Systems Thinking for Supporting Students with Special Needs and Disabilities: A Handbook for Classroom Teachers 9813345578, 9789813345577

Table of contents :
Foreword
Preface
Part I
Part II
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Part ILeading Inclusive Education with Systems Thinking
1 Theories and Models in Systems Thinking
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What Is Systems Thinking?
1.3 What Are Systems?
1.3.1 System Boundaries and Environments
1.3.2 System Characteristics
1.3.3 Functions of a System
1.3.4 Feedback
1.4 Methodologies in Systems Thinking
1.4.1 Methodologies and Models in Systems Thinking
1.4.2 Hard Systems Thinking
1.4.3 Soft Systems Thinking
1.5 Models in Systems Thinking
1.5.1 The Kolb Learning Cycle
1.5.2 The Cynefin Framework
1.5.3 Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory
1.5.4 Reader Reflection
References
2 Becoming a Systems Thinker
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Using Systems Thinking in Your Daily Routines
2.3 Shift from Traditional Thinking Skills to Systems Thinking Skills
2.3.1 Dynamic Thinking
2.3.2 System-as-Cause Thinking
2.3.3 Forest Thinking
2.3.4 Operational Thinking
2.3.5 Closed-Loop Thinking
2.3.6 Quantitative Thinking
2.3.7 Scientific Thinking
2.4 Using the DSRP Framework to Guide Systems Thinking
2.4.1 Distinctions (Identity–Other)
2.4.2 Systems
2.4.3 Relationships (Action–Reaction)
2.4.4 Perspectives (Point–View)
2.5 Wicked Problems and How to Understand Them
2.5.1 Ten Characteristics of Wicked Problems
2.5.2 Another Example of How to Handle Wicked Problems
2.6 Advice from Systems Thinking Experts
2.6.1 Five Disciplines for System Leaders
2.6.2 The Seven Constraints that Can Limit Systems Leaders
2.7 Conclusion
References
3 The Social System and Education
3.1 Introduction
3.2 What Is a Social System?
3.2.1 Social Structure
3.2.2 Functions of a Social System
3.3 Resources in a Social System
3.3.1 Human Capital
3.3.2 Social Capital
3.3.3 Physical Resources
3.3.4 Economic Resources
3.3.5 Resources and Equality
3.4 Social Processes
3.4.1 Social Networks
3.5 Education as Part of a Social System
3.5.1 The School as a Subsystem of the Education System
3.6 Human Rights, Equality and Equity in Education
References
4 A Systems View to Understand Complex Problems in Education
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Inclusive Education and Education for All
4.2.1 Crucial Factors for the Success of Inclusive Education and Education for All
4.3 Understanding Complexity in Inclusive Education
4.3.1 Understanding Complexity
4.4 Applying a System Analysis to Unearth Problems Impeding Inclusive Education Success
4.4.1 Boundary Spanning
4.4.2 Stakeholder Analysis and Engagement
4.5 Conclusion
References
5 Leading Change with Systems Design
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Lead Systems Change! Move Everyone Forward!
5.3 A Five-Stage Design Model to Lead Systems Change
5.3.1 The Five Stages of the Hasso-Plattner Design Thinking Model
5.4 Stage 1: Empathise—Listen to Your Stakeholders
5.4.1 Students as Stakeholders
5.4.2 Parents as Stakeholders
5.4.3 Teachers as Stakeholders
5.4.4 School Leaders as Stakeholders
5.4.5 Governmental Agencies as Stakeholders
5.4.6 The Media as Stakeholders
5.5 Stage 2: Define: What Are You Going to Change?
5.5.1 Flexible Learning Environments
5.5.2 School Capacity and Teacher Readiness
5.5.3 A Shift in the Learning Culture
5.5.4 Subject Content Variety
5.6 Stage 3: Ideate (How to Change, Change Ideas)
5.7 Stages 4 and 5: Pilot and Test
References
6 The Bronfenbrenner Micro- and Meso- Systems
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Application of Systems Thinking Using Bronfenbrenner’s Theory
6.3 The Child
6.3.1 The Child Viewed at the Microsystem Level
6.3.2 The Child Viewed at the Mesosystem Level
6.4 Parents and Family
6.4.1 Parents and Family Viewed at the Microsystem Level
6.4.2 Parents and Family Viewed at the Mesosystem Level
6.5 Teachers
6.5.1 The Teacher at the Microsystem Level
6.5.2 Teachers Viewed at the Mesosystem Level
6.6 The School and School Leadership
6.6.1 Schools and School Leadership Viewed at the Microsystem Level
6.6.2 The School and School Leadership Viewed at the Mesosystem Level
References
7 The Exosystem: A Systems Approach to Developing Collective Leadership
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Collective Leadership to Meet Today’s Demands
7.3 Leading Self
7.4 Leading Others and Leading Other Leaders
7.4.1 Leading Others
7.4.2 Leading Other Leaders
7.5 Leading the Organisation and Leading the Community
7.5.1 Leading the Organisation
7.5.2 Leading the Community
7.6 Professional Learning and Development to Enhance Leadership Growth
7.7 Conclusion
References
8 The Macrosystem
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Social and Cultural Factors
8.3 Policies and Implementation
8.3.1 What Can Systems Leaders Do?
8.4 University Academics and Teacher Educators
8.5 The Media
References
9 The Chronosystem
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The Past: Education Before Inclusion
9.2.1 The 1970s
9.2.2 The 1980s
9.2.3 The 1990s
9.3 The New Millennium
9.4 The Present (2010–2020)
9.5 The Future
References
Part IIUnderstanding the Different Types of Special Education Needs and Disabilities and Classroom Strategies
10 Supporting Students with ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactive Disorder
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Definition of ADHD
10.2.1 Medical Classifications
10.3 Theories and Models on ADHD
10.3.1 Executive Function Theory
10.3.2 Dynamic Developmental Theory (DDT)
10.3.3 PASS Theory
10.4 Different Schools of Thoughts About ADHD
10.5 Challenges Faced by Students with ADHD
10.5.1 Difficulties with Reading and Writing
10.6 Some Teaching Strategies to Support Students with ADHD
10.6.1 Seating Arrangements
10.6.2 Academic Instructions
10.6.3 Organisational Skills
10.6.4 Classroom Management
10.7 Helping Students with Social Adjustments
10.8 Conclusion
References
11 Assisting Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Definition of Autism Spectrum Disorder
11.2.1 Asperger’s Syndrome
11.3 Challenges Faced by Students with ASD
11.3.1 Social Isolation
11.4 Challenges Faced by Peers of the Student with ASD
11.5 Challenges Faced by Teachers of Children with ASD
11.6 The Importance of Partnering with Parents
11.7 Barriers to the Inclusion of Students with ASD
11.8 A Whole-School Approach to Support Students with ASD
11.8.1 Create an ASD Friendly School Community
11.9 Early Intervention for Children with ASD
11.9.1 Current Models and Theories on Early Intervention
11.10 Educational Approaches to Support Students with ASD
11.10.1 The Social Constructive Model
11.10.2 Cognitive Behaviour Approach
11.11 Classroom Tips for Teachers
11.11.1 Use of Visual Schedules
11.11.2 Benefits of Using Visual Schedules
11.11.3 Types of Visual Schedules
11.11.4 Reading Fluency
11.11.5 Comprehension
11.11.6 Basic Math Skills
11.11.7 Concept Knowledge
11.11.8 Procedural Knowledge
11.11.9 Using Specific Strategies to Solve Math Problems
11.11.10 Behavioural Management
11.12 Conclusion
References
12 Supporting Students with Cerebral Palsy
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Defining Cerebral Palsy (CP)
12.3 Causes of Cerebral Palsy
12.3.1 Other Complications
12.3.2 Intellectual Difficulties
12.3.3 Communication and Language Difficulties
12.3.4 Speech Difficulties
12.3.5 Vision and Hearing
12.3.6 Eating and Drinking Difficulties
12.3.7 Epilepsy
12.4 Challenges Faced by Students with CP
12.4.1 Posture and Muscle Tone Abnormality
12.4.2 Motor/Sensory Deficits
12.4.3 Gross Motor Functional Limitations
12.4.4 Communication Difficulties
12.4.5 Behavioural and Emotional Issues
12.5 Early Interventions
12.5.1 Medical Management
12.5.2 Surgical Procedures
12.5.3 Therapy
12.6 Teacher Attitude and Readiness in Supporting Students with CP
12.7 How to Support Students with CP in the Mainstream Classroom
12.7.1 Collaboration and Teamwork
12.8 Partnering with Parents
12.9 Classroom Strategies to Support Students with CP
12.9.1 To Keep Students Safe from Environmental Obstacles, Teachers Can
12.9.2 To Enhance Active Learning in the Classroom, It Is Helpful When Teachers
12.9.3 Use of Assistive Technology
12.10 Social and Emotional Needs of Students with CP
12.11 Individualised Support for Students with CP
12.11.1 Accommodation
12.11.2 Alternative Programmes
12.12 Conclusion
12.12.1 The Success Story of Jack
12.13 Resources
References
13 Supporting Students with Deafblindness
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Definition of Deafblindness
13.3 Causes of Deafblindness
13.4 Impact of Deafblindness
13.5 Needs of Students with Deafblindness in Mainstream Classrooms
13.6 How Children with Deafblindness Communicate
13.6.1 Communication Barriers
13.6.2 Social Barriers
13.7 Working with Parents of Children with Deafblindness
13.8 Suggestions for Classroom Teachers
13.8.1 Ensuring a Safe Learning Environment
13.8.2 Modification of Learning Materials
13.8.3 Using Assistive Technology
13.8.4 Independent Living Skills
13.8.5 Orientation and Mobility
13.8.6 Self-Advocacy
13.8.7 Recreation and Leisure
13.9 Supporting Transition from School to Vocation
13.10 Famous People with Deafblindness
13.11 Conclusion
References
14 Supporting Students with Dyslexia
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Defining Dyslexia
14.3 Signs and Symptoms of Dyslexia
14.4 Diagnostic Assessment of Dyslexia
14.5 Dyslexia and English Literacy
14.6 Helping Dyslexic Children with Their Learning Difficulties
14.7 Teacher Readiness and Skills to Support Students with Dyslexia
14.8 Suggestions for Teachers
14.9 Conclusion
References
15 Supporting Students with Emotional and Behavioural Disorder
15.1 Introduction
15.2 What Is Emotional and Behavioural Disorder (EBD)
15.3 Misconceptions About Individuals with EBD and Associated Mental Health Issues
15.4 Common Theories and Models on EBD
15.5 Common Approaches to Support Individuals with EBD
15.5.1 Early Intervention Approaches
15.5.2 Parent Training
15.5.3 Social Skills and Anger Management Training
15.5.4 Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT) and Problem-Solving Skills
15.6 Challenges Faced by Students with EBD
15.7 Challenges Faced by Parents of Students with EBD
15.8 Parent–Teacher Partnership
15.9 Challenges and Concerns Faced by Teachers
15.10 Suggestions for Classroom Intervention
15.11 Examples of Intervention Strategies
15.11.1 Helping students to reduce rude language
15.11.2 Helping students to stop aggression and violence
15.11.3 Helping students to develop resilience
15.12 Conclusion
References
16 Supporting Students with Giftedness
16.1 Introduction
16.2 What Is Giftedness?
16.3 Theories and Models on Giftedness
16.4 Characteristics of Gifted Individuals
16.5 Challenges Faced by Gifted Students
16.6 Nurturing and Supporting Students Who Are Gifted or Talented
16.7 School Leadership Required to Nurture Gifted Students
16.8 Challenges Faced by Teachers
16.9 Universal Designed Learning
16.10 Conclusion
References
17 Supporting Students with Hearing Impairment
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Defining Hearing Impairment (HI)
17.3 Causes of Hearing Loss
17.3.1 Treatment
17.3.2 Hearing and Learning
17.4 Executive Function and Hearing Loss
17.5 Hearing Loss and Language Development
17.6 Inclusion of Students with Hearing Impairment
17.6.1 Teacher Factors
17.6.2 Instructional Strategies
17.6.3 Seating and Noise Management
17.6.4 Visual and Technological Support
17.6.5 Adjustments in the Classroom
17.6.6 Different Modes of Classroom Support
17.6.7 Building Self-Confidence in Wearing Hearing Aids
17.7 Social and Emotional Development
17.8 Social Inclusion in the School Community
17.9 Music and Hearing Impairment
17.10 Conclusion
References
18 Supporting Students with Vision Impairment
18.1 Introduction
18.2 What Is Vision Impairment?
18.2.1 Definitions
18.2.2 Distance Vision Impairment Describes
18.2.3 Causes of Vision Impairment
18.3 Signs and Symptoms of Vision Impairment
18.4 Effects of Blindness and Low Vision on Young Children
18.5 Functional Vision
18.5.1 Educational Implications
18.6 Classroom Learning Needs of Students with Vision Loss
18.6.1 Braille and Tactile Graphics
18.7 Suggestions for Classroom Teachers
18.7.1 Use Differentiated Instruction
18.7.2 Communication
18.7.3 Establish a Positive Learning Environment
18.7.4 Core Curriculum
18.7.5 Teaching Instruction
18.7.6 Academic Assessments
18.8 Orientation and Mobility Training
18.9 Social and Leisure Skills for Visually Impaired Students
18.10 Conclusion
References

Citation preview

Mabel Gonzales

Systems Thinking for Supporting Students with Special Needs and Disabilities A Handbook for Classroom Teachers

Systems Thinking for Supporting Students with Special Needs and Disabilities

Mabel Gonzales

Systems Thinking for Supporting Students with Special Needs and Disabilities A Handbook for Classroom Teachers

Mabel Gonzales Russell Lea, NSW, Australia

ISBN 978-981-33-4557-7 ISBN 978-981-33-4558-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4558-4 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Foreword

I have been most fortunate to work for a range of different organisations in a variety of roles at all levels in my professional life. During that time, I have read extensively books on leadership and business education. I found that many authors provided theories and mentioned what to do yet, few give the reader guidance that are specific, practicable and evidence-based. This book, Systems Thinking for Supporting Students with Special Needs and Disabilities brings Systems Thinking into the education and school arena in the most practical way. It comprehensively covers the recent theories and practices and also provides practical examples for the ‘doing’. It is able to fill the Knowing-Doing Gap highlighted in the work of Pfeffer and Sutton (2000), who stress the importance of turning knowledge into action. Most importantly, this book is written by someone who has actually ‘done it’. Dr. Gonzales has dedicated her entire professional life helping and coaching teachers, parents and helping community groups to support students with special needs and disabilities to bring the ideals of inclusive education to reality. She has seamlessly blended the application of systems thinking with the broad themes and the different aspects of inclusive education, school leadership and classroom practice. Dr. David Moont Co-founder, Australian Executive Leadership Coaching Centre

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Preface

School leadership today is multidimensional and demanding. School leaders face immense pressures from current education and school reform movements that have arisen in response to societal and technological changes on a global scale. Systems thinking is a new way of viewing and understanding the multifaceted demands and external forces that impact our schools today. When we adopt a systems thinking lens to understand education, we gain awareness of and clarity on what is going on in the school and its environment. As we become able to understand the interrelationships between issues and how each issue impacts others, complex problems become less threatening, and solutions can be created. Traditionally, we have been taught to solve problems by focusing on individual elements of the issue, and working step by step through to a solution to each one. In contrast, systems thinking takes a holistic approach to understanding the dynamics and connectedness of each component in a system, and how their interactions can contribute to a problem or become part of a solution. It prompts us to look at overall structures, patterns and cycles in order to explore opportunities for improvement, redesign broken systems and mobilise collective action. This book aims to inspire readers to lead systemically. It introduces key theories and models of systems thinking that are used in relevant social science fields including education and leadership studies. It points out the differences between traditional thinking approaches and systems thinking, and enables readers to follow a multiperspective process in understanding an issue. One of these key issues is planning and implementing Education For All. Education For All is a global call to action led by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) to protect children’s right to education. UNESCO states that it is the responsibility and moral obligation of all school leaders and teachers to ensure that every child has equal access to school education, feels safe, connected and respected in the school environment, and is given guidance and support to learn and develop. Sadly, despite decades of support from UNESCO and input from scholars passionate about making this ideal into a reality, the practices of inclusion and Education For All, particularly for students with disabilities, remain a challenge. vii

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Using Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of development as a guide, the book therefore explores leadership within the different layers of a system and how school leaders can use systems thinking to implement inclusive education and Education For All. Bronfenbrenner’s model is a popular paradigm used in social science to understand how different, nested systems affect individuals and their environment. This book is written in two parts. Part I discusses systems thinking and how school leaders and teachers can develop systems thinking skills to solve complex problems collectively and collaboratively. Part II introduces theories and models on a range of special needs and disabilities and presents evidence-based strategies to support classroom teachers in their facilitation of school learning for children with different special needs and disabilities. This book aims to ignite teachers’ and school leaders’ passion to make a difference—to lead and shape societal change for a better future. Using a systems approach, they can identify and understand barriers, question the status quo and develop new models for a better future. It supports the implementation of Education For All at the classroom level with suggestions on the ‘why’, ‘what to do’ and ‘how’.

Part I Chapter 1 of the book gives an overview of what systems thinking is and explains what systems mean in terms of systems thinking practices. It gives some examples of commonly used systems thinking methodologies and presents some examples of models in systems thinking. Chapter 2 sets out the path to becoming a systems thinker. It shows the reader how to use systems thinking in daily routines in order to practise thinking in systems and relations, as learning a new thinking approach takes daily practice and time. The chapter shares some tips on how to make the shift from traditional thinking to systems thinking, introduces a framework to guide systems thinking and defines wicked problems and discusses how to understand them. It also shares expert advice from renowned systems thinkers so the reader can identify pitfalls to look out for when practising systems thinking. Chapter 3 discusses what a social system is, how it is influenced by its structure and the interplay between its structure and the functions of a social system. The chapter explores the importance of resources as elements in a social system and how the distribution of resources affects social equality. It points out the difference between education and schooling, and how the school as a nested component of the wider education system can be analysed via its internal subsystems to gain an understanding of how those subsystems impact each other. Chapter 4 presents a systems view of inclusive education and discusses the benefits of genuine inclusive education. The word ‘genuine’ is stressed here to emphasise that while school leaders and teachers in many school systems pay lip service to this important value, without genuine support, inclusion of children with special needs in the mainstream classroom can be just as harmful to them as being segregated in

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special education settings. The chapter proposes a paradigm shift in how educators understand both general and inclusive education. It spells out some of the challenges and complexities involved in leading genuine inclusive education, and introduces systems analysis, a technique that can be used to understand systems challenges and complexity. Chapter 5 is about putting all the theories into practice, starting with planning systems change with Design Thinking. This chapter guides the reader through the various stages in System Design Thinking to transform traditional teacher-led teaching to the current trend of student-led learning in school education. Chapter 6 guides the reader to look at the child (student), and their parents and family, teachers, school and school leadership at the microsystem and mesosystem levels as a way to practise an element of systems thinking. Chapter 7 focuses school leadership as a key element of the exosystem. It discusses the need to reconceptualise school leadership to meet the complex demands of today’s schools. It introduces a School Leadership Pipeline Model to guide systemic and holistic leadership development and enable teachers and senior school leaders to work in collaboration and exercise collective leadership both as a core group and as individual leaders to meet different demands. Chapter 8 explores the macrosystem, where inclusive education is impacted directly and indirectly by systems factors at the macro level. It focuses on four elements of the macrosystem: social and cultural factors; policies and practices; teacher educators and teacher education; and the influence of the mass media. This chapter will inspire systems leaders to become more aware of these peripheral factors and how they impede the progress of inclusive education, and encourage them to take bold action to lead change so that the next generation of children with special needs will lead more equitable and happy lives. Chapter 9 takes the reader on a tour to the chronosystem which embodies the patterning of events and transitions that occur over the course of an individual’s life, including sociohistorical events that have an impact on that individual. It considers how the movement of time impacts or influences an individual. The aim of this chapter is to show the reader that in systems thinking, time and experience need to be considered in order to understand the person in focus.

Part II Part II of the book aims to contribute to an understanding of the theories and practice of Inclusive Education and share with teachers in inclusive schools some evidencebased classroom strategies. In addition to designing learning for all, it is crucial that classroom teachers and school leaders know the specific needs of students with different special needs and disabilities and address these needs by working with other professionals and specialists, and more importantly, with their parents. Each chapter begins by describing how each type of disability is defined, challenges and barriers faced by students, the family and teachers, followed by practical

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strategies to help the reader to plan learning support and take needed steps to help students with these different types of disabilities. The disabilities described include: Chapter 10 Supporting Students with Attention Deficit and Hyperactive Disorder. Chapter 11 Assisting students with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Chapter 12 Cerebral Palsy (CP). Chapter 13 Deafblindness. Chapter 14 Dyslexia Chapter 15 Emotional and Behavioural Disorder (EBD). Chapter 16 Giftedness. Chapter 17 Hearing Impairment (HI). Chapter 18 Vision Impairment (VI). Russell Lea, Australia

Mabel Gonzales

Contents

Part I 1

2

Leading Inclusive Education with Systems Thinking

Theories and Models in Systems Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 What Is Systems Thinking? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 What Are Systems? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 System Boundaries and Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 System Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Functions of a System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.4 Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Methodologies in Systems Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.1 Methodologies and Models in Systems Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.2 Hard Systems Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.3 Soft Systems Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Models in Systems Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.1 The Kolb Learning Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.2 The Cynefin Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.3 Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.4 Reader Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Becoming a Systems Thinker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Using Systems Thinking in Your Daily Routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Shift from Traditional Thinking Skills to Systems Thinking Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Dynamic Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 System-as-Cause Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Forest Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.4 Operational Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.5 Closed-Loop Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2.3.6 Quantitative Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.7 Scientific Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Using the DSRP Framework to Guide Systems Thinking . . . . . . 2.4.1 Distinctions (Identity–Other) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3 Relationships (Action–Reaction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.4 Perspectives (Point–View) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Wicked Problems and How to Understand Them . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.1 Ten Characteristics of Wicked Problems . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.2 Another Example of How to Handle Wicked Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Advice from Systems Thinking Experts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.1 Five Disciplines for System Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.2 The Seven Constraints that Can Limit Systems Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24 25 25 25 25 26 26 27 27

The Social System and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 What Is a Social System? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Social Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Functions of a Social System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Resources in a Social System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Human Capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Social Capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Physical Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4 Economic Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.5 Resources and Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Social Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Social Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Education as Part of a Social System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 The School as a Subsystem of the Education System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Human Rights, Equality and Equity in Education . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33 33 33 34 34 35 36 37 38 39 39 40 41 42

A Systems View to Understand Complex Problems in Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Inclusive Education and Education for All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Crucial Factors for the Success of Inclusive Education and Education for All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Understanding Complexity in Inclusive Education . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Understanding Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28 29 29 30 32 32

43 46 47 49 49 49 51 52 53

Contents

Applying a System Analysis to Unearth Problems Impeding Inclusive Education Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Boundary Spanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Stakeholder Analysis and Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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5

6

Leading Change with Systems Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Lead Systems Change! Move Everyone Forward! . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 A Five-Stage Design Model to Lead Systems Change . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 The Five Stages of the Hasso-Plattner Design Thinking Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Stage 1: Empathise—Listen to Your Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Students as Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Parents as Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3 Teachers as Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.4 School Leaders as Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.5 Governmental Agencies as Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.6 The Media as Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Stage 2: Define: What Are You Going to Change? . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.1 Flexible Learning Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.2 School Capacity and Teacher Readiness . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.3 A Shift in the Learning Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.4 Subject Content Variety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Stage 3: Ideate (How to Change, Change Ideas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Stages 4 and 5: Pilot and Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Bronfenbrenner Micro- and Meso- Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Application of Systems Thinking Using Bronfenbrenner’s Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 The Child . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 The Child Viewed at the Microsystem Level . . . . . . . 6.3.2 The Child Viewed at the Mesosystem Level . . . . . . . 6.4 Parents and Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 Parents and Family Viewed at the Microsystem Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.2 Parents and Family Viewed at the Mesosystem Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.1 The Teacher at the Microsystem Level . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.2 Teachers Viewed at the Mesosystem Level . . . . . . . . 6.6 The School and School Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54 55 56 60 60 61 61 61 64 65 65 66 66 67 68 69 70 72 73 74 75 75 76 77 79 81 81 81 82 82 84 85 85 86 87 87 88 89

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6.6.1

Schools and School Leadership Viewed at the Microsystem Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.2 The School and School Leadership Viewed at the Mesosystem Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

The Exosystem: A Systems Approach to Developing Collective Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Collective Leadership to Meet Today’s Demands . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Leading Self . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Leading Others and Leading Other Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.1 Leading Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.2 Leading Other Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Leading the Organisation and Leading the Community . . . . . . . 7.5.1 Leading the Organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.2 Leading the Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 Professional Learning and Development to Enhance Leadership Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

89 90 91 93 93 93 97 99 99 101 103 104 106 107 110 110

8

The Macrosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Social and Cultural Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Policies and Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.1 What Can Systems Leaders Do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 University Academics and Teacher Educators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 The Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

111 111 111 114 116 118 119 122

9

The Chronosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 The Past: Education Before Inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.1 The 1970s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.2 The 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.3 The 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 The New Millennium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 The Present (2010–2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 The Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

123 123 123 124 125 127 128 130 132 135

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Part II

xv

Understanding the Different Types of Special Education Needs and Disabilities and Classroom Strategies

10 Supporting Students with ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactive Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Definition of ADHD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.1 Medical Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 Theories and Models on ADHD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3.1 Executive Function Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3.2 Dynamic Developmental Theory (DDT) . . . . . . . . . . 10.3.3 PASS Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 Different Schools of Thoughts About ADHD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5 Challenges Faced by Students with ADHD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5.1 Difficulties with Reading and Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6 Some Teaching Strategies to Support Students with ADHD . . . . 10.6.1 Seating Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6.2 Academic Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6.3 Organisational Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6.4 Classroom Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7 Helping Students with Social Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Assisting Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Definition of Autism Spectrum Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.1 Asperger’s Syndrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Challenges Faced by Students with ASD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3.1 Social Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 Challenges Faced by Peers of the Student with ASD . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 Challenges Faced by Teachers of Children with ASD . . . . . . . . . 11.6 The Importance of Partnering with Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7 Barriers to the Inclusion of Students with ASD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8 A Whole-School Approach to Support Students with ASD . . . . 11.8.1 Create an ASD Friendly School Community . . . . . . . 11.9 Early Intervention for Children with ASD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9.1 Current Models and Theories on Early Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.10 Educational Approaches to Support Students with ASD . . . . . . . 11.10.1 The Social Constructive Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.10.2 Cognitive Behaviour Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11 Classroom Tips for Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11.1 Use of Visual Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11.2 Benefits of Using Visual Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11.3 Types of Visual Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

139 139 139 140 140 140 141 141 141 142 143 144 144 144 145 146 146 147 147 149 149 149 150 150 152 152 153 154 155 155 156 157 158 159 159 159 160 160 161 161

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11.11.4 11.11.5 11.11.6 11.11.7 11.11.8 11.11.9

Reading Fluency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic Math Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concept Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Procedural Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Using Specific Strategies to Solve Math Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11.10 Behavioural Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.12 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Supporting Students with Cerebral Palsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 Defining Cerebral Palsy (CP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 Causes of Cerebral Palsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.1 Other Complications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.2 Intellectual Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.3 Communication and Language Difficulties . . . . . . . . 12.3.4 Speech Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.5 Vision and Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.6 Eating and Drinking Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.7 Epilepsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4 Challenges Faced by Students with CP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4.1 Posture and Muscle Tone Abnormality . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4.2 Motor/Sensory Deficits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4.3 Gross Motor Functional Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4.4 Communication Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4.5 Behavioural and Emotional Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5 Early Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.1 Medical Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.2 Surgical Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.3 Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6 Teacher Attitude and Readiness in Supporting Students with CP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.7 How to Support Students with CP in the Mainstream Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.7.1 Collaboration and Teamwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.8 Partnering with Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.9 Classroom Strategies to Support Students with CP . . . . . . . . . . . 12.9.1 To Keep Students Safe from Environmental Obstacles, Teachers Can . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.9.2 To Enhance Active Learning in the Classroom, It Is Helpful When Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.9.3 Use of Assistive Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.10 Social and Emotional Needs of Students with CP . . . . . . . . . . . .

162 162 162 163 163 163 164 164 164 167 167 167 168 169 169 170 170 170 170 170 171 171 171 172 172 172 172 173 173 173 173 174 175 175 176 176 176 176 177

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12.11 Individualised Support for Students with CP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.11.1 Accommodation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.11.2 Alternative Programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.12 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.12.1 The Success Story of Jack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.13 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

177 177 178 178 179 180 180

13 Supporting Students with Deafblindness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 Definition of Deafblindness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 Causes of Deafblindness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 Impact of Deafblindness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5 Needs of Students with Deafblindness in Mainstream Classrooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6 How Children with Deafblindness Communicate . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6.1 Communication Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6.2 Social Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.7 Working with Parents of Children with Deafblindness . . . . . . . . 13.8 Suggestions for Classroom Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.8.1 Ensuring a Safe Learning Environment . . . . . . . . . . . 13.8.2 Modification of Learning Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.8.3 Using Assistive Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.8.4 Independent Living Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.8.5 Orientation and Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.8.6 Self-Advocacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.8.7 Recreation and Leisure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.9 Supporting Transition from School to Vocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.10 Famous People with Deafblindness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

183 183 183 184 184

14 Supporting Students with Dyslexia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2 Defining Dyslexia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Signs and Symptoms of Dyslexia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 Diagnostic Assessment of Dyslexia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5 Dyslexia and English Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6 Helping Dyslexic Children with Their Learning Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.7 Teacher Readiness and Skills to Support Students with Dyslexia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.8 Suggestions for Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

185 187 188 188 189 190 190 190 191 191 191 191 192 192 193 194 194 197 197 197 198 199 199 201 203 204 204 205

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Contents

15 Supporting Students with Emotional and Behavioural Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2 What Is Emotional and Behavioural Disorder (EBD) . . . . . . . . . 15.3 Misconceptions About Individuals with EBD and Associated Mental Health Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4 Common Theories and Models on EBD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5 Common Approaches to Support Individuals with EBD . . . . . . . 15.5.1 Early Intervention Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5.2 Parent Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5.3 Social Skills and Anger Management Training . . . . . 15.5.4 Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT) and Problem-Solving Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.6 Challenges Faced by Students with EBD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7 Challenges Faced by Parents of Students with EBD . . . . . . . . . . 15.8 Parent–Teacher Partnership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.9 Challenges and Concerns Faced by Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.10 Suggestions for Classroom Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.11 Examples of Intervention Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.11.1 Helping students to reduce rude language . . . . . . . . . 15.11.2 Helping students to stop aggression and violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.11.3 Helping students to develop resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.12 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

207 207 207 209 210 211 211 211 211 212 212 213 214 215 216 217 217 218 219 220 220

16 Supporting Students with Giftedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2 What Is Giftedness? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3 Theories and Models on Giftedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4 Characteristics of Gifted Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5 Challenges Faced by Gifted Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6 Nurturing and Supporting Students Who Are Gifted or Talented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.7 School Leadership Required to Nurture Gifted Students . . . . . . . 16.8 Challenges Faced by Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.9 Universal Designed Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

223 223 223 225 225 227

17 Supporting Students with Hearing Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2 Defining Hearing Impairment (HI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.3 Causes of Hearing Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.3.1 Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.3.2 Hearing and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

237 237 237 239 240 240

227 229 230 231 233 233

Contents

17.4 17.5 17.6

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Executive Function and Hearing Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hearing Loss and Language Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inclusion of Students with Hearing Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.6.1 Teacher Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.6.2 Instructional Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.6.3 Seating and Noise Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.6.4 Visual and Technological Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.6.5 Adjustments in the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.6.6 Different Modes of Classroom Support . . . . . . . . . . . 17.6.7 Building Self-Confidence in Wearing Hearing Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.7 Social and Emotional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.8 Social Inclusion in the School Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.9 Music and Hearing Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

241 241 243 243 243 244 245 246 247

18 Supporting Students with Vision Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2 What Is Vision Impairment? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2.2 Distance Vision Impairment Describes . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2.3 Causes of Vision Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3 Signs and Symptoms of Vision Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4 Effects of Blindness and Low Vision on Young Children . . . . . . 18.5 Functional Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.5.1 Educational Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.6 Classroom Learning Needs of Students with Vision Loss . . . . . . 18.6.1 Braille and Tactile Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.7 Suggestions for Classroom Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.7.1 Use Differentiated Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.7.2 Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.7.3 Establish a Positive Learning Environment . . . . . . . . 18.7.4 Core Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.7.5 Teaching Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.7.6 Academic Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.8 Orientation and Mobility Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.9 Social and Leisure Skills for Visually Impaired Students . . . . . . 18.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

255 255 255 255 256 256 257 257 259 260 261 262 263 263 264 265 265 266 266 267 268 269 270

247 248 249 250 251 251

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2 Fig. 1.3 Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.5 Fig. 2.1 Fig. 2.2 Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2 Fig. 3.3 Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2 Fig. 4.3 Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2 Fig. 5.3 Fig. 5.4 Fig. 5.5 Fig. 5.6 Fig. 5.7 Fig. 5.8 Fig. 7.1 Fig. 7.2 Fig. 11.1 Fig. 12.1 Fig. 18.1 Fig. 18.2 Fig. 18.3

The CIOP model described by Scheerens (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Hard Systems Model of Change (HMOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An example of a rich picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Kolb Learning Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An Iceberg model: to understand underlying factors . . . . . . . . . . Wicked problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The social structure and social functions in a social system . . . . The education system as part of the social system . . . . . . . . . . . . The subsystems within a school system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The difference between traditional school and Holistic education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power-interest matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stakeholders’ knowledge and attitude map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A rich picture of student-led learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A graphic representation of the Hasso-Plattner Five-Stage Design Thinking model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Empathy Map 1: students’ views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Empathy Map 2: parents’ views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Empathy Map 3: teachers’ views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Empathy Map 4: school leaders’ views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Empathy Map 5: government agencies’ views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Empathy Map 6: the media’s views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The School Leadership Pipeline Model (Gonzales 2020) . . . . . . The School Leadership Pipeline Scale for self-reflection (Gonzales 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample schedules for children with autism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Four main types of Spastic Cerebral Palsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Visual defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tactile maps and graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Modified games for blind people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7 10 11 14 16 22 28 36 44 45 51 58 59 63 64 67 68 69 70 71 72 95 96 161 169 258 263 269 xxi

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Table 1.2

A comparison between reductionist thinking and holistic thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A comparison between hard systems thinking and soft systems thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8 13

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Part I

Leading Inclusive Education with Systems Thinking

Chapter 1

Theories and Models in Systems Thinking

1.1 Introduction This chapter presents an introduction to systems thinking. While there are many approaches to systems thinking in different fields of studies and business, in this book, we focus on some models and theories commonly used in the field of social studies, including education. Many people think that theories and models are boring. If you agree, then think again. Yes, you’re right—both times. While theories and models may be boring, however, they are important foundational knowledge. Theories are concepts that define what something means and explain events or situations by specifying their relations with variables. Theories guide us to understand events, behaviour or situations in a systematic way. Similarly, models build the explanations and reasoning which underlie theoretical arguments, and give us examples of how theoretical concepts can be applied.

1.2 What Is Systems Thinking? Systems thinking is a different approach to thinking which is much needed in today’s complex world—a different way of seeing and understanding the reality we live in. It involves looking at interrelations and interdependencies of a system and how it interacts with other systems and subsystems. Systems thinking is also a form of diagnostic thinking. In allowing us to see and understand things from different angles, it enables us to recognise a range of perspectives that are different from our own. It helps us to move from observing events to identifying patterns of behaviour over time, and bringing to the surface the underlying structures that drive those events and patterns. Systems thinking allows us to dig deep and understand obstacles and barriers that lie below the tip of the iceberg. It helps us to understand that not everyone has

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 M. Gonzales, Systems Thinking for Supporting Students with Special Needs and Disabilities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4558-4_1

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the same mental model of a situation when developing strategies to guide decisionmaking. It helps us to grow and opens our minds to developing a broader, big-picture view. Systems thinking involves using cyclical processes to solve evolving problems. It is an ‘outside the box’ way of thinking, without discounting what’s inside the box. It expands our ability to generate innovative ideas by helping us to understand the complex human factors associated with change, unearth hidden issues and envision a better future as collective problem-solvers. It requires curiosity, clarity, choice, compassion and courage, an open mind and persistence. In other words, it is an added ability that enhances our ability to find solutions and improve current situations. Solving complex problems involves complex procedures. To practise systems thinking, we therefore need to understand the interconnection and interdependence of systems, subsystems and their environment, and develop the ability to understand the properties and dynamics of complex systems, to recognise and identify complexity gaps and to understand systems structures that may hinder or improve the smooth running of systems and to lead change.

1.3 What Are Systems? A system is an organised group of parts (subsystems) that are interconnected. This is how it differs from a set, which is a collection of elements that do not work together. For example, a wardrobe collection of Gucci bags and Dior suits is a set. There are no interconnections between the items in the collection, and they do not work together. However, the human body comprises interacting subsystems such as the circulatory, digestive, endocrine, excretory, nervous and respiratory systems. These work together, going through certain processes to produce certain outputs that maintain a functioning human body. The human body is therefore a system. There are various types of systems: for example, biological systems, ecological systems, mechanical systems, government systems and social systems. Many of these are regarded as complex systems because they are organised in hierarchies and work together to achieve the goals of an overarching system. Systems can also be described as either open systems or closed systems. Open systems are systems in which there are interactions between the system’s internal elements and the environment—for example, schools, hospitals, banks and governments. Closed systems, on the other hand, are systems that are isolated from their environments. It is hard to find an example of a closed system. A common example given in the literature is the Earth, because it does not interact with its environment in space. Another example would be a religious sect which chooses to isolate itself from the rest of society. From a social science viewpoint, a system—whether open or closed—has three basic elements: input, process and output. Input refers to what the system receives to produce certain outcomes or products. Process refers to the methods and procedures that transform the input to an output. Output refers to what goes out of the system

1.3 What Are Systems?

5

after being transformed. Additional elements of systems include control, feedback, boundaries, environment and interfaces. The inputs, processes, outputs and outcomes that enable a system to accomplish its goals are known as functions. A high-functioning system is one in which the various parts constantly exchanges feedback to ensure that they stay tightly aligned and focused on achieving the system’s goals. Every system has a purpose for its existence. In order to understand the purpose of an open social system such as a school, it is necessary to understand the interconnections and behaviours of the elements that impact its functions and behaviour.

1.3.1 System Boundaries and Environments A system is a dynamic, complex, structured and functional unit that is situated within an environment. The environment is the surroundings of the system, set apart by a conceptual boundary. It is the source of external elements that have an effect on the system, and determines how the system must function. For example, educational legislation, policy, the economy and educational trends form part of the environment affecting the system of a school. The term system boundary refers to the periphery or bounds within which systems components work together—the limits that identify the system’s components, processes and interrelationships when they interface with another system. The units inside the system boundary can be controlled by the system owners or managers to fulfil their purpose. However, those outside the boundary cannot be controlled by the system owners or managers. These boundaries can also be spatial and temporal, as a system is surrounded and influenced by its environment. In systems thinking, it is therefore vital to take into account how the environment impacts the system, its structure and purpose, and its functions. Too abstract? Think about the spread of COVID-19.

1.3.2 System Characteristics Complex systems are non-linear and evolve through time and space, sometimes showing abrupt responses to minor changes. Unlike simple systems, these systems are dynamic and interrelated and cannot be understood using simple cause-and-effect logic. To understand a complex system, it is therefore essential to understand the following principles: dynamism, interdependence, emergence, self-organisation and adaptation, feedback loops and delay. Dynamism is a type of complex situation in which there are a great number of possible interconnections between parts. Within one subsystem, a change in input may yield significant change in output, or no change at all. As different subsystems interact with each other, however, changes occur and a small change in a component

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of one system or subsystem may lead to dramatic differences in other parts of the system. Often, central control is impossible, as these changes evolve through time and space. The dynamic characteristics of a complex system are hard to measure. They can only be observed. Interdependence occurs when complex systems are connected to each other with their interactions arranged in a nested structure. This structure supports indirect facilitation to allow subsystems to survive and thrive. Due to the interdependence of variables in a complex system, changes to system inputs can cause unintended or unanticipated consequences. Emergence describes unplanned but organised behaviour in a complex system. An example of this might be a human wave at a football match, which starts with just one or two excited spectators. In times of change, a component of a system will respond to changes through self- organisation and adaptation. The unplanned organisation of this new behaviour is known as emergence. In systems thinking, we can understand emergence by studying the interactions of each component of the system. Feedback loops are the feedback mechanisms that appear in every open system. They can enhance intended change (positive feedback) or dampen it (negative feedback). Negative feedback loops usually serve to preserve a system’s current, stable state, while positive feedback loops function to amplify change. Delay refers to length of time relative to rate of change in a system. Examples of delays include the movement of the stock market and a child’s stages of development. As the outcome of an action greatly depends on the delay observed, this time factor is something we need to consider when understanding or planning change. There are times when delay is necessary: e.g. when making investment decisions in a stock market. In other cases, however, delays in action can have devastating consequences: e.g. during a pandemic.

1.3.3 Functions of a System Systems are defined by their purpose and the functions they perform. In education, Scheerens (1990) explains the functions of a system using a CIPO model (Fig. 1.1): C I P O

context input process output

Context A school, which is an open system, is an organisation with a hierarchy of structures. These organisational structures define how each role in an organisation function and the overall functions of the system. Input refers to infrastructure (school buildings and equipment), financial resources and material resources (books and learning materials). It also refers to

1.3 What Are Systems?

7

Fig. 1.1 The CIOP model described by Scheerens (1990)

human resources such as teachers and their qualifications, capabilities and knowledge. It also includes students, student enrolment and participation and student characteristics (e.g. gender and ethnicity). Process refers to the initiatives the school puts in place to achieve set outcomes, such as pedagogy, school-related procedures, school culture and climate, communication with stakeholders and staff leadership capabilities. Output refers to the outcomes and products created by the processes listed above. It may be considered the tangible results produced by the organisation, such as products or services. Outputs are often illustrated by using numbers; for example, in schools they may be illustrated by test and exam results, or the number of students who finish a certain programme. However, qualitative data (e.g. stakeholders’ stories), which are rarely used, can illustrate a clearer picture to a problem.

1.3.4 Feedback Feedback is the continuous exchange of information and influences both among the various parts of an organisation and with the organisation’s external environment. It comes from a variety of sources. In the case of a school these may include external stakeholders such as policymakers, community members, parent groups, board members and teacher unions. It can also come from evaluations of the organisation and ongoing communication with the community. Feedback is critical because it ensures that the organisation (the school) is constantly improving its understanding of itself and its environment.

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1.4 Methodologies in Systems Thinking Systems thinking is a holistic approach to the analysis and synthesis of information that centres on the interactions and interconnections between a system’s elements and its environment, and how systems work within the context of larger systems. The systems thinking approach therefore differs from traditional analysis, which breaks systems down into their separate elements to study them. We are trained to analyse problems in a logical manner. Traditionally, analysis is a means of gaining understanding of a system by breaking it down into its constituent elements. For systems theorists, in contrast, analysis is the process of focusing attention on a unit of interest within a system. It follows a process of reasoning called reductionism, which breaks down or reduces a system to its constituent parts and then describes the whole system primarily as the sum of these constituent elements. People today still use analysis to describe and understand the different aspects of systems, and there is nothing wrong with doing so. However, the reductionist approach is not sufficient to gain a thorough understanding of problems in complex environments with high levels of interconnectivity and interdependency, such as schools, hospitals and government systems. Ludwig von Bertalanffy, one of the pioneers of systems thinking, is a biologist who sees systems thinking as a method of scientific investigation (1984). He claims that in order to understand what separates living matter from non-living matter, one must study not only microscopic particles, but also how they influence one another within the whole. He was one of the earlier scholars who explains systems thinking as an approach to view the issue at hand as a whole, emphasising the interrelationships among components of a system rather than the components themselves, in contrast to the traditional approach of understanding a subject by analysing its individual parts. Systems thinking provides a scaffolding of principles, tools and techniques that enable the understanding of the multifaceted nature of complex problems (Table 1.1). Table 1.1 A comparison between reductionist thinking and holistic thinking

Reductionist approach

Systems thinking (holistic approach)

Parts of the whole

The whole (big picture)

• Looks at each part

• Looks at relationship among parts

• Assumes only one right answer • Assumes continual improvement • Propositional learning

• Experiential learning

• Expert leadership

• Shared leadership

• Thinks in terms of milestones

• Thinks options

• Identifies way forward

• Identifies emergent patterns

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1.4.1 Methodologies and Models in Systems Thinking As seen above, systems thinking offers a framework for defining problems that allow us to grasp the interconnections that impact an issue (e.g., implementing education for all) and gain an understanding of different perspectives that may enhance or hinder our progress. It is a multidimensional way of looking at and understanding issues and problems. There are two common methodologies in systems thinking: hard systems thinking and soft systems thinking.

1.4.2 Hard Systems Thinking Hard systems thinking, first described by Peter Checkland (1981), involves identifying a well- defined problem to be solved and allows us to look into one part of a system in greater depth. This approach attempts to solve social problems in a scientific way, using quantitative methods. It offers a more analytical approach that enables an objective view of the reality of the systems being observed. Hard systems thinking is helpful in designing and implementing change once problems are understood and agreed on by most people. It provides a systematic way of determining objectives or goals for change. Goal setting is charted by generating a range of options for action which can be tested against a set of explicit criteria. An example of a hard systems thinking model is the Hard Systems Model of Change (HSMC), a method that uses analysis and change that is commonly used in systems engineering, operational research and project management. The HSMC is divided into three phases: the description phase, the options phase and the implementation phase (Senior 1997). The description phase: This stage is about defining objectives and goals and identifying problems and opportunities. It starts with questions such as ‘where are we now?’ and ‘where do we want to be?’ It involves serious thinking about choices, control and constraints. At this stage, stakeholders are involved in clarifying what they hope to achieve and identifying the external factors and constraints that will restrict the change choices and therefore the level of change (Fig. 1.2). The options phase: At this stage, a list of options is drawn up, discussed and edited, and final options are selected. Criteria for evaluating these options are also developed. The implementation phase: This phase involves the use of pilot studies and parallel running of the current and new systems to ensure a smooth transition and to tease out any transition problems. The new objectives, options and measures can be fully implemented when the new system is shown to be reliable and effective.

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Fig. 1.2 The Hard Systems Model of Change (HMOC)

1.4.3 Soft Systems Thinking The soft systems methodology (SSM) was developed in response to the limitations of HSMC which are a result of its systems engineering approach. It is an interpretive paradigm that indicates the importance of considering how social reality is constructed and reconstructed through conversations and actions, as opposed to a pure static viewpoint on social reality, which neglects worldviews. In other words, social scientists tend to think that the HSMC neglects worldviews and assumes that a system can be engineered with exact objectives. They therefore developed the SSM, which enables us to look at problems from multiple perspectives, and employs a flexible, action-oriented and organised process to generate improvements to problematic situations. It is ideal for studying ‘messy, ill-structured, real- world problems’ (Khisty 1995, p. 97). The SSM describes a seven-stage process: the unstructured problem situation, the problem situation expressed, the development of root definitions or relevant activities, the development of conceptual models for improving the situation, the comparison of conceptual models with reality, the identification of feasible and desirable changes and the action to improve the problem situation. The unstructured problem situation: This first stage involves gathering information on the key stakeholders, current performance and issues to understand the

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situation. It prompts us to explore a problematic situation through identifying issues and analysing culture and power relations. The problem situation expressed: This stage involves the identification of problem situations—the reality. For example, in the field of inclusive education, what is really happening in the overall system? A technique known as rich pictures can be used to express the situation by depicting the problems that stakeholders experience. This technique was developed by Checkland (1981), who recognised that complex situations could not be adequately captured by words alone. He considered diagrams and pictures to be far more effective, and argues that they can pack more information into a single page in order to give a ‘whole picture view’. The rich picture technique shows the relationships and interconnections between actors and stakeholders in the system. However, it is important to remember that even using the rich picture technique, it is impossible to capture the full complexity of interrelationships and interdependencies associated with the real world. Many systems thinking authors prefer hand-drawn diagrams, as these are more spontaneous and allow the author to respond to whatever comes to mind. Figure 1.3 is an example (not hand-drawn) of what a rich picture looks like. There are no hard and fast rules for producing them; the idea is to map out one’s own interpretation and representation of the current situation. Through comparisons of the rich pictures of different stakeholders, a ‘reality’ picture will emerge.

Fig. 1.3 An example of a rich picture

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Development of root definitions or relevant activities system: At this stage, the thinker departs from reality to think abstractly, picking themes from the rich picture to analyse and express in ‘idealistic’ terms. For example, what should happen in order for genuine inclusion to occur at a whole-school level? Root definitions are constructed; these outline the core purpose of the system (e.g., the school) and list the purposeful activities that will lead to transformation. Moving from a descriptive understanding of reality towards presumed practice requires us to shift our mental framing from an ‘is’ mode to an ‘ought’ mode. This is an ethical leap, of values judgement versus facts. Values are subjective and emotive and hard to find a common agreement. It is essential to hear people out and understand what is important to them. To do this, Checkland (2001) proposes using a CATWOE model to guide this stage of creating root definitions. CATWOE refers to: C A

the customers, the potential beneficiaries or victims of the system. the actors, those who are responsible for and have the power to influence transformation. T the activities that are required to convert the system from the old state to the new ideal state. W the worldviews of the stakeholders: i.e. what they expect to change. O the owners who can prevent or change the activity. E the environmental constraints. The CATWOE model can provide solid ground from which to develop a more ‘ideal’ conceptual model for improving current situations and moving forward with identified actions and behaviours. 1. Development of conceptual models for improving the situation: A conceptual model for improving the situation can be drafted once the vision of an improved situation has been shaped. The facilitators need to identify and list the transformation processes required, then build a conceptual model of the actions to be carried out in order to realise each of those transformation processes. This model serves as the foundation for a comparison with the real situation, to lead further discussions with the stakeholders. 2. Comparison of conceptual models with reality: Stakeholder input is sorted using the conceptual model(s) developed, and discussions begin to consider the feasibility of visions and goals, and how to turn these into achievable goals and measurable behaviours and actions. 3. Identification of feasible and desirable changes: At this stage, facilitators initiate brainstorming activities to clarify desired outcomes, needed resources and timeframes. 4. Action to improve the problem situation: Once consensus is achieved, the facilitators delegate different stakeholders to prepare action plans focused on concrete and implementable actions. These plans should also include measurement of success and effectiveness, with the indicators for these clearly stated. This is not the end of the process, however, as during implementation, problems

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Table 1.2 A comparison between hard systems thinking and soft systems thinking Hard systems thinking

Soft systems thinking

• Goal-oriented

• Learning-oriented

• Assumes that the world contains systems that • Believes that the world is problematic but can be engineered can be explored using systems models • Assumes that key issues are difficult to • Believes that key issues are difficult to appreciate but that there is general agreement appreciate and that there is disagreement between those defined as involved or affected between those defined as involved or affected • Uses language such as ‘problems’ and ‘solutions’

• Uses language such as ‘issues’ and ‘accommodations’

• Uses data, statistics and quantitative techniques

• Uses input from all stakeholders and keeps in touch with human content of problems situations

Disadvantages: may lose touch with aspects beyond the logic of the problem situation

Disadvantages: does not produce a final answer; inquiry is never-ending

may arise. The new situation could initiate a new sense of tension, dissatisfaction and conflict. Thus, another cycle through the seven stages of SSM may be necessary. Soft systems thinking (SSM) assumes that problems are messy and unstructured, and that using a reductionist approach would not provide a solution. In many situations, key features are unbounded, unclear and uncertain, and while stakeholders with different perspectives may agree on the nature of a given problem, they may disagree as to what constitutes a solution. The aim of SSM is to move from the current state of affairs to a desired one when no one has a map to work from. Both hard systems thinking and soft systems thinking are essential problemsolving approaches. They are complementary but different methods for dealing with different types of issues (Table 1.2).

1.5 Models in Systems Thinking There are numerous models used in systems thinking. This section presents the more common models used in the social sciences. They include the Kolb Learning Cycle, the Cynefin framework and Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems model.

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1.5.1 The Kolb Learning Cycle David Kolb, an American educational theorist, affirms that we all learn through our experiences (1984). He introduced a concept known as experiential learning, which involves four learning abilities: CE RO AC AE

concrete experience abilities. reflective observation abilities. abstract conceptualisation abilities. active experimentation abilities.

Kolb believes that people gain experiences in their environment, and in time, with an open mind, learn from these experiences (CE). Through personal reflection, these learners gain insights from their experiences, and form worldviews and perspectives (RO). When they give meaning to their experiences and connect them with their previous knowledge, they begin to conceptualise, generalise and analyse those experiences (AC). Eventually, they learn to solve problems and come up with plans and actions (AE). These processes differ from individual to individual, depending on their environments and the levels of education they have received (Fig. 1.4). The Kolb model of experiential learning is relevant to SSM, which is an actionoriented learning process that requires a focus on experience and observation. Combined with the seven stages of SSM and other thinking tools such as the Venn diagram, stakeholder analysis and issues diagram, it can help problem-solvers develop more concrete actions.

Fig. 1.4 The Kolb Learning Cycle

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1.5.2 The Cynefin Framework The Cynefin framework was introduced by David Snowden in 1999 as a tool for defining problems and situations and deciding on appropriate problem-solving approaches. Snowden structured the framework into five domains: obvious, complicated, complex, chaotic and disorder. Obvious (also known as simple or clear) is the domain of best practices. In this category, there is a direct relationship between cause and effect that is easily recognised by everyone. The problem statement is understood and there are obvious or simple solutions to the problem. The problem-solving approach is therefore to sense, categorise and respond. In the complicated category, problems are convoluted and there are several possible correct answers. Expert advice is usually required to identify risks and determine the appropriate course of action. Complicated problems or situations are evolutionary but predictable, and require time and careful assessment to solve using a more quantitative approach. Analytical thinking and tools such as Value Stream Mapping and Six Sigma techniques may help to solve complicated issues. In the Cynefin framework, this is categorised as good practice. Complex is the domain of emergent solutions. When faced with complex issues and problems, most people find that they do not even know the right questions to ask. The approach to such situations is to gather knowledge from the environment and stakeholders in order to generate new, emergent solutions. This situation that demands a ‘one step at a time’ approach that uses the results of one step to determine the next step. Creative thinking skills and innovation are essential. The study of patterns is helpful, and cyclical evaluations and adjustments are necessary. Risks are hard to assess because the situation changes and there is no predictability. This domain calls for a high level of interaction, consultation and collaboration between different stakeholders, especially those with different viewpoints. Chaotic problems usually require a rapid response. The first phase of response is to contain the issue or crisis. Immediate actions are then required to prevent further harm and return the situation to a normal environment. A good example of this is the COVID-19 pandemic, as response time in the early phases of the pandemic was critical, the solutions implemented did not have to be the best ones possible, only workable. However, the people in charge had to be brave and act. When responding to chaotic problems, it is important to triage all actions and reach a measure of control. This is also a step-by-step approach, and careful judgements are vital in assessing the situation and determining the next step. Snowden framed this as a novel practice. Disorder applies to situations in which people do not know which of the other sectors to apply. The way to approach disorder is to start breaking down the situation into smaller problems in an attempt to reclassify the problem in one of the four categories and work towards a solution. The priority needs to be finding a way to move the problem into a known category. This is done by gathering more information, defining the knowns and unknowns and dividing the problem into parts so they can be placed in the other four categories.

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The reader is encouraged to read more about this framework via online literature or systems thinking books.

1.5.3 Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory Developed by psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner in 1979, the bioecological systems theory explains how human development is influenced by different types of environmental systems. The theory describes five interrelated types of environmental systems: the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem (Fig. 1.5). Bronfenbrenner believes that a child’s development is influenced by these five complex environmental layers and is the product of person, process, context and time (Bronfenbrenner 1994). When a change appears in any one of these five systems, it has the potential to influence the others.

Fig. 1.5 Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems model

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The microsystem is the immediate environment that the child lives in and interacts with. It includes the child’s personal characteristics such as gender, age, personality, physical condition (e.g. disability), immediate family (parents and siblings), extended family (grandparents and other relatives), school or early childcare setting, home, peers, doctor family’s place of worship, etc. These elements influence the child not only through their physical features and activities but also through the personalities, behaviours and belief systems of the people in them. For example, children raised in a poor neighbourhood may have delays in their development. All these elements have powerful impacts on a child’s physical, cognitive, social and emotional development. The mesosystem describes the relationship between the child and its microsystem. It includes the relationships between the child and its family and school, and also parent–teacher relationships. It includes the neighbourhood in which the child grows up, its safety and health-related elements, and its cultural and social values. There are also cross-relationships and lateral connections between these settings. A mesosystem can be seen as a web of microsystems in which interactions may have positive or negative effects on the child. The exosystem describes the connections, linkages and processes that take place between two or more settings, such as the child’s school, the parents’ workplace (including work hours, shifts and work demands) and family friends, that may influence the child. Other elements include neighbours, education policies and related services, social community and services, legal services, social welfare and even mass media. These elements have indirect influences on the child’s development. They may be temporary (e.g., a parent being laid off from their job, the death of a family member, or a political crisis that leads to a downturn of the economy, thus affecting families). The macrosystem is the wider sociocultural environment that encircles the micro, meso- and exosystems. It encompasses the larger culture as a whole, including socioeconomic status, ethnicity, wealth and poverty. It also includes lifestyle, the economy, cultural values and beliefs, material resources, laws and political systems. These elements may influence the child directly. For example, child protection, mandatory education and anti-discrimination laws will have a direct influence on the child. The chronosystem refers to environmental experiences and life transitions throughout a person’s lifetime. The overarching chronosystem represents the temporal changes in the child’s experiences (e.g. a parental divorce) or their physical environment (e.g. moving to a new neighbourhood, migrating to a new country). These changes can arise from within the child, for example via physiological changes that can occur during their childhood (e.g. an accident or illness that causes disability), but can also be imposed externally, such as through the timing of a parent’s death or a family crisis. Between 1990 and 2006, Bronfenbrenner refined his model based on insights gained from research and application, and finalised his theory by emphasising the importance of proximal processes, also referred to as the ‘engine of development’ (Rosa and Tudge 2013). Proximal processes are viewed as the most powerful predictor of human development and Bronfenbrenner aimed to show how individual characteristics, together with aspects of the environment, can influence them. Bronfenbrenner and Evans (2000) developed a Process–Person–Context–Time model

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(PPCT) to guide how bioecological research could be best conducted. The PPCT includes: Process: The proximal processes described by Bronfenbrenner include all transactions between the child and the immediate surroundings that are responsible for the development of their capabilities, attitudes and general well-being. They also describe the reciprocal interaction between a child and the environment. These bidirectional relationships between child and environment must occur on a fairly regular basis over a period of time in a reciprocal manner in order to contribute to the child’s competence and wellbeing (e.g. ongoing piano lessons, or physical or speech therapy). Bronfenbrenner views these as important engines of development. They can also include parental care and discipline strategies, or teaching and learning approaches impacting the child’s educational development. Person: The person component of the model focuses on the child’s biological and genetic characteristics (e.g., age, gender, appearance, race), and other personal characteristics that they bring into any social situation (e.g., intelligence, reasoning, friendliness). These are described as demand, resource and force characteristics. Bronfenbrenner describes demand characteristics as ‘personal stimuli’, characteristics that people act upon in immediate reaction to the child’s physical appearance or behaviour, reasoning and cognitive ability. The term resource characteristics relates to the mental and emotional resources that impact on the development of the child, such as past experiences, skills, intelligence and social and material resources (e.g. access to food, housing, parental love and care, educational opportunities and support from the community and society). Finally, the term force characteristics refers to the child’s temperament, motivation, persistence and similar personal qualities. Bronfenbrenner explains that two children may have similar resource characteristics but that their developmental trajectories will be quite different if they are influenced by different force characteristics, such as motivation and persistence. Context: Context refers to the five interconnected systems described in Bronfenbrenner’s model. It is important to understand the child’s context and the interrelationships between them and the five layers of systems that influence their development. Time: Time has a significant place in this developmental model. It points to three levels (micro, meso and macro) in Bronfenbrenner’s model. Micro-time refers to what is happening during specific proximal process events. Meso-time refers to the span during which the processes occur in the person’s environment—that is, over the course of days, weeks or years. Macro-time focuses on shifting expectancies in the wider culture. Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory is a conceptual tool widely used in family and social studies and for guiding social and public interventions.

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1.5.4 Reader Reflection This chapter has presented an overview of the various theories and models widely used in systems thinking. Most of these models have their origins in computer systems design and systems engineering, but have been modified and used in the social sciences. Subsequent chapters will discuss the applications of these models and theories.

References Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In T. Husen & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education (2rd edn., Vol. 3, pp. 3–44). Oxford, UK: Elsevier. Bronfenbrenner, U., & Evans, G. W. (2000). Developmental science in the 21st century: Emerging questions, theoretical models, research designs and empirical findings. Social Development, 9(1), 115–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00114. Checkland, P. (1981). Systems thinking, systems practice. New York: Wiley. Checkland, P. (2001). Soft systems methodology in action: Participative creation of an information strategy for an acute hospital. In J. Rosenhead & J. Mingers (Eds.), Rational analysis for a problematic world revisited: Problem structuring methods for complexity (p. 91113). Chichester: Wiley. Checkland, P., & Poulter, J. (2006). Learning for action: A short definitive account of soft systems methodology and its use for practitioners, teachers and students. Chichester: Wiley. Checkland, P., & Schole, J. (1990). Soft systems methodology in action. New York: Wiley. Khisty, C. J. (1995). Soft-systems methodology as learning and management tool. Journal of Urban Planning and Development, 121(3), 91–107. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9488(1995)121: 3(91). Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Mele, C., Pels, J., & Polese, F. (2010). A brief review of systems theories and their managerial applications. Service Science, 2(1–2), 126–135. https://doi.org/10.1287/serv.2.1_2.126. Rosa, E. M., & Tudge, J. (2013). Urie Bronfenbrenner’s theory of human development: Its evolution from ecology to bioecology. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 5(4), 243–258. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/jftr.12022. Scheerens, J. (1990). School effectiveness and the development of process indicators of school functioning. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 1(1), 61–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 0924345900010106. Senge, P. M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday. Senior, B. (1997). Organisational change. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Senior, B., & Fleming, J. (2006). Organisational change (3rd ed.). New York: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Snowden, D. (2002). Complex acts of knowing: Paradox and descriptive self-awareness. Journal of Knowledge Management, 6(2), 100–111. https://doi.org/10.1108/13673270210424639. Snowden, D., & Boone, M. E. (2007). A leader’s framework for decision making. Harvard Business Review, 18(11): 68–76, 149. von Bertalanffy, L. (1984). General system theory. New York: Braziller.

Chapter 2

Becoming a Systems Thinker

2.1 Introduction Systems thinking gives us the ability to understand the relationships, effects, delays and barriers between information and problems by understanding people, events, departments and systems. Through systems thinking, collective decision-making and problem-solving can emerge, making it a vital skill for leaders to not only employ themselves but also encourage their staff. This chapter sets out the path to becoming a systems thinker. It suggests how the reader can use systems thinking in daily routines in order to practice thinking in systems and relations, as learning a new thinking approach takes daily practice and time. It shares some tips on how to make the shift from traditional thinking to systems thinking and introduces a framework to guide systems thinking. It then defines wicked problems and discusses how to understand them. And finally, it shares expert advice from renowned systems thinkers so the reader can identify pitfalls to look out for when practising systems thinking.

2.2 Using Systems Thinking in Your Daily Routines Systems scientists describe systems thinking as a continuum of activities that range from the conceptual to the technical. Systems thinking occurs when we are observing a system from a far enough distance that we can see the underlying web of ongoing, reciprocal relationships and interacting cycles that produce the patterns of behaviour that system is exhibiting. Becoming a systems thinker therefore begins with developing self-awareness and a determination to change the way you normally think. You can start by avoiding making superficial judgements, asking questions differently and framing problems more holistically. Adopt an iceberg approach to seek meaning in situations (Fig. 2.1).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 M. Gonzales, Systems Thinking for Supporting Students with Special Needs and Disabilities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4558-4_2

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Fig. 2.1 An Iceberg model: to understand underlying factors

Unlike traditional thinking, which is linear, systems thinking can be vertical, horizontal or circular—or all three—and it focuses on processes, patterns and relationships. Understanding the effects of interactions is more important than making detailed efforts to predict outcomes. Systems thinking also assumes that actions and events will have unanticipated and unforeseeable consequences. The challenge is to try to make possible desired outcomes more probable. To become a systems thinker, one must therefore work to develop a multiperspective mindset and to actively explore different perspectives, including those that might conflict with one’s own views. It is also important to look at the parts and the whole together—to see the trees as well as the forest, at the same time.

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2.3 Shift from Traditional Thinking Skills to Systems Thinking Skills Richmond (2000) discusses seven essential systems thinking skills. These are: dynamic thinking, system-as-cause thinking, forest thinking, operational thinking, closed-loop thinking, quantitative thinking and scientific thinking.

2.3.1 Dynamic Thinking Dynamic thinking involves framing issues by observing the patterns and behaviours of the elements in a system over time, identifying the different variables, and tracing the overall trajectory of these events. To practise this type of thinking, the individual can pick an interesting event from the news and follow it, charting patterns and changes in the story. One good example is the coronavirus pandemic, and how your country or state has handled it. Think about tracking the decision-making processes, the flow of information, a timeline to examine events that took place over different time frames, the consequences and the future.

2.3.2 System-as-Cause Thinking Instead of attributing problems or apparent failures to external forces, think about how the elements of a system are interrelated, and how these connections can enhance or hinder progress or change. System-as-cause thinking involves studying the system’s internal actors, especially those with power and those who set and manage policies and drive the various behaviours in an organisation or system. Where the traditional system-as-effect way of thinking is passive and inert, system-as-cause thinking enables us to take active control to seek improvement.

2.3.3 Forest Thinking Forest thinking is pattern-oriented thinking. It involves seeing beyond the details to the context of the relationships in which they are embedded. It is about adopting a way of understanding that extends beyond the individual’s perspectives, needs and desires. It requires us to look at what is present but mostly unseen, like the underground networks of roots that support the ecology of a forest (system). It also requires us to identify the supporting networks that keep the forest (system) healthy, and at the same time, to think about the root systems that might have been overlooked,

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causing serious challenges for the forest. When we employ a systems perspective, we can see the forest (of relationships) for the trees, and do not get trapped in a single event as with traditional ‘tree-by-tree’ thinking.

2.3.4 Operational Thinking Operational Thinking looks at causality. It leads us to think about how the patterns and behaviour we identify are generated. To develop operational thinking skills, one needs to understand how a system works and consider all of the factors that influence its processes. In a business, for example, these might include the hiring process, the people, motivation, learning and quitting. Instead of merely identifying critical factors or drivers, operational thinking aims to understand the nature of the processes at work, how people learn, what they do with their learning, and what experiences they bring into a system. In sum, it captures the nature of the learning process within a system described by its structure.

2.3.5 Closed-Loop Thinking In systems concepts, there are two control systems: the open-loop control system and the closed-loop control system. An open-loop control system acts solely on the basis of input; the output has no effect on the control action. A closed-loop control system, in contrast, considers the current output and alters it to suit the desired condition. A closed-loop control system relies on feedback for improvement and focuses on output instead of input. Closed-loop thinking is therefore about how to create improvement through cyclical feedback. It looks at multiple variables, instead of focusing only on the dominant ones that are viewed as important drivers, and identifies how these variables shift over time. Closed-loop thinking generates preferred output conditions compared to the original ones, and make modifications to enhance current situations and performance.

2.3.6 Quantitative Thinking In traditional thinking, measurement is quantified with ‘hard’ data and statistics. In systems thinking, quantitative thinking means not measurement but observation, and requires taking into consideration elements that cannot be measured, such as values, motivations, fear of change, ignorance, attitudes, etc. Quantitative thinking means understanding that while some things cannot be measured, they can still be quantified in some way. It is important to consider their relationships with other

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systems or subsystems and learn how they impact the different components of a system into consideration.

2.3.7 Scientific Thinking Scientific thinking in the traditional sense requires validation and the prevention of ‘falsehood’. When we apply scientific thinking to understanding a system, however, we create models and look at the relationships and patterns they display instead. There are no right or wrong models. The essence of systems-based scientific thinking is to understand how the model works and identify ways to improve it. There are many models, principles and frameworks to guide beginning systems thinkers. Having outlined the differences between traditional thinking and systems thinking, we will next discuss a simple, easy-to-understand framework for applying systems thinking in daily practice.

2.4 Using the DSRP Framework to Guide Systems Thinking Systems expert Derek Cabrera teaches that there are four simple rules to systems thinking. He has structured them into a DSRP framework (2006): D = distinction. S = system. R = relationship. P = patterns.

2.4.1 Distinctions (Identity–Other) The first and most basic rule in systems thinking is to clearly identify and define the elements in a system. Who are you? Who are the others? Who are the actors, the drivers, the facilitators, the stakeholders, etc.? The key concept is, who and what falls within the boundary that you are looking inside. From there, we can look at values, norms and challenges, and identify biases in the way information is structured.

2.4.2 Systems A system is ‘a set of elements or parts that is coherently organized and interconnected in a pattern of structure that produces a characteristic set of behaviours, often

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classified as its function or purpose’ (Meadows 2008, p. 188). In systems thinking, it is important for system thinkers to identify both the parts and whole of the system (i.e. what is this a part of?) in order to see how things fit into larger wholes. This includes considering both the concrete and the conceptual elements in a system (e.g. hierarchy, policies, leadership) and the different layers of an organisation or system (e.g. regional, national, multinational).

2.4.3 Relationships (Action–Reaction) Recognising the parts of systems enables effectively identifying relationships, which are characterised by action and reaction. When considering relationships within a system, it is important to look at not only people, but also events and ideas. What are the different forces impacting the systems? What has caused change? What has caused resistance? Systems thinkers must look at these relationships in order to understand the dynamic interactions between things and ideas, including feedback loops that show reciprocal relations.

2.4.4 Perspectives (Point–View) Systems thinkers must always remember that people look at issues and situations from different perspectives. A good starting point for systems thinking beginners is to first understand themselves. We need to think about our own thought patterns, values, opinions, biases, and how we know what we know (metacognition). It is necessary to be clear about our point of view and our focus (what’s the point?). But it is also important to think about what other perspectives might exist, and to distinguish between ideals and reality. In addition to the DSRP framework, Cabrera (2006) also mentions that leaders in the twenty- first century need to be competent thinkers. In addition to systems thinking—that is, the ability to understand complex patterns in context—leaders today must also develop the following thinking skills: • • • • •

Critical thinking (the ability to analyse, deconstruct and evaluate). Creative thinking (the ability to construct new lines of thought). Scientific thinking (the ability to observe, validate and collect evidence). Interdisciplinary thinking (the ability to unify, transfer, synthesise and integrate). Prosocial thinking (the ability to build rapport through compassion and concern).

These skills and capabilities are vital for professional success, personal fulfilment, complex problem-solving and leading change. The ‘knowledge age’ requires leaders who are lifelong learners, and who are adaptive, flexible and collaborative. As educational leaders, we therefore need to develop these essential thinking skills and put them into practice.

2.5 Wicked Problems and How to Understand Them

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2.5 Wicked Problems and How to Understand Them A wicked problem is a problem that is complex, including lots of other problems that are intertwined and that cause unexpected consequences over time and withchange. It is like a Rubik’s cube, where every turn of the cube produces a different scenario, which usually affects the entirety of the issue. Most social and cultural problems such as poverty, education, government and politics, climate change and homelessness, are wicked problems. While we may not be able to solve wicked problems, we can certainly take action to improve situations, step by step, to make progress for the better and enrich the lives of the people caught inside them. However, this requires us as leaders to gain a deeper insight into the different systems and subsystems entangled in the problem, and to learn how to reframe it both in parts, and perhaps in entirety.

2.5.1 Ten Characteristics of Wicked Problems Rittel and Webber (1973) described ten characteristics of wicked problems: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8. 9.

There is no definitive formula for solving a wicked problem. Every wicked problem is unique. A wicked problem can be a symptom of another problem. There is no way to know whether your solution is final (uncertainty and ambiguity). Solutions to wicked problems can only be good or bad. There is no right or wrong and there is no template to follow when attempting to solve a wicked problem, although history may provide a guide. Teams approaching wicked problems must be creative with their thinking and action. Working on a wicked problem requires multiple agencies across systems dealing with conflicts and power. Wicked problems are multifaceted. Understanding and explaining a wicked problem depends greatly on the individual perspective of the agent or facilitator. Wicked problems cannot be tested using scientific methods because humans invented wicked problems and science exists to understand natural phenomena. Designers attempting to address a wicked problem must understand and be responsible for their plans and actions (Fig. 2.2).

Tackling wicked problems calls for high levels of systems thinking. System leaders need to make connections between the multiple causes of and interdependencies in wicked problems to avoid falling into a narrow approach and the artificial taming of such problems. They need to build their organisations’ capacity to develop a range of systems thinking skills through methods such as recruitment, outsourcing relevant

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Fig. 2.2 Wicked problems

analysis, sponsoring formal learning programmes and encouraging employees to undertake a relevant range of work to broaden their experience. They must also work on fostering a culture that encourages collaboration and engagement, including building a shared understanding of contentious issues among relevant stakeholders and organisations. Finally, they must continuously explore boundaries among the surrounding systems to understand the values, processes and behaviours relevant to the problems, and how they change over time.

2.5.2 Another Example of How to Handle Wicked Problems Shifting to a more general focus, systems thinking practitioners Thienen et al. (2014) offer some useful tips for helping to solve wicked problems. 1. Visualise the problem, create a stable problem view: Map out the problems using not just words but also rich pictures (see Chapter 1) to bring clarity to the whole problem. Stakeholders will then be able to see how others with different views frame the problem. 2. Integrate different perspectives and generate a new inspiring insight: This can be done by using creative framing, to find ways to frame a problem that integrate all the differing views (as far as possible).

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Do not discard ‘wild ideas’. Interview stakeholders using empathy and search for new angles. Storytelling is a good way to collect qualitative data, as it gives a voice to the marginalised and the voiceless. It is also a good way to communicate problems with evidence. Focus on human values and empathy. 3. The process of problem-solving needs to be productive without ultimate criteria of success: When stakeholders’ needs and desires have been carefully explored, different solutions will emerge. Remember, the solutions are for the stakeholders, so do not impose your solutions on them. Take the time to synthesise needs and gain insights. The essence of solving wicked problems is to embrace needs. As mentioned in the previous section, there are no right or wrong solutions to a wicked problem, just solutions that gain consensus and are well received by stakeholders (especially the customers and recipients of the service, e.g. students, parents and teachers) and ones that meet those stakeholders’ needs and have the strongest impact on their wellbeing.

2.6 Advice from Systems Thinking Experts One of the most famous experts in systems thinking science is Peter Senge, an American scientist and teacher, and director of the Center for Organizational Learning at the MIT Sloan School of Management. His book The Fifth Discipline (1990) has inspired a myriad of research in applying systems thinking and organisational learning in business corporate and educational organisations. This section presents key insights from this book.

2.6.1 Five Disciplines for System Leaders In The fifth discipline (1990), Senge recommends five disciplines that system leaders should follow in order to effectively lead a learning organisation that will continuously improve and renew itself. These are: systems thinking, personal mastery, mental models, shared vision and team learning. 1. Systems thinking involves learning to recognise and analyse patterns in an organisation by looking at it from a holistic viewpoint rather than by dealing with individual parts, both when planning and when problems arise. Senge reminds us that an organisation is like a living organism, where different parts are interrelated, and change is emergent. 2. Personal mastery involves developing personal strengths and intelligence by choosing to look at things differently, beginning with developing self-awareness and being clear about one’s aspirations. It requires people to be proactive rather than reactive, and to tap into their own resources to unearth potential creativity. In order to do this, we need to know what is important to us and how we want

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to contribute to our community, and to have a clear view of both current reality and our vision for a better future. 3. Mental models explain our thought process and describe the beliefs, attitudes and cognitive habits that shape our understanding. They also include the presumptions and generalisation that influence our actions. Visualising our mental models or mapping them out on paper can help us to identify and reflect on our behaviour and beliefs. This can help us to shape the connections and opportunities that we see, and to better understand complexity. Senge emphasises that by using mental models, we can learn to be more open and honest about our own needs and what drives our behaviour, which will enable us to develop trust and cooperation. 4. Shared vision is a vision that is both authentic and communal—not a top-down vision- statement composed by senior management, but a collective voice and aspiration that supports the pursuit of worthwhile goals. When a vision is shared, employees and members of the system tend to be more committed and resistance to change is reduced. 5. Team learning refers to how people can work together genuinely as a team. It involves eliciting and leveraging the individual talents and knowledge of each team member and creating a synergy to develop knowledge, skills and capabilities to achieve goals. It embodies open dialogue and understanding, and most important of all, a willingness to make shifts in thinking and to accept other people’s views and ideas.

2.6.2 The Seven Constraints that Can Limit Systems Leaders In addition to the five disciplines, Senge (1990) also identifies seven constraints that can affect leaders when leading a learning organisation. They are: the ‘I-ammy-position’ syndrome, the ‘The-enemy-is-out-there’ syndrome, the illusion of taking charge, a fixation on events, the parable of the boiled frog, the delusion of learning from experience and the myth of the management team. 1. The ‘I-am-my-position’ syndrome: When people in organisations focus on their position and have a ‘not-my-job’ attitude to things that are beyond the scope of that position, or conversely, if they are told that something is not their ‘area of concern’, then the organisation will be dysfunctional. This is why shared learning and shared vision are so important for organisational improvement. 2. The ‘The-enemy-is-out-there’ syndrome: People who are not committed usually play the blame game when faced with negative consequences or unexpected challenges and problems, protecting themselves by attributing their misjudgment or inaction to external forces. This is generally due to poor leadership skills and mindset, a culture of inferior organisational habits which is reactive instead of proactive, and a fear of reprisals. 3. The illusion of taking charge: This refers to representing ‘quick fixes’ to problems that have no lasting effects as ‘proactivity’. To be genuinely proactive is to

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4.

5.

6.

7.

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take control and make things happen, rather than simply adjusting when something (usually bad) has already happened. Being proactive requires having the courage to identify what needs to be done, speak up and face the consequences of current behaviours and actions that have caused or might cause problems—to be willing and able to identify root causes, and to change. A fixation on events: Senge believes that continuous improvement is the lifeblood of an organisation, and that learning should therefore not just focus on one event that requires attention at a particular time. Instead of using linear thinking, leaders need to think long-term, learning from each event, predicting and creating steps and processes to improve that event which may also influence or have impacts on other events or issues. The parable of the boiled frog: To caution that an organisation which is not aware of the external forces affecting it will eventually face an inevitable demise, Senge uses the parable of a boiled frog. When a frog is placed in a pot which adjusts to the head and therefore does not notice the temperature slowly increasing, until it eventually gets boiled. To prevent from becoming a boiled frog, the organisation must keep in touch with its environment and act to meet the needs of these external forces. An organisation that does this will not only survive but thrive. The delusion of learning from experience: We all learn from our experience, and effective experiential learning will affect our cognitive structures, our attitudes, values, perceptions and behavioural patterns. However, Senge notes that change occurs in both time and space (our environments), and we need to constantly develop new perceptions, knowledge and skills in order to move with these changes. The same principles apply to planning long-term goals. These need to be reviewed and revised periodically in order to meet changes and demands in both the internal and the external environment of the organisation. The myth of the management team: It is a common convention, especially in cultures where respect is a strongly held value, to rely on senior management to solve all problems. However, in our complex modern world, collective leadership is essential and cross-functional input is necessary in order to plan systems actions and solve systems issues.

Senge presented us with a rudimentary model that addressed the basic concerns about how to understand a system, with a focus on organisational learning. Since then, systems scientists have built on these to create different systems thinking theories and models that are specific to their fields of study. Some of these theories and models may also be applicable for educational leaders. Indeed, Senge has already extended his teaching to school education, stressing the importance of teaching students to understand their relationships with the larger world and to explore the way systems interact and create webs of interdependence in the family, in the community and globally. From current student-led global movements such as gun control movements and climate change advocacy rallies, we can see how his teaching can have a huge impact on our teachers and students. Learning to become a systems thinker is like learning to play music, we must first master the rudiments before we can improvise.

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2.7 Conclusion Systems thinking can mean different things to different people in different industries or fields of science. Unlike traditional linear thinking, it is circular in nature, and aids system leaders to use a cyclical approach in looking at the boundaries, relationships, structures and different perspectives within their system and the surrounding systems and subsystems. Systems thinking is also a diagnostic tool—a disciplined approach to examining problems that can prevent us from resorting to ‘band-aid’ solutions or quick fixes that will only maintain existing or chronic problems. In general, it offers us a more comprehensive approach to looking at complex and wicked problems from different perspectives and to working collaboratively to serve our community. Systems thinking challenges people to take new responsibility and make hard choices. As you build your capacity to think in systemic whole, you will develop a new way of being and not just doing. You will also develop extra compassion, curiosity and courage that complement and strengthen your new skills. I hope this chapter has given you a pearl to your string of joy in becoming a systems thinker. This chapter has given you an introduction to some of the foundational concepts and principles of systems thinking—a good starting point from which to learn about the art and pragmatics of systems thinking. Next, Chapter 3 will discuss how we can apply systems thinking to understand social systems, of which education is a part.

References Cabrera, D. (2006). Systems thinking. Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. Meadows, D. H. (2008). Thinking in systems: A primer. White River Junction: Chelsea Green. Richmond, B. (2000). The “thinking” in systems thinking: Seven essential skills. Waltham: Pegasus. Rittel, H. W. J., & Webber, M. M. (1973). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sciences, 4(2), 155–169. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351179522-6. Senge, P. M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York, NY: Doubleday. Thienen, J. P. A., Meinel, C., & Nicolai, C. (2014). How design thinking tools help to solve wicked problems. In H. Plattner, C. Meinel, & L. Leifer (Eds.), Design thinking research: Building innovation eco-systems (pp. 97–102). Berlin: Springer.

Chapter 3

The Social System and Education

3.1 Introduction Education is a system within a larger system—the social system. To become a systems thinker, it is therefore necessary to dissect the anatomy of your society and explore how its different elements become parts of a social system. This chapter explains both how education is a part of a social system and why it is important to understand the interactive elements within a social system in order to understand how education works.

3.2 What Is a Social System? As previously mentioned, a system is made up of parts called elements, which connect with one another to form relationships. In time, these elements become interdependent and influence one another in dynamic ways. A social system is made up of individuals connected via different social units such as families, schools, communities, religious institutions, business corporations and industries, which interact to fulfil different purposes. The social and functional interactions between each constituent unit form an integrated whole, which is known as a social system. Every social system is linked to its cultures, traditions and religions, which make up the cultural system within the social system. Every social system adjusts to become relevant in time (social demands and trends) and place (human needs, environmental needs and changes) in order to maintain order and balance.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 M. Gonzales, Systems Thinking for Supporting Students with Special Needs and Disabilities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4558-4_3

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3.2.1 Social Structure Human behaviour follows patterns. The patterned social relations we form as different groups are described in sociology as social structures. This term refers to the regular and repetitive aspects of interactions between the people within a social entity. These include daily routines like having breakfast, lunch and dinner, and social activities such as having weekends off for family time, giving flowers to our mothers on Mother’s Day, and singing ‘Happy Birthday’ to celebrate ageing. We also have specific places for carrying out different social and functional activities, such as school for learning, a hospital for giving birth and underneath trees for becoming enlightened. Within these places and activities, we need to follow specific rules and social protocols in order to be accepted and not get into trouble. For example, the general social protocol in many societies is to go to a wedding in formal attire to show respect. Nowadays, people attending such ceremonies in shorts and thongs are no longer frowned upon—or at least, not by everyone. However, there are always some social boundaries that we must not cross and behaviours that are not tolerated, including violence and criminal activities that cause harm or loss of property. To protect these boundaries, we have created further important elements of our social structure: laws and regulations. All of these components of a social structure work together to sustain social order and harmony by guiding, limiting and organising human behaviour. The term ‘social structure’ also describes the institutions that define our roles in society. For example, in a family, spouses, parents and children, and other relatives form a family structure governed by a hierarchy which gives different powers to each member in different ways. The same applies to religion, education, politics and law.

3.2.2 Functions of a Social System A social system is a comprehensive composition of interacting elements (people, values, culture, norms, shared behaviour) that function as a whole. Each of the interacting individuals in the system has a role to play in that system (the society), such as parent, teacher, professional or worker, and is guided by the social structure and patterns of behaviour within it. These interactions focus on fulfilling certain aims and objectives and evolve through time and in response to demands for change. The behaviours of interacting elements are influenced by culture, values, beliefs and traditions. In times of change, many of these elements may adjust via selforganisation to maintain order and balance. To understand a system and its function, it is therefore important to observe its interrelationships, interconnectivity and patterns of behaviour over time. Social system may be defined, after Parsons, a plurality of social actors who are engaged in more or less stable interaction ‘according to shared cultural norms and meanings’ (Wearne 1990, p. 155). Individuals constitute the

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basic interaction units. But the interacting units may be groups or organisation of individuals within the system. There are diverse interpretations and explanation of the functions of a social system in the literature. Sociologist Talcott Parsons (1951) introduced one model, a four-function paradigm, to explain the essential functions of a social system. The four functions Parsons identified are: adaptation, goal attainment, integration and latent pattern maintenance. 1. Adaptation: Every social system needs to adapt to its physical and social environment to protect its people from physical and social threats and continuously develop new knowledge and information. The art of life is constant adjustment to our surroundings. Lack of adaptability will cause a social system to be challenged. 2. Goal attainment: Every social system has goals which can only be achieved via cooperative effort (e.g. maintaining public health, leading inclusive education). Active engagement of stakeholders is vital to goal achievement. Human and nonhuman resources must be utilised effectively in ways that respond to the specific nature of the tasks involved in achieving planned goals. 3. Integration: As the world gets smaller, multicultural societies emerge. Social integration is valued as a way to uphold shared values and common goals. It is a strong institution of acceptance—a highly desirable societal outcome which builds social cohesion through inclusive policies and practices that facilitate a sense of belonging for everyone in a society. The greatness of a community is measured by its compassion and effort to protect human right, values and dignities. Social integration is a dynamic process in which all individuals and social groups come together to support one another and form a sense of togetherness (Fig. 3.1). 4. Latent pattern maintenance: Every individual and subgroup learns patterns in the process of internalising the norms and values of the system. Pattern maintenance is a primary function of a social system, and is used to maintain basic common values and social order. Within every social system there is an in-built mechanism for managing tension and internal conflicts, but if a system fails to maintain social order, this will lead to its decline. To further understand a social system, we can adopt a systems lens, and look at: (1) resources and how they are shared; (2) social processes including social relationships and 3: social networks, and social subsystems.

3.3 Resources in a Social System The accessibility and quality of a system’s resources are important in enabling it to survive and thrive. The sociology literature commonly identifies four major resources that impact a social system. They are: human capital, social capital, physical resources and economic resources.

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Fig. 3.1 The social structure and social functions in a social system

3.3.1 Human Capital People are the most valuable resource in any social system, and the key to its success. Human capital plays a vital role in sustaining economic development for both individuals and their societies. The term ‘human capital’ refers to the capacity of the labour force to serve the different parts of a society. This includes people’s competencies, knowledge, skills and social and personality attributes, including work attitudes, work ethics and work culture. Human capital is shaped by education and training. In many societies, education and skills play a substantial part in access to employment opportunities. Those who have attained a higher level of education, or those who are skilled in specific trades and industries, are placed in a higher pay bracket than those who are not. They also receive higher socio-economic status and have access to more opportunities to build and enjoy a more comfortable lifestyle. For centuries, access to education and educational attainment has been influenced by social stratification factors such as wealth, gender, social class, social and financial power, race and disability. And many people still believe that stratification of education serves an important function in society, given that different roles and tasks have to be achieved by people with different levels of education and different skill

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sets. Throughout the twentieth century, education systems worldwide became more comprehensive and tended to generate more equal opportunities for people from all social classes. Sadly, however, inequality still exists and attempts to achieve equity are still impacted by individuals’ social backgrounds, health status (e.g. people with disabilities), race, cultural factors and governmental policies and resource allocation. It is both the responsibility of any national or state government to ensure that the strong link between economic demands and schooling is recognised, and in that government’s best interest to do so. Government bodies and other key communities (e.g. religious institutions) therefore work to ensure that they make sufficient investment in education that their human capital demands will be met. At the same time, when people receive a certain level of education, they will make greater contributions to society, and potential negative impacts on society (e.g., crime and poverty rates) will be reduced. Health is another component of human capital. Healthy individuals are more likely to be productive and contribute to the economy, whereas unhealthy ones are less likely to be able to work productively. For decades, we have observed that poor countries (e.g., many in Africa) tend to have unhealthy populations, and countries with unhealthy populations (especially those that suffer from hunger and malnutrition) tend to be poor. However, when a government provides support to assist people with adverse health conditions and/or disabilities, it increases these individuals’ capacity to contribute to society in a variety of ways.

3.3.2 Social Capital The second key resource in a social system is social capital. This is the collective value of a social system and the subsystems that facilitate cooperation within and among groups of people in it. It bonds people who are alike and bridges diversity via norms of reciprocity (Sanders 2015). Social capital is important to a society because shared values, norms and trust help people to feel security and a strong sense of belonging to that society. This feeling of security enhances goodwill and enables solidarity and the exchange of favours. Social capital allows social networks and support groups and communities to provide support and resources to individuals and groups. Strong, positive social capital renders a society cooperative and collaborative, which leads to productivity and efficiency in making plans and solving issues. People with strong social capital also tend to be more successful at school and in their work and social lives. Woolcock (1998) defines three types of social capital: bonding, bridging and linking. 1. Bonding social capital: This describes the relationships between homogenous groups (e.g. people of the same race or nationality, or people with the same values and beliefs). Bonding social capital tends to be exclusive (e.g. it occurs within families or members of a club).

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2. Bridging social capital: This describes the relationships and associations between people with different social identities but the same interests or goals. Bridging social capital is inclusive. It crosses social boundaries and encourages tolerance and acceptance of people with different backgrounds, values and beliefs.

3. Linking social capital: This describes the relationships between individuals and groups in different social hierarchies and power positions within a system (e.g. politicians from different countries, social support groups). This form of social capital is vital for enabling people to establish trust and influence with other parties, cooperate on joint tasks and ventures and gain support in fulfilling international agendas. At a community level, it can also refer to relationships between organisations that develop patron/client or mentor/mentee relationships. A society with strong social capital is primed for cooperation and benevolence, and has a robust ethical and moral sense. When the members of a society share a strong sense of duty, honesty, respect, restraint, patience, tolerance, acceptance and friendship, they create a healthy social system. Being aware of social capital and its importance can help leaders to build a more tight-knit society, improve the functions of social groups and institutions, and provide invaluable social support.

3.3.3 Physical Resources Every society depends on the physical resources it utilises to produce the goods and services that it needs to survive and grow. These include natural, human and capital resources. Natural resources include land, water, plants and minerals. Physical resources also include buildings, machines, tools and equipment (infrastructure). Capital resources are the resources needed to produce commodities, such as machines and other equipment. The physical environment can impact the health of the people in a society. Factors such as access to clean air and water, nutritious food and freedom of movement affect individuals’ physical and mental health. So does access to medical facilities, health services, recreational resources, transport systems, heating, lighting, ventilation and plumbing systems in the built environment.

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3.3.4 Economic Resources Economic resources include not only human resources (the labour force and management), but also non-human resources such as land, financial resources, entrepreneurship, capital goods and technology. Land resources include natural resources such as iron ore, coal, natural gases and other minerals which can be used to produce utilities. It also includes renewable resources like forests, and recyclable resources, like water. The workforce is a large component of economic resource. The income earned by the workforce is injected into the economic system of their society in order to keep governmental and welfare services active. As the world moved from a snail-paced economy to a fast-changing one, more and more social systems have become driven by the desire for money and more ‘stuff’. However, if we visualise the budget of a system as a pie, it becomes clear that in these systems, when some people get a larger slice of the pie, others are left with much smaller pieces, and the disadvantaged and powerless with just crumbs. The structure of a social system affects not only economic outcomes, but also the non-economic aspects of social life, such as education and training opportunities, health services and social and welfare services. By becoming more aware of the social structure of society, leaders can harness the benefits of human and social capital to assist in overcoming problems of resource scarcity and resultant inequity.

3.3.5 Resources and Equality We all dream of living in a utopia where everyone’s life is full of happiness, health, material possessions and educational success—in other words, a just society. The great philosopher Plato explained in his book The republic that a just society is one that oversees the division of labour to correlate with individual differences of ability, so that everyone has rewarding work that suits them. Unfortunately, no such society has ever existed. In reality, people are stratified into hierarchies and layers of social status, and this stratification creates inequality and injustice, turning our utopian dreams into nightmares for many. Inequality has existed since the beginning of civilisation. How do we understand it? Where do we even begin? Carter and Reardon (2014) illustrate four major types of inequality within societies. They are: social-economic inequality, health inequality, political inequality and social-cultural inequality. Social-economic inequality refers to the unequal distribution of monetary and economic resources, social resources (access to social capital and information), and opportunities to build wealth. It is also related to labour market opportunities and educational outcomes, racial disparities and low social and economic status. In many countries, gender is also a factor, as is evident in the lack of opportunities for women to gain equal access to jobs, power positions in organisations and the political arena.

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Carter and Reardon (2014) claim that the social-economic status of parents tends to be a strong predictive of that of their children, though there are exceptions. Health inequality can be caused by age, biological factors, personal choices and lifestyle. It refers mainly to access to healthcare and/or medical facilities. Lowincome families and families that live in poverty and experience food and care insecurity are more likely to have poor health both physically and mentally. Carter and Reardon (2014) point out that in countries where social welfare and social services are robust, such as Denmark, Finland and the Netherlands, people tend to be healthier and happier and enjoy a higher level of life satisfaction. Political inequality refers to civil engagement and access to political power. Limited access to political power is a fundamental condition of inequality in many societies. Currently, political systems in many countries are dominated by partisan ideologies that support interests of particular social classes—especially the rich, who drive political agendas and policies for their own benefit rather than for the social good via monetary contributions. This diminishes civil solidarity and causes distrust in governments, and in many cases, leads to civil unrest. Social-cultural inequality refers to the exclusion or marginalisation of cultural groups who are minorities in a society, and the withholding of rights and respect for those groups. Many cultural groups find that they are excluded from the mainstream population and discriminated against, including those from different racial and ethnic backgrounds than the majority, those with different lifestyles, religious beliefs and social values, and those with disabilities. The forms of inequality they experience can include lack of access to education in mainstream schools, lack of access to fair employment opportunities, and in some cases, lack of access to public services and facilities (e.g. swimming pools, restaurants, clubs). In many countries, specific cultural groups are stigmatised as being criminals or intellectual inferiors, and are denied educational and employment opportunities. Many are targeted by police as potential law-breakers due to their differences in physical appearance and/or way of life. Inequality is multidimensional and involves the interaction of diverse variables. It violates the principles of natural justice. As educational leaders, it is therefore our responsibility to understand social inequality in order to establish conceptual clarity in advocating for our students and their families and communities. So far, we looked at the ‘what’ of a social system. Now, we will move on to understand the ‘how’ in order to make sense of relationships and connections.

3.4 Social Processes Social processes are the ways in which people interact and establish social relationships. These patterns and changes that take place in a society are shaped by a stream of actions, repeated transactions, behaviours that are constantly adjusted based on feedback, and patterns reinforced over time. Examples of social processes

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include communication, cooperation, competition, conflict, accommodation and assimilation. One key component of social processes is social relationships, also referred to as social ties. Social ties can be described as strong, weak or absent, depending on the frequency and quality of interactions. Extensive research shows that strong social relationships have many benefits. Having strong social ties to friends, family and community impacts our mental health in positive ways. It helps us to establish our emotional stability and build our self-esteem. Strong social ties also help to meet our material needs so that we can share resources effectively, and are particularly important in helping us establish a sense of belonging in our society. When we have healthy social relationships, we tend to be happier, and this impacts positively on our physical health too. In contrast, as research shows, loneliness and social isolation can lead to depression, ill health and even early death. People form social ties in different ways. They can be work-related (e.g. sharing information, advice and resources to achieve work goals), or expressive ties which involve communication of feelings, emotions and interpersonal solidarity (e.g. friendships, personal relationships, family links) (Umphress et al. 2010). When people develop a strong social relationship based on shared values, trust, interests and mutual liking, whether the relationship is work-related or personal, they will form a bond of mutual attachment, commitment and involvement to enrich each other’s welfare and wellbeing. People make connections with their counterparts and family through different social circles and networks. These social circles and networks provide supportive interactions that benefit the individual.

3.4.1 Social Networks A social network is a social structure in which people interact with each other to share information, support, friendship and social activities. In systems thinking, a social network consists of two elements: nodes (the people) and ties (the relationships). We can understand the impact of a social network on individuals, groups and communities by observing the social interactions and communication patterns of the people in it. We can also look at their formal and informal structures, their properties, how they are managed and what influence they have on the members. This is called social network analysis. Social network analysis is not a new concept. Business corporate have been using it for decades to map flows of goods, patterns of consumption, buying and spending behaviours, the services provided by social networks and how they interact in cooperation or competition with other networks. Similarly, in law enforcement and national security, agents gather intelligence by studying networks to identify the ‘core’ members of criminal organisations or anti-government groups and track their relationships and interdependences with peripheral members using network analysis and mapping.

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With today’s advanced technology, network mapping is easy, as we can gain all sorts of information and data from personal and organisation pages on websites such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, review sites, community blogs, discussion sites, sharing economy networks and official organisation websites. Having the ability to analyse social networks is useful for education leaders, as it enables us to develop a database of agencies and organisations that provide different services and resources that are helpful for our schools and education systems. Having such information enhances the interconnections between the school and its community and enables the sharing of resources and support. Connecting with community networks can also strengthen mutual understanding and alliances, assist with informing teachers about different student and parental needs, and provide more resources to solve student problems. In order to provide education for all children, it is vital that we have a rich library of data available to inform parents, teachers and members of the community about where they can gain support and resources when in need. Most special schools have contact lists and data on services and support networks that will be helpful to members of their school communities. Leaders in mainstream schools should also be aware of this kind of network of services. Their lists should also be longer because a mainstream school has to provide for a wider range of students; it should include: parent support groups, respite care for students with special needs, migrant and newcomer support groups, disability advocacy and social support groups, therapy services, education technology and device providers, government and social welfare agencies and services, philanthropic and charity groups, and so on. The difference between ordinary and extraordinary is the ‘extra’. Effective systems leaders do the ‘extra’. The first step in conducting a social network analysis is to set the focus. This involves identifying key elements, such as which group/network to focus on, the individuals in the group, the time period for observation and the extent to which will you trace connections. There is now a range of software to help organisations conduct social network analysis and network mapping. It is a worthwhile investment that can help your staff to develop analysis and mapping skills.

3.5 Education as Part of a Social System Throughout history, people have defined education in different ways. The following are just a few examples: Education is the process of training man to fulfil his aim by exercising all the faculties to the fullest extent as a member of the society.—Aristotle

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Education means the bringing out of the ideas of universal validity which are latent in the mind of every man.—Socrates

Education is all one with growing. It has no end beyond itself. Education is everything along with growth. Education itself has no final destination behind a person.—John Dewey

Education is a means of transformation, the discovery of human nature, and the cultivation of character. Everyone in a society should have equal access to education.—Confucius

School education is an important part of everyone’s life. It is not about passing exams and competing to reach the top of a league table in international public assessments such as PISA. Equal access to quality education is a human right, and we must always remember that teaching kids to count is good, but teaching them what counts is better. To return to systems thinking, we need to understand that any education system is complex and multidimensional. Every education system comprises different components that contribute to facilitating education, training and other learning and development activities within a larger social system. They all include many interacting and interdependent components. The list includes: the legal system; the public policy system; social welfare systems; public funding and resources systems; state and district imitative systems; transport systems; health systems; human capital planning systems; universities and tertiary institutions; and community groups. A systems approach to understanding education and its interrelations with all these systems can explore different elements of the system and how they are connected.

3.5.1 The School as a Subsystem of the Education System A school system is a human organisation with activities and interactions that is part of a larger social system. We can view a school as a system nested within the larger education system. The school system comprises a series of interdependent components, both formal and informal in organisation. How the system is administered is a social process which occurs within the context of the education system (Fig. 3.2). As part of a social system, schools maintain the social heritage of their society and preserve its moral standards. They also protect the society’s historical continuity and maintain its traditions and customs (i.e. patterns of behaviour) through the study of

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Fig. 3.2 The education system as part of the social system

history and social science. An example of this is schooling for children with disabilities. For most of the twentieth century, these children were taught in segregated settings such as special schools or special classes. The guiding principles of their education were based on a deficit model that viewed children with disabilities as ‘handicapped’, with a focus on their disability. Schooling for these students aimed to ‘normalise’ them so that they could ‘fit into society’ without needing any accommodations for their disabilities. Regrettably, this still happens in many schools, and is still common in some Asian schools, even ones that have made a ‘commitment’ to implementing inclusive education using a ‘whole-school approach’. We shall discuss this in more detail in the next chapter. Taking our systems view on again, we can see that the school system also plays the role of giving the new generation of children the motivation and inspiration necessary to become responsible contributors to their societies. Finally, it plays a vital part in

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developing the moral and ethical characteristics of individuals so that they become law-abiding citizens following the norms of social control. There are multiple ways to examine and understand school systems. In this chapter, we will narrow our focus and look at the four major components (or subsystems) of a school system: the structural system, the cultural system, the individual system and the political system. The structural system: Most schools are bureaucratic organisations characterised by hierarchy, standards and specialisation. Roles within them are derived from expectations of positional functions and responsibilities that can be departmental, integrative, community-based or project-based. Functionally, this hierarchy of relationships is the hub from which roles and resources are allocated and integrated in order to achieve the goals of the school system. Operationally, the administrative process involves interactions and connections both within departments and among the stakeholders of the school community (Fig. 3.3). The cultural system: The cultural system within a school system manifests in the shared values, beliefs and habits of its community, group identities within the school, and the behaviours of different groups. To be specific, it can refer to staff relationships, collegiality, collaboration, productivity, and psychological and emotional support. It can also include leadership, school–parent relationships, school–community relationships, levels of student and teacher autonomy, rewards and recognitions, provision of additional support for special students, expectations of staff and students and positive or negative behaviours that impact the school. The individual system: This refers to the needs of individual members of the school system, including students, staff and leaders. The ideals and philosophies of these individuals may drive synergy to achieve goals in the school, or create conflicts

Fig. 3.3 The subsystems within a school system

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and cause disharmony. As people are important in a system, it is vital that the system allows individuals to make their needs known, and where possible, act to support these needs. The political system: The term ‘politics’ refers to the activities and agendas associated with the governance of a country, state or region. Although in many countries, the education system is separate from the political system, politics still have a strong influence on education via public policies and other external environmental forces (e.g. parent demands, union demands, etc.). However, the term ‘political system’ when used of a school does not refer to this: instead, it means how decisions are made, who has the power to make or influence them, how the distribution of powers affect school decision-making and planning, how resources are shared and how stakeholders are affected. Political systems exist in leadership groups, teacher groups, parent groups and even student groups. These four focal points form a starting point from which we can gain a system view and begin to understand how the different elements of a system impact on one another. In the context of education, a system view considers a range of variables. In a school, these include the students, teachers, curriculum, subject matter, instruction and evaluation methods, how students learn, student needs, barriers to learning, expectations, goals, success, failure and how these follow any traceable patterns. Systems thinking enables us to consider all aspects of this system, including the systems and subsystems that surround schools within the social system that we live in. By taking a whole system view, we can define problems and issues that may otherwise be invisible, because it is not only the actors, objects and events that are important, but also the connections and relationships between them. Every component of the smaller system contributes to support the functioning of the larger one.

3.6 Human Rights, Equality and Equity in Education The United Nation defines human rights as ‘rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or any other status. Human rights include the right to life and liberty, freedom from slavery and torture, freedom of opinion and expression, the right to work and education, and many more. Everyone is entitled to these rights, without discrimination’ (World Bank 2015). Social equality and justice are based on the moral principles of human rights, equal opportunity and respect for the dignity of human beings. The concept of social justice promotes the value of a just and equitable society for our collective wellbeing. As a shared responsibility in education, it focuses on the fair redistribution of resources to close the gaps between those who can enjoy a full education and those who are denied access or neglected in mainstream classrooms. It highlights the responsibility of a system or a government to address systemic and structural problems such as poverty and social-cultural discrimination that lead to inequality. Inclusive education is a step towards achieving social justice and the recognition of basic human rights. To date, after fifty years of concerted global advocacy, in many

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education systems in different parts of the world there are still large numbers of children who are not supported to achieve optimum learning because they have disabilities or special needs. Many of these barriers are the result of societal ignorance, general disinterest, discriminatory policies, or a lack of the resources, knowledge and skills needed to accept and support these children. It is vital to bring attention to the conscious and unconscious impediments to equity in enrolment and support, as this helps to reduce disparities in education provision. A range of policies and practices at school and education system level can be put in place to make schools more inclusive, with legislative mandates and whole-school reform being led by leaders who are genuinely committed to the values of inclusive education. To achieve this, systems leaders need to identify the reasons behind negative responses to excluded children. They must promote pedagogies which strengthen social-emotional learning and celebrate difference and diversity. School and systems leaders must also accept that they have a responsibility to provide an equitable education to all children so that they receive well-balanced, wholeperson development through their school education. If they do not, children neglected by the social systems will be deprived of the means to become independent, and may face greater problems with poverty, economic issues and mental health issues. When all children are given an equitable education, they can all become positive and productive members of society, able to contribute to their society and nation in different ways. It is the aim of this book to inspire and mobilise school leaders, teachers and other systems leaders to take action in this way to uphold social justice and serve our children better.

References Carter, P. L., & Reardon, S. F. (2014, September). Inequality matters. Retrieved from https://ed.sta nford.edu/sites/default/files/inequalitymatters.pdf. Parsons, T. (1951). The social system. Glencoe: Free Press. Sanders, T. (2015). Social Capital: Harvard Kennedy School, mail to Alexander Dill from January 12th 2015. Citated in Dill, A (2015). What is Social Capital 2015 – a review. Accessed from ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270761104_What_is_Social_Cap ital_2015_-_a_review_Updated_version_with_a_statement_of_Thomas_Sanders_from_Har vard_Kennedy_School_from_January_12th_2015. Umphress, E. E., Bingham, J. B., & Mitchell, M. S. (2010). Unethical behavior in the name of the company: The moderating effect of organizational identification and positive reciprocity beliefs on unethical pro-organizational behavior. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(4), 769–780. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019214. Wearne, B. C. (1990). The social system. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO 9780511898297.011. Woolcock, M. (1998). Social capital and economic development: Toward a theoretical synthesis and policy framework. Theory and Society, 27(2), 151–208. World Bank. (2015). Vietnam—STEP Skills Measurement Program 2012, Skills Toward Employment and Productivity (Wave1). Retrieved from https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/vie tnam-step-skills-measurement-household-survey-2012-wave-1.

Chapter 4

A Systems View to Understand Complex Problems in Education

4.1 Introduction This chapter guides readers into deeper consideration of the issues and conflicts involved in both leading and implementing successful inclusive education. It explores approaches and outlines steps that educational leaders can take, using systems thinking, to understand the complexity of education and the school system and create genuine collaboration to support those we seek to help and empower.

4.2 Inclusive Education and Education for All Education is not a static phenomenon. Evolution in education is constantly taking place as a result of time and environmental impacts. For example, UNESCO’s work has changed the shared worldviews of nations around the world. Many have committed to providing inclusive education for learners who experience learning and developmental difficulties, and for those marginalised by social or cultural backgrounds, aiming for a more just world through education for all. The conflicting paradigms adopted in the past have progressed from the segregated model, which saw children with disabilities as needing ‘special education’, to an inclusive model in which social justice and human rights are central to education and societal support. This means providing access and opportunity for students who otherwise might be enrolled in a school but denied access to the full curriculum because of their disability, socially isolated because they are seen as different, or forced to learn in the same way as students in the mainstream due to a one-size-fits-all curriculum and outdated pedagogy. However, the practice of inclusion at the school level still differs tremendously from nation to nation, and even from state to state. Disappointingly, after over thirty years of patience, persistence and perspiration, many ‘die-hard’ inclusion advocates are still struggling to see progress taking place in their own hometowns. For years, we © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 M. Gonzales, Systems Thinking for Supporting Students with Special Needs and Disabilities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4558-4_4

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have been aware of the barriers identified in the education literature. These include attitudes, physical barriers, curriculum and teacher readiness, funding and resources, governmental support and policies. We also know that the success of inclusive education depends heavily on the systems of support structured around the education system which caters for the development of its students. Why, then, is progress still occurring at a snail’s pace? Is it not time to take a different approach to understand and tackle these challenges in a different way? After all, as Albert Einstein has told us, ‘The definition of insanity is doing the same thing over and over again, but expecting different results’. Perhaps things will work differently if we apply different mental attitude. The way education systems are constructed can have a tremendous impact on student learning, achievement, motivation and engagement. Around the world, school systems in the past centuries were built on a mechanistic model, with organisations and movements functioning like clockwork. Students followed uniform curriculums and learned from prescribed textbooks in factorylike environments. This school-asfactory metaphor was once praised for its efficiency and ability to shape children to meet the demands of life. However, times have changed, and life is very different. The sad reality is that education systems in many regions, including Asia, still adhere to this Industrial Age factory model of education. For genuine inclusion to happen, a paradigm shift is therefore needed—one in which we come to understand education in broader terms so that it meets the complex demands of today’s world. Historically, being educated has meant acquiring book-based knowledge and work-oriented skills to increase one’s ability to get a job or climb the social and economic ladder. Today, we need holistic education to accommodate all learning needs and learning styles (Fig. 4.1). Holistic education is education that nurtures a sense of wonder; it encourages curiosity and creativity and explores different learning paths, celebrates differences, and is responsive to the diverse learning needs of individuals. In every corner of the world, there are zealous educators who believe in making a difference, and practise holistic education to help their students to discover their identity, meaning and purpose in life through connection to their community, to embrace values such as compassion and peace. Sadly, their professional rigour is often stifled by the narrowness of what they are required to teach and how they are required to assess learning in school systems that continue to embrace the school-asfactory mentality. Without a paradigm shift that extends into practice, all discussion of inclusive education is just superficial words on paper. Every student is unique and must have the chance to fully develop their individual potential to think, to create, to imagine, to inquire and to transform their thoughts into actions. If a student with learning difficulties or special needs has the opportunity to do so, they can improve their skills and expand their potential by a few percentage points per school term, and will show dramatic improvement by the end of each school year. When new learning strategies become ingrained behaviours, students will be more able to adapt to new situations when they leave school, and are more likely to become independent contributors to the society and world that are evolving around them, just like their peers without disabilities. For them to have this opportunity, however,

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Fig. 4.1 The difference between traditional school and Holistic education

education needs to be student-centred and focused on the holistic development of every student.

4.2.1 Crucial Factors for the Success of Inclusive Education and Education for All The education literature has documented key success factors for leading and practising inclusive education successfully (e.g. Campbell et al. 2015; Choudry 2015; Dyson 2010; Kugelmass and Ainscow 2004). The following are some of those key factors: • A firm belief in the philosophy of inclusive education. • A commitment to lead change and improve situations. • Competent leaders who understand stakeholders’ needs and can mobilise needed actions. • Willingness to listen to the voices of students and the school community. • Professional development for teachers and other professionals involved. • Time for collaborative planning. • Effective cyclical evaluation, planning and measurement. • Strong family–school partnerships.

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• Sufficient funding and resource support (funding, material, technology, human support). • Clear communication. • Humility and willingness to learn from one another. • An open mind and the willingness to accept necessary change and to change as necessary. • Research studies to gather data for improvement. • Curriculum reform and building an inclusive culture. • Pedagogy focused on Universal Design for Learning (UDL).

4.3 Understanding Complexity in Inclusive Education As we have previously pointed out, a school system is a complex system. It includes many people, each of whom is different, with multidimensional learning and development needs. Running a school is also complex, and involved many different processes and policies that make complex demands. Every day, each classroom presents a situation that includes many different elements. A classroom of collective learners forms a complex learning community. Even the learning process is complex, demanding attention to the development of physical, cognitive and social domains. It is depressing to admit that current approaches to solving educational problems are mostly identical to those used by previous generations of educators. Many educational systems still resort to piecemeal change efforts that address the ‘symptoms’ of problems instead of trying to understand the interrelation of elements that feed the evolving problems themselves. Many leaders do not grasp that due to the interconnected nature of system factors, complex problems in education cannot be understood or resolved by isolating them from the whole. As previously discussed, education is a part of the social system, and has its own defined structure and set of roles that influence other nested systems, including the economic system, social system, political system and so on. As an open system, it is multifaceted and evolves in response to both the internal and external environment. To understand chronic problems in the education system, we must therefore identify the elements of the system and the inputs and outputs, and map those elements’ interrelationships of the elements with other systems. Most importantly, we must understand complexity. Many of the challenges that impede the progress of inclusive education involve dealing with different levels of complexity. These knotty problems have multiple causes and span different ranges of programmes and responsibilities, sharing a range of characteristics that go beyond the capacity of any one organisation to tackle: they are ‘wicked problems’. A systems approach to understanding and solving problems like these requires a shift in mindset and the ability to consider issues and problems at the micro, meso and macro levels of the whole system.

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4.3.1 Understanding Complexity A good place to start with regard to solving complex problems is to identify the types of complexity we are dealing with. French and Lowe (2016) describe four types of complexity in public service management: compositional complexity, dynamic complexity, experiential complexity and governance complexity. We can also understand complexity involved in education through these complexity lenses. Compositional complexity results from the interdependence and interdeterminacies of causal factors such as structural rules and hierarchy. In terms of inclusive education, these include the institutional setting, the stratification of educational systems into different school types, and the way this stratification influences students’ choices and their pathways to future livelihoods. Dynamic complexity refers to non-linear patterns of change in space and time: for example, the transition from special schools for children with disabilities to an inclusive education model. Some of the dynamic elements in this form of complexity include resistance to change, time required to cope with change and shifts in mindset and capability to meet the demands of change. Changes in the surroundings require adequate feedback loops to inform how the interchange of energy is impacting positively or negatively on the system. Experiential complexity results from variations in how outcomes are experienced by individuals. It describes behaviour over time. For example, the lived experience of a teacher, parent or policymaker who grew up in teacher-centred classrooms will be very different from their current state in which they are expected to plan for and implement changes that they cannot relate to. When everyone brings their perceptions and interpretations of ‘how to create an educational environment and teaching methods that are consistent with a student’s physical and cognitive abilities and social and emotional needs’ to the table, these challenge individuals’ ways of sense-making. Some may adapt to the changes, while others may experience negative emotions and stress. Governance complexity is a product of the autonomy of the system and its surrounding systems, such as public or community service organisations and other agents. Interaction, or the lack of it, between autonomous systems may increase the complexity of issues. For example, inconsistency between teacher education and educational leadership preparation may impact the success of inclusive education, as can the conflicting priorities of a school board and members of the school community. To deal with complex problems in education and promote change, active leadership in the development of collaborative cultures at the school level is needed (Fullan and Hargreaves 2016). Thoughtful plans to achieve a system transformation will be based on fostering meaning for education at every level to instigate individual and systemic success. Systems thinking offers a relevant method of finding our way through complexity to understand the evolution of a situation and developing pattern recognition skills to identify patterns of behaviour that impact change and progress.

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By using a systems analysis approach, we can identify problems from different perspectives, see their full scope and locate barriers and success factors. This approach can help us to describe problems clearly, recognise and acknowledge common goals and objectives and engage with stakeholders to strengthen our commitment to success as a collective.

4.4 Applying a System Analysis to Unearth Problems Impeding Inclusive Education Success Over the past two decades, many countries have begun to decentralise school governance, allowing local schools more freedom to lead change and increase their responsiveness to demographic changes and community demands. This autonomy is liberating for some school leaders but seen as a burden by many others, especially those without formal leadership training and development, but by using systems thinking to develop self-awareness of their development needs, these school leaders can upskill their leadership capacity and enable themselves and their schools to meet the complexity of the changing world. Then decentralisation will no longer feel like a burden. And once you started to use systems thinking for analysis and diagnosis, you can move on and apply these diagnostic tools in order to understand problems from multiple perspectives and identify new questions to ask. This will help you to understand interrelated problems and begin to make small changes to structures that are not serving well, expanding the choices available to your school and creating more satisfying and effective solutions to chronic problems. In this section we will address how to achieve this. As previously stated, system analysis is a technique that can be used to define problems and opportunities in order to improve the system and ensure that all of its components work effectively to achieve its goals and accomplish its mission. Leading successful educational initiatives (e.g. genuine inclusive education) requires an awareness and understanding of how the interacting elements of the system (people and structure) affect the process of change and the emergence and adaptation of collective acceptance and actions. The first phase in identifying which systems problems impede the progress of successful and genuine inclusive education is understanding the system’s instrumental effectiveness. They include: • Goals and visions of the organisation: The clarity of goals and objectives (are they outcome-oriented, or superficial statements to be included in the annual report?), monitoring and measurement systems and procedures, feedback, alignment with internal and external environmental demands, and impact of intended change. • Decision-making and planning: Decision-making processes (are they top-down decisions made by leaders or bottom-up decisions made by practitioners?), levels

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of consultation (who is involved?), time factors, domains of decision-making such as human capital planning, student policies and financial planning, and curriculum decisions. • Bureaucracy and politics: The power balance between decision-makers and planners, interdepartmental or organisational cooperation, and other political factors. • Knowledge, skills and capability: The readiness of all stakeholders in the system to work collaboratively towards the set goals (are there skill gaps? attitudinal gaps? behavioural gaps?). • Resources: Human resource constraints, economic resource constraints (allocation of funding), material and technological resource constraints. The second phase involves applying an equity perspective to effect genuine inclusive education. This includes • establishing early interventions and preparation to support young students being included in a mainstream setting, • school choice (legislation and mechanisms to prevent rejections), • transition support for students with special needs as they move from primary to secondary and tertiary education or vocational training. • improving teaching practice and educational assessment so that children are not forced to learn in a one-size-fits-all model. • Funding and resource support are also important elements to consider. The third phase in identifying problems is applying an adaptation perspective. In this phase, factors that can transform the status quo to an ideal future—such as the integral structure of the education system, examination standards, teacher professional learning and development, changes to pedagogy, curriculum delivery and assessments, parental involvement, community support inclusion, participative decision-making, professional development and school self-evaluation and accountability measures—must be identified and examined. Ways of doing this include boundary spanning and stakeholder analysis and engagement.

4.4.1 Boundary Spanning Organisational boundaries are characterised by diverse interconnections and varying levels of communication and patterns of interaction. Having a clear understanding of what is within the system boundary of your school is a fundamental step in understanding it from a systems perspective. Being aware of and establishing linkages with organisations beyond the system boundary is known as boundary spanning. A system boundary is a conceptual parameter that encompasses the system and its environment. It establishes rules and expectations within the boundary while also receiving and acting upon influences and feedback from the external environment.

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To gain a more thorough understanding of a system, a leader needs to know which sources within the system boundary drive the organisation and steer actions. They can include inspiration, control, expertise and involvement. • Inspiration: Within the system boundary, what are the guiding principles (mission and purpose) of the organisation? Who do they serve? How is success measured? • Control: Who makes decisions? What are the parameters of their control (what can they control and what can’t they)? • Expertise: What sort of expertise is involved? What are the roles and responsibilities do these ‘experts’ hold? How powerful is their influence? How do they make decisions? • Involvement: Who is ‘involved’ (e.g. leaders, administrators, teachers) and who is ‘affected’ (e.g. students, parents, community members)? What is the power balance between them (e.g. do students, parents and those receiving service have a say, and if so, how much of one)? Boundary-spanning activities allow external actors to apply a ‘fresh eyes’ perspective to system problems such as inertia or functional rigidity. This can help an organisation to overcome challenges in these areas. These activities also contribute significantly to the organisation’s creative process and may help to shift the locus of problems by shining lights on organisational blind spots that have become culturally ingrained or hidden by layers of bureaucracy and power plays.

4.4.2 Stakeholder Analysis and Engagement Stakeholders are individuals or groups and organisations impacted by the outcome of a project or the set goals of an organisation. Internal stakeholders in a school include the leaders of the school, staff, students and parents. External stakeholders will include a wider range of people who may have direct or indirect interests in or influences on the organisation, e.g. the government, the ministry of education, the legal system, community groups, professional groups (social workers, therapists), universities, etc. Stakeholder analysis enables us to identify, understand and prioritise all stakeholders who may have influence or power over the planning and operations of an organisation. A well-thought-out stakeholder analysis will allow the organisation to properly identify all stakeholders, and understand the interrelationships and interfaces that exist between them and the organisation, and categorise them in order of importance. Information gathered from the stakeholder analysis will inform the organisation about how these different groups may be serving the interests of the organisation or putting them at risk. A stakeholder analysis will also let you know who should be engaged and persuaded to participate in a project or task, and to what extent. This information is valuable as it can help the organisation to direct targeted engagement at identified stakeholders or groups or stakeholders in order to enhance collaborations or

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resolve conflicts, and serve as the foundation for future stakeholder engagement and management strategies.

4.4.2.1

Where to Start?

Stakeholders can be identified using a number of methods: 1. Current data: Begin with the data you have on hand. Start a database (if you don’t already have one) and build from there. 2. Staff members’ experience: Elicit information from staff members, as they will have a wealth of information to draw on based on their associations with different community, professional and advocacy groups, and other sources that may surprise you. 3. Brainstorm: As a staff development activity, invite staff and/or parents to make a list of stakeholders who may be helpful or a have negative impact on the school. After identifying these stakeholders, the next step is to categorise them. There are many different ways to do this. For example, you may categorise them as: Primary and secondary stakeholders: Primary stakeholders are those who are directly involved in an organisation or project. They include ‘actors’ (those who are doing the work) and ‘recipients’ or those ‘affected’ by the work. Secondary stakeholders are those who are not directly involved but will still have an impact on the project or the plan, or the organisation. Key players and networks: Key players are those with power who can strongly influence an organisation or project. They are not necessarily the heads of organisations but may be recognised leaders or people with expertise, or strong advocates for certain values groups. Most of these key players have powerful connections with other networks, and their combined efforts can contribute to or compromise a project or a plan.

4.4.2.2

Stakeholder Analysis Tools

There are many stakeholder analysis tools available in the public domain. Below are listed the three most commonly used ones: the Power–Interest Matrix, the Stakeholder Salience Model and the Stakeholder Knowledge and Attitude Map. 1. Power–interest matrix One of the most common approaches to stakeholder classification is the use of a power–interest matrix. This matrix locates how influential stakeholders are along one axis, and how much impact they have on the organisation (or project or plan) on the other. No identified stakeholder should be ignored in this analysis, as things can change over time and a low-power person or group could gain power or influence which may impact your organisation in different ways (Fig. 4.2).

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Fig. 4.2 Power-interest matrix

2. Stakeholder knowledge and attitudes map A stakeholder knowledge and attitudes map can identify which stakeholders can contribute to current goals, which ones need to be further influenced, and which ones may pose risks to the plan or project. Milosevic (2003) argues that stakeholders generally fall into five categories: Unaware: Unaware of the project and its potential impacts on them. Resistant: Aware of the project but opposed to it. Neutral: Neither for nor against the project. Supportive: In favour of the project and invested in its success. Leading: Actively engaged in ensuring the project’s success. Using a stakeholders’ knowledge and attitude map, we can sort these stakeholders into four quadrants. Quadrant 1: Stakeholders who are aware of the project or plan but are opposed to it. These stakeholders may not be supportive, and contingency measures may be needed to manage the risks they pose to the organisation or the plan. Quadrant 2: Stakeholders who are aware of the project or plan and support it. These are driving agents. They generally require little attention, but should not be taken for granted.

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Quadrant 3: Stakeholders who oppose the project or plan even though they are largely ignorant of what it entails. These stakeholders should be a key focus because their attitude can often be changed when they are provided with relevant information. Quadrant 4: Stakeholders who support the plan or project but are largely ignorant of what it entails. These stakeholders need to be nurtured so they are not lost (Fig. 4.3). Systems leaders must bear in mind that stakeholders have connections themselves, and give birth to networks of influences. Therefore, we must not just respond to stakeholders or stakeholder groups individually, but pay attention to their interactions with multiple influences from the entire stakeholder set. We need to establish the viewpoints of different professional groups and people with different backgrounds who hold different understanding of the complex phenomenon that is inclusive education. We also need to build our capacity to align their goals with our organisational objectives. There will always be conflict in construing what is important in solving complex issues, and only through time, persistence and a strong belief can we achieve success together. Stakeholder analysis is one of the tools that can enable us to do so.

Fig. 4.3 Stakeholders’ knowledge and attitude map

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4.5 Conclusion To lead authentic inclusion and quality education for all requires committed leaders to lead collaboration and navigate through a kaleidoscope of complexity embedded in the larger systems and different layers of its subsystems. Complexity impedes turning knowledge into action because it is beyond one person or a committed few, but different levels of stakeholders who are involved in broadly scattered locales. To propagate adoption of this value and belief, clarity of its conceptualisation is crucial. In addition to skillful and insightful collective leadership, support for practitioners are the key to success. Tensions between societal and cultural values must be realised and addressed. School systems must also adopt education models that best serve their school communities supported by legislations, governmental policies and frameworks to guide practice and interventions.

References Campbell, C., Leiberman, A., & Yashkina, A. (2015). Teachers leading educational improvements: Developing teachers leadership, improving practices, and collaborating to share knowledge. Leading and Managing, 21(2), 90–105. Choudry, S. (2015). Deep diversity: Overcoming us vs them. Toronto: Between the Lines. Dyson, A. (2010). Developing inclusive schools: Three perspectives from England. DDS—Die Deutsche Schule, 102 (2/2010), S. 115–129. French, M., & Lowe T. (2016). The wickedness of public service outcomes: Why we need a new public management paradigm. In Conference paper presented at the XXII IRSPM Annual Conference, 11–13 April 2018, Edinburgh. http://programme.exordo.com/irspm2018/delegates/ presentation/572/. Fullan, M., & Hargreaves, P. (2016). Bringing the profession back in: A call to action. Report Commissioned by Learning Forward. Kugelmass, J., & Ainscow, M. (2004). Leadership for inclusion: A comparison of international practices. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Meeting, Chicago. Milosevic, D. Z. (2003). Project management toolbox. New York, NY: Wiley.

Chapter 5

Leading Change with Systems Design

5.1 Introduction Chapters 1–4 presented theories and models of systems thinking, systems leadership, the social system and the philosophy of Education For All. Now it is time for you to put all of these into practice. This chapter provides an illustration of a systems design methodology to enable you to lead a change from the traditional teacher-led classroom to a future-oriented, student-led learning pedagogy. It explains the rationale for this change and the benefits of the new pedagogical approach. It discusses the importance of change readiness and explains how to become more attuned to stakeholders needs and expectations. Finally, it takes you through a five-stage design thinking framework that is collaborative, comprehensive and systemic.

5.2 Lead Systems Change! Move Everyone Forward! The world is now full of exciting new inventions: self-driven cars, miniature supercomputers, GPS, artificial intelligence and robotic technology. Every day, new scientific discoveries are made to help us solve medical and environmental problems. We even have our own genie in the iPhone—Siri. Yet, schools in many parts of the world remain stuck in the industrial era, with some teachers still teaching in the same ways their grandparents learnt. This traditional ‘factory’ model of teaching is not only outdated, but discriminatory and in diametric contradiction to the principles of Education For All. How can we give our students a better tomorrow if we are ourselves stuck in the past? Student-led learning is a pedagogical approach that is beginning to be adopted worldwide. It empowers students to shift from being passive learners to being active, independent learners with increased self-awareness. It has its theoretical basis in constructivist learning, which emphasises the importance of the learner’s role in © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 M. Gonzales, Systems Thinking for Supporting Students with Special Needs and Disabilities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4558-4_5

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constructing meaning from new information and prior experience. It therefore personalises teaching and learning to meet individual students’ needs. It emphasises learning through building meaning and understanding that are connected to students’ lives, and connecting learning to the wider community outside of the school. It enables students to become active participants and leaders in their own learning, and encourages cooperation between students and their teachers, who are facilitators of learning. As such, it embodies the principles of Education For All. In traditional classrooms, students were required to sit quietly and passively, listening to teachers as they broadcast limited knowledge, and then rewrite textbook content in tests and examinations. This classroom practice is not only outdated but also cruel, because it force-feeds information and rewards regurgitation, and at the same time destroys students’ creativity, damages their self-esteem and labels neglected students stupid. However, when we consider the true mission of education in the contemporary world, which is fast-changing, information-rich and problemridden, it becomes obvious that we need learners with a more diverse set of talents and skills—learners who can learn on their own, and who are intrinsically motivated to follow their interests and build their knowledge and skills with the guidance of their teachers and peers. This is what student-led pedagogy aims to achieve. Student-led pedagogy is not new. It has been in practice for some years in many Western countries, including Australia, Canada, numerous states in the US and many European countries. Some of these countries are leaders in using the approach, while others are still refining their practice. It involves using student-centred instructional activities and active learning strategies to guide students to experience and explore, and to think about and reflect on what they have learnt (Misseyanni et al. 2018). Student-led learning embraces a range of learning approaches, including projectbased learning, inquiry-based learning, problem-based learning, team and collaborative learning and peer tutoring to name just a few. One of the more popular approaches gaining momentum in current classroom practice both in school education and tertiary education is the flipped classroom. In this approach, some subject content and instructions are recorded as video clips for students to view as homework assignments or in-class tasks. Practice worksheets or learning activities are given to help them consolidate what is learnt from the clips, or to expand on and apply the knowledge developed in their learning projects. A flipped classroom caters for students who learn in different modalities. Through a combination of modalities such as watching videos, reading books, creating models and visual representations, and doing art and movement projects, students can observe create and learn (Mattis 2015). More capable students can speed through the core learning materials and move on to more challenging tasks, or help their peers with their work, while others are able to learn at a pace that suits them. Bergmann and Sams (2012), who are strong advocates for this model of learning, state that the flipped classroom model has the following benefits: • It helps students of all abilities to achieve and excel. • It gives teachers time to pay special attention to those who need extra support. • It increases student–teacher and student–student interactions.

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• It lets students to learn at their own pace (e.g. students can rewind video clips to repeat something they have missed). • It gives students more time to seek help from teachers when they have problems, and encourages them to take responsibility for their own learning. • It increases student engagement and motivation. • It allows teachers to differentiate learning materials and activities to accommodate different learning needs and learning styles. • It can incorporate assessment and data collection on performance and progress. Research suggests that flipped learning improves homework completion rates (Marlowe 2012), increases students’ confidence and independence (Wininger and Norman 2010), promotes teacher–student relationships and trust, and improves children’s social and emotional growth by requiring them to interact and work collaboratively with different groups of learners, gaining people skills, negotiation skills and social skills (Hallahan et al. 2015). Both high-achieving and low-achieving students are also more likely to attain higher academic scores, demonstrating improved performance (Mattis 2015). Finally, two studies have found that students became more engaged when they are given helpful web-based homework (Arasasingham et al. 2011; Lenz 2010). Student-led pedagogies transform passive learners to responsible active learners. What other benefits can you see? (Fig. 5.1).

Fig. 5.1 A rich picture of student-led learning

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This section has explained the rationale for moving from traditional classroom teaching to a student-led pedagogy, and its benefits. The reader can make use of rich pictures (discussed in Chapter 1) to capture the different ways in which teachers and other members of the school community interpret student-led learning. This is a useful tool to help systems leaders understand the level of readiness for change in a school, and identify leaders who have the capacity to lead and influence change.

5.3 A Five-Stage Design Model to Lead Systems Change Design thinking is an essential component of systems thinking. It is a thinking model that generates new insights and solutions to effect change. It incorporates both a ‘bottom-up’ stakeholder-centred approach and a ‘top-down’ big-picture view to consider the interactions of system parts that lead to optimising the performance of the whole system and to plan and implement systemic change. This section presents the Hasso-Plattner Five-Stage Design Thinking model, introduced by the Institute of Design at Stanford University (Plattner et al. 2011) (Fig. 5.2). This model provides a solution-based approach to solving complex problems. It focuses on understanding stakeholders’ needs and concerns, reframing the problem through collective input, and using a hands-on approach in creating prototypes and testing and evaluating the effectiveness of the new design before implementing it. It is commonly used in commercial and industrial product designs. However, more applications are emerging from the leadership literature. In this section, we will therefore apply this model to show how it can be useful in leading systems change in education.

Fig. 5.2 A graphic representation of the Hasso-Plattner Five-Stage Design Thinking model

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5.3.1 The Five Stages of the Hasso-Plattner Design Thinking Model Stage 1: Empathise: Plan to meet the needs of your stakeholders As systems leaders, you want to drive change that will benefit all of your stakeholders, but especially the recipients of your services. Empathy is crucial to gaining insights into the needs and wants of these stakeholders. You can use different research methods (surveys, interviews, casual conversations, professional dialogues, reviews of the literature) to gain a clear understanding of what you need to change, how important that change is, and how urgent the components of the change are. Stage 2: Define: What are you going to change? Using the information and data gathered in Stage 1, analyse your observations and synthesise them to define your problems, unmet needs, gaps in current practice and needed actions so that you can design planned action. Stage 3: Ideate: Challenge assumptions and create ideas To innovate, you must break out of your established patterns and look at things in different ways. Conduct group brainstorming activities to find alternative ways to view problems and identify solutions. But first, you must become the change you want to see in the world. Beware of ‘Do as I say but not as I do’. Stage 4: Prototype: Create solutions collaboratively Don’t try to put new wine into old bottles. To create change, you need to find fresh eyes, new ideas, courage, and commitment to solving problems with good planning. For this, many heads are better than one. A collaborative approach will lead to the emergence of great ideas and great solutions. Stage 5: Test: Try your solutions out Pilot your plan or a project with a small group. Set time frames so that you have time to evaluate your results and refine your plans. Involve more people in a second and third pilot before you introduce the new programme to the whole school or your community. Sections 5.3–5.6 will take you through each of these stages to discuss some steps that can be helpful when exploring, identifying, generating, designing and evaluating factors and processes for the systemic changes needed to move your school from traditional teaching to student-led learning. Successful leaders take actions while others hesitate. One day, or Day one?

5.4 Stage 1: Empathise—Listen to Your Stakeholders One way to embark on Stage 1 (Empathise) is to create an empathy map. This is a tool for drawing out unexpected perceptions of your stakeholders’ needs, and the emotions nested in these needs. It gives you the ability to identify individual threads in a complex situation so that you can tackle them one at a time.

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First: define the scope and goals of your empathy map. Who are your stakeholders? What are you looking at? Sometimes you may discover things that you don’t know what you don’t know. In traditional practice, students are right at the bottom of the education reform agenda. Despite governments’ regular claims to be ‘making changes for our students’, kids have seldom (or never) been consulted, and have been (and still are) treated as objects to be reformed. However, as responsible school leaders, we strongly believe that students should have a say and be listened to before we make any changes that affect them and their future. They have unique perspectives that can make reform efforts more worthwhile, and better still, if they are able to contribute to reforms, it makes new practices more meaningful to them. In this chapter, the author has therefore chosen to include students in our empathy maps along with teachers, parents, school leaders, the government and the media. There are a variety of ways you can create your empathy maps. Below are some examples. In creating Empathy Maps 1–3 the author categorised our students, parents and teachers into three groups: those who are happy about the proposed change; those who are neutral; and those who are worried or unhappy. These sentiments are not totally fictitious. Most of them are drawn from the author’s observations and experiences (Fig. 5.3).

5.4.1 Students as Stakeholders Students have unique views about their education and learning. Many senior primary students and high school students are mature enough to express their thoughts and values, and respecting their voices can help school leaders to gain a deeper and broader perspective on what is really in need of change. Listening to student voices also makes students feel cherished, and believe that the school system is investing their interests in school improvement. The voices of students from minority groups and from different sociocultural backgrounds, those with learning difficulties and other challenges, and those with special needs and disabilities are especially needed (Fig. 5.4).

5.4.2 Parents as Stakeholders The benefits of parental involvement in children’s education have been well researched over the past few decades. Parent–teacher partnerships are valued in many schools around the world, where school leaders, teachers and parents all understand that learning is more effective when parents and schools work together to support a child’s learning and their social and physical development. Leaders using a systems thinking approach will take the view that parents are co-designers of needed change

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Fig. 5.3 Empathy Map 1: students’ views

and agents for supporting its successful implementation. A well-designed empathy map (see Empathy Map 2 for an example) can help you to identify the needs and expectations of parents, and thus foster mutual support (Fig. 5.5).

5.4.3 Teachers as Stakeholders The literature tells us that teacher attitudes and teacher readiness are of vital importance to the success of educational changes and reform. However, researchers seldom discuss what to do about the problems they identified in these areas. In rigid bureaucracies, many teachers can also feel insecure about making their professional development needs known, for fear of being regarded as incompetent or even losing their jobs. The absence of teachers’ voices becomes part of many complex problems within the education system. Teachers are frontline leaders when it comes to implementing education policies and transforming educational ideals into reality. There are bright spots around the world, especially in some European countries like the Netherlands and Finland, where teachers’ voice are highly valued. In some other nations, however, teachers’ opinions

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Fig. 5.4 Empathy Map 2: parents’ views

are rarely sought and not respected, meaning that the rich experience and expertise of these vital catalysts of change are ignored. School leaders must always remember that the power to transform education comes from the teaching profession, and value this untapped resource (Fig. 5.6).

5.4.4 School Leaders as Stakeholders Research on school leadership informs us that over half of current senior school leaders (principals and deputy principals) have not received any leadership training (e.g. Waterson 2015). Most of them rose to become school leaders because they were excellent teachers, or contributed to the school in other ways, such as through hard work and strong people skills. However, the boardroom requires a very different mindset, and skillset, from the classroom. Literature on the ‘dark side of leadership’ has pointed out that leaders who are untrained, and therefore unaware of their own leadership styles and capabilities as leaders, are potentially dangerous. Without selfawareness, they are likely to perpetuate patterns of behaviour that will have overall negative impacts on the organisation. Such leaders can be narcissistic, controlling, arrogant, selfish and even dishonest. Their egos will prevent them from learning from others or listening to others’ needs.

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Fig. 5.5 Empathy Map 3: teachers’ views

And even leaders with traditional leadership training still view leadership as the province of those holding executive positions, or on a governance board, where all decisions are made by those in command. They may listen to others and consult stakeholders, but the final say is reserved for a powerful few. Advanced leaders, in contrast, understand the power of many. Through systems thinking, delegating, developing others, networking and building partnerships, they can lead change from a broader and deeper perspective and achieve more sustainable results (Fig. 5.7).

5.4.5 Governmental Agencies as Stakeholders In most countries, the state or federal government is responsible for both ensuring fair access to education and training opportunities, and leading reforms to meet both local demographic demands and global trends. Such reforms include national curriculums, national assessments and standards, teacher qualifications and performance

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Fig. 5.6 Empathy Map 4: school leaders’ views

measures, school funding and school autonomy. However, the extent of government consultation with stakeholders is usually unknown. Decisions are made by policymakers, sometimes following consultation with a few representatives such as school principals and education experts. This top-down approach contributes to the complexity of leading school change. As active school leaders, it is therefore time that we advocate for school leaders and staff having more say in these decisions, and for the involvement of a wider span of stakeholders. Collecting views from different levels of educational and school leaders will give a clearer picture of how they view needed changes.

5.4.6 The Media as Stakeholders When conceptualising how education policy functions, we tend to forget that the media plays a significant role in keeping the public informed about needed changes and their rationales. As school leaders, we need to be aware of how the media can function as a powerful tool assisting governments in pushing their agendas or covering up flaws. For example, headlines may flash warnings about how literacy and numeracy standards are falling compared to those of ‘top nations’, but give little

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Fig. 5.7 Empathy Map 5: government agencies’ views

attention to how a lack of government funding is pulling down those standards by reducing the resources and financial support available to schools (Fig. 5.8). Nevertheless, school leaders can harness the power of the media to help them initiate and lead change. This is particularly helpful when the aim is to change deep-seated cultural and societal attitudes such as the preference for teacher-led education, textbook-bound pedagogies and exam-led curriculums and assessments. With the advance of technology providing easy access to platforms for self-expression (e.g. social media and blogs), school leaders and parent groups can promote active learning and Education For All to inform others about alternatives to traditional ways of schooling. These methods can not only reach but inspire generations of adults who may have been made to feel inadequate because they did not pass public exams or qualify to attend university, and show them how a different future is possible for their children. This section has shown how you can use empathy maps to develop a broader and deeper understanding of needed information from your human and intuitional landscapes. This kind of information can be vital in helping leaders to develop a strategic view of how to design better educational models to improve their schools.

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Fig. 5.8 Empathy Map 6: the media’s views

5.5 Stage 2: Define: What Are You Going to Change? School leaders who have completed the exercise of stakeholder empathy mapping will have a wealth of data to inform them about stakeholders’ values and concerns, which they can use to create a shared understanding of the change project. By using this information, school leaders will become more aware of the vulnerable populations in their school communities who are most in need, and become more mindful of specific gaps to address. Having done this, the next step is to determine and define what needs to be changed. Leading systemic change involves redesigning a whole system and bringing about lasting change by modifying underlying structures and support mechanisms. To design systemic change, leaders need to define change at different levels. At the micro level, change can be defined by identifying desired transformation of teachers and staff and the way they perform their jobs from day to day. At the meso level, change can take place with internal school policies and procedures, processes, information systems and technology, human and material resources, and measurement and assessment mechanisms. At the macro level, change can be marked by internal and external

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infrastructure support (e.g. teacher education and action guidelines, funding and resources), policy and curriculum alignment, leadership roles and responsibilities. The four key features required to change from a tradition teacher-led approach to a flipped learning model are: flexible learning environments, school capacity and teacher readiness, a shift in the learning culture and subject content variety.

5.5.1 Flexible Learning Environments To transform a traditional classroom to a student-centred active learning environment, learning activities need to be explicit and strengthened by structured and specific learning spaces created to foster productive learning. In his very popular education blog, British educator Ewan McIntosh (2008) has discussed active learning environments for future-oriented education. The following summarises his suggestions on the essential learning spaces in a learning-conducive environment. • Participation spaces: These allow active learning to take place. They can be inside a classroom, a science lab, a school vegetable patch or the school yard. They are where students make discoveries, solve problems and participate in learning activities that are engaging and fun, challenging and exciting. • Watching spaces: Sometimes, students need to sit down, listen and learn from someone. This could be the teacher, a classmate or a guest speaker from somewhere else, a video or a performance. Watching spaces develop listening skills, attention and focused learning. • Performing spaces: These are areas where children feel free to show off their work, engage in role-play activities (e.g. a cubbyhouse shop, a costume corner, or a spot where they present projects or ‘show and tell’ speeches). McIntosh stresses that having such spaces fosters creativity and imagination, and allows children to learn by taking on different identities. • Group spaces: Group learning is an integral part of class routine in today’s school. It enhances the development of interpersonal skills, communication skills, problem-solving and the whole range of social and people skills. A classroom with a layout that allows different group formations with purpose-designed furniture will inspire a love of learning through its attractive learning spaces. • Secret spaces: These are special spots that students can go to when they require a quiet space to think, to calm down, to rest, or to engage in peer tutoring or peer support. McIntosh emphasises that these spaces are important for students who are introverts and for those with physical conditions which mean that noise and too much peer interaction can be draining for them. • Publishing spaces: Publishing spaces are where learning is shared. They could be a computer station, an area with whiteboards or a display wall. They are spaces for showcasing students’ work or spots for sharing information and notices. • Data spaces: These are spaces that allow students to access learning information or post their work using digital platforms. As digital technology becomes an integral

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part of school learning, students’ access to data spaces is vital. They could include the school database, the school library, or one of the numerous student learning and sharing platforms available such as Google Class or Moodle. To make the change from a traditional classroom to a student-led classroom, the interior of the classroom needs to be designed to maximise learning and give students visual prompts that they can behave differently in spaces designed for different purposes (e.g. a reading corner or a research centre with computers and resource books). Change leaders can consider redesigning their school environment in this way as part of the change agenda. Readers can type ‘Flexible learning environments’ on YouTube to view how this new classroom ideal is practised in different parts of the world.

5.5.2 School Capacity and Teacher Readiness Leading successful change requires not only leadership but also careful planning. Both organisational readiness and staff readiness are important. When organisational readiness for change is high, staff members are more likely to accept the change, become more motivated and display more cooperative behaviour, leading to effective implementation. It is therefore necessary to develop the readiness of the school in order to put your vision into practice. To do this, you will need to equip yourself with a deep understanding of the change process and develop a repertoire of skills in influencing and enthusing others. Bear in mind that most people are uncomfortable with change. When facing ambiguity, they will experience a sense of insecurity and lack of stability. With that comes high emotional stress and a sense of loss of control. In other words, the perceived impact of change affects individuals’ work attitudes and readiness for change. Staff members who are confident about their abilities (especially those who have received appropriate professional development) are more likely to respond positively to change. However, others who are not confident may become defensive and display survival behaviour (fight or flight). As a result, conflict may increase. Actively listen to all of your stakeholders, and both take and give effective feedback. Mentor your change agents and coach them to lead change at different levels in the organisation. The ability to build trust is a key leadership capability—and trust is built through listening. Humans are social and emotional beings and as such are prone to ‘herd mentality’—a tendency to follow the majority. In times of change, however, people are required to leave their comfort zones and step into something new and unfamiliar. It is natural to respond to uncertainty with fear and anxiety. This means that it is particularly important to develop change readiness in staff members by guiding them and allowing them to examine and reflect on their own responses.

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5.5.3 A Shift in the Learning Culture For teachers and school leaders who are not familiar with the student-led approach, this concept can sound confronting, especially to teachers who are used to being ‘in control’ of their classrooms. Don’t panic! Student-led learning does not mean letting the kids take over. It still adheres to national curriculum guidelines and standards, and assessment benchmarks. In fact, in countries that promote student-led learning, education departments provide carefully structured guidelines to help school leaders and teachers adopt this model of teaching, ensuring that all schools have a consistent, shared understanding of key concepts and the requirements of the curriculum. They also provide strategies and examples of how to plan across year levels to support continuity of student learning. Teacher skills and capacity-building strategies are usually outlined both for in-school professional learning and for whole-school approaches to bringing about change. Collaborative leadership is vital in changing school culture.

5.5.4 Subject Content Variety The key to student-led learning is intentional teaching and learning content which meet curriculum requirement and students’ interest. Teachers need to be clear of the intention of each learning activity and what they want to achieve with them. The following skills are helpful for teachers preparing to plan intentional learning content: • Scaffolding to provide students with supportive framework to move learner through different stages, from easy to higher-order thinking or challenging. • Adherence to current learning theories (e.g. constructivism, behaviourism, Bloom’s Taxonomy) and willingness to apply them in lesson planning. • Use of explicit teaching strategies where necessary. • Understanding and application of Universal Design for Learning (UDL). • Support and encouragement of other teachers in terms of team planning and sharing of resources. The role of the teacher in a student-led classroom is not to tell but to guide. Teachers need to develop ways to help students think, plan, choose, self-assess and self-evaluate, and even give comments, feedback and critique. To do that, teachers need to develop strong question-asking skills themselves. They need to ask: • inference questions, to challenge students to see beyond the surface and facts, and to deduce, examine and speculate. • interpretation questions, to help students to not only explain and demonstrate understanding but also understand consequences, and see what could happen if something were added to or taken out of the ‘equation’ (situation).

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• transfer questions, to help students to take their new knowledge and apply it to other topics, and to cross-curriculum learning, so that they can understand how this knowledge or skill can be applied in real-life situations. • questions about hypotheses, to encourage students to make predictions on topics of interest and learn quantitative and qualitative ways to prove a hypothesis. • reflective questions, to teach students how to think about their own individual thought processes, their biases, and what they know, don’t know and need to know.

5.6 Stage 3: Ideate (How to Change, Change Ideas) To lead change, leaders must have a vision. To develop a shared vision, facilitate brainstorming sessions, storyboarding and similar activities to generate ideas. Be open to both a volume and a variety of ideas. Bring together different perspectives in your brainstorming groups and step beyond the obvious solutions. Discuss emotions, readiness, resources required, support mechanisms, risks, barriers, problems and solutions. Ideation provides fuel to generate innovative ideas that will shape change throughout the entire system, from top to bottom. At the ideation stage, school leaders can set up a core group and different subgroups and teams to generate ideas. This process brings together perspectives and strengths from different groups and teams so that they can identify innovation. Involving groups and teams in generating ideas about change will increase organisational cohesiveness and harmony, and reduce ‘us’ and ‘them’ barriers between leaders and staff. According to the Design School, Stanford (Plattner et al. 2011), for effective ‘ideation’ to take place, these skills are necessary: • Adaptation, to extend thinking to generate new input, use a multi-perspective approach. • Connection, to connect concepts that may not appear to be related. Create themes and new possibilities. • Curiosity, to explore and experience to understand something untapped. • Disruption, to be brave, overturn common beliefs, assumptions, norms. Rethink conventional approaches. • Experiment, to take risks, learn from trial and errors. • Flipped thinking, to think from different angles, turn things around, switch roles, stand in someone’s shoes. • Imagination, to dream! Visualise and think in pictures, then turn your abstract thoughts into reality. • Pattern recognition, to look for common threads of meaning and behaviour. Use commonality to generate ideas and collaborative support. Having listed the key areas of reform, leaders need to facilitate conversations and debates to develop a nuanced understanding of current deficits and gaps in these

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areas, and identify strengths that new ideals and practices can be built upon. Invite challenges and criticism to elicit improving ideas. A strategic plan for the new customised programme can be designed, one that details achievement goals, evaluation methods, a professional development schedule, expectations, timeframe and budget. Create a ‘change team’ to give guidance to the different groups of stakeholders. These team members will be charged with providing ongoing advice and guidance to help teachers redesign their class programmes and learning units to reinvigorate the curriculum and achieve set goals. Reconsider assessment methods, measurement and evaluation.

5.7 Stages 4 and 5: Pilot and Test Change comes with risks. Piloting projects can help teams to manage and minimise these risks, and avoid wasting time and resources. Before committing to a full-scale change, schools can implement the new projects progressively with pilot classes or groups. With a small scope, it is easier to see intended outcomes and results. In a pilot, change leaders can also choose team leaders to ensure commitment and select users with specific needs to test different responses and outcomes (e.g. a high-achieving group and a low-achieving group). It is also easier to gain feedback from a smaller group of people. Unexpected results will crop up no matter how much time you spend on your planning and preparation. By piloting projects, leaders can allow this to happen in order to make further improvements before implementing the full-scale change. In addition, both teachers and students may come up with new ideas as they grow into new practices, and these can be invaluable. Piloting minimises the risk that you will roll out flawed processes and presents opportunities for discussion, refinement and the improvement of plans. The school can begin by piloting one programme on a small scale (e.g. by starting with one grade) or can run multiple pilot studies, with each focusing on a few goals. It is always useful to have some comparative data to understand how differences in class composition, age group, subject and teacher–student combinations affect the programme; a pilot can indicate, for instance, whether a class with children from diverse backgrounds or with extra support needs requires more resources than a class with more homogeneous or more independent students. Leaders and their teams need to identify data that will enable future planning and implementation—for example, data on environmental and human factors. They also need to consider how data capture can be generalised when it is applied to the project in full swing. At this point, it is important to watch for invisible factors such as pressures, constraints, staff experience levels, control and responses to change. Below is a five-step approach to conduct a pilot study. Step 1: Plan and design the pilot study The first stage in this step is to define your goals. What do you want to achieve and how will you measure success? What are your success indicators? Who is responsible for

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what? What pre-pilot training is required? What ongoing training is required? How will these training activities be delivered and monitored? What support mechanisms are needed? What are the risks to consider? What could create potential barriers? How can any such barriers be overcome? Step 2: Identify change agent readiness and skills At the ‘Ideate’ stage, leaders can develop in-school performance standards so teachers can develop needed skills and leverage their strengths in their new pedagogical practices. It is always hard to measure human factors such as attitudes, personality traits and responses to change. A good way of doing so is setting up some sort of feedback mechanism for mutual feedback and collaborative consultation and support. However, readiness cannot be measured until it is seen in practice. A pilot will provide opportunities for teachers and leaders to reflect on their current and needed strengths at different points in the programme. Step 3: Determine resource support and monitoring measures As previously discussed, change does not happen in a step-by-step, linear fashion. It is a complex mix of cultural, emotional and cognitive elements. One important way to do this is to put mechanisms in place to support the work of different groups of stakeholders in the school community. Work out what support is required at the stimulation stage to gain buy-in, support required at the incubation stage, and the implementation stage. Decide also the different support mechanisms to provide support for leadership, for teachers and other stakeholders; support for classroom practice and take into consideration emotional and psychological support for all parties. Step 4: Evaluate the pilot results We can plan our evaluation method using seven simple questions: 1. Why do we need to evaluate? (State the purpose and the evaluation audience) 2. What do we need to find out? (Select evaluation design; identify evaluation questions) 3. What will we measure? (Identify outcomes and measurement indicators) 4. How will we measure it? (Select data collection methods, quantitative, qualitative, both?) 5. Who will we collect data from? (Who are your sample groups? What do you want to find out?) 6. When will we collect the data? (Develop timeline) 7. What will we do with the data? (Data management, data analysis, data usage) Step 5: Make recommendations and improvements Successful pilot studies provide knowledge and evidence that can inform future actions, whether those actions are another pilot study or the full-scale implementation of the change project. They also provide insights into perception and reality, expose pitfalls and shine light on blind spots that have gone unnoticed by participants.

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In a school-based project, school leaders can invite external experts or university professionals and students to take part in the observation and evaluation process as a way of getting authentic feedback and suggestions for improvement. Change is an ongoing process that helps organisations transform to meet varying demands. Change leadership is a vital skill in today’s organisational life. A skilled change leader can help an organisation to enhance its overall transformation capability, increase the success of project implementation and prepare the organisation for further change in the future. People are creatures of habit, hardwired to stick to what is comfortable. They need skilled leaders to help them to embrace change as a part of life and develop attitudes, behaviours and habits that will help them to embrace or even initiate change. We hope this chapter has inspired and excited you to think about how to lead change in your school and develop a feasible systems design for leading effective student-led learning which will cater for the needs of all learners.

References Arasasingham, R. D., Martorell, I., & McIntire, T. M. (2011). Online homework and student achievement in a large enrollment introductory science course. Journal of College Science Teaching, 40(6), 70–79. Bergmann, J., & Sams, A. (2012). Flip your classroom: Reach every student in every class every day. Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in Education. Hallahan, D. P., Kauffman, J. M., & Pullen, P. C. (2015). Exceptional learners: An introduction to special education (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Lenz, L. (2010). The effect of a web-based homework system on student outcomes in a firstyear mathematics course. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 29(3), 233–246. Marlowe, C. A. (2012). The effect of the flipped classroom on student achievement and stress. Master’s Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT. Mattis, K. V. (2015). Flipped classroom versus traditional textbook instruction: Assessing accuracy and mental effort at different levels of mathematical complexity. Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 20(2), 231–248. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-014-9238-0. McIntosh, E. (2008). Active learning environments for future-oriented education. Ewen McIntosh’s Education Blog. https://edu.blogs.com/. Misseyanni, A., Lytras, M. D., Papadopoulou, P., & Marouli, C. (2018). A new vision for higher education: Lessons from education for the environment and sustainability. Bingley, UK: Emerald. Plattner, H., Meinel, C., & Leifer, L. (Eds.). (2011). Design thinking: Understand, improve, apply. Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. Waterson, B. (2015). InSights—Environmental scan: Principal preparation programs. Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL). Retrieved from https://www.aitsl.edu.au/ tools-resources/resource/insights—environmental-scan-principal-preparation-programs. Wininger, S. R., & Norman, A. D. (2010). Assessing coverage of Maslow’s theory in educational psychology textbooks: A content analysis. Teaching Educational Psychology, 6(1), 33–48.

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Where to Learn More d-school, An introduction to design thinking: Process guide. Retrieved from https://s3-eu-west-1. amazonaws.com/ih-materials/uploads/Introduction-to-design-thinking.pdf. Duffy, F. M., Rogerson, L. G., & Blick, C. (2000). Redesigning America’s schools: A systems approach to improvement. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon. Fulton, K. P. (2012). 10 reasons to flip: A southern Minnesota school district flipped its math classrooms and raised achievement and student engagement. Phi Delta Kappan, 94(2), 20.

Chapter 6

The Bronfenbrenner Micro- and MesoSystems

6.1 Introduction Bronfenbrenner’s theory of ecological systems (1979) is widely used in the social sciences to understand the impact of the environment on the individual. The first layer of this model is the microsystem, which includes the individual (the student) and the people who have a direct influence on them. The second layer of the system is the mesosystem. This examines the individual’s interactions and interconnections with the people in the microsystem to further understand their impact on the individual’s development. This chapter guides you to look at the child (student), and their parents and family, teachers, school and school leadership at the microsystem and mesosystem levels as a way to practise an element of systems thinking.

6.2 Application of Systems Thinking Using Bronfenbrenner’s Theory We can approach systems thinking in many different ways. In Chapter 1, we introduced Bronfenbrenner’s theory of ecological systems (1979), which is used to understand how an individual is influenced by the different levels of systems in their community. Social scientists, including educationalists, consider Bronfenbrenner’s theory an effective conceptual guide for intervention to support individuals in need because it provides a broad and deep understanding of their environment and how environmental factors influence their growth and development. Understanding inclusive education requires a holistic understanding of student development, making it worthwhile for school leaders and teachers to adopt this kind of pluralistic, multi-levelled perspective.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 M. Gonzales, Systems Thinking for Supporting Students with Special Needs and Disabilities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4558-4_6

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As previously noted, Bronfenbrenner’s model identifies five nested systems: 1. The microsystem, which includes the child, their parents and family, their school, peers and friends, and their community. 2. The mesosystem, which is characterised by the interactions of all the components in the microsystem. 3. The exosystem, which describes factors that indirectly affect the child, such as the government, educational policies, laws, political and economic systems, and the media. 4. The macrosystem, which is made up of social and cultural beliefs and values, and intangible but influential environmental factors. 5. The chronosystem, which illustrates changes over time. The Bronfenbrenner systems model offers a multi-levelled lens for systems leaders to unearth and examine deep social phenomena that exists but not easily accessible to observation. This allows school leaders to gain better understanding of students who are beset by learning difficulties and disadvantages. It can also enlighten fresh viewpoints to explore strategies for overcoming imbalance or barriers within each of the nested systems that impacts education or school learning. The application of the Bronfenbrenner’s systems model will help school leaders to develop a holistic view of the complex layers of family, school and community relationship, while having a sharp focus on the student’s development.

6.3 The Child 6.3.1 The Child Viewed at the Microsystem Level Childhood is a critical period in an individual’s development, which impacts a large proportion of their future life. Sadly, however, not all children get the best possible start in life. Children who live in poverty, in both economically advanced and developing countries, face challenges that can impede their physical and mental growth and development, have chronic and debilitating impacts on their later lives, and even violate their human rights. Challenges such as poverty and hunger, child abuse and neglect, emotional and physical trauma and physical and social isolation can also have incapacitating effects on childhood development.

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Children with Special Educational Needs (SEN) therefore include not only those with physical and sensory disabilities or other health issues, but also those with social, mental and emotional challenges that inhibit their cognitive development and prevent them from learning in line with their peers. Research shows that children whose basic physical needs (e.g. nutrition and safety) are not met, as well as those who suffer mistreatment at home (e.g. neglect, physical and psychological abuse or bullying) can develop physical responses that affect their physical and mental health, ranging from inflammatory reactions to delays in learning and cognitive function. As educators, we cannot change a child’s history, but gaining a deep understanding of each child’s situation—the microsystem level—can help us to identify hidden barriers to learning and enable them to succeed to the best of their capacity. Student well-being should therefore be given as much attention in schools as academic attainment. An enhanced focus on student well-being will prevent learning barriers from going unnoticed due to behavioural challenges, a situation that can lead to further problems such as depression, drug abuse, self-harm and antisocial behaviour. Instead, responsible and compassionate school leaders can create a nurturing, safe and supportive environment which provides learning opportunities that enable all students to reach their fullest potential and become fulfilled members of the school community. Child development is influenced by multiple factors. By examining a child’s microsystem, school leaders can gain a wealth of information including: • the child’s biological characteristics (e.g. age, sex, health conditions). • the child’s personal characteristics and temperament (e.g. shyness, curiosity, calmness, impulsivity). • the child’s psychosocial growth and development (e.g. identity, self-esteem, social skills, attitudes). • the interpersonal factors affecting the child (e.g. family support, community participation). • the impacts of the physical environment on the child (e.g. availability of food, access to recreation). The school can then use this information to support student growth and enhance well-being, for example by creating a database of information for staff and parents to access—the promotion of student well-being is a key aspect of Education For All. At the individual level, well-being can be improved through not only curricular activities, but also learning and skills development aimed at improving attitudes to the self and others and developing social and emotional intelligence. At the school level, student well-being programmes can range from providing access to welfare services to student management intervention and student empowerment practices (e.g. implementing student-led learning and student leadership development).

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6.3.2 The Child Viewed at the Mesosystem Level Bronfenbrenner maintains that human development occurs as a result of interactions with a child’s significant others (e.g. parents, siblings, family members, neighbours, friends and teachers). These interactions are the integral elements of the mesosystem, which shape the individual’s current and future development in the cognitive, attitudinal, behavioural and social domains. The dynamics of parenting and communication styles, language, and level of care and attention given all play a part in shaping a child’s self-identity and psychosocial development. The socio-economic background of the family also plays a vital part in influencing the child’s current and future development. From infancy, children need their parents to give them love, security and acceptance: effective parenting contributes to the child’s healthy development not only physically but also emotionally and cognitively. However, if children born with disabilities or to families with challenging backgrounds are deprived of opportunities to bond and other relational experiences, this may impede their healthy development. Being accepted and included can lead to positive emotions and improved selfesteem, while being rejected, excluded and ignored can produce negative thoughts and emotions, which in turn impede school learning. Some parents may experience complex challenges and issues that hinder them from enjoying parenthood, resulting in coping difficulties or even neglect. Child neglect is often intertwined with other problems, such as dealing with shock and trauma experienced as a result of having a child with a disability, or with a lack of access to support services. Other factors can include poverty, financial difficulties and relationship breakdowns. However, it is important to remember that neglected children are deprived of not only physical resources but also positive relationships, which can affect both their physical and their mental health. Positive relationships are fundamental to a child’s well-being. Children with special needs or disabilities who are both loved and well-supported are more likely to grow up with minimal developmental delays, especially when they also have access to nutritious food, exercise and a healthy, safe and secure living environment. They are more likely to develop self-confidence and high selfesteem, age-appropriate social skills and positive learning attitudes. In other words, all children, no matter what their backgrounds or abilities, need love and acceptance along with social equity and access to quality education in order to make the most of it. In addition to this, dedicated teachers committed to inclusion have shared the results of their work in the literature over the past three decades, and their research provides strong evidence that many students with SEN perform at a higher level when taught in ways that are responsive to their individual readiness levels, interests and learning profiles. In other words, differentiated learning increases student achievement. For example, as a result of flexible grouping, students with SEN are able to work with peers with similar interests and abilities, and in collaboration with other groups, to engage in challenging tasks which offer the opportunity to explore

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a variety of contexts and develop new skills and capabilities. However, this does not mean that specialised support is never needed. While all children are more likely to bloom and achieve when given access to inclusive and differentiated learning opportunities, some still also require individualised education programmes. These may focus on language skills consolidation, literacy and numeracy enhancement, other cognitive, emotional and behavioural management strategies, and social or motor skills specific to their disabilities or special needs conditions. The goal is for inclusion and specialised support to work together to support student learning and development. However, as evidenced by the educational literature, students with disabilities and special needs are still likely to be excluded from or marginalised in mainstream educational systems throughout the world. One of the key reasons for this is the absence of systems leadership.

6.4 Parents and Family 6.4.1 Parents and Family Viewed at the Microsystem Level Parental engagement is vital in the education of all children, but it is especially critical in enabling young children with disabilities and SEN to succeed in inclusive settings. Research has shown that high levels of parental involvement in early childhood and elementary education are correlated with improved academic performance and increased positive attitudes towards school in these students (e.g. Paseka and Schwab 2019; Vlachou et al. 2016; Weiss et al. 2006). Parental and family support can range from being responsible for making sure that a child attends school rested, well-fed and ready to learn, to setting high expectations for them. Positive parents believe that their children can achieve their learning goals with support, love and encouragement despite any physical challenges (disability) or socio-economic disadvantages they may face. Positive parenting therefore begins with an optimistic attitude towards the child and inspiring expectations of their ability to achieve in school. In addition to setting realistic goals for their child’s school achievement and learning, however, positive parents also involve their children in different school events and social activities, to nurture their whole-person development. Different children with different SEN will require a different range of inputs to enrich their learning and development, in order to compensate for any developmental delays caused by physical disabilities or other challenges experienced in early infancy; positive parenting aims to ensure they get those inputs. Siblings provides a different layer of support to the child, as children relate differently to each other. Supportive siblings can be playmates, friends, tutors, advocates and protectors at school or in challenging situations. Sometimes older siblings can even temporarily step up and play a more substantial role in supporting a sibling with a disability if family circumstances become challenging, or their parents are not

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available at a key moment. In other words, in the majority of circumstances, sibling support enables the whole family to function more effectively. Of course, there are always conflicts among siblings, and like parents, siblings may experience a wide array of ambivalent emotions towards having a brother or sister with disabilities or special needs. This adds another dimension of complexity to the family equation. Community support and specific family support groups will be needed to help not only parents but also siblings, and access to these support services must be provided for both groups.

6.4.2 Parents and Family Viewed at the Mesosystem Level Studies with a strong focus on parental involvement and school success are still scarce, particularly with regard to Asian schools. This gap may be because there has been a lack of attention to this critical element of inclusive education to date in many Asian countries. It may also reflect the Confucian-cultural heritage of many Asian societies, in which teachers are regarded as ‘education experts’ who are charged with full responsibility for teaching and learning, while parents are regarded as carers and providers. Similarly, the hierarchical nature of schools and unequal power relationships between schools and parents in some such countries may play a part. In order for teachers and school leaders to engage parents effectively as partners in education, they will need to aim for a more empathetic approach, which will involve a change of mindset focused around empathy. Empathy is critical because the birth of a child with a disability or special needs can be very difficult for parents. They often experience a storm of mixed emotions such as denial, anger, guilt, grief, loss, isolation and disempowerment alongside love for their new baby. Many dwell in self-blame and experience guilty thoughts such as ‘What did I do wrong during pregnancy?’ or ‘Why is God punishing us?’ This sense of guilt can haunt parents for a long time if they are not given both professional help and more informal support from family members and friends. There is ample evidence in the literature to show that parents who have access to, and are receptive to, early intervention programmes are more likely to be able to not only heal their own emotional wounds but also help their child to overcome any developmental delays caused by their physical or medical conditions and attain readiness for mainstream schooling (e.g. Heath 2009). However, not all parents are aware that such support services and sources are available, while others might be unable or unwilling to access them. This could be for economic reasons—lack of money to travel to service locations, lack of time to do so due to work schedules, etc. It could also be for psychosocial reasons—fear of stigma, resentment of being ‘told’ what to do by ‘experts’, or inability to face reality. As a result, some parents may end up resenting their children, which can lead to neglect or abuse, while others may smother the child with love and overprotect them, but not provide them with adequate support. Both of these responses waste the golden opportunity for early intervention, and risk developmental delays for the child.

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Many European countries have stronger support systems in place for parents, not only in terms of public social services but also at the school level. For example, some schools run information and education workshops for parents (especially new migrants) on parental rights and obligations, child protection legislations and legal Acts that prevent discrimination against people who are ‘different’ (Lewis 2011). In France, schools support parents by helping them form peer-to-peer support groups and counselling services. They also mentor parents on their parental responsibilities (Martin 2012). In Germany, a range of services and intervention programmes at both the school and the community level provide parents with training to meet identified needs (Sanders 2008), and in Italy, in addition to similar services, some schools and religious organisations offer intensive education for families with complex problems and also give referrals to family therapy (Ciampa and Milani 2011). In other countries, such as Australia, New Zealand and Canada, there are also numerous support groups available to help parents and family members cope with their children’s needs. In addition to social support and services that educate parents about specific disabilities and how to help their children develop using different techniques, however, the parents who access these services also need education in how to become advocates for their children: how to speak up assertively for their rights and for social justice. To become victors, and not victims. To put it as simply as possible: to help the child, it is essential to first help the parents.

6.5 Teachers 6.5.1 The Teacher at the Microsystem Level Teachers shape students’ lives with their words, action and attitudes. We have all heard stories and watched movies about how ‘bad’ teachers have scarred students for life, and how great teachers have changed their students’ lives and inspired them to jump hurdles and overcome challenges. Such stories remain anecdotal unless scholars can produce empirical evidence to support them. However, all of us have had the experience of being students, and many of us the experience of being parents too, so we all have some experience with teachers who changed our lives—positively or otherwise. In an Australian study, McKenzie et al. (2014) found that teachers go into their profession for one of four reasons. These are: personal fulfilment; a desire to contribute; practical considerations and lack of alternatives; and influence from others. In other words, teachers teach for many reasons, but often become teachers because they feel a drive to make a difference in peoples’ lives. And a teacher’s reason for becoming a teacher can, I believe, influence the quality of teachers’ professionalism.

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A teacher’s role is a dynamic one, influenced by contextual aspects and ideologies that guide effective teaching. These include the diversity of student backgrounds, curriculum, policy, school leadership and culture, and the teacher’s own beliefs and values. Teachers have different views of teaching and learning based on their own educational experiences and worldviews. Bloomfield (2010) claims that “there is no single road to becoming a teacher, nor a single story of learning to teach” (p. 221). People, including teachers themselves, have different expectations of what a teacher should be, and studies on societal expectations of teachers show that these include: • that teachers should be moral citizens, having a caring and friendly nature, and being kind, hardworking, trustworthy and honest (Campbell 2008). • that teachers should be considerate, hardworking, compassionate and selfdisciplined, have a strong zest for teaching and demonstrate a high level of commitment (Arnon and Reichel 2007). • that teachers should be caring, responsive to others and able to promote ‘wholeperson development’ (Dunne 2003). In a democratic society, another prerequisite for being a responsible teacher is having a sense of social justice, inclusivity and a growth mindset (Arnon and Reichel 2007). And just as a medical practitioner must be fully cognisant of the science of physiology and medicine, a teacher must be fully cognisant of the science of cognition and theories of learning. This necessitates a change of perspective—and approach. For centuries, teachers held positions of power in the classroom, using positive or negative reinforcement to change students’ behaviours and learning habits. However, in the complex environments of the twenty-first century, teachers are expected not to control students, but to nurture them and protect them from discrimination, social harm and injustice, and help them overcome relationship and learning difficulties. They are also expected to establish rapport and build relationships with not only their students, but also parents and other members of the school community. While some thirst for more opportunities to exercise their moral call to action, for others, this demand to be superhuman can become a cause of stress.

6.5.2 Teachers Viewed at the Mesosystem Level The changing demands placed on teachers in the twenty-first century have moved them out of the confines of the school building to connect students with the real world, both physically and virtually through the use of digital technology. The science and art of teaching now requires not only content knowledge, organisation, management and detailed planning skills, but also strong interpersonal and relational capabilities. Academically, teachers are required to harness technology to lead learning and collect student data to make informed educational decisions regarding intervention for academic success and the enhancement of student well-being. They are also expected to create safe and engaging learning environments to meet the diverse needs

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of students with different backgrounds. And they are expected to engage students individually and establish positive relationships with them—a contrast to the old days, when the teacher was the dominant power in the classroom. This may be a challenge for older teachers who need time to make the mental transition to the new paradigm, and for teachers from non-Western countries that still hold to traditional cultural values in how they view education (Taylor and Gebre 2016). This is important to be aware of because when it comes to implementing inclusive education and practising Education For All, teachers’ input is instrumental. Key factors influencing their performance in implementing genuine inclusion comprise: a clear understanding of what inclusion is, and a positive attitude towards teaching children with a range of abilities and challenges. Personal characteristics also influence how teachers build relationship with others, especially students and parents. A huge volume of literature has identified key stumbling blocks that prevent teachers from implementing genuine inclusive education. These are: teacher attitudes, inadequate training and lack of time. Systems leaders eager to make positive change will need to note these factors and work towards finding solutions to overcome them. The changing role of teachers signifies a move away from the isolation of the past and acknowledges the necessity of collective planning and actions, an embrace of collegiality, and collaboration and support between members of the school community. Teachers will need to step out of their comfort zones in classroom operation and become teacher leaders in order to understand the systems barriers facing their students, build their awareness of unobserved problems and complications, and lead initiatives that will improve learning and student performance. They will also need to become advocates for their profession in order to fight for funding and resources for the benefits of the students and the school community.

6.6 The School and School Leadership 6.6.1 Schools and School Leadership Viewed at the Microsystem Level Schools are organisations with bureaucratic structures that exist in environments shaped by both internal and external forces. Constant change—for example, change brought about by new technologies and new cultural and social demands—is part of any organisation’s existence. School principals who were once called upon to be the core instructional leaders of their schools are now asked to change direction and distribute leadership across the school community in order to effect sustainable improvements within the organisation. They must also take into consideration other dynamics in the school environment that may enhance or hinder progress. In other words, nowadays school leaders are required to be not only instructional but also organisational leaders (Mulford 2011; Rice 2010).

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In the USA, the Wallace Foundation, an organisation supporting evidence-based research in education, has outlined five key functions of organisational leaders that enhance school success based on their studies of effective principals. These functions are: shaping a vision; creating a climate hospitable to education; cultivating leadership in others; using data to foster school improvement, and managing people (The Wallace Foundation 2018). Scholars of educational leadership are therefore calling on school leaders to develop systems thinking skills as part of engaging in organisational development and taking a new approach to educational assessment. To lead systemic change, then, school leaders must develop knowledge of both the self and others. Self-knowledge is important in enhancing the individual’s ability to make judgements, create a personal vision for learning and growth, understand their leadership style and manage relationships and work priorities with a balanced view. Competent leaders are those who can leverage individual talent, competencies and skills to promote group and organisational achievements. When senior leaders are able to identify potential talents and help them build their capacity to evolve in response to changes and demands, higher levels of organisational success will be achieved.

6.6.2 The School and School Leadership Viewed at the Mesosystem Level Schools are organised environments with responsibility for helping children and young people to develop the skills and values they need to lead healthy, happy and productive lives. They are where children spend almost a third of their time during their formative years. As the world strives to make ideals such as social justice, equity and human rights a reality, inclusive education has the potential to become the foundation for a rights-based approach to well-being and education globally. At the heart of this initiative are schools, which are expected to create inclusive and learning-friendly environments by adapting not only their teaching methods but also their internal policies, adjusting and changing their curriculums, and actively involving parents and community members in education and the school. When changes such as these occur, there is always conflict and resistance. Not everyone believes in inclusive education, and many do not recognise it as a human rights issue. Lack of training and teacher readiness, and the challenges posed by limited resources, also add to the test. As intelligent leaders, what do you need to know in order to overcome these hurdles? Studies that inform ‘whole-school approaches’ to implementing inclusive education often identify a lack of consensus and lack of shared values in the school community as constraints on and barriers to inclusive education, because as a result of these factors, many schools default to reactive approaches instead. However, published studies seldom provide quality contextual data to help school leaders and teachers

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understand the what, why and how of these barriers, or how to overcome them. Likewise, when schools claim to adopt a ‘whole-school approach’ to inclusive education, it is often not clear how is this measured, or what the term ‘whole-school approach’ means in practice. What accountability do school leaders hold? Are the barriers real, or are they just excuses hiding a lack of school leadership? To operationalise transformative educational processes, school leaders need to be brave, committed and action-oriented, and involve the school community in solving these complex problems. School leaders who are committed to solving real problems will need to dig deep at different levels to understand dynamics such as school organisational and contextual factors, leadership development, culture and values, and time and resource support, as well as teachers’ needs, personal characteristics and professional development, competencies and attitudes. They will also need to hear the voices of students and parents and collaborate with them. Inclusive schools are characterised by mission statements and policies that aim to establish a positive agenda for inclusion. These schools engage in a continuous process of development and self-evaluation in order to lead necessary changes and implement innovations and effect true inclusive education. There are many change management tool kits online that you may find helpful for planning and managing change. Here are two examples: https://hr.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/change_management_toolkit.pdf. http://www.nrm.wa.gov.au/media/10528/change_management_plan_workbook_ and_template.pdf.

References Arnon, S., & Reichel, N. (2007). Who is the ideal teacher? Am I? Similarity and difference in perception of students of education regarding the qualities of a good teacher and of their own qualities as teachers. Teachers and Teaching, 13(5), 441–464. https://doi.org/10.1080/135406007 01561653. Bloomfield, D. (2010). Emotions and ‘getting by’: A pre-service teacher navigating professional experience. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 38(3), 221–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 1359866X.2010.494005. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Campbell, Elizabeth. (2008). Teaching ethically as a moral condition of professionalism. In L. Nucci & D. Narváez (Eds.), The international handbook of moral and character education (pp. 601– 617). New York, NY: Routledge. Ciampa, A., & Milani, P. (2011, October 6–7). Parenting support policies in Italy. Paper prepared for Peer Review, Paris. Dunne, J. (2003). Arguing for teaching as a practice: A reply to Alasdair MacIntyre. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 37(2), 353–369. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.00331. Heath, P. (2009). Parent–child relations: Context, research and application (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Lewis, J. (2011). Parenting programmes in England: Policy development and implementation issues, 2005–2010. Journal of Social Welfare and Family Law, 33(2), 107–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09649069.2011.617068.

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Martin, C. (2012, September 6–8). The invention of a parenting policy in the French context: Elements for a policy tracing. Paper presented at 10 Years of ESPAnet Conference, Edinburgh. McKenzie, P., Weldon, P., Rowley, G., Murphy, M., & McMillan, J. (2014). Staff in Australia’s schools 2013: Main report on the survey. Canberra, ACT: Australian Council for Educational Research. Retrieved from https://docs.education.gov.au/system/files/doc/other/sias_2013_ main_report.pdf. Mulford, B. (2011). Teacher and school leader quality and sustainability. Resource sheet no. 5. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare & Australian Institute of Family Studies. Retrieved from http://www.aboriginalstudies.com.au/content/uploads/2012/07/2011-MulfordCTGC-Teacher-and-Leader-Quality-Impact.pdf. Paseka, A., & Schwab, S. (2019). Parents’ attitudes towards inclusive education and their perceptions of inclusive teaching practices and resources. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 35(2): 254–272. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2019.1665232. Rice, S. M. (2010). Getting our best teachers into disadvantaged schools: Differences in the professional and personal factors attracting more effective and less effective teachers to a school. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 9(3), 177–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10671010-9085-2. Sanders, M. R. (2008). Triple P-Positive parenting program as a public health approach to strengthening parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(4), 506–517. https://doi.org/10.1037/08933200.22.3.506. Taylor, R. D., & Gebre, A. (2016). Teacher–student relationships and personalized learning: Implications of person and contextual variables. In M. Murphy, S. Redding, & J. Twyman (Eds.), Handbook on personalized learning for states, districts, and schools (pp. 205–220). Charlotte, NC and Philadelphia, PA: Information Age Publishing & Center for Innovations in Learning, Temple University. The Wallace Foundation. (2018). A briefing on strengthening the school leadership pipeline and connections to federal policy. Retrieved from https://www.wallacefoundation.org/knowledgecenter/Documents/Strengthening-School-Leadership-Pipeline-and-Connections-to-Federal-Pol icy.pdf. Vlachou, A., Karadimou, S., & Koutsogeorgou, E. (2016). Exploring the views and beliefs of parents of typically developing children about inclusion and inclusive education. Educational Research, 58(4), 384–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2016.1232918. Weiss, H. B., Caspe, M., & Lopez, M. E. (2006). Family involvement in early childhood education. Family Involvement Makes a Difference, 1, 1–8. Retrieved from https://archive.globalfrp.org/ publications-resources/publications-series/family-involvement-makes-a-difference/family-inv olvement-in-early-childhood-education.

Chapter 7

The Exosystem: A Systems Approach to Developing Collective Leadership

7.1 Introduction This chapter focuses on one key element of the third layer of the environmental systems in Bronfenbrenner’s theory—the exosystem. The exosystem describes connections and processes that indirectly influence the child/ student. This chapter narrows its focus on school leadership. It discusses the need to reconceptualise school leadership to meet the complex demands of today’s schools. It introduces a School Leadership Pipeline Model to guide systemic and holistic leadership development and enable teachers and senior school leaders to work in collaboration and exercise collective leadership both as a core group, and as individual leaders to meet different demands. Using a research-based model, the School Leadership Pipeline Model (Gonzales 2020) to guide systemic and holistic leadership development for school leaders at all levels, the chapter discusses capabilities of ‘Leading Self’ for front-line leaders (classroom teachers); ‘Leading Others’ and ‘Leading Other Leaders’ (for mid-level leaders); ‘Leading the Organisation’ and ‘Leading the Community’ (for senior leaders). It also discusses professional learning and development strategies to enhance valid leadership growth.

7.2 Collective Leadership to Meet Today’s Demands The current literature on school leadership stresses the necessity of shifting from established methods of leadership preparation, which value a singular leadership focus—mainly on the development of the Principal—to a new paradigm that sees school leadership from a fresh perspective. This is essential because school demands have become complex and multilayered. In addition to excelling in their roles as instructional leaders, classroom teachers and those with formal leadership roles must all develop a repertoire of skills and capabilities that will enable them to work with

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different stakeholders in the school community to lead educational changes, such as Inclusive Education and Education For All. A constructive-developmental approach to leadership development will help teachers to adopt a leadership mindset that enables them to change and learn to lead. This constructive-development perspective involves leaders reflecting on and identifying their own strengths and development needs in order to build their capacity to understand themselves, others and the systems they work in. It takes into consideration how social contexts affect development and helps teachers as well as senior leaders to develop stronger people skills, build relationships, influence commitments and develop support networks by applying self-understanding to social and organisational priorities. This chapter introduces a leadership development model developed by the author. It is a systemic and holistic model designed for the development of school leaders and adapted from a widely used leadership model in the business and corporate realm known as the Leadership Pipeline Model. Informed by over thirty years of empirical studies and evidence-based leadership development practice, the Leadership Pipeline Model introduced by Charan et al. (2001, 2011) is a leadership developmental model that highlights the central concepts of the Constructive-Developmental Theory. The model supports the notion of growth and development in stages. It asserts that all people have the potential to be leaders in different ways, and stresses the importance of encouraging staff members at all levels to broaden their perspectives and develop core skills relevant to their individual leadership roles, including the ability to work with others when collective leadership is required. The Leadership Pipeline Model uses a pipeline metaphor to describe the passages of management at six levels: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Self-managing. Managing others. Managing other managers or leaders. Lead as functional managers. Lead as business managers. Lead as enterprise manager (CEO).

The School Leadership Pipeline Model (Gonzales 2020), which was created by Gonzales in 2015 modifies the six levels of management into five levels of school leadership. They include: 1. The classroom teacher as the individual contributor who is required to develop skills in self-leadership (leading self). 2. The team or group leader (e.g. year advisor or subject-group coordinator) as the front-line (first-level) leader who needs to develop skills in leading others. 3. The Assistant Principal in a primary school or a Head Teacher in a high school as the mid-level leader who needs to develop skills in leading other leaders. 4. The Deputy Principal as a senior leader who needs to focus on developing skills in leading the organisation, taking on the role of the functional and business manager as described by the Leadership Pipeline Model (Charan et al. 2001, 2011).

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5. The Principal, the head of the organisation, who needs to develop and refine skills and capabilities necessary to lead the community, performing the role of the functional business manager in leading the enterprise as described by the Leadership Pipeline Model (Charan et al. 2001, 2011) (Fig. 7.1). Since 2000, the literature on collective leadership has discussed the increasingly common organisational practice of assigning leadership at different levels of management and operations using teams and multiple leaders. Studies have found that leaders who are effective at delegating authority, accountability and self-directed decisionmaking promote increased job satisfaction among their team members, who feel empowered and valued. Numerous studies focused on leaders and team building stress that effective collective leadership is built on a shared purpose, technical and social support and a feeling of empowerment. Where collective leadership is practised, leaders need to learn how to handle different views and directives, both logistical and relational. Communication is vital to ensure that team members have a common understanding of objectives, goals and problems to solve. The School Leadership Pipeline Model comprises a capability framework designed to guide school leaders at different levels to reflect on their strengths and development needs at different levels of leadership. It presents five sets of capability indicators to guide self-reflection. They are: ‘Leading Self’, ‘Leading Others’, ‘Leading Other Leaders’, ‘Leading the Organisation’ and ‘Leading the Community’. The following sections will discuss each of these sets of capabilities (Fig. 7.2).

Fig. 7.1 The School Leadership Pipeline Model (Gonzales 2020)

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Set one: Leading Self

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Demonstrate consistency in thinking and action Resilient Respond positively to feedback Communicate clearly and confidently Work collaboratively with others Build relationships with others. Set Two: Leading Others Plan work and projects to meet goals

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Assign tasks to team with clear expectations Provide constructive feedback Provide timely support and resources Able to measure and monitor performance Able to handle conflicts in positive manners Delegate to develop others Build trust and enhance relationship Set Three: Leading Other Leaders Coach and mentor others

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Handle complexity with clear thinking Understand workplace politics and respond in a professional manner Develop and practise systems thinking Hold a functional perspective in decisionmaking Demonstrate skills in negotiating and influencing Recognise and support the diverse needs of stakeholders from different backgrounds Handle criticism and challenges with a balanced view Fig. 7.2 The School Leadership Pipeline Scale for self-reflection (Gonzales 2020)

7.3 Leading Self Set Four: Leading the Organisation

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Visionary thinker Set organisational directions Strategic thinker Lead organisational growth and improvement Skilled in problem-solving Plan and allocate resources to meet organisational goals Lead inclusion and value a culture of diversity Able to balance future goals with current needs Set Five: Leading the Community Develop leadership and talent strategies to build a strong staff Aware of current educational trends, policies, social and environmental goals Have effective networking and influencing skills Work collaboratively with the school board, governing bodies and stakeholders Understand the demands and needs of the external environment Lead with integrity Apply business acumen in management tasks Plan and lead strategic change

Fig. 7.2 (continued)

7.3 Leading Self As teachers and front-line leaders in school systems, we need to have clear understandings of our own strengths and weaknesses. Like all other professionals, teachers today face complex and challenging demands. It is therefore essential to be both selfaware and self-reflective. Knowing ourselves will help us to regulate our emotions, exercise self-control and recognise pressure points. When we recognise gaps in our own skill sets, we can also seek ways to develop and improve ourselves. This can help us to handle risk and uncertainty in ambiguous situations more effectively. Selfawareness is also important for us to develop skills that will enable us to approach challenges without feeling that our own agenda is compromised. Teachers as learners and leaders must develop a strong capacity for self-reflection by looking back on setbacks to identify and apply key learning so that they can both develop themselves and help others.

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The capability indicators for ‘Leading Self’ include: • • • • • • • •

Shows awareness of self-strengths and development needs. Is flexible and adaptable. Demonstrates consistency in thinking and action. Is resilient. Responds positively to feedback. Communicates clearly and confidently. Works collaboratively with others. Builds relationships with others.

However, these indicators are only a guide for teacher-leaders to use when reflecting on their development. The list is by no means exhaustive. In an earlier school leadership development project that I worked on, over 400 teachers and school leaders took part in a survey and interviews on their view of selfleadership. The following examples will illustrate what Australian teachers think of the capability of ‘Leading Self’. In the interviews, many teachers focused on the merits of clear communication. When characterising their strengths as good communicators, teacher-leaders tended to include both instructional and interpersonal communication. Many highlighted the importance of ‘clarity’ in presenting new ideas, and of ‘having the skills to ask effective questions to ensure that learning has taken place’. One teacher emphasised that ‘Clear communication means explaining step-by-step to provide a scaffold for students’, and stressed ‘paying attention to both verbal and nonverbal cues to maximise understanding’. Regarding interpersonal communication, one teacher highlighted the importance of effective communication through active listening: ‘I am a good communicator because I make a point of listening attentively when others express differing points of view on an issue. I am also aware of my nonverbal cues, and I use them to put people at ease, especially when I sense anxiety or stress in the conversation’. Culturally sensitive communication was also identified as an important aspect of communication, as demonstrated by this comment: ‘I am sensitive and aware of cultural differences, and I understand that people may interpret words and gestures differently depending on their cultural background. Cultural differences can create barriers and misunderstanding. Therefore, it is important to listen more, reply carefully, never be defensive, and ask questions to clarify’. Many teachers also recognised resilience and high emotional intelligence as needed strengths in ‘Leading Self’. In explaining this, one teacher stated, ‘To be resilient is to accept that change is part of life. There are times when we are faced with highly stressful events. Instead of reacting emotionally, I try to see how I can handle the situation and look beyond the present. Instead of focusing on things that seem unattainable, I look for opportunities to succeed in other ways’. On the topic of responsibility, some interviewees identified ‘being consistent’, ‘meeting job expectations’, ‘avoiding procrastination’, ‘fulfilling daily work duties’ and ‘abiding by the code of conduct for school staff’ as important responsibilities. A few described being responsible as ‘being reliable and dealing with colleagues and

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superiors with respect, honesty and integrity’ and ‘taking responsibility for one’s errors and not to blame others’. In addition to this, some leaders described responsibility as a strong moral obligation, seeing it as a duty of care to ensure the safety and welfare of their students: ‘As teachers, we have the responsibility to provide each child with a safe and positive learning environment. This means making sure that they are not isolated or bullied, and when they have a problem, they feel safe to tell a teacher or an adult in the school’. One of the major orientations of contemporary organisational leadership is ‘responsible leadership’. From an organisational leadership angle, one head teacher associated responsibility with supporting staff members via careful planning and delivering curriculum outcomes. She said, ‘I see my strength as being responsible and diligent in monitoring and appraising student progress in key learning areas. I am strong in helping teachers to plan learning programmes and differentiate learning materials to engage active learning’. One young teacher also regarded receiving feedback in a positive manner, engaging in self-reflection, and seeking ways to improve oneself as being responsible. Many of the teachers interviewed also gave their view on flexibility. They defined flexibility as ‘agility in adapting to change’ and being ‘able and willing to change our plans to match the reality of the situation’. One teacher remarked that ‘schools today face shifting and fast-moving demands and being flexible can help you cope with frustrations and stress’. Sharing a similar opinion, another teacher added, ‘Being flexible and adaptable can help you to balance your professional and personal life. You just have to learn different approaches and develop versatility. That is part of our professional growth as leaders. Observe other good leaders and role models’. In the Leadership Pipeline Model, one must learn to lead the self before one can lead others. When you keep tab on your strengths and development needs, you can plan for growth opportunities. Understanding self leads to humility and unpretentiousness, which makes you more approachable.

7.4 Leading Others and Leading Other Leaders A leader achieves goals through the efforts of others. To be a high-performing leader, one must therefore develop role-relevant capabilities for working with different groups of people.

7.4.1 Leading Others The second set of capability indicators in the School Leadership Pipeline Model, for ‘Leading Others’, are:

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Plans work and projects to meet goals. Assigns tasks to team with clear expectations. Is able to provide constructive feedback. Provides timely support and resources. Is able to measure and monitor performance. Is able to handle conflicts in positive manners. Delegates to develop others. Builds trust and enhances relationships.

In addition to leading classroom learning and working collaboratively with colleagues and members of the school community, the first step in school leadership is taking on the role of team leader. In some school systems, team leaders are classroom or subject teachers who have taken on extra duties such as sports coordinator, music and performance director, student advisor, or learning and support coordinator in charge of coordinating programmes and support personnel for students with special or additional support needs. Many of these team leaders are appointed to their roles because of their talent, devotion, energy and skills. Some team leaders may be given a few hours off from classroom teaching to attend to their extra duties, but others are not. A team leader is usually responsible for guiding a group of staff members to complete a project. They are responsible for developing and implementing a timeline and processes that will enable their team to reach its end goal. These projects can include curriculum or teaching programme planning, sports or musical events, and other related projects. In our interviews, some team leaders illustrated some essential skills and capabilities in ‘Leading Others’ as team or project leaders. Due to the extra responsibilities assigned to them, effective use of time was paramount in helping these team leaders to achieve their goals. One team leader recalled how his early days on the job were overwhelming and exhausting. However, he soon came to the realisation that leveraging the input of others would help, and developed his leadership capability by achieving through collaborative effort. He said, ‘Time management is not about squeezing all your tasks and get them done in a jiffy. It is about prioritising and getting help from others. You don’t have to do everything yourself. If you have a good plan, you can get your colleagues or the students to help. It was tough when I first took on this role, but I got a lot of help from many of my colleagues’. Another team leader, giving a retrospective view, explained how paying attention to his energy levels at different parts of the day helped him cope with the additional demands when he took on a new leadership role. This insight, he believed, would help others facing time management challenges: ‘It is important to know your energy levels and your ability to focus and perform best. I am a morning person. I can get lots done in the morning. I usually come to school at 7:00 am and I could get loads done in that hour and a half. It is also important not to attend to tasks that require careful planning when you are tired. You’re bound to make mistakes, then’. Team leaders have varied responsibilities for leading both academic and nonacademic activities. Some team leaders who are sports or music and performance

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coordinators are involved in the planning and coordination of sport or music programmes of differing size and complexity. Adding to their workload, most of these activities and events usually take place on weekends, or before or after school hours. Managing students, other staff and all stakeholders involved entails careful and detailed planning and logistics management. One of the interviewees stated, ‘At the beginning it can be overwhelming. You have to make sure you’ve booked transport, sought approval and consent from parents and other important parties, organise equipment and first aids kits, monitor time, do run sheets, prepare risk management plans. So, a “to do” checklist is important. It’s important to organise a team to help with the different chores and to remind you of the essentials’. The diffuse nature of these events often leaves team leaders open to unrealistically long working hours and competing expectations from inside and outside of the school. Naturally, unprepared leaders without leadership training and support are more likely to face stress and burnout from having to handle both teaching and event management workloads. On the academic front, a learning and support team leader, who is usually a teacher with a specialist background in learning and support, has the job of enhancing curriculum access and creating suitable learning experiences for children with special or additional support needs. To do this effectively, they need to ensure that they established clear goals for teaching and learning with stakeholders, and that the individualised support plans for students needing these extra supports are effective. One team leader who looked after students with special needs shared her experience: ‘My job as a learning and support team leader is to ensure that all students with special needs receive the necessary resources and support they require. The most challenging part is to organise special provisions for students with a range of needs for the [Higher School Certificate]. You’ve got to start early because some would have problems with this and that, you know, all kinds of paperwork, like doctor’s certificates, teacher’s reports, and if you don’t do it early enough, some students may not get the provisions they need and you are in deep trouble. It can lead to litigation and you may end up in court’.

7.4.2 Leading Other Leaders According to the Leadership Pipeline Model, ‘Leading Other Leaders’ requires a more advanced set of skills. In a school system, when a team leader becomes a midlevel leader such as an Assistant Principal or a Head Teacher, they need to develop a different set of skills. The capabilities described in the School Leadership Pipeline Model for ‘Leading Other Leaders’ include: • • • •

Coaches and mentors others. Handles complexity with clear thinking. Understands workplace politics and responds in a professional manner. Develops and practises systems thinking.

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• Holds a functional perspective on decision-making. • Demonstrates skills in negotiating and influencing. • Recognises and supports the diverse needs of stakeholders from different backgrounds. • Handles criticism and challenges with a balanced view. Moving from teacher leadership to mid-level leadership will take individuals to new places with new political and relational demands. Before applying for such a position, teacher-leaders must understand that taking on a leadership role means they must do the ‘paperwork’. Mid-level leadership is especially challenging because many teachers in these roles still need to engage in classroom teaching, lead planning teams in instructional issues, and tend to their new roles, which have a different set of expectations from other staff members. A common challenge identified in the information provided by our interviewees is the demand that was placed on them to become problem-solvers. It was vital for them to develop the capability to handle complexity with clear thinking, and enlist the help of others to solve problems. The range of problems thrown at them included everything from equipment breakdowns, team member conflicts and teacher–parent conflicts to curriculum-related matters, resource planning and distribution, scheduling times and locations, and problems caused by miscommunication. Mid-level leaders used a number of metaphors to describe the intensity of this shift. For example, one claimed that her new role was ‘an emotional roller coaster’ causing her ‘tremendous stress’. Another stated ‘suddenly, life was a chain of problems waiting to be solved’, the word ‘suddenly’ denoting under preparation and unforeseen expectations. For these teachers, the most frequently mentioned issues in problem-solving were to do with handling challenging students, pointing to the standard recurrent problem of having challenging and disruptive students sent to them or to Deputy Principals during class time. One Head Teacher described how he learned through experience to frame these problems using a strategic mindset. He told us, ‘When I was new to the job, I felt compelled to handle the problems and prove my prowess as a good leader, and I wanted to fix every problem. Student behaviour Management is teamwork. A concerted team effort is required in solving challenging student behaviour. With more experience now, I’ve learnt to bring my team together and we would brainstorm ideas on how to be consistent in our practice, on planning strategies to help students develop self-regulation skills, and on designing learning activities that would engage these students’. Leaders moving from classroom management to people management need to develop relevant capabilities to mobilise collective input and make necessary changes. This transition from being a technical expert (e.g. in learning and pedagogy) to holding a leadership role that depends on achieving results through others requires a significantly different mindset and skill set, from understanding one’s own strengths to understanding and leveraging the strengths of others. Many mid-level leaders are also given the role of mentoring and coaching their staff or team members. Without proper support, this can be very challenging. One

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Assistant Principal shared her narrative of how she developed her specialist expertise through time and experience when the inclusion of children with autism in mainstream classrooms was still a new concept, eight years ago: ‘I knew very little at that time on how to support these students, especially the more challenging ones with autism who had difficulties following classroom rules and getting along with other children. I was not alone, my Principal and Deputy Principal supported me a lot, but it still made me feel inadequate as a leader because I was not able to give the kind of support that many class teachers needed. It took a couple of years for all of us to learn and cope and now we are all confident, and we work closely with parents and they are happy and feel supported’. While a newly promoted leader needs to adjust to their new leadership identity, so do the followers who were once their peers. Two Assistant Principals and three Head Teachers reported sudden feelings of isolation and found that co-workers and friends suddenly became critics. This adjustment period was testing and had an impact on their social and emotional wellbeing. One said, ‘At the beginning, I was very uncomfortable having to deal with people who were critical or highly defensive and emotional when they disagree with issues. I did not know how to manage a pushback, or confront a direct report who frequently engaged in undermining behaviour. I felt threatened, especially with more matured staff who have been here for many years. Luckily, my Deputy Principal always backed me up and she taught me how to manage my anxiety and how to ask questions, instead of telling. Successful people know how to ask the right questions instead of telling. I’m still not very good with that’. A very experienced Head Teacher offered the following insight to future midlevel leaders: ‘it is important to realise that when you’ve taken up the role of a Head Teacher, you have crossed the boundary. You need to communicate differently and form new relationships with your colleagues. You need to make mental adjustments to fit into the new role’. This advice is congruent with the three stages of leadership transition described by Bridges and Bridges (2016), which are: to let go of the past and enter a neutral zone; to launch a new beginning; and to continue to learn to deal with consistent change. This theory is similar to the Leadership Pipeline Model.

7.5 Leading the Organisation and Leading the Community Senior school leaders today, including Deputy Principals and Principals, are expected to be both visionary leaders and competent managers, charged with the responsibilities of defining the vision and direction of schools, improving conditions for teaching and learning, redesigning and enriching curriculums, enhancing teacher quality, and building relationships inside and outside their school communities. Every school is unique, and each school has different leadership practices. For the sake of identifying different capability sets, our previous study on leadership capability defined Deputy Principals as leaders of the organisation and Principals as leaders of the community. However, in practise, as observed in many schools in

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NSW, these senior leaders work side by side and collaboratively with the school executive team on both internal and external matters.

7.5.1 Leading the Organisation The capability set for ‘Leading the Organisation’ describes leadership skills required in leading the internal environment of the school system. It includes: • • • • • • • •

Displays visionary thinking. Sets organisational directions. Displays strategic thinking. Leads organisational growth and improvement. Is skilled in problem-solving. Plans and allocates resources to meet organisational goals. Leads inclusion and values a culture of diversity. Is able to balance future goals with current needs.

Contemporary leadership theorists point out that moving into senior leadership requires another shift in mindset and capability: the capability of thought leadership. This means learning to adopt a big-picture lens and developing visionary thinking skills; developing strategic thinking skills; matching the values of the school community; and bringing in necessary changes to create a new school culture. Senior school leaders today, including Deputy Principals and Principals, are expected to be both visionary leaders and competent managers, charged with the responsibilities of defining the vision and direction of the school, improving conditions for teaching and learning, redesigning and enriching the curriculum, enhancing teacher quality, and building relationships inside and outside the school community. In the interviews, both Deputy Principals and Principals were articulate about their perception of visionary thinking and setting organisational directions. One Deputy Principal expressed that ‘Being visionary means to be well-versed with the philosophy and outcomes of the NSW curricula K–6 and work with different curriculum teams to establish instructional priorities’. In a similar vein, another claimed, ‘Senior leaders must generate share visions with other executives, by inviting and inspiring suggestions on innovation, and then to provide needed resources to support the fulfilment of these visions’. On the other hand, one Deputy Principal shared a different perspective: ‘To be a visionary leader means having realistic goals and achievable plans to take the school to where it needs to go. It also means to promote shared values and to build relationship and trust to guide behaviour and inspire commitment to achieve these set goals’. Surprisingly, Deputy Principals in regional schools shared similar views. Many of these schools are small and geographically remote, meaning that resources are scarce and school leaders may have to assume broader responsibilities due to limited

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human resources. The challenges they face are contextual, and therefore their vision must embrace ‘shared values’, ‘relationships’ and ‘trust’ to inspire commitment. A very seasoned Principal linked visionary thinking with forward thinking and being future-oriented. He claimed, ‘I see education as developing global citizenship. In this school, we are not only concerned about academic achievements; we are doing very well in this regard. I think as a leader of a school; I need to be more future-oriented and build relationships with other schools in other countries, learn about their cultures, their language. We are a multi-cultured school community here, and we value diversity and encourage connections with other school systems’. School planning is an important element in attaining school excellence and improvement. The NSW Department of School Education requires school Principals to publish a three-year strategic plan, setting directions and identifying projects and initiatives that are key to its implementation. Three Principals in our interviews identified strategic planning as a strength, stating that they had capabilities in ‘understanding the internal and external demands and matching goals with action plans and resource requirements’, ‘having a thorough understanding of departmental policy directions and inviting input from all levels of executive leaders to establish an action plan’ and ‘understanding the expectations of all stakeholders and involving them to give input in the planning process’. Another capability recognised by the senior leaders was the ability to delegate work in order to develop others. Some Principals commented that ‘knowing how to delegate will help to alleviate stress and work pressure’, while another saw delegation as a strategy to develop other leaders. She said, ‘My view of leadership is to be able to make changes through others. The key to making long-term change, and make it sustainable, is patience. I did not make any changes in my first year at this school. Instead, I talked to different groups of people and really listened to understand their needs and opinions. I did research on where I could find the needed resources, and I enlisted the input of my deputy and head teachers to drive the change agenda. During this process, I found myself having to adjust to views that were different to mine. Eventually, it became a shared vision, and we achieved our goals in three years’ time. It is now a very different school with a very different culture to when I first arrived’. In describing how she strategically delegates to develop others, this Principal demonstrates strengths in understanding environmental needs and demands. She uses good communication to build relationships before setting her change agenda through her deputy and head teachers and putting this shared vision to action. She also emphasises the importance of patience and cultural understanding. This is integral in leading school success in her regional school where over half of the community is from an Aboriginal background, and as she describes, it is important not to impose ‘mainstream’ agendas and ‘white values’ in meeting learning, social and cultural needs of the students. That is why she had to ‘adjust to views that were different to mine’. The array of perspectives presented by these senior leaders highlights a shift from relational leadership to strategic and thought leadership, lifting them from mid-level leadership to senior leadership. It also reflects a new concept of organisational values, stressing the importance of building a shared vision, mobilising actions through

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developing ownership and commitment, leading through a future-oriented lens, and embracing diversity and leading cultural change to meet the needs and demands of external forces.

7.5.2 Leading the Community In previous chapters we discussed the need for school leaders to establish relationships with their school communities. These may include connecting community organisations and local business to form partnerships to enhance mutual support that will benefit both organisations. In our final capability set for leadership development, the description of ‘Leading the Community’ includes: • • • • • • • •

Develops leadership and talent strategies to build a strong staff. Is abreast of current educational trends, policies, social and environmental goals. Has effective networking and influence skills. Works collaboratively with the school board, governing bodies and stakeholders. Understands demands and needs for external environment. Leads with integrity. Applies business acumen in management tasks. Plans and leads strategic change.

School and community partnerships are built on relationships of trust and effective interpersonal communication. To lead effective inclusive education, the essential responsibility of the Principal is to be proactive in knowing the community and establishing sustainable relationships. Leaders must strive to ensure equity and protect each child’s right to learn and experience a safe and nurturing school environment. Principals who participated in our interviews stated that building a strong school community means building a culture that values education, being innovative, and developing other leaders as important capabilities. Some claimed that a successful organisational leader is one who can build relationships and develop people, the organisation and involved stakeholders ‘to build a shared vision, to lead with planned goals and to support other to achieve success’. Knowing how to foster and encourage innovation is also seen as a needed capability for the head of an organisation, including senior leaders in a school. Being innovative was viewed as an aspect of effective organisational leadership by 25% of our interviewees. As senior leaders, Principals showed more connection to this capability than other participants. One described innovation as being able to ‘provide time and resources to support new ideas and be patient and encouraging’, while another stated that leading innovation involved ‘giving staff some stretch opportunities or challenge the way they think and guide them to consider alternative ways of working that may achieve more’. One Principal connected innovation with forward thinking and emphasised nurturing staff to lead future educational trends, especially in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) subjects. She said, ‘To be innovative is to

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be agile in thinking, not rigid and stick to the old ways of doing things. If something does not work, try something else. We need to be future-oriented and forward thinking. For example, we have STEM classes which encourage young teachers to use innovative learning programs to teach these classes’. One Deputy Principal offered views on the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of being innovative, saying, ‘To lead a culture of innovation requires stressing the importance of creativity. As a leader, one must ensure that the staff knows their ideas are valued. The best way to encourage creativity and innovation is through collaborative planning and discussion. This is how we find different solutions to problems, such as managing student challenges and designing effective programs that cover all levels of student in the same class’. Another Principal stated, ‘A lot of people associate school leaders with only academic matters. I think non-academic matters are equally important. I think a good organisational leader should be very innovative, has lots of new ideas and should be happy to lead non-academic activities, like music and arts, drama and creative activities’. To be able to respond to the needs of the rapidly changing environment, school leaders need to refocus leadership and push boundaries to explore opportunities for staff, students and the school community.

7.6 Professional Learning and Development to Enhance Leadership Growth School leadership is a complex weaving-together of professional knowledge, values and professional practices. Effective and ongoing professional learning and development can help teachers and school leaders to grapple with urgent issues to understand truly inclusive education and improve outcomes for all children. When the whole school community shares the same values on the provision of equity in education, we can genuinely make a much bigger positive difference for all of our children. Most literature on teacher professional learning and development focuses on the importance of linking pedagogical knowledge and skills, and on instructional techniques such as using digital technology and multimedia for effective learning. Numerous studies also stress the critical role of school Principals and senior leadership in providing more support for new teachers and for teachers who fail to accept students with special needs due to their attitude towards inclusive education or inadequate mental and technical capabilities to support these students. As organisational leaders, senior leaders are responsible for the budgetary and human capital planning of the school. Therefore, it is important that they understand how to use business intelligence and data to inform planning. Their awareness of organisational competence in financial and budgetary planning will help them lead change and plan resources to support these identified as needed assistance. These resources are also necessary to provide support for continuous professional learning

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and development, in order to keep the school community informed and equipped to leave behind the traditional ‘factory model’ of education and teach in a more innovative way. Every teacher comes to the profession with an extensive array of skills and traits that makes them unique, and my leadership development research (Gonzales 2020) aimed to identify how teachers prefer to learn. In my investigation into teacherleaders’ professional learning needs, I asked interviewees to describe which of the modes of professional development and learning they had experienced in the past that they most preferred and thought most effective. Participants’ responses were categorised into four groups. They were: • Work-related learning (i.e. activities directly related the participant’s current role). • Professional activities (i.e. events and actions that were educational but not directly related with their school or work). • Self-directed learning. • Formal education (i.e. certificate courses run by professional institutions, or university degrees). In the work-related learning category, a very high percentage (86%) across the five leadership groups reported that they enjoyed learning through work assignments such as planning teaching units and assessment tasks, and team projects such as planning school events and curricular and co-curricular activities. A high percentage (80%) also mentioned mentoring (being either a mentor or a mentee) as a preferred and helpful mode of professional development. Leading and planning projects was also high on the list (74%) of effective and enjoyable work-related forms of professional development, while classroom observation by peers was also appreciated by many (51%). While over half of the participants remarked that one-off seminars or workshops were less preferred and ineffective for them, some still saw these as helpful and enjoyable (34%), provided that they added to their professional knowledge and were relevant to their learning needs and applicable to their daily practice. Regarding professional activities, interviewees enjoyed curriculum-related meetings and planning work with other professional groups (51%) or leading a committee (46%), including external professional groups. High school teachers and school executives (24%) revealed that taking up Higher School Certificate marking, or other forms of public exam marking, had been exceptionally advantageous in providing them with insights and helping them to understand curriculum requirements and standards, as well as strengthening their subject knowledge. These marking tasks also helped them to distinguish where most students struggled in a subject area, enabled them to identify common errors, and inspired them in designing learning activities to help struggling students. These leaders claimed they also gained insights into how marks are allocated in the marking scheme, which enabled them to assist their students in developing their exam techniques and improved their question-setting strategies. In the area of self-directed learning, nearly half of the participants claimed that they liked online learning (46%), especially interactive online learning that allowed them to engage in discussion forums and group conferencing (e.g. on how to

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support students with autism), and programmes that included self-checked activities and immediate feedback that provided alternative problem-solving approaches. Technology-related learning seemed to be the most preferred mode of self-directed learning, and a small percentage of participants described producing webinars as gratifying (5.7%). However, some (28%) preferred reading subject-related texts or journal articles, research articles and other forms of professional reading instead. Over half of the participants (51%) reported that they found short courses that provided them with certification or accreditation useful, whether they were skillbuilding, pedagogy or curriculum-related. One third of them (34%) were interested in pursuing further education such as a masters or doctoral degree, or other forms of further education which would provide them with advanced professional credentials. In general, most participants were open to all forms of professional development and professional learning. However, they also gave examples of activities that did not work for them, which included one-off seminars or workshops (11%), peer observations (6.5%), supervision by supervisors who ‘did not know what they were doing’ (5.7%) and technology-related learning (5.7%). Though these numbers are small, they give evidence of school leaders’ least preferred modes of professional learning and development activities. Various participants also found membership of a professional association very beneficial in supporting their professional growth and development. A science teacher shared her insights on this. She said, ‘I think being part of a professional association allows you to develop your own subject knowledge and skills, keep up with trends, share solutions to problems and you can bring different student groups together and work on inter-school projects and be creative and innovative’. The benefits of belonging to a professional association were also noted by a maths teacher, who gave examples of how teachers could benefit from joining professional associations in addition to the collegial exchange of resources and ideas, including the opportunity to develop and share online and digital resources and bulletins. Effective professional development requires thoughtful and systematic planning by senior school leaders as well as by teachers as professional learners. The summary of this dataset gives an example of teachers’ interests and their preferred modes of professional development activities. Comments from participants also reflect the kinds of values, practice and support that are at play in individual schools. Recognising individuals’ preferences regarding professional learning and development will support future planning. Every school has its own unique culture, and therefore presents different demands and challenges. As school leaders become more attuned to the distinctive aspects of each leadership stage, they can apply the key principles of the School Leadership Development Pipeline to guide development and refine the leadership formation processes in their school systems.

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7.7 Conclusion In this chapter, I have discussed the importance of developing level-relevant leadership capability to effect collective leadership, and presented evidence from a previous study on the professional learning and development needs of different levels of school leadership. Though it provides only a snapshot of a small sample of school leaders in Australia, the data shows that teacher development must not focus only on curriculum and pedagogical matters, but also include personal development and growth, and leadership capability building—an ongoing process that requires not only administrative support, but also social and emotional support and personal awareness. Senior school leaders of today’s public schools are increasingly being given more autonomy, which many find liberating. However, with great privilege comes great responsibility. Without proper preparation and training in leadership, many senior leaders could end up being managers only, not knowing how to break through relationship, culture and ego boundaries, and therefore unable to empower, nurture and develop others (Hargreaves et al. 2014; Kaiser and Halbert 2009). In Australia, before new leadership strategies were introduced in 2015, many novice Principals learned via an ‘apprentice’ approach, being mentored by their seniors (Eacott 2011). Despite the invaluable insights and experience that this approach offers, however, it cannot teach a developing Principal the skills, capabilities and mindset that education in the twenty-first century demands. To support Principals in their multifaceted role requires an understanding of the new demands on their work and the necessary cognitive and behavioural development they need to navigate those changes.

References Bridges, W., & Bridges, S. M. (2016). Managing Transitions: Making the most of change. Boston, MA: Da Capo Lifelong Books. Charan, R., Drotter, S. J., & Noel, J. L. (2001). The leadership pipeline: How to build the leadershippowered company. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Charan, R., Drotter, S. J., & Noel, J. L. (2011). The leadership pipeline: How to build the leadershippowered company (revised). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Eacott, S. (2011). Leadership strategies: Re-conceptualising strategy for educational leadership. School Leadership and Management, 31(1), 35–46. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.acu.edu.au/ login?url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13632434.2010.540559. Gonzales, M. (2020). A School Leadership Pipeline Model: A systemic and holistic model for school leadership development. Ph.D. thesis. Western Sydney University. Hargreaves, A., Boyle, A., & Harris, A. (2014). Uplifting leadership: How organisations, teams, and communities raise performance. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Kaiser, L., & Halbert, J. (2009). Leadership mindsets: Innovation and learning in the transformation of schools. London: Routledge.

Chapter 8

The Macrosystem

8.1 Introduction This chapter explores the macrosystem, where inclusive education is impacted directly and indirectly by systems factors at the macro level. It focuses on four elements of the macrosystem: social and cultural factors; policies and practices; teacher educators and teacher education and the influence of the mass media. This chapter aims to inspire systems leaders to become more aware of these peripheral factors and how they impede the progress of inclusive education, and encourage them to take bold action to lead change so that the next generation of children with special needs will lead more equitable and happy lives.

8.2 Social and Cultural Factors In the last few decades, as a result of globalization, education worldwide has been highly influenced by global trends. The concept of inclusive education was adopted internationally in 1994, when the World Conference on Special Needs Education was held in Salamanca, Spain. Ninety-two participating governments agreed to abide by the Salamanca Framework of Action to include students with special needs and disabilities in their neighbourhood schools and no longer segregate them in special schools and specialised learning environments, and more joined later. This reflects the idea that a majority of government leaders value equity in education and are committed to curbing discrimination against students who have additional educational needs. However, after thirty years of practice, many children with disabilities and special needs (including new migrants with diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds) are still neglected in school systems that value standards-based education and demonstrate something of a ‘survival of the fittest’ mindset. To understand and address cultural barriers to inclusive education, schools therefore need to change their focus and work on understanding the interrelationships © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 M. Gonzales, Systems Thinking for Supporting Students with Special Needs and Disabilities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4558-4_8

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between sociocultural factors and how they impact on education policies and practices, school delivery, and more importantly, education leadership. As pointed out by Weaver (1986), culture is like an iceberg, with different layers of unknowns invisible beneath the surface. To appreciate culture, we must explore integrated patterns of human behaviour, including thoughts, beliefs, values, customs, communication methods, actions and different cultural groups (racial, ethnic, religious and social). Every culture comprises unique patterns of behaviour, which sometimes, consciously or unconsciously, alienate and marginalise people who are different. Culture can therefore impact education and schooling not only at the macro level (societal–cultural) but also at the meso level (school culture and relationships) and the micro level (individual differences). At the macro level, cultures can be described as (among others) ‘Western’ and ‘Asian’. These terms are of course overgeneralisations that make broad assumptions about how two major cultures differ in their ways of life, with ‘Western culture’ commonly referring to Anglophone countries such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the US and the UK, and ‘Asian culture’ describing Asian countries that for centuries have been heavily influenced by Confucian values and meritocratic principles, such as China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, Japan, Thailand and Vietnam. Nonetheless, this ‘overgeneralisation’ does often reflect juxtaposed elements of these two groups of cultures, and identifies noteworthy similarities within them. In education, the development of educational policies and practices is commonly dominated by Anglo-American initiatives. For example, the Anglo-American concept of student-centred pedagogy, which encourages students to take more responsibility for their own learning and become active learners has generally been ‘accepted’ by Asian school systems. In practice, however, tension arises due to societal–cultural conflicts, resulting in slow progress and barriers. Systems leaders in Asian cultures can help to break the chain of cultural demands around meritocratic values in schooling by showing that a student-led approach to schooling can lead to increased achievement for not only high-achieving students but also those who need extra support to reach their educational goals. If complemented with quality teacher education throughout this pedagogical change, genuine inclusive education will be implemented and true equity in education can be achieved. Leaders who are genuinely committed to leading cultural and attitudinal change therefore need to work collaboratively with other systems leaders to create effective change. The following presents some evidence-based recommendations for leaders who desire to champion some systems changes, sourced from a thorough literature review: • Form networks and partnerships with different advocacy groups, and seek their advice and input. • Learn and use multifaceted campaign strategies, such as social marketing techniques, to influence different segments of the community and influence attitudinal change.

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• Partner with different media groups to frame positive messages that focus on ability rather than disability, celebrate success stories and encourage support at all levels of community activities and services. • Involve people with disabilities in media exposure, e.g. as guest speakers, presenters and actors. • Work with government departments to encourage and incentivise the employment of people with disabilities. These are only a few example strategies. When systems leaders work together, they can generate endless brilliant ideas. When there’s a will, there’s a way. At the meso level, school practice is also influenced by organisational culture (the school culture), which is shaped by both systemic structures and individuals’ beliefs, values, thoughts, language and interpersonal relationships. Referring back to the iceberg analogy, school leaders and teachers often address what appear to be problems on the surface (class sizes, insufficient direction from education ministries, lack of resources, inefficient teacher training, etc.) but ignore underlying causes that are deeply rooted in the cultural ecology of the school. Krakouer (2015) informs us that for genuine cultural change to take place within the organisation, school leaders must learn how to develop cultural competency—a lifelong journey of learning, unlearning and re-learning. For this to happen, everyone in the school community needs to be self-aware of their attitudes towards acceptance, tolerance and the concept of inclusion. Only when the whole school community, especially school leaders and teachers, is aware of the true mission of inclusive education and the values of inclusion can it create classrooms that are welcoming and nurturing for all children, free from discrimination and blames, because a genuinely inclusive school experience is dependent on the attitudes of the whole school community, including parent groups. It is the role of the school leaders and teachers to create an inclusive cultural climate which respects and demonstrates recognition of differences, and tears down barriers to support a truly inclusive school culture. At the micro level, students, parents, teachers and school leaders as individuals must also be aware of their beliefs and values and understand how to harness their thoughts and behaviours to achieve positive goals and live happy lives. Emotional intelligence plays a vital role in our daily lives and interactions with people. More attention to helping students to develop emotional intelligence is therefore needed, especially in this era of rapid changes and increased complexity in our lives, and systems leaders can promote the development of emotional intelligence both at the school level and the community level. It is clear that more needs to be done worldwide, in both Western and Asian cultures, to establish inclusion and acceptance of individuals with special needs and disabilities and those who are culturally and linguistically different. It is up to our new generation of systems leaders to enhance their schools’ cultural inclusiveness and lead change so that children who are still neglected and suffering discrimination can develop a sense of belonging—to provide all children with opportunities to develop themselves, feel safe and accepted, and develop friendship and positive relationships.

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8.3 Policies and Implementation Inclusive education for all is not a fixed model but an ongoing process of change and improvement to address the education needs of all children without discrimination. Creating an inclusive learning culture therefore requires systems leaders at all levels to work collaboratively to constantly reorient education policies and redefine school education. In some parts of the world, collaborative approaches are increasingly being used to both enhance policy implementation and turn policy into practice. However, gaps continue to exist, and barriers to implementation emerge when policymakers fail to fully engage stakeholders in exploring understanding and establishing agreement around the content, context and process of change. Despite nearly three decades of promoting inclusive education around the globe, many countries and states still struggle to meet the policy demands and requirements needed to make the ideals of inclusion into reality. Though backed by legislation in many nations, inclusive education policies have not triggered much real change. Instead, a regressive tendency has become evident, for example in some Asian countries which favour high achievers in the race to win national and international standardised testing competitions, and neglect the rest. Critical scholars question whether the endorsement of inclusive education for all in such countries is mere rhetorical window-dressing for policymakers and education ministries. Internationally, of course, the barriers to inclusion are varied and multifaceted, and different education systems and schools also reach milestones on different time scales. A recent document published by the UNESCO (2019) identified several causes and challenges around this, which can be summarised as follows: 1. Educators’ lack of attention to and awareness of inclusive education policy One of the key challenges to achieving genuine inclusive education identified in the literature is school and teacher readiness. A lack of focus on implementation readiness can result in failure when putting policy into practice. Without attention to the core change process and stakeholder readiness, a lack of consideration of governance systems will hinder the transparency and effectiveness of policy. 2. A lack of focus on shaping a comprehensive policy framework The concept of inclusive education has endured for over three decades globally, shifting language and models away from special schools and segregated learning and towards integration, mainstream education and inclusive education for all. Despite government commitments to supporting this practice, in many countries—and individual schools—children with special needs and disabilities are still denied access to a school of their choice or face limitations to their ability to participate in the full curriculum enjoyed by their non-disabled peers. This is due to the lack of an overarching inclusion framework to guide implementation and address the practice of inclusive education in a cohesive manner. 3. Insufficient stakeholder engagement When policies on inclusive education are not well understood, they will not gain support from education stakeholders such as teacher educators, principals, teachers and parents. Stakeholder engagement when the actors (school leaders,

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teachers and the school community) are involved and respected as contributors of the policy process is crucial in turning policy into daily practice. Conflicts of interest with other policies Policy issues are often typified by conflicting values. Sometimes policymakers have to strike a balance between competing goals, or even engage in trade-offs with their counterparts or political influencers in other areas. Similarly, different government departments respond to value conflicts in ways that are varied and focused on meeting their political agendas. Priority clashes with other education policies Government ministers compile lists of priorities that enable them to effectively plan their budgets. In many countries, social priorities (e.g. education equity) are not on the top of these lists. Nor are the technical priorities needed for inclusive education (e.g. teacher education, resources for quality education). Political prioritisation is influenced by market-driven socio-political trends and demands. For authentic inclusive education to be practiced, the voices of stakeholders need to become louder and more powerful. Lack of coordination and collaboration within and between government ministries Education is not a standalone entity in government. It involves finance, legislation, public administration, social services and related departments. Effective policymakers are able to harness the input of other governmental agencies to support their policies. They utilise a wide range of coordination devices to provide them with support and solutions. In contrast, less competent policymakers lack the skills and knowledge needed to coordinate the efforts of their colleagues and stakeholders in order to achieve goals. Such a lack of coordination and connection between governmental agencies and education ministries is often the result of failed policy implementation. Gaps between policymakers and policy implementers Widespread evidence from three decades of research reveals that inclusive education policies, once adopted, are often not implemented as envisioned and do not always achieve their intended outcomes. Some of the reasons for this include a ‘know–do’ gap among implementing agents such as school boards, school leaders, teacher educators and teachers. In addition to this, gaps include a lack of resource and leadership support, and a lack of power or ineffective exercise of power. When policies are imposed via a top-down approach, resistance is inevitable. However, if a policy is generated at grassroots level and applied using a bottom-up approach, implementation is less challenging despite other complex difficulties.

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8.3.1 What Can Systems Leaders Do? Public policies are shaped by a variety of factors, including public opinion, economic demands, new scientific discoveries and technological changes, interest group advocacy, demands from non-governmental organisations, business lobbying and other political activities. In many advanced countries, policymakers at the macro level (government and educational ministries) are replacing reductionist approaches with systems thinking strategies as they become aware that blockages to policy implementation are complex issues and that some might even have become wicked problems that are characterised by social complexity. Policies are dynamic in nature, not static. As the environments that they seek to influence are complex adaptive systems, they can become outdated. Therefore, they must be assessed and revised regularly throughout policy cycles. Government policymakers are becoming increasingly aware of the importance of finding ways to strengthen and support the policy process, especially in its implementation phase. This includes the awareness that solving chronic policy implementation problems requires holistic, not linear, thinking, and that traditional approaches to policy formulation may therefore be too simplistic and fail to acknowledge the multiple perspectives of different stakeholders and organisations. Complex and wicked problems demand that policymakers work across agency boundaries to increase the community’s understanding of key imperatives. It takes time and effort to ensure a full understanding of the complexity and interconnection of these issues. This necessitates that policy leaders have a set of core skills and competencies that includes big-picture thinking, excellent communication and influencing skills, and the ability to work cooperatively and collaboratively. A multidisciplinary team approach is also necessary. Effective engagement of stakeholders will lead to cognitive behaviours that are more conducive to change as issues become more widely understood and acknowledged and change becomes associated with stakeholder ownership. When policy leaders at the macro level are able to use a range of systems thinking tools to innovate during the policy cycle, this helps the process. Tools such as the Cynefin Framework, introduced in Chapter 1, can assist decision-makers in identifying their problems and sorting them into four different contexts—simple, complicated, complex or chaotic—and responding to them accordingly. Sensitivity analysis, which has traditionally been used to measure the sensitivity of model behaviour in order to inform assumptions and decisions about policy formulation and parameter values, is gradually being replaced by more complex dynamic models to test elements of randomness and patterns of behaviour. Advanced policymakers are also beginning to complement this test process with scenario analysis in order to understand how changing one process will change other variables too. In addition to sensitivity analysis, a robustness analysis can be used to evaluate initial decisions and plans, as an operational measure to observe unpredicted consequences and patterns of behaviour that take place in uncertain conditions. Subsequent analysis will be needed to decide what change is required before a commitment to implementing that change is made.

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Qualitative system mapping is another useful tool that can help to provide the holistic scope needed for understanding policy challenges. This tool enables policy leaders to explore the connections between elements of a complex system and obtain a broad view of the drivers of policy outcomes. One systems tool which is currently gaining recognition in policy practice is the agent-based model. This involves a set of ‘agents’ who are assigned to different parts of the system in order to assess both to what extent a policy is accepted, and how it is implemented. Through observation, discussion and dialogue with different stakeholder groups, and interactions with other agents, these agents learn and adapt, and shape policy to adapt to the environments it serves. Policies may produce unintended outcomes, but through these agents, both unintended consequences and levers to enhance implementation can be observed in reality. This model offers therefore practical insights for adaptive policy making. For successful inclusion to occur, it is vital that system (organisation) leaders demonstrate the ability to articulate authentic respect for diversity and devotion and commitment to the value of inclusion. It is also fundamental that these leaders are sensitive to cultural differences, demonstrate an open mindset and show empathy towards different views and perspectives, and are willing and able to lead collaboratively and empower others to plan and achieve goals. They need to be able to identify flaws in their current systems, and have the courage to challenge the status quo and lead collaborative effort to make sustainable and progressive change. This may mean unlearning old ways of leading and ingrained habits and developing new leadership capacities. The enhancement of genuine awareness and understanding of the rationale behind inclusive education is the first step to breaking barriers in implementing inclusive policies. People resist what they do not understand. At the school level, working towards policy alignment for a holistic approach to inclusive education obligates school leaders, including members of boards of governors, to review relevant policies and build the school’s capacity for implementation. This process begins with developing an understanding of the elements of the policy, its intentions, its perceived effectiveness and how it will impact the school. This stage of analysing an inclusive education policy can even include simply developing an understanding of the meaning of the term ‘inclusive education’. Improving educational options for students with special needs and disabilities requires having several foundational, enabling factors in place, including governance, service delivery, workforce readiness, communication and information, and financial and resource support. What is the reality in your school? Is everyone on the same page? What are the points of confusion and disagreement? How might the issues be solved?

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8.4 University Academics and Teacher Educators Over the last twenty-five years, the literature has consistently identified teacher attitudes and (lack of) skills and preparation as barriers to implementing inclusive education around the world. Yet the problem persists. Alarmingly, some studies have disclosed that many teacher graduates reported that there was no focus on teaching students with disabilities or special educational needs in their four-year teacher education programmes (e.g. Anwer and Sulman 2012; Barnes 2011). It is therefore, necessary to go deeper and look at teacher education as a source of this barrier. So far, few studies have examined the practical implications of this issue for teacher education programmes. Even fewer examine university academics’ attitudes, expertise and experience, which are key because they impact on teacher education. Teacher educators come from many different backgrounds. Most of them are experienced school teachers who have earned a Ph.D., giving them a route to becoming academics teaching at university level. However, as evidenced in the media and some academic journals, due to a lack of funding and limited staffing, academics in universities are often asked to take up teaching programmes outside of their areas of expertise (Beggs and Pearse 2020; Lucal 2015). Similarly, faculty leaders at university level who are less versed in the theory and practice of inclusive education tend to provide less than a full measure of quality teacher education in the art and science of inclusive education. Teacher supervisors in charge of advising on the implementation of inclusive education and differentiated approaches to classroom learning may therefore have only a superficial knowledge basis and skillset themselves. If this is the case, it will leave an enormous gap in expertise when academics are assigned to deliver lectures and conduct teaching supervisions on inclusive education. As members of the general public, we acknowledge the problematic issues of staff shortages and professional preparedness at the university level which limit academia’s ability to cater for the diverse demands of today’s educational research and programme delivery, but at the same time, argue that this problem needs to be addressed and acted upon. In addition to this, traditional hierarchical relationships between lecturers and tertiary students still exist in many universities worldwide. Some academics still view their students—even Ph.D. candidates—as subordinates rather than as co-learners, giving instructions and expecting ‘obedience’ in much the same way as classroom teachers historically have. And while snobbery is seldom regarded as an issue in academia, it can have harmful effects on student morale, crushing self-esteem, leading to stress and frustration, and impeding progress through new discovery. In other words, teacher educators’ knowledge, skills and attitudes have a tremendous impact on teachers’ frames of mind, and their alignment towards an inclusive climate in the schools they work in. Skilled and knowledgeable academics can generate creativity and give practical recommendations to both sustain existing educational research and consolidate professional growth through research-rich education systems with an emphasis on self-improvement. Teacher educators and academics therefore need to lead meaningful research—to walk the inclusion talk.

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To do so, they can follow many strategies that will support the implementation of effective inclusive education policy, including forming partnerships with advocacy groups, social services and related professional groups, inviting past students with disabilities and special needs to talk about their experiences and how a better education approach could help this generation of students, initiating joint projects with schools and community services and conducting research that goes beyond the current focus on ‘teacher attitude and skills as barriers’ to search for solutions—the ‘how’ instead of the ‘what and why’ (because after all, we know that already). Finally, to make inclusive education successful, teachers must be equipped with appropriate values and theories, topped with practicable strategies and techniques. Education is a dynamic process that requires multi-tiered support, especially in the complex environment of the twenty-first century, and teachers today need a broad range of systemic and individualised strategies. Both teachers and teacher educators need to move forward and leave behind ‘traditions’ and outdated pedagogies and classroom practice. Teacher education should therefore adopt a more sociological approach to understanding and explaining education, building networks of researchers to advance the sociological analysis of education and promote an understanding of social problems in order to make sense of the role of education in the society. Many of us—teacher educators, school leaders and classroom teachers alike— face multiple challenges and can feel overwhelmed by them. But we have chosen our professions because we want to make a difference, and we want a better world for our children and students. We want to give all of them a foundation to pursue their dreams and opportunities, and free them from discrimination and injustice. If we are to do this, we must join forces with our fellow humans to do better. Encourage and engage in innovative research. Connect, commit and create. Believe in our ideals and dreams.

8.5 The Media Over the years, perceptions of disability have changed significantly around the world. However, these changed perceptions are found primarily in communities that are involved with individuals with disabilities. Worldwide, many people still hold distorted images and perceptions of people with disabilities and special needs. Some research has attributed this to the media, and I do not entirely disagree: as it contributes substantively to social representation and the collective imagination, public opinion is to a considerable extent formed by the media, even though we are mostly unconscious of how tools such as newspapers, documentaries, periodicals, radio and television broadcasts and social media shape our thinking, emotions and behaviour. The language used by the media is a powerful tool, which can be used to lift a group’s social status and create pride, identity and empowerment, and acceptance. On the flip side, however, it can also have a devastating impact on individuals and

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groups who are subject to discrimination and prejudice. Disrespectful language can leave people feeling excluded and can create barriers to full participation in society. Fortunately, the language used to describe people with disabilities has changed over time. Words such as cripple, deaf and dumb, retarded and freaks, once used regularly, are now considered slurs. Today, people with physical or sensory impairments and those with conditions that require additional support are commonly described as ‘persons with disabilities’, although many people still find this term insulting, and it can be a challenge to identify terminology that does not offend or make people uncomfortable. In addition, as history shows, negative association will pin itself to any word unless there is a shift to more positive underlying attitudes towards people who have disabilities and special needs. We, as a society, are often unaware of our unconscious social categorisation of people. Without ill intention, we tend to put people into ‘boxes’ thanks to conscious or unconscious stereotyping—a cognitive shortcut that we use to group people with others who we perceive to be like them. This stereotyping then influences the way we treat them, and can lead to discrimination. For example, work-based biases and stereotypes have prevented groups of people from gaining access to equal employment and promotional opportunities: despite anti-discrimination legislation, employers and Human Resources departments still find ways to discriminate. Even more seriously, studies have identified disparities in incarceration rates between white offenders and people of colour, such as African-American and Aboriginal Australian males, suggesting that judicial stereotyping leads to racial discrimination and injustice. In other words, people who are different in any way from the dominant culture around them, including those with special physical and mental needs, continue to struggle against stereotypes, stigma and negative attitudes that create barriers to finding work and leading a happy life in society. In most cases, the determinants of stereotypes and prejudices can be linked to general ignorance, communication barriers and thinking that is deeply rooted in cultural and social patterns. However, as noted above, a major culprit is the media. The mass media are able to influence cultural and collective thinking in significant ways. Advertisements, movies, television programmes and other media are saturated with all sorts of stereotypes. Studies indicate that these media profoundly influence how people perceive and relate to one another. The ways in which ‘out- groups’ (people who are different from the dominant culture) are portrayed in the media are widely considered to have negative consequences in terms of the prejudices and stereotypes held by the general public. In the past, movies have portrayed people with physical or mental disabilities as at best creepy and at worst dangerous and terrifying. Characters with albinism have been associated with murder and other crimes (e.g. in Dan Brown’s novel The Da Vinci Code (2003) and the film based on it). Characters with epilepsy have been depicted as possessed, while those with severe mental delays have been portrayed as crazy and wild, instilling fear in viewers. Some movies have aimed to evoke feelings of pity, such as The Elephant Man, which tells the story of David Merrick (a real person), who suffered from a rare condition that led to cranial and facial deformation and was exhibited as a sideshow freak in Victorian London, suffering all sorts of malice and

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spitefulness. Others have framed disability as a ‘superpower’, suggesting that blind people have ‘a sixth sense’ to compensate for their vision loss or presenting people with autism as ‘savants’ able to predict winning lottery numbers as in the Hollywood hit Rain Man. These movies are all based on a ‘medical model’ of disability, which focuses on deficits and sees people with disabilities as incapable of leading a ‘normal’ life, often portraying them as objects of pity, passive victims, burdens, aggressive avengers with chips on their shoulders, or inferior to people without disabilities. However, more recently there have been attempts to present a more positive view of people with disabilities. For example, the classic movie My Left Foot portrays the relentless efforts of a working-class mother with few means to help her son to overcome his disability via the use of his left foot. This movie highlighted the obstacles that people with physical disabilities have to struggle against in a non-inclusive world. Similarly, the film Shine showed the acceptance of a loving wife who supported her husband, who had a mental disability, to succeed as a concert pianist, and the French movie Intouchable described the friendship that developed between a rich man paralysed from the neck down and his carer, a young black man from a lower socioeconomic class. Just as they have contributed in the past to negative perceptions of people with disabilities, the media can therefore be a compelling force to help the public develop positive attitudes and accepting behaviours towards people with disabilities and other special needs, and instrumental in raising awareness and countering stigma and misinformation. Attention should be paid to presenting more accurate and balanced portrayals of disability as part of everyday life, promoting the rights and dignity of persons with disabilities and dispelling negative stereotypes and misconception to build a more inclusive society for all. These days, in many Western countries, people with disabilities such as Down Syndrome and persons in wheelchairs are beginning to be cast as advertising models. There are also increasing numbers of TV dramas featuring actors with disabilities playing characters with disabilities. Nevertheless, we still need a more concerted and collaborative effort to change people’s attitudes and perceptions and create a more inclusive society. And as education leaders, we need to play a part in educating both the media and the public. We can run educational or fun events in the community and invite media coverage—make alliances with the press and send press releases, newsletters and success stories of how our schools have successfully achieved collaborative goals in your inclusive education programmes. We can nominate parents and community members for special awards and honours to show our appreciation and inspire the community. We can form social media groups and invite people with different disabilities and other special needs to share their stories and offer suggestions on how to become more inclusive. Social media platforms such as Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter and Instagram are also powerful tools for building connections with people. All we need is strong leadership and the will to do it. People are different and we need to find different ways to influence them, but we can do it. Lead by example. Walk the inclusion talk.

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References Anwer, M., & Sulman, N. (2012). Regular schools’ teachers’ attitude towards inclusive education in the region of Gilgit-Baltistan. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research Business, 4(5), 997–1015. Barnes, B. A. (2011). Teachers’ perceptions and understandings of diversity and inclusive education: A case study. Faculty of Education: Stellenbosch University. Beggs, M., & Pearse, B. (2020). Refusing to be cheap and flexible: Labour strategy in academia. Retrieved from https://overland.org.au/2020/04/refusing-to-be-cheap-or-flexible-lab our-strategy-in-academia/. Brown, Dan. (2003). The Da Vinci Code (1st ed.), US: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-50420-9. Krakouer, J. (2015). Literature review relating to the current context and discourse on Indigenous cultural awareness in the teaching space: Critical pedagogies and improving Indigenous learning outcomes through cultural responsiveness. Retrieved from https://research.acer.edu.au/ indigenous_education/42. Lucal, B. (2015). Neoliberalism and higher education: How a misguided philosophy undermines teachingsociology. TeachingSociology, 43(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092055X1 4556684. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2019). Inclusive teacher education policy. Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education: UNESCO Bangkok Office. Weaver, G. R. (1986). Understanding and coping with cross-cultural adjustment stress. In R. M. Paige (Ed.), Cross-cultural orientation: New conceptualizations and applications. Lanham MD: University Press of America.

Chapter 9

The Chronosystem

9.1 Introduction In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, the chronosystem embodies the patterning of events and transitions that occur over the course of an individual’s life, including sociohistorical events that impact on that individual. It can also include events that may have occurred prior to the individual’s birth. Further, though, the chronosystem reflects how these major events and their timing can influence a person’s life. It considers how the movement of time impacts or influences an individual. In this chapter, instead of focusing on a child (student), I will share how the passage of time and the events in my professional life have shaped me as an educator using a chronosystem lens and show how I, as an individual, have evolved along with the inclusion movement and what I have witnessed in my forty years of teaching and supporting students with special needs and disabilities. The aim of this chapter is to show how, in systems thinking, time and experience need to be considered in order to understand how the context of the environment and the passage of time influence the person in focus.

9.2 The Past: Education Before Inclusion Human beings are all born different, and the courses of our lives are shaped by the ‘lottery of life’. While winners of the lucky draw receive easier rides to success, many who are less fortunate remain unloved, uncared for and forgotten. But we all want to be treated with dignity, equality and justice, and this desire is nothing new. I remember that I cried each time I saw images of starving children on TV calling for help and donations. As a good Catholic, my father always donated a generous portion of his salary to help different groups of children in distress. At a young age, I also determined that I wanted to help children who were less fortunate—to make a difference in their lives one child at a time. I chose to become a teacher. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 M. Gonzales, Systems Thinking for Supporting Students with Special Needs and Disabilities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4558-4_9

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9.2.1 The 1970s I enrolled at a teacher’s college in Hong Kong in 1975. It was the year when the United Nations General Assembly passed the Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Person. After this, disability rights movements started to gain momentum in many parts of the world, and special education became part of the teacher education curriculum in Hong Kong for the first time. For my practicum in 1976, I was assigned to a school for blind children. I fell in love with the children and they fell in love with me. The next year, I was offered a contract to teach there. The most memorable moment in this part of my life was when I met a four-year-old blind girl. She came up to me, excited, and said, ‘I’ve got new shoes for my birthday, look!’ I replied that they were beautiful. She protested, ‘But you didn’t even look at them!’, then grabbed my hand and guided it to touch her shoes. ‘See, there is a bow here’, she said. Later on, I realised that young blind children assumed that everyone was blind and would ‘look’ with their hands. At home, I began to shut my eyes and navigate my way through the house, making my bed, ironing my clothes and doing other household chores with my eyes shut, just to experience how it was to be blind. The sad part was, though, that when I felt threatened I could open my eyes to see what was in my way, and blind people can’t. Nevertheless, I learned (somewhat) to experience how a blind person learns. Prior to the 1975 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons, which encourages the inclusion of people with disabilities in all aspects of mainstream society life and education, children with disabilities were taught separately from their peers in special schools or special units in mainstream schools. The blind children (from Kindergarten to Secondary Year 3) in my school all lived in a dormitory above the school. The school had excellent facilities, with a swimming pool, a gym, a rooftop playground and a very clean and quiet environment. The children spent five days a week at the school, and the weekends with their families. Special schools such as this, especially those with boarding facilities, are not totally problematic, especially for students with vision loss (in the 1970s, the terminology used was ‘visually handicapped’). In a boarding school, learning can extend beyond the classroom walls to encompass independent living skills such as how to dress and groom yourself, make your bed, and look after your clothing, shoes and personal belongings. Students in the school where I worked also received lessons on travel skills (called ‘Orientation and Mobility’), and there were also lots of opportunities after school to develop additional literacy and numeracy skills through tactile games and problem-solving games. Students enjoyed free swimming lessons and fitness classes using their own gym facilities. Volunteers (mostly high school students from Christian schools) came to the school to tutor the children, help them to build social skills, teach them music and be their friends. As a result, these blind students and students with low vision were not completely isolated from their society.

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9.2.2 The 1980s To strengthen its advocacy for equity in education, the UN initiated a World Program of Action in 1982 to promote equality of educational opportunity and full participation in society for persons with disabilities. Jurisdictions across the world began to develop policies to ‘integrate’ children with special needs and disabilities into regular classrooms on a part-time basis. This shift was followed by the practice of ‘mainstreaming’, where more children with SEN and disabilities were enrolled in their neighbourhood schools with Individualised Education Programs to support their learning. This movement significantly changed the placement of children with SEN and disabilities, and raised awareness of equity of access to education as a human right. In the 1980s, influenced by international trends, students with ‘mild disabilities’ were ‘integrated’ into mainstream schools all over the world, including Hong Kong. For some of them, this meant attending a mainstream school for a couple of days a week, or half of each day, and then returning to their base school for their ‘core curriculum’ subjects such as Language and Maths. In the school for the blind, such integration opportunities were offered only to high-achieving students who were able to attain a standard set by the mainstream schools. These were mainly private schools run by Christian and Catholic Dioceses. The prerequisites created an incentive for many of our blind students, as they all desired to study at a renowned school with their sighted peers. To support them, a special unit in the blind school was set up, known as the Resource Unit. Resource teachers travelled to the mainstream schools to observe how the students learned, and also to translate all of their learning materials into braille or large print, including tactile maps and maths charts. They worked alongside mainstream teachers to coteach and support the students with vision loss. As part of this programme, I moved from being a classroom teacher to be a resource teacher (later known as an Itinerant Support Teacher). The Hong Kong government, still under British sovereignty in the 1980s, was strong on teacher education. Specialist teachers were given abundant learning and development opportunities through in-school workshops and seminars presented by renowned field specialists (e.g. George Marshall, British headmaster of Exhall Grange and author of The Eye and Vision (1979), Natalie Barraga, an American expert in low vision education, and Canadian Daniel Ling, specialist in speech and the aural-oral approach to education for deaf students). Generous funding was available both from government subsidies and donations to enable specialist teachers and school leaders to upskill through overseas training programmes and international conference attendance. Today I am still grateful for these opportunities to learn and build my professional capacity to serve students with SEN and disabilities, which also landed me the opportunity to work as an assistant lecturer in special education at the teacher college I attended. At the college, I continued to have the opportunity to learn about all aspects of special education through collegial exchange and the observations of lessons

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presented by my colleagues on education and teaching strategies to help students with physical disabilities, complex medical needs and social-emotional, communication and interaction difficulties. This was an era when the ‘medical model’ of disability was used to justify approaches to special education. This model views learning challenges as the result of organic disorder and argues that they require ‘rehabilitation’. For example, low vision training was classified as a ‘rehab programme’ in Hong Kong, although it holds true that after a period of low vision training, a student with low vision will be able to read better because they have developed skills enabling them to use their vision more effectively with the aid of special devices and technology. In other areas, children with conditions such as ADHD and emotional or behavioural conditions were treated with medicines to ‘cure’ them. However, being a teacher-educator is a very demanding job, which requires working in the evenings and at weekends to conduct in-service programmes for full-time teachers. With a toddler and a newborn, I was not able to cope with this workload and had to leave the role, but the experience stayed with me and broadened my insights into education, and added another layer to my professional growth. A year later, I was approached by a former classmate who had become a nun. She told me that her school was desperately short of experienced teachers and asked if I would consider a new career as a teacher of the deaf. Once again, I found myself working in a special school for children who were profoundly deaf. In the 1980s, children with hearing impairments were not diagnosed at birth. This came later—towards the late 1980s in Hong Kong, when all newborns were given hearing screenings. As a result of the late diagnosis and the absence of early childhood language intervention, most of the children in this school had missed the golden opportunity to develop ageappropriate language. As a result, they experienced developmental language delays and were cognitively impeded. Furthermore, the poor quality of their old-fashioned hearing aids did them more harm than good. Speech lessons were conducted as drills, and other lessons were delivered in speech supplemented by some informal signing and lip-reading. There were no opportunities for these children to be integrated because they would not be able to cope in the one-size-fits-all teaching mode used in the majority of mainstream schools in Hong Kong at the time. In addition, mainstream teachers were terrified of having students with ‘deaf speech’ and profound hearing loss in their classrooms. As teachers in the deaf school, we could only do our best to help these children learn; one of the most common strategies was to partner with parents and siblings to help the deaf child develop language and communication skills. The high school curriculum was given a strong vocational focus so that older students could develop skills in art and fashion design, studies in hair and beauty art and cookery. At least most of the kids were happy. The principal, who was insightful and innovative, came up with a maxim: ‘If the mountain will not come to Muhammad, then Muhammad must go to the mountain’. She started a ‘reverse integration program’ for the preschool and kindergarten students. As the school was part of a renowned Catholic organisation, parents were happy to enrol their non-deaf children in the infant school with the hope that they would then move into the regular section of the diocese when they reached primary

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level. With our profoundly deaf children learning alongside their hearing peers, we soon saw huge improvements in their language and communication development. The church, rich with both money and compassion, then began to introduce this model in China and other Asian countries, helping them to build communities to support deaf children in learning and interacting with their hearing peers. Because of my background working in a teachers’ college, I became part of this initiative. Once again, I was blessed with opportunities to travel all over China and other Asian countries to facilitate professional learning and development for local teachers and to help set up communities and learning programmes, alongside audiologists who contributed by upskilling teachers and parents in the use of hearing technology.

9.2.3 The 1990s In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the possibility of a change of government in Hong Kong prompted an emigration movement. People who feared being ruled by a government with different values and ways of life to their own fled to different Western countries. In 1989, I responded to a front-page ad from the NSW Department of Education which was offering permanent residence to qualified specialist teachers and educators. I was offered a position as a specialist teacher in Sydney and arrived in Australia with my family in 1991. To my surprise, I was again placed in a special school. Unlike Hong Kong, Australia was at the time a leader in the practice of inclusive education. Most students with SEN and disabilities were included in their neighbourhood schools and supported with a variety of services; the special school in which I was placed now served children with multiple disabilities, with vision impairment being the dominant incapacity. After crying for a week, I decided to take positive action and enrolled in a Master of Arts in Education to learn about supporting the learning of children with profound developmental delays and multiple disabilities. It was a very helpful experience. Life became easier as I got used to the environment, bonded with the children and learned from their parents—and as a result of my hard work and contributions to the school community, I was promoted to Assistant Principal. The shift from being a classroom teacher to being a school leader was difficult. I had to juggle teaching and staff management. Thrown by threats from less friendly staff about their ‘rights’ and complaints to the teacher’s union, I decided I needed some leadership development training to familiarise myself with people management, conflict management and most importantly, educational policies and legislation. I undertook another master’s degree in Education Administration and leadership at the University of Sydney. My professional growth was taking a different trajectory. Meanwhile, in 1990, the World Declaration on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand, defined the values of inclusive education: the provision of universal access to school education for all students as equity, social justice and a human right. The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Special Needs Education (UNESCO 1994) was pivotal in turning this belief into a reality, as it set out guiding principles to enable

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mainstream schools to accommodate all children regardless of any physical or intellectual disabilities they might have. The statement affirms that inclusive education is an effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes and encourages the building of an inclusive society to achieve Education For All (EFA). Its five principles are: 1. Every child has a fundamental right to education, and must be given the opportunity to achieve and maintain an acceptable level of learning. 2. Every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities and learning needs. 3. Educational systems should be designed, and educational programs implemented to take into account the wide diversity of these characteristics and needs. 4. Those with special educational needs must have access to regular schools that should accommodate them within a child-centered pedagogy capable of meeting these needs. 5. Regular schools with this inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society, and achieving Education for All (UNESCO 1994, p. 10). In 1999, as a result of under enrolment, the special school for children with multiple disabilities that I was teaching in closed down. I was transferred to a school for students with severe emotional and behavioural disorders (EBD). There, I was thrown into the deep end of a new endeavour all over again. These teenagers had been rejected and expelled from their neighbourhood schools numerous times and were mostly angry and full of hate. To win them back, we had to make school interesting and engaging, and build their self-esteem. Luckily, I had developed sufficient resilience and optimism to survive another challenge. The principal was supportive and innovative, and I was partnered with the head teacher in charge of curriculum, a young man full of creative ideas. Together, the executive team worked collaboratively to lead the necessary changes to help these students to love school again. I learned to plan and design student-led pedagogies, universal learning design and differentiated assessment methods.

9.3 The New Millennium The World Education Forum 2000 in Dakar, West Africa reaffirmed UNESCO’s role as the leading organisation in promoting inclusive education for all as a human rights initiative, by coordinating a global effort to accomplish six set goals in inclusive education by 2015. These goals, grounded in human rights values and aiming at EFA, are: 1. To expand early childhood and education. 2. To provide free and compulsory primary education for all children including those with disabilities. 3. To promote learning and life skills for all young people and adults. 4. To increase adult literacy by 50%.

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5. To achieve gender parity in education by 2005 and gender equality by 2015. 6. To improve the quality of education. The global EFA movement launched by UNESCO in 2000 aims to provide a quality basic education for all children, especially those living in extreme poverty and in isolated country regions, and for girls, who were (and still are) often denied education for cultural and/or political reasons. In the same spirit, the inclusive education movement aims to promote the provision of education to, and social acceptance of, learners with diverse needs, with a strong focus on the inclusion of vulnerable and marginalised young people, and those with physical disabilities and learning difficulties. While mainstream school leaders and teachers were coping with a flood of educational reforms to meet the increasingly complex demands of the new millennium, I was also struggling to cope in the school for students with EBD, where unpredictable crises happened every day, from self-harming incidents to alleged sexual harassment in the toilets and kids climbing onto the roof and threatening to jump to in revenge for a disagreement with a teacher. Luckily, I got a rescue call. My nun friend invited me to go back to Hong Kong to take up a position as an education consultant. This entailed planning and conducting teacher education programmes on how to make educational adjustments and accommodations and design individual support plans to assist students with SEN and disabilities. By now, my own kids were all grown and in university, and I was more than happy to go home and serve my community again. Working with different school leaders and teachers in Hong Kong, I discovered that there were basically three groups of people. The first group was made up of people who chose teaching as a career because they enjoy long holidays and short working hours. The second group was made up of compassionate teachers who really want to help students with SEN but did not know how or what to do. They felt stuck when not supported but did not know how to get unstuck, or did not bother to try. The third group was made up of teachers who were truly committed to the well-being of their students and would take action to find resources and help. Once they were shown what to do and how, they would drive the change and be advocates for their students. This group made my role very fulfilling. On the other hand, it was heartbreaking when I came across principals and senior school managers who were negative about EFA, or even blocked progress. One principal actually said to me, ‘We are a Band 1 school, having children with disability will drag down our school status’. When a school system fails to issue guidelines for schools and sets up mechanisms to monitor progress, this is what will happen. When I completed my two-year contract, my life took a sharp turn. The 2000s was an era of unprecedented economic growth in many Asian countries. With increased productivity, rising trade deals and surging stock market growth, foreign investments poured into Hong Kong and big international corporations began to set up offices there. Leadership training and development was hugely in demand, and people with leadership and training experience were sought to run leadership development and assessment programmes for these large and wealthy organisations.

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It was like winning the lottery when I was hired by a world-renowned leadership consultant firm. To meet business demands, I was given training and development in how to use a range of leadership development and assessment tools. I was mentored by top senior consultants and given opportunities to shadow them and assist in large scale leadership projects all over Asia. I was trained to be a business and leadership coach and was assigned to different projects. Life was exciting, challenging and fast. The money was good, and I met lots of different leaders from different industries. Then, suddenly, the global economy dawned. Everything stopped. When we returned in Australia in 2008, I took a break and thought about my career.

9.4 The Present (2010–2020) Inspired by UNESCO’s work to advance human rights and equity in education, by the beginning of the new millennium many countries had developed legislation and national policies to support inclusive education. However, rates of inclusion still vary from country to country. And while many nations worldwide have enacted policies to implement inclusion, others have been slow in making the shift to put their principles into practice. Statistics provided by UNESCO (2015) show that in Europe, over eighty per cent of students with disabilities attend inclusive mainstream schools in countries including the UK, Cyprus, Norway, Malta, Lithuania and Portugal (WHO 2011). The European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, an international organisation that aims to help its member countries improve the quality their inclusive education practice, was established in 1996. In its latest cross-country report (2016), statistics show obvious differences among the thirty-one member countries, and vast variations in how they respond to learners’ rights to an inclusive education. For example, identification rates vary from 1 to 20%, and the difference between enrolment to mainstream education stands between 92 and 99.5%. Skewed gender distribution was also noted, with data revealing that boys were more likely to be identified as having SEN than girls. The report also indicates that none of the organisation’s member countries has achieved full inclusion. Although a majority of students attend mainstream schools, there is still a small minority studying in segregated settings. Australia is currently one of the leaders in inclusive education: while it is not the best in the world, it is doing its best to uphold the values of equity and education excellence. Supported by the Federal Disability Discrimination Act (1992) and the Disability Standards for Education (2005), school leaders and teachers are constantly provided with in-school and online professional learning and development to help them support the learning of students with SEN and disabilities. Australian scholars Loreman et al. (2014) have found that the eight educational jurisdictions in Australia are managing and enacting inclusive education in different ways, and measuring student success differently. However, the biggest challenge faced by Australian schools in all jurisdictions (as in many European countries) is the constant increase in the number of migrant children coming from all over the world. For these students

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from non- English-speaking backgrounds, results in standardised tests show a sharp decline in language, science and maths skills. Children with ‘special needs’ therefore now include those with learning difficulties that are due to different cultural and linguistic backgrounds as well as those with SEN and disabilities, suggesting that education reform to design pedagogies that meet different levels of learning ability and interest are urgently needed. I returned to teaching in 2010 and took on a role as an Itinerant Hearing Support Teacher. I was amazed and ecstatic to see the huge differences in language and learning ability of Australian deaf children today. Supported by newborn diagnoses and early interventions, children with hearing loss are able to develop speech and communication with few delays. Supported by the collaborative efforts of a multiprofessional approach, profoundly deaf children can now learn to speak naturally, hear with assistance from the most advanced hearing technology and learn side by side with their hearing peers, generally making the same level of progress. The improved technology used in hearing aids and cochlear implants enables deaf students to hear a range of frequencies, meaning that they can now communicate using mobile phones, listen to and play music, and sing in choirs. The use of sign language is now a choice, not a necessity. While I enjoy collaborating with teachers (mostly young, well-prepared and familiar with the values and practice of inclusive education), I also enrolled in a PhD programme to gain credentials in leadership education. While attending international conferences in the last few years, I have noted very positive changes taking place in Asia. According to the Schools for Asia report (UNICEF 2013–2014), awareness of inclusive education principles in the region has increased, and more attention is being given to equity of access to education, including through initiatives and partnerships made by the many UNICEF working groups focused on EFA. Between 2012 and 2014, more Asian countries committed to expanding their educational services to support inclusion and EFA. For example, a national policy on Early Childhood Education was endorsed in Myanmar in 2012. Similar national frameworks were established in Papua New Guinea and Timor-Leste in 2013, and subsequently in fourteen other Pacific Island countries as well. China and Mongolia have also established early learning and development guidelines and standards to upskill education leaders and teachers on the implementation of inclusive education and Education For All. A 2009 UNESCO report using Thailand and Vietnam as a case study on inclusive education in Asia found that the following barriers were common in Asian and Pacific regions: • Inadequate teacher education and preparation, leading to lack of skills and knowledge of advanced pedagogies that cater for universal learning. • Children with disabilities and special needs still being denied access to mainstream schools in some states, provinces or even countries in Asia. • Children with disabilities still being teased and bullied on the school grounds and in their home neighbourhoods due to cultural ignorance.

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• Children in rural or remote areas having difficulties accessing placements, meaning that some have to live in residential facilities. • Many children with disabilities still not having opportunities to attend preschool. • Teachers in secondary (high) schools in particular being inadequately prepared and supported to meet the needs of students with SEN and disabilities. • Health and therapy services often being unaffordable, and not provided or subsidised by the government, making access to such services harder to achieve for those who live in rural and remote areas (UNESCO 2009). In contrast, according to UNESCO’s most recent report (2020), the four countries, states or provinces that have been most successful in implementing inclusive education are New Brunswick (Canada), Finland, Italy and Portugal. With thirty years of experience, New Brunswick was described as a successful province leading in inclusive education. Its success was attributed to a clear policy mandated by the Minister of Education. This policy provides clear requirements for school practice, including personalised learning plans, and supports classroom practice with strict guidelines on the variation of learning experiences and learning environments. Finland, which is noted for its overall educational success, outperforms other countries due to its deep commitment to supporting education as a human right. High levels of resources are directed to schools where learning barriers and challenges are identified, and attention is directed at helping low-performing students. In Italy and Portugal, inclusive education begins at the preschool level. Recent legislation requires that the provision of support for all students be determined, managed and provided, and students with SEN are ensured access to support, with specialists on hand to support vulnerable students who require additional help.

9.5 The Future The major barrier to Education For All, as identified in numerous research papers, is the rigidity of education systems that are reluctant to change. Teachers and school leaders brought up learning in the traditional way find it hard to reconceptualise what student-led learning is, which poses a challenge for them when it comes to designing personalised learning plans to meet the needs of different students. Nonetheless, in the past twenty years, adaptive learning technology has proven to be a great help for students with many different disabilities. This includes electronic braille software that translates braille into print and vice versa, eye-gaze software for students with restricted movement, the MultiCAD programme that allows users with tremors to work with design software, and wireless communication devices to help deaf students hear better by cutting background noise and bringing the voice of the teacher directly into their hearing receiver. Based on these successes, IT scientists, systems engineers, educational psychologists and researchers are working on how

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to make learning more heterogeneous in order to enhance personalised learning in classroom practice using the latest technology. Research on advanced personalised learning with the help of mobile devices, educational robots and artificial intelligences began some ten years ago (Bray and McClaskey 2016). In the past decades, IT scientists and scholars have experimented with using artificial intelligence (AI) techniques to solve learning problems faced by diverse groups of students. By using data- driven and theory-driven approaches, they have explored areas such as culturally aware technology-enhanced learning (culTEL) (Rehm 2018) to promote culturally inclusive educational systems. These learning systems were designed based on research studies that included observing student behaviour and interaction with the learning environment (Blanchard and Ogan 2010), and how students respond to culturally different languages and accents (Cassell 2009). Some of these learning programmes involve the use of virtual characters with physical appearances that are designed to suit particular cultural backgrounds (Endrass et al. 2011). The Tactical Language Training System (Johnson et al. 2004) was designed to help learners to acquire foundational foreign language and cultural skills through interactive exercises and games. By combining intelligent feedback and gaming techniques, this learning system also aims to help migrant students with different linguistic backgrounds to learn the languages of their new home countries. It includes pedagogical drama technology to ensure that learning activities are pedagogically appropriate and to promote engagement and authentic use of the target language. It also includes an evaluation component and error detector to encourage self- correction and maintain motivation. More work is being carried out currently at the Center for Advanced Research in Technology for Education at the University of Southern California on refinement and further development of the system. The ORIENT System (Overcoming Refugee Integration with Empathic Novel Technology) created by Aylett et al. (2009) is an interactive graphic systems designed to help young adolescents (ages 12–14) develop intercultural empathy and become more responsive and sympathetic to refugee students and migrants from culturally different backgrounds. Its learning activities also helps new migrant students learn ways to fit into their new culture and society. The system employs a stagebased role-play approach drawn from educational theories to engage students in solving story-based problems related to cultural difference through small- group role-play approaches. The interface used in the ORIENT programmes is designed to be tangible; it incorporates activities that are physically interactive to teach about physical space and raise students’ awareness of the importance of social behaviour and respect for personal space in different cultures. These games are available on a variety of devices, such as mobile phones, Dance Mats and WiiMotes. The future of education is full of excitement and fun. Teachers are already using all sorts of learning platforms to engage students in technology-enhanced learning. Scientists and scholars working in IT promise more tools to help teachers to engage their students in an intelligent learning environment assisted by AI and learning robots. The learning technology of the coming decade will make teaching easier by producing systems that offer customisable features, such as learning materials that

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are graded to learning levels and ability, assignments and quizzes, and forums for teachers (instructors) to share ideas about computer-supported collaborative learning (Rhoades 2015). Currently, research is being conducted into student choices and learning styles, interactivity, engagement and feedback using embedded mechanisms to collect data from the users of pilot learning programmes. For example, Pham and Wang (2018) have worked on detecting facial expressions and physiological changes in the blood levels in a learner’s fingertip while interacting with a learning programme, to detect the emotional state of the learner. However, such research activity, though helpful for future programing, may also be ethically confronting. Learning robots are also being invented to help different groups of learners with SEN and disabilities. For example, the ECHOES Project, instigated by UK researchers, is creating a technology-enhanced learning environment in which fiveto seven-year-olds can explore and practice social interactive skills such as turntaking, sharing attention with others, and initiating interaction and responding to others. The programme aims to help children who experience difficulties in social interaction, such as those with social anxieties and autism. Finally, in Luxemburg, LuxAI1 has developed a social robot named QTrobot for research purposes. They found that while some children prefer robots with more humanised features as reading partners (Druga 2018), autistic children tend to prefer those that are less humanised. The robots have been used alongside a human therapist to assist learning by creating a safe environment. Also known as empathy robots, they are programmed with different tones of voice, and it has been observed that some children with autism became less anxious when learning with these empathy robots, as indicated by reduced hand-flapping. Research on using empathy robots to assist in learning is also starting up in the UK and Finland. The efficacy of educational robots will be improved over time and teachers may find them a great help when putting the ideals of Education for All into practice. However, governments need to be aware of the moral and ethical issues of using AI and robots as learning tools and learning partners. In Europe, where research in this area is very active, the European Parliament is already taking action to prepare recommendations and regulations that will protect users, children and adults from being manipulated (European Parliament 2017). Teachers and educators need not worry that they will be replaced, however, because education will always be relational. Learners and school children still need teachers to guide them and form human bonds with them, and even when they are able to access boundless sources of information from IT, they will always need teachers to share experience and advice with them as they learn how to use it. The human touch will never be replaced by robots.

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References Aylett, R., Paiva, A., Vannini, N. et al. (2009). But that was in another country: agents and intercultural empathy.In K.S. Decker, J.S. Sichman, C. Sierra et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multi Agent Systems, Budapest, Hungary,10–15 May 2009 (pp. 329–336). Richland, SC: International Foundation for Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems. Bray, B. A., & McClaskey, K. A. (2016). How to personalize learning: A practical guide for getting started and going deeper. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Cassell, J. (2009). Social practice: Becoming enculturated in human-computer interaction. In C. Stephanidis (Ed.), Proceedings of the 5th international conference on universal access in HCI, San Diego, CA, USA, 19–24 July 2009 (pp. 303–313). Berlin, Heidelberg: Sprinter-Verlag. Disability Standards for Education. (2005). Australian Government. Retrieved from https://www. education.gov.au/resources-schools-and-families-about-disability-standards-education-2005. Druga, S. (2018). The story of Cognimates. In Proceedings of the 17th ACM conference on interaction design and children (IDC), Trondheim, Norway, June 19–22, 2018. New York, NY: ACM. Endrass, B., André, E., & Rehm, M. (2011). Towards culturally-aware virtual agent systems. In E. G. Blanchard & D. Allard (Eds.), The handbook of research on culturally-aware information technology: Perspectives and models (pp. 412–428). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. European Agency. 2016. Statistics on Inclusive Education: 2016 Dataset Cross-Country Report (Ramberg, J., Lénárt A., & Watkins, A., eds.). Odense, Denmark. Retrieved from https://www.europeanagency.org/resources/publications/european-agency-statistics-inclus ive-education-2016-dataset-cross-country. European Parliament. (2017). Rise of the robots: Mady Delvaux on why their use should be regulated. Retrieved from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/economy/20170109S TO57505/rise-of-the-robots-mady-delvaux-on-why-their-use-should-be-regulated. Johnson, W. L., Beal, C., Fowles-Winkler, A. et al. (2004). Tactical language training system: An interim report. In Proceedings of the 7th International conference on intelligent tutoring systems, Maceió, Alagoas, Brazil, 30 August-3 September 2004 (pp. 336–345). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. Loreman, T., Deppeler, J., & Harvey, D. (2014). Inclusive education: Supporting diversity in the classroom. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen and Unwin. Marshall, G. (1979). The eyes and vision. ISBN 0-86238-403-6. Pham, P., & Wang, J. (2018). Predicting learners’ emotions in mobile MOOC learning via a multimodal intelligent tutor. In C. Rosé, R. Martínez-Maldonado, H. U. Hoppe et al. (Eds), Proceedings of the 19th international conference on artificial intelligence in education (AIED), London, UK, June 27–30, 2018 (pp. 150–159). Cham: Springer. Rhoades, R. A. (2015). MOOCS, high technology and higher learning. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (1994, June 7–10). The salamanca statement and framework for action on special needs education world conference on special needs education: Access and quality. Salamanca, Spain: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Ministry of Education and Science Spain. United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2009). Towards inclusive education for children with disabilities: A guideline. Bangkok: UNESCO Bangkok. Retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000192480. United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2015). Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. Paris: UNESCO.

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United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2020). Global education monitoring (GEM) report 2020. Retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/news/global-educat ion-monitoring-gem-report-2020. World Health Organization (WHO). (2011). World report on disability: Summary. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/disabilities/world_report/2011/accessible_en.pdf.

Part II

Understanding the Different Types of Special Education Needs and Disabilities and Classroom Strategies

Chapter 10

Supporting Students with ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactive Disorder

10.1 Introduction This chapter describes the different types of Attention Deficit and Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) and explains how the condition is classified medically. It introduces theories and models on understanding ADHD and discusses the controversy and debates about the treatment of children with ADHD. It highlights parental and familial factors associated with ADHD and encourages the involvement of parents and family members to establish a collaborative approach in helping these students at school and at home. By pointing out the challenges faced by students with ADHD, it is hoped that teachers can appreciate the difficulties they have to cope with and be more empathetic and supportive towards helping them with learning. The chapter also gives suggestions on classroom strategies and stresses the importance of social development for these students.

10.2 Definition of ADHD Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a childhood disorder that affects learning and social development for many students worldwide. Many diagnosed as having ADHD also have concurrent psychiatric morbidity, such as personality disorders (Young and Thome 2011). Growing evidence confirms an association between childhood ADHD and mental health issues, and social maladjustments in future adulthood if not properly managed, leading to employment problems and even involvement in crime (Young and Goodwin 2010). As teachers and educators, we are called upon to play a role in supporting these students who experience difficulties in learning and performing effectively at school.

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10.2.1 Medical Classifications The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) classified ADHD into three subcategories, they are: 1. ADHD-I Characteristics: • • • • • • • •

has difficulty maintaining attention does not appear to listen and has difficulty following instructions fails to give close attention to details tends to make careless mistakes avoids tasks that require sustained mental effort is often disorganised and loses things is easily distracted is forgetful in daily activities.

2. ADHD HI-hyperactive-impulsive type described by DSM-5 • • • • • • • • •

fidgets with hands or feet struggles to sit for a long period of time, tends to squirm in chair may run about or climbs excessively difficulty engaging in activities quietly talks excessively blurts out answers has difficulty in following rules has difficulty waiting or taking turns interrupts others.

3. ADHD-C- a combination of both characteristics

10.3 Theories and Models on ADHD There are many theories and models to understand and support people with ADHD. An example of the use of neuropsychological theories includes: Executive Function Theory; Dynamic Developmental Theory; and PASS Theory.

10.3.1 Executive Function Theory The Executive Function Theory (Willcutt et al. 2005) is a neuropsychological paradigm based on the observation that prefrontal lesions in the brain sometimes generate deficits on executive function tasks, though it may not be necessarily or appropriately responsible for every single case of ADHD. This theory states that

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some individuals with prefrontal abnormality may have weakened executive functions which affect the individual’s cognitive abilities, such as organising and planning, attentional control, self-regulation, problem-solving, inhibition and flexibility (Ozonoff 1997).

10.3.2 Dynamic Developmental Theory (DDT) The Dynamic Developmental Theory explains ADHD as a neuro-behavioural disorder due to hypodopaminergic functioning, a low level of dopamine produced in the brain (Johansen and Sagvolden 2004). Dopamine is a chemical produced naturally in the brain and is crucial for concentration, sustained attention and working memory. Supporting research underpinning this theory has attributed the ADHD condition to dysfunctional genes and maintains that siblings of a child with ADHD may have the same condition (Stevenson 2006; Tannock 2007). In some countries, children diagnosed with ADHD are prescribed psychostimulant drugs with methylphenidate. The most common one known as Ritalin, is a drug which is assumed to increase dopamine in the brain to enhance concentration and attention.

10.3.3 PASS Theory The PASS theory, also known as The Planning, Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous and Successive theory of intelligence, is a cognitive model introduced by Luria (1973, 2005) based on years of research. It assumes that cognition is organised in four processes supported by three systems in the brain. The theory highlights the insufficiency in different functional systems of the brain, which lead to the various subcategories of ADHD.

10.4 Different Schools of Thoughts About ADHD ADHD is explained differently by two major schools of thoughts. Those who view the condition from a medical model believe that it is a condition requiring medical attention, while those viewing it from a social model believe that it is behavioural and can be managed by cognitive-behavioural interventions. In the last two decades, fierce debates were sparked among medical and nonmedical professionals on the treatment of students with ADHD using central nervous system stimulant medications, which include methylphenidate (e.g. Ritalin, Concerta, Metadate), dextroamphetamine, (e.g. Dexedrine and Dextrostat) and amphetamine, (e.g. Adderall). Studies have been cited to demonstrate that the use of pharmacological treatment has adverse effects on children, leading to harmful

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consequences both physically and psychologically (Graham 2005). Proof has also been made to illustrate the toxicity of drugs such as Ritalin and Concerta to be highly addictive and may cause psychotic symptoms in some children. Other studies have provided evidence that the use of these drugs should only be on a short-term basis (Mosholder et al. 2009; Timimi 2004). On the other hand, many behavioural psychologists advocate for a different attitude and repertoire of skills in raising children, and the acceptance of the child as an individual with different learning needs and learning styles. Reframing and understanding how children learn differently is vital to help these young people with challenging behaviours at home and in the classroom. Some studies that focused on parenting styles have found an association between permissive parenting and the failure of children developing impulse-control skills, leading to adjustment problems later in life (e.g. Fite et al. 2009). On top of permissive parenting, neglectful parenting has also been found to link with antisocial behaviour, impulsivity, and difficulty in regulating emotions (Kerr et al. 2012). Conversely, some studies have found that parents of children with ADHD are more controlling and punitive than other parents because they experience more stressful parenting encounters from the demands from their child with ADHD (e.g. Laskey and Cartwright-Hatton 2009; Luccherino et al. 2014). In the last 10–15 years, parents of ADHD children have been involved in Behavioral Parent training (BPT) (Barkley 2005; Smith et al. 2006) to help them learn about different parenting behaviour and positive reinforcement methods to improve schoolage children with ADHD and other behavioural problems. Parents learn a range of techniques in relationship enhancement, such as, the use of positive reinforcement and ignoring minor misbehaviour, the importance of consistency and praise, reflection, and positive attitudes. Researchers have produced positive outcomes from these programmes and stated that they have proven to be effective in child management and reduced ADHDrelated behavioural problems. The importance of involving parent’s input in intervention for children with ADHD is well-documented. When parents and school staff work together to create supportive learning experiences, gains in learning are most prominent.

10.5 Challenges Faced by Students with ADHD Children and adolescents with ADHD often have problems in self-management, organising, and self-regulations. They are found to be forgetful with homework assignments or bringing the right books to school and are often disorganised with managing their personal items and belongings. In classroom learning, many have problems following instructions, especially when they are presented in lengthy directives. Some tend to be attention-seeking and show disruptive behaviour to draw notice from others. Some may have fine motor control problems leading to difficulties in writing, and many have difficulties working in groups due to impatience and low

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tolerance of following other’s agenda. Additionally, their lack of communication may lead to aggression and other forms of explosive emotions (Reif 2004, 2005). Academically, it has been noted that many children with ADHD show weaknesses in language functioning, especially in three broad areas, namely, pragmatic language, various basic language abilities, and higher-level comprehension and expressive language abilities. It is common for teachers to misjudge students with these conditions as wilfully defiant and ignoring instruction and daydreaming. Some may associate their impulsive behaviour as ‘acting out’ or ‘attention seeking’. Many children with ADHD may have some form of language delays because they process language differently. Some may struggle to find the right words to express their thoughts and some may have problems with grammar. Many also have difficulties putting thoughts together to carry on a conversation. It is, therefore, important to identify potential pragmatic language deficiency in students with ADHD and provide them with needed support. These limitations affect age-appropriate vocabulary development, understanding of syntax and grammar, which impact on oral language and reading tasks in classroom learning. Without adequate language foundations, many students with ADHD lack the ability to understand complex sentences in text or conversation, and fail to express oneself using lengthy or complex sentences in spoken or written language.

10.5.1 Difficulties with Reading and Writing Literacy is foundational to all learning. Students with ADHD often show limitations in developing age-appropriate vocabulary, syntax, and grammar in both oral and written language. Many also show weakness in higher-level functioning due to the weakness of working memory. These disadvantages can impact their future lifestyle, income, living and work condition. It may also affect their overall mental health. It is thus vital for schools and teachers to plan strategies to help students with ADHD to overcome their learning difficulties and build their capacity to learn to plan ahead, sustain attention to tasks, manage time, and achieve set goals without distraction. A Canadian study by Tannock (2007) found that 8–10% of the children with ADHD in her study sample exhibited lower achievement scores in reading. The three main areas of difficulty in literacy development include weaknesses in text recall and comprehension, in written expression and in language function. Tannock attributed that to deficits in executive functions, which indicates a deficiency in cognitive flexibility in planning, reasoning, problem-solving and retention due to minimal working memory. In another paper, Reif (2005) found that 25–40% of the children with ADHD in her study showed difficulty in reading. She reported that part of the problem was that these children failed to use self-monitoring strategies in developing reading comprehension skills. She stated that these children did not have the internal language and self-talk to maintain the necessary train of thoughts to engage with the text being read. This is a skill that is required to build reading proficiency and to figure out the

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critical elements of the main ideas presented in the text. These skills are teachable, and teachers need to be given the skills to help these students with ADHD to enhance their reading ability.

10.6 Some Teaching Strategies to Support Students with ADHD Teachers can support students with ADHD by identifying the unique needs of the student, for example, to determine how, when, and why the student is inattentive, impulsive and hyperactive. They can then select different educational practices and strategies associated with academic instructions, behavioural interventions and classroom accommodation that would meet the student’s needs.

10.6.1 Seating Arrangements To increase attention and engagement, it is wise to seat the student with ADHD away from distractions and close to the teacher. Teachers may also consider placing the student with peers who are attentive workers. As students may need to move around, be mindful of creating tasks that enable movement and not confined to desk work for long periods of time.

10.6.2 Academic Instructions Students with ADHD need a carefully structured academic lesson and clear instructions from the teacher. It is best to collaborate with other subject teachers and try to be consistent in the way to communicate with the student. It can be very confusing for students with ADHD to follow different sets of rules with different teachers. When introducing the lesson, teachers can: • • • • • •

give a brief overview of the lesson set learning expectations set behavioural expectation revise previous learning simplify instructions explain clearly about choice and sequences of learning tasks. During the lesson, teachers can:

• highlight key points • refrain from making unannounced sudden changes

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• • • • • •

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use multisensory teaching approaches (audio visual, movements, hands-on) check for understanding ask probing questions help student to self-correct and allow sufficient time to think help students to focus be less rigid with rules. When concluding the lesson, teachers can:

• • • • •

let students know the lesson is ending (5–10-minute notice) allow ample time for student to complete task do not rush students wrap up with a brief revision praise students for good participation and effort to enhance self-confidence.

Interactive learning is found to be one of the most effective way to help students with ADHD. All students benefit when the following activities are well-planned and guided: • • • • • • • • • •

peer tutoring cooperative learning sharing strategies to solve a problem or do research projects partner reading self-correction opportunities learning games (teacher-designed class games or board games) computer games that increase opportunities that provide immediate feedback student-created reviews friendly prompting and frequent redirection learning buddies.

10.6.3 Organisational Skills Teachers can also help students be more organised by keeping an assignment notebook, using colour-coded folders, a calendar to remind them of events and time, and a checklist of homework and books to bring. Remind students to have periodic clean out dates to tidy up school bags. Having homework partners to remind the students of important homework assignment is helpful (or ask the parents to be the homework partner).

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10.6.4 Classroom Management A behavioural management plan can help students with ADHD to be more engaged with learning in class when enforced with consistency. Positive teachers match behaviour with appropriate reinforcements and consequences. Teachers may find these prevention strategies helpful: • Non-verbal Supports: use eye contact, facial expressions and gestures to show support when the student is engaged. Give mutually understood signals to student when a break is needed. • Choice as Reward: allow students to have a choice of activity or a break as reward. Not just for the student with ADHD, but for all other students. • Set time limits: students work more effectively when they are given a time limit. Give non-verbal prompts to students who need help to refocus. • Use visual and environmental prompts: such as posters and quotes to keep students reminded of good behaviour in class. • Proximity Control: walk around and stay close to students who need help and support. • Give clarity of expectations: explain clearly to students what they are expected to do and give constant positive feedback for engaged and on-task behaviour.

10.7 Helping Students with Social Adjustments Students with ADHD tend to be weak in their awareness of social situations and fail to see how their actions or reactions provoke or offend others. They are also weak in monitoring their own social behaviour. Teachers can help students to cope with social challenges with three key strategies 1. Using direct teaching of social rules or conventions, for example, showing the student how to greet somebody, how to initiate a conversation, maintaining appropriate eye contact, awareness of social space, and taking turns in a conversation. 2. Modelling of social skills such as sharing their views about social events, what they like about a certain sport activity, movies they enjoyed, games they like. It is important that teachers demonstrate both verbal and non-verbal language, tone of voice, volume to raise students’ awareness of the way they communicate with others. 3. Providing specific and structured activities to teach interaction skills, how to respond when winning or losing a game, to develop patience when it is other people’s turn, to tolerate other people’s errors or missteps in a game, to cooperate, to value other’s input, respect others’ viewpoints and to build communication skills in a social activity. It pays to help students to define problems and work them out step by step. Acknowledge feelings of hurt, frustration and worries. Really listen to the child and

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refrain from judging. Find a teachable moment to help students overcome unacceptable social behaviour. Help them to achieve goals one at a time. Celebrate success.

10.8 Conclusion ADHD is a very common condition found in students all over the world. Students with ADHD need a range of coping skills to thrive in an inclusive classroom. Knowing how to help them will enable these students to acquire necessary information to complete in-class and homework assignments. Students with ADHD may feel frustrated and express their frustrations through unacceptable classroom behaviour. Teachers who are patient and understanding will have great impact on helping them to overcome these challenges and barriers. Focus on the student’s strength and give praises to encourage improvement. I believe the information presented in this chapter will help teachers to inspire hope and instil a love of learning in all children, especially those facing different kinds of challenges.

References Barkley, R. A. (2005). Taking charge of ADHD: The complete, authoritative guide for parents (revised ed.). New York: Guilford Press. Fite, P. J., Colder, C. R., Lochman, J. E., & Wells, K. C. (2009). Pathways from proactive and reactive aggression to substance use. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 21, 355–364. Graham, L. (2005). Discourse analysis & the critical use of Foucault. Australian Association for Research in Education, 34(12), 1–14. Johansen, E. B., & Sagvolden, T. (2004). Response disinhibition may be explained as an extinction deficit in an animal model of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Behavioural Brain Research, 149(2), 183–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-4328(03)00229-8. Kerr, M., Stattin, H., & Ozdemir, M. (2012). Perceived parenting style and adolescent adjustment: Revisiting directions of effects and the role of parental knowledge. Developmental Psychology, 48(6), 1540–1553. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027720. Laskey, B. J., & Cartwright-Hatton, S. (2009). Parental discipline behaviours and beliefs about their child: Associations with child internalizing and mediation relationships: Child: Care. Health and Development, 35, 717–727. Luccherino, L., Mancini, F., & Mercurio, C. (2014). EPA-0398—Parent-training intervention among a group of parents of children with ADHD. European Psychiatry, 29, 1. https://doi.org/10.1016/ s0924-9338(14)77821-6 Martinussen & Tannock, 2006. Luria, A. R. (1973). The working brain: Basic books. ISBN 0-465-09208-X. Luria, A. R. (2005). Autobiography of Alexander Luria: A dialogue with the making of mind. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. ISBN 0-8058-5499-1. Mosholder, A. D, Gelperin, K., Hammad, T. A., Johann-Liang, R., & Phelan, K. (2009). Hallucinations and other psychotic symptoms associated with the use of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder drugs in children. Pediatrics, 123(2): 611–616. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-0185. Ozonoff, S. (1997). Components of executive function in autism and other disorders. In J. Russell (Ed.), Autism as an executive disorder (pp. 179–211). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Reif, S. (2004). Instructional strategies and accommodations to motivate and boost academic performance of students with AD/HD (K-8). Conference Papers—Children & Adults with Attention Deficit Disorder. Reif, S. (2005). How to reach and teach children with ADD/ADHD: Practical techniques, strategies, and interventions. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Smith, B. H., Barkley, R. A., & Shapiro, C. J. (2006). Attention—deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In E. J. Mash & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Treatment of childhood disorders (3rd ed., pp. 65–136). New York: Guilford. Stevenson, K. (2006). Educational trends shaping school planning and design: 2007. National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities. Retrieved from ERIC database (Access No. ED495952). Tannock, R. (2007). The educational implications of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: What works? Research into practice. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Ontario Ministry of Education, The Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat Thornicroft, 2006. Timimi, S. (2004). A critique of the international consensus statement on ADHD. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 7(1), 59–63. Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V., & Pennington, B. F. (2005). Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review. Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1336–1346. Young, S., & Goodwin, E. (2010). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in persistent criminal offenders: The need for specialist treatment programs. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 10(10), 1497–1500. Young, S., & Thome, J. (2011). ADHD and offenders. World Journal Biological Psychiatry, 12(Suppl. 1), 124–128.

Chapter 11

Assisting Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder

11.1 Introduction Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a huge spectrum covering a wide variation in the type and severity of symptoms people experience. Every individual on the autism spectrum is distinctive and their needs will be reflected differently. The chapter begins with describing medical definitions of ASD and discusses the challenges faced by students with ASD, their peers, family and their teachers. It points out the barriers that this groups of students face due to the lack of understanding and skills to help them at school. A whole-school approach is recommended to support students with ASD. It then gives practical suggestions for classroom teachers to help them with their planning and daily routine. Teachers may need to acquire more in-depth knowledge, skills and capability to implement effective educational support for these students.

11.2 Definition of Autism Spectrum Disorder Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects an individual in three core areas: social interaction, communication and inflexible thinking and behaviour (American Psychiatric Association 2000). Before 2013, ASD was subcategorised as Autistic Disorder, Asperger’s Syndrome, Retts Syndrome, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, and Pervasive Developmental Disorders Not Otherwise Specified. Under the new DSM-5 guidelines, these subcategories are all embraced in one broad term ‘Autism Spectrum Disorder—ASD’. Many individuals with ASD have sensory processing difficulties and may display over-respond reaction with distress or negative behaviour. Some may show underrespond reaction with slow or even no action at all. Some will have fine and gross motor coordination problems. It is common to see that people with ASD symptoms do not make eye contact with others, have difficulties using or understanding facial

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expression and avoid social contacts. Some will have an intense focus on one interest or very narrow interest in their daily routine. Many people diagnosed as having ASD challenges may have executive functional problems, which affect their cognitive and thinking ability (Baron-Cohen 2008). Executive function is the cognitive processes involving reasoning, problem solving, planning, attentional control and inhibitory control. These deficits are presented as developmental disability.

11.2.1 Asperger’s Syndrome Asperger’s Syndrome is one of the more common types of ASD. For the last two decades, students who were identified as having Asperger’s Syndrome were considered higher functioning individuals, many of whom were highly capable of attaining above average academic achievements in a general classroom. People with Asperger’s Syndrome are found to have persistent difficulties with social communication and interaction. They may have difficulties understanding people’s feelings and intentions, facial expressions, tone of voice, sarcasm or jokes and some abstract concepts. Some may feel overwhelmed to be engaged in social interactions. They may appear to be insensitive or ‘strange’ because of their inability to navigate the social world and their reluctance to interact with others socially. Many people with Asperger’s Syndrome have restricted and repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests and activities. They prefer strict routines and may feel distressed when they experience changes, even minor ones such as changing the route to a shopping trip. They also have high-focused interests and an intense preference for specific toys or food, clothing, or toiletry items. Students with Asperger’s syndrome at school may range from being quiet and withdrawn to showing challenging behaviour. Some students with Asperger’s syndrome may be very competent in specific learning areas, such as spelling, writing, mathematics or science, while others may have difficulties. Some students with Asperger’s syndrome may also experience sensory sensitivity to loud sounds, touch, certain smells, temperature, flickering lights, or certain tastes of some food. They could experience anxiety or even physical pain (e.g. triggered by loud sounds) caused by this sensitivity.

11.3 Challenges Faced by Students with ASD Many individuals with ASD experience sensory processing difficulties and may overrespond with distress or negative behaviour, or under-respond by exhibiting slow reactions or no reaction at all (Ben-Sasson et al. 2009). For individuals with more severe conditions, they present delayed development of receptive and expressive language; difficulties with verbal and non-verbal language; some degree of motor

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impairments, and the absence of symbolic or imaginative play (Charman and Baird 2002). These cognitive deficits associated with autism are presented as functional developmental disability (Pellicano 2010). In the medical field, scientists have made important discoveries not only in how the brain is structured but how it functions in people with ASD as compared with others without ASD. This has helped to characterise the severity of ASD symptoms and subsequently led to different means to effective interventions that benefit individuals at the different scales of the spectrum (Hahamy et al. 2015). Recent medical research has also found that many with ASD may suffer much higher incidence of other medical conditions, such as, ear and respiratory infections, food allergies, asthma, sleep disorders, migraines and seizures. A large percentage of individuals with ASD is also found to show signs of persistent neuroinflammation, altered inflammatory responses, and immune abnormalities. Some studies have also found that the death rates in individuals with ASD are three to ten times higher than the general public due to complicating medical conditions, such as epilepsy, gastrointestinal and respiratory disorders (Chen et al. 2012; Hahamy et al. 2015; Schieve et al. 2012). Autism affects different aspects of a student’s behaviour, motor function, sensory experiences and sometimes, cognitive functions. Some may be fluent in speech but have difficulty with conversation skills, and many of them show difficulty in decoding beyond literal interpretation, thus making it hard for them to create and maintain friendships (Knott and Taylor 2014). Since each student affected by autism responds to different stimuli and understands situations in their own unique way, it adds to the challenges for teachers and professionals when attempting to plan interventions to help them. Researchers have also found that many students with ASD have weak executive functions, or the ability to maintain an appropriate problem-solving mindset for attainment of a future goal (Happé 1994). Four major executive functions that are essential for self-regulation have been identified. They are, working memory, internalised speech, motivational appraising and a reconstitution or behavioural synthesis. With under-developed executive functions, most individuals with ASD have great difficulty to self-reflect and self-monitor, leading to decreased inhibition in social situations and over-reactions to challenging circumstances (Ozonoff et al. 1991). Many students with ASD require explicit teaching and learning opportunities to practise and develop increased executive functions. Activities that can enhance executive functions include comparing and contrasting learning games, making predictions, organising activities, exercises that involve prioritising, problem-solving challenges, techniques in analysing information, reviewing text in a variety of ways, collaborative learning, and open-ended discussions. Interventions planned with a student-centred approach will match the needs of the individual and support the student’s learning demands (Cologon 2013). Teachers need to be aware of how autism impacts the thinking process of the student with ASD. It has become increasingly recognised that many students with ASD have inherent strengths, such as above average intelligence, superior memory skills, superior visual and spatial skills, precision and accuracy in task completion, great sense of responsibility, honesty and reliability (Reid 2011).

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Many of these students need to feel secure in a predictable environment with structured routines in order to perform at their best potential. Research has given evidence that a positive physical environment is an important part of educational intervention showing that students with ASD demonstrate more on-task behaviour and attain higher academic achievement in an organised and structured classroom (Beaver 2011). They benefit from structured teaching strategies which capitalise on the strength of these students to provide meaningful and gratifying learning experiences. What constitutes that optimum learning environment depends on the observations from the learning support team of the school and the data collected to affect decisions.

11.3.1 Social Isolation As a result of their inability to interact with others socially, many students with ASD experience social isolation, which can have tremendous negative effects on their well-being and mental health, such as negative self-worth, social avoidance, anxiety, and depression. To support the student with ASD as well as his peers, special social skills and friendship skills need to be taught to the whole student population. Some may need explicit teaching of social rules and specific strategies for developing social skills, others may be facilitated to engage in social learning activities. Programmes found to be helpful to support students to develop a sense of belonging include peer mentoring, buddy systems, role-playing or drama activities designed to teach friendship and relationship-building skills. Facilitated play dates out of school are helpful in establishing social support network to provide parents with opportunities to share knowledge, insights and experiences (Bass and Mulick 2007; Kasari and Sterling 2014).

11.4 Challenges Faced by Peers of the Student with ASD Having a student with ASD in the same class can be challenging for other students. Depending on the level of maturity and personalities, children will react dispassionately or even with prejudice towards a child who is different and has difficulty communicating with others. Some may choose to bully and tease, adding to the challenges of the child already in turmoil, while others may choose to avoid contact and show reluctance to work with the student with ASD in group activities. As well as catering for the needs of the child with special needs, focused efforts are necessary to help other children cope with their new experiences to build a supportive and safe environment for all students (Debbaudt and Coles 2004). Due to the lack of social skills and inability to establish effective relationships with others, students with ASD often cause conflict unknowingly. Some of these conflicts may be caused by students with ASD making inappropriate comments which may be

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offensive, showing disrespect for personal space and privacy in conversations; inappropriate behaviour such as interrupting or domineering conversations or discussions in group work. Sometimes the inflexible responses from students with ASD may be expressed as unnecessary nasty comments or insults, or even tears and tantrums. Behavioural interventions among younger children are often easier to encourage support for the child with ASD. Opportunities can be created for peer support in class activities, such as assigning students who are more mature as learning buddies, celebrating success as a group and reinforcing group acceptance. Younger children are keen on the concept of fairness. It is, therefore, important to listen to both sides of the story when dealing with problems related to behavioural or relationship issues between the Autistic child and his peers. Consistency in action is the key to success. For older children and teens, an indirect approach may be more appropriate. Students can learn about tolerance and acceptance in a variety of ways. A good starting point is to learn about respecting differences. Students can be encouraged to read and write about these topics and to engage in projects that further explore individual differences and how to behave with peers in different situations. Secondary/high school students could engage in debates, speeches, and poster designs or campaign brochures to promote an accepting, inclusive education environment or culture. Many students would enjoy engaging in technological production of videos or movie clips about understanding autism through formal research and involving their peers with ASD to report about their challenges and how they would like to be treated. It is important for teachers to observe the grouping dynamics of these learning teams because a mismatch of personality in groups may hamper learning opportunities rather than promoting them.

11.5 Challenges Faced by Teachers of Children with ASD Research in the last 20–30 years have looked at demands faced by teachers with ASD students in their class (e.g. Friedlander 2008; Greenstein 2014; Goodwin et al. 2012). The common challenges include: • teacher’s negative attitudes marked by frustrations and feelings of inadequacy. • inability to fully understand the educational needs of the student and related special education jargons and terminology. • lack of support from the school to back their teaching and learning requisites. • schools not giving ample support to teachers and the student with ASD. • extra time and effort in preparation leading to equity issues. • the belief that students with ASD are better served in a special school or a special class. On the other hand, many reports have found that teachers with positive attitude and willingness are motivated to seek ways to make inclusion a successful reality. Other

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studies have also found that when teachers are adequately trained and supported, the inclusion of students with ASD is beneficial not only for the students but for the school community. It is of paramount importance to equip teachers with the necessary knowledge, skills, and mindset to make their classroom academically and socially inclusive (e.g. Greenstein 2014; Yang and Rusli 2012). Reviews on the effectiveness of learning activities disclosed that professional learning that provides fragmented, ill-defined focus and passive learning activities with no follow-up actions have little or no value and might even give an adverse effect to participants. Advocates now demand well-planned and systematic professional development for teachers designed with given specific and tailored learning agendas and curricula to fortify educators with the necessary knowledge, skills and attitude to achieve students’ educational and development outcomes. Teachers need a positive learning environment to support them to strengthen their own skills in reflection, strategies, instruction, management and approaches for learning. Having a range of guiding models and techniques to reinforce the learning needs of teachers of children with ASD has been documented as an effective professional learning practice. Teachers also need to be shown ways to differentiate instructions and adjust learning materials to provide an adaptive curriculum that will complement the learning opportunities and create a nurturing environment that benefits students with ASD (Boyle et al. 2011; Hume 2008).

11.6 The Importance of Partnering with Parents Schools that support successful inclusion often value parents as partners throughout the education process with supportive structures in place to enable effective parentschool partnership to be developed and sustained. Some of these schools have policies and procedures which explicitly outline principles and practices of effective partnership. These comprise action teams to plan, organise and evaluate partnership and establish supportive networks for parent–teacher, parent–parent and parent–students’ communication and sharing. Dialogues between parents and schools are vital to keep parents informed about school expectations and ongoing support needs. As with any student, children with ASD benefit when teachers and parents are mutually supportive and are on the same page in efforts and goals. Valuing parents as partners not only removes barriers that obstruct successful inclusion but is a vital part of the inclusive education process that impacts school learning for the child with ASD (Lee and Bowen 2006; Mitchell 2014). In successful inclusive schools, skilled teachers appreciate parents of ASD children as resourceful partners because they have had years of experience knowing and understanding the various needs of the child in different circumstances. Research evidence has shown that at-home good parenting has a positive effect on children’s achievement. The home environment is formative in a child’s social development and is a vital contributing influence on educational outcomes at all stages of learning and meaning-making (Bull et al. 2008).

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Parents can create a quality home-learning environment which enhances the enjoyment of learning and create a rewarding sense of achievement by consolidating tasks learnt from school, modelling appropriate learning behaviour leading to achievement, and providing other learning resources outside of school, such as outdoor learning, visiting galleries, libraries and community events. Parents can also communicate their expectations and educational objectives by discussing subject choices, learning styles and the child’s strengths and interests.

11.7 Barriers to the Inclusion of Students with ASD Barriers and obstacles that hinder full inclusion of students with ASD in the mainstream classroom include challenges imposed by the local schools who make it difficult for these children to enrol in an inclusive classroom, not with direct rejections but with persuasions to parents to seek other options. Some research studies found students with ASD were not receiving the needed support due to untrained teachers who lacked an understanding of ASD, in addition to the deficiency in the modification to the curriculum, and the learning environment. Without curricula adaptations, many students with ASD are considered as underachievers and left to struggle on their own with little support to lift their learning capabilities. Some studies also report high rates of absenteeism, suspension and exclusion from school due to the deficit of skills in the school community to help these children cope with behavioural challenges (Ashburner et al. 2008; Slee 2009). Many have found that children with ASD experience higher levels of bullying as compared with their peers, resulting in low self-esteem, mental health problems and even self-harming behaviour and suicidal thoughts. Some have found that many students with ASD experience exclusion in an ‘inclusive school’. Dissatisfied with the inadequate education provision, many parents in some advanced countries have opted for home schooling (Penney 2013; Yang and Rusli 2012).

11.8 A Whole-School Approach to Support Students with ASD All students have the right to access quality education and be included in the school and education system that serves all without discrimination. In countries leading successful inclusive education, government ministries and school boards support implementation by building infrastructure into school systems to enhance parental and community engagement. Through providing adequate professional learning, attention is given to stop conscious or unconscious marginalisation of students with ASD to gain access to equity in education. (Groom 2006; Mitchell 2014).

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For inclusive education to work, it is crucial for the whole school community to be committed to the success of each and every student no matter what background and needs he/she brings to the learning environment. Embracing this inclusive culture banks on collaboration, the process of dialogue, evaluating and refining current teaching and learning processes. Indeed, an inclusive culture requires the sharing of all ideas from different perspectives, where students, parents and teachers all work together to create success and develop social relations that lead the engagement and commitment of each member of the school community. This requires effective leadership, not only by the senior management, head teachers and faculty chairs, but all members of the school community supported by school policies and procedures that guide practice (Groom 2006; Hattie 2012). Literature notes that the attitude and approach of the head of a school towards including students with ASD and other disability in their school is a very crucial factor in leading inclusive education. Mitchell (2010) states that by placing students with disability in mainstream schools without making pedagogical and curricula changes is causing more harm than good to these students. Supporting this notion, Hunt et al. (2003) also point out that one of the major concerns in inclusive education and in society as a whole, is the continuation of prejudicial attitudes and stereotyped thinking and as educators, this is detrimental in the practice of education for all. It is vital that educators practice student-centred pedagogy over curriculumcentred pedagogy. Education systems leaders must ensure accessibility to local schools and curriculum, and that these schools make necessary accommodations, modifications and adjustments to meet the needs of the learners by providing the necessary support within the classroom; promoting students’ sense of belonging; and demonstrating strong leadership that promotes and supports true inclusion. It is the responsibility of education policy ministers to put in place mechanisms and processes to help local schools strengthen their inclusive environments, and to ensure that school leaders and teachers are trained and have the capacity to cater for children with different special needs.

11.8.1 Create an ASD Friendly School Community To lead authentic inclusion, school leaders need to know how to develop capability to work with other professionals to utilise their knowledge and expertise to plan goals and support collaboration with teachers and parents. An ASD friendly school is one that: • focuses on the child first as a learner and not on the ‘dis’ability. • promotes inclusion at a whole-school level, with leadership from the principal and the school leadership team. • ensures that inclusive values are consistent school-wide. • continuously improves the capability of all staff to support students on the autism spectrum with the provision of coordinated extensive professional development.

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• ensures provision of channels for meaningful communication and collaboration between all people in the learning support team of the student with ASD, including parents as partners. • ensures continual review and implementation of evidence-based pedagogy and curriculum to meet the learning and development needs of the student with ASD. • demonstrates consideration of the learning and social elements that constitute an ASD friendly environment. A whole school approach to inclusion requires principals and school leaders to: • develop a shared purpose with school community. • use evidence-based decision making (effective practices for students with ASD and school-based data). • participate in and encourage active and ongoing professional learning and development. • ensure effective management of resources (human, material, environmental). • pursue systematic data gathering. • lead collaborative goal setting and interventions for students with ASD based on data and best practices. • evaluate outcomes of interventions based on data.

11.9 Early Intervention for Children with ASD Early Identification helps to ensure that children with ASD receive the crucial treatment timelier, which leads to better long-term outcomes. Current research shows that Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention (EIBI) is one of the most effective early interventions for children with ASD. In these programmes, infants are provided early home-based support by trained specialists who work with their parents to provide up to 40 hours of training per week for 2 years. A variety of techniques is used tailored to the functional behaviour and needs of the child (Howlin et al. 2009; Makrygianni and Reed 2010; Mudford et al. 2001). Some of these core techniques include: 1. Verbal behaviour, which involves repeating sounds, blends, words and sentences; making requests for items, asking for and understanding information, and responding to conversation-type questions. 2. Natural Environment Training (incidental teaching): taking advantage of naturally occurring opportunities, e.g. playtime, mealtime to develop children’s social skills and reinforce children’s attempts to develop desired behaviour. 3. Precision Training, which focuses on the procedures to increase the rate of skilllearning and fluency development. 4. Discrete Trial Training, which is a technique for managing learning experiences by breaking down skills into progressive steps.

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On the flip side of the coin, some researchers have observed that many of these home-based interventions, though successful in helping the child to cope with their core difficulties, may actually have adverse effects on later inclusion when the child is trained only to behave in certain ways within familiar environments (Jordan 2005). Some scholars emphasised the importance in developing transition capability from home to preschool and kindergarten where a new set of skills is required for these children to adjust to the new educational settings that they are about to enter. There are a variety of preschool programmes and programmes for toddlers which aim at helping children with ASD to transition into mainstream classrooms. The next sub-section presents current trends and models to support young children with ASD.

11.9.1 Current Models and Theories on Early Intervention 1. The Social Pragmatic Communication Approach teaches strategies by incorporating environmental support to create a predictable environment to facilitate social communication in a way that is meaningful to the child with ASD (Waitoller and Artiles 2013). 2. The LEAP Program (Life skills and Education for Students with Autism and other Pervasive Behavioral Challenges) includes peers in the intervention to help children with ASD to generalise skills learned by interacting with peers and adults in natural settings, with a focus on peer-mediated interventions (Boyd et al. 2013). 3. The ABA Therapy (Applied Behaviour Analysis) is a very popular therapy programme not only for early childhood intervention but for individuals with autism at all levels. These are usually very intensive sessions where ABA therapists work with the child with ASD to promote communication, behavioural, social and academic skills while decreasing unacceptable behaviour at the same time. Strong evidence is presented in the literature that ABA improves the adaptive behaviour, cognitive ability, communication skills; accepted social competence and daily living skills of children with ABS (Marchi 2015). 4. The TEACCH Program (Treatment and Education of Autistic and related Communication-handicapped Children) is another widely used programme in western countries, especially in North America. It uses a ‘structured’ approach to help decrease overstimulation for some children with ASD and help them to increase task accomplishment and decrease external distractions and anxiety due to the lack of structure (Mesibov and Shea 2009). 5. PEG System (Picture Exchange Communication System) is a six-phased approach developed specifically for children with ASD who experience communication difficulties. This programme, developed in 1985 in Delaware, USA, is now a widely used communication programme around the world. It involves the use of pictures and electronic devices to help non-verbal children with ASD and those with severe developmental delays to communicate. The six phases of

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training include: (1) Learning basic concepts of pictures and using them to express needs and wants; (2) Developing distance and persistence; (3) Picture discrimination; (4) Sentence structure; (5) Questions and Answers and (6) Making comments. 6. THE BUILDING BLOCKS is a set of educational practices designed to help teachers to include young children with disability and other special needs in preschool classrooms (Sandall et al. 2006). The Building Blocks approach helps educators to create conducive environments to scaffold learning steps for young children. These steps include creating an encouraging and responsive learning atmosphere, providing accommodations and adaptations for participations, and embedding instructions within the daily routines and activities for children to make progress. The model provides clear step-by-step guidance for teachers including practical suggestions for implementation and a variety of methods to use for different situations. It stresses the importance of the combination of the tiers of service to make inclusion successful.

11.10 Educational Approaches to Support Students with ASD It is crucial for teachers in the mainstream classroom to understand how the student with ASD learns and processes learning. The following theories and models may be helpful to support teachers when planning their learning programmes.

11.10.1 The Social Constructive Model Vygotsky’s Social Constructivist Theory states that children can learn by observing others and be given models or step by step guide. Students with ASD can benefit from learning through guidance, being shown what to do and how to do a learning task when it is too challenging for him/her to do it independently. The use of visual prompts, verbal prompts and step-by-step plan may be necessary to guide some students with ASD to achieve tasks (Bass and Mulick 2007).

11.10.2 Cognitive Behaviour Approach Some scholars have found the use of a cognitive-behavioural approach to help students to regulate their behaviour effective in enhancing learning. When students with ASD are able to master skills in self-monitoring and using self-instruction and self-reinforcement, effective learning occurs. Helping these students to develop metacognitive skills via using planning sheets, writing frames, story mapping and

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teaching modelling are also effective approaches to improve learning. (Marchi 2015; Maurice et al. 2001). Readers are encouraged to learn more about these theories and models to put into practice in your classrooms. Teachers are reminded that there is no single approach to successful teaching and learning. It is essential that they pursue more in-depth understanding of these theories and approaches. Every student is different and has different learning needs and learning style. When teaching students with ASD, it is crucial to use a combination of teaching strategies, both with direct instruction and strategic instructions. The use of a multi-sensory approach involving visual, auditory and kinaesthetic learning is essential. Attention to the development of multiple intelligence is also important.

11.11 Classroom Tips for Teachers Students with ASD work better in a calming and predictable environment. They may be distracted or even disturbed by certain environmental noise, such as hums from fluorescent lights or electrical noise from air-conditioning systems. Teachers need to be aware of such sensitivity and plan the classroom which is ideally free from these noises. A sound cancelling headphone can be used for students with extreme sensitivity to environmental sounds. Seat the student with ASD away from doorways or facing the window. Here are some useful tips for designing a room to meet the needs of a student with ASD • Find out from the student if any of the following will cause discomfort: rotation of a ceiling fan; people constantly moving around; colourful carpets; strong smell from the cafeteria; sudden loud noise e.g. sirens, tapping of rulers or pencils, the flickering of fluorescent lights. • Create an environment with predictability and stability to enhance skill acquisition and facilitate participation in activities. • Help the student to develop independence in classroom routine and everyday activities. • Develop clearly defined areas for a given activity (e.g. a reading corner, a timeout area for the student to feel safe and calm when over-stimulated). It is also important to give clear guidelines to other students and staff regarding the use of these areas (Fig. 11.1).

11.11.1 Use of Visual Schedules Many students with ASD need routines to cope with the constant changes in a mainstream school. They need to know what will happen after each event (or class). The use of visual reinforcement in the form of a ‘schedule’ has been found to be helpful

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Fig. 11.1 Sample schedules for children with autism

to keep these students calm, knowing what to do next or where to go after one class is over. Depending on the age and ability of the student, teachers can design these visual schedules to help students with ASD stay calm and develop new skills in coping with changes.

11.11.2 Benefits of Using Visual Schedules Visual schedules can increase the student’s flexibility and develop independence as a result of knowing what to do and where to go. Visual schedules to show learning steps can help the student to learn new things and broaden their interest. They can also be tools to support the student to build new skills in a variety of settings.

11.11.3 Types of Visual Schedules Teachers can produce different sets of visual schedules to support students with ASD. They can include picture of written schedules to teach classroom routines, such as waiting in line, where to go to get a drink, classroom routine; or event schedules for special school events, etc.

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Be mindful of making age-appropriate presentation and not to overwhelm students with too many schedules at a time.

11.11.4 Reading Fluency Students with ASD may be slower in literacy development due to difficulties understanding and responding to verbal directions or following the thread of conversations. They may have limited retention of quickly presented information and weaknesses recognising or responding to verbal and visual cues in a short period of time. Teachers can allow more time for them to think and process. Reading strategies include supporting the child to acquire efficient word attack and develop an adequate sight word base. At the foundation stages, it is important to help the child to connect sounds to letter and letter patterns, and to link meaning to text. Reading aloud is an effective way for a child with ASD to learn to build these skills.

11.11.5 Comprehension Some students may struggle to recognise important elements of text, summarise, and synthesise the information to create new knowledge. Teachers can help students to explain text in their own words, order the information or draw conclusions from the salient information. Here are some strategies to help students build comprehension: • guide students with open-ended questions to help them focus on key point and think about the text as they read. • help students to connect information with post-reading activities. • teach students to summarise in their own words what they have read. • teach students to recognise the structure of the text and how different texts are structured differently. • guide students to become aware of their own reading process. • help students to use self-question to become independent readers with good comprehension.

11.11.6 Basic Math Skills Children show difficulties in mathematics for a number of reasons. They may struggle to efficiently encode visual and verbal information, which could hinder the student’s registration of information in memory and impact the integration of the information needed to form concepts. Some may have visual-spatial difficulties leading to

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adequate skills required to recognise and understand patterns, the distinguishing of shapes, the need to mentally manipulate shapes to solve problems.

11.11.7 Concept Knowledge To help students with ASD to master basic Math skills, it is important to help these children to develop understanding and to build upon their prior knowledge. These foundation skills include number and number concepts; sequence and pattern; sets and set relationships, basic operations; representation of quantity (numeric and nonnumeric); shapes, space and geometric forms, time, movement and speed, money concepts, measurement and data representation and interpretation. For some students, the use of manipulatives (aids for counting, toy money, blocks, dominos) may help them to develop the necessary math concepts to support learning. When the student is ready, it is important to phase out the use of manipulatives and help the child to develop mental strategies. The use of computer games to practice math facts and skills are popular and effective. Teachers may also provide access to number charts, multiplication grids and allow the use of calculators when required.

11.11.8 Procedural Knowledge Procedural knowledge is linked to effective problem-solving skills. Students with ASD need guidance on how to locate necessary information, create a representation of the problem, and select the mathematical application to solve the problem.

11.11.9 Using Specific Strategies to Solve Math Problems • teach students to analyse the math questions and select the relevant information. • show them how to use different methods to work on the problems they are trying to solve. • teach students to recognise the specific language that indicates an operation or procedure. • link specific strategies to the targeted concept. • teach students different strategies to approach different math problems. • provide guided practice for the child to use the strategy.

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11.11.10 Behavioural Management Students with ASD think and behave differently to other students. It is important for teachers to be mindful of the difficulties they face and not to see behaviour difficulties as wilful defiance. Some of the causes for behavioural challenges include: • • • • • • • •

misunderstanding of verbal instruction or direction. difficulty standing or sitting still for a long period of time. misunderstanding of non-verbal cues. lack of motivation. short attention span and poor memory. difficulty in planning (in writing or attempting a work task). difficulty in self-starting (needs assurance that he is doing the right thing). lack patience due to poor self-control (executive function).

11.12 Conclusion Students with ASD may appear to be very challenging at first. They need time to get use to a new environment and the people in the environment. Some may present challenging behaviour and issues that cause frustrations to teachers and students. However, once the child has settled down, and with proper support, kindness and patience, the child with ASD will learn to work in harmony with others in class. Teaching students with ASD can be a challenge. Inclusion is teamwork. Classroom teachers should not be expected to solve all problems alone. School leaders, other related professionals and parents are required to work collaboratively as partners. Stay true to your mission as a teacher, embrace these challenges, grow and follow your heart.

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Makrygianni, M. K., & Reed, P. (2010). A meta-analytic review of the effectiveness of behavioural early intervention programs for children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4, 577–593. Marchi, A. R. (2015). The importance of early intensive behavioural intervention in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Psychiatry, 18, 317. https://doi.org/10.4172/23785756.1000317. Maurice, C., Green, G., & Foxx, R. (Eds.). (2001). Making a difference: Behavioral intervention for autism. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. Mesibov, G., & Shea, V. (2009). The TEACCH program in the era of evidence-based practice. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorder, 40(5), 570–579. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803009-0901-6. Mitchell, D. (2010). Education that fits: Review of international trends in the education of students with special educational needs. Christchurch, New Zealand: University of Canterbury. Available from http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/. Mitchell, D. (2014). What really works in special and inclusive education: Using evidence-based teaching strategies (2nd ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. Mudford, O. C., Martin, N. T., Eikeseth, S., & Bibby, P. (2001). Parent-managed behavioral treatment for preschool children with autism: Some characteristics of UK programs. Research in Developmental Disability, 22, 173–182. Ozonoff, S., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (1991). Executive function deficits in high-functioning autistic individuals: Relationship to theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1081–1105. Pellicano, E. (2010). Individual differences in executive function and central coherence predict developmental changes in theory of mind in autism. Developmental Psychology, 46(2), 530–544. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018287. Penney, S. C. (2013). Qualitative investigation of school-related issues affecting individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder and co-occurring anxiety and/or depression. Autism Insights, 5, 75–91. https://doi.org/10.4137/AUI.S10746. Reid, J.-A. (2011). A practice turn for teacher education? Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 39(4), 293–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359866X.2011.614688. Sandall, S. R., Giacomini, J., Smith, B. J., & Hemmeter, M. L. (Eds.). (2006). DEC recommended practices toolkits (CD-ROM). Missoula, MT: Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children. Schieve, L. A., Gonzalez, V., Boulet, S. L., et al. (2012). Concurrent medical conditions and health care use and needs among children with learning and behavioral developmental disability, National Health Interview Survey, 2006–2010. Research on Developmental Disability, 33(2), 467–476. Slee, R. (2009). The inclusion paradox. In The Routledge international handbook to critical education (p. 177). Available from http://go.utlib.ca/cat/8775089. Waitoller, F. R., & Artiles, A. J. (2013). A decade of professional development research for inclusive education: A critical review and notes for a research program. Review of Educational Research, 83(3), 319–356. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654313483905 © 2013 AERA. http://rer.aera.net. Yang, C., & Rusli, E. (2012). Teacher training in using effective strategies for preschool children with disability in inclusive classrooms. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 9(1), 53 (Online). Available from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1418716074?accountid=14872.

Chapter 12

Supporting Students with Cerebral Palsy

12.1 Introduction This chapter explains what CP is, the different types of CP as affected by damage to different parts of the brain. It presents the challenges faced by students with CP and discusses teacher attitude and readiness in supporting students with CP in the regular classroom. Partnering with parents is important and helpful to the student. The chapter also introduces some assistive technology helpful for students with CP. In addition, it discusses the social and emotional needs of students with CP and the importance of assisting some students with individualised programmes and learning activities. The chapter closes with a case study of a success story of Jack, a very brave young man who, supported by his loving father, faced his challenges and leads life with an optimistic outlook.

12.2 Defining Cerebral Palsy (CP) Cerebral Palsy (CP) is a common neuropediatric disorder associated with a range of physical disability with disorders linked with various forms of brain damage. The condition is associated with impairments of different parts of the brain that affect the control of muscles and posture (Friend 2008; Hallahan et al. 2015). Cerebral Palsy can be classified as Spastic CP, Ataxic CP and Athetoid CP. Many people with CP do not have just one type, but a mixture of several of these movement patterns.

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Spastic CP is the most common type of condition associated with Cerebral Palsy. Spasticity means stiffness or tightness of muscles. The neurological symptoms are marked by rigidity of movement and inability to relax one’s muscles. Spastic cerebral palsy is caused by injury or damage to the brain’s motor cortex, which gives signal for movements.

Ataxic CP is a less common type of CP. Ataxia describes a loss of muscle coordination that happens mostly in the limbs causing shaky movements or tremor experienced by people with this condition. They also have trouble keeping their balance due to injury to the brain’s cerebellum.

Athetoid CP is associated with involuntary unpredictable movements in individuals who has this kind of condition. This involuntary movement happens even at rest. It interferes with voluntary movement of the body, such as walking, writing and speaking. Students with athetoid cerebral palsy often have very weak and floppy muscle tones. Athetoid cerebral palsy is associated with damage to the basal ganglia above the brain stem. The damage prevents signals to the spinal cord causing problems with regulating voluntary movement (Rosenbaum et al. 2007).

12.3 Causes of Cerebral Palsy According the Cerebral Palsy Alliance, Cerebral Palsy can be caused by a combination of events either before, during or after birth. The most common risk factors include: • • • • • •

premature birth (less than 37 weeks) low birth weight (small for gestational age) blood clotting problems (thrombophilia) low oxygen and nutrient supply from the placenta to the foetus RH or A-B-O blood type incompatibility between mother and baby German measles or other viral diseases in early pregnancy

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Fig. 12.1 Four main types of Spastic Cerebral Palsy

• bacterial infection in the mother causing the foetus or baby trauma to the infant’s central nervous system • lengthy loss of oxygen during the pregnancy or birthing process, or acute jaundice shortly after birth. There are four main types of Spastic Cerebral Palsy. They are classified according to how the condition affects different parts of the body (Fig. 12.1).

12.3.1 Other Complications Students with cerebral palsy may experience difficulties that affect their learning. These include short attention spans, difficulties with motor planning (e.g. organisation and sequencing), communication and language difficulties and perceptual difficulties. Any of these may impact on reading, writing and the development of numeracy skills (Bax et al. 2005).

12.3.2 Intellectual Difficulties People with cerebral palsy vary extensively in their intellectual capabilities. Some may have an intellectual disability, ranging from mild to significant. However, many have normal intelligence. Unfortunately, because of their speech problems, many are mistaken as slow or having low intelligence. Not all students with CP have cognitive dysfunction. For some, cognitive issues may range from mild to severe. These may include a delay in language development and slow response to others. They also have problems with focusing on tasks, speech proficiency, comprehension, short attention spans; problems with reading and counting, and difficulties with sensory demand (Benzies et al. 2013).

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12.3.3 Communication and Language Difficulties Students with cerebral palsy may have problems expressing ideas. Teachers need to be patient and give them the opportunity to articulate their ideas. Those who have missed out in early developmental support may have communication problems that need extra attention and intervention.

12.3.4 Speech Difficulties Some students with severe CP conditions may have problems talking because the muscles of the mouth may be affected. They may need an alternative communication system to assist them (e.g. electronic communication devices). Teachers ought to understand that speech that is difficult to understand is not necessarily an indication of intellectual impairment.

12.3.5 Vision and Hearing Some students with CP may have visual impairments or hearing loss, or both. They may need attention from an ophthalmologist or a vision specialist teacher. Those with hearing loss would require hearing aids and other hearing technology, and intervention from hearing and speech specialists.

12.3.6 Eating and Drinking Difficulties Difficulty in eating and drinking is a common problem with students with CP, especially in chewing and swallowing. They may also have varying degrees of saliva loss (dribbling). For students with these challenges, they would need the attention of a physiotherapist or an occupational therapist.

12.3.7 Epilepsy Some students with CP may have Epilepsy. They may need medication and planned medical attention at school. It is vital that teachers and staff of the school know how to respond when a student has an Epilepsy fit.

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12.4 Challenges Faced by Students with CP Cerebral Palsy can affect different people in different ways. Damage to the central nervous system impairs the coordination of posture and muscle control (ShumwayCook and Woollacott 2012). These cause movement and coordination problems due to posture and muscle tone.

12.4.1 Posture and Muscle Tone Abnormality People with CP have variations in muscle tone, which can be either too stiff or too floppy. Some have stiff muscles and exaggerated reflexes (spasticity). Some have stiff muscles with normal reflexes (rigidity). Some show lack of muscle coordination (ataxia) and some have tremors or involuntary movements. Significant abnormal posture caused by tonal abnormalities include head lag, poor head control, hyperextension of trunk and hyperextension and adduction of lower body (scissoring). These cause significant delays in reaching motor skills milestones, such as pushing up on arms, sitting up alone or crawling, and difficulty in walking, leading to walking on toes, a scissors-like gait with knees crossing, a crouched gait, a wide gait or an asymmetrical gait.

12.4.2 Motor/Sensory Deficits Children with damage to their motor cortex can also sustain damage to the sensory cortex causing poor integration of their sensory systems. They may be hypersensitive to light, touch, heat or cold. This affects their organisation of movement and speech. They will also have difficulties in grasping and anticipatory control of finger movement, leading to difficulties of grabbing. This will also affect their fine motor control (Gordon and Duff 1999).

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12.4.3 Gross Motor Functional Limitations The lack of muscle control will affect the gross motor functions of a student with CP. He/she may have trouble walking, sitting, dressing, playing and taking part in physical activities. Daily physical therapy may be required, and assistive mobility devices may be necessary.

12.4.4 Communication Difficulties Communication problems are common due to difficulties in motor control, sensory deficits and delay in processing. Many students with severe CP require speech therapy and the use of communication devices to express themselves. It is necessary for teachers in mainstream schools to work with therapists and specialists to support the student with communication and language development.

12.4.5 Behavioural and Emotional Issues Students with CP experience pain often and this may affect their behaviour and emotions. The more common issues are: anxiety, depression and moodiness, attention deficit, temper tantrums, fatigue, inability to connect emotionally with others and other psychological issues which need professional attention.

12.5 Early Interventions Early intervention for children with CP comprises a range of programmes from therapeutic developmental interventions to speech development, early hearing intervention to improve functional hearing and attention, etc. More importantly, these early intervention programmes have been found to help mothers to reduce maternal anxiety and depression, leading to improved maternal self-efficacy. Other studies have also found that early family coaching showed positive results in improved motor development and functional mobility in infants with CP within the first 18 months (Bult et al. 2011).

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12.5.1 Medical Management Medication prescribed to assist movement issues may include oral medication, e.g. Diazepam or injection to relax the muscles, such as Botulinum toxin (Botox). Other medicine like Benzodiazepines, Dantrolene and Baclofen may be prescribed to reduce drooling and involuntary movement. Some individuals may have pain caused by gastroesophageal reflux. Students with CP tend to have trouble sleeping and may require prescribed medication and sleep management programmes. Doctors may prescribe antiepileptic medication to minimise occurrences of seizures. Family members, carers and teachers need to be shown how to manage seizures when they occur.

12.5.2 Surgical Procedures Surgery may be required for some students to improve walking quality and reduce pain. Orthopaedic surgeons can correct joint deformities and lengthen muscles. This is followed by rehabilitation specialists to support recovery, musculoskeletal issues and growth. Physiotherapists and occupational therapists may use casts, orthotics and muscle strengthening exercises as part of rehabilitation. Some students may need surgery to insert feeding tubes if they have severe problems with eating.

12.5.3 Therapy Physiotherapists and occupational therapists help students to manage their day-today movement skills like sitting, walking, playing, dressing and toileting. They use a range of specialist interventions such as movement training and equipment, e.g. walking frames, wheelchairs, supportive seating, footwear and orthotics. Other therapy programmes may include Conductive Education; Goal-Directed Training, treadmill training and powered mobility. The use of hydrotherapy and massage will relieve pain and help persons with CP to relax. Swimming programmes are good for students with mild CP.

12.6 Teacher Attitude and Readiness in Supporting Students with CP Research literature has given evidence that positive teacher attitude towards the inclusion of disabled student is a vital requirement of success. The major factor found to influence negative attitudes from mainstream teachers is their perception

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of self-efficacy, their knowledge, skills and capability to cater for these children. Many studies have found that frustrated teachers felt they were not given adequate training to prepare them to work with children with disability (e.g. Salem 2013; Sze 2009). Time factor was also a key complaint from teachers with less positive attitude working with children with disability. Another factor causing attitudinal barriers is the prejudice of society. Government and citizens generally hold negative and degrading attitudes viewing people with CP and physical disability as incapable of contributing anything meaningful to the society. A change in attitude is important and this can only be accomplished through public education and adequate teacher education and training (Gal et al. 2012).

12.7 How to Support Students with CP in the Mainstream Classroom The first step for a teacher to do is to gather all the required information about the student. To identify the student’s learning needs, the teacher may talk with the student, the parents and observe the student during class activities and by analysing the student’s work assignments. Going through previous school reports and records will help. Information from parents and previous teachers would be most beneficial. Here is some needed information about the student: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

physical and developmental challenges present level of academic skills communication methods communication needs methods to measure progress classroom arrangements required methods of instruction assistance needed to maximise educational efforts accommodations required technologies that can help available transportation services steps to ensure meaningful learning is taking place methods of assessments transitional needs personal hygiene needs (assistance with toileting) feeding and dietary needs.

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12.7.1 Collaboration and Teamwork A range of assessment tools may be used to identify the students’ learning needs, cognitive functions, speech and communication needs and behavioural development needs. It would be helpful for teachers to be aware of the availability of these tools, how to monitor and use them if required, or who to refer the student to for formal assessments. Connect with relevant agencies that provide services to people with CP. Students with cerebral palsy may present many different medical problems that need specialist attention. It is advisable for a teacher to have information of the specialists looking after the student. These specialists may include: • • • • • • • • • •

A school psychologist or mental health specialist An orthopaedic surgeon A physical therapist An occupational therapist A speech therapist A vision specialist teacher A hearing specialist teacher A special transport driver/carer A physician (or neurologist) A specialist advisor on educational technology/assistive technology.

12.8 Partnering with Parents Teacher–parent partnership is a vital part of a collaborative relationship based on trust, equality and mutual understanding for the achievement of specified goals. Teacher– parent communication can increase educational outcomes and reduce behavioural problems. It is important that the student with disability is seen as a child, first and foremost, and that the student’s needs are viewed holistically, rather than being defined by a diagnosis of difficulty or disability. To build partnership with parents, here are some suggestions for teachers: • try your best to provide practical help; • understand that every family is different; be flexible when working with them; • present a positive attitude and a professional disposition to support but not to ‘rescue’; • demonstrate commitment towards keeping professional knowledge and skills upto-date; • learn from parents’ knowledge and expertise in relation to their child; • focus on the student’s strengths and build on their strengths; • be sensitive to the emotions and concerns of parents; • respect different perspectives and seek constructive ways of reconciling different views.

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12.9 Classroom Strategies to Support Students with CP 12.9.1 To Keep Students Safe from Environmental Obstacles, Teachers Can • arrange the classroom layout so that the student can move freely from lesson to lesson; • be aware of physical obstacles and hazardous sharp corners; • consider physical access such as ramps, lifts, toilets, school corridors and classroom layout; • seek advice and work with specialist teachers and therapists and incorporate needed information and tasks in the student’s programmes; • ensure that the student can see the instruction area or the board if they are in a wheelchair; • use other adjustable furniture if necessary; • consult an occupational therapist regarding needed assistive device for classroom use.

12.9.2 To Enhance Active Learning in the Classroom, It Is Helpful When Teachers • • • • • • • • • •

set high expectations; encourage independence; encourage support for the student from classmates; use computers and audio–visual aids; use specialised equipment where necessary; use alternative writing methods if student cannot write; facilitate communication with other classmates to prevent isolation; teach social skills if necessary; allow students extra time to complete tasks; seek expert advice to modify PE class and activities.

12.9.3 Use of Assistive Technology There is a wide choice of assistive technology to support the learning needs of students with cerebral palsy to help to increase, maintain or improve the functional capabilities of these students. They range from communication devices, computer software and hardware and mobility devices. There are devices to help students to write or type on a computer and different devices to help with movement. For those with severe motor restrictions, there are computer programmes that these children

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can control via eye gaze. Due to copyright issues, it is not possible to show these in this chapter. More information on assistive technology for students with CP can be found on these websites: RehabMart.com https://www.rehabmart.com/ Link Assistive.com https://www.linkassistive.com/ Health Product for you.com https://www.healthproductsforyou.com/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g95TO20hnmo https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sOdhWRhBY7s https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fAdEOXD9Tvk https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=__FyPAuLRYI

12.10 Social and Emotional Needs of Students with CP Socialising with peers is vital for developing one’s identity, autonomy and independence from the family. Sadly, numerous studies have found that children with CP are often isolated from their peers at school. Some have associated social isolation with negative effects on mental health, such as anxiety, depression, moodiness and withdrawals (Aran et al. 2007; Goodman 2002; Rapin 2007). Education is about whole person development. A teacher who is sensitive to the social needs of students with CP will be able to better support them to build social confidence. Teacher intervention is necessary when a student is isolated and have problems socialising. Teachers can help to facilitate social interaction inside the classroom by designing projects that incorporate group and collaborative learning. Group games and indoor activities can be arranged during lunch breaks, such as board games and interactive iPad games. It is also crucial that teachers foster a sense of compassion and goodwill in other students and facilitate friendships among students. This is usually easier in primary school than secondary school.

12.11 Individualised Support for Students with CP Many students with CP can follow the mainstream curriculum with some accommodations, adjustments or modifications. Some may need additional programmes to assist development in other areas such as speech, motor skills and mobility.

12.11.1 Accommodation The term ‘accommodation’ is used to describe making minor changes to help students to work around a disability to complete their learning tasks. As every student is

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different, there are no set rules on how to make these accommodations. It is up to the school support team to discuss and arrive at the most appropriate ways to help the student. For a student with CP, accommodation would be made around using assistive technology to help the student to complete written tasks and assessments. Some students may be allowed to do these tasks orally and have a helper to write the answers for them. Those who may be able to type would need extra time to complete these tasks as they would be slower than their peers without disability. Making an accommodation sometimes requires environmental changes and considerations on how it can be implemented. For example, a student might not be able to work at a desk designed for other students. He/she may need extra space in the classroom. Additional supports (e.g. a teacher’s aide, in-class support from a therapist) are often required. Modification is required if the student is not able to follow or produce work at the same level or pace as most students in class. The student with CP may still learn the same topics, for example in Science, History or Geography lessons, but would need simplified notes or tasks to help him/her to understand and achieve learning goals. Modifications are necessary to provide a student with the opportunity to learn and develop. It is time-consuming, but it is the rights of every student to be given equal access to the curriculum and to learn alongside his peers.

12.11.2 Alternative Programmes In addition to academic learning, students with CP would need additional programmes to help them to develop motor skills, mobility, communication and speech. They would need additional therapy sessions either during school hours or after school. Sometimes, the therapist or specialist teacher may provide in-class support. For example, an occupational therapist may sit next to the student and help with typing or writing tasks. Some would make sure that the student is seated in the most optimum position for his/her functioning. Some may need to stand with support frames for reading or writing. All these needs should be properly discussed, planned and documented in the IEP. There is a range of IEP and support programme plans for students with CP available at: https://chasa.org/individualized-education-program-examples/.

12.12 Conclusion This chapter closes with a true success story to inspire readers.

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12.12.1 The Success Story of Jack Jack was born premature with his twin brother. While the brother was cute as a button with normal health and growth patterns, Jack had moderate CP with other health complications. He had problems swallowing and had to be tube-fed until he was 6 years old. He also had problems with his teeth structure, which affected his speech and eating. Jack also has moderate hearing loss and wears hearing aids in both ears. He has received speech therapy and in-school hearing support since primary school. The specialist hearing support teacher helped him with language development, higherorder thinking skills, problem-solving skills and social-interpersonal skills. Jack has the most perfect parents who hold high expectations from him in every aspect of his development. When he was 10, his father put him in a Judo class as he believed the physical activities, the rolling and tumbling were good for his physical development and posture correction. To keep him motivated, the father joined the Judo class. They both attained a black-belt level when Jack was 15. The father took Jack to rock-climbing classes for balance development and strength building and joined him up in the local boy scouts’ troop to build his social confidence and interpersonal skills. In primary school, Jack followed a mainstream curriculum with very little accommodation made. He was loved by his teachers and classmates. They helped him and worked well with him in group projects. He was often chosen as the class captain and team leader and that built up his self-esteem. However, at high school, he was always teased and verbally bullied because of his appearance and his teeth. This was because high school culture is different from a more nurturing environment in a primary school, and teenage boys are usually insensitive and sometimes silly. From year 7 to year 10, Jack transformed from a tearful little boy with ugly teeth to a handsome young man who is good looking, confident and proud of his achievements. Jack had undergone numerous dental procedures to have his teeth realigned. His physical activities in Judo and rock-climbing had helped him with his gait and posture. With the love and encouragement from his parents, Jack has overcome the bullying and built strong resilience. He has taken an interest in photography and was appointed the official photographer for the school magazine and other school promotional media productions. In Year 10, Jack had learnt all about business and financial planning and was determined to become a professional photographer. For his work experience, he worked with a professional wedding photographer and enjoyed his ‘gigs’ taking happy pictures at real weddings. Jack also enjoys poetry. He set up a blog and posted his poems and photos on the blog. Jack will start his Year 11 next year. He wants to go to university and be as accomplished as his twin brother. Jack’s success story was achieved by his parents who had decided from his infancy that Jack would lead a normal, happy and fulfilled life. They ensured that Jack got all the support from school and other professionals who also contributed to Jack’s success. Most importantly, Jack has put in tremendous efforts to transform himself. He never accepts second best.

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12.13 Resources Cerebral Palsy Alliance: https://www.cerebralpalsy.org.au/services/resources/ My Child at Cerebral Palsy.com: https://www.cerebralpalsy.org/ Centre of Research Excellence: http://www.cre-cp.org.au/about-us/news/2018/07/ new-resources-cerebral-palsy-for-general-practitioners/ PROMPT THERAPY https://www.promptinstitute.com/page/FamiliesWIP YouTube links: What is Cerebral Palsy? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rsk3VQ-gr34 Cerebral Palsy: The basics https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MlhgsM1Benck Cerebral Palsy: causes and symptoms: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=csK RVW-HN0E Cerebral Palsy: The early years: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= fyEoab4CyUY Types of CP: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cOfUGUNxEqU I am more than just a Disability: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MTqfzvbu1bU Cerebral Palsy: What I want you to know: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kzb 1XYGO0IQ I got 99 problems…Cerebral Palsy is just one: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= buRLc2eWGPQ IEPs for students with Cerebral Palsy: https://chasa.org/individualized-educationprogram-examples/ PROMPT Therapy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yXtNYsfNXO4 Conductive Education https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2cv0cB544M8

References Aran, A., Shalev, R. S., Biran, G., & Gross-Tsur, V. (2007). Parenting style impacts on quality of life in children with cerebral palsy. Journal of Pediatrics, 151(1), 56–60. Bax, M., Goldstein, M., Rosenbaum, P., Leviton, A., & Paneth, N. (2005). Proposed definition and classification of cerebral palsy, April 2005. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 47(8), 571–576. Benzies, K. M., Magill-Evans, J. E., Hayden, K. A., & Ballantyne, M. (2013). Key components of early intervention programs for preterm infants and their parents: a systematic review and metaanalysis. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 13(Suppl 1), S10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2393-13S1-S10. Bult, M., Verschuren, O., Jongmans, M., Lindeman, E., & Ketelaar, M. (2011). What influences participation in leisure activities of children and youth with physical disabilities? A systematic review. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32(5), 1521–1529. Gordon, A. M., & Duff, S. V. (1999). Fingertip forces in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. I: Anticipatory scaling. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 41, 166–75. Friend, M. (2008). Co-teach! A manual for creating and sustaining classroom partnerships in inclusive schools. Greensboro, NC: Marilyn Friend Inc. Gal, E., Schreur, N., & Engel-Yeger, B. (2012). Inclusion of children with disability: Teachers’ attitudes and requirements for environmental accommodations. International Journal of Special Education, 25(2), 89–99.

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Goodman, R. (2002). Brain disorders. In M. Rutter & E. Taylor (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychiatry (4th ed., ch. 14, pp. 241–260). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Hallahan, D. P., Kauffman, J. M., & Pullen, P. C. (2015). Exceptional learners: An introduction to special education (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Rapin, I. (2007). Children with cerebral palsy assess their parents’ influence on the quality of their lives: Implications for intervention. Journal of Pediatrics, 151(1), 7–9. Rosenbaum, P., Paneth, N., Leviton, A., Goldstein, M., Bax, M., Damiano, D., Dan, B., & Jacobsson, B. (2007). A report: The definition and classification of cerebral palsy April 2006. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 49(Issue Supplement 109), 8–14. Salem, A. A. (2013). The impact of teaching academic education course of children with special needs in the ordinary schools on students’ attitudes toward inclusion of disabled children. Journal of Education and Learning, 2(2), 112. Shumway-Cook, A., & Woollacott, M. H. (2012). Motor control: Translating research into clinical practice (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Sze, S. (2009). A literature review: Pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward students with disability. Education, 130(1), 53–56. Retrieved from http://www.educationpublishing.com/ej.shtml.

Chapter 13

Supporting Students with Deafblindness

13.1 Introduction Deafblindness is a dual sensory loss that has tremendous impact on the learning and development of a child. Not too many people have come across individuals with Deafblindness, including school leaders and teachers. Many individuals with such dual sensory loss usually have residual vision or hearing and are able to attend regular schools. Likewise, many of these students thrive in their education when given the needed support. In this chapter, the reader can learn the causes of Deafblindness and understand what it entails. It discusses the impact of Deafblindness on the growth and development of a child, including the development of language and communication, social competence, mobility and a sense of the environment. The chapter also outlines the needs and challenges of students with Deafblindness in general and at school. It informs the reader of the different communication needs and methods used by Deafblind students and made suggestions for classroom strategies.

13.2 Definition of Deafblindness The term Deafblindness describes individuals with a dual sensory loss comprising vision and auditory impairments. Individuals with Deafblindness embody a very diverse population with a wide range of abilities and needs. The varying levels of vision and hearing functions have different effects on the learning process. A person born with total blindness and profound deafness would experience extreme difficulty in cognitive and linguistic development with limited access to information and the environment, thus affecting their quality of life. However, such individuals are few, and children with such profound disability may need to attend a special education setting where input from specialists would better serve them. Many children with dual sensory loss related to Deafblindness usually have useable vision to interact with the environment and people, and to learn using large print or low-vision © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 M. Gonzales, Systems Thinking for Supporting Students with Special Needs and Disabilities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4558-4_13

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devices. The range of hearing loss also varies with individuals, a problem which can be improved today with the advanced technology of hearing aids and cochlear implantations (Bohrman 2007).

13.3 Causes of Deafblindness The causes of Deafblindness are many. They include a list of over 50 syndromes, with the most common ones being CHARGE syndrome; Cockayne Syndrome, Marfan Syndrome, Turner Syndrome and Usher Syndrome. Deafblindness may be caused by a congenital condition or prenatal complications, such as Congenital Rubella, Hydrocephaly, Microcephaly, Congenital Toxoplasmosis, Neonatal Herpes Simplex (HSV) and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Some causes may be related to maternal drug use. People with such conditions are referred to as congenitally deafblind. Other causes include non-congenital or post-natal complications, such as Asphyxia, severe head injury, ‘Shaken Baby Syndrome’, Meningitis, stroke, tumors and complications of premature birth. People who developed Deafblindness after birth are classified as adventitious deafblind (SENSE-Uganda 2010; SENSE-UK 2014).

13.4 Impact of Deafblindness The impact of such a dual sensory loss varies for different individuals depending on the degree of vision and hearing loss, the onset of the condition, and access to early interventions. In general, Deafblindness would have significant impacts on the individual in many ways. These include cognitive and linguistic development; thinking skills and memory, communication, access to information, orientation and mobility, development of daily living skills and independence, concentration and tiredness, relationship building and self-esteem (Blair and Raver 2012). Young children who are born deafblind would experience a unique set of limitations which affects their internal understanding of the world around them. With early interventions, these babies would develop concepts of how the world works, the concepts of cause and effect, objects and their usage and where things come from. They would develop time concept nor the understanding of the order of activities and how things are sequenced. Without early interventions, they would not be able to develop a sense of self through interaction with different people and with the environment (McInnes and Treffry 1982). During infancy and early childhood, interactions with primary caregivers are the basis for social, emotional and communication development. Children who are deafblind need extra attention and sensitivity to provide them with experiences which help them to develop a sense of safety and comfort. A knowledge of how to present information by touch and object cues is vital to help the child build a sense of security and curiosity to respond to these learning cues.

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Shanks and Henderson (2012) explained the importance of giving the deafblind infant time to process information and to give a touch cue or an object cue. For example, when presenting a toy or an object, use a gentle touch as a prompt so as not to startle the child. Another advice is to develop concepts and language through consistency by presenting learning in a consistent way that the child can understand. When communicating with the child, it is important to wait for reactions to indicate perception or understanding, and to look for anticipation in the child that might signal a desire to continue with the communication. Such sensitivity and consistency will help the child to feel secure and develop expectations. Predictable routines also ease distress caused by the lack of sensory information. Because of lack of visual and auditory input, deafblind infants may have difficulty navigating their environment and may be reluctant or less motivated to explore out of their comfort zones. Parents and carers ought to pay attention to the physical space around the child and encourage movement with rewarding and interesting stimulations to encourage mobility. Such interactions will help the child to instinctively make discovery in the home and familiar environments to develop a sense of self and space, movement and motor development. Parents need to be informed where to access help from Orientation and Mobility specialists to plan and construct such safe and stimulating spaces for the young child. Young children with Deafblindness in general have been found to have significantly delayed social-emotional development (Merrell and Holland 1997; Murdoch 2004). Barriers created by the lack of sensory information to develop language and communication can also hamper the development of emotion and productive interaction with others. Attachment problems developed during infancy might lead to challenging behaviour in later childhood and other social-emotional problems. Hartshorne et al. (2016) point out that traditional parenting with deafblind infants is not sufficient and planned strategies are vital to support these parents. When parents are not prepared to interact in ways that enhance bonding and healthy attachment with the deafblind child, problems will arise later in life.

13.5 Needs of Students with Deafblindness in Mainstream Classrooms The focus of today’s education is to regard all children as potential learners in spite of their disability. Children with Deafblindness can succeed in mainstream school education given the necessary and appropriate support. Challenges faced by these children may be complex and varied. Teachers in the mainstream classroom need to be supported by a multidisciplinary team to help the child to learn and achieve. The collaborative input from the parents, subject teachers, an ophthalmologist, a lowvision specialist, an audiologist, a hearing and speech specialist and other support staff in the school community is vital (Janssen et al. 2002; Merrell and Holland

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1997). In countries that are leading successful authentic inclusion, the school community is served by a learning support team comprising professionals with expertise and specialised training to help students with different special needs. The reader is encouraged to instigate such an organization if there is not one in your school. Older literature has pointed to the harm caused by the lack of understanding of children with Deafblindness, stating that many had been misidentified as having learning disability because of slow acquisition of skills and classified as ‘retarded’ because they had difficulty understanding their physical and sensory environment. They were often misdiagnosed because of the unreliability of assessments given to them (McInnes 1999; McInnes and Treffry 1982). However, some deafblind children may have specific brain damage or other additional learning delay which is associated with the syndromes that affected them, and therefore, careful assessments and diagnosis of the child’s needs and ability is vital. These assessments need to be conducted by experienced and specialist professionals to ascertain their sensory functions and challenges, the prognosis of their conditions, their baseline performance ability and the range of support they need to sustain their learning and development and overall well-being (Murdoch 2004; Wellan and Sabbagh 1994). In the new millennium, more children are being identified as deafblind in the UK (SENSE 2013) and their learning and educational needs are being addressed earlier in life. Increased capability of educators who understand the development impact of this disability has lifted the standard of care and support for these children in schools in the UK, US and Canada (SENSE-International 2011). To illustrate the diverse needs from this population of children, the following are a few examples to describe the nature of the disability, the sensory functions and learning needs of different children, summarised in the following: 1. Ella is a three-year-old who is completely blind and hears no speech sounds but might hear a bus horn while on a walk. She seems to have average motor and intellectual abilities, and is just beginning to walk on her own, but has not yet learned to talk with others. 2. George is a six-year-old with congenital rubella syndrome who hears nothing and has only central vision, has behaviour problems caused by attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder. His intelligence scores are equal to that of a 6-month old infant. 3. Thomson is a 17-year-old young man who was born deaf and lost his vision after birth. He has above-average intelligence and attends half-day in a school for the deaf and half-day in his local high school. He takes college prep coursework with the help of a sign language interpreter and he plans to attend college. 4. Jimmy is a 13-year-old boy with Cockayne syndrome who has reverted to a special school from a mainstream class due to his degenerative conditions that saw a huge drop in his hearing, and increased fragility in his physical conditions. He was given cochlear implants in both ears to augment his hearing and weekly hearing and speech training. He requires contrasting background in his visual learning materials and size 28 fonts for his reading and is supported by a hearing

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support teacher and a vision teacher in his classroom learning, despite being in a special school. 5. Linda is a 16-year-old girl in an elite high school functioning at an above-average level with mild low vision (reading with size 18 fonts) and bilateral hearing aids to support her moderate-severe hearing loss. She is happy and does not see herself as different, enjoying school and social life same as her 14-year-old sister without disability. She attends the local high school and is given 2 hours of hearing support per week to assist her with her notetaking and discussion of subject matters, and 1 hours of vision support per month to ensure her vision needs are met. As illustrated in the examples above, each student with Deafblindness is unique and has distinctive needs. The key is for all schools and school systems to be committed to embrace inclusive education in all school environments for students with disability and special needs.

13.6 How Children with Deafblindness Communicate Individuals with Deafblindness communicate differently depending on the functions of their sensory capability and the onset of the condition (McInnes 1999). Different communication modes include: 1. oral communication, using speech and hearing; 2. sign language; 3. tactile sign language (the deafblind person communicates by signing on the palm of the speaking partner, and vice versa); 4. deafblind manual alphabets (the deafblind person communicates by using simplified signing codes on the palm of the speaker, and vice versa); 5. Tadoma (the deafblind person puts one hand on the other person’s chin, lip or throat to feel the movement of the speech). Most students who are included in mainstream classrooms are oral communicators capable of using speech and oral language. However, because of their vision problems, even if these students are aided with hearing technology, they may need to communicate with people at close proximity in order to read their lips or facial expressions for extra information (Van der Heijden 2009). Scholars who studied communication of oral deafblind people found that the major challenge is the difficulty in following shifts in conversation. Therefore, when communicating with someone with Deafblindness, it is necessary to give explicit signals or cues when a new topic is being introduced.

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13.6.1 Communication Barriers One of the most common communication barriers reported by deafblind persons is the lack of patience from the communication partner to repeat himself or herself when the oral message was not heard or understood the first time (Hartshorne et al. 2016). Many students with Deafblindness also reported difficulties understanding oral presentations given by their classmates. They also have difficulties following when people speak too quickly or softly. Teachers need to be aware of these problems and assist the student in the most appropriate ways. The support of a specialist teacher and a teacher assistant is vital. Communication is not confined to spoken language. Accessing visual information in the school building can also be a problem for students or other individuals with Deafblindness. For example, buying food or drinks in the school tuck shop or cafeteria, finding the way in the library, knowing where to go in the Science room or the gym. These communication and information barriers can restrict mobility and independence of the person with Deafblindness. They need the help of the teacher, teacher assistant or a class buddy to show them around, or give information of the place and the situation.

13.6.2 Social Barriers Many deafblind children are commonly overprotected by parents and therefore some have learned to be over-reliant on the help of others, deprived of independent decisionmaking and self-help. It is not easy to strike a balance, but parents and teachers need to be mindful of giving the needed support, yet providing opportunities for the student to explore and learn in his/her environment (Janssen et al. 2002). Many individuals with Deafblindness face social isolation due to restrictive vision and hearing. As a result, they experience high anxiety and symptoms of depression. Studies have found that involving them in physical activities, such as walking, jogging, gym lessons, martial arts and similar activities can lift depression (McInnes and Treffry 1982; McDonnall 2009; Saunders and Echt 2007). Teachers and parents can help the deafblind student to build a social network by facilitating friendship opportunities and friendship skills at school and involving the student in a variety of community activities and hobbies. Planned interventions are necessary. Supporting a student with Deafblindness is a challenging journey. Efforts are needed not only to attend to their academic needs but to their social needs and selfesteem development. There are very outstanding successful deafblind people who achieve success not only at school but in life. That is possible because they have a network of social support and teachers and parents who believe in them.

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13.7 Working with Parents of Children with Deafblindness Momentums in learning success are most prominent when parents, teachers and the school community work together to facilitate a supportive learning environment at both home and school. In order to support parents of children with dual sensory loss (Deafblindness), teachers are expected to have had adequate training and relevant capability to help them. Teachers need to value the input from parents because they are the first educators of the child, providing every learning opportunity to the child from birth. Working with parents to provide an environment which is learningconducive and language-rich at home where children are exposed to language and communication in varying forms will increase the deafblind child’s engagement in learning cognitively and physically (Janssen et al. 2003). Teachers can help parents to establish a set of communication methods that will encourage learning both at home and in the classroom. Together, they can plan and establish routines that are familiar for the child in both environments. They can work together on the sort of tactile cues and learning aids and other methods to establish routines for the young child and provide stretching opportunities to move the older child forward to reach the next development milestone. They can also help the child to gain control and develop a sense of security using residual vision and hearing to move from familiar environments to new places. A joint effort is beneficial to help the child establish independent mobility in the home environment, the school environment and the community (Murdoch 2004). To support equity in the education of a deafblind student, the school is required to be equipped with the needed assistive technology to enable the deafblind child to learn and gain access to learning. Some of these devices may be personal, small and portable, and can be used both at school and at home. Teachers need to work with the parents to ensure that the child uses the technology at home as they do at school, and help them to develop responsibilities to look after these devices, such as charging them every evening and taking them to school every morning. It is a good idea to find out and compile a list of service providers including a list of medical specialists, audiologists, therapists, social workers, psychologists, community and parent support groups that cater for the recreational needs of children with special needs including Deafblindness. Make a list of websites with resources and needed information that are helpful both for the teaching staff of the school, the parents and the supporting school community. Examples like Perkin’s School for the Blind or the Helen Keller National Center for Deaf-Blind Youth and Adults are resource-rich websites. Having an authentic partnership with families is a crucial part of supporting children with Deafblindness and other special needs. Developing a culture that values parental input takes time and energy. It can be difficult because some parents may have other challenges and stress, some may be anxious and overly demanding. It is also important that school leaders and principals put in place policies and procedures to guide such relationships to protect the rights of both parents and teachers, should conflict arises.

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13.8 Suggestions for Classroom Teachers Supporting children with Deafblindness requires a collaborative team approach. It is irresponsible to place a deafblind child under the care of classroom teachers who are not prepared or properly trained to cater for the child’s needs. The input of other specialist teachers is vital in order for learning to take place. Nonetheless, the classroom teacher has the responsibility to ensure that the classroom is conducive to learning by staging the physical spacing, facilitating group learning and classroom inclusion of the deafblind child, and to maintain a positive classroom climate and a friendly and accepting culture.

13.8.1 Ensuring a Safe Learning Environment It is important that the teacher knows about lighting and illumination and how to make adaptation in the classroom environment to meet the needs of the deafblind child. Some may need extra lighting, while some may need extra shades to prevent glare. Additional modifications can be made upon consultation with the specialist vision teacher or advisor. The teacher also needs to be sensitive to the environment that it is not too visually overwhelming and visual clutter is minimised. Similarly, it is vital to ensure that the necessary sound adaptations are made to enhance the hearing condition for the deafblind child. If possible, use sound absorbing floorings, such as carpet or acoustical tiles. Whenever there is a change in the classroom, the teacher should not forget to re-orientate the child to the changed environment. Put in place safety measures to prevent the child from falling over objects, and remove sharp objects or pad up sharp corners from classroom furniture. Always keep an eye open that other students do not leave their bags on the floor which would become an unsafe obstacle for the deafblind child. Have the child seated in the most optimum position where he/she gets the amount of light needed and reduced noise in the classroom. Make sure that all the hallways and stairwells are well-lit and, if possible, steps are illuminated with bright yellow lines to minimise hazards and prevent accidents.

13.8.2 Modification of Learning Materials Depending on the learning ability of the child, modification of learning materials is necessary. If a child has only a mild condition, he/she can follow the curriculum at grade level with minor modification by adapting the quantity or complexity of the task, by allowing a student to complete the task in a different way or be given more time to complete these tasks. Teachers need to be flexible with how the child presents his work assignments. Some may need to do it on their adaptive communication

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device, while some may need to type with a computer instead of writing by hand. Learning tasks should be age-appropriate and be as closely linked with the class curriculum as possible. All these modifications need to be reflected in the child’s IEP or learning support plan. A deafblind student would need additional attention to help them to develop the following skills and knowledge.

13.8.3 Using Assistive Technology Most deafblind students need to use assistive technology, such as special hearing devices, computer apps with speech output, special apps with tactile output; text to speech software to assist with reading, speech to text software to assist writing and other devices that advance technology has to open doors of opportunities for enhancing their learning and achieving success.

13.8.4 Independent Living Skills Teachers can enhance the development of such skills by helping the child to develop organisation skills in arranging their desks, their school bags, and reinforce such skills in home science classes if available, skills such as making one’s bed, picking ones’ clothes, making simple food, etc.

13.8.5 Orientation and Mobility For students with severe-profound vision impairment, an Orientation and Mobility specialist is required to teach the child independent travel skills, from learning about the internal environment such as the different classrooms, different parts of the school, to learning to take public transportation, compile a travel journal of different routes, planning trips and journey time and other O and M skills.

13.8.6 Self-Advocacy It is important that the child develop self-acceptance and maintain healthy selfesteem. Teachers can help the child to develop self-advocacy and ask for help when needed and not to be shy and avoid help-seeking. The child can be given the opportunity to talk about his disability and needs (if he/she has speech and the linguistic skills

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to do so) and be a self-advocate to ask for needed support from teachers and friends who may be able to support him with things that he cannot achieve by himself.

13.8.7 Recreation and Leisure Many children with Deafblindness are not aware of the play options available to them. While a child without a disability will be overjoyed when entering a room full of different toys, a deafblind child may not have the conceptual understanding of how to use certain toys, play imaginatively, and needs to be told what is available and be shown how to play with them. Likewise, they need guidance in understanding their leisure options available and how to participate in these activities (Shanks and Henderson 2012). A teacher, teacher assistant or an older student can help by being a play facilitator to help the child with play exploration. Modifications can be made to include the participation of the deafblind child to engage in board games, card games, puzzles or video games. Modified versions of these games may be available from an organisation that caters for the recreation and leisure of these children. Deafblind children can also be encouraged to take part in sports games and physical fitness activities such as a variety of ball games, dancing, yoga, hiking, gardening and all sorts of musical activities. They can be encouraged to take part in painting, sculpting, carving, creating media animations, provided appropriate guidance is given. Play is an important aspect of early childhood development. Through play, a deafblind child can learn to engage in imaginative play, learn to share, to take turns, to cooperate with others and to learn how to win and lose gracefully. Parents and teachers can explore all sorts of strategies or modifications to make such recreations and activities accessible for the deafblind child.

13.9 Supporting Transition from School to Vocation Transition planning for students with dual sensory loss (Deafblindness) is vital as they move from one environment or stage of education to the next. This is especially important for the student transitioning from school education to the next stage of development, be it further education or vocation preparation. Before making the transition, they need to have developed self-determination and self-advocacy and the confidence to face change and enter a new stage of life. They need to be clear of their interests and abilities and have developed the necessary independent living skills to the greatest extent as their abilities enable them. They need social skills and interpersonal skills to relate to others and form friendships and social relationships. All these require years of learning and development and should be taught and facilitated from primary school.

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Due to their disability, there may be gaps in all aspects of achievement for students with Deafblindness. An Individualised Transition Plan (ITP) should be developed as part of the IEP at least 2 years before the actual transition to ensure that these gaps can be filled as much as possible. The ITP should include the kind of skills and knowledge assessments required to help the child transition to the next stage of life. These may include academic skills and performance, cognitive and language skills, social and interpersonal skills, independent decision-making skills, risk assessment skills and work or school-related skills to move to the new environment. An assessment of the new environment is also vital to ensure that the deafblind individual in transition has access to services and assistance required. If the deafblind person is transitioning from school to work, the school career advisor or specialist advisor needs to locate support resources and provision of training opportunities. The readiness of the workplace to accommodate the communication needs of the deafblind person (via technology devices, sign language or other means of communication) is an essential part of the ITP. Records of academic achievement and data should be made available for the people in charge in the new environment, such as the students’ IEP of the past years, other school plans, modification plans, reports from specialists of the multidisciplinary team, e.g. report on functional vision, functional hearing, medical needs, etc. Records of the students’ recreational and leisure participation and achievements are also vital. It would be most ideal if a buddy or a few buddies could be assigned to help the student with the transition. This would give him a sense of belonging and a sense of security, which will lead to a good start.

13.10 Famous People with Deafblindness 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Victorine Morriseau (1789–1832) First deafblind person to be educated in Paris. James Mitchell (1795–1869) congenitally deafblind son of Scottish minister. Hieronymus Lorm (nineteenth century)—Austrian inventor, poet and novelist. Sanzan Tani (1802–1867)—Japanese teacher who became deaf in childhood and blind later in life, communicating with students by touch. Yvonne Pitrois (1880–1937)—French biographer. Helen Keller (1880–1968)—author, activist and lecturer. Alice Betteridge (1901–1966)—first deafblind Australian to be educated in a public school. She became a teacher, a traveller and a writer. Jack Clemo (1916–1994)—British poet who became deafblind as an adult. Robert Smithdas (1925–)—the first Deafblind person in the US to receive a master’s degree.

There are books and movies made about Helen Keller, the most famous person with Deafblindness and her stage-by-stage achievement championed by her dedicated teacher, Ms Anne Sullivan. In reality, there are many more encouraging success

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stories. The reader can visit these websites to gain inspiration and insights into supporting people with Deafblindness. https://www.helenkeller.org/hknc/success-stories https://www.ctdinstitute.org/library/2019-02-28/success-stories-deaf-blind-peoplehelen-keller-national-center-deaf-blind-youths

13.11 Conclusion Currently, in many countries, school systems and teacher educators are still not properly prepared to cater for the complex and diverse needs of the student population with disability and special needs. Continuous collaboration across government branches, schools, families, education systems, and the community is essential to building infrastructure and support systems to make inclusive education a reality. High-quality pre-service teacher training with practical, context-relevant components is critical to prepare teachers and support their services to work with children with Deafblindness and other diverse needs and abilities.

References Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2012). Child development in the context of adversity: Experiential canalization of brain and behavior. American Psychologist, 67, 309–318. https://doi.org/10.1037/a00 27493. Bohrman, J. S. (2007). Deafblind census. Ohio Deafblind Outreach Program. Hartshorne, N., Hudson, A., MacCuspie, J., Kennert, B., Nacarato, T., Hartshorne, T., et al. (2016). Quality of life in adolescents and adults with CHARGE syndrome. American Journal of Medical Genetics, Part A 9999A, 1–10. Janssen, M. J., RiksenWalraven, J. M., & van Dijk, J. P. M. (2002). Enhancing the quality of interaction between deafblind children and their educators. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disability, 14(1), 87–109. Janssen, M. J., RiksenWalraven, J. M., & van Dijk, J. P. M. (2003). Toward a diagnostic intervention model for fostering harmonious interactions between deafblind children and their educators. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 97(4), 197–214. McDonnall, M. C. (2009). Risk factors for depression among older adults with dual sensory loss. Aging and Mental Health, 13, 569–576. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607860902774410. McInnes, J. (1999). Deafblindness; a unique disability. In J. McInnes (Ed.), A guide to planning and support for individuals who are deafblind. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. McInnes, J., & Treffry, J. (1982). Deafblind infants and children: A developmental guide. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Merrell, K. W., & Holland, M. L. (1997). Social-emotional behavior of preschool-age children with and without developmental delays. Research in Developmental Disability, 18, 393–405. Murdoch, H. (2004). Early intervention for children who are deafblind. Educational and Child Psychology, 21, 67–79. Saunders, G. H., & Echt, K. V. (2007). An overview of dual sensory impairment in older adults: Perspectives for rehabilitation. Trends in Amplification, 11, 243–258. https://doi.org/10.1177/108 4713807308365.

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SENSE. (2013). Innovates SENSE review 2008. SENSE, 101, Pentoville Road. London NI 9 LG. Retrieved September 20, 2013 from, http://www.sense.org.uk. SENSE. (2014). www.sense.org.uk “List of syndromes and diseases that cause deafblindness”. SENSE-International. (2011, Winter). In touching distance. Talking sense. SENSE-Uganda. (2010). Base line survey report on education of deafblind children in Uganda. SENSE Uganda: Kampala. Shanks, P., & Henderson, K. (2012). Students with deafblindness: Developmental impact—A powerpoint presentation for professional development. Modules Addressing Special Education and Teacher Education (MAST). Greenville, NC: East Carolina University. Van der Heijden, A. (2009). Peer interaction and congenital deafblindness from a dialogical perspective (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Groeningen. Wellan, J., & Al Sabbagh, V. (1994). Developing an object/toy related procedure for the assessment of cognitive development and learning ability in MSI children. In Summerscale & Boothroyd (Eds.), Deafblind education, developing and sustaining appropriate provision, proceedings of the UK conference. London: Sense.

Chapter 14

Supporting Students with Dyslexia

14.1 Introduction Dyslexia is a condition associated with difficulties in reading and writing. There are numerous causes and variations of Dyslexia. Medical professionals and educational scholars are still researching different causes of Dyslexia. In the last three decades, as teachers know more about Dyslexia and the learning difficulties that students face, support strategies have been used to help these students to learn more effectively. This chapter presents the causes, signs and symptoms of Dyslexia, and diagnostic assessments of Dyslexia.

14.2 Defining Dyslexia There are many interpretations of Dyslexia from research spanning the last 30 years, and to date, the definition of Dyslexia is still being debated. The general understanding of Dyslexia is the association with a range of difficulties in reading and writing, while some also discuss the condition that includes the elements of language impairment and cognitive processing (Snowling et al. 2011). A more widely accepted belief is that Dyslexia is a neurobiological condition which affects an individual’s ability to develop proficiency in reading fluency and comprehension, characterised by difficulties with accurate word recognition, spelling and decoding abilities, and writing activities, especially in copying. There is strong evidence that it is hereditary, though environmental factors are found to be determinants of some forms of Dyslexia, such as Developmental Dyslexia (Bellert et al. 2003; Kiuru et al. 2013). Currently, there are two widely accepted definition of Dyslexia (Nijakowska 2010).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 M. Gonzales, Systems Thinking for Supporting Students with Special Needs and Disabilities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4558-4_14

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1. Dyslexia as defined by Orton’s Dyslexia Society (1994) It is a specific language-based disorder characterised by difficulties in single-word decoding, and insufficient phonological processing abilities. These difficulties are not the result of generalise developmental disability or sensory impairment. Dyslexia is marked by inconsistent difficulty with different forms of language, often including problems in reading and problems with acquiring proficiency in writing and spelling. 2. Dyslexia as defined by The International Dyslexia Association (2012) Dyslexia is assumed to be neurological in origin, characterised by difficulties with reading accuracy and fluency, word recognition, poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties reflect a deficit in understanding the phonological component of language which may not be related to cognitive and linguistic ability. They may include problems in reading comprehension and lack reading experience and reading skills that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.

14.3 Signs and Symptoms of Dyslexia Dyslexia can be hard to determined or diagnosed. According to the International Dyslexia Association, here are some signs and symptoms of Dyslexia. It is, however, crucial not to jump into instant conclusion and consider a child being Dyslexic if he/she shows the following signs. General problems experienced by people with dyslexia include the following: • • • • • • • • •

incorrectly doing math operations keeping up with and comprehending longer reading assignments learning a foreign language learning letters and their sounds learning to speak memorising number facts organising written and spoken language reading quickly enough to comprehend spelling.

The International Dyslexia Association also stated these signs as possible Dyslexia for elementary aged children. They include: • difficulty remembering spoken directions • difficulty understanding the rhyming of words, such as knowing that fat rhymes with cat • difficulty remembering simple sequences such as counting to 20, naming the days of the week or reciting the alphabet • difficulty with word retrieval (frequently uses words like ‘stuff’ and ‘that thing’ rather than specific words to name objects) • pronunciation difficulties • trouble with clapping hands to the rhythm of a song

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• trouble recognising words that begin with the same sound (for example, bird, baby and big all start with b) • trouble remembering names of places and people.

14.4 Diagnostic Assessment of Dyslexia Proper diagnosis of Dyslexia must be made by trained professionals. They must have knowledge and background in psychology, reading, language development and education. They must have specific training of what and how to assess, and make recommendations on how to help the student. According to the National Learning Center for Learning Disability, USA, a diagnostic assessment should include: • data of developmental, medical, academic and behavioural information about the student, including family history • formal measurement on cognitive processing including visual processing, auditory processing and executive functions (with appropriate measurement tools) • tests of specific oral and reading skills • tests of writing skills • the learning behaviour of the student.

14.5 Dyslexia and English Literacy As informed by a stream of research, Dyslexia is believed to be affected by deficits in understanding the phonological representation and the processing of print to decode meaning. A lot of studies focused only on the phonological level, fixating only on the word level of reading. As important as it is, mastering phonological perception and the ability to decode alphabetic syllables is only one part of reading and literacy development. In order to help children to read with fluency and comprehension, teachers need to be shown different approaches to address the difficulties in reading development (Snowling et al. 2011; Stears 2009). Wolf and Stoodley (2008), authored a book about ‘the reading brain’ and described the five stages of reading development in children. The first stage is the emerging pre-reader, from infancy to 6 years of age, when a child develops language through listening to stories and concepts through singing and movement activities and learning about rhymes. Then the child enters a novice reader stage, from age 6 to 7 and starts to relate sounds, pictures and words to make meaning. This grapheme-phoneme learning is the building blocks to three ‘code-cracking capacities’: the phonological, orthographic and the semantic areas of language learning. The child begins to learn to decode print and to understand the meaning of what has been decoded and develop an understanding of the alphabetic principles which guide reading comprehension. Orthographic development involves explicit learning of common vowel patterns, morpheme units and varied spelling patterns in English. Children usually learn this

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one step at a time. Likewise, semantic development involves vocabulary-learning and the understanding of word usage. Even from an early stage, the reader learns more than just the meaning of a word, but the multiple uses and functions of these words in different contexts. At the next stage, when the child is about 7–9 years old, the decoding reader learns to read in ‘chunks’ and begins to develop fluency. Now, the child will need to enlist her key executive functions such as working memory and comprehension skills. Wolf and Stoodley (2008) caution that fluency does not mean speed. It is a process when the child begins to associate letters and letter patterns, meaning and grammatical functions to understand what is being read without having to spend a long time to think and comprehend the read text. The child will start to develop skills to understand, predict and figure out new concepts. Also, at this stage, the child learns to develop different strategies to understand different texts in different context to improve comprehension. This is when the teacher’s input is most influential to build the child’s success in reading. Without proper guidance at this reading stage, a reader who struggles in a poor learning environment with insufficient vocabulary and the absence of instructional support to match her needs, she may never proceed to the next stage of developing reading fluency and comprehension. Having mastered these essential processes, the reader moves on to become an expert reader and will take with her these skills into adulthood. ‘The end of reading development doesn’t exist; the unending story of reading moves ever forward, leaving the eye, the tongue, the word, the author for a new place from which the truth breaks forth, fresh and green, changing the brain and the reader every time’ (Wolf and Stoodley 2008, p. 162). When assessing Dyslexic students learning English as a second language (ESL), it is important to look at a range of language skills, including those that affect the learner in first language learning. The literature on bilingual language learners indicates that ESL students, even those without Dyslexic challenges, generally display poorer sentence structure. Many have problems with the use of articles and prepositions, difficulties with idiomatic English and figurative language and read with limited vocabulary and grammar difficulties, especially with tenses (Cameron and Besser 2004). Mortimore (2008) spotlights the necessity to put in place a cumulative structured programme with an explicit focus on hearing and saying phonemes of the English language. Learning activities should be multi-sensory, which involve reading aloud as well as silent reading comprehension, acting, singing, drawing, memory games and the use of multimedia, such as video and e-learning programmes to enhance learning. Their research on Dyslexic ESL students has found that a 15-week intensive structured cumulative intervention of 30–40 min a day with individual attention from an adult, has led to measurable gains in reading comprehension, vocabulary development, spelling and writing. However, a drop was noted when the intensive intervention was not maintained (Mortimore et al. 2012). Improvement in morphemic awareness, such as understand word syllables, can serve as a compensatory strategy for dyslexic readers and lead to higher skills in decoding, spelling and vocabulary development. Interventions that have proven

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successful show a strong requirement in using oral language interventions in ESL learning for students with Dyslexic challenges. These programmes incorporate a sequence of strategies designed to improve phonological processing skills by using explicit vocabulary teaching and verbal memory; strategies to develop comprehension skills using morphological knowledge and strategies to improve reading processing presented in multi-sensory learning activities. In addition to good teaching approaches, the cultural climate of the school and classroom environment is also a determining factor that will enhance or hinder learning (Hutchinson et al. 2005; Ott 2007).

14.6 Helping Dyslexic Children with Their Learning Difficulties For some children who experience complex challenges, the ones that are associated with neurobiological dysfunctions, reading and writing is only a small part of the problem. It is vital then for educational practitioners and classroom teachers to explore ways that best help the learner to overcome challenges associated with thinking and language processing. Eager to find a solution to help meet the diverse needs of Dyslexic students, scholars and teachers have explored ways to solve Dyslexic challenges by learning from students the best way that would help them learn. Earlier research has shown effectiveness of an alternate way of supporting Dyslexic learners: a student-led pedagogy. This approach requires teachers to be flexible in their programming and design learning activities based on a core theme, leaving students to engage in learning activities based on this core theme. One example would be THE OCEAN. Students will need to study some core elements of the ocean, while they can explore topics related to the ocean that interest them. An earlier research article by Rudduck et al. (1996) asserts that students are capable of articulating their learning needs and how they would benefit if given guidance in ways that meet their learning methods and styles. A range of studies using this approach was inspired, and success stories have been substantiated by research evidence in earlier literature (Davis and Florian 2004; Lewis and Norwich 2005). These writers also indicated that it is a myth that only specialists can solve learning problems associated with Dyslexia. Educators from different parts of the world have started to take an interest in understanding the link between pedagogies and performance success in students with Dyslexic challenges. A series of studies conducted by Blackman (2007, 2009, 2010) have contributed different insights into the physical environment of the classroom, the matching personality of the teacher and peers and the use of technology as factors that influence Dyslexic secondary school students. Other scholars have suggested the use of metacognition to understand one’s own learning and thinking processes (Byrne et al. 2006; Noushad 2008). Metacognition

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can be understood as learning how to learn. This involves knowing what to learn, what strategies to use and learning from experiences. Research on reading has shown that students capable of using metacognition become better readers (Baker 2008), and that reading capability increases through using metacognitive strategies. Some teacher-researchers have revisited the Vygotsky’s (1978) theory of ‘the zone of proximity’ which asserts that children’s cognitive development is shaped by the variety of interactions within the sociocultural context of the learning environment. Social interactions and dialogues are considered vehicles that enhance thinking and language development. This implies that the kind of learning activities, approaches and teaching strategies, which are interactive, will influence cognitive and language growth in students. Vygotsky (1981) also stresses that students are not mere recipients of information as passive learners, but need to be vigorously engaged in active learning which enables internalisation and meaning-making to take place. In earlier days, students with reading and writing problems were labelled as ‘slowlearners’ or ‘students with learning difficulties’. The pedagogic model presented by Brooks and Brooks (1993) on teaching students bearing such labels, highlighting the use of social constructivist framework to classroom teaching, has found success in such methods. The study of Powell and Kalina (2009) also stresses the importance of teachers having in-depth knowledge of cognitive constructivism based on Piaget’s theory, and Social constructivism based on Vygotsky’s theory, and be aware of the connection between thinking, cognition and language development. With this understanding, teachers can develop communicative tools and strategies to enhance social interactive learning, peer collaborative learning and discovery learning for individuals or groups. There is a growing trend that calls teachers and educators to rethink their teaching strategies in the classroom and move away from traditional methods, and instead, be bold to try out radically different teaching approaches to help Dyslexic students to achieve success (Cornoldi 2010; Davis and Florian 2004; Lewis and Norwich 2005). The British Dyslexia Association UK has pointed out that in order for successful interventions to take place that support Dyslexic students to learn, a school needs to be ‘Dyslexia Friendly’. Intervention does not just happen in the classroom. It requires leadership and structures to support the success of the implementation. Recommendations from the British Dyslexia Association include incorporating learning and support strategies as part of the school development plan. The role of school leaders is to consult with a wide range of stakeholders including parents and care takers, specialists in the field and stakeholders in the wider communities, such as support groups that serve people with Dyslexia. There should be policy documents with clear guidelines to support differentiation and inclusion, teaching and learning approaches, assessment and monitoring and resource planning. Ongoing professional development should be in place to ensure whole-school awareness training and in-service development on associated aspects of pedagogies or other professional development identified. Data should be available to monitor progress and outcomes of intervention, and satisfaction levels of staff, students, parents and other stakeholders. School leaders need to develop a supportive culture and a climate that celebrate strengths and success across a wide range of learning endeavours.

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14.7 Teacher Readiness and Skills to Support Students with Dyslexia Research studies have found that Dyslexia is a condition that can be altered via neurological pathways to enable a student to develop necessary skills to read effectively, especially through systematic and multisensory instructional methods (e.g. Sawchuk 2010; Scarborough 2003). These researchers emphasised the importance and need for teachers to be trained with knowledge and skills to understand literacy development at the basic level, and in the development of English literacy, the understanding of basic language constructs and the foundation alphabetic and phonologic principles (Cunningham et al. 2004; Liberman and Liberman 1990; Snowling and Hulme 2012). Unfortunately, numerous study findings have provided evidence that even highly skilled teachers do not always have the skills to teach explicitly to address the needs of Dyslexic students in foundation building using phonology, morphology, orthography and syllabication (Carreker et al. 2010; Moats and Dakin 2008). Recent research has found that training given to classroom teachers in the USA with evidencebased models have attained high degree of success in supporting children with Dyslexia to achieve reading and writing skill development (Frost 2012). This illustrates the importance of effective teacher training and ongoing in-school professional development. Other scholars have also pointed to the importance of a positive attitude when helping students with Dyslexia. Their research findings indicated that having handson experience teaching and supporting Dyslexia enhances knowledge and skills and provides teachers with needed experience to understand the learning difficulties faced by students, how they struggle, and how these struggles impact their self-esteem and emotional development.

Teachers need to understand that students with Dyslexia learn differently. Most of them are found to be right brained learners. Many of them have their own patternseeking ways and they need to see ‘big-pictures’ before they can understand ‘parts’.

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Learning for them should begin with whole and then go to parts. They learn better with movement and through multi-sensory approaches.

14.8 Suggestions for Teachers Here are some strategies found in the literature proven to be helpful to cater to the needs of students with Dyslexia: • Personalise learning material and differentiate learning tasks. • Use colour coding when possible to match the needs of the student. • Attention must be given to a comprehensive approach to literacy development, including oral language, phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension. • Different students respond differently to font sizes and font types. Experiment with the student to find the best font to enhance learning. • Use audio books to enhance reading. Teach the student to read and listen to the text at the same time. • Homework should be meaningful with brief instruction. Make allowance when the student is not able to complete as much work as his classmates. • Allow time for process and thinking. Give the student short breaks as he/she might have difficulty concentrating after a short span of concentration. • Pay attention to classroom environment such as noise and distraction, lighting and preferred seating positions. • Minimise blackboard copying for the student with Dyslexia. Print a copy of notes for him/her. • Use assistive technology. Find out in the IEP meeting what technology can help the student and make use of the technology in class. • Build confidence and self-esteem. A student with Dyslexia usually experiences a range of emotional stress. Have high expectation of the student but support him/her with encouragement and praises. Help them to eliminate self-doubt and self-defeating thoughts. • Set up a buddy system to support the student when possible.

14.9 Conclusion To help a child with dyslexia, it is vital that school leaders and teachers have a thorough understanding of the student’s specific difficulties and how they may affect learning. Teachers need to develop a range of skills. Focus on the students’ strengths. Many students with Dyslexia may have strong oral skills and listening comprehension. Some may have exceptional visual-spatial awareness and artistic abilities. Apart from supporting reading and literacy challenges, teachers can leverage on these

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strengths to help the student to build self-confidence and a sense of achievement. Dyslexic students, like all other students, blossom and grow when given nurturing opportunities, patience and caring support.

References Baker, L. (2008). Metacognition in comprehension instruction: What we’ve learned since NRP. In C. C. Block & S. R. Parris (Eds.), Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices (2nd ed., pp. 65–79). New York: Guilford. Bellert, A. M., Graham, L., & Pegg, J. E. (2003). Effective intervention for students with learning difficulties in the middle school grades: A QuickSmart approach. In Learning for Life: Proceedings of the AASE/ASEAQ State Conference. Toowoomba, Australia: AASE: Australian Association of Special Education & ASEAQ: Association of Special Education Administrators of Queensland. Available from http://e-publications.une.edu.au/1959.11/6787. Blackman, S. (2007). Utilising “low tech” analytical frameworks to analyse dyslexic students’ classroom narratives. Perspectives in Education, 25(4), 93–97. Blackman, S. (2009). Learning is hard work and sometimes difficult: What pupils with dyslexia say about the difficulties they experience with learning at secondary school in Barbados. Caribbean Curriculum, 16(1), 1–16. Blackman, S. (2010). Who I work with is important: Dyslexic students’ narratives about the benefits of grouping for instruction in the Caribbean. Support for Learning, 25(1), 4–10. Brooks, J. G., & Brooks, M. G. (1993). In search of understanding: The case for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Byrne, B., Olson, R. K., Samuelsson, S., Wadsworth, S., Corley, R., & DeFries, J. C. (2006). Genetic and environmental influences on early literacy. Journal of Research in Reading, 29, 33–49. Cameron, L., & Besser, S. (2004). Writing in English as an Additional Language at Key Stage 2, School of Education: University of Leeds. DfES Research report. Available from: https://www. education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/RR586.pdf. Carreker, S., Malathesa, J., & Boulware-Gooden, R. (2010). Spelling-related teacher knowledge: The impact of professional development on identifying appropriate instructional activities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33, 148–158. Cornoldi, C. (2010). Metacognition, intelligence, and academic performance. In H. Salatas Waters & W. Schneider (Eds.), Metacognition, strategy use, and instruction (pp. 257–277). New York: The Guilford Press. Cunningham, A. E., Perry, K. E., Stanovich, K. E., & Stanovich, P. J. (2004). Disciplinary knowledge of K-3 teachers and their knowledge calibration in the domain of early literacy. Annals of Dyslexia, 54, 139–167. Davis, P., & Florian, L. (2004). Teaching strategies and approaches for children with special educational needs. A scoping study [Research Report 516]. London: DfES. Frost, R. (2012). Towards a universal model of reading. Behav & Brain Science, 35, 263–279. Hutchinson, J. M., Whiteley, H. E., & Smith, C. D. (2005). The role of cognitive linguistic skills in the identification of reading problems in emergent bilingual children. In P. Ghesquiere & W. Ruijssenaars (Eds.), Learning disability: A challenge to teaching and instruction (pp. 37–45). Leuven: Leuven University Press. Kiuru, N., Lerkkanen, M.-K., Niemi, P., Poskiparta, E., Ahonen, T., Poikkeus, A.-M., et al. (2013). The role of reading disability risk and environmental protective factors in students’ reading fluency in Grade 4. Reading Research Quarterly, 48(4), 349–368. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.53. Liberman, I. Y., & Liberman, A. M. (1990). Whole language versus code emphasis: Underlying assumptions and their implications for reading instruction. Annals of Dyslexia, 40, 51–76.

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Lewis, A., & Norwich, B. (Eds.). (2005). Special teaching for special children? Pedagogies for inclusion. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Moats, L. C., & Dakin, K. (2008). Basic facts about dyslexia and other reading problems. Baltimore: The International Dyslexia Association. Mortimore, T. (2008). Dyslexia and learning style: A practitioner’s handbook (2nd ed.). Chichester: Wiley. Mortimore, T., Hansen, L., Hutchings, M., Northcote, A., Fernando, J., Horobin, L., et al. (2012). Dyslexia and multilingualism: Identifying and supporting bilingual learners who might be at risk of developing SpLD/ dyslexia. British Dyslexia Association and the Lottery Fund. Nijakowska, J. (2010). Dyslexia in the foreign language classroom. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Noushad, P. (2008). Cognitions about cognitions: The theory of metacognition. Farook training college, India. Available from: A.K. Educational Resources database. Ott, P. (2007). Teaching children with dyslexia: A practical guide. London: Routledge. Powell, K., & Kalina, C. (2009). Cognitive and social constructivism: Developing tools for an effective classroom. Education, 130(2), 241–250. Rudduck, J., Chaplain, R., & Wallace, G. (Eds.). (1996). School improvement: What can pupils tell us? London: David Fulton. Sawchuk, S. (2010). Full cost of professional development hidden. Education Week, 30(11), 14–16. Scarborough, H. (2003). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of Early Literacy Research (pp. 97–110). New York: Guilford Press. Snowling, M. J., & Hulme, C. (2012). Annual research review: The nature and classification of reading disorders—A commentary on proposals for DSM-5. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53(5), 593–607. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02495.x. Snowling, M., Duff, F., Petrou, A., & Schiffeldrin, J. (2011). Identification of children at risk of dyslexia: The validity of teacher judgements using ‘Phonic Phases’. Journal of Research in Reading, 34, 157–170. Stears, M. (2009). How social and critical constructivism can inform science curriculum design: A study from South Africa. Educational Research, 51(4), 397–410. The International Dyslexic Association. (2012). Definition of dyslexia. http://eida.org/definitionof-dyslexia. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1981). The genesis of higher mental functions. In J. V. Wertsch (Ed.), The concept of activity in Soviet psychology (pp. 144–188). Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. Wadsworth, S. J., Corley, R. P., Hewitt, J. K., & DeFries, J. C. (2001). Stability of genetic and environmental influences on reading performance at 7, 12, and 16 years of age in the Colorado Adoption Project. Behavior Genetics, 31(4), 353–359. Wolf, M., & Stoodley, C. (2008). Proust and the squid: The story and science of the reading brain. New York: HarperCollins.

Chapter 15

Supporting Students with Emotional and Behavioural Disorder

15.1 Introduction Students with Emotional and Behavioural Disorder (EBD) have constant problems with their self-control. In the past, many schools have ‘abandoned’ them by using punitive measures such as school suspension or even expulsion. Thanks to school leaders and teachers who care, many students with EBD have learnt the needed self-regulation strategies and social skills to establish friendships and improve their focus on academic learning. Compassion and patience from teachers, parents and the school community is key to helping students with EBD to make better choices for themselves and lead a happy and successful life. This chapter introduces the definition and characteristics of Emotional and Behaviour Disorder (EBD). It gives a brief introduction to the medical approach to EBD and discusses the misconceptions about individuals with EBD. It also presents some common theories and models on EBD and approaches to support students with EBD at school. Knowing what challenges parents face at home is important for the school community to support them which, in turn, will also help the child. The chapter also discusses challenges and concerns faced by teachers and offers some suggestions for classroom intervention.

15.2 What Is Emotional and Behavioural Disorder (EBD) Emotional and Behavioural Disorders (EBD) are defined differently in different parts of the world. In North America, the Individuals with Disability Education Act (IDEA) classifies EBD as having at least one of the defined characteristics over a long period of time that adversely affects a student’s education performance (Solar 2011).

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The defining characteristics of EBD are: 1. an incapability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory or health factors; 2. an incapability to develop or maintain interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers; 3. inappropriate display of behaviour or feelings under normal circumstances; 4. generally moody or depressed; 5. a tendency to show physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems. Solar (2011) described EBD in three types of behaviours: 1. Externalising behaviour: behaviour that is directed towards others (e.g. aggression, noncompliant, coercive behaviours) 2. Internalising behaviour: behaviour that is directed inward (e.g. withdrawn, depressed, lonely, anxious) 3. Low-incidence comorbidity disorders: disorders that frequently occur at school age, which is associated with Schizophrenia, Dissociative Identity Disorder or Bipolar Disorder. In a guide produced by Seattle University to understanding EBD, the following symptoms were listed: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

inappropriate actions or emotions under normal circumstances a general feeling of unhappiness or depression learning difficulties that are not caused by health factors feelings of fear and anxiety related to personal or school matters difficulty with interpersonal relationships, including relationships with teachers and peers.

Other scholars, such as Silverman and Field (2011) state that causes of EBD are linked to childhood trauma or neuropsychological disorders. Other disorders associated with EBD also include: • • • • • •

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Obsessive-compulsive Disorder Generalised Anxiety Disorder Panic Disorder Eating Disorder Conduct Disorder.

Silverman and Field (2011) also explained that EBD may be caused by biological factors such as: 1. 2. 3. 4.

physical illness or disability malnutrition brain damage hereditary factors.

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Or familial and personal factors, such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

divorce or other emotional upset at home extreme coercion from parents unhealthy or inconsistent discipline style poor attitude towards education or schooling some of the characteristics and behaviour: hyperactivity (short attention span, impulsiveness); aggression or self-injurious behaviour (fighting, acting out,); withdrawal behaviour (excessive fear or anxiety; not interacting socially with others), 9. immaturity for age (e.g. temper tantrums, inappropriate crying, poor coping skills); 10. learning difficulties (academically performing below grade level).

15.3 Misconceptions About Individuals with EBD and Associated Mental Health Issues Students with EBD are often judged by their behaviour and the negative consequences of these behaviours. Common myths and misconceptions about mental illness associated with EBD, as indicated by the World Health Organisation (2016) include: • • • • • • • • •

the mentally ill are dangerous and often commit crimes families are the cause of mental illness all mental illness involves psychotic episodes depressed people should just “snap out of it” Schizophrenia means having multiple personality disorder people with schizophrenia can only do low level jobs EBD is not a disability. Students choose to behave the way they do students with EBD need strict discipline if you do not address a behaviour immediately, you are accepting it.

A commonly cited research conducted by Macleod (2006) identified teachers’ perception of students with EBD as ‘Sad’, ‘Mad’ and ‘Bad’. ‘Sad’ refers to students who are depressed, lonely and anxious. These students usually harbour much fear and self-blame and are usually withdrawn and uncomfortable in social situations. ‘Mad’ refers to students who are not able to control their emotions and selfregulations and often use aggression to gain attention and get what they want and engage in ‘meltdowns’ when they are overwhelmed. ‘Bad’ refers to students who do not follow rules, are often aggressive and violent, destructive, defiant and engage in a range of defensive mechanisms to protect themselves. Ortner (2006) explains that to help people with emotional and mental issues, a 3-dimension process is required: human behaviour, change process and intervention.

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Human behaviour: to understand scholarly assumptions about risk and resilience factors that affect human development and behaviour. People need to ask questions like: Why do people behave as they do? What role does the environment play? Change process: to apply theories and models about how people change their thoughts, feelings and behaviours in different situations. How do people change? What activates or motivates the process? Intervention: to learn the needed skills, techniques and strategies used in interventions for clients or students. What activities can improve student’s adaptation or well-being?

15.4 Common Theories and Models on EBD Theories are important because they can guide us to take directions and make decisions on how best to help our students, especially with complex issues. They can help us as teachers to consider a variety of perspectives to have a more comprehensive understanding of the student’s needs and experience. The reader is encouraged to further explore these theories. Here are some common theories to understand and support students with EBD: Environmental Systems Theory: This theory posits that behaviour is influenced by a person’s environment. Interventions aimed at the individual and the environment have potential for positive outcomes. Human Developmental Theory: People have different needs and capacities related to the current phase of their life history. Social Support Theory: Everyone needs help. Having access to a network of support may result in improved health and behavioural outcomes. Grief and Loss Theory: People experience grief and loss at some stage of their lives, and they might feel lost and helpless. These feelings may manifest in stages, from denial, anger, depression, to bargaining and acceptance. An Ecological Model (Systems Theory): This model considers the different factors within a system, which include the individual (characteristics and personality and health conditions); the parents and family background; the immediate environment, such as schools and the neighbourhood. It also considers the local community, support services and indirect factors in the macro systems that have an impact on the individuals. These factors include governmental policies, funding and services, legislations, teacher education and the media.

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15.5 Common Approaches to Support Individuals with EBD There are numerous approaches to support students with EBD both at the school level and home level. The following presents some of these common approaches.

15.5.1 Early Intervention Approaches Early intervention programmes can help to change a child’s developmental path. Families benefit from these programmes when the child’s needs and difficulties are met early so changes can occur to help the child become more self-aware and masters the skills to gain self-control. The more common early intervention approaches in EBD include parent training programmes, social skills training and anger management, coping skills, problem-solving skills; cognitive-behavioural therapy, and classroom contingency strategies.

15.5.2 Parent Training Most parent training programmes are based on behavioural management principles and social learning theories. They may include behavioral rehearsals and dialogue exchange, role-playing and skills in parent competence and parent–child therapy programmes. Most of these programmes are conducted by trained psychologists or school counsellors. Approaches for Primary school students:

15.5.3 Social Skills and Anger Management Training These intervention programmes stress the focus of information processing. They teach the child to think about their reactions to situations that cause them to react strongly. They guide children to understand that perhaps their views were distorted and misunderstood. By giving themselves a bit of time to think and hold the reaction, children with EBD can learn to ‘stop and think’ before they react. When children become skilled at this strategy, they can better regulate their emotional responses.

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15.5.4 Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT) and Problem-Solving Skills Through Cognitive-behavioural intervention, children can learn to understand how thoughts and emotions affect their behaviour. They learn to identify negative thoughts that drive their impulsive behaviour and replace them with positive ones through selftalk. Through art and play, (e.g. puppet acts and computerised simulation and games) younger children can express their negative emotions and learn to understand them. This approach is especially helpful for traumatised children. CBT therapist may have individual sessions with the child, work with a parent–child dyad or engage in family-based intervention involving siblings and other family members. For school-age children who are old enough to understand, a problem-solving skills approach can help them to identify the problem and to think about 3-5 possible solutions. They are guided to weigh the pros and cons of each solution and decide the better ones to use when they face challenges in similar situations. They may test out these solutions during therapy time, or the child may be encouraged to apply these techniques in reality and report on the effectiveness of such a choice. Classroom contingency management: This approach uses a range of strategies as illustrated below: • a token system – to reward students for making an effort to do the right thing • time out—to give students an opportunity to calm down and redirect attention to other things, e.g. to listen to a piece of music, to take a walk outdoor to calm down. • response cost—this is part of a token system where students can make use of ‘token’ or other forms of reward to exchange for free time or to work towards a series of merit awards • group social skills training • group problem-solving skills • group anger management training.

15.6 Challenges Faced by Students with EBD Students with EBD do not ‘deliberately’ act out to gain attention. Many of them are aware of their behavioural problems but do not know what to do and how to deal with them. EBD can co-exist with other learning disability, such as Dyslexia, ADHD or other neuropsychological conditions such as Schizophasia and Anxiety Disorder and Depression. These conditions may impact on their behaviours, such as withdrawal, anxiety and mood swings. In class, they may have problems focusing and are easily distracted. They frequently remain off-task and therefore, experience academic frustrations. These learning difficulties can often lead to inappropriate classroom behaviour.

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Research studies have found most students with EBD to have poor social skills, generally alienated, and have negative relationships with peers and adults. While some may be targeted and bullied, some may become bullies and engage in antisocial and even criminal behaviour. Scholars also noted many students labelled as EBD have less opportunities to attend higher education, engage in low wage and long working hours, and experience less job stability. They are likely to have mental health and substance abuse problem, greater risk of homelessness and higher risks of being institutionalised or incarcerated (Blackorby et al. 2005; Walker et al. 2004). Many cases of EBD are linked with childhood trauma, which may include sex abuse, family violence, neglect or other forms of family maltreatment. These may link to a range of mental issues. Some students may display EBD challenges because their basic needs are not met, such as hunger, sleep-deprivation, feelings of rejection and low self-worth. EBD is a very complex condition and require compassion and a huge amount of patience and understanding from adults to help them get back on track to lead a normal and less challenged life (Silverman and Field 2011; Walker et al. 2004). When you find a student with EBD very challenging and difficult to work with, try to imagine walking in his/her shoes. A number of these children have probably been placed in different schools because of their difficulties adjusting to a mainstream environment. For many, a new placement to another school means having to cope with rejections, stigma, negative attitudes all over again. They often experience high anxiety and live with a feeling of being ostracised and misunderstood. In return, they show contempt for their peers, their teachers and contempt for school rules. Many may also come from very dysfunctional family background with limited parental support. They may have experienced multiple emotional scarring associated with repeated trauma or emotional pain. Some of them tend to attempt fleeing from these pains by engaging in protective behaviour, such as using aggression to defend their fear or to escape by showing indifference, total withdrawal, destructive behaviour including inflicting physical hurt to others. These issues are far too complex to be handled by teachers alone (Silverman and Field 2011; Vannest et al. 2011).

15.7 Challenges Faced by Parents of Students with EBD Emotional disorder can appear at any stage of childhood development and does not follow typical developmental stages. The condition can disrupt family communication patterns, living patterns, and can keep the family in a constant state of change. Impacts of such challenges vary from family to family. It is vital for the family to make added adaptation and adjustments, such as seeking support to meet the child’s caretaking needs and obtaining emotional support from extended family. The lack of economic resources and needed community services may be burdening on the family and disrupt the overall family life cycle. The child’s unpredictable behaviour would impact family routines and social activities.

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Research has found that family therapy is effective in helping families cope with these challenges. These family-based interventions have produced results in reducing frequencies of challenging behaviour and increased positive behavioural outcomes. Lucyshyn et al. (2014) have found the following interventions very helpful. They include: the use of direct training with the children, such as using behavioural rehearsal; self-monitoring and self-evaluation methods; coaching parents in the use of interventions; engaging the family in problem-solving discussions and modelling of interventions for parents. Other research studies have found that families with more internal resources, (such as parents with higher income, those with strong resilience and commitment to help their children, and those with a higher level of education), can cope more successfully than others. However, in the case of severe and chronic stress, families respond differently, and results varied. Siblings of children with EBD are also affected and their emotional needs have to be acknowledged. They may have a unique set of emotional challenges due to the behaviour of the sibling with EBD (Fox et al. 2002). As teachers, working with the family is essential to support the child with EBD. Encourage the participation of family therapy if the family is not already engaged in such rehabilitation processes.

15.8 Parent–Teacher Partnership It is important to plan with parents and learn from them what works best at home. Teachers can discuss with parents, school counsellors or social workers about a behavioural management plan that can be used and practised at home and in the school. To promote positive behaviour, a student with EBD needs a positive and supportive learning environment and strategies for decreasing undesired behaviours. Here are some of the basic steps to observe: Define behaviours: It is not helpful to define a behaviour as ‘acting up’ or ‘being bad’. A well-defined behaviour is specific, for example, an undesired behaviour should be described as: ‘pushing and shoving other children while lining up’. The desired behaviour would be ‘to keep hands to himself and walk in line with others’. Make expectations clear: Explain clearly what is expected of the child. Ensure understanding by asking the child to repeat in his own words what the expectation is. It is best if the goal for change is mutually agreed. Have the child write it down if need be to consolidate commitment to the change. Adjust the environment: The environment can have a powerful influence on one’s behaviour and emotional responses. Find out from the student (or through observation) when, where and what triggers inappropriate behaviour, and remove these undesired stimuli to help the student develop positive behaviour (e.g. when

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the student is doing homework or reading, family members should not be watching TV or playing video games). Understand positive and negative reinforcement: Many students with EBD can be attention-seeking and may unconsciously resort to undesirable behaviour to gain attention. Teachers and parents need to learn how to respond to reinforce positive behaviour and diminish negative behaviour. Give the child a choice: Providing children with two options is an effective way of setting up structure while at the same time, empowering the child to have a say, e.g. ‘Do you want to read a story online or choose a book from the shelf?’ ‘Do you want to watch TV before or after your shower?’. When a child is showing defiance, stay calm and offer the choices again in a while. Teach structure using ‘when, …then’ statements. These statements have a clear expectation as well as a reward for cooperating. For example: ‘When you’ve completed your writing task, then you can play on the iPad for 10 minutes’. Give positive attention: catch the child when he is good. Paying attention to the child when he is doing something positive will build self-confidence and encourage engagement on activities that give the child the needed attention.

15.9 Challenges and Concerns Faced by Teachers Numerous studies have found links between teacher frustration and burnout with having a student with EBD in the classroom (e.g. Cancio et al. 2013; Prather-Jones 2011). Reports of disruptive students demonstrating dangerous behaviour in the school setting had caused teachers to leave the profession. Many studies have also identified the key factor for the loss of teachers as the lack of skills and unpreparedness to handle situations and challenges caused by students with EBD. Some studies point out that academic interventions for students with EBD are limited and more research on effective intervention is needed. (Albrecht et al. 2009; Avramidis et al. 2000; Billingsley et al. 2006; Jull 2008; Kauffman and Badar 2013). Then again, there are also studies that reported success stories, attributing the teacher’s unique skills and experience as key factors. In addition, personal characteristics, such as optimism and high resilience, also play an important part in helping students with EBD to transform. Scholars have also written about the expansive theories and ideas that embrace a comprehensive curriculum as being helpful in helping student challenges. Teachers who are able to modify learning activities and create a harmonious and non-threatening learning environment are found to be more successful to making a positive shift in student behaviour (Ball and Forzani 2009; Bietenbeck 2014). Teaching students with EBD is an impossibility without support from a collaborative team. The team should include parents, other teachers, a psychologist/school counsellor/a school social worker and other trained professionals on behaviour modifications. School policies and commitment from school administrators, such has head

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teachers and the principal, are vital. Support should not only be on material and human resources, but also on moral support and attention to staff stress. Mechanisms must be put in place to support staff stress management. It is important that school administrators understand that teachers’ job satisfaction is a significant factor that affect the quality of teaching and teacher–student relationships. It is also vital for school principals and administrators to match teacher personality with the kind of students who need different attentions and skills. Ongoing professional development and staff support are important. Sending inexperienced and under-prepared teachers into a classroom with challenging students is setting up these teachers for failure.

15.10 Suggestions for Classroom Intervention Here are some evidence-based strategies found in the literature on helping students with EBD: Set well-defined limits and classroom rules: Studies have found that clearly defined classroom rules and limits provide students with clear information on academic and social responses, and can promote effective classroom management for all students. Rules can prevent undesired behaviour such as physical aggression or tardiness in class. They need to be clearly discussed and visible in the classroom to remind students of the rules and the consequences of breaking them. However, teachers should be mindful not to set too many unnecessary rules and be consistent with carrying out these rules (Schloss and Smith 1994). Establish Consistent Routines: Students, especially those with special needs, require structure and routines. Knowing how to institute and reinforce routines in their classrooms is the foundation of successful classroom management. Establishment of routines on procedures during group work, room use and transition in and out of classroom will help student to know their boundaries. Positive reinforcement for appropriate behaviours: Studies have found that many students with special needs respond well to positive reinforcement, especially verbal reinforcement, such as the use of praise and encouraging statements. It is helpful for teachers to develop a list of verbal reinforcement to make students feel valued when they have done something positive (Oliver and Reschly 2010; Prather-Jones 2011). Ignore minor inappropriate behaviours: Planned ignoring has been found to be an effective way to decrease attention-seeking behaviour from students with EBD. Teachers need to increase their awareness of how students use behaviour to gain attention or power in the classroom. Give positive attention to students when they are engaged and doing the right things in class. It is helpful also to turn a blind eye occasionally to minor misbehaviour to decrease reinforcement of undesired behaviour.

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Document behaviour and help student to self-monitor behaviour by using a checklist. Many students are not aware of their own behaviour and how they respond or react to others. When a teacher is able to document these undesired behaviour, or help the student to be self-aware, and document these behaviour himself (by using a checklist of the frequencies that certain undesired behaviour have occurred), it can help the student to be mindful of reducing the negative behaviour. In addition to classroom strategies, students with EBD need specific strategies to help them to overcome difficulties in monitoring self-control and learn to replace negative behaviour with positive ones. The following gives a small sample of these strategies.

15.11 Examples of Intervention Strategies Here are some intervention strategies successfully used by classroom teachers in Australia.

15.11.1 Helping students to reduce rude language Observed Behaviour: Student often uses offensive language at school (swearing and rude words). Desired Behaviour: Student expresses ideas, thoughts and feelings in nonoffensive language. Teaching Strategies • Clearly define offensive language: Show a list of inappropriate words used by the student. • Establish link between self-esteem and language: help the student to understand why people use offensive language. • Explore emotions and how people express their emotions in positive and negative ways. • Teach alternative ways to express anger. (e.g. self-time out, write it/draw it instead of saying it). • Role-play strong emotions and how to react, emphasising appropriate use of language. • Use a journal to record feelings and reaction to increase self-awareness. • Encourage sharing feelings with others (beginning with those they trust). • Agree on reward system to encourage progress.

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Student’s Strategies • Know expectations (increase awareness of when to use what kind of language; what is acceptable and what is not). • Monitor use of profanity. (When it happens, apologise, move on and try again). • Monitor exposure of profanity (Refrain from watching TV or games with rude language). Parents’ Input • • • • • •

Learn about school expectations. Communicate with teachers. Set goals with the student. Establish household rules and expectation. Monitor own language at home and in social situations. Respond calmly and positively to student’s effort and progress. Praise, encourage.

15.11.2 Helping students to stop aggression and violence Observed behaviour: Student harms himself/herself or others with aggression (hitting, kicking, etc.) Desired behaviour: Student will be calm and safe and decrease aggressiveness. Teaching Strategies • Monitor destructive behaviour by keeping records of each incident. USE the ABC approach (Antecedent, Behaviour and Consequence). • Track patterns of when and where the behaviour usually occur, find the triggers. • Discuss concerns with the student. Talk about what happened. How the student felt when his behaviour occurred (e.g. the desire to hit or kick, or self-harm). • Teach self-control strategies, think, stop, walk away. • Teach student to become self-aware when he starts to feel angry. Take a deep breath and try to calm down. If not possible, walk away. • Teach responsibility. When control is lost, the student has to make restitution, apologise, clean up the mess or pay for what he/she had broken. • Teach the student to identify reasons for the inappropriate reactions. • Have playground rules visible as a visual reminder to all students. • Develop individual contracts. Set specific goals for change. Be patient, support, kind but firm. Students’ Strategies • • • •

Be self-aware of own emotions, behaviour and reactions. Be committed to change. Be receptive to intervention. Follow steps given by teacher or school counsellor.

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• Make efforts to change. • Seek help when it is too hard. Do not give up if the desired behaviour does not happen quickly. Talk about it with your teacher or counsellor. Parents’ Input • Understand the expectations from the school and teachers. • Express your needs as parents and expectations to obtain mutual understanding and agreement. • Talk to the child about making choices. • Show love and care. Do not condemn or shout. • Engage in frequent positive talk to show understanding and support the change. • Be patient and supportive. • Seek help from professional if things are too hard.

15.11.3 Helping students to develop resilience Observed behaviour: Students show inability to recover from upsetting events Desired behaviour: Student will develop coping strategies to bounce back from setbacks or Challenges. Teaching Strategies • Help the student to explore own feelings and emotions in all sorts of occasions (when happy, when excited and when upset). • Help the student to explore intensity of these feelings and become self-aware of how he reacts to different situations. • Focus on the student’s strength and show how he/she could leverage on these strengths to cope with difficult times and challenges. • Talk about past events that the student felt angry, hurt, upset, loss, etc. • Discuss the lessons learnt. Teacher can talk about their own experiences to build trust. • Help students to look at things from different perspectives. Explore ways to think differently. • Address cognitive distortion. Use self-talk to support self. • Explore feelings of fear and other negative feelings and discuss ways to overcome them. • Build trust by not being judgmental of the child’s perspectives. • Model desired behaviour where necessary. Students’ Strategies • • • •

Be self-aware of own emotions, behaviour and reactions. Be committed to change. Be receptive to intervention. Follow steps given by the teacher or school counsellor.

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• Make efforts to change. • Seek help when it is too hard. Do not give up if the desired behaviour does not happen quickly. Talk about it with your teacher or counsellor. Parents’ Input • Understand the expectations from the school and teachers. • Express your needs as parents and expectations to obtain mutual understanding and agreement. • Talk to the child about making choices. • Show love and care. Do not condemn or shout. • Engage in frequent positive talk to show understanding and support the change. • Be patient and supportive. • Seek help from professional if things are too hard. The following are a few web pages where teachers can find sample assessment tools and intervention plans online. https://www.northlandsped.org/page/2933 https://www.westada.org/Page/29687

15.12 Conclusion Having a child with EBD in your class can be rather taxing. Helping students with EBD requires a team approach. School policies and procedures have to be put in place to guide the whole-school community to be on the same page with intervention and support strategies. Input from parents, special needs education consultant or advisers, school leaders and other school staff will help the child with EBD to learn selfregulation and feel safe in an inclusive environment. Social acceptance is important and structured social interactions on the playground will help these students to cope, develop better people skills, and develop a sense of belonging.

References Albrecht, S., Johns, B., Mounsteven, J., & Olorunda, O. (2009). Working conditions as risk or resiliency factors for teachers of students with emotional and behavioral disability. Psychology in The Schools, 46(10), 1006–1022. Algozzine, B., & Ysseldyke, J. (2006). Teaching students with emotional disturbance: A practical guide for every teacher. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press. Avramidis, E., Bayliss, P., & Burden, R. (2000). Student teachers’ attitudes towards the inclusion of students with special educational needs in the ordinary school. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16, 277–293. Ball, D. L., &Forzani, F. M. (2009). The work of teaching and the challenge for teacher education.Journal of Teacher Education, 60(5), 497–511. https://doi.org/10.1177/002248710934 8479.

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Bietenbeck, J. (2014). Teaching practices and cognitive skills. Labour Economics, 30, 143–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2014.03.002. Billingsley, B., Fall, A., & Williams, T. (2006). Who is teaching students with emotional and behavioral disorders? a profile and comparison to other special educators. Behavioral Disorders, 31(3), 252–264. Blackorby J., Chorost, M., Garza, N., & Guzman, A. (2005). The academic performance of elementary and middle school students with disability. In J. Blackorby et al. (Eds.), Engagement, academics, social adjustment, and independence: The achievements of elementary and middle school students with disability. A report from the Special Education Elementary Longitudinal Study (SEELS) (pp. 4–1–4–22). Blackorby, J., Wagner, M., Cameto, R., Davies, E., Levine, P., Newman, L., & Sumi, C. (with Chorost, M., Garza, N., & Guzman, A. M.). (2005). Engagement, academics, social adjustment, and independence: The achievements of elementary and middle school students with disabilities. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Cancio, E., Albrecht, S., & Johns, B. (2013). Defining administrative support and its relationship to the attrition of teachers of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Education & Treatment of Children, 36(4), 71–94. Fox, L, B. J. Vaughn, M. L. Wyatte, and Dunlap, (2002) We can’t expect other people to understand Family perspectives on problem behavior,” Exceptional Children, 68(4), 437–450, 2002. Jull, S. (2008). Emotional and behavioral difficulties (EBD): the special educational need justifying exclusion. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs., 8(1), 13–18. Kauffman, J., & Badar, J. (2013). How we might make special education with emotional and behavioral disorders less stigmatizing. Behavioral Disorders, 39(1), 16–27. Lucyshyn, J. M., Dunlap. G., & Freeman R. (2014). A historical perspective on the evolution of positive behavior support as a science-based discipline. In F. Brown, J. Anderson, R. De Pry, (Eds.), Individual positive behavior supports: A standards-based guide to practices in school and community-based settings. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes; 2014. pp. 3–25. MacLeod, G. (2006). Bad, mad or sad: constructions of young people in trouble and implications for interventions. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 11(3), 155–167. Oliver, R., & Reschly, D. (2010). Special education teacher preparation in classroom management: implications for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Council for Exceptional Children, 35(3), 188–199. Ortner, S. (2006). Anthropology and social theory: Culture, power, and the acting subject. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Prather-Jones, B. (2011) “Some people aren’t cut out for it”: the role of personality factors in the careers of teachers of students with EBD. Remedial and Special Education, 32(3), pp. 179–191. Schloss, P. J., & Smith, M. A. (1994). Applied behavior analysis in the classroom. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Silverman, W. K., & Field, A. P. (Eds.). (2011). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Solar, E. (2011). Prove them wrong: Be there for secondary students with an emotional or behavioral disability. Teaching exceptional children, 44(1), 40–45. Vannest, K., Harrison, J., Temple-Harvey, K., Ramsey, L., & Parker, R. (2011). Improvement rate differences of academic interventions for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Remedial and Special Education. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932510362509. Wagner, M., & Cameto, R. (2004,). The characteristics, experiences, and outcomes of youth with emotional disturbances (NLTS Data Brief, Vol. 3, No. 2). Minneapolis, MN: National Center on Secondary Education and Transition. Walker, H. M., Ramsey, E., & Gresham, F. M. (2004). Antisocial behavior in school: Evidencebased practices (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. World Health Organization. (2016). International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision (ICD-10): Behavioural and emotional disorders with onset usually occurring in childhood and adolescence (F90–F98).

Chapter 16

Supporting Students with Giftedness

16.1 Introduction The concept of giftedness varies in different countries and different school systems. Gifted students have unique learning needs, which require modified and tailored learning strategies. If unidentified and unsupported, giftedness can become a problem. This chapter begins by defining what giftedness is and describes some of the characteristics of gifted students. It moves on to discuss some of the common challenges faced by gifted students. The chapter highlights the importance of having provision to nurture and support the learning needs of gifted students and gives suggestions on how to design a stimulating learning environment for them. School leaders are shown how they can plan and structure school resources to support gifted students, their teachers and members of the school community. Finally, it discusses the challenges faced by teachers of gifted students and presents a few suggestions on effective classroom practice.

16.2 What Is Giftedness? Giftedness is a concept which describes children or individuals with an exceptional ability or abilities that are significantly above the norm of their age. People who are described as ‘gifted’ may manifest superior abilities in more than one domains such as, mathematical or scientific, intellectual, artistic, musical, analytical, or in sports and leadership. Schools and teachers in many parts of the world still struggle to identify gifted students, or have a thorough understanding of their needs. This is due to a lack of consistent definition and agreement on a common definition. Additionally, individuals who are ‘gifted’ are not a homogeneous group but individuals with diverse talents (Bracken and Brown 2008; Elhoweris et al. 2005; Endepohls-Ulpe and Thömmes 2014). © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 M. Gonzales, Systems Thinking for Supporting Students with Special Needs and Disabilities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4558-4_16

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Giftedness is seen as a development affected by a combination of both internal and external factors. This aligns with the debate on ‘nature’ (internal) vs ‘nurture’ (external factors). More explicitly, internal factors affect the cognitive and intellectual functions of the child, the ability to learn and understand quickly, and the extraordinary perceptions and functions in other intelligences, such as music, art and sports. Giftedness also includes the psychosocial development of the person and their interpersonal skills and charm. External factors, for example, good parenting, the family’s input to nurture the child through love, care and high expectations, contribute to the nurturing of the child’s exceptional ability. Additionally, the social-economic status of the family, and school factors, such as great teachers and quality provision of learning programs also play a part in fostering the gifted quality in a child. Attention to the education of gifted students created momentum in the 1990s with the work of Wolf (1990), Gagné (1997) and Morelock (1996, 1997), which sparked continual debates on the definition and identification of the gifted and talented in education and how to support them. In the USA, the federal government included the ‘Jacob Javits Gifted and Talented Student Education Act (1988)’ (Ford, Russo & Harris III, 1995) as part of its Elementary and Secondary Education Act and defines gifted students as: Students, children, or youths who give evidence of high achievement capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who need services and activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities.

In her widely read book on gifted children, Professor Ellen Winner (1996) described gifted children with three atypical characteristics: • A rage to master—‘Gifted children are intrinsically motivated to make sense of the domain in which they show precocity’. • Precocity—‘They begin to take the first steps in the mastery of some domain at an earlier-than-average age. They also make more rapid progress in this domain than do ordinary children, because learning in the domain comes easily to them’. • An insistence on marching to their own drums—‘Gifted children not only learn faster than average or even bright children but also learn in a quantitatively different way’. The Columbus Group, a US-based association for the research and support of gifted children defines ‘gifted’ as an asynchronous development, which describes these children as having a different development path than other children: Giftedness is asynchronous development in which advanced cognitive abilities and heightened intensity to create inner experiences and awareness that are qualitatively different from the norm. This asynchrony increases with higher intellectual capacity (The Columbus Group, US).

Other theorists describe giftedness in their preferred perspectives using psychological constructs, developmental theories, achievements, creativity, thinking processes, creativity achievement and nature/nurture argument (e.g. Clark 2008; Colangelo and Davis 2003; Heller et al. 2000; Mönks et al. 2005).

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16.3 Theories and Models on Giftedness The Terman’s Theory is one of the earliest which associated giftedness with individuals having superior IQ. In 1926, Terman defined Giftedness as: The top 1% in general intellectual ability, as measured by the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale or comparable measure (Terman 1954, p. 43).

DeHaan and Havighurst (1961) also developed their theory on giftedness, including six domains of exceptional abilities: Intellectual ability, creativity, scientific ability, social leadership, ingenuity, art ability. Any child who is superior in some ability that can make him an outstanding contributor to the welfare of, and quality of living in society is considered gifted (p. 15).

In 1986, Howard Garner developed the multiple intelligences theory and described in broader terms, including nine constructs of intelligence, describing giftedness as being outstandingly different in any one of these domains: Linguistic, musical, spatial, mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist and spiritual (Gardner 1995, 1999).

Following a similar line of thoughts to Garner’s theory, Renzulli (1986) also defined giftedness in a broader term describing it as: The capacity to process information, to integrate experiences that result in appropriate and adaptive responses in new situations, and the capacity to engage in abstract thinking (p. 66).

In 2002, Renzulli developed a Three-ring conception model of giftedness, including personality and environmental factors, as contexts for the three rings to expand. He also described some ‘co-cognitive’ factors that are observed with giftedness. They included: courage, optimism, sensitivity to human concerns, physical and mental energy, having a sense of vision and perseverance. In 2004, Gagne developed a model which described the ‘gifted’ and the ‘talented’ in different perspectives. Giftedness refers to a student’s outstanding natural abilities or aptitudes, located in one or more domains: intellectual, creative, social, perceptual or physical, placing that student in the top 10% of age peers. Talent is the outstanding performance or competency in one or more fields of human activity that places a student in the top 10% of age peers in that field. These models have been applied in different countries as frameworks to support students who are identified as gifted or with exceptionally outstanding learning ability. The reader is encouraged to find out more about these models.

16.4 Characteristics of Gifted Individuals Scholars studying giftedness have found that gifted learners may be overachievers in some areas of school learning but underachievers in others because a student who

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is gifted in one domain, is not necessarily gifted in other domains. Characteristics of giftedness may manifest in different ways and in varying degrees. One common characteristic seen in gifted learners is their high energy levels and ability to engage in independent studies and their ability to think at abstract levels. Intellectual characteristics shown by gifted learners as observed by (Clark 2002; Winebrenner 2001) include: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

ability to comprehend materials at advanced levels ability to engage in abstract thinking at an earlier age than peers ability to generate original ideas and solutions to problems intense curiosity and having varied and sometimes intense interests flexibility and proficient in thinking about problems and ideas a high desire to learn and seek out their own interests high levels of language development and verbal ability a tendency to be early readers high energy levels and longer attention spans preference to work alone a need for freedom and individuality in learning situations persistence, goal-oriented and intense on topics of interest possess accelerated and flexible thought processes preference for complex and challenging work ability to process and retain large amounts of information ability to see unusual relationships among disciplines or objects ability to transfer knowledge and apply it to new situations.

Clark (2002) has observed that many gifted learners are also highly emotional. However, because of their exceptional ability, they are also easily misunderstood. For example, gifted students’ high expectations of themselves may be regarded as ‘perfectionism’ and their desire to share knowledge with other may be misinterpreted as being a ‘show off’. Affective characteristics (Silverman 2000; Winebrenner 2001) found in gifted learners include: • • • • • • • • • •

a strong need for consistency early development of self-control high expectations of self and others a heightened sense of self-awareness a keen or subtle sense of humour advanced levels of moral judgement an unusual sensitivity to the feelings of others ability to process large amounts of information about emotions unusual emotional depth and intensity a sense of justice and idealism appearing at an early age.

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16.5 Challenges Faced by Gifted Students The educational environment plays a key role in influencing the behaviour and achievement of all students, including gifted learners. When the learning environment is not conducive to support the gifted learner, unacceptable behaviour may manifest. Scholars such as Clark (2002), Winebrenner (2001), Smutny (1998) caution classroom teachers to be aware of the needs and characteristics of gifted learners to prevent undesired behaviours. These observed behaviours include: • A lack of interest in what is taught (content they already know, or poor teaching methods) resulting in boredom and a disinterest in class, leading to unfinished assignments, or the development of bad work habits or disrespectful attitudes towards the teacher. • Expression of dissatisfaction towards being ‘underchallenged’, which may be interpreted as disrespectful or regarded as a behaviour issue. • When being regarded as a ‘show-off’ or a ‘perfectionist’ by other students or teachers, the gifted learner may procrastinate, or give up on learning tasks, leading to underachievement. • Gifted students often prefer to work alone instead of engaging group work as they think and perform differently. This may lead to the perception of them being aloof or uncooperative. • Gifted students who are low on social skills may appear to be bossy and overbearing and upset their classmates and teachers. • They may show occasional resistance to directions; rejection or omission of detail. • They have difficulty in accepting the illogical; likely to be stubborn and have a strong dislike for routine drill. • They may have critical attitude towards others; feel discouraged by self-criticism; feel frustrated with inactivity and absence of progress. • They may show strong reactions towards parent and peer-group pressures and nonconformity, may be rebellious or have problems facing rejection.

16.6 Nurturing and Supporting Students Who Are Gifted or Talented Behaviour problems in gifted students could stem from boredom or the feeling that their class work is too easy or beneath them. Some students might choose to be the ‘class clown’ to lighten things up, while others may engage in ‘bad’ behaviour to gain acceptance from his peers in an attempt to be ‘cool’. Many gifted students were also found to be highly emotionally sensitive and would require attention to help them control their emotional outbursts, or withdrawal from social interactions, a fight or flight mechanism to protect themselves from emotional discomfort. It is crucial that teachers understand the root causes that lead to inappropriate behaviour instead of blaming the student.

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As explained in the Gagné’s Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent (1997), ‘gifts’ are classified as mental (intellectual, perceptual, creative and social) and physical (muscular and motor control). Talents are measured in the fields of academic, science and technology, arts, social service, technical, administration, business operations, games, sports and athletics. The model explains that gifts are developed into talents through these developmental processes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Enriched curriculum or training program A clear and challenging excellence goal Selective access criteria Systematic and regular practice Regular and objective assessment of progress Personalised accelerated pacing.

Gagne’s model prompts that without the necessary nurturing and support, a gifted student may be overlooked and may not have the opportunity to develop further. These include educational support from school and teachers, parental and peer support and support that the child gains from his/her social community. As teachers, we need to be mindful and observant to identify students with giftedness and provide them with a learning environment that acknowledges their potential, maximises their giftedness, and enriches their learning experiences. It is also important that we are aware of factors that impact on their development educationally, intellectually, socially and emotionally. A Nurturing Environment for gifted students and all other students is one where each student feels valued and empowered to develop their potentials, gifts and talents. Teachers can help by: • Encouraging curiosity and discovery: Gifted children are curious. Play-based learning will encourage exploration and discovery. For younger children, incorporating active indoor and outdoor play will feed the curiosity of gifted children. Be patient with the child who loves to ask questions. Follow the child’s lead if possible. Integrate movement and creative kinaesthetic expressions with learning in language class and art class. For older students, ask open questions, encourage debates, facilitate problem- solving and critical thinking. Engage students in activities that involve investigation of purposes, cause and effects, relationship and connections and unfamiliar content and concepts. • Giving them time, attention and patience: Plan and design your lessons with activities that allow students to think, question and debate. Encourage brainstorming and using mind-maps to think and make connections. Encourage problem-solving by looking at different ways to view a problem and generate different options of solutions. Embrace disagreement and view things from multiple perspectives. • Making use of community resources, facilities, programs and events: Make learning active and fun. Plan excursions and learning projects that involve visits

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to museums, art galleries, cultural centres, monuments, factories, airports, zoos. Invite community members to give talks and share their experiences. • Designing interesting school-based events: Involve students to plan and run school-based events, such as keeping the school green, developing a school garden, being resource smart, planning for fun theme day. Encourage participation in drama clubs, music activities, concerts, community service clubs, chess and other mentally challenging games. Design different leadership programs to nurture different talent and interest. Ask student to help with production of teaching resources using the computer. • Being resource rich: Update the library to have a wide variety of books. Ask the community to donate old books or software resources. Encourage using the library as a leisure time during lunch breaks. Facilitate different sport and game activities on the playground. Facilitate group games such as jump ropes, hand balls, origami, balloon art, card tricks so that students are always active. • Encouraging quiet time: Have quiet corners where students can relax and quiet down. Active minds also need rest. Run yoga sessions or meditation sessions when possible. Offer a range of choices to meet different students’ needs (Gagné 1997).

16.7 School Leadership Required to Nurture Gifted Students At the helm of overseeing the equity of students in an inclusive school, effective leaders need to develop a broad understanding of the rationale for and means of catering to the different needs of gifted students. To put things into perspectives, school leaders may connect with other schools and develop an understanding and appreciation of how these schools respond to the needs of gifted students in terms of leadership strategies. It is helpful for a school to develop an understanding and competency in promoting best practices in gifted education and develop researchbased policy requirements for the education of gifted students. Put in place the necessary professional development for teachers and staff, and the school community. Share responsibilities with parents and other members of the school community to effect inclusion and nurturing of gifted students. Provide policies and support mechanism to assist teachers to implement set goals and plans. The following is a suggestion of an action plan on how school leaders can address inclusive education for gifted students: • Align gifted education services with internal learning support. • Communicate gifted education program goals with the school community. Clearly state the aim and purpose of these special programs that meet social and emotional needs of gifted children. • Plan and provide needed infrastructure to integrate components of support with current curriculum.

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• Consider roles, responsibilities and professional qualifications of key personnel for gifted education services (who, what, how). • Design identification procedures e.g. use of ability and aptitude measures; data and information from parents and other sources; portfolio of student work, interviews. • Create a comprehensive budget for gifted programs and services. • Design a professional development plan. • Design communication plan for parents and stakeholders. • Design monitoring and evaluation and procedures (how to collect data, what data, how to measure effectiveness, what feedback?) • Plan budgetary needs for supporting curricula development, professional development, enrichment programs, parent communication, etc. • Consider counselling and guidance considerations.

16.8 Challenges Faced by Teachers Literature on gifted learners in the classroom indicate that many teachers are unable to identify gifted students (e.g. Bangel et al. 2010; Hudson et al. 2010; Jung 2014).The most common practice in current classrooms, generally, depends on teacher’s observation and nomination, rating scales, test results and high academic achievements. Also, there is a lack of common procedures provided by education systems and schools. Most teachers and school leaders have pre-conceived beliefs about giftedness. Many make judgement only on high academic achievement and perhaps exceptional skills in literacy, numeracy and science. While attention is placed on these students, those who appear to be underachievers, and those with giftedness in other areas of intelligence such as arts, music, or leadership, are by and large, overlooked. Scholars interested in the field of education for gifted students (e.g. Chamberlin and Chamberlin 2010; Taylor and Milton 2008; Whitton 2006) state that teachers must be given adequate preparation, especially at pre-service stage, to develop a better understanding of giftedness and how to support gifted students. Findings that support this assertion gave proof that those given such teacher preparation opportunities were better able to target gifted students and showed a stronger awareness of the needs of these students. Similarly, those who actually have ‘hands-on’ experience working with gifted students demonstrated greater capacity to support and nurture gifted students with different talent and capability (Chamberlin and Chamberlin 2010; Hudson 2012; Karp 2010; Watters et al. 2013). Without a doubt, teachers’ input in implementing learning opportunities for these students is critical. To engage these students, teachers need to develop skills in differentiation of learning programs and activities. Differentiation is a contemporary pedagogical approach to enable all learners to learn and achieve simultaneously on subject matters and develop specific learning skills, which maximises the capacity of each learner. It is a learner-centred approach which addresses students’ needs by adjusting learning content, learning activities, and assessment methods. It focuses on

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students’ interests, strengths and the importance of working as a group and learning collaboratively. Differentiation is an important component of a systemic approach to planning learning, which caters to the diverse needs of all students. This approach is known as Universal Designed Learning.

16.9 Universal Designed Learning Education in the twenty-first century is different. As teachers and educators, we have to move forward and change our mindset. Adopt a learner-centred approach to switch passive learning to stimulate independent learning and instil a habit of self-driven curiosity and exploration. A twenty-first-century teacher is an educator who is aware of the evolving trends in understanding and facilitating learning using technology and skilled pedagogy to cater to the learning needs of the diverse body of students in today’s schools, including gifted children and children with special needs. Teachers who are sensitive to learner diversity, including their talents, disability, or special needs are able to make a difference in our children’s lives. A new framework known as Universal Design for Learning (UDL) (CAST Center for Applied Technology 2020) is being used in the last 10 years by school systems worldwide. This framework includes seven basic principles of UDL: 1. Equity: people diversity and ability should be considered in the design process. 2. Flexibility: individual preferences and abilities should be served. 3. Simple and intuitive use: the design should be easily understood regardless of user prior experience and knowledge. 4. Perceptible information: the design should communicate necessary information effectively to all users irrespective of their ambient conditions or sensory abilities. 5. Tolerance for error: the design should reduce and minimise risks and errors of unintended actions. 6. Low physical effort: the design should minimise the required physical effort to be used efficiently and comfortably. 7. Size and space for approach and use: the design should provide an appropriate size and space irrespective of user’s body size, posture, and/or mobility (Rose 1986). The successful application of the framework has been scrutinised and studied in different areas of learning, including students with disability and classrooms with diverse ethnic groups. Here are some examples of the findings. • Davies et al. (2012) found a positive significant change in learner perceptions after applying UDL. • He (2014) reported teachers’ satisfaction about knowing how to apply the principles of UDL and that has increased their self-efficacy and confidence

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• Kennedy et al. (2014) discovered a narrowing of the learning gap between students with and without disability when UDL is applied • Kumar and Wideman (2014) documented participants’ satisfaction in using UDL and reported a reduction of extra efforts from both teachers and disability service providers To facilitate group learning and to ensure that it is a genuine collaborative effort, teachers need to guide their students and teach them skills. Here are some tips for teachers to enhance better collaborative learning in the classrooms. Group size: It is best to keep the group small so everyone has the opportunity to take part; 3-6 would be a good size. Grouping criteria: Depending on the nature of the task and the level of challenge, teacher may learn to be more tactful in grouping students. They can group them according to ability so that the higher achieving ones can attempt more challenging tasks, while those who need more time and guidance can attempt less challenging ones. Sometimes it is best to mix them up so that students who are less capable can learn from those who are more capable. Guidelines and rules: Just as adults, some students can be bossy while others would easily give up and abdicate their tasks to allow the bossy one to take over. The purpose of group learning is for students to learn to interact and negotiate. These are opportunities for them to develop interpersonal skills, problem-solving skills, and conflict management. A skillful teacher knows how to lead the class to discuss about these skills and establish guidelines and rules accepted and respected by all group members. Setting group goals: There is a saying, ‘if you fail to plan, you plan to fail’. By teaching students how to set goals and sub-goals, they have a map to follow to achieve their goals. This will also give clarity to what sub-goals each member should achieve to fulfil the core goals. Ensure that real learning has taken place: When designing group projects, teachers must be specific on how these students will be assessed. A pre-test, post-test activity would be helpful to measure learning. Often in group work, those who are skilled in literacy would do the writing and those who are artistic would prefer to do the art component. However, it is important that the whole group learn and show understanding of the project, the needed knowledge and skills required. Different means of assessment can be designed (by the teachers or by the students themselves). Creative teachers make learning fun. In doing so, they are excited about their involvement in planning and facilitation of learning. This way, they do not see it as ‘extra work’. To make this happen, we also need teacher educators who are skilled and those who understand and acknowledge the critical factors of leading learning for all students, gifted or delayed.

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16.10 Conclusion Gifted students may appear to be high achievers in some subjects but not on all subjects, although there are also all-rounders. If not identified and supported, they may lose interest and give up on their classwork. It is always wise to set up extra work and more challenging work for all students to push them to excel beyond their potentials. Engage gifted students in creative tasks. Follow the child’s interest as much as possible. Learn the art of Universal Design Learning and encourage self-initiated learning innovation. Some gifted students may need special attention in developing social and interpersonal skills. Teachers should strive to establish a friendly, supportive and noncompetitive classroom to support all students.

References Bangel, N. J., Moon, S. M., & Capobianco, B. M. (2010). Preservice teachers’ perceptions and experiences in a gifted education training model. Gifted Child Quarterly, 54(3), 209–221. https:// doi.org/10.1177/0016986210369257. Bracken, B. A., & Brown, E. F. (2008). Early identification of high-ability students: Clinical assessment of behavior. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 31, 403–426, 505. CAST Center for Applied Technology. (2020). Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 2.2. Retrieved from http://udlguidelines.cast.org, http://www.cast.org/site/copyright.html#.X2f dw2gzbcs. Chamberlin, M. T., & Chamberlin, S. A. (2010). Enhancing preservice teacher development: Field experiences with gifted students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 33(381–416), 437. Clark, B. (2002). Growing up gifted: Developing the potential of children at home and at school (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Clark, B. (2008). Growing up gifted: Developing the potential of children at home and at school (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ.: Pearson Education. Colangelo, N., & Davis, G. A. (Eds.) (2003). Handbook of gifted education. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. The Columbus Group: http://www.gifteddevelopment.com/isad/columbus-group. Davies, P. L., Schelly, C. L., & Spooner, C. L. (2012). Measuring the effectiveness of universal design for learning intervention in postsecondary education. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 26(3), 195–220. DeHaan, Robert F., & Havighurst, Robert J. (1961). Educating gifted children (pp. ix–275). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Elhoweris, H., Mutua, K., & Alsheikh, N. (2005). Effect of children’s ethnicity on teachers’ referral and recommendation decisions in gifted and talented programs. Remedial and Special Education, 26(1), 25–31. Ford, D., Russo, C., & Harris III, J. (1995). Meeting the educational needs of the gifted: A legal imperative. Roeper Review, 17(4), 224–228, https://doi.org/10.1080/0278319950955366. Endepohls-Ulpe, M., & Thömmes, N. (2014). Chances and limitations of implementing measures of differentiation for gifted children in primary schools: The teachers. Turkish Journal of Giftedness & Education, 4(1), 24–26. Gagné, F. (1985). Giftedness and talent: Re-examining a re-examination of the definitions. Gifted Child Quarterly, 29(3), 103–112. Gagné, F. (1997). Much more than a semantic glitch: A rejoinder to Morlock’s response. Roeper Review, 20(2), 87–88.

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Gardner, H. (1995). Reflections on multiple intelligences: Myths and messages. Phi Delta Kappan, 7(7), 200–209. Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York, NY: Basic Books. He, Y. (2014). Universal design for learning in an online teacher education course: enhancing learners’ confidence to teach online. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 10(2), 283–298. Heller, K. A., M˝onks, F. J., Sternberg, R. J., & Subotnik, R. F. (Eds.). (2000). International handbook of giftedness and talent. Oxford: Pergamon. Hudson, R. (2012). How many languages can a person learn? In E. M. Rickerson & B. Hilton (Eds.), The five-minute linguist. Bite-sized essays on language and languages (2nd Edn., pp. 102–105). Sheffield: Equinox (Google Scholar). Hudson, P., Hudson, S., Lewis, K., & Watters, J. J. (2010). Embedding gifted education in preservice teacher education: A collaborative school-university approach. Australasian Journal of Gifted Education, 19(2), 5–15. Retrieved from http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=AEIPT;dn= 185931. Jung, J. Y. (2014). Predictors of attitudes to gifted programs/provisions: Evidence from pre-service educators. Gifted Child Quarterly, 58(4), 247–258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986214547636. Karp, A. (2010). Teachers of the mathematically gifted tell about themselves and their profession. Roeper Review, 32(4), 272–272, 280. Kennedy, M. J., Thomas, C. N., Meyer, J. P., Alves, K. D., & Lloyd, J. W. (2014). Using evidence based multimedia to improve vocabulary performance of adolescents with LD: A UDLApproach. Learning Disability Quarterly, 37(2), 71–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731948713507262. Kumar, K. L., & Wideman, M. (2014). Accessible by design: Applying UDL principles in a first year undergraduate course. Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 44(1), 125–147. Mönks, Franz, J., & Katzko, M. W. (2005). Giftedness and gifted education. In R. J. Sternberg & J. E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Morelock, M. (1996). On the nature of giftedness and talent: Imposing order on chaos. Roeper Review, 19(1), 4–12. Morelock, M. (1997). In response to Gagné’s Critique. Roeper Review, 20(2), 85–87. Renzulli, J. S. (1986). The three-ring conception of giftedness: A developmental model for creative productivity. In R. J. Sternberg & J. E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of Giftedness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Renzulli, J. S. (2005). The three-ring conception of giftedness: A developmental model for creative productivity. In R. J. Sternberg & J. E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness, (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Silverman, L. (2000). Characteristics of giftedness scale. Denver, CO: Gifted Development Center. Available at: www.gifteddevelopment.com/Articles/Characteristics_Scale.htm. Smutny, J. F. (Ed.) (1998). The young gifted child: Potential and promise, an anthology. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. Taylor, T., & Milton, M. (2008). Teacher education in catering for gifted learners. Gifted, 149, 11–14. Terman, L. M. (1954). Scientists and non-scientists in a group of 800 gifted men. Psychological Monographs, 68(7), 1–44. Watters, J. J., Hudson, S., & Hudson, P. (2013). Orienting preservice teachers towards gifted education: School university partnerships. Australasian Journal of Gifted Education, 22(2), 32–44. Winebrenner, S. (2001). Teaching gifted kids in the regular classroom: Strategies and techniques every teacher can use to meet the academic needs of the gifted and talented, revised (expanded and updated ed.), P. Espeland (Ed.). Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing. Winner, E. (1996). Gifted children: Myths and realities. New York, NY: Basic Books.

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Whitton, D. (2006). The training of teachers of gifted students in universities in Australia. Gifted Education International, 21(2–3), 190–200. https://doi.org/10.1177/026142940602100310. Wolf, J. S. (1990). The gifted and talented. In N. G. Haring & L. McCormick (Eds.), Exceptional children and youth: An introduction to special education. Columbus, OH: Merrill Publishing Company.

Chapter 17

Supporting Students with Hearing Impairment

17.1 Introduction With the advancement of medical and digital technology, individuals with hearing impairment do not need to rely on signing to communicate anymore, unless they choose to. Today, powerful hearing aids and the invention of the Cochlear Implant, also known as the Bionic Ear, enable people even with profound deafness to hear speech and other sounds. The wide range of frequency covered by these hearing devices enables deaf people to hear even music. In the past three decades, thanks to early identification and early intervention, many children born with hearing impairment are able to attend regular schools and achieve academic success just as their peers. The number of hearing-impaired individuals attending university and tertiary education is also increasing. Many hearing-impaired students are even able to learn a second or third language. This chapter begins by defining the different types and classification of Hearing Impairment (HI). It explains some of the causes of hearing impairment and how hearing loss affects the development of executive function, cognitive development, language development and communication. It moves on to the inclusion of students with hearing impairment in regular schools and the importance of social inclusion in the school community. It highlights the magic of music and how it enhances hearing and brings joy to people with hearing impairment, a luxury their older counterparts were not able to enjoy.

17.2 Defining Hearing Impairment (HI) According to the World Health Organisation (WHO 2018), there are currently around 466 million people worldwide with hearing loss, and 34 million of these are children. The WHO also informs us that there are three main types of hearing loss: Conductive hearing loss, Sensorineural hearing loss and Central deafness.

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Conductive hearing loss is associated with problems with the outer ear and the middle ear that prevent sound from reaching the cochlea. The blockage of sound occurs when there is an external ear canal malformation, a malfunction of the bones in the middle ear, or a dysfunction of the eardrum. It may also be caused by a disorder with the ossicle, one of the small bones in the middle ear.

Sensorineural hearing loss is caused by a dysfunction of the inner ear. The most common cause is damage to the cochlea, a snail-like component of the inner ear composed of sensory cells that convert vibrations into neural messages and then carried to the brain via the auditory nerve. Ear canal

Central deafness is caused by damage to the brain which may be associated with the presence of a tumour, or physical trauma or other diseases. The outer ear and the auditory nerve may still be functioning, but the brain is not able to process what is heard. People with hearing impairment (different degrees of deafness) may have a combination of conductive and sensorineural hearing loss. This is classified as Mixed hearing loss. Some people may have perfectly functioning ears, but they may have hearing difficulties due to Central auditory processing disorder. One of the most common types of this disorder is King-Kopetzky syndrome, which is characterised by a difficulty to process background noise, which impedes hearing in noisy environments. People with hearing loss are usually described in northern America and some parts of the world as ‘hard-of-hearing’ for those with functional hearing, and ‘deaf’, for those with profound hearing loss (Hyde and Punch 2009). In many countries, people with deafness are described as ‘Deaf’ with a capital ‘D’ to denote individuals who identify with their Deaf community and are usually signers or use signing in other manual communication methods. Some would also use a combination of speech and manual communication methods. However, in many other parts of the world, e.g. Europe, New Zealand, Hong Kong, the term ‘students

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with hearing impairment’ (HI) is used to describe students with various degrees of hearing loss. The WHO (2018) classified hearing impairment as: • • • • •

No hearing impairment: 0–25 dB loss Mild hearing impairment: 26–40 dB loss Moderate hearing impairment: 41–60 dB loss Severe hearing impairment: 61–80 dB loss Profound hearing impairment: 81 or above dB loss

17.3 Causes of Hearing Loss Causes of hearing loss as described by Babatola (2007) include: • Genetic disorders—e.g. Patau Syndrome, Treacher Collins Syndrome. • Hereditary disorders: most of these disorders are associated with the malformation of the outer, middle or inner ear. • Prenatal diseases: e.g. German measles, influenza, mumps. • Trauma: physical trauma such as a blow to the head, fractured skull or barotrauma (changes in air pressure).

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• Childhood diseases: such as meningitis, mumps, cytomegalovirus, chickenpox and severe cases of jaundice. • Extreme noise: exposure to long-term loud noise, or sudden extreme loud noise such as an explosion or extremely loud music. • Other causes: brain related damage, Meniere’s disease, exposure to certain chemicals.

17.3.1 Treatment • Removing blockage: Some conditions that caused hearing loss can be treated. The most basic being a conductive loss caused by blockage of earwax. Most people can resume normal hearing when the blockage is cleared by simple medical procedures. • Surgical procedures: Surgery can be helpful to restore hearing by inserting small tubes to help drain fluids out of the middle ear; repair or reconstruct malformed parts of the ear. • Hearing aids: Today’s hearing technology can work wonders with students suffering hearing conductive or sensorineural hearing loss. Professional assessment by a specialist ear-nose doctor and a trained audiologist will recommend the optimum hearing technology to assist hearing. This is often followed with speech and hearing training programmes. • Cochlear implants (CI) are very common these days in many economically advanced countries to meet the different hearing needs of the person with hearing loss. Training in listening with the CI technology is an integral part of aural rehabilitation.

17.3.2 Hearing and Learning Hearing loss impacts language development in many ways. Children not given early intervention in language development and using hearing technology to develop listening and attention skills often experience a delay in spoken language development (WHO 2018). Auditory learning is a vital aspect of language and literacy development for children. Parents and teachers need to understand the importance of auditory learning on language acquisition and literacy development and actively work towards building those skills (Madell 2014). Children develop perceptual capability and relate to speech perception in order to develop language abilities. They do so through interaction with adults and other children in incidental learning. Without proper hearing devices and language skills, a child with hearing loss will experience a delay in their language development, which eventually, will lead to slower academic progress (Marschark and Hauser 2012).

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For auditory learning to occur, sound must first reach the brain. Deaf children without the support of hearing technology will be delayed in their auditory processing, attention, speech and language and even social behaviour.

17.4 Executive Function and Hearing Loss Executive function is defined as a complex set of cognitive abilities which enable the coordination of mental processes to manipulate information, sequence information, solve different problems and generate strategies to accomplish goals (Elliott 2003; Funahashi 2001). It is also related to short term memory or working memory. Baddeley (2003) explains that executive functions are served by short term phonological and visuospatial systems to support language learning. The development of executive function has also been associated with behavioural self regulation and social emotional competence (McClelland et al. 2007). Scholars who researched about the executive function of children with hearing loss also found that a sample of deaf children in one study showed lower executive function than their hearing peers and concluded that children with low executive function are also low on language skills.

17.5 Hearing Loss and Language Development With the advancement of digital technology and technical skills in supporting language development for children with hearing loss, contemporary research focus has shifted to understanding the relationship of language development and the development of auditory skills in a language-rich environment. Studies in the twenty-first century indicate that children with hearing loss who are exposed to a language-rich environment, especially spoken language, are able to develop cognitive, linguistic and social skills similar to their hearing peers. The key to success is the appropriate fitting of hearing devices, continuous monitoring and development of aural/oral capabilities, and most importantly, early intervention (Hansson et al. 2004). Good news abounds in research on HI students since the invention of the Cochlear implants (CI) some forty years ago. With years of improvement of the device, children with CI are achieving better results in their schoolwork, language development and communication. One study (Lee and van Hasselt 2005), found that children with cochlear implants develop in a progressive way and achieve a statistically significant improvement in relation to the verbal comprehension over time. This mirrored the results reported by Geers et al. (2007) who observed that students with CI were able to catch up and fill the language gap in a steady progressive manner, stressing the importance of the time factor in language development with the use of the CI. Supporting this claim, the study of Geers and Sedey (2011) also found that 70% of his subjects, adolescents who have used the CI for over ten years, were able to reach

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standardised language scores within and above the normal range. In another study (Nicholas and Geers 2008), discovered that adults with hearing impairments seemed to show better understanding of the pragmatics of language as compared to children. This prompts attention to the development of pragmatics in school children with hearing loss, such skills as body language, expressions of personal ideas, thoughts and emotions, communicative intent, how to respond appropriately to others verbally or non-verbally. In a 2015 study, Ching found that the language profile of children implanted as babies, and who have received language interventions, is similar to other fiveyear-old children without hearing loss (Ching 2015). This means there is no sign of language delay. Other scholars in HI studies (e.g. Geers 2003; Hoff 2003) also found that children with severe-profound hearing loss fitted with cochlear implants at infancy had better vocabulary skills than those who received implantation at a later age. Children with severe-profound hearing loss implanted with Cochlear devices were also found to have only a 7-month delay in vocabulary and expressive language as compared with their hearing peers (Yoshinaga-Itano et al. 2010). In an Australian study, 143 itinerant teachers supporting students with hearing loss in the mainstream classrooms reported that 66% of their students were able to meet the same academic standards as their normal-hearing classmates, while 17% met only minimum academic standards (Power and Hyde 2003). The study emphasised the importance of itinerant support from specialist teachers who enhance the student’s language, academic and social development with additional support sessions or inclass support. Hearing impaired students with early implantation have been found to be performing at a satisfactory level in most mainstream schools (Pisoni et al. 2008; Punch and Hyde 2011). Some studies have found that the severity of hearing loss affect academic achievements. They gave evidence showing that those with mildmoderate hearing loss tend to perform better than those with severe-profound deafness (e.g. Blamey et al. 2001; Bow et al. 2004). More and more studies have proved that students with hearing loss are reaping the benefits of technology, not only in hearing, but in using technology for learning, for example, the use of speech software and iPad educational programmes. These include studies from Bricker of USA (2015); one study from Turkey (Odabasi et al. 2009), and one from Saudi Arabia (Bagabas 2016). On the other hand, there are still many studies reporting that children with hearing loss are still behind their peers at school age. They include lower performance in grammar, verbal and spatial reasoning. Some are less articulate and limited in oral expressions and have the tendency to present fewer communication initiatives than their hearing peers (e.g. Hatamizadeh et al. 2008; Hayes et al. 2009). This prompts more attention to understanding the different barriers faced by HI students who are not achieving as those reported in the literature. It is the hope of the author that more teachers, parents and educators engage in more active research and contribute more insights into the education of students with HI in inclusive schools.

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17.6 Inclusion of Students with Hearing Impairment As indicated in the previous section, recent research has found that students with hearing loss attained higher achievement academically in an inclusive classroom than in self-contained classes or special schools (Allen and Anderson 2010). In these studies, scholars highlighted an accepting school culture as a key factor to student success, when teachers and school leaders set high expectations on all students and provide needed support and policies to sustain a high standard in student’s achievement.

17.6.1 Teacher Factors Teacher factor is an important element in student success in the inclusive school. Teachers play a vital role in facilitating the academic and social development for all students, and especially those with special needs. The instruction and the physical settings of classrooms, for instance, need to be supported in multiple ways. It is natural that teachers who are unprepared often find themselves under increased stress when they have a student with special needs in their class. This is common among teachers who have no experience nor sufficient knowledge of what to do with them (Luckner et al. 2012; Marschark et al. 2011). Evidence was given to show that teachers with positive attitudes are found to be better able to inspire students with hearing needs and form influential relationships with them, resulting in student increased self-confidence and higher achievement (Gibb et al. 2007). A study conducted by AJerrytoye and Luckner (2016) also found that teachers who are trained in helping students with hearing loss are able to provide additional and needed support by having the knowledge and skills to identify student’s needs and understand factors that significantly impact the student’s learning and achievement. It is unethical to place a child with special needs in a classroom where the teacher is untrained and unprepared. It is unfair both to the child and the teacher. Classroom strategies found to be effective in the literature can be categorised into three main categories: (1) instructional strategies, (2) seating arrangement and noise management, and (3) visual and technological support.

17.6.2 Instructional Strategies Studies have found that, many students with hearing loss are still not adequately supported in the mainstream classroom (Berndsen and Luckner 2012) due to inadequate knowledge of the classroom teachers and school administrators to provide the necessary structure, material and human resources.

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Here is a list of instructional strategies summaries from the literature for teachers of hearing-impaired students in the mainstream class: • Gain the attention of the hearing-impaired (HI) students before giving instruction. • Speak naturally without exaggeration. • Be aware of the language ability of the HI student and communicate according to their needs. • Speak clearly and slow down the pace of instructions if need be, or give individual support, later on, to make sure the HI student does not miss out on information. • Ensure minimal background noise when teaching and throughout the lesson. • Do not move around a lot when speaking. • Do not talk with your back turned or when you are writing on the blackboard. Talk first facing the students, then write. • Students with hearing aids or cochlear implants may be able to hear your voice but may sometimes have difficulty distinguishing the words. Allow them to watch your lips when you talk. • Do not stand in front of a window or your face will be in shadow. • For male teachers with facial hair, please trim your beard or moustache so it is not covering your lips. • Some HI students may need extra support to communicate in group work. • Introduce new materials in small steps and give clear directions and explanations. • Never expect the student’s peers to become their interpreters in the classroom. • Never shout at the deaf student. • It is helpful to repeat questions posed by other students before giving your answer and repeat answers to questions given by the student’s peers. • Use facial expression, body language and gesture if need be. • When explaining vocabulary or new terms, write them on the blackboard and add synonyms and definitions to aid understanding. • Read at a regular pace with clarity and reasonable volume. Wear a remote microphone which is connected to the student’s hearing device. • Arrange for a learning buddy to assist the HI student where possible and needed.

17.6.3 Seating and Noise Management Students with hearing impairment need to be seated in a well-positioned spot where he or she can see the teacher as well as the other students when they are asking questions or speaking to the class. A ‘U’ shaped classroom arrangement is optimum as it allows all students to see one another. Helpful teachers will ask the HI student to choose the best seat where he/she feels she could work best. Rigid seating plans really have no place in today’s classrooms as students are free to move about in active learning. Most classrooms today are highly interactive with students moving about and working in groups, exchanging ideas. Noise such as moving chairs and furniture,

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student movement and individual group discussions will raise the volume of classroom noise, which will be amplified by the hearing devices worn by the HI students. High noise level in the classroom affects both teachers and students, causing fatigue and affect the patience level of the individual. Therefore, it is ideal if the teacher can be aware of the situation and try to minimise the level of noise as much as possible. Preferably, provide a quiet area for the HI student in group work, such as an adjacent room. The use of a direct wireless communication device (e.g. a Roger Mic, or an FM system) was found to be very effective to assist HI students to cut background noise when hearing in the classroom. Devices with Bluetooth functions such as the current popular Roger systems in hearing technology can give access to teacher communication as well as group communications. With the rapid advancement of digital technology, students with hearing impairments are frequently being upgraded with the latest technology to help them to hear better. It is therefore important for teachers to keep up with the function of the technology and how to use these devices to help the student hear better. It will be an exciting learning opportunity for teachers to keep in touch of the innovative technology and how they can benefit students with special needs and disability.

17.6.4 Visual and Technological Support One of the most important factors in enhancing classroom learning is the realisation of how deaf students learn. Many of them are found to be visual learners, therefore, presenting learning context and instructions with visual supports have a big impact to enhance students’ understanding of subject contents and learning instructions (Berndsen and Luckner 2012; Schultz et al. 2013). Visuals such as videos, the use of smart boards, iPads, posters, gestures, facial expressions, body language and actual demonstrations, are necessary for students who are hearing impaired (Schultz et al. 2013). With the increased use of videos as a means of teaching, it is important that the teacher finds resources with captions. These are words displayed on a computer or a TV screen or other mobile device to describe the audio or sound components of a video clip. Captions provide HI students with needed contextual information. In a movie or a video clip, the lip movement or facial expressions of the speaker are not always shown. Captions will give needed information not only to the student with hearing loss but all other students, especially those with extra support needs and those with non-native-speaking backgrounds. All teachers who are teaching the HI child must know the hearing needs of the student and the basics of the hearing technology they use. This needs to happen before the school year through parental interviews and learning support planning. Usually, a specialist teacher with professional qualifications in hearing support would inform the class teachers and support them with their initial learning needs about hearing technology. The classroom teacher must know what to do when the student receives no sound on their hearing aids. It could be a battery problem most of the time. Having a packet of spare battery in the classroom is always helpful to help the student replace the

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needed battery. Learn from the ISTH or hearing specialist on other strategies to help the students. Most students over age 10 would have developed skills to manage their own hearing device.

17.6.5 Adjustments in the Classroom Quality teaching is responsive to the different needs of all students. In a mainstream classroom, it is essential that the teacher knows the learning needs of the students and make adjustments to minimise learning barriers. The following are suggestions from the summary of a literature review on some of the effective adjustments made by mainstream classrooms. Adjustments in lesson presentation • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Use captions when presenting videos. Model specific skills. Link new content with prior knowledge. Refrain from dictating notes. It is very hard for an HI student to listen and write at the same time. Have the same expectations from the HI student as you would any other students. Plan and engage students in active learning. Develop higher order thinking skills. Introduce new vocabulary before teaching a new subject. Work closely with the hearing support teacher and team-teach if necessary. Adjust your oral communication style to meet student’s needs. Be aware of your pace of speech (not to fast, not too slow), use normal speech and normal volume. Do not be wordy. Use simple and straight forward instruction. Do not move about when you speak. Allow ‘think time’ when asking as a student to give an oral response. Plan for success. Keep up with your knowledge of hearing technology and use technology effectively. Adjust the complexity of the task. For students with language delay, allow more time to complete tasks or give fewer items to complete. Give the students a copy of your notes instead of having the student take notes (or ask the support teacher to help as a note-taker). Provide a summary of a story or a long piece of text (for students with poor language skills). However, have high expectations for those who are able to perform as well as their peers. Praise and give encouragement frequently.

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17.6.6 Different Modes of Classroom Support In Australia and New Zealand, over 80% of children with hearing loss attend mainstream classrooms, supported by specialist teachers who are trained and highly qualified in all aspects of education for children with hearing loss (Hyde and Power 2004). These children are all aided with hearing aids or cochlear implants and provided with hi-tech hearing devices to help them hear in class. School performance of students with hearing loss varies depending on different factors. Many studies from other countries have found that students with hearing loss leave school with lower reading skills, and generally perform at a lower-than-average level academically. There are parallel concerns about their writing skills as well. On the other hand, students with hearing loss have been shown on average to have better communication and academic skills than those in more segregated settings (2009). Other studies have identified poor language skills as a contributing risk factor in regard to poor outcomes in mathematics and science (Marschark and Spencer 2010). The specialist hearing support teacher provides support to the student, the classroom teachers and parents. They may be involved in direct teaching, such as giving in-class support to assist in classroom assignments, group interactions, or withdraw the student for 20–30 minutes to give the student extra support to strengthen identified learning skills to achieved IEP goals. Specialist hearing support teachers also provides direct non-academic services to students with hearing loss in mainstream schools, depending on individual needs. They may include specific communication skills, speech skills; auditory and listening skills, how to use hearing devices and other hearing technology, conversation skills, strengthening literary and numeracy skills and enhancing knowledge and skills building in other subjects. In addition, they also provide a variety of consultation services.

17.6.7 Building Self-Confidence in Wearing Hearing Aids Early identification of deafness in infants and early intervention including the fitting of appropriate hearing devices (hearing aids or cochlear implants) have a life-changing impact on children with hearing loss. Studies in the last decade found that children who received hearing, speech and language intervention before 6 months of age developed stronger language skills than those who received these interventions at a later stage in life (Calderon and Naidu 2000).

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Some children who are diagnosed later (after the age of 2–3) sometimes have problems wearing their hearing aids. Researchers discovered that for most of those who rejected their hearing aids found them to be ‘too loud’ or ‘too noisy’ because it needs time to get used to hearing something differently. Evidence from the literature indicates the child’s temperament and the age of fitting as a major factor for hearing aids rejection in some children. One of the key reasons for older children not to wear their hearing aids is their needs to be accepted. It is important for classroom teachers and the ISTH or school counsellors to identify the reasons for the student’s rejection of wearing their hearing devices and develop strategies to help them build self-confidence and resilience to accept their hearing loss and their need to wear hearing aids. Self-acceptance is part of emotional resilience. Students with special needs require support to deal with reality and not to think that they have limitations and flaws because they are different. Teachers can help by steering their focus on the strengths and the positive qualities of themselves. To help them accept and wear their hearing devices, the teacher must pay attention to using the proper technology to enhance hearing in class, such as using a remote microphone or device that transmit direct speech sound to the hearing aid or cochlear processor and paying attention to classroom acoustics and noise levels. The specialist hearing support teacher should show these teachers how to use the technology at the beginning of the school year. The use of metacognitive strategies is helpful to facilitate student’s awareness of the pros and cons of using and not using the hearing aids and to make decisions on how to tackle problems identified. Patience and encouragement are key to success. In addition, clearly established routine and perseverance is essential.

17.7 Social and Emotional Development Social interaction with peers and friendship building is an important part of childhood development that impacts the psychological well-being of the child. Social acceptance and positive peer relationships also affect the development of self-esteem and emotional regulation (McElwain and Valling 2005). This is important for students with hearing loss as it has been found to affect positive attitudes towards school and successful adjustment in mainstream education. Findings from contemporary studies point to the fact that many students with hearing loss often encountered problems with social-emotional development due to social isolations and peer rejections (Dammeyer 2010; Hogan et al. 2011). Specifically, two reports actually suggested that an average of 20% of students with hearing loss faced social acceptance challenges. Some of the underlying causes found associated with the delay in social-emotional development in children with hearing loss are linked to the lack of ability to express oneself and using language as a social tool (Eisenberg et al. 2007).

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The development of social-emotional competence, which can be broadly defined as the awareness of one’s own emotions and other’s emotions, is a skill that can be taught. In a study on how preschool children with hearing loss interacted with other children, it was observed that normal-hearing children showed a strong tendency to exclude those with hearing loss (Dammeyer 2010). The findings suggest that social competence is needed for both groups of children. As such, scholars in the field, for example, McCabe and Altamura (2011), suggest that social competence needs to be taught and facilitated by teachers in the mainstream. Peer interaction is critical to children being able to later establish social adjustment in their stages of lives. Some of the gaps identified in students with hearing loss included the lack of ability to express themselves using pragmatic language, not knowing how to make conversation or to join a group, and a decreased perception of emotions (Most et al. 2010; Remine and Brown 2010). Social isolation is common among children who are different, those with disability, those from a different racial background, and those who lack social skills and are introverted. Mainstream teachers and school administrators need to be aware of this problem and put in place efforts to promote the social well-being of these students to enhance better mental health and social development of these students.

17.8 Social Inclusion in the School Community Inclusive education has been practised in the last 30 years globally. It is a multidimensional concept that is influenced by cultural, educational and social-political factors. The key to inclusive education is the belief of fairness and equity, the celebration and value of differences and diversity. This concept, when put into practice, encompasses change in attitudes, readiness, knowledge and school transformation that focus on the development of the individual rather than a one-size-fits all model. After thirty years of practice, the inclusion of students with special needs still faces a lot of problems with social inclusion being a major concern. Studies have shown that students with special needs or disability generally have fewer friends and are usually rejected by their classmates in the mainstream classroom. Perhaps it is because some of these students display frequent aggressive or inappropriate behaviour, appear to be highly emotional, lack self-confidence, or have low selfesteem. Many students with hearing loss also suffer social isolation for various reasons. Students who are better able to communicate tend to have more friends and less social problems, whereas, those who cannot express themselves fluently face barriers in making friends. Scholars in the field have prompted attention to mainstream schools to pay attention to the social participation of students with hearing and language issues and to ensure a safe and friendly environment for these students to develop socially (Hyde and Power 2006). One of the major barriers for hearing-impaired students to connect with others is playground noise (Punch and Hyde 2010). Teachers and other students need to

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understand that when a deaf child with a hearing aid is on the playground, the hearing devices amplify not only human speech but also environmental noise, including wind. In Australia, some specialist hearing support teachers would help the class teachers to set up play areas for younger children so they can invite a few friends in and play with them. Many teenagers with hearing loss would choose to stay in quiet areas to have a chat with friends and many enjoy doing board games and other activities in the library. More caring teachers also help students to form friendship groups during playtime and organise group games to enhance playtime bonding. It is important that classroom teachers and school administrators understand the problems faced by hearing-impaired students to help them overcome these barriers. Some students are not able to articulate the psychosocial difficulties they experience (Dammeyer 2010). Thoughtful and planned effort needs to be made to enhance the social development of these students.

17.9 Music and Hearing Impairment Many people have the misconception that those with hearing impairment or hearing loss are not able to enjoy music. On the contrary, some studies have found that learning music has countless benefits for students with hearing loss. Torppa and colleagues (2018), found that developing music ability in young children enhanced their development of phonological awareness. Since both music and spoken language require the use of the auditory pathway to listen, and the use of the voice for output, the practice of singing in tune can also help with intonation in reading. Children who participate in music learning, whether singing or playing an instrument, have the opportunity to practice auditory skills as they listen to music and are able to carry over these skills into reading to strengthen phonological awareness activities. This is especially true with tonal language like Cantonese and Mandarin, though research is limited in this area. Advocates who encourage music learning for students with hearing loss believe that in doing so, it enhances their phonological awareness, which in turn, enable them to build vocabulary and process complex syntax in their reading. There is also anecdotal evidence that involving children with hearing loss in music programmes can enhance brain development, facilitate language fluency and give enjoyment to the learners (Hash 2003). A study from Helsinki found that students with cochlear implants who were involved in music learning measured higher in auditory skills. They showed better perception of speech in noise, and greater response to musical sound as compared with those who were not. The study noted that in Finland, students with cochlear implants have a wide variety of different musical hobbies as a result of positive encouragement from schools and a culture of love of music and singing at home (Torppa et al. 2018).

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17.10 Conclusion Australia has been known to be a leading country in steering inclusive education, especially in the area of hearing impairment. Upon the invention of the Cochlear implants by Professor Graeme Clark, an ear surgeon in Melbourne, the Australian government has since supported the education of children with hearing loss by funding a range of services including providing children with hearing impairment with free hearing aids and itinerant support services from highly skilled and qualified specialist teachers (ISTH). With the advice and services from these specialist teachers (ISTH), classroom teachers are supported to care for hearing-impaired students with knowledge, skills and capability to understand and provide for their students’ academic needs, linguistic and literacy learning issues and social integration factors. It takes a village to raise a child. Inclusive education is about understanding the needs of a child with special and additional needs and working together to combat challenges, and nurture these students to blossom with confidence and achieve with their potentials.

References AJerrytoye, C. A., & Luckner, J. (2016, Winter). Successful students who are deaf or hard of hearing and culturally and/or linguistically diverse in inclusive settings. American Annals of the Deaf, 160(5), 453–466. Allen, T. E., & Anderson, M. L. (2010). Deaf students and their classroom communication: An evaluation of higher order categorical interactions among school and background characteristics. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 15, 334–347. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pub med/20624758. Babatola, R. F. (2007). Mild and unilateral hearing loss in children. www.asha.org. Baddeley, A. (2003). Working memory: Looking back and looking forward. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 829–839. Bagabas, H. A. (2016). The effectiveness of computerized instructional packages on concept acquisition and improving academic achievement among female deaf students in KSA. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(21), 65–71. Berndsen, M., & Luckner, J. (2012). Supporting students who are deaf or hard of hearing in general education classrooms: A Washington state case study. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 33(2), 111–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525740110384398. Blamey, P., Sarant, J. Z., Paatsch, L. E., Barry, J. G., Bow, C., Wales, R. J., & Tooher, R. (2001). Relationships among speech perception, production, language, hearing loss, and age in children with impaired hearing. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 264–285. https:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11324650. Bow, C. P., Blamey, P. J., Paatsch, L. E., & Sarant, J. Z. (2004). The effects of phonological and morphological training on speech perception scores and grammatical judgments in deaf and hardof-hearing children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 9, 305–314. https://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15304433. Bricker, V. (2015). I pads for access, independence, and achievement. Odyssey: New Directions in Deaf Education, 16, 10–13. Calderon, R., & Naidu, S. (2000). Further support for the benefits of early identification and intervention for children with hearing loss. Volta Review, 100(5), 53–84.

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Ching, T. Y. (2015). Is early intervention effective in improving spoken language outcomes of children with congenital hearing loss? American Journal of Audiology, 24(3), 345–348. Dammeyer, J. (2010). Psychosocial development in a Danish population of children with cochlear implants and deaf and hard-of-hearing children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 15(1), 50–58. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enp024. Eisenberg, D., Golberstein, E., & Gollust, S. E. (2007). Help-seeking and access to mental health care in a university student population. Medical Care, 45, 594–601. Elliot, R. (2003). Executive functions and their disorders. British Medical Bulletin, 65(1), 49–59. Funahashi, S. (2001). Neuronal mechanisms of executive control by the prefrontal cortex. Neuroscience Research, 39, 147–165. Geer, A. E., & Sedey, A. L. (2011). Language and verbal reasoning skills in adolescents with 10 or more years of cochear implant experience. Ear and Hearing, 2011(32), 39–48. Geers, A. E. (2003). Predictors of reading skill development in children with early cochlear implant. Ear and Hearing, 24(1), 59S–68S. Geers, A. E., Nicholas, J. G., & Moog, J. S. (2007). Estimating the influence of cochlear implantation on language development in children. Audiological Medicine, 5, 262–273. Gibb, K., Tunbridge, D., Chua, A., & Frederickson, N. (2007). Pathways to inclusion: Moving from special school to mainstream. Educational Psychology in Practice, 23(2), 109–127. https://doi. org/10.1080/02667360701320770. Hansson, K., Forsberg, J., Löfqvist, A., Mäki-Torkko, E., & Sahlén, B. (2004). Working memory and novel word learning in children with hearing impairment and children with specific language impairment. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 39, 401–422. Hash, P. M. (2003). Teaching instrumental music to deaf and hard of hearing students. Research and Issues in Music Education, 1(1). Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ852403. pdf. Hatamizadeh, N., Ghasemi, M., Saeedi, A., & Kazemnejad, A. (2008). Perceived competence and school adjustment of hearing impaired children in mainstream primary school settings. Child: Care, Health and Development, 34, 789–794. Hayes, H., Geers, A. E., Treiman, R., & Moog, J. S. (2009). Receptive vocabulary development in deaf children with cochlear implants: Achievement in an intensive auditory-oral educational setting. Ear and Hearing, 30, 128–135. Hoff, E. (2003). The specificity of environmental influence: Socioeconomic status affects early vocabulary development via maternal speech. Child Development, 74(5), 1368–1378. Hogan, A., Shipley, M., Strazdins, L., Purcell, A., & Baker, E. (2011). Houston DM: Infant speech perception. In R. Seewald, & A. M. Thapre (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of pediatric audiology (pp. 47–62). San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc. Hyde, M., & Power, D. (2004). Characteristics of deaf and hard-of-hearing students in Australian regular schools: Hearing level comparisons. Deafness Education International, 5, 133–143. Hyde, M., & Power, D. (2006). Some ethical dimensions of cochlear implantation for deaf children and their families. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 11, 102–111. Hyde, M., & Punch, R. (2009). A comparison of anticipated benefits and the personal, educational and social outcomes of cochlear implantation in deaf children. Summary Report of Australian Research Council Project, Griffith University Gold Coast School of Education and Professional Studies. Lee, K. Y, & van Hasselt, C. A. (2005). Spoken word recognition in children with cochlear implants: A five-year study on speakers of a tonal language. Ear and Hearing, 26, 30S–37S. Luckner, J., Slike, S., & Johnson, H. (2012). Helping students who are deaf or hard of hearing succeed. Teaching Exceptional Children, 44(4), 58–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/004005991204 400406. Madell, J. R. (2014). Hearing review: Meeting the challenge: Keeping hearing devices on children. Marschark, M., & Hauser, P. C. (2012). How deaf students learn. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Marschark, M., & Spencer, P. E. (2010). The Oxford handbook of deaf students, language and education (Vol 2). Oxford University Press.

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Marschark, M., Spencer, P., Adams, J., & Sapere, P. (2011). Evidence-based practice in educating deaf and hard-of-hearing children: Teaching to their cognitive strengths and needs. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 26(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2011. 543540. McCabe, P. C., & Altamura, M. (2011). Empirically valid strategies to improve social and emotional com-petence of preschool children. Psychology in the Schools, 48, 513–540. https://doi.org/10. 1002/pits.20570. McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Wanless, S. B., & Murray, A. (2007). Executive function, behavioral self regulation, and social emotional competence. In Contemporary perspectives on social learning in early childhood education (Vol. 1, pp. 113–137). Charlotte, NC: IAP. McElwain, N. L., & Volling, B. L. (2005). Preschool children’s interactions with friends and older siblings: Relationship specificity and joint contributions to problem behavior. Journal of Family Psychology, 19, 486–496. Most, T., Shina-August, E., & Meilijson, S. (2010). Pragmatic abilities of children with hearing loss using cochlear implants or hearing aids compared to hearing children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 14, 422–437. Nicholas, J. G., & Geers, A. E. (2008). Expected test scores for pre-schoolers with a cochlear implant who use spoken language. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 17(2), 121–138. Odabasi, H. F., Kuzu, A., Girgin, C., Cuhadar, C., Kiyici, M., & Tanyeri, T. (2009). Reflections of hearing-impaired students on daily and instructional PDA use. International Journal of Special Education, 24(1), 8–19. Pisoni, D., Conway, C., Kronenberger, W., Horn, D., Karpicke, J., & Henning, S. (2008). Efficacy and effectiveness of Cochlear implants in deaf children. In M. Marschark & P. Hauser (Eds.), Deaf cognition: Foundations and outcomes (pp. 52–101). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Power, D., & Hyde, M. (2003). Itinerant teachers of the deaf and hard of hearing and their students in Australia: Some state comparisons. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 50, 385–401. Punch, R., & Hyde, M. (2010). Children with Cochlear implants in Australia: Educational settings, supports, and outcomes. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 15(4), 405–421. Punch, R., & Hyde, M. B. (2011). Communication, psychosocial, and educational outcomes of children with Cochlear implants and challenges remaining for professionals and parents. International Journal of Otolaryngology, 2011, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/573280. Remine, M. D., & Brown, P. (2010). Comparison of the prevalence of mental health problems in deaf and hearing children and adolescents in Australia. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 44(4), 351–357. https://doi.org/10.3109/00048670903489866. Schultz, J. L., Lieberman, L. J., Ellis, M. K., & Hilgenbrinck, L. C. (2013). Ensuring the success of deaf students in inclusive physical education. JOPERD: The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 84(5), 51–56. Torppa, R., Faulkner, A., Kujala, T., Huotilainen, M., & Lipsanen, J. (2018). Developmental links between speech perception in noise, singing, and cortical processing of music in children with Cochlear implants. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 36(2), 156. https://doi.org/ 10.1525/mp.2018.36.2.156. World Health Organisation (WHO). (2018). Disability and health fact sheets. Retrieved from https:// www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/disability-and-health. Yoshinaga-Itano, C., Baca, R. L., & Sedey, A. L. (2010). Describing the trajectory of language development in the presence of severe-to-profound hearing loss: A closer look at children with Cochlear implants versus hearing aids. American Neurotology Society [and] European Academy of Otology and Neurotology, 31(8), 1268–1274. Follow journal https://doi.org/10.1097/mao.0b0 13e3181f1ce07.

Chapter 18

Supporting Students with Vision Impairment

18.1 Introduction Students with vision impairments, those with low vision and those who are totally blind, have been included in mainstream education for over half a century in many parts of the world. Most of these students are supported with additional services, such as extra support from specialist teachers, some of them known as Itinerant Support Teacher Vision (ISTV). This chapter gives a general overview of what vision impairment entails and some foundational knowledge about visual acuity, visual fields and functional vision. It briefly discusses the educational implications of vision loss and provides some helpful tips for mainstream classroom teachers on how to modify the classroom and the learning environment, how to plan learning activities to accommodate the needs of the student with vision impairment and most importantly, how to work collaboratively with other professionals such as the ISTV, mobility instructors and other experts in the field of vision loss.

18.2 What Is Vision Impairment? 18.2.1 Definitions Vision impairment is classified into two categories: Distance vision impairment and Near vision impairments, according to the World Health Organisation.

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18.2.2 Distance Vision Impairment Describes • a person with visual acuity worse than 6/12 as having mild vision loss; • a person with visual acuity worse than 6/18 as having moderate vision loss or low vision; • a person with visual acuity worse than 6/60 as severe vision impairment (low vision); • a person with visual acuity worse than 3/60 or no light perception as blind or legally blind. Near vision impairment describes: a person with near visual acuity worse than N6 or N8 at 40 cm with existing correction.

As illustrated by the World Health Organisation (WHO 2018) there are around 1.3 billion people globally with some forms of vision impairment. It was also found that cataract is the leading cause for vision impairment for many children from lowincome countries, while the causes for vision impairment for more affluent countries are due to premature birth or retinopathy.

18.2.3 Causes of Vision Impairment Babies might have vision impairment at birth due to prenatal or congenital causes. Vision impairment can happen later as a result of disease, injury or a medical condition. According to the American Foundation for The Blind, the most common causes of vision impairment are: • Albinism and Retinitis Pigmentosa and other genetic conditions. • Cancer, e.g. Retinoblastoma. • Conditions caused by infections and viruses during pregnancy, e.g. Rubella, Cytomegalovirus. • Cortical Vision impairment: neurological conditions that affect the visual functions in the brain. • Damage or injury to the eye or the pathways connecting the eye to the brain.

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• Paediatric glaucoma. • Premature birth and problems related to babies during birth. • Structural problems of the visual organ that affect vision, e.g. microphthalmia (abnormally small eyes; or anophthalmia (absence of an eyeball).

18.3 Signs and Symptoms of Vision Impairment As described by the American Foundation for the Blind, people with vision impairment might have healthy normal-looking eyes. However, young children or babies with a vision impairment may show these signs: • their eyes move quickly from side to side and jerk or wander randomly; these may be symptoms of nystagmus. • they have problems following your face or objects visually, or they are slow to make eye contact with others. • their eyeballs do not appear straight but turn towards the nose or drift outwards. • their eyes do not react to bright light being turned on in the room. • their pupils seem white or cloudy rather than black. • they need to hold things up close to their faces. • they seem to rub their eyes a lot and easily get tired visually after looking at things up close – for example, reading, drawing or playing. • they seem to see better during the day than at night. • they seem to have crossed or turned eyes or a squint (lazy eye).

18.4 Effects of Blindness and Low Vision on Young Children Because of the lack of vision (or the absence of it) children will have extra challenges with: Communication: the lack of opportunity to make eye contact with others, or reading facial cues, gestures and body language will affect the development of communication in young children. Additionally, because of the lack of visual input, some young children may have problems with speech articulation (e.g. production of the ‘s’ sound). Social and friendship skills: children who are blind or with severe vision limitation may not be able to actively make friends like other children. They may become passive and short of social skills. Delayed motor development: the lack of vision may prevent a child from exploring his environment or move freely, particularly in an unfamiliar environment. This may cause a delay in crawling or walking.

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Poor concept of time: without vision, it is very hard for a child to learn the concept of time and to tell the difference between day and night. Apart from visual acuity, that is how far or how clearly a person can see, it is also important to determine the visual fields of the person who is visually impaired. Visual field testing is usually done by an ophthalmologist or an optometrist or a low-vision specialist to determine the degree of central and peripheral vision a person has. Here are some examples of common visual field defects (Woodin 2018): a: b: c: d: e:

Constriction of the visual field: the person has constricted vision. Ring scotoma: the person has partial peripheral and central vision. Central scotoma: the person has no central vision. Cecocentral scotoma: loss of vision in the central macular area. Arcuate scotoma: loss of vision the area 10 degrees–20 degrees from fixation.

Scotoma means: a partial loss of vision or blind spot in an otherwise normal visual field. f: g: h: i:

Temporal wedge: scotoma around the temporal area. Blindspot enlargement. Multiple scattered scotoma. Hemifields respecting the horizontal meridian, loss of vision either in the upper or lower hemifield of the visual field (Fig. 18.1).

It is helpful for a classroom teacher to have access to a visual field chart from a student with vision impairment if possible. This information will help teachers to decide how best to seat the students and to present visual information to them.

Fig. 18.1 Visual defects

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18.5 Functional Vision Many children with vision impairment (unless totally blind or with only light perception) have functional vision. Functional vision is the way an individual uses his or her sight in everyday situations. A functional vision assessment is important to investigate how much functional vision a student has and how he/she uses vision. It provides information as to how vision is impacting the child’s learning and mobility skills and what aids are appropriate to assist and support the student’s indoor and outdoor learning. The degree of functional vision may change and therefore, periodic assessments are necessary. A trained vision teacher will be able to administer these assessments (West et al. 2002). A functional vision assessment usually takes place in an environment which is familiar to the individual. Functional vision is determined by the variability of vision as well as the willingness or reluctance of the student to use vision. A functional vision assessment determines: (Marshall 1979). • • • • • • • • • • • •

clutter—stimulus and stimulus/background, visual distraction. contrast, colour, tone. movement of stimulus: constant, intermittent, still. nature of image: photographs or drawings. near vision (as close as the child needs to see) and intermediate vision (within 1 m). preferred lighting (strength of light; type: natural, colour, LED, overhead, backlighting, task, etc.). scanning skills: direction, speed, midline, coverage. shift of attention from one stimulus to another: direction, speed, midline, coverage. size of stimulus (bigger not always better). the distance of stimulus (function of size), position of stimulus (direction and plane). tracking skills: direction, speed, midline. visually directed reach and grasp.

Functional vision assessments are usually given by trained professionals such as Low-Vision specialists or teachers who are trained in this area. It is vital that classroom teachers and school leaders have an understanding of the assessment findings and their implications. This will help them to better understand the challenges and difficulties a visually impaired student may experience in class. Distance functional vision assessment will give information to how a visually impaired person functions visually when moving about in his environment. This includes information about how the person adjusts to lighting, fluency of movement in walking and other natural movement, how they gain information for safety, orientation, seek pleasure or interaction with people and the environment.

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A comprehensive functional vision assessment must comprise of three components: watching and reading, performing near task and using distance vision and other senses to gain information for orientation and mobility.

18.5.1 Educational Implications Children with vision impairment, especially those with total blindness, have limited ability to learn incidentally. Concept development affects how we make sense of our world and develop ideas and association of objects and events that become part of our cognitive functions, such as communication, language development and thinking skills. It also affects our social skills and living skills. The ability to interpret nonverbal, social interactions, understanding another person’s point of view and things that are non-tangible and abstract is limited due to vision loss. Mastering these skills requires explicit instruction for students with vision impairments, especially at a young age. Enrichment programmes and early intervention for students with vision loss can have a profound impact on a child with vision impairments. These programmes are planned to promote a positive self-image, self-care skills and good interpersonal communication. They also provide experience of family life and appropriate behaviours, required orientation and mobility skills and increased independence, which can all be beneficial in the healthy growth of students with visual impairments. Children with visual impairments must be given extensive and repeated experiences and objects to attach meaning to words and language concepts. Teachers can help the child to learn through real objects (as much as possible), to help the child to explore tactilely and provide a clear description to support further understanding. Help the child to form mental links with objects, graphic or page content. Children with low vision may not have the full view of the object/process in one glance and need to learn with tactile information in addition to visual methods. Allow time and opportunity for the child to: • develop manipulative skills to squeeze and squash, twist, poke, push and pull different objects to see what can be done with them; • experience different textures, shape, colour, weight, flexibility and malleability of different objects; • feel and explore objects, and/or processes, encourage use of fingers, hands, feet, toes to feel or touch objects; • experiment with stacking objects on top of one another, to understand how they move, what they sound like and bang them to see if they change shape; • to smell, to shake, to listen to find out what noise the object makes. Visually impaired children may become very fatigued exploring the world via tactile methods, which requires high levels of concentration and they will need to take rest breaks from time to time.

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18.6 Classroom Learning Needs of Students with Vision Loss The reading and writing functions of a student with low vision vary according to the nature and the degree of vision loss. Different students will need different methods and devices for reading and writing. For assessment tasks, it is vital that instructions are brief and concise so that students understand what is expected of them in these assessment tasks and steps. If the student is a proficient typist, and typing is a better option for the student, he/she should be allowed to complete a test using the computer, allowing spell check to correct typo errors. Extra time should be given to these students because they need longer time to read and understand the questions. It would be helpful if the teacher knows how much longer it takes a visually impaired child to complete his task in class in order to determine how much extra time is needed for assessment tasks. Speed varies depending on the ability and visual functions of the student. Different students will have different needs for environmental adjustments to help them see better. Depending on the nature of loss and amount of functional vision, adjustments can be made with attention to illumination, colour and contrast, size and distance and organisation of space. Illumination: Some students with low vision may be light sensitive. Teachers can help by seating them away from glare or reduce light by modifying the work area with a cardboard mount, like a puppet stage. Most students with light sensitivity are prescribed glasses to help them reduce light. On the other hand, some students may need extra light to help them read. In this case, a desk lamp can be provided to help the student read in class. Colour and contrast: Students with low vision need high contrast in objects and pictures they see. It is helpful to present visual material, including utensils they use daily, with a contrasting colour background so that the student can see clearly. Size and distance: Some students may need magnifiers to read and to view objects. Again, allow students with low vision extra time to explore objects and pictures

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presented to them. When a visual object is presented, encourage the student with low vision to go to the presenter and look at the object, so the student does not miss out. Organisation of space and safety: Always keep the room tidy and safe from objects that the student with vision impairment might trip over. Beware of objects sticking out that might cause injury or head-level objects that he/she might bump into. Remind the class to be mindful of their belongings and not to leave them lying on the floor. Always let the VI student know when there are changes made in terms of space (e.g., furniture being moved, additional workstations have been created e.g. a temporary special Science corner or display).

18.6.1 Braille and Tactile Graphics Current research has found that Braille is still considered the most effective reading method for students who are totally blind (Woodin 2018). However, the process of reading and writing Braille is very complex and requires years of practice. In many advanced countries, the teaching of Braille is not the class teacher’s role. Many students receive Braille training at a young age either from their Itinerant Support Teacher or from a special school which provides resource support for visually impaired students in the mainstream classroom. Other special agencies and organisations will also give Braille classes and O & M training to their visually impaired members. It is, however, important that the classroom teachers understand some basic and foundation skills in Braille reading. The key is to work closely with the specialist vision support teacher and set learning goals to consolidate both Braille skills and the development of literacy and numeracy. Together, helpful resources can be produced to support the student to develop both Braille skills and reading skills. For example, a set of vocabulary cards. Some students may benefit from tactile graphics. However, classroom teachers must understand that blind students do not ‘see’ with their fingers. A tactile graphic is useless if it does not give the necessary information to help the student to form concepts (Fig. 18.2). Tactile graphics that are helpful to students include diagrams that explain parts or anatomy of a plant of an animal, geographic information needed to understand geography concepts, or geometric forms to help a student work out mathematic problem. However, some younger children also enjoy feeling tactile books, or smelling a book with fruity smells as a kind of stimulation to maintain motivation to read and enjoyment of reading.

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Fig. 18.2 Tactile maps and graphs

18.7 Suggestions for Classroom Teachers It is vital for a classroom teacher to be given basic training and preparation to include and care for a student with vision impairment. Here are some suggestions from Vision Australia and the Department of Education, Western Australia. Teachers can help the visually impaired student by: • being able to communicate and collaborate with O & M instructors and vision support teachers. • being aware of the visual pathologies and implications that impact student’s learning. • being able to articulate vision specific concepts, principles and methodology in teaching students with vision loss. • having an accurate and in-depth knowledge of inclusion policies, and procedures. • gaining additional knowledge and skills to use the most effective strategies to communicate with the students with vision loss. • understanding issues and options for students with progressive eye conditions.

18.7.1 Use Differentiated Instruction To help students with vision loss to learn effectively, it is important that teachers: • are aware of the visual functions of the student and how they learn. • can design learning activities that are age-appropriate and match the student’s ability.

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• can anticipate possible difficulties the student may have and adapt instruction to student’s interests, learning abilities and current skills. • can vary instructional strategies and activities for students. • are skilled to provide help in potential crises involving psychosocial implications related to vision. • apply knowledge of cultural and socio-economic factors in strategies and activities.

18.7.2 Communication It is important for teachers to realise that students with vision loss may not be able to see their facial expressions and gestures. When talking to a student with vision loss, it is helpful to: • give a gentle signal, e.g. a soft ‘hi’ so you do not startle the blind person, • always ask first to check if help is needed, • avoid talking in situations where there is competing noise, • be precise when giving directions, for example, ‘the door is on your right’, rather than ‘the door is over there’, • identify yourself—your student may not always recognise you by your voice, • in a group situation, introduce the other people present, • inform the student when you are leaving, • never channel conversation through a third person, • speak naturally and clearly, • do not avoid words like ‘see’ or ‘look’; use everyday language as you would to other children. Engage them is watching and enjoying TV and videos.

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18.7.3 Establish a Positive Learning Environment A positive learning environment is one in which a student feels safe, respected, welcomed and supported. It is the responsibility of the classroom teacher to: • observe the student with VI constantly and informally in the class room to evaluate skills and accommodation needed. • know how to utilise specific visual aids and tools to enhance classroom learning. • plan unique opportunities for the student to demonstrate proficiency. • ensure that optical devices include magnifiers, microscopes, etc., are stored safely and used effectively in class. • ensure that distances device are used to enhance access to information on the teaching board (or Smartboard). • ensure extra one-on-one support is planned for and given when required.

18.7.4 Core Curriculum Most students with vision impairment can follow the same curriculum as their classmates, with suitable accommodations made. These involve careful planning of learning goals including learning to consolidate print or Braille reading skills; thoughtful instruction to include the learning needs of the student with vision loss, environment planning, attention to classroom safety (orientation and mobility indoor and outdoor), assessment considerations (auditory, special computer software) and special assistive devices and technology. Learning materials: If the student is a Braille reader, learning materials must be prepared at the beginning of each school term (e.g. all textbooks, readers, novels, math and geography learning materials). Every education system must have a support unit to assist with the Braille learning materials and study notes for Braille readers. Some charity organisations will also help to produce these materials.

Text to Braille computer

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For totally blind students, a headphone and a computer (or similar devices, e.g. iPad, Smartphone…etc.) should be provided for the student with text-to-voice software so that the student is able to convert text to auditory input. This would give the student the same independence to search information on the internet for subject projects. However, time is needed to help the student to develop such skills. This could be the job of the Itinerant teacher (or support staff). Similarly, devices with Braille-to-print or voice-to-print technology would help students with vision loss to complete written work, and communicate through text with others with such technology. For large print readers, study materials should also be printed to the font size they need. However, if the student requires fonts larger than 48, he/she would need a special magnifying reading device. Advice from the Itinerant Support Teacher or special needs consultant is required. A study buddy: It would be ideal and really helpful if the classroom teacher could arrange a few study buddies to sit next to the student with VI to help him/her where necessary.

18.7.5 Teaching Instruction Students with VI may miss most visual cues and written instruction on the board. The teacher must be mindful to verbalise what is written so the student is not left out. It would be better if written notes are given to the student with VI separately. When not giving whole-class instruction, the teacher should attend to the student with VI individually to check if he/she can follow what was discussed, or what task to do.

18.7.6 Academic Assessments It is important that teachers are clear of the aims and objectives of academic assessments. Apart from standardised testing (for which special provisions must be given to assist the student), flexibility should be exercised to assess student’s learning. The purpose of assessment is to gather information to understand how much a student has learnt and the ability to apply what is learnt. Consider using alternative assessment strategies where possible. For the student who uses Braille, the development of Braille reading and writing may delay the student’s reading or writing ability, unless proficiency is attained at an early stage, i.e. before Primary 3. Alternative modes of assessment must be considered, such as allowing the student to complete the assessment task using oral responses (when proficiency of Braille usage is low). This relies on the collaborative efforts between the class teacher and the specialist vision support teacher. Classroom teachers are not expected to read or use Braille, though it would be an advantage. It is therefore essential that the education system provides specialist

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support teachers to mainstream class teachers. There are also a range of computer software that transform text to audio output, or text to Braille, and vice versa.

18.8 Orientation and Mobility Training Orientation and mobility (O & M) training is necessary to help visually impaired children to gain independence in their environment, both indoor and outdoor (Martinez 2020). Depending on the nature of the vision impairment, each child is given an initialised programme to help them to travel independently, safely and confidently. A range of assessments is conducted to decide what the programme should include O & M, and how O & M is practised in different environments. Orientation and Mobility is usually taught by specialist instructors or vision support teachers who have received formal training. Skills taught through O & M include: • sensory awareness: to learn how to gain information about the world through hearing, touch, smell, and proprioception (i.e. perception of movement and direction). • to develop spatial concepts by touch and examining objects and understanding the relationships which exist between objects in the environment. • to develop searching skills by locating items or places. • to develop independent movement including crawling, rolling, walking, etc. • sighted guide: learn how to make use of another person to aid in travel. • protective techniques: learn specific skills which provide added protection in unfamiliar enviornments. • cane skills: learn to use of various cane techniques to travel and to clear one’s path or to locate objects along the way. There are currently a range of electronic devices to help visually impaired students and users to travel safely indoor and outdoor. Some of them include: • handheld sonic guides that gives vibrations to inform the distance of an object (e.g. a wall, a poll), so that the visually impaired person will not walk into them. • glasses with a sonic device, for similar as the handheld sonic guide. • special glasses for distance vision for people with low vision. These video clips (from YouTube) will excite you with the latest technology to help blind people to see, to move about and to cook safely. • New technology for distance vision: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=agR 9YLio_00. • Magical glasses for people with low vision: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= vOBLFq0pQog. • Communication tools for blind and low vision: https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=ZlWsXc_0bzQ.

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• Orientation and mobility training: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AuGb4y ge-ys. • household products for blind people: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w0h E6DdqRFo.

18.9 Social and Leisure Skills for Visually Impaired Students Students with vision impairment need input to help them to develop a positive selfconcept, social behaviour and social skills. Having vision loss can limit a student’s ability to gain information from their social environment. Their inability to observe non-verbal cues and facial expression makes it difficult for them to understand social nuances. Here are some key areas that a classroom teacher can pay attention to and work with the vision support teachers to set goals in enhancing social skills for students with vision impairment. Teach the visually impaired or blind student to: • • • • • • • • • •

turn face to speaker even if the student has no vision. learn about body language and conventional gestures used in social contexts. learn about personal space. learn proper use of tone of voice and speech volume. discuss inappropriate behaviours that may cause social isolation. develop friendship skills and how to appreciate friendship. practise conversation starters and conversation skills. understand sarcasm and how to respond to them. develop a sense of humour and resilience. maintain appropriate response when winning and losing in competitions and games.

Students with vision loss, including total blindness, can engage in different kinds of leisure activities such as board games, chess, card games and computer games. Teachers in the mainstream school can find out about these games and purchase them so that students with VI can enjoy them with his classmates. Effort should be made to modify PE lessons to include the student with vision loss. No one should be excluded from sports because of their disability (Vision Australia). As evident in the entertainment world, many individuals with vision loss are talented in music. Teachers can make use of musical activities to help them to make friends and form friendship, so that they are not socially isolated (Fig. 18.3).

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Fig. 18.3 Modified games for blind people

18.10 Conclusion Many students with vision impairment are independent learners. To efficiently support their learning, classroom teachers need to be flexible and learn about their specific needs and learning styles. Work with parents and other professionals to learn about the assistive device they need for classroom learning. As much as possible, prepare teaching and learning material in electronic format so that the information can be converted into audio or tactile form to meet the student’s need. Be sensitive to giving verbal instruction and extra verbal description to the student who may not be able to see clearly the surrounding, pictures or text presented. When presenting pictures or graphic on PowerPoint or Smartboards, remember to explain to the student information about these pictures. Include the student in all activities, including art, painting, music and especially physical activities PE. Consult a specialist on how to adapt or make modification so that the visually impaired student can take part in sports and PE lessons. Give the student extra time as reading Braille or using low-vision devices takes more time then visual learning. Discuss with the student from time to time to find out how other help is required. Support the student’s emotional and social growth by facilitating friendship opportunities with other students. For younger students, teachers can assign a buddy to help the visually impaired student. It will benefit these other children too. There may be challenges in giving feedback to a student with written assignment. A class teacher could request for a teacher assistant, or the school could establish a volunteer programme to help all students with learning challenges. Involve parents and older siblings of the students to help. Teaching students with disability is a challenge and a reward. Doing good to others is not a duty. It is a joy. Here are more exciting online resources to help you gain more understanding on how people with vision loss live, learn and enjoy life: • Teaching students with visual impairment: https://www.teachingvisuallyimpai red.com/school-campus-adaptations.html. • Braille in the classroom: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2oiFw2ToYPw.

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• Learning Braille in a mainstream classroom: https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=soFz7LbKc5E. • Classroom tools for visually impaired: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= fi3dH_QnnWQ. • independent living aids, LLC https://www.independentliving.com/product/iGl asses-Ultrasonic-Mobility-Aid-Tinted-Lens/ambutech-canes. • Assistive technology for VI: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RYVoJs XNTUE. • Classroom tools for visually impaired: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= fi3dH_QnnWQ. • Growing up blind: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a0TCQ2RJtRo. • How I use Sonar to navigate the world: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uH0 aihGWB8U. • Low vision children and E-books: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vNA2gN fYA70. • Video games for children with low vision: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= izrTR4pI0Fo. • Supporting students with low vision https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3RC KPvudNNI. • Seeing their future: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zQzh0DKWFas. • Video games for children with low vision: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= izrTR4pI0Fo.

References American Foundations for the Blind. http://www.afb.org/section.aspx?SectionID=65&TopicID= 299&DocumentID=3240&rewrite=0. Braille in the classroom. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2oiFw2ToYPw. Deverell, L., Meyer. D., Lau, B. T., et al. (2017). Optimising technology to measure functional vision, mobility and service outcomes for people with low vision or blindness: Protocol for a prospective cohort study in Australia and Malaysia. BMJ Open, 7. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj open-2017-018140. Growing up blind. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a0TCQ2RJtRo. Independent living aids, LLC. https://www.independentliving.com/product/iGlasses-UltrasonicMobility-Aid-Tinted-Lens/ambutech-canes. Low vision children and E-books. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vNA2gNfYA70. Marshall, G. (1979). The eyes and vision. ISBN 0-86238-403-6. Martinez, C. (2020). O & M Specialist, TSBVI with help from Kate Moss, Family Support Specialist, TSBVI, Texas Deafblind Outreach. http://www.tsbvi.edu/seehear/fall98/waytogo.htm. Path to literacy for students who are blind or with low vision. http://www.pathstoliteracy.org/blog/ classroom-adaptations-students-low-vision. Raising Children.net.au. https://raisingchildren.net.au/disability/guide-to-disability/assessment-dia gnosis/vision-impairment. Supporting students with low vision. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3RCKPvudNNI. Teaching students with visual impairment. https://www.teachingvisuallyimpaired.com/school-cam pus-adaptations.html.

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Victoria Department of Education and Training: Educational support for students who are blind. http://svrc.vic.edu.au/wp-content/resources/PLbrlbooklet.pdf. Vision Australia. https://www.visionaustralia.org/information/family-friends-carers/communica ting-effectively. West, S. K., Rubin, G. S., Broman, A. T., Munoz, B., Bandeen-Roche, K., & Turano, K. (2002). How does visual impairment affect performance on tasks of everyday life? The SEE Project. Salisbury Eye Evaluation. Arch Ophthalmol, 120(6), 774–780. Woodin, S. (2018). Braille teaching and literacy: A report for the European Blind Union and European Commission January 2018 Danish Association of the Blind and the International Council for Education of People with Visual Impairment and Dr. Sarah Woodin. World Health Organisation (WHO). (2018). https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/bli ndness-and-visual-impairment.