates that effective management of learning is required from a competent teacher, implying the ability to evaluate performance against given criteria, and provide appropriate support to the learning needs of others. Finally, competency in teaching is related to accountability, which entails the ability to effectively work in a team or group, and to take responsibility for decisions and actions including the responsibility for using resources.

GENERATING DATA ON PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR ROLE AS TEACHING AND LEARNING EXPERTS As part of the Participatory Reflection and Action (PRA)-activities, conducted for the FIRE project, pre-service teachers were requested to discuss their different roles as future teachers, against the background of

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their identity development. In terms of data generation, studentparticipants expressed their views by using verbal and textual mediums – first in small groups and later in a larger group of participants. The first PRA-based discussion and activity concerned the studentparticipants’ understanding and perceptions of their role as teaching and learning experts (Figure 4.2 below). In a follow-up PRA-activity, each small group of participants (Figure 4.3) identified three teaching strategies which can be used in their specific phases of specialisation, and reflected on the value of these strategies as well as the challenges they had experienced when designing and implementing them during the teaching practice component of their training. The first discussion that the preservice teachers participated in is discussed in this chapter. We as researchers also demonstrated habits of mind by applying macrocentric and microcentric approaches to make sense of the data. As with the rest of the data, the analysis of the PRA-matrices entails an iterative process of labelling, coding and grouping, in order to be able to document similarities and differences, and summarise the messages captured in the content. Throughout, the aim was to present the views and perceptions of the student teachers, in terms of their own professional identity development, as experienced by them in school during the teaching practice period (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008).

Figure 4.2. PRA-matrix created by student-participants.

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Figure 4.3. Small group discussion and PRA-activity.

Thus, in this chapter, a vast amount of data was systematically analysed by the researchers familiarising themselves with the different data sets, coding these, identifying patterns, reviewing the identified patterns, defining and labelling each theme, and constructing a report of the findings, based on the derived and verified themes. For this purpose, Atlas.ti (version 8) was utilised, guided by a-priori themes, and generated word clouds to summarise these.

RESULTS ON PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR ROLE AS TEACHING AND LEARNING EXPERTS Figure 4.4 depicts a random display of all the words captured in the verbatim transcripts, with the font size of each word being proportional to the number of times the word was counted (frequency). As indicated, the data sets were analysed according to deductive (apriori) themes as well as inductively, by identifying emerging themes, which were then integrated. A summary of the a-priori themes which guided the analysis as well as the themes which were inductively identified, is provided in Table 4.1 below. The a-priori themes and sub-

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themes depict the typologies of teachers’ knowledge systems as captured in Figure 4.1. Colours were randomly assigned to assist with the integration of themes and sub-themes in order for the researchers to be able to understand and interpret the perceptions of the students who participated in the project against the selected meaning-making framework. As such, the emerging codes do not only represent one knowledge domain, but rather include two or more typologies each.

Figure 4.4. Word cloud on the perceptions of the participants of their developing identity as teaching and learning experts.

Table 4.1. Overview of a-priori and emerging themes

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The results of this section of the FIRE project indicate that studentparticipants’ perceptions of their role as teaching and learning experts’ centres around the practical application of pedagogy, especially in terms of strategies and methods that can support effective teaching and learning. This is evident in participants contributions such as the following: “I asked learners questions about what they think a good teacher should be and found they learned better if the teacher explains content in different ways and gives concrete and theoretical examples or integrate different intelligences such as visual, auditory and so forth,” and “We found that teaching in an interactive manner was most effective, as it creates a safe environment conducive to teaching and learning. Be aware of different teaching strategies which are most applicable for that subject.” In terms of lesson planning, most of the participants appeared to be informed regarding the steps of planning and completion of a lesson plan, valuing the action to: “Consult different sources for lesson planning.” In support, another group emphasised that the: “Learning outcomes must be clearly set out. Resources are necessary for lessons – effective learning; age-appropriate lessons; well prepared lessons. Learning support must be evident in a lesson plan. Provide effective and correct learning support to the learner.” The majority of the small groups of participants seemed mindful of the importance of having an alternative plan in place in the case of outcome of a learning experience not being achieved as initially planned. In this regard, the participants stated: “Lessons don’t always go according to plan and you as the teacher must be able to think on your feet,” and “Plan your lessons, but be prepared for interruptions or unexpected changes.” Being prepared for the unknown, so to speak, also points to the participants’ awareness of classroom management. The following excerpts serve as supportive evidence: “Teachers have to create a conducive environment for learning and teaching: have to make sure the environment is not noisy or cold, is clean and must enforce discipline,” and “Maintain a regular classroom management routine and stick to it – without stumping their growth and being unreasonable.”

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Student-participants demonstrated cognisance of the desired traits and characteristics of an expert teacher. According to the participants, an expert teacher is: “Adaptable, open-minded, dynamic and flexible”; “Assertive, consistent, approachable, a good listener and enthusiastic”; and “Reflective, a researcher and life-long learner and innovator.” In addition, participants referred to the importance of teachers being: “Computer literate, resourceful and technologically advanced”; and emphasised that an expert teacher will: “Keep up to date with changes in the curriculum and manage your time.” The participants further stated the following in terms of being a subject expert: “It is necessary for you as teacher to have the necessary knowledge like a university degree, and you need to know the curriculum, policies and rules.” The participants seemingly realised the importance of support – both in terms of peer support for themselves and learner support in the school context. According to the participants, they could benefit from the support of others in becoming effective teaching and learning experts. In this regard, the participants emphasised the potential value of being part of a community of practice, where they can collaborate and be part of a group. An example of a related response is captured in the following extract: “We created a WhatsApp group where everyone could ask questions regarding teaching strategies and the whole group could contribute to the answer. We also got together as a group and compiled the questionnaires regarding teaching strategies and that assisted our group to communicate regarding the different teaching strategies that can be used. That improved our communication skills as future teachers.” In addition to peer support, the participants referred to the potential value of input and support by more knowledgeable teachers and colleagues as well as those acting as mentors to them. In terms of the teacher’s role in providing learner support, the studentparticipants highlight the importance of individualised attention that can enable learners to actualise their potential. To this end, the participants emphasised the teacher’s role in creating opportunities for differentiation and progression. They explained this idea as follows: “Learners learn in different ways and you as teacher must use various resources to stimulate

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learning and know how to transfer knowledge so that learners can benefit from it. You can never stick a hundred percent to your lesson plan as learners ask questions that leads the lesson in a different direction. You need to improvise a lot, especially when one falls behind with classes and having to catch up.” It is interesting to note the awareness the student-participants have of CPTD. For example, they stated that it is important for effective teachers to: “Attend workshops pertaining to our subjects and learn from there, as well as keep on studying further not to end at degree level,” and that: “The teacher must never stop learning in his or her subject area, learning must continuously take place.” In summary, the participants highlighted the importance of a teacher being knowledgeable, capable and creative when identifying suitable resources and strategies for teaching. This idea is captured in the following contribution: “It is vital to know what you are doing and how to ensure that you are capable of being the most equipped in your way of transferring knowledge. Make your teaching interesting, make it modern, be knowledgeable in technology and how to use it. You have to know how to transfer your subject knowledge in the most successful way and to adapt it for learners who do not understand that way. Be confident in what you do and how you do it and keep learning how to improve on your teaching strategies.”

DISCUSSION The results of the FIRE project align with the typologies posited by Shulman (1986, 1987) as well as Ball et al. (2008), in terms of how preservice teachers perceive the role as teaching and learning experts. As such, the findings of the FIRE project substantiate that the pre-service teachers who participated in this project, display a well-integrated and multifaceted understanding of the various components underlying effective teaching and learning.

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Even though the participating student teachers exhibit insight in terms of the meaning of being a teaching and learning expert, it is interesting to note a few outliers in the frequencies of both the word clouds and the themes that emerged during inductive analysis. The two most highly valued outliers are pedagogy (teaching approaches, strategies and methods), and teacher profile (competencies and characteristics). More specifically, the pre-service teachers who participated considered the knowledge of pedagogy and knowledge of being a competent expert as most important in supporting the notion of disciplinary and pedagogical knowledge domains (Shulman, 1986, 1987; Ball et al., 2008) as well as some of the level descriptors of the South African National Qualifications Framework (DHET, 2018; JET Education Services, 2018). This implies the participants’ belief which can be captured as follows: “To become a teacher you need to act, feel and look like a teacher.” The two less valued outliers relate to support (community, mentoring and collaboration), and lesson planning (reactive and during lessons). The pre-service teachers therefore, do not consider the value of collaboratively planning lessons as important as the other two outliers. A possible explanation for this finding may be related to the emphasis placed on individual assignments in the teacher training programme of the students. Another possible explanation is students potentially being placed with peer-teachers who are not necessarily from the same institution or do not teach in the same phase or subject that the students have been trained in, during the teaching practice phase. In such instances, collaboration may be limited as they do not yet see the value in crossing boundaries to acquire competencies outside their own scientific domain, institute, culture or context. As in-service teachers often conduct their planning as a team, which does not necessarily involve pre-service teachers, collaboration between these two groups of teachers may furthermore be hampered. As a result, even though the level descriptors of the South African National Qualifications Framework (DHET, 2018; JET Education Services, 2018) emphasise the importance of collaboration, it was not considered as

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important as becoming an expert in teaching by the participants of the FIRE project.

Preparation of Future Teachers Botha (2012) and Du Preez (2016) recommends that teacher training programmes should prepare pre-service teachers by facilitating the acquisition of both disciplinary knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge, as proposed by Shulman (1986, 1987) and Ball et al. (2008). Furthermore, pre-service teachers need to acquire the necessary skills and experience to develop their own professional identity (Botha, 2012). The four outliers, discussed earlier in this chapter, can guide higher education institutions in terms of them addressing the need for identity development when training future teachers. If these four outliers, being pedagogy (teaching approaches, strategies and methods), teacher profile (competencies and characteristics), support (community, mentoring and collaboration), and lesson planning (reactive and during lessons) are all specifically planned for and implemented in teacher training programmes, the students’ professional identity formation may be enhanced.

Value of Reflection and Feedback Becoming a teacher, or being a teacher who makes decisions, takes risks and participates in ongoing change, implies a complex ongoing process (Botha, 2012). In this regard, the following wise words shared centuries ago by Confucius (551–479 BC), are still relevant and applicable in contemporary times, especially for teachers: “By three methods we learn wisdom: first by reflection, which is the noblest; second by imitation which is the easiest; and third, by experience, which is the most bitter.” In teachers’ daily lives, natural reflections occur regularly when they encounter new or challenging situations that require careful thinking and sound judgement (Kelchtermans & Ballet, 2002). Regular self-evaluation

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can improve a teachers’ own growth from practice (situational learning) in practice (practical learning), highlighting the possible need for professional development support where required (Stach, 2017). Urzúa and Vásquez (2008) recommend that teachers rely on written narratives of their experiences to gain insight into their professional identity development. Such personal narratives can elicit written and/or verbal feedback from a mentor (Hattie & Clarke, 2019) which can assist teachers in making sense of, and giving meaning to their everyday experiences, beliefs and teaching practices. Furthermore, narrative reflections can create opportunities for teachers to actively participate in strengthening their professional teacher identity by sharing their views, knowledge, ideas and practices with others (Botha, 2012), with the potential of receiving constructive feedback. In this regard, teacher training institutions can guide students in using narrative reflections by including such activities in relevant modules, specifically those related to the teaching practice component. In terms of teacher identity development, reflective practice is important to assist teachers in making the necessary connections between theory and practice, and reflect on and fine-tune their lesson presentation skills and classroom practices (Botha, 2012). Reflective practice, coined by Schön (1987, p. 26), distinguishes between “reflection-in-action (thinking on your feet as a situation arises, which enables you to adjust your actions) and reflection-on-action (thinking after the event).” In the process, new knowledge can be gained, which can in turn inform practice and result in changed actions. As such, the ability to reflect on what they know is revealed by what teachers do (Stach, 2017). Existing literature indicates that teachers who often reflect on their disciplinary and pedagogical knowledge, in terms of what they do, why they do it and how new knowledge can be applied to improve practice, achieve better teaching outcomes and career satisfaction than those who do not regularly engage in reflection (Siraj-Blatchford & Sylva, 2004). Self-reflective questions which may guide pre- and in-service teachers when engaging in this activity include the following: What do I know? How do I know what I know? What shapes and has shaped my perspective?

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With what voice do I share my perspective? What do I do with what I have found? (Patton, 2005).

The Role of Mentoring in Teacher Identity Development According to Samuel (2008), in Botha (2012, p. 165) a beginning teacher’s professional identity is a “kaleidoscope of permutations.” Vandebroeck (1999) similarly states that a professional teacher’s identity implies a dynamic and versatile process that can be altered, changed or sustained. To this end, Botha (2012, p. 181) found “… that external and internal factors influence the adaptation, change or sustainability of beginning teachers’ core professional identity and therefore, affect classroom practice.” Botha (2012) more specifically foregrounds the importance of higher education institutions in shaping pre-service teachers’ identities, stating the following: “… through the practices, experiences and voices of the beginning teachers that their initial teacher education programme was an important factor that influenced their professional teacher identity formation” (p. 181). Attending to the professional and emotional developmental needs of teachers are just as important as the development of their pedagogical and content knowledge. Both higher education institutions and schools should as a result, provide sufficient support and strive to strengthen beginner teachers’ professional teacher identity in order to build the repertoire of effective teachers and retain them for the profession. Schools should furthermore, acknowledge teachers’ voices and be open to the ideas of both beginner and experienced teachers. In addition, it is important for schools to recognise context as part of professional teacher identity formation and support beginner teachers at the start of their careers (Botha, 2012). In Botha’s (2012) view, two key issues relate to teachers, namely to establish their professional teacher identity, and to receive professional recognition. Thus, teachers are required to negotiate their professional voice and justify their respected place in order to sustain reform mindedness within the existing school culture. Furthermore, teachers need

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to improvise and find ways to match their practice, vision and beliefs about teaching on the one hand, with the specific requirements of the school where they teach on the other hand (Botha, 2012). In this regard, Botha (2012) emphasises the importance of the first year of teaching, viewing this as a learning opportunity and contributing factor to the continuous and ongoing formation of professional teacher identity. According to the study by Botha (2012), beginner teachers who are confronted with the reality of teaching and learning in their classrooms, generally experience an initial period of instability and uncertainty. Despite sound training in both pedagogical and disciplinary content knowledge, such beginner teachers may face the reality of a workplace not necessarily matching their hopes, expectations or purpose for teaching and of being a teacher. Some of the challenges which beginner teachers may experience include the suitable interpretation and implementation of the curriculum, effective teaching practice for children, the accommodation of parents, and adaptation to the specific school culture. Despite such difficulties, teachers as teaching and learning experts can learn to adapt and cope, making sound decisions and sustaining their learnt professional teacher identity as they progressively believe in what they do. This process of adaptation and growth can be enhanced through peer support, respect and acknowledgement by others, as well as sound mentoring during and after completion of teacher training programmes (Walters et al., 2020; Botha, 2012).

CONCLUSION As highlighted in the discussion above, the typologies that inform teachers’ knowledge systems are valuable and can be applied more rigorously in teacher training programmes and work integrated learning (or teaching practice) components. Also, the value of boundary crossing thinking communities should acquire more emphasis as it is regarded an important ability needed by future university graduates to better respond to emerging global challenges. This implies that higher education

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institutions which offer teacher training may want to revisit their programmes and articulate the implementation of strategies more clearly which can support the professional identity development of prospective teachers.

REFERENCES Asabere-Ameyaw, A., Sefa Dei, G. J., & Raheem, K. (Eds.) (2012). Contemporary Issues in African Sciences and Science Education. Sense Publishers. Ball, D. L., Thames, M. H., & Phelps, G. (2008). Content knowledge for teaching: What makes it special? Journal of Teacher Education, 59(5), 389–407. Botha, M. (2012). Sustaining the Professional Identity of Beginning Teachers in Early Mathematics, Science and Technology Teaching. University of Pretoria. Unpublished PhD-thesis. Burden, P. R., & Byrd, D. M. (2013). Methods for Effective Teaching: Meeting the Needs of all Students (6th ed.). Pearson. Costa, A. L., & Kallick, B. (Eds.). (2009). Habits of Mind Across the Curriculum: Practical and Creative Strategies for Teachers. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2008). Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Material (3rd ed.). Sage Publications. Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). (2018). Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education (Revised). Government printer, South Africa. Du Preez, H. (2016). A Historical Subject-didactical Genetic Analysis of Life Skills Education in Early Childhood. North-West University. Unpublished PhD-thesis. Green, L. (2014). Introduction: Why thinking communities? In L. Green (Ed.), Schools as Thinking Communities (pp. 3–12). Van Schaik. Gultig, J., Hoadley, U., & Jansen, J. (Eds.). (2003). Curriculum. From Plans to Practices. Reader. Oxford University Press.

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Hattie, J., & Clarke, S. (2019). Visible Learning: Feedback. Routledge. Heick, T. (2012). Integrating the 16 Habits of Mind. A quick tour of Costa and Kallick’s 16 Habits of Mind, along with suggestions for implementing them as classroom best practices. https://www.edutopia. org/blog/habits-of-mind-terrell-heick. James, A., & James, A. (2012). Key Concepts in Childhood Studies. Sage Publications. JET Education Services. (2018). Closeout Report: Development of Professional Teaching Standards 2016–2018. JET Education Services. Kelchtermans, G., & Ballet, K. (2002). The micropolitics of teacher induction. A narrative-biographical study on teacher socialisation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(1), 105–120. Mayer, D. (1999). Building Teacher Identities: Implications for PreService Teacher Education. Paper presented to the Australian Association for Research in Education, Melbourne. McCulloch, G., & Crook, D. (Eds.). (2013). The Routledge International Encyclopedia of Education. Routledge. Newman, B. M., & Newman, P. R. (2017). Development through Life: A Psychosocial Approach. Cengage Learning. Patton, M. Q. (2005). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Sage Publications. Reed, Y., Gultig, J., & Adendorff, M. (Eds.). (2012). Curriculum: Organising Knowledge for the Classroom (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. Samuel, M. (2008). Accountability to Whom? For what? Teacher Identity and the Force Field Module of Teacher Development. Perspectives in Education, 26(2), 3–16. Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Toward a New Design for Teaching and Learning in the Professions. Jossey-Bass. Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22.

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Siraj-Blatchford, I., & Sylva, K. (2004). Researching pedagogy in English pre-schools. British Educational Research Journal, 30(5), 713–730. South African Qualifications Authority (2012). Level descriptors for the South African National Qualifications Framework. Pretoria Authors Directorate: Stach, M. (2017). The Role of Toy Libraries in the Provision of Play-based Learning Opportunities for Young Children. University of Pretoria. Unpublished PhD-thesis. Urzúa, A., & Vásquez, C. (2008). Reflection and professional identity in teachers’ future-oriented discourse. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(7), 1935–1946. Vandebroeck, M. (1999). De Blik van de Yeti. Over het opvoeden van jonge kinderen tot zelfbewustzijn en verbondenheid. [The Look of the Yeti. About raising young children to self-awareness and connection]. SWP Publishers. Walters, W., Robinson, D.B., & Walters, J. (2020). Mentoring as Meaningful Professional Development: The Influence of Mentoring on in-Service Teachers' Identity and Practice. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 9(1), 21-36. https://dx.doi.org/ 10.1108/IJMCE-01-2019-0005.

In: Teacher Identity Development … ISBN: 978-1-68507-487-6 Editor: Ronél Ferreira © 2021 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 5

THE CARING AND SUPPORT IDENTITY OF STUDENT TEACHERS Marien Alet Graham* Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT In this chapter the teacher as caring expert is discussed, thereby fulfilling the so-called pastoral role of people in this profession. In addition to explaining what a caring teacher entails, this chapter highlights the importance of creating a caring school and classroom environment for learners, in order for them to benefit from their learning experience. In this regard, existing studies indicate that teachers are wellpositioned to assist and support learners by providing them with a personalised interface with the school. For this purpose, strategies such as nurturing relationships with learners, creating a caring classroom, and providing a supportive social network may be utilised by the caring teacher. Based on the data obtained from the FIRE project, this chapter reports on how the student teachers who participated in the FIRE project conceptualised their identity as caring and support agents. This chapter also describes their perceptions of teachers being role models to learners, *

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

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Marien Alet Graham the importance of building relationships between learners and teachers as well as between teachers and parents, and the traits of caring teachers being flexible, approachable and welcoming. In addition to these findings which align with international studies, some context-specific findings which relate specifically to South Africa are presented. These can be linked to the inequality of learners in the country, and the vast differences in home backgrounds and cultures, as witnessed by the participants during the teaching practice phase of their training.

KEY CONCEPTS 

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Approachable teacher: Refers to a teacher who relates well with learners, is not rude and interacts with learners on a personal level (García-Moya et al., 2020). Caring classroom: Refers to an environment where learners feel seen and cared for and where a classroom culture is maintained in which learners feel safe to ask questions and take chances (Sauve & Schonert-Reichl, 2019). Caring expert: Refers to a teacher who cares deeply about their learners, who also cares about what and how they teach and takes responsibility for their learners’ well-being. In fulfilling such a nurturing role, teachers can support learners in terms of their development as well as a general healthy functioning (Fraser, 2018; Williams & Long, 2019). Pastoral role of the teacher: This role is all-encompassing and it involves the teacher caring for learners’ academic, personal and social needs, with the focus being placed on the all-round development of the learner as a person (and not just a student) and enriching the lives of learners in both academic and non-academic settings (Evans, 2017). Teacher as support structure: This role of a teacher entails the provision of support and guidance to learners by creating supportive learning environments which may motivate and empower learners as well as enhance their self-concept (Schuitema et al., 2016).

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INTRODUCTION Although existing literature on teacher training programmes emphasise the importance of teacher identity development, the conceptualisation of what exactly this identity entails can be a perplexing undertaking. Literature, however, reveals a common notion that identity implies an on-going process, that it is dynamic instead of stable, and that a teacher’s identity is a constantly evolving phenomenon that is influenced by a variety of factors (Beijaard et al., 2004; Rodgers & Scott, 2008). Yet, a more in-depth understanding of teacher identity and how student teachers experience the development of their identity could strengthen the ways in which teacher training programmes are structured and refined. The caring trait of a teacher, which is typically highly regarded by those new to the profession, has been the focus of many research projects focusing on teacher identity over the past number of years, dating back as far as thirty years (Comer, 1980). Increased emphasis has been placed on the importance of the caring and support aspects associated with teaching. In this regard, Wentzel (1997) posits that feelings of being cared for and of belongingness can lead to “… the adoption and internalization of goals and values of caregivers” (p. 411). In terms of the classroom setting, this explains the sentiment that learners are generally more eager to take part in classroom activities if they perceive a teacher to be caring about them. According to Tiberius (1993–1994, p. 2), “… teaching simply cannot happen without teachers entering into relation with their students. Moreover, the teacher's success in facilitating learning is directly related to the quality of that relationship.” Tiberius (1993–1994) further states that the relationships which are established between teachers and learners guide and direct all interactions between these two parties. Effective teachers will strive to establish relationships that evoke trust, transparency and security, involve little control, promote cooperation, and are executed reciprocally and interactively. They will, as a result, allow learners to share control and nurture the interactions that occur, regarding these as mutually defined. In response, learners will generally feel safe enough to disclose any lack of understanding that they may experience instead of hiding it, pay more

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attention, ask questions and participate actively. Improved relationships will, in turn, lead to improved interaction and performance by the learners. The importance of teachers fulfilling a caring role is further emphasised by the fact that many learners do not experience the necessary care and support in their primary educational environment – being the family context. In South Africa specifically, a significant number of learners are exposed to home environments characterised by neglect, poverty, single-parent households, child-headed households, households where family members care for children instead of the parents, abuse and/or violence. Concerning child poverty, the General Household Survey 2018, conducted by Statistics South Africa (Stats SA), indicates that 30% of all South African children live in households without an employed adult, 30% do not have access to adequate water, 21% do not have access to adequate sanitation, 18% are living in overcrowded households, 11% are living in households with reported child hunger, and 9% do not have access to electricity (Stats SA, 2018). The main indicator used by Stats SA to track child poverty is known as the upper-bound poverty line which is linked to the minimum requirement for basic nutrition as well as other basic needs such as clothing and shelter, with more than half (59%) of all South African children living below this line (Stats SA, 2018). With respect to abuse and violence, the Optimus Study on Child Abuse, Violence and Neglect in South Africa (Burton et al., 2015) indicates that more than one-third of young South Africans are reported to being hit, beaten or kicked by an adult caregiver. In support of this report, the Community Survey 2016, conducted by Stats SA, reflects that when South African households were asked whether or not they felt safe, 8.2% and 47.5% of the respondents reported that they felt very unsafe during the daytime and night-time respectively (Stats SA, 2016). In terms of neglect and undesirable care arrangements, Stats SA (2018) indicates that 23% of all South African children live without a mother being present in the household, 5% are orphans (maternal, paternal or double orphans) and 0.3% live in child-headed households, with the latter being defined as a household in which all members are younger than 18 years. In other households, on the other end of the spectrum, parents may neglect their

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children due to long working hours and often being away from home, which can also result in the feeling of not being cared for. As a result, South African teachers are often expected to take on the caring role of the parent.

INVESTING IN SOCIAL CAPITAL Social capital refers to an individual’s impression that “… he or she is cared for, esteemed, and valued by people in his or her social network, that enhances personal functioning, assists in coping adequately with stressors, and may buffer him or her from adverse outcomes” (Demaray et al., 2005, p. 691). In current times, characterised by continuous development and change, any learner who does not experience social capital may feel poorly equipped to deal with childhood challenges. Even though various forms of social capital can be identified, for example, family social capital and community social capital, the focus falls on teacher social capital in this chapter, indicating learners’ perception that their teachers care for them, implying a positive influence on learner performance and behaviour.

Being a Caring Teacher The Department of Education (DoE, 2000) lists the community, citizenship and pastoral role of South African teachers as an allencompassing role. According to the DoE (2000), this role involves:   

counselling and tutoring of learners with social or learning problems in need of assistance teachers acting as mentors for learners teachers being able to respond to current social and educational problems with particular emphasis on issues of violence, drug abuse, poverty, abuse against women and children, HIV/AIDS and environmental degradation

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teachers demonstrating ethical professional behaviour when dealing with the protection of children teachers being involved with the development of children as whole human beings teachers assisting learners in choosing a healthy lifestyle teachers providing learners with guidance on work and study possibilities (DoE, 2000).

At its core, these responsibilities all come down to teachers maintaining committed and caring relationships with learners. The particular qualities associated with caring relationships can add to wellbeing in several ways which may, in turn, improve school performance. To this end, caring relationships have been proven to enhance self-worth, support the belief that a learner can get help and be supported, and improve a learners’ confidence in real-life situations (Cutrona, 1996). More specifically, a caring relationship with a teacher benefits the learners in the form of the learner receiving emotional support and assistance, or being guided with their school work (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). The commitment demonstrated by a caring teacher ultimately has an important effect on learners’ motivation, performance and attitudes towards learning and being at school (Tsui & Cheng, 1999). Furthermore, caring teachers are regarded as important role-players in achieving success when doing interventions with problematic learners (Thompson, 2010).

Creating a Welcoming School and Classroom Environment As schools and teachers act in loco parentis for the duration of the school day, all staff members should contribute to creating a welcoming and caring environment for the learners. On policy level, teachers in South Africa are expected to show an appreciation of, and respect for:

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learners with different values, beliefs, practices and cultures the conceptualisation and planning of extra-curricular activities such as sport, artistic and cultural activities their role as mentors by providing mentoring support systems to learners, student teachers and colleagues the principles and practices of the main religions in South Africa, South African customs, values, beliefs, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights ethical debates related to religion, politics, economics, human rights and the environment available support services and how these may be utilised (DoE, 2000).

Within the classroom, teachers are expected to demonstrate an understanding of the potential impact of class, race, gender and other identity-forming forces on teaching and learning activities and outcomes (DoE, 2000). In addition, teachers are expected to be caring experts who create and maintain caring classrooms (Schaps et al., 2004). This will, in turn, have a positive effect on learner performance as a strong correlation has been found to exist between teachers with caring, fair and structured classrooms with high expectations on the one hand, and learner achievement and engagement on the other hand (Klem & Connell, 2004). Furthermore, caring school communities have been known to nurture classrooms which will generally create opportunities for autonomy, supportive relationships, assisting and working with others, and sharing purposes and principles (Schaps et al., 2004). At its core, Schaps et al. (2004, 190) state that a “... ‘caring community of learners’ exists when the full range of students experience themselves as valued, contributing, influential members of a classroom or school that they perceive as dedicated to the welfare and growth of all its members.” A caring school and classroom are typically characterised by an environment where learners feel seen and cared for and where there is a classroom culture in which learners feel safe to ask questions and participate in classroom activities (Sauve & Schonert-Reichl, 2019). When

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learners feel that their teachers are respectful, caring and fair, it leads to classrooms that fulfil the learners' need for autonomy, competence and social relatedness (Lazarides et al., 2020). Caring schools and classrooms which provide high levels of emotional support predict better social skills and fewer behavioural problems in learners, and have been found to promote learners’ self-regulation (Walker & Graham, 2019). In such environments, learners feel safe to take risks, voice their needs and act spontaneously. This allows them to thrive in an environment where they feel appreciated and valued. As such, a caring classroom does not only imply a caring teacher – it also asks for caring peers, which is only possible if a teacher sets the necessary tone, leads by example and implements guidelines for learners to respect and support each other. Several studies have investigated learners’ perspectives on what caring teaching entails and how caring teachers can contribute to an effective classroom climate and instructional strategies (Mirón & Lauria, 1998; Howard, 2002). In such studies, learners generally describe caring teachers as those who talk and listen to them, know them and explain things to them (Pomeroy, 1999). This amplifies the two-way communication that learners desire from teachers. Teachers who help learners are thus, regarded as being able to engage with learners, following a channel of communication where both parties participate rather than a teacher ‘lecturing’ the learners. As a result of such interactions, learners may experience improved positive feelings and, as a result, participate more actively (Howard, 2002). The discussion thus far highlights the importance of schools, teachers and parents as important components which can affect learners’ attitudes towards their schools and teachers (Demaray et al., 2005). Thus, it could be asked what the effect of the lack of an adult who is knowledgeable and has a positive attitude towards the school and schooling, would be on a learner. Closely related, the question as to what will happen when there is no one who functions “… as a safety valve for adolescents, providing them with emotional support, encouragement, and actual assistance when academic or personal problems threaten to overwhelm them” (Croninger & Lee, 2001, p. 551) remains important.

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GENERATING DATA ON PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR ROLE IN TERMS OF CARE AND SUPPORT As indicated in the previous chapters, during the first set of Participatory Reflection and Action (PRA) activities and discussions, student teacher participants worked in small groups of five to eight per group, to document and share their perceptions on their professional teacher identity. In one of the exercises, participants were requested to discuss their understanding of the following roles, typically associated with teacher identity: the teacher as teaching and learning expert (refer to Chapter 4 by Van Heerden and du Preez); the teacher as caring expert (focus of the current chapter); the teacher as subject specialist (refer to Chapter 6 by Abrie); and the teacher as professional (refer to Chapter 7 by Du Plessis). An example of the PRA-matrices that the participants completed during their discussions is included in Figure 5.1 below.

Figure 5.1. Mapping the expert roles associated with teacher identity.

All completed matrices (posters) were transcribed, and the data coded and categorised. In the next section, the themes which emerged the strongest for the role of teacher as caring expert are presented.

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RESULTS ON STUDENT TEACHER’S PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR ROLE IN TERMS OF CARE AND SUPPORT This chapter captures the student teacher participants’ views on the role and attributes of a teacher as caring expert. The participants identified numerous characteristics which they perceived as being important to be able to fulfil this role, such as honesty, dedication, strength, compassion, patience, being caring, flexibility, being respectful, being nonthreatening, being a good listener, being welcoming and approachable, having a cheerful disposition, being positive and being passionate. Participants expressed the view that the way in which a teacher cares for learners should not be dependent on the learners’ performance and as a result, teachers are expected to provide equal attention to all learners – no matter how they perform. As such, the participants did not merely associate care and support with learners who struggle academically but rather with all learners in their classroom. Participants viewed the delivery of information as merely as half of a teacher's job, indicating that sound relationships with learners comprise the other half. As a background to supporting all learners, the participants indicated the importance of all teachers recognising the uniqueness, different backgrounds and cultural diversity of the learners in their care.

Theme 1: Valuing Each Learner as a Unique Human Being According to the participants, it is important that teachers know the learners they work with, respect their uniqueness and treat them equally. Contributions such as the following provide examples of this view held by the participants:  

“Treat all learners equally” “Teacher treats learner as individual”

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“Realising that all children are different, unique and special, thereby valuing and protecting their individuality [the individuality] of each learner.”

In elaborating on how a caring teacher can respect individual differences, the student teacher participants mentioned inclusive education and the accommodation of all learners, for example, stating that, “Inclusive education, no matter intellectual ability.” Closely related, the participants emphasised the importance of, “Adaptability: thoughts and lesson to cater for diverse children.” Throughout, the student teachers who participated in the FIRE project emphasised the importance of knowing and acknowledging learner differences and the challenges that some learners may experience. In this regard, they made comments such as the following:   

“Teachers should acknowledge that learners are individuals and should be treated as such” “Teachers should be knowledgeable about different disorders as there are learners with ADHD/ADD” “Acknowledging learners’ multiple intelligences.”

Theme 2: Considering Diverse Backgrounds and Cultures The student teacher participants emphasised the importance of a caring teacher acknowledging and respecting the diverse backgrounds of the various learners in school. In this regard, they view a caring teacher as a teacher who is, “sensitive towards each learner – as every learner’s situation is different,” and as someone who will display, “empathy towards learners’ background and individual situations.” In terms of understanding, accepting and respecting diversity, the participants made numerous comments, of which the following serve as examples:

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“Understanding in diversity” “Respect all learners’ race and culture” “Be accepting of all children regardless of their race, language, religion, et cetera” “Ensure that the classroom environment is accepting of learner diversity regardless of their differences whether it be race, gender, culture, religion or learning abilities.”

In this regard, the participants indicated that teachers could demonstrate their role as caring experts when dealing with diversity in an appropriate manner. They suggested the following:     

“Before teaching, the teacher must know that learners are different and they are also from different backgrounds” “Take into consideration all the aspects of diversity: culture, language, religion, race” “Do not discriminate” “Cultures and traditions [should be kept] in mind in the classroom” “Take into consideration the child’s background, beliefs/religion and cultural history; make sure to respect this and don’t infringe upon it.”

According to the participants, it is important that a teacher understands the learner, in order to be able to support the learner effectively. In this regard, the participants stated that, “teachers need to ensure that they take the time to get to know their learners and the home situations;” “know the background of each child and their community;” and “understand learners and try and relate to their backgrounds.” Only teachers who truly understand their learners and their backgrounds will reportedly be able to, “assist struggling learners by giving emotional support.”

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Theme 3: Demonstrating Care and Support When discussing their developing identity as caring experts, the student teachers indicated a variety of ways in which teachers demonstrate their care and support for the learners. In addition to making comments such as “being a caring teacher is important,” the participants seemingly related a caring teacher to a love for the profession, implying a love for children. In this regard, they remarked the following:  

“Passion – love what you do” “Love for children.”

For the participants, such a positive attitude must be visible inside and outside the classroom, and entailed a general attitude of care and understanding. The participants’ views are captured in contributions such as the following:    

“Be passionate – learners must be actively involved in each lesson” “The teacher should be warm and caring” “The teacher should be understanding, loving and caring” “Teachers need to obtain a caring attitude towards learners outside the classroom.”

In addition to maintaining a general supportive attitude, the participants identified certain areas that teachers can focus on to demonstrate their care and support. They referred to support on various levels, demonstrated either in general in the classroom or to individual learners who require support. In this regard, the participants made the following remarks: 

“Patience – must be applied in each lesson – each learner must be positively influenced”

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“Support structure – teachers must be able to support learners in all areas and create a comfortable environment” “Assist struggling learners by giving emotional support” “Empathy – emotional support.”

DISCUSSION The premise that teachers are supposed to deliver (or, as in computer parlance, to download) content to learners is universally held, according to which learners will then store the content for forthcoming retrieval and use when required. In following such a misrepresentation of what teaching is about, the personal identity of the teacher and learner is lost, with an overemphasis placed on content delivery rather than sustaining relational environments which may promote learning. However, in addition to this one-sided view, other scholars regard learning as implying the construction of knowledge, rather than information simply being delivered (Tiberius et al., 2002). According to this model, learners will construct meaning from content and ideas delivered by the teacher, by building on previous knowledge and experience, evaluating their own ideas and making judgments about them. In supporting such a paradigm, relationships become imperative, based on relationships providing the framework that dictates the construction of meaning, and consequently, the construction of learning. One way for teachers to foster such relationships is by caring for and supporting their learners, both inside and outside the classroom setting with both academic and non-academic problems (García-Moya et al., 2020). Such a paradigm, which aligns with the findings of the FIRE project and thus the view of pre-service teachers, emphasises the importance of teachers maintaining positive relationships with their learners, knowing them and listening to them. Furthermore, it is important to align the curriculum and teaching strategies with learners’ interests and abilities, allow power sharing, believe in and express interest regarding learners’ lives, and not align the support that is provided with specific performance

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measures. According to the participants in the FIRE project, such positive traits displayed by a teacher may increase learners’ natural motivation to participate in school activities and focus on performance. This finding supports the work of Kariuki and Mbugua (2018), who also find that a positive bond between teachers and learners is the most effective motivational tool for learner academic performance. Similarly, the finding confirms the work of Thompson (2018) who finds that weak relatedness between teachers and learners generally exposes learners to minimal engagement which, in turn, leads to under-achievement. The finding that the role of teachers is not merely related to the delivery of information is further strengthened by the finding that preservice teachers place high emphasis on the importance of understanding and considering learners’ uniqueness and their diversity in terms of their backgrounds, home environments and cultures. This finding is not surprising, since South Africa is known for its ethnic and cultural diversity. Against the background of the country’s eleven official languages, various ethnic groups, different races and religions, it can be expected that student teachers would realise the importance of them considering and respecting these differences in practicing the profession of teaching, which will inevitably shape their teacher identity. Even though some learners, for example underperformers, may have been exposed to indifference or even dismissal from teachers in the past, current student teachers are seemingly well aware that this should not be the case and that all learners (despite inequalities and uniqueness) should be equally supported and cared for. In displaying a clear understanding of the possibility that a deprived home environment can for example, result in poor classroom participation and performance on academic tasks, the student teachers demonstrated insight in terms of their role as caring experts, who will consider the background circumstances of any learner before drawing hasty conclusions. By realising and voicing their insight in terms of the differences and uniqueness of learners, the participating student teachers displayed an understanding of the multicultural nature of South African classrooms where they would be expected to accommodate the experiences of all

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groups of people in South Africa. This finding can be linked to the implementation of an inclusive education policy, according to which all learners should be supported regardless of any special needs or background circumstances. In this regard, teachers will only be able to handle diversity effectively if they recognise the validity of differences and are dedicated to support and manage learner diversity. Based on the findings of the FIRE project, the participating student teachers seemed aware of this responsibility and are dedicated to meet the demand. The final theme that emerged relates to important traits associated with a caring teacher such as respect, being a role model to learners, maintaining sound relationships with learners, and being approachable, flexible and friendly, aligned with existing literature. For example, research by Stronge et al. (2007) supports the findings of the FIRE project, indicating effective teachers as teachers who will exhibit respect and care for their learners. More specifically, according to Stronge (2013), “… caring about students is one of [the] most widely documented personal qualities of effective teachers” (p. 87).

CONCLUSION According to Demaray et al. (2005), it is imperative to make teachers aware of the impact that the classroom environments they create and the support they offer to learners, can have. This includes all role-players – from school principals to staff members to people who invest in schools and teacher training, as all of these parties contribute to creating a supportive school environment for learners. Such a supportive environment will not only be focused on learners’ academic needs, but also on their psycho-social needs, in support of their emotional well-being (Hoy & Tarter, 1997). In order to fulfil this role, teachers need to understand the potential impact of their social interaction with learners. Training courses or developmental opportunities may empower teachers to develop the necessary skills to provide suitable care and support to all learners in their

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classes, by creating an inviting supportive classroom environment. According to Woolley and Bowen (2007), school policies should furthermore, support any such efforts and initiatives. Another suggestion entails financial investment, which may further support the training of teachers as well as support services offered to learners at school (Becker & Luthar, 2002).

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In: Teacher Identity Development … ISBN: 978-1-68507-487-6 Editor: Ronél Ferreira © 2021 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 6

PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF BEING A SUBJECT SPECIALIST Amelia Abrie* Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT In this chapter the focus falls on pre-service teachers’ identity as subject specialists, with the underlying premise that teachers’ beliefs surrounding their competency in knowledge will influence the learning experiences which they create. Shulman’s (1987) categories of teacher knowledge and a consensus model of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) are used as conceptual framework, guiding the discussion in the chapter as well as the author’s interpretation of the data generated during the FIRE project. In addition to the student teacher participants perceiving their role as subject specialists as being broader than subject specific knowledge, they emphasised the importance of a life-long gaining of new knowledge, knowledge of instructional strategies, general pedagogical knowledge, and teacher efficacy as well as attitudes towards subject matter. The identified themes are primarily oriented to learning, in support of successfully fulfilling the role of subject specialist, in a confident and convincing manner. An interesting finding relates to the limited *

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

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KEY CONCEPTS 

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Pedagogical content knowledge: This entails the personal craft knowledge of teachers which blends knowledge of content and pedagogy, and enables teachers to effectively teach specific topics to specific learners. Subject specialist: A subject specialist refers to a teacher who possesses a deep and broad understanding of the knowledge and skills that are unique and associated with the teaching of a specific subject. Subject specific knowledge: This refers to discipline specific content knowledge such as knowledge of mathematics or knowledge of physics. Teacher efficacy: Teacher efficacy entails teachers’ judgement of their ability to efficiently meet the requirements related to their professional activities of learner engagement and learning, despite any potential challenges they may face. Teacher knowledge: This refers to the professional knowledge required to create and maintain effective teaching and learning environments. Teacher knowledge includes knowledge of subject matter, knowledge of general pedagogical principles, PCK and knowledge of the educational context.

INTRODUCTION In this chapter, pre-service teachers’ views on teacher identity are discussed, in terms of teachers’ subject expertise. It is generally accepted that beliefs, competencies, and a sound knowledge of subject matter will positively influence the quality and nature of the learning experiences that teachers create. It follows that teachers’ beliefs regarding their roles will

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also shape the environment and learning opportunities they create within their classrooms (Wenger, 1998). Teachers form their professional identity through continuous processes related to their interpretations and reinterpretations of their professional experiences as well as contextual factors (Rus et al., 2013). Flores and Day (2006) concur and describe the formation of beliefs associated with professional teacher identity as a process of engagement with the “ongoing and dynamic process which entails the making sense and (re)interpretation of one’s own values and experiences” (p. 220). Consequently, the quality of the interpretive processes that pre-service teachers engage in during their teacher training will have a profound influence on their eventual perception of themselves as teachers, in turn affecting their classroom performance. Recent years have been marked by ongoing research in the field of teacher education and teacher training programmes. This has resulted in some tension in terms of the nature and suitability of the interactions which occur between student teachers (pre-service teachers) and the mentor lecturers who supervise them. The institution where the FIRE project was undertaken has developed numerous strategies to ensure and improve on thorough and sufficient supervision of students, despite experiencing a decline in time and resources for supervision. It was against this background that research for the FIRE project was conducted, thereby attempting to promote a formal collaborative practice which would in turn enable students to establish and maintain meaningful relationships with the schools where they undertake their teaching practice, the university at which they are trained, and their fellow student teachers (Korthagen, Loughran & Russel, 2006). In establishing such a community of collaboration, student teachers can be provided with a psychological safety net (Franzak, 2002) where they can test ideas, share frustrations and receive feedback from people they trust. This idea is supported by Walkington (2005), who acknowledges the value of all role-players yet also emphasises the importance of interaction, reflection and feedback from others. More specifically, according to Walkington (2005), university lectures, tutorials and workshops are

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important yet remain poor substitutes for learning about the spontaneity and complexity of the classroom and nuances of the workplace when teaching and interacting with others. In this regard, a few factors which can contribute to the establishment of a safe learning environment for preservice teachers and support the development of their professional identity, namely the opportunity and time to talk, opportunities to reflect, opportunities to make judgements, and opportunities to engage in research activities are highlighted. In the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) documents (the national school curriculum of South Africa), regardless of the subject, the triad of knowledge, skills and values are foregrounded (Department of Basic Education, 2011). The stipulations of the curriculum require learners to obtain meaningful knowledge that can support feelings of self-fulfilment and allow them to link knowledge to the developmental goals of the country. Teachers, in their role as subject specialists, are tasked with the realisation of these aims. As such, teachers are expected to develop a nuanced understanding of what the role of a subject expert entails – forming an essential part of their professional teacher identity. Against this background, this chapter focuses on the reflections of student teachers on their own subject expertise, forming part of their identity development. More specifically, questions were asked in terms of the participating student teachers’ views on the subject-specific content knowledge they had gained during their years of training, and whether this is necessary and sufficient to become a teacher. As part of these questions, a student teacher’s perception on knowledge in a broader, more generalised context was explored as another possibility, which encompasses several types of expert knowledge.

TEACHER KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERTISE Laypersons and even policy makers often believe that almost anyone can teach reasonably well, if they know something of the subject and acquire a few tricks of the trade (Darling-Hammond, 2006). However, this

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view stems from a limited understanding of the true nature of the teaching profession and what teachers actually do. Darling-Hammond (2006) ascribes such limited understanding to the fact that much of what teachers need to know to teach successfully is invisible to general observers. The question inevitably comes to mind if novice teachers always appreciate the breadth of knowledge required to negotiate classroom environments. In support of this idea, the complexity of classroom teaching is encapsulated by the following statement by Shulman (2004, p. 504): After 30 years of doing such work, I have concluded that classroom teaching … is perhaps the most complex, most challenging, and most demanding, subtle, nuanced, and frightening activity that our species has ever invented... The only time a physician could possibly encounter a situation of comparable complexity would be in the emergency room of a hospital during or after a natural disaster.

More than three decades ago Shulman (1987) developed formal definitions for the knowledge base of teaching. Shulman’s (1987) seven categories which form the knowledge base for teaching are presented in Table 6.1 below. These categories formed the basis of several studies over decades, focusing on the refinement of the conceptualisation of all aspects associated with this knowledge base. Many current models still include aspects of the original categories used to describe teacher knowledge. For the purposes of this chapter, teacher knowledge is defined in terms of four main interdependent sub-domains, as captured in Figure 6.1 below. These sub-domains are as follows, SMK, pedagogical knowledge, PCK, and knowledge of context. The requirement for teachers to possess good content knowledge is not in question, yet the level of subject knowledge required for effective teaching remains a matter for debate. Should teachers only have knowledge of content that is equivalent to knowledge that others who work in similar fields hold (common content knowledge) or should they possess knowledge that will allow them to engage in specific teaching tasks (specialised content knowledge, as referred to by Hill et al., 2008)? Or, should teachers have more extensive knowledge than the subject content

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that they teach? What about knowledge of the organising principles, structures and justifications of the subjects they teach (Grossman et al., 2005)? What about procedural knowledge “knowing how”; schematic knowledge “knowing why”; and strategic knowledge “knowing when, where and how knowledge applies” (Shavelson et al., 2005, p. 413)? Table 6.1. Categories of teacher knowledge Primary Categories of Teacher Knowledge  Content/subject matter knowledge (SMK)  General pedagogical knowledge, including broad principles and strategies of classroom management and organisation  Curriculum knowledge  Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), the amalgam of content and pedagogy, unique to teachers, forms their professional understanding  Knowledge of learners and their characteristics  Knowledge of educational contexts, ranging from the classroom, to the functioning of the education system, communities and cultures  Knowledge of educational ends, purposes and values Source: Shulman (1987, p. 8).

Figure 6.1. Teacher knowledge (Adapted from Grossman, 1990; Park & Oliver, 2008).

These kinds of questions are often asked when structuring and offering teacher training programmes. In addition to higher education institutions asking these questions, the general public and teachers in the profession

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have conversations around this topic. It is generally agreed that, apart from subject knowledge, teachers need to have general pedagogical knowledge that is not subject bound but includes general knowledge of teaching. Examples of such knowledge includes knowledge of learners and learning, classroom management and organisation, instruction and the curriculum, teaching strategies and assessment practices, and educational goals (Park & Oliver, 2008). In support, Shulman (1987) regards PCK as the craft knowledge which, “… represents the blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics, problems, or issues are organised, represented and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners, and presented for instruction” (p. 8). For Grossman (1990), PCK consists not only of the knowledge of strategies for teaching particular topics, but also of knowledge of the learners’ understanding and misconceptions of such topics, as well as knowledge of, and beliefs on the purpose of teaching such topics, and knowledge of curriculum materials. Based on the initial research in this field, many authors such as Grossman (1990) as well as Park and Olivier (2008) concur that PCK entails four core categories of knowledge, namely:    

Knowledge and beliefs about the curriculum Knowledge and beliefs about learners’ understanding of specific topics Knowledge and beliefs about assessment practices Knowledge and beliefs about instructional strategies for teaching a subject.

In addition, two further categories are mentioned by scholars who work in this field. Grossman (1990) added the category of orientations towards science teaching, referring to teachers’ beliefs about the purposes and goals for teaching a subject at a specific grade level. Park and Oliver (2008) build on this and later added teacher efficacy as a category, describing this as the belief that a teacher holds in terms of a teacher’s

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ability to influence learner outcomes. As a result, Park and Oliver (2008) provide an adapted model to describe PCK, included as Figure 6.2 below.

Figure 6.2. Pedagogical content knowledge (Adapted from Park & Oliver, 2008).

In analysing the data generated as part of the FIRE project, these models of teacher knowledge and PCK were relied on and as such, the data on the perceptions of pre-service teachers of being subject specialists are analysed and interpreted against the background of the models presented in Figures 6.1 and 6.2.

GENERATING DATA ON PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS ON TEACHERS BEING SUBJECT SPECIALISTS As indicated in previous chapters, the pre-service teachers who participated in the FIRE project reflect on the various roles related to their developing teacher identity, amongst others on their identity as subject

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specialists and what this implies. At the end of this activity, participants were also requested to rank the four categories they had discussed as part of teacher identity (teacher as teaching and learning expert, subject specialist, carer and professional), according to level of importance. Figure 6.3 below, captures a small group of student teachers participating in a participatory reflection and action (PRA)-activity and discussion session.

Figure 6.3. Pre-service teachers participating in a PRA-driven group activity.

As indicated in previous chapters, all captured reflections were transcribed, after which the data on the student teacher’s perceptions of the teacher’s role as subject specialist were extracted, tabulated and thematically analysed. The results are discussed in terms of the themes identified from the data and although statistical analysis is not included, the frequency with which themes were mentioned by participant groups is noted. Data analysis continued until saturation was reached, the frequency with which themes were mentioned remained stable and no further subthemes could be identified.

RESULTS ON STUDENT TEACHER’S PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR IDENTITY AS A SUBJECT SPECIALIST The participants in the FIRE project positioned their role and associated identity as subject specialists more broadly than the mere knowledge of a specific subject, although this was the most conspicuous

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idea that students engaged with. The main themes identified, in order of the prominence given to the various themes by the participants are SMK (including knowledge of the curriculum), the importance of acquiring new knowledge, knowledge of teaching strategies, general pedagogical knowledge, teachers’ efficacy and attitudes towards their subjects, and teachers’ knowledge of learners. When asked to rank the four roles they had discussed as part of professional teacher identity, the majority of the small groups rated the role of subject specialist, or subject knowledge expert, to be the most important.

Subject Matter Knowledge The most prominent perception held by the participants in terms of identity as subject specialists was that all teachers are expected to have a thorough understanding of the content they teach. Pre-service teachers continuously emphasised the idea that teaching cannot occur if the subject content is not well understood by the teacher. The participants indicated that any teacher needs to be “an expert,” “specialist in the subject,” and “master.” In elaborating on their view of teachers being masters of SMK, the participating student teachers indicated that such knowledge had to be upto-date and broader than the content taught, stating that the teacher’s knowledge had to go “beyond the grade level.” Participants linked this view to the importance of teachers being able to answer any learner’s questions with authority, even those of gifted learners. In addition to being able to answer subject-related questions, the participants linked the value of being a subject specialist to several other responsibilities of a teacher. According to the participants, teachers who are subject specialists will be able to maintain sound classroom relationships, hold the attention of the learners in class, inspire learners, and gain the learners’ trust and respect – to such an extent that learners would understand some instances where a teacher’s content knowledge is not adequate.

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Even though the pre-service teachers who participated in the FIRE project had experienced some exposure to the reality of classroom teaching at the time of the PRA-workshops, most of the participants’ classroom practice had been under the supervision of a mentor teacher and lecturer at the time. As a result, their focus seemed to be on ensuring that they know what to teach (SMK), rather than how or who to teach. Despite the strong emphasis placed on teachers holding broad SMK, the participants seemed somewhat uncertain about their established identity as subject specialist, frequently referring to the challenges a teacher may face when confronted with difficult questions by the learners. In support of the participants’ view that teachers should know and understand the subject they teach, a substantial number of small groups of participants indicated that effective teaching specifically requires a thorough knowledge and understanding of the specific curriculum that is taught. Furthermore, the participants shared the view that teachers need knowledge of the position and importance of their subjects in the holistic school curriculum and that they must be able to adapt to changes in the curriculum. The pre-service teachers’ descriptions of the concept of the school curriculum thus indicate that the curriculum as, “the totality of the specified learning opportunities available” and not just as a list of content, is understood. However, the student-participants viewed the curriculum as a fixed prescription from which they should not deviate. This perception will hinder a flexible, creative application of the prescribed curriculum content in order to make it context-specific, relevant and meaningful to a specific group of learners.

Acquiring New Knowledge The majority of the small groups of participants indicated the importance of, especially novice teachers, acquiring new knowledge on a continuous basis, in order to expand on the knowledge obtained as part of their training. The participants broadly refer to the importance of “lifelong learning,” yet in their explanations it became clear that they related this

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concept to predominantly refer to teachers expanding on their subject specific knowledge, with less focus on the other forms of knowledge included in Figures 6.1 and 6.2. In support of the participants’ views that teachers have to obtain new knowledge on an ongoing basis, the majority of the small groups of participants emphasised the need for teachers to partake in regular research. The participants specifically emphasised that teachers cannot merely rely on textbooks for knowledge or even on a limited number of resources, but should instead regularly consult a variety of different resources to remain abreast of changes and developments in their subjects. Furthermore, participants specified the importance of teachers only accessing reliable resources. In addition to the strategy of “reading a lot,” which was mentioned across the small groups of participants, the importance of networking and the exchange of ideas with subject specialists or other experienced teachers at their own or other schools was also identified as avenues for teachers to acquire new knowledge. Furthermore, some groups mentioned the value of workshops or additional training courses as valuable for acquiring new knowledge.

Knowledge of Teaching Strategies In line with the PCK model (Figure 6.2), many of the participants emphasised the need for all teachers to employ effective strategies when teaching their chosen subjects. According to the participants, teachers should therefore, not merely know the content of these subjects but also know and understand how to impart the content and knowledge of the subjects to the learners. Even though a large number of groups identified the importance of possessing a wide range of knowledge of instructional strategies as an essential part of subject expertise for teaching a specific subject and topic, only a limited number of groups elaborated on how teachers could further develop their teaching strategies. These participants mainly emphasised the importance of using attractive and interesting Learning and Teaching Support Materials during lessons.

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In addition, the participants explained that teachers have to develop a wide repertoire of teaching strategies in order to enable the teacher to make the content relevant to the lives of the learners. The participants discussed the need for teachers to challenge learners, make the subject interesting, and remain creative and innovative when teaching content to the learners. In support of the value ascribed by the participants in terms of knowledge acquisition by both the teacher and learners, the student teachers participating in the FIRE project also highlight the importance of teachers knowing different teaching strategies in order to accommodate all learners and support their knowledge acquisition by adapting the strategies they implement in class.

General Pedagogical Knowledge General pedagogical knowledge was mentioned less often by the participants than subject specific expertise, apart from selected skills and practices which were listed as requirements for successful teaching. The small groups of participants mainly referred to thorough lesson preparation, planning and the use of lesson plans as the most important general pedagogical practices that teachers need to employ. These strategies were linked to the importance of teachers having an awareness of prior knowledge or “knowing how to start from basics” as well as remaining cognisant of the outcomes that learners are expected to achieve. The 2017 cohort, furthermore emphasises the importance of effective discipline, classroom management, professionalism and mutual respect. A limited number of groups refer to general skills such as communication skills and technological literacy (refer to Chapter 8 by Callaghan) as essential for teachers to possess when wanting to convey new knowledge to learners. Some of the participants refer to effective assessment procedures, indicating the need for teachers to possess adaptable knowledge of a variety of assessment tools. However, assessment is only mentioned as part of the subject expert role by a limited number of small group participants,

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despite assessment being viewed as one of the core categories of teacher knowledge by scholars in the field, as captured in Figure 6.2. It is not clear why the student teachers who participated placed such little emphasis on this role.

Teachers’ Efficacy and Attitudes towards Their Subject In line with the category of teacher knowledge defined by Park and Oliver (2008) as teacher efficacy, several small groups of student teacher participants emphasise the importance of teacher attitudes surrounding the subjects which they teach. According to the participants, the attitudes of teachers towards their subjects do not only have an effect on their teaching practice, but will also influence the learners, how they feel about the subject and what their attitude is. In this regard, the participants specifically highlight the importance of teachers being interested in and passionate about their subjects, and displaying their love for their subjects to others. One of the small groups for example stated: “Inspire learners with your passion,” thereby indicating the influence of teachers on their learners. Closely related, some of the small groups shared the view that teachers should “walk the extra mile,” stating that teachers should be willing to research topics beyond the scope of the prescribed textbooks. As such, the participants display insight in terms of the importance of teachers providing learners with additional enriching information regarding their subjects, as this will demonstrate a teacher’s interest and mastery of the subject. According to the participants, additional research into subject topics can thus be regarded as a prerequisite for creating and facilitating successful lessons, and will demonstrate a teacher’s commitment to the subject field. Extensive subject knowledge is furthermore essential to avoid the embarrassment of potentially failing to answer difficult questions posed by informed learners.

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Knowledge of Learners The pre-service teachers who participated in the FIRE project make limited mention of the knowledge that teachers require of their learners, as part of their role as a subject specialist. They only mentioned one idea in this regard, indicating that it is important for teachers to hold knowledge of age-appropriate levels at which to teach learners in their classes. According to the participants, such knowledge of learners would enable them to teach more effectively. Even though this theme implies the importance of teachers at least understanding what their learners are capable of, limited focus is placed on the learners and their needs by the participants in reflecting on their role as subject experts. The participating student teachers appear to be more focused on their role as teacher and on presenting lessons successfully when displaying their role and identity as subject specialists, as opposed to attending to the knowledge of the learners they teach as well as the learners’ strengths and needs.

DISCUSSION As part of the participants’ teacher training journey, pre-service teachers are expected to negotiate their past and present experiences of teaching in order to develop their own teacher identity, which in turn, will affect their development as effective practitioners. To this end, Van Huizen, Van Oers and Wubbels (2005, p. 275) claim that, “… the overall aim of a teacher education program is best conceived as the development of professional identity.” Based on ongoing research with regards to this important facet of development of any future teacher, several areas of required expertise have been identified, of which the expertise as subject specialist is one. The findings of the FIRE project provide some clarity on how pre-service teachers understand the knowledge and skills that are required to become a subject expert. If institutions which offer teacher training programmes keep this in mind when structuring and presenting the

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various modules the students enrol for, the development of teacher identity in this area may be better supported as part of their training programme. Professional identity formation can be regarded as a complex and lengthy process, which is influenced by the various contexts that pre- and in-service teachers are, and have been exposed to, such as cultural, social, political and educational environments. At its core, Beijaard et al. (2004) view identity development as an ongoing dynamic process, in which the personal and professional becomes integrated. As said, this process occurs against the backdrop of the environment in which the teacher practices – whether it is enabling or restrictive. This statement highlights the importance of enabling environments and the provision of enabling interventions that can support positive identity development in teachers. The FIRE project and intervention serves as an example of such an intervention which enables the student-participants to further their own identity development. Pre-service teachers are unlikely to possess a well-formed knowledge base for teaching while still studying, as this is an aspect that generally develops over time, through trial and error and through concerted effort, while standing in the profession (Loughran et al., 2006). In contrast with the complexity of classroom teaching as described by Shulman (2004) and captured in the PCK model (refer to Figure 6.2), the pre-service teachers participating in the FIRE project recognised and primarily focused on six aspects of knowledge which they perceive as important for them to acquire in order to become effective teachers. The most prominent finding of the FIRE project relates to the student teacher’s need to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills to be able to perform successfully, confidently and convincingly as a knowledgeable subject specialist, rather than merely functioning as a ‘generic teacher.’ This finding may possibly be ascribed to the fact that the participating student teachers experienced some exposure to the real-life classroom as part of the teaching practice component of their studies, which may have resulted in them experiencing the need to know their subjects when wanting to teach it. Exposure to learners’ challenging questions and having to decide on the best possible ways to present certain sections of the said

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subjects may result in the need to gain more knowledge and expertise, in order to enable the student teachers to present their lessons more confidently. In addition, the prominence that the student teachers afforded subject specific knowledge rather than PCK, could perhaps be a reflection of the subject-specific training they have received as part of their training programme. More specifically, the student teachers who participated in the FIRE project, have completed content-based modules in general degree programmes as part of their training, however, these modules are not exclusively directed at teachers. It is therefore a possibility that much of what the participants have studied is not specifically focused on schoolbased content. The student teachers may as a result, have become aware that they could benefit from further strengthening their conceptual understanding of the content they have to teach (Loughran et al., 2008). Be that as it may, the emphasis that the participants place on knowledge development is consistent with the developing nature of a preservice teacher’s identity. In this manner, this finding supports the contention that pre-service teachers, even towards the end of their training, are often not sufficiently confident regarding the adequacy of their existing knowledge. This finding furthermore implies that beginner teachers may benefit from regular reflections and discussions with more experienced as well as novice teachers, have structured interventions as well as enrichment programmes. Darling-Hammond (2006) points out that teaching is a profession just like any other profession, which is focused on service, in this case, serving learners. Therefore, learners and their needs are important when considering curriculum construction or any teaching activities. Despite this view that is upheld by scholars in the field, the findings of the FIRE project do not emphasise this specific aspect. In the groups of participants that did refer to learners, it was merely emphasised that knowledge of learners is required, in order to assist them in their teaching. This focus on the role of the teacher in the teaching and learning situation may once again suggest that pre-service teachers do not yet feel confident in their efficacy as teachers, and their ability to positively influence learner outcomes (Park

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and Oliver 2008). It follows that it remains important to provide preservice teachers with the necessary tools to engage in lifelong learning.

CONCLUSION The findings of the FIRE project imply that many pre-service teaching students do not perceive their undergraduate training as sufficient enough for them to be able to incorporate the theoretical components of their teacher training into their developing teacher identity in becoming knowledgeable subject specialists who have a grasp on the various elements which contribute to sound teacher knowledge. While the centrality of content knowledge is undisputed and embedded in teacher knowledge (Hill et al., 2008), it is also essential that pre-service teachers require sufficient teacher knowledge as part of their training, for them to be able to realise that there is more to being a teacher than simply knowing the subject content. A contributing factor to the fragmented and compartmentalised conceptualisation of teacher knowledge by the participants in the FIRE project may relate to the separation of content modules from teaching methods and methodology-related modules. Despite the intention, the effect of the teaching practice component and exposure to schools and reallife teaching may not be enough to counteract the limited integration between content and methods in the teacher training programme experienced by students in training. Scholars such as Korthagen et al. (2006) similarly emphasise that student teachers and other stakeholders do not always recognise the relevance of including and integrating theoretical knowledge and the practical application thereof in teacher training programmes. Against this background, institutions that offer teacher training programmes should regularly re-visit the programmes in order to ensure that both content knowledge and knowledge on teaching methodology is well-covered and integrated. It is important to ensure that students are able to integrate theory and practice and know what to do with the subject

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content they acquire, and how to convey this to learners in a practical and appropriate manner. In addition, intervention strategies used to assist pre-service teachers in developing a nuanced understanding of their role as professional subject specialists can for example, focus on an improved integration of undergraduate modules in order to provide pre-service teachers with a clear model of teacher knowledge, based on an accepted body of empirical research such as that related to PCK (Darling-Hammond, 2006; Loughran et al., 2008). Furthermore, pre-service teachers can be encouraged to experiment with and practice various ways of teaching that are linked to their theoretical training and the adopted model of teacher knowledge (Van Driel, de Jong & Verloop, 2002; Korthagen et al., 2006). Even though pre-service teachers participate in work integrated learning in the form of teaching practice, the extent to which pre-service teachers are allowed to experiment with various teaching strategies is not yet known. Mentor teachers, who are expected to guide pre-service teachers in this regard, may themselves not necessarily be ideal role models and teach in ways that do not consider current research, scholarly knowledge and a widely accepted model of teacher knowledge. It follows that pre-service teachers should from the start be encouraged to critically reflect on their conceptions of teaching against their theoretical, evidencebased training, and attend to any challenges they may identify, more specifically during practical training or exposure to schools. In this regard, Darling-Hammond (2006) argues that no amount of coursework can counteract the experiential lessons that pre-service teachers undertake and are exposed to during their school-based training. Lastly, pre-service teachers can be encouraged to continuously reflect on and conduct action research in terms of their own teaching practice, in order to critically engage with the theory-practice divide (Lynch, 1997). Action research will inevitably encourage reflective practice and provide opportunities to be facilitated by peers, mentor teachers and mentor lecturers in a supportive environment. The research aspect may furthermore encourage pre-service teachers to connect their experiences

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during training to the theoretical basis of teaching and teacher knowledge (Darling-Hammond, 2006).

REFERENCES Beijaard, D., Meijer, P. C., & Verloop, N. (2004). Reconsidering research on teachers’ professional identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(2), 107–128. Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Constructing 21st-century teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 57(3), 300–314. Department of Basic Education. (2011). Curriculum and Assessment Policy. Pretoria Government printer. Flores, M. A., & Day, C. (2006). Contexts which shape and reshape new teachers’ identities: A multi-perspective study. Teaching and Teacher Education, 22(2), 219–232. Franzak, J. K. (2002). Developing a teacher identity: The impact of critical friends practice on the student teacher. English Education, 34(4), 258– 280. Grossman. P. L. (1990). The making of a teacher: Teacher knowledge and teacher education. Teachers College Press, Columbia University. Grossman, P., Schoenfeld, A., & Lee, C. (2005). Teaching subject matter. In L. Darling-Hammond & J. Bransford (Eds.), Preparing teachers for a changing world. What teachers should learn and be able to do (pp. 201–231). Jossey-Bass. Hill, H. C., Ball, D. L., & Schilling, S. G. (2008). Unpacking pedagogical content knowledge: Conceptualising and measuring teachers’ topicspecific knowledge of students. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 39(4), 372–400. Korthagen, F., Loughran, J. J., & Russell, T. (2006). Developing fundamental principles for teacher education programs and practices. Teaching and Teacher Education, 22(8), 1020–1041. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.tate.2006.04.022.

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Loughran, J., Berry, A., & Mulhall, P. (2006). Understanding and developing science teachers, pedagogical content knowledge. Sense Publishers. Loughran, J., Mulhall, P., & Berry, A. (2008). Exploring pedagogical content knowledge in science teacher education. International Journal of Science Education, 30(10), 1301–1320. https://doi: 10.1080/0950069080 2187009. Lynch, S. (1997). Novice teachers’ encounter with national science education reform: Entanglements or intelligent interconnections? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, The Official Journal of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, 34(1), 3–17. Park, S., & Olivier, J. S. (2008). Revisiting the conceptualisation of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK): PCK as a conceptual tool to understand teachers as professionals. Research in Science Education, 38(3), 261–284. Rus, C. L., Tomsa, A. R., Rebega, O. L., & Apostol, L. (2013). Teachers’ professional identity: A content analysis. Procedia, Social and Behavioral Sciences, 78, 315–319. Shavelson, R. J., Ruiz-Primo, M. A., & Wiley, E. W. (2005). Windows into the mind. Higher Education, 49, 413–430. Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform, Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–23. Shulman, L. S. (2004). The wisdom of practice: Essays on teaching, learning and learning to teach. Jossey-Bass. Van Driel, J. H., de Jong, O., & Verloop, N. (2002). The development of pre-service chemistry teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge. Science Education, 86(4), 572–590. Van Huizen, P., Van Oers, B., & Wubbels, T. (2005). A Vygotskian perspective on teacher education. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 37(3), 267–290. Walkington, J. (2005). Becoming a teacher: Encouraging development of teacher identity through reflective practice. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 33(1), 53–64.

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Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge University Press.

In: Teacher Identity Development … ISBN: 978-1-68507-487-6 Editor: Ronél Ferreira © 2021 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 7

EMERGING LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT IDENTITY OF STUDENT TEACHERS André du Plessis* Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT In this chapter, existing literature on teacher management and leadership as well as the concepts of authority and power are unpacked. The discussion is done against the background of distributed leadership theory on teacher leadership, with emphasis placed on the practice of leadership rather than on specific leadership roles or responsibilities. As distributed leadership implies leadership capabilities at all levels in the school as well as a focus on shared, collective and extended leadership practice which can build capacity for change and improvement, all teachers are required to develop their own leadership and management identities. In this regard, even though teachers’ leadership and management influence may be limited when compared to those in senior leadership and management positions in a school, their leadership and management roles are still indispensable to a well-functioning school.

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Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

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As part of the FIRE project, student teacher participants reflect on their various roles as teachers, with one of these focusing on their professional role – which includes the role of the teacher as manager, leader and reflective practitioner. This chapter specifically reports on the participants’ views of their emerging identity in terms of management and leadership. Findings of the FIRE project indicate that the participants had a fairly good understanding of the leadership and management role of teachers in a school and to a certain extent, how this may contribute to a school’s functionality. Based on the findings of the study, this chapter concludes with a section on related implications for practice and practitioners.

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Leadership identity: Leadership identity entails self-awareness and a personally constructed definition and understanding of leadership and how this relates to the context of an individual. Teacher leader: This is a teacher who does not only teach, but also has a positive influence that stretches beyond the classroom. Teacher manager: A teacher manager is a teacher who is competent in terms of the planning, organising, co-ordinating and monitoring of teaching and learning activities in the classroom. Teacher as planner: Planning is one of the most important tasks of a teacher leader and forms the basis of all the leadership and management tasks that a teacher may be expected to perform. Teacher as researcher: Teachers who do research will not only enhance their subject knowledge and teaching skills, but also stay up-to-date on the latest developments in the teaching profession.

INTRODUCTION Principalship can be regarded as a multifaceted undertaking. As such, it is unlikely that principals will possess all the knowledge, skills and abilities required to perform the various leadership functions without

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distributing them among a team. In this regard, The National Report 2012: The State of Literacy, Teaching and Learning in the Foundation Phase which was published by the National Education Evaluation and Development Unit (NEEDU, 2013) recommends the establishment of a division of labour in which teacher professional development, as one of the important tasks, is distributed to senior members of staff (NEEDU, 2013). Naicker and Mestry (2011) reinforce this idea by arguing that, in the everchanging educational environment, conventional management models are lacking. Naicker and Mestry (2011) further propose a more inclusive, participative and consultative approach as suitable for a democratic South Africa. On policy level, the national Policy on the South African Standard for Principalship (Republic of South Africa [RSA], 2016b) similarly emphasises shared leadership. The policy recognises the principal as someone who is, “… working with all stakeholders, embraces the philosophy and practice of Ubuntu and has the overall responsibility to build a professional learning community in the school” (RSA, 2016b, p. 23). This view is further supported by Grant et al. (2010, p. 401) who argue that distributed leadership is, “… implicit in official documentation in the South African Education system post 1994, which emphasises a move towards a more shared and participatory approach to the practice of leadership and management in schools”. In a similar line of thinking, existing literature on effective leadership emphasises that the authority to lead is not required to be located in the person of the leader, but can instead be dispersed in the school (Muijs & Harris, 2003). The implication of the said policy and related studies is that the organisational responsibility for the professional development of teachers has evolved to take the form of a collective, shared and distributed duty which is extended over situational and social contexts. Schools are accordingly expected to have well-functioning school leadership teams with the principal taking the role of ‘leading leader’. This implies the requirement that principals need to adapt their leadership role in schools in order to establish and maintain equilibrium between the traditional hierarchical formations and implanted arrangements which are

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heterarchical in nature. An example can be found in one of the key areas of the Policy on the South African Standard for Principalship (RSA 2016b, p. 18), namely “Developing and Empowering Self and Others”, which inter alia expects South African school principals to: 

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encourage the development of shared leadership, participation in decision-making, teambuilding and teamwork, and other positive working relationships provide a range of opportunities for, and encourage and support engagement in, the continuing professional development of everyone working in the school implement processes to plan, allocate, support and evaluate the work of individuals and teams to guide and ensure improvement and celebrate achievements.

According to Grant (2008), this capacity building aspect is central to a distributed leadership model. Muijs and Harris (2006) explain this view as follows: “Building the capacity for improvement also means extending the potential and capabilities of teachers to lead within the organisation” (p. 961). In meeting this expectation, the teacher will be able to adhere to the stipulations of the National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa (RSA, 2007), more specifically addressing the fifth stipulation. According to the said policy, a competent teacher is a specialist in a particular learning area, subject or phase; a specialist in teaching and learning; a specialist in assessment; a curriculum developer; a leader, administrator and a manager; a scholar and lifelong learner; and a professional who plays a community, citizenship and pastoral role. In confirmation, the newly published Personnel Administrative Measures (RSA, 2016a) prescribes the core duty of teachers as being, “… individual and varied, depending on the approaches and needs of the particular school” (p. 34). These duties include, but are not limited to; teachers being expected to perform duties related to teaching, extra- and co-curricular activities, administration, interaction with stakeholders and communication by co-operating, collaborating and meeting with

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colleagues, parents, departmental officials and members of sporting and cultural organisations as well as the public. It is important to note that leadership functions are accordingly explicitly allocated to all three levels of teachers as part of their teaching role and not only to the school management team.

THE TEACHER AS MANAGER Management can be regarded as a maintenance activity (Bush, 2008) and is associated with the mechanical compliance with routine directions of an organisation (Spillane et al., 2004), such as the structures and processes followed by organisations to meet their goals efficiently and effectively (Strain, 2009; Christie, 2010). Heystek (2007) relates the terms “management” and “managers” to “… the more structured approach of working within the confines of the rules, regulations and boundaries provided in a school situation” (p. 493), whereas Grant (2009) describes management as “… the process which works towards stability, preservation and maintenance of the organisation” (p. 46). It follows that management is concerned with day-to-day procedures which need to be applied consistently. In the classroom situation, this requires of teachers to implement clearly defined rules and procedures that are unambiguously communicated to the learners. In following such an approach, boundaries can be set in terms of expectations, whilst also laying a foundation for the creation of a safe and stable environment in which effective teaching and learning can take place. Hartley (2010, p. 347) distinguishes between a “rational” and “normative” rhetoric in management theory. According to Hartley (2009), rational rhetoric is characterised by references to formalisation and standardisation, fixed hierarchy, impersonality, deference and more recently, benchmarks and mechanisms. On the other hand, the normative rhetoric relates to the social and emotional needs of subordinates and assumes enhanced commitment if their social and emotional needs are met, drawing from human relations management theory and being associated

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with organisational culture. Hartley (2010) maintains that this normative rhetoric “… have not for the most part removed the bureaucratic form; they have co-existed with it, ‘softened’ it” (p. 348). Prinsloo (2017b) places classroom management at the heart of a teacher’s work. In fulfilling this role, the teacher is expected to organise and manage learners in a confined space (a classroom) and create suitable conditions for them to feel safe and be able to concentrate on tasks. As such, effective classroom management is a building block in establishing and maintaining conditions in the classroom which can promote effective teaching and learning. According to Prinsloo (2017b), all teachers are required to fulfil the following management tasks in the classroom: 

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Planning: Planning is at the heart of classroom management. This management task includes the setting of aims and objectives, as well as the making of decisions about learning, teaching methods, assessment strategies, forms and instruments, assignments and problem solving within the broader guidelines of school and departmental policies. Organising: This management task involves the arrangement of learners into structures (e.g., the seating arrangements in the class that could allow for small groups or rows with a leader) to ensure optimal learner involvement and cooperation. Tasks and responsibilities may be delegated to individual learners, for example to act as a group leader, to be responsible for handing out scripts or to deliver documents to the administrative office. Control: This task entails the regulation of expendable and durable items in the classroom. In addition, learner assessment and selfreflection by the teacher are other forms of control. Prinsloo (2017b) applies the explanation by Marzano and Marzano stating that control means that unacceptable behaviour will have distinct consequences yet also that acceptable behaviour will be rewarded.

Being a manager does not necessarily suggest that one is a leader (Gronn & Hamilton, 2004). The implication is that, even though one might

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only expect leadership from those in formal role incumbents, this task may potentially also be attributed to and exercised by any member of an organisation, or in the context of this book – the school.

THE TEACHER AS LEADER York-Barr and Duke (2004) contend that the importance of teacher leadership in educational improvement is increasingly being acknowledged. This implies that expanded teacher leadership roles can contribute to the improvement of schools. To this end, Leithwood, Harris and Hopkins (2008) explain that leadership “… acts as a catalyst without which other good things are quite unlikely to happen” (p. 28). As such, leadership is generally associated with the exercising of influence rather than coercion, aimed at specific goals or outcomes (Gronn & Hamilton, 2004; Spillane et al., 2004; Bush, 2008; Strain, 2009; Christie, 2010). It follows that leadership entails a process (Evers & Katyal, 2007) which is signified by a clear link to the achievement of change (Bush, 2008; Grant, 2009) and is therefore, typically associated with a specific vision and values (Strain, 2009; Christie, 2010). In general, leadership projects images of strength, authority, competence, action and power (Zepke, 2007). To this end, Heystek (2007) states that leadership implies relationships where communication, motivation and emotional intelligence are important. Leadership can be practices both inside and outside formal organisations (Christie, 2010). In applying existing theory on leadership in the school context, the idea of leadership being a moral activity that should strive to be creative and transformative when engaging with members of the school community, is foregrounded (Christie, 2010). Drawing on the work of Hargreaves, Grant (2009) conceptualises education leadership as, “… creating safe spaces in which creativity can flourish and where efforts are co-ordinated and new directions set by learning, information gathering and dialogue, rather than through administrative regulation and hierarchical control” (p. 49).

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However, leadership cannot necessarily be labelled as something good or admirable as it can also be bad or even evil, corrupt, ruthless and damaging (Christie, 2010). Accordingly, leaders can be portrayed as either “heroes” or “villains” (Hammersley-Fletcher & Strain 2011, p. 872). Therefore, an essential facet of effective school leadership behaviour will entail the way in which leaders act as role models for other members of the team and the way in which the vision of the school is represented (Devos & Bouckenooghe, 2009). In this regard, Leithwood et al. (2008) posit that leadership will have a significant effect on the quality of school organisation and learning that occurs. Leithwood et al. (2008) summarise the main findings of international empirical studies in the field, focusing on the following claims of successful leadership:   

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School leadership is the second biggest influential factor on pupil learning, following classroom teaching in first place Almost all successful leaders draw on the same repertoire of basic leadership practices The ways in which school leaders apply basic leadership practices demonstrate responsiveness to, rather than dictation by, the contexts in which they work School leaders can indirectly and powerfully support effective teaching and learning due to their potential influence on staff motivation, commitment and working conditions School leadership will have a greater influence on learners when it is widely distributed amongst teachers Some patterns of distribution are more effective than others A limited number of personal traits can explain a high proportion of the variations experienced in leadership effectiveness.

In general, leadership is acknowledged as an attributed status due to the belief that an individual will not necessarily be a leader because of formal role incumbency and the possession of a title, “… but by virtue of

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a process of cognitive attribution on the part of one’s colleagues” where it is perceived that a person’s action conforms to “… a prototype or set of implicit assumptions of leadership” (Gronn & Hamilton 2004, p. 4). In summary, Simkins (2005) outlines two basic approaches to the conceptualisation of leadership which he calls the “traditional” approach and “emerging” (or more complex) approach to conceptualising leadership (p. 11). The key dimensions of these two approaches are summarised in Table 7.1 below. Table 7.1. Traditional versus emerging leadership approaches Traditional Leadership Approach Leadership resides in individuals Leadership is hierarchically based and linked to office Leadership occurs when leaders do things to followers Leadership is different from and more important than management Leaders differ from one another Leaders can make a crucial difference to organisational performance Effective leadership is generalisable Source: Simkins (2005).

Emerging Leadership Approach Leadership is a property of social systems Leadership can occur anywhere Leadership involves a complex process of mutual influence The leadership/management distinction is unhelpful Anyone can be a leader Leadership is one of many factors that may influence organisational performance The context of leadership is crucial

AUTHORITY AND POWER IN THE SCHOOL CONTEXT The concepts of authority and power feature prominently in existing theories on leadership and the relationship between leadership and management (Prinsloo, 2017a). In this regard, Prinsloo (2017a) differentiates between authority and power in the following manner: Authority has to do with the right of the manager to enforce certain actions within specific guidelines (policy) and the right to take action

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André du Plessis against those who will not cooperate to achieve certain goals. From this it can be inferred that authority is related to leadership. In the school situation, for example, the school principal (as the executive officer of the school) is given authority by the head of education to enforce his or her authority within the school. …many people have authority (that is conferred), but do not possess power (which has to be acquired) to assert the authority effectively. It can be concluded accordingly, that power is the basis for leadership. Every educator (teacher – own insertion) has, in terms of his or her appointment, as an educator at a specific school, the authority to enforce certain actions in the classroom to achieve the set objectives with the learners (p. 113).

According to Prinsloo (2017a), power is thus something that should be acquired. As such, learners, parents and colleagues will give power to a teacher leader in order for the teacher leader to exercise authority. Prinsloo (2017a) explains this as follows: In other words, power (the ability to influence the behaviour of others) has nothing to do with the hierarchical position an education leader holds and is not acquired along with a title or job description in an organisation (such as a school) – the leader has to earn it (p. 113).

This means that, by virtue of being appointed as teachers, these professionals hold a formal position and have the authority to act accordingly. The said authority entails the act of teaching as well as all related activities such as assessments, setting rules and procedures in class, taking appropriate disciplinary action when required, providing positive reinforcement and rewards to learners when deserved, to mention but a few. However, the way in which this authority is exercised influences the power a teacher eventually holds. For example, good planning, well prepared lessons, consistent application of rules and procedures, fairness and punctuality can enhance the level of influence a teacher may have over the learners and fellow teachers. In the same manner, the opposite unfortunately also holds true.

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GENERATING DATA ON STUDENT TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHER LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT The data analysed for this chapter was extracted from the Participatory Reflection and Action (PRA)-matrices compiled by the small groups of students when discussing their teacher identity development in terms of the four key areas of development, of which professional identity development was one. During the initial series of PRA-workshops, the research team assumed that the participants would realise that their development as a professional implies their role as leader and manager, however some groups did not initially make this connection. As a result, with follow-up PRA-workshops and cohorts, the research team explicitly stated the link and requested the groups to reflect on, amongst other roles, their role as leader and manager in the school-community context. Data was inductively analysed, coding both manifest content and latent content. In differentiating between these two, manifest content refers to the obvious, surface content of the data, whilst latent content entails to the meaning underlying to what is said (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006). Based on the analysis completed, five central themes were identified, which represent the thoughts, perceptions, feelings and experiences as expressed by the participants. These themes relate to the characteristics of a teacher leader, the teacher as planner, the teacher as leader, the teacher as classroom manager, and the teacher as researcher. These themes are discussed in the next section.

RESULTS ON STUDENT TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS ON TEACHER LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT As already stated, the results related to this aspect of teacher identity, in terms of the five themes identified, are presented in this section.

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Characteristics of a Good Teacher Leader The various small groups of participants and cohorts shared similar views in terms of the required traits of a teacher leader. These characteristics were grouped as follows: 

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A good teacher leader is a subject expert: According to the participants, teachers are not only expected to master the curriculum content, but should also be able to relate content knowledge to the real world. For example, they said that, “teachers must understand the content itself before presenting it”, and that “learners realise immediately when teachers lack subject knowledge”. An ideal teacher leader implements an inclusive education policy: In addition to applying different teaching styles and methods in support of learner diversity, the participants view good teacher leaders as ones who collaborate with colleagues and other professionals, for example social workers and educational psychologists, in support of learner performance. They mention that, “not enough provision is made for inclusivity in the classroom”, and emphasise that “socio-economic status and cultural diversity need to be considered”. The ideal teacher leader is trustworthy: Participants relate this aspect of an effective teacher leader to being ethical and reliable. According to the participants, a good teacher leader will be valuedriven, display a high level of moral leadership, and place high priority on being objective and fair. In this regard, the participants for example describe good teacher leaders as being “reliable” and “objective”, and as people who “must create a climate of trust, respect and be approachable”. The ideal teacher leader is compassionate: The participating student teachers regard an ideal teacher leader as a teacher who displays “empathy” and “sympathy”. To them, an ideal teacher is someone who is “caring and supportive”, being one who

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“considers the variety of backgrounds of each child in order to approach them in a correct manner”. The ideal teacher leader is resourceful: Participants seemingly value creativity, adaptability and the ability to improvise as important traits of effective teacher leaders. Accordingly, they emphasise the importance of a teacher leader being open to new ideas, as captured in excerpts such as “lessons must be adapted to learners’ needs”, “teachers should find different ways to present lessons”, and “teachers must be able to think on their feet”. The ideal teacher leader accepts responsibility: The participants highlight two important characteristics of a good teacher leader in this regard, namely to, “accept responsibility”, and to remain “committed to being a good teacher”. The ideal teacher leader is optimistic and self-confident: Participants relate optimism and self-confidence to being an expert of the content one needs to teach as well as the teaching strategies and methods that are required to effectively convey content knowledge. This perception is captured in contributions such as the following: “A teacher should be able to take control of the classroom in the sense that the learners know the different tones of voices that show different commands”, and “Teachers should live a life that displays confidence”. The ideal teacher leader is realistic: This characteristic is linked to ideal teacher leaders being regarded as teachers who know their own strengths and weaknesses. The participants mention that, “one must always be open to new ideas”, and shared their view that, “teachers should continuously reflect on your own teaching practice”. In further support, they recommend that “teachers should set realistic goals”. The ideal teacher leader is resilient: The participants share the view that teacher leaders should be able to function in adverse and less than ideal circumstances, in order to overcome any unforeseen setbacks and disappointments. As an example, the small groups of participants state that teachers “should not be afraid of what the

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learners think of them”, and that, “you won’t be the best if you are concerned [about] what every child thinks of you”. The ideal teacher leader promotes mutual respect: This result is related to treating learners and colleagues with dignity, and was viewed by the participants as an important element of promoting sound classroom discipline. In this regard, the student teacher participants commented that good teacher leaders “are able to create a safe learning environment”; “are welcoming towards their learners”; and will “build a warm and pleasant environment”.

The Teacher as Planner The importance of proper time management featured prominently in the data. More specifically, the majority of the participating groups emphasise the importance of an effective teacher leader following a proactive, rather than a reactive approach. They namely indicate that teacher leaders need to be well-prepared at all times and relate this to a variety of activities, including their teaching activities as part of the formal school day, administrative duties and extra-mural activities after school hours. The following contributions capture this view of the participating student teachers:    

“Instructions should be well thought out” “Poor planning will confuse learners” “Time should be well-planned and well-managed” “Be prepared for the unforeseen”.

In terms of their teaching responsibilities, the participants indicate that teachers need to plan and manage teaching time well in order to ensure optimal teaching and learning. This implies the need for teachers to possess well-developed organisational skills. This view of the participating student teachers is captured in recommendations such as “teachers need to be

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organised”, and “classes should be well manged at all times and clear instructions should be given”. According to the participating student teachers, teachers’ professional duties furthermore, need to be balanced with their personal lives, once again emphasising the importance of careful planning and prioritisation. In general, the participants related the importance of thorough planning to the multitask-nature of teaching and the importance of being able to prioritise. For the participants, thorough planning, described by them as, “prepare, foresee, prevent” can be regarded as a pre-requisite for managing effective learner discipline in class.

Role of the Teacher as Leader Teachers are recognised as role models by the majority of the participants. They specifically indicate that an important element of leadership relates to teachers themselves being disciplined. According to the participants, effective teacher leadership will in turn promote good learner discipline. The participants for example, refer to the need for teachers to, “display responsibility and accountability”, stating that teachers “need to be punctual and emotionally intelligent” and must “display good morals”. One group of participants explained that, “teachers who are not disciplined will create learners who are not disciplined”. In addition to teachers leading by example (the proverbial ‘walk the talk’), the participants indicate that teachers may also be expected to “walk the extra mile”. In support of this view, the participants state the following:   

“We must help learners develop to their full potential” “Do research about individual learners” “Teachers must be a helping hand when learners are experiencing difficult times”.

Closely related, the participants share the view that teachers are regarded as mentors, with the mentorship role being measured against

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teachers’ relationships with learners rather than with colleagues. The participants specifically emphasise the importance of teachers focusing on positive critique and reinforcement. In this manner, according to the participants, teachers will be able to support learners when they are doing something right as opposed to focusing on the things they do wrong. The following excerpts support this view: “Teacher equals leader equals role model equals mentor”, and “show interest in your learners and motivate and inspire them”. On a broader level, the participants indicate that teacher leaders communicate well with both their colleagues and the learners, which will in the end strengthen relationships between the various parties. Such teachers will not only possess good listening skills but will also be approachable. In this regard, the participants state that, “good leaders lead from within the group”, and that a “good leader takes others into consideration by supporting them”. It is however, significant to notice that only two of the participating groups linked effective communication and relationship building to teachers’ interaction with parents. In terms of their relationships and interactions with colleagues, the participating student teachers share the view that teacher leaders will promote teamwork. This will allow teachers to work together when planning teaching activities, thus to share ideas, best practices and teaching experiences with their peers. The value and importance that the participants attached to communities of practice are captured in contributions such as, “teachers should reflect together, face challenges together and develop together”, and that “ideas and experiences should be shared”. Concerning a teacher’s relationships with the learners, the participants link the adaptability aspect of teacher leadership to the importance of supporting the development of multiple intelligences amongst learners. The participants highlight the value of a teacher knowing the circumstances and background of all learners in class, thereby implying that a teacher leader needs to be both emotionally and contextually intelligent.

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Finally, in terms of the teacher’s role as leader, the participants note that leadership should be demonstrated at all times by the teacher – inside and outside the classroom. As such, teachers are expected to fulfil a leadership role as teacher in class yet also during extra-mural activities, excursions and school tours. In support of them fulfilling a leadership role on various levels, the participants recommend that teachers should become involved in sporting, cultural and academic associations and societies. For example, they made the following comments: “Teachers need to enrich themselves as individuals”, and “be a leader outside the classroom”.

The Teacher as Classroom Manager The importance of the managerial function of teachers is highlighted by all the participating groups. According to the student teachers, it is important for teachers to have a sound classroom management plan that will allow for the establishment of effective management structures and procedures within the classroom situation, in order to create a safe and learner-centred environment. In support of their view, the participants made the following remarks:   

“Management should be consistent so that learners could follow guidelines clearly” “Control – learners should know who is in charge, have the final say as much as learners are allowed to give input” “Classroom management has to be changed to suit the class”.

Furthermore, the participants emphasise the importance of all roleplayers understanding classroom structures and procedures. This implies the necessity of clear and unambiguous instructions to learners, also in terms of the allocation of roles and responsibilities to the learners in each class. For the participants, control implies a mechanism to manage what learners do, both in terms of their school work and behaviour. Their contributions foreground the importance of individual teachers

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incorporating the school’s code of conduct as well as other relevant regulations and legislation into their management practices. For example, the participants state that, “poor classroom management could confuse learners” and that it “limits teaching time”. In terms of the management of learner discipline, the participants regard a teacher who is a worthy role model as a key feature. According to the participants, teachers need to, “practice what they preach”, not only in the school environment, but also in their personal lives. They emphasise the idea of teachers being, “an example because learners need good role models”. In this regard, participants share the view that accountability can only be upheld amongst peers and their learners when teachers personally implement the disciplinary measures they set for others. When disciplining learners, the participants emphasise the importance of setting well-defined clear boundaries on the one hand, yet considering the human dignity of learners on the other. As such, student teachers seemingly realise the importance of clearly informing learners about what is expected of them, yet treating them with respect at all times and considering differences in personalities and learning preferences. In this regard, the participants specifically mention the importance of teachers accommodating “multiple intelligences” within the classroom. In terms of their views on classroom rules, the participants highlight that these need to be clear, fair and justifiable, with consistent application in order to create a positive teaching and learning environment, as poor classroom management may confuse learners and contribute to poor discipline. One group of participants articulated these views in the following way: “Good discipline is fantastic if good management is displayed”. Another group emphasised the importance of respect for learner diversity when managing classroom discipline, stating that, “behaviour of learners have (sic) to be managed in terms of their personalities”.

The Teacher as Researcher The teacher leaders being researchers featured prominently in the responses of the participants, who generally acknowledge the importance

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of teachers having knowledge of more than just the curriculum. Key elements highlighted by the participants include critical thinking and the importance of reflection for the purpose of self-development. In this regard, the participants indicate that “teachers need to reflect in order to improve”, and that “reflection is necessary to establish if the learning outcomes have been achieved”. The participants furthermore acknowledge that, as novice teachers, they still need to learn from experience and that they should thus be open to critique, also from the learners. According to the participants, they would be able to strengthen their teaching leadership skills through experience, by being lifelong learners and by taking responsibility for their own development. In this regard, they made contributions such as the following:   

“Research will enhance ideas and build on prior knowledge” “A good teacher is a lifelong learner” “Teachers should understand the importance of research”.

Closely related, the participants seemingly view good teacher leaders as teachers who are open to change and stay abreast with the latest developments in their subject areas yet also in general trends in education. As a result, a good teacher leader will develop a broad and general knowledge base, which can in turn enable the teacher to challenge learners with new knowledge. The participants, for example state the following: “Teachers should know more than just the curriculum”, and “Teachers need to stay current and relevant”. Finally, the participants indicate the perception of good teacher leaders utilising multiple sources after determining whether these sources are current and valid. In this regard the participants highlight the importance of analytical skills and the ability to use technology, especially pertaining to the development of and the participation in research networks by the teacher. For example, the participants state that, “teachers must use multiple and reliable sources”.

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DISCUSSION The participating student teachers demonstrate understanding of suitable qualities associated with effective teacher leaders. More specifically, the participants mention the various emerging teacher leader and manager identities, primarily framing these against a teacher’s teaching responsibilities in the classroom situation and effective teaching practices, yet also referring to responsibilities outside the classroom as well as to the roles of the teacher as leader and manager. As part of the discussion on suitable characteristics of a teacher leader, the participants emphasise the importance of a teacher leader supporting all learners to flourish, by implementing an inclusive education policy. This result can be related to the obligations of teachers to act in loco parentis and their duty to be caring professionals (Oosthuizen & Van der Walt, 1998). When discussing the teacher as leader, the participants of the FIRE project refer to the importance of a teacher displaying emotional intelligence yet also contextual intelligence. Such an attribute can be linked to the teacher being adaptable and flexible – also in terms of leadership styles. In this regard, Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership theory (Kruger, 2003) foregrounds the basic premise that different situations often require teachers to exhibit different leadership behaviours or employ different leadership styles (Prinsloo, 2017a). The prominence given to the importance of planning when entering the career of teaching indicates the participants’ understanding that they can to a certain extent, influence their own circumstances as future teachers. Good planning is viewed as an essential element of good classroom management, which in turn is regarded as a key facet of promoting classroom discipline. In addition to realising this, it is further noticeable that some of the participants indicate the importance of their own planning being integrated with the planning of their colleagues. Similarly, the participants display good insight in terms of possible strategies teachers can employ in order to manage classroom discipline, and that these should be integrated with their schools’ codes of conduct.

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These findings confirm that the participating student teachers realise that teachers never work in isolation, but form part of a bigger team. The recognition that the participants in the FIRE project give to the value of research and lifelong learning points to an appreciation of the fact that teachers are not complete and well-rounded when entering the profession as novice teachers, and should therefore, seek opportunities for further development and growth in the profession on an ongoing basis. In addition to the development of effective teaching skills, continuous development of leadership and management competencies is therefore essential in the life of any teacher.

CONCLUSION The strong emphasis that the participants place on the management of learner discipline as a key role of the teacher indicates the possibility of this skill implying some challenges to them as emerging teachers. When requested to identify challenges they could focus on as part of their own development (discussed in Chapter 9 by Blom), various groups of participants identified an area related to disciplining learners. Although some indications could be identified of the participants having some knowledge of what is required to manage learner discipline effectively, this is an area which most likely requires a stronger emphasis during teacher training. Despite teacher training programmes including modules on classroom management, these modules can possibly be revised to include more theory and especially practical examples of disciplining learners. The possibility of extending training in this area (e.g., in the form of a year module instead of a semester module) can also be considered by institutions that offer teacher training programmes. Furthermore, the findings of the FIRE project indicate that the student teacher participants perceive themselves as having to perform management and leadership functions among their peers. However, only a very limited number of student teachers seemingly realised their role as prospective teacher leaders in fulfilling a management and leadership role in their

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relationships with parents and the broader community. Against the backdrop of the National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa (RSA, 2007) which describes a competent teacher to, among others, be a professional who plays a community, citizenship and pastoral role, this aspect should thus receive more attention in teacher training programmes. Closely related, several small groups identified the challenge of effectively communicating with parents with the necessary authority when prompted to identify areas they would like to strengthen in their own teacher identity development (refer to Chapter 9 by Blom). Although the findings of the FIRE project can be interpreted in a rosy way, in terms of the leadership and management development of student teachers, a word of caution should be noted, for a few reasons. Firstly, being student teachers, the participants’ frame of reference and experience in the field is limited to the teaching practice period they had engaged in. Their leadership and management identities were still emerging at the time of the study and had yet to be developed. Secondly, existing literature suggests that student teachers often find it challenging to transition from university to the world-of-work as others such as principals, parents and school governing bodies, may expect novice teachers to teach with the same knowledge and skills as seasoned teachers with years of experience (Fantilli & McDougall, 2009). Such a negative experience of not being able to immediately fulfil the role of ideal teacher may account for the high drop-out rate among novice teachers (Meristo & Eisenschmidt, 2014). As there is no substitute for experience, it is important that school leaders and managers support the professional development of student- and novice teachers once they enter the school environment. This need emphasises the importance of schools offering effective induction and mentoring programmes. In addition, schools and more experienced fellow teachers should create and offer a safe and supportive environment in which novice teachers can develop and subsequently thrive as effective leaders and managers within the teaching context.

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REFERENCES Bush, T. (2008). From management to leadership: Semantic or meaningful change? Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 36(2), 271–288. Christie, P. (2010). Landscapes of leadership in South African schools: Mapping the changes. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 38(6), 694–711. Devos, G., & Bouckenooghe, D. (2009). An exploratory study on principals’ conceptions about their role as school leaders. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 8(2), 173–196. Evers, C., & Katyal, K. (2007). Paradoxes of leadership: contingencies and critical learning. South African Journal of Education, 27(3), 377–390. Fantilli, R. D., & McDougall, D.E. (2009). A study of novice teachers: Challenges and supports in the first years. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(6), 814–825. Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N.E. (2006). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. McGraw-Hill Companies. Grant, C. (2008). ‘We did not put our pieces together’: Exploring a professional development initiative through a distributed leadership lens. Journal of Education, 44(1), 85–107. Grant, C. (2009). Towards a conceptual understanding of education leadership: Place, space and practices. Education as Change, 13(1), 45–57. Grant, C., Gardner, K., Kajee, F., Moodley, R., & Somaroo, S. (2010). Teacher leadership: A survey analysis of Kwa-Zulu-Natal teachers’ perceptions. South African Journal of Education, 30(3), 401–419. Gronn, P., & Hamilton, A. (2004). ‘A Bit More Life in the Leadership’: Co-principalship as distributed leadership practice. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 3(1), 3–35. Hammersley-Fletcher, L., & Strain, M. (2011). Power, agency and middle leadership in English primary schools. British Education Research Journal, 37(5), 871–884.

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Hartley, D. (2010). The management of education and the social theory of the firm: from distributed leadership to collaborative community. Journal of Educational Administration and History, 42(4), 354–361. Heystek, J. (2007). Reflecting on principals as managers or moulded leaders in a managerialistic school system. South African Journal of Education, 27(3), 491–505. Kruger, A. G. (2003). Cultivating a culture of learning and teaching. In I. van Deventer & A. G. Kruger (Eds.), An educator’s guide to school management skills (pp. 245–254). Van Schaik. Leithwood, K., Harris, A., & Hopkins, D. (2008). Seven strong claims about successful leadership. School Leadership and Management: Formerly School Organisation, 28(1), 27–42. Meristo, M., & Eisenschmidt, E. (2014). Novice teachers’ perceptions of school climate and self-efficacy. International Journal of Educational Research, 67, 1–10. Muijs, D., & Harris, A. (2003). Teacher leadership – Improvement through empowerment. An overview of the literature. Educational Management, Administration & Leadership, 31(4), 437–448. Muijs, D., & Harris, A. (2006). Teacher led school improvement: Teacher leadership in the UK. Teaching and Teacher Education, 22(8), 961– 972. Naicker, S. R., & Mestry, R. (2011). Distributed leadership in public schools: Experience and perceptions of teachers in the Soweto region. Perspectives in Education, 29(4), 99–108. National Education Evaluation and Development Unit (NEEDU). (2013). National Report 2012. The State of Literacy Teaching and Learning in the Foundation Phase. https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/ gcis_document/201409/national-report-2012-state-literacy-teachingand-learning-foundation-phasea.pdf. Oosthuizen, I. J., & Van der Walt, J. L. (1998). A legal and philosophical perspective on the in loco parentis position of teachers. Koers Bulletin for Christian Scholarship, 63(1&2), 89–99. Prinsloo, S. (2017a). Educator leadership. In R. Joubert (Ed.), Creating Safe and Effective Classrooms (pp. 111-142). Van Schaik.

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Prinsloo, S. (2017b). Educator leadership and classroom management. In R. Joubert (Ed.), Creating Safe and Effective Classrooms (pp. 143173). Van Schaik. Republic of South Africa (RSA). (2016a). Personnel Administrative Measures. Government Gazette No. 39684. Pretoria Government Printer. Republic of South Africa (RSA). (2016b). Policy on the South African Standard for Principals. Government Gazette No. 39827, 1-25. Pretoria Government Printer. Simkins, T. (2005). Leadership in Education: ‘What Works’ or ‘What Makes Sense’? Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 33(1), 9–26. Spillane, J. P,. Halverson, R., & Diamond, J.B. (2004). Towards a theory of leadership practice: A distributed perspective. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 36(1), 3–34. Strain, M. (2009). Some ethical and cultural implications of the leadership ‘turn’ in education: On the distinction between performance and performativity. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 37(1), 67–84. Zepke, N. (2007). Leadership. power and activity systems in a higher education context: will distributive leadership serve in an accountability driven world? International Journal of Leadership in Education, 10(3), 301–314. York-Barr, J., & Duke, K. (2004). What do we know about teacher leadership? Findings from two decades of scholarship. Review of Educational Research, 74(3), 255–316.

In: Teacher Identity Development … ISBN: 978-1-68507-487-6 Editor: Ronél Ferreira © 2021 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 8

THE JOY AND FRUSTRATION OF USING INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN DEVELOPING AS A TEACHER Ronel Callaghan* Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT This chapter focuses on the values and challenges associated with the integration of technology in teaching and learning, as experienced by student teachers whilst developing their own professional identity. As a background to the discussion in this chapter, the use and availability of technology as well as the acceptance and integration of technology is unpacked. Next, the results from the FIRE project are presented in relation to this topic, followed by a data analysis and interpretation against the background of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) using the Leximancer software. In presentation of the findings, core aspects which link to the components of the TAM and may be included in teacher training programmes are foregrounded. These aspects relate to the environment; underlying ideas (digital divide, ethics, and safety); topics (resources,

*

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

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teaching strategies); preparation (training, support); planning for technology integration; and actual teaching (preparing learners for living in the 21st century).

KEY CONCEPTS 

 

Technology acceptance model (TAM): The TAM was developed by Davis (1989) and captures the factors which may impact on a user’s acceptance of new information technology systems. Educational technology: Educational technology entails devices and software which can be utilised to enhance learning. Technology integration: Technology integration refers to the process of incorporation of educational technology in teaching and learning.

INTRODUCTION Developments in technology implies numerous possibilities, yet also a number of challenges for people in the teaching profession. One of the more recent challenges relates to the inability of teachers investigating the various possibilities of educational technology to look beyond the obvious towards the innovative. The challenge, for example, may lie in an inability to see how technology can address ever-increasing difficulties in the current century, or in teachers’ misunderstanding of their responsibility to unpack various possibilities with the learners, or in the failure to bridge the divides created by the very nature of technology. Student teachers find themselves in the midst of developments in various areas, including that of technology. Experiences of such development can range from experts living in the world of, and making the most of, technology to those being inexperienced and struggling with the possible impact of technology on their teaching practice. Despite the inclusion of technology in teacher training programmes and efforts to

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strengthen the associated skills of students, many student teachers still seem uncertain about the role of technology development in their own teacher identity development as well as the application of technology when teaching (Abucayon et al., 2016; Korucu-Kis & Ozmen, 2019).

AVAILABILITY AND USE OF TECHNOLOGY According to the findings of the Afrobarometer survey conducted in 34 African countries (Krönke, 2020), only 31% of the citizens residing in these African countries have access to both a smartphone and the internet. In South Africa, this number is 51%, whilst mobile phone and electricity coverage in the country is 75%. This creates a digital divide in access to technology and digital literacy in schools in South Africa. This digital divide includes different types of gaps in access to information and communications technology such as mental access (anxiety or no interest), material access (access to devices and software), skills access (inability to use), and usage access (no opportunities to use) (Krönke, 2020). However, due to changes in policy and various initiatives launched by the national government as well as the private sector, technology is becoming more prevalent in South African schools. In many schools, teachers now have laptops or computers as well as data projectors in their classrooms, and in some cases, access to the internet. In selected schools, devices (such as mobile devices) and Wi-Fi access are available to both teachers and learners. Intervention projects of varying levels of success include, for example, the Information and Communication Technology for Rural Education project (Herselman & Botha, 2014) which introduced the use of mobile devices in the rural Eastern Cape; the Western Cape Education Department’s e-Learning Game Changer project (WCED, n.d.) which provides relevant technology and continuous training to teachers; and the Gauteng Paperless classroom project (Minty & Moll, 2020) which focuses on the provision of interactive white boards, Wi-Fi and other technologies in schools in the Gauteng province. While some teachers in these schools

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are well-prepared to use the technology, which is available and provided to them, others may be willing to experiment and develop their practice towards integrating technology into their teaching, with some feeling unprepared and sometimes even unwilling to change their teaching practices in order to include technology (Abucayon et al., 2016). As all student teachers will fall into one of these categories, they need to not only be adaptable to this spectrum, but also be willing to be change agents and be an inspiration to others. More specifically, teachers who are positive about the acceptance and use of technology in the teaching environment can encourage their colleagues who do not attach the same value to the use of technology in the classroom. This possibility highlights the importance of student teachers being prepared in terms of the use of technology and remaining open to innovation and new ideas and strategies. It follows that teacher training programmes need to allow for, and encourage the development of skills and a willingness towards the use of technology in teaching, especially in the current era (Van Laar et al., 2017). A review of literature on teacher-educators’ preparedness to address this need for student teachers, emphasises that such a focus should go beyond the mere competence to use technology in terms of relevant pedagogical applications and towards a comprehensive understanding of how technology can support innovative teaching practice (Uerz et al., 2018).

Technology Acceptance The TAM was developed (Davis, 1989) to summarise the factors which may impact on a user’s acceptance of new information technology systems. Over the years, the model has been adapted several times, yet is still widely used in studies across different fields, including education (Teo, 2010). The original TAM (Davis, 1989) is depicted in Figure 8.1 below. According to Davis (1989), the two most important factors which will impact on the actual use of technology are a user’s perception of the usefulness (will the technology improve practice?) and the ease of use (will

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the use of the technology be effortless?) of a system or technology. Ease of use will directly impact on usefulness as well as a user’s attitude towards the system or technology. Likewise, usefulness will also impact on a user’s attitude.

Source: Davis (1989) Figure 8.1. Technology acceptance model.

However, if a user values the benefit of a system or technology because of external factors (such as social pressure and job security), this will impact on the intention to use the technology even in the case of a negative attitude towards its use. As the participants in the FIRE project were student teachers in the process of defining their own identity as teachers at the time of the study, it is interesting to explore their views on the factors stipulated in the TAM that could potentially impact on their actual use of technology in teaching (Teo, 2009, 2015).

Technology Integration When teachers start to incorporate technology into their classroom practice, the level of integration typically evolves as the teacher discovers application possibilities, and becomes familiar with the use of technology (Teo, 2015). This trend is illustrated in the technology integration development diagram presented in Figure 8.2 below. As indicated, the diagram illustrates a student teacher’s development in technology integration and application, from the early career towards being an experienced teacher.

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Figure 8.2. Technology integration development.

Against the background of Figure 8.2, the process of more regularly integrating technology into teaching can be supported by encouraging student teachers to develop their own technology integration teaching practice, as part of their training programme. The process of moving towards regular integration of technology in the classroom should ideally include the development of the underlying beliefs mentioned in the TAM (Davis, 1989), as captured in Figure 8.1. As such, in addition to encouraging student teachers to strengthen their own technology integration practice, development of the perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness of technology in education should be encouraged. In addition, an attitude of willingness to experiment in a safe environment during their studies should be instilled among student teachers (Abucayon et al., 2016). The current focus on the 4th Industrial Revolution (4IR) further emphasises the importance of skills development such as peer collaboration; understanding cultural norms; using digital tools to create new types of interaction; and focusing on human-centric skills such as cooperation, empathy, social awareness and global citizenship (W.E.F., 2020).

GENERATING DATA ON PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ EXPERIENCES OF THE USE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN THE CLASSROOM At the start of the three-year period which the FIRE project was undertaken, the use of technology was not included as a prompt for the Participatory Reflection and Action (PRA)-discussions which the student

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teachers participated in. However, due to the flexible nature of PRA and guided by the participants, the need to include a section on the use of technology was identified after the first year of the project, resulting in the PRA-prompts and matrices being adapted to include a discussion on this topic. The need specifically stemmed from the contributions of students when asked to identify some benefits and challenges they experienced during teaching practice, amongst other things with the use of computers, media and models in teaching. In response, many of the small groups of participants indicated the use of technology as a challenge they had experienced. In addition, participants often referred to information technology when discussing teacher identity in terms of the various implied roles, as well as during discussions on their development of a teacher identity. Therefore, the data analysed to report on in this chapter includes the following two data sets. Set 1: General comments 



Data generated during small group discussions focusing on the teacher as caring expert, teaching and learning expert, professional, and subject specialist. Data taken from student teachers’ discussions on becoming an effective teacher, the parties playing a role in their teacher development, and the contribution of each.

In terms of the first set of data, 266 comments were made by the participants regarding technology. Set 2: Value and challenges associated with the use of information technology 

Data obtained during the PRA-activity on teaching strategies, including aspects such as curriculum and subject knowledge, support material for teaching and learning, assessment and

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From this data set, 300 responses focusing on the value of information technology were analysed as well as 299 responses relating to the associated challenges. After cleaning up the data sets by mainly translating everything into English, the data was analysed with Leximancer software (Smith, 2018), a licenced text mining software which creates a dictionary and thesaurus, from which concepts and themes are identified (Indulska et al., 2017). The concepts in Leximancer are based on groups of related words which are often found together in the text. These are listed in ranked order according to the number of occurrences in the text. Themes are formed in groups of closely related concepts and then similarly presented in relevance order, with the most relevant theme at 100% and other themes as they are related to this theme. Theme names typically represent the most central or most connected concepts in the groups of concepts. Based on the analysis, the theme size was set to 35%, which resulted in nine to 11 themes per topic. By using the Leximancer software it was possible to keep track of all text sections linked to each concept as well as between concepts, and the visualised results could be reviewed in the form of heat maps. These maps assisted in understanding the relations between different concepts and themes. More specifically, themes are represented in colours as well as distance on heat maps, with warmer colours representing more prevalent or connected themes in a text, and themes close to each other being more connected to each other and closer to each other within the text. Following the data analysis, the results were interpreted in terms of the different concepts captured in the TAM (Davis, 1989), in order to give meaning to the student teachers’ views on technology acceptance.

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RESULTS ON PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ EXPERIENCES OF THE USE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN THEIR TEACHER IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT The results obtained relate to and are discussed in terms of the core aspects associated with the use of technology in teaching (dataset 1), general views of the participants on the use of technology in teaching practice (dataset 1), perceived value of technology for teaching (dataset 2), and challenges typically experienced when wanting to implement technology in teaching (dataset 2).

Core Aspects Associated with the Use of Technology in Teaching The participating student teachers identified six core aspects which they associate with the use of technology in teaching; namely environment, underlying ideas, resources, teaching and learning strategies, planning for teaching with technology, and actual teaching. Supportive evidence for the sub-themes is provided in Table 8.1 below. Table 8.1. Core aspects associated with the use of technology in teaching Sub-theme Environment

Supportive Evidence “Environment” “Learners’ access to technology” “Learners’ ability to use technology” “Teachers’ ability to use technology as a tool” “Availability of technology in schools” “Implementation practices in schools” “Solving technical issues” “Expensive”

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Sub-theme Underlying concepts

Resources

Teaching and learning strategies

Planning for teaching with technology

Actual teaching

Supportive Evidence “Computer literacy” “Broadens way of thinking” “Independent learning” “Supports socialisation” “Link real life to learning” “Safety in use of technology” “Inequality created by technology/lack” “Knowledge about media and technology” “Research latest technology” “Resources bring content to life” “Visual stimulation” “Obtain information easily” “Facilities/books available” “Variety of media” “Find reliable resources” “Engage learners” “Provision for all learners’ needs” “Different ways to approach content” “New teaching techniques” “Interactive and fun” “Links to variety of intelligences” “Managing learners use and behaviour” “Manage information overload” “How to expand lessons” “Different ways to teach a topic” “Simplifies complex topics” “Teachers learn how to incorporate technology” “Learn how to plan” “Eventually save time through good planning” “Prepare through research on content and teaching” “Support (experienced teachers)” “Learners can go back to material” “Challenges learners’ way of thinking” “Learners relate to teachers through technology” “Use on a daily basis” “Communication to parents”

General Views on the Use of Technology in Teaching Practice The general views of the student teachers on the use of technology in the classroom, as experienced during the teaching practice component of

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their training, are reflected in the concept map included as Figure 8.3 below. The figure illustrates that ‘Technology’ is the main theme which was identified in this set of data consisting of 266 reflections by the participants. In the text, ‘Technology’ was closely related to ‘Teacher’, ‘Teaching’ and ‘Date’.

Figure 8.3. Concept map on general reflections on technology.

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In addition to the four themes that were the most prominent, the following five themes were identified by the software; namely ‘Resources’, ‘Schools’, ‘Classroom’, ‘Group’ and ‘Ideas’. A summary of the nine themes is provided in Table 8.2 below. Table 8.2. Themes of participants’ general reflections on technology in teaching Focus of Reflection

Connectivity

Technology

100%

Teacher

39%

Teaching

30%

Date

11%

Resources

09%

Schools

09%

Classroom

07%

Group

07%

Ideas

03%

The responses of the participants are unpacked in more detail in Table 8.3, which captures the nine themes and the concepts linked to each theme. In addition, some examples of the student teacher’s responses are provided in support of the identified themes. In terms of these results, it is interesting to note the positive approach of the student teacher participants in their comments surrounding the integration of technology in teaching. The participants furthermore, highlight the importance of using technology for their own development, even though these responses did not stem from direct prompts regarding the advantages of technology for teaching, but formed part of the initial discussions on teacher identity and the various roles this entails.

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Table 8.3. Links and supportive evidence for the themes related to general views on technology in teaching Theme Technology

Related Concepts Technology Use Learners Lessons Able

Teacher

Teacher Learning Different Ways

Teaching

Teaching Research Work Content

(Up to) Date

Date

Resources

Resources Technological

Schools

Schools Future

Classroom Group

Classroom Group Support

Ideas

Ideas

Supportive Data “Media and technology” “Do not be afraid and know how to use technology in your class” “Use technology to engage learners” “UP: Assist in basic knowledge in technology and build on to expand our lesson” “Technology won’t be able to explain it in depth so that each learner understands, because each learner is unique. Technology doesn’t make provision for each learner’s needs” “Being the best possible teacher, I can be, through extensive research and incorporating latest technology to stay with the different learning strategies” “Asked more experienced teachers and used internet to ask for more different ways of approaching content” “Meeting with other teachers to gain new ideas in classroom management, ways to teach and new technology” “New teaching techniques” “Research to improve teaching and facilitation (survey)” “When letting learners work with technology, do not assume that all learners have access to technology at home and know how to operate that specific device. Research the different ways that work best when teaching a specific topic” “How to teach specific content” “Stay up to date with technology developments” “As a subject specialist. I have to do constant research about the subject that I teach to be up to date with technology and include technology in my lessons” “… and other websites that give resources and promote education” “The availability or lack thereof of technological resources provided” “Schools have tablets and some have books” “Technology is the future and needs to be implemented more effectively in school” “Use of technologies in the classroom” “The group makes it easy and quick to exchange and share facts” “A group to support each other and to communicate with the parents” “Shared ideas on use of technology”

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Value of Using Technology in Teaching A total of 300 comments were made by the participating student teachers which relate to the value of technology for teaching. The main concepts identified by the Leximancer software are summarised in Figure 8.4 below, in a ranked value concept list. The most prevalent concept identified is ‘Learners’, which was mentioned 103 times in the text, followed by ‘Use’ (mentioned 28 times), ‘Learning’ (mentioned 28 times) and ‘Technology’ (mentioned 26 times).

Figure 8.4. Concepts related to the perceived value of technology.

In Table 8.4 below, the 11 most prevalent value themes which were identified are captured. ‘Learners’ was identified as the most relevant theme, related to the themes ‘Use’, ‘World’ and ‘Teaching’.

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Table 8.4. Themes on the perceived value of technology Theme Learners Use World Teaching Learning Attention Visual Information Work Easier Time

Connectivity 100% 36% 26% 13% 08% 06% 05% 04% 04% 03% 03%

In taking a closer look at the data, it became clear that the student teachers who participated in the FIRE project regard the ‘Advantages of technology for learners’ as the most valuable aspect of technology in teaching. Concepts that relate to this are Technology (captured in contributions such as “Learners’ way of thinking is broadened”, and “Challenges learners because technology improves every day”), Computer (“Makes the learners computer literate”), Learn (“Learners learn interactively – learners learn without realising it”), Classroom (“Learners relate more to you as a teacher when you bring technology into the classroom”), and Better (“Make the lesson more real, the learners have a better understanding”). The next theme that was prominent relates to the ‘Daily and diverse usage possibilities of technology’. The concepts closest related to this theme include Media (captured in contributions such as “Makes use of a variety of media – links to a variety of intelligences”), Relate (“It captures learners’ attention as they use gadgets most of the time to socialise and entertain themselves, they can relate well to it”), and Able (“Being able to use a projector or similar tools to give actual visuals of information being taught”).

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Lastly, the theme ‘World’ refers to the value of technology in a ‘Connected world’, also outside the classroom. Finally, the theme ‘Teaching’ focuses on how technology can support the teacher in terms of interactive, interesting ‘Teaching strategies and resources’. The full concept map for the value concepts is depicted in Figure 8.5 below. When interpreting the figure, it is important to note the ‘Learners’ theme’s close proximity to other themes such as ‘Use’ and ‘World’.

Figure 8.5. Concept map on perceived value of using technology in teaching.

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Challenges Associated with the Use of Technology in Teaching Following the analysis of the 299 comments regarding the challenges associated with the use of technology in teaching, the results on the most prevalent concepts are summarised and ranked. As indicated in Figure 8.6 below, the most prevalent concepts identified are ‘Learners’ (mentioned by 63 small groups of participants), ‘Everyone’ (mentioned 57 times), and ‘Technology’ (mentioned 49 times).

Figure 8.6. Concepts related to the perceived challenges associated with the use of technology in teaching.

In Table 8.5 below, the ten themes that were identified are presented, also indicating their connectivity. The most prevalent theme is ‘Everyone’, followed by ‘Learners’, ‘Schools’, ‘Media’, ‘Learning’, and ‘Resources’.

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Table 8.5. Themes related to the challenges associated with technology in teaching Theme Everyone Learners Schools Media Learning Resources Time Limited Expensive Information

Connectivity 100% 90% 30% 22% 21% 20% 10% 05% 04% 02%

As indicated, the most prevalent theme identified is ‘Everyone’, linked to the concepts ‘Technology’, ‘Teachers’, and ‘Work’. This theme for example, captures the perceptions of the participants that not everyone is knowledgeable regarding technology, however, teachers can attend workshops to acquire knowledge on the use of technology, and that teachers are able to cope with setting up technology and finding suitable resources to use. The second most prominent theme concerns limited ‘access for all Learners’, with this theme being linked to the concepts ‘Computers’ and ‘Internet’, as well as ‘Lack of control’ and ‘Discipline’. Examples which support this theme include contributions such as “Learners feel left out and inferior”, “Learners can sometimes misbehave due to incorrect discipline – the variety a computer gives” and “Learners may misuse the internet”. Next, ‘Schools’ (linked to the concept ‘Access’) is identified as the third theme, with “minimal access and knowledge” being emphasised. The fourth theme identified relates to ‘Media’, which is linked to the concepts ‘Knowledge’ and ‘Technological stock’. This theme represents data which relates to insufficient knowledge on how to use media, and the lack of appropriate media. In the fifth theme ‘Learning’ (linked to the concepts

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‘Distracted’, ‘Instead’, and ‘Access to tablets’), the participating student teachers mention some distractions that technology may cause as well as the challenge of technology or technological services being interrupted or not available. Where the sixth theme ‘Resources’ (linked to the concepts ‘Lack’, and ‘Certain areas’) was mentioned, participants primarily refer to the lack of sufficient resources. The full concept map for the challenges of using technology in teaching, as reported by the participants, is depicted in Figure 8.7 below. The concepts linked to the various themes are indicated in the vicinity of the relevant themes.

Figure 8.7. Concept map on the challenges associated with the use of technology in teaching.

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DISCUSSION The contributions of the participants, which were linked to the identified concepts and themes presented in the previous section, were subsequently evaluated in an attempt to relate these to the components of the TAM (Davis, 1989). In addition, the core aspects of the participants’ views on the use of technology in teaching were interpreted against the background of existing literature. In terms of the components of the TAM (Davis, 1989), the FIRE project confirms that student teachers’ views align well with the TAM components, as proposed by Davis (1989). Many comments illustrate the participants’ understanding of the challenging educational environment they would enter. Their awareness of this environment is confirmed by other studies, which similarly refer to challenging aspects such as the digital divide, ethical and safety issues, the 4IR and requirement for well-developed 21st century skills (Van Laar et al., 2017). In Table 8.6, some examples of participant responses are presented, in support of their views on and ability to relate to the various components of the TAM. In addition, the broad core aspects identified earlier and also some refined aspects, are reflected in Table 8.6, capturing the participants’ views on both the value and the challenges (indicated with [c]) they associated with the use of technology in teaching. When interpreting the student teacher’s responses (refer to Table 8.6) against the components of the TAM (Davis, 1989), most of the participants’ references to challenges focused on ‘External variables’, more specifically on environmental factors and the digital divide (Krönke, 2020). This divide implies challenges, yet also creates opportunities when planning to implement technology in teaching, as experienced by the participants. The divide is not only evident in the case of teachers and learners, but also applies to the broader community, and can manifest in a fear for technology, an inability to use technology, lack of access to technology, and economical factors (Krönke, 2020). In support of the work of Davis (1989) and Krönke (2020), the participants in the FIRE project identified all these as challenges that student teachers may experience when wanting to implement technology in teaching.

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Table 8.6. Participant responses in relation to the TAM components TAM Component External variables

Perceived ease of use

Perceived usefulness

Attitude towards use

Participant Responses “Inequality” (c) “Expensive” (c) “Rural schools’ access” (c) “Shortage of technology from DBE” [national Department of Basic Education] (c) “Availability/lack of resources” (c) “Shortage of teachers” (c) “Technical issues” (c) “Load-shedding/electricity” (c) “Not all learners have access to technology at home” (c) “Learners without technology or knowledge feels left out and insecure” (c) “Obtain info easily” “Materials, books are on hand” “Save time through technology” “Learner information overload” “Promote computer literacy” “Used on daily basis” “Not be afraid to use technology” “Teacher challenges with new technologies” (c) “Not all teachers can attend workshops” (c) “Support from experienced teachers” “Support from peer-teachers” “Not everyone knows how to use technology” (c) “Variety of media” “Using more visuals, visual stimulation” “Can revisit resources” “Some sources are not reliable” (c) “Lack of resources –media, models” (c) “Hands on – can use models” “Bring content to life” “Variety of intelligences” “Support all learners needs” “Simplifies complex topics” “Support various teaching strategies” “Promote better understanding” “Pornography” (c) “Social media” (c) “Being the best possible teacher, I can be, through extensive research and incorporating latest technology to stay with the different learning strategies”

Core Aspects Environmental aspects Digital divide

Prepare for use Support/Training

Resources Teaching and learning strategies

Teacher identity

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TAM Component Intention to use

Actual usage

Source: Davis (1989).

Participant Responses “Technology must be implemented in the classroom” “Extensive research on how to incorporate latest technology” “Stay up to date and include the latest technology” “Use technology most of the time” “Apply knowledge to the technological world” “Teach hands-on” “Implement different teaching strategies” “Learn interactively”, “Engage learners” “Capture the attention as it relates to learners’ own use of technology” (socialise / entertain) “Educational and fun at the same time” “Difficult to manage teaching process” (c) “Difficulty to manage learning process” (c) “Difficult to manage discipline, safety” (c) “Time consuming to prepare” (c) “Learners misbehave (ill-discipline)” (c) “Misuse internet” (c) “Play games instead of learning” (c) “Bullying” (c) “Easily distracted learners not learning” (c) “Keeps attention” “It challenges learners” “Learn without realising it” “Relate learner to the teacher” “Way of thinking broadened” “Expand knowledge outside classroom” “Technological era that we live in – using it prepares learners for life after school” “Living world connected to study world” “Prepare for life” “Contribute to life” “Brings a different realm”

Core Aspects Technology integration Plan for teaching and learning Manage learning Ethics and safety

Actual teaching Impact on learners Prepare for real world

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The next TAM component, ‘Ease of Use’ expands on training, support and the impact on preparing to use technology. Similarly, the findings of the FIRE project indicate that student teachers are of the opinion that when experiencing difficulty in the use of technology, the solution lies in training and support. In this regard, many of the participants in the FIRE project value the support they receive from mentor-teachers and fellow student teachers. In the case of peer support, this mainly occurs through the WhatsApp social media platform. The participants’ views on ‘Perceived usefulness’ are primarily positive and foreground resources and possibilities in terms of possible teaching strategies due to technology. In the case of this TAM component, many of the comments on challenges were countered by contributions focusing on the value of the use of technology in teaching (variety and availability of resources vs non-availability and non-reliability). In terms of the ‘Attitude towards use’ component, the following contribution summarises the participants’ views: “Being the best possible teacher I can be, through extensive research and incorporating the latest technology to stay with the different learning strategies”. As such, this component can seemingly be linked to a developing teacher identity with regard to educational technology integration. The ‘Intention to use’ component of the TAM can either be supported directly by ‘Perceived usefulness’ (using the technology solely because it is useful and not necessarily as a result of a positive attitude towards use) or through a positive attitude towards the technology. Participants in the FIRE project identified the following four core aspects that apply: planning for teaching and learning; technology integration; managing learning; and ethics and safety. Their contributions were primarily positive, with the participants acknowledging the value of integrating technology in teaching and learning activities. Planning for teaching with technology is well supported by the backward design process, which commences with the identification of the desired outcome of a lesson or learning session (and specifically the level at which the outcome should be met), after which the focus moves to the way in which the outcome is assessed.

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Based on these specifications, teaching and learning can be planned and shaped to ensure success in achieving the pre-determined goals. Such a planning process will in turn support constructive alignment on higher cognitive levels (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005), and was also identified as important by the participants in the FIRE project when wanting to implement technology in teaching. In terms of challenging aspects identified by the participants, they referred to difficulty in the managing (and preparing for) learning, and learner-discipline. Only positive comments were identified in relation to the ‘Actual usage’ component, focusing on the value of technology in the actual act of teaching and learning, the impact on learners, and the value of teaching with technology in preparing learners for the world-of-work, the 4IR (W.E.F., 2020), and living in the 21st century. Finally, the refined core aspects identified by the student teacher participants, for each component of the TAM, include Environment; Digital divide; Prepare; Support; Resources; Teaching strategies; Planning for technology integration; Managing learning; Ethics and safety; Teaching strategies; Actual teaching; and Impact on learners. If these aspects are incorporated in student teachers’ training programmes, the development of their educational technology integration identity can be supported.

Implications for teacher training programmes Higher education institutions which offer teacher training programmes have the responsibility to support student teachers in their identity development. In this day and age, this inevitably includes the meaningful integration of technology in teaching and learning activities. If student teachers are guided in this field, they may be able to address their frustrations and strengthen the joys associated with the use of information technology whilst developing as a teacher as well as when entering the world of teaching.

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To this end, the findings of the FIRE project, in terms of student teachers’ views on and experiences of the use of technology as well as the aspects they associate with technology, may add valuable insight which can in turn inform teacher training programmes. More specifically, an awareness of the environment and digital divide, ethical and safety issues, and suitable skills when teaching in the 21st century in the context of the 4IR, may form the basis of teacher training modules in preparation of students for the teaching practice component. These aspects can be strengthened and enriched by covering topics related to the sourcing of relevant open education resources, and the implementation of suitable teaching strategies when planning to integrate technology. In Figure 8.8, a model is proposed which includes the core aspects required to facilitate the integration of technology, based on the findings of the FIRE project. Figure 8.8 captures the idea that all teaching interventions are based on a specific environment which can either support or hinder technology integration. It is important for any pre- and in-service teacher to understand this environment and to become a change agent who overcomes the challenges in the environment where teaching occurs. This aspect links to the ‘external factors’ that may impact on technology integration in teaching, as indicated in the TAM.

Figure 8.8. Core aspects for technology integration development.

In addition to overcoming challenges in the environment, underlying ideas (digital divide, ethics, safety, 21st century skills, and preparation for the 4IR) and education topics (resources and teaching strategies) can support student teachers’ experience in the ‘ease of use’, as well as their understanding of the ‘usefulness’ of technology, which can in turn impact

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on their ‘attitude towards the use’ of technology in teaching. By preparing student teachers in terms of the planning required for teaching (well aligned outcomes, assessment and teaching strategies) and how to integrate technology in their teaching practice, their ‘intention to use’ can be strengthened. This can eventually culminate in the ‘actual use’ of educational technology by pre- and in-service teachers when teaching learners in preparation of 21st century living. In Figure 8.9, the TAM (Figure 8.1), technology integration development illustration (Figure 8.2) and core aspects for technology integration (Figure 8.8) are combined. This serves as an illustration as to how these models can be implemented in parallel in support of the technology integration identity development of student teachers.

Figure 8.9. Educational technology integration development for student teachers.

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CONCLUSION Before planning for teaching with technology, it is important for the teacher to understand which resources and strategies are available. To this end, pre- and in-service teachers can be introduced to the variety and availability of not only open education resources, but also to available tools which can be used to create their own resources. Teachers may further benefit when realising the value of learners themselves creating resources which may support their learning and functioning in the contemporary world (Littlejohn & Hood, 2017). As such, the availability of technology tools and resources, the focus on skills which are suitable for the 21st century, and the responsible integration of technology in teaching and learning (Englund et al., 2016), imply exciting possibilities in terms of teaching strategies which are learner-centred, interactive and can support high level activities. In conclusion, the fact that student teachers will inevitably be exposed to various aspects which will shape their eventual usage of technology in teaching, require of teacher training programmes to plan for this. By guiding and allowing students to incorporate environmental aspects, future teachers can be prepared to think about the external factors they might encounter and find innovative solutions for any such challenges. In terms of the responsibility towards ethical and safety aspects, student teachers may benefit as students as well as in their future career by being made aware of the safe and responsible use and creation of technology and related resources for teaching. Furthermore, student teachers, as well as the learners they teach, may benefit from the acquisition of skills suitable for the 21st century and 4IR. By following a new approach to teaching, the development of teachers and learners for digital citizenship and to become creative innovators can be supported. Such an approach may in turn foster positive perceptions surrounding the usefulness and ease of use of technology. This will have a direct impact on future teachers’ attitudes and their intention to use technology in teaching. In this way, planning for teaching entails the first step towards integrating all relevant aspects for meaningful teaching to

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occur, which may inspire learners. In the words of the participants, the use of technology “globalises the classroom as one is able to bring the whole world into the classroom”.

REFERENCES Abucayon, R. L., Tangkion, J. L. B., & Gapol, R. G. (2016). Levels of technology integration into the curriculum among the pre-service teachers. Paper presented at the The 9th International Conference on Educational Research, Khon Kaen University, Thailand. Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319– 340. Englund, C., Olofsson, A. D., & Price, L. (2016). Teaching with technology in higher education: Understanding conceptual change and development in practice. Higher Education Research & Development, 36(1), 73–87. https://doi:10.1080/ 07294360.2016. 1171300. Herselman, M., & Botha, A. (2014). Designing and implementing an Information Communication Technology for Rural Education Development (ICT4RED) initiative in a resource constraint environment: Nciba school district, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Pretoria CSIR. Indulska, M., Hovorka, D. S., & Recker, J. (2017). Quantitative approaches to content analysis: Identifying conceptual drift across publication outlets. European Journal of Information Systems, 21(1), 49–69. https://doi:10.1057/ejis.2011.37. Korucu-Kis, S., & Ozmen, K. S. (2019). Exherent and inherent value beliefs about technology: Missing pieces in the puzzle of technology integration? International Journal of Educational Technology, 6(11), 1–11.

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Krönke, M. (2020). Africa’s digital divide and the promise of e-learning. Afrobarometer Policy Paper, 66. Littlejohn, A., & Hood, N. (2017). How educators build knowledge and expand their practice: The case of open education resources. British Journal of Educational Technology, 48(2), 499-510. https://doi:10.1111/bjet.12438. Minty, R., & Moll, I. (2020). Gauteng Paperless Classrooms: Fantasy, Fiction, or Reality? Mousaion: South African Journal of Information Studies, 38(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.25159/2663-659X/7323. Smith, A. (2018). Leximancer. www.leximancer.com. Teo, T. (2009). Modelling technology acceptance in education: A study of pre-service teachers. Computers & Education, 52(2), 302–312. https://doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.08.006. Teo, T. (2010). The development, validation, and analysis of measurement invariance of the technology acceptance measure for preservice teachers (TAMPST). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 70(6), 990–1006. https://doi:10.1177/001316441037 8087. Teo, T. (2015). Comparing pre-service and in-service teachers' acceptance of technology: Assessment of measurement invariance and latent mean differences. Computers & Education, 83, 22–31. https://doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.11.015. Uerz, D., Volman, M., & Kral, M. (2018). Teacher educators' competences in fostering student teachers’ proficiency in teaching and learning with technology: An overview of relevant research literature. Teaching and Teacher Education, 70, 12–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.tate.2017.11.005. Van Laar, E., Van Deursen, A. J., Van Dijk, J. A., & De Haan, J. (2017). The relation between 21st-century skills and digital skills: A systematic literature review. Computers in Human Behavior, 72, 577– 588. https://doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.010. W. E. F. (2020). Schools of the future: Defining new models of Education for the Fourth Industrial Revolution. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/ WEF_Schools_of_the_Future_Report_2019.pdf.

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WCED. (n.d.). WCG Game Changers. https://www.westerncape.gov.za/ game-changers/game-changers/elearning. Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design (2nd ed.). Pearson Education.

In: Teacher Identity Development … ISBN: 978-1-68507-487-6 Editor: Ronél Ferreira © 2021 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 9

CHALLENGES STUDENT TEACHERS EXPERIENCE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR PROFESSIONAL TEACHER IDENTITY Nicolaas Blom* Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT This chapter focuses on the challenges that pre-service teachers may experience when entering the world-of-work during their practicum year. In the first part of the chapter, existing literature in this area of interest is discussed, and Activity Theory (Engeström, 1987, 2015) is proposed as a suitable framework when analysing such experiences. In the second part of the chapter, a report is given on the prominent challenges experienced by the student teachers who participated in the FIRE project, in terms of their teacher identity development. Furthermore, how the participating pre-service teachers aim to address the identified challenges as part of the broader Participatory Reflection and Action (PRA) project, in collaboration with their peers, during the teaching practice component of their training programme is discussed. In discussing the findings of the FIRE project, the experiences of the participating pre-service teachers with regard to their development are *

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

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KEY CONCEPTS 

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Action plans: Action plans refer to possible solutions to the challenges that the student teachers experienced, documented in terms of specific steps that can be followed in order to address the identified challenges. Activity theory: Engeström’s (2015) activity theory provides a framework for investigating pre-service teachers’ development of a teacher identity within their network of functioning, by considering the socio-cultural settings of the relevant training institution as well as the schools where students complete the teaching practice component of their training. Challenges: The challenges identified by the student teachers indicate the factors they had perceived as hindering factors for their professional teacher identity development. Professional teacher identity: Pre-service or in-service teachers’ perceptions of who they are as teachers, who they want to become, and which knowledge, skills and values they possess and/or would like to strengthen in their teaching career. Student teachers: Within the context of the FIRE project and this chapter, student teachers refer to students in their final year of teacher training who were involved in teaching practice during the year of data generation for the project.

INTRODUCTION Teaching practice forms a critical component of all pre-service teachers’ training programmes and their future in the teaching profession. When pre-service teachers enter a classroom for the first time, they should

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not only possess a sound understanding of the subjects they will be teaching but should also have an idea of effective teaching practices, based on their preparatory years as part of their teacher training programmes. Essentially, towards the end of their training, prospective teachers should possess a repertoire of suitable methodologies and strategies for understanding and implementing pedagogy, curriculum and assessment practices. Despite efforts to ensure that student teachers are well-prepared for real life teaching when they enter a classroom for the first time, the teaching practice component is often regarded as a challenging period for student teachers (Mukeredzi, 2014). Some of the most common challenges reported on in existing literature relate to pre-service teachers’ struggles to meet the expectations of stakeholders such as their mentor lecturers, mentor teachers, school principals, learners and parents (Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Nallaya, 2016). Furthermore, pre-service teachers are often challenged when required to apply the theoretical knowledge they had acquired during their training in the school context. More specifically in terms of classroom management, choosing appropriate pedagogical approaches for specific subject areas and age groups, and ensuring effective teaching where lesson outcomes are reached (Spooner-Lane et al., 2009; Geng et al., 2017). In terms of external challenges, student teachers have been found to face some socio-economic challenges related to teaching practice in the past, including financial constraints, lack of acceptance and even incidences of racism (Rodan, 2009; Nallaya, 2016). The challenges which student teachers experience may have various negative consequences, such as high stress levels, illness and absenteeism, experiencing culture shock and low levels of job satisfaction (Campbell et al., 2006; Ladd, 2011; Kelly et al., 2019). Some of these challenges may even account for high teacher attrition rates which may in turn potentially be linked to them being inadequately prepared for teaching practice, insufficient mentoring opportunities, emotional exhaustion or teacher burnout (Hall et al., 2005; Kiggundu & Nayimuli, 2009; De Villiers, 2017; Kelly et al., 2019). Against this background, it is important for higher education institutions which offer teacher training programmes to remain

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aware of and attend to the aspects that may negatively affect student teachers’ experiences during teaching practice. If institutions are aware of these factors, they may put plans in place which can guide and motivate pre-service teachers before and during their teaching practice experiences, thereby equipping them to be in a position to deal with the challenges they may face.

CHALLENGES OFTEN FACED BY PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS In addition to teacher training programmes focusing on the preparation of student teachers for their professional career as part of theoretical modules, the process of becoming an effective teacher also involves practical experience as part of the teaching practice component. During this stage, student teachers may experience some challenges in class, which they need to address as part of their process of development. The manner in which pre-service teachers deal with the challenges they encounter will in turn have an effect on the way in which they construct their professional identity in becoming teachers (Day & Gu, 2007; Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009). Many scholars have focused on the challenges that student teachers may face in their journey to becoming teachers. The main challenges identified by scholars in the field include difficulty in managing classroom discipline (Kiggundu & Nayimuli, 2009; Du Plessis et al., 2010; Mukeredzi, 2014); cultural challenges including language barriers (Kiggundu & Nayimuli, 2009); maintaining respect among established teachers (Marais & Meier, 2004); challenges with mentor teachers (Kiggundu & Nayimuli, 2009; Du Plessis et al., 2010; Mukeredzi, 2014) and challenges related to the availability of physical resources (Kiggundu & Nayimuli, 2009). Despite existing literature identifying common challenges experienced by student teachers, studies seldom focus on how these students may address or deal with such challenges. To this end, the

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FIRE project adds to the existing body of knowledge in including a section on student teacher strategies to address the challenges they identified.

Viewing Teaching Practice as an Activity System The work of researchers who focus on human development can be informed by activity theory (Engeström, 2015). This theory provides a framework for investigating pre-service teachers’ development of a teacher identity within the socio-cultural settings of their training institution as well as the schools where they complete the teaching practice component of their programme. According to Engeström’s (2015) activity theory, pre-service teachers will thus develop within a network of elements to reach the goal of becoming teachers, with such elements encompassing different objects, tools, rules, division of labour and communities. The elements of teaching practice as an activity system are depicted in Figure 9.1 below.

Figure 9.1. Components of teaching practice as an activity system (adapted from Engeström, 1987, 2015).

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Figure 9.1 represents the activity system of learning how to teach during teaching practice. Pre-service teachers (the subject) are taken as participants engaging in teaching practice (the activity), being motivated to attain a specific object (learn how to teach). Within this representation of an activity system, pre-service teachers typically have access to a range of resources such as textbooks, existing teaching and learning materials, and information and communications technology (ICT) as supportive resources. These resources can be regarded as socially shared cognitive and material resources that pre-service teachers may use to attain the identified object. In order to succeed, the pre-service teachers will have to adhere to rules which can regulate their participation, for example, curriculum prescriptions, codes of conduct and classroom rules. The community entails the social entities with which the pre-service teacher interacts during this process of teacher identity development, for example, mentor teachers and lecturers, established teachers at the schools where they perform teaching practice, learners, principals, and parents. Within the community, a division of labour can occur, which implies shared participation responsibilities in the activity determined by the community. Finally, the outcome refers to the consequences that a subject is likely to face because of the actions, which are determined by the object. In the case of the FIRE project and for the purpose of the discussion in this chapter, the outcome can be regarded as the developing teacher identity of pre-service teachers, which can be influenced either positively or negatively by the elements of the activity system.

GENERATING DATA ON THE CHALLENGES EXPERIENCED BY STUDENT TEACHERS AS WELL AS POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO THESE In order to investigate the challenges that the participating pre-service teachers experienced in their undertaking of teaching practice, participants engaged in a PRA project (Chambers, 2002), as described in Chapter 1 (by

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Ferreira). After discussing and documenting the participants’ perceptions of the composition of a teacher identity and how this may be formed and shaped, the small groups of participants were requested to identify the challenges they were experiencing in school, as part of the teaching practice component of their studies. Following the participating student teacher identification of the challenges they had encountered, the small groups of participants developed action plans to address some of the challenges they were experiencing. The action plans were to include a research component, for them to be able to conduct research on a small scale, in order to address the identified challenges, and then compile a research report. During the follow-up PRA-workshops, the small groups of participants reported back, shared ideas and strategies that had been implemented to address the challenges they faced, and adapted their action plans where needed. Thus, for this discussion the participants focused on how the small-scale projects and action plans had contributed to the development of their teacher identity.

RESULTS ON TYPICAL CHALLENGES EXPERIENCED BY STUDENT TEACHERS AND PROPOSED SOLUTIONS In this chapter, the main challenges identified by the participants, the action plans they compiled as well as the actions they subsequently took are discussed. Three main themes were identified in grouping the challenges that the participants reportedly experienced, namely challenges on a personal level, challenges related to the physical environment, and community-related challenges.

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Challenges on a Personal Level and Associated Proposed Solutions A number of challenges were identified by the participants which relate to limited knowledge and skills on a personal level. More specifically, the student teachers refer to limited knowledge as well as the challenges of effective time and stress management. According to the participants, good time-management is important for teachers in order to keep their work up to date and to avoid burnout. In terms of stress management, a range of potential causes of stress were mentioned – even simple acts such as writing on a chalk board. Evidence of these challenges which the student teachers experienced is provided in Table 9.1 below. Table 9.1. Challenges on a personal level Sub-theme Limited knowledge Time management

Supportive Evidence “We want insight on content knowledge and not just summaries of the textbooks and then recall slides in the exam” “We learned that time is everything. Once you do not have a good time management skill, you will have a huge problem in the teaching profession. The reason being that you will always be far behind with your work” “We should also stay watchful to avoid burnout. In order to avoid this, we need good time management skills and learn how to prioritise our responsibilities” Stress management “Most teachers do not care about student teachers’ well-being and saw most experiences as a positive event where it actually caused stress and emotional harm to students” “For the next few months of our last time at campus it has been stressful at pracs (sic). and one of the problems is writing on the board” “Mentor lecturers contribute to stress because of their high expectations”

When the participating student teachers were requested to reflect on the action plans they had implemented to address the challenges identified, they were able to provide several ideas of reducing the challenges they faced. In Table 9.2 below, some solutions to the challenges of limited

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knowledge and time and stress management are provided, as documented by the participants. Table 9.2. Possible solutions to challenges on a personal level Challenge Limited knowledge

Time management

Stress management

Proposed Solutions “…we simply felt like it was not likely for a foundation phase teacher to be a subject expert. Yet, during our research, it became much clearer what this meant for us. The teacher as a subject expert did not necessarily mean that a teacher had to know all there is to know on Mathematics, but it meant the following: 1) A teacher should know what knowledge a pupil should already have gained the previous year (know where they come from); 2) The teacher should know exactly what knowledge the learner needs to know by the end of that year (where they are going); and 3) Lastly, the teacher should be able to understand what they are teaching and how to answer learner’s questions without needing to go look it up first” “Improving time management strategies 1) Organise the day by priorities, set priorities right, for instance have a daily plan stating the duties that have to be done first; 2) Avoiding procrastination works together with the daily planning or weekly planning because it will show what must be done and when; 3) Always have a contingency plan as a teacher. If I planned something for the lesson and it doesn’t work out, I must have a plan B in hand to avoid wasting time; and 4) Be able to separate my personal time from my work time” “Time management is very important as a teacher because there are lot of school events happening, thus as a teacher we learnt that we must work on a managed schedule that will benefit both the learners and you under tight circumstances” “My religion is the reason I am where I am today as it always helped me through difficult times” “They [mentor teacher] give good advice in difficult situations and on how to improve personal practice. When observing our teacher, she inspired us to do lessons in many different ways” “We made use of another WhatsApp group to motivate one another when we had difficult days. We were an emotional crutch to each other during difficult times We all supported one another with motivational quotes and bible quotes when classroom management becomes difficult” “We do believe that it could become difficult to continuously improve your identity as a teacher as work may become an overload, but if we could connect with various teachers to create a group it could be better achieved”

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Challenges Related to the Physical School Environment and Associated Solutions Based on the scarcity of sufficient resources in many South African schools, a number of the small groups of participants foregrounded the challenge of having to teach in a resource-scarce school environment, with numerous references to insufficient technological resources. As the use of information technology is discussed separately in Chapter 8 (by Callaghan), the focus in this chapter falls on other challenges identified by the participants. Examples of the responses are included in Table 9.3, with the participants’ ideas for possible solutions represented in Table 9.4. Table 9.3. Challenges related to the physical school environment Sub-theme Lack of sufficient resources

Supportive Evidence “Availability of resources are limited. Some schools don’t even have playgrounds” “Not all schools have the resources or materials to do the experiments” “Some schools do not have resources. The school is engaged in a monthly battle for school funds, not to mention extra funds for extra resources” “They [university] only prepared us for schools that have resources” “They [government] give you little to work with and expect you to work miracles”

Table 9.4. Possible solutions to challenges related to the physical school environment Challenge Lack of sufficient resources

Proposed Solutions “We must be able to create resources/aids from waste material if it becomes necessary” “Exchange information and resources with other teachers in other schools. Use Facebook and WhatsApp groups” “Even though we shared resources, we used them in different ways, not necessarily in the same original way”

Most of the pre-service teachers’ comments were thus directed at the lack of sufficient resources against the background of them striving to ensure quality teaching and learning. When requested to reflect on their lessons learnt during teaching practice that could assist them in addressing

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this challenge, the participants provided alternative avenues to create resources and to rely on their communities of practice for advice and ideas.

Community-Related Challenges and Associated Solutions The student teachers identified several challenges related to the roleplayers in their community of practice. Table 9.5 below, includes examples of these challenges which are referring to mentor teachers, learners and fellow teachers in the schools where they undertook their teaching practice. Table 9.5. Community-related challenges Sub-theme Challenges with mentor teachers

Supportive Evidence “Most mentor teachers did not mentor the student teachers properly. Most teachers did not know how to mentor or have never had a student teacher before” “The age gap between us [mentor and student] is a big challenge. The mentor teachers do not always know what to do with the students. They make us feel in their way and not wanted (sic)” “Mentor teachers does not really understand their role. Does not really help me” Challenges “Professional relationship between teacher and learner” with “The learners are bored and misbehave” learners “Consistency with discipline and effective reward systems” “Discipline at the school is sometimes challenging, as all the students come from differing and difficult situations. There are learners that experience violence at home and bring this violence to school” Challenges “Staffroom politics” with fellow “Need to be more supportive collectively instead of only mentor teacher” teachers “Dealing with staff conflict” “Teachers took advantage of students as they believed they were there to do the work that the teachers did not want to do” Challenges “Lacks as relationship is limited by only meeting twice” with mentor “… should not expect students to provide the resources that they don’t have.” lecturers “The mentor lecturer is not supportive and professional. He (sic) is not organised and he is rude and arrogant. He (sic) does not communicate effectively. He (sic) does not care about the growth and development of student teachers. He (sic) has a negative criticism he shows no interest in the lesson which is discouraging. He (sic) is close minded on how teachers should teach.” “My mentor lecturer expects me to perform in class she (sic) forgets I am not a drama teacher”

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The contributions of the participating student teachers indicate that they experienced a range of challenges within the school-communities where they completed their teaching practice. In their opinion, mentor teachers may be uncertain of what is expected of them or how to fulfil this role; mentor lecturers may not necessarily provide suitable guidance; fellow teachers at school may add tension and could be more supportive; and managing learner relationships and discipline (more detail in Chapter 7, by Du Plessis) can be challenging for a beginner teacher. After drawing up and implementing some action plans to address these challenges, the participants identified some solutions, as captured in Table 9.6 below. Table 9.6. Possible solutions to community-related challenges Challenge With mentor teachers With learners

With fellow teachers With mentor lecturers

Proposed Solutions “Evaluate my work on a weekly basis and give feedback” “Arrange a day where you both go through the mentor-teacher guidelines” “Send lecturers to check on the mentor-teachers, if they are following guidelines” “Subject knowledge is very important to prevent learners the opportunity to become undisciplined due to poor preparation (sic)” “When preparation is done well it eliminates the possibility of problems with discipline, as well as to prevent learners to miss (sic) the mission or vision” “Learn new discipline strategies from other teachers to learn new ways (it is important to have relationships with fellow teachers)” “We have learnt from the various schools that the most effective way of discipline is: 1) Positive re-enforcement. It encourages all the learners and motivates the naughty learners to be good; and 2) Time-out: Taking the ‘problem’ child away from the situation. Placing a learner at the back of the class with a sensory bottle – helping the learner to calm down. ‘You waste my time - I waste yours’ – timing the learners while they are noisy and then keeping them in for that time” “Establish clear, structured classroom rules (must be visible for the learners)” “Constant contact with the parents as to involve them in their children’s growth and development in order to enhance their learning progress in and outside of the classroom: 1) Create decision-making processes that facilitate learners, family, and community engagement; academic achievement; and staff empowerment; and 2) Provide education and opportunities to enable families to be actively involved” “There needs to be stricter rules in place for mentor teachers and the schools to ensure student safety during the teaching practice. This includes student abuse (too much work, teachers not wanting to do work and load it on students)” “Provide more context specific and practical examples than theory” “Lecturers should be well informed of what is expected when being a mentor and what it actually entails” “In the first term, the lecturer should attend training”

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Based on the participants’ responses it seems clear that mentor teachers and lecturers may benefit from more thorough guidelines, training and discussions with both the student teachers and the training institution. In terms of challenges experienced with learner relationships and discipline, the participants emphasise the value of being well-prepared, talking to peers, being clear about rules and consistent in implementing these, and involving the learners’ parents. Finally, with regard to the challenges experienced with fellow teachers at the school where the participants completed their teaching practice, they recommend clear guidelines and a better structure in avoiding such challenges.

DISCUSSION The participants in the FIRE project identified various challenges they had experienced during their teaching practice. After taking ownership and developing action plans to address these challenges, they reflected on possible solutions to these challenges. Firstly, on a personal level, the participants experienced the challenge of limited knowledge and skills, as well as challenges in managing their time and stress. This finding is supported by existing literature, which also indicates that beginner teachers often experience challenges such as a perceived lack of pedagogical content knowledge (Marais & Meier, 2004; Alvi et al., 2015), stress and anxiety (Mapfumo et al., 2012; Vazi et al., 2013) and poor time management skills (Msila, 2011). In reflecting on possible solutions and strategies to address these challenges, the pre-service teachers who participated in the FIRE project emphasised the value of their community of practice and the people they interact with as teachers, as resources that can be relied on to address the challenges they face. In addition, the pre-service teachers referred to a range of tools such as research facilities and personal schedules, as being helpful for better time management and when wanting to strengthen their subject and pedagogical knowledge. For stress management, the participants once again emphasised the important role of their community

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of practice in assisting others to cope with negative emotional experiences. From the activity theory perspective (Engeström, 1987), the role of the community (or community of practice for the purpose of this discussion) and available physical tools can thus be foregrounded as important factors that may support pre-service teachers when facing challenges. Secondly, in terms of the challenges the participants foregrounded in relation to available resources and the physical school environment, the quotations in Table 9.3 highlight the range of challenges experienced by teachers in South African schools – from a lack of facilities on the playground to suitable equipment when presenting a lesson that includes an experiment. Existing literature similarly indicates that teachers often experience challenges of limited resources of good quality (Kiggundu & Nayimuli, 2009; Mukeredzi, 2014). This can be expected especially in South Africa, where many schools are plagued by scant budgets from government when buying resources (Kiggundu & Nayimuli, 2009). In response to these challenges, the pre-service teachers’ reflections revealed valuable possible solutions to resource-scarce schools. The participants highlighted: the use of waste materials or recyclable materials as a possibility to create learning and teaching material; the importance of regular communication with members of their community of practice to share ideas and existing resources; and the option of using existing resources in different ways for different purposes. These ideas indicate the student teachers’ inclination to rely on others in their community of practice and utilise tools that are available in their environments when addressing the challenge of limited resources in schools. Thirdly, with regard to community-related challenges, the participants in the FIRE project experienced challenges with mentor teachers, learners and other teachers at school. The student teachers experienced some of their mentor teachers as uninformed about how they should fulfil their mentoring role and even in some cases as incapable of being mentor teachers. Likewise, the participants in the FIRE project experienced some of their mentor lecturers as inept in terms of their mentorship role, not being aware of the school culture and at times even presenting themselves in an unprofessional manner. The participants furthermore, identified some

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challenges with other teachers at school as well as learners, more specifically in terms of managing discipline in class. In support of these findings, several existing empirical studies involving pre-service teachers confirm that beginner teachers often experience challenges with the role-players within their communities of practice such as their mentor teachers (refer to e.g., Marais & Meier, 2004; Kiggundu & Nayimuli, 2009; Du Plessis et al., 2010; Mena et al., 2017), mentor lecturers (Heeralal, 2014; Abongdia et al., 2015), other staff members at school (Kiggundu & Nayimuli, 2009; Du Plessis et al., 2010; Mukeredzi, 2014) and classroom discipline (Marais & Meier, 2004; Kiggundu & Nayimuli, 2009). When prompted to provide strategies which can address the identified challenges with members of their community of practice, the student teachers were able to provide some ideas for strengthening the mentorship provided by teachers and for ensuring disciplined classrooms. However, the participants struggled to provide solutions, especially with regard to the challenges they experienced with other teachers at school. For example, they recommended that all mentor teachers and lecturers should be trained and provided with guidelines for teaching practice and fulfilling a mentorship role. From the activity theory perspective (Engeström, 1987, 2015), this recommendation implies that the division of labour needs to be clarified between the different role-players in a community of practice prior to fulfilling any of these roles. Additionally, any rules that may mediate the interactions between pre-service teachers and their communities of practice can potentially be used to strengthen an understanding of the expectations of the various role-players, allowing all involved to attend to these as best as possible. Finally, in terms of the discipline-related challenges the student teachers experienced, several solutions were proposed. These solutions included a focus on developing sound subject knowledge and adequate preparation for lessons, observing other teachers in the community of practice for examples of effective disciplining practice, conducting research on effective discipline strategies, and relying on predetermined rules for the classroom to communicate the kind of behaviour expected of

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learners. In addition, the participants indicated the possibility of addressing these challenges more efficiently by involving parents and other community members to determine and implement strategies in the classroom.

CONCLUSION In this chapter the primary challenges experienced by the pre-service teachers who participated in the FIRE project during the teaching practice component of their training were discussed. In addition, possible solutions to such challenges were presented in terms of the action plans identified by small groups of participants. As a result of this activity of the project, the student teachers took ownership and were subsequently able to propose and implement possible solutions to their challenges, by relying on resources and role-players in their community of practice. This finding emphasises the importance of pre- and in-service teachers taking responsibility for their own development and looking for solutions when they face challenges, rather than relying on external support. By keeping this in mind and creating opportunities and guiding student teachers to find solutions to the challenges they face, higher education institutions may support future teachers and prepare them not to be overwhelmed when experiencing challenges in their career. In the same way, schools can create and encourage brainstorming opportunities for communities of practice to discuss mutual challenges and find possible solutions within their own repertoire of knowledge and experience. The insights gained in this chapter can thus be used to improve teacher training programmes in general and the teaching practice component in particular. As indicated, in addition to understanding the challenges that pre-service teachers may face during their teaching practice and planning for these, training programmes may be strengthened by providing increased opportunities for students to take ownership of their own teacher identity development, as part of a community of practice. One way of doing this is to utilise social media platforms such as Facebook™ and

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Twitter™, where student teachers and newly qualified teachers can regularly connect with experienced peers, who may provide them with examples of strategies which can be implemented to overcome common problems. In this way, student- and novice teachers can gain insight into the challenges they may possibly encounter in their future career, and plan accordingly while still in training or during the early stages of their career. For lecturers of student teachers, this points to the importance of problem-based learning approaches requiring of student teachers to investigate the challenges they face, and subsequently generate action plans to address these challenges, before entering the real- life classroom. Lectures could focus specifically on planning and delivering lessons in a resource-scarce context, in order to prepare student teachers for the range of physical resources (or lack thereof) they may expect when starting out in their career. In this way, student teachers can be prepared to take ownership of common classroom challenges rather than being disheartened when entering their world-of-work. Such an approach can in turn reduce the potential levels of stress and anxiety that student- and novice teachers may experience, more specifically when entering a resource-scarce school and classroom contexts. By applying the activity theory as a guiding framework, as was done in the discussion in this chapter, lecturers may further support preservice teachers in sharing their experiences and challenges before, during and after their teaching practicum with communities of practice, thereby allowing them to be better prepared for their future profession and take ownership of their own development. In the long run, such an approach may support the broader aim of reducing the current attrition rate of beginner teachers.

REFERENCES Abongdia, J. A., Adu, E. O., & Foncha, J. W. (2015). Pre-service teachers’ challenges during teaching practice in one university in the Eastern

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Cape, South Africa. International Journal of Educational Science, 11(1), 50–56. Alvi, E., Nausheen, M., Zulfiqar, A., & Moeen, F. (2015). Prospective teachers’ experiences during teaching practice. Journal of Educational Research, 18(1), 20–37. Beauchamp, C., & Thomas, L. (2009) Understanding teacher identity: an overview of issues in the literature and implications for teacher education. Cambridge Journal of Education, 39(2), 175–189. Campbell, M. A., Tangen, D. J., & Spooner-Lane, R. S. (2006). A programme for preparing ethnic minority teachers for practicum. International Journal of Practical Experiences in Professional Education, 9(2), 1–10. Chambers, R. (2002). Participatory Workshops. Routledge. Day, C., & Gu, Q. (2007). Variations in the conditions for teachers’ professional learning and development: Sustaining commitement and effectiveness over a career. Oxford Review of Education, 33(4), 423– 443. De Villiers, J. J. R. (2017). Career plans of final-year South African student teachers: Migration to “greener pastures”? Africa Education Review, 14(3–4), 212–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/18146627.2017. 1286942. Du Plessis, E. C., Marais, P., Van Schalkwyk, A., & Weeks, F. (2010). Adapt or die: The views of Unisa student teachers on teaching practice at schools. Africa Education Review, 7(2), 323–341. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/18146627.2010.515401. Engeström, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to developmental research. Finland Orienta-Konultit. Engeström, Y. (2015). Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to developmental research (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. Feiman-Nemser, S. (2001). From preparation to practice: Designing a continuum to strengthen and sustain teaching. Teachers College Record, 103(6), 1013–1055. Geng, G., Smith, P., & Black, P. (Eds.). (2017). The Challenge of Teaching: Through the Eyes of Pre-service Teachers. Springer.

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Hall, E., Altman, M., Nkomo, N., Peitzer, K., & Zuma, K. (2005). Potential attrition in education the impact of job satisfaction, morale, workload and HIV/AIDS. HSRC Press. Heeralal, P. J. H. (2014). Mentoring needs of pre-service teachers during teaching practice. A case study at a South African university. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 4(1), 511–516. https://doi.org/ 10.5901/jesr.2014.v4n1p511. Kelly, N., Cespedes, M., Clarà, M., & Danaher, P. A. (2019). Early career teachers’ intentions to leave the profession: The complex relationships among preservice education, early career support, and job satisfaction. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 44(3.6), 93–113. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2018v44n3.6. Kiggundu, E. M., & Nayimuli, S. T. (2009). Teaching practice: A make or break phase for student teachers. South African Journal of Education, 29(3), 345–358. Ladd, H. F. (2011). Teachers’ perceptions of their working conditions: How predictive of planned and actual teacher movement? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 33(2), 235–261. Mapfumo, J. S., Chitsiko, N., & Chireshe, R. (2012). Teaching practice generated stressors and coping mechanisms among student teachers in Zimbabwe. South African Journal of Education, 32(2), 155–166. Marais, P., & Meier, C. (2004). Hear our voices: Student teachers’ experiences during practical teaching. Africa Education Review, 1(2), 220–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/18146620408566281. Mena, J., Henissen, P., & Loughran, J. (2017). Developing pre-service teachers’ professional knowledge of teaching: The influence of mentoring. Teaching and Teacher Education, 66, 47–59. Msila, V. (2011). School management and the struggle for effective schools. Africa Education Review, 8(3), 434–449. https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1080/18146627.2011.618650. Mukeredzi, T. G. (2014). Re-envisioning teaching practice: Student teacher learning in a cohort model of practicum in a rural South African context. International Journal of Educational Development,

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39, 100–109. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev. 2014.08.010. Nallaya, S. (2016). Preparing international pre-service teachers for professional placement: In-school induction. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 41(4). https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2016v41n4.7. Rodan, P. (2009). The international student as student, migrant and victim: Changing perceptions in a vexed area of public policy. Australian Universities’ Review, 51(2), 27–31. Spooner-Lane, R., Tangen, D., & Campbell, M. (2009). The complexities of supporting Asian international pre-service teachers as they undertake practicum. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 37(1), 79–94. Vazi, M. L. M., Ruiter, R. A. C., Van den Borne, B., Martin, G., Dumont, K., & Reddy, P. S. (2013). The relationship between wellbeing indicators and teacher psychological stress in Eastern Cape public schools in South Africa. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 39(1). https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajip. v39i1.1042.

In: Teacher Identity Development … ISBN: 978-1-68507-487-6 Editor: Ronél Ferreira © 2021 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 10

STUDENT TEACHERS TAKING AGENCY TO STRENGTHEN THEIR TEACHER IDENTITY Ronél Ferreira* Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT In this final chapter of the book, the focus falls on the small-scale projects that the student teachers planned and implemented in support of their own professional development. In addition, the way in which the participants envisioned the way forward for their continued professional development is discussed based on their participation in the FIRE project. As explained in Chapter 1 (by Ferreira), the final activity of the first FIRE workshop required of the participating student teachers to identify two areas of growth that could strengthen their teacher identity and then plan and implement two small-scale projects to address this. During the second Participatory Reflection and Action (PRA) workshop, the participants reported on their implementation of these plans and the outcome of the projects they had undertaken. As background to presenting the results of this part of the FIRE project, the importance of teacher agency is discussed – both for future and practicing teachers. Emphasis is placed on the importance of teachers *

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

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KEY CONCEPTS 

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Action plans: As part of PRA research, participants will be required to identify possible ways of addressing the challenges they face and then stipulate strategies and ways of executing their plans. In formulating action plans, participants can indicate the what, how, who and when of the identified strategies. Community of practice: A group of people who function in similar circumstances and share similar interests, experiences, challenges and joys, resulting in a sense of belonging between the group members who can identify with one another. Reflection: A continuous cycle involving the personal assessment of past experiences in terms of successes, challenges, outcomes of actions and possible areas of improvement, with the aim of building identity and enhancing professional development. Taking agency/ownership: When a person who experiences challenges takes responsibility to find suitable solutions that will best fit the individual and unique circumstances, sustainable positive change can be facilitated. Teaching community: People who are being prepared to enter or have already entered the teaching profession, characterised by certain unique traits and characteristics typically associated with someone who pursue a career in teaching.

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INTRODUCTION This chapter builds on the discussion in the previous chapter (by Blom), where a summary was provided of the primary challenges experienced by the participating student teachers, in terms of their own teacher identity development. These challenges relate to the student teachers’ experiences of the first part of the teaching practice component of their training, when entering schools and experiencing the teaching profession first hand. People who enter the world-of-work for the first time often experience the general challenge of applying what has been learned theoretically in practice. Young professionals may furthermore experience challenges of a specific nature that relate to their field of practice, which may potentially result in feelings of uncertainty and the associated need for further development. Such an awareness of the importance of continued development is central to being successful in any selected career path. In addition to this awareness of areas of growth and the need and motivation to further develop and improve, the key to any journey of personal and/or professional development lies in the individual taking agency of the process of change. A person who experiences a problem knows the problem, situation and possibilities best and is therefore in the best position to identify possible ways of addressing this. When one takes responsibility to find solutions to the problems that are experienced, a suitable plan of action can be developed that will fit the individual as well as the circumstances and context of functioning. Without individuals taking ownership to address the challenges they are facing, optimal development and positive change cannot occur. In addition, any change that may take place will be hard to sustain if not pursued and driven by individuals themselves. As human beings, however, do not function in isolation, it is generally the case that people entering a profession for the first time will experience similar challenges and will therefore be able to identify with each other as well as with other people already in the profession, who hold more experience and expertise. In this way, professionals function in

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communities of practice and can learn from and with each other. Regular interaction and participation in solution-focused initiatives can serve as a catalyst of collaborative efforts to solve problems and attend to further professional development. PRA-based projects may serve as a suitable platform to sensitise such role-players of the value of self/group-driven initiatives when wanting to experience positive change.

CAPITALISING ON THE PRINCIPLES OF PRA TO STRENGTHEN PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY PRA interventions (such as the FIRE project) are vested in paradigms that focus on a critical exposure of reality in terms of emancipatory, transformational and liberating qualities. This implies that participants in such interventions will be encouraged to reflect on their own dispositions in society and the communities where they function (such as the teaching profession), take agency and find ways to empower themselves to fulfil the expected roles and functions in practice (Chambers, 2008; Duncan et al., 2007). Plans that are made by people on ground level tend to be more successful than those planned by outsiders, as people immersed in a situation (the teaching profession in this case) will have first-hand knowledge of the context and consider all unique circumstances when planning how to address the challenges they face or strengthen their own professional development. Both pre- and in-service teachers will only be able to take ownership of their identity development if they are aware of and understand their current levels of development and any associated needs or areas of development. Of equal importance is an understanding of and insight into the repertoire of personal strengths, assets and any available resources that may be of value to address challenges – within the self, others and the environment. When undertaking a PRA project, such awareness can be facilitated during reflective discussions and activities, thereby allowing participants to take the lead in making plans to solve the problems they experience by relying on available strengths and resources.

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Once they succeed in addressing some of the challenges they face, participants’ feelings of empowerment will become stronger – in turn giving them the necessary confidence to steer their future development on all levels, based on the realisation that they know best and can find the most suitable solutions to the problems they experience. In this way, cycles of reflection, the formulation and implementation of action plans to address limitations, experiences of success in terms of personal development, reflection on the success of initiated plans and undertaking new initiatives, can spiral upwards in support of positive change in the form of professional teacher development. As PRA entails a bottom-up approach that values community members (student teachers in the case of the FIRE project) as key and expert role-players, collaboration, mutuality and equal communication can be enhanced, whilst discouraging power and domination. Exposure to and participation in a PRA project can thus support transformation and the creation of power from the inside out, as opposed to professionals (in this case, teachers-in-becoming) merely receiving power from people who presumably already possess it. By being involved in the FIRE project, student teachers fulfilled the role of active partners in developing and strengthening the various aspects related to a professional teacher identity. In this manner, they could experience ownership and utilise suitable strategies to support their own teacher identity development, against the background of their specific contexts and fields of specialisation. This process of finding solutions to experienced challenges does not imply an isolated effort or independent action. On the contrary, it implies joint efforts by people who share similar interests and experiences, who can take hands in supporting one another in addressing mutual challenges. This idea highlights the importance of teachers functioning within a community of practice when developing a professional identity.

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COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE According to Wenger et al. (2002), communities of practice refer to “groups of people who share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in this area by interacting on an ongoing basis” (p. 4) Four integrated components are implied, namely meaning, practice, community and identity (Wenger as cited in Goodnough, 2010). In terms of the actualisation of these components within the context of the FIRE project, the participating student teachers were able to experience and give ‘meaning’ to their teaching as a result of their participation and collaboration with peers. For ‘practice,’ the small group members as well as others involved in small-scale projects shared knowledge, experiences, resources and perspectives on possible solutions to the challenges that the participants experienced. Next, the small groups functioned as small ‘communities’ when putting their plans into action, as a joint effort. Finally, the ‘identity’ of the participants could be shaped as a result of the changes that occurred in terms of their identity. This applies to who they were at the time, yet also to who they were becoming as teachers, embedded within the context of the broader teaching community that they and all other teachers, belong to. Wenger, as cited in Goodnough (2010), explains learning in relation to identity formation and communities of practice in terms of three modes of belonging, namely engagement, imagination and alignment. In the FIRE project, the underlying principles of PRA supported the actualisation of these three modes of belonging. More specifically, the PRA process firstly facilitated engagement between the members of small groups as well as within the larger group of participants, who all engaged in actions that were jointly determined and resulted in continued communication and action after the PRA workshops had occurred. A sense of belonging could thus be experienced by a group of people who share their interests and experiences, resulting in these individuals learning from and with their peers as well as more experienced teachers, in support of their professional identity development.

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Secondly, the PRA activities required of the student teachers to imagine their future as teachers, reflect on their own teaching practices, access resources that could potentially assist them in improving their teaching practices and as a result view themselves and the teaching profession in a new way. Thirdly, by aligning their own teaching practices with those of others from a similar background, the student teachers could contribute to the broader goal of strengthening quality teaching in the profession. Within the context of the FIRE project, the student teacher cohorts of the various years formed communities of practice. This allowed students to find solutions to problems and address the challenges they faced in collaboration with their peers. On a smaller scale, however, the small groups of students who worked together during the FIRE project workshops also formed small communities, which can perhaps rather be regarded as small clusters of care that functioned within the broader final year teaching students’ community of practice. Furthermore, as the participating student teachers also functioned in schools and entered into discussions with people at the schools where they undertook their teaching practice as well as with stakeholders in the broader teaching context, this formed an even larger community of practice than the one that the participants belonged to as students. It follows that the participating student teachers all formed part of both smaller clusters of care and larger communities of practice, where group members ultimately focused on quality teaching. As a result, the participants were able to rely on a variety of resources in further developing their skills and attending to their professional development.

GENERATING DATA ON STUDENT TEACHERS’ EFFORTS TO STRENGTHEN THEIR PROFESSIONAL TEACHER IDENTITY As indicated, the participating student teachers worked together in small groups to identify and implement action plans in support of their own

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teacher identity development, based on the challenges they identified in discussion with their peers at the first FIRE workshop, after completing a few weeks of teaching practice. Each small group of students had to develop action plans that could address two identified challenges, clearly stipulating the steps of the action plans, how they would implement these, who in the group would take responsibility for which step as well as when each step had to be completed. As part of the action plans for the small-scale projects, each group of students were expected to collect data that could assist them in addressing their identified questions and needs in support of their own development. Furthermore, they were expected to regularly reflect on their progress and report on the outcome of the small-scale projects they had undertaken during the follow-up PRA workshop. The criteria for the small-scale projects were that they had to be implemented by the student teachers themselves within the small groups they worked in, that the projects could involve any stakeholders in the teaching context who could potentially assist, and that the action plans they formulated had to be realistic, doable and indicative of the what, how, who and when of the projects they had planned. As already indicated, after implementation of the small-scale projects, the participants attended a second PRA workshop, during which they reflected on the small-scale projects and their outcomes. As part of the second workshop, they also reflected on the way forward for their continued professional development. As with all previous PRA-activities they had been involved in, the participants first reflected in their small groups and then presented their experiences and ideas to the larger group. This allowed all students present to gather additional ideas from other groups of students on ways to address challenges and areas of growth, by relying on the members of their various clusters of care and communities of practice. Finally, the participants reflected on the value of their participation in the FIRE project, once again focusing on the possibility of taking ownership for personal development when collaborating with peers and working on small-scale projects with shared goals.

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RESULTS ON THE INITIATIVES OF STUDENT TEACHERS TO STRENGTHEN THEIR OWN TEACHER IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT The main challenges experienced by the participating student teachers were discussed in Chapter 9 (by Blom). These include limitations in terms of acquired knowledge, skills and competencies for teaching of specialised subjects and within resource-constrained environments, teacher strategies and teaching styles, curriculum differentiation, classroom discipline and management skills as well as special needs education and learner support. In addition, participants identified the need to strengthen their communication skills, relationships with parents, parent involvement, time management, stress management and maintaining a work-life balance as prominent challenges experienced during the first few weeks of the teaching practice period, when they experienced practical classroom teaching in real life for the first time. In identifying ways of addressing these areas of growth, the student teachers proposed small-scale projects that involved various role-players and data collection methods, even though they themselves remained central in the initiatives they undertook. This section highlights the challenges that the participants most commonly aimed to address through small-scale projects, the format of data collection and role-players involved in the small-scale projects, the outcomes and value of the smallscale projects as experienced by the participants and lessons learned that could be relied on for continued professional teacher development.

Challenges Most Commonly Addressed through Small-Scale Projects Even though the student teachers developed action plans to address a range of challenges they had experienced as part of the teaching practice period, certain challenges were prioritised and attended to more often than others. Based on an analysis of the foci of the various projects undertaken

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by the participants, the most prominent challenges and aspects that were addressed are indicated in Table 10.1 below. Table 10.1. Challenges most commonly addressed by student teachers Challenge/Area of Growth Establishing a strong teacher identity

Focus of Small-scale Projects  Formulating and pursuing goals for professional development  Being an effective teacher  Gaining self-confidence as a teacher  Professional conduct and work ethics  Being role-models in society  Fulfilling a leadership role

Practical classroom teaching

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    Facilitating optimal learner participation in class

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Lesson planning and preparation Understanding and implementing the national school curriculum in various subjects Suitable teaching strategies per phase and subject area Suitable teaching aids and resources, per topic/focus area Practical implementation of specific teaching strategies and approaches e.g., discussion classes, question-and-answer method, role-play, discovery learning, blended learning, flipped classroom, e-learning Teaching in a creative way Teaching and obtaining teaching aids in resource-constrained school contexts Using experiments and excursions to make theoretical work practical Assessment practices Understanding learners’ preferred teaching methods/strategies Motivating learners to participate and maintaining their attention Encouraging collaboration through strategies such as team/group work exercises, discovery learning and learnerdriven problem solving

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Challenge/Area of Growth Providing learner support

Focus of Small-scale Projects  Understanding learners’ needs and learning styles  Supporting all learners to achieve to the best of their abilities and reach their potential  Identifying and supporting learners with special needs  Developing support material  Accommodating the diversity of learners through e.g., curriculum differentiation, enrichment of the curriculum, adaptation of learning material, adapted assessment procedures

Establishing and maintaining sound relationships

     

Being empathetic and approachable to learners and parents, yet maintaining the necessary authority as teacher Creating an inviting classroom environment Practicing effective communication skills Strengthening parent relationships and involvement Sharing information and providing support to parents Dealing with conflict and parent complaints

Discipline and classroom management skills

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Managing poor behaviour in class Promoting punctuality Dealing with absenteeism

Time management

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Effective planning Maintaining a work-life balance

Ensuring continued professional development

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Regular reflections on successes and areas for further growth Being lifelong learners Doing ongoing research on subject knowledge and teaching expertise Workshop/conference attendance Formal further studies

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Format of Data Collection and Role-Players Involved A range of approaches and action plans were listed by the student teachers when planning their small-scale projects. The strategies they most often employed to collect data on possible ways of addressing the challenges they faced are summarised in Table 10.2. The role-players involved are also listed. Even though the strategies are presented separately, many groups of participants combined the strategies, by for example arranging interviews with individuals after they had completed a questionnaire or requesting different groups of people to complete a questionnaire on a topic such as mentor teachers as well as learners.

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Ronél Ferreira Table 10.2. Strategies and role-players involved in small-scale projects

Data Collection Strategy Questionnaires, in some instances combined with informal discussions/semi-structured interviews

Role-players Involved  Mentor teachers  Experienced teachers  School principals and management teams  School governing bodies  Learners  Parents

Interviews/informal discussions (in a few cases, focus groups)

          

Mentor teachers and mentor lecturers (in a few cases) Experienced teachers School principals and management teams School governing bodies Other stakeholders Learners Parents Mentor teachers Experienced teachers Peers Self

Regular reflection/discussion groups (on successes and areas of growth e.g., lesson plans, teaching experiences, example lessons)

   

Self Peers Teachers in the profession or in a co-teaching role Learners (feedback and assessment marks)

Information groups, to share ideas, websites, research, resources, lesson plans, recordings of lessons, teaching material (in person or via social media e.g., WhatsApp groups, Facebook, Instagram) Peer support group to inspire, motivate, advise, nurture and support (in person or via social media e.g., WhatsApp groups) Workshops

   

Peers Mentor teachers Other teachers in the profession Parents (e.g., through WhatsApp or school communicator/platform)



Peers (e.g., groups, buddy system)

   

Experts on specific topics Experts on implementing the national school curriculum Motivational speakers Experienced teachers

Experimentation/interventions, followed by feedback and reflections

  

Learners Mentor teachers Self

Research

 

Self Peers

Observation and/or recording of examples, with follow-up reflective discussions

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Outcomes and Value of Small-Scale Projects The participating student teachers indicated several ways in which they benefited from the projects they undertook in support of their own professional development. In general, they gained knowledge, skills and teaching expertise in interaction with their peers and more experienced people in the teaching profession. According to the participants, “People from different schools were beneficial as we found that the information was richer and we were more able to network with each other more effectively and were able to get multiple perspectives.” Participants specifically gained subject knowledge and skills in terms of suitable teaching methods, material and resources for the different phases, subject areas and lesson topics. They explained this in the following ways:   

“We learnt best from each other” “Remember that you are not alone when it comes to effective resources and lesson ideas” “By testing and communicating with other teachers about different teaching strategies we gained new insight on which strategies work best. This allowed us to develop our own unique methods to incorporate into our own classrooms one day.”

Interaction with their peers and other stakeholders in the teaching profession resulted in a realisation of the importance of a sound subject knowledge, good lesson planning and preparation as well as the implementation of different teaching strategies and materials, according to the learners’ needs and specific subject area. More specifically, the value of using real-life examples, practical application of theory and interactive as well as exploratory learning could be experienced first-hand. In addition, to realise the value of using technology in the modern-day classroom, the participants were reportedly sensitised about the importance of thorough planning of assessments and the inclusion of a variety of assessments, to accommodate diversity.

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The participants indicated that they – as a result of the small-scale projects they undertook, learned to value reflexivity – both as an independent act and during regular interaction with peers and experienced teachers in the profession. As part of the small-scale projects they implemented, numerous participants experimented with new ideas and strategies, reflected on these and received feedback from others on the success of their attempts and how they could improve. By involving an array of both pre-service and in-service teachers in reflective discussions, a repertoire of teaching strategies and resources could be built up by future teachers. In addition to individuals building up resources, some of the student teachers started sharing and borrowing resources form one another, referring to their group having access to a “library of resources.” All these experiences contributed to the participants’ levels of self-confidence, in turn allowing them to have increasing faith in their abilities and competence as teachers as well as the identity they have established for entering the profession. By involving learners in generating ideas for lessons and suitable methods to present certain topics, the student teachers were able to strengthen learner participation and collaboration. In the same way, by trying something new and then requesting learner feedback, the participants were able to improve on their own teaching practice. In addition, the facilitation of activities involving interaction, experimentation, discovery learning and team work provided for positive outcomes in terms of learner participation. Similarly, by undertaking small-scale interventions in class with, for example learners with special needs and then requesting feedback from learners, parents, other teachers and peers, the participants were able to address the challenge they had identified in terms of the provision of effective learner support, despite any learning difficulties experienced by selected learners. As in the case of learner feedback and active learner participation, the student teachers benefited from the feedback they received from parents. In addition to seeking the advice of experienced teachers on ways of strengthening communication with and the involvement of parents, some

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participants requested feedback from the parents themselves, which allowed them to gain insight into the needs and expectations of the parents. Another prominent theme that was identified points to the participating student teachers’ experience of the value of joint efforts to strengthen their teacher identity and related skills. They benefited from regular communication with others in the field, observation of both peers and experienced teachers, joint reflections on teaching practice as well as shared resources and ideas. The majority of the small groups of student teachers indicated that they would continue with their involvement in small-scale projects and in future, rely on their community of practice to continue strengthening their own professional identity. Overall, the student teachers indicated that they had been benefiting from their participation in the FIRE project and that their collaboration with fellow student teachers and others to take ownership of their own development allowed them to, “learn more in six weeks than through the entire three years of theoretical training,” as stated by one of the participants. Finally, the participants reportedly benefited from their participation in the FIRE project and small-scale projects by becoming aware of the importance of: 







knowing oneself and one’s preferences while remaining open to learn from and attend to others’ ideas and feedback, also that of the parent. In this regard, a participant suggested the following: “Always be open-minded – suggestions, criticism (positive manner), learn from your mistakes” creating an inviting classroom and staying positive. The participants stated that, “Your attitude influences the classroom climate … avoid being negative” and encouraged others to “Be excited to make a difference” allowing oneself to make mistakes and learn from them, as captured in the following contribution: “Don’t just go through challenges, grow from them” moving out of the comfort zone and trying out new ideas if required

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

being open for change to be able to deal with unexpected challenges/distractions and adapt during real-life teaching, also in terms of lesson plans and presentations open communication channels and the value of feedback and support of peers, other teachers, parents and learners.

In summary, the participating student teachers seemingly benefited from their experiences as part of smaller clusters of care that functioned within a broader community of practice. Participants stated that, “Learning through a community of practice (student teachers, mentor teachers, etc.) was helpful and very useful.” In addition, they highlighted the importance of, “creating teaching networks to support you in your teaching career.” These networks of care (that is, the community of practice) can include peers, other teachers from various schools and additional stakeholders that may contribute to positive change. In addition to regular face-to-face meetings, social media was indicated as a prominent platform for communication between the members of such networks, for example through WhatsApp groups or Facebook messages.

Future Application of Lessons Learned A prominent lesson learned as a result of their participation in the FIRE project relates to the student teachers’ realisation that their professional teacher identity development was their responsibility. They seemingly accepted this responsibility and indicated that they would as a result, remain lifelong learners in order not to stagnate. In this regard the participants referred to the importance of continued professional development, the attendance of workshops and short learning programmes, doing research on subject content and teaching methods, furthering their studies and being trained, for example, in the use of technology in class. This result links to the emphasis the participants placed on keeping up to date and “educating yourself.” They specifically stated the intention to remain informed of new trends in education and their various subject areas

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as well as suitable ways of teaching the various topics to learners. One of the participants summarised this idea in the following manner: “Stay with the times. If we move through generations, circumstances change. In order to keep up, you need to ensure that you involve your own knowledge into things that’s happening now and happened recently.” The student teachers indicated that their efforts to further develop their professional teacher identity would be undertaken in collaboration with their peers as well as other members of the broader teacher community of practice. The participants highlighted their intent to create and maintain teacher support groups and regularly reflect on their own growth and development, bouncing ideas and sharing possibilities and successes. To this end, the participants stated that they would focus on the following:    

“Know your teacher identity and keep developing it through group reflections and through actively participating in group activities” “Create teaching networks to support you in your teaching career, so that you can ensure success” “Reflect! to improve on a continuous basis” “Keep on motivating each other and providing a support system for one another.”

Next, the participants indicated their intention to build on the initial small-scale projects that they had undertaken, by repeating them in additional schools, broadening the extent of the projects or plan and initiate additional projects across schools in order to address the challenges they experienced as young people in the teaching profession. When discussing this future initiative, the participants demonstrated agency and referred to, “More similar projects that can be improved with time and experience in an effort to address various barriers.” One of the groups of participants summarised the importance of peers and being part of a community of practice in the following way: “We are a group of young ladies who share so much in common, apart from our profession. Therefore, we will keep in contact and share our experiences wherever we are on WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram … Attending

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workshops that empower us and then share the information with each other.” Another group of participants captured their experience as follows: “This task has taught us to work in a group and made us aware of how beneficial a community of practice is. The members of this group will continue to communicate to share tips, support each other and offer each other advice.” Linking this concept to promoting this idea, the participants highlighted the importance of also involving experienced teachers, in addition to their fellow student teachers. They suggested the necessity to, “Still have a mentor even after qualifying for your profession.” Underlying to their future vision of extending projects and learning from and with peers, the participants indicated a positive attitude as central to developing a positive teacher identity. According to them, a positive approach could allow pre-service teachers to build self-confidence and enhance their skills as future teachers. Finally, the participants mentioned emotional intelligence as an important associated factor which may allow teachers to strengthen their identity as caring experts who fulfil a professional role in a professional manner based on sound subject knowledge. In terms of the participants fulfilment of a professional role, they realised that they themselves had to take the necessary action to, “Always be a role model – a lot of eyes are on you every day.”

DISCUSSION As already indicated, the participating student teachers formulated a range of action plans, with a few strategies being particularly prominent. More specifically, the participants seemingly valued networking, collaboration, the exchange of ideas and best practices with others in the teaching profession and regular reflections with their peers as important to monitor their own progress and strengthen their teaching practice (Fraser et al., 2016). This points to the student teachers’ realisation that reflexivity and implied introspection forms a corner stone of professional teacher development, yet it also highlights the value of peers when standing in the teaching profession. More specifically, if future or practicing teachers

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become aware of the facts that they form part of a larger community of teachers and can take agency for their professional development in communication with others who share similar experiences, the components of meaning, making, practice, community and identity (Wenger as cited in Goodnough, 2010) can be actualised. This emphasises the importance of teachers supporting teachers in attending to their own and others’ identity development. Despite the value of professional development within the safe space of a community of practice, many teachers in practice still tend to function in silos and primarily focus on their own day to day activities. This may ultimately result in certain teachers not experiencing meaning in the profession they decided to pursue, with the possibility of them not feeling confident enough to try new things and contribute positively to the context in which they teach. A situation may thus be created where the necessary dynamics and flexibility is missing, thereby creating a cycle where teachers merely follow set patterns without reflecting on them or making any necessary changes. By becoming involved in the FIRE project and being exposed to PRA methodology, final year student teachers who had just entered the practice of teaching were guided to reflect on their own practice and development in the presence of others who shared similar experiences. This resulted in the participants realising that they were not alone in what they were experiencing and that many others before, with and after them would share the same fears and uncertainties. By becoming part of a small group of people who made plans to address some of these fears, they formed part of a community of people who could subsequently practice what they collectively discovered or achieved. These communities of practice included small groups of students (or clusters of care), the larger group of final year student teachers at the institution where the project was implemented and the experienced teachers, mentor teachers and other stakeholders in the teaching profession that the participants chose to involve. Joint planning and action to improve themselves as teachers paved the way for these future teachers to realise the importance of learning from and

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with peers, putting newly gained knowledge and skills into practice and thereafter regularly reflecting on the outcome of their efforts as well as on additional possible steps for improvement. In this way, PRA provided a platform for student teachers to create smaller clusters within a broader network of care where they could benchmark their own practices and experiences against those of their peers. Even though the participating student teachers initially worked within small networks or clusters of care where they primarily collaborated with their peers, the participants soon extended these clusters to also include for example, mentor teachers, other experienced teachers and stakeholders in the field, and even some mentor lecturers at the institution where they were trained. By interacting with these people, the participants could benefit from a collective repertoire of experiences and resources, not only gaining ideas for teaching in practice, but also building self-confidence in terms of their own abilities to address the uncertainties they experienced as future teachers. According to Boydell (1986), future teachers can, to a great extent be shaped by, for example, mentor teachers who can serve as role models, share their knowledge and expertise, act as sounding boards and engage in joint reflection sessions, to mention but a few ways in which mentor and more experienced teachers can support student teachers who enter the world-of-work for the first time. These findings relate to the work of Franzak (2002), who foregrounds the impact of critical friends’ groups on the teacher identity development of student teachers. Franzak (2002) indicates that regular engagement with and discussion of the practice of others in the field (experts, peers and associated role-models), will positively affect the professional development and performance of student teachers in practice. At the basis of this possibility lies the opportunity that such clusters of care may create opportunities for individuals to have a voice and share their experiences in a meaningful setting. In addition to gaining valuable input from others and acquiring additional knowledge and skills, participants’ levels of performance can grow, in turn fostering commitment to the profession. Franzak (2002) refers to the specific value of collaborative practice for student teachers’ conception of their future careers, where they can openly

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share and reflect on their experiences, while being supported and guided by others. As highlighted earlier in this chapter, continuous reflection is a prerequisite for development and positive change to occur. According to Walkington (2005) as well as Leijen et al. (2014), reflection should, however, always be followed by action, which will in turn inform the lifelong development of the teacher. This cycle of reflection-action-change aligns with the implementation of a PRA approach when wanting to get student teachers involved and guide them to take ownership for their development by driving the process of positive change in collaboration with their peers. The findings of the FIRE project, in terms of the value of the small-scale projects and action plans implemented by the participants, emphasise the importance of teachers themselves taking ownership and finding solutions to the challenges they experience. By creating opportunities to learn from and with others, teachers can determine their own standing against the benchmark of peers and ensure sustainable professional development. In conclusion, the findings of the FIRE project highlight the importance of continued communication and consultation with peers and colleagues in the teaching profession, regular reflection and the establishment of functional networks as basic building blocks in going forward. Such a focus on the value of a community of practice is supported by the work of Beijaard et al. (2004), who similarly indicate that the active involvement of future and practicing teachers are central to professional development, where teachers-in-becoming engage in dialogue with others, remain aware of current approaches and available resources, share ideas and assess themselves against the expectations of society, the learners in their classes, their peers, mentors and themselves. This in turn emphasises the importance of teachers being lifelong learners who may greatly benefit from others in the field, in addition to pursuing continued professional development opportunities in the form of, for example, ongoing research, further studies or the attendance of conferences or workshops.

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CONCLUSION The findings of the FIRE project emphasise the importance of both guided and spontaneous reflection by both pre- and in-service teachers, followed by action that may support development and change. If all student teachers were to be exposed to such a participatory project as part of their training programmes, future teachers may enter the profession as lifelong reflexive practitioners, who can take ownership of their own continued professional development and the facilitation of positive change. As prospective teachers hold different teaching experiences and may embrace different ontologies, teacher identity development cannot be facilitated from a top-down approach according to a one-size-fits-all model. It should rather be conceptualised by student teachers themselves in collaboration with their peers, while being guided by their lecturers. As part of the teaching practice experience of student teachers, a process can thus be facilitated where student teachers visualise the expert teachers they would like to become and then actively pursue this goal. Such an approach may allow for student teachers gaining self-confidence and becoming teaching professionals who are able to manage a classroom, convey knowledge to learners and perform as professionals in their selected fields of teaching specialisation. In addition to the benefits of sound training in terms of content knowledge and guidance by mentor lecturers and teachers for effective classroom practice and soft skills development, student teachers who enter the profession can participate in their own professional development by taking ownership for this part of their career. Sustainable development and positive change may subsequently be fostered, not only amongst individual students but also within the context of smaller clusters of care within the broader community of practice, where teachers look amongst themselves to find solutions to the challenges they face and stimulate their own professional growth. Even though the FIRE project primarily focused on the professional development of student teachers, the small-scale projects that the participants implemented highlight the possibilities of a similar initiative

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for practicing teachers in the field. The fact that most of the small-scale projects involved mentor or experienced teachers as participants, point to the potential benefit of teachers learning from teachers, no matter what their level of experience may be. It follows that both pre- and in-service teachers should be encouraged to form part of and regularly interact with the members of their community of practice, in support of the further development of their teaching expertise. Even though continued training and workshops will contribute to professional development, teaching experience and reflections with peers on ground level can facilitate sustainable positive change within the teaching context, not only benefiting teachers but also the learners they teach as well as their parents who may in turn support optimal learning amongst their children.

FINAL REFLECTIONS The FIRE project enabled the researchers to provide future teachers with a platform where they could build on and improve their teaching practice, based on their own experiences of this part of their training as well as the feedback they received from others. By realising that others shared their experiences and as part of a series of reflections on their strengths, successes and areas of growth, student teachers could take agency and fulfil an active role in their own professional development. Findings of the FIRE project foreground the value of people on ground level driving any processes of change themselves. In line with existing theory, active involvement and taking agency can lead to sustainable change. With this as background, higher education institutions and people involved in teacher training programmes may potentially strengthen their own practices in order to better prepare student teachers for their future as practicing teacher professionals, to the benefit of the teaching and shaping of the learners they teach at school. Based on the findings obtained, exposure of student teachers to a related project earlier in their training programmes may also be of potential value, however, this idea will require further exploration before being implemented.

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REFERENCES Beijaard, D., Meijer, P. C., & Verloop, N. (2004). Reconsidering research on teachers’ professional identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(2), 107–128. Boydell, D. (1986). Issues in teaching practice supervision research: A review of the literature. Teaching and Teacher Education, 2(2), 115– 125. Chambers, R. (2008). Revolutions in Development Inquiry. Earthscan. Duncan, N., Bowman, B., Naidoo, A., Pillay, J., & Roos, V. (Eds). (2007). Analysis, context and action: An introduction to community psychology. Juta. Franzak, J. K. (2002). Developing a Teacher Identity: The Impact of Critical Friends Practice on the Student Teacher. English Education, 34(4), 258–280. Fraser, W., Ferreira, R., Kazeni, M., Eberlein, E., Beukes, L., Beckmann, J., & Mwambakana, J. (2016). Utilising participatory reflection and action (PRA) to establish a community of practice and support teacher identity development amongst final-year teacher training students. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies. Barcelona, Spain. Goodnough, K. (2010). The role of action research in transforming teacher identity: Modes of belonging and ecological perspectives. Educational Action Research, 18(2), 167–182. Leijen, Ä., Allas, R., Toom, A., Husa, J., Marcos, J. J., Meijer, P., Knezic, D., Pedaste, M., & Krull, E. (2014). Guided reflection for supporting the development of student teachers’ practical knowledge. Procedia, Social and Behavioral Sciences, 112, 314–322. Walkington, J. (2005). Becoming a teacher: Encouraging development of teacher identity through reflective practice. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 33(1), 53–64. Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice: A guide to managing knowledge. Harvard Business School Press.

ABOUT THE EDITOR Ronél Ferreira Department of Educational Psychology, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa ORCID: 0000-0003-2518-7839 Email: [email protected]

Ronél Ferreira is a full professor in the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Pretoria, South Africa. In her research, she focuses on psychosocial support, coping and resilience, with specific reference to the effect of school/community-based participatory intervention research on the holistic well-being and functioning of children and communities in at-risk contexts. She furthermore, conducts research and programme development work in promotion of the implementation of an inclusive education policy in all South African schools, more specifically in the field of visual impairment. Ronél has extensive experience as primary investigator and project leader of funded research projects, many of which involve international, interinstitutional and interdisciplinary collaborations. She has published numerous articles in national and international accredited journals, authored and edited several scholarly books and book chapters, and supervised more than 65 postgraduate students to completion of their studies. Her research

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accomplishments are signified, among others, by her being the recipient of the Samuel Henry Prince Best Dissertation Award of the International Sociological Association (2009), the University of Pretoria Young researcher award (2009), the Faculty of Education (University of Pretoria) best PhD dissertation award (2006 NRF postdoctoral fellowship) and the Education Association of South Africa (EASA) Young Researcher Award (2007). She is also the past chairperson of the Education Association of South Africa (2014 and 2019) and is currently the Executive Editor of the South African Journal of Education.

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS Amelia Abrie Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa ORCID: 0000-0002-4570-7064 Email: [email protected]

Dr. Mia Abrie is a specialist in Life Sciences education with a special interest in Botany. As senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education at the University of Pretoria, South Africa, she teaches Life Sciences education, the relationship between Science and Society and Research Methodology to pre-service and in-service teachers at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She is active in educational research and focuses on researching teaching and learning at high school level. She has published peerreviewed research articles and has co-authored chapters in teacher training textbooks.

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Nicolaas Blom Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa ORCID: 0000-0002-6919-8380 Email: [email protected] Dr. Nicolaas Blom is a lecturer in the School of Education at the University of Limerick, where he lectures in design and communication graphics and engineering education pedagogy modules. He completed his PhD at the University of Pretoria in 2019, where he was employed at the time. His research interests include learning and teaching in integrated STEM environments. He is currently working on a research project aimed at making design learning visible through formative assessment methods.

Ronel Callaghan [email protected] Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa ORCID: 0000-0002-7168-3895 Professor Ronel Callaghan is an associate professor in the Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education at the University of Pretoria, South Africa. In her research she focuses on computer integrated education, including e- and mobile learning, using computers as cognitive tools, educational technology acceptance as well as interactive teaching and learning. She manages a research unit, the Living Lab for Innovative Teaching (LLITUP) which focuses on educational technology research and also supervises and teaches on post graduate level in this focus area.

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André du Plessis Department of Education Management and Policy Studies, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa ORCID: 0000-0002-2561-5138 Email: [email protected] Dr. André du Plessis is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education at the University of Pretoria, South Africa. Prior to joining the University of Pretoria in 2016, he was a school principal for thirteen years of his teaching career which spanned over 31 years at three different schools. He holds a PhD in Education Management and in 2009 and 2010 he completed two leadership and management courses at the Zhejiang Normal University and the University of Nanchang in the People’s Republic of China. André’s area of specialisation is education law, school financial management, and education leadership and management. He has presented papers at international conferences in South Africa, Switzerland, Bulgaria and China. André has authored and co-authored several publications (peer reviewed articles, conference papers and a book chapter). He has examined Masters Dissertations and PhD theses for other universities and has peer reviewed journal articles for various South African and international journals.

Hannelie du Preez Department of Humanities Education, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa ORCID: 0000-0003-1194-427X Email: [email protected] Dr. Hannelie du Preez is appointed as a research associate within the Department of Humanities Education at the University of Pretoria, South Africa. She also holds a position as educational trainer and advisor at a

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higher education institution in The Netherlands. Her undergraduate and postgraduate degrees are located within the fields of early childhood, psychology, learning support and research. Her research interests pertain to child citizenship and creating conducive learning environments to promote teaching, learning and personal development, positioned within Vygotsky’s theoretical framework. Her international collaboration includes serving on editorial boards, featuring as a guest editor and delivering a keynote. She has published blind peer-reviewed articles, coauthored scientific book chapters and contributed to various chapters in respective teacher preparation textbooks.

Marien Graham Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa ORCID: 0000-0003-4071-9864 Email: [email protected] Professor Marien Graham is a specialist in Assessment and Quality Assurance, Nonparametric Statistics and Statistical Quality Control. She is a rated researcher with the National Research Foundation (NRF), South Africa. She is an Associate Professor at the Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, University of Pretoria, South Africa and co-author of Nonparametric Statistical Process Control, John Wiley & Sons (2019). She is on the editorial advisory board of Scientific Studies and Research, Series Mathematics and Informatics, has published in numerous accredited international peer-reviewed journals and has presented her research at several national and international conferences.

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Judy van Heerden Department of Early Childhood Education, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa ORCID: 0000-0001-9694-6420 Email: judy.vanheerden @up.ac.za Dr. Judy van Heerden is a senior lecturer and programme coordinator in the Department of Early Childhood Education, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, South Africa. She teaches early childhood development studies, natural science and technology and has supervised many Honours, Masters and PhD students. She obtained a PhD titled: “Understanding beneficiaries’ experiences of quality in early learning centres” at the University of Pretoria. Other research interests include playbased learning, outdoor play and learning, art and creativity, and learning approaches in early childhood education. Judy authored several academic articles, texts books, and chapters in scholarly books. She has presented many papers at conferences nationally and internationally. Judy is a Laureate innovation education award winner of the University of Pretoria for the development of curriculum and learning materials.

Sonja van Putten Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa ORCID: 0000-0003-0589-0295 Email: [email protected] Professor Sonja van Putten is an associate professor at the University of Pretoria. She is passionate about teaching and the role of the teacher as an agent of change in the lives of children. Her speciality in research is the professional identity of teachers, particularly in the field of mathematics. Her concern is that teachers are not necessarily grounded in both the content and the specialised methodology required to be effective teachers, resulting in gaps in learning which become more and more apparent as the learner progresses through school.

INDEX A

C

action plans, ix, xi, xvii, 2, 12, 13, 17, 19, 20, 21, 51, 52, 62, 199, 200, 204, 205, 208, 209, 214, 217, 219, 220, 221, 223, 230, 233 activity theory, 193, 194, 197, 206, 207, 209 assessment, 6, 7, 22, 35, 72, 121, 127, 134, 140, 142, 169, 188, 191, 195, 214, 222, 223, 224, 240, 242 attitudes, 27, 32, 37, 39, 69, 98, 100, 112, 115, 124, 128, 189

caring classroom, 93, 99, 100, 111 caring expert, 18, 38, 93, 99, 101, 102, 104, 105, 107, 169, 230 challenges, viii, ix, x, xii, xiii, xvi, xvii, 2, 3, 13, 14, 20, 21, 41, 51, 57, 61, 62, 63, 78, 88, 97, 103, 110, 112, 116, 125, 133, 152, 157, 159, 163, 164, 169, 170, 171, 172, 177, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187, 189, 193, 194, 195, 196, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 227, 228, 229, 233, 234 classroom management, 6, 10, 20, 81, 120, 121, 127, 142, 153, 154, 156, 157, 161, 175, 195, 201, 223 clusters of care, 219, 220, 228, 231, 232, 234 collaboration, v, 3, 15, 84, 85, 168, 193, 217, 218, 219, 222, 226, 227, 229, 230, 233, 234, 242 common content knowledge, 71, 119

B beliefs, 27, 30, 32, 33, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 43, 69, 86, 88, 99, 104, 110, 115, 116, 117, 121, 168, 190 beliefs and practice, 38, 43 bridging the gap between theory and practice, 60

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communication skills, 82, 127, 221, 223 community of collaboration, 76, 117 community(ies) of practice, xiii, xiv, xv, xvi, xvii, 1, 3, 4, 9, 11, 15, 22, 28, 30, 61, 62, 76, 82, 152, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 227, 228, 229, 231, 233, 234, 235, 236 continued professional development, 6, 213, 220, 223, 228, 233, 234 Continuous Professional Teacher Development (CPTD), xxi, 68, 76, 83 core identity, 29, 30, 39 Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS), xxi, 118 cycle of reflection-action-change, 233

D digital divide, 163, 165, 182, 187, 191 discipline, 20, 68, 70, 81, 116, 127, 150, 151, 154, 156, 157, 180, 184, 186, 196, 203, 204, 205, 207, 221, 223

197, 198, 205, 206, 208, 213, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 227, 228, 231, 233, 234, 235

H horizon content knowledge, 72

I identity and practice, 38 integration of theory and practice, 56, 60

K knowledge of content and learners, 73 knowledge of content and teaching, 73 knowledge of content and the curriculum, 72 knowledge system, 70, 72, 73, 74, 80, 88

L E educational technology, 164, 185, 186, 188, 190, 191, 240 emerging leadership approach, ix, 145

F fourth-year initiative for research in education (FIRE) project, v, vi, xv, xvi, xix, xxi, 2, 3, 4, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 20, 21, 22, 23, 27, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 45, 48, 49, 51, 59, 60, 61, 67, 69, 77, 81, 83, 85, 93, 103, 106, 108, 115, 117, 122, 123, 125, 127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 138, 156, 157, 158,163, 167, 168, 177, 182, 185, 186, 187, 193, 194,

Leximancer software, 163, 170, 176 lifelong learning, 6, 125, 132, 157

M mentor teacher, xv, 4, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 22, 46, 52, 55, 56, 64, 125, 133, 195, 196, 198, 201, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 223, 228, 231, 232 mentoring, 8, 49, 84, 85, 87, 88, 91, 99, 158, 195, 206, 211

N network of care, 232

Index P participatory reflection and action (PRA), xi, xii, xxi, 2, 4, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 36, 49, 51, 54, 55, 57, 60, 62, 77, 78, 79, 101, 123, 125, 147, 168, 169, 193, 198, 199, 213, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 231, 232, 233, 236 pastoral role, 7, 35, 93, 97, 140, 158 pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), xxi, 3, 67, 68, 70, 85, 115, 116, 119, 120, 121, 122, 126, 130, 131, 133, 134, 135, 205 personnel administrative measures, 140, 161 positive change, 13, 194, 214, 215, 216, 217, 228, 233, 234, 235 preparation of future teachers, 3 pre-service teacher training, 47, 48 principalship, 138, 139, 140, 159 problem-based learning, 21, 62, 209 professional identity, xv, xvi, 5, 8, 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 69, 78, 85, 86, 87, 89, 91, 109, 111, 117, 118, 129, 134, 135, 147, 163, 196, 216, 217, 218, 227, 236, 243 professional teacher identity (PTI)/ professional teacher identity (PTI) development, xi, xxi, 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 11, 12, 13, 18, 19, 21, 28, 29, 32, 33, 35, 38, 39, 46, 52, 55, 56 professionalism, 21, 41, 127

R reflection(s), ix, xii, xiii, xv, xxi, 2, 4, 5, 9, 10, 13, 17, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 36, 37, 38, 39, 43, 49, 51, 56, 57, 58, 61, 69, 77, 85, 86, 91, 101, 117, 118, 123, 131, 142, 147, 155, 168, 173, 174, 193, 206, 213,

247 214, 217, 223, 224, 227, 229, 230, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236

S school leadership, 139, 144, 160 self-in-practice, 32 self-that-teaches, 35 situated learning, 3 social capital, 97, 111 social construct, 32 social media platforms, 62, 208 socio-economic challenges, 195 specialised content knowledge, 72, 119 subject expertise, 116, 118, 126 subject knowledge, 52, 83, 119, 121, 124, 128, 138, 148, 169, 207, 223, 225, 230 subject matter knowledge (SMK), xxi, 49, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 119, 120, 124, 125 subject specialist, viii, xvii, 6, 7, 101, 115, 116, 118, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 130, 132, 133, 169, 175 subject-specific content knowledge, 118 sustainable professional development, 233

T teacher as leader, 147, 156 teacher as manager, 21, 138 teacher as planner, 147 teacher as researcher, 147 teacher efficacy, 115, 121, 128 teacher leader, 137, 138, 143, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 154, 155, 156, 157, 161 teacher leadership, 137, 143, 147, 151, 152, 161 teacher manager, 138 teacher training, xv, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 33, 38, 39, 46, 48, 49, 50, 60, 62, 67, 68, 84, 85, 86, 88, 95, 108, 117, 120, 129, 132,

248 157, 158, 163, 164, 166, 186, 187, 189, 194, 195, 196, 208, 235, 236, 239 teacher-hood, 35, 36 teaching and learning, xi, xvii, 4, 7, 9, 18, 21, 35, 38, 63, 67, 69, 71, 74, 76, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 88, 99, 101, 116, 123, 131, 138, 140, 141, 142, 144, 150, 154, 163, 164, 169, 171, 184, 185, 186, 189, 191, 198, 202, 239, 240 teaching and learning expert, xi, xvii, 18, 21, 38, 67, 74, 76, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 88, 101, 123, 169 teaching community, 15, 218 teaching practice, xii, xv, xvii, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 18, 22, 24, 38, 39, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 68, 69, 78, 84, 86, 88, 94, 117, 128, 130, 132, 133, 149, 156, 158, 164, 166, 168, 169, 171, 172, 187, 188, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 202, 203, 204, 205, 207, 208, 209, 210,

Index 211, 215, 219, 220, 221, 226, 227, 230, 234, 235, 236 teaching strategies, 6, 21, 68, 73, 78, 81, 82, 83, 106, 121, 124, 126, 127, 133, 149, 164, 169, 183, 184, 185, 187, 189, 222, 225, 226 technological literacy, 127 technology acceptance, xxi, 163, 166, 170, 191 technology acceptance model (TAM), ix, xxi, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168, 170, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188 technology integration, xii, 164, 167, 168, 185, 186, 187, 188, 190 theory-practice gap, 50, 57, 58, 60, 63, 64 traditional leadership approach, 145

W work integrated learning, 3, 68, 69, 88, 133