Tattwabodhini Sabha and the Bengal renaissance [1 ed.]

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AMIYA KUMAR SEN

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TATTWABODHINI PATRIKA AND THE BENGAL -RENAISSANCE

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I' was untenable, unsupported as it was by "any authority". Dr. Duff asserted that if they "did, at any time and originally, convey any clear and obvious meaning, it was obliterated in the course of ages and has remained so ever since". Dr. Duff, the Patrlka replied, had presented the public with a faithful translation of the passage concerned. Was it reasonable to think that words "so readily understood by a foreigner" should be "wholly incomprehensible to ourselves and our religious instructors" ? According to Dr. Duff, Brahman exists "without qualities or attributes", "without intellect, without intelligence, without even the consciousness of his own existence". ·After referring to passages in the "Vaidanta" which describe the attributes of Brahman the Patrika proceeded to point out in reply, "this apparent negation is not to be understood in the limited and narrow acceptation of those words, which strictly imply that we ought not to ascribe to Almighty God properties, attributes, or modes of being which are peculiar characteristics of human beings" ; •••... "our discriminating. piety forbids us to ascribe to the Eternal and Immutable:

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.Being our· own brief, transitory, unsettled and circumscribed :attributes". Dr. Duff had, without quoting or even referring to original texts of the Vedanta, asserted that Brahman is one "not merely in the sense of excluding other Gods but in the sense of excluding the possibility of the existence of any other being whatever". But the Vedanta, it was pointed out, "inculcates that no object whatever in the moral or material universe is possessed of the attributes of existence independently of the supreme Being". "The boundless universe is distinct • and separate from, though inevitably dependent on the . Eternal God". · Dr. Duff had stated that "at any sense within the reach -o'f human understanding God is 'nothing'. For the mind of man can form no notion of matter or spirit apart from its attributes". It was asserted in reply that Brahman "is, in no iespect, devoid of such attributes as may be best calculated to harmonise with the perfection of his nature and that his .existence, therefore, is not wholly unintelligible although his ·real essence, as coeval and coextensive with his immensity, ·must ever baffle th~ inquisitive mania of controversial . ·.enquirers . "Unincumbered by the cares of empires or the functions of a superintending Providence", so Dr. Duff asserted, "H~ {Brahman) effectuates no good, inflicts no evil, suffers no pain, -experiences no emotion". As for "cares of empire" or "functions of superintendence", it was pointed out that such anthro·pomorphic attributes cannot be ascribed to God. His functions are too "vast and illimitable" to be so characterised. "Effectuates no good". In answer to this allegation passages were quoted from the shastra.1 to point out that he is the eternal . source and parent of good. "How can the All-good inflict evil ? . How can "the Felicity Itself (anadarupam)", as the vedanta . calls Him, suffer pain!or experience emotion ? Is the Almighty creator, in every respect, a man ? Is there any passage in the :ihastras confirmatory of God's "eternal quiescence" ? The .INutras ·"distinctly and unequivocally proclaim the very . opposi·te. principle that Brahman is eternally· awake". Dr..Duff had boldly asserted that there was not "in the

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whole enumeration the remotest allusion to a single moral attribute of Brahman". The very identity of God, the Pattilca .replied, according to the Vedanta, "implies the co-existence of the most perfect attributes which, though but indirectly known to us, are, nevertheless, manifested through their incessant and prodigiously innumerable effects. Brahman is also represente4 as truth, the purest excellence, love and felicity. Dr. Duff had represented God as so "devoid of moral attributes that to wor• ship him is impossible". Yet the Vedanta asserts "that divine worship consists in the contemplation of the moral and natural attributes of our creator and the practice of virtue"-"an exalted and philosophical mode of worship still religiously observed by the wise, the learned and the best of ma.n kind" in India. Dr. Duff had asserted that the contemplation of Brahman "destitute of moral attributes can never excite our moral emotion of gratitute, admiration or love". But, the Patrilca replied, the natural attributes of God "as viewed through the boundless range of the material world would alone suffice t~ impress an attentive mind with the loftiest ideas of the Almighty Ruler of the Universe". And it concluded "whether the Reverend gentleman has been induced by the maxims of christian forbearance and charity, to publish the heaviest, the most groundless imputations against his fellow native subjects and against a religion profes.11ed by the wisest and best among thel'll from time immemorial, we shall not pretend to deter-. mine ; but shall leave our cause in the hands of an intelligent and discriminating public". t 0 ' Articles on the same subject successively appeared in the Calcutta Rei/few, rhe Christian Herald and che Friend of India. Tatcwabodhlnf Parrilca regretted that "A spirit of reckless misrepresentation pervades, as usual, the whole text of the three specimens before us" . It had established "on the strength i;;f excerpts from the original text of the Vaidant that the Vaidantic doctrines a.r e founded on the most obvious and irrefutable principles of natural reason". It had "proved from a literal interpretation of the same texts that the early religion of India was a pure consistent and unadulterated form of unitarianism". 10. Ibid 1766 Saka Aswin.

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Instead of refuting its arguments by reasons and "quotations with overwhelming authority from the same unimpeachable source, a fresh volley of vituperations was opened upon them". The Patrika would have remained silent if it had not been anxious that its countrymen might be led, "in their ignorance. to mistake groundless assumptions for incontrovertible truths". "All we desire is £airplay for both. Let a knowledge of the principles of Christianity and of true Hinduism be equally spread" without any attempt to bias the judgment. For mis· representation and calumnies may sometimes serve the cause of sectarian proselytism but can never bring any ,man a single step nearer the portals of divine knowledge ,and wisdom". Critics of Dr. Duff were accused of simplifying and spiritualising" the original grossness and impurity of vaidantic precepts" by assimilating without acknowledgement "the doctrines of Alexandrine Platonism or Neo-platonism' '. In reply the Patrika quoted passage after passage from the Sruties to. show that, according to vedantic doctrines, "the sole Regulator of the universe is but one, Omnipresent and Omniscient, far surpassing our powers of comprehension, beyond the external senses and whose spiritual worship is the chief duty of mankind and the sole cause of eternal beatitude". The critics of Dr. Duff had no occasion "to pass off any peculiar or extraneous views of their own for the genuine precepts of the Vedas". They had based the explanations of the Vedantic doctrines on "the principles of natural theology" founding "their illustrations on some knowledge" of natural philosophy. Therein they only followed the example of the christian writers who borrow freely from the Philosophical School of Bacon and his. followers. The Christian Herald had charged them with advocating "Rammohun Roy's one-sided view of the valdant system of Hindu Philosophy". Rammohun, so the Patrika pointed out. had.established the monotheistical system of the Veda. He however held that (i) precepts relating to rites and ceremonies. were not real commands but "directed those who were.incapable of adoring the invisible Supreme Being to apply their minds to any visible thing" so that "they might not remain in a brutified state" ; (ii) the Veda gave the divine epithet

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INTRODUOTION

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allegorically not only to celestical representations but also to the mind, diet, void, space etc. in order to establish God's omnipresence ; (iii) persons who could not raise their minds from Nat11re to Nature's God were enjoined, through the performance of these religious duties as well as by restraint over the passions ... .. to bring their minds to a state fitted for the perception of the first principle of divine science". Rammohun could not, therefore, be accused of taking a one-sided view of these doctrines. The vedant was described in articles in the Calcutta ReCliew and other journals, as a system of "materialising pantheism. as really intangible, impracticable and deficient in moral truth and power". In reply it was pointed out that anthromorphic qualities and attributes are incompatible with the perfection of the Divine nature, b11t the Vaidant declares "the very identity of God to be the substitute of the perfection of all the attributes necessary for the creation and support of the universe and for introducing revelation among men". God does not however, depend on "these attributes as separate · properties in creating and ruling the world". In support of their view they quoted from the Shastras a statement "what creature on earth could enjoy life and motion if this God who is felicity itself did not P.xist". "It is God that imparts happiness to all". The Friend of India stated that the Deity of the Vedanta is not a living being but an all-pervading principle or power like heat, light or gravity. "If we resort, for the purpose of illustration," the Patrika replied, "to a comparison drawn from the diffusive power of light or heat we do not intend thereby that God is material". "The vaidant inculcates the absolute spirituality of the creator". "With regard to the expression of 'Living Bein,g' which the Friend is pleased to apply to God, if he thereby means a Being endowed with life and organisation, we must again enter our protest against so degrading a notion. of the eternal God''. The Friend further asserted that in the vedantic concep· tion of God, there is "nothing that can amend the heart or regulate the life or cast light on the eternal future" . In r eply the Pcurika quoted passages from the V t danta Sutra and

T.&'l'TWABODHINI P.&TRIKA

Snal asserting that "a command over passions, over the external senses of the })ody and good acts are indispensable in the mind's approximation of God;" further that "A man who has intellect as a prudent driver and a steady mind as his reins passing over the paths of mortality arrives at the high glory of the omnipresent God" 11 • ' The controversy continued. The Calcutta Ree1few in an article "purporting to be a Review of some recent publications on the subject of C1aidantfsm, resumed the attack. The Tattwabodhlnl Patrika sought to "put the religious opinions cherished by us ... in a right point of view". It admitted that "we consider the Valds and Valds alone as the authorised r.ule of Hindu Theology" because the SruUs "were uttered by inspiration". It specially pointed out that "such revelation is contained in the Vaids alone•' and "'that the last parts of our holy scriptures treating of the final dispensation form what is called the vaidant". It understood "the eternity of the Valds ~ a figurative sense" as "the truths of religion are eternal. The story of their revelation show only the authority of the divine writings by metaphor", and "the truths therein taught had their foundation in the nature of things" as created by God. The Patrika admitted that as the Vafds existed from a time when "all literature was in a state of germination, it is impossible to prove their divine origin by any historical testimonies". They were, however, believed by "numerous races. of men" "during long series of ages extending backwards to. the days of antiquity''. "History", it was pointed out, '•is nothing but verbal testimony acquiesced in by people capable of appreciating the truth" and '!so far as such acquiescence: goes the C1alds have the same kind of testimony in every neces~Y degree", "If the.doctrines of theology and the pri!)ciples· of morality" taught in the Veda.I "appear to be consonant t the dictates of sound reason and wisdom"-if these tenets and precepts carry the unimpeachable character of truth in them, the man who accepts them, so it held, ·'will have no reason to fear the vituperative surmises of ungodliness", The Veclq,s 11. lbi4 : lb14 : Falgun

INU.ODOOTION

were revealed to the inspired sages of the Hindus in the early · ages of the world, "not in the midst of thunder or lightnings . f1om the top of a particular mountain", but "in the common course of nature" and in their homesteads. No scriptures can. claim historical evidence of their revelation. In those early days history could not come to the aid of religion. ' It sprang up long subsequently to the commencement and termination of divine dispensations". Man cannot think of recording his progress in history unless he has advanced very far in: knowledge. For revelation it is not necessary that God should appear· ip a finite shape in a particular spot to declare in a particular· l~guage what we should believe or do. He has invested man with intelligence and any revelation is directed to hia iptelligence. "Man is always made the instruments of God~s.. communication and this, in the common course of nature, with. out parade or display of any kind". "All His revelations arec effected simply by the enlightenment of the human under-· standing". Man is free to act and think, revelation shows him, the proper course of life. It confines itself only to "the bouoi. daries of those powers of comprehensions which God baa: allotted to him". Mysteries, therefore, do not come within its, pJan. "To leave man to his free thought", so it emphaticaliy a.aserted, "and then to disable him from perceiving the force of a truth, and yet to oblige him to hold a certain conviction for which he is quite incapacitated and this under the pain of eternal damnation''-this is a denial of the Grace and Benevolence of God. There is no place for mysteries in religion-no place for truths transcending human comprehension. Man's powers are limited and his unassisted reason may very often be led astray in matters of the highest import to his life. Herein lies the necessity of revelation. It "deals with. eternal truths which require no other proof than what the whole creation and the mind of man, unperverted by fallacious. reasonings, can afford". Its object is to point out to us our· duties and give some idea of God. It requires no historical. e.vidence for its support. "The Vedanta was charged v.rith pantheism. What of· the Bible when it declares "in Him, wo live, move and have

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oui: being" ? Certainly the VedaJ never teach that the universe itself is God. "He is entirely distinct from all material existence". There are passages in the c.iedas which show, without any possible ambiguity, that "the Divine Spirit and the soul are distinct one from the other. The notions of God, as the texts quoted prove, are inferior to none of those to be found in other religions. Equally lofty is the moral code enunciated by the VedaJ. . 'The adoration of God in spirit, the cultivation of our intellec7tual faculties, the control of our appetite and passions-keeping ·ourselves free from atheism, abstaining from injury to others are some of the duties inculcated by them. Repentance and earnest endeavour to avoid similar transgression is regarded in the Vedas to be the only way of self-realisation. The VedaJ :inculcate that "those who cannot turn their minds to God in .spirit should worship him through the medium of matter". .But such worship was a mere preparatory step leading to a true knowledge of God and worshipping him in spirit. The :rites are intended to train them in the ways of truth, righteousness and virtue. The objects worshipped were meant to be manifestations of the power and mercy of one Incomprehensible Supreme Spirit 1 • The answer given by Devendranath to the allegations of ]wtfcia regarding idolatrous ceremonies in connection with the Sraddha of his father throws further light on the attitude of Devendranath and his associates towards the Vedas. Devendra· nath pointed out that they had adopted the theological portion of the Vedas and the latter, the ceremonial portion, they consi· dered not as "sinful and improper" but "as indifferent and useless". One who considers the contemplation of God as his urgent duty need not perform these rites and rituals. He did not perform any idolatrous rites. "We are", so he pointed out, "monotheistic householders", "we are .to conform our· selves to the ideas the society entertains regarding the utility .of having established customs" in connection with domestic .occurences. Their object was "not merely a negative refor· mation in the religious institutions" of the country but a 12. Ibid : 1767 Saka : Sravan & Aswin.

INTRODUCTION

positive one too-not merely the overthrow of the present :system but the substitution in their place of more rational or proper ones" .11 In his Introduction to The Translation of the Cena •Vpanishad Rammohun asserted that when we appeal to reason .as a surer guide we find how incompetent it is alone to conduce to the object ( truth ) of our pursuit. The Tattwabodhinl ·Patrika very distinctly stated that man cannot attain truth by reason alone, God's revelation is necessary for that purpose. But this revelation has nothing supernatural and miraculous .about it. God does not appear at a particular place in a particular form and communicate a particular message. When reason fails to find out a path man receives a revelation from ·God to guide him. Direct perceptions of truth are treasured .in the scriptures of different nations. Such scriptures are authoritative and are to be found among all nations in all ages. The Patrika speaks of the dispensation of Vedanta as well as of the Christian Dispensation. Unlike Rammohun it did not 'proceed historically for objective evidence. On the contrary, :it frankly confessed that "it is impossible to prove the divine origin of these sacred books by any historical evidence the value of which was not understood at the time, or indeed by any other evidence than what they themselves afford by the reason.ableness and cogency of the doctrines taught in them". The controversy clarified the stand of the Tattwabodhlni PatTika with reference to important religious problems of the ·day. (i) It stood against anthropomorphism in religion. "Our -discriminating piety forbids us to ascribe to the eternal and immutable Being our own brief, transitory, unsettled and cireumscribed attributes" . Yet "He is, in no respect, devoid of such attributes as may be best calculated to harmonise with ·the perfection of his nature and his existence , therefore, is not ·wholly unintelligible although his real essence must baffle the ·efforts of the human mind". (ii) He is not "eternal quiescence" but "is eternally awake", the source and parent of good. (iii) His attributes are manifested "thro.igh the bo.indless range of the material world". (iv) "He is the provident Regulator of 13. Ibid: 1768 Saka, Agrahayan.

TATrW4BODHIHI PATBIK.l

this universe, the Supreme Governor, both of rational and irrational creatures to whom He extends the permanent benefits of His Justice and of His love through His infinite goodness". (v) "The boundless world is distinct and separate from, though· inevitably dependent on the Eternal God. (vi) "These vedantic doctrines are grounded on the most obvious and irrefutable principles of natural reason, on the principles of natural' theology". (vii) There is a dynamic and progressive revelation of the eternal truths enshrined in the Shastras from the Veda to the Vedant. (viii) Reason alone cannot discover truths. It requires God's revelation through the human self. These eternal truths are treasured in authoritative ( apca ) scriptures. and must be consonant to the dictates of sound reason and wisdom, must carry the unimpeachable character of truth· about them. The scriptures are authoritative in so far as they contain the direct spiritual experiences of the seers of old. The difference between the attitude of Devendranath and hi~ associates and that of the followers of revealed religions is clearly discernible from this controversy. Devendranath did not believe that (i) the scriptures are miraculously revealed,. (ii) that every statement therein is true to the letter; (iiil that they are the only authoritative treatises for the salvation of men ; (iv) that all persons are to be brought to a realisation. of their miraculous and infallible character ; (v) and that every thing necessary for the spiritual sustenance of man is to· be found therein. In his autobiography Devendranath had spoken of the foundations ( paccanabhumi ) of his new faith, the centre of integration ( aik1a •th 11 ) for its followers. He wanted to find an authoritative treatise which he and his associates could' accept as containing the fundamental truths of their religion ; which they could use for the refutation of arguments advanced' against it ; which, if studied with reverence, could satisfy their spiritual yearnings. He wanted an authoritative scripture and not an infallible one. The controversy with christian missionaries made it clear that it was a qualified acceptance which was accorded to the Vedas ; references to "the dictates of sound reason and wis• . dom". "principles of natural reasol)" are very significant.

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Rationalists like Akshay Kumar could not agree even to this" qualified acceptance of the Vedas and Upanishads. Akshay Kumar regarded the Vedas and other scriptures as representing a very early stage of the development of the human mind. He· could not accept the idea that these scriptures enshrine the· direct spiritual experiences of the seers of old and should,_ therefore, be regarded as authoritative. They did not conform to rationalistic principles. That was enough for him. )agadbandhu Patrlka now ( 1768 Saka ) entered the field' of controversy. It categorically stated that the Vedas could not be regarded as infallible. Although Devendranath did not accept the eternity of the Vedas, he pointed Ollt that in ail" comprehensible matters there is a conformity between the conclusions of our reason and vedantic doctrines. Consequently· we should not doubt that in matters outside our comprehensionthe Vedas contain all spiritual truths. 1 ' . There was constant discussion regarding this question. Devendranath was a conservative man of faith. Akshay Kumar was a rationalist pure and simple. They both came to the conclusion that Vedas, containing as they did erroneo11s and irrational matters, could' not be regarded as revelations. This was announced in the annual discourse of the Brahmo Samaj on the 11th Magh 1772· Saka. 15 (1850) In this discourse as well as in that delivered' on the 11th Magh 177'\ (1851) Akshay Kumar declared "Rammohun wanted that the worship of the Omniscient Being shonld be spread all over the world. This religion is written in everlasting letters in the minds of men and all objects of the· lJiliverse. The infallible scr..ipt11re of the universe is a witness· to it, and, consequently, there cannot be even the slightest doubt about its truth. He considered this visible world to be the only scripture and engaged himself in the study of the · universe and of the scripture, based thereon".19 Again : "He (l;Ummohun) came to the definite conclusion that the Creator, Preserver and Destroyer of the world, is the only object o( 14. Ibid: 1839 Saka pp. 24-25. 15. Rajnarain Bose Autobiography. pp. 65-68. 16. Tattwabodhini Patrika 1772 Saka, Falgun. p. 160 et seq.

TA'l"rWABODBINI PATBIKA

worship. He is Omniscient and Beneficent. This All·Pure Being directs every object and saves us from all misery. He is one without a second. Whatever we can discover as his Jaw by the use of reason should be obeyed. That of which the Infinite Solar system is a mere page, and, the sun, the moon, ·the stars were letters-that is the only infallible scripture. He who can read correctly this profound scripture-he, alone .attains self-realisation. There is no other method of gaining knowledge, no other way to spiritual enlightenment. If the .authors of scriptures belonging to different ages and different climes could obtain adequate knowledge of the fundamental principles of the universe, the scripture of God, if they had not mingled imagination with truth, universal Religion would have .spread all over the earth.17 The basis of religion was intuition (A tmaprac,aya). It ·was so declared in Brahmo Dharma Grantha published in 1772 ·(1850). In all ages and in all climes, so Akshay Kumar asserted, ·mankind has been accepting one or another form of religion and performing its rites and ceremonies. Although there might be differences in their rites and usages men are unani· ·mous regarding the fundamental principles of religion. It is their natural desire to worship their Creator and Preserver. Awe and steadfast devotion, deep love and gratitude are all ·offered to H im. There is complete unanimity in this matter. He is universally regarded as presiding over all our rituals. In ·prosperity we render our gratitude to Him, in adversity we cling to Him as our deliverer. In fact, we universally believe in Him, in His spiritual worship, in moral standards, in the Hereafter. Truth is one and unchangeable. Falsehood ·changes with the environment. Hence the imaginary accretions to religion can never be universal. Revealed religions, conse·quently, differ among themselves and are changeable. They are very often shaped by man's illusions and desires. They are, very often made the instruments of self.aggrandisement. ·There is a Creator of the universe, Eternal, Omniscient and Omnipresent. He preserves and destroys his creation. He is un17. Jbla: 1773 Saka, Falgun pp. 148 et. seq.

lNTRODOOl'ION

changeable and Beneficient. These truths are all intuitively· known. They are revealed to the inner self of man. These fundamental principles have their basis on the natural intui • tions of man. They are true and real. 11 Intuition, thus,. became the sheet anchor of this faith. Truth was its scripture. The Tattwabodhinl Patrilca had, on many occasions, discovered. the wonderful pawer of God in his creation. It had also sought to determine human duties by reference to external objects.. The universe was often declared to be the scripture of God.. But the Patrika had always insisted upon self-evident truth, revealed intuitively in the inner consciousness of man as the only basis of faith. There was, "as Max Muller pointed out", a terrible strife, the strife of conscience against associations of mind and place,. duty agains~· prepossessions, truth against cherished convictions. But conscience triumphed over all ; the vedas were thrown. overboard by Devendranath Tagore and the Brahmo Samaj. bade farewell to their Bible", "The more revelation had become something miraculous among the people of India the: more creditable was it that the members of the Brahmo Samaj, founded by Rammohun Roy, after becoming better acquainted with their · sacred writings than they ever had been before,. should solemnly have declared in the year 1850 that the claim. of being divinely inspired could no longer be maintained in favour of the hymns and Brahmanas of the vedas. I know on no other instance in the whole history of religions that equals . the honesty and self-denial of the members of the Brahmo Samaj in their throwing down and levelling the ramparts 0£ · their own fortress and opening the gates wide for any messenger of truth. Their honesty will appear all the more creditable that they . were by no means inclined to discard the Vedas. altogether, b11t only declared that reverence for the Deity pre. vented them from claiming any thing like divine workmanship or penmanship for the whole of it". t 0 This (1765 Saka to 1776 Saka) was the mosr formative Period of the Tattwabodhint Sabha and the reformist church.. 18. Dharmar.atwct-viwlca-Akshay Kumar Dutt. 19. Max Muller "From Rammohun to Ramkrbhna".

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. Brahmoism was tranformed from a philosophy to a way of life \with the introduction of the "Form of vows" for its believers. "The ideal of a monotheistic religion, synthesising the ethical ·with the spiritual was placed before the intelligentsia. A form of spiritual worship, logical and stimulating, replacing mechani. cal observance of external ritual, by internal purity, meditation .and contemplation, was introduced and widely disseminated among cultured society. The human mind was sought to be liberated from the strangle-hold of infallible scriptures and the foundation of faith laid upon intuitive knowledge received in .course ot contemplation by a purified soul. In the light of .this inner vision were discovered germinal principles of theism, proclaiming the unity of the creator, His attributes, and laying .special emphasis on spiritual worship and ethical duties. The mind of man was sought to be deflected from a clinging faith .in the Shcwra.t and a total absorption in the other world to a .contemplation of the Power and Beneficence of the Creator in his creation. Society and its institutions were evaluated and .analysed from a rationalistic point of view ; and a new vision based on modern ideals and principles was enunciated and placed before the intelligentsia for its acceptance. Problems like enforced widow-hood, child-marriage, polygamy, labour and leisure, the prevalent theory of punishment were analysed and discussed from a rational point of view. A new scheme of education was enunciated aria developed in details. Nor was the theological aspect lost sight of. Both Devendranath and Akshaykumar, the first in his Atmatatwavid,a and the .second in his "Dhannantti" and "Bah,abastu'' sought to proclaim their system of theology to their contemporaries while Rajnarain Bose in his sermons and discourses tried to raise the _people from their spiritual lethargy and waken them to sense -of the importance of practical religion. 10

20. For details vlde Infra Devendranath Tagore, Akshay.kumar Dutt, Rajnarain Bose.

CHAPTER II 1778

Saka~l786

Saka,

(1856~1864)

This period was characterised by an increased social .consciousness among the intelligentsia. The Derozians were .now matured in mind and thought and there was little of that wild enthusiasm which marked the earlier epoch. The move.ments for widow-marriage and against polygamy led to a turmoil in Hindu Society. A controversy between the conser. vatives and the reformers divided it into two well-defined parties. Vidyasagar emerged as a leader of the reformist group and, by his writings and example, strengthened the cause of .social reform. He was ably supported by the entire Tattwabodhini group and Young Bengal and his contributions as an .interpreter of Hindu Law went a great way towards c.arrying the movements to success. Positivistic tendencies of thought based on a scientific .attitude to life brought into question the freedom of the will .so prized by the enlightened intelligentsia. This attack on .freedom of the will was greatly strengthened by the Hindu idea of fate. The Tatrwabodhini Patrika had to defend its .thesis against many-pronged attacks, but undeterred, by the . massive attacks of orthodoxy and science, it went courageously .to inculcate principles of freedom among its contemporaries. Ritualism had also its enemies not only among Young Bengal but also among the Tattwal:odhini group itself; and it was necessary·for the Patrika to place before its countrymen .a rational outlook on the problem. The intuitionist outlook on religion was developed mot only by Devendranath Tagore in his Brahma Dharma Mac 0 Btiwa.1 but also by other members of the group ; and the ideal of what a religion so based on intuition, ~tood for, was presented to the intelligentsia. In the realm of education also the Tattwabodhinl Patrika continued to ·Carry on its propaganda for a proper insistence on the spir1tuai .and ethical aspects of the human personality in an ideal '.scheme of education. The plea put forward by Akshoy Kumar Dutt in his Dharmanitl and by Pyarichand Mitra in his writings received very emphatic expression in issue after issue o0.f the Patrika.

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I Widow.Marriage During the 17th and 18th centuries, in Bengal the condition of womanhood left much to be desired. Due to childmarriages, enforced widowhood and polygamy women lived a miserable life. The number of child-widows increased in an alarming way. Sometimes the problem of child-widows. appeared in a tragic manner before the leaders of society specially when their daughters became victims of the cruel custom. They often sought for remedies. The Shastras were there. Everything depended on how they were interpreted. The Pandits who int?rpreted them were very often dependents of the rich aristocrats. Under their influence Brahmin Pandits. were apt to explain the injunction in a way favourable to the· wishes of their patrons. Very often rivalries among the aristocrats stood in the way. Such was the case with Rajah Raj.· ballabh's attempt to introduce widow-marriage into the country. . Urged on by the tragic sight of his widowed daughter, he got. from Pandits of different places a Bewastha that widowmarriage was not prohibited by the Shascraa and sent some of them to Krishnagar to obtain the concurrence of their compeers. resident there. Under the influence of his rival, Krishna Chandra, widow-marriage was condemned by them as being against the common usa,ges of the land. 1 Even as early as the eiihteenth century the attention of leaders was thus being directed towards that problem. In 1819~ the Atmf,a Sabha of Rammohun Ray discussed "the necessity of an infant widow pass her life in a state of celibacy". The authorities in India had their attention drawn to this custom. But they did not want to interfere with the religious usages of Indians. They kept themselves aloof and pointed out that if they passed any laws regarding widow-marriage that would begoing against religious usages and be, as such, a breach of faith with the people of India. Blind adherence to religious usages was a characteristic of Hindus. The authorities would be:

1. Dewan Kartikeya Chandra R0y-Isformed and stereotyped into tradition distorted by domi. nant interests and rei nforced by fear and dislike of the • aatried... "''They are for ever moulding and for ever restrain: ing the tendency of every individual". "From infancy to old . ~ge they meet out to each member the strong medicine of :r,praise or blame, approval to those who follow them, and, still J:more, disapproval to those who aeek to defy them". Confor.i.'.IDity bestows upon the individual a sense of security, of :..belonging to a particular group. "They are, in the last resort, 2he ·guardians of solidarity, of stability for the community or 1he grou.p". 6 The social reformer has before him a very hard task. M ere appeal to reason is here of little avail. The mind moulded . by ·• ores has always an instinctive veneration for them, for .they represent not only the experience but also the instruction .fjf their ancestors. Very frequently they are supported by ...bastras which are regarded as revelations and, therefore, ·sacrosanct. Sometimes again they appear to be stronger than . ahastric injunctions themselves ; and commentators of Hindu law v.ere, very of-ten, compelled to rnterprete the shastras in the light of usages and mor~s. Then there is the fear of .the unknown which exerts a very great influence over the minds of men. Accustomed for long ages to a particular wocial usage, people are afraid of giving it up, lest its abolition should be . fraµght with disastrous consequences to society. Even: when inte.lle.ct11ally convinced of the necessity of a parti-

.

4. Society-Mcivor p. 20-22.

85 cular reform people hesitate fest their acceptance should cast them off from their community. Although excommunication llas lost much of its terrors in modern times we very often cling to effete custom for fear of being alone in the midst of multitudes. This was the situation which reformers had to face in those days. Rammohnn Roy and Vidyasagar sought first to break ·down the instinctive veneration for social mores by showing that the usage concerned had not, behind it, the support of the :shastras. This was why they tried to prove that the shastras did or did not prohibit a particular socia! usage. The fear of the unknown they sought to allay by showing that the reform advocated would be improving society. They did not seek to to impose, all at once, a particular reform on society. On the contrary, they tried to enlighten people in the true ideal ahout a partic1.1lar institution or usage so that they might gradually gain a larger and larger circle of supporters and thus the introduction of the reform might be facilitated. Vidyasagar consciously followed the scheme. He pointed out that widow-marriage should first be proved beneficial before it could be introduced. No pious man could support it unless he was convinced of its beneficial effects. People would not .accept it if only rational arguments were used in its support. In such matters shastras were, in India, regarded as authoritative and their injunctions were followed blindly; He, con.sequently, proceeded to show that the reform suggested by him had the support of the shastras. Parasara was, according to him, the authoritative lawgiver for Kaliyuga and he allowed ·widow-marrirge in particular cases i. e. if the husband made himself scarce, died, if he left the life of a householder, if he ·was impotent or excommunicated for crimes or sins committed by himself, the wife could take to herself a second husband. • The publication of the article in the form of a pamphlet led to an upheaval in Hindu Society. Sambhu Chandra, his brother, wrote in the biography of Vidyasagar "Two thousand copies were sold within a week ; another three thousand with5. Tattwabodhini Patrika. Falgun, 17i6 Saka (For details vide lswar Ch. Vidyasagar).

TA'HWABODHINI PAT.BIKA

86

in a very short period of time. Pandits and householders alike got interested and many of them published answers to it. Vidyasagar thought that his pamphlet would be ignored with contempt by the general public. He was highly gratified at the commotion it created in Hindu Society. Fifteen thousand pamphlets were sold within a few weeks. The Tattwabodhini Patrika for Chaitra 1776 Saka while discuss:ng the socioeconomic aspects of enforced widow-hood, described the situation in vivid colours : "Common people were very eager tostudy the pamphlet. It was discussed everywhere. T aken by surprise, the Pandits were busy searching out from worm-eaten manuscripts answers to the views expressed therein. Rich and superstitious aristocrats belonging to the orthodox school, were tempting, with offers of monetary prizes, Pandits dependent on them to demolish its arguments. All journals, English or vernacular, became busy to discuss the problem, to weigh the arguments in the pamphlet and even to find ways and means for introducing the reform. Some were not at all concerned with shastric injunctions or reason but opposed it from a superstitious regard for a long-established custom. Some were conscious of the necessity of the reform but, out of fear of their leader or of public opinion, did not venture to express their opinion". To refute the arguments of his opponents Vidyasagar published his second treatise in October 1855. In this pamphlet he took the arguments of his opponents, one by one and refuted them successfully. The controversy became more virulent. The journals could not ignore it. lswar Chandra Gupta in his own way satirised the attempt ; Dasarathi Rai wrote a song-cycle ; folk-songs were composed and sung by common artisans. The weavers of Santipur wove Vidyasagar skirts. These all show how deeply stirred the Hindu Society was by the courageous attempt at reform, by the humanism behind it. 8 The concluding portion of his second pamphlet published in the Tauwabodhini Patrika was very significant. Vidyasagar 6. Vid,asagar 0 Bangali Samaj-Benoy Ghosh Vol. II p 180.

CHAPTEBII

87

spoke of the mechanical interpretation of the Shastras, the stranglehold of usages, the blindness of men towards the corruptions issuing from enforced widowhood, their irrational ideathat passions die out when a wife becomes a widow. His humanism appealed to his contemporaries for reformative action and expressed his despair at their callous attitude. In primitive society custom regulates the conduct of life. ''With the weight of tradition behind it, custom ordains every occasion, assigns to each his rights and duties, adjusts the claims and interests of each to those of the rest". But when society becomes complex, relations among individuals become impersonal and custom has to be supplemented by laws". "Custom is sustained by common acceptance". "Law is often made and always applied by the definite power of the state". Special laws with their special agency of enforcement become necessary for the peaceful pursuit of the complex interests of a modern society. When conditions change in society custom quickly adjusts itself to the changed conditions. "Its authority diminishes in the complex society where impersonal relations take the place . of personal ones and where individuals are further removed from the control of the group as a whole". Only the law can keep abreast of the rapid changes of modern civilisation. Yet a law which attacks a widespread custom, both lacks a ground of support that is essential to its effective operation and creates a force of resistence that endangers its authority". 7 This being the situation with regard to a long-established custom like enforced widowhood, it was necessaary that widow-marriage should be made legal before it could be introduced into society. Vidyasagar now applied to Government for e.nacting -such a permissive law. He pointed out that (1) enforced widowhood was not enjoined by the sastras. Owing to the prevalence of childmarriage many became widows before reaching the years of maturity. This was the cause of various corruptions in society. (ii) Some people did not regard widow-marriage to be immoral. They were ready to face difficulties in its favour. (iii) The interpretations made 7. !:ociety-Mc Ivor.

Th'Pl'WABODHINI PhTRIKh

by the Courts of Dayabhai regarded widow marriages as infructuous and the offspring of such marriages as illegal. (iv) These interpretations stood in the way of people who were ready to accept widow-marriage as moral and wanted to act accordingly. (v) A permissive law would not injure the interest of orthodox people who regarded such marriages as against the shastras. 8 ' Hindu Society was stirred to its very depths. Somt supported Vidyasagar as they considered the practice of enforced widowhood to be one which not only entailed innumerable hardships and misery on hundreds and thousands of innocent but unfortunate females but lay at the very root of many of the existing social evils and crimes which had to be deplored· The entire country was convulsed. Petitions mostly aiainst the proposed reform poured in from far and f!ear, from Poona and Deccan and from the different districts of Benial. Viclyasaiar was supported by many enlightened leaders of thought. The support of Maharajah Mahatapchand of Burdwan and MaharaJah Sris Chandra of Krishnagar added strength to the cause. Dewan Kartikeya Chandra Ray, SihChandra Dev, Di2ambar Mitra, Rajnarain Bose, Pyaricharan Sai::kar among leaders of educated Bengal ; The Premier Gossain of Santipur, Sures Chandra Vidyaratna and Madan Mohan Tarkalankar strongly supported the reform. Leaders: of Young Bengal, Rassick Krishna Mullick, Kishory Chand Mitra, Radhanath Silthals and not to man-iages ; (ii) the introduction of widow marriages would lead to considerable confusion with regard b · the determination of inheritance, the authontative treatises OIL 1 law like Dayabhag would have to be abrogated ; (iii)- many tried to continue their families by adoption but. if their widows . remuried they would be precluded from exercising the ripe of adoption though permitted by their deceased husbands.;:.: (~v) though willing to follow the injunctions of the· shastt:a.. many widows might be persuaded by their relatives to gs· against them. 1 0 An analysis of the petitions shows that ta · supporters laid special emphasis on the socio-economic corlSllfquences of enforced widowhood while the opponents took tf.eit:: · stand on the aesurance given by the government rega~· non-interference in religious matters and the sacrednt!satoC long•established usages,, In spite of this strong oppositiOlll a law permitting the marriage of widows·and taking away legal_

9. Ibid, II, pp. 201-3 10. Petition of Radhakanta Dev, Ibid,. II, pp. 197-9& .

~Ai~WABODBJNIPATBIKA

objections against such marriages was passed in the Council as Act XV of 1856'dated 26th July, 1856. 11 The Tattwabodhlnl Patrika played a very prominent part in the agitation for the introduction of widow marriages. Akshoy Kumar Dutt had in his Dharmanitl put in a strong plea against enforced widowhood. 1 9 The Patrika published Vidyasagar's first article on the subject. The very next month :it gave strong support to the movement, clearly bringing out the disastrous consequences of enforced widowhood. It published in its columns the concluding portion of Vidyasagar's ·second treatise, supporting and congratulating him for his ,strong sense of justice and humanity. Whenever widow·marriages took place it published in its columns news regarding ·the same. The commotion in Hindu Society resulting from the first instance of widow-marriage was graphically described in its columns. The Hindu commuity was divided. Some regarded the event as conducive to the regeneration of the country and congratulated its organisers. To others it appeared as the cause of destruction of society. They criticised the procedure of the marriage very strongly and :reviled its organisers. The progressives saw in it the Grace of God overflowing. It seemed to them that knowledge was 3lluminating the minds of men ; that many of their contem.poraries were eager to uproot social evils ; that their country, -burdened with sins o_f ages, was being gradually liberated therefrom and that the community was being strengthened by the .eradication of evil customs. The conservatives, on the ·other hand, were so far enslaved by superstitious beliefs that .they had wilfully turned a blind eye on the significance of this -act of social reform. They saw in the event itself the preva':ience of the Age of Darkness. Scriptures were no longer obeyed. Irreligion was becoming rampant; _and the decline f Hindu Society appeared to be imminent. The Patrika, however, expressed the opinion that if the social evils were, in this manner, abolished and tetter social usages introduced,

Ibid, II, p. 204 12. Vide Infra. Akshay K. Dutt 11.

.

OBl\P'l'BB II

ndia ~as bound to make progress ; that if the practice of -widow marriage was widespread it would prevent many evils. 1t was unreasonable to lament the abolition of an injurious :social usage however long-estaolished it might be. 18 The third and fourth widow-marriages were arranged by :Rajnarain Bose, one of the leaders of the Tatwabodhini Group. In spite of opposition and threats from his relatives and neigh· bours he remained true to his ideals and participated in the ·marriages of his cousin Durganarayan Bose and his brother 'Madanmohan Bose. Th~se marriages had the blessings of Devendranath Tagore who wrote to Rajnarain "These marriages will lead to bitterness ; but God helps those whose ·intentions are honest.1 .. The Tattwabodhinl Patrlka in its issue of Agrahayan 1779 Saka discussed afresh the question. Although customs might .prove injurious to society so it asserted, Indians were so very .attached to hoary traditions that they clung to them blindly. As widow-marriage had not been acted upon by several gener:ations of their ancestors the superstitious idea that it was an evil had taken root in their minds. It could no longer be doubted that the scriptures were not against such marriages. Yet usages were stronger than the shastras in this country. Many urged that if this custom was beneficial why did not their ancestors follow ~t ? The prevalence of Suttee had dimi'nished the number of widows. The evils of enforced widowhood were not apparent. But with the abolition of Suttee the number of widows increased and the evils were accentuated. It was, consequently necessary to introduce -widow-marriage in Hindu Society. 15 In its issue of Sravan 1780 Saka the Patrika asserted that -while the practice of widow marriage was gaining strength in ·the countryside no significant progress was made in Calcutta. 'T he Youth of Calcutta were giving up the social usages then prevalent as injurious ; they were adopting western manners and customs but were not imbibing the noble qualities of 13. Patrika, 1778 Saka, Pous 14. Autobiography-Rajnarain Bose 15. 1779 Saka, Agrahayan.

European;. In College. the.y were enthusiastic about social: reform but their enthusiasm faded a·Nay as sooo as· they entered life. Thus widow marriage, though leiialised, did not become prevalent. The custom of enforced widowhood had struck too deep a root in the mind of the people and could not be uprooted therefrom-.

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OHAPT.l!:R II

11 Fnea- of the Will an• Treeclom of 1.bouglaa In the Hindu Shastras a person was very of,en regarded a!>a reflection of the universal soul clouded by nescience. He performed his duties according to a set system enunciated by infallible scriptures and, after acquiring merit either went to a· local heaven whence he returned to be born again or attained rnokihallood and was submerged in Brah111ma. The events or· life were very often explained as due to fate rather than to anything else. The Bhakti cult extolled total submia&ion io God sometimes without any rational background. The greatest discovery of inan is, however, the discovery of the worth and possibilities of the human pers0nality. It brought about a very significant change in the western world. Under the influence of English education the intelligentsia of Bengal was.. gradually discovering the worth of the individual. The determinism of science, however, stood in the way of such realisation. The Tattawabodhini Patrika significantly took upon: itself the task of piercing through this dark fatalism of that age. If man have not freedom of the will, so it asserted, if he: be the victim of circumstances and move hither and thither by· every gust of passion, religion and duties have no meaning for him. But there are people who express a contrary view. According to them man has no freedom, he is absolutely dependent ; his nature is determined by his environments. W• have to admit that we perform many actions under the· influence of instincta or of passions or of habits. It is neverthe-. less true that our moral eense ie revealed in our free actione: alone. It might be that 01.1r powers of free action are not· unlimited. Yet even when we do not accept the freedom of the will we blame people who do wrong and praise those who do right. If men be subject to the unchangeable laws like planets we cannot sit in judgement over. their actioD6. It is because men are free and can even supreas their passions for the p~rformance of their duties that they are moral beings. It is not a fact·that men are driven by passions. On tM· contrary, we sometimes feel that we can resist their onslaughts.. We can freely choose our course of action. Altnough we mightt:

Ti'l'l'rW.t.BODBINI PATRIKA

succumb to the temptations of life yet we feel that we could bave chosen otherwise. Thus our experiences give us irrefut :able proofs of our freedom of the will. Without such freedom there would have been no conflict between good and evil in our own selves. Our self reproach for evil deeds would have .b een futile and our self satisfaction at good deeds meaningless. Freedom is the strength of the soul. Our life is a ·struggle between good and evil. Wear attacked on all sides by temptations ; our passions are ver often excited. They seek to drive us along one way of lif• while our moral sense shows us the true path. It is very difficult to choose the right ·course in the midst of such ·a conflict. Many cannot go against the strong currents of passion. They are driven by them to sinful acts. But those who have developed their ·strength of will can master them, choose the right course of action and follow it fearlessly. They withstand all temptations and though surrounded by dangers, go forward in spite of sufferings and sacrifices. 1 Where there has been no free development of the will, so it held, desires rise in rebellion and anarchy controls our self. Our wishes are realised in action ; consequently, without their cooperation our moral sense cannot act strongly. If the desire for good becomes weak our moral sense becomes ·power'ess to direct our activities. We may very often know the right course of action but we l:::ecome so very afraid ·of public opinion that we disguise our real l:::eliefs, and cannot, due to weakness of will, follow them. We insincerely adopt the superstitious practices prevalent in the society. We should not mistake licence for liberty. It is only when our desires are directed by our moral sense that they strengthen our real freedom of the will. Else they get the better of ourselves and lead us to ways of sin. Freedom of thought and expression is one of the most valued rights of man. \Ve are very often surprised at the wide differences of opinion among people regarding religion and morals. These differences prove that human knowledge

•

1. Tattwabodhini Patrika, 1782 Saka, Sravan.

CHAPTER II

(opinion) is determined by the age, the clime and the social and mental progress of the people concerned. Bewildered by these differences of opinion miny think th1t h•Jman knowledge is always erroneo:is and th1t everything is changeful in this. universe. S.ich a conclusion leads directly to scepticism and godlessness. Others consider it to be injurious to society to disturb stable traditions by the intro:iuction of new ideals. They try their utmost to stifle these now tendencies. As people have limited powers, it is natural that they should be holding different opinions on the same subject. It is,. however, not wise to regard all such differences as imaginary and baseless. Facets of truth might be embedded in thesedifferent types of opinions ; and very often we can a1rive at a. comprehensive view of truth analysing and synthesising these different facets into an organic whole. The human self has a natural tendency to truth ; unless deflected by fear and temptations, it tries to follow truth. It is very difficult for one single· individual to discover truth. If many persons apply their mind to the same problem from different angles, they might arrive at opinions which, when properly compared analysed and. brought together, might lead to the discovery of truth of fundamental importance with regard to that problem. It is by free discussion that human minds are changed and reflect the effulgence of truth. It is a sign of progress th1t different pers)ns would be investigating freely different problems an::l publish their opinions. Such a procedure helps on the advancement of knowledge. During the childhood of a nation, it might be necessary for the establishment of a stable· society, to follow dictates of a wise lead?r but with social progress a sense of freedom gradually emerges and men begin to investigate and propagate their opinions freely. On a mistaken notion that discussions might lead to conflicts and undesirable consequences, people have sought to· stifle freedom of thought. Very few people th ink for themselves ; they are apt to follow blindly existing traditions. Superstitio:.is beliefs strike root into the minds of people and any one who stands courageously against them is regarded as. an enemy of the people. Very many attempts at reform have-

TA'I'rWit.BE>DHINI P.a.TBIK.a.

l>een thus frustrated and highsouled reformers have often had -.to lose their lives. Our Hindu Shastras are sacrosanct. · People were p1.1nished for holding opinions contrary to them and nobody could publish truths if they went against the Shastra For a century at least, the publication of new ideas, the investigation into new problems of life and the discovery of new truths had stopped. The currents of thought had become :stagnant and 01.1r society, blind and inert, had been trudging the same path, for long ages. In the infancy of society customs and usages strongly bound people together. The authorities took upon themselves the task of protecting them and new ideals were rejected like poison. With the dissemination of knowledge and the development of the human mind people began to analyse the traditions which they had blindly followed so long. They began to search out the foundations of their beliefs and published their opinion fearlessly, As civilisation advanced the ideal of the freedom of thought was progressively realised. Many mistakenly hold that although freedom of discussion might be alloweo in other matters it cannot be allowed with regard to religion and other fundamental problems of life and morals. Even if all people hold one set of opinions we ·have no right to prevent one single individ1.1al from publicly expressing a different opinion. If the opinion held by the individual be true we would be suppressing truth by stifling it. Even if the opinion be false, by coming into contact with the ·existing tradition it might clarify the traditions. People very ·often reject, as false, opinions which might be different from their own, but such rejection is only the sign of a presumptuous .sense of infallibility. Many are not, however, so very sure of their own opinion ; they consider their beliefs to be true because they conform to the general opinion of the nation and their community. They do not take into consideration the fact that there are many communities and nations which hold beli1'!fs directly opposite. Some say that false and imaginary opinions should be eradicated from society: But if the belief does not stand the ·test of criticism we cannot depend on its truth. No truth can .be injured, far less destroyed, by free discussion. On the con~

'0 Hi".l"J!lBB·n

''

"trary, later accretions to· truth which the imagination of ~n 'has associated with it, may be rejel:ted thereby. · Many think that if we allow the fundamental truths of .religion and morals to be freely discussed, atheists and sceptics ·might take advantage of the situation and cloud the mind of the ignorant with doubts. But history has shown h ow erro·neous is this view. It is not possible, so they say, to retard the >proQress of truth by opposition. The belief which, in spite of opposition, can eatabliah itself in the · community must be true. This is a test of truth. If we value truth and have the least gratitude for its discoverer such treatment appears to be unjust .and cruel. In many cases truths have been suppressed by such _persecutions. The suppression of free discussion encourages insincerity ·in various ways. If any person holds an opinion different from the prevailing tradition, he cannot, due to fear, express it. He has to conceal it and blindly follow the traditions. It is only the worldly-minded who can act 81>insincerely. Religious :minded people know it to be the directive of their conscience ..that their beliefs and practices must be consistent. Where ·freedom of thought does not exist it is only honest and sincere people who suffer for following their conscience. God has bestowed on us intelligence. Why should we confine its application to the common. affairs of life ? Should ·we not use it for determining our attitude towards great prob.I-ems of life ? Even if the tradition be true, free discussion might bring out its inner significance and purpose. The liveliness of truth decays without discussion. People mechanically .accept it for its long history. They are not aware of its value :and significance. It aloes not exercise that influence which it originally did. Some are of opinion that for the common · men it is better that truths should be so codified. People know diat it is their duty to speak the truth and behave sincerely. But so long as they are not conscious of the value of truth, lthey are not· properly inspired. We should know the basis of ·-our beliefs. It is our duty to know the reasons on which our !beliefs .are foumded. In matters of religiGCl, morals and eV>en «iet1Ge, it· is Aeaenary l'o only cleanse truth of all impurities due to prejudice and ignorance. We should always remember that debates are not intellectual gymnastics. We should be humble in the search of truth and accept it wherever found. We should disregard all pressure· of public opinion. For truth is the nobleat possession which ·men can ·have. Some regard faith to be superior to reason ; they do not try to understand the fundamental principles of their religion and consider steady faith to be the only way to salvation. Such blind faith is a superstitionSuch people only shut the door to knowledge. They do not accord to truth any recognition in their mind and sedulously nurse erroneous superstitions. 9 There W!!re, .in that age, various currents of thought which sought to undermine a sense of the significance of the individual. There was the scientific movement which, absocbed in the contemplation of the workings of inexorable laws ir. the world of external objects, sought to apply the principles·. derived therefrom to the human mind, forgetting that all moral and religious principles are based on the freedom of the human : will. Others looked with fear upon any tendencies which. seemed to bring into jeopardy the stability of society and resis~ ed all attempts at reform. Others again, secure in their dogmat.ism, could not tolerate anything that disturbed their dogmatie slumber. The conflict between faith and reason was still persisting in the world of thought of those days. It was necessary · for the progress of the human mind that these currents of thought should be resisted ; that people should be made ti> · realise the essential worth of the human personality ; that freedom of the will is the basis of moral and religious life ; thatreason is one of the proper instruments for the discovery of truth ; that faith witho:.it reason is blind while reason without faith is dry ; that no progress is possible without freedoM of thought. The Tatwabodhini Patrika did a distinct.

2. Ibid, 1785 Saka, Jaistha. 4

60

TA'ITWABODBINIPATBIKA

service to Indian society by laying special emphasis on th~ se aspects of life. Thinkers of the Tattwabodhini group, as followers of Rammohun, sought to rend asunder all bonds which suppressed the individual. In their opposition to traditional beliefs and practices they were, to a great extent, influenced by western thought but they always placed before themselves the high ideals of national regeneration. Their object was not indiscriminate westernisation ; it was rather the rousing of their countrymen from the totpor of centuries. They accepted indeed the light that came from the west but were discriminating in their acceptance. The blind determinism of science they rejected, so also the abject reliance on faith which they found in much of western theology .

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III The Importance of Ritaal1

Mechanical observance of rites and ceremonies was, in that age, regarded as absolutely necessary for religious life. A person who regularly performed them was considered to be .superior to one who, though spiritually gifted, neglected them. Raja Rammohun Roy had to produce argument after argu. ment supported by scriptural texts to show that such obser1,1ances were not absolutely imperative for the attainment of beatitude. Under the influence of western thought, Young Bengal lost all reverence for idolatrous practices ; not only so, they, very often, went too far and held in contempt all that smacke:l of orthodoxy. Rituals, indeed, had not kept pace with the changes in the emotional life of the people and, consequently, they lost This distaste of existing rituals created an their appeal. atmosphere inimical to all ritualistic observances. People forgot that rituals are necessary for society . .Solemn occasini demand an attitude of dignity and reverence. This sense of dignity and reverence has to be expressed in adequate rhythmic procedure. The rhythmic procedure itself invests the occasion with added solemnity and its use maintains

ORAPTERil

51

a high level of such dignity. The rhythm of the rituals evokes emotional responses and this emotional rapport strengthens the cohesive bonds of society. Men in society hold beliefs and notions and invest them with values. They live by and for these values. Thus there grows up a pattern, a system of such beliefs which gives stability to society. Here ritual plays an important part. A sense of rightness and inevitability is instilled into the minds of men by its effortless association of ideas. It attunes the individual to corresponding ideas. It conveys a feeling of larger realities, of faiths, of unities which can never be fully experienced ·or wholly comprehended by individuais. · In a new community, again, the development of proper rituals takes time. There is also the fear of relapsing to what it considers to be superstitious practices. The sober section·of reformers who had formed themselves into a community were unanimous in their opinion regarding ritualism in religion. It was in this situation of perplexity that the Tatwabodhinl Patrika placed before its contemporaries its considered opinion on the place of rituals in Society. The knowledge and the practice of religion, so it asserted, are different. ln theory we might accept religious truths but our spiritual progress requires that we practice what we profess. We might know that we should love God but that is not enough. We should surrender ourselves in love to God and perform his behests with all our heart. Then alone is our religion made perfect. When we know that we should te grateful to God for his blessings we become aware of our duty but it is only when our heart, bowed down with gratitude, offers its prayers to God, then alone we perform our duties. The feelings of our heart express themselves in . ceremonies. \\t"hen our feelings become such that we ar~not satisfied with keeping them in 01.1r thoughts, they express themselves in action. When the religious sentiments in our heart become strong they cannot but find expressian in rites and rituals. There is nothing wrong in rites and ceremonies so inspired. On the contrary, if with 01.1r mind fixed on God, we participate

TATTWhBODHINI PATBIKA

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in such ceremonies, we can very well experience an exultation of our soul. The ceremonies not only express our religious sentiments, they do something more. They strengthen them. If we remember Him in all the incidents of our life, God will be touching it at all points. The perso:l who regards God as the ulitmate object of his life, cannot differentiate among religious exercises, household activities and amusements. The religion which does not touch our life dries up in no time. A religion which is closely associated with all the activities of life cannot be easily abjured. Hinduism has entered into all activities and is reigning there as a directive force . It is so strong that people, although aware of its superstitions, cannot disobey its injunctions. The religious sentiments in the heart of a single indivi · dual. while expressed in ceremonies, can rouse the same sentiment in his contemporaries. Where many precepts: failed to impress, one single ceremony has the power of bring· ing men to the way of religious experience. Religion if confined to thoughts alone, dries up ; ceremonies fix it in the individual mind. Religion is thus strengthened by being associated with all the activities of life : ceremonies rouse the . religious sentiments in the hearts of all. If such be the case. ceremonies are absolutely necessary for religious life. W orship God on all occasions, God will illuminate your self. If you separate your ordinary life from your spiritual exercises, • religion will fade away from your heart. Do not confine your God to the church and the temple. Invoke his blessings and help in all your activities: Cover your entire life with the· Eternal Being. Many fear that if religious ceremonies are established, the old superstitious practices will reappear. Is it not, however, our duty to pray to God when happiness visits us ?· When we are happy at the birth of a child, should we not wor. ship Him? On such occasions we can worship Him alone or in congregation assembled. We believe that it would be the· height of ingratitude if we do not offer our prayers to God for His blessings. It is out of such a belief that ceremonies are performed. How can superstitious practices come in when,

OEJAPT.lllR II

59

prayers are offered to the Omniscient, Omnipotent, Ever-bene· fu:ient God ? Should we give up worshipping God at the time of performing obsequies simply because such rites have been associated with superstitious practices ? Should we keep God away from our everyday life simply becau\le idols are invoked an all domestic occasions ? It is not the ideal of reformers to go against people professing other faiths nor to give up traditionals ceremonies wholesale. Many think that if a particular form is established for ·s uch ceremonies, people belo~ging to future generations will stick to it. The form will thus lose its spirituality and become a mechanical observance. The sages of old uttered Vedic mantras out of the fullness of their heart. People in later ages considered themselves satisfied by a correct enunciation of these mantras without any reference to their meaning -Or the spiritual experiences u~derlying them. Such might be the case with these new rituals also. Revealed religions believe in infallible scriptures and infallible prophets and seers. They have perforce to stick to the forms introduced by these scriptures and seers. Those who regard the human soul and the universe as the scriptures in which God reveals Himself, can have no :such fear. Study these scriptures and know your duties. . Worship God sincerely with all your heart. Words uttered -OUt of the fullness of the heart reach God, others do not. It is not that the same form should be meticulously followed in ceremonies. Religion tells us to express our gratitude to God for His blessings. to surrender ourselves to Him, to r.emember Him on all occasions in life, to associate religion with ordinary affairs of life. It does not tell us' what form our expressions of inner feelings will take. A person may use his own words or those previously uttered ; the spirit in which he utters his prayer will be helping him in his spiritual progress. It does not matter if we us~ words and forms used by others for expressing similar sentiments in our own minds ; nor if a person who fails to rise to the height of spiritual ~xperience, should be using those forms and words for uplifting

TA'I'rWABODHINI PATRIKA

his spirit. Ceremonies are not only expressions of our spiritual sense, they can also rJuse and strengthen it. A mind absorbed in the love of God expresses itself in hymns, another listening to it may be inspired with the same feelings. People may utilise ceremonies for strengthening their spiritual life. Some object to feastings associated with ceremonies. But such feastings are not integral parts of the ceremonies ; they may very well be discarded. Those who regard ceremonies like marriage etc., may perform them in any theistic form th?y like. Those who are afraid of the reappearance of • old sup~rstitions have, indeed, the good of the reformed chur.:h at heart ; but those who desire to abolish them as useless are ignorant of how religious sentiments act. Ceremonies are fraught with many good effects. Should we regard any expenses incurred in connection therewith as mere wastage ? Any expensive items which are not integral parts of the ceremonies might be discarded but they do not take away anything from the significance of rituals. These items are introduced according to the taste of the person concerned. As taste is governed by reason, it becomes enlightened and expresses itself in enlightened action. If due to taste they' become objectionable, that does not touch the cerl'monies as such Yet feasts among friends have their value. Association with friends enliven our mind. Without recreation the body and the mind both become listless. Such listless body and mind cannot help us to spiritual progress. There is no harm in associating recreation with religious ceremonies. By mutual meeting friendship becomes strengthened. By mutual discussions the mind is enlightened. A newly formed reformist institution cannot grow into a community without religious ceremonies. 1~ it not high tim~ that there should be developed rites and rituals to bind them together into one community? Sociology had not, in that age, developed into a separate study . . Anthropology was in its infancy. T here were no definite ideas as to how rituals influence man in society. It is, 1.

et sq.

Tattwabodhini Patrika, 1785 Sakha, Jaistha, pp. 2C}

OBAPT.e:R 11

61S

therefore, of co~siderable interest to find that these pioneers of the Bengali renascence, should, in course of their discussion, discover in1portant truths regarding the same. They recognised the important part played by ceremonies, as expression of the devotional urge in men, as consecrating the ordinary activities and special occasions in life, as strengthening the spiritual in man, as spreading spirituality among the congregation and lastly as uniting the scattered followers of a particular way of religion into a community. They were, however, in· favour of flexible, rather than of rigid unchangeable forms. of ceremonies. IV Dynamiam and natnral reaaon in Religioo.

The Tattwabodhini Group of thinkers had already given up the theory of the infallibility of scriptures They had accepted the principle that God reveals himself to the contemplative mind which has been purified by knowledge. This was due partly to their reverence for the Upanhhads as enshrining the direct experiences of seers, and partly to the influence of the intuitionist sch:>ol of philosophy then prevalent in Scotland. They hrd, early in life, befn introduced toDr. Reid and Dugald Stewart. and were considerably influenced thereby In the Tattwabodhini Patrika itself, there are frequent quotations from Brown, Hamilton and other philosophers of this school This outlook is amply illustrated in the theological speculations of Devendranath Tagore and Rajnarayan Bose, in the articles of Akshoy Kurnar ·Dutt and the Jatkinchit of Pyarichand Mitra They strongly reacted against revealed scriptures and miracles. They wanted religion to absorb scientific knowledge. They had to reply to attacks by Christian missionaries like the Rev. Lall Behari De against their fundamenta! concept of intuitions, and show that intuition can give us Eternal truths With them, Religion develops according to the age and environments. Some worship the sun, some worship the images of other deities. Some create their Gods in their own image and invest them with human qualities, while others purify

TATTWABODHINI PATRIK.r\

themselves by the spiritual worship of an Infinite, Omniscient . and All-Benevolent Being. All these different types of religion are based on human nature. As the human mind develops, man's conception of God undergoes corresponding changes. In the earlier stages of civilisation man was ignorant and superstitious, not only in religious but in other matters as well. With the increase of knowledge and the development of man's mental powers he makes progress in all concerns of life. · In that early stage, man worshipped beings which appeared to him as uncommon in beauty and strength, He considered as Gods, those which influenced h~m most in the world as well as those which struck him with awe and admiration. He prayed to them for their blessings. As intelligence progressed, he began to create the images of many gods and goddesses, investing them with human qualities and regarding them as Presiding Deities. In course of time the mental and physical states of man wtre made into Gods. These gods had buman en1otions and behaved like human beings. Heroes were, very oft~n. deified and rec~ived the worship of the common men. A belief grew that God, in order to regenerate .society and redeem man, incarnates himself. Men belonging to different countries regarded their gods as excerising supernatural powers but never regarded them as .all independent Man always creates one leader or supreme ·Ruler among the heirarchy of gods he worships. It might be :Said that the conception of a Supreme Ruler led to the worship cf one god among the different nations of the world. In · the Perfect nature of God. If all merciful God had, so they say, been Omnipotent, he could not have tolerated the slightest tinge of evil in this world. God cannot be both Omnipotent and All-merciful. Nor can he be regarded as Omni- scient, else how could he create a world which he cannot sustain properly ? We, The Patrika pointed out, do not know the porposes of even individual man, how can \Ve kno\v the inscrutable purposes of God ? Sceptics see imperfection in the world . They cannot consequently, accept God as perfect. They try to determine the nature of the cause from the effect. But we al wa ys directly reali; God as Perfect. It is not in the external w0rld· 7

98

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but in our own soul that we obtain a knowledge of the Infinitude of God. This knowledge does not depend on the objective world. It is natural knowledge and cannot be made otherwise by the imperfection by the world. God is perfeet, i. e. He is All-benificient, Omniscient and Omnipotent. Two Omnipotent Beings can never coexist. There can, consequently, be only one Omnipotent Being in the world. He is Perfect in time, place and essence. The Perfect is the only basic object. Else Perfectness becomes divided. If God be Perfect, He is one single basic entity. All else are imperfect. They have all to depend upon Him for their existence. Hence imperfectness or evil is of the essence of the Universe. If we observe the activities of the world we find that all objects are going forward towards progress. In this stair of progress there must be a place for evil which is imperfection. The beneficent powers of creation are always conquering evil and transforming the universe into beneficence. Conscious energy is the essence of human life. Human progres~ is determined by the development of this conscious energy. Opposition is absolutely necessary to keep this energy active. Opposition is evil and it is absolutely necessary for the development of man. We are so far absorbed in the pursuit of material objects 1hat we belief more in obj~cts of the senses than in spiritual entities. We very often, do not even recognise the existence of the spiritual world, we forget that our knowledge of the basic principles of the physical world is derived from intuitive eonceptions and, as such. is beyond the range of reason. So also is our knowledge of the fundamental elements of the spiritual world, We can examine it but cannot destroy it. lf we disbelieve these int1.1itive conceptions the very fo1.1ndations of our knowledge of the world is destroyed. Intuition is at the root of all our knowledge. It is direct knowledge and requires no external evidence for its support. Even John Stuart Mill accepted it as such. "According to all philosophers, the evidence of consciousness, if we can obtain it pure, is conclusive. What we know mediately depends for its evidence on our previous knowledge of something else ; unless, therefore, we know something immediately we could

CHAPTER III

not know anything at all." Again : "the verdict then of consciousness, ••• ..••. our immediate and intuitive communication, is admitted ... .. .. to be a decision from which there is no appeal". 1 Sceptics, however, are of opinion that intuition cannot give us knowledge of anything other than the self. Intuitive knowledge about other objects is illusory. It is destroyed by the slightest philosophy. This opinion cannot be accepted in regard to the knowledge of God. Our soul is so intimately related to God that a knowledge of the soul involyes the knowof God. When we examine our inner self we find that it is absolutely dependent on a perfect Being. Dependence of the soul on God is eternal. This knowledge is not the result of superstition. Ours is living God, a Purposeful Person. The univer~al belief in after-life cannot be based on the conception of Blind Force. We can have no faith in such a blind force, however stupendous it might be.9 All our endeavours, secular or religious, are directed towards the future. The Sceptics restrict their hopes of the future to the narrow limits of earthly life where misery domi• nates over happiness while the believer finds stretched out before him limitless possibilities of progress and self-realisation. Are the sceptics sure that life ends with death ? Have they any positive proof for it ? If not, is it not better to be a believer than a sceptic ? This belief strengthens us in our ·endeavours for self-realisation. Of all the ties which bind society for preservation, religion is the strongest, and religion is based upon a belief in God and after-life.• But from very early times there have been sceptics like Brihaspati. What is the reason for their existence ? In the older days when men began to form society, the religious senti·m ent, which had lain dormant so long, was gradually roused. Poets and Priests began to instill into their minds religious ideas. These ideas got mixed up with imaginary principles. 1. Mill-An examination of Sir W. Hamilton's philosophy. 2. 1801 Saka, 'Jaistha', pp. 25 et seq. 3. 1801 Saka Asarh, pp. 52 et seq.

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For poets are imaginative by nature. Urged on by a desire to gain supremacy over the common people, priests introduced erroneous ideas which supported their claims. The tyranny of priests cannot last for ever. In every age there arise persons who courageously rise against the oppressions of priest-hood. Brihaspati was such a rebel. The germinal principles of religion have been implanted in the minds of men by God. They can only be developed by following the instructions of religious preceptors. These preceptors can help society only so long as they do dot mix with the natural religious sentiment, principles which are foreign. to it. Unfortunately, however, they overload the primary religious ideas with false conceptions ; so much so, that their followers, suppressed by the rigid discipline of religious codes,. Jose their freedom of conscience. The inevitable reaction, follows. Once doubts are raised regarding some parts of religious injunctions, their implicit faith in traditions receives a rude shock. Scepticism spreads from parts to the whole and soon the entire body of religious beliefs is repudiated. This. is, in most cases, the cause of the rise of scepticism. Scepticism is further strengthened by our attachment to material comforts. We live in the material world. We have to use it for our livelihood. It lies stretched before us with all its attractions. The spiri'tual world gradually fades in the back.ground of our consciousness. We lose touch with God and the higher ideals of spiritual life. Our morals are then guided by considerations of material happiness and misery. Martyrdom for religion becomes a weakness. We cannot even conceive of man's Love for God. The thinkers of this school regard selfishness to be the aim of life. They brutalise all human instincts and make the soul of man inert. They confine the yearnings and aspirations of man to this worldly life. Leaders of religion do not want that their theories should be brought to the test of reason. They proclaim that religious dogmas are supernaturally revealed. Any criticism of these dogmas would be visited by dire punishment in hell. This fear of reason and specially of criticism accentuates scepticism, If religion shuts out reason it becomes inert. Science has

OHAPTER Ill

101

progressed because reason has been given full play in its investigations. Why should not reason be allowed to examine religious principles ? Religion is not meant for fools. It is meant for reasonable beings as well. Reason can strengthen religious faith if allowed freedom to examine spiritual matters. The fearful pictures painted of hell, strengthens scepticism. When people contemplate the horrors of hell this mind recoils from it and is eager to repudiate its belief in after-life.• (B) Empirieiam

There is a common belief that the human soul is different from its body-a belief based on the universal experience of different nations. But recently there has arisen a school of thought by which many young men have been misled. It regards external objects as a "permanent possibilities of sensation" and mind as "permanent possibility of feeling" . Consciousness lies at the basis of all knowledge. Some .are, however, of opinion that "we are immediately conscious in the perception of an ego and a non•ego known together and known in contrast to each other"•. This is the fact of the Duality of Consciousness. It is clear and manifest. When I 1'RJKA

between nationalism and universalism is essential to the deve.!opment of a nation. People should not try to win liberty at .the cost of social welfare. By cultivating the principles of -.social welfare, liberty could . be acquired. The controversy -0ver the special marriage Act brought into prominence these ~ssentially conservative ideals of this school. But the ideals -could not prevail against the overwhelming drift towards a new mental horizon regarding national development then .current in Bengali society. 1

(8)

Nationali1m

The Patrika was one of the earliest exponents of nationa lism and its interpretation of nationalism has an air of ,p rogressive modernism about it. God has, so it held, created all human beings and as such 'they are brothers. \Ve have a natural sympa1hy for all men. Even individuals belonging to different nations separated . by hatred, have been seen to be closely attached to one ' ..another. Even as people love men in general, they have a ·.tendency to love thei1 own country-men and their own "-country. They love their own country however poor and :infertile it might be. They love their own nation, irrespective ·of whether it is strong or weak. We cannot have any desire ·to improve the condition of our country if we are not inspired A>y patriotism. The liberation of India depends on patriotism. India will prosper according as its people are united by this feeling . . India is inhabited by people professing different faiths \like Hinduism, Islam, Christianity. Deep-seated unity cannot be achieved unless people profess the same religion. Not to speak of religion it is very difficult to unite a nation which