Swimming in the Sea of Scripture: Paul’s Use of the Old Testament in 2 Corinthians 4.7–13.13 9780567659316, 9780567655417, 9780567655431

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Copyright
Contents
Acknowlegments
Abbreviations
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
I. A Survey on the Use of the Scripture in 2 Corinthians
a. 2 Corinthians 3
b. The Rest of 2 Corinthians
II. Methodology
a. Approach of this Study
b. A Note on Terminology
Chapter 2 CORINTHIANS 4.7–6.13
4.7
4.11
4.13
4.16-18
5.1
5.4
5.1
5.12
5.14–6.2
5.17
5.18-20
5.21
a. The Servant of YHWH
b. 5.21 in the Light of the Servant
6.2
6.9
6.11, 13
Conclusion
Chapter 3 2 CORINTHIANS 6.14–7.16
6.14
6.15
6.16
9.17
6.18
Excursus: Scriptural Correspondences – An Enemy or a Friend of Interpolation Theory?
7.6
7.15-16
Conclusion
Chapter 4 2 CORINTHIANS 8 AND 9
8.12
8.15
8.21
9.6-8
9.9
9.1
Conclusion
Chapter 5 2 CORINTHIANS 10–13
10.3-5
10.8
10.17
11.3
11.2
11.24
12.7
13.1
Conclusion
Chapter 6 PAUL AS A SWIMMER IN THE SEA OF SCRIPTURE
PAUL AS A SWIMMER IN THE SEA OF SCRIPTURE
Summary
Observations and Implications
Bibliography
Index of References
Index of Authors

Citation preview

LIBRARY OF NEW TESTAMENT STUDIES

519 Formerly Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series

Editor Mark Goodacre

Editorial Board John M. G. Barclay, Craig Blomberg, R. Alan Culpepper, James D. G. Dunn, Craig A. Evans, Stephen Fowl, Robert Fowler, Simon J. Gathercole, John S. Kloppenborg, Michael Labahn, Robert Wall, Steve Walton, Robert L. Webb, Catrin H. Williams

SWIMMING IN THE SEA OF SCRIPTURE

Paul’s Use of the Old Testament in 2 Corinthians 4.7–13.13

Paul Han

Bloomsbury T&T Clark An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

Bloomsbury T&T Clark An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc Imprint previously known as T&T Clark 50 Bedford Square London WC1B 3DP UK

1385 Broadway New York NY 10018 USA

www.bloomsbury.com BLOOMSBURY, T&T CLARK and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published 2014 Paperback edition first published 2016 © Paul Han, 2014 Paul Han has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Author of this work All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury or the author. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: HB: 978-0-56765-541-7 PB: 978-0-56766-788-5 ePDF: 978-0-56765-543-1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Han, Paul. Swimming in the sea of scripture : Paul’s use of the Old Testament in 2 Corinthians 4.7-13.13 / by Paul Han. pages cm. – (Library of New Testament studies ; 519) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-567-65541-7 (hardcover) 1. Bible. Corinthians, 2nd, IV, 7-XIII, 13–Criticism, interpretation, etc. 2. Bible. Corinthians, 2nd–Relation to the Old Testament. 3. Bible. Old Testament–Relation to Corinthians, 2nd. I. Title. BS2675.52.H36 2014 227’.306–dc23 2014032017 Series: Library of New Testament Studies, volume 519 Typeset by Forthcoming Publications Ltd (www.forthpub.com) Printed and bound in Great Britain

CONTENTS Acknowlegments Abbreviations

vii ix

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION I. A Survey on the Use of the Scripture in 2 Corinthians a. 2 Corinthians 3 b. The Rest of 2 Corinthians II. Methodology a. Approach of this Study b. A Note on Terminology

1 3 4 13 16 16 20

Chapter 2 2 CORINTHIANS 4.7–6.13 4.7 4.11 4.13 4.16-18 5.1 5.4 5.10 5.12 5.14–6.2 5.17 5.18-20 5.21 a. The Servant of YHWH b. 5.21 in the Light of the Servant 6.2 6.9 6.11, 13 Conclusion

24 25 28 30 36 37 37 40 44 46 49 55 57 58 63 65 72 75 78

1

vi

Contents

Chapter 3 2 CORINTHIANS 6.14–7.16 6.14 6.15 6.16 9.17 6.18 Excursus: Scriptural Correspondences – An Enemy or a Friend of Interpolation Theory? 7.6 7.15-16 Conclusion

107 110 112 114

Chapter 4 2 CORINTHIANS 8 AND 9 8.12 8.15 8.21 9.6-8 9.9 9.10 Conclusion

116 117 119 126 129 136 142 146

Chapter 5 2 CORINTHIANS 10–13 10.3-5 10.8 10.17 11.3 11.20 11.24 12.7 13.1 Conclusion

148 149 155 158 164 168 170 171 174 181

Chapter 6 PAUL AS A SWIMMER IN THE SEA OF SCRIPTURE Summary Observations and Implications

183 183 187

Bibliography Index of References Index of Authors

191 204 218

1

80 83 89 90 97 103

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This monograph is the fruit of my PhD dissertation at the London School of Theology. First of all, my heartfelt gratitude is offered to Steve Walton who has shown exceptional patience and gentleness in guiding and encouraging me with his keen eye for details as well as his breadth of knowledge. I would also like to thank Max Turner, Steve Moyise, and Steve Motyer for their warm encouragement and helpful comments. I want to express my gratitude for the generous support from the Laing Scholarship that helped me bring the project to completion. My appreciation also goes to Dominic Mattos and the editorial staff at Bloomsbury T&T Clark for accepting the thesis and bringing it to publication. I have come to realize that the research cannot be separated from personal and spiritual formation, which has become for me a solid foundation and a reason for persevering. Much appreciated is the warm and faithful support from my family members, friends at London Calvary Church, Ealing Korean Church, and Myungsung Presbyterian Church, and my colleagues at the London School of Theology, who were willing to share the joys and tears of life together. Special thanks are due to Samuel and Grace Han, Sun-Yi Park, Seokyoung and Kwanok Kim. My wife, Sungah, deserves special mention as she has been constant source of encouragement, wisdom, and joy. Above all, I want to express my unfathomable indebtedness to my Lord for his steadfast grace and love in forming a jar out of clay for use in his kingdom. Paul Han December 2013

1

ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviations that are not mentioned below can be found in P. H. Alexander et al., The SBL Handbook of Style (Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 1999). AAWG AOTC BIS CSCT HNT IVPNTCS LNTS NCBC NTSI SNTW WUNT 2 ZThK

Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen Abingdon Old Testament Commentaries Biblical Interpretation Series Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition Handbuch zum Neuen Testament IVP New Testament Commentary Series Library of New Testament Studies New Cambridge Bible Commentary New Testament and the Scriptures of Israel Studies of the New Testament and its World Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2 Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche

1

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

The study of the appropriation of the OT in the NT is a blossoming ¿eld with signi¿cant implications for several areas of biblical studies, such as biblical hermeneutics,1 understanding of the Law,2 ethics,3 rhetorical study4 and narrative analysis.5 How did the NT writers read the OT?6 How did they ‘use’ the Scripture? How free were they to adapt the 1. Cf. M. Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Clarendon, 1985); R. N. Longenecker, Biblical Exegesis in the Apostolic Period (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975). 2. Cf. Francis Watson, Paul and the Hermeneutics of Faith (London: T&T Clark International, 2004). 3. Cf. R. B. Hays, ‘The Role of Scripture in Paul’s Ethics’, in The Conversion of the Imagination: Paul as Interpreter of Israel’s Scripture (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005), pp.143–62. 4. Cf. C. D. Stanley, Arguing with Scripture: The Rhetoric of Quotations in the Letters of Paul (London: T&T Clark International, 2004); John Paul Heil, The Rhetorical Role of Scripture in 1 Corinthians (SBL; Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2005); Dennis L. Stamps, ‘The Use of the Old Testament in the New Testament as a Rhetorical Device: A Methodological Proposal’, in Hearing the Old Testament in the New Testament (ed. S. E. Porter; Cambridge, MI: Eerdmans, 2006), pp.9–37. 5. Cf. Bruce W. Longenecker, Narrative Dynamics in Paul: A Critical Assessment (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2002); J. Lieu, ‘Narrative Analysis and Scripture in John’, in The Old Testament in the New Testament: Essays in Honour of J. L. North (ed. Steve Moyise; JSNTSup 189; Shef¿eld: Shef¿eld Academic, 2000), pp.144–63. 6. The ‘OT’ is, of course, an anachronistic term. Yet, we will continue to use the term to refer to the canonical OT as we have it today. Even though there are places where non-canonical works are referred to in the NT (e.g. 1 En. 1.9 in Jude 14–15) and the canonical boundaries of the OT were not determined in the NT period, this study is primarily focused on how the NT writers read the collections of writings we call the OT. For a helpful discussion on this, see Stamps, ‘Rhetorical Device’, pp.10–12. Together with ‘the OT’, ‘Scripture’ or ‘scriptures’ will be used in this study.

2

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

writing and meaning of the text? How is an allusion or an echo discerned? What did the authors intend to do by citing or alluding to the Jewish sacred writings? To what extent did they differ from their contemporary Jewish interpreters? What versions did they use? To what degree is their understanding of the Scripture paradigmatic for readers today? These are the kinds of questions that have been asked, and the responses given to the questions have numerous signi¿cant exegetical, theological and practical implications.7 The use of the Scripture in Pauline epistles has received as much, if not more, attention than in any other NT writings. As a former Pharisee, Paul’s encounter with the risen Lord and his new identity in Christ as an apostle to the Gentiles must have affected the way he understood the Scripture. Granted that the Scripture plays a vital role in shaping Paul’s understanding of the Christ-event,8 it naturally follows that Paul’s selfunderstanding as a minister of the new covenant must also have its root in the Scripture. Even if the ¿rst premise is questioned,9 one can still examine Paul’s epistles to determine whether Paul’s use of the Scriptures actually affects the way Paul understands himself or not. In this respect, Paul’s second letter to the Corinthians10 seems to be a good place to carry out such investigation since the letter is very much concerned about Paul’s apostolic legitimacy, and the apostle is giving serious thoughts to his identity as a new covenant minister. Moreover, Paul’s defence of himself has a bearing on his understanding of the Corinthians’ status and identity, as he seeks to be reconciled with and re-establish his authority over his Gentile converts, the bene¿ciaries of God’s grace in Christ. Hence, the question of what role the Scripture plays for Paul will be asked, not only in relation to Paul’s understanding of himself as an apostle of Christ, but also to his understanding of his congregation and to addressing the issues in Corinth. This is the question that will be borne in mind, as this study examines Paul’s use of the OT in 2 Corinthians.

7. Cf. S. E. Porter, ‘Introduction: The Use of the Old Testament in the New Testament’, in Porter (ed.), Hearing the Old Testament in the New Testament, pp.1–8 (1). 8. This is the majority’s view. Cf. R. B. Hays, Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989); Watson, Paul; F. Young and D. F. Ford, Meaning and Truth in 2 Corinthians (BFT; London: SPCK, 1987), p.63. 9. There do not seem to be any who would question this. Even Christopher Stanley in his Arguing with Scripture admits that the scriptures moulded Paul’s understanding of his newly found status, even as he argues for Paul’s rhetorical use of scriptural texts. 10. The second letter to the Corinthians is not, of course, actually the ‘second’ letter Paul sent to the congregation (cf. 1 Cor. 5.9, 11). 1

1. Introduction

3

I. A Survey on the Use of the Scripture in 2 Corinthians Surveys of studies on the presence or use of Scripture in the NT in general are readily found in other works,11 and such an exercise will not be repeated here, except to give a glimpse of what sort of studies has been carried out in this area. There are works that deal with the textual traditions of Paul’s explicit citations and his technique of citation,12 that are more concerned with the hermeneutical and theological assumptions of the biblical authors,13 that combine textual and hermeneutical interests,14 that focus on speci¿c passages and/or themes,15 that compare 11. See, e.g., I. H. Marshall, ‘An Assessment of Recent Developments’, in It Is Written: Scripture Citing Scripture: Essays in Honour of Barnabas Lindars (ed. D. A. Carson and H. G. M. Williamson; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp.1–21; E. E. Ellis, The Old Testament in Early Christianity: Canon and Interpretation in the Light of Modern Research (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991), pp.53–74; C. D. Stanley, Paul and the Language of Scripture: Citation Technique in the Pauline Epistles and Contemporary Literature (SNTSMS; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp.4–28; K. D. Litwak, ‘Echoes of Scripture? A Critical Survey of Recent Works on Paul’s Use of the Old Testament’, CurBS 6 (1998), pp.260–80; J. R. Wagner, Heralds of the Good News: Isaiah and Paul in Concert in the Letter to the Romans (Leiden: Brill, 2002), pp.5–13. See also the literature cited in C. D. Stanley, ‘Paul and Scripture: Charting the Course’, in As It Is Written: Studying Paul’s Use of Scripture (ed. S. E. Porter and C. D. Stanley; Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2008), pp.3–12 (4 n. 3). 12. E.g. D. A. Koch, Die Schrift als Zeuge des Evangeliums: Untersuchungen zur Verwendung und zum Verständnis der Schrift bei Paulus (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1986); Stanley, Language; Timothy H. Lim, Holy Scripture in the Qumran Commentaries and Pauline Letters (Oxford: Clarendon, 1997). 13. E.g. C. H. Dodd, According to the Scriptures: The Sub-Structure of New Testament Theology (London: Nisbet, 1952); E. E. Ellis, Paul’s Use of the Old Testament (London: Oliver & Boyd, 1957); Hays, Echoes; K. D. Litwak, Echoes of Scripture in Luke–Acts: Telling the History of God’s People Intertextually (JSNTSup 282; London: T&T Clark International, 2005); Mark S. Gignilliat, Paul and Isaiah’s Servants: Paul’s Theological Reading of Isaiah 40–66 in 2 Corinthians 5.14–6.10 (LNTS 330; London: T&T Clark International, 2007). 14. E.g. Wagner, Heralds. 15. E.g. C. A. Evans and James A. Sanders (eds.), The Function of Scripture in Early Jewish and Christian Tradition (JSNTSup 154; Shef¿eld: Shef¿eld Academic, 1998); C. A. Evans (ed.), The Interpretation of Scripture in Early Judaism and Christianity: Studies in Language and Tradition (JSPSup 164; Shef¿eld: Shef¿eld Academic, 2000); Moyise (ed.), The Old Testament in the New Testament; S. Moyise, Evoking Scripture: Seeing the Old Testament in the New (London: T&T Clark International, 2008). Cf. C. A. Evans and J. A. Sanders (eds.), Early Christian Interpretation of the Scriptures of Israel: Investigations and Proposals (JSNTSup 1

4

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

the way NT writers and their Jewish contemporaries approach the Scripture,16 that investigate how a NT book incorporates the OT,17 or that examine how a OT book is used in the NT.18 Moreover, there is even a commentary on the use of the OT in the whole NT.19 These are only indicative of the amount of scholarly effort that is being invested. Leaving aside the overview of the discipline of the NT’s use of the OT in general, it is necessary to survey the works that impinge more directly on 2 Corinthians. Rather than listing all the major attempts to investigate Paul’s use of Scripture in the epistle in one sweep, it would be helpful to look at the works in terms of which section scholars focus on since each section of the epistle has received a different amount of attention. a. 2 Corinthians 3 Richard Hays has asserted, ‘Any investigation of intertextuality in Paul’s letters must come to grips with the hermeneutical implications of this passage [2 Cor. 3.1–4.6]’.20 Yet, scholarly opinions have not yet found a consensus, and it seems W. C. Van Unnik’s comment that ‘there is hardly a single point on which expositors agree’ still stands true.21 In surveying the major interpretations of 2 Cor. 3.6 on the letter/Spirit contrast, Hafemann observes that the interpretative trends have come to a more or less full circle, though with different emphasis. The fact that the questions, which Hafemann addresses for 2 Cor. 3.7-11 in 1995, are the same questions that H. Windisch22 and J. Goettsberger23 were asking in 1924 is revealing. 148; Shef¿eld: Shef¿eld Academic, 1997); Porter (ed.), Hearing the Old Testament in the New Testament, which are similar in that they have case studies, but different because of their attention on hermeneutical questions. 16. E.g. Watson, Paul; Lim, Holy Scripture. 17. E.g. G. K. Beale, John’s Use of the Old Testament in Revelation (JSNTSup 166; Shef¿eld: Shef¿eld Academic, 1998). 18. E.g. S. Moyise and M. J. J. Menken (eds.), The Psalms in the New Testament (NTSI; London: T&T Clark International, 2004); Isaiah in the New Testament (NTSI; London: T&T Clark International, 2005); Deuteronomy in the New Testament (LNTS 358; London: T&T Clark International, 2007); The Minor Prophets in the New Testament (LNTS 377; London: T&T Clark International, 2009). 19. G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson (eds.), Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament (Nottingham: Apollos, 2007). 20. Hays, Echoes, p.123. 21. W. C. van Unnik, ‘“With Unveiled Face”: An Exegesis of 2 Corinthians III 12–18’, NovT 6 (1963), pp.153–69 (154). 22. H. Windisch, Der zweite Korintherbrief (KEK; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1924). 1

1. Introduction

5

Various attempts to understand the letter/Spirit contrast have produced two major competing readings since the time of the ancient Church. On the one hand, there were those like Origen who took the antithesis to mean two different hermeneutical principles – i.e., literal or external and spiritual or internal, which was dominant until the Reformation. On the other hand, the letter/Spirit contrast has been understood to refer to ‘two contrary principles of salvation or two distinct dispensations’.24 Thus, the ‘letter’ is considered to mean ‘Mosaic Law’ which ‘kills’ since no one is able to meet its demands or it produces deluded self-righteousness, whereas ‘Spirit’ refers to ‘the Gospel’ that brings life by justifying the sinner by grace through faith in Christ alone. This latter view has been held for over 400 years since the Reformation until it came under serious challenges in modern times.25 Apart from the plethora of views challenging and defending the centrality of the doctrine of justi¿cation,26 the debate became more complicated by renewed interest in recent times that seeks to link the letter/Spirit antithesis with the hermeneutical question of how a Christian reads the OT in a way that overcomes the shortcomings of the Origenian interpretation.27 23. J. Goettsberger, ‘Die Hülle des Moses nach Exod 34 und 2 Kor 3’, BZ 16 (1924), pp.1–17. 24. S. J. Hafemann, Paul, Moses, and the History of Israel: The Letter/Spirit Contrast and the Argument from Scripture in 2 Corinthians 3 (WUNT 2/81; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1995), p.2. 25. See S. Westerholm, Israel’s Law and the Church’s Faith: Paul and His Recent Interpreters (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1988), pp.15–101, for an extensive survey of the debate on Paul’s understanding of the Law. Cf. also the revised and expanded version of the book, S. Westerholm, Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The ‘Lutheran’ Paul and His Critics (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004), pp.101–258. 26. See, e.g., William Wrede, Paul (London: P. Green, 1907); Albert Schweitzer, The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle (London: A. & C. Black, 2nd edn, 1956); W. D. Davies, Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology (Philadelphia: Fortress, 4th edn, 1980); Hans Joachim Schoeps, Paul: The Theology of the Apostle in the Light of Jewish Religious History (London: Lutterworth, 1961); C. E. B. Cran¿eld, ‘St. Paul and the Law’, SJT 17 (1964), pp.43–68; C. F. D. Moule, ‘Obligations in the Ethics of Paul’, in Christian History and Interpretation: Studies Presented to John Knox (ed. W. R. Farmer et al.; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967), pp.386–406; Ragnar Bring, ‘Paul and the Old Testament: A Study of the Ideas of Election, Faith and Law in Paul, with Special Reference to Romans 9.30–10.30’, ST 25 (1971), pp.21–60; D. P. Fuller, ‘Paul and “The Works of the Law”’, WJT 38 (1975), pp.28–42; Peter Stuhlmacher, Reconciliation, Law, and Righteousness: Essays in Biblical Theology (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986); E. P. Sanders, Paul and Palestine Judaism (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977). 27. Hafemann, Paul, p.16. 1

6

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Hafemann observes that the view that one could ¿nd ‘a hermeneutical signi¿cance’ from the letter/Spirit contrast is freshly opened up by Kamlah,28 who questioned any dismissal of ‘a hermeneutical signi¿cance’ from the letter/Spirit antithesis. This point was taken up and strengthened, Hafemann further observes, by E. Käsemann, who similarly argued that the Spirit plays a hermeneutical role in helping one to read the OT in light of the Christ event and to ¿nd the original intention of the Scripture.29 The proponents who followed this train with their own emphases and modi¿cations include P. Stuhlmacher,30 J. C. Beker,31 D. A. Koch,32 and R. B. Hays.33 These scholars and those who follow them acknowledge that ‘the attempt to extract a hermeneutical meaning from the letter/Spirit contrast itself is merely a matter of eisegesis’; but because they are aware of the important distinction between the meaning of a text and its subsequent signi¿cance, ‘they are also able to argue that the economy-of-salvation-heilsgeschichtliche meaning of the contrast has further implications for the development of a Christian hermeneutic’.34 Some arguments held sway for a long period. In his inÀuential commentary on 2 Corinthians, Windisch argued that Paul’s adaptation of the Exodus tradition is a midrash35 which became a common understanding among the scholars for over half a century.36 Thus, for example, A. T. Hanson assumes that 2 Cor. 3.7-18 is Paul’s midrash on Exodus 34 and argues that in Paul’s understanding Moses had seen the pre-existent Christ in the tabernacle and put on the veil to hide the glory of the preexistent Christ. Thus, he argues that Paul had made a typological use of the Scriptures.37 Similarly, M. D. Hooker argues that Paul is making use 28. E. Kamlah, ‘“Buchstabe und Geist”. Die Bedeutung dieser Antithese für die alttestamentliche Exegese des Apostels Paulus’, EvT 14 (1954), pp.276–82. 29. E. Käsemann, ‘The Spirit and the Letter’, in Perspectives on Paul (trans. M. Kohl; NTL; London: SCM, 1971), pp.138–66. 30. Stuhlmacher, Reconciliation. 31. Johan Christiaan Beker, Paul the Apostle: The Triumph of God in Life and Thought (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980). 32. Koch, Schrift. 33. Hays, Echoes. 34. Hafemann, Paul, p.28. 35. D. Instone-Brewer, Techniques and Assumptions in Jewish Exegesis before 70 CE (TSAJ 30; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992), p.3, notes that the term ‘midrash’ has come to be used in two senses: (1) a method of exegesis; (2) the genre of literature. 36. Hafemann, Paul, p.256. 37. A. T. Hanson, ‘The Midrash in II Corinthians 3: A Reconsideration’, JSNT 9 (1980), pp.2–28. 1

1. Introduction

7

of midrash pesher in giving a running commentary on Exodus 34 in terms of its ful¿lment in Christ. She also argues that Paul’s form of consistency does not always correspond to our understanding of consistency in using the Scripture since he combines several images into a mixed metaphor and applies one image to several different things. However, the difference between Paul and his contemporaries does not lie in a question of method – since he uses similar methods – but on his underlying assumption that Christ is the key to the meaning of Scripture. An implication from this for Christians today in approaching the Scriptures is that there is an ongoing and active dialogue between the two so that while one interprets the Bible, the Bible shapes the attitude and experience of the reader at the same time.38 Another of Windisch’s assertions, that the ‘Christian midrash’ in 3.7-18 could be taken out without doing any damage to the context, consequently led to the scholarly search for a pre-Pauline tradition for the following decades.39 Thus, for example, scholars like D. Georgi searched for the origin of 3.7-18 and argued that Paul had incorporated and corrected the opponents’ midrash in 2 Cor. 3.7-18.40 In response to this approach, there have been attempts to look at the passage in its own literary context. A few are worthy of mention in more detail. In her exegetical study of 2 Cor. 3.1–4.6, Carol Stockhausen focuses on the literary and conceptual rather than historical and social aspects in which Paul was placed.41 She attempts to show that

38. M. D. Hooker, ‘Beyond the Things That Are Written? St. Paul’s Use of Scripture’, NTS 27 (1981), pp.295–309. See also E. Richard, ‘Polemics, Old Testament, and Theology: A Study of II Cor., III, 1-IV, 6’, RB 88 (1981), pp.340– 67. Richard argues that Paul uses the hermeneutical techniques of his day in citing the OT to defend his ministry and to describe the ministry of the Spirit. 39. Hafemann, Paul, p.258. See, e.g., A. M. Hunter, Paul and His Predecessors (London: SCM, 1961); M. C. Albl, ‘And Scripture Cannot Be Broken’: The Form and Function of the Early Christian Testimonia Collections (Leiden: Brill, 1999). 40. D. Georgi, The Opponents of Paul in Second Corinthians (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1986). Cf. also S. Schulz, ‘Die Decke des Moses – Untersuchungen zu einer vorpaulinischen Überlieferung in 2 Cor. III 7–18’, ZNW 49 (1958), pp.1–30. 41. Stockhausen, Moses’ Veil, p.15. Cf. also C. K. Stockhausen, ‘2 Corinthians 3 and the Principles of Pauline Exegesis’, in Paul and the Scriptures of Israel (ed. C. A. Evans and J. A. Sanders; JSNTSup 83; Shef¿eld: JSOT, 1993), pp.143–64, where she states more explicitly what she noted in her previous work. She summarises Paul’s ¿ve exegetical procedures thus (pp.144–6): (1) Paul takes the Torah as the basis for his interpretative task; (2) Paul usually applies prophetic and sometimes sapiential texts to bring the Torah into contemporary focus; (3) Paul locates and solves contradictions or uneasily reconciled passages in the Scriptures; 1

8

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture The argument and content of II Cor. 3.1-4.6 can best be understood with reference to an exegetical background or substructure which informs and supports it…[which] is in turn supported by interpretative presuppositions drawn from and shared with the Judaism of the day and nascent Christianity.42

Stockhausen employs three rabbinic exegetical rules to explain Paul’s use of Scripture: (1) kal va-homer inference which assumes any correspondence between two statements/events and the superiority of one – it is the same as reasoning a fortiori, i.e. what is true of the inferior is also true of the superior to a greater degree; (2) gezera shava analogy which seeks to link, explain and amplify two different texts on the basis of hook words shared between the texts; (3) pesher which attempts to ¿nd contemporary meaning of a scriptural passage in relation to current circumstances. In examining Paul’s use of Exodus 34, Stockhausen argues that Paul is very much concerned with Pentateuchal narratives, paying close attention to plot, character, action and so on.43 She also contends that Paul uses prophetic and sapiential texts, which are verbally linked to each other and to the Torah, to bring the Pentateuch to bear upon the contemporary situation (gezera shava and pesher).44 Moreover, Paul is also seen to employ the kal va-homer inferences whose sole function is ‘to transfer FQZC from the ¿rst covenant minister, Moses, to his later counterpart, Paul’.45 The implication of this observation is simply that if the inferior ministry of Moses had glory, then the superior ministry of Paul has much more glory. Furthermore, concerning Paul’s reading of Exodus 34, she concludes that Paul is reading the text with ‘his own understanding of Christ’s relationship to the story of Moses’ glori¿cation’ and ‘supplies’ some details that are not in the original text, even though he continues to pay attention to the context of the original passage referred to.46 Thus, Paul is said to take up a kind of pesher approach in contemporising Exod. 34.29-35 with other scriptural support from Isa. 6.1-11; 29.10-15 and Deut. 29.1-4.

(4) Paul pays constant attention to the context of cited passages; (5) Paul occasionally uses the pesher-like contemporisation and also rhetorical/exegetical forms such as the kal va-homer. 42. Stockhausen, Moses, p.31. 43. Stockhausen, Moses, pp.95–101. 44. Stockhausen, Moses, p.41 n.19; idem, ‘Principles’, p.144. 45. Stockhausen, Moses, p.152. 46. Stockhausen, Moses, p.176. 1

1. Introduction

9

She believes it important to describe ‘the total picture of Christ vis-à-vis Moses that could logically give rise to Paul’s reading of Exodus’.47 Linda Belleville examines biblical and extra-biblical uses of the Moses–ǻȠȟĮ tradition to see how far Paul is dependent on Jewish and Hellenistic exegetical materials and where he differs. She also looks at the epistolary structure and form of chapters 1–7 to place 3.12-18 in its context and thus to see Paul’s pattern of argumentation.48 She concludes that Paul makes use of a wide range of Moses–ǻȠȟĮ traditions in accordance with the exegetical methodologies of his day. She also argues that Paul’s use of the Scriptures is selective since Paul adapts and ¿ts them to his particular circumstance – this is where Paul’s creativity lies. Paul’s intention was, Belleville argues, ‘not to interpret a biblical text, but rather to use text, tradition, and haggadah (and perhaps whatever else was at hand) to interpret his own current situation’.49 In other words, Scripture has been ‘allegorized’ in light of God’s salvi¿c work in Christ. Moreover, Paul is seen to structure his argument in accordance with the conventions of Hellenistic letter-writing in 2 Corinthians 1–7 in which 3.12-18 serves as ‘the background’ for Paul’s requests in 6.1-11. In his groundbreaking Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul, Richard Hays applies his now well-known seven criteria50 to 2 Corinthians 3 and argues that though Paul did not intend to discuss a hermeneutical approach with the gramma/pneuma distinction in 3.6, the ministry of the Spirit entails ‘a radically new orientation toward Israel’s Scripture’.51 He further argues that the dichotomy between hermeneutical reading and non-hermeneutical reading of the passage ‘dissolves’ as the Scripture is ‘trans¿gured’ into the Christian community. The enactment of the meaning of Scripture in the ecclesiological setting enables the participant to understand and to be transformed. Since the Spirit of God transforms the community into the image of Christ, Hays contends that

47. Stockhausen, Moses, p.176. 48. L. L. Belleville, ReÀections of Glory: Paul’s Polemical Use of the MosesDoxa Tradition in 2 Corinthians 3.1-18 (JSNTSup 52; Shef¿eld: Shef¿eld Academic, 1991). Cf. also L. L. Belleville, ‘Tradition of Creation? Paul’s Use of the Exodus 34 Tradition in 2 Corinthians 3.7-18’, in Evans and Sanders (eds.), Paul and the Scriptures of Israel, pp.165–86, for a concise presentation of her basic thesis. 49. Belleville, ReÀections, p.298. 50. They are: (1) availability; (2) volume; (3) recurrence; (4) thematic coherence; (5) historical plausibility; (6) history of interpretation; (7) satisfaction (pp.29–33). For a more recent discussion and re¿nement of these criteria, see Hays, Conversion, pp.34–45. 51. Hays, Echoes, p.151. 1

10

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

‘the old covenant pre¿gured precisely this transformation’, an indication of the unveiling.52 N. T. Wright observes in his Climax of the Covenant the theme of covenant in 3.7-18, and proposes to solve the problems associated with v. 18.53 He ¿rst lays out two conclusions he believes Paul draws – (1) the Corinthians are Paul’s ‘letter of recommendation’ (3.2-3); (2) Paul can adopt a ‘bold’ style and speak the truth without fear (3.12) – and attempts to show the two are present in v. 18. As he offers his own exegetical insights through the verses, he argues that Paul is using Exod. 34.34 as ‘a deliberate allusion’ and not ‘as an exact quotation’ in order to ‘make the transition’ between Moses, who removed the veil in the presence of the Lord, and the new covenant people, who now have, because of their unhardened heart, the freedom which allows ‘boldness’ to behold the glory.54 Thus Paul is not contrasting himself with Moses, but is presenting Moses as a model for those whose hearts are not hardened. Therefore, the problem is not with the Torah or with Moses, but with the condition of the hearers’ heart since the Israelites’ rebellion was a sign of their hardheartedness. Furthermore, the two conclusions are seen to come together in v. 18 in that the Spirit has written the new covenant on all believers in Christ, which has come about through Paul’s bold ministry. In conclusion, he draws out three points in relation to the wider issues of his work: (1) the central importance of the covenantal category in Paul’s handling of the law; (2) Torah as that which is in ‘a deliberately temporary dispensation’; (3) the recipients’ condition of heart, and not Torah or Moses, as the problem.55 The most thorough and detailed analysis of 2 Corinthians 3 in recent studies is by Scott Hafemann,56 and it merits a special focus. By paying very close attention to the context in which the letter/Spirit contrast appears, Hafemann seeks to examine the meaning of the contrast within its context rather than seeing it as ‘a dictum within the larger question of Paul and the Law’.57 Moreover, he attempts to put to the test the fundamental challenge of Kamlah, Käsemann, Stuhlmacher, Beker, Koch and

52. Hays, Echoes, p.152. 53. N. T. Wright, The Climax of the Covenant: Christ and the Law in Pauline Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992), p.179. 54. Wright, Climax, p.183. 55. Wright, Climax, pp.191–2. 56. Hafemann, Paul. 57. Hafemann, Paul, p.30. 1

1. Introduction

11

Hays that the antithesis implies a hermeneutical contrast.58 Again, the context is very important for Hafemann since he believes that it is ‘determinative for evaluating this challenge and not some external thesis concerning “Pauline hermeneutics”’.59 In his previous work,60 Hafemann argued, among other things, that the apologetic tone, the theme of Paul’s role as a mediator between God and his people clearly voiced in 2.14-16a and the continuing issue of the compatibility of Paul’s suffering to his apostolic ministry in 3.4-18 show that the letter/Spirit antithesis plays an essential role in Paul’s apologetic discourse.61 Thus, Paul’s self-conception as an apostle is expressed through the letter/Spirit contrast as expounded in 3.7-18. Building on this, Hafemann argues in his following work that ‘Paul implicitly portrayed his apostolic role in 2 Cor. 2.14–3.3 to be the eschatological counterpart to the role of Moses as the mediator par excellence between YHWH and his people’.62 Paul’s defence is seen to be explicitly rooted in his ‘suf¿ciency as an apostle’ (cf. 2.15b, KBMCPQL; 3.5, KBMCPQK, KBMCPQVJL; 3.6, KBMCPYUGP), which is, he argues, reminiscent of ‘the suf¿ciency of Moses in LXX Exodus 4.10’.63 Even though Moses was himself insuf¿cient to carry out God’s purposes, he was made suf¿cient by the grace of God. Likewise, Paul is made suf¿cient by the same grace despite his insuf¿ciency. Yet, Paul’s ministry is different from that of Moses in that the Spirit was mediated. Hafemann’s second major argument lies in his contention that the answer to the tension between Paul’s ministry and that of Moses is to be found in ‘a renewed investigation of Paul’s understanding of Moses’ role in the “second giving of the Law” as found in Exodus 32–34 and its relationship to his own call to be a FKCMQPQLMCKPJLFKCSJMJL’.64 In examining Paul’s use of the OT tradition and its role within Paul’s argument, he comes to the conclusion that Paul is not simply using Scripture to

58. In contrast, see S. Westerholm, ‘Letter and Spirit: The Foundation of Pauline Ethic’, NTS 30 (1984), pp.229–48, and idem, Israel’s Law. Westerholm maintains that the letter/Spirit antithesis has no implication for Paul’s hermeneutics. 59. Hafemann, Paul, p.30. 60. S. J. Hafemann, Suffering and the Spirit: An Exegetical Study of II Cor. 2.14– 3.3 Within the Context of the Corinthian Correspondence (WUNT 2/19; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1986). Cf. Hafemann, Paul, pp.30–4, for his own summary of the book. 61. Hafemann, Suffering, p.83. 62. Hafemann, Paul, pp.33–4. 63. Hafemann, Paul, p.34; see his full argument in Chapters 1 and 2. 64. Hafemann, Paul, p.35, see his full argument in Chapters 3–5. 1

12

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

support his view, nor misusing it under the inÀuence of Christian presuppositions, but ‘derived his argument and apology for the nature and legitimacy of his apostolic ministry from the Scriptures themselves’.65 This is in contrast to the majority view that contends for Paul’s creative interpretation of the OT tradition. Yet, he presents a convincing case for Paul’s careful contextual reading of the OT passage with due respect to its original meaning.66 In the course of examining Paul’s use of the OT tradition, Hafemann reaches an important conclusion that ‘Paul’s discussion of Exodus 32–34 makes it clear that from the beginning of Israel’s history the problem was not the Law which was given to Israel or the old covenant per se, but the nature of the Israel which was given to the Law and with whom the covenant was made’.67 In other words, Exod. 34.29-35 already anticipates that the problem of the old covenant is not with the Law itself, but with the heart of Israel that remained ‘stiff-necked’ (cf. Deut. 29.2-4), the problem which Jeremiah 31 and Ezekiel 36 also point out later on. This leads Hafemann to conclude thus: ‘From its very beginning, therefore, the old covenant of the Law without the Spirit implicitly looked forward to the time when the Law would encounter a people whose hearts had been changed and empowered to keep God’s covenant’.68 Thus for Hafemann, the letter/Spirit contrast is not about Paul’s critique of the Law itself or even its misuse leading to legalism, but about the Law with or without the Spirit.69 Thus, the antithesis is interpreted in terms of salvation history. Yet, Paul is not seen to be referring to ‘the Christological or ecclesiological secret for unlocking the “true meaning” of the old covenant Scripture’.70 The subject of the transformation in the new covenant is not the text but the people who encounter the text with a new heart through the outpouring of the Spirit, which is made possible by God’s revelation of righteousness on the cross. 65. Hafemann, Paul, p.35. Emphasis original. 66. Similarly, William J. Dumbrell, ‘Paul’s Use of Exodus 34 in 2 Corinthians 3’, in God Who Is Rich in Mercy: Essays Presented to Dr. D. B. Knox (ed. Peter T. O’Brien and David G. Peterson; Homebush West, NSW: Anzea, 1986), pp.179–94. Dumbrell also argues that Paul is not using the method of midrash or pesher in 2 Cor. 3, but is being fair to the context of Exod. 34. However, he does not want to rule out completely the possibility that Paul is sometimes adaptive in using the Scripture. 67. Hafemann, Paul, p.441. Emphasis original. 68. Hafemann, Paul, p.442. 69. Hence, Hafemann regards as unnecessary all attempts of the ‘new perspective on Paul’ to solve the ‘tension’ in Paul’s thought by reducing the ‘letter’ to sociological, ritual or functional aspect. 70. Hafemann, Paul, p.455. 1

1. Introduction

13

This brief and selective sketch above of scholarly approaches to 2 Corinthians 3 is by no means indicative of the amount of energy spent on this section, since there are many more works to be mentioned if one were to do justice to a survey.71 Such apparently exhaustive treatments directed to the section lead one to focus on the rest of the letter, which may turn out to be more fruitful for scholarship since there is a much smaller amount of secondary literature that deals with Paul’s use of Scripture in 2 Corinthians 4–13. b. The Rest of 2 Corinthians Apart from 2 Corinthians 3, more attention has been given to 2 Corinthians 4–6 than to the rest of the letter. This appears to be due to exegetically and theologically important sections such as 5.1-10, 16-21; 6.14–7.1, even though the explicit citations are, according to NA27, more or less evenly spread.72 Five studies are worthy of mention. In his monograph, C. M. Pate73 argues that Adam Christology provides the theological and exegetical foundation for 2 Cor. 5.1–10 as well as 71. In addition to the works mentioned already, see also J. Munck, Paul and the Salvation of Mankind (Richmond: John Knox; London: SCM, 1959); D. W. Oostendorp, Another Jesus: A Gospel of Jewish-Christian Superiority in II Corinthians (Kampen: Kok, 1967), pp.31–51; C. J. A. Hickling, ‘The Sequence of Thought in II Corinthians, Chapter Three’, NTS 21 (1975), pp.380–95; J. A. Fitzmeyer, ‘Glory ReÀected on the Face of Christ (2 Cor. 3.7–4.6) and a Palestinian Jewish Motif’, TS 42 (1981), pp.630–44; J. Lambrecht, ‘Structure and Line of Thought in 2 Cor. 2.14–4.6’, Bib 64 (1983), pp.344–80; R. Liebers, Das Gesetz als Evangelium, Untersuchungen zur Gesetzeskritik des Paulus (Zurich: Theologischer Verlag Zürich, 1989), pp.96–123; O. Ho¿us, Paulusstudien (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1994), pp.75–120; W. S. Chau, The Letter and the Spirit: A History of Interpretation from Origen to Luther (New York: Lang, 1995); J. Schröter, ‘Schriftauslegung und Hermeneutik in 2 Korinther 3. Ein Beitrag zur Frage der Schriftbenutzung des Paulus’, NovT 40 (1998), pp.231–75; S. Grindheim, ‘The Law Kills but the Gospel Gives Life: The Letter-Spirit Dualism in 2 Corinthians 3.5-18’, JSNT 24 (2001), pp.97–115; P. Oakes, ‘Moses in Paul’, in La Construction de la ¿gure de Moïse (ed. T. Römer; Paris: Gabalda, 2007), pp.249–61. 72. There are nine verses with explicit citations in 2 Corinthians: 4.13; 6.2, 16, 17, 18; 8.15; 9.9; 10.17; 13.1. Cf. D. M. Smith’s contribution, ‘The Pauline Literature’, in Carson and Williamson (eds.), It Is Written, pp.265–91 (271). M. J. J. Menken, ‘Allusions to the Minor Prophets in the Fourth Gospel’ (paper presented at the Annual Seminar on the Use of the Old Testament in the New Testament, Hawarden, Wales, 3 April 2009), demonstrated that the lists of allusions in NA27 and UBS4 are not always reliable, though the list of citation is dependable due to its explicit nature. 73. C. M. Pate, Adam Christology as the Exegetical and Theological Substructure of 2 Corinthians 4.7–5.21 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1991). 1

14

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

for its larger context 4.7–5.21. He makes an observation that it was common Jewish conception that Adam’s lost glory will be restored to the righteous who suffers. Therefore, for him, the passage is a kind of midrash of Genesis 1–3, and the main implication drawn from this is that Paul believes, Pate argues, the lost glory of the ¿rst Adam is now restored by the righteous suffering of the last Adam, Jesus Christ. Thus, he argues that Paul views the tradition of the suffering of the righteous – especially the Suffering Servant texts of Isaiah – through this lens of Adam Christology. Gregory Beale74 attempts to show that there is a speci¿c OT background to the idea of reconciliation and that the conceptual link between reconciliation and the idea of the new creation in 2 Cor. 5.17–21 can be explained as the ful¿lment of the OT promises of the restoration of Israel. With his emphasis on conceptual Àow, he also tries to show how 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1, with its catena of OT quotations, ¿ts in the context by arguing that there is a precise OT theme (i.e. the theme of restoration and new creation in Isa. 40–66) that sits in the background, thus viewing 2 Cor. 5.14–7.7 as a literary unit. Moreover, the commission given to the Servant in Isa. 42.6-7, 16 to restore the people of Israel in exile is seen to have been applied to Paul’s apostolic commission by Christ. In his lucid monograph, William Webb75 addresses the issue of contextual integration of the passage of 6.14–7.1, which is often considered as an interpolation, into the context of 2 Corinthians. He examines the OT traditions behind the passage through source, form and redaction analyses and argues that 6.14–7.1 is related to its context through the theme of new covenant and exilic return traditions. Both the passage and its surrounding context are seen to be using the traditions. Particularly, he contends that Paul is identifying himself with the ‘ebed Yahweh which enables his formulation of the message in the language of second exodus, ‘Come out…’ Similarly, James Scott76 examines the citations in 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 and their scriptural backgrounds. His detailed analysis of the catena of 74. G. K. Beale, ‘The Old Testament Background of Reconciliation in 2 Corinthians 5–7 and Its Bearing on the Literary Problem of 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.1’, NTS 35 (1989), pp.550–81. 75. W. J. Webb, Returning Home: New Covenant and Second Exodus as the Context for 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.1 (JSNTSup 85; Shef¿eld: JSOT, 1993). 76. J. M Scott, ‘The Use of Scripture in 2 Corinthians 6.16c–18 and Paul’s Restoration Theology’, JSNT 56 (1994), pp.73–99. This article is an elaboration of his earlier treatment of the passage in J. M. Scott, Adoption as Sons of God: An Exegetical Investigation into the Background of ȊǿȅĬǼȈǿǹ in the Pauline Corpus 1

1. Introduction

15

citations reveals the presence of the theme of restoration and the new covenant, which he believes forms the framework of Paul’s argument in 2.14–7.4. He also argues for the original location and authenticity of the section as the catena of scriptural passages is seen to play an integral role as a closure in Paul’s apology. Hence, Paul’s use of Scripture is seen to be deliberate and important rather than incidental and casual. In his published doctoral work, Mark Gignilliat77 examines how Isaiah 40–66 is used in 2 Cor. 5.14–6.10 and focuses more on the theological and hermeneutical aspects of Paul’s use of Isaiah traditions rather than on text-critical issues. He observes similarity between midrash (as an exegetical activity as opposed to genre) and the way Paul uses the OT as well as differences between the two because of Paul’s christological and eschatological framework of reading. He argues that there is ‘a theological substructure’ that shaped Paul’s reading of the OT and the substructure is found in the servant traditions of Isaiah. Challenging the position of Beale and Webb, who argued for Paul’s identi¿cation with the Servant of YHWH, he distinguishes between the Servant (Isa. 40–55) and the servants of the Servant (Isa. 56–66) and asserts that Paul’s identity is to be found in ‘the servants’ of the Servant of Isaiah 40–66. As a servant follower of the Servant, Paul is seen to continue declaring the message in suffering. Apart from the works mentioned so far, there does not appear to be a focused investigation on Paul’s use of the OT in the rest of 2 Corinthians. Though Scott Hafemann’s short article provides a helpful overview, there is need for a more comprehensive account of the issue.78 Hence this study seeks to ¿ll the gap in a way that accounts for the role of Scripture in 2 Corinthians 4–13 with a special focus on how the Scriptures inform and shape Paul’s understanding of the identity of the Gentile Christians as well as his own identity and ministry.

(WUNT 2/48; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992), pp.187–220, which attempts to show the correlation between 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 and Gal. 4.5 through 2 Sam. 7.14, which he regards as the basis for the theme of adoption as sons. 77. Gignilliat, Paul. In addition to the major works mentioned, see also J. D. M. Derrett, ‘2 Cor 6,14ff. a Midrash on Dt 22,10’, Bib 59 (1978), pp.231–50. Derrett argues that Paul is using the methodology of midrash in 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 on Deut. 22.10. 78. S. J. Hafemann, ‘Paul’s Use of the Old Testament in 2 Corinthians’, Int 52 (1998), pp.246–57. 1

16

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

II. Methodology a. Approach of this Study A full account of the role of the Scripture needs to be approached from various angles if we are to do justice to the ‘use’ of Scripture in 2 Corinthians in a comprehensive manner. There appear to be broadly three approaches that encompass the majority of scholarly methodologies in this ¿eld. First, focus on hermeneutical assumptions and interpretative techniques. B. Lindars79 and C. H. Dodd80 seek to examine the underlying presuppositions and techniques employed by the NT writers in their attempts to understand the Christ event in the light of the Scriptures. While Dodd argues that large sections of passages are in play, Lindars contends that the early Christian readers were mainly concerned with individual and isolated parts of Scripture. More recently, Richard Hays has produced a very inÀuential book.81 Building upon the work of the literary critic John Hollander,82 Hays seeks to read Paul with ‘intelligent historical understanding’.83 Hays is especially interested in diachronic ‘intertextual echo’ of how the original texts are present in a later text (in his case, Pauline letters). He argues that the task of the interpreter is to detect and reveal ‘the ¿gurative effect of the echo…in the unstated or suppressed (transumed) points of resonance between the two texts’.84 To this end, he proposes and employs seven criteria for discerning echoes, and shows how these work out in the rest of the book.85 Secondly, investigations into Paul’s Vorlage (i.e. various ancient witnesses to the scriptural text) and Paul’s citation technique. Koch,86 Stanley,87 and Lim88 attempt to do this in their own ways. Koch catalogues all the explicit quotations89 in the Pauline letters and describes 79. B. Lindars, New Testament Apologetic: The Doctrinal Signi¿cance of the New Testament Quotations (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1961). 80. Dodd, According to the Scriptures. 81. Hays, Echoes. 82. John Hollander, The Figures of Echo: A Mode of Allusion in Milton and After (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981). 83. Hays, Echoes, p.27. 84. Hays, Echoes, p.20. 85. See n.50 above for the criteria, and see below for our appropriation of them. 86. Koch, Schrift. 87. Stanley, Language. 88. Lim, Scripture. 89. Koch (Schrift, pp.11–23) proposes seven criteria for discerning a quotation, part of which will be employed in this work. See below. 1

1. Introduction

17

how Paul handles them. He argues that the textual variants are not examples of memory lapses, but a conscious interpretative activity. From his systematic categorisation of modi¿ed texts, he infers that Paul’s alterations of the texts are directly related to the use to which he puts them. Thus Paul would, for example, change a phrase to highlight a point or to give a rhetorical touch. Omissions and replacement of words are also seen to serve the purposes of streamlining, stressing or re-reading. Such tempering of texts is seen to be different from the characteristic Jewish exegetical practises, even as it shares some similarities. He observes that Paul’s quotations revolve around certain major themes: Christology, the Law, and Israel’s election. He comes to the conclusion that Paul interprets Scripture on the hermeneutical conviction that the Scriptures must bear witness to the Gospel and that the Gospel is a prerequisite for understanding Scripture. Similarly, Stanley examines the wording of explicit quotations in the Pauline corpus and how they are handled, i.e., ‘the mechanics of the citation process itself’.90 In the course of his investigation, he also examines such matters as whether an author quotes from memory or from a written source, what an author uses to signal a citation and how citations are ordered within the primary composition. In contrast to Koch, Stanley works with a narrower category for quotation and takes on board only the ¿rst, third and fourth of Koch’s criteria.91 On the other hand, Lim is more interested in variants of the cited texts and argues that one must take into account the textual Àuidity and plurality and look beyond the Greek scriptural text in order to reconstruct Paul’s Vorlage. Yet he does not discuss Paul’s actual citations in depth nor propose criteria for discerning them. Thirdly, reading Paul in comparison with or in the light of the practices of Paul’s near contemporaries in biblical interpretation. While Lim and Koch also deal with this, Francis Watson does a very thorough job in his Paul and Hermeneutics of Faith. He examines three bodies of literature that are to be engaged in a three-way conversation: the Pauline letters, the non-Christian Jewish literature of the Second Temple period and the scriptural texts to which they appeal. He primarily wants to show the diverse ways of reading the same material (i.e. the Book of the Twelve), and carefully shows the differences between the readings by Paul and his contemporaries.

90. Stanley, Language, p.3. 91. That is, passages with (1) explicit citation formula; (2) clear interpretative gloss; or (3) syntactical tension with the surrounding verses. See Stanley, Language, p.37.

1

18

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

The scholar who has employed a methodology that is more or less a combination of the above three approaches is Ross Wagner. This study will make a substantial use of his methodology in order to examine the role of Scripture in 2 Corinthians 4–13. While Koch, Stanley, and Lim focus primarily on reconstructing Paul’s Vorlage and describing his citation technique, Hays searches for the hermeneutical assumptions and interpretative strategies that determine Paul’s reading of the Scripture. Hence, the combination of the methodologies of those scholars gives due attention to both external and internal evidences, i.e., to Paul’s Vorlage and his interpretative strategies and aims. Yet, the combination is not mere conglomeration of the approaches since the text-critical examination of Paul’s Vorlage serves as ‘a tool for exposing Paul’s interpretative strategies and aims’.92 Thus, for the analysis of every quotation, Wagner’s approach involves examining:93 1. The critically reconstructed text of LXX94 as well as variant readings in the manuscript tradition of the LXX. 2. The evidence of the OT texts in the later Greek versions, the church fathers, and quotations in other NT writings. 3. The available evidence for Hebrew forms of the text, including MT,95 the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Targum and the Peshitta. 92. Wagner, Heralds, p.15. 93. The following three criteria for critically reconstructed LXX and evidence for OT texts in later documents are only applicable to quotations and not to allusions and echoes since allusions and echoes do not require the exact wording of the original texts, but the use of a few key words and/or themes. 94. The ‘LXX’ originally refers to the translation of the Pentateuch into Greek, but now it generally refers to the Greek Jewish Scriptures. Most scholars use Old Greek to refer to the original translation. T. McLay, The Use of the Septuagint in New Testament Research (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003), p.6. This study will make use of the critical translation in the Göttingen series since it ‘seeks to reconstruct the Urtext for each book and to present as fully as possible the extant witnesses to the text’ (Wagner, Heralds, p.7 n.23). Where the Göttingen series does not cover, we refer to the Cambridge LXX since it has a critical apparatus, and also to Alfred Rahlfs edition where no such critical edition is available at present (e.g. on Proverbs and Ecclesiastes; the translation of the NETS on these books is based on Rahlfs). 95. The MT, like the Old Greek, witnesses to the Hebrew Bible (McLay, Septuagint, p.7). For this reason, McLay believes it is more appropriate to use terms like ‘the Scriptures or the Jewish Scriptures’ (McLay, Septuagint, p.7). Yet, this study will keep the term ‘MT’ to refer to Israel’s Bible in Hebrew and Aramaic. For a good discussion of these issues, see E. Tov, ‘The Status of the Masoretic Text in Modern Text Editions of the Hebrew Bible’, in The Canon Debate: On the Origins and Formation of the Bible (ed. L. M. McDonald and J. A. Sanders; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2002), pp.234–51. 1

1. Introduction

19

Following Wagner, we shall maintain similar foci of attention:96 The cited texts and their wider settings. 1. Paul’s interpretative strategies in relation to those particular texts and possibly to their wider contexts. 2. Paul’s ongoing argument. Moreover, attention will be paid, where available, to other Second Temple literature97 to place Paul’s reading of the Scriptures in his historical context, but not ‘to establish Paul’s dependence on particular exegetical tradition’.98 In addition to this, a rhetorical question will be asked for every quotation and allusion. Christopher Stanley challenged the prevalent author-centred approach by raising the problem of the recipients’ literary competency.99 While there are shortcomings in Stanley’s arguments,100 the question of why Paul cites or alludes to Scripture where he does seems to be an important one, and asking about the literary competency of Paul’s audience/readers could shed light on Paul’s intention and argumentation. Stanley has three hypothetical groups of audience: ‘informed’, ‘competent’ and ‘minimal’. In the present study only two hypothetical groups of audience will be employed: ‘informed’ and ‘minimal’. This is because there does not seem to be much difference of understanding on the part of the ‘competent’ and the ‘minimal’ in Stanley’s analyses.101 96. Wagner, Heralds, p.19. 97. For scriptural index to the Dead Sea Scrolls, we shall rely on D. L. Washburn, A Catalog of Biblical Passages in the Dead Sea Scrolls (TCS; Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2002); and for OT pseudepigrapha, Steve Delamarter, A Scripture Index to Charlesworth’s The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (Shef¿eld: Shef¿eld Academic, 2003). ‘Judaism’ was not monolithic as there were different communities (Qumran, Alexandrian, Antiochene, Syrian, Ethiopian) and traditions (wisdom, apocalyptic, rabbinic, pharisaic); see Stamps, ‘Rhetorical Device’, p.15. For a concise overview of the development of Judaism, see J. T. Barrera, The Jewish Bible and the Christian Bible: An Introduction to the History of the Bible (Leiden: Brill; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998), pp.37–41. 98. Wagner, Heralds, p.17. 99. Stanley, Arguing with Scripture. Cf. also C. M. Tuckett, ‘Paul, Scripture and Ethics: Some ReÀections’, NTS 46 (2000), pp.403–24. 100. Cf. the criticisms of Wagner, Heralds, pp.33–66; Watson, Paul, pp.128–9; B. J. Abasciano, ‘Diamonds in the Rough: A Reply to Christopher Stanley Concerning the Reader Competency of Paul’s Original Audiences’, NovT 49 (2007), pp.153– 83. See also Stanley’s response to Watson, C. D. Stanley, ‘A Decontextualized Paul? A Response to Francis Watson’s Paul and the Hermeneutics of Faith’, JSNT 28 (2006), pp.353–62. 101. Stanley, Arguing with Scripture, passim. 1

20

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

The combination of Wagner’s approach with Stanley’s questions will help us to examine the role of Scripture in 2 Corinthians 4–13 in a comprehensive way. Wagner’s methodology may be ‘incompatible’ with the sort of questions Stanley raises, but each approach has ‘its own validity and needs to be incorporated into a “thick” description of Paul’s use of Scripture’.102 To this combination we shall add the question of ‘identi¿cation’ to see what kind of changes of referent occurs in Paul’s use of Scripture. Since applying the text to a new context necessarily entails new referents, we shall point out what changes have been made with respect to the referents and what implications arise from the changes. This question will be important for the purposes of this study as it seeks to understand what role Scripture plays and how Paul uses the sacred writings in his understanding of himself, his ministry and his congregation. This project has four chapters dealing with Paul’s appropriation of the OT in 2 Corinthians 4–13. The chapters are delineated with two factors in mind: (1) the natural point of break; (2) the amount of space suitable for each chapter to prevent a chapter from becoming too long. Thus, 2 Cor. 4.7–7.16 has been divided into two chapters (Chapter 1 on 4.7– 6.13 and Chapter 2 on 6.14–7.16) due to the length of the passage, though it could have been dealt with in a single chapter. Chapters 3 and 4 are grouped around 2 Corinthians 8–9 and 10–13 respectively. This seems appropriate not only because of the length of the passages but also because of the particular issues each section deals with: 2 Corinthian 8–9 on the collection; 2 Corinthians 10–13 on Paul’s explicit defense of his apostolic authority. b. A Note on Terminology Before we move any further, it is necessary to introduce and de¿ne some terms used to refer to the scriptural presence in the NT and to propose how Paul’s engagement with Scripture will be discerned and determined in this study. It hardly needs mentioning that there are both direct and indirect references to Scripture in Pauline letters. Yet there are some scholars who assert that one has to focus on direct forms of reference like ‘quotation’ alone because they think indirect scriptural references like ‘allusions’ are without controls.103 Thus Stanley criticizes the attempts to 102. S. Moyise, ‘Quotations’, in Porter and Stanley (eds.), As It Is Written, pp.15–28 (28). This is a comment related to various approaches to examining quotations, but the basic thrust is pertinent here. He further contends that one should not rule out some approaches ‘out of court’ from the start (p.28). 103. See, e.g., Longenecker, Biblical Exegesis, pp.91–2; Stanley, Language, p.34.

1

1. Introduction

21

discern ‘allusions’ as running ‘the risk of becoming so broad and diffuse as to tender its ¿ndings suspect when applied to the narrower body of clearly identi¿able citations’.104 While there is some truth in the statement, a narrow focus on direct references alone cannot account for Paul’s use of Scripture as a whole.105 Paul’s clear reference to Genesis 3 in 2 Cor. 11.3, for example, would be dismissed or ignored if we were to focus only on ‘clearly identi¿able citations’. Therefore, the texts with no clear citation formula or verbal match can and should be taken into account when investigating the use of Scripture in a body of text. Thus, Paul’s use of Scripture involves both detailed studies of the sort done by Stanley and theological studies of the sort done by Gignilliat since both cannot be separated.106 Paul’s theology is bound to show in his writings, and his references to the Scriptures – whether direct or indirect – are bound to reÀect such theology. Yet, as with Wagner, the pattern of Paul’s use of Scripture found in explicit quotations will be given more weight than other less direct forms of relating to the Scripture. It has to be pointed out that there is a vast range of terminology used to describe the NT’s engagement with the OT. Stanley Porter observes that the following terms are used with frequency: citation, direct quotation, formal quotation, indirect quotation, allusive quotation, allusion (whether conscious or unconscious), paraphrase, exegesis (such as innerbiblical exegesis), midrash, typology, reminiscence, echo (whether conscious or unconscious), intertextuality, inÀuence (either direct or indirect), and even tradition, among other terms.107 Given these numerous expressions, it is not surprising that terminologies like ‘quotation’ or ‘allusion’, which may appear to be straightforward, can sometimes confuse the reader if it is not clearly de¿ned or, if it is, differently de¿ned. While a direct reference like ‘explicit quotation’ is generally thought to be a word-for-word borrowing of a phrase or clauses from an external source,108 this does not always appear to be true in the case of Pauline 104. Stanley, Language, p.34. 105. Cf. Wagner, Heralds, p.7 n.24. 106. Cf. Marshall (‘An Assessment’, pp.9–10), who points out that the study of the use of the OT in the NT should reckon with how OT themes, characters, stories and so on are utilized without any direct allusions. 107. S. E. Porter, ‘The Use of the Old Testament in the New Testament: A Brief Comment on Method and Terminology’, in Porter and Sanders (eds.), Early Christian Interpretation, pp.79–96 (80). 108. It can be further distinguished as marked and unmarked quotations, i.e., quotations with introductory formula or similar marker and quotations without such 1

22

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

‘explicit quotations’, which do not necessarily follow the exact wording of the original text (e.g. 2 Cor. 6.16d-18). As H. D. Betz notes, the purpose of citation is not to reproduce the exact words but to reproduce the main thrust of the passage cited.109 Given different understandings of what a quotation is, it is necessary to de¿ne what we mean by the terms that will be used throughout this study. We shall use ‘quotation’ or ‘citation’110 as an intentional and explicit reference to Scripture. By ‘intentional and explicit’ we refer to six of Koch’s criteria discerning a quotation, which: (1) is marked by a citation formula; (2) has the same expressions in other passages following a citation formula (e.g. Rom. 4.22); (3) has an interpretative gloss (e.g. 1 Cor. 15.27ab and 2 Cor. 3.16, 17); (4) exhibits syntactical distinction (e.g. Rom. 9.7b; 10.18; Gal. 3.6, 12b); (5) differs in style from the surrounding verses (e.g. Rom. 10.18; 11.34; 12.20; 1 Cor. 10.26; 15.32b, 33; 2 Cor. 9.10); (6) is introduced by a particle of emphasis (e.g. OGPQWPIG, Q=VK, CXNNC,ICT, FG).111 An allusion is a less explicit form of referring to a source text than a quotation and does not need to have the corresponding words in a linear format as a citation does. Key words or themes can be ‘spread out’ and blended into a new sentence or a paragraph.112 Beetham contends that there are four essential elements for an allusion: (1) it has to be intentional in pointing the reader to an earlier text; (2) it has to refer to a single identi¿able predecessor; (3) it has to stand out suf¿ciently for the audience to notice it; (4) the author expects the audience to recall the indicators. For discussions on introductory formulae, see B. Metzger, ‘The Formulas Introducing Quotations of Scripture in the New Testament and the Mishna’, JBL 70 (1951), pp.297–307. 109. Cf. H. D. Betz, 2 Corinthians 8 and 9: A Commentary on Two Administrative Letters of the Apostle Paul (Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985), p.107. 110. In this study we shall use the terms interchangeably and will not distinguish them. Beetham de¿nes ‘quotation’ as an ‘intentional, explicit, verbatim or near verbatim citation of a former text of six or more words in length’. See C. A. Beetham, Echoes of Scripture in the Letter of Paul to the Colossians (BIS 96; Leiden: Brill, 2008), p.17. Yet the limit of words to six seems super¿cial and has to exclude quotations like that found in 2 Cor. 4.13, which has only three words (GXRKUVGWUC, FKQGXNCNJUC). In his review of Beetham’s book (RBL [12/2009]), Maarten Menken suggests that ‘a quotation has to be a clause made up of at least a subject and a predicate’. Yet, a quotation can be a single word, as Abasciano has rightly pointed out in a personal comment. 111. Koch, Schrift, pp.11–23. The seventh criterion, which is left out in this study, is a reproduction of a tradition that the author believes the original readers are familiar with. 112. Cf. Beetham, Echoes, p.17. 1

1. Introduction

23

original sense of an allusion and make appropriate connections.113 For the purpose of identifying an allusion, however, only the ¿rst, third and fourth seem appropriate. As for the second, there does not appear to be a good reason why an allusion has to come from a single identi¿able source. Even a quotation is drawn from a number of different places in some verses of 2 Corinthians (cf. 6.16d-18; 10.17) and we do not see why an allusion cannot come from a mixed source. To determine whether an allusion is ‘intentional’ and ‘suf¿ciently obvious’, we shall pay attention to uses of key words and thematic and/or structural correspondences. To express this using some of Hays’ criteria: the use of key words and syntactical patterns (Volume), recurrence of the same scriptural expression and/or larger portions of Scripture repeatedly found in other Pauline letters (Recurrence), coherence in terms of theme or pattern (Thematic Coherence) and asking whether Paul could have intended the alleged allusion in the light of his historical context (Historical Plausibility).114 An echo is a much less explicit form of referring to Scripture than a quotation. While an allusion is that which is likely to have been in the author’s intention, an echo may or may not have been in the list of the author’s intentions to be conveyed to the audience. Admittedly, it becomes more subjective as the references become more indirect. We shall use the same criteria used for discerning an allusion and call a reference to Scripture ‘an echo’ when it is doubtful that Paul expects his audience to notice it. In other words, an echo is a subtler form of an allusion.115 113. Beetham, Echoes, p.17. 114. Establishing allusions in practice is complex and multivalent due to their ambiguous nature. See J. Paulien, ‘Criteria and the Assessment of Allusions to the Old Testament in the Book of Revelation’, in Studies in the Book of Revelation (ed. S. Moyise; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 2001), pp.113–29, for a brief survey of attempts at re¿ning criteria for detecting allusions. 115. Hays (Echoes, p.29) also distinguishes allusion from echo. The former is a clear intertextual appeal while the latter is subtler. This is followed by Wagner, Heralds, p.9 n.36. Other helpful categories of scriptural reference are suggested by S. E. Porter, ‘Further Comments on the Use of the Old Testament in the New Testament’, in The Intertextuality of the Epistles: Explorations of Theory and Practice (ed. T. L. Brodie et al.; Shef¿eld: Shef¿eld Phoenix, 2006), pp.98–110 (107–9), and R. T. France, Jesus and the Old Testament: His Application of Old Testament Passages to Himself and His Mission (London: Tyndale, 1971), p.259. Porter suggests ¿ve categories: formulaic quotation; direct quotation; paraphrase; allusion; and echo. France proposes six: verbatim quotations with introductory formula; verbatim quotations without introductory formula; clear verbal allusions; clear references without verbal allusions; possible verbal allusions; and possible references without verbal allusions. 1

Chapter 2

2 CORINTHIANS 4.7–6.13

Our investigation of Paul’s use of Scripture in 2 Corinthians 4–7 starts from examining v. 7 of ch. 4, which marks a new beginning albeit not completely unrelated to 4.1-6. This is because 4.1-6 continues on from previous passages and is often treated together with 2 Corinthians 3. Major commentators divide the section 2.14–7.16 differently, yet they commonly note the beginning of a new section from 4.7.1 In 2.14–4.6, especially, 3.1–4.6, Paul describes and argues for the glory and superiority of his apostolic ministry in the new covenant, and this section is given much attention, as we have noted earlier. Hence we shall start our study from 4.7, in which Paul begins to talk more explicitly about his frailty and weakness, which is reverberated in a more detailed way in 6.3-13, marking a suitable end of this section. Before we move into the details, however, it would be good to sketch out brieÀy the Àow of Paul’s argument in these sections in order to set the scene for our investigation. In defence of his ministry, Paul has told the Corinthians that his ministry in the new covenant is much more glorious than that in the old covenant (3.7-11). For this reason, he is con¿dent (3.12) and enjoys the freedom that comes with the Spirit of the Lord (3.17). With this freedom comes the knowledge of the greater glory that has been revealed and the exposure to the glory transforms those who have the Spirit of the Lord (3.18). This participation in the glorious ministry of the new covenant leads Paul to oppose deceitful ways for propagating his own agenda and to act with an open and honest heart (4.2; cf. 6.11-13). Even if some people do not see the light of the gospel Paul preaches, it is because of 1. So P. E. Hughes, Paul’s Second Epistle to the Corinthians (NICNT; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans; London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1962); V. P. Furnish, II Corinthians (AB 32A; Garden City: Doubleday, 1984); R. Bultmann, The Second Letter to the Corinthians (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1985); R. P. Martin, 2 Corinthians (WBC 40; Waco, TX: Word, 1986); M. E. Thrall, The Second Epistle of the Corinthians (ICC; 2 vols.; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1994, 2000), vol. 1; M. J. Harris, The Second Epistle to the Corinthians (NIGTC; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans; Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 2005).

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

25

the blindness the god of this world causes (4.4) and not because there is anything wrong in the proclamation of the gospel or the bearer of the message. Paul is fully aware of his status as a slave of Jesus Christ and determined to preach him only (4.5; cf. Phil. 3.7-9) for the light of the gospel that is within is not from himself, but from God (4.6). Yet, this is what elevates Paul above his opponents. Even though he likens himself to ‘clay jars’ (4.7) and afÀicted in every way (4.8-9), that is how the death of Jesus is carried and manifested in Paul, and thus also the life of Jesus (4.10-11). The Corinthians’ embarrassment over Paul’s apparent misery should be replaced with ascribing thanks and glory to God because that is how the grace of God has been extended to the Corinthians (4.15). Thus, Paul is exhorting the Corinthians not to look at what can be seen, but at what cannot be seen, for what cannot be seen is eternal (4.18). Through this ironic subversion of values, Paul has put himself in a favourable position over his opponents2 and goes on to represent the narrative of the Christ-event (5.14-15, 18-21) in a sincere hope that the Corinthians may return to the gospel in their outworking of the glorious truth as Paul had proclaimed to them before.3 With this in mind, let us now turn to the passages of this section where the voices of the OT are called upon. 4.7 Paul goes on to talk about where ‘the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ’ (v. 6) is most clearly seen. Suggestions have been made as to the referent of VQP SJUCWTQP VQWVQP from the 2. Cf. T. B. Savage, Power Through Weakness: Paul’s Understanding of the Christian Ministry in 2 Corinthians (SNTSMS; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp.164–86. 3. S. E. Fowl, The Story of Christ in the Ethics of Paul (JSNTSup 36; Shef¿eld: Shef¿eld Academic, 1990), pp.198–202. Fowl observes that Paul often repeats the story of Jesus to rectify the believer who has gone off track (cf. Phil. 2.6–11; Col. 1.15–20). Contra H. Boers, ‘2 Corinthians 5.14–6.2: A Fragment of Pauline Christology’, CBQ 64 (2002), pp.527–47. Boers argues that 5.14–6.2 makes no ‘explicit reference’ to Paul’s self-defence (p.527). It is true that Paul is not making ‘explicit reference’ to his self-defence, but it seems reasonable to say that Paul sought to establish his authority within the framework of the events of Christ, hence the retelling of the narrative of God’s salvi¿c work in Christ. Cf. Gignilliat (Paul, p.56) who also claims that Paul is ‘seeking to place himself in God’s programmatic redemptive work in Christ’. This pattern is also observed in 1 Corinthians. See A. C. Thiselton, ‘The Signi¿cance of Recent Research on 1 Corinthians for Hermeneutical Appropriation of This Epistle Today’, Neot 40 (2006), pp.320–52 (323). 1

26

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

gospel (vv. 3, 4),4 or the ministry of the gospel (4.1),5 or the glory of God (4.6),6 or a combination of all these.7 While they are all related to one another by having a common reference to the gospel,8 the word VQWVQP naturally refers to what has just been mentioned in 4.6, i.e., HYVKUOQP VJL IPYUGYL VJL FQZJL VQW SGQW GXP RTQUYRY^ (8,JUQW) &TKUVQW. NA27 notes Lam. 4.2 as a text Paul alludes to in 4.7. Although the use of the word QXUVTCMKPQL (IU[) is rare in the NT (only twice in 2 Cor. 4.7 and 2 Tim. 2.20), there do not appear to be any signi¿cant points of contact to the OT text either in terms of verbal match (sharing only one word QXUVTCMKPQL) or in terms of contextual correspondence.9 It is very dif¿cult to see why Paul would have had this verse in mind since the degradation of the nation of Judah portrayed in and around Lam. 4.2 can hardly be related in any way to what Paul is saying in 2 Cor. 4.7. If one’s justi¿cation for the allusion is based upon the single verbal match (QXUVTCMKPQL), as it appears to be with Lam. 4.2, there are other OT passages (Lev. 6.28; 11.33; 15.12; Isa. 30.14; Jer. 19.11) that are better candidates which not only have the same word (QXUVTCMKPQL) but also express the basic attributes of the earthen pot such as frailty and disposability. Hence it seems NA27 is here mistaken in noting the allusion. The imagery of ‘earthen pots’ (QXUVTCMKPQKL UMGWGUKP) to refer to human beings or their body may allude to the Genesis account (2.7) where God is depicted as forming a man from the dust of the ground (cf. 1 Cor. 15.47, QB RTYVQL CPSTYRQL GXM IJL EQK"MQL).10 This is a plausible option especially in light of the context. In the preceding verse (2 Cor. 4.6), Paul clearly alludes to the creation account, and the use of the words ‘glory’ (FQZJL, v. 6) and ‘image’ (GKXMYP, v. 4) seems to support this connection.11 Pate notes that glory is a key concept in 2 Corinthians 4. F. F. Bruce, 1 and 2 Corinthians (NCB; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans; London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1971), p.197. 5. Bultmann, Corinthians, p.112. 6. Pate, Adam, p.80. 7. Furnish, II Corinthians, p.279. 8. Harris, Second Epistle, p.339. 9. The Hebrew and the Greek text and its context expound a similar theme, and thus no signi¿cant difference in the way both versions are seen to interact thematically with 2 Cor. 4.7. 10. Also noted by Furnish, II Corinthians, p.253; Hughes, Second Epistle, p.136. 11. LXX Isa. 9.1 has also been noted as another allusion in 4.6. Cf. C. K. Stockhausen, Moses’ Veil and the Glory of the New Covenant (Rome: Ponti¿cio Istituto Biblico, 1989), pp.160–1; Webb, Returning, p.97; Martin, 2 Corinthians, p.80. Although the Isaianic allusion is not evident in 4.7, Paul’s list of hardships (4.8-9), and his eschatological hope (4.14–18) seem to suggest that Paul already has in mind 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

27

(1.20; 3.7 [×2], 10 [×2], 18 [×2]; 4.4, 6, 15, 17) and contends that the concept of glory often conveys an Adamic nuance. He claims, ‘it is highly probable that Paul understood glory to be the key characteristic of Adam’s creation in the image of God; glory which was lost but now has been restored by Christ the Last Adam’.12 Pate takes this to be the theological background for SJUCWTQP of 4.7. As support, he refers to Rom. 1.23; 8.29; 1 Cor. 11.7; 15.49, which mention image in association with glory and with speci¿c reference to the creation account, and argues that 2 Cor. 4.6, 7 must also be viewed in light of the same Adamic context.13 Thus, the story of God making Adam from the dust of the ground (IJL, Gen. 2.7) and Paul’s reference to human body as ‘clay jars’ appear to have a connection. Although God saw all his creation to be ‘very good’ (MCNC NKCP, Gen. 1.31), the idea of frailty is implied in the word ‘dust’ (IJL) and is made clear later on in the story when God tells Adam, ‘you are dust (IJ) and to dust (IJP) you shall return’ (3.19). It seems then that Paul is borrowing the imagery of ‘earthen pots’ from the OT – perhaps more consciously from the creation account than other passages – to contrast the frailty and comparatively small value of the human body14 with ‘the light of the knowledge of the glory of God’ that is within (v. 6). However, it would be pressing the allusion too far to argue that Paul is here alluding to the lost glory of Adam now restored by Christ, as Pate contends. Rather it seems the frailty of humanity is simply assumed and the main purpose (K=PC) of the contrast is to show that God manifests his surpassing power through the apparent weakness and frailty of human beings, especially in the person of Jesus and consequently in his followers, to bring about restoration and redemption. Therefore, Paul does not appear to base his statement on the early chapters of Genesis, but simply borrow the imagery of earthen pots to express the frailty of humanity. Those who are competent with scriptural knowledge might have noticed the connection to the Genesis account since some language and imagery from the ¿rst book of Scripture are used in and around 4.6. Yet the link to the OT passage would not have amounted to much more than the Isaianic vision of renewal that will become explicit in chs. 5–6 which, as we shall see below, clearly allude to the Suffering Servant (5.14-21) and the Isaianic eschatological renewal brought about by the Servant (5.17; 6.2). 12. Pate, Adam, p.80. 13. Pate, Adam, p.82. 14. This is not to say that the human body is to be regarded as worthless since Paul makes it clear in 5.4 that the mortal body is to be further clothed with an eternal one. 1

28

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

af¿rming the frail nature of the ‘earthen pots’. Whether one would have come as far as Pate in seeing the lost glory of Adam now restored in Christ remains doubtful. Even if the imagery of ‘earthen pots’ is not traced back to a certain OT passage by those who were less familiar with Scripture, it seems reasonable to hold that they would not have missed the basic thrust of Paul’s imagery because of the way Paul contrasted it with the treasure contained in it, and also because of the common sense that an ‘earthen pot’ is neither strong nor of a great value. Thus, the contrast between the earthen pot and the treasure is obvious: the value and strength of the pot does not lie in itself (OJ GXZ JBOYP), but in what it contains. 4.11 That Paul considered his ministry as ¿rmly rooted in Jesus Christ is clear from his use of the phrase GKXL SCPCVQP RCTCFKFQOGSC.15 The use of the verb RCTCFKFYOK together with the phrase GKXL SCPCVQP appears only in 2 Chron. 32.11 and Isa. 53.12.16 Yet Isa. 53.12 is more likely to be what Paul had in mind, especially because he will go on to allude to Isaiah 53 more explicitly in 5.14-21 (see below).17 There seems to be a clear echo of the Suffering Servant theme of LXX Isaiah 53, although he does not explicitly indicate that he is doing so. He identi¿es himself and his coworkers very closely with the Suffering Servant of YHWH, evidenced by the change of third person singular (RCTGFQSJ) to the ¿rst person plural (RCTCFKFQOGSC). This also ties in well with the preceding verses (4.8-10), which associate the suffering and hardship of Paul and his fellowworkers with the death of Jesus. The suffering they experienced is an essential part of the ministry of the new covenant because ‘it is as much a part of divine providence as Christ’s suffering was’.18 Therefore we see here that Paul continues to maintain the paradoxical value system (cf. 1.3-10) with which to look at the apparent misery the ministers of the new covenant have been through. 15. The word RCTCFKFYOKis often used in relation to the death of Jesus in other Pauline letters. See Rom. 4.25; 9.32; 1 Cor. 11.32; Gal. 2.20; Eph. 5.2, 25. The word is used in a similar manner in the Gospels: Mt. 10.4; 17.22; 20.18, 19; 26.2, 15, 16, 21–25, 45, 46, 48; 27.2-4, 18, 26; Mk 3.19; 9.31; 10.33; 14.10, 11, 18, 21, 41, 42, 44; 15.1, 10, 15; Lk. 9.44; 19.32; 20.20; 22.4, 6, 21, 22, 48; 23.25; 24.7, 20; Jn 6.64, 71; 12.4; 13.2, 11, 21; 19.2, 5, 30, 35, 36; 19.11, 16; 21.20. Cf. Acts 3.13. 16. In Hebrew, the close combination of KU> and WZP occurs only in Isa. 53.12. 17. F. Wilk, ‘Isaiah in 1 and 2 Corinthians’, in Moyise and Menken (eds.), Isaiah, pp.133–58 (149). 18. Webb, Returning, p.105. 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

29

Table 2.1 2 Cor. 4.1119    CXGK ICT JBOGKL QKB \YPVGL GKXL SCPCVQP RCTCFKFQOGSC FKC 8,JUQWP K=PC MCK JB \YJ VQW 8,JUQW HCPGTYSJ^ GXP VJ^ SPJVJ^ UCTMK JBOYP.

For while we live, we are always being given up to death for Jesus’ sake, so that the life of Jesus may be made visible in our mortal Àesh.

LXX

Isa. 53.1220

FKC VQWVQ CWXVQL MNJTQPQOJUGK RQNNQWL MCK VYP KXUEWTYP OGTKGK UMWNC, CXPS8 YP RCTGFQSJ GKXL SCPCVQP JB [WEJ CWXVQW MCK GXP VQKL CXPQOQKL GXNQIKUSJ> MCK CWXVQL CBOCTVKCL RQNNYP CXPJPGIMG MCK FKC VCL CBOCTVKCL CWXVYP RCTGFQSJ. Therefore he shall inherit many, and he shall divide the spoils of the strong, because his soul was given over to death, and he was reckoned among the lawless, and he bore the sins of many, and because of their sins he was given over.

MT

Isa. 53.12

a\%LUE $OT/[D@NHO  OO Y T/H[\a\PL:F>@WDZ! WZ0 OKU>KUYD@W[7 a\>LY3RWDZ!$YSQ a\%LUDM[HD:KZ!KQPQ, >\*,S\a\>LY3ROZ!DI Q

Therefore I will allot him a portion with the great, and he shall divide the spoil with the strong; because he poured out himself to death, and was numbered with the transgressors; yet he bore the sin of many, and made intercession for the transgressors.

* Verbal correspondences underlined.

He may not have intended his audience/readers to pick this up, but we have a glimpse of how Paul understood himself as a new covenant minister from his conscious application of the phrase to his situation. The subtle echo of the Servant tradition suggests that Paul already had in mind the Isaianic themes of renewal even though he will not make them

19. Unless otherwise indicated, translations for NT and OT are from the New Revised Standard Version Bible: Anglicized Edition, copyright 1989, 1995, Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved. 20. Unless otherwise indicated, translations for the Septuagint are taken from A New English Translation of the Septuagint, copyright 2007 by the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies, Inc. Used by Permission of Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. 1

30

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

explicit until later. It af¿rms once again, though implicitly, that Paul saw himself to be ¿rmly rooted in the new covenant (cf. 3.7-18), to which Isaiah is understood to point. Those who are competent in Scripture might have picked up the theme of the Suffering Servant of Isaiah. If they noticed the echo, they would have realized how Paul is seeing himself in light of the Servant. This would tie in very well with what Paul has been saying in the immediate context that his suffering is like participating in the death of Jesus to whom the Servant of Isaiah is primarily believed to point. The others who were less familiar with Scripture would not have picked up this echo. Though they might not notice how Paul is attempting to place himself in the light of the Servant of Isaiah, the main point that Paul’s suffering is closely associated with the death of Jesus should have been clear to them as Paul’s statements are not ambiguous about that. Here we see a close identi¿cation between Paul (and his co-workers) and the Servant of Isaiah. This move is not surprising since Paul has already identi¿ed himself very closely with Jesus Christ in his death and resurrection, which have been manifested in the suffering, persecution and abundant life of Paul and his companions. Thus Paul’s identi¿cation of himself and his fellow workers with the Suffering Righteous One of Isaiah is a logical extension of what Paul claims to be true of their relationship with Jesus Christ. 4.13 Paul goes on to spell out another reason for his perseverance even though death is at work in him (4.12). He has already noted that the hardships and persecutions he is going through are the way of manifesting the life of Jesus (4.8-9). While this is in itself a very good reason to persevere, Paul lets his readers know that there is another reason for his determination to continue in proclaiming the truth of the gospel even when it attracts opposition and tribulations (4.13). He can go on not only because the earthen vessel carries the divine power and life (4.7, 10-11), but also because God who raised Jesus from the dead will also raise him with Jesus and bring him into the presence of God (4.14).21 In saying this, Paul cites a scriptural passage to support his conviction to persevere in the new covenant ministry. 21. Another motivation is in 1 Cor. 9.16 where he confesses that he is obligated to preach the gospel. 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

31

Table 2.2 2 Cor. 4.13  (EQPVGL FG VQ CWXVQ RPGWOC VJL RKUVGYL MCVC VQ IGITCOOGPQP>  GXRKUVGWUC FKQ GXNCNJUC MCK JBOGKL RKUVGWQOGP FKQ MCK NCNQWOGP  But just as we have the same spirit of faith that is in accordance with scripture – ‘I believed, and so I spoke’ – we also believe, and so we speak

LXX Ps. 115.1 MT Ps. 116.1023  $NNJNQWKC.  \Q,D@U%HGD@\.L\7LQ!PDK  GDRP\WL\Q,>

GXRKUVGWUC FKQ GXNCNJUC>  GXIY FG GXVCRGKPYSJP UHQFTC.   Hallelujah I kept my faith, even when I said, ‘I am I believed, therefore I greatly afÀicted’ spoke, But I, I was brought very low

* Verbal matches underlined

By quoting the words of the psalmist verbatim from the LXX introduced by MCVC VQ IGITCOOGPQP, Paul seeks to show a biblical foundation for his continued ministry in spite of many hardships. He is claiming that his faith is the same kind of faith expressed in the text he goes on to quote.24 Due to its brevity, the quotation does not make clear what kind of faith is being called upon. Yet when we look at the Psalm from which Paul quotes, the picture becomes clearer as to why Paul refers to this particular passage. 22. Several witnesses (D F G 0186 1175 sy) add MCK after FKQagainst the united testimony. It seems likely that the addition is an attempt to assimilate the sentence to the application that follows it (MCKJBOGKLRKUVGWQOGPFKQMCKNCNQWOGP). The external support (k46 D* B Cvid D ;. 1739. 1881 latt) also suggests that this is probably the case and Paul has followed the original wording verbatim. Cf. Stanley, Language, p.216. 23. The MT and LXX generally agree. Cf. A. M. Harman, ‘Aspects of Paul’s Use of the Psalms’, WTJ 32 (1969), pp.1–23 (23). Yet, the exact meaning of each version is slightly different. See below. 24. R. H. Strachan, The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians (MNTC; New York: Harper; London: Hodder, 1935), p.96, and Walter Schmithals, Gnosticism in Corinth: An Investigation of the Letters to the Corinthians (trans. J. Steely; Nashville: Abingdon, 1971), p.162. Strachan and Schmithals argue that Paul is intending to point out his common faith with the Corinthians, but it is clear from the phrase VQCWXVQ…MCVCVQIGITCOOGPQP that it is with the author of the scriptural passage that Paul is said to share the faith. Cf. C. Wolff, Der zweite Brief des Paulus an die Korinther (THKNT; Berlin: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 1989), p.94. LXX

1

32

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Although Paul quotes from LXX Psalm 115, the psalm is only the latter half of MT Psalm 116 and thus LXX Psalms 114 and 115 belong together. This is also evident in the same issue they deal with, viz., thanksgiving for God’s protection and salvation in times of trouble.25 LXX Psalm 114 starts off with a faith statement that God will listen to his petition (v. 1) and this faith is based on God’s ‘inclining his ear’ to the psalmist in the past (v. 2). It appears that the psalmist has been through severe ordeal. He faced ‘pangs of death’ and ‘hazards of Hades’ (v. 3) and was ‘brought low’ (v. 6). Yet the Lord came to his rescue, delivering the psalmist from death, from tears, and from slipping (v. 8). As a result, the psalmist expresses his gratitude by pledging to please the Lord in the land of the living (v. 9). LXX Psalm 115 continues this train of thought. The psalmist had faith and so spoke, but the result was being brought very low (v. 1). He was surrounded by slandering liars (v. 2). Yet, the psalmist chose to call on the name of the Lord (v. 4), and the Lord ‘broke the bonds’ (v. 7). The psalmist is grateful for the deliverance and promises to give the Lord ‘a sacri¿ce of praise’ (v. 8) and to pay his vows to the Lord before God’s people (v. 9). There is no doubt that LXX Psalms 114 and 115 have striking points of correspondence with Paul’s account in 2 Cor. 4.7-15. Paul and his coworkers were ‘afÀicted in every way’, ‘perplexed’, ‘persecuted’, ‘struck down’, and ‘always carrying in the body the death of Jesus’(vv. 8-10).26 Yet through it all, the life of Jesus had been manifested (v. 11). This was what drove Paul to continue to speak out boldly, just like the psalmist, because he knew from his experience that the Lord would raise them with Jesus (vv. 13-14). As a result, thanksgiving abounds and is expected to increase as God’s grace extends to more people (v. 15), which brings to mind the psalmist’s expression of gratitude (LXX Ps. 115.8).27 25. Cf. M. J. Dahood, Psalms III. 101–150. Introduction, Translation and Notes (AB 17A; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1970), p.145; H. J. Klaus, Psalms 60–150: A Commentary (trans. H. C. Oswald; Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1989), p.386. 26. There do not appear to be many verbal links between the Psalms and 2 Cor. 4.7-15, but the recurrence of SCPCVQL in LXX Pss. 114.3, 8; 115.6 and 2 Cor. 4.11, 12 (cf. PGMTYUKL, 4.10) is noteworthy. The contrast between death and deliverance are seen in both texts. 27. In the LXX, the psalmist is said to have been ‘brought low’ as a result of speaking in accordance with his belief (115.1). Yet the faith of the Psalmist is expressed during (\.L) the time of afÀiction in the MT. Interestingly, both meanings can be said to have been true in Paul’s experience. He believed and so he spoke, but he was persecuted as a result (LXX sense). Yet he went on preaching even during the times of trial and hardship because he believed in the saving power of the Lord 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

33

In addition to these contextual correspondences, it is also worth noting that the psalmist views the death of the faithful in a favourable light. In LXX Ps. 115.6 we read: ‘Precious before the Lord is the death of his devout ones’. One cannot but think of the immediately preceding remarks Paul made. Paul mentioned carrying the death of Jesus in his body (v. 10), of being given up to death (v. 11), and of death working in him (v. 12). These outworkings of ‘death’ are no doubt precious before the Lord since they have brought about the ministry of life. This makes Paul’s contextual reading of the psalm more plausible. It appears then Paul is identifying himself with the psalmist who he believes has ‘the same spirit of faith’ (VQ CWXVQ RPGWOC VJL RKUVGYL).28 Just like the psalmist, Paul went through numerous sufferings and hardships because of what he believed and spoke. Yet, his response is of ‘the same spirit of faith’ in choosing to continue speaking the truth of the gospel regardless of its consequences for him because he trusts in God who raises the dead. In spite of all this, Christopher Stanley contends that Paul is straining the sense of the original context.29 His main objection is that what the psalmist ‘spoke’ was not ‘good news’, but was ‘a word for which he was “humbled” by God’.30 Yet, Paul’s point of quoting the psalm is not in ‘what’ he spoke, but in ‘how’, i.e., the ‘spirit of faith’ (RPGWOC VJL RKUVGYL).31 Moreover, the psalmist was not brought low by God because of what he spoke as Stanley argues, but by the opposition he faced (v. 2). (MT sense). The shift from aorist (GXNCNJUC) to present tense (NCNQWOGP) suggests that Paul continues to speak out boldly knowing that he will be met with opposition and trouble. Cf. C. D. Stanley, ‘Paul’s “Use” of Scripture: Why the Audience Matters’, in Porter and Stanley (eds.), As It Is Written, pp.125–55 (147). So, while Paul is clearly drawing the quotation from the LXX, his personal experience does not exclude the reading of the MT. 28. Here, VJLRKUVGYL is taken as an adjectival genitive (so e.g., NRSV, ESV, NJB, NLT, NET; cf. Hughes, Corinthians, p.147). While it is possible to understand RPGWOC as referring to the Holy Spirit, it seems more natural to take a human referent since Paul and the psalmist are the subject exercising the faith in their believing and speaking. So Belleville, 2 Corinthians, p.126; Bultmann, Second Letter, p.121; Tasker, 2 Corinthians, p.75; Martin, 2 Corinthians, p.89; Harris, Second Epistle, p.351; Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.338. Contra Furnish, II Corinthians, p.258; C. K. Barrett, A Commentary on the Second Epistle to the Corinthians (BNTC; New York: Harper & Row; London: A. & C. Black, 1973), p.142; G. D. Fee, God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994), pp.323–4. 29. Stanley, Arguing with Scripture, p.3. 30. Stanley, ‘Paul’s “Use”’, p.147. 31. Cf. Abasciano, ‘Diamonds’, p.173. 1

34

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

That is why the psalmist goes on to praise the Lord for the deliverance he experienced in the following verses, which would be awkward if the psalmist was ‘brought low’ because of what he said to God. Besides, the psalmist spoke because he believed which is indicated by FKQ. Hence what he spoke was based on faith, which naturally implies that he was not suffering God’s punishment for what was spoken.32 In light of the context in which 4.13 is placed and of the fact that LXX Ps. 114.3 (MT 116.3) is alluded to in Acts 2.24 (as noted by UBS4), it can be further argued that the psalm Paul is referring to could also be read christologically.33 The shift from ‘pangs of death’, ‘hazards of Hades’ (LXX Ps. 114.3) and being ‘brought low’ (LXX Ps. 114.6) to the Lord’s deliverance from death, tears and slipping (LXX Ps. 114.8) speaks plausibly of Christ’s passion and resurrection. Douglas Campbell contends that Paul’s sharing the same faith of the psalmist refers to ‘participatory identi¿cation with a prophetic anticipation in this psalm of Christ’s passion’.34 Thus the subject of RKUVGWY, he argues, is ultimately Christ. One of his main reasons for this is based on taking RPGWOC as referring to the Holy Spirit who is the Spirit of Christ. There is no doubt that the Holy Spirit engenders faith; and it seems impossible to make a clean separation between human faith and the Spirit who helps believers towards faith.35 But it appears Paul’s focus here is on how his faith and the faith of the psalmist are of the same sort, not because it is from the same Spirit (although it is true), but because of their decision to speak out even in the face of opposition and persecution. Yet whichever position one takes, it does not really undermine what Campbell calls a ‘mimetic approach’ of reading the text, i.e., imitating the struggles and responses of the psalmist, since the psalmist and Paul are said to have the same RPGWOC in common anyway, regardless of whether RPGWOC refers to a ‘disposition’ or to ‘the Holy Spirit’. The distinction Campbell draws between a ‘mimetic approach’ and a ‘participatory approach’ seems super¿cial as both approaches overlap to a great extent. What he argues Paul is doing is ‘identifying with a psalm, 32. Cf. Abasciano, ‘Diamonds’, p.174. 33. Cf. R. B. Hays, ‘Christ Prays the Psalms’, in Hays, Conversion, pp.101–18 (108–9); D. A. Campbell, ‘2 Corinthians 4.13: Evidence in Paul that Christ Believes’, JBL 128 (2009), pp.337–56. 34. Campbell, ‘Evidence’, p.345. Cf. A. T. Hanson, The Paradox of the Cross in the Thought of St Paul (JSNTSup 17; Shef¿eld: JSOT, 1987), pp.51–4. 35. Cf. Frank J. Matera, II Corinthians: A Commentary (NTL; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2003), p.112. Matera argues for ‘the disposition of faith’ but notes that reference to the Holy Spirit cannot be excluded.

1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

35

which is identi¿ed in turn with Christ’s passion’.36 Because the psalm pre¿gures the suffering and resurrection of Christ, Paul’s identi¿cation with the psalmist is seen to be an automatic identi¿cation with Christ. This can be described as follows: a. The psalmist pre¿gures Christ. b. The psalmist is called upon in 2 Cor. 4.13. c. Hence Paul is identifying himself with Christ.37 There is obvious merit and strong resonance of Campbell’s conclusion with what we have observed above. Paul’s allusion to LXX Isa. 53.12 in 2 Cor. 4.11 has already shown this kind of identi¿cation with Christ. It has to be noted, however, that the ¿gure of the Servant of Isaiah does not simply disappear because it is pre¿guring Jesus Christ. Rather, there appears to be mutual threefold identi¿cations between: (1) the Servant and Christ; (2) the Servant and Paul; and (3) Christ and Paul. We would argue the same phenomenon is at play in 2 Cor. 4.13 between: (1) the psalmist and Christ; (2) the psalmist and Paul; and (3) Christ and Paul. What Campbell is arguing in effect is that because there are identi¿cations between the psalmist and Christ, and also between Christ and Paul, the identi¿cation between the psalmist and Paul is not necessary. Yet Paul’s identi¿cation with Christ is implicit in this verse while Paul’s identi¿cation with the psalmist is overt. Paul’s identi¿cation with Christ by way of the psalmist does not render Paul’s identi¿cation with the psalmist obsolete. Those who were familiar with LXX Psalm 115 would have likely understood Paul’s intention in a similar way as we have noted above. They would have noticed that Paul’s afÀiction is not a sign of the questionable status of Paul’s apostleship, but a sign of being faithful to what he believes just like the psalmist was. They might have picked up a christological understanding of the text since much of what is described in the psalm resonates well with the Passion of Christ. If they did not make this connection, they would at least have noticed the similarities. Although those who did not know the source of the quotation would have had no idea how the original context sheds light on the quoted text, they would still come to a similar conclusion. They would have gathered from the tone and content of Paul’s argument that Paul intends to persevere despite his trials and suffering, and would assume that that is 36. Campbell, ‘Evidence’, p.347. 37. Campbell (‘Evidence’, p.347) argues: ‘If the psalmist is a pre¿guration of Christ, then the Spirit can identify Paul and his coworkers with Christ as Christ speaks prophetically through that text of his own suffering and resurrection’. 1

36

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

the kind of faith the psalmist had as well. Though they would not know anything about the psalmist, the way Paul used the quotation would suggest to them that Paul is in line with the Scriptures, adding more weight to Paul’s argument. Thus, even though they did not know the original context, they would not have missed Paul’s basic thrust as it is clear enough, as the preceding and following verses provide ample indicators to Paul’s train of thought. We have seen that Paul is explicitly identifying himself with the psalmist. Though the explicit point of contact is only ‘the spirit of faith’ and the act of speaking, the context of the original passage makes Paul’s identi¿cation with the psalmist clear. The fact that the psalm can also be seen to pre¿gure the suffering and resurrection of Christ suggests that there is also an implicit identi¿cation between Paul and Christ, which Paul makes very clear in his own words in the surrounding verses. There is also an identi¿cation of God with Jesus since the psalmist believed in God while Paul trusted in Jesus in his afÀictions.38 4.16-18 In 4.16-18, Pate discerns Adam-christology in the ‘inner/outer person’ category.39 He argues that the use of the word CPSTYRQL alludes to the Adam theme. The grounds for his claim are: (1) CPSTYRQL refers to Adam in 1 Cor. 15.21, 45, 47, which contrasts the ¿rst Adam with the last Adam and thus CPSTYRQL may have the Adamic connotation in 2 Cor. 4.16 as well; (2) the immediate context of 4.4, which depicts Christ as the restorer of the lost image and glory of Adam; (3) the term CXPCMCKPQWVCK (‘to renew’) in 4.16 is found only three times in the Pauline corpus and is used with reference to ‘the new person’ or ‘the new nature of Christ’. Pate also notes possible allusions to Gen. 1.26-28 and Ps. 8.48 in 1 Cor. 15.27,40 and claims on this basis that Paul would have been familiar with the association of these two passages (Gen. 1.26-28 and Ps. 8.4-8). From this, Pate contends that it can be said that Adam is created ‘both in the image and glory of God’.41 The mention of glory appears to 38. Cf. P. Balla, ‘2 Corinthians’, in Beale and Carson (eds.), Commentary, pp.753–83 (765). 39. Pate, Adam, p.109 40. Also noted by A. T. Lincoln, Paradise Now and Not Yet (SNTSMS; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p.103; J. D. G. Dunn, Christology in the Making: A New Testament Inquiry into the Origins of the Doctrine of the Incarnation (London: SCM, 1980), pp.108–9. 41. Pate, Adam, p.113, emphasis original.

1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

37

be crucial for Pate as he seeks to trace it to the Adam Christology, which is apparently supported by Paul’s mention of Christ in association with the image and glory of God in 2 Cor. 4.4, 6. It may be the case that Paul had in mind the lost glory of Adam which is restored by the suffering Christ in 2 Cor. 4.16-18. Yet, the allusion is very subtle. While we do not deny a possible thematic link, it does not appear that Paul is using Scriptures at this point. Rather, the current human condition of weakness appears to be assumed as a general starting point for Paul’s statement on the future transformation. Thus it is doubtful if the Corinthians would have noticed what Pate argues to be present in this verse. 5.1 UBS4 notes Job 4.19 as an allusion in 2 Cor. 5.1. Yet, it is dif¿cult to see how Paul could be alluding to this verse. Both passages share only one word, QKXMKC, which is quite common in the LXX (214 times), and do not have much conceptual connection other than the general observation that the physical human body is temporal and frail – described using the imagery of ‘tent’ (QKXMKC VQW UMJPQWL) in 2 Cor. 5.1 and the imagery of ‘clay’ (QKXMKCL RJNKPCL) in Job 4.19. The concept of the frailty of the human body is so general that it is doubtful whether Paul is alluding to the passage.42 Besides, Paul’s emphasis lies on a new kind of body from God that is eternal, precisely what is lacking in Job 4.19. 5.4 In expressing the hope for the future when life will prevail over death, Paul seems to be alluding to Isa. 25.8. There is no explicit indication that he is alluding to the passage, but it appears very likely since he has already cited the same passage in 1 Cor. 15.54, indicated by the phrase VQVG IGPJUGVCK QB NQIQL QB IGITCOOGPQL. In 1 Cor. 15.54 (MCVGRQSJ QB SCPCVQL GKXL PKMQL), the active voice of the verb MCVGRKGP of LXX Isa. 25.8 is changed to the passive voice (MCVGRQSJ) and GKXL PKMQL replaces KXUEWUCL of the LXX. Thus, the meaning of the LXX text is altered to conform to the MT (WZ0 K>/%L) which has God as the subject of the verb ‘to swallow’ – thus, ‘He will swallow up death’. The MT sense is also maintained in Paul’s allusion to the same passage in 2 Cor. 5.4. Since he is not intending to cite the text explicitly, he omits GKXL PKMQL and uses VQ SPJVQP in place of QB SCPCVQL, but keeps the passive 1

42. No commentators seem to note this alleged allusion.

38

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

voice (MCVCRQSJ^) to make ‘death’ the object of ‘swallowing up’ rather than the subject as is the case in the LXX. Thus, Paul has maintained the key words of the LXX, but the meaning is conformed to the MT, which ¿ts much better to the context of Isaiah 25. Table 2.3 2 Cor. 5.4  MCK ICT QKB QPVGL GXP VY^ UMJPGK UVGPC\QOGP DCTQWOGPQK GXH8 Y^ QWX SGNQOGP GXMFWUCUSCK CXNN8 GXRGPFWUCUSCK K=PC MCVCRQSJ^ VQ SPJVQP WBRQ VJL \YJL.

For while we are still in this tent, we groan under our burden, because we wish not to be unclothed but to be further clothed, so that what is mortal may be swallowed up by life.

LXX

Isa. 25.8

MCVGRKGP QB SCPCVQL KXUEWUCL MCK RCNKP CXHGKNGP QB SGQL RCP FCMTWQP CXRQ RCPVQL RTQUYRQW>  VQ QPGKFQL VQW NCQW CXHGKNGP CXRQ RCUJL VJL IJL VQ ICT UVQOC MWTKQW GXNCNJUG. Death, having prevailed, swallowed them up, and God has again taken away every tear from every face; the disgrace of the people he has taken away from all the earth, for the mouth of the Lord has spoken.

MT

Isa. 25.8

K[ P :[FQO WZ0 K>/%L O>PHK> P',KZ,K\!\QGRD@ a\Q,3 O.  O>PHU\VL\$0>W3U![Z \.LUD K O. O>PH U%H',KZK\! 

He will swallow up death forever. Then the Lord GOD will wipe away the tears from all faces, and the disgrace of his people he will take away from all the earth, for the LORD has spoken.

* Verbal correspondences underlined.

Whether Paul has translated the MT for his use or is following a preexisting Greek text, this may be seen as one of those occasions where Paul seems to come closer to the MT.43 However, the use of the passive form of the same verb (MCVCRQSJPCK) in Symmachus, which otherwise has a distinct rendering, and Aquila’s unusual rendering of the Hebrew [FQO as GKXL PKMQL could reÀect a pre-existing text that lies behind all three texts.44 Whether the pre-existing text was closer to the MT at this point or 43. Cf. R. Bauckham, God Cruci¿ed: Monotheism and Christology in the New Testament (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1998), p.50. Bauckham contends that ‘most early Christian exegesis of the Old Testament was done with reference to the Hebrew text, even when the Greek text was also employed’. 44. Stanley, Language, p.211. Wagner (Herald, p.16 n.60) asserts that even when ‘Paul’s citations or allusions differ from the “LXX” (as critically reconstructed) 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

39

whether Paul actually utilized the Greek words while leaning towards the Hebrew, there is no doubt that Paul’s allusion in this verse exhibits close af¿nities with the MT. The general tone of Isaiah 25 is that of joy and gratitude.45 It is not dif¿cult to pick up the theme of the eschatological salvation from Isaiah 25. It starts with praise for what God has done (v. 1), which is mentioned in the following verses (vv. 2-5). God has destroyed the cities of the impious (v. 2); he has been a refuge and shelter for the needy and a shade from the heat of the ruthless (vv. 4-5). On Mount Zion, God will prepare a feast for all peoples (v. 6) and will swallow up death forever, taking away the tears and disgrace from all the earth (v. 8).46 The feast for all nations, the defeat of death, and wiping away of tears and disgrace are indicative of the day when people will confess and rejoice that the God who brought this about is their God whom they waited for (v. 9). It appears Paul has this Isaianic hope for salvation in mind and alludes to it in 2 Cor. 5.4 as he also did in 1 Cor. 15.54.47 Although Paul does not make this allusion clear in 2 Cor. 5.4, Paul’s incorporations of Isaianic themes will become more conspicuous as he makes more explicit allusions to Isaianic prophecies in the following verses, with an explicit quotation from Isa. 49.8 in 2 Cor. 6.2. Those who were well versed in Scripture may have heard an echo of the Isaianic promise, especially since Paul has already quoted from the passage in an earlier correspondence. Even if they did not know then, it is more likely for them to know now, as they would have learned more about the eschatological hope in their public readings and teachings.

and appear to reÀect a text close to that now preserved in MT, this does not prove that Paul was drawing directly on a Hebrew text. Rather, he may well have been using a text of the LXX that had previously been revised toward a Hebrew exemplar’ (emphasis removed). 45. Cf. W. Brueggemann, Isaiah 1–39 (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1988), p.196; J. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 19; New York: Doubleday, 2000), p.362. Blenkinsopp observes that Isa. 25.1-5 betray a similar pattern of psalms that express praise, thanksgiving and con¿dence. 46. Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 1–39, pp.357–60) describes Isa. 25.6-8 as ‘the eschatological banquet’. 47. Isaiah 25.8 is also alluded to in 2 En. 22.8, where the Lord is depicted to be saying to Michael: ‘Go and take Enoch from out of his earthly garments, and anoint him with my sweet ointment, and put him into the garments of My glory’ (OTP). This is clearly different from 2 Cor. 5.4, where the mortal body is said to be swallowed up by life, rather than to be replaced. 1

40

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Those who were less knowledgeable about Scripture would have missed the allusion unless they remembered that Paul quoted something similar in an earlier letter. Even if they did remember Paul’s previous use of the text, they would not have gained much if somebody had not already explained it to them. They would not have missed too much, however, even if they did not understand the allusion. ‘Death’ that is swallowed up by ‘God’ in Isaiah is expressed differently in 2 Cor. 5.4: ‘what is mortal [i.e., mortal body]’ is swallowed up by ‘life’. Thus mortal body and death are identi¿ed together while God is identi¿ed with life. In other words, an attribute of each referent in Isaiah is drawn out in 2 Cor. 5.4: mortal body is a result of the power of Death; and life comes from God, the source of life. Hence there do not seem to be signi¿cant changes of meaning in the use of different referents. 5.10 While suffering because of the burden that comes with the mortal body (5.4) and longing to be clothed with ‘heavenly dwelling’ (5.3), Paul is nevertheless con¿dent that God will bring about the wonderful change to the ‘earthly tent’ because the Spirit is given as a guarantee (5.5, 6). Hence, Paul chooses to walk by faith for the time being even though he cannot see it happening now (5.7). Paul’s mention of ‘new building’ (5.1) and of the presence of the Spirit (5.5; cf. Ezek. 36.26-27; Jer. 32.33) suggests that Paul is continuing the theme of new covenant he had elaborated in ch. 3.48 Though he wants to be ‘at home’ (GXPFJOJUCK) with the Lord, his main concern, wherever he is, is to please the Lord (5.9). One of the reasons for pleasing the Lord seems to be that all will be judged according to what has been done in this life. The use of the word VQ DJOC does not preclude the universal judgment of all people (cf. Rom. 14.10).49 However, there appear to be good contextual grounds to maintain that Paul is here depicting the gain/loss of rewards.50 Paul has already stated 48. Webb, Returning, pp.107–9. 49. Kent L. Yinger, Paul, Judaism, and Judgement According to Deeds (SNTSMS; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp.266–7. In Rom. 2.6 where universal judgment is in view, Paul employs two mutually exclusive categories of people (Rom. 2.7-10), not a delineation of two types of action (GKVGCXICSQPGKVGHCWNQP) as in 2 Cor. 5.10. See Harris, Second Epistle, p.406. Cf. J. D. G. Dunn, Romans 1–8 (WBC 38A; Dallas, TX: Word, 1988), p.93; J. A. Fitzmyer, Romans (AB 33; New York: Doubleday, 1993), pp.297–8. 50. So also Bultmann, Second Letter, p.143.

1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

41

in a decisive manner, ‘we know that the one who raised the Lord Jesus will raise us also with Jesus, and will bring us with you into his presence’ (2 Cor. 4.14). He also declares that his momentary afÀictions are preparing (MCVGTIC\GVCK) eternal glory for him (4.17). Moreover, he reminds the Corinthians that God has given his Spirit as a guarantee for what is to come (5.5). Therefore, Paul is con¿dent (5.6, 8) and this con¿dence turns into gratitude which in turn stirs Paul to ‘please him’ (5.9). It is in this context that the judgment seat of Christ is mentioned (5.10). Thus, the phrase VQWL RCPVCL JBOCL (v. 10) is naturally understood to refer to all Christians rather than to all human beings.51 Moreover, this is not the only place where Paul is depicting a judgment seat that determines gain or loss. An explicit example is in 1 Cor. 3.12-15 where the ¿nal judgment involves the test of ¿re to examine the works done before the judgment. If what was tested survives, there is a reward (v. 14). If the work is burned up, the person responsible for the work suffers loss, but will be saved ‘as through ¿re’ (v. 15). Hence, the ¿nal verdict clearly has to do with rewards rather than salvation.52 Given these precedents and strong contextual clues, it seems more plausible to hold that the ¿nal judgment Paul has in mind here is to do with the category of gain/loss of rewards rather than that of salvation/damnation that will be applied to those outside Christ.53 Concerning possible scriptural allusions, Pate notes the use of the synonymous words CXICSQP and HCWNQP of 2 Cor. 5.10 for MCNQP and RQPJTQP of Gen. 2.17 and ¿nds it intriguing that the word GKXFQVGL appears in the immediately following verse (2 Cor. 5.11).54 He notes that this knowledge of the fear of the Lord motivates Paul to determine what is good from evil in his actions (v. 10), and goes on to assert that this concept is similar to what we ¿nd in the reference to the tree of knowledge

51. Cf. A. Plummer, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Second Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians (ICC; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1915), p.155; Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.394; Martin, 2 Corinthians, p.114; Harris, Second Epistle, p.406; L. Cerfaux, The Christian in the Theology of Paul (London: Chapman, 1967), p.207. Contra Yinger, Paul, pp.265–6; F. Büchsel, ‘MTKPY’, in TDNT, vol. 3, p.938. 52. Anthony C. Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians: A Commentary on the Greek Text (NIGTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans; Carlisle: Paternoster, 2000), pp.314–15; Gordon D. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians (NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), p.144. 53. Cf. Hughes, Corinthians, p.182; Harris, Second Epistle, pp.405–9. 54. Pate, Adam, p.127. Thus, the argument for the possible allusion to Genesis is based on conceptual connection rather than verbal. 1

42

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

of good and evil in Gen. 2.17 and 3.4, 7. From this, he contends that Paul is perhaps ‘alluding to the future assize with Adam’s past judgment in mind’ in 2 Cor. 5.10.55 There are a few other allusions to the earlier part of the Genesis account in 2 Cor. 4.6 and 11.3-15, and it does appear that the allusions Pate observes cannot be dismissed too hastily. Yet, it is dif¿cult to perceive how the past judgment of Adam can set the scene for Christ’s tribunal where rewards are in view, unless Paul drew upon the theme of judgment in a loose manner. Besides, the allusions to the Genesis account cannot validate Pate’s assertion from his title that Adam Christology is the exegetical and theological substructure in 5.9-10, let alone 4.7–5.21.56 Even if this is behind the passage, it does not appear to be the only background. Ecclesiastes 12.14, as noted by NA27 and UBS4, appears to be an equally, if not more, attractive candidate in the allusion list for 2 Cor. 5.10. Chapter 12 of Ecclesiastes is full of indicators of the end of the age.57 From v. 1, Qoheleth commands people to remember their creator before ‘the days of trouble’ (JBOGTCK VJL MCMKCL) and goes on to describe the day of trouble in terms of natural disaster (v. 2), weakening of the people’s strength (vv. 3-4), fear and terrors (v. 5). He also mentions all going ‘to the eternal home’ (GKXL QKMQP CKXYPQL, v. 5), the dust returning to the earth and the breath returning to God (v. 7). Within this context, Qoheleth reveals the most important principle of life: ‘Fear God, and

55. Pate, Adam, p.127. Gignilliat (Paul, p.42 n.46) notes the surprising absence in Pate’s work of J. R. Levison, Portraits of Adam in Early Judaism: From Sirach to 2 Baruch (JSPSup 1; Shef¿eld: JSOT, 1988). Levison argues that an ‘Adam myth’ which was allegedly discerned in Early Judaism is non-existent, and that ‘early Jewish interpretations of Adam are remarkably diversi¿ed because each author employs and adapts Adam according to his Tendenz’ (p.14; emphasis original). Thus, the existing portraits of Adam are not ‘an Adam myth or a uni¿ed corpus of Adam speculation’, but individual viewpoints of each author (p.14). 56. His contention that ‘the themes of glory and suffering originates from the above Adam Christology’ seems to be an overstatement (Pate, Adam, p.2; emphasis added; cf. S. Hafemann’s review of Pate, Adam, JBL 113 [1994], pp.346–9 [348]). 57. Cf. T. Krüger, Qoheleth (trans. O. C. Dean Jr; Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004), pp.201–2; C. L. Seow, Ecclesiastes (AB, 18C; New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), pp.372–82; G. S. Ogden, Qoheleth (Shef¿eld: JSOT, 1987), p.207; M. V. Fox, Qohelet and His Contradictions (JSNTSup 71; Shef¿eld: JSOT, 1989), pp.289–98. Contra T. Longman III, The Book of Ecclesiastes (NICOT; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998), p.273, though see p.283 where he admits that the judgment is likely to be eschatological. 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

43

keep his commandments; for that is the whole duty of everyone’ (v. 13).58 People are free to do anything, but God will bring everything into judgment whether good or evil (12.14; cf. 11.9). Ecclesiastes 12.14 has only CXICSQP as a verbal match with 2 Cor. 5.10, but the construction GXCP CXICSQP MCK GXCP RQPJTQP is very similar to GKVG CXICSQP GKVG HCWNQP of 2 Cor. 5.10 and the word MTKUGK (Eccl. 12.14) corresponds to DJOCVQL (2 Cor. 5.10) as well. Furthermore, Paul’s mention of ‘the fear of the Lord’ (VQP HQDQP VQW MWTKQW) in the immediately following verse (v. 11) could be seen to allude to the command to ‘fear God’ (VQP SGQP HQDQW, Eccl. 12.13), while ‘pleasing God’ (GWXCTGUVQK CWXVY^, v. 9) also seems to echo the exhortation to keep God’s commandment (VCL GXPVQNCL CWXVQW HWNCUUG, Eccl. 12.13). Thus, it appears that Paul may have Ecclesiastes 12 in mind, though it does not seem to add much to one’s understanding of 2 Corinthians 5.59 Table 2.4 2 Cor. 5.10  VQWL ICT RCPVCL JBOCL HCPGTYSJPCK FGK GORTQUSGP VQW DJOCVQL VQW &TKUVQW K=PC MQOKUJVCK G=MCUVQL VC FKC VQW UYOCVQL RTQL C? GRTCZGP GKVG CXICSQP GKVG HCWNQP.

LXX Eccl. 12.1460       Q=VK UWP RCP VQ RQKJOC QB SGQL CZGK GXP MTKUGK GXP RCPVK RCTGYTCOGPY^ GXCP CXICSQP MCK GXCP RQPJTQP.

For all of us must appear before the judgment seat of Christ, so that each may receive recompense for what has been done in the body, whether good or evil.

For God will bring every work in judgment, in everything overlooked, whether good or whether evil.

MT

Eccl. 12.14

  KI>@PO. WD\.L M3 YPLEDEL\a\KLO^DK  E$MaDLaO >QO.  C>UaDLZ!

For God will bring every deed into judgment, including every secret thing, whether good or evil.

* Verbal matches underlined 58. The LXX does not differ from the MT. Both the MT and the LXX do not have the word ‘duty’, but it is implied. 59. The only other place where a similar expression occurs is Jer. 49.6 which has GXCPCXICSQPMCKGXCPMCMQP. But it does not have any thematic correspondences that Eccl. 12.14 and its surrounding context have with 2 Cor. 5.10. Perhaps due to its allusive nature, no major commentators seem to note this link. 60. The Hebrew and the Greek versions express the same idea, except for a minor difference: the LXX has RCTGYTCOGPY (‘overlooked’) for aO >Q (‘hidden’). 1

44

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Those who were competent with Scripture may have picked up a note of scriptural voice. Whether it is from the Genesis account or from Qohelet, they would have heard certain resonances of the theme of judgment of the end times. If the sound of Genesis was louder, they would have noticed certain correspondences of language, especially ‘good or evil’. This combination of words would bring to mind the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, but they would have likely been unsure about what to do with the connection since there do not seem to be coherent points of contact between eating the fruit of the knowledge of good and evil and being judged according to good or bad deeds. Thus, other than the theme of judgment the allusion would not have contributed a great deal to their understanding. If Ecclesiastes was heard, they would have noticed a more coherent resonance between the two passages. The idea of ‘fearing’ and ‘pleasing’ God would be added to their recognition of the judgment theme. Yet even this allusion does not seem to add much to the discussion. Hence those who were less familiar with Scripture would not have missed too much even if they did not hear the scriptural allusion. If Paul had the Genesis account in mind, the believers are identi¿ed with Adam and Eve. Yet this identi¿cation assumes the same kind of judgment of Adam for the believers, which we would argue is not the case in 5.10. Paul clearly believes that Adam had lost more than just rewards when he was judged (cf. Rom. 5.12-19). Thus the identi¿cation would have to be loosely held. This also applies to Qohelet since it is not clear what kind of judgment is envisaged in the text. Apart from this, the identi¿cation of Christ with God as the judge and the identi¿cation of the believers with the implied audience of Qohelet is straightforward. 5.12 In his ongoing defence of his ministry, Paul seizes an opportunity to mention his opponents again (cf. 3.1).61 He wants the Corinthians to know that he is already well-known by the Corinthians and also by God (v. 11). Yet, he does not want this to appear as self-commendation and tells the Corinthians he is giving them an opportunity to ‘boast’ about him, i.e., an opportunity to speak positively about Paul in response to the opponents who boast in ‘outward appearance’ (GXP RTQUYRY^) and not in what is inside (GXP MCTFKC^).62 61. For a detailed investigation into who the opponents may be, see Georgi, Opponents; J. L. Sumney, Identifying Paul’s Opponents: The Question of Method in 2 Corinthians (JSNTSup 40; Shef¿eld: JSOT, 1990). 62. Cf. Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.403. It is not surprising that the Corinthians are more concerned with outward appearances considering their 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

45

Table 2.5 2 Cor. 5.12

1 Kgdms 16.763

QWX RCNKP GBCWVQWL UWPKUVCPQOGP WBOKP CXNNC CXHQTOJP FKFQPVGL WBOKP MCWEJOCVQL WBRGT JBOYP K=PC GEJVG RTQL VQWL GXP RTQUYRY^ MCWEYOGPQWL MCK OJ GXP MCTFKC^

MCK GKRGP MWTKQL RTQL 5COQWJN /J GXRKDNG[J^L GXRK VJP Q[KP CWXVQW OJFG GKXL VJP G=ZKP OGIGSQWL CWXVQWQ=VK GXZQWFGPYMC CWXVQP> Q=VK QWXE YBL GXODNG[GVCK CPSTYRQL Q[GVCK QB SGQL>Q=VK CPSTYRQL Q[GVCK GKXL RTQUYRQP QB FG SGQL Q[GVCK GKXL MCTFKCP.

We are not commending ourselves to you again, but giving you an opportunity to boast about us, so that you may be able to answer those who boast in outward appearance and not in the heart.

And the Lord said to Samuel, ‘Do not look on his appearance or on the posture of his size, because I have rejected him, for God will not look as a mortal will see, for a mortal will see into a face, but God will see into a heart’.

1 Sam. 16.7

ODH:PYODKZK\!UPDHOKDU!\, EE /HOKDU!\,

But the LORD said to Samuel, ‘Do not look on his appearance or on the height of his stature, because I have rejected him; for the LORD does not see as mortals see; they look on the outward appearance, but the LORD looks on the heart’.

* Verbal correspondences underlined.

It has been noted that 1 Kgdms 16.7 may be in view here.64 When Samuel went to sacri¿ce in Jesse’s household, he was impressed by the outward appearance of Eliab. But God tells Samuel that he does not see surrounding culture. See B. W. Winter, Philo and Paul among the Sophists: Alexandrian and Corinthian Responses to a Julio-Claudian Movement (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2nd edn, 2002), Chapters 6–8 on the Sophists’ concern for appearance, dress, and form of speech; cf. also Ben Witherington, III, ConÀict and Community in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1995), pp.348–50. 63. The Greek version follows the Hebrew closely. 64. NA27; Furnish, II Corinthians, p.308; Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.404. L.A.B. 59.1-2 recounts the story with some additions of what might be the ‘behind story’. For example, it narrates God’s reproach for Samuel’s failure to see whom to anoint: ‘And the Lord said to him, “Where is your vision that your heart sees? Are you not the one who said to Saul, ‘I am the one who sees’? And why do you not know whom you should anoint? And now this reproach is suf¿cient for you; seek out the least shepherd of all and anoint this one”’ (59.2). This addition does not seem to add much to the Àow of the basic lesson. 1

46

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

as human beings see and that he looks not at the outward appearance (GKXL RTQUYRQP), but at the heart (GKXL MCTFKCP). If Paul had this in mind, he is pointing out a serious shortcoming of his opponents who are not approved in the sight of God. Their outward credentials may be as attractive as the appearance of Eliab, but do not mean much from God’s perspective. Only those whom the Lord commends have a legitimate reason to boast (10.18). The opponents’ boasting is in a worldly manner (MCVC UCTMC, 11.18) while Paul’s boasting is in harmony with the Lord’s approval (MCVC MWTKQP, 11.17).65 Those well versed in Scripture might have noticed the allusion to the story of David’s anointing as Israel’s king. They would have seen clear resonances between the incident at the household of Jesse and Paul’s statement. The story would remind them that God does not look at the appearance as they are inclined to, but the heart of a person. Then they would have been forced to see themselves in this light and might have felt sorry if they had looked down on Paul based on his appearance. The background knowledge of the allusion would make the contrast between GXP RTQUYRY^ and GXP MCTFKC^ even starker as it brings divine perspective into the situation through a powerful story. Those less competent with Scripture may have picked up the allusion to 1 Kingdoms 16 since King David is a well-known ¿gure of Scripture and would have likely been more familiar to an average audience than most other ¿gures. But even if they did not notice the link it would not have made much difference in their understanding of Paul’s point, though the power of story would make Paul’s point more compelling. In alluding to 1 Kingdoms 16 Paul is identifying his opponents with Samuel in his temporary ‘Àeshly’ lapse (cf. QWXFGPC QKFCOGP MCVC UCTMC, 5.16). By doing this Paul is implying that the opponents are not able to see as God does and only remain at a purely human level. 5.14–6.2 The Isaianic inÀuences on Paul’s framework of thought, which have been hinted at previously (4.11; 5.4) become much more explicit in 5.14–6.2.66 While other themes found in Isaiah, such as new creation, new covenant and return continue to be present, the Servant tradition of 65. Cf. Harris, Second Epistle, p.416. 66. Beale (‘Old Testament Background’, pp.552–9) traces strong inÀuences of Isa. 40–66 in 2 Cor. 5.17-21 while focusing speci¿cally on 5.17. Webb (Returning, pp.145–58) finds Isaianic tradition of the Servant 5.11–7.4, as well as the themes of new covenant and second exodus. Gignilliat (Paul, pp.55–142) builds upon these and other scholars to demonstrate the inÀuence of Isa. 40–66 in 2 Cor. 5.14–6.10. 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

47

Isaiah comes to the fore more explicitly with strong allusions to the fourth ‘Servant Song’ (Isa. 52.13–53.12) in 5.14-21,67 culminating with a citation from LXX Isa. 49.8 which follows closely the second ‘Servant Song’ (Isa. 49.1-6).68 The Isaianic tradition of the Servant appears to have provided an important paradigm in which Paul seeks to understand his apostolic status and his ministry.69 Table 2.6 shows close af¿nities between 2 Cor. 5.14-21 and Isaiah 53. Table 2.6 Jesus Christ in 2 Cor. 5.14-21

The Servant in Isa. 53 4Bears

‘our sins’ (VCL CBOCTVKCL JBOYP HGTGK) ‘because of our lawlessness’ (FKC VCL CXPQOKCL JBOYP) 5bWeakened ‘because of our sins’ (FKC VCL CBOCTVKCL JBOYP) 6The Lord gave him over to our sins (MWTKQL RCTGFYMGP CWXVQP VCKL CBOCTVKCKL JBOYP) 8Led to death because of the lawlessness of God’s people (VYP CXPQOKYP VQW NCQW) 9Led to death even though he committed no wrong (CXPQOKCP QWXM GXRQKJUGP) 11He shall bear their iniquities (VCL CBOCTVKCL CWXVYP CWXVQL CXPQKUGK) 12He bore the sins of many, and because of their sins he was given over (CWXVQL CBOCTVKCL RQNNYP CXPJPGIMG MCK FKC VCL CBOCTVKCL CWXVYP RCTGFQSJ) 5By his bruise we were healed (VY^ OYNYRK CWXVQW JBOGKL KXCSJOGP) 11The Righteous one will make many righteous (a\%LUO \',E>T\',FT\',F\) 70 5aWounded

14One

has died for all (GKL WBRGT RCPVYP CXRGSCPGP) 15He

died for all (WBRGT RCPVYP CXRGSCPGP) 19Not counting their trespasses against them (OJ NQIK\QOGPQL CWXVQKL VC RCTCRVYOCVC CWXVYP) 21aFor

our sake, God made him to be sin who knew no sin (VQP OJ IPQPVC CBOCTVKCP WBRGT JBOYP CBOCTVKCP GXRQKJUGP)

21bSo that in him, we might become the righteousness of God (K=PC JBOGKL IGPYOGSC FKMCKQUWPJ SGQW GXP CWXVY^)

67. O. Ho¿us, ‘The Fourth Servant Song in the New Testament Letters’, in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources (ed. B. Janowski and P. Stuhlmacher; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004), pp.163–88 (183). 68. Cf. the discussion under 5.21 and 6.2 below. 69. Cf. F. Wilk, Die Bedeutung des Jesajabuches für Paulus (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1998); Wagner, Heralds; S. L. Shum, Paul’s Use of Isaiah in Romans: A Comparative Study of Paul’s Letter to the Romans and the Sibylline and Qumran Sectarian Texts (WUNT 2/156; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2002); C. J. A. Hickling, ‘Paul’s Reading of Isaiah’, in Studia Biblica 1978: Papers on Paul and Other New Testament Authors (ed. E. A. Livingstone; JSNTSup 3; Shef¿eld: JSOT, 1980), pp.215–23. 70. The LXX has the Servant being justi¿ed, rather than the many: ‘to justify a righteous one who is well subject to many’ (NETS; FKMCKYUCK FKMCKQP GW FQWNGWQPVC 1

48

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Paul was fully convinced that one died and was raised for him as well as for everyone (v. 14). It was because of this conviction that Paul laboured diligently for the one who had given him a new life (v. 15). Then Paul immediately draws out two speci¿c implications of living for the one who died and was raised for him (Y=UVG, vv. 16, 17): regarding no one from a worldly point of view (v. 16),71 and becoming a ‘new creation’ (v. 17). Paul’s mention of ‘new perspective’ as an implication of ‘living the gospel’ appears to have been brought to the fore probably because that is one of the areas where Paul and his opponents differ from each other. From a worldly point of view, Paul’s suffering is problematic. Yet from a new perspective enabled through Jesus Christ, it is a living proof that Paul is indeed a man of Christ. A human understanding regards even Jesus’ suffering as problematic, but it is no longer the case for those who live for him (v. 16). Furthermore, the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ means becoming a ‘new creation’ for those who are in him. Paul’s mention of a ‘new creation’ (MCKPJ MVKUKL)72 which follows the succinct presentation of the gospel (vv. 14-15; cf. 1 Cor. 15.3-4) and precedes the short account of God’s reconciliation of the world in Christ (vv. 18-19) is telling. This juxtaposition of the gospel, the motif of ‘new creation’ and ‘reconciliation’, followed by the pregnant word ‘righteousness’ (v. 21), can be traced to the Isaianic hope of renewal, return and new creation that is scattered throughout Isaiah 40–66.73 These themes from Isaiah are blended with the Servant of YHWH tradition to enrich one’s reading of this section. Isaianic voices become stronger than before and the ¿rst obvious one comes in 5.17.

RQNNQKL). It appears then that Paul departed from the LXX in expressing the ideas of the Hebrew Bible at this point. Or he is referring to a different Greek version that no longer exist. In any case, Paul is making use of the Greek words of the LXX, but the meaning is closer to the Hebrew as we have today. Cf. Bauckham, God, p.50. 71. Paul does not have in mind ‘Àeshly people’ since the phrase MCVC UCTMC modi¿es the verb (QKFCOGP) rather than the pronoun (QWXFGPC). Thus, it is not the earthly Jesus Paul pictures in 5.16, but seeing Jesus in a worldly perspective. So also Webb, Returning, p.113 n.3. Contra Bultmann, Second Letter, p.154. 72. This phrase occurs only here and in Gal. 6.15 in the NT. 73. See Isa. 40.28-31; 41.17-20; 42.5-9; 44.24-28; 45.1-13, 22-25; 49.8-13; 51.13, 9-16; 54.1-10; 55.6-13; 60.15–22; 65.17-25; 66.19–24. Cf. Beale, ‘The Old Testament Background’, p.555. Gignilliat comments, ‘The language of “old things passing” and “new things taking place” is scattered throughout Isaiah 40–55’ (Paul, p.97). 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

49

5.17 Paul appears to borrow certain words from LXX Isa. 43.18-19 in 5.17 to describe ‘the new eschatological situation which has emerged from Christ’s advent’.74 Although there is no introductory formula to indicate that he is referring to the passage, the verbal and thematic correspondences are too striking to be dismissed as mere coincidences or unconscious usage. Table 2.7 2 Cor. 5.17  Y=UVG GK VKL GXP &TKUVY^ MCKPJ MVKUKL>  VC CXTECKC RCTJNSGP  KXFQW IGIQPGP MCKPC>

So if anyone is in Christ, there is a new creation: everything old has passed away; see, everything has become new!

LXX

Isa. 43.18-19

MT



W$QYRDU,:U.]!7LOD 18 :QQ%RW7LODW$KY G[@KI>R\Q,Q!KL  K :>G7HD$OK@[P FWL U% G!0L%a\ILD #D W$UK Q!$PYL\%LU'

18

/J OPJOQPGWGVG VC RTYVC MCK VC CXTECKC OJUWNNQIK\GUSG.  KXFQW RQKY MCKPC C? PWP CXPCVGNGK MCK IPYUGUSG CWXVC> MCK RQKJUY GXP VJ^ GXTJOY^ QBFQP MCK GXP VJ^ CXPWFTY^ RQVCOQWL. 18Do

not remember the former things or consider the things of old. 19Look, I am doing new things that will now spring forth, and you will know them, and I will make a way in the wilderness and rivers in the dry land.

Isa. 43.18-19



18Do

not remember the former things, or consider the things of old. 19I am about to do a new thing; now it springs forth, do you not perceive it? I will make a way in the wilderness and rivers in the desert.

* Verbal matches underlined

As can be seen in Table 2.7, the verbal matches are unmistakable and the thematic correspondences are also striking. In the previous chapter (Isa. 42), there is a declaration that new things will take place (v. 9). This is immediately followed by a call to praise God for what he will do for his people (vv. 10-12). God will march toward the enemies like a warrior and show them his might by laying waste mountains and hills, drying the marshlands and turning rivers into islands (vv. 13-15). Then, he will lead 1

74. Martin, 2 Corinthians, p.152.

50

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

and guide his people that are blind and deaf into light and level ground (v. 16). However, this glorious hope for the future comes to an abrupt halt and there begins God’s indictment of his people (vv. 18-25) for their idolatry (v. 17), blindness and deafness (vv. 18-20), and disobedience in keeping his law (v. 24). That explains why God subjected them to his wrath and war (v. 25). However, Isaiah 43 returns again to the future hope that was mentioned in the earlier parts of Isaiah 42. It starts by telling Jacob/Israel not to fear because God has redeemed them and because they belong to him (vv. 1-5). God promises to gather them together from the ends of the earth (vv. 5-9). The purpose of bringing them back again is that they may know, believe and understand that YHWH is the true God (vv. 10-11). He reassures them he will bring them back by bringing down Babylon (v. 14) and reminds them he is the one who made a way in the sea and destroyed the chariots, horses and mighty army (vv. 16-17). This recalls God’s mighty act of redemption in the ¿rst exodus when he led his people out of Egypt. Yet, in Isa. 43.18-19, God tells the people not to remember the former things (VC RTYVC) or the things of old (VC CXTECKC), but to turn their attention (KXFQW) to new things he is about to do (RQKY MCKPC).75 As great as the ¿rst exodus was, God promises his people that he will bring about something new that will surpass it.76 This new exodus will be much better than the ¿rst one for it will last forever, bringing everlasting joy (51.6, 11). It is this promise that Paul takes up; he believes it to have been ful¿lled already. His words in 2 Cor. 5.17 clearly echo LXX Isa. 43.18-19 when he says the old things (VC CXTECKC) have passed away and turns the attention of the Corinthians (KXFQW) to the new things God has done (IGIQPGP MCKPC). However, the expression VC CXTECKC takes on a new referent in Paul’s argument. While the ‘old things’ refer to the great acts of God in the past in the passage of Isaiah, the same phrase refers to the worldly existence in 2 Cor. 5.17, i.e., before they came to be ‘in Christ’.77 75. In Hebrew, it is singular (KYG[), ‘a new thing’. 76. Cf. Claus Westermann, Isaiah 40–66: A Commentary (OTL; London: SCM, 1969), pp.215–16; W. Haubeck, Loskauf durch Christus: Herhunft, Gestaltung und Bedeutung des paulinischen Loskaufmotivs (Geissen: Brunnen, 1985), pp.58–9. 77. Harris (Second Epistle, p.433) argues that v. 17b is reminiscent of the terminology of LXX Isa. 43.18-19, but not in content since, in his view, Paul’s focus is on anthropological renewal and not on cosmological renewal that the Isaiah passage describes. Strictly speaking, however, the content is not different. Even if the focus is on anthropological aspects, the eschatological hope of renewal in Isaiah encompasses the whole creation, embracing the anthropological transformation. Thus it is a matter of degree of focus, but not of content. 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

51

On the other hand, the referent of ‘new things’ refers to the new act of God in 2 Cor. 5.17 as is also the case in Isa. 43.18-19. Yet the new things that God promised to do (KXFQW RQKY MCKPC, Isa. 43.19) are seen to be already ful¿lled and effective at the time of Paul’s speaking (KXFQW IGIQPGP MCKPC, 2 Cor. 5.17). While the Isaianic vision of future renewal is cosmological, Paul appears to place more emphasis on its anthropological implications.78 Apart from the obvious fact that VKL (‘anyone’) in 5.17a is picked up by MCKPJ MVKUKL,79 there are other contextual clues. Paul’s mention of an ‘earthly tent’ and a ‘heavenly dwelling’ and of ‘clothing’ and being ‘swallowed up by life’ (5.1-4) all have the anthropological emphasis. The desire to be ‘at home’ with the Lord away from the body (v. 8) and the future judgment on what has been done in the body point in the same direction (v. 10). Besides, Paul’s presentation of the gospel and God’s act of reconciliation is also anthropologically focused. Thus, the old things refer to boasting in the outward appearance (GXP RTQUYRY^ MCWEYOGPQWL, v. 12), sel¿sh lifestyle (vv. 14-15) and seeing things MCVC UCTMC (v. 16).80 Moreover, the use of the phrase GXP &TKUVY^ places more emphasis on the anthropological aspect of new creation. Among various interpretations of the phrase GXP &TKUVY^, which occurs over 160 times including places where GXXP CWXVY^ or GXP Y^ refers to Christ, the readings that account for the largest number of occurrences are the personal and the ecclesiological, i.e., ‘in personal union with Christ’ or ‘in the body of

78. Cf. Webb, Returning, p.126: ‘Paul’s perspective is indeed supra-individual, but at the same time it voices strong implications for the individual’. 79. The implication of the conditional clause (GKVKLGXP&TKUVY^) is that the cosmological restoration and renewal is contingent upon ‘anyone being in Christ’. This may be a problem for the proponents of a purely anthropological reading. However, Paul’s note in Rom. 9.19-23 may render the ‘problem’ less problematic since Paul clearly expresses that the revealing of the children of God precedes the renewal of the whole of creation. For proponents of the anthropological reading, see, e.g., M. V. Hubbard, New Creation in Paul’s Letters and Thought (SNTSMS; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp.179–80; J. Murphy-O’Connor, The Theology of the Second Letter to the Corinthians (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p.60 n.46; Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.427. For those who argue for a broader meaning of MCKPJMVKUKL, see, e.g., Furnish, II Corinthians, p.332; Peter Stuhlmacher, ‘Erwägungen zum ontologischen Charakter der MCKPJMVKUKL bei Paulus’, EvT 27 (1967), pp.4, 8. Cf. E. Adams, Constructing the World: A Study in Paul’s Cosmological Language (SNTW; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 2000), p.235; Webb, Returning, pp.126–7. Adams and Webb try to hold both views together in a nuanced way, which is also adopted in this study. 80. Hubbard, New Creation, p.183. 1

52

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Christ’.81 Therefore Paul appears to focus more on the anthropological implication of God’s promise of cosmological renewal in Isaiah. Based on his anthropological reading of v. 17a, Harris suggests that we look at ‘the Jewish apocalyptic and rabbinic description of the sinner who repents or the Gentile who converts to Judaism as a “new creature” (beriyyâ ÜadƗšâ) [Str-B 2.421-23]’.82 While there is a certain structural parallel, the strong Isaianic voices that underlie Paul’s statements in 5.14–6.2 cannot be dismissed simply because Paul’s focus is personal rather than cosmological and has certain af¿nity with Jewish apocalyptic and rabbinic description of a ‘new creature’. It has to be noted that all the supporting arguments above for an anthropological reading are not to deny cosmological re-creation, but just to say the personal implication of the Isaianic future promise is given more of the spotlight at this particular juncture. Thus one cannot talk about anthropological or cosmological renewal as if they are wholly separate since God’s redemptive act is directed toward all of his creation, as the Isaianic allusion makes clear. Paul’s dependence on the themes of Isaiah becomes more evident as Paul clearly alludes to Isaiah 53 in v. 21 and then goes on to quote LXX Isa. 49.8 in 6.2.83 Hence it would be unwise to ignore such strong scriptural resonances and hang onto a subsequent interpretation of the theme among Jewish circles. Although Paul is probably borrowing key words from Isa. 43.18-19, these strong voices from Scripture mean that Paul is not so much concerned about speci¿c passages, but about certain scriptural themes on which Paul is grounding his appeal to the Corinthians.84 Hence it is not 81. Harris, Second Epistle, p.431. Cf. C. F. D. Moule, The Origin of Christology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), pp.47–96. Moule traces Pauline evidence for understanding the experience of Christ in a corporate sense. He argues that Paul found Jesus to be ‘an inclusive personality’. This means that Paul conceived of Christ in terms of personal, but also ‘transcending individual category’ (p.95). 82. Harris, Second Epistle, p.433, citing G. F. Moore, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era: The Age of the Tannaim (3 vols.; Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1927, 1930), vol. 1, p.533; E. Sjöberg, ‘Wiedergeburt und Neuschöpfung im palästinischen Judentum’, ST 4 (1951–52), pp.44–85 (57–9). 83. Cf. J. Lambrecht, Second Corinthians (SP, 8; Collegeville, MN: Liturgical, 1999), p.96: ‘Since in 6.2 Paul quotes Isa 49.8, Old Testament inÀuence is very likely to be present also in 5.17’. 84. Cf. Dodd, According to the Scriptures. Cf. also Webb, Returning, p.120 n.2. Webb argues that a term has to be taken as a term among other words that betray a particular concept and that one should not put too much weight on a term as if a theme was dependent on a key word. In other words, a key word is like the tip of an 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

53

surprising to see the theme of ‘old and new things’ emerge elsewhere in Isaiah, especially in chs. 40–66.85 Notable among other passages from Isaiah that reverberate the same theme with similar verbal correspondences are:86 Isa. 42.9: As for the things that were from the beginning (VC CXR8 CXTEJL), see (KXFQW), they have come; also new things (MCKPC), which I myself will declare, and before they sprang forth, they were made plain to you. Isa. 48.3, 6-7: The former things I have moreover declared…suddenly I did them and they came to pass (GXRJNSGP; cf. 2 Cor. 5.17c, RCTJNSGP)… I declared to you the things of old (RCNCK)… I have also made to be heard by you, from now on, the new things (VC MCKPC CXRQ VQW PWP; cf. 2 Cor. 5.16, CXRQ VQW PWP) that shall come to pass… They are happening now (PWP IKPGVCK; cf. 2 Cor 5.17d, IGIQPGP). Isa. 65.17-18: For heaven will be new (MCKPQL), and the earth will be new (MCKPJ), and they shall not remember the former things, nor shall they come upon their heart, but they shall ¿nd joy and gladness in it, because look (KXFQW), I am making (RQKY) Ierousalem as gladness, and my people as a joy.

There are also occurrences of a similar theme in apocalyptic Jewish literature. 1 Enoch 72.1 mentions the future re-creation in passing while 1 En. 90.37-38 depicts return to the beginning, and thus a new creation.87 There are other passages (cf. 5.5-9; 10.16-22; 25.5-6; 91.13-16) where

iceberg that directs the readers to a larger theme that lies behind that word; and hence, one should not hang everything on a word as if the whole argument depends on it. Similarly, Watson demonstrates that Paul’s apparently fragmentary exegetical statements ‘stem from a broad construal of the narrative shape of scripture, and that fundamental scriptural themes function as hermeneutical keys’ (Paul, p.23). 85. E.g. Isa. 9.1; 22.11; 25.1; 37.26; 41.22, 26, 27; 42.9-10; 43.9, 18-21; 44.6-8; 45.11, 21; 46.9-10; 49.3-6, 12, 16; 51.9; 63.9, 11-14; 65.16-17; 66.22 (Webb, Returning, p.121 n.1). 86. Cf. Wilk, ‘Isaiah in 1 and 2 Corinthians’, p.150. Wilk observes that even while Paul is alluding to Isa. 43.18-19, he modi¿es the verbs of 5.17c-d in line with Isa. 49.3, 7, takes up the sentence structure of Isa. 42.9 and also borrows the phrase CXRQVQWPWP from Isa. 49.6 in 2 Cor. 5.16a. However, Wilk fails to note or does not include Isa. 65.17-18 in his list of allusions. Wilk’s observation appears to strengthen our contention that Paul is more concerned about the thematic correspondences than the exact words and the place of allusion. 87. G. W. E. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1 (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001), p.404. 1

54

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

the Isaianic vision of new creation and new Jerusalem appears to have inÀuenced the descriptions about the new age.88 1QS 4.25 and 1QH 3.19-22; 11.10-14; 13.11-12 have also been noted to have an allusion to new creation. While 1QS 4.25 (KYG[WZI>) has a passing remark that there will be a time when the new things will be made, it is not so clear in 1QH 3.19-22; 11.10-14; 13.11-12, even though Stuhlmacher includes them in his list of allusions.89 In the OT Pseudepigraphon Joseph and Aseneth, there is also a reference to a renewal by God’s Spirit. This idea of renewal (8.9, CXPCMCKPKUQP) is expressed by Joseph who prays for Aseneth who is not yet a believer in God. Considering the emphasis on the theme of conversion in Joseph and Aseneth, the idea of renewal seems to refer primarily to conversion and not to the eschatological events, even though the analogy employed is to creation.90 It is surprising that Furnish, noting references to ‘renewal’ from apocalyptic Judaism, asserts that Paul is indebted to them for the concept of ‘new creation’ and then goes on to say that the root of the Jewish apocalyptic idea is in Isa. 65.17-25.91 While Paul may have been aware of such literature, there appears to be no good reason to suppose that Paul was dependent, as Furnish suggests, upon apocalyptic Jewish literature other than scriptural attestations.92 It is not plausible to hold that 88. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch, p.57. Nickelsburg notes two main reasons for the dif¿culty of discerning the presence of biblical sources: (1) the alleged author is said to have lived nearly two thousand years before Moses, who had supposedly written the earliest part of the Hebrew Scripture; (2) 1 Enoch purports to be ‘authoritative Scripture’ which has been received through direct revelation to its author, not basing itself on other sacred texts. 89. Stuhlmacher, MCKPJMVKUKL, p.13. Cf. U. Mell, Neue Schöpfung: eine traditionsgeschichtliche und exegetische Studie zu einem soteriologischen Grundsatz paulinischer Theologie (BZNW 56; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1989), pp.86–7. 90. Cf. R. D. Chesnutt, From Death to Life (JSPSup 16; Shef¿eld: Shef¿eld Academic, 1995), p.146. 91. Furnish, II Corinthians, pp.314–15. Cf. Davies, Paul, pp.119–21. Davies similarly argues that Paul derived the idea of ‘new creation’ from the rabbinic thoughts that apply the idea to proselytes to Judaism. 92. Matthew Black, ‘The New Creation in 1 Enoch’, in Creation, Christ and Culture: Studies in Honour of T. F. Torrance (ed. R. W. A. McKinney; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1976), p.14. Black traces the source of 1 En. 72.1 to Isa. 43.19; 65.1725; 66.22 and argues that Isa. 65.17–25 is ‘the Hebrew locus classicus’ for the idea of renewal and ‘might well be held to warrant most of the later tradition in the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha and rabbinical sources’. Thus, it seems more plausible to say Paul was aware of ‘the Hebrew locus classicus’ and had drawn from it rather than from any other tradition that was formed later. 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

55

Paul could not have drawn from the Scripture directly when his near contemporaries appear to do so and especially when Paul cites from an Isaianic passage just a few verses down in 6.2. Those well informed in Scripture are likely to hear the strong Isaianic voice. They would have seen that what God has promised long ago is now ful¿lled and that they are already participating in the eschatological reality by being in Christ. Their joy of knowing Christ is accompanied by the realisation that God’s ancient promise has been ful¿lled in their time and by awe at the faithfulness of the Lord who keeps his words. Those less informed in Scripture would have missed the allusion. The joy of being a new creation in Christ would be all they notice in this verse. The sense of wonder at the ful¿lment of the Isaianic promise in their time would not have been present in their minds. The excitement in Paul’s statement would stand alone without its scriptural companion. By alluding to the eschatological promise of God in Isaiah, Paul is identifying the believers with the original recipients of the promise. Christ is the one who ful¿ls the promise since those who are in him become a new creation, and thus he is being identi¿ed with God as well who gave and was to ful¿l the future hope. 5.18-20 Once again, Paul reminds the Corinthians that this wonderful renewal is from God (5.18) just as the power in the earthen pots belongs to God (4.7). The gospel is then understood in terms of ‘reconciliation’ (MCVCNNCIJ).93 God has reconciled (MCVCNNCZCPVQL) Paul to himself through Christ (5.18) and entrusted the message of reconciliation (MCVCNNCIJ) to him and his fellow workers (5.19). Thus, he is pleading with the Corinthians to be reconciled with God (MCVCNNCIJVG, 5.20). 93. The noun MCVCNNCIJ occurs only in the Pauline corpus (Rom. 5.11; 11.15; 2 Cor. 5.18, 19) in the NT and only twice in the LXX (2 Macc. 5.20; Isa. 9.4). Its verb form MCVCNNCUUY also occurs only in Paul in the NT (Rom. 5.10 [×2]; 1 Cor. 7.11; 2 Cor. 5.18, 19, 20) and four times in the LXX (2 Macc. 1.5; 7.33; 9.29; Jer. 31.39). Except for 2 Macc. 5.20 and 7.33, the uses of MCVCNNCIJ, and its cognate word MCVCNNCUUY in the LXX do not appear to be used in a similar way as Paul is using them. Cf. NIDNTT, vol. 3, pp.166–74; S. E. Porter, Katallasso in Ancient Greek Literature with Reference to the Pauline Writings (EFN; Cordoba: Ediciones el Almendro, 1994); J. A. Fitzmyer, To Advance the Gospel (New York: Crossroad, 2nd edn, 1988), pp.164–6; I. H. Marshall, ‘The Meaning of “Reconciliation”’, in Unity and Diversity in New Testament Theology: Essays in Honor of G. E. Ladd (ed. R. A. Guelich; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1978), pp.117–32 (117–21); R. P. Martin, Reconciliation: A Study of Paul’s Theology (London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1981), pp.104–6. 1

56

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

The idea of reconciliation between God and his people, containing the MCVCNNCUUY word group, is also found in 2 Maccabees 5. Antiochus de¿les the temple by entering into the temple and polluting the holy vessels and votive offerings (vv. 15-16). The writer reminds the reader that this tragedy happened because of the sins of the people (v. 17). Because the Lord chose the place for the sake of the nation (v. 19), ‘the place itself shared in the misfortunes that befell the nation and afterward participated in its bene¿ts; and what was forsaken in the wrath of the Almighty was restored again in all its glory when the great Lord became reconciled’ (GXP VJ^ VQW OGICNQW FGURQVQW MCVCNNCIJ^ OGVC RCUJL FQZJL GXRCPYTSYSJ, v. 20). The same theme surfaces again in 2 Maccabees 7. The writer once again reminds the people that they are suffering under Antiochus because of their sins (v. 32) and goes on to say: ‘if our living Lord is angry for a little while, to rebuke and discipline us, he will again be reconciled with his own servants (RCNKP MCVCNNCIJUGVCK VQKL GBCWVQW FQWNQKL)’. While 2 Maccabees recapitulates the pattern of the exile and the future hope of return/restoration, it does not necessarily follow from this that Paul is relying on 2 Maccabees for the idea of return and reconciliation, since Paul appears to draw the idea from the book of Isaiah as we have been observing in these passages. It may well be that the author of 2 Maccabees and Paul are drawing from the Isaianic themes independently of each other. Similarly, Martin’s claim that ‘a creedal statement’ or ‘soteriological credo’ lies behind 2 Cor. 5.18-2194 is not satisfactory. His main reason for suggesting ‘a carefully prepared piece of soteriological credo’ as the basis is that vv. 18-21 express a confessional summary of what the ¿rst Christians believed about God’s work in Christ.95 Yet, there seems to be no good reason as to why one should think the statement is not original to Paul. Porter plausibly argues that the use of MCVCNNCUUY and MCVCNNCIJ is ‘recognizably Pauline’ as his entire book attempts to demonstrate and that there is no record of such a source from which Paul might have drawn.96

94. Martin, Reconciliation, pp.93–110. 95. Martin, Reconciliation, p.94. 96. Porter, Katallasso, pp.129–30. It has to be said, however, that his other objection that some grammatical features are paralleled elsewhere in Pauline epistles (p.129) does not undermine the contention for pre-existing material since the inÀuence of the tradition on Paul would have shown up in other places as well, if indeed there was such a tradition.

1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

57

While UBS4 notes Isa. 52.7 as an allusion in 2 Cor. 5.20, there is no verbal correspondence, which makes it dif¿cult for us to be certain about its source. Yet, Webb traces a possible scriptural background by looking at the scriptural allusions in Eph. 2.17. Noting the occurrence of CXRQMCVCNNCUUY in close proximity with RQKYP GKXTJPJP in Eph. 2.14-16, he points out that the majority of commentators concur that Isa. 57.19 (GKXTJPJP GXR8 GKXTJPJP VQKL OCMTCP MCK VQKL GXIIWL) and Isa. 52.7 (GWXCIIGNK\QOGPQW CXMQJP GKXTJPJL) lie behind Eph. 2.17 (MCK GXNSYP GWXJIIGNKUCVQ GKXTJPJP WBOKP VQKL OCMTCP MCK GKXTJPJP VQKL GXIIWL).97 Thus, the Jews in exile become a paradigm for those who were far off (OCMTCP), but were brought near (GXIIWL, 2.13, 17) through Christ for worship in the eschatological temple where God dwells (2.18-22). Webb also notes the use of Isa. 52.7 in Rom. 10.15 and concludes that it is possible to see ‘reconciliation’ within the theme of exilic return.98 While it seems plausible to associate return theology with reconciliation, it does not thereby tell us whether Paul is using the particular passage of Isa. 52.7 in 2 Cor. 5.20. Rather, it seems to provide us with another hint that Paul is strongly inÀuenced by the Isaianic conceptual framework.99 It appears Paul is less concerned at this point about the exact location of echoed text than about the overarching themes he is drawing upon. This being the case, it seems unlikely that his readers would have associated this passage with any scriptural text. At best, it could be said that those who were familiar with the Scripture may have heard an echo of the theme of return in Paul’s concentrated use of the MCVCNNCUUY word group. 5.21 The allusion to Isaiah 53 becomes stronger and comes to a climax in v. 21. After appealing to the Corinthians to be reconciled to God (v. 20), Paul once again states the salvi¿c work of God in Christ in a very pregnant form. Although there is not much verbal correspondence, it appears that Paul has captured in a sentence what Isa. 53.4-9 describes about the Suffering Servant. Before we move any further, it is necessary to look into the Servant tradition since Paul is consciously employing it in this section and an examination of the theme of the Servant of Isaiah would help us to better understand what Paul is doing with Scripture. 97. Webb, Returning, p.118. 98. Webb, Returning, pp.119–20. 99. For studies demonstrating the heavy inÀuence of Isaiah on Paul, see Wilk, Bedeutung; Wagner, Heralds; Shum, Paul’s Use. 1

58

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

a. The Servant of YHWH There are four sections of Isaiah that are generally considered as the ‘Servant Songs’ (42.1-4; 49.1-6; 50.4-9; 52.13–53.12). There is a large number of works dealing with various aspects of the Servant in Isaiah, but we will focus on the identity of the Servant, as it is particularly relevant for our purposes. Determining the identity of the Servant has proved very dif¿cult as there have been numerous suggestions and arguments, but with no consensus.100 The Servant has variously been identi¿ed with a Davidic heir,101 as Cyrus, as a prophet, or as Jacob/Israel.102 There seem to be broadly two camps that encompass the majority of positions: (1) one that seeks an individual ¿gure, whether it is the prophet himself or a historical ¿gure; (2) one that seeks a collective group – Israel (actual or ideal), Israel within Israel, Israel’s representative; this side also includes those who argue for Àuidity of the identity of the Servant.103 While various attempts have been made to identify the Servant with a historical ¿gure,104 Rowley’s critical statement seems to deliver a fatal blow to such an endeavour: If the prophet really believed that he was destined to set judgment in the earth, and to see the isles wait for his law [Isa. 42.4], and that men would acknowledge that he was wounded for their transgressions and bruised for their iniquities [Isa. 53.5], and that his death was a sin-offering for their sins, whereby they should ¿nd justi¿cation [Isa. 53.10], he was only a misguided, self-opinionated dreamer, and not in any sense the mouthpiece of God.105 100. For a thorough survey of the history of interpretation on the identity the Suffering Servant, see C. R. North, The Suffering Servant in Deutero-Isaiah (London: Oxford University Press, 1948), pp.6–116; H. H. Rowley, The Servant of the Lord and Other Essays on the Old Testament (Oxford: Blackwell, 2nd edn, 1965), pp.3–57; cf. H. C. P. Kim, Ambiguity, Tension, and Multiplicity in DeuteroIsaiah (SBL; New York: Lang, 2003), pp.75–86. For a select bibliography, see J. D. W. Watts, Isaiah 34–66 (WBC 25; Waco, TX: Word, 1987), pp.115–16. 101. See, e.g., J. Morgenstern, ‘Suffering Servant – A New Solution’, VT 11 (1961), pp.406–31. Morgenstern argues that the Servant is a king of Israel. 102. See, e.g., George A. F. Knight, Servant Theology: A Commentary on the Book of Isaiah 40–55 (ITC; Edinburgh: Handsel, 1984), pp.125–34; U. Lindblad, ‘A Note on the Nameless Servant in Isaiah xlii 1–4’, VT 43 (1993), pp.115–19; cf. H. M. Orlinsky, The So-called ‘Servant of the LORD’ and ‘Suffering Servant’ in Second Isaiah (VTSup 14; Leiden: Brill, 1967), pp.75–96. Orlinsky argues that every reference to the Servant is to either Israel or Second Isaiah himself. 103. Cf. Rowley, Servant, pp.3–57. 104. E.g. North, Suffering. 105. Rowley, Servant, pp.11–12. Peter Wilcox and David Paton-Williams (The Servant Songs in Deutero-Isaiah’, JSOT 42 [1988], pp.79–102 [95]) point out that ‘[t]hroughout Isa. 1–66, the adjectives “exalted”, “lifted up” and “ very high” are virtually technical terms, applied almost exclusively to Yahweh’. 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

59

This criticism can be directed to all theories arguing for a historical individual as the Servant.106 Yet, this does not mean we cannot identify the Servant with an individual.107 North argues that there is a linear development of the Servant tradition, i.e., from the collective to the individual, but rejects the idea of oscillation between the two.108 Similarly, Wilcox and Paton-Williams argue that there is a transition from the Servant as Israel in Isaiah 40–48 to the Servant as prophet in Isaiah 49–55.109 Gignilliat also argues that there is a development of the Servant theme in that an individual ¿gure takes on the role that was originally assigned for, but failed by, Israel.110 More satisfactorily, Williamson demonstrates that there is a ‘democratization’ of the role of the Davidic king in Isaiah 1–39 in relation to Israel in Deutero-Isaiah, which also depicts a ‘privatization’ of the role of the ¿gure of the Servant.111 Ekblad also observes the transition from the Servant as Israel to an individual ¿gure, yet the Servant is not separated from Israel.112 However, this idea of ‘development’ does not help us identify who the Servant is, as it only shows the transition from the collective to the individual. This being the case, Brueggemann comments: ‘The identi¿cation of a historical person in the Old Testament has been a futile enterprise, because there is no consensus among scholars and because each such proposed candidate only accommodates the poetry in incidental detail and never in comprehensive ways’.113 Accepting the views

106. Of course, Jesus Christ can be seen to have ful¿lled in himself what was said about the Servant, even though Deutero-Isaiah may not have Jesus in mind. 107. Identifying the Servant with Jesus is the most natural and Christian way of understanding the identity of the Servant. See J. Goldingay, God’s Prophet, God’s Servant: A Study in Jeremiah and Isaiah 40–55 (Exeter: Paternoster, 1984), pp.152–9. 108. North, Suffering, p.216. 109. Wilcox and Paton-Williams, ‘Servant’. Cf. also Christopher Seitz, ‘How is the Prophet Isaiah Present in the Latter Half of the Book? The Logic of Chapters 40– 66 within the Book of Isaiah’, in Word Without End: The Old Testament as Abiding Theological Witness (ed. C. Seitz; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), pp.168–93. While the transition seems evident, the identi¿cation of the individual Servant as the prophet is not convincing as we have just noted above in reference to Rowley. 110. Gignilliat, Paul, p.73. 111. H. G. M. Williamson, Variations on a Theme: King, Messiah and Servant in the Book of Isaiah (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1998), pp.113–66. 112. E. R. Ekblad, Isaiah’s Servant Poems According to the Septuagint: An Exegetical and Theological Study (Leuven: Peeters, 1999), pp.267–90. 113. W. Brueggemann, Isaiah 40–66 (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1998), p.109. 1

60

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

of Clines,114 who moves from historical to literary-rhetorical considerations, Brueggemann is content to hold that ‘Yahweh has designated some human agent to be about the work of healing and emancipation in the world with particular reference to Israel’.115 Similarly, Westermann notes the ambiguity of the identity of the Servant when examining the ¿rst ‘Servant Song’ (Isa. 42.1-4). He comments, ‘The cryptic, veiled language used is deliberate. This is true of every one of the servant songs alike’.116 As a result, a growing number of scholars argue for the essentially ambiguous nature of the identity of the Servant.117 This ambiguity can be seen as a result of the multiplicity of the identity of the Servant in Deutero-Isaiah. Hence, Rowley argues that ‘the view that emphasizes the many strands that went into the thought and the Àuidity that marks it in the Servant songs are likely to be in the right direction’.118 He ¿nds the idea of ‘oscillation’ attractive when he argues that there is a ‘development from the thought of Israel as the Servant to the thought of an individual Servant par excellence, without abandoning the thought of Israel as still the Servant’.119 114. D. J. A. Clines, I, He, We and They (JSOTSup 1; Shef¿eld: JSOT, 1976). Clines attempts to read the passage as an ‘event’, borrowing the insights from ‘new hermeneutics’. He believes that the historical-critical method fails to provide a solution to the ‘problems’ of the poem, and thus proposes to read it as an ‘event’. He argues: ‘The poem’s very lack of speci¿city refuses to let it be tied down to one spot on the globe, or frozen at one point in history: it opens up the possibility that the poem can become true in a variety of circumstances – that is its work’ (p.61). 115. Brueggemann, Isaiah 40–66, p.110. 116. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, p.93. 117. Observed by Wilcox and Paton-Williams, ‘Servant’, p.79. 118. Rowley, Servant, p.49. 119. Rowley, Servant, p.54, emphasis original. Cf. J. Pedersen, Israel: Its Life and Culture, vols. 3–4 (Copenhagen: Branner Og Korch, 1940), pp.603–5. Pedersen argues that though the Servant has a mission to Israel, he is at the same time the embodiment of ideal Israel in a person. While the multiplicity implied in the identity of the Servant of Isaiah seems obvious, it is quite another to argue, as H. W. Robinson does, that this multiplicity is based on the concept of ‘corporate personality’ that is supposedly present in the primitive Jewish mindset. See H. Wheeler Robinson, The Cross in the Old Testament (London: SCM, 1955), and Corporate Personality in Ancient Israel (Philadelphia: Fortress, rev. edn, 1980). By ‘corporate personality’, Robinson means that ‘[t]he whole group including its past, present and future members, might function as a single individual through any one of those members conceived as representative of it. Because it was not con¿ned to the living, but included the dead and the unborn, the group could be conceived as living forever’ (Corporate, p.25). Thus, ‘[t]he Hebrew conception of corporate personality can reconcile both, and pass without explanation or explicit indication from one to the other, in a Àuidity of transition 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

61

Rowley gives an illuminating illustration of this concept using the word ‘church’, which can refer to the building in which people worship, local congregations, the totality of a particular Christian variety – the Anglican or the Roman Catholic – or the universal church. He remarks, ‘These meanings are all clearly distinguishable, yet they are all connected with one another’.120 In his recent commentary on Isaiah, Childs similarly comments that the Servant who bears the marks of an individual ¿gure does not replace the collective Israel because ‘the Servant in Second Isaiah remains inseparable from Israel’ and is ‘a faithful embodiment of the nation Israel who has not performed its chosen role (48.1-2)’.121 Kim’s recent work elucidates more or less the same idea: In the contextuality of [Isa.] 41.1-13, 42.1-9, and 45.11-13 (of 45.9-19), and other servant passages, the reader can detect evidences of implicit ideological tensions within the contextual allusions synchronically and theological transmissions of redactional layers diachronically… As a result, the identity of the servant signals multiple possibilities from the textual evidence of multiple redactional layers, which depict the servant as Cyrus, a Davidide, a prophet, and Israel – all presented in a not so

which seems to us unnatural’ (Corporate, p.40). Cf. Otto Eissfeldt, ‘The Ebed-Jahwe in Isaiah xl.–lv. in Light of the Israelite Conceptions of the Community and the Individual, the Ideal and the Real’, ExpTim 44 (1933), pp.261–8. Eissfeldt employs the idea of corporate personality similar to Robinson’s, but more inclined to the idea of Àuidity. While this concept was very inÀuential for a while, it came under serious challenges. See, e.g., J. R. Porter, ‘The Legal Aspects of the Concept of “Corporate Personality” in the Old Testament’, VT 15 (1965), pp.361–80. Porter examines the biblical basis from which the concept ¿nds support and convincingly demonstrates that there are alternative explanations that do not need to postulate the idea of ‘corporate personality’. Moreover, he shows that the Hebrew legal aspect does not sit comfortably under the ‘psychic community’ or ‘the psychical unity’ in which ‘corporate personality’ is understood since individual guilt is punished individually in the OT. Yet, Porter admits that the concept of ‘corporate personality’ may have ‘much greater validity’ in non-legal contexts (‘Legal’, p.379 n.5). Following on from Porter, Rogerson argues that there are ambiguities in the phrase ‘corporate personality’ and that the anthropological basis from which the concept comes has been largely undermined by anthropologists. See J. W. Rogerson, ‘The Hebrew Conception of Corporate Personality’, in Anthropological Approaches to the Old Testament (ed. B. Lang; IRT; Philadelphia: Fortress; London: SPCK, 1985), pp.43– 59. Cf. also Rogerson’s entry on the same subject in ABD, vol. 1, pp.1156–7. 120. Rowley, Servant, pp.36–7. 121. B. S. Childs, Isaiah (OTL; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2001), p.385. 1

62

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture harmonious fashion. Conversely, one could say that these multiple layers and complexities are the very reasons for the subtlety and hiddenness of who the servant is.122

Then, Kim concludes that ‘the multiplicity of the identity of the servant yields that the servant is both individual and collective, both an unknown identity and Jacob/Israel’.123 Building on these works, we propose that the idea of ‘corporate identity’124 captures the multiplicity of the identity of the Servant rather well.125 The identity of the individual Servant who has a mission to Israel is inseparable from the identity of the collective Israel. The corporate Israel is fully represented by the individual Servant who faithfully embodies her. We are not, however, suggesting a fusion of personalities nor a simple solidarity. Corporate identity involves more than solidarity and less than a vague fusion of individuals. It lies somewhere inbetween.126 The fate of the individual Servant is also the fate of the corporate Israel. If the individual Servant fails, then the whole nation perishes. Both share the same fate. Their existence and destiny are so intricately interwoven that we are able to say that they share a corporate identity and yet without violating individual characteristics.127 It appears that this concept of corporate identity is not foreign to Paul. Paul seems happy to work with this concept in 1 Cor. 15.22, which states, ‘for as all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ’. Here, Adam and Christ are seen as the locus of the corporate identity of human beings. Similarly in Gal. 2.19c-20 (cf. Rom. 5.15-19; 6.5-8), Paul states, ‘I have been cruci¿ed with Christ; and it is no longer I who live, but it is Christ who lives in me. And the life I now live in the Àesh I live by faith in the Son of God, who loved me and gave himself for me.’ Paul is not 122. Kim, Ambiguity, p.75. 123. Kim, Ambiguity, p.88. Emphasis original. 124. At the time of coining this phrase, we were not aware that the same phrase was used by W. S. Campbell, Paul and the Creation of Christian Identity (LNTS 332; London: T&T Clark International, 2006), pp.153–5. 125. Wilcox and Paton-Williams (‘Servant’, p.88) make an interesting comment: ‘there is a difference between the character of the servant with the ¿rst Servant Song and the character of servant Israel in chs. 40–48; but there is no difference of identity’ (emphasis original). 126. Cf. Ho¿us, ‘Fourth Servant Song’, p.173. ‘Christ takes the place of sinners in such a way that he does not displace them (as in the substitutionary model) but rather encompasses them as persons and affects them in their very being’ (emphasis original). 127. Cf. Porter (‘Legal’, pp.361–80), who shows that individuals are responsible for their own actions in the OT. 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

63

obviously Christ, but his existence is deeply rooted in the life of Christ. He is identi¿ed with Christ at a fundamental and existential level without the hint of being ‘identical’. Moreover, Paul describes this reality in terms of ‘body’ in 1 Corinthians 12. There, he is addressing the varieties of gifts, utilising the imagery of ‘body’. He declares, ‘in the one Spirit we were all baptized into one body’ (v. 13a), and later states, ‘there are many members, yet one body’ (v. 20). More explicitly, he goes on to say, ‘you are the body of Christ and individually members of it’ (v. 27). That is why the body suffers when one member suffers and rejoices when one member is honoured (v. 26). This organic unity in Christ, depicted as the ‘body of Christ’, with individual traits and responsibilities, suggests that Paul is working with something comparable to the concept of corporate identity.128 In this way, the identity of the Servant is not only found in Jesus Christ, but also in the believers whom Paul depicts as ‘the body of Christ’ (Rom. 7.4; 12.5; 1 Cor. 10.16; 12.12, 27; cf. Eph. 3.6; Col. 3.15), as people that are ‘in Christ’ (2 Cor. 5.17, 21). The Church as the body of Christ is obviously not the one who ful¿ls what was predicted about the Servant, just as the Servant Israel failed to accomplish what she was called to. Yet, the Church participates in the accomplishment of her saviour as her existence becomes rooted in Christ, just as the Servant Israel somehow participates in and bene¿ts from the work of the individual Servant. Thus, the expressions ‘in Christ’, which is prevalent in Pauline letters, and ‘the body of Christ’, appear to capture this reality well. b. 5.21 in the Light of the Servant The idea of corporate identity seems to be at work in this verse, not only because of the antithesis (‘him’ and ‘us’) Paul employs here, but also because of the Servant tradition (Isa. 53) that lies behind this passage. The Servant in Isaiah 53 is depicted as an individual, but the multiplicity of the identity of the Servant in Deutero-Isaiah means that the individual Servant embodies Israel in himself as well, thus sharing a corporate identity.129 128. Cf. Moule, Origin, p.86: ‘it is clearly true that it is only by identi¿cation with Christ, cruci¿ed and raised – only by identi¿cation with Christ, that is, with a now living Christ – that Christians become a body; and that identi¿cation is spoken of as “inclusion” or “incorporation”’. 129. Cf. Rowley, Servant, p.54: ‘If the fourth song is dominantly individual, the mission which the Servant ful¿ls is still not merely his own, but Israel’s, and Israel is still called to enter in some measure into it, so that the Servant may really be Israel’s representative’. 1

64

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

In Isaiah 53, the tone of substitutionary death is unmistakable and the death of the Servant is depicted as a ‘sin offering’ in line with the Jewish system of atonement (cf. Exod. 29.14; Lev. 16.5; Num. 18.9; Rom. 8.3). While CBOCTVKC seems likely to denote ‘sin offering’ in Rom. 8.3,130 the immediate context of v. 21 focuses on reconciliation (vv. 18-20) and thus CBOCTVKC is better understood in more personal terms rather than ‘sin offering’ which has connotations of objective removal of sins. Paul’s emphasis on the reconciliation between God and humans, Paul’s ministry of reconciliation (vv. 18-19) and Paul’s appeal to the Corinthians to be reconciled to God (v. 20) appear to favour ‘a radical change which needs to be brought about in the personal relationship of the sinner with God’.131 Thus, Wright’s rendering of FKMCKQUWPJ as ‘covenant faithfulness’, which would naturally lead one to render CBOCTVKC as ‘disloyalty’, seems to ¿t here.132 Wright’s focus on the covenant as an overarching concept is helpful in that it encompasses both individual and cosmological understanding that is in the context of this verse (cf. v. 17). In the book of Isaiah, righteousness is one of the main virtues of the child to be born (Isa. 9.7 [LXX 6]) and of the shoot from the stump of Jesse (Isa. 11.5) and the future restoration is frequently characterized by righteousness.133 Thus, when Paul mentions ‘righteousness of God’ (FKMCKQUWPJ SGQW), he probably has in mind what Isaiah has prophesied concerning ‘the eschatological salvation’ which is described in terms of the restoration, new exodus, new creation and new covenant. Therefore, it seems plausible to treat FKMCKQUWPJ as an overarching term that refers to the profound truth of God’s salvi¿c work in Christ.134 Now that this eschatological hope has found its ful¿lment in Christ (GXP &TKUVY^, 5.17), those who are in him are already participating in the saving work of God in which the righteousness of God is manifested in and through Jesus Christ. This righteousness is being extended through those who are newly created in Christ, which appears to be a logical consequence to becoming FKMCKQUWPJ SGQW. 130. Wright, Climax, pp.220–5. 131. Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.442. 132. Others render CBOCTVKC as ‘sin’, especially in light of the parallel term FKMCKQUWPJ (Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.444; Hughes, Corinthians, p.215). The Hebrew word WD- [ can refer to both ‘sin’ and ‘sin offering’ (BDB s.v.). 133. Cf. Isa. 1.26; 26.2; 32.17; 33.5, 6; 39.19; 42.6; 45.8, 13, 23-24; 46.13; 49.18; 49.13; 51.5, 6, 8; 54.14; 59.2, 8, 17; 60.17; 61.3, 8, 11; 62.1, 2; 63.7. 134. Similarly J. A. Ziesler, The Meaning of Righteousness in Paul (SNTSMS; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), p.159. Ziesler de¿nes righteousness as ‘God’s whole intervention in Jesus’. 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

65

It should be noted that the phrase GXP CWXVY^ is not only concerned with individual reconciliation with God, but also with the whole group of people that are ‘in Christ’. Hence, there appears to be a clear emphasis on the church. Hays comments, ‘Although the discussion grows out of Paul’s defense of his own apostolic ministry, the paragraph develops towards a climax in which the vocation of the whole church is in view, most unmistakably in v. 21’.135 This ecclesiological emphasis becomes more explicit in 6.2, where Paul applies the promise given to the Servant directly to the church in Corinth. Those who were conversant with Scripture would have noticed the Servant tradition (Isa. 53). Even if they did not hear the echoes of the tradition in the previous verses (4.11; 5.4, 14-20), they would have heard the strong voice of Isaiah in this verse because of the striking thematic parallel. Jesus Christ would be seen as the ful¿lment of the prophecy, as the Servant who would make many righteous. While those who were less familiar with the Scripture would miss the Isaianic voice in this passage, they would notice from Paul’s statement that God’s righteousness involves a certain exchange by the fact of being identi¿ed closely with the one who has reconciled the world to himself. The Servant of Isaiah is identi¿ed with Jesus Christ while Israel is identi¿ed with people in general, including the Corinthians. Just as the Servant represented Israel and succeeded where Israel failed, so did Christ represent humanity and succeeded where they fell short. Thus the eschatological hope of deliverance for Israel through the Servant is now ful¿lled and embraces the Gentiles in Christ. 6.2 As an ambassador (5.20) and co-worker of God (6.1), Paul urges the Corinthians again. This follows his earlier plea to be reconciled to God (5.20), and now Paul appeals to the Corinthians not to accept the grace of God in vain (6.1). Paul then quotes LXX Isa. 49.8 with an introductory phrase, NGIGK ICT, which suggests that what follows in v. 2 is the basis for what has been stated in v. 1. The text Paul quotes is from around the second ‘Servant Song’.136 The referent of UQW and UQK in the original context is the Servant of God.137 135. R. B. Hays, ‘Ecclesiology and Ethics in 1 Corinthians’, ExAud 10 (1994), pp.31–43 (41 n.5). 136. Harris, Second Epistle, p.460; Gignilliat, Paul, p.58. 137. Baltzer notes that this is held by most commentators. K. Baltzer, DeuteroIsaiah (trans. M. Kohl; Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001), p.313.

1

66

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

This is clear from vv. 5-8, where the Servant narrates what the Lord has said to him.138 It should ¿rst be noted that there are striking parallels between Paul’s ministry and that of the Servant on a general level:139 (1) the commissioning of the Servant (Isa. 49.1, ‘from my mother’s womb he called my name’) is paralleled by that of Paul (‘God…set me apart before I was born’, Gal. 1.15);140 (2) the imagery of light (‘I have made you a light to nations’, Isa. 49.6) seems to relate to Paul’s mission to the Gentiles as one ‘unveiling’ the darkness (cf. 2 Cor. 3.14, 18; 4.4);141 (3) the downhearted cry of the Servant (‘I have laboured vainly’, Isa. 49.4) is echoed by Paul’s fear of labouring in vain (Gal. 2.2; 4.11; Phil. 2.16; 1 Thess. 3.5).142 Given these parallels, it would seem natural to argue, as Beale does, that Paul is here applying the Isaianic prophecy to himself and identifying himself with the Servant because he is ‘continuing the mission of Jesus’.143 Thus, Paul is seen to be authenticating himself with the divine promise of aid to the Servant and reasserting himself as the messenger who proclaims reconciliation to the Gentile congregation on God’s behalf (5.18-20). As a further support, Beale also notes parallel readings in Lk. 2.32 and Acts 26.23 where Jesus is seen as the ful¿lment of Isa. 49.6 (cf. 42.7) while Paul is seen as the ful¿lment of Isa. 49.6 (‘a light of nations’) in Acts 13.47, and of Isa. 42.7 in Acts 26.18a.144 Hence Luke is also making use of the Servant material in Isaiah 49 to describe the mission Paul is called to.

138. Cf. Childs, Isaiah, p.385; Brueggemann, Isaiah 40–66, p.113; Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, p.213. 139. Cf. P. E. Dinter, ‘Paul and the Prophet Isaiah’, BTB 13 (1983), pp.48–52 (48–9). 140. Webb, Returning, p.129. This divine call is also reminiscent of Jer. 1.5, ‘Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, and before you were born I consecrated you; I appointed you a prophet to the nations’. Cf. Goldingay, God’s Prophet, p.125. 141. Cf. Webb, Returning, p.129; Harris, Second Epistle, p.460. 142. Webb, Returning, p.130 n. 1; Harris, Second Epistle, p.460. 143. Beale, ‘Old Testament Background’, p.564. 144. Beale, ‘Old Testament Background’, p.564. Beale argues that the basis of this dual-identi¿cation lies in the idea of ‘corporate representation’ found in the OT. Yet, he distinguishes ‘corporate representation’ from ‘corporate personality’, which is held by Robinson (Corporate Personality) and Aubrey R. Johnson (The One and the Many in the Israelite Conception of God [Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2nd edn, 1961]). However, Beale does not provide any reason why he rejects the idea of corporate personality. 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

67

Table 2.7 2 Cor. 6.2 NGIGK ICT>  MCKTY^ FGMVY^ GXRJMQWUC UQW MCK GXP JBOGTC^ UYVJTKCL GXDQJSJUC UQK.  KXFQW PWP MCKTQL GWXRTQUFGMVQL  KXFQW PWP JBOGTC UYVJTKCL. For he says, ‘At an acceptable time I have listened to you, and on a day of salvation I have helped you’. See, now is the acceptable time; see, now is the day of salvation!

LXX Isa. 49.8145  QW=VYL NGIGK MWTKQL -CKTY^ FGMVY^ GXRJMQWUC UQW MCK GXP JBOGTC^ UYVJTKCL GXDQJSJUC UQK MCK GFYMC UG GKXL FKCSJMJP GXSPYP VQW MCVCUVJUCK VJP IJP MCK MNJTQPQOJUCK MNJTQPQOKCP GXTJOQW

Thus says the Lord: In an acceptable time I have listened to you, on a day of salvation I have helped you; I gave you as a covenant to nations to establish the land, and to inherit a wilderness heritage

MT

Isa. 49.8

$FUW>H%KZK\!UPD K.R A\7LU!]>@K> :Y\!a$\E:A\WL\Q,>@ a> W\U,EOLAQ!7DZ!AU!& DZ! O\[LQ!KOUDa\T,K O CW$PPHYRW$O[ Q! 

Thus says the LORD: In a time of favour I have answered you, on a day of salvation I have helped you; I have kept you and given you as a covenant to the people, to establish the land, to apportion the desolate heritages

*Verbal matches underlined

Similarly, Webb argues that Paul is identifying his ministry with that of the Servant of Isaiah 49.146 His brief attention to Paul’s identi¿cation with the Servant both in Paul and in Acts sets the scene for examining the citation in 6.2, which he sees as another alignment of the ministry of Paul with that of the Servant.147 In contrast, Gignilliat dismisses the claim that Paul is identifying himself with the Servant and seeing himself as the referent of UQW/UQK, but argues that ‘Paul’s quotation of Isa. 49.8, coupled with echoes in the 145. The LXX follows the MT closely with slight modi¿cations: GXRJMQWUC (‘I listened’) for \7LU!]>@ (‘I answered’); there is no LXX equivalent for AU!& DZ! (‘And I kept you’). Ellis (Paul’s Use, p.152) is mistaken to view Paul’s quotation as reÀecting both the LXX and Hebrew. Also, Harris (Second Epistle, p.459) ignores these minor differences in asserting that the LXX ‘accurately renders the Hebrew text’. 146. Webb, Returning, pp.128–31. Although very similar to what Beale argues, Webb inserts a disclaimer that that his emphasis is ‘on a functional identi¿cation and is more subtle than Paul’s forthright identi¿cation with the servant of Isaiah’ (p.145 n. 1). 147. Webb, Returning, p.130. 1

68

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

preceding chapter, is an invitation into the redemptive drama found in Isaiah 40–66’.148 Thus, Paul’s quotation in 6.2 is not seen as a selfauthenticating citation from Scripture, but as an affectionate appeal to the Corinthians to accept the grace of God.149 Hence it seems we have two possible options for the referent of UQW/UQK: either (1) Paul and his co-workers or (2) the Corinthians. In order to decide which referent is more likely, we need to suspend temporarily our attention on the background information of the scriptural quotation and ask how the quotation actually reads in this new context. Paul has been urging and pleading with the Corinthians to be reconciled with God (5.13-20), and is continuing his appeal to the Corinthians to accept the grace of God in 6.1. Then he takes his plea to a climax by quoting a scriptural passage to make his appeal complete. On a grammatical level, there is a second person plural WBOCL at the end of 6.1 for emphasis,150 which is immediately followed by NGIGK ICT explaining why WBOCL (the Corinthians) should accept the grace of God. It is because ‘I [God] have listened to you [Corinthians] and on a day of salvation I [God] have helped you [Corinthians]’ (6.2a), and also because now is the ‘acceptable time’, the ‘day of salvation’ (6.2b).151 Paul’s parenthesis after the quotation (6.2b) shows that the quotation is intended to be applied to the Corinthians.152 If scholars had no idea where the quotation is from, would they have read the citation as referring to Paul?

148. Gignilliat, Paul, p.60, emphasis added. 149. While Gignilliat acknowledges that the referent of the quotation is the Corinthians, he contends that this is peripheral at this point and that Paul’s concern lies in the eschatological now (Paul, p.59). It is true that Paul’s emphasis is on the now to receive the grace of God, but Paul’s intentional shift from the original referent of the Servant to the Corinthians seems signi¿cant as well. One suspects that this appears less important for Gignilliat because he is trying to argue that Paul sees himself among ‘the servant followers of the Servant who continue to suffer in the righteousness as heralds of the message’ (Paul, p.54, emphasis removed). Thus, Paul’s direct application of the scriptural passage to the Corinthians tends to be overlooked or ignored since Paul appears to be doing something more radical than identifying himself with the Servant by identifying the Gentile congregation with the Servant. 150. Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.453; Harris, Second Epistle, p.461. 151. Koch (Schrift, p.263) notes the continuation of ideas from 5.17 since both have the emphasis on the now of the eschatological salvation, make use of the word KXFQWand are dependent on Isaiah. 152. So also J. F. Collange, Énigmes de la deuxième épître de Paul aux Corinthiens: Étude exégétique de 2 Cor. 2.1–7.4 (SNTSMS; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), p.286. 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

69

To read the quotation as applying to Paul breaks the rhetorical power and appeal. The Corinthians are urged not to receive the grace of God in vain in 6.1. This statement presupposes that God has already given grace to them; for how can they receive the grace of God when it is not given to them? Thus it would be quite abrupt and awkward to go on to say that God has listened to Paul and helped him, making Paul the recipient of the grace. As an ambassador of Christ, Paul is simply representing Christ with the message of reconciliation. He is quoting the text as if God was saying it to the Corinthians. An ambassador represents and brings a message from the one who sent him/her. Thus the message entrusted to the ambassador is the message given to the recipient, and not to the person who brings it. Thus he is pleading with the Corinthians that they must be reconciled with God (5.20) and should not receive God’s grace in vain (6.1) because God has already shown his favour to the Corinthians (NGIGK ICT, 6.2). If Paul is indeed applying what God said to the Servant to the Corinthians, as we would argue he is,153 the idea of corporate identity seems to shed light here as to why he does so. We have seen that Paul’s dependence on the Scripture is not random or super¿cial in that the Isaianic themes of restoration, return and new creation have been the backdrop of what he said in the previous verses. If he is aware of what he is doing, what are the implications of quoting the passage? The idea of being in Christ (5.17) and of being reconciled with God (5.20), coupled with Jesus’ identi¿cation with humanity (5.21),154 suggest that Paul is working with a framework of thought that is very similar to the concept of corporate identity present in the Servant traditions. This ties in quite well with the collective use of the singular UQW/UQK. Just as the Servant represents and is closely tied to the servant Israel, so does Jesus Christ represent and identify himself with the Gentile Church. Furthermore, Paul continually identi¿es the Gentile congregation in Corinth with ancient Israel (cf. Rom. 4), as is evident in his direct application of Scripture to them and in his belief that the promises made to Israel are now ful¿lled and seen to include even the Gentiles. The 153. So also Hanson, Paradox, p.56; Gignilliat, Paul, p.60; J. Lambrecht, ‘The Favorable Time: A Study of 2 Corinthians 6,2a in Its Context’, in Studies on 2 Corinthians (ed. R. Bieringer and J. Lambrecht; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1994), pp.515–29 (527); E. Grässer, Der zweite Brief an die Korinther (2 vols.; ÖTK, 8; Gütersloh: Gütersloher; Würzburg: Echter, 2002–2005), I, p.238; Wolff, zweit Brief, p.138; Collange, Enigmes, p.286; M. Carrez, La deuxieme épître de Saint Paul aux Corinthiens (CNT; Geneva: Labor et Fides, 1986), p.158. 154. Also note his use of the ‘body’ imagery in 1 Cor. 12. 1

70

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Corinthian Church is in this sense ‘Israel’ whom God has chosen and called to be his people in this era of restoration and new creation. And as ‘Israel’, the Corinthians can also be called ‘the Servant’, just as Israel/ Jacob is called ‘the Servant’ in Deutero-Isaiah (Isa. 41.8; 43.10; 44.1-2, 21; 45.4; 48.20; 49.3).155 After examining Servant tradition in Isaiah 40–55, Gignilliat concludes, ‘Those who follow God in obedience suffer as did the Servant and as did Jesus. So also do the servants suffer in solidarity with the Servant, and Paul suffers in solidarity with Jesus.’156 Yet, ‘the servants’ do not suffer independently as they follow ‘the Servant’, but they suffer with him. It is more than solidarity of simply being together. It is essentially a matter of existence as one participates in the life of the other (cf. Gal. 2.20). Thus, Paul is able to say that he is always carrying in his body the death of Jesus so that the life of Jesus may be manifest in his body (4.10). The life of the Church is directly drawn from her Lord and her journey of faith is not mere following in the footsteps of Jesus as if she goes through everyday life only with the inspiration and example of the Lord who has gone before her and is waiting at the far end. Rather, her Lord is a living Lord who is present in her very being through his Spirit. In this respect, the Church that is ‘in Christ’ as the ‘body of Christ’ can also be called ‘the Servant’ whose calling has been ful¿lled by Jesus Christ, the head of the Church. Thus, the Church is both the bene¿ciary and extension of the Lord, just as the individual Servant embodies the corporate Israel. This is not Paul’s invention, but a faithful reading of the Servant tradition of Isaiah in which the idea of corporate identity is assumed. There are a few objections raised against taking the referent as the Corinthians. It has been pointed out that the purpose of the passage is ‘more defense of Paul than assurance for the Corinthians’.157 It is true 155. It should be said that there is no inconsistency of the application of the Servant tradition between Luke and Paul. Luke – and even Paul himself (see the list of parallel above between the Servant and Paul) – saw Paul as the ful¿lment of Isa. 49.6 (‘a light of nations’) in Acts 13.47 and of Isa. 42.7 in Acts 26.18a. And now Paul is applying the Servant tradition to his congregation. Rather than being an example of inconsistency, both appropriations of the tradition can be harmonised by the idea of ‘corporate identity’. 156. Gignilliat, Paul, p.142. 157. D. E. Garland, 2 Corinthians (NAC, 29; Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999), p.305 n.851. Cf. also F. W. Danker, II Corinthians (ACNT; Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1989), p.85. While arguing for Paul as the referent, Danker nevertheless notes that some Corinthians might have ‘read themselves into Paul’s statement about partnership and identi¿ed with the corporate ¿gure addressed in Isa. 49.8’. 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

71

that 2 Corinthians as a whole is concerned about Paul’s credentials as an apostle. However, elements of assurance are not completely absent. In 2 Cor. 1.3-7 we see Paul blending his own defence with assurance for the Corinthians. God is the one who consoles Paul in all his afÀiction so that he can console those in any afÀiction (v. 4). Whether Paul is afÀicted or consoled, it is for the consolation of the Corinthians (v. 6). Just as the sufferings and consolation of Christ are abundant in Paul (v. 5), Paul’s sincere hope is that the Corinthians may share in his consolation even as they share in his sufferings (v. 7). Thus we see both themes emerge together. Though it is true that Paul is having to defend himself and authenticate his message somehow, he is not taking a ‘detour’ at this point by applying the Scripture to himself ¿rst, thus authenticating himself,158 and then pleading with his congregation with that scriptural authority. While this is a legitimate option, it still remains that it would be unnatural and inappropriate to apply the passage to Paul right at this point, as we have seen above. It has been asserted that the quotation must refer to Paul since singular forms (UQW/UQK) are used in the quotation.159 However, Paul has been using ‘we’ and ‘us’, not ‘I’ and ‘me’, from 5.11 onwards, and he continues to use ‘we’ in the immediately preceding verse (6.1). Hence if one wants to argue that Paul is applying the quotation to himself on the basis of the use of singular pronouns, s/he would have to explain why Timothy (and possibly others) would have to be left out in applying the Scripture. If the response is to argue for a collective singular, it would only serve to show the plausibility of our reading. Stegman contends that our reading fails to take into account the use of the story of reconciliation in Isaiah by Paul.160 On a similar note, Lambrecht argues that Paul does not seem to take into account the themes present in the context of the Isaiah text on the basis that there are new readings of the text: (1) eschatological – the emphasis on the present moment; (2) Christological – the day of salvation and the favourable time refer to the Christ-event; (3) ecclesiological – the second person singular now refers to the Corinthians; (4) theological – God as the grammatical subject of the clause mercifully listens to the Corinthians in this time ‘acceptable’ to God.161 Yet it is dif¿cult to see how the story or the theme of Isaiah is missing in Paul’s statement. Given the Àuidity of 158. Beale, ‘Old Testament Background’, p.565. 159. So T. D. Stegman, The Character of Jesus: The Linchpin to Paul’s Argument in 2 Corinthians (AnBib 158; Rome: Ponti¿cio Istituto Biblico, 2005), pp.291–92. 160. Stegman, Character, p.192. 161. Lambrecht, Second Corinthians, pp.108–9.

1

72

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

identity of the Servant, the idea of corporate identity and the phrase ‘in Christ’, which is one of Paul’s favourite expressions, there is no reason to think the Isaianic story is thrown out of the window. The referents are changed – as it should be in a new context – but the thematic and structural patterns are not. We would contend this reading of Paul is more satisfying and coherent than a purely synchronic reading of the Servant tradition. Those who discerned the original context of the Isaianic passage would have been rather surprised to see that what God has spoken to the Servant is directly addressed to them in Paul’s quotation. The words are not only comforting and encouraging, but also challenging in that the Corinthians are called to receive the grace of God now. Just as the time of God’s favour and salvation is coincident with God’s answer and help in Isaiah 49,162 it is also the case for the Corinthians. The divine favour is a present reality since the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and they should say ‘amen’ to the ‘yes’ of God’s promises in Christ which brings glory to God (1.20). Furthermore, they would have noticed that the mandate to take up and continue the role of the Servant is implied in the way Paul quotes the passage. As the Servant they are to proclaim the message of hope to other people as a light to the nations (Isa. 49.6). Those who were not familiar with the passage would still pick up the comforting and reassuring promise of God since Paul is quoting the text as if directed to them. Paul’s plea to be reconciled with God and to receive God’s grace now would have assured more positive responses thanks to the Scripture that appears to undergird Paul’s passionate appeal. The rhetorical force of the quotation would have made Paul’s appeal more attractive. It would be very unlikely, however, for them to imagine from this quotation that they are implicitly called to extend this grace themselves as the Servant. In this quotation, the Servant of Isaiah is identi¿ed with the believers in Corinth. This may be a surprising move from Paul, but it is a logical implication of maintaining that the Church is the body of Christ and that the believers are GXP &TKUVY^ (5.17, 21). 6.9 As one living out the life of the Servant of YHWH who suffered, Paul also goes on to mention, once again, his reasons for ‘commendation’ (6.4-10). The list of numerous hardships and persecutions is for Paul the sure sign and proof of authenticity and how the death, and hence also the life, of Jesus are made visible in his body (4.10-11). 1

162.

Cf. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, p.215.

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

73

Table 2.8 2 Cor. 6.9  YBL CXIPQQWOGPQK MCK GXRKIKPYUMQOGPQK  YBL CXRQSPJ^UMQPVGL  MCK KXFQW \YOGP   YBL RCKFGWQOGPQK   MCK OJ SCPCVQWOGPQK

as unknown, and yet are well known; as dying, and see – we are alive; as punished, and yet not killed

LXX

Ps. 117.17-18163

17QWXM CXRQSCPQWOCK CXNNC \JUQOCK MCK GXMFKJIJUQOCK VC GTIC MWTKQW. 18RCKFGWYP GXRCKFGWUGP OG QB MWTKQL  MCK VY^ SCPCVY^ QWX RCTGFYMGP OG.  17I shall not die, but I shall live and recount the deeds of the Lord. 18In disciplining the Lord disciplined me, and to death he did not surrender me.

MT

Ps. 118.17-18

K\[D\.LW:PD DO^17 +\\IH>@PU3HVD@Z + \YL$K, v. 25), ‘Blessed is the one who comes in the name of the LORD’ (v. 26). This reminds us of the joyful cry of the multitude to Jesus in the gospel narratives (Mt. 21.9; Mk 11.9-10; Lk. 19.38; Jn 12.13). When telling the parable of the wicked tenants to the people, Jesus is depicted as referring to LXX Ps. 117.22. He identi¿es himself with the ‘cornerstone’ and warns the Jewish leaders about their destruction by the stone (Mt. 21.42-44; Lk. 20.17-18; cf. Mk 12.10-11 which omits the warning). In Acts 4.11, Peter, in his address to the Jewish authorities, explicitly identi¿es the stone with Jesus, which is also echoed in a letter which bears Peter’s name (1 Pet. 2.7). Hence, all other NT references to LXX Ps. 117.22 clearly identify Jesus with the cornerstone which plays a very important role in the salvation envisaged in LXX Psalm 117. While it is not clear whether Paul is using this psalm as other NT writers are, he would probably have been aware of such interpretation. It is not clear whether Paul intended his hearer/readers to pick up on this, but it seems very probable that he has made a conscious allusion to LXX Psalm 117. There is a possibility that Paul unconsciously makes use of biblical language without necessarily intending to allude to a passage, but the thematic parallels in addition to the verbal correspondences suggest that Paul is probably alluding to the psalm. By drawing upon the passage, Paul is expressing, like the psalmist, his trust and thanks to God, who helps and delivers even when the apparent hardships and persecutions give the opposite impressions. Paul is also giving thanks to God, just like the psalmist, for the victory of life given through the afÀiction of the opponents.

165. Cf. A. A. Anderson, The Book of Psalms (NCB; 2 vols.; London: Oliphants, 1972), II, p.797; Dahood, Psalms III. 101–150, p.155; Klaus, Psalms 60– 150, p.394. 166. Klaus, Psalms 60–150, p.401.

1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

75

Those who were familiar with the psalm would have noticed how Paul’s recounting of unpleasant events echoes the suffering, hope and joy of the psalmist. Paul is seen to be full of life and hope in the midst of such terrible ordeals, just as the psalmist was. For those who were less informed, the enriching voices of Scripture would not have penetrated into their minds. Yet the basic thrust of Paul’s argument would be clear to them since Paul’s point is clearly expressed in his own terms. Paul observes a structural parallel between his life and that of the psalmist. The fact that the cornerstone mentioned in the psalm is identi¿ed with Jesus in other NT writings does not lead us to see this Psalm as identifying the psalmist with Jesus, and thus Paul with Jesus as it is the case in 2 Cor. 4.13. This is because the psalmist distinguishes himself from the cornerstone. Hence we see only the identi¿cation between Paul and the psalmist here. 6.11, 13 Paul has been honest with the Corinthians even to the point of acknowledging dif¿cult times, which the Corinthians might have regarded as a sign of questionable status. Yet he turned the accusation on its head and showed that the weakness is the sign of authenticity as exempli¿ed by Jesus who suffered, died and rose again to life. Paul goes on to mention that his heart is wide open to the Corinthians. NA27 notes LXX Ps. 118.32 as an allusion in 2 Cor. 6.11. There is no explicit indication that Paul is alluding to this passage, but the verbal correspondences are worthy of note. The verb RNCVWPY occurs only three times in the NT (2 Cor. 6.11, 13; Mt. 23.5), while the close combination RNCVWPY and MCTFKC occurs only three times in the LXX (Deut. 11.16; Pss. 24.17; 118.32). However, it is not clear how the text from the Psalms relates to what Paul is saying in 6.11. The psalmist confessed that he followed the commandment whenever167 God has broadened his heart. This opening of heart is thus related to ‘understanding’ in LXX Ps. 118.32, while it refers to ‘affectionate welcome’ in 2 Cor. 6.11-13 (cf. 7.3, ‘you are in our hearts’).168 Thus it is dif¿cult to see how that relates to Paul’s statement.

167. In Hebrew \.L has a causal sense, thought it also has the meaning, ‘when’ (BDB s.v. 2). 168. Cf. Furnish, II Corinthians, p.360. 1

76

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture Table 2.9 2 Cor. 6.11

LXX

Ps. 118.32169

 6Q UVQOC JBOYP CXPGY^IGP RTQL WBOCL -QTKPSKQK JB MCTFKC JBOYP RGRNCVWPVCK

 QBFQP GXPVQNYP UQW GFTCOQP Q=VCP GXRNCVWPCL VJP MCTFKCP OQW. 

We have spoken frankly to you Corinthians; our heart is wide open to you.

I ran the way of your commandments, when you made my heart spacious

MT

Ps. 119.32

:UD A\WZ2FPLU' \%LOLE\[LU!W\.L  I run the way of your commandments, for you enlarge my understanding.

* Verbal correspondences underlined

Similarly, although Deut. 11.16 has some close verbal connections sharing the main words (RNCVWPSJ^ JB MCTFKC UQW), it is dif¿cult to see how Deut. 11.16 relates to Paul’s ‘welcoming heart’ of 2 Cor. 6.11 when it is a warning against going astray by ‘opening one’s heart’ to the idols.170 This also applies to LXX Ps. 24.17, which has similar verbal matches (CKB SNK[GKL VJL MCTFKCL OQW GXRNCVWPSJUCP) but talks about ‘relief’ from suffering, rather than a welcome and open heart. This being the case, Isa. 60.4-5 and Zech. 10.7-9 appear to be more plausible options.171 Among the passages of the OT where VGMPQP and MCTFKC occur in proximity,172 Isa. 60.4-5 and Zech. 10.7-9 are the only places where the theme of returning and rejoicing come together in a context of eschatological restoration and renewal. It is true that they do not share more verbal matches than the passages mentioned above (they all have two verbal links), but the thematic coherence suggests to us that it is more likely that Paul had these verses in mind. Yet, rather than intending to allude to one or more speci¿c passages, it appears Paul is working at a thematic level here while utilising some of the biblical expressions from elsewhere. We have seen above how Isaianic themes are likely to lie at the backdrop of Paul’s statements, with allusions to a new creation, reconciliation and the Servant of the Lord (cf. 5.4, 14-21; 6.2). It appears 169. The LXX follows the MT closely, other than the replacement of \.L with Q=VCP. 170. Contra M. E. Thrall, ‘The Problem of II Cor. vi.14–vii.1 in Some Recent Discussion’, NTS 24 (1977–78), pp.132–48 (146). 171. Webb (Returning, p.152) and Beale (‘Old Testament Background’, pp.576– 7) point out Isa. 60.4-5 as a possible allusion. To this, we add Zech. 10.7-9. 172. Exod. 10.1-2; Deut. 11.18-19; 29.28–30.1; Josh. 14.8-9; Judg. 19.20-21; 1 Kgdms 1.8; 6.6-7; 26.25–27.1; 3 Kgdms 15.34; Jer. 39.39. 1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

77

that Paul’s list of afÀictions (6.4-10) and his welcoming heart (6.11-13) are not suddenly severed from the major themes he has been alluding to just previously. Isaiah 60 proclaims salvation that is to come and contains virtually no judgment (except in 60.12).173 Nations and kings will come to the light that is shining in Israel when the glory of the Lord arises upon her (vv. 12). More importantly, sons and daughters of Israel will come back from afar (v. 4) and at the sight of seeing them, ‘your heart will be enlarged’ (v. 5). Moreover, there is an assurance that there will be prosperity, abundance (vv. 7, 13, 17), pre-eminence over the nations (vv. 10, 15, 16, 22) and security (v. 18).174 The Lord will be their everlasting light (v. 19) and the people will be righteous glorifying him (v. 20). Table 2.10 2 Cor. 6.11, 13 11We

have spoken frankly to you Corinthians; our heart (MCTFKC) is wide open to you… 13In return – I speak as to children (VGMPQKL) – open wide your hearts also.

LXX Isa. 60.4-5  4Lift up your eyes round about, and see your children (VGMPC) gathered together; look, all your sons have come from far away, and your daughters shall be carried on shoulders. 5Then you shall see and be afraid and be amazed175 in your heart (MCTFKC)…

LXX

Zech. 10.7-9

7And

they shall be like the warriors of Ephraim, and their heart (MCTFKC) shall rejoice as with wine. And their children (VGMPC) shall see it and be glad; their heart (MCTFKC) shall rejoice in the Lord… 9And I will sow them among peoples, and those far away shall remember me; they shall rear their children (VGMPC) and return.

173. Cf. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, pp.352–53; J. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66 (AB, 19B; New York: Doubleday, 2003), p.207. 174. Cf. Brueggemann, Isaiah 40–66, p.203. 175. A rare word GXZKUVJOKis used in the LXX to translate the Hebrew E[U. Yet RNCVWPY is used much more frequently (×18) to translate E[U (e.g. Gen. 26.22; Exod. 34.24; Deut. 12.20; 19.8; 33.20; 1 Sam. 2.1; 2 Sam. 22.37; Pss. 4.2; 19.36 [LXX 17.37]; 25.17 [LXX 24.17]; 35.21 [LXX 34.21]; 81.11 [LXX 80.11]; 119.32 [LXX 118.32]; Prov. 19.16; Isa. 5.14; 54.2; Amos 1.13; Mic. 1.16; Hab. 2.5) in contrast to GXZKUVJOK, which is used only in Isa. 60.5. It is not clear why the LXX translators use GXZKUVJOK here instead of RNCVWPY for the HebrewE[U. 1

78

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Zechariah 10 also envisages the future restoration of all Israel.176 It starts with a command to ask the Lord for rain (v. 1) not through diviners who gave false hope (v. 2). The wrath of God is hence directed to the ‘shepherds’ who were misguiding the Àock by consulting those false diviners (v. 3).177 God is going to strengthen Judah like warriors and save the house of Joseph (vv. 4-6ab). He will settle them as if he had not turned them away and listen to them because he is their God (v. 6cde). As a result, they will rejoice and their children will be glad (v. 7). God promises to redeem them and make them as numerous as before (v. 8). Even those far away will remember the Lord and return with their children (v. 9). Thus, in alluding to this picture of returning children, Paul is anticipating an open and joyful attitude prophesied to be expressed by those who are now seeing and tasting the eschatological work of God.178 He tells the Corinthians that his heart is wide open (6.11) and asks them to do the same (6.13). In this way, Paul is hoping, it seems, to see the people of God coming together with open hearts and rejoicing together. It appears unlikely that the Corinthians would have picked up the allusion here since there are a number of passages sharing a few verbal matches without thematic parallel. But the basic thrust of Paul’s statement is obvious. He lets the Corinthians know that, despite what had happened between himself and them, his heart is wide open and ready to accept them as a parent would be ready to accept his/her children. It seems that there are identi¿cations between Paul and Israel, and between the Corinthians and the children of Israel. Just as Israel awaits the return of their children with expectation, so is Paul waiting for the Corinthians to return to him, which is patterned after the theme of eschatological return. Conclusion We have seen how Paul brings in the larger context of the OT by tracing his use of key words of Scripture. In particular, the books of Isaiah and Psalms appear to have had great inÀuence on Paul’s framework of thinking. The themes of renewal, return, new creation and new covenant seem to form the backbone of Paul’s argument in 2 Cor. 4.7–6.13. 176. Cf. H. G. Mitchell, J. M. P. Smith, and J. A. Bewer, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi and Jonah (ICC; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1912), p.286; C. L. Meyers and E. M. Meyers, Zechariah 9–14 (AB, 25C; New York: Doubleday, 1993), p.231. 177. Cf. E. W. Conrad, Zechariah (Shef¿eld: Shef¿eld Academic, 1999), p.166. 178. Cf. Beale, ‘Old Testament Backgrounds’, p.577.

1

2. 2 Corinthians 4.7–6.13

79

Though he sometimes transfers the original referent of a text cited or alluded (e.g. 6.2) or makes use of biblical imagery without necessarily bringing in the original context from which the imagery comes from (e.g. 4.7), it may well be that Paul was so entrenched in Scripture that he could not, so it appears, talk about anything without bringing in scriptural language one way or the other (e.g. 6.11).179 Yet, this does not undermine our observation that Paul has a larger narrative of Scripture in mind even when he does not indicate explicitly that he is doing so. Certain background knowledge of Paul’s citations and allusions may prove illuminating as the scriptural references echo various important themes of Scripture whose voice of ful¿lment is ringing in Paul’s statements. Yet, Paul has written his letter in such a way that even those not familiar with Scripture can understand the basic thrust of his argument, although they would miss enriching allusions to the Scriptures from which Paul is seeking to understand what is happening now. What is noteworthy is the fact that Paul appears to see himself and his Gentile believers in the light of the Scriptures (cf. 1 Cor. 10.6-11; Rom. 15.4). By consciously applying the whole theme of future salvation in Isaiah and elsewhere, Paul is identifying the Corinthians with the Israelites of the OT since the eschatological promises made to Israel long ago are now ful¿lled and are seen to embrace even the Gentile Christian community of ¿rst-century Greece. In addition, Paul seems to identify himself with the author of or persons mentioned in the scriptural texts he cites (e.g. 4.11, 13). In one instance there is an implicit identi¿cation between Christ and God by the virtue of the fact that Christ does what God has promised he would do (5.17). Moreover, this habit of identi¿cation goes even as far as to suggest, in Paul’s direct application of the Servant tradition to the Corinthians, that the Gentile church can also be viewed as the Servant. Such ‘corporate identity’ is also evident in the light of the fact that they are in Christ (5.17, 21). The Church participates in and enjoys what Christ has accomplished and, at the same time, is called to do the work of the Servant for the nations. Yet the work is not something that is done apart from Christ. Rather, Christ is continuing his salvi¿c work through his body, the Church.180 179. Cf. Young and Ford (Meaning, p.63), who comment that Paul ‘lived in the Bible’ which has shaped his whole outlook. 180. Rowley (Servant, p.55) makes a similar point: ‘He [Jesus Christ] gathers His church unto Himself that it may be His body, that He may so ¿ll it with His own spirit that it may become the extension of His personality and the organ of the continuation of His mission to the world’. 1

Chapter 3

2 CORINTHIANS 6.14–7.16

2 Corinthians 6.14 clearly marks the start of a new section.1 The imperative in v. 14a sets the scene like a thesis statement. It is then followed by a series of rhetorical questions (vv. 14b-16a), all of which require a negative answer, and the questions reveal various ways of seeing what it means to be ‘yoked with unbelievers’. The catena of quotations (vv. 16c-18) is incorporated to support the main point with scriptural authority and promise. 2 Corinthians 7.2 (&YTJUCVG JBOCL) appears to pick up 6.13 (RNCVWPSJVG MCK WBOGKL) and resumes the defensive plea in 6.3-13. Paul contends that he has wronged or exploited no one (7.2) and that the Corinthians are in his heart (v. 3; cf. JB MCTFKC JBOYP RGRNCVWPVCK, 6.11). He goes on to say that he is overjoyed in all his afÀiction (7.4d), which seems to summarise nicely the contrasting list of hardships and blessings in 6.4-10. With the mention of afÀiction comes another memory of what Paul and his co-workers went through in Macedonia (7.5) and the consolation they received from Titus with the news of the Corinthians’ repentance and the following results (vv. 7-12). Paul is encouraging the Corinthians by af¿rming that he takes comfort and joy from their repentance and that his boasting of them to Titus proved true (vv. 13-14). He praises them for how they treated Titus with respect and obedience (v. 15) and ¿nishes the section by repeating that he rejoices because he has complete con¿dence in them (v. 16; cf. v. 4, ‘I boast about you; I have great pride in you’). It appears, then, Paul is attempting to achieve his purpose of reconciliation by reassuring and encouraging the Corinthians in this section which looks back and continues from previous sections in which he sought reconciliation between God and his people at Corinth (5.14–7.1). 1. Cf. Plummer, Second Epistle, p.204; Martin, 2 Corinthians, p.191; Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.472; Furnish, II Corinthians, p.378; Barnett, Second Epistle, p.337; Harris, Second Epistle, p.497.

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

81

The abruptness between 6.13 and 6.14 and between 7.1 and 7.2 is so great that many scholars have come to the conclusion that 2 Cor. 6.14– 7.1 must be an interpolation or a digression. Thus the section has been the subject of numerous proposals as to its authenticity and/or original location.2 While some earlier studies have proposed an inÀuential argument that the fragment is a non-Pauline interpolation betraying Essene theology that has been Christianized,3 most recent studies, as Harris observes, defend both the authenticity and original location of the passage.4 William Webb has helpfully categorized various proposals into three groups: (1) interpolation; (2) non-contextual integration; (3) contextual integration.5 First of all, those who hold that the passage is interpolated do so by arguing either that a later redactor inserted a Pauline fragment6 or that the passage has a non-Pauline origin.7 However, the proponents of an interpolation theory have a great dif¿culty in explaining why the fragment is placed where it is now if it is indeed interpolated. As Furnish 2. Cf. the summary of arguments for and against in Harris, Second Epistle, pp.14–25. Webb notes that many scholars do not ¿nd the evidence conclusive either for or against Pauline authorship. Webb, Returning, p.31 n.1. Cf. also Martin, 2 Corinthians, p.193. 3. J. A. Fitzmyer, Essays on the Semitic Background of the New Testament (SBLSBS, 5; London: Chapman, 1971), pp.205–17; J. Gnilka, ‘2 Cor 6.14–7.1 in the Light of the Qumran Texts and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs’, in Paul and Qumran: Studies in New Testament Exegesis (ed. J. Murphy-O’Connor; Chicago: Priory; London: Chapman, 1968), pp.48–68; N. A. Dahl, ‘A Fragment and Its Context: 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.1’, in Studies in Paul: Theology for the Early Christian Mission (ed. N. A. Dahl; Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1977), pp.62–9. 4. G. D. Fee, ‘II Corinthians VI.14-VII.1 and Food Offered to Idols’, NTS 23 (1977), pp.140–61; Thrall, ‘Problem’; J. Lambrecht, ‘The Fragment 2 Corinthians 6,14–7,1: A Plea for Its Authenticity’, in Bieringer and Lambrecht (eds.), Studies on 2 Corinthians, pp.531–49; Derrett, ‘2 Cor 6,14ff’; Beale, ‘Old Testament Background’; Webb, Returning; D. A. DeSilva, ‘Measuring Penultimate against Ultimate Reality: An Investigation of the Integrity and Argumentation of 2 Corinthians’, JSNT 52 (1993), pp.41–70; Scott, ‘Use’; Harris, Second Epistle, pp.21–5. 5. Webb, Returning, p.159. 6. Usually they would argue that 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 is part of the ‘previous letter’ mentioned in 1 Cor. 5.9. For a list of scholars who held the position, see J. Moffatt, An Introduction to the Literature of the New Testament (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 3rd edn, 1918), p.125. 7. This is argued on the basis of some af¿nities with Qumran literature (see n.3 above). Betz put forward a novel contention that the passage is an anti-Pauline fragment from Jewish Christians. See H. D. Betz, ‘2 Cor. 6.14–7.1: An Anti-Pauline Fragment?’, JBL 92 (1973), pp.88–108. Koch (Schrift, p.45) excludes 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.1 from his investigation on the assumption that the section is non-Pauline. 1

82

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

points out,8 the proponents of this position simply say it is ‘not clear’,9 ‘impossible to say’,10 ‘remains unsolved’,11 or inserted ‘for reasons unknown’.12 There will have to be adequate answers to this problem if the interpolation theory is to gain wider support.13 Second, those who argue for non-contextual integration of the passage look for external factors, other than the context, to explain its presence in 2 Corinthians. Some would argue that there was a dictation pause,14 a sudden digression,15 or additional news prompting an ad hoc response.16 However, as Webb rightly notes, this is a ‘last resort’ if and when the contextual integration theories fail to explain the passage in its place.17 Third, arguments for the authenticity and original location of the fragment appear to be more widely accepted in recent scholarship. While scholars have taken various approaches to explore and defend this position,18 there is no one decisive criterion and one has to take into account ‘the cumulative effect of converging lines of evidence’.19 It seems, however, that scholars have given relatively less attention to examining

8. Furnish, II Corinthians, p.380. 9. Gnilka, ‘2 Cor. 6.14–7.1’, p.67. 10. Georgi, Opponents, p.12. 11. J. A. Fitzmyer, ‘Qumran and the Interpolated Paragraph in 2 Cor 6,14 – 7.1’, CBQ 23 (1961), p.217. 12. Betz, ‘Anti-Pauline’, p.108. 13. Richards points out that there could have been authorised non-Pauline interpolations given the presence of the co-authors and the way letters were written in those days; see E. R. Richards, Paul and First-Century Letter Writing: Secretaries, Composition and Collection (Downers Grove: IVP, 2004), pp.118–19. This is not the same as arguing that a later redactor inserted the fragment here, which appears unlikely. 14. D. Guthrie, New Testament Introduction (Leicester: Apollos, 4th edn, 1990), p.457. 15. R. P. Martin, New Testament Foundations (2 vols.; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2nd edn, 1986), vol. 2, p.183; Barrett, Second Epistle, p.194. 16. Fee, ‘Food’, pp.143–4. 17. Webb, Returning, pp.164, 166, 174. 18. See Webb, Returning, pp.166–73, for a summary of those proposals. The four main theories Webb observes are that: (1) Paul placed the passage strategically to achieve a rhetorical effect; (2) the paragraph brings out the speci¿cs of the general exhortation in 6.1; (3) the expression ‘enlarged heart’ (6.11) reminds Paul of LXX warnings against idolatry; (4) the section goes on to explain the reason for the Corinthians’ restricted affections. Cf. also Belleville, ReÀections, pp.94–103. 19. W. Munro, Authority in Paul and Peter (SNTSMS 45; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp.24–5. 1

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

83

the catena of OT texts in 2 Cor. 6.16-18.20 Hence our treatment of the quotations may shed some light in determining the authenticity and/or original location of the section. If the themes running behind the passage correspond with the themes embedded in its neighbouring sections, it may provide additional support for the original location and authenticity of the passage.21 This is one major area that will be addressed as we examine the presence of the OT in 2 Cor. 6.14–7.16. Let us now turn to the relevant passages. 6.14 The verb used in Paul’s prohibition is GBVGTQ\WIQWPVGL, which means ‘to be mismatched’ or ‘to be wrongly matched’.22 It is found only in 2 Cor. 6.14 and nowhere else in the NT and the LXX. Yet its cognate (GBVGTQ\WIY^) is found once in the LXX (Lev. 19.19; >EU),23 where it is used to refer to bringing different kinds of animals to breed. Leviticus 19 starts with a call to holiness (v. 2), followed by sections on religious (vv. 3-10), ethical (vv. 11-18) and miscellaneous duties (vv. 19-29).24 Thus the rest of the chapter can be viewed as elaborating on the commandment to be holy at v. 2. Verse 19 appears somewhat abrupt as it apparently deals with issues that do not seem related to the immediate verses surrounding it. The preceding verse (v. 18) talks about loving one’s brothers and neighbours, while the following one (v. 20) goes on to address sexual relations between a man and a slave girl. Yet it appears that they all deal with how holiness is to be maintained and manifested in a variety of circumstances.

20. As far as we are aware, only Beale (‘Old Testament Background’), Webb (Returning) and Scott (‘Use’) have given serious attention to this. 21. Establishing the authenticity of the location of the section has obvious merits, for example, of seeing the role of Scripture in the ‘Àow’ of Paul’s cumulative argument and of being able to af¿rm the presence of an allusion on the basis of the same allusion used earlier in the letter. It seems, however, that our examination of Paul’s use of Scripture in ‘snap shots’ would yield more or less the same conclusion. 22. LN § 34.9. 23. >EU means ‘to lie down’ and occurs in Lev. 19.23, 19; 20.16; Ps. 139.3. The root >EU occurs 31 times throughout the LXX with different forms and meanings. It is to be noted that about half of the uses are related with Tabernacle/Temple (Exod. 27.1; 29.16, 40; 30.2; 37.25; 39.1, 9; 1 Kgs 7.31; Ezek. 40.47; 41.21; 43.16, 17), or holy area (Ezek. 45.2), or cherubim (Ezek. 1.8, 17; 10.11). 24. J. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22 (AB 3A; New York: Doubleday, 2000), pp.1594–5. 1

84

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Verse 19 prohibits ‘mixing’ or ‘mismatching’, whether it is of animal or of vineyard or of garment. One is not to breed an animal with another kind of animal, nor sow different things together within a vineyard, nor wear clothing that is made with two materials. The parallel verse that is often noted is Deut. 22.10, in which the similar injunction is made that one should not plough with a calf and a donkey together. This is also accompanied by the commandment not to sow a vineyard with different kinds of seed (v. 9) or to wear something that has wool and linen combined (v. 11). Why the mixing of two different kinds of things, or animals in this case, would breach holiness is not immediately clear, but the most favoured interpretation is that ‘it is a violation of the order God brought into the world by separating the species (Gen. 1) and, hence, a symbol of disorder, the reversal of creation’.25 While this seems a plausible option, especially since Paul has already mentioned ‘new creation’ (5. 17) and is now talking about holiness (6.14–7.1), one has to deal with the fact that such mixture, which is seen to be ‘unholy’, characterises the materials and artifacts used for the purpose of making and decorating the tabernacle/temple. For example, the curtains that are used to make the tabernacle are produced by weaving linen and wool together (Exod. 26.1, 31). The ephod, breastplate, and belt of the high priest are also made with mixture of materials (Exod. 28.6, 15; 39.29). Furthermore, the cherubim Ezekiel saw in a vision were also mixtures; they had four different faces (human, lion, ox, eagle), human hands, wings, and feet like that of a calf (Ezek. 1.5-11; cf. 10.9-14).26 All these appear to suggest that the command not to make use of mixture is not because it brings about disorder to the creation, but because it belongs to ‘the sacred sphere’ – thus the use of mixed materials in the curtains, the high priest’s out¿t and the cherubim in the tabernacle/temple, but not in the ordinary sphere. Hence it appears that mixtures ‘characterize the holiness of the sacred sphere and those authorized to enter or serve in it’.27 This being the case, Gersternberger states: ‘In substance, the demand for holiness in Leviticus 19 is closely related to such conditions for temple admittance’.28 In other words, all the duties and injunctions are there to safeguard the purity of the people so that they would have constant access to God, whose presence is said to be in the tabernacle/temple. 25. Milgrom, Leviticus, p.1659. 26. A similar description is made concerning the four creatures in Rev. 4.6-8. 27. Milgrom, Leviticus, p.1661. 28. E. S. Gersternberger, Leviticus: A Commentary (OTL; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1996), p.283.

1

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

85

This would tie in nicely with what Paul is driving toward in this section. He lays out several antitheses and follows them up with a catena of OT texts that are essentially concerned about, among other things, God’s presence and the holiness of the people. Because God will walk and dwell among his people (6.16c), they are to keep themselves pure and holy by staying away from anything that de¿les (6.17). This will guarantee the ongoing relationship between the two parties (6.18). The occurrence of the rare word GBVGTQ\WIQWPVGL and the thematic coherence we have observed above suggest that it is quite probable that Paul had Lev. 19.19 (and possibly Deut. 22.9-11) in mind as he begins to address the problem of holiness in the Corinthian church, which appears to have been one of the major reasons for Paul’s plea for reconciliation as Christ’s ambassador. Their unholy state distances them from God just as the impurities of the Israelites prevented the access to God’s presence. Thus Paul is urging the Corinthians, ‘Be reconciled to God’ (5.20). This observation has further implications for one’s understanding who the CXRKUVQK are. There appear to be at least ¿ve proposals as to its referent:29 (1) untrustworthy people;30 (2) Gentile Christians who do not obey the Torah;31 (3) immoral people in the church;32 (4) the false apostles;33 (5) non-believers outside the church.34 Among these, the fourth and ¿fth merit additional mention as they are the most likely candidates and have the majority of supporters.35 First of all, those who argue that the unbelievers refer to the false apostles do so with a number of good reasons. Two arguments are worthy of note. It resolves the tension between 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 and some of the instructions in 1 Corinthians where Paul clari¿es his previous command ‘not to associate with sexually immoral persons’ (5.9). Paul explains that he did not mean every immoral person by that remark since they would then have to go out of the world (5.10). Later on he would also tell them not to leave their unbelieving spouses in the hope that they may be saved through them (7.14, 16). Thus the tension in Paul’s command to be separate from the unbelievers in 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 is easily resolved if Paul meant to refer to his opponents who were causing much trouble in the 29. Observed by Webb, Returning, p.184. 30. E.g. Derrett, ‘2 Cor 6,14ff’. 31. E.g. Betz, ‘Anti-Pauline’. 32. E.g. M. Newton, The Concept of Purity at Qumran and in the Letters of Paul (SNTSMS 53; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p.113. 33. E.g. D. Rensberger, ‘2 Corinthians 6.14–7.1—A Fresh Examination’, SBT 8 (1978), pp.25–49. 34. E.g. Hughes, Second Epistle, pp.241–60. 35. For an evaluation of the ¿rst three proposals, see Webb, Returning, pp.184–8.

1

86

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Corinthian church.36 Moreover, taking the false apostles as the referent of the CXRKUVQK is further supported by the observance that there is af¿nity of language between 6.14–7.1 and 11.2-4, 13-15, where Paul describes the false apostles.37 For example, the corresponding expressions for Satan (UCVCPCL, 11.14), righteousness (FKMCKQUWPJL, 11.15) and light (HYVQL, 11.14) can be readily seen in 6.14–7.1, which has Beliar (%GNKCT, 6.15), righteousness and light (FKMCKQUWPJL, HYVK, 6.14). However, a few observations appear to weaken the claims considerably. On the alleged tension between Paul’s earlier (1 Cor. 5) and later (2 Cor. 6) injunctions, it has to be noted that these texts talk about different issues. The purpose of separation in the world in 1 Cor. 5.10 is different from that of 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 in that the purpose of the former is for judging the outsider’s immorality while the latter is for safeguarding the purity of people and covenant relationship.38 Thus there is no contradiction between these two passages since the purpose of separation is different in each context. Only when the passages have the same purpose can they be considered to contradict. Although there is a certain af¿nity between 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 and 2 Cor. 11.2-4, 13-15, there are also strong resonances between 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 and 1 Corinthians 10.39 The expression ‘partnership’ (OGVQEJ, 2 Cor. 6.14b) ¿nds its cognates in 1 Cor. 10.17 (OGVGEQOGP) and 1 Cor. 10.21 (OGVGEGKP) while MQKPYPKC (2 Cor. 6.14c) and its cognate are also seen in 1 Cor. 10.16 (MQKPYPKC) and 1 Cor. 10.20 (MQKPYPQWL). Furthermore, as we shall see below, the catena makes use of the language of the ¿rst exodus (LXX Isa. 52.11 and LXX Ezek. 20.34 in 6.17) and it turns out Paul is referring to the events associated with the ¿rst exodus (Exod. 32.1-6) in 1 Cor. 10.1-13. Thus the similarity between 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 and 2 Cor. 11.2-4, 13-15 is not as striking as it ¿rst appeared to be since 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 has equal, if not more, af¿nities with 1 Corinthians 10. Moreover, the false-apostle view has to take GKXFYNYP (6.16a) in a metaphorical way since the contrast between the temple of God and the idol would naturally assume that ‘idols’ are the opponents. But since the opponents cannot literally be ‘idols’, GKXFYNYP has to be understood in a ¿gurative way. Yet it is not clear how Paul’s opponents can be associated with idols. Besides, this goes against Paul’s normal use of the term GKFYNQP elsewhere in his letters where every occurrence of the word clearly refers to literal idols (Rom. 2.22; 1 Cor. 8.4, 7; 10.19; 12.2;

1

36. 37. 38. 39.

Cf. Rensberger, ‘2 Corinthians 6.14–7.1’, p.44. Dahl, ‘A Fragment’, p.69. Webb, Returning, p.190. Fee, ‘Food’, p.145.

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

87

1 Thess. 1.9). Although this does not necessarily rule out the possibility of using GKFYNQP in a metaphorical way, the contrast between the living God and idols, the lack of any parentheses indicating ¿gurative use of the term (as in Col. 3.5, ‘…and greed [which is idolatry]’; RNGQPGZKCP J=VKL GXUVKP GKXFYNQNCVTKC),40 and the strong af¿nity to 1 Corinthians 10 where literal idols are in view, favour taking GKXFYNYP as referring to literal idols. This being the case, taking the CXRKUVQK to mean ‘unbelievers’ appears to be a more plausible option. The term CXRKUVQK is already used in 4.4 where Paul probably means non-believers whose minds are blinded by ‘the god of this world’. Besides, in all of its other occurrences in 1 Corinthians,41 CXRKUVQK has clear reference to ‘non-believers’. Furthermore, there are a number of indicators as to what kind of ‘separation’ or ‘mismatching’ Paul has in mind when mentioning the CXRKUVQK. As already noted, there is a strong af¿nity with 1 Corinthians 10 where Paul urges his congregation to ‘Àee from the worship of idols’ (v. 14) and to abstain from participating in the table of demons (v. 21). This ¿nds its counterpart in the contrast between the temple of God and the idols (2 Cor. 6.16a), the command ‘to touch nothing unclean’ (2 Cor. 6.17c) and the general exhortation to cleanse oneself ‘from every de¿lement of body and spirit, making holiness perfect in the fear of God’ (2 Cor 7.1). Though Paul is not as speci¿c as one would have liked to see, the command not to be mismatched with the CXRKUVQK, followed by a number of terms associated with idolatry, which resonates with 1 Corinthians 10, suggest that Paul is probably referring to the kind of association with the nonbelievers that would de¿le them in any way, and not to a complete separation from them, which is virtually impossible (1 Cor. 5.10). Thus the alleged tension between Paul’s earlier (1 Cor. 5) and later (2 Cor. 6) injunctions is resolved in a more satisfactory way and there is no need to postulate the false apostle referent for CXRKUVQK. We have already hinted at how one should understand Paul’s command to the Corinthians ‘not to be mismatched with unbelievers’. It has been traditionally understood that Paul is here commanding the Corinthians not to be bound in marriage with unbelievers,42 which seems supported by the mention of cross-breeding in Lev. 19.19 to which Paul appears to allude. This is also how Philo used the text in Spec. III, 45-46, where he argues against all kind of sexual connections that are ‘unlawful’, though he goes on to refer to the same text further down the line to talk about 40. Cf. Webb, Returning, p.194. 41. 1 Cor. 6.6; 7.12, 13, 14 (×2), 15; 10.27; 14.22 (×2), 23, 24. Cf. Harris, Second Epistle, p.499. 42. So, e.g., Plummer, Second Epistle, p.206. 1

88

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

justice (IV, 203-18), which might have appeared as a natural implication since whoever is responsible for ‘unlawful connections’ transgresses ‘the ordinances of nature’ and is thus ‘unjust’ (IV, 204). Nonetheless, limiting the command only to marriage is too narrow, given the cultic language used in the section and Paul’s earlier injunction concerning associating with the unbelievers in a cultic setting in 1 Corinthians 10. It can be broadened, at the least, to one’s visit to temple prostitutes as well.43 This would also be supported by the allusion to Lev. 19.19, and the covenantal language in the catena of OT texts can be seen to prohibit the sexual encounter with the temple prostitute, which would be considered as forming ‘a covenant-like bond’ with her.44 This would certainly constitute ‘mismatching with unbelievers’ and explain the use of antitheses to stress the incompatibility of such unions since the believer becomes ‘one body’ with the prostitute, which violates the union with the Lord in one spirit (1 Cor. 6.1-17). Paul’s mention of the believers being the temple of God in 2 Cor. 6.16 recalls the same statement in 1 Cor. 6.19 which immediately follows his rebuke for being united to a prostitute (1 Cor. 6.16-17) and the command not to be involved in fornication (1 Cor. 6.18). Thus it appears likely that Paul has unlawful sexual unions in mind as well. In a similar vein, the ‘mismatching’ can be extended to include any association with the ‘unbelievers’ that would form a close bond (like that of covenant), whether it is participating at meal tables of idols (cf. 1 Cor. 10.14-22),45 or maintaining membership in pagan cults46 or attending ceremonies in pagan temples (cf. 1 Cor. 10.18, 20, 21),47 and so on, which would violate the Corinthians’ relationship with their God. Those who have heard the biblical echo here would have recalled the prohibition of cross-breeding the animals and also of mixing material. Whether they knew that the mixture belonged to the sacred sphere and thus was not to be meddled with in an ordinary setting, they would notice, in any case, that the motif of holiness is at issue. The series of rhetorical questions that follow would make it clear to them that it is so. The serious tone of the section coupled with the scriptural allusion for holiness would have made Paul’s command more weighty and authoritative. As with those who did not notice the scriptural reference, they would still understand what Paul is concerned about. While the exact referent of 43. C. Kruse, 2 Corinthians (TNTC; Leicester: IVP; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987), p.139; Barrett, Second Epistle, p.196. 44. Webb, Returning, p.204. 45. Fee, ‘Food’. 46. Harris, Second Epistle, p.501. 47. Cf. Webb, Returning, p.214. 1

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

89

CXRKUVQK and the meaning of ‘mismatching’ are rather obscure to the modern reader, the original hearers would have known what Paul is trying to address without any knowledge of the scriptural allusion. It appears that Paul is not identifying the Corinthians and the nonbelievers with animals since the criteria of holiness in the OT seem to justify the union of the Corinthians with those outside Christ. As such union or mixture was banned within the ordinary sphere, but seemingly allowed in the other realm, the implication would be that the Corinthians’ union with the unbelievers is holy after all (cf. 1 Cor. 7.14). Thus Paul would be taken to be prohibiting inappropriate union with the CXRKUVQK, not because it is unholy, but because it belongs to a different sphere. But this is obviously not what Paul is moving towards. Therefore it seems that there is no identi¿cation or change of referents, but only a loose thematic connection to ‘holiness’. 6.15 It has been noted by NA27 that 3 Kgdms 18.21 is alluded to in v. 15. Table 3.1 2 Cor. 6.15

3 Kgdms 18.21  VKL FG UWOHYPJUKL MCK RTQUJICIGP + X NKQW &TKUVQW RTQL RTQL RCPVCL>  %GNKCT J VKL OGTKL MCK GKRGP CWXVQKL X+NKQW RKUVY^ OGVC CXRKUVQW G=YL RQVG WBOGKL EYNCPGKVG GXR8 CXOHQVGTCKL VCKL KXIPWCKL> GKX GUVKP MWTKQL QB SGQL RQTGWGUSG QXRKUY CWXVQW> GKX FG QB %CCN CWXVQL RQTGWGUSG QXRKUY CWXVQW. MCK QWXM CXRGMTKSJ QB NCQL NQIQP.  What agreement does And Eliou came near to Christ have with all, and Eliou said to Beliar? Or what does them, ‘How long will a believer share with you go limping on both an unbeliever? legs? If the Lord is God, go after him, but if Baal is he, go after him.’ And the people did not answer a word. 1

1 Kgs 18.21

a> K O. OD:Ka\[LV3R :NOa\KLO^DK KZK\!aDL :NOO>%KaDLZ!Z\U[@D :Q> DO^Z!Z\U[@D UE '$WDRa> K



Elijah then came near to all the people, and said, ‘How long will you go limping with two different opinions? If the LORD is God, follow him; but if Baal, then follow him.’ The people did not answer him a word.

90

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

There is the same pattern of contrast between Christ and Beliar in 2 Cor. 6.15 and between the Lord and Baal in 3 Kgdms 18.21. The expression ‘limping on both legs’ (EYNCPGKVG GXR8 CXOHQVGTCKL VCKL KXIPWCKL) may be seen to correspond to the idea of ‘agreement’ (UWOHYPJUKL) between Christ and Beliar. Though without verbal correspondences, the thematic resonances between the passages are worthy of note. Paul is bringing out the implication of the union with non-believers as participating in a syncretistic religious life serving both Christ and Beliar. This implicit but logical conclusion corresponds well with the explicit syncretism witnessed at the time of Elijah. The question posed by the prophet urges the people to make a choice on the assumption that only one is a true God. Paul also shares this assumption, but goes on to state explicitly what was implicit in Elijah’s question, i.e., that one cannot serve both gods. While the story of the contest on Mount Carmel seems to cohere well with the thrust of Paul’s concern, it is dif¿cult to ascertain that Paul had this story in mind given the lack of any verbal correspondences. Those who were well informed about Scripture might have heard the voice of the prophet Elijah strongly urging the people to make a choice. If they did, they would have realized that what they were doing amounted to a confused idea of worshipping God. But now they are urged to choose one over the other. The tragic end of the prophets of Baal and the glorious victory in which Elijah openly and boldly participated would present the Corinthians with an obvious choice to make. Those who were less familiar with Scripture would have missed the allusion altogether. Though they would understand Paul’s point clearly, the scriptural resonances that could make Paul’s appeal powerful would have been lost in their minds. If Paul is echoing the prophet’s question, Paul sees himself as a prophetic ¿gure like Elijah. Then the Corinthians are naturally considered to be like the Israelites who were wavering between the true God and an idol. This ¿ts well with the literal understanding of ‘idols’ (v. 16) and taking CXRKUVQK as unbelievers in a cultic setting (v. 14) which has been argued above. 6.16 The last of the rhetorical questions comes in v. 16. Antitheses have been used in the previous verses – righteousness and lawlessness, light and darkness (v. 14); Christ and Belial, believer and unbeliever (v. 15) – to show clearly the absurdity and impossibility of mutual relationship between those in the sphere of Jesus and those outside. The question in 1

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

91

v. 16 addresses in a more speci¿c manner what Paul has been driving toward, namely, the issue of relating to the unbelievers in pagan and cultic settings.48 Thus, v. 16 stands at a climactic juncture in Paul’s reminder to the Corinthians of their ungodly participation, especially of their association with unbelievers in inappropriate contexts. It contains the ¿nal rhetorical question and introduces the very reason why there cannot be any MQKPYPKC between believers and unbelievers in certain contexts: the believers are the temple of the living God (6.16b; cf. 1 Cor. 3.16-17; 6.19).49 It has to be noted that the comparison is not between the temple of God and the temple of idols, but between the temple of God and idols since there is no PCQL before GKFYNQP.50 While the temple (PCQL) would normally refer to the innermost sanctuary as opposed to the temple area (KBGTQP),51 it is here denoting the whole people of God in a corporate sense.52 In the Gospels, it is Christ’s body that is said to be the temple and is seen to replace the Jerusalem Temple (Jn 2.20-21; cf. Mt. 27.51; Mk 15.38; Lk. 23.45). Yet, because those who are ‘in Christ’ are the body of Christ (cf. Rom. 12.8; 1 Cor 12.12, 27), the believers can also be called the temple of God (cf. 1 Cor. 3.16, 17; 6.19; Eph. 2.21).53 So God does not live in a temple made with hands (cf. Acts 7.48 and 17.24), but in 48. See below. Cf. Harris, Second Epistle, pp.500–501. Fee (‘Food’) is more speci¿c about Paul’s possible concern focusing on the relationship of this section to 1 Cor. 8–10. He argues that the Corinthians rejected Paul’s prohibition against joining unbelievers at table in the idol’s temple because of their biased view against Paul. So Paul is again in the section reinforcing his arguments against participation at the temple meal. Cf. Hughes, Second Epistle, p.252; Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.475. 49. While some important manuscripts (k46 D2 C D2 F G ;0209 lat sy Tert) have WBOGKL…GXUVG, it is also balanced with other major witnesses (D* B D* L P 0243 6 33 81 326 365 1175 1739 1881 2464 co Cl Or) that read JBOGKL…GXUOGP. The latter is favoured because the former is naturally recollected from 1 Cor. 3.16 and the context (vv. 14 and 17). There is no reason to put JBOGKL…GXUOGP in its place. See B. M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (New York: UBS, 2nd edn, 1994), p.580. 50. So Plummer, Second Epistle, p.208; Harris, Second Epistle, p.504. 51. Cf. Hughes, Second Epistle, p.252 n.15; Harris, Second Epistle, p.505; Martin, 2 Corinthians, p.202; Plummer, Second Epistle, p.209. 52. Furnish, II Corinthians, p.363; R. J. McKelvey, The New Temple: The Church in the New Testament (Oxford: Clarendon, 1969), p.94; L. L. Belleville, 2 Corinthians (IVPNTCS; Downers Grove: IVP, 1996), p.181; Plummer, Second Epistle, pp.208–9. 53. This appears to tie in very well with the idea of ‘corporate identity’ proposed in our reading of 2 Cor. 6.2 above. 1

92

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

those who belong to Christ. Thus we see here that what was true about the physical edi¿ce in Jerusalem is now applied to the believers in Christ.54 This statement of the reality for Christ-followers is immediately followed by a catena of citations from Scripture to strengthen the point. It is to be noted, however, that all citations in 2 Cor. 6.16-18 do not match exactly with either LXX or MT,55 but are combinations of (and allusions to) several passages from Scripture.56 There is only one introductory formula for the catena which is treated as a single quotation. It may have been composed by another person, but we will see that it is likely that Paul had his hand in this. In employing the catena, ‘he undoubtedly saw its ful¿llment in the new covenant ministry he exercised, whereby the sancti¿ed Gentile communities that he established, such as the church of Corinth, have become “the temple of the Living God”’.57 Although there are quite a few OT passages that resonate with the themes of the indwelling of God58 and of God being his people’s God and they being his people,59 Lev. 26.11-12 and Ezek. 37.27 seem to come closest to being the source of the citation in v. 16. There have been a few suggestions as to the source of the citation: Lev. 26.11-12,60 or Lev. 26.11-12 with inÀuence from Ezek. 37.27,61 or Ezek. 37.27 with inÀuence from Lev. 26.11-12,62 or Lev. 26.11-12 with Exod. 25.8 and Ezek. 37.27.63 It seems more likely, however, that the two texts are conÀated.64 54. Cf. Martin, 2 Corinthians, p.202. 55. Cf. Smith, ‘The Pauline Literature’, p.271. 56. It appears that the authority of Scripture was established (though see, e.g., 1 Cor. 2.9; 9.10 whose source is uncertain or extracanonical) even when the extent of the canon might not have been. Cf. R. B. Hays and J. B. Green, ‘The Use of the Old Testament by New Testament Writers’, in Hearing the New Testament: Strategies for Interpretation (ed. J. B. Green; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans; Carlisle: Paternoster, 1995), p.224. Ellis (Paul’s Use, p.144) calls the catena a ‘pesher’. Yet it seems best to regard it as ‘Zitatkombination’ (Koch, Schrift, p.172 n.1). 57. Matera, II Corinthians, p.167. 58. E.g. Exod. 29.45; Lev. 26.12; Ps. 90.1; Ezek. 43.7, 9; Zech. 2.10-11. 59. E.g. Gen. 17.7-8; Jer. 24.7; 31.33; 32.38; Ezek. 11.20; 36.28; 37.26-27; Hos. 2.23; Zech. 9.8; 13.9. 60. Stanley, Language, p.219; Barnett, Second Epistle, p.352 n.44; Plummer, Second Epistle, p.209; Betz, ‘Anti-Pauline’, pp.93–5; Lambrecht, ‘Fragment’, p.542. 61. Furnish, II Corinthians, p.374. 62. Webb, Returning, pp.35–7. 63. Bruce, 1 and 2 Corinthians, p.215. But he does not explain why those texts are in view. 64. So Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.477; Scott, ‘Use’, p.78; Hughes, Second Epistle, pp.253–4; Harris, Second Epistle, pp.505–6; Beale, ‘Old Testament 1

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

93

The quotation is marked by an introductory formula (MCSYL GKRGP QB SGQL Q=VK), which is unique in the NT, but a similar expression is found at Qumran (ODUPDUYD, CD 6.13; 8.9).65 Fitzmyer further observes that there is a structural parallel between vv. 16d-18 and 4QTestimonia and contends that the conÀating of the OT texts in 4QTestimonia shows that such practice was ‘a pre-Christian literary procedure, which may well have been imitated in the early stage of the formation of the NT. It resembles so strongly the composite citations of the NT writers that it is dif¿cult not to admit that testimonia inÀuenced certain parts of the NT.’66 Indeed, it seems that Paul and the NT authors were inÀuenced by Qumran to a certain degree.67 This does not necessarily suggest, however, that Paul is here inÀuenced by Qumran for the actual content of the catena. One cannot rule out the possibility that Paul may have borrowed a pre-formed catena of the Scriptures here, but there is no evidence that would suggest the conÀation of the texts is pre-Pauline. In Rom. 3.10-18 we can see a similar kind of citation combination that incorporates six scriptural texts with a similar threefold structure seen in 2 Cor. 6.16-18.68 Besides, the only two occurrences of citation combination in Qumran (CD 8.14-15 [19.2728]; 4QTestim 1-8) do not come close to Rom. 3.10-18 and 2 Cor. 6.1618 in the complexity of the structure.69 The close integration of the catena into the context of the section coupled with the likelihood of Paul’s editorial hand in conÀating the passages (see below) also favours excluding a pre-Pauline tradition.70

Background’, p.570; F. Lang, Die Briefe an die Korinther (NTD, 7; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1986), p.310. 65. Fitzmyer, Semitic Background, p.216. 66. Fitzmyer, Semitic Background, p.86. 67. But to go on to argue from this, as Fitzmyer does (‘Qumran’, p.217), that 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 is a ‘non-Pauline interpolation’ is another matter. Harris (Second Epistle, pp.19–20) demonstrates that what has been argued to have been common between the fragment and the Qumran literature is also found in the NT and elsewhere in the Pauline epistles. 68. Scott, ‘Use’, p.77. 69. Scott, ‘Use’, p.77. 70. Cf. Stanley, Language, p.217. Koch argues for Pauline origin of the combination in Rom. 3.10-18 (Schrift, pp.180–4). With similar structure and complexity to Rom. 3.10-18, 2 Cor. 6.16-18 can also be seen as a Pauline invention. See Scott, ‘Use’, p.78. There are four citations of Lev. 26.11 in Philo (Mut. 1.266; Somn. 1.148; 2.248; Virt. 1.184), but they do not seem to bear any resemblance to the way the quotation is used in the context of 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1. 1

94

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture Table 3.2 LXX

Lev. 26.11-1271

2 Cor. 6.16

LXX

Ezek. 37.2773

11

MCK SJUY VJP UMJPJP72 OQW GXP WBOKP MCK QWX DFGNWZGVCK JB [WEJ OQW WBOCL. 12 MCK GXORGTKRCVJUY GXP WBOKP MCK GUQOCK WBOYP SGQL  MCK WBOGKL GUGUSG OQW NCQL.

MCSYL GKRGP QB SGQL Q=VK   GXPQKMJUY GXP CWXVQKL   MCK GXORGTKRCVJUY   MCK GUQOCK CWXVYP SGQL  MCK CWXVQK GUQPVCK OQW NCQL.

MCK GUVCK JB MCVCUMJPYUKL OQW GXP CWXVQKL    MCK GUQOCK CWXVQKL SGQL MCK CWXVQK OQW GUQPVCK NCQL.

11

as God said, I will live in them and walk among them, and I will be their God, and they shall be my people.

And my encamping shall be among them, and I will be a god for them, and they shall be my people.

And I will place my tent among you, and my soul shall not abhor you. 12 And I will walk about among you and will be your God, and you shall be for me a nation.

* Verbal correspondences between LXX Lev. 26.11-12 and 2 Cor. 6.16 underlined. Verbal correspondences between LXX Ezek. 37.27 and 2 Cor. 6.16 double underlined. Verbal correspondences among all three in bold.

Paul may be making use of similar methodology to that found at Qumran, but it appears that he himself has knitted together the OT passages, and there is no need to assume he is dependent on a certain tradition in this particular place when he appears to be able to do so himself

71. The MT reads: aNN$W% \7LN/KWKLZ! aNWD \YLSQ O>J!WLDO^Z! aNN$W% \Q,. YPL \7LWQZ! a> O \OL:\K7L a7DZ! a\KLO^DOH aNO \WL\\,K Z! (‘I will place my dwelling in your midst, and I

shall not abhor you. And I will walk among you, and will be your God, and you shall be my people’). The LXX follows the Hebrew closely. 72. Following the uncials A B (together with few minuscule and versional evidence), many editions of LXX have FKCSJMJP, whereas the Göttingen LXX has UMJPJP. Stanley (Language, p.219) argues that the breadth of support for the latter ‘makes it highly probable that the latter text could have been available to Paul in the ¿rst century C. E.’ Hence we adopt the reading of the Göttingen LXX which is also closer to the Hebrew \Q,. YP.L Moreover, this coheres well with the theme of the temple of God and with the covenantal language in the immediate context. 73. The MT reads:a> O \OL:\K\, K0 KHZ! a\KLO^DOH aKO \WL\\,KZ! aK\OH>@ \Q,.YPL K\KZ! (‘My dwelling place shall be with them; and I will be their God, and they shall be my people’). The LXX follows the Hebrew closely. 1

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

95

elsewhere.74 The fact that similar handling of Scripture is found in Jewish writings and that Paul appears to be doing the same thing suggests that conÀation of scriptural texts was an accepted practice in those days. Thus Paul appears simply to assume the authority of the catena, which is indicated by the introductory formula together with NGIGK MWTKQL75 in the following verses. The verbal and thematic correspondences between the texts are unmistakable. It is noted that GXPQKMJUY is never used with God as the subject in the LXX,76 but there is no doubt that GXPQKMJUY GXP CWXVQKL of 2 Cor. 6.16 betrays the same idea as Lev. 26.11, which has SJUY VJP UMJPJP OQW GXP WBOKP, and Ezek. 37.27, which has MCK GUVCK JB MCVCUMJPYUKL OQW GXP CWXVQKL. Moreover, they both have the covenant formula (‘I will be their/your God and you/they will be my people’), though Lev. 26.11-12 has second person plural instead of third person plural.77 The verb GXPQKMGY is found only in the Pauline corpus in the NT (Rom. 7.17; 8.11; Col. 3.16; 2 Tim. 1.5, 14), which suggests that Paul has probably made the modi¿cations or has at least incorporated the word into his vocabulary.78 The hapax legomenon GXORGTKRCVJUY of Lev. 26.12 is an attractive piece of evidence for those who refer to the text as the source of the citation, but its context and that of Ezek. 37.27 are remarkably similar to each other, not to mention the verbal and thematic correspondences.79

74. Cf. Koch, Schrift, pp.247–55; Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.477. There are other instances of conÀation of OT passages in Pauline epistles: Rom. 3.10-18; 9.2526, 33; 11.8, 26-27, 34-35; 1 Cor. 15.54-55. These instances are noted by Fee, ‘Food’, p.147. 75. For a discussion on the phrase NGIGKMWTKQL, see Ellis, Paul’s Use, pp.107– 13. Given the fact that NGIGKMWTKQL is almost always used in prophetic speeches, Paul may have seen himself as having a prophetic role. Cf. K. O. Sandnes, Paul – One of the Prophets? A Contribution to the Apostle’s Self-Understanding (WUNT 2/43; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991); Scott, ‘Use’, pp.83–4. 76. Furnish, II Corinthians, p.363. 77. On the covenant formula, see H. H. Schmid, ‘ “Ich will euer Gott sein, und ihr sollt mein Volk sein”. Die sogennante Bundesformel und die Frage nach der Mitte des Alten Testaments’, in Kirche: Festschrift für Günther Bornkamm zum 75 Geburtstag (ed. D. Lührmann and G. Strecker; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1980), pp.1–25; C. Levin, Die Verheißung des neuen Bundes (FRLANT 137; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985), pp.106–7. 78. Stanley, Language, p.219. 79. OT scholars point out the close connection between Lev. 26.11-12 and Ezek. 37.27. See, e.g., J. Milgrom, Leviticus 23–27 (AB 3B; New York: Doubleday, 2001), p.2300. 1

96

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Leviticus 26 is associated with the constitution of Israel as the people of God after the ¿rst exodus from Egypt while Ezekiel 37 is associated with the reconstitution of Israel as the people of God after their restoration from exile in the second exodus.80 As Webb rightly notes, the Leviticus passage has a present focus related to Israel obeying God’s commandments (cf. Lev. 26.3, 14, 15) whereas the Ezekiel passage is predominantly eschatological.81 This does not mean, however, that the Ezekiel passage is likely to be the source since Paul is working with the eschatological restoration theme which he is applying to the Corinthians.82 Rather, Paul appears to have in mind both passages and the wider contexts in which they appear. The implication in combining the passages seems to be that the new covenant which is the ful¿lment of the promise of the eschatological restoration is in conscious continuity with the Sinai Covenant.83 It may also be said that Paul wanted to ground his argument both in the Law as well as in the Prophets.84 While Lev. 26.12 and Ezek. 37.27 appear to be the most likely candidates for being the source of the quotation, there are other verses that could be argued to have inÀuenced Paul here as well (e.g. Jer. 31.33; 32.38; Zech. 8.8) as the covenant theme is among the major themes that run throughout the OT.85 The main expression of the covenant that God will be their people and they will be God’s people is widespread in the OT (Gen. 17.8; Exod. 6.7; 29.45, 46; 1 Chron. 17.13; Jer. 7.23; 24.7; 31.1; Ezek. 14.11; 36.28; Zech. 8.8)86

80. Harris, Second Epistle, p.506. 81. Webb, Returning, p.37. 82. So Webb, Returning, p.37. 83. So Scott, ‘Use’, p.82; cf. Harris, Second Epistle, p.506. It is also worth noting that the choice of Hithpael in aNN$W%\7LN/KWKLZ! in Lev. 26.12 is theologically signi¿cant: God himself will walk with his people as he had with Adam and Eve (Gen. 3.8; cf. Deut. 23.15) and also with the patriarchs (Gen. 5.24; 6.9; 17.1; 24.40; 49.15). Milgrom, Leviticus, p.2302. Cf. also J. E. Hartley, Leviticus (WBC 4; Dallas, TX: Word, 1992), p.463. The verb GXORGTKRCVGY is also used in 2 Sam. 7.6. J. R. Porter, Leviticus (CBC; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), p.210. This may indicate the anticipation of 2 Sam. 7.14 in v. 18. 84. Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.477. 85. Cf. Lambrecht (‘Fragment’, p.543) who points out that ‘more of less vague reminiscences of several passages cannot be excluded and that both the Covenant formula and the promise to David appear in many variants in the O. T. and later Jewish literature’. 86. In addition to the passages noted below, cf. Exod. 25.8; 2 Sam. 7.14; 1 Chron. 22.10; 29.6; Jer. 11.4; 30.22 (no LXX); 31.33; 32.38; Ezek. 11.20; 37.23.

1

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

97

Given the striking parallels in other places of the OT,87 it seems plausible to argue that Paul had a broad theme of the OT in mind when he cites the passage. The conÀation of the Scriptures and the strong presence of the same theme throughout the OT lead us to contend that Paul is not as much concerned with the exact point of reference as he is with the thematic coherence. In this case it seems very likely that Paul had a new covenant motif in mind, which makes use of the old covenant expressions. Those who were familiar with Scripture would have been indecisive about the source of the quotation here as many scholars are today. Nonetheless, it seems they might have been used to this kind of handling of the texts and would not question the authenticity or the authority of the text since Paul would not have done it if such handling of Scripture would be viewed with suspicion. Some of those who recognised the covenantal formula and the promise that goes with it may have understood the text as we have done above. At the least, they would simply accept that those promises given to Israel are somehow applicable to them now and they belong to the people of God. The Corinthians who were less informed with the Jewish sacred writings would not have noticed the modi¿cations that have been made to the texts and would simply assume Paul is quoting from a single text of Scripture in support of his plea. The warm and inviting tone of the biblical promise would make his appeal more persuasive. By applying the covenant formula that is used in relation to God’s people in the context of the ¿rst and the second exodus, Paul is identifying the Corinthian congregation with Israel. What God has said to the Israelites is now made applicable to the believers in Corinth. The Gentile congregation is thus the people of God to whom the divine promise of presence is given and ful¿lled as they put their trust in Christ. 6.17 The conjunction FKQ indicates that what has been said previously is the ground for the following: because the believers are the temple of God and God is present in and among them – as God has promised in the

87. The same theme is also cited in Jub. 1.17: ‘And I will build My sanctuary in their midst, and I will dwell with them, and I will be their God and they shall be My people in truth and righteousness’. Here God is speaking to Moses about what will happen afterwards from now, i.e., the ¿rst exodus. The verse appears when God is describing the events to come when he gathers his people from exile.

1

98

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Scripture cited in v. 16 – they are to be holy. The privilege of God’s presence among his people carries with it a demand.88 Hence, the promise, which is ful¿lled now, is the ground for the imperative. While the implication adduced from the transition marked by FKQ is not dif¿cult to understand, what is not clear is whether the conjunction is added here as an introduction to the quotation in vv. 17-18 or as a part of the original text Paul cited. There is no evidence that Isa. 52.11 had the word (either MT or LXX), but it would ¿t well into the context.89 The assurance of God’s salvation in Isa. 52.1-10 becomes the ground for the imperative in v. 11, and thus the use of FKQ would make the transition smooth. Yet the word is missing in the original texts, and it seems likely that Paul had inserted the conjunction. If that is the case, Paul is editing the texts to create a unit of apparently seamless quotations. It is held by most scholars that Paul is here referring to LXX Isa. 52.11 with some modi¿cations. Paul places GXZGNSCVG GXM OGUQW CWXVYP and CXHQTKUSJVG before MCK CXMCSCTVQW OJ C=RVGUSG, rather than the other way round, as it is in LXX Isa. 52.11. There is no manuscript evidence (both MT and LXX) for the transposition of phrases. It seems likely then that Paul had modi¿ed the text to make it ¿t into the Àow of quotation without changing the basic thrust of the text.90 The inversion may be because Paul wanted to put a particular emphasis on GXZGNSCVG and CXHQTKUSJVG whose tense (aorist) implies a decisive and complete action of separation.91 This is also implied in the use of GXM OGUQW CWXVYP (‘from among them’), which seems a stronger expression than GXM CWXVYP (‘from them’).92 It is clear that Paul is referring to the CXRKUVQK by CWXVYP, and this naturally excludes the more obscure GXMGKSGP of LXX Isa. 52.11 from Paul’s quotations. Taking only one GXZGNSCVG out of its two occurrences in LXX Isa. 52.11 and the omission of the double CXRQUVJVG may have been done to improve the smoothness of reading and ‘rhetorical effectiveness’.93

1

88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93.

Plummer, Second Epistle, p.209; cf. Martin, 2 Corinthians, p.205. Cf. Stanley, Language, p.221. Cf. Stanley, Language, p.222. Cf. Harris, Second Epistle, pp.507–8; Plummer, Second Epistle, p.209. Harris, Second Epistle, p.508. Cf. Stanley, Language, p.223.

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

99

Table 3.3 LXX Isa. 52.1194    CXRQUVJVG CXRQUVJVG GXZGNSCVG GXMGKSGP  MCK CXMCSCTVQW OJ C=RVGUSG  GXZGNSCVG GXM OGUQW CWXVJL CXHQTKUSJVG  QKB HGTQPVGL VC UMGWJ MWTKQW>

2 Cor. 6.17  FKQ   GXZGNSCVG GXM OGUQW CWXVYP  MCK CXHQTKUSJVG  NGIGK MWTKQL  MCK CXMCSCTVQW OJ C=RVGUSG  MCXIY GKXUFGZQOCK WBOCL

LXX Ezek. 20.3496    MCK GXZCZY WBOCL GXM VYP NCYP MCK GKXUFGZQOCK WBOCL GXM VYP EYTYP QW FKGUMQTRKUSJVG GXP CWXVCKL GXP EGKTK MTCVCKC^ MCK GXP DTCEKQPK WB[JNY^ MCK GXP SWOY^ MGEWOGPY^>  Depart, depart, go out Therefore come out from and I will bring you out from there, and touch no them, and be separate from the peoples and unclean thing; go out from them, says the take you in from the from the midst of it; be Lord, and touch nothing countries, where you separated, you who carry unclean; then I will were scattered in them, the vessels of the Lord welcome you. with a strong hand and with a raised arm and with outpoured wrath

* Verbal correspondences between LXX Isa. 52.11 and 2 Cor. 6.17 underlined. Verbal correspondences between LXX Ezek. 20.34 and 2 Cor. 6.17 double underlined.

Also, Paul omits QKB HGTQPVGL VC UMGWJ MWTKQW, probably to make the imperatives applicable to the believers in Corinth because it originally referred to the priests and the Levites and so it would be awkward to address the Corinthians as those ‘who carry the vessels of the Lord’.97 In light of these changes one would be inclined to see the change of CWXVJL to CWXVYP as having Pauline inÀuence, but the Lucianic attestations that have the same change may warn against a quick decision. The same 94. The MT reads: \DHIQ2 :U% KL +N $7PL :DF :>*7LOD DPHM a9 PL :DF :U:V :U:V KZK\! \OH. (‘Depart, depart, go out from there! Touch no unclean thing; go out from

the midst of it, purify yourselves, you who carry the vessels of the LORD’). Other than CXHQTKUSJVGfor UU% , the LXX follows the MT closely. 95. On this crasis of the MCK (Ezek. 20.34) and the GXIY(2 Kgdms 7.14), see below. 96. The MT reads: aWF$R SQ! UYD@ W$FUDK @  PL aNWD  \7LF% T ZL ! a\0L>K PL aNWD  \WLDFH$KZ! KN :SY KP [HE: K\:MQ! >$U]!EL: KT ][@ G\% a% (‘I will bring you out from the peoples and gather you out of the countries where you are scattered, with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm, and with wrath poured out’). The LXX follows the MT closely. 97. Harris, Second Epistle, p.508. 1

100

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

reading also appears in codex 534, minuscules 62, 137 and Cyprianus’s quotation.98 The possibility of assimilation to 2 Cor. 6.17 exists, but it is unusual and unlikely.99 We cannot ascertain if such reading was available for Paul at the time of his writing either. Whoever is responsible, a masculine plural pronoun ¿ts into the Pauline context much better than a feminine singular. The expression NGIGK MWTKQL seems to be Paul’s insertion since it is not found in the MT and the LXX. The presence of FKQ at the beginning of v. 17 already anticipated the possibility for more such insertions. Though it is not certain if Paul intended it to be taken as part of the quotation, it appears that such addition was his usual practice, as can be seen elsewhere: Rom. 2.24 (ICT…MCSYL IGITCRVCK); 1 Cor. 6.16 (ICT, HJUKP); 15.27 (ICT); Eph. 6.2 (J=VKL GXUVKP GXPVQNJ RTYVJ GXP GXRCIIGNKC).100 In its original context Isa. 52.11 has in mind priests and Levites in exile in Babylon.101 They are urged to depart and separate themselves from the place fraught with idols because they need to keep themselves pure and holy as the carriers of vessels of the Lord. Yet, their departure is not Àeeing in haste from the enemy, but a con¿dent journey to their land with God as their rear guard (Isa. 52.12).102 However, it is not merely a journey, but also ‘a ceremonial procession that requires the avoidance of anything that compromises purity’.103 In the same manner, the Corinthians must keep themselves separate from CWXVYP, the ‘unbelievers’. But, as we have argued, the reference is here not to the unbelievers per se, but their association with unbelievers in pagan settings since the idea of complete separation from unbelievers would be foreign to Paul (cf. 1 Cor. 5.10).104 Therefore, the text calls for action from the Corinthians to be separate from any association with the unbelievers that would de¿le their body, which is a ‘holy temple’ of God (cf. 1 Cor. 3.16-17; 6.19). Isaiah 52.11 is placed between the good news of the redemption of Jerusalem (Isa. 52.1-10) and the passage about the Suffering Servant

98. The minuscules 62 and 137 are missing in the list of manuscripts in the Göttingen edition, but noted by Stanley, Language, p.223 n.141. 99. Stanley, Language, p.223. 100. Stanley, Language, p.225. 101. CWXVJLrefers to Babylon. So J. Goldingay, The Message of Isaiah 40–55: A Literary-Theological Commentary (London: T&T Clark International, 2005), p.458. Contra Childs (Isaiah, p.406), who denies that it refers to Babylon due to the lack of explicit mention of Babylon. 102. Cf. Watts, Isaiah 34–66, p.217; Childs, Isaiah, p.407. 103. Goldingay, Message, p.458. 104. Cf. Fee, ‘Food’, p.160. 1

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

101

(Isa. 52.13–53.12), thus being entrenched in the overtones of eschatological salvation. Moreover, a major concern of Second Isaiah has also been about images and idols.105 Hence it is not surprising that Paul would choose to refer to the scriptural passage in which an eschatological motif is coupled with warnings against idolatry since he is probably dealing with essentially the same issue in Corinth. The warning about idolatry is also echoed in Ezekiel 20, which recounts the rebellion of the Israelites after the exodus from Egypt. The Israelites did not abandon the ‘practices’ of Egypt (GXRKVJFGWOCUKP, vv. 7, 8, 18) and followed their own ‘reasoning’ (GXPSWOJOC, vv. 16, 24).106 Yet this is exactly what their descendants were doing at the time of Ezekiel’s speaking (vv. 30, 31). God would gather his people from the places to which they were scattered (20.34) and then take them to the wilderness and execute judgment against them just like he did to their forefathers in the wilderness (vv. 35, 36). The purpose of the gathering is to select out the impious and rebellious (v. 38). Then God commands the people to take away their practices and listen to him, for he will accept them (vv. 39-41). While Ezek. 20.34 is noted as the source of GKXUFGZQOCK WBOCL, it has to be pointed out that there are other passages that mention the ingathering of the dispersed people with the word GKXUFGEQOCK (Hos. 8.10; Mic. 4.6; Zeph. 3.19, 20; Zech. 10.8, 10; Jer. 23.3; Ezek. 11.17; 20.41; 22.19, 20),107 four of which are followed by WBOCL (Ezek. 20.41; 22.19, 20; Zeph. 3.20) as in Ezek. 20.34. Of these, Ezek. 20.41 and Zeph. 3.20 have the positive note of gathering the people while the ingathering mentioned in Ezek. 22.19, 20 is for the purpose of ‘melting’ them in judgment.108 So, the ingathering is used for two different purposes in the LXX: judgment or restoration. Yet in Ezekiel 20, and only here, both senses are juxtaposed to each other. God is gathering his people to purify them (v. 34) in order to welcome them into his presence (v. 41). It appears, then, there is implicit warning of judgment even though the way it is quoted sounds a note of promise and welcome. Hence both Isa. 52.11 and Ezek. 20.34 refer in their own ways to a coming restoration of Israel using the story of the deliverance from 105. Goldingay, Message, p.459. 106. Both GXRKVJFGWOCUKP and GXPSWOJOC translate the Hebrew O:/*, (‘idol’) in the LXX. 107. Webb (Returning, p.47) rightly remarks that this warns one against designating with certainty any one OT text as the source. 108. Cf. G. A. Cooke, The Book of Ezekiel (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1936), p.221. 1

102

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Egypt as a paradigm to depict the event to come.109 God’s ingathering of his people is rooted in the pattern of return from exile, which in turn is rooted in the ¿rst exodus.110 Hence by referring to the texts, Paul recalls the themes of restoration and return that are present in Isaiah and Ezekiel in order to bring them to the Corinthians’ situation. Just as Isaiah urges Israel to depart from Babylon and as Ezekiel warns and pleads with Israel to abandon idolatry, the Corinthians are urged to stay away from ‘Babylon’ and to keep themselves pure so that God may welcome them as promised through the prophets. This is how the Corinthians who were well versed in Scripture would have understood the quotation most naturally. The pattern of exodus with the hint of warning behind the welcoming note would have put more force onto the imperative. Again they would notice that the eschatological promises to the ancient Israelites are now applied to them. The quotations are clearly made to speak directly to the Corinthians in commanding them to break their bonds with their ‘Babylon’. In this way the demand that comes with the eschatological promise of the Scripture is ful¿lled in the Corinthian context. Those who were less informed about Scripture, however, would not notice the editorial hand Paul has put in, and would not recognise the theme of ‘exodus’ ringing in this quotation. Nevertheless, the point of the scriptural text is clear enough. They would sense a hint of warning implicit in the imperative and the conditional promise, even though they did not have any idea about how the background of the quotation enforces such understanding. By applying the quotation to the Corinthians, Paul is identifying them with the Israelites as they are commanded to do what the Israelites were told to do in relation to the promised eschatological hopes. That the people of God were commanded to depart from ‘Babylon’ seems to suggest that the non-believers are identi¿ed with ‘Babylon’. Yet it is more plausible to hold in this new context that ‘Babylon’ is identi¿ed with any association with the unbelievers that would compromise the believers’ holiness and purity.

109. Cf. W. Zimmerli, Ezekiel 1 (trans. R. E. Clements; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1969), p.416. Zimmerli notes that ‘desert’ is used as typological counterpart to the ¿rst ‘desert’ of Egypt. Gersternberger (Leviticus, p.409) also notes that God’s entire relationship with Israel is based on the experience of deliverance from Egypt (cf. Lev. 11.45; 19.3-5, 34; 22.31-33; 25.38, 42, 55). 110. Cf. Webb, Returning, p.49. 1

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

103

6.18 Verse 18 takes up the promise of ‘welcome’ of v. 17d and de¿nes it in terms of familial relationship (cf. Rom. 8.14-17; Gal. 3.26; 4.6-7). Their obedience to the call to be holy leads to the ultimate ‘reward’ of having God as their father and of them becoming his sons and daughters. Paul expresses this by referring primarily to 2 Kgdms 7.14 with a few changes that comes from widening the area of application from the third person singular (CWXVY^, CWXVQL) to second person plural (WBOKP, WBOGKL).111 Accordingly, changes from GUVCK to GUGUSG and from WKBQP to WKBQWL are called for. In addition to this, Paul adds MCK SWICVGTCL and makes a stylistic change to the texts he is combining. The apparent absence of the word GXIY can be explained by MCXIY (6.17), the fusion of the MCK (Ezek. 20.34) and the GXIY (2 Kgdms 7.14). At a super¿cial glance, it seems Paul omits GXIY as it is redundant, but it seems more likely that Paul has made some ‘improvement’ in style as he combines the texts together.112 Thus MCXIY is evidence that Paul is indeed conÀating the texts and not merely making modi¿cations to suit his purpose. The change of number from the singular used in 2 Kingdoms 7 to the plural in 2 Cor. 6.18 reveals an interesting point. God’s covenant with a Davidic heir in 2 Kingdoms 7 (third person singular) has been extended to include the entire community of the new covenant (second person plural) in 2 Cor. 6.18.113 The promise is not to the descendants of David or to Jesus (cf. Heb. 1.5), but to the church.114 It needs to be noted that the expression used in this promise corresponds closely to the covenant formula, which implies that ‘the father–son relationship between Yahweh and the Davidide is to be seen as a case of special election within the covenant relationship between Yahweh and his people Israel’.115 To this special relationship, the Corinthians are warmly invited.

111. Changing the number and the address is expected in adapting a scriptural passage to a new context. But Paul could equally change the direct address to the third person if he had to. Cf. A. Schlatter, Paulus, der Bote Jesu: Eine Deutung seiner Briefe an die Korinther (Stuttgart: Calwer, 4th edn, 1969), p.578. 112. Cf. Scott, ‘Use’, p.86. 113. Cf. ‘democratization’ of messianic promises in D. Juel, Messianic Exegesis: Christological Interpretation of the Old Testament in Early Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988), p.108 n.34. 114. Stanley, Language, p.228. 115. Scott, ‘Use’, p.87. 1

104

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture Table 3.4

LXX 2 Kgdms 7.14116  GXIY GUQOCK CWXVY^ GKXL RCVGTC  MCK CWXVQL GUVCK OQK GKXL WKBQP>   MCK GXCP GNSJ^ JB CXFKMKC CWXVQW MCK GXNGIZY CWXVQP GXP TBCDFY^ CXPFTYP MCK GXP CBHCKL WKBYP CXPSTYRYP

I will be a father to him, and he shall be a son to me, and if his injustice comes, then I will punish him with a rod of men and with attacks of sons of men.

2 Cor. 6.18  MCK GUQOCK WBOKP GKXL RCVGTC  MCK WBOGKL GUGUSG OQK GKXL WKBQWL  MCK SWICVGTCL  NGIGK MWTKQL RCPVQMTCVYT    and I will be your father, and you shall be my sons and daughters, says the LORD Almighty

LXX

Isa. 43.6117

GXTY VY^ DQTTC^ $IG MCK VY^ NKDK /J MYNWG> CIG VQWL WKBQWL OQW CXRQ IJL RQTTYSGP  MCK VCL SWICVGTCL OQW  CXR8 CMTYP VJL IJL

I will say to the north, ‘Bring them’, and to the southwest, ‘Do not hinder; bring my sons from a land far away and my daughters from the ends of the earth’.

* Verbal correspondences between LXX 2 Kgdms 7.14 and 2 Cor. 6.18 underlined. Verbal correspondences between LXX Isa. 43.6 and 2 Cor. 6.18 double underlined. Verbal correspondences among all three in bold.

This ‘democratization’ also occurs in Gal. 3.15-29 where Paul argues that the promise spoken to Abraham was to him and to his ‘seed’ (v. 16; emphasising the singular) and that those who have faith in Christ Jesus have clothed themselves with Christ (v. 27) and are Abraham’s seed, and heirs according to the promise (v. 29; note the plural). This extension of the application of the promise recalls the Servant of Isaiah tradition in 6.2 and exhibits another case of ‘corporate identity’ proposed in the previous chapter.

116. The MT of 2 Sam. 7.14 reads: UYD@EHO\/LK\K\,D:KZ!ED O$/K\KD\Q,D@ aG D \Q(%\>HJ!Q,E:a\YLQD@MEYH%Z\7L[NKRZ!$WZ2>@K%  (‘I will be a father to him, and he shall

be a son to me. When he commits iniquity, I will punish him with a rod such as mortals use, with blows inÀicted by human beings’). The LXX follows the MT closely. 117. The MT reads: \W$QE:T$[UPH\QE \DL\ELK \DLO N7LODP \WHO:\Q,7H$S& OUPDR UD K KFHTPL (‘I will say to the north, “Give them up”, and to the south, “Do not withhold; bring my sons from far away and my daughters from the end of the earth….”’). Other than CIG for \Q,7H (‘give’) and MYNWG for \DLO N7L (‘withhold’), the LXX follows the MT closely. 1

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

105

The ‘pluralization’ of the OT referent by Paul is not without its precedent in Second Temple literature, however. Jubilees 1.24 cites the promise of 2 Kgdms 7.14 and applies it to the returning Israelites, which is preceded by the use of a covenant formula in Jub. 1.17.118 This is quite similar to the way Paul is reading the texts.119 Yet there are also other readings that differ in their appropriation of the passage. Examining 4QFlorilegium, which contains a midrash on 2 Sam. 7.10b–14, Juel comments that the exegete is more interested in a ‘place’ and ‘rest from enemies’ than in the ¿gure of Messiah himself and that, most characteristically, the exegete ‘cannot mention the Davidic “Prince” without also mentioning the anointed Priest – identifying him as the Interpreter of the Law’.120 These different receptions of the same passage should make one pause before contending that Paul must have been reliant on the Second Temple literature. At most one can say that the practice of ‘pluralization’ is a very Jewish thing to do, not only during the Second Temple period, but also during the times of the OT prophets (e.g. the Servant of Isaiah tradition). And if also during the OT period, then there is no reason to assume that Paul is reliant on the later Jewish literature rather than the earlier ones. Although scholars differ as to where MCK SWICVGTCL comes from, Isa. 43.6 is generally considered a likely source. Other than the matching words WKBQWL and SWICVGTCL,121 there lies a stronger connection than ¿rst appears. God’s ingathering of his sons and daughters from afar in Isa. 43.6 is already envisaged in the reference to Isa. 52.11 and Ezek. 20.34 in v. 17.122 Besides, the theme of gathering sons and daughters ties in conceptually with return theology (Isa. 43.6; 49.22; 60.4; 63.8, 16; Jer. 3.19; 31.7-9; Hos. 1.10-11; 11.10-11).123 Furthermore, resonances of the ¿rst exodus in Isa. 43.1-7 (e.g. v. 2, ‘passing through waters’; v. 3, ‘Egypt as your ransom’) cohere well with the exodus typology present in the rest of the catena.124 118. Observed by Scott, ‘Use’, p.87. 119. Cf. B. Byrne, ‘Son of God’ – ‘Seed of Abraham’: A Study of the Idea of the Sonship of God of all Christians against the Jewish Background (AnBib 83; Rome: Biblical Institute, 1979), p.194. 120. Juel, Messianic Exegesis, p.76. 121. If one were to ¿nd echoing verses solely on the matching words, there are many occurrences of WKBQWLMCKSWICVGTCL in Gen. 5 and 11, but it is obviously hard to ¿nd any connections there. 122. Cf. Webb, Returning, pp.57–8. 123. Webb, Returning, pp.57, 58 n.4. 124. Cf. Scott, ‘Use’, p.87. 1

106

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

While Paul could use ‘sons’ to denote all believers (Rom. 8.14, 19; 9.26; Gal. 3.26; 4.6-7; Col. 1.13; 1 Thess. 5.5),125 and could have made his point without the addition of MCK SWICVGTCL here, the insertion reveals Paul’s concern for the equality and oneness of those in Christ (cf. Gal. 3.28). A similar picture is depicted in Eph. 2.21-22 where each believer is seen to be joined to the Lord and is built together into a dwelling place of God, which holds nicely the individuality and the corporate and organic unity of those in Christ. The fusion of the theme of Davidic promise and the theme of return/ restoration is followed by the phrase NGIGK MWTKQL RCPVQMTCVYT which refers back to 2 Kgdms 7.8. There is no evidence to contend for prePauline witness to this combination even though it appears 2 Kingdoms was known among early Christians (cf. Heb. 1.5; Rev. 21.7).126 If Paul has inserted it, which seems likely, its presence suggests that Paul has a broader context in mind than the verse he is actually citing. It is also worth noting that NGIGK MWTKQL RCPVQMTCVYT ¿nds its most frequent use in the minor prophets, especially Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi,127 all of which, in one way or the other, are oriented toward future restoration. One cannot ascertain if Paul was aware of this, but this observation adds further support, albeit only a little, to our claim that the themes of future restoration, return and new covenant are underlying the catena of quotations. The believers in Corinth who could identify the OT texts would have heard the constant and coherent themes that run behind these quotations. They would have noticed how the Davidic promise has found its wider audience and also picked up the exodus motif that they have seen repeatedly in the catena. Once again, v. 18 would have af¿rmed their status as the people of God in the end times. On the other hand, those who could not recognize the OT passages would not have heard the messianic promise or the exodus motif or the covenant formula implicit in the text. Nevertheless, they would have understood Paul’s basic thrust that God is willing to take them in as his children and live among them. On the whole the catena in vv. 16-18 125. Stanley, Language, p.230 n.159. 126. Cf. Stanley, Language, p.228. Contra Ellis (Paul’s Use, pp.109–12) who contends that the addition of the words indicate pre-Pauline usage by early Christian prophets. 127. 13 times in Haggai (4 times in ch. 1; 9 times in ch. 2); 30 times in Zechariah (5 times in ch. 1; once each in chs. 2, 4, 6, 11, 12, 13; 3 times in ch. 3; twice in ch. 7; 13 times in ch. 8) and 22 times in Malachi (9 times in ch. 1; 4 times in ch. 2; 9 times in ch. 3).

1

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

107

would have added rhetorical force to Paul’s plea as he buttresses his point with a warm and inviting promise and command from Scripture. Besides, it would have pointed them towards Scripture as a key resource for their understanding of themselves, since the introductory formula makes clear that Paul is quoting here. We continue to see the same themes pertaining to the eschatological hope underlying this verse as well. The Gentile believers are identi¿ed with the people of God in Israel to whom the promises were originally given. Moreover, there is identi¿cation between the Davidic heir and the Corinthians, and by implication also between Christ and the Corinthians. This suggests that they are not merely bene¿ting from what has been ful¿lled in Christ, but participating in the very life of the one who embodies his people. Thus their life is to express the life of Christ in every aspect, going beyond enjoying gratefully the gifts Christ brings. Excursus: Scriptural Correspondences – An Enemy or a Friend of Interpolation Theory? In presenting this defence and plea, Paul makes both subtle and explicit references to Isaianic texts. We have observed in the previous chapter that there appears to be a faint echo of LXX Isa. 53.12 in 2 Cor. 4.11 (RCTGFQSJ GKXL SCPCVQP) although Paul does not explicitly indicate that he is referring to it. Later on, Paul clearly alludes to LXX Isa. 25.8 in 2 Cor. 5.4. This reference is very likely since he has already cited the same passage in 1 Cor. 15.54. There are clear voices from the eschatological salvation in the reference to the prophet. These sporadic allusions to Isaiah become more frequent and stronger as Paul’s argument proceeds, especially in 5.14–6.2. Paul makes a clear reference to LXX Isa. 43.18-19 in 5.17, where the theme of new creation is evident. There is also a strong allusion to the Servant tradition of Isaiah (esp. the fourth ‘Servant Song’ [Isa. 52.13–53.12]) in 5.14-21 (note the echo to this song earlier in 2 Cor. 4.11), culminating with a citation from LXX Isa. 49.8, which immediately follows the second ‘Servant Song’ (Isa. 49.1-6), in 2 Cor. 6.2. All these suggest that Isaiah is inÀuential in Paul’s thinking.128

128. Cf. Beale (‘Old Testament Background’, pp.552–9), who traces strong inÀuences of Isa. 40–66 in 2 Cor. 5.17–21 while focusing speci¿cally on 5.17, and Webb (Returning, pp.145–58), who observes in 5.11–7.4 Isaianic tradition of the Servant as well as the themes of New Covenant and second exodus. Gignilliat (Paul, pp.55–142) builds upon these and other scholars to demonstrate the inÀuence of Isa. 40–66 in 2 Cor. 5.14–6.10. Cf. also Wilk, Bedeutung; Wagner, Heralds; Shum, Paul’s Use; Hickling, ‘Paul’s Reading of Isaiah’. 1

108

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

What has to be noted here is that Paul’s references to those Isaianic passages bring with them larger themes that run through Isaiah. All the references are in one way or another related to the eschatological salvation variously expressed in terms of return, restoration, new covenant, and new creation. Thus it appears that the themes that we have observed to lie at the backdrop of 2 Cor. 6.16-18 – new covenant, return and restoration – correspond rather well with the Isaianic themes that had been inÀuencing Paul’s arguments in the previous sections. Furthermore, the idea of ‘corporate identity’ that we have argued is present in 2 Cor. 6.2 has also surfaced in the catena of quotations in its reference to and ‘democratization’ of the Davidic promise of 2 Kgdms 7.14. Thus all these resonances of the major themes that are seen to lie at the backdrop of Paul’s argument in 4.13–7.1 would strongly suggest that the fragment is not as ‘out of place’ as it ¿rst appears to be. Furthermore, the fact that the same eschatological themes continue to run behind the texts puts more weight on the Pauline origin of the section as well.129 Thus our investigation strengthens the position that maintains both the authenticity and original location of 2 Cor. 6.14– 7.1.130 The major themes of the OT that are behind 2 Cor. 4.13–7.1 also show up in other Pauline epistles, such as Romans.131 This suggests that Paul’s thought is signi¿cantly inÀuenced by the themes associated with the eschatological restoration on a general level, and we can expect to see such concerns emerge elsewhere explicitly or implicitly. More speci¿cally to 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1, we can perhaps place the section in passages where holiness is at issue, such as 1 Corinthians, and one will ¿nd that 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 would ¿t in there just as ‘comfortably’ as it does here in 2 Corinthians. The self-contained and rather ambiguous aspects of the fragment and Paul’s general orientation toward scriptural themes related to the eschatological renewal allow for such possibility. In one of the most recent treatments of 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1, Murray Harris has put together a convincing argument for its authenticity and original location.132 In responding to arguments for alleged non-Pauline features, Harris argues that: (1) considering there are 160 Pauline hapaxes in 2 Corinthians – meaning there is one Pauline hapax per 1.6 verses on average – the six occurrences of hapax

129. Similarly, Paul’s theology of restoration in his letters has been discerned and argued for by J. M. Scott. See J. M. Scott, ‘“For as Many as are of the Works of the Law are under a Curse” (Galatians 3.10)’, in Evans and Sanders (eds.), Paul and the Scriptures of Israel, pp.187–220, and ‘Paul’s Use of Deuteronomic Tradition’, JBL 112 (1993), pp.645–65. 130. Cf. W. L. Lane, ‘Covenant: The Key to Paul’s ConÀict with Corinth’, TynBul 33 (1982), pp.3–29 (24); D. Patte, ‘A Structural Exegesis of 2 Corinthians 2.14–7.1 with Special Attention on 2.14–3.6 and 6.11–7.1’, in Society of Biblical Literature 1987 Seminar Papers (ed. K. H. Richards; SBLSP 26; Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1987), pp.23–49. 131. See, e.g., Wagner (Heralds), who traces the eschatological themes and promises of Isaiah in Romans. 132. Harris, Second Epistle, pp.14–25. 1

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

109

legomena in the section is not remarkable;133 (2) apparently non-Pauline senses of certain terms (FKMCKQUWPJ, 6.14; RKUVQL, 6.15; UCTZ and RPGWOC, 7.1) are not without Pauline parallels; (3) apparent af¿nities with Qumran terminology and theology are also found in the NT as well as in Pauline epistles. To these, he adds that there are signi¿cant verbal and conceptual correspondences between the fragment and the preceding sections: the use of FKMCKQUWPJ in 5.21 and 6.14, the idea of God’s acceptance in 6.2 (FGMVY^) and 6.17 (GKXUFGZQOCK), and the fear of God motivating a proper conduct in 5.11 and 7.1.134 Having established a strong case for authenticity of the passage, Harris mentions four criteria for determining interpolations:135 (1) ideas alien to the author; (2) evidences of stylistic preferences or linguistic usage uncharacteristic of the author; (3) dissonance with the immediate context; (4) literary dependence (i.e. drawing upon or cohering with some other piece of writing). Harris has demonstrated that the fragment meets the challenge of the criteria (1) and (2) since ideas, stylistic preferences and linguistic usage in the paragraph are also found in other Pauline letters. Likewise, he has demonstrated that what has been argued to have been common only between the fragment and Qumran teaching is also present elsewhere in the Pauline corpus and in the NT – criterion (4).136 Furthermore, other scholars have shown that there are contextual continuity and correspondences between the fragment and its surrounding contexts (Thrall, Webb, Scott, Lambrecht etc. – criterion [3]). While these points would show why the case for its authenticity and original location is gaining wider support in recent scholarship and does appear stronger than other interpolation or non-contextual integration theories, one wonders whether those criteria are strong enough to prevent one from placing the paragraph in other places. For example, it has been noted that Paul mentions a similar issue in 1 Corinthians 8 and 10,137 and it seems the fragment would ¿t rather well into 1 Corinthians 10, more speci¿cally after 10.22. Presenting a case for a non-contextual integration, Gordon Fee contends ‘the passage [2 Cor. 6.14–7.1] makes sense in its present context if one takes seriously its relationship to I Corinthians’.138 It appears that 1 Corinthians 10 and 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 share quite a few close verbal and thematic

133. Cf. Fee, ‘Food’, p.144: ‘[I]t is the nature of Pauline rhetoric to have a sudden inÀux of hapax legomena [see e.g., 1 Cor. 4.7-13; 2 Cor. 6.3-10]’. 134. Citing Thrall, ‘Problem’, p.145. In addition to these, it has to be noted that the textual evidence favours the camp arguing for the authenticity and original location of the fragment. This also applies to other sections of 2 Corinthians like chs. 8–9 and 10–13. 135. Harris, Second Epistle, p.23. 136. Thus Paul’s dependence on Qumran writings cannot be summoned to argue for non-Pauline interpolation, as Fitzmyer does (‘Qumran’, p.217), since the Qumran inÀuence would also emerge elsewhere in Paul, and not just in 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1. 137. Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.475. Cf. Fee, ‘Food’, p.161: ‘One can scarcely deny its linguistic and conceptual af¿nities both with I Cor. iii. 16-17 and x. 14-22’. See also Hughes, Second Epistle, p.252. 138. Fee, ‘Food’, p.143. 1

110

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

correspondences. Here we repeat some of Fee’s bases for arguing for the close links between the two passages.139 Paul asks, ‘For what partnership (OGVQEJ) is there between righteousness and lawlessness [2 Cor. 6.14b]?’ This question expects a negative answer and the reason is because ‘there is one bread, we who are many are one body, for we all partake (OGVGEQOGP) of the one bread [1 Cor. 10.17]’. This also means that there must be no participation at the table of demons: ‘You cannot drink the cup of the Lord and the cup of demons. You cannot partake (OGVGEGKP) of the table of the Lord and the table of demons [1 Cor. 10.21].’ Because the cup and the bread they take is a sharing (MQKPYPKC) in the blood and body of Christ (1 Cor. 10.16), the Corinthians should not be ‘partners (MQKPYPQWL) with demons’ (1 Cor. 10.20). Hence Paul asks: ‘what fellowship (MQKPYPKC) is there between light and darkness [2 Cor. 6.14c]?’ Furthermore, the rhetorical questions in 2 Cor. 6.14b-16a are followed by a catena of OT texts to strengthen the point. We have observed that the catena betrays the themes of new covenant and return, which make use of the language of the ¿rst exodus. This appears to tie in nicely with 1 Cor. 10.1-13, in which Paul clearly refers to the incidents related to the ¿rst exodus (Exod. 32.1-6). Having referred to the trouble the ¿rst exodus generation brought upon themselves, it would be natural for Paul to refer to the prophets who warned and pleaded with the Israelites to abandon idolatry and return to their God (cf. the quotation of LXX Isa. 52.11 and LXX Ezek. 20.34 in 6.17). Given these verbal and thematic resemblances, it seems that placing the fragment after 1 Cor. 10.22 would meet the demands of the criteria Harris has mentioned. Criteria (1), (2), and (4) are met by default, and the brief overview of the context of 1 Corinthians 10 above seems to suggest that there is not much dissonance between 1 Corinthians 10 and 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1. Perhaps one could argue that to posit a hypothetical insertion of a section into another place, such as above, cannot be done where the recipients are the same. However, there do not seem to be good grounds to exclude letters sent to the same recipients. While we maintain the authenticity and original location of the fragment, we wonder whether the criteria for determining interpolation are good enough to bolster the case for the original location of the passage since the criteria appear to be met even when 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 is inserted, as an experiment, into another place in the Pauline corpus.

7.6 Given the heavy concentration of the OT citations and allusions in the previous sections, 2 Cor. 7.2-16 appears to be a ‘cool down’ section where references and allusions to the OT are largely suspended. Nevertheless, there are a few indicators that Paul is still working with Scripture.

1

139.

Fee, ‘Food’, p.145.

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

111

Table 3.5 2 Cor. 7.6

CXNN8 QB RCTCMCNYP VQWL VCRGKPQWL RCTGMCNGUGP JBOCL QB SGQL GXP VJ^ RCTQWUKC^ 6KVQW But God, who consoles the downcast, consoled us by the arrival of Titus

LXX

Isa. 49.13140

MT

GWXHTCKPGUSG QWXTCPQK  MCK CXICNNKCUSY JB IJ TBJZCVYUCP VC QTJ GWXHTQUWPJP Q=VK JXNGJUGP QB SGQL VQP NCQP CWXVQW  MCK VQWL VCRGKPQWL VQW NCQW CWXVQW RCTGMCNGUGP.  Rejoice, O heavens, and let the earth be glad; let the mountains break forth with joy, because God has had mercy on his people and he has comforted the humble of his people.

Isa. 49.13

UD \OL\J,Z!a\,PY :1U a\U,K :[FSL:(:[FS\,) KZK\!a[Q,\.LK1U, a[HU\!Z@Z$0>

Sing for joy, O heavens, and exult, O earth; break forth, O mountains, into singing! For the LORD has comforted his people, and will have compassion on his suffering ones.

* Verbal matches underlined.

In mentioning the comfort God has given to him at a time of restlessness and afÀiction (7.15), Paul adopts a few words from LXX Isa. 49.13.141 The word VCRGKPQL and its cognates occur many times in the OT, but the presence of the words SGQL and RCTCMCNGY in its vicinity is seen only in LXX Isa. 49.13. Besides, Paul has already quoted a text from LXX Isa. 49.8 in 2 Cor. 6.2, which greatly increases the chance that Paul is alluding to Isaiah here. Moreover, the theme of divine comfort is scattered throughout the latter parts of Isaiah and often comes with the promises of salvation (51.12; 57.15, 18; 61.1-2; cf. Jer. 31.13). It appears then that Paul is consciously alluding to the theme of divine comfort within the context of eschatological restoration. Since he is already living in the time of ful¿lment of the promises, he has no trouble in drawing out the salvi¿c implications of the promises and applying them to a particular time and situation of his life. Although the way God comforted Paul was through the arrival of Titus (7.6) and the news Titus brought about the Corinthians (7.7), Paul appears to see that as a part and parcel of the eschatological comfort. Thus the theme of afÀiction that is 140. 141. p.153. 1

S* and a few minuscules add MCKQKBDQWPQKFKMCKQUWPJP after GWXHTQUWPJP. The allusion to LXX Isa. 49.13 is also noted by NA27 and Wilk, ‘Isaiah’,

112

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

always accompanied by divine power and comfort continues to run through this letter (cf. 1.3-11; 4.7-18; 6.4-10). Those who were well informed in Scripture could have heard a faint echo of the promises of the prophet Isaiah. It may have been dif¿cult to notice the allusion because Paul does not indicate it. If they noticed the link, however, they could probably see how Paul is constantly placing his life in the light of the eschatological now. Those who are not well versed in the Scriptures would have missed the allusion here. Though the presence of divine comfort in the midst of Paul’s afÀiction is conspicuous from Paul’s statement itself, they would not have noticed the eschatological hope cushioning that particular comfort Paul had. By alluding to the Isaianic text, Paul is identifying himself with the people of God, who are comforted in the context of the eschatological renewal. The fact that Paul is able to allude to the text when the issues at hand seem unrelated to the text other than by the theme of ‘comfort’ suggests that Paul often interprets his own situation in light of the eschatological hopes that have become a reality for him and his congregation in Christ. 7.15-16 It has been noted by NA27 that there is an allusion to Ps. 2.11 in 2 Cor. 7.15-16. In telling the Corinthians about how Titus had felt that he was welcomed and accepted in Corinth, Paul uses the expression ‘fear and trembling’. This phrase is a Pauline expression found in just four places in the NT: 2 Cor. 7.15 (1 Cor. 2.3 [GXP HQDY^ MCK GXP VTQOY^]; Eph. 6.5 [OGVC HQDQW MCK VTQOQW]; Phil. 2.12 [OGVC HQDQW MCK VTQOQW]; cf. Mk 5.33, which has verbal forms of the words).142 Table 3.6 2 Cor. 7.15-16 15MCK

VC URNCIEPC CWXVQW RGTKUUQVGTYL GKXL WBOCL GXUVKP CXPCOKOPJ^UMQOGPQW VJP RCPVYP WBOYP WBRCMQJP YBL OGVC HQDQW MCK VTQOQW GXFGZCUSG CWXVQP. 16ECKTY Q=VK GXP RCPVK SCTTY GXP WBOKP.

1

142.

LXX

Ps. 2.11

FQWNGWUCVG VY^ MWTKY^ GXP HQDY^ MCK CXICNNKCUSG CWXVY^ GXP VTQOY^. 

MT

Ps. 2.11

KD U!\,%KZK\!WD:GE>L KG> U!%L:O\J,Z!

It seems GXP and OGVC are interchangeable for Paul in this case.

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16 15

And his heart goes out all the more to you, as he remembers the obedience of all of you, and how you welcomed him with fear and trembling. 16I rejoice, because I have complete con¿dence in you.

Be subject to the Lord with fear, And rejoice in him with trembling.

113 Serve the LORD with fear, with trembling

* Verbal matches underlined.

It is not immediately clear why this verse has been noted as an alluded text, but the verbal correspondences might just direct one to af¿rm the connection with slightly more con¿dence. Apart from the obvious HQDQL and VTQOQL that both texts share, there are less obvious links between WBRCMQJP and FQWNGWUCVG, and between ECKTY and CXICNNKCUSG. One cannot be certain, but these verbal correspondences at least raise the possibility of the echo. The combination of HQDQL and VTQOQL in the LXX has various referents. They are said to be present in: all creatures toward human beings (Gen. 9.2); human toward God (Exod. 15.16; Ps. 2.11; Isa. 19.16); human toward human under God’s care (Deut. 2.25; 11.25); human toward human (Ps. 54.6). Except for Phil. 2.12, Paul uses the expression to refer to the ‘inter-human’ phenomenon. Paul came to the Corinthians in fear and trembling (1 Cor. 2.3), commands slaves to obey their earthly masters likewise (Eph. 6.5), and describes the Corinthians’ reception of Titus in the same terms (2 Cor. 7.15). It has to be noted, however, that the ‘fear and trembling’ Paul envisages between persons are likely to have ‘a Godward orientation’ since it is out of the fear of and a sense of responsibility to God that such fear and trembling take place.143 This is what Paul probably means if he has Ps. 2.11 in mind. It is the awareness of being subject to the Lord that conditions one’s action.144 It cannot be ascertained whether those who were familiar with Scripture would have noticed the echo, let alone those who were less competent. Because the echo is subtle, if indeed it is there, it does not affect one’s understanding of the basic meaning at all, and the hearers could follow what Paul is saying at this point without dif¿culty. 143. Harris, Second Epistle, p.552. 144. In recounting the story at the Garden after the Fall, Apoc. Adam 1.11 reads: ‘Then we recognized the God who created us, for we were not strangers to his powers, and we served him in fear and subjection’. 1

114

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

If Paul had this verse in mind, the identi¿cation would be between God and Titus, and also between God and Paul’s con¿dence in the Corinthians. Clearly the identi¿cation does not work too well since there is only a loose borrowing of the idea of fear and trembling, which is then mixed in with other things, rendering the echo dif¿cult to recognize as it stands. Conclusion In this chapter we have observed that the themes associated with the eschatological renewal – especially return and new covenant motifs – continue to exert inÀuence on Paul’s statements in this section. The catena of quotations (6.16d-18), which is a product of a conscious integration of various OT texts, suggests that Paul is working with a ‘big picture’ and appears to be more interested in major themes than in exact references, although this is not to deny the importance of locating the source texts. The continuation of the Isaianic themes of return and restoration in 2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 adds more weight to the claim that the section is both authentic and integral to Paul’s argument here. It also suggests that Paul’s use of the OT is not a haphazard fusion of prooftexts, but a conscious and integrated work of citation that reÀects consistent and coherent themes of the Jewish sacred writings. It is to be noted again that the basic thrust of Paul’s point is clear since Paul is using the quotations in a rhetorical way even as he brings the scriptural themes into play. The catena of citations (6.16d-18) comes towards the climax of his plea and drives home his point with scriptural authority and power. Even if the audience could not recognise the full scriptural voices of the catena, the promise and welcoming note would not be dif¿cult to miss. Paul’s concatenation of passages from the law and the prophets suggests that the new covenant which is the ful¿lment of the promise of the eschatological restoration is in continuity with the Sinai Covenant on the one hand and in discontinuity with it on the other as the promise includes the Gentiles as well. The application of the passages from the Jewish Scriptures to the Corinthians together with the constant references to and conscious use of the terminologies of the exodus makes it clear that the Gentile community is also among the bene¿ciaries of the new covenant, thus identifying the Corinthians with ‘Israel’ once again. We have seen the idea of ‘corporate identity’ emerge as well. The extension of the Davidic promise (2 Kgdms 7) to include the entire community of the new covenant and the mention of the temple imagery indicate that Paul is associating the new covenant community very 1

3. 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.16

115

closely with Jesus Christ, the Davidic heir. This is a further support for our contention in the previous chapter that Paul is identifying the Corinthians with ‘the Servant’ whose role has been perfectly carried out by Jesus Christ. This sense of corporate identity, which is made possible through Jesus ful¿lling the role of the Servant and the Davidic promise, encourages and comforts the believers at a time of trouble (2 Cor. 7.6), and leads them to treat one another with respect like that given to God himself (2 Cor. 7.15).

1

Chapter 4

2 CORINTHIANS 8 AND 9

The debate about the original location or otherwise of sections of 2 Corinthians also concerns chs. 8–9. Whatever theory one attempts to maintain, however, Paul’s authorship of the chapters is not disputed. Thus, the issue of whether chs. 8 and 9 were separate or which section it was sent with does not really concern the present discussion as we are examining how Paul read and used Scripture. Though establishing the unity of 2 Corinthians may be useful in tracing Paul’s development of thought in alluding and citing the Scriptures, it does not seriously affect the following analyses of Paul’s use of Scripture.1 Chapters 8 and 9 deal with the issue of the collection for the saints in Jerusalem, and thus it would be helpful to look at them together. Paul starts off the section by reminding the Corinthians of God’s grace given to the Macedonians, which led them to share more than they could legitimately give by offering themselves ¿rst to God (8.1-5). This emphasis on the grace of God followed by the generous giving of the believers appears to be the pattern of Paul’s argument in these chapters. Just as the grace of God enabled the Macedonians to share the little they had, so also the grace of Jesus Christ in his becoming poor for the sake of his people (8.9) should result in willing generosity on the Corinthians’ part. Paul is deliberately comparing the Corinthians with the Macedonians to encourage their contribution to the collection as they have promised (8.10-11). He is asking only for what they can afford (8.12; 9.7). He is obviously concerned about how this project might look to the people (8.20-21), and hence, is sending brothers who are enthusiastic, zealous, and praised by all the churches. To make his appeal more appealing, he has already boasted about the eagerness and enthusiasm of the Corinthians (9.2; cf. 8.24). He is also giving them an incentive to contribute by referring to the general principle of reaping and sowing (9.6) and reminding them of God’s overÀowing grace and abundance on 1. See Betz, 2 Corinthians, pp.3–27, for a helpful survey of various proposals on the partition theory.

4. 2 Corinthians 8 and 9

117

cheerful givers (9.8-11). Not only that, people will give thanks to God for the generosity (9.12) in their prayers for the Corinthians because of the surpassing grace given to them (9.13-14), which also leads Paul to exclaim, ‘Thanks be to God for his indescribable gift!’ (9.15). Having sketched a brief outline of the section, we are now ready to turn to the relevant passages to examine the citations and allusions. 8.12 Table 4.1 2 Cor. 8.12

Tob. 4.8

27

OJ CXRQUEJ^ GW RQKGKP GXPFGJ JBPKMC C P GEJ^ JB EGKT UQW DQJSGKP 28 OJ GKRJL GXRCPGNSYP GXRCPJMG MCK CWTKQP FYUY FWPCVQW UQW QPVQL GW RQKGKP QWX ICT QKFCL VK VGZGVCK JB GXRKQWUC

GKX ICT JB RTQSWOKC RTQMGKVCK MCSQ GXCP GEJ^ GWXRTQUFGMVQL QWX MCSQ QWXM GEGK

YBL UQK WBRCTEGK MCVC VQ RNJSQL RQKJUQP GXZ CWXVYP GXNGJOQUWPJP> GXCP QXNKIQP UQK WBRCTEJ^ MCVC VQ QXNKIQP OJ HQDQW RQKGKP GXNGJOQUWPJP>

27

For if the eagerness is there, the gift is acceptable according to what one has, not according to what one does not have.

If you have abundant possessions, give alms from them accordingly; if you have a little, do not be afraid to give alms according to that little.

LXX

Prov. 3.27-282



Do not withhold to do good to the needy, when your hand can help. 28 Do not say ‘Go; come back, and tomorrow I will give’, when you are able to do good, for you do not know what the next day will bring.

On the basis of what Christ has done (v. 9), Paul goes on to instruct the Corinthians to do likewise and complete what they desired to do (v. 10) according to their means (v. 11). He repeats this principle of giving according to one’s means to persuade the Corinthians to contribute to the collection without giving too much pressure. In the process Paul may be alluding to Scripture. It has been suggested that there are allusions to Prov. 3.27-28 and Tob. 4.8 in this verse.3 2. The LXX and the MT agree, but the LXX adds QWX ICT QKFCL VK VGZGVCK JB GXRKQWUC at the end of v. 28. 3. Furnish, II Corinthians, p.419. Yet no commentators seem to discuss this further. Harris (Second Epistle, p.587 n.70), Thrall (II Corinthians, vol. 2, p.538 n.224), and Plummer (Second Corinthians, p.244) mention Tob. 4.8 without

1

118

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

While there are no verbal links between the texts, there seem to be certain thematic correspondences. Proverbs 3.27-28 commands the readers to help the needy when they are able to do so and not delay the helping hand. This seems to ¿nd its distant echo in the expression MCSQ GXCP GEJ^ of 2 Cor. 8.12. Other than this, however, it is dif¿cult to see how Paul might be alluding to this passage.4 On the other hand, Tob. 4.8 seems to have a closer link to Paul’s mention of proportionate giving. Though the idea of RTQSWOKC which occurs throughout chs. 8 and 9 (8.11, 12, 19; 9.2; cf. 9.7) is absent in Tob. 4.8, there appear to be general similarities between Tob. 4.5-11 and Paul’s appeal. Tobit encourages his son to remember the Lord and his commandments all the days of his life and to live righteously (v. 5). Success is promised to those who practise righteousness (FKMCKQUWPJ) by giving alms to the poor (vv. 6-7). He is encouraged not to begrudge when giving alms or turn away from helping them for God will turn his face away from him (v. 7). He should give proportionately according to what he has (v. 8). By doing so he will be storing up treasure for the ‘day of necessity’ (v. 9) and will even be delivered from death (v. 10). Besides, almsgiving is an excellent offering in the presence of the Most High (v. 11). The ‘day of necessity’ (v. 9; JBOGTCP CXPCIMJL) may correspond to 2 Cor. 8.13-14, where Paul says that the giving is a matter of fair balance between the Corinthians’ present abundance and the need in Jerusalem. This means the fair balance will also be kept when the Corinthians are in need and the believers in Jerusalem are in abundance. Thus one of the bene¿ts of almsgiving mentioned in Tob. 4.9 that by almsgiving one is storing up treasure for the ‘day of necessity’ may be seen to have some similarity to 2 Cor. 8.13-14. These similarities between the two texts do not necessarily suggest, however, that Paul had only this passage of Tobit in mind when he was composing his appeal since similar themes are also found in Deuteronomy. One is encouraged to give generously without a grudging

commenting on it. Barnett (Second Epistle, p.413 n.53) simply asserts that Paul’s words here echo Tob. 4.8. Betz (2 Coritnhians, p.66 n.215) notes Tob. 4.8, Prov. 3.27-28, and Sir. 4.31. Sir. 4.31 reads: OJ GUVY JB EGKT UQW GXMVGVCOGPJ GKXL VQ NCDGKP MCK GXP VY^ CXRQFKFQPCK UWPGUVCNOGPJ (‘Do not let your hand be extended to receive and withdrawn when paying back’). Other than the general idea of willingness to give, there does not seem to be any link between the text and 2 Cor. 9.12. 4. Pseudo-Phocylides 22 alludes to Prov. 3.27-29. ‘Give to the poor man at once, and do not tell him to come tomorrow’ (RVYEY^ F’ GWXSW FKFQW OJ F’ CW TKQP GXNSGOGP GKRJL). It seems to be a simple paraphrase of the Proverbs passage. It is the ¿rst sentence of the section on showing mercy to the needy and strangers. 1

4. 2 Corinthians 8 and 9

119

heart (15.10, 14) and according to the blessing God has bestowed (16.17), and such generosity will result in God’s blessing in all the work (14.19). It seems then that the theme of proportionate giving is a general motif and one may not need to posit a speci¿c scriptural allusion. Philo’s use of the same principle in Her. 145 is also seemingly without any allusion to speci¿c scriptural texts and can also be seen as general allusion to Scripture.5 Thus it is not clear whether Paul intended to allude to a speci¿c scriptural passage at this point. It has to be noted here that Paul is using the word GWXRTQUFGMVQL (‘acceptable’), which is also used in 6.2,6 where he uses the word in conjunction with the ‘now’ of the promise of salvation. Just as ‘now’ is the acceptable (GWXRTQUFGMVQL) time for the Corinthians to return to God, so the divine favour of salvation should be accompanied by acts of obedience acceptable (GWXRTQUFGMVQL) to God from those who have bene¿ted from that acceptance. This seems to suggest that Paul is thinking of giving as a natural act Àowing from one’s status of being reconciled to the Creator. It seems Paul is using a catchword that is used elsewhere in relation to salvi¿c reconciliation to bear upon an aspect of everyday life. That is why Paul ¿rst mentions the example of Jesus Christ becoming ‘poor’ for the sake of the Corinthians so that they may become ‘rich’ in 8.9 before giving his instruction to follow the example by giving what they can and contribute to the collection. Hence almsgiving is seen as a natural act coming from the believers’ participation in the salvation made possible by Jesus Christ. 8.15 After encouraging the Corinthians to give according to what they have, Paul puts an emphasis in vv. 13-15 on the concept of equality (KXUQVJL), which was one of the basic notions in both Greek and Hellenistic thought.7 Paul is not asking that they contribute while they suffer from their own need, but that there might be equality among God’s people (vv. 13-14). Then Paul cites a scriptural text to support his plea for equality. It is signalled by the quotation formula MCSYL IGITCRVCK. Given the verbal correspondences noted in Table 4.2, one can conclude that Paul is quoting LXX Exod. 16.18b with minor changes: (1) placement of the phrase (QB VQ RQNW) at the beginning of the sentence,

1

5. See also Str-B 3.523 for the principle of proportionate giving in Judaism 6. The word occurs in Rom. 15.16, 31; 2 Cor. 6.2; 9.12; and 1 Pet. 2.5. 7. See Gustav Stählin’s article ‘KUQL MVN’, in TDNT, vol. 3, pp.343–52.

120

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

and (2) the use of QXNKIQP in place of GNCVVQP.8 There are three possible causes for the changes. First, they could have been the result of Paul’s memory lapse of the exact phrase, but there is no way to prove this. Second, Paul might have been using a different version of the Greek translation. The Greek OT word order as Paul quotes it corresponds exactly with the MT word order. Hence it could be argued that the reversal of the order is the result of scribal inÀuence that attempted to assimilate the Greek translation towards the Hebrew text.9 Thus the change is seen to be present in the Greek Vorlage Paul is quoting from. Yet there are no early witnesses to LXX that contain such changes. Hence, thirdly, it seems likely that Paul has modi¿ed the text.10 The LXX witnesses that have the same word order as 2 Cor. 8.15 are then probably the result of assimilation to Paul’s citation.11 If Paul has modi¿ed the text, then the purpose of the shift of the subject to the fore is not for emphasis but for creating a parallelism between the two sentences in the quoted text by imposing the same order of words.12

8. Stanley (Language, p.231) notes in addition the omission of the ¿rst sentence (MCK OGVTJUCPVGL VY^ IQOQT) as one of the changes Paul has made to the text. But if one were to count such omission as a part of the editorial hand, the omission of the last sentence (G=MCUVQL GKXL VQWL MCSJMQPVCL RCT8 GBCWVY^ UWPGNGZCP) should be noted as well. Unless the omission is from within the quoted text, it does not seem necessary to add omissions in the list of modi¿cations made to the original since one does not generally quote the whole thing. 9. Commenting on the transpositions present in the Byzantine text in general, Wevers asserts that ‘[i]n no case has the change been made because of the Hebrew’; see J. W. Wevers, Text History of the Greek Exodus (AAWG; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1992), p.58. 10. E. Kautzsch, De Veteris Testamenti locis a Paulo Apostolo allegatis (Leipzig: Metzger & Wittig, 1869), p.20 (cited by Stanley, Language, p.231) contends that the participle at the beginning of the verse (OGVTJUCPVGL) requires that the main verb precede QB VQ RQNW. Yet it is not clear as to why that has to be the case since Greek does not require a verb to precede or to follow its subject. 11. Stanley, Language, p.231. Stanley notes the LXX witnesses that agree with Paul: minuscules (n 318 799), the Armenian and Boharic Coptic versions, and a quote from Cyril. 12. So Koch, Schrift, p.108. Cf. Stanley, Language, pp.231–2. Paul reversed the order ‘to create a better parallel with his own more natural expression of the same point in v. 14’. 1

4. 2 Corinthians 8 and 9

121

Table 4.2 2 Cor. 8.15 MCSYL IGITCRVCK   QB VQ RQNW QWXM GXRNGQPCUGP  MCK QB VQ QXNKIQP QWXM JXNCVVQPJUGP    As it is written, ‘The one who had much did not have too much, and the one who had little did not have too little’.

LXX

Exod. 16.18

MT

Exod. 16.18

 MCK OGVTJUCP VY^ IQOQT QWXM GXRNGQPCUGP QB VQ RQNW MCK QB VQ GNCVVQP QWXM JXNCVVQPJUGP> G=MCUVQL GKXL VQWL MCSJMQPVCL RCT8 GBCWVY^ UWPGNGZCP.

DO^Z!UP>RE :'PRLP0KZ!K%U!0K#\',>K Y\DLU\VL[KDO^ :MTO $OND \SLO

And they measured by the gomor. The one with much did not have excess, and the one with less did not have too little. Each person collected for those appropriate at his own home.

But when they measured it with an omer, those who gathered much had nothing over, and those who gathered little had no shortage; they gathered as much as each of them needed.

* Verbal correspondences between 2 Cor. 8.15 and LXX Exod.16.18 underlined.

The use of QXNKIQP for GNCVVQP seems more ambiguous as to its origin. The ¿rst corrector of the uncial A and two minuscules (126 and 413) are the only LXX witnesses that have QXNKIQP for GNCVVQP.14 Although it is possible for these witnesses to have been inÀuenced by 2 Cor. 8.15, one cannot exclude the possibility that the witnesses together with Paul are dependent upon a lost version that has QXNKIQP for GNCVVQP. The scribes might have intended to correct the imbalance caused by the use of an absolute form (RQNW, ‘much’) and a comparative form (GNCVVQP, ‘less’) by substituting the comparative with an absolute (QXNKIQP, ‘little’).15 If Paul had made the change, the intended effect seems to have been to highlight the poverty of the poor in Jerusalem. While the Corinthians have much (RQNW), the needy saints of Jerusalem have ‘little’ (QXNKIQP) and not just 13. The Greek text follows the Hebrew closely. Philo also quotes the same text in Her. 191 where manna is allegorized as wisdom. 14. Stanley (Language, p.232) notes in addition Philo’s quotation of the same verse as having QXNKIQP without giving the reference. Philo does quote Exod. 16.18 in Her. 191 and nowhere else, but his quotation actually has the same word GNCVVQP as the LXX instead of QXNKIQP, which is a variant noted in the apparatus. 15. Stanley, Language, p.233. 1

122

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

‘less’ (GNCVVQP).16 Although the evidence is not conclusive, it seems that Paul would have had no problem in substituting the word here as he has already shown that he could adapt the Scripture by changing the word order. Even if he did not replace the word, he is nonetheless responsible for quoting the text. He has chosen to use the text in its current form at this point to support his plea regardless of whether he made the changes to the verse. Whoever is responsible for the presence of the different word, the basic thrust remains virtually the same and Paul’s point is clear enough as he has already spelled out his position in the preceding verses that there should be a fair balance between the Corinthians and the saints in Jerusalem (vv. 13-14). While it is obvious that Paul is citing Scripture, he does not explain further what he intends by citing the text. There are those who argue that there is only verbal resemblance, but not that of content.17 However, the brief quotation appears to assume the familiarity of the story on the part of the audience who is having to ¿ll in the details.18 Even Christopher Stanley, who questions the general ability of the Gentile audience to understand Paul’s biblical citation,19 admits that Paul expects the audience to be familiar with the story of the divine food supply for the Israelites in the wilderness.20 P. E. Hughes argues that the Corinthians must have been familiar with the story on the basis of changes made to the original text,21 but there is no indication that Paul expects the Corinthians to know the story on that basis. The short quotation by Paul not only assumes the Corinthians’ familiarity with the manna story, but also expects them to recognize the power of Paul’s plea. Because there were some Corinthians who were questioning Paul’s apostolic authority and authenticity, Paul is careful to make his argument and appeal as convincing as possible. There appears 16. Cf. Harris, Second Epistle, p.593. 17. E.g. F. Fisher, Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians (Waco, TX: Word, 1975), p.383. 18. So also Harris, Second Epistle, p.594; J. W. McCant, 2 Corinthians (Shef¿eld: Shef¿eld Academic, 1999), p.86. 19. Stanley, Arguing with Scripture. See Abasciano (‘Diamonds’) who challenges these foundational contentions. 20. Stanley, Language, p.231. It is of interest to note that Stanley leaves out 2 Cor. 9.15 from his discussion in his later work, Arguing with Scripture. One suspects it is omitted because Paul appears to expect a certain level familiarity with the Scripture on the part of the Corinthians and this would undermine Stanley’s contention that the Gentile audience was unlikely to understand Paul’s quotations other than the rhetorical force brought by them. 21. Hughes, Second Epistle, p.307 n.33. 1

4. 2 Corinthians 8 and 9

123

to be no better way to persuade the Gentile congregation than to appeal to Scripture which rings the same note as Paul’s statements. However, the knowledge of the original story does not automatically lead to unanimous understanding of its signi¿cance, as scholars who are familiar with the narrative differ in their inference of the meaning. Victor Furnish, for example, argues that the context of the Exodus passage suggests that the resources should be gathered.22 However, even as Paul wants there to be KXUQVJL by sharing the resources at hand with the needy, it is dif¿cult to see how the emphasis on ‘gathering’ leads to such KXUQVJL. Rather, the emphasis of Exodus 16 seems to be not on the imperative to gather, but on how one gathers, i.e., whether one gathers as God had instructed them (Exod. 16.4). Others would read the passage with christological lenses. A. T. Hanson argues, for instance, that Paul is ‘showing that God in Christ acted with Israel of old in essentially the same way as he acts among Christians in Paul’s own day’ and that Paul is viewing the manna incident as a type of God’s self-giving in grace, which is to be reproduced in the Christian communities.23 While we do not disagree with this statement in principle, it seems Hanson is imposing upon this verse his reading of John 6 where manna is contrasted with the living bread that came down from heaven.24 In contrast to Hanson, scholars like Ralph Martin adopt a minimalist stance by maintaining that the story is used illustratively with no christological or eschatological meaning.25 Given these differing interpretations, it seems good to focus on the actual narrative in which the quotation rests and discern, if there is any, the similar pattern or principle that is being called upon. As we have mentioned in passing, the emphasis seems to lie on whether the ancient Israelites gathered manna according to God’s instruction. The whole community was told to gather what is enough for the day, an omer for each person (16.4, 16) and was commanded not to leave anything until the next morning (v. 19). Yet there were some Israelites who kept part of the manna until the next day only to ¿nd that it went bad (v. 20), and some who went out to gather on the Sabbath even though they were told that there would be none (v. 27). Thus some of the Israelites were greedy, disobedient and, more importantly, disbelieving about God’s promise for daily provision. 22. Furnish, II Corinthians, p.408. 23. A. T. Hanson, Studies in Paul’s Technique and Theology (London: SPCK, 1974), p.176. 24. Hanson, Technique, p.176. 25. Martin, 2 Corinthians, p.267. Martin contends that there is ‘no inference drawn out concerning the Church as the new Israel sustained by manna on her journey in via’. 1

124

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

God had chosen to provide the Israelites with what they needed to show once again that he is their God: ‘At twilight you shall eat meat, and in the morning you shall have your ¿ll of bread; then you shall know that I am the LORD your God’ (v. 12). More speci¿cally, Moses and Aaron comment: ‘In the evening you shall know that it was the LORD who brought you out of the land of Egypt, and in the morning you shall see the glory of the LORD…’ (vv. 6b-7a). In other words, the divine provision is designed to remind the Israelites of the presence of their God, who was the driving force behind the exodus from Egypt and is continuing to provide for his people even now. Yet at the same time God wants to test them to see if they would follow his instruction (v. 4). The Lord of Israel, who is with his people, wants obedient response from his people. Coming after and coupled with the manna story is the observance of the Sabbath. The people are commanded to gather double the amount on the previous day. Though there were some who went out to gather on the Sabbath, they were reminded of God’s instruction again and eventually all came to rest on the seventh day. From this Richard Hays argues that ‘the whole story becomes – within the text of Exodus – a legendary example story that seeks to reinforce Sabbath observance’.26 However, even within the section that mentions the Sabbath there is the same concern for people’s obedience. Seeing that some Israelites went out to gather on the Sabbath, God says, ‘How long will you refuse to keep my commandments and instructions?’ (v. 28). Important though it is, Sabbath observance does not appear to be the goal of the story. Rather, the purpose of the story, which is spelled out throughout the chapter, is to exhort the audience to obey God’s instructions. This is made clear from the outset in v. 4, which states God is testing them to see if the Israelites would follow God’s direction. Sabbath keeping comes as an expression of that obedience in association with manna gathering. Therefore we would argue that the main point of the story lies in the faithfulness of the God of Israel who is present among his people and is waiting to see obedient responses from his people.27 Thus by alluding to the story of manna collection, Paul reminds the Corinthians that their abundance comes from God, who wants to see his people follow his ways by, in this instance, sharing their possessions with those in need. Because God is a faithful God and is present among his people, hoarding is an expression of unbelief in God who is more 26. Hays, Echoes, p.89. 27. Cf. Deut. 9.2–3 where manna is interpreted as a metaphor for God’s word. See Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation, pp.327–9, for an examination of how Deut. 8 makes use of the tradition.

1

4. 2 Corinthians 8 and 9

125

than able to provide for those who trust him (cf. 2 Cor. 9.8-12).28 So, if the Corinthians truly believe their God, they have no excuse but to help toward the collection since refusing to contribute is an implicit way of expressing their greed and their unbelief in God who meets the daily needs of his people who trust in him. In the wilderness it was God himself who made sure that there was equality by meeting every need of his people. Whether one gathered much or little, it did not matter. The God of Israel acted in such a way that the need of every one of his people was met. However, in the new covenant era, it is the people of God who are called to follow the divine example by making sure there is equality among God’s people.29 The divine provision which was a sign of divine presence is now expected to be manifested through the new covenant people. Likewise the Corinthians are urged to take on the role of God in extending the divine grace which has already been poured down on them. They are not mere bene¿ciaries of God’s grace as in the manna story, but are also called to perform that ‘miracle’. Here we see again in this verse that the introductory formula does not necessarily guarantee verbatim quotation of the original. Odd as it seems to readers today, it does not appear to have been a problem to the recipients of the letter and indeed to Paul as well. Such adaptation of the language of Scripture to reÀect one’s own interpretation of a given passage appears to have been the norm in Paul’s day.30 Yet in this case such modi¿cation does not alter the basic thrust of the passage cited. It has to be pointed out that even though Paul is quoting a text, he is not con¿ned by the quotation. Rather, Paul expects his audience to be familiar with the story and points to the larger narrative from which the quotation comes. Hence minor changes in the actual quotation do not appear to be signi¿cant for Paul since it is the larger story he wants to bring into play here. Yet, at the same time, he quotes the Scripture at the close of a section to strengthen his point. This rhetorical move has been observed in the preceding chapters.31 Though this is not always the case, 28. Hays, Echoes, p.90. 29. Cf. Harris, Second Epistle, p.594; Belleville, 2 Corinthians, p.224. 30. Cf. Stanley, Language of Scripture; idem, ‘The Social Environment of “Free” Biblical Quotations in the New Testament’, in Evans and Sanders (eds.), Early Christian Interpretation, pp.18–27. 31. See, e.g., 5.11–6.2, where Paul’s appeal to the Corinthians to be reconciled to God builds up from his defence (vv. 11, 13) to the message of reconciliation (vv. 19–20) ending with his appeal with a quotation from Isa. 49.8 in 6.2. Similarly, Paul urges the Corinthians in 6.14–7.1 not to participate in practices associated with idols 1

126

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

it shows that Paul is able to use Scripture rhetorically even as the larger narrative of Scripture is called upon. Some of the Corinthians who were familiar with the story would have understood Paul’s point as we have done. Yet some would have picked up different aspects of the story just as there are different readings today. We would contend, however, that most of them who recognized the story would have sensed a divine imperative to share in one way or the other regardless of different interpretations at which they might have arrived. Some would also notice that the command is not just to share, but to reenact the divine miracle themselves simply by sharing with what they have been blessed. Those who were less competent with Scripture would not have noticed the underlying theme of God’s faithfulness and the call for obedience in response. It is unlikely that they would have become aware of the implicit exhortation to follow the divine example, but they would not have missed the note of divine command. Even though they might not recall the story, they would still be able to understand that God would somehow use their offering and make sure that the needs are met. Here we see once again the idea of ‘corporate identity’ which we saw in the previous chapters. Just as Paul applied the Servant song to the Gentile congregation in 2 Cor. 6.2, he is again identifying them with their God. Thus the quotation from Exod. 16.18 not only identi¿es the Corinthians with the Israelites, but, implicitly, also with their Lord by urging them to do the very thing that was done miraculously by the God of Israel. 8.21 Paul is concerned about how others might perceive this project of collection for the needy in Jerusalem. That is why he is sending brothers who are trustworthy (cf. 8.16-19) and are representatives of the churches (8.23). Paul states this concern explicitly in v. 20, where he says that he is taking caution so that no one should blame him and the brothers. Then comes v. 21, with its clear allusion to LXX Prov. 3.4.

since they are the temple of the living God and God dwells among them (v. 16). Paul then cites a catena of scriptural texts (vv. 16c–18) just before making his ¿nal plea in 7.1. Cf. K. J. O’Mahony, Pauline Persuasion: A Sounding in 2 Corinthians 8–9 (JSNTSup 199; Shef¿eld: Shef¿eld Academic, 2000), p.97: ‘Paul regularly closes an argument with a citation from the unassailable authority of Scripture’. 1

4. 2 Corinthians 8 and 9

127

Table 4.3 2 Cor. 8.21  RTQPQQWOGP ICT MCNC  QWX OQPQP GXPYRKQP MWTKQW  CXNNC MCK GXPYRKQP CXPSTYRYP

LXX Prov. 3.4  MCK RTQPQQW MCNC  GXPYRKQP MWTKQW  MCK CXPSTYRYP.

for we intend to do what is right not only in the Lord’s sight but also in the sight of others.

And think of what is noble in the sight of the Lord and of people.

MT

Prov. 3.4

E$MONIHZ![HDF P: aGD Z!a\KLO^D\Q(\>H%

So you will ¿nd32 favour and good repute in the sight of God and of people.

* Verbal correspondences between 2 Cor. 8.21 and LXX Prov. 3.4 underlined.

There is no citation formula that indicates Paul is referring to a scriptural text here, but the verbal connections are hard to dismiss. The use of the words RTQPQGY, MCNQL and the expression GXPYRKQP MWTKQW MCK CXPSTYRYP with some modi¿cation suggests that Paul is at the least borrowing words from this text at this point. He is applying the text to himself and his fellow-workers, which is evident in the shift of the second person singular imperative of LXX Prov. 3.4 (RTQPQQW) to the ¿rst person plural indicative in 2 Cor. 8.21 (RTQPQQWOGP). The Greek MCNC replaces the Hebrew [H (‘favour’) and E$MONIH (‘good understanding’). It seems then Paul is closer to the LXX and there is no sign of assimilation toward the Hebrew text. The expression QWX OQPQP…CXNNC MCK and the repeated use of GXPYRKQP makes it clear that Paul is concerned about what people might think of the collection.33 Even as Paul is seeking to honour the Lord in this project of collection (RTQL VJP VQW MWTKQW FQZCP, 8.19), Paul is also concerned to make sure that there is no dishonesty or fault in administering the gift GXPYRKQP CXPSTYRYP. Betz contends that Paul’s text differs suf¿ciently from LXX Prov. 3.4 and that, because the same rule is also found in Jewish and Christian literature (Pol., Phil. 6.1; Ign., Trall. 8.1; Philo, Ebr. 84; Abot 2.1), Paul cited Scripture indirectly as a proverb.34 If Betz means by this that Paul is 32. The Hebrew DF P is an imperative but with a sense of purpose or result. Thus the NRSV translates it as an indicative rather than as an imperative. Cf. the note under 2 Cor. 9.21 in NET Bible. 33. Cf. Harris, Second Epistle, p.607; Furnish, II Corinthians, p.424. It needs to be noted that Paul refers to LXX Prov. 3.4 also in Rom. 12.17b with the omission of any reference to the Lord. 34. Betz, 2 Corinthians, p.77. 1

128

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

alluding to the passage, it sounds reasonable. But if he means to say, as he seems to imply, that Paul is not conscious of where the proverb comes from, it fails to be convincing, as we shall see below. It has to be pointed out that the preceding verse of LXX Prov. 3.4 strikes the same note as Paul’s main points here. It reads: ‘Let acts of charity (GXNGJOQUWPCK) and loyalty (RKUVGKL) not fail you, rather fasten them on your neck and you will ¿nd favour’. The acts of charity (v. 3) and the concern for people’s view (v. 4) are exactly what Paul is addressing at this point of his appeal. The thematic coherence together with the verbal correspondences with v. 4 (but not v. 3) is too striking to regard it as a coincidence. Thus the verbal connections noted above are not the only evidence for contending that Paul is alluding to Scripture. It is also worth noting that the following verse (LXX Prov. 3.5) starts with the imperative to ‘trust in God with all your heart’, which echoes the command to trust the Lord for provision in the manna story explicitly referred to in 8.15. It appears, then, that 2 Cor. 8.21 resembles LXX Prov. 3.4 and its immediate context suf¿ciently so as to conclude that Paul has this speci¿c verse in mind. Furthermore, Paul’s allusion to the same verse in Rom. 12.17 (RTQPQQWOGPQK MCNC GXPYRKQP RCPVYP CXPSTYRYP) suggests that LXX Prov. 3.4 is engraved in Paul’s mind and that it comes naturally to Paul when he is addressing issues concerned with people’s perspective. Those well versed in Scripture would have recognized the allusion to the Proverbs passage. They would have seen how Paul is trying to live up to the biblical principle of doing what is right in the sight of the people as well as the Lord by sending brothers of good repute to prevent any possibility of misunderstanding in advance. If they picked up the scriptural allusion, they would have seen Paul’s project of collection in a more favourable light. On the other hand, those who did not recognize the allusion would not notice that Paul is doing his best to live out a biblical principle. The force of Paul’s preventive measures would be taken in a less compelling way than it would have been by those who recognized the allusion. Nonetheless Paul’s basic thrust is clear enough as he explains what his intentions are in sending the brothers. In alluding to LXX Prov. 3.4, Paul is consciously applying the text to himself and his co-workers, thus placing himself and them in the shoes of the audience of the proverb. In other words, Paul is identifying himself and his brothers with the addressee of the wisdom and is concerned to heed the command in his enterprise of collecting resources for the Jerusalem saints. 1

4. 2 Corinthians 8 and 9

129

9.6-8 Paul is not only concerned about how other people view the collection, but also about how the Corinthians would appear to the brothers who are to visit and make the gift ready (8.24). Hence, he reminds them again of their pledge to contribute and of their willingness to do so (9.5; cf. 8.1011), concerning which he has boasted to others (9.2). In order that his boast may not be proved hollow, he is urging them to be ready so that their gift would not seem as one grudgingly given, but as one liberally and generously given (9.5). Then, Paul begins 9.6 with the phrase VQWVQ FG, best translated as ‘The point is this’ (RSV, NRSV), and draws our attention to a saying using farming imagery. The GWXNQIKCP–RNGQPGZKCP contrast of v. 5 is picked up by HGKFQOGPYL–GWXNQIKCKL in v. 6 and the repeated GXR8 GWXNQIKCKL looks back to the repeated GWXNQIKCP in v. 5.35 Thus, v. 6 carries on the thought of v. 5 that one should give freely and generously. The imagery of sowing and reaping is a general one, to which we can see similar statements both in Jewish Wisdom36 and Greco-Roman37 literature. For example, LXX Job 4.8 has: MCS8 Q?P VTQRQP GKFQP VQWL CXTQVTKYPVCL VC CVQRC QKB FG URGKTQPVGL CWXVC QXFWPCL SGTKQWUKP GBCWVQKL (‘For instance, I saw those who plow wrongs, and those who sow them reap torments for themselves’). Also, LXX Ps. 40.2 reads: OCMCTKQL QB UWPKYP GXRK RVYEQP MCK RGPJVC GXP JBOGTC^ RQPJTC^> TBWUGVCK CWXVQP QB MWTKQL (‘Happy is he who considers [the] poor and needy; in an evil day the Lord will rescue him’).38 Furthermore, the imagery of sowing and reaping occurs in prophetic literature where its use reveals the current state of those addressed (cf. Hag. 1.6; Isa. 5.10; Jer. 12.13; Mic. 6.15). Hence it may seem impossible and unnecessary to locate the exact reference.39 35. Harris, Second Epistle, p.633. 36. See, e.g., Sir. 7.3 WKBG OJ URGKTG GXR8 CWNCMCL CXFKMKCL MCK QWX OJ SGTKUJ^L CWXVC GBRVCRNCUKYL (‘Son, do not sow in the furrows of injustice, and you will not reap a sevenfold crop’). 37. See, e.g., Aristotle, Rhetoric III, 3.4; Cicero, Orator II, lxv (II 261); Plato, Phaedr. 260C-D. Noted by Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 2, p.575. 38. It is not immediately apparent whether the imagery of sowing and reaping is present. Yet ‘considering the poor’ can be seen as ‘sowing’ to which ‘the deliverance of the Lord in the day of trouble’ comes as ‘reaping’. 39. Cf. Betz, 2 Corinthians, p.104. In Bart B. Bruehler, ‘Proverbs, Persuasion and People: A Three-Dimensional Investigation of 2 Cor 9.6–15’, NTS 48 (2002), pp.209–24 (213), Bruehler points out, ‘Though similar sayings are found both in the LXX and in Greco-Roman literature, no exact match can be found’. Tasker argues that Paul was probably familiar with Jesus’ saying in Lk. 6.38; see R. V. G. Tasker, 2 Corinthians (TNTC; Leicester: IVP, 1958), p.126. But it appears to be rather 1

130

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Yet there appear to be possible candidates. NA27 notes Prov. 11.24 as an allusion: GKXUKP QK? VC KFKC URGKTQPVGL RNGKQPC RQKQWUKP> GKXUKP MCK QK? UWPCIQPVGL GXNCVVQPQWPVCK (‘There are those who by distributing their livelihood increase it, and there are others who gather, yet have less’). The following vv. 25 and 26 also strike a similar note: ‘Every totally sincere person is blessed (GWXNQIQWOGPJ), but an ill-tempered man is not respected. May he who withholds grain leave it to the nations and may a blessing (GWXNQIKC) be on the head of him who shares it’.40 The presence of the words URGKTQPVGL and GWXNQIKC together with certain thematic correspondence suggests that this passage may have been in Paul’s mind. It seems, however, that this passage is not the only place that is alluded to if he is indeed alluding to Scripture. For example, the idea of giving with a willing heart also occurs in Deut. 15.7-11, which deals with helping the needy in the community. Verse 10 is strikingly similar to what Paul says in this part of his letter: Giving, you shall give to him, and you shall lend him a loan whatever he needs, and you shall not be grieved in your heart (QWX NWRJSJUJ^ VJ^ MCTFKC)^ when you give [to] him, because through this thing the Lord your God will bless (GWXNQIJUGK) you in all your works and in all to which you may put your hand.

The phrase OJ GXM NWRJL of 2 Cor. 9.7 is reminiscent of QWX NWRJSJUJ^ VJ^ MCTFKC^ of Deut. 15.10, and both are set in the context of helping one’s people by freely giving. This command to give generously is set in a context of the sabbatical year when all debts are cancelled (vv. 1-3). Although God will richly bless his people if they keep his commandments (vv. 4-5), there will always be poor people among them (v. 11). Thus, they are commanded not to be hard-hearted and tight-¿sted towards their neighbours (v. 7). Their generous giving followed by God’s blessing in v. 10 thus evokes 2 Cor. 9.7-8, which also mentions cheerful and generous giving and God’s abundant grace meeting all the needs of the Corinthians. Furthermore, it is worth noting that the idea of willingness in giving also occurs in contexts where people give their possessions willingly and generously to the Lord, which were to be used in making the Tabernacle far-fetched since Jesus could be making use of the prevalent imagery. Besides, the imagery is used within the context of judging others (Lk. 6.37-42) and has no real connection to the way it is used in 2 Cor. 9.6. 40. The Hebrew version is more explicit. The NRSV renders MT Prov. 11.24-26 thus: ‘Some give freely, yet grow all the richer; others withhold what is due, and only suffer want. A generous person will be enriched, and one who gives water will get water. The people curse those who hold back grain, but a blessing is on the head of those who sell it.’ 1

4. 2 Corinthians 8 and 9

131

(Exod. 25.2; 35.5, 21, 22, 29) and the Temple (1 Chron. 29.3, 6, 9, 17). There are not many verbal correspondences in the Exodus texts, but 1 Chron. 29.6 (RTQGSWOJSJUCP), 9 (RTQSWOJSJPCK, RTQGSWOJSJUCP), 14 (RTQSWOJSJPCK) and 17 (RTQGSWOJSJP, FKMCKQUWPJP, CXICRC^L) are noteworthy. Four concentrated uses of RTQSWOKC in 2 Corinthians 8–9 (elsewhere only in Rom. 1.15 in the Pauline corpus) resonate with its cognate RTQSWOGQOCK in 1 Chronicles 29. Two occurrences of FKMCKQUWPJ (9.9, 10) and the word CXICRCY (9.7) in 2 Corinthians can also be noted in relation to 1 Chron. 29.17. Giving freely to the Lord for building the tabernacle/temple can readily be related to the Corinthians’ giving to the believers in Jerusalem. Having made the connection between believers and the temple of God at least three times to the Corinthians (1 Cor. 3.16; 6.19; 2 Cor. 6.16), it appears that the idea of giving willingly to the Lord for the tabernacle/temple nicely ties in with the exhortation to give freely to the needy saints in Jerusalem who are the Temple of God in the new covenant. Thus, it may not be too far-fetched to argue that this association with the Tabernacle and the Temple could also have been at the back of Paul’s mind. There is, however, a stronger candidate if we were to choose just one source. Table 4.4 2 Cor. 9.6-8  6

QB URGKTYP HGKFQOGPYL  HGKFQOGPYL MCK SGTKUGK  MCK QB URGKTYP GXR8 GWXNQIKCKL GXR8 GWXNQIKCKL MCK SGTKUGK. 7 G=MCUVQL MCSYL RTQJ^TJVCK VJ^ MCTFKC^ OJ GXM NWRJL J GXZ CXPCIMJL> KBNCTQP ICT FQVJP CXICRC^ QB SGQL. 8 FWPCVGK FG QB SGQL RCUCP ECTKP RGTKUUGWUCK GKXL WBOCL K=PC GXP RCPVK RCPVQVG RCUCP CWXVCTMGKCP GEQPVGL RGTKUUGWJVG GKXL RCP GTIQP CXICSQP

LXX 8

Prov. 22.8-9

QB URGKTYP HCWNC SGTKUGK MCMC RNJIJP FG GTIYP CWXVQW UWPVGNGUGK.  [*] CPFTC KBNCTQP MCK FQVJP GWXNQIGK QB SGQL OCVCKQVJVC FG GTIYP CWXVQW UWPVGNGUGK. 9 QB GXNGYP RVYEQP CWXVQL FKCVTCHJUGVCK> VYP ICT GBCWVQW CTVYP GFYMGP VY^ RVYEY.^ [*] PKMJP MCK VKOJP RGTKRQKGKVCK QB FYTC FQWL VJP OGPVQK [WEJP CXHCKTGKVCK VYP MGMVJOGPYP.

MT

Prov. 22.8-9

KO Z!>>U($] 8 ZD [UF T\,](U$FT\,) KON\,$WUE>MEYHZ!    UER\!D:K\,>E$M 9 O'O$P[/PLWQ\.L

41. The asterisks in the text indicate additional texts in the Greek version which are not found in the Hebrew. Apart from the addition, the Greek version also differs in having the expression OCVCKQVJVC FG GTIYP CWXVQW UWPVGNGUGK (‘and will complete the vanity of his deeds’) in place of the MT, which has KON\,$WUE>MEYHZ! (‘and the rod of anger will fail’). 1

132

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

6 The point is this: the one who sows sparingly will also reap sparingly, and the one who sows bountifully will also reap bountifully. 7 Each of you must give as you have made up your mind, not reluctantly or under compulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver. 8 And God is able to provide you with every blessing in abundance, so that by always having enough of everything, you may share abundantly in every good work.

8

He who sows what is cheap will reap what is bad and will complete the impact of his deeds * God blesses a cheerful and generous man, but he will bring to an end the vanity of his deeds. 9 He who has compassion over the poor will himself be nourished, because he gave his own food to the poor. * He who hands out gifts secures victory and honour; moreover, he takes away the soul of those who have possessions.

8 Whoever sows injustice will reap calamity, and the rod of anger will fail.

9 Those who are generous are blessed, for they share their bread with the poor.

*Verbal matches between 2 Cor. 9.6-8 and LXX Prov. 22.8-9 underlined.

It is clear from Table 4.4 that there are striking similarities between 2 Cor. 9.6-8 and LXX Prov. 22.8-9. First of all there are a number of verbal correspondences between the passages. The use of the words QB URGKTYP, SGTKUGK and GWXNQIKCKL in 2 Cor. 9.6 and KBNCTQP, FQVJP and QB SGQL in 9.7 shows a strong connection to the Scripture. Moreover, there are verbal matches between 2 Cor. 9.7 and the extended part of LXX Prov. 22.8 that is absent in the MT. This raises the likelihood of allusion and suggests that Paul is more reliant on the Greek version than the Hebrew. Furthermore, the obvious thematic coherences created by sharing the same idea of sowing and reaping imagery and cheerful giving are followed by the promise of abundance or nourishment found both in 2 Cor. 9.8 and LXX Prov. 22.9. Finally, though not a strong point, the text in the extended part of LXX Prov. 22.9 that says ‘He who hands out gifts secures victory and honour’ seems to be echoed in 2 Cor. 8.16–9.5 in which Paul deals with ‘honour’ by making the collection as transparent as possible by sending trustworthy brothers (8.22-23) and reminding the Corinthians of their pledge to give and to be ready so that they may not be humiliated (9.4). Given these verbal and thematic correspondences, it appears then that Paul has this passage in mind, more so than the others.42

1

42. Cf. Hanson, Technique, pp.178–9.

4. 2 Corinthians 8 and 9

133

In his allusion to the extended part of LXX Prov. 22.8 in 9.7, Paul omits CPFTC and MCK, inserts ICT and replaces GWXNQIGK with CXICRC^. While the omission and insertion looks straightforward, the exchange of GWXNQIGK with CXICRC^ seems rather puzzling at ¿rst sight, especially since GWXNQIGK would have ¿tted into the context very well with the occurrences of its cognates in vv. 5 and 6. Some commentators have argued that Paul is here quoting from memory,43 while others would argue that Paul had a different version of the Greek text.44 Yet it should be noted that Paul is not intending to quote a scriptural text, but merely alluding to it. Since allusions do not require exact reproduction of a certain text, a few key terms and thematic coherences are suf¿cient to establish an allusion. Thus the changes do not seem to be signi¿cant. Paul’s main concern is therefore not to reproduce the exact words, but to ‘make the point the proverb wanted to make’.45 We may ask, however, what could have prompted Paul to make a deliberate choice for CXICRC^ instead of GWXNQIGK since the idea of ‘blessing’ comes more naturally with the idea of ‘giving’ than ‘love’ does, although one could see the association. Though CXICRCY can be used to mean ‘to approve’ or ‘to value’ in some Wisdom traditions,46 the basic meaning of the word is naturally that of ‘affection’ rather than of ‘approval’.47 Georgi has suggested that Paul has deliberately replaced the word to refer to the basis on which one acts or, in his terms, to ‘the atmosphere’ in which the cheerful giver moves rather than to the reward that follows.48 In other words, by inserting CXICRC^ Paul wants to say something about the attitude of the giver.49 The giver’s interest should not be in God’s blessing as a result of the giving, but in reÀecting God’s manner of giving by having a cheerful and generous attitude. This coheres well with Paul’s appeal to give as much as one wants to give so that it may not be given grudgingly or reluctantly or under compulsion. The omission of a verb in the

43. Plummer, Second Epistle, p.259; Betz, 2 Corinthians, p.107. 44. Hughes, Second Epistle, p.331 n.65. 45. Betz, 2 Corinthians, p.107. 46. E.g. Wis. 7.28, ‘For God loves nothing so much as the man who lives with wisdom’; Sir. 4.14, ‘the Lord loves those who love [wisdom]’; LXX Prov. 22.11, ‘The Lord loves holy hearts…’ Cited by Furnish, II Corinthians, p.441. Cf. also Barrett, Second Epistle, p.236. 47. BDAG CXICRCY § 1 b C ‘to have affection’ and ‘to love’; LN § 25.43 (‘love’), 44 (‘show love’), 104 (‘take pleasure in’). 48. D. Georgi, Remembering the Poor: The History of Paul’s Collection for Jerusalem (Nashville: Abingdon, rev. edn, 1992), p.96. 49. Cf. Murphy-O’Connor, Theology, p.90. 1

134

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

sentence can be seen as stressing the ‘motivation for action’ (cf. MCTFKC, NWRJ, CXPCIMJ) rather than the ‘act of giving itself’.50 Thus Paul appears to focus on the manner of giving, which seems reÀected in his use of CXICRC^.  Though there is no explicit indication, it seems 2 Cor. 9.8 is a kind of exposition of LXX Prov. 22.8d: OCVCKQVJVC FG GTIYP CWXVQW UWPVGNGUGK (‘but he will bring to an end the vanity of his deeds’). This clause states what happens when one relies upon one’s own resources and thus af¿rms the thrust of v. 8 in its own way. Without the enabling grace of God, human works are no more than OCVCKQVJL (‘emptiness’ or ‘futility’).51 Only those who put their complete trust in God will abound in everything that overÀows into good works. It is because God makes the Corinthians able by making his grace overÀow in them that they can be generous and cheerful givers. Thus, what was not so clear in v. 7 is stated with clarity: God’s action is both superior and anterior to human action.52 The use of singular ECTKL rather than the required plural in place of the expected GWXNQIKC seems to indicate that Paul wants to point out God’s unique and saving presence in human action.53 It looks back to 8.9, where he mentions the work of Christ referred to as ECTKL, which becomes the basis for Paul’s appeal to the Corinthians to do likewise. Thus, ECTKL encompasses everything both spiritual and material.54 This is expressed by the recurrence of RCL stems (4 times) and the two instances of RGTKUUGWY, which stresses ‘the totality and profusion of God’s provision’.55 Therefore, the generous and cheerful giver has enough (CWXVCTMGKCP) of everything so that they may abound in good works (GTIQP CXICSQP). Hence, Paul is not envisaging a recompense of generous giving, but the 50. Harris, Second Epistle, p.635. 51. Cf. Rom. 9.20a: VJ^ ICT OCVCKQVJVK JB MVKUKL WBRGVCIJ (‘for the creation was subjected to futility’); Eph. 4.17. OJMGVK WBOCL RGTKRCVGKP MCSYL MCK VC GSPJ RGTKRCVGK GXP OCVCKQVJVK VQW PQQL CWXVYP (‘do not live any longer as the Gentiles live, in the futility of their minds’). 52. Georgi, Remembering, p.97. Betz, 2 Corinthians, p.111, asserts, ‘One becomes a cheerful giver when one realizes that great bene¿ts have been bestowed on her or him by God’. 53. Georgi, Remembering, p.97. 54. Plummer, Second Epistle, p.260; Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 2, p.579; Harris, Second Epistle, p.637; Belleville, 2 Corinthians, p.238; E. Best, Second Corinthians (IPC; Louisville, KY: John Knox, 1987), p.85. Cf. Stephan Joubert, ‘Religious Reciprocity in 2 Corinthians 9.6-15: Generosity and Gratitude as Legitimate Responses to the ECTKLVQWSGQW’, Neot 33 (1999), pp.79–90 (83). 55. Harris, Second Epistle, p.638. Cf. Bruehler, ‘Proverbs’, p.216: ‘the allinclusive scope of God’s provision’. 1

4. 2 Corinthians 8 and 9

135

con¿dence that God’s grace will make up for the de¿ciency if one gives to the poor liberally.56 This grace has been fully revealed in Christ, who became ‘poor’ for the Corinthians so that they might become ‘rich’. The repeated uses of the words HGKFQOGPYL and GXR8 GWXNQIKCKL indicate that Paul’s focus here is on quantity rather than on quality, even though the immediately preceding and following verses mention the manner of giving.57 Some commentators58 wonder whether bountiful sowing would have resulted in bountiful reaping since the harvest depends on the condition of the grain, the climate and the soil. However, no external factor would have been a problem since it is God who loves and blesses the cheerful giver. And the ‘harvest’ for the Corinthians is what Paul con¿dently af¿rms in vv. 8-10. God will abundantly provide for them so that they will abound in every good work, which will result in overÀowing expressions of thanks and prayers to God (vv. 12-15).59 Therefore, there do not seem to be connotations of ¿nal judgment here as in, e.g., Gal. 6.7-10, where the harvest reaped is HSQTC and \YJ CKXYPKQL.60 Besides, the general principle of farming in 2 Cor. 9.6 is unlikely to refer to a single harvest since Paul’s point is on the ‘how much’ of seed sown and of harvest reaped whereas the Galatians passage has to with ‘what’ is sown.61 We have seen the primary text for Paul’s allusion in 2 Cor. 9.6-8 is LXX Prov. 22.8-9.62 Yet we have also noted that other passages of Scripture may be in view at the same time even though they are not as obvious to discern as the Proverbs text. It has been noted above that certain verbal and/or thematic resonances are also present in LXX Prov. 11.24, Deut. 15.7-11, 1 Chron. 29 and Exodus 35. Although these allusions are not as strong as the allusion to LXX Prov. 22.8-9 is, the verbal and thematic coherence is too striking to ignore. If Paul did have 56. Cf. Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 2, p.580. 57. Contra Hughes, Second Epistle, p.329. It is possible that Paul has both quantity and quality in mind here, but more weight seems to be on the quantity. 58. E.g. Betz, 2 Corinthians, p.103. 59. Cf. Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 2, pp.574–5. 60. So Harris, Second Epistle, p.633; Betz, 2 Corinthians, p.105; Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 2, p.574; Georgi, Remembering, p.94. Contra Plummer, Second Epistle, p.258. 61. Furnish, II Corinthians, p.447. 62. There are two allusions to the Proverbs passage in the Pseudepigrapha: T. Job 12.1: ‘On occasion a man cheerful at heart would come to me saying, “I am not wealthy enough to help the destitute. Yet I wish to serve the poor today at your table”’; T. Levi 13.6: ‘And sow good things in your souls, That you may ¿nd them in your life. But if you sow evil things, You shall reap every trouble and afÀiction’. 1

136

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

other scriptural passages in mind while alluding to LXX Prov. 22.8-9, as the above analysis leads us to conclude, it can be argued that the scope of Paul’s allusion is not limited to one speci¿c place of Scripture. Rather, it seems Paul is concerned about the thematic resonance of Scripture even while he adopts certain key terms from a speci¿c place. In any case, Paul seems to be applying Scripture directly to the Corinthians, showing no hesitancy in seeing the relevance of the Scripture of Israel since the Corinthians are ‘Israel’ in the new covenant. For the Corinthians who were well versed in Scripture, it is doubtful whether they would have traced the scriptural allusion to one source since the allusion is found in a number of places. Regardless of whether they would have noticed one or more scriptural references, the familiar biblical command to give freely and willingly that is accompanied by the promise of abundant blessing of God would have given them more reasons to contribute. Some would have even heard the echo of the giving to the Lord for the Tabernacle/Temple and see that giving to the saints in Jerusalem is at the same time giving to the Lord. Those who were less familiar with Scripture would have missed the allusion in this verse since Paul is not explicitly indicating he is doing so. Yet his basic thrust remains the same, though those who were less familiar with Scripture would not have heard the rich allusions and echoes to Scriptural principle being espoused here. By alluding to the imagery of sowing and reaping and to a cheerful giver, Paul appears to identify the Corinthians with the sower and the cheerful giver, if we hold that Paul had only LXX Prov. 22.6-8 in mind. But because the same principles are found elsewhere in the Scripture, the allusion to the principles expressed in the text becomes relevant not because they are identi¿ed with the hypothetical characters but because the general principle expressed there is made to be applied to them. 9.9 Paul af¿rms the truth of his claim that God is able to provide abundantly by citing LXX Ps. 111.9 with an introductory formula MCSYL IGITCRVCK. Paul quotes LXX Ps. 111.9 verbatim, but the phrase VQW CKXYPQL is missing in the quotation. Though major LXX witnesses have varying expression of the same idea elsewhere in the Psalms,63 there are no witnesses that omit the phrase from this verse. While one cannot exclude the possibility that he was citing from a lost Greek version that had a 63. Cf. Pss. 9.18; 20.4, 6; 24.2; 36.27; 40.12; 44.6; 47.14; 60.8; 84.5; 103.31 and 144.2. Noted by Stanley, Language, p.233. 1

4. 2 Corinthians 8 and 9

137

shorter form of the expression, there is no way of coming to a con¿dent conclusion at this time. There is also the possibility that Paul modi¿ed it himself, which seems likely given the record so far. Yet the meaning of the text remains the same either way. Table 4.5 2 Cor.

9.964

MCSYL IGITCRVCK. GXUMQTRKUGP GFYMGP VQKL RGPJUKP JB FKMCKQUWPJ CWXVQW OGPGK GKXL VQP CKXYPC.

As it is written, ‘He has distributed freely, he has given to the poor; his righteousness endures forever’.

LXX

Ps. 111.965

GXUMQTRKUGP GFYMGP VQKL RGPJUKP JB FKMCKQUWPJ CWXVQW OGPGK GKXL VQP CKXYPC VQW CKXYPQL VQ MGTCL CWXVQW WB[YSJUGVCK GXP FQZJ^.   He has distributed freely, he has given to the poor; his righteousness endures forever and ever; his horn will be exalted in glory.

MT

Ps. 112.9

a\Q,$\EDO WQU=3L G>O WGP>R$WT G!FL G$EN %a:U7 $QU!T 

He has distributed freely, he has given to the poor; his righteousness endures forever; his horn is exalted in honour.66

* Verbal correspondences between 2 Cor. 9.9 and LXX Ps. 111.9 underlined.

In LXX Psalm 111, the subject is the person who fears the Lord and has a great desire for God’s commandment (v. 1). The phrase JB FKMCKQUWPJ CWXVQW OGPGK GKXL VQP CKXYPC VQW CKXYPQL occurs twice in LXX Ps. 111 (vv. 3, 9) and refers to the pious person in both cases.67 One can wonder how it is that the human ‘righteousness’ can be said to last ‘forever’. It has been suggested that ‘forever’ refers to the remembering and rewarding of God,68 or to the lasting effect and reward,69 or to the continual acts of

64. The English translation is that of the ESV, which seems to render the verse better. 65. The Greek follows Hebrew closely. The ¿rst part of the NET translations is modi¿ed in accordance with the translation of 2 Cor. 9.9. 66. NRSV has third person plural, but changes have been made to conform to the Hebrew which has third person singular throughout. 67. It is the same in the MT as well: G>O WGP>R$WT G!FL. 68. Plummer, Second Epistle, p.262. 69. Bruce, 2 Corinthians, p.227. 1

138

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

righteous deeds throughout one’s life,70 or to a way of life.71 Yet none of these seem to account satisfactorily for the notion of CKXYP. Before we suggest what we consider to be a more plausible alternative, we need to look closely at the text of Psalms Paul has cited. First of all it is to be noted that there is a close relationship between LXX Psalms 111 and 110 and how God is described in a comparable way to the pious.72 Though Thrall argues against this link on the grounds that the connection between the two Psalms is not obvious and that there is no mention of the poor and needy in LXX Psalm 110,73 there are compelling reasons to think otherwise. The expression JB FKMCKQUWPJ CWXVQW OGPGK GKXL VQP CKXYPC VQW CKXYPQL occurs only three times in LXX (Pss. 110.3; 111.3, 9) in exactly the same form. The ¿rst reference of the expression is to God while the latter two references are to the pious. LXX Psalm 110 is full of praises. God’s righteousness is said to last forever; God is also merciful and compassionate (v. 4), truthful and just (v. 7), and has an awesome name (v. 9). He is also faithful to his people as he always keeps his covenant in mind (v. 5) and commanded his covenant forever (v. 7). He provides for those who fear him (v. 5) and gives his people the heritage of nations (v. 6). There is little wonder that his praise endures forever (v. 10). LXX Psalm 111 starts by praising the Lord (CXNNJNQWKC) just like its preceding psalm. Verse 1 picks up the last verse (v. 10) of LXX Psalm 110 and continues the theme of the fear of the Lord: OCMCTKQL CXPJT QB HQDQWOGPQL VQP MWTKQP, GXP VCKL GXPVQNCKL CWXVQW SGNJUGK UHQFTC (‘Happy the man who fears the Lord; in his commandments he will greatly desire’).74 Then, the psalmist goes on to say how such a person is blessed with glory and riches (v. 3). There is no fear of bad news as he trusts in the Lord (v. 7) and gives freely (v. 9). The man is even said to be ‘merciful and compassionate and righteous’ (v. 4) and his righteousness is seen to endure forever (vv. 3, 9). Here, we can see how the themes of LXX Psalm 110 are present in the next psalm.75 It even appears that some of God’s characteristics ¿nd their 70. Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 2, p.582. She argues that Paul is here giving scriptural substantiation to RCPVQVG and RCP GTIQP CXICSQP of v. 8. 71. Harris, Second Epistle, p.641. 72. Furnish, II Corinthians, p.442. 73. Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 2, p.581. 74. Cf. Anderson (Psalms, p.776) who remarks that Ps. 112 ‘could be described as a midrash, or exposition of 111.10’. 75. The two psalms are so closely related to each other in their structure and diction that ‘modern scholars ¿nd themselves in rare agreement when crediting both poems to the same psalmists’. Dahood, Psalms III. 101–150, p.127. Cf. 1

4. 2 Corinthians 8 and 9

139

expressions in the pious person.76 It looks as though God’s righteousness (110.3) has become that of the pious person (Ps. 111.3, 9). And this righteousness is construed by the Psalmist in terms of the giving of alms in Ps. 111.9.77 It is precisely because the righteousness of the pious is rooted in the righteousness of God that it can be said to last forever. The pious person’s righteous acts are expressions of God’s righteousness. This is to some extent anticipated in a person who fears the Lord and has a great desire for the Lord’s commandment. Yet LXX Psalm 111 seems to attribute something comparable to the divine nature to the pious by saying that the person is ‘merciful and compassionate and righteous’ (v. 4), which have been mentioned in describing God in LXX Ps. 110.4. Paul’s quotation from LXX Ps. 111.9 is about a pious person who is closely identi¿ed with his God. It would be tempting to contend on this basis that the subject remains the same when Paul quotes it in his letter.78 However, it is most natural to take God as the subject in 2 Cor. 9.9 since both the preceding verse (2 Cor. 9.8) and the following (9.10) have God as the subject. 2 Corinthians 9.8 clearly states that God is able to provide for the Corinthians abundantly, leading to generous giving, while 2 Cor. 9.10 describes God as the one who supplies the ‘sower’ with abundant resources, resulting in an increased harvest of ‘righteousness’. It is true that the phrase JB FKMCKQUWPJ CWXVQW becomes the corporate VJL FKMCKQUWPJL WBOYP in v. 10 and the conjunction FG of v. 10 appears to signal the change of the subject.79 But the main thrust of vv. 8-11 is how God is able to provide abundantly for the Corinthians so that they become generous givers. Thus, JB FKMCKQUWPJ of v. 9 reveals the character of a J. Goldingay, Psalms. Vol. 3, Psalms 90–150 (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2008), p.309; R. J. Clifford, Psalms 73–150 (AOTC; Nashville: Abingdon, 2003), p.184; H. J. Kraus, Psalms 60–150: A Commentary (trans. H. C. Oswald; Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1989), p.362; L. C. Allen, Psalms 101–150 (WBC 21; Waco, TX: Word, 1983), p.95. It also needs to be noted that both psalms are acrostic, i.e., each verse begins with a letter of the Hebrew alphabet in descending order. It is obvious that the content and the form of each psalm are very similar to each other and it is very hard to overlook such a close relationship. Paul would have not missed their close relationship, even though the Greek version he is relying on cannot reproduce the acrostic structure since the similarities of the contents are striking. 76. Cf. Dahood, Psalms III. 101–150, p.127: ‘the poet ascribes to the just man some of the attribute he assigned to Yahweh in Ps cxi. What was a hymn now becomes a wisdom psalm.’ 77. R. A. Harrisville, ‘Paul and the Psalms: A Formal Study’, WW 5 (1985), pp.168–79 (175). 78. So Plummer, Second Epistle, p.261; Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 2, p.580. 79. Harris, Second Epistle, p.640; Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 2, p.583; Bruehler, ‘Proverbs’, p.217. 1

140

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

faithful and generous God80 in scattering his grace abroad, while the plural VJL FKMCKQUWPJL WBOYP would mean something like ‘moral uprightness’81 or ‘almsgiving’82 or ‘speci¿c acts of piety’83 of those who receive God’s grace and righteousness. Thus, the proposed sudden change of subject to human referent in v. 9 when Paul is trying to emphasise God’s ability to provide would be very awkward. As for the conjunction FG, it does not seem to have an adversative sense, but simply indicates a transition. Hence most translations either leave it untranslated or take it to mean ‘now’. Moreover, prior to 9.6, the name SGQL appears only three times in chs. 8–9 (8.1, 5, 16). But in 9.6-15, references to God occur eight times: seven times by name (9.7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15), once by masculine pronoun (QB GXRKEQTJIYP, 9.10).84 This suggests ‘God’ is eminently the ‘subject’ of the actions portrayed in these passages. Therefore, when this quotation of Scripture is read out, it would be very natural to take the subject as referring to God. It af¿rms the truth claim of the preceding verse (v. 8) that God is the supplier and makes his grace abound to the Corinthians leading to their good work, which is basically repeated with different expressions in the following verse (v. 10). Thus the implication would be that God is providing for the poor through the Corinthians. Even when the Corinthians help the poor, it is in fact God who is helping them through his people.85 This pattern strongly resonates with Paul’s approach of formulating these sections on giving. Earlier in 8.9 Paul ¿rst mentioned the grace of Jesus Christ who became ‘poor’ for the sake of the Corinthians before proceeding to make an appeal for the collection. Thus the grace of God in his salvi¿c act in Jesus Christ becomes the ground for the act of 80. Ziesler (Meaning, p.162) asserts that it has a forensic sense in v. 9. Yet the forensic sense is implicit since ‘righteousness’ is mentioned in the context of doing the acts of charity, which is the focus of these passages. 81. Barrett, Second Epistle, p.238. He acknowledges that it is not impossible that FKMCKQUWPJ could have its forensic sense as well. 82. Hughes, Second Epistle, p.333; Tasker, 2 Corinthians, p.127; Bruce, 1 and 2 Corinthians, p.227. 83. Plummer, Second Epistle, p.261; Belleville, 2 Corinthians, p.240. 84. Cf. Stanley, Arguing with Scripture, p.106 n.21. Stanley points out that there are eleven references to God, including implicit ones, but he does not give speci¿c references. Here, we have left v. 9 out of consideration in the counting. 85. Cf. D. H. H. Williams, III, ‘The Psalms in 1 and 2 Corinthians’, in Moyise and Menken (eds.), The Psalms in the New Testament, pp.163–80. Williams also notes that this interrelation between God’s giving and the Corinthians giving is supported from the context of LXX Ps. 111, ‘in which the act of giving to God is a fruit of good works, which is itself based on the good works of the Lord (Ps. 112.13)’ (pp.178–9). 1

4. 2 Corinthians 8 and 9

141

‘grace’. Likewise we have seen in LXX Psalms 110 and 111 that God’s righteousness pre¿gures the righteousness of the one who fears him. In addition, Hanson makes an interesting observation. According to him, the Midrash on the Psalms attributes LXX Psalm 111 to Abraham since they believed Abraham kept the Torah from D to W (hence the acrostic form).86 Besides, they regard VQ URGTOC CWXVQW in LXX Ps. 111.2 as referring to Isaac. So, if Paul knew the tradition, as Hanson assumes, Paul would have seen the seed as a reference to Christ (cf. Gal. 3.1-18). There is no question that Christ has everything to do with FKMCKQUWPJ, which is brieÀy mentioned in 2 Cor. 5.21 (cf. Rom. 3.21-22; 10.6; 1 Cor. 1.30; Gal. 2.21; 3.21-22). The righteousness of Christ in reconciliation and the righteousness mentioned in 9.9, 10 appear then to tie in very well with the pattern Paul has employed in ch. 8. Those who were well read in Scripture would have heard something similar to what we have heard. The Corinthians who recognized the original context of the citation would have found it dif¿cult to refuse to contribute to the collection since refusal to participate would mean that God’s righteousness was not working through them in their ‘righteous’ deeds as it did for the pious person in the psalm Paul refers to. They would have noticed once again the degree of closeness Paul seems to hold between God and his people. Those who did not recognize where Paul is quoting from would have missed all the striking similarities. Yet they would still have picked up the similar idea of working together with God. Without the knowledge of the original context, they would simply assume the referent is God since Paul has intentionally made the text to appear so. The quotation would add persuasiveness to Paul’s appeal since the scriptural text af¿rms that it is God who provides. Thus the basic thrust remains clear, though they would have missed the wonder of seeing how Paul’s appeal resonates with scriptural themes and patterns. Given Paul’s tendency to change the referent(s) of a citation, as seen in previous chapters, it is not surprising that Paul has changed the referent here again. Though the original subject of the quotation is a pious person, he has quoted the text in such a way that the subject becomes God. Thus the pious person is closely identi¿ed with God in Paul’s mind, and Paul applies this pattern to the Corinthians. It hardly needs mentioning that Paul is urging his congregation to give whatever they can afford with a cheerful heart. But his quotation clearly states that 86. Hanson, Technique, p.179. Yet, he does not give speci¿c references. See, however, W. G. Braude, The Midrash on Psalms (2 vols.; YJS, 13; New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959), pp.210–11.

1

142

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

it is God who provides for the poor: ‘He scatters abroad, he gives to the poor; his righteousness endures forever’ (v. 9). This apparent tension is resolved in v. 10, where Paul explains that God will ‘increase the harvest of your righteousness’. Thus the same pattern we see between God and the pious person is present between God and the Corinthians as Paul is bringing both God and the Corinthians into play in reaping the harvest of ‘righteousness’. Just as God’s mercy, compassion and righteousness is clearly seen in the pious person, so it is with the Corinthians. Thus identi¿cations are made in a number of ways, between: (1) God and the pious person; (2) God and the Corinthians; (3) the pious person and the Corinthians. That God can be said to be ‘increasing the harvest of his people’s “righteousness”’ when in fact it is the people who are doing the acts of charity leads us to conclude that the concept of ‘corporate identity’ surfaces here once again. 9.10 In continuing the theme of divine blessing and providence, Paul seems to allude to the Scripture. Two text – LXX Isa 55.10 and LXX Hos. 10.12 – are generally noted. The clause VY^ URGKTQPVK MCK CTVQP GKXL DTYUKP occurs only in LXX Isa. 55.10 and 2 Cor. 9.10 in the same form in the Greek Bible, which makes the allusion more likely. The close proximity of the occurrence of the words IGPJOCVC and FKMCKQUWPJL is found only in LXX Prov. 15.29, LXX Hos. 10.12 and 2 Cor. 9.10, but Hosea and 2 Corinthians share closer thematic correspondence. Thus it seems likely that LXX Hos. 10.12 is also in view, together with LXX Isa. 55.10. Table 4.6 LXX

Isa. 55.1087

YBL ICT GXCP MCVCDJ^ WBGVQL J EKYP GXM VQW QWXTCPQW MCK QWX OJ CXRQUVTCHJ^ G=YL C P OGSWUJ^ VJP IJP MCK GXMVGMJ^ MCK GXMDNCUVJUJ^ MCK FY^ URGTOC VY^ URGKTQPVK MCK CTVQP GKXL DTYUKP

2 Cor. 9.10 QB FG GXRKEQTJIYP URQTQP VY^ URGKTQPVK MCK CTVQP GKXL DTYUKP EQTJIJUGK MCK RNJSWPGK VQP URQTQP WBOYP MCK CWXZJUGK VC IGPJOCVC VJL FKMCKQUWPJL WBOYP 

LXX

Hos. 10.1288

URGKTCVG GBCWVQKL GKXL FKMCKQUWPJP VTWIJUCVG GKXL MCTRQP \YJL HYVKUCVG GBCWVQKL HYL IPYUGYL GXM\JVJUCVG VQP MWTKQP G=YL VQW GXNSGKP IGPJOCVC FKMCKQUWPJL WBOKP.

87. The Greek text agrees with the Hebrew. 88. The LXX differs from the MT in the following: VTWIJUCVG GKXL MCTRQP \YJL (‘reap unto the fruit of life’) for GV[\SLO:UFTL (‘reap steadfast love’); HYVKUCVG

1

4. 2 Corinthians 8 and 9 For as rain or snow comes down from heaven and will not return until it has soaked the earth and brought forth and blossomed and given seed to the sower and bread for food.

He who supplies seed to the sower and bread for food will supply and multiply your seed for sowing and increase the harvest of your righteousness.

143 Sow for yourselves unto justice; reap unto the fruit of life; enlighten yourselves with the light of knowledge. Seek the Lord until the produce of justice comes to you.

* Verbal correspondences between 2 Cor. 9.10 and LXX Isa. 55.10 underlined, and between 2 Cor. 9.10 and LXX Hos. 10.12 double underlined.

Betz questions this and contends that there is no hint that leads one to argue that Paul intended to refer to Hosea 10 and that the notion belongs to popular agrarian metaphors both in Jewish ethics and in Hellenistic morality.89 In his brief discussion on Paul’s mention of human righteousness, he notes Prov. 3.9-10 as containing the ‘whole idea’ and then, surprisingly, goes on to say the same idea has an ‘extraordinary degree’ of correspondences to those in Greek religion.90 Yet the evidence he presents is not very impressive. He cites Xenophon, Oeconomicus 5.12,91 and Aelius Aristides, Panathenaic Oration 45.92 The former has only one verbal match (FKMCKQUWPJ) while the latter fares slightly better by having FKMCKQUWPJ and URGTOCVC. In terms of content, the former has very vague resonance while the latter has more similarity with expressions like ‘seeds of wheat and barley’ and ‘seeds of justice’. Yet it does not appear it can compete with LXX Isa. 55.10 and LXX Hos. 10.12. Though it is not GBCWVQKL HYL IPYUGYL (‘enlighten yourselves with the light of knowledge’) for U\Q,aNO :U\Q, (‘break up your fallow ground’); GXM\JVJUCVG VQP MWTKQP G=YL VQW GXNSGKP IGPJOCVC FKMCKQUWPJL WBOKP (‘Seek the Lord until the produce of justice comes to you’) for aNO TGFKU\2Z!D$E\G>KZK\!WDY$UG!OLW>HZ! (‘for it is time to seek the LORD, that he may come and rain righteousness upon you’). 89. Betz, 2 Corinthians, pp.114–15. 90. Betz, 2 Corinthians, p.115. 91. (VK FG JB IJ SGNQWUC VQWL FWPCOGPQWL MCVCOCPSCPGKP MCK FKMCKQUWPJP FKFCUMGK> VQWL ICT CTKUVC SGTCRGWQPVCL CXWVJP RNGKUVC CXICSC CXPVKRQKGK (‘Yet again, the earth willingly teaches righteousness to those who can learn; for the better she is served, the more good things she gives in return’). 92. …MCK OJ OQPQP VYP RWTYP MCK MTKSYP GKJ VC URGTOCVC CWXVQKL, CXNNC MCK FKMCKQUWPJL MCK VJL CNNJL CBRCUJL FKCKVJL VG MCK RQNKVGKCL GXM SGYP CWXVQKL GKJ VC URGTOCVC (‘…that they not only have the seeds of wheat and barley, but that they also have from the Gods the seeds of justice and every other means of life and government’). 1

144

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

impossible that Paul might have been inÀuenced by other Jewish and Hellenistic writings, there seems to be no good reason to exclude Scripture, especially when there are better verbal and thematic correspondences. Isaiah 55.10 is set in a context in which the promise of the eschatological salvation is in view.93 Chapter 55 of Isaiah starts off with an invitation call to the thirsty to come and drink without payment (v. 1) and encourages the hearers to listen carefully to what is said for they will eat and enjoy good things (vv. 2, 3). Then comes the important point that God will make an everlasting covenant with the people (v. 3). Because the ‘Holy One’ has glori¿ed them, nations would come to them for refuge (v. 5). Yet they are to seek God and return to him, and the Lord promises to have mercy and forgive their sins (v. 7). Such a great grace may be incomprehensible, but it is expected since God’s ways are not like their ways (v. 8) and his thoughts go well beyond their thinking (v. 9). Surprising and incomprehensible though God’s grace is, the promise he has just made will surely come true. Just as the rain and snow come down and do not return without watering the earth, which yields seed for the sower and bread for the eater, so does God’s word (VQ TBJOC) go out from his mouth and not return without accomplishing what it meant to do (v. 11).94 And the result of this will be joy and peace accompanied by songs and clapping of hands (v. 12). So, what God has promised – i.e., everlasting covenant – will surely come true.95 God’s words are not empty and will not return empty. The rain and snow that produce seed and bread in Isa. 55.10 are likened to the word of God.96 Yet the analogy becomes mixed and God replaces rain and snow in the new context of Paul’s letter, but the end results, seed and bread, are retained.

93. Childs (Isaiah, pp.473–4) observes that the imagery in Isa. 55 is parallel to Isa. 40, which sets out ‘the drama of God’s intervention for Israel’s redemption in terms of the word of God which stands forever (40.8)’. Thus, Isa. 55 is considered as a ¿tting end to the body of Second Isaiah as it returns to the theme that set the scene in the beginning of the section. 94. The ‘word’ of God in v. 10 refers to the promises already stated in Isa. 55.3, 5, 7. 95. Cf. Brueggemann, Isaiah 40–66, p.161. 96. Contra Hafemann (‘Use’, p.253), who identi¿es ‘seed’ and ‘bread’ as God’s word. Yet, a careful look at Isa. 55.10-11 suggests that ‘seed’ and ‘bread’ are identi¿ed with the result of God’s word being ful¿lled rather than the word itself.

1

4. 2 Corinthians 8 and 9

145

Table 4.7 Isa. 55.10-11 2 Cor. 9.10

Cause Rain and snow God’s word God

Result Seed and bread Ful¿lment of the word Seed and bread

Although the original analogy is modi¿ed in the new context, it seems the basic point that what God wills will be ful¿lled is still valid. Just as surely as rain and snow result in bringing forth seed and bread, and as God’s word surely comes to ful¿lment, so certain is God’s provision for the Corinthians as well. Even without the analogy, however, the provision looks certain since it is God who provides them. What is noteworthy here is the connection to the new covenant clearly noted in Isaiah 55. It is the everlasting covenant that God assures the people of ful¿lment in Isaiah 55. Given Paul’s awareness of the context, which seems quite likely, it appears that the issue of provision and sharing is yet again tied with God’s ultimate revelation of grace in Christ. This is all the more likely since he has been working with the same pattern so far in 2 Corinthians 8–9. In addition to the Isaianic allusion, we have noted that there might be an allusion to LXX Hos. 10.12 as well. There are four terms associated with farming (URGKTY, VTWICY, MCTRQL, IGPJOC) and the same phrase IGPJOCVC FKMCKQUWPJL encapsulates one of the themes of 2 Cor. 9.6-11, viz., the result of generous giving, repeating the key word FKMCKQUWPJ in 9.9.97 Thus the verbal correspondences are strong enough to argue for possible allusion to the text. Yet its context is rather different. Hosea 10 is about God’s judgment on Israel who have sinned (vv. 8-9, 10, 12-13, 15). Also the judgment would mean the end of Israel as a nation by the Assyrians. Nevertheless God would lead them through a second exodus (2.14-15) and bring them restoration (14.5-8 [MT 14.2-7]). In the midst of indicatives that reveal the sins of Israel, v. 12 stands out with its imperatives, which are the only ones in ch. 10. In particular the last sentence from which the alluded words are taken are noteworthy: ‘Seek the Lord until the produce of justice comes to you’. Set in the context in which the judgment is pronounced and the end of the nation anticipated, the imperative leaves the audience with a hope for the restoration. Perhaps it is this little hint of future renewal that may have attracted Paul to allude to this passage. The expression ‘produce of justice’ looks forward to the restoration and is set within the covenantal framework. This would explain why Paul may have alluded to this text 1

97. Harris, Second Epistle, p.643.

146

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

since he is working within a new covenant framework and is continually alluding to it as a point of reference, even when he is dealing with issues like the collection. It seems as though Paul attempts to base almost everything on the new covenant for which he is a minister. Those who recognized the allusion to Isaiah 55 would again notice the framework Paul seems to be working with repeatedly, namely, restoration and new covenant. They would have seen again just how constantly Paul brings the eschatological reality that is now ful¿lled in Christ to bear upon practical issues. God’s provision of ‘seed and bread’ is guaranteed as an expression of the new reality for believers in Christ. Those who heard the echo of Hosea 10 would have seen yet another link to the new covenant which should be obvious to them by now. In contrast, those who were less familiar with Scripture would have missed how constantly Paul is working within the framework of the eschatological reality which is theirs in Christ. Yet the basic thrust remains clear to them. God is the provider and multiplier of the supplies needed not only for the purpose of survival but also of sharing the resources with the needy. Because the allusion comes from a mixed source and requires less exact reproduction of the original metaphors, it is dif¿cult to locate the point of identi¿cation in this verse. It should suf¿ce to say that Paul is highlighting in a general way the certainty of God’s provision for his people living in the eschatological era without necessarily intending to use all the possible points of contact from the original statements. Conclusion In this chapter we have seen that Paul appears to be aware of the original contexts of the passages he quotes or alludes to since the immediate contexts of the passages referred to correspond well with the Àow of Paul’s statements. Often his focus seems to lie more on the thematic coherence with Scripture than on exact reproduction of the original texts and thus seemingly alluding to a few places of Scripture which all deal with a similar theme (cf. 9.7-8). Hence an introductory formula does not necessarily mean that what follows is a verbatim quotation of Scripture (cf. 8.15). Moreover, his awareness of the larger contexts often brings into play the theme of restoration or new covenant, which appears to be exerting a great inÀuence on Paul (cf. 9.9, 10). It appears that in this part of his letter Paul is interested in how the eschatological salvation is worked out in the immediate and real situation. He has explicitly shown this from his 1

4. 2 Corinthians 8 and 9

147

mentioning the grace of Jesus in 8.9 and then moving on to appealing for the collection on that basis. Paul believes that Christian acts such as helping the needy are the natural corollary of one’s participation in the life of Jesus Christ. This same pattern is discerned in his reference to Scripture (9.9, 10). In some cases, the expression of such grace leads to something comparable to the idea of corporate identity (cf. 8.15; 9.9). Jesus’ becoming ‘poor’ for the sake of people to make them ‘rich’ is the pattern Paul exhorts his congregation to follow and imitate (8.9). The Corinthians are implicitly called to do what God has done (8.15); and their acts of charity are seen to be done together with God (9.9). Their ‘righteousness’ is rooted in God’s righteousness (9.9-10). Such close af¿nity between God and his people suggests that the idea of corporate identity is assumed. In many cases Paul assumes the identi¿cation of the Corinthians with ‘Israel’, as evidenced by his constant reference to Scripture to address the issues related to them. Thus even when Paul is not explicitly identifying certain person(s) with the person(s) implied in the alluded or cited passage, the fact that Paul regards Scripture as applicable to the Corinthians suggest that Paul is identifying the Corinthians with ‘Israel’. Finally, it is to be noted again that, more often than not, Paul’s basic thrust is clear enough even for those without suf¿cient knowledge of Scripture since his points are spelled out around his scriptural allusion or citation. Furthermore, his use of Scripture is not bound only to alluding to larger contexts. Paul can sometimes use Scripture rhetorically by quoting a Scripture at the close of a section (cf. 8.15), even as he brings the bigger narrative to shed light onto what is being addressed.

1

Chapter 5

2 CORINTHIANS 10–13

The warm and appealing tone which marks chs. 8–9 suddenly changes in 10.1. The tone becomes defensive, strong and emotional. Many theories abound in an attempt to explain this sudden change.1 Yet, it appears that the authenticity of Paul’s authorship of chs. 10–13 is almost universally af¿rmed by scholars.2 That is enough for our purposes in this chapter since theories of where 2 Corinthians 10–13 is more likely to belong to do not really affect our purpose of examining how Paul makes use of Scripture in 2 Corinthians 10–13. Yet a question to consider in this chapter is whether Paul’s appropriation of Scripture in this section is consistent with his practice elsewhere in 2 Corinthians. Paul is determined to set things right. He reminds the Corinthians of the authority the Lord has given him (10.18; 13.10), which he intends to use to build them up.3 The apostolic authority comes from God (3.5; 4.7; 5.18) and the gospel is the measure of Paul’s right to authority.4 His authority is undeniable since the Corinthians are his ‘letters of recommendation’, the proof of his authority (3.2). But he is willing to use the authority in a severe measure if the circumstances call for it. Moreover, he does not forget to vent his sharp critique upon his opponents who have led some of the Corinthians in a wrong path. We can gather from 1. See Harris, Second Epistle, pp.29–51, for a good survey and evaluation of theories proposed. 2. Major commentators do not even raise the possibility of non-Pauline authorship of this section, but simply assume it. Rather, they are mostly concerned whether this section is integral to the letter. See, e.g., Furnish, II Corinthians, pp.44–8; Harris, Second Epistle, pp.29–42. 3. The idea of building-up is a recurring Pauline theme (cf. Rom. 15.2; 1 Cor. 10.23; 14.12, 14, 26; 2 Cor. 12.19; 13.10; Eph. 4.12, 16, 29; 1 Thess. 5.11). 4. Young and Ford, Meaning, p.209. Moreover, 4.4 shows that glory is a key manifestation of authority since the glory of God is shown in Christ (p.209). Paul identi¿es with that glory through his participation in Christ’s suffering as his list of hardships and weaknesses in 11.23-28 amply shows (cf. 1 Cor. 11.1; 2 Cor. 1.5; 4.17; 9.23).

5. 2 Corinthians 10–13

149

this section that they are a ¿nancial burden to the Corinthians (cf. 2.17; 11.7-11; 12.14-17), shamelessly comparing themselves with themselves and boasting illegitimately over someone else’s sphere of action (10.1217). It is no wonder that they are prone to oppressive actions (11.20). They are proud with their eloquence, knowledge (10.3-5; cf. 11.6), and worldly credentials (cf. 11.21-33), but what they are proclaiming is anything but the true gospel of Christ (11.4). Thus it is not surprising that Paul regards them as ministers of Satan (11.13-15).5 While it seems the above description of the opponents reÀects what Paul thought about them, it has to be noted that such description would likely be exaggerated at least to some extent as all polemical writings are prone to be. It is not impossible that the opponents might not have thought themselves as intentionally trying to deceive the Gentile congregation in Corinth. They could have been just as sincere as Paul was, but some difference of opinion might have led Paul to oppose them vehemently. Yet there must be certain grounds, whether exaggerated or not, for Paul’s thinking that their teaching de¿es the gospel he preached to the Corinthians. The degree of harshness betrayed in the tone has to be accounted for unless one assumes that Paul has completely misunderstood the intention of the ‘opponents’. Hence Paul’s reaction in such a manner needs to be taken seriously even as one takes a cautious approach in assessing Paul’s description of them. Let us now turn to the passages to see how Scripture is brought in to tackle the issues at hand. 10.3-5 It appears that Paul has been accused of inconsistency (v. 1) and of behaving according to worldly standards (MCVC UCTMC, v. 2). Paul here contrasts living ‘in the Àesh’ (GXP UCTMK, v. 3), i.e., as a human (cf. 4.7; Gal. 2.20; Phil. 1.22)6 with waging war ‘according to the Àesh’ (MCVC UCTMC, v. 3), i.e., in a carnal way. The warfare he is involved in is not 5. This may sound harsh, but Paul is ready to apply the same principle to himself should he preach another gospel than the one he preached to his converts initially (cf. Gal. 1.8). One would do well to heed the caution raised by Barclay in reconstructing a portrait of Paul’s opponents since we have the testimony of only one party from which to decide the case. See J. M. G. Barclay, ‘Mirror-Reading a Polemical Letter: Galatians as a Test Case’, JSNT 31 (1987), pp.73–93. On the opponents in 2 Corinthians, see Sumney, Identifying; Georgi, Opponents. According to Sumney (Identifying, pp.15–67), there are four major identi¿cations of the opponents: (1) Judaizers; (2) Gnostics; (3) divine men; (4) pneumatics. 6. Cf. Plummer, Second Epistle, p.275; Furnish, II Corinthians, p.457; Harris, Second Epistle, p.675. 1

150

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

what it seems. It is a spiritual battle against the evil forces of the world (cf. Eph. 6.12) and the human opponents of Paul are merely visible representatives of Satan (11.15). They have built a ‘stronghold’ (QXEWTYOC) through sophistry and reasoning (NQIKUOQL), which is raised against the knowledge of God (IPYUGYL VQW SGQW). It is against this that Paul wields a divine weapon (FWPCVC VY^ SGY^)7 with a view to subduing every thought (PQJOC) to make it obey Christ (v. 5; cf. 2.14). There have been a few proposals as to the speci¿c background to Paul’s use of the military imagery.8 A. T. Hanson contends that there is an allusion to LXX Zech. 9.12.9 However, QXEWTYOC is the only verbal match and is set in the context of the promise of future restoration through the coming king of God’s people. In this context, the statement of hope that ‘you shall sit in a stronghold’ (MCSJUGUSG GXP QXEWTYOCVK) expresses the security God will bring to his people. Thus the meaning of QXEWTYOC mentioned in LXX Zech. 9.12 is completely opposite to that in 2 Cor. 10.4, where QXEWTYOC is employed, not to denote a place of safety, but to express ¿guratively the strength of false arguments. While the ‘fortress’ of LXX Zech. 9.12 is a place for the people of God, the ‘fortress’ Paul has in mind is that of the enemy. Apart from the single verbal match, then, there seems to be no good reason to assume that Paul had this particular passage in mind. Besides, the word QXEWTYOC occurs frequently in the LXX (e.g. 25 times in 1 Maccabees, 7 times in 2 Maccabees, 5 times in Proverbs, 4 times each in Isaiah and Jeremiah), rendering the verbal match less signi¿cant. Robert Jewett argues that Paul’s distinction between GXP UCTMK and MCVC UCTMC shows that Paul is thinking of a material realm that is nevertheless open to the spiritual realm, which means one can be in one realm and act according to the other. He goes on to argue that ‘[s]uch conÀuence of the two aeons is only possible on the basis of apocalyptic assumptions’.10 This conÀuence is explicit since the theme of 2 Cor. 10.1-6 is ‘the eschatological campaign to bring every stronghold and high fortress opposing the gospel into submission to Christ’.11 Thus, the military imagery is said to be ‘from the apocalyptic vision of the ¿nal struggle 7. Among other options (intensive or subjective judgment), the dative is better understood as the dative of advantage, i.e., ‘for God’. See Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.609; Furnish, II Corinthians, p.457. 8. Harris (Second Epistle, pp.676–7) notes six proposals. 9. Hanson, Paradox, pp.100–101. He goes on to note a wider allusion to Scripture, though. 10. R. Jewett, Paul’s Anthropological Terms: A Study of their Use in ConÀict Settings (AGJU; Leiden: Brill, 1971), p.129. 11. Jewett, Anthropological, p.129. 1

5. 2 Corinthians 10–13

151

between good and evil in the last days’.12 However, this is ¿nding a speci¿c source on the ground of a conceptual connection. This is not to say such an approach is problematic, but that there would be quite a few examples to mention as well if we were to follow that path, as the imagery was common in the Hellenistic world.13 This criticism can also be applied to Ben Witherington III’s argument that Paul is identifying himself with the poor wise man of Qoh. 9.14-16 (there are no verbal matches) who was forgotten even after delivering his city by his wisdom from a great king who besieged the city.14 Philo also refers to QXEWTYOC that is constructed through persuasive arguments (NQIYP RKSCPQVJVQL), which is said to avert the mind from the honour due to God and from holiness.15 Furnish notes that Philo is attacking sophists and teachers who were more concerned with the rhetorical aesthetics of an argument than with its content. From this, he goes on to argue that Paul is also standing in the same tradition when he identi¿es reasoning with strongholds built by his opponents.16 Yet it has to be pointed out that the imagery of stronghold (QXEWTYOC) was such a general one that sharing of a few words would hardly constitute proof of dependence and there are equally, if not more, plausible background sources.17 For example, A. J. Malherbe observes that a Greek philosopher Antisthenes had adopted the Spartan view of moral armament, and also developed the ideas of inner forti¿cation by reasoning faculties and of a virtuous man seeking to bene¿t others.18 These two themes are said to come together in the story of Odysseus, and are also present, Malherbe argues, in 2 Cor. 10.3-6. He contends that there is no doubt that Paul was aware of these philosophical traditions and ‘in some respect thought of 12. Jewett, Anthropological, p.130. He does not offer speci¿c texts here to support his contention. Even if he did, it would not make much difference since it is evident that there are numerous other plausible options as well, which reÀects the general nature of the imagery. 13. Cf. A. J. Malherbe, ‘Antisthenes and Odysseus, and Paul at War’, HTR 76 (1983), p.144; Furnish, II Corinthians, p.458. 14. Witherington, ConÀict, p.438. 15. Conf. Ling. 128–32. 16. Furnish, II Corinthians, p.462. For similarities and differences of the use of the imagery between Paul and Philo, see Malherbe, ‘Antisthenes’, pp.146–7. Betz notes that the task of the wise in Hellenistic Judaism was thought to be to ¿ght against sophistry and argues that Paul has taken this role on himself. H. D. Betz, Der Apostel Paulus und die sokratische Tradition: Eine exegetische Untersuchung zu seiner ‘Apologie’ 2 Korinther 10–13 (BHT; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1972), pp.68–9. 17. Cf. Malherbe, ‘Antisthenes’, p.144. 18. Malherbe, ‘Antisthenes’, pp.150–3. 1

152

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

himself along the lines of the Antisthenic ideal’.19 While this is a plausible option, Prov. 21.22 also seems to be an attractive candidate. 20 Table 5.1 2 Cor. 10.4  VC ICT Q=RNC VJL UVTCVGKCL JBOYP QWX UCTMKMC CXNNC FWPCVC VY^ SGY^ RTQL  MCSCKTGUKP QXEWTYOCVYP NQIKUOQWL MCSCKTQWPVGL  for the weapons of our warfare are not merely human, but they have divine power to destroy strongholds. We destroy arguments

LXX

Prov. 21.22

RQNGKL QXEWTCL GXRGDJ UQHQL    MCK MCSGKNGP VQ QXEWTYOC  GXH8 Y^ GXRGRQKSGKUCP  QKB CXUGDGKL.  A wise person attacked strong cities and demolished the strongholds in which the impious trusted

MT

Prov. 21.22

aN [ KO > a\U,%R*,U\>L K[ MEPL]>RGU MWTKQL C=IKQL. OJ MCWECUSY QB HTQPKOQL  GXP VJ^ HTQPJUGK CWXVQW  MCK OJ MCWECUSY QB FWPCVQL GXP VJ^ FWPCOGK CWXVQW  MCK OJ MCWECUSY QB RNQWUKQL GXP VY^ RNQWVY^ CWXVQW>  CXNN8 J GXP VQWVY^ MCWECUSY QB MCWEYOGPQL UWPKGKP MCK IKPYUMGKP VQP MWTKQP  MCK RQKGKP  MTKOC MCK FKMCKQUWPJP GXP OGUY^ VJL IJL. MWTKQL CXPGDJ GKXL QWXTCPQWL MCK GXDTQPVJUGP> CWXVQL MTKPGK CMTC IJL. MCK FKFYUKP KXUEWP VQKL DCUKNGWUKP JBOYP MCK WB[YUGK MGTCL ETKUVQW CWXVQW.

righteousness in Christ (1 Cor. 1.30) corresponds better with God’s act of ‘mercy’, ‘judgment’, and ‘righteousness’ of Jer. 9.23-24 than with the duty of God’s people to judge and bring righteousness on the earth of 2 Kgdms 2.10. Yet, this cannot undermine the thematic links between 1 Cor. 1.18-31 and the Song of Hannah. Both texts are coloured with the theme of reversal. Moreover, the words HTQPKOQL, FWPCVQL, and RNQWUKQL of 1 Kgdms 2.10 correspond very well with the words UQHQK, FWPCVQK, and GWXIGPGKL of 1 Cor. 1.26. See Wagner, ‘Not beyond the Things Which Are Written’, pp.284–5.  34. Except for the insertion of FG in 2 Cor. 10.17, both of Paul’s citations are identical. 35. It appears that 1 Kgdms 2.10 relies heavily on LXX Jer. 9.23-24 and the ¿rst three quarters of the 1 Kgdms 2.10 reproduces LXX Jer. 9.23-24 to a remarkable degree. Only the last couple of sentences resemble MT 1 Sam. 2.10, which reads: ‘The LORD! His adversaries shall be shattered; the Most High will thunder in heaven. The LORD will judge the ends of the earth; he will give strength to his king, and exalt the power of his anointed.’ 1

160

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

23This is what the Lord says: Let not the wise boast in his wisdom, and let not the mighty boast in his might, and let not the wealthy boast in his wealth, 24but let him who boasts boast in this: that he understands and knows that I am the Lord when I do mercy and justice and righteousness in the earth, because in these things is my will, says the Lord.

Let the one who boasts, boast in the Lord.

The Lord will make his adversary weak; the Lord is holy. Let not the clever boast in his cleverness, and let not let the mighty boast in his might, and let not the wealthy boast in his wealth, but let him who boasts boast in this: to understand and know the Lord and to execute justice and righteousness in the midst of the land. The Lord ascended to the heavens and thundered. He will judge earth’s ends and gives strength to our kings and will exalt the horn of his anointed.

* Verbal correspondences between LXX Jer. 9.23-24 and 1 Kgdms 2.10 underlined. Verbal correspondences among all three texts in bold.

In citing the text, Paul has placed the imperative MCWECUSY at the end and put an emphasis on the phrase GXP MWTKY^. The replacement of VQWVY^ by MWTKY^ does not seem to change the overall meaning since both of the following phrases – UWPKGKP MCK IKPYUMGKP Q=VK GXIY GKXOK MWTKQL (LXX Jer. 9.23) and UWPKGKP MCK IKPYUMGKP VQP MWTKQP (1 Kgdms 2.10) – are implied in the word MWTKY^. The in¿nitives in the LXX expound what is meant by VQWVY^. Knowing and understanding the Lord is the ground for boasting and Paul summarises this in one word, the Lord (MWTKY^). On the citation in 1 Cor. 1.31, Koch questions whether Paul was dependent on Scripture and argues that Paul was relying on early Jewish or Christian paraenesis that had this quotation in this form on the ground that he would not have overlooked the phrase OJ MCWECUSY QB UQHQL GXP VJ^ UQHKC^ CWXVQW of LXX Jer. 9.22 since it ¿ts nicely in the context.36 Yet Paul has already alluded to it just a few verses earlier in 1.27-28 (VQWL UQHQWL…VC KXUEWTC…VC QPVC), which is clearly patterned after QB UQHQL… QB KXUEWTQL…QB RNQWUKQL of the Jeremiah text.37 Even if this allusion was 36. Koch, Schrift, p.36. 37. Stanley, Language, p.187. G. R. O’Day (‘Jeremiah 9.22-23 and 1 Corinthians 1.26–31: A Study in Intertextuality’, JBL 109 [1990], pp.259–67 [264–5]) notes that Paul’s explicit citation of the same texts in 1 Cor. 1.31 coheres well with the three things mentioned in both texts, viz., wisdom, might and wealth, in which the

1

5. 2 Corinthians 10–13

161

not made earlier in the passage, it has to be noted that it is not necessary to cite every verse that may be helpful to one’s argument. Although one cannot rule out the possibility of Paul’s dependence on pre-Christian material other than Scripture, it appears more likely in this case that Paul was aware of the context of the text he was quoting as well as the scriptural text itself.38 This is evident when we examine the passages. The Song of Hannah in 1 Kingdoms 2 starts by praising God for his holiness and righteousness because Hannah’s heart was made ¿rm by the Lord through the exaltation of her horn and the prevailing against her enemies (vv. 1-2). She urges the hearers not to boast and speak lofty things (WB[JNC) because the Lord is a God of knowledge (SGQL IPYUGYP, v. 3). This is followed by the reversal of both human might (v. 4) and possession (v. 5) and by the confession that it is the Lord who is able to bring about changes (vv. 6-9). Therefore, the wise, the mighty, and the wealthy are exhorted not to boast in themselves, but in understanding and knowing the Lord for the Lord will judge the ends of the earth, give strength to the kings and exalt the horn of his anointed (v. 10).39 In contrast, the opponents of Paul have been doing exactly the opposite. They have been speaking ‘lofty’ things (10.5) and thus being proud of themselves beyond the proper limit. In response to such an attitude Paul rightly contends that those who boast must boast in the Lord because it is the Lord who alone is sovereign and in charge of everything, even the ends of the earth. Hence, ‘it is not those who commend themselves that are approved, but those whom the Lord commends’ (2 Cor. 10.18). This thematic coherence and the verbal match cannot be an accident. Rather, it suggests that Paul is fully aware of the passage he is citing. Likewise it is no different for the Jeremiah text.

Corinthians trusted (this reading takes 1 Cor. 1.26 as interrogative rather than as indicative). It appears their fondness for wisdom persisted more than the other two since Paul is addressing again the issue of knowledge and thought explicitly and strongly in the ¿rst half of 2 Cor. 10. 38. The main difference in the use of the Jeremiah passage in 1 Cor. 1.31 and 2 Cor. 10.17 lies in Paul’s application of the text; he applies the theme of boasting to the Corinthians in 1 Cor. 1.31, but to himself in 2 Cor. 10.17. Cf. K. Y. Lim, ‘The Sufferings of Christ Are Abundant in Us’: A Narrative Dynamics Investigation of Paul’s Sufferings in 2 Corinthians (LNTS 399; London: T&T Clark International, 2009), p.170. 39. L.A.B. 50.2 depicts Peninnah insulting Hannah by saying that Hannah should not boast in her appearance, but only when she has her offspring. A few verses later, Hannah gives birth to Samuel and sings a song of joy in which allusions to ‘horn of the anointed’ appear (L.A.B. 51.3, 6). 1

162

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

The text in LXX Jer. 9.23-24 is set in the context of God’s judgment on Judah for their abandonment of the law and for idolatry (9.13-14). This recalls earlier mention of the deception of the people of Judah in LXX Jer. 8.8-9: ‘How will you say, “We are wise (UQHQK) and the law of the LORD is with us?” A false ([GWFJL) pen has become of no use to scribes. Wise (UQHQK) were put to shame and were terri¿ed and caught because they have discarded the word (NQIQP) of the Lord. What wisdom (UQHKC) is in them?’ The note on deceit and falsehood is also struck in 9.4 (NCNGKP [GWFJ), 5 (FQNQL GXRK FQNY^), and 7 (FQNKC). Furthermore, the word [GWFJL40 and [GWFQL41 occur most frequently in the LXX in Jeremiah. All this deceit and falsehood leads inevitably to people’s refusal to know the true God (QWXM JSGNQP GKXFGPCK OG, Jer. 9.5). Thus, the theme of deceit and falsehood that runs through Jeremiah appears to have been picked up by Paul to direct the accusation that he took the Corinthians in by deceit (FQNY^, 12.16) against his opponents.42 The context in which LXX Jer. 9.23-24 is placed sheds light on and coheres well with what Paul has been arguing in 2 Corinthians 10. Paul’s opponents have been boasting illegitimately, as their basis for boasting was in comparing themselves with one another (2 Cor. 10.12). They have been proud of their sophistry (NQIKUOQL), which is in fact a deceit since it is raised up against the knowledge of God (v. 5). They have been content with false wisdom while they refused to know God, let alone boast in him (cf. Jer. 9.23 LXX). Just as the people of Judah were deceived in believing that the law of the Lord was with them (Jer. 8.8 LXX), so are the Corinthians in believing that they belong to Christ (cf. 2 Cor. 10.7). Because the opponents are deceived, they do not show good sense when they compare themselves with themselves (10.12) and boast beyond a proper limit, even to the point of boasting in the labour

40. Occurring 20 times in the LXX version of Jeremiah, in 6.6, 13; 7.4, 8; 9.4, 8; 10.14; 14.14 (×2), 15; 15.18; 16.19; 20.6; 23.25, 26, 32; 29.17; 34.10, 15; 47.16. Followed by Proverbs (19 times), Ezekiel (8 times), Hosea and Epistles of Jeremiah (4 times), Psalms of Solomon (3 times), Susanna and Daniel (Theodotion) (2 times), once in Amos, Micah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Isaiah. 41. Occurring 9 times in the LXX version of Jeremiah, in 3.10, 23; 5.2; 9.2; 13.25; 23.14, 32; 44.14; 50.2. Followed by Sirach (7 times), Proverbs (6 times), Psalms and Isaiah (5 times), Hosea (4 times), Judith and Daniel (2 times), and once in Job, Ezekiel, Micah, Zechariah, Malachi and Epistle of Jeremiah. 42. Pseudo-Phocylides 53-54 alludes to the Jeremiah text when is states: ‘Do not pride yourself no wisdom nor on strength nor on riches. The only God is wise and mighty and at the same time rich in blessings.’

1

5. 2 Corinthians 10–13

163

of others (10.15-16).43 In Jeremiah, the boasting is construed both negatively (9.22; boasting in one’s wisdom, might or abundance) and positively (9.23; ‘boasting in the Lord’). This suggests that it is the object of boasting and not the act of boasting that is at issue here.44 Hence Paul’s emphasis through the quotation: ‘the one who boasts must boast in the Lord’. Once again we see that there are striking thematic as well as verbal correspondences between 2 Cor. 10.17 and LXX Jer. 9.23-24. The chances are slim for such similarities to be found in both texts if Paul was simply borrowing a scriptural text quoted in an earlier material. While there are many similarities and common expressions shared between LXX Jer. 9.23-24 and 1 Kgdms 2.10, there is a signi¿cant difference. The object of boasting in Jeremiah is con¿ned to ‘understanding and knowing the Lord’ when God does ‘mercy and justice and righteousness in the earth’. In 1 Kingdoms the object of boasting becomes extended to include the very things that God is said to do in Jeremiah: ‘let him who boasts boast in this: to understand and know the Lord and to execute justice and righteousness in the midst of the land’.45 Whether Paul was aware of this difference, it seems the idea of corporate identity is present here once again since there is an overlap of God and people when the Jeremiah and 1 Kingdoms passages are viewed together. Though this participatory aspect does not have much bearing on our understanding of 2 Cor. 10.17, it is interesting to see this theme simply emerge ‘out of nowhere’. Those who were well versed in the Scripture would have heard the same theme echoed in two places, from the prophet’s proclamation and from the Song of Hannah. They would have noticed the note of God’s judgment on his people in Jeremiah for abandoning him while falsely claiming to be wise and know his will. They would have also felt the need to check where they stood in their pride since the prophetic voice from Paul clearly reveals that it is the Lord who is over all and any boasting apart from the Lord is misplaced and false, as the Song of Hannah also shows. Those who were not familiar with Scripture were more likely than usual to have noticed that Paul is referring to a scriptural passage since Paul has quoted the same text in an earlier letter (1 Cor. 1.31). Even 43. This theme of deceit will continue in the following chapter where Paul alludes to the story of the snake’s deception in Gen. 3 and identi¿es the opponents as GXTICVCK FQNKQK (11.13). 44. Lim, Sufferings of Christ, p.164. 45. Cf. Lim, Sufferings of Christ, p.166. 1

164

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

though they might not know the context from which the passage comes from, they would have no problem in understanding Paul’s point that boasting is inappropriate unless it is done in the Lord. The quotation only serves to strengthen Paul’s point with scriptural authority. What has to be noted here again is that the allusions to Jeremiah so far, including the theme of calling and appointing echoed in 2 Cor. 10.8, indicate that Paul is thinking of his role as comparable to that of the prophet.46 Like the prophet Jeremiah, he has been called and appointed by God to build up or to tear down. It is God who gives the authority to do such work. Hence Paul repeats what Jeremiah spoke to the people on God’s behalf. Just as the people were to boast in knowing and understanding the Lord in the time of Jeremiah, so are the Corinthians commanded to boast ‘in the Lord’.47 That is ‘the human counterpart’ to the commendation of the Lord.48 11.3 Paul starts a new section by asking for the Corinthians’ patience towards Paul’s ‘foolishness’ (11.1) because what he is about to do is what he condemns his opponents for, namely, what he considers to be illegitimate boasting.49 He begins with the imagery of marriage to describe the believers’ relationship with their Lord, which echoes the OT imagery of marriage between Israel and Yahweh (Isa. 54.5-6; 62.5; Ezek. 16.8; Hos. 2.19-20).50 Then he employs the story of the serpent’s temptation in the Garden of Eden (11.3). His explicit mention of Eve and the serpent without further explanation suggests that Paul is assuming that the Corinthians are familiar with the story. 46. Murphy-O’Connor, Theology, p.104. 47. ‘The Lord’ has its referent to Yahweh in the OT. But, it seems to refer to Christ here as is usually the case. See Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, pp.652–3; Harris, Second Epistle, pp.725–6. Contra Lambrecht, Corinthians, p.167. 48. S. J. Hafemann, ‘“Self-Commendation” and Apostolic Legitimacy in 2 Corinthians: A Pauline Dialectic?’, NTS 36 (1990), pp.66–88 (83). Cf. D. H. H. Williams, III, The Wisdom of the Wise: The Presence and Function of Scripture within 1 Cor. 1.18–3.23 (Leiden: Brill, 2001), p.131: ‘commendation and calling both ¿t together in the proper boast in the salvi¿c plan of God of Jer. 9.23 [9.24] which is an irrefutable boast of both apostle and Corinthian believer’. 49. Thus, Paul keeps reminding the Corinthians what the opponents, and Paul himself, are doing is foolish. Note the frequency of the words CXHTQUWPJ and CHTYP used in 11.1–12.13 (11.1, 16, 17, 19; 12.6, 11). See Murphy-O’Connor, Theology, p.107. 50. Murphy-O’Connor, Theology, p.109. It is doubtful, however, whether those less familiar with Scripture would notice this allusion. 1

5. 2 Corinthians 10–13

165

The serpent enters the narrative as one of the creatures God has made and is depicted to be ‘more crafty’ (Gen. 3.1). He succeeds in making Eve question what she believed was true. The serpent’s insinuating promptings lead Eve to look at the forbidden fruit. The tree looked to be ‘good for food’, was a ‘delight to the eyes’, and more importantly, was ‘desirable to make one wise’ (Gen. 3.6). Though the LXX (YBTCKQP GXUVKP VQW MCVCPQJUCK, ‘it is beautiful to contemplate’) is not as speci¿c as the MT (O\.LIKO, ‘to make wise’, ‘to look’, ‘to be prudent’ etc.), the basic thrust seems to echo perfectly well what Paul has been saying so far. Just as Eve desired ‘wisdom’ to become like God – thus disobeying God – the Corinthians desired wisdom which turned out to be against ‘the knowledge of God’ and disobeyed Christ. Hence, Paul fears that the purity of the Corinthians may be marred. If Paul had this link to wisdom in mind, it would appear that this is one of those cases where he is reliant on the Hebrew text to make the link (cf. also the allusion to Isa. 53 in 5.14-21). It is clear that Paul is identifying the opponents with Satan in this story, who are said to be ministers of Satan later on in the chapter (11.15). Hanson contends that 2 Cor. 11.14 shows that Paul is acquainted with the Life of Adam and Eve, where Satan is said to transform himself into an angel of light to seduce Eve.51 Yet, it is not certain whether Paul was aware of the literature since the span of its composition is likely to be between 100 BC and AD 200.52 Besides, even if Paul borrowed the idea of Satan disguising as an angel, he does not seem to be dependent on it for his allusion to the story of temptation. The story of the Life of Adam and Eve is not about Satan’s temptation in the Garden of Eden, but outside the Garden when Eve was weeping for repentance and Satan came to stop her from repenting by saying her repentance has been accepted by the Lord. Thus the temptation mentioned in the Life of Adam and Eve is different from what Paul is alluding to here, which is the incident in the Garden of Eden. There is a passing remark of the temptation in the Life of Adam and Eve 33.353 in which Adam is retelling the story of the fall to his children. But it is only a short summary of the story and not the story itself. There is, however, a fuller account of the account where Eve is recounting the story of the fall in the Apocalypse of 51. Hanson, Technique, p.2. Hanson does not give the speci¿c reference, but see L.A.E. 9.1–11.3. 52. M. D. Johnson, ‘Life of Adam and Eve’, in OTP, vol. 2, p.252. 53. It reads, ‘Immediately the adversary, the devil, found opportunity while the angels were away and deceived your mother so that she ate of the illicit and forbidden tree. And she ate and gave to me’. 1

166

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Moses 17.1–18.6 (a Greek version of the Life of Adam and Eve). Yet the story is not very much different from the Genesis account apart from some additional details which are incidental to the main thrust. Hence it would be dif¿cult to contend that it is somehow responsible for the allusion in 2 Cor. 11.3 when Paul must have known the story primarily from the scriptural narrative. Thrall notes a Jewish interpretation of the serpent’s temptation in 2 En. 31.6 and argues that Paul may have been aware of and inÀuenced by the Jewish interpretation that the serpent’s seduction was physical – hence the imagery of marriage and mention of a chaste virgin in v. 2.54 She also notes that the verb HSGKTY in v. 3 can be used to denote sexual seduction.55 This would seem metaphorically appropriate to Paul’s statement: ‘the Corinthians may become unfaithful to Christ, the last Adam, just as Eve was unfaithful to the ¿rst’.56 Yet, the text Thrall refers to (2 En. 31.6) does not seem to portray the idea so clearly. It reads: ‘And he became aware of his condemnation and of the sin which he sinned previously. And that is why he thought up the scheme against Adam. In such a form he entered paradise, and corrupted Eve. But Adam he did not contact.’57 The words ‘corrupt’ and ‘contact’ could be read in light of what precedes (2 En. 31.5): ‘In this way he [Satan] became different from the angels. His nature did not change, [but] his thought did, since his consciousness of righteous and sinful things changed.’58 Another translation by W. R. Mor¿ll seems to exhibit similar ambiguity. It reads: ‘And on account of this, he conceived designs against Adam; in such a manner he entered and deceived Eve. But he did not touch Adam’.59 The word ‘deceive’ appears to condition the word ‘touch’. Hence that Satan did not ‘touch’ Adam would mean that Satan did not ‘deceive’ Adam. Given the mention of the corruption

54. Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.662. 55. Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.662; cf. BDAG HSGKTY 1.c.; 2.b. 56. Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.662. 57. Trans. by F. I. Andersen, ‘2 (Slavonic Apocalypse of) Enoch’, in OTP, vol. 1, p.154, emphasis added. Unfortunately, there is no Greek version of this since it is only available in Old Slavonic. There are three views as to the original language behind 2 Enoch – (1) Slavonic; (2) Greek; (3) Hebrew – yet there is no decisive argument to favour one over the other, though the possibility for Slavonic is seen to be less likely than the other two. Andersen favours the third option (OTP, vol. 1, p.94). 58. Translation by Andersen, ‘Slavonic Apocalypse’, 1.154, emphasis added 59. R. H. Charles, The Book of the Secrets of Enoch (trans. W. R. Mor¿ll from the Slavonic; Oxford: Clarendon, 1896), p.45. 1

5. 2 Corinthians 10–13

167

of thought and consciousness of Satan, 2 Enoch could be read to mean that Eve’s mind was corrupted by Satan (HSCTJ^ VC PQJOCVC WBOYP). Thus it is not clear whether the deception has physical connotations. Furthermore, Ellis is sceptical about such ‘evidences’ of Jewish interpretation. Noting that Jewish writings that depict Eve being seduced in that way are ‘quite late’, Ellis remarks, ‘there is little if any ¿rst century material ascribing to this [sexual intercourse] the occasion of Eve’s temptation’.60 The idea of physical seduction is also absent in Gen. Rab. (19.1-12), Philo (Leg. 2.79), Josephus (Ant. 1.41-51), and the Apostolic Fathers (Diogn. 12.8 [RCTSGPQL RKUVGWGVCK]; Ign. Trall. 10.7) in which the story is alluded to. Thus, if Paul had this passage in mind, it would have to be on the grounds of mental and spiritual deception rather than on physical de¿lement. However, there is no good reason to think that Paul is dependent on an interesting deviation of the original account of Genesis 3, even if Paul had access to 2 Enoch.61 The point Paul is making with the allusion is not that the Corinthians are in danger of committing the same sin as Eve (however one might like to interpret it), but that just as Eve was deceived by Satan into believing that a divine status is achievable by ‘wisdom’, so were the Corinthians deceived by the ‘super apostles’ into believing that they had acquired something special by ‘wisdom’.62 Hence Paul’s focus of attention is on the faculty of thinking (PQJOCVC, 11.3),63 as is also evident in expressing the contrary idea to ‘chaste virgin’ (v. 2) as thoughts being led astray from ‘sincere and pure devotion to Christ’ (v. 3).64

60. Ellis, Paul’s Use, p.63. However, Andersen (OTP, vol. 1, pp.94–7) is inclined to date it earlier (late ¿rst century AD). Cf. Rost who dates it to the ¿rst half of the ¿rst century BC; Leonhard Rost, Judaism Outside the Hebrew Canon: An Introduction to the Documents (Nashville: Abingdon, 1976), p.112. 61. Other than the Jewish apocalypses Thrall has noted (II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.662), there are also variants of the same account elsewhere in apocryphal-heretical literature (Prot. Jas. 13; Ap. John 23) and also in Gnostic aetiology (Hippolytus, Haer. 5.26.22-23 and Epiphanius, Pan. 40.5.3) noted by Martin, 2 Corinthians, pp.333–4. These, however, are hardly the sources Paul would have depended upon, even if they were early and available to him. 62. Cf. Ellis, Paul’s Use, p.63. 63. Cf. Kruse, 2 Corinthians, p.183: ‘It is signi¿cant that the serpent’s “seduction” of Eve was not sexual, as some rabbinic texts suggest, but rather a beguiling of her mind by denying the truth of what God had said’. 64. In a similar vein, the unfaithful Israel of the OT is depicted as a whore and their idolatry as ‘whoredom’ (cf. the book of Hosea). 1

168

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Those who were familiar with the story and its background would have heard the note of rebellion imbedded in the deception. Just as falling for the false promise of the forbidden fruit was a conspicuous sign of being in rebellion toward God, so is heeding other arguments a sign of deception and rebellion. Perhaps the shame and pain that followed Eve’s fall would have been recalled as well. Some might have noticed an echo of the link to the mention of wisdom in the story and they would have thought twice about their pursuit and boasting of worldly wisdom, which Paul makes very clear, is against God. It appears that Paul is assuming general familiarity with the story. So many of those who were less informed about Scripture would have or at least be expected to have picked up Paul’s allusion. Even if some were not able to recall the story, they would understand Paul’s point clearly since Paul’s mention of ‘serpent, ‘deception’ and his further comments about being a ‘chaste virgin’ to Christ is not dif¿cult to understand. They would know there was a person named Eve who was deceived by a serpent, and that would be enough for them to understand Paul’s point. They would know the heart of the matter is ‘deception’ regardless of whether they knew the story or not. In this allusion Paul is identifying the Corinthians with Eve and the opponents with the serpent. The implication of identifying the opponent with the serpent would be that the teaching and wisdom of the ‘superapostles’ is simply deceptive. Furthermore, deception goes hand in hand with persuasive speech: just as the serpent was eloquent and smooth in its talk, so were the false teachers. Furthermore, God is identi¿ed with Christ here because it was God whom Eve was turning against and it is Christ from whom the Corinthians are turning. Thus the full divinity of Christ is assumed by this identi¿cation. By leading his audience to identify with the main characters of the biblical narrative, Paul is making his argument more vivid and striking. 11.20 The correspondence between 2 Cor. 11.20 and LXX Ps. 53.5 lies simply in that there are enemies rising up against the author. The passage reads: Q=VK CXNNQVTKQK GXRCPGUVJUCP GXR8 GXOG MCK MTCVCKQK GX\JVJUCP VJP [WEJP OQW QWX RTQGSGPVQ VQP SGQP GXPYRKQP CWXVYP (‘Because strangers rose up against me, and strong ones sought my soul; they did not set God before them’). Other than the mention of the presence of the enemies, the important point of 2 Cor. 11.20 is not found in LXX Ps. 53.5, viz., ‘putting up’ with the enemies. Yet the psalmist is clearly not putting up with his/her enemies. If the conceptual link is the only basis for claiming an allusion, 1

5. 2 Corinthians 10–13

169

there are a number of passages that can be noted as well. For example, LXX Ps. 85.14 reads: QB SGQL RCTCPQOQK GXRCPGUVJUCP GXR8 GXOG MCK UWPCIYIJ MTCVCKYP GX\JVJUCP VJP [WEJP OQW MCK QWX RTQGSGPVQ UG GXPYRKQP CWXVYP (‘O God, transgressors of the law rose up against me, and a band of strong ones sought my soul, and they did not set you before them’).65 Understandably, no commentaries seem to discuss possible scriptural background to this verse, let alone trace it to LXX Ps. 53.5. What is noteworthy in 2 Cor. 11.20, however, is the mention of the word MCVCFQWNQY (GE>). It occurs only twice in the NT (here and Gal. 2.4),66 four times in Josephus (Ant. 4.259; 5.1; 13.1; J.W. 1.51), and four times in Philo (Mos. 1.95, 141, 142; Prob. 1.160).67 Out of the ten occurrences in the LXX, the word is used four times in relation to Israel’s slavery to Egypt (Gen. 47.21; Exod. 1.14; 6.5; 3 Macc. 2.6), three times in relation to the enslavement of the exiles (Jer. 15.14; Ezek. 29.18; 34.27) and two times in relation to other enemies, viz., the Greeks and the Romans (1 Macc. 8.10, 18).68 Given the relatively rare use of the word and most of its referents being to other powerful nations that enslaved the Israelites,69 it can be argued that Paul is possibly linking those nations that opposed God’s people with the false apostles who had attempted to ‘enslave’ the Corinthians with their specious gospel.70 65. Other passages of LXX Psalms that have reference to the enemy in like manner include: 3.1; 26.12; 30.14; 34.4, 15; 42.1; 54.4, 19 and many others. 66. J. L. Martyn (Galatians: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary [AB 33A; New York: Doubleday, 1997], p.196) comments that ‘freedom’ is ‘a very large part of the message of the letter taken as a whole’ based on his observation of the occurrence of the words, ‘freedom’ (GXNGWSGTKC, 4 times in 2.4; 5.1, 13 [×2]), ‘to set free’ (GXNGWSGTQY, 5.1), ‘free’ (GXNGWSGTQL, 3.28; 5 times in 4.22-31) and ‘redeem [out of slavery]’ (GXZCIQTC\Y, 3.13; 4.5). This theme of freedom is contrasted in Gal. 2.4 with the enslavement of the opponents who wanted the Galatians under the Mosaic Law. Paul saw this as life in enslavement to ‘the elements of the world’ (cf. 3.23–4.11). See R. N. Longenecker, Galatians (WBC 41; Dallas, TX: Word, 1990), p.53. 67. The referents of the verb are: opponents to the Corinthians (2 Cor. 11.20); false brothers to the Galatians (Gal. 2.4); a man looking to marry a woman to a woman (Ant. 4.259); Canaanites to Israelites (Ant. 5.1); Macedonians to the Jews (Ant. 13.1); Antiochus to Simeon (J.W. 1.51); Egypt to Israel (Mos. 1.95, 141); Egypt to foreigners (Mos. 1.142). The referents in Prob. 1.160 are not clear. 68. No commentators seem to have noted this as far as we are aware. 69. In Josephus, only Ant. 13.1 refers to the oppression of the enemy (i.e. Macedonians). Philo has three uses of the word in relation to the exodus story (Mos. 1.95, 141, 142). 70. Cf. LSJ MCVCFQWNQY §II, which suggests a metaphorical use ‘enslave in mind’. 1

170

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Despite the apparent wealth, might and glory, the nations that ruled the Israelites are in fact opposed to God. In the same way, the false apostles are fundamentally opposed to God, however attractive they may appear and however persuasive their speech may sound. Those with a good knowledge of Scripture may have picked up the resonances from the exodus and the exile of the Israelites. If they did, they would have seen the connection between the enslavement of the powerful nation of old and that of the false apostles. For the Corinthians who were living at the times of ful¿lment of God’s promises (cf. 5.17; 6.2), the opponents of Paul would seem to be leading them through an equivalent of the enslavement by the foreign nations in the ancient Near East over the people of Israel. It is almost as if they are trying to turn the clock back from when God has done mighty works through Christ in the pattern of the ¿rst and second exodus. Those who were less informed in Scripture would not have picked up any echoes of the exodus themes. Though Paul’s point is clear without the possible allusion, making the connection to the scriptural themes would have opened up a new perspective for them to see things in the light of the precedents and lessons that had been written down for them. If Paul had the enslavement of Israel under the nations in mind, he would be identifying the opponents with the foreign nations and the Corinthians with the people of Israel. Just as they oppressed the Israelites in various ways and forced them to abandon their belief and identity as the people of the true God, so are the opponents enslaving the Corinthians to be unfaithful to Christ through their false, but persuasive, teachings (11.3). The difference would be that God allowed the foreign nations to rule over his people of Israel as a punishment and a wake-up call whereas it is very doubtful to hold that God allowed the false teachers to in¿ltrate his people, thus leading them to destruction. Hence the identi¿cation does not work quite as well as it ¿rst appears, but a loose application of the scriptural pattern may have been enough for Paul. 11.24 In listing the hardships he had to endure, Paul mentions that he had received 39 lashes from the Jews, the maximum number prescribed in Deut. 25.3. It was a Jewish of¿cial punishment in the synagogue (Mt. 10.17; cf. 23.34).71 Paul was beaten with Roman rods (cf. Acts 22.24), but there is no indication that the practice of 39 lashes was Roman.

1

71. Harris, Second Epistle, p.801.

5. 2 Corinthians 10–13

171

It appears that Paul is not referring to the scriptural passage to make a point. Rather, he seems to mention the Jewish punishment law as practised in his days just to show that he is also a Jew by practical engagement as well as by lineage.72 12.7 After ending the ‘foolish’ boasting with an ironic account of his humiliating exit from the city of Damascus, Paul continues his boast and reveals that he had been given a great revelation from God that no one is allowed to repeat. Because of the exceptional character of the revelations, ‘a thorn’ (UMQNQ[) was given to him to keep him from pride. Numerous proposals have been made as to the identity of the ‘thorn’, but there is no decisive conclusion, which will likely continue given the paucity of the data.73 Broadly, the major understanding of the ‘thorn’ is threefold: (1) psychological condition;74 (2) physical ailment;75 (3) external opposition.76 It is in arguing for the third position that scholars have noted the use of UMQNQ[ in Num. 33.55 and Ezek. 28.24, which NA27 notes as allusions. The argument for this position would run as follows. The dative of the phrase UMQNQ[ VJ^ UCTMK is better taken as dativus incommodi ‘for the Àesh’77 since Paul could have made it clearer, as in Gal. 4.14, if he intended a locative meaning by adding GXP.78 Besides,

72. Cf. Harris, Second Epistle, p.803. 73. Cf. H. R. Minn, The Thorn that Remained: Materials for the Study of St. Paul’s Thorn in the Flesh: 2 Corinthians XII. vv. 1-10 (Auckland: Institute, 1972), p.30; Plummer, Second Epistle, p.351; Martin, 2 Corinthians, p.416; Kruse, 2 Corinthians, p.206; Hughes, Second Epistle, p.442. For a survey of proposals made on the meaning of ‘thorn’, see Martin, Second Epistle, pp.412–16; Minn, Thorn, pp.23–30; Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, pp.809–18. 74. Schlatter, Paulus, pp.666–7. 75. So Furnish, II Corinthians, pp.547–9; Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.808; Harris, Second Epistle, p.859; Bruce, 1 and 2 Corinthians, p.248; Belleville, 2 Corinthians, p.306; A. Dawson, Healing, Weakness and Power: Perspectives on Healing in the Writings of Mark, Luke and Paul (PBM; Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 2008), pp.191–2. 76. So Murphy-O’Connor, Theology, p.119; M. L. Barré, ‘Qumran and the Weakness of Paul’, CBQ 42 (1980), p.216–27; T. Y. Mullins, ‘Paul’s Thorn in the Flesh’, JBL 76 (1957), pp.299–303; Tasker, 2 Corinthians, p.177; J. W. McCant, ‘Paul’s Thorn of Rejected Apostleship’, NTS 34 (1988), pp.550–72. 77. BDF §§188, 199. Cf. McCant, 2 Corinthians, p.149. 78. Cf. McCant, 2 Corinthians, p.149; Plummer, Second Epistle, p.348; Hughes, Second Epistle, p.447; Fisher, 1 and 2 Corinthians, p.429. 1

172

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

the phrase UMQNQ[ VJ^ UCTMK stands in apposition with ‘messenger of Satan’ (CIIGNQL UCVCPC). Moreover, the word MQNCHK\Y, ‘to strike with ¿st’, assumes a human referent,79 and the word CXHKUVJOK is almost always used in association with human referents in the NT (Lk. 2.37; 4.13; 8.13; 13.27; Acts 5.37, 38; 15.38; 19.9; 22.29; 1 Tim. 4.1; 2 Tim. 2.19; Heb. 3.12).80 To add to this, UMQNQ[ is a rare word occurring only once in the NT (here) and three times in the OT (Num. 33.55; Ezek. 28.24; Hos. 2.6; cf. Sir. 43.19), two of which (Num. 33.55; Ezek. 28.24) have the referent of ‘thorn’ as the enemies of Israel.81 The phrase ‘thorns in your eyes’ (UMQNQRGL GXP VQKL QXHSCNOQKL WBOYP) of Num. 33.55 has its referent to the inhabitants of the land of Canaan, who have to be driven out.82 Similarly the phrase ‘thorn of bitterness’ (UMQNQ[ RKMTKCL) of Ezek. 28.24 refers to Israel’s adversaries in general.83 However, the contexts of both passages do not really cohere with the situation Paul has in mind. The ‘thorn’ in Num. 33.55 is to be driven out and removed from among the people of God. Yet Paul’s thorn is to stay. The mention of thorn in Ezek. 28.24 comes in the context of the promise of return from their scattered places. The house of Israel is given the promise that they would no longer see briers or thorns which came in the form of their neighbours from foreign soil. We have seen in the previous chapters that this theme of return and restoration has been strong at the backdrop of 2 Corinthians (especially chs. 4–7). Yet the promise of a brighter future and absence of tears, pain and the like that come with the hope of return do not mix well with what the ‘thorn’ had to offer to Paul. Hence both Num. 33.55 and Ezek. 28.24 79. BDAG de¿nes it as ‘painful attacks of illness’ (s.v. 2). Though McCant (2 Corinthians, p.148) presses hard on its literal meaning, it seems it can be taken ¿guratively to mean ‘attack’. Yet, there do not seem to be good reasons to go as far as BDAG, which speci¿es its ¿gurative meaning. LSJ s.v. simply has ‘slap’ and ‘buffet’. 80. Cf. Martin, 2 Corinthians, p.417. 81. Note also Josh. 23.13, which has RCIKL (‘snare’), UMCPFCNQP (‘trap’), JNQL (‘nail’), DQNKL (‘arrow’) referring to the enemy of the Israelites; cf. also Judg. 2.3. Plummer (Second Epistle, p.352) notes that the idea that God’s purpose can be carried out by Satan is also found in the OT (2 Sam. 24.1; 1 Chron. 21.1; Job 1.12; 2.6). LSJ UMQNQ[ 2 notes that there are few occurrences of the word used in general Greek literature to mean ‘thorn’ in IG42 (1).121.92 (Epid., iv B. C.), Dsc.4.49, Babr. 122, PMag.Osl.I.270. 82. The Hebrew equivalent IH for UMQNQ[ occurs only once, at Num. 33.55, in the Hebrew Bible. 83. The Hebrew equivalent $T for UMQNQ[ occurs once, at Ezek. 29.24, in reference to the enemy out of 11 occurrences in total (Gen. 3.18; Exod. 22.6; Judg. 9.7, 16; 2 Sam. 23.6; Ps. 119.12; Isa. 32.13; 33.12; Jer. 4.3; 12.13; Hos. 10.8). 1

5. 2 Corinthians 10–13

173

are allusions as far as the general referent (i.e. ‘enemy’) is concerned, but do not seem to be an exact allusion when one presses the question of thematic coherence a bit further. In other places, UMQNQ[ is used differently. In Hos. 2.6 ‘thorn’ is used to symbolise an obstacle placed on the way of the woman who was going after her lovers. Sirach 43.19, which also has the word UMQNQ[, is placed in the context of describing the beauty of nature. It reads: ‘And frost, like salt, he pours upon the earth, and when it freezes, points of thorns occur’. Thus the ‘thorn’ is used simply to describe the form of icicles and does not have any metaphorical meaning in this verse. If UMQNQ[ is used to refer to the enemy in all occurrences in the LXX, it would strengthen this position a good deal more. But it is not the case. One of the major weaknesses noted against this argument is that Paul would not have prayed for the removal of the enemy so that he can be free from persecution. But ¿rst of all, it has to be noted that there are numerous psalms that express anguish and pain caused by the enemies and longing for their judgment (Pss. 3; 5; 6; 7; 10; 11 etc.). Hence it would not be wrong or ‘unbiblical’ to pray for the removal of the enemy or the wicked. However, Paul has come to the realisation that the hardships and persecutions are marks of the death of Jesus through which the life of the Lord shines and thus a mark of a true apostle (11.23-29).84 So, it is unlikely that Paul would pray for their removal. Moreover, the thorn was something peculiar to him because of the revelation he had received.85 It is unlikely that the opponent would have left out Paul’s coworkers in the process of opposing Paul. But the thorn seems to be a problem specially directed to Paul. Thus these objections undermine the attempt to regard the ‘thorn’ as the opponents. This does not mean, however, that the other positions automatically become more plausible than this one since each position has its own shortcomings.86 While taking the thorn to refer to a kind of illness is the view taken by the majority, it seems some would move hastily to identifying the speci¿c nature of the thorn without giving adequate reasons to establish that the thorn is likely to have been physical in nature.87 Nevertheless, it does seem that taking the thorn as a kind of

84. Martin, 2 Corinthians, p.415. 85. Fisher, Commentary, p.429. 86. See Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, pp.809–18. 87. E.g. Dawson, Healing, p.192. Thrall (II Corinthians, vol. 1, pp.809–18) does not provide adequate reasons as to why the thorn has to be taken as some sort of illness, but move rather quickly to identifying the nature of illness.

1

174

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

illness is slightly more plausible than other positions and accommodates more easily the characteristics of the thorn.88 It is obvious that Paul is being ambiguous about the identity of the thorn, though the Corinthians would likely have been aware of it. If Paul meant to refer to a scriptural usage by employing UMQNQ[, it would put slightly more weight on the contention that the thorn refers to Paul’s opposition. But since one cannot tell if he is intending to take on the scriptural usage of the word – the ‘allusion’ does not go any further than that, as we have seen above. The fact that Paul used the word UMQNQ[ does not help any one position. 13.1 Informing the Corinthians that he is coming for the third time, Paul suddenly cites a scriptural passage from Deut. 19.15. Though the citation is not introduced by a formula, it is clear that Paul is here referring to the text. Apart from the omission of GXRK UVQOCVQL and OCTVWTYP, which are redundant, Paul follows the Greek text in its exact form.89 Table 5.3 2 Cor. 13.1  6TKVQP VQWVQ GTEQOCK RTQL WBOCL      GXRK UVQOCVQL FWQ OCTVWTYP  MCK VTKYP   UVCSJUGVCK RCP TBJOC

LXX

Deut. 19.1590

 1WXM GXOOGPGK OCTVWL GKL MCVC CXPSTYRQW MCVC RCUCP CXFKMKCP  MCK MCVC RCP CBOCTVJOC  MCK MCVC RCUCP CBOCTVKCP J?P C P CBOCTVJ^>  GXRK UVQOCVQL FWQ OCTVWTYP  MCK GXRK UVQOCVQL VTKYP OCTVWTYP  UVCSJUGVCK RCP TBJOC.

MT

Deut. 19.15

Y\DL%G[ DG>Ha:T\DO Z2> ON O WD- [ON O: DM[HON % DM [\UYD@   a\G,>H\Q(Y\3LO> a\G,>HKY OY\3LO>$DL UE 'a:T\

88. Harris (Second Epistle, p.857) provides a helpful description of the thorn: (1) it was given to Paul as a direct result of the revelation; (2) it caused him great pain; (3) Paul considered it as both God’s gift and Satan’s instrument; (4) it was permanent; (5) it was humbling; (6) it was humiliating; (7) it rendered him weak. 89. The MT and the LXX correspond very closely. Like 2 Cor. 13.1, the LXX minuscules 381, 618 and 767 also omit GXRK UVQOCVQL, while minuscules 19, 108, 118, 314, 538, 72, 53, 319, 664, 799 omit OCTVWTYP. 90. Aquila has CXPUVJUGVCK instead of GXOOGPGK. 1

5. 2 Corinthians 10–13 This is the third time I am coming to you. ‘Any charge must be sustained by the evidence of two or three witnesses’.

One witness shall not suf¿ce against a person in any injustice and in any wrongdoing and in any sin that he may sin. By the mouth of two or three witnesses shall any word be sustained.

175 A single witness shall not suf¿ce to convict a person of any crime or wrongdoing in connection with any offense that may be committed. Only on the evidence of two or three witnesses shall a charge be sustained.

* Verbal correspondences between 2 Cor. 13.1 and LXX Deut. 19.15 underlined.

Scholars have suggested differing solutions to what the citation might mean in this context. Some have suggested that the numbers refer to the number of visits.91 Paul mentions this rule immediately after his intention to visit for the third time, and thus his third visit can be taken as the third and ¿nal witness against the trouble-makers in the Corinthian church. Others have argued that the numbers simply suggest that Paul had given them ample warning.92 A combination of these two is offered by Harris, who argues that the witnesses are better understood as warnings and/or visits, noting the VTKVQP–VTKYP and FWQ–FGWVGTQP links of 13.1-2.93 He contends that Paul is applying the legal principle in a way typical of Judaism of his day, i.e., ‘to forewarn those suspected of an offense that they were liable to punishment’.94 This is true in 1QS 5.1-26. The author of 1QS 5.1-26 mentions the Rule for the Community with its emphasis on Torah and covenant. There is a strong exhortation not to associate oneself with wickedness and those who practise it. Yet at the same time, they are to admonish one another with truth, love and humility to prevent such a person from being involved in evil practices again. They are to speak kindly to the person in case they incur guilt because of him/her. Then in 1QS 6.1, the author alludes to the Deuteronomic rule: ‘And also let no man accuse his companion before the Many without a confrontation before witnesses’.95 Thus, the author is saying 91. Plummer, Second Epistle, p.372; Bruce, Corinthians, p.253; Belleville, 2 Corinthians, pp.326–7; Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.876. 92. Barrett, Second Epistle, p.333; Martin, 2 Corinthians, p.470. 93. Harris, Second Epistle, p.908. 94. Harris, Second Epistle, p.908. 95. J. H. Charlesworth et al. (eds.), The Dead Sea Scrolls: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek Texts with English Translations (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1994), p.27. 1

176

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

that no one is to accuse his fellow without ¿rst admonishing him in the presence of witnesses. Here, the witnesses are present in warning the person. We cannot tell whether the witnesses would be present in the actual accusation from this passage, but reproof seems to have been integrated into the legal process.96 In contrast, the Deuteronomic law appears to have been exerting explicit inÀuence both in ‘legal and semi-legal contexts’, which is also attested in early Judaism.97 For example, CD 9.16c-23 deals with the capital law and monetary charges. In admonishing about the capital law, the author mentions two witnesses, each testifying against the violation of the law on separate occasions. On the ¿rst accusation, the Examiner only keeps the record until the accused man is caught on the second act. But, the condemned will only be separated from the pure Meal. There is no mention of what would happen if two witnesses testify against the same violation. On monetary charges, two witnesses are required, but one is enough to separate the accused from the pure Meal. While this is an application of the Deuteronomic law in slightly modi¿ed ways, there is no doubt that such law was valid and applied in actual practice. The Deuteronomic law is closely followed in 11Q19 61.6-7. A single witness is simply not enough and the matter has to rest on the basis of two or three witnesses. The following lines (7b-12) restate Deut. 19.1621.98 Also in 11Q19 64.7-9, if one were accused of spying against his people, the person will be executed by hanging on the tree upon the evidence of two or three witnesses. Thus, the texts of the Temple Scroll follow closely the Deuteronomic regulation, though the reason for punishment is different in the latter text.99 There are also allusions to the Deuteronomic law in Philo and Josephus. In his treatise on the ninth commandment (Spec. 4.41-77), Philo deals with false witness in the literal sense and then moves on to include in the list of false witnessing, assent to evil (41-47), deception of

96. Cf. B. Nitzan, ‘The Laws of Reproof in 4QBerakhot (4Q286–290) in Light of their Parallels in the Damascus Covenant and Other Texts from Qumran’, in Legal Texts and Legal Issues: Proceedings of the Second Meeting of the International Organization for Qumran Studies, Published in Honour of Joseph M. Baumgarten (ed. M. Bernstein et al.; Leiden: Brill, 1997), pp.149–65 (150). 97. B. S. Rosner, ‘Deuteronomy in 1 and 2 Corinthians’, in Moyise and Menken (eds.), Deuteronomy in the New Testament, pp.118–35 (134). 98. J. Maier, The Temple Scroll: An Introduction, Translation and Commentary (JSOTSup 34; Shef¿eld: JSOT, 1985), p.131. 99. The reason for capital punishment in Deut. 17.1-7 is idolatry, while it is murder in Num. 35.30. 1

5. 2 Corinthians 10–13

177

diviners (48-54) and any negligence on the part of judges (55-58).100 Philo praises the law on two grounds (Spec. 4.53-54): (1) one witness can be mistaken; (2) one is simply not enough; there is no reason why the judge should trust one witness against one defendant. While Philo explains and justi¿es the law lucidly, his application of the law is not one that is naturally anticipated in our minds because he adapts the law to criticize diviners by saying that the single ‘witness’ – i.e., the oracle – of the diviners is false. Josephus alludes to the law (Life 256-57) in his defence of himself against a charge made to him in relation to the affairs in Galilee by a man called John who plots against him (Life 65-96, 122-25, 189-90, 201-203, 133, 136-38, 246, 253, 292-304, 313-16).101 He thought that three witnesses may not be enough for his case (Life 257), so he urges the Galileans to bear witness for him. As a result, the Galileans publicly called him their benefactor and saviour, and attested to his former behaviour (Life 259). In both Philo and Josephus, then, the law appears to have been valid in practice even though it is applied in modi¿ed ways and adapted in accordance with each case. The Testament of Abraham 13.8 employs the law with some modi¿cations. It reads: ‘And thus the judgment and recompense of the world is made through three tribunals. And therefore a matter is not ultimately established by one or two witnesses, but every matter shall be established by three witnesses.’ This statement is set in a context where the commander-in-chief tells Abraham about the judgment at the end of the world which is to be judged by three tribunals: by (1) Abel (13.5); (2) the twelve tribes of Israel (13.6); (3) the Master God (13.7). Thus these three constitute the three witnesses mentioned in the Deuteronomic law. It appears that some of the NT writers were also aware of such practice in their time. Matthew records both that Jesus alluded to the law in his teaching for reproving a member of a congregation when s/he has sinned (18.15-17) and that two witnesses accused Jesus about his mention of destroying the temple and building it in three days in a legal setting (26.59-61). The author of 1 Timothy commands the recipients not to accept any accusation against an elder if there is no evidence of two or three witnesses (5.19).102 Also, Paul’s passing remark on receiving 39 100. F. H. Colson in Philo, Philo, with an English Translation by F. H. Colson (LCL 8; London: Heinemann; Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960), p.3. 101. S. J. D. Cohen, Josephus in Galilee and Rome: His Vita and Development as a Historian (CSCT; Leiden: Brill, 1979), pp.123–4. 102. Though Heb. 10.28 and Jn 5.19 also refer to the law, it does not tell us whether the law was in use. 1

178

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

lashes from the Jews in 2 Cor. 11.24 is another indication that Jewish laws were in practice. It seems more plausible and natural, then, to take ‘witnesses’ as actual persons.103 Attempts to take the reference to mean ‘visits’ or ‘warnings’ has the dif¿culty of explaining how Paul’s ¿rst visit can be regarded as forming a witness against the Corinthians. Paul’s ¿rst visit was to found the church by preaching the gospel and not to ¿nd evidences to accuse them.104 Besides, if Paul meant to say ‘warnings’ or ‘visits’ by citing LXX Deut. 19.15, he would be using the verse in such a highly metaphorical and strange way that it is doubtful whether the Corinthians would have understood him. Therefore it seems more probable that Paul simply intends to hold a kind of hearing when he refers to the Deuteronomic law in 2 Cor. 13.1. Since those who were previously guilty of impurity and sexual immorality have not yet repented even though they were warned (12.21; 13.2), Paul would conduct everything according to the law he has quoted. It does not seem to matter how many times Paul visits Corinth because his testimony is counted only as one witness (2 Cor. 12.21; 13.2). Certainly, Paul is giving ample warnings, but the citation does not appear to be merely another warning. In his third visit, Paul will not be lenient (13.2) and is warning them again so that he may not have to use his God-given authority in a severe measure (13.10). But how is he going to exercise that authority if he has to? He would not wield his God-given authority casually or idiosyncratically in case he is accused again of abusing his authority. Hence he would exercise his authority in such a way that no one would dispute his decision. It is for this reason that the Deuteronomic law is cited since it would prevent the potential disagreement about the ruling. It seems, then, the VTKVQP–VTKYP and FWQ–FGWVGTQP links Harris observed in 13.1-2 are incidental. Though Paul may be making the most of it rhetorically, the main point of his reference to the Deuteronomic passage seems to be that this is how he is going to exercise his apostolic authority should it be necessary to do so. Perhaps, a challenging criticism to this view is whether Paul would have asked the Corinthians to testify against one another.105 This would appear to aggravate the situation and would not end in ‘building up’ the church. Yet in 1 Cor. 5.9-13, Paul commands the Corinthians not to 103. Kruse, 2 Corinthians, p.217; L. L. Welborn, ‘By the Mouth of Two or Three Witnesses? Paul’s Invocation of a Deuteronomic Statute’, NovT 52 (2010), pp.207–20. 104. Garland, 2 Corinthians, p.540. 105. Plummer, Second Epistle, p.372; Thrall, II Corinthians, vol. 1, p.874. 1

5. 2 Corinthians 10–13

179

associate with those who regard themselves as followers of Christ and yet participate in sexual immorality, idolatry, reviling, drinking, or robbing. Then he seals his command with apparent scriptural support: ‘Drive out the wicked person from among you’ (Deut. 17.7). These statements appear as a response to a report passed onto him about ‘an immoral brother’ (5.1), which suggests that there may have been some confrontation. One would be mistaken to think that the Corinthians were in good accord with one another and were living in harmony. The opposite was true as they had made factions (1 Cor. 1.11-12), were not orderly in their participation of the Lord’s Table (1 Cor. 11.17-34), and despised one another (1 Cor. 12). This does not, of course, justify further ‘factions’. However, since God’s holiness cannot be compromised (2 Cor. 6.14–7.1), impurities simply have to be removed from among them. Paul’s remark in 1 Cor. 11.19 is noteworthy: ‘Indeed, there have to be factions among you, for only so will it become clear who among you are genuine’. Therefore, it seems Paul would not be concerned about super¿cial peace among the Corinthians. He wants to see holiness in the church.106 Ample warning has already been given and when it is not heeded, there is no place for compromise in the name of ‘peace’ or ‘love’. Painful though it is to testify against one’s brother or sister, true love does not rejoice in evil even as it covers a multitude of sins. It is for the good of the community as well as for the individual. If, however, Paul did not want the Corinthians to bear witness against one another, he could ask Titus and Timothy or even God to be the witnesses.107 Either way there do not seem to be good reasons for Paul to stop at simply giving warnings if the situation persists. 106. Cf. Paul’s command in 1 Cor. 6.1-7 not to go to secular magistrates, but to the saints wise enough to judge. In 2 Cor. 13, Paul would be the wise judge. Fisher (Commentary, p.440) asserts that the charge is against Paul. It is true that there are ample implications that various charges were made against him (cf. 2 Cor. 10.1, 10, 14; 11.7-11, 16; 12.11, 16; 13.3) and thus Paul may have wanted to open them up and repudiate them on the basis of the lack of evidence. However, what appears to have been ‘self-defence’ is actually serving a greater purpose, i.e., to ‘build up’ the Corinthians (12.19; cf. 10.8; 13.10). Paul as one with the true Gospel (11.2-4) and as one standing in Christ before God (12.19) is one who can build up the Corinthians by helping them stand holy and pure in Christ (11.2). Besides, Paul’s mention of unrepentant sinners in the immediately preceding verse (12.21) and his warning against them in the immediately following verse (13.2) favour the view that it is not Paul but the Corinthians who are on trial. Moreover, his mention that he will not be lenient this time and will show the power of God that is with him (13.2-4) clearly suggests Paul is in the position of judging. 107. Garland, 2 Corinthians, p.541. 1

180

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

His seriousness about the charges he will bring seems to be implied in the Deuteronomic principle he cites. The rule Paul refers to was issued for capital charges in Deut. 17.6 and Num. 35.30, but is af¿rmed as a general principle for all cases in Deut. 19.15.108 Paul must have been aware that the commandment was associated with capital charges in the ¿rst place. He may, however, have remembered the original context – i.e., idolatry and murder – as he recited the principle. Here again, he may be implying that what the Corinthians are about to be charged with is worthy of receiving capital punishment. What the Corinthians are doing, i.e., participating in sexual and impure sins, would certainly lead to ‘death’ (cf. 1 Cor. 6.9; Gal. 5.19-21). Yet, because of his love for the Corinthians (cf. 2 Cor. 12.14-15), Paul does not want to see them go down that path. Some Corinthians who were very familiar with the passage would have picked up the seriousness of Paul’s tone.109 Though they might not have traced the link to the capital punishment in Deut. 17.6 and Num. 35.30, they would not be mistaken in sensing Paul’s determination to purge the community of impurity. At the same time, some of them might have wondered how the OT law given to the Israelites is applicable to them who are in Christ. Others who were not familiar with the text would still have picked up the force of Paul’s remarks from other parts of 2 Corinthians 10–13. It is obvious that Paul is quite concerned about their behaviour and is willing to take drastic actions if he needs to (cf. 10.8; 12.20-21; 13.10). They would have gathered from Paul’s mention of ‘witnesses’ that Paul was going to have a kind of hearing to rectify the situation rather than simply giving warnings or proceeding with the ruling without witnesses other than himself. What awaits them now is a procedure for which Paul gave them warnings so as to avoid it. Hence, Paul’s visit would not be as pleasant as everyone may hope. Yet, what has to be dealt with has to be dealt with, for there cannot be agreement between light and darkness. It is clear that Paul regards the OT law as binding and applicable to his Gentile congregation as it was to the Israelites, thus identifying the Corinthians with them. Paul does not state why, but simply assumes that the Deuteronomic law is still valid for judging matters in a new covenant

108. S. R. Driver, Deuteronomy (ICC; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1902), p.235; A. D. H. Mayes, Deuteronomy (NCB; London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1979), p.189. 109. Cf. Hanson, Technique, pp.173–4: ‘a source and authority’; Rosner, ‘Deuteronomy’, p.134: ‘rhetorical force’. 1

5. 2 Corinthians 10–13

181

community. Leaving aside the heavily debated issue of the OT law in Paul, it seems safe to conclude at least that those who believe in Christ are somehow in certain continuity with the people of God in the OT. Conclusion We have seen that Scripture continues to play an important role in Paul’s statements in 2 Corinthians 10–13. What is noteworthy in this section is the apparent absence of the themes of renewal, return, new creation and new covenant which, as we have observed, are exerting a great inÀuence in 4.7–6.13 and also in chs. 8–9 where the ful¿llment of the eschatological hope in Jesus Christ becomes the very foundation from which Paul urges the Corinthians to help the poor in Jerusalem. Other than this, however, there does not appear to be much difference in the way Paul appropriates Scripture. As we have observed and argued in the previous chapters, when Paul cites a text, he is not only aware of the contexts of the passages he is referring to, but also pays more attention to the thematic coherence than to the verbal correspondences. This is true, for example, in his citation of LXX Jer. 9.23-24 and 1 Kgdms 2.10 in 2 Cor. 10.17 where the theme of boasting illegitimately works very well with the situation Paul was addressing, even though the citation does not reproduce the words in their exact forms. In bringing the scriptural passages to speak to the current agenda, Paul continues to use the method of identi¿cation, although identi¿cation does not work quite as well as it ¿rst appears in some cases (e.g. 11.20). He identi¿es himself very closely with Jeremiah by overlapping his role to that of the prophet (10.8, 17). Just as Jeremiah was called to ‘tear down’ and ‘build up’, so was Paul commissioned to do the same thing for his Gentile congregation. There are also various identi¿cations between his opponents and the serpent, between the Corinthians and Eve (11.3), and, also by implication, between God and Christ since Eve was turning away from God while the Corinthians were said to be turning away from Christ. In this allusion to the Genesis account, there appears to be a rare case of relying on the MT as well. From Paul’s frequent reference to Scripture, we can infer that Paul ¿nds the identity of the Gentile congregation from Israel. Hence Paul not only refers to the Deuteronomic rule (13.1) which was given to safeguard the distinctive identity of the people of God, but also alludes continually, so it appears, to Scripture to seek answers for the issues at hand and authority for his own identity as well. 1

182

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

We have also seen that the idea of corporate identity is present both in Paul’s citation of the boasting theme from LXX Jer. 9.23-24 and 1 Kgdms 2.10 and in Paul’s identi¿cation with the prophet Jeremiah concerning his authority. It has been noted above that what Jeremiah was to do was to be done by God in later passages of Jeremiah and also that the audience of the exhortation to boast in the Lord in 1 Kgdms 2.10 are encouraged to do that which is done by God in LXX Jer. 9.23-24. Finally, just as we have observed in the previous chapters, Paul’s basic thrust is clear enough even without the background knowledge of his references to Scripture. This highlights again that he is able to use Scripture rhetorically by quoting Scripture at the close of a section (cf. 10.17) or to ground his intention (13.1) and also by using biblical imagery (11.3). Such judicious use of scriptural texts and imagery shows Paul’s ability to make the most of the sacred writing, which is shown in bringing the bigger narrative to shed light onto what is being addressed and in adding rhetorical power to his appeal by quoting Scripture at strategic places.

1

Chapter 6

PAUL AS A SWIMMER IN THE SEA OF SCRIPTURE

Summary This study has set out to examine what role the Scripture plays for Paul and how he uses it in his appeal and argument. We have sought to account for the use of Scripture in 2 Corinthians 4–13 in a comprehensive way by adopting various methodologies and asking questions from different angles. Before we draw out the implications of this investigation, it seems advisable to present a brief overview of what has been observed and argued. In Chapter 2 our examination of Paul’s use of the OT in 2 Cor. 4.7– 6.13 has shown that Paul brings in the larger context of the OT. The Isaianic themes of new exodus, return, new creation and new covenant are seen to lie at the backdrop of Paul’s argument in the section. Though Paul quotes from Isaiah only once in 6.2, it has been observed that he already had the Isaianic themes in mind from the early parts of the section (4.11), which becomes stronger as his argument unfolds (5.4, 14-21). Coupled with Isaianic themes is the theme of suffering from LXX Ps. 115.1, which ties in well with what Paul is describing. Thus it has been noted that there are not only verbal correspondences, but also thematic and structural links to the scriptural passages referred to by Paul. This chapter also demonstrates that Paul’s use of the OT involves ‘identi¿cation’ in a range of ways: identi¿cation between himself and a scriptural author or a person in the OT; the Corinthians and Israel as a whole or a character in the OT; Christ and the Servant; the Corinthians and the Servant. In identifying the Corinthians with the Servant and also with Christ, the idea of corporate identity has been observed to be present. This idea is well captured in expressions such as ‘body of Christ’ and ‘in Christ’, which implies that the lives of the believers are rooted in the very life of their saviour, even as their individual traits are maintained.

184

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

Chapter 3 looks at the use of the OT in 2 Cor. 6.14–7.16 in which we have observed that the themes of return and renewal continue to inÀuence Paul’s statements in the section. This presence of the common Isaianic themes suggests that our examination of this section strengthens the position that contends for the authenticity and original location of the section, as has already been argued by others. The concatenation of the passages of the law and the prophets suggests that the new covenant which is the ful¿lment of the promise of the eschatological restoration is in continuity with the Sinai Covenant on the one hand and in discontinuity with it on the other as the promise includes the Gentiles as well. This combination of scriptural texts also suggests that Paul has a much larger context of the OT in mind. Furthermore, the use of the covenant formula and the exodus language together with the fact that Paul applies the Jewish Scripture to the Gentile congregation continues to show that the Corinthians are regarded as the people of ‘Israel’. Moreover, the extension of the Davidic promise (2 Kgdms 7.14) to include the entire community of the new covenant and the mention of the temple imagery indicate that Paul is associating the new community very closely with Jesus Christ. Thus the idea of corporate identity is seen to continue to be present as well. 2 Corinthians 8–9 is examined in Chapter 4, where it has been demonstrated once again that Paul is very much aware of the contexts from which he draws his allusions and citations. He seems to be more concerned about the thematic parallel than about exact reproduction of the original texts. It has been shown how the eschatological salvation continues to lie at the backdrop and to exert inÀuence in addressing the immediate and real situation among the new community of God. Paul’s continued application of the OT to the Corinthian situation implies that Paul regards the Gentile community as belonging to God as his people like the Israelites. It has been observed that there are identi¿cations made between God and his people by implying that the Corinthians are to do what God does (8.15; 9.9-10). This shows that the concept of corporate identity continues to shape Paul’s understanding of those in Christ. In Chapter 5 on Paul’s use of the OT in 2 Corinthians 10–13 we have observed Paul’s continued awareness of the scriptural context, whether he is alluding to or quoting from a text. In this section Paul seeks to af¿rm his apostolic authority by identifying himself with the prophet Jeremiah. Just as Jeremiah was called to ‘tear down’ and ‘build up’, so was Paul to do the same thing for his Gentile congregation. Paul’s habit of identi¿cation extends to his enemies as he overlaps the story in the Garden of Eden with the opponents, who are said to be ministers of 1

6. Paul as a Swimmer in the Sea of Scripture

185

Satan later on in the chapter. Moreover, the idea of ‘enslavement’ attached to the opponents suggests that Paul identi¿es them even with the foreign and idolatrous nations that enslaved the Israelites. Thus, Paul ¿nds the identity of the Gentile community from the scriptural narrative of ancient Israel and naturally refers to the Deuteronomic rule, which was given to safeguard the distinctive identity of the people of God. It has also been noted that the idea of corporate identity continues to remain, albeit implicitly, in Paul’s mind in this section. The reference to LXX Jer. 9.23-24 and 1 Kgdms 2.10 in 10.17 has shown that what Jeremiah was to do was to be done by God in later passages of Jeremiah and also that 1 Kgdms 2.10 encourages the audience to do that which is done by God in LXX Jer. 9.23-24. Thus there are close associations between God and his people implied in the passages. Before we draw together our observations and reÀect on implications, it would be helpful to tabulate the results of each chapter to view them at a glance. Table 6.1. Chapter 2 2 Cor. 4.7 4.11

4.13

Quotation of LXX Ps. 115.1

5.4

Echoes of MT Isa. 25.8 using the wordings from LXX Isa. 25.8 Echoes of Gen. 2.17 and Eccl. 12.14

5.10

5.12 5.14-21 5.17 1

Scripture reference and type Borrowing an image from the OT Echo of LXX Isa. 53.12

Allusion to LXX 1 Kgdms 16.7 Allusion to Isa. 53 Allusion to LXX Isa. 43.18-19 and passim

Identi¿cation(s) between Paul and ‘earthen jars’ The Servant and Paul The Servant and Jesus Jesus and Paul The Psalmist and Paul The Psalmist and Jesus Jesus and Paul God and Jesus Death and mortal body God and life

Usage Use of biblical language Contextual

Contextual Rhetorical

Contextual

Loose identi¿cation between Adam/Eve and believers Qohelet audience and believers Opponents and Samuel

Use of judgment theme loosely

The Servant and Jesus Israel and believers God and Jesus

Contextual Contextual

Contextual

186 5.21 6.2

6.9 6.11, 13

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture Allusion to Isa. 53 (both LXX and MT) Quotation from LXX Isa. 49.8

The Servant and Jesus Israel and believers The Servant and believers Christ and believers The Psalmist and Paul

Allusion to LXX Ps. 117.17-18 Echo of LXX Isa. 60.4- Paul and Israel 5 and Zech. 10.7-9 Corinthians and children of Israel

Contextual Contextual Rhetorical Contextual Contextual

Table 6.2. Chapter 3 2 Cor.

Scripture reference and type Echo of Lev. 19.19

Identi¿cation(s) between Not clear

6.15

Echo of 3 Kgdms 18.21

6.16

Quotation from Lev. 26.11-12 and Ezek. 37.27 Quotation from Isa. 52.11 and Ezek. 20.34

Paul and Elijah, Israelites and Corinthians Israel and Corinthians

6.14

6.17

6.18

7.6

Quotation from 2 Kgdms 7.14 and Isa. 43.6 Allusion to Isa. 49.13

Israel and Corinthians Babylon and inappropriate association with unbelievers Israel and Corinthians Davidic heir and Corinthians Paul and Israel

Usage Loose thematic Link to holiness Contextual

Contextual Rhetorical Contextual Rhetorical

Contextual Rhetorical Contextual

Table 6.3. Chapter 4 2 Cor. 8.12

8.15

1

Scripture reference and type Echo of Prov. 3.2728; Tob. 4.8 and other extra-biblical writings Quotation from LXX Exod. 16.18

Identi¿cation(s) between Not clear

Israelites and Corinthians God and Corinthians

Usage

Contextual Rhetorical

6. Paul as a Swimmer in the Sea of Scripture 8.21 9.6-8

9.9

9.10

Allusion to Prov. 3.4 Allusion to LXX Prov. 22.8-9 and others Quotation from LXX Ps. 111.9

Echoes of Isa. 55.10 and Hos. 10.12

187

Paul and the addressee of Proverbs Not clear

Scripture as a principle Contextual

God and the pious person God and Corinthians The pious person and Corinthians Not clear

Contextual Rhetorical

Contextual

Table 6.4. Chapter 5 2 Cor. 10.3-5

10.8

10.17

11.3

Scripture reference and type Echoes of Prov. 21.22 and other extra biblical writings Allusion to Jeremiah

Quotation from LXX Jer. 9.24 and 1 Kgdms 2.10 Allusion to MT Gen. 3

11.20

General echo of Israel’s enslavement

13.1

Quotation from Deut. 19.15

Identi¿cation(s) between Paul and wise person Paul and the person of Antisthenic ideal Paul and Jeremiah God and Jeremiah God and Paul Jeremiah and Paul Israel and Corinthians God and his people Eve and Corinthians the serpent and the opponents God and Christ Loose identi¿cation between Foreign nations and the opponents Israel and Corinthians Israel and Corinthians

Usage Scripture as a principle

contextual

contextual rhetorical Contextual

Contextual

Scripture as a principle; Rhetorical

Observations and Implications From our examination of each section of 2 Corinthians 4–13, some observations and implications are in order: (1) Paul is aware of the original contexts of the passages he refers to, but goes beyond the immediate contexts and thus brings in the larger 1

188

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

context of the OT. This is indicated by the major themes of return, restoration, new covenant and new creation that underlie Paul’s statements and also by concatenation of passages from different places of the OT. This focus on thematic and structural correspondence means that Paul is not so much concerned with exact reproduction of the scriptural texts. This is evident in the textual modi¿cations that have been made, such as change of number and address (6.16, 18), omission (9.9), transposition (8.15; 10.17), replacement (8.15; 10.17), and conÀation (6.1618). Thus there is no guarantee of exact reproduction of words even with an introductory formula.1 Moreover, this focus on the theological substructure shows up in the few instances of leaning towards the Hebrew even when the wordings of the LXX are used (cf. 5.4, 21; 11.3). Paul’s focus on the main scriptural themes rather than on speci¿c texts, and his conscious application of scriptural patterns to a new context, show that Paul is adding ‘Àesh’ to the scriptural ‘bone’. (2) Paul frequently uses the method of identi¿cation in reading the OT. In the course of adapting the Scripture to his arguments, necessary changes of referent and additional information appear. Whether it is Paul himself, the Corinthians or the opponents, various kinds of identi¿cation take place with the scriptural writers and the persons mentioned in it. In doing so, Paul continues to identify the Corinthians with the ancient Israelites by applying the OT promises and instructions to the Gentile congregation. This identi¿cation extends even to the point of identifying the Corinthians with the Servant of Isaiah, which is not a new invention but a faithful reading of the Isaiah that regards Israel as the Servant. From this we have suggested that there is a concept of ‘corporate identity’ present throughout the chapters. It has been observed that the same idea is implicit in the scriptural references (4.11, 13; 6.2; 8.15; 9.9; 10.8, 17), which is also reÀected in his frequent use of the expression ‘in Christ’. It appears, then, that Paul is concerned to seek and af¿rm his and the Corinthians’ identity in Christ in light of the Scriptures. It also has to be noted that identi¿cation is made in implicit ways between God and Christ (5.17; 11.3). For Paul, Jesus Christ is God, not a demiurge or a ¿gure with less divinity. 1. Dimant argues that when the author quotes a scriptural text, it is to explain it, and when a text is alluded it is blended into a new context; see D. Dimant, ‘Use and Interpretation of Mikra in the Apocrypha and Pseudepigraph’, in Mikra: Text, Translation, Reading and Interpretation of the Hebrew Bible in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity (ed. M. J. Mulder; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988), pp.381–4. Yet it does not seem to be case for Paul since even the quoted material is placed in a new context in a way that blends the scriptural themes with the current issues. 1

6. Paul as a Swimmer in the Sea of Scripture

189

In some cases (5.10; 6.14; 8.12; 9.6-8, 10; 11.20), however, the identi¿cation does not work quite as well as it ¿rst appears, partly because Paul is alluding rather than quoting and also because there do not need to be complete correspondences for the allusion to work. Paul may simply intend to take one or two aspects when he alludes to a scriptural passage and appears to be happy to apply a scriptural pattern in a general way without necessarily being concerned about further implications or to mix the themes with other extra-biblical sources. (3) In many cases Paul’s basic thrust is clear enough even without deeper understanding of scriptural allusions. This is because Paul often makes a rhetorical use of the Scripture by citing a text at climactic junctures or near the closing of an argument he is developing to strengthen his points (cf. 4.13; 6.2, 16c-18; 8.15; 9.9; 10.17; 13.1), even as he brings in the ‘big picture’ of the OT. Such uses of Scripture appear to enforce Paul’s appeal with more weight and authority. Hence the audience with ‘minimal’ understanding of Scripture would not be too far off from understanding Paul’s statements than the ‘informed’ audience in Paul’s congregation, although they may miss the joy of seeing resonances of Scripture that would deepen their understanding. (4) Our study joins with others (e.g. Beale, Dodd, Gignilliat, Hafemann, Wagner, Watson, Webb) in arguing that Paul’s use of Scripture is not a coincidental and haphazard proof-texting, but a conscious and contextual reading which illuminates and directs his own context. Of course, the contextual reading does not always happen, but it is a major characteristic of Paul’s reading of Scripture. Prominent among the contextual readings is Paul’s frequent reference to the themes related to the eschatological salvation in 2 Corinthians 4–9, which draw heavily from the book of Isaiah. The major themes of return, restoration, new covenant and new creation that underlie Paul’s statements show that Paul is particularly concerned about the salvi¿c realities and implications for those belonging to a new covenant of God ful¿lled through Christ. Since Isaiah 40–55 is about the future hope, the promise of restoration and new creation, it is not surprising to see a strong Isaianic presence here. Yet 2 Corinthians is not the only place where Isaiah plays a major role. Ross Wagner has demonstrated that Paul’s appeal to Isaiah is integral to Paul’s argument in Romans 9–11 and 15 and shapes his own understanding of his mission. Wagner argues that the prophetic oracles ‘pre¿gure’ Paul’s own mission to Gentiles even as they witness to God’s continuing faithfulness to Israel.2

1

2. Wagner, Herald.

190

Swimming in the Sea of Scripture

This observation is similar to our contention that Paul uses the method of ‘identi¿cation’. Paul not only identi¿es the new covenant community with ‘Israel’ as the recipient of the promises, but also with the Servant. The idea of ‘identi¿cation’ may be stronger than ‘pre¿guration’, but the basic impetus is the same. It is also similar to what Ciampa observed in his examination of Scripture in Galatians 1–2, viz., ‘redescribing’ Paul and others in the image of scriptural precedents.3 Thus it seems that Ciampa and Wagner have observed in other Pauline letters what we have observed in our examination of scriptural appropriation in 2 Corinthians. This suggests that Paul is generally consistent in his reading of Scripture, though this is not to deny some puzzling uses. (5) The combination of the approaches that are employed in this study can fruitfully be used in examining the appropriation of Scripture in other Pauline letters. Moreover, applying the methodology employed in this project to the disputed letters might produce a case that would add some weight either to the Pauline authorship or to non-Pauline origin depending on how Scripture is seen to be used in those letters. On methodological issues, Christopher Stanley’s concern about how quotations are woven into rhetorical intentions can be expanded to include, as we have done, how allusions are used to boost rhetorical power. The important question of how Paul understood the Law could bene¿t from investigations such as this study since Paul’s reading of the OT encompasses the Law, the Prophets and the Writings. When one examines Paul’s engagement with Scripture from which he seeks the foundation for his and the Corinthians’ identity, his role as a new covenant minister, his understanding of Jesus Christ and of the Church, and ways to tackle speci¿c issues, the metaphor of swimming seems to capture well what Paul is doing with Scripture. It is almost as if Paul constantly throws himself into the sea of Scripture and tries to ¿nd his way forward. The style of strokes he uses to move about in the water differs according to what kind of splashes he wants to make. Yet his favourite style seems to be diving underwater in order to see what the rich sea has to offer. All the while, he is conscious of the movement of waves stirred by the Holy Spirit (cf. 3.18), with his eyes ¿xed on the glorious light of Jesus Christ reÀecting off and through the water (cf. 4.6).

3. R. E. Ciampa, The Presence and Function of Scripture in Galatians 1 and 2 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1998), pp.227–32.

1

BIBLIOGRAPHY Abasciano, B. J., ‘Diamonds in the Rough: A Reply to Christopher Stanley Concerning the Reader Competency of Paul’s Original Audiences’, NovT 49 (2007), pp.153–83. Adams, E., Constructing the World: A Study in Paul’s Cosmological Language (SNTW; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 2000). Albl, M. C., ‘And Scripture Cannot Be Broken’: The Form and Function of the Early Christian Testimonia Collections (Leiden: Brill, 1999). Allen, L. C., Psalms 101–150 (WBC 21; Waco, TX: Word, 1983). Andersen, F. I., ‘2 (Slavonic Apocalypse of) Enoch’, in OTP, vol. 1, p.154. Anderson, A. A., The Book of Psalms (2 vols.; NCB; London: Oliphants, 1972). Balla, P., ‘2 Corinthians’, in Beale and Carson (eds.), Commentary, pp.753–83. Baltzer, K., Deutero-Isaiah (trans. M. Kohl; Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001). Barclay, J. M. G., ‘Mirror-Reading a Polemical Letter: Galatians as a Test Case’, JSNT 31 (1987), pp.73–93. Barnett, P. W., The Second Epistle to the Corinthians (NICNT; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1997). Barré, M. L., ‘Qumran and the Weakness of Paul’, CBQ 42 (1980), pp.216–27. Barrera, J. T., The Jewish Bible and the Christian Bible: An Introduction to the History of the Bible (Leiden: Brill; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998). Barrett, C. K., A Commentary on the Second Epistle to the Corinthians (BNTC; New York: Harper & Row; London: A. & C. Black, 1973). Bauckham, R., God Crucified: Monotheism and Christology in the New Testament (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1998). Beale, G. K., John’s Use of the Old Testament in Revelation (JSNTSup 166; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1998). —‘The Old Testament Background of Reconciliation in 2 Corinthians 5–7 and Its Bearing on the Literary Problem of 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.1’, NTS 35 (1989), pp.550–81. Beale, G. K., and D. A. Carson (eds.), Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament (Nottingham: Apollos, 2007). Beetham, C. A., Echoes of Scripture in the Letter of Paul to the Colossians (BIS 96; Leiden: Brill, 2008). Beker, Johan Christiaan. Paul the Apostle: The Triumph of God in Life and Thought (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980). Belleville, L. L., 2 Corinthians (IVPNTCS; Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 1996). —Reflections of Glory: Paul’s Polemical Use of the Moses-Doxa Tradition in 2 Corinthians 3.1-18 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1991). —‘Tradition of Creation? Paul’s Use of the Exodus 34 Tradition in 2 Corinthians 3.7-18’, in Evans and Sanders (eds.), Paul and the Scriptures of Israel, pp.165–86. Best, E., Second Corinthians (IPC; Louisville, KY: John Knox, 1987). Betz, H. D., ‘2 Cor. 6.14–7.1: An Anti-Pauline Fragment?’, JBL 92 (1973), pp.88–108.

192

Bibliography

—2 Corinthians 8 and 9: A Commentary on Two Administrative Letters of the Apostle Paul (Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985). —Der Apostel Paulus und die sokratische Tradition: Eine exegetische Untersuchung zu seiner “Apologie” 2 Korinther 10–13 (BHT; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1972). Bieringer, R., and J. Lambrecht (eds.), Studies on 2 Corinthians (BETL; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1994). Black, Matthew, ‘The New Creation in 1 Enoch’, in Creation, Christ and Culture: Studies in Honour of T F Torrance (ed. R. W. A. McKinney; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1976), pp.13–21. Blenkinsopp, J., Isaiah 1–39: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 19A; New York: Doubleday, 2000). —Isaiah 56–66 (AB 19B; New York: Doubleday, 2003). Boers, H., ‘2 Corinthians 5.14–6.2: A Fragment of Pauline Christology’, CBQ 64 (2002), pp.527–47. Braude, W. G., The Midrash on Psalms (YJS 13; 2 vols.; New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959). Bring, Ragnar. ‘Paul and the Old Testament: A Study of the Ideas of Election, Faith and Law in Paul, with Special Reference to Romans 9.30–10.30’, ST 25 (1971), pp.21– 60. Bruce, F. F., 1 and 2 Corinthians (NCB; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans; London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1971). Brueggemann, W., Isaiah 1–39 (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1998). —Isaiah 40–66 (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1998). Bruehler, Bart B., ‘Proverbs, Persuasion and People: A Three-Dimensional Investigation of 2 Cor 9.6-15’, NTS 48 (2002), pp.209–24. Bultmann, R., The Second Letter to the Corinthians (Minneapolia: Augsburg, 1985). Byrne, B., ‘Son of God’—‘Seed of Abraham’: A Study of the Idea of the Sonship of God of all Christians against the Jewish Background (AnBib 83; Rome: Biblical Institute, 1979). Campbell, D. A., ‘2 Corinthians 4.13. Evidence in Paul that Christ Believes’, JBL 128 (2009), pp.337–56. Campbell, W. S., Paul and the Creation of Christian Identity (LNTS 332; London: T&T Clark International, 2006). Carrez, M., La deuxieme épître de Saint Paul aux Corinthiens (CNT; Geneva: Labor et Fides, 1986). Carson, D. A., and H. G. M. Williamson (eds.), It Is Written: Scripture Citing Scripture: Essays in Honour of Barnabas Lindars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). Cerfaux, L., The Christian in the Theology of Paul (London: Chapman, 1967). Charles, R. H., The Book of the Secrets of Enoch (trans. from the Slavonic by W. R. Morfill; Oxford: Clarendon, 1896). Charlesworth, J. H. et al. (eds.), The Dead Sea Scrolls: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek Texts with English Translations (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1994). Chau, W. S., The Letter and the Spirit: A History of Interpretation from Origen to Luther (New York: Lang, 1995). Chesnutt, R. D., From Death to Life (JSPSup 16; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1995). Childs, B., Isaiah (OTL; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2001).

Bibliography

193

Ciampa, R. E., The Presence and Function of Scripture in Galatians 1 and 2 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1998). Clifford, R. J., Psalms 73–150 (AOTC; Nashville: Abingdon, 2003). Clines, D. J. A., I, He, We and They (JSOTSup 1; Sheffield: JSOT, 1976). Cohen, S. J. D., Josephus in Galilee and Rome: His Vita and Development as a Historian (CSCT; Leiden: Brill, 1979). Collange, J. F., Énigmes de la deuxième épître de Paul aux Corinthiens: Étude exégétique de 2 Cor. 2.1–7.4 (SNTSMS; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972). Conrad, E. W., Zechariah (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1999). Cooke, G. A., The Book of Ezekiel (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1936). Craigie, P. C., et al., Jeremiah 1–25 (WBC 26; Dallas, TX: Word, 1991). Cranfield, C. E. B., ‘St. Paul and the Law’, SJT 17 (1964), pp.43–68. Dahl, N. A., ‘A Fragment and Its Context: 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.1’, in Studies in Paul: Theology for the Early Christian Mission (ed. N. A. Dahl; Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1977), pp.62–9. Dahood, M. J., Psalms 3.101–150. Introduction, Translation and Notes (AB 17A; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1970). Danker, F. W., II Corinthians (ACNT; Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1989). Davies, W. D., Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology (Philadelphia: Fortress, 4th edn, 1980). Dawson, A., Healing, Weakness and Power: Perspectives on Healing in the Writings of Mark, Luke and Paul (PBM; Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 2008). Delamarter, Steve, A Scripture Index to Charlesworth’s The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2003). Derrett, J. D. M., ‘2 Cor 6,14ff. a Midrash on Dt 22,10’, Bib 59 (1978), pp.231–50. DeSilva, D. A., ‘Measuring Penultimate against Ultimate Reality: An Investigation of the Integrity and Argumentation of 2 Corinthians’, JSNT 52 (1993), pp.41–70. Dimant, D., ‘Use and Interpretation of Mikra in the Apocrypha and Pseudepigraph’, in Mikra: Text, Translation, Reading and Interpretation of the Hebrew Bible in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity (ed. M. J. Mulder; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988). Dinter, P. E., ‘Paul and the Prophet Isaiah’, BTB 13 (1983), pp.48–52. Dodd, C. H., According to the Scriptures: The Sub-Structure of New Testament Theology (London: Nisbet, 1952). Driver, S. R., Deuteronomy (ICC; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1902). Dumbrell, William J., ‘Paul’s Use of Exodus 34 in 2 Corinthians 3’, in God Who Is Rich in Mercy: Essays Presented to Dr. D. B. Knox (ed. Peter T. O’Brien and David G. Peterson; Homebush West, NSW: Anzea, 1986), pp.179–94. Dunn, J. D. G., Christology in the Making: A New Testament Inquiry into the Origins of the Doctrine of the Incarnation (London: SCM, 1980). —Romans 1–8 (WBC 38A; Dallas, TX: Word, 1988). Eissfeldt, Otto, ‘The Ebed-Jahwe in Isaiah xl.–lv. in Light of the Israelite Conceptions of the Community and the Individual, the Ideal and the Real’, ExpTim 44 (1933), pp.261–8. Ekblad, E. R., Isaiah’s Servant Poems According to the Septuagint: An Exegetical and Theological Study (Leuven: Peeters, 1999). Ellis, E. E., The Old Testament in Early Christianity: Canon and Interpretation in the Light of Modern Research (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991).

194

Bibliography

—Paul’s Use of the Old Testament (London: Oliver & Boyd, 1957). Evans, C. A. (ed.), The Interpretation of Scripture in Early Judaism and Christianity: Studies in Language and Tradition (JSPSup 164; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2000). Evans, C. A., and J. A. Sanders (eds.), Early Christian Interpretation of the Scriptures of Israel: Investigations and Proposals (JSNTSup 148; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1997). —(eds.), The Function of Scripture in Early Jewish and Christian Tradition (JSNTSup; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1998). —(eds.), Paul and the Scriptures of Israel (JSNTSup 83; Sheffield: JSOT, 1993). Fee, G. D., ‘II Corinthians VI.14–VII.1 and Food Offered to Idols’, NTS 23 (1977), pp.140–61. —The First Epistle to the Corinthians (NICNT; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987). —God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994). Fishbane, M., Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Clarendon, 1985). Fisher, F., Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians (Waco, TX: Word, 1975). Fitzmyer, J. A., Essays on the Semitic Background of the New Testament (SBLSBS 5; London: Chapman, 1971). —‘Glory Reflected on the Face of Christ (2 Cor. 3.7–4.6) and a Palestinian Jewish Motif’, TS 42 (1981), pp.630–44. —‘Qumran and the Interpolated Paragraph in 2 Cor 6,14–7,1’, CBQ 23 (1961), pp.271– 80. —Romans (AB 33; New York: Doubleday, 1993). —To Advance the Gospel (New York: Crossroad, 2nd edn, 1988). Fowl, S. E., The Story of Christ in the Ethics of Paul (JSNTSup 36; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1990). Fox, M. V., Qohelet and His Contradictions (Sheffield: JSOT, 1989). France, R. T., Jesus and the Old Testament: His Application of Old Testament Passages to Himself and His Mission (London: Tyndale, 1971). Fuller, D. P., ‘Paul and “The Works of the Law”’, WTJ 38 (1975), pp.28–42. Furnish, V. P., II Corinthians (AB 32A; Garden City: Doubleday, 1984). Garland, D. E., 2 Corinthians (NAC 29; Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999). Georgi, D., The Opponents of Paul in Second Corinthians (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1986). —Remembering the Poor: The History of Paul’s Collection for Jerusalem (Nashville: Abingdon, rev. edn, 1992). Gersternberger, E. S., Leviticus: A Commentary (OTL; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1996). Gignilliat, Mark S., Paul and Isaiah´s Servants: Paul´s Theological Reading of Isaiah 40– 66 in 2 Corinthians 5.14–6.10 (LNTS 330; London: T&T Clark International, 2007). Gnilka, J., ‘2 Cor 6.14–7.1 in the Light of the Qumran Texts and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs’, in J. Murphy-O’Connor (ed.), Paul and Qumran: Studies in New Testament Exegesis (London: Chapman, 1968), pp.48–68. Goettsberger, J., ‘Die Hülle des Moses nach Exod 34 und 2 Kor 3’, BZ 16 (1924), pp.1– 17.

Bibliography

195

Goldingay, J., God’s Prophet, God’s Servant: A Study in Jeremiah and Isaiah 40–55 (Exeter: Paternoster, 1984). —The Message of Isaiah 40–55: A Literary-Theological Commentary (London: T&T Clark International, 2005). —Psalms. Vol. 3, Psalms 90–150 (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2008). Grässer, E., Der zweite Brief an die Korinther (ÖTK 8; 2 vols.; Guሷtersloh: Echter; Wuሷrzburg: Guሷtersloher, 2002–2005). Grindheim, S., ‘The Law Kills but the Gospel Gives Life: The Letter–Spirit Dualism in 2 Corinthians 3.5–18’, JSNT 24 (2001), pp.97–115. Guthrie, D., New Testament Introduction (Leicester: Apollos, 4th edn, 1990). Hafemann, S. J., Paul, Moses, and the History of Israel: The Letter/Spirit Contrast and the Argument from Scripture in 2 Corinthians 3 (WUNT 81; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1995). —‘Paul’s Use of the Old Testament in 2 Corinthians’, Int 52 (1998), pp.246–57. —‘“Self-Commendation” and Apostolic Legitimacy in 2 Corinthians: A Pauline Dialectic?’, NTS 36 (1990), pp.66–88. —Suffering and the Spirit: An Exegetical Study of II Cor. 2.14–3.3 Within the Context of the Corinthian Correspondence (WUNT 19/2; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1986). Hanson, A. T., ‘The Midrash in II Corinthians 3. A Reconsideration’, JSNT 9 (1980), pp.2–28. —The Paradox of the Cross in the Thought of St Paul (JSNTSup 17; Sheffield: JSOT, 1987). —Studies in Paul’s Technique and Theology (London: SPCK, 1974). Harman, A. M., ‘Aspects of Paul’s Use of the Psalms’, WTJ 32 (1969), pp.1–23. Harris, M. J., The Second Epistle to the Corinthians (NIGTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans; Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 2005). Harrisville, R. A., ‘Paul and the Psalms: A Formal Study’, WW 5 (1985), pp.168–79. Hartley, J. E., Leviticus (WBC 4; Dallas, TX: Word, 1992). Haubeck, W., Loskauf durch Christus: Herkunft, Gestaltung und Bedeutung des paulinischen Loskaufmotivs (Geissen: Brunnen, 1985). Hays, R. B., ‘Christ Prays the Psalms’, in Conversion, pp.101–18. — The Conversion of the Imagination: Paul as Interpreter of Israel’s Scripture (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2005). —‘Ecclesiology and Ethics in 1 Corinthians’, ExAud 10 (1994), pp.31–43. —Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989). — ‘The Role of Scripture in Paul’s Ethics’, in Conversion, pp.143–62. Hays, R. B., and J. B. Green, ‘The Use of the Old Testament by New Testament Writers’, in Hearing the New Testament: Strategies for Interpretation (ed. J. B. Green; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans; Carlisle: Paternoster, 1995), pp.223–35. Heil, John Paul, The Rhetorical Role of Scripture in 1 Corinthians (Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2005). Hickling, C. J. A., ‘Paul’s Reading of Isaiah’, in Studia Biblica 1978: Papers on Paul and Other New Testament Authors (ed. E. A. Livingstone; JSNTSup 3; Sheffield: JSOT, 1980), pp.215–23. —‘The Sequence of Thought in II Corinthians, Chapter Three’, NTS 21 (1975), pp.380– 95. Hofius, O., ‘Erwägungen zur Gestalt und Herkunft des paulinischen Versöhnungsgedankens’, ZThK 77 (1980), pp.186–99.

196

Bibliography

—‘The Fourth Servant Song in the New Testament Letters’, in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources (ed. Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher; trans. D. P. Bailey; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004), pp.163–88. —Paulusstudien (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1994). Hollander, John, The Figures of Echo: A Mode of Allusion in Milton and After (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981). Hooker, M. D., ‘Beyond the Things That Are Written? St. Paul’s Use of Scripture’, NTS 27 (1981), pp.295–309. Hubbard, M. V., New Creation in Paul’s Letters and Thought (SNTSMS; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002). Hughes, P. E., Paul’s Second Epistle to the Corinthians (NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans; London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1962). Hunter, A. M., Paul and His Predecessors (London: SCM, 1961). Instone-Brewer, D., Techniques and Assumptions in Jewish Exegesis before 70 CE (TSAJ; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992). Jewett, R., Paul’s Anthropological Terms: A Study of their Use in Conflict Settings (AGJU; Leiden: Brill, 1971). Johnson, Aubrey R., The One and the Many in the Israelite Conception of God (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2nd edn, 1961). Johnson, M. D., ‘Life of Adam and Eve’, in OTP, vol. 2, p.252. Joubert, Stephan, ‘Religious Reciprocity in 2 Corinthians 9.6-15: Generosity and Gratitude as Legitimate Responses to the ECTKLVQWSGQW’, Neot 33 (1999), pp.79– 90. Juel, D., Messianic Exegesis: Christological Interpretation of the Old Testament in Early Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988). Kamlah, E., ‘“Buchstabe und Geis”, Die Bedeutung dieser Antithese für die alttestamentliche Exegese des Apostels Paulus’, EvT 14 (1954), pp.276–82. Käsemann, E., ‘The Spirit and the Letter’, in Perspectives on Paul (trans. M. Kohl; NTL; London: SCM, 1971), pp.138–66. Kautzsch, E., De Veteris Testamenti locis a Paulo Apostolo allegatis (Leipzig: Metzger & Wittig, 1869). Kim, H. C. P., Ambiguity, Tension, and Multiplicity in Deutero-Isaiah (SBL; New York: Lang, 2003). Klaus, H. J., Psalms 60–150. A Commentary (trans. H. C. Oswald; Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1989). Knight, George A. F., Servant Theology: A Commentary on the Book of Isaiah 40–55 (ITC; Edinburgh: Handsel, 1984). Koch, D. A., Die Schrift als Zeuge des Evangeliums: Untersuchungen zur Verwendung und zum Verständnis der Schrift bei Paulus (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1986). Kraus, H. J., Psalms 60–150: A Commentary (trans. H. C. Oswald; Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1989). Krüger, T., Qoheleth (trans. O. C. Dean Jr.; Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004). Kruse, C., 2 Corinthians (TNTC; Leicester: IVP; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987). Lambrecht, J., ‘The Favorable Time: A Study of 2 Corinthians 6,2a in Its Context’, in Bieringer and Lambrecht (eds.), Studies on 2 Corinthians, pp.515–29. —‘The Fragment 2 Corinthians 6,14–7,1: A Plea for Its Authenticity ’, in Bieringer and Lambrecht (eds.), Studies on 2 Corinthians, pp.531–49. —Second Corinthians (SP 8; Collegeville: Liturgical, 1999).

Bibliography

197

—‘Structure and Line of Thought in 2 Cor. 2.14–4.6’, Bib 64 (1983), pp.344–80. Lane, W. L., ‘Covenant: The Key to Paul’s Conflict with Corinth’, TynBul 33 (1982), pp.3–30. Lang, F., Die Briefe an die Korinther (NTD 7; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1986). Levin, C., Die Verheißung des neuen Bundes (FRLANT 137; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985). Levison, J. R., Portraits of Adam in Early Judaism: From Sirach to 2 Baruch (JSPSup 1; Sheffield: JSOT, 1988). Liebers, R., Das Gesetz als Evangelium, Untersuchungen zur Gesetzeskritik des Paulus (Zürich: Theologischer Verlag Zürich, 1989). Lieu, J., ‘Narrative Analysis and Scripture in John’, in Moyise (ed.), The Old Testament in the New Testament, pp.144–63. Lim, K. Y., ‘The Sufferings of Christ Are Abundant in Us’: A Narrative Dynamics Investigation of Paul’s Sufferings in 2 Corinthians (LNTS 399; London: T&T Clark International, 2009). Lim, Timothy H., Holy Scripture in the Qumran Commentaries and Pauline Letters (Oxford: Clarendon, 1997). Lincoln, A. T., Paradise Now and Not Yet (SNTSMS; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). Lindars, B., New Testament Apologetic: The Doctrinal Significance of the New Testament Quotations (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1961). Lindblad, U., ‘A Note on the Nameless Servant in Isaiah xlii 1-4’, VT 43 (1993), pp.115– 19. Litwak, K. D., ‘Echoes of Scripture? A Critical Survey of Recent Works on Paul’s Use of the Old Testament’, CurBS 6 (1998), pp.260–80. —Echoes of Scripture in Luke–Acts: Telling the History of God’s People Intertextually (JSNTSup 282; London: T&T Clark International, 2005). Longenecker, Bruce W., Narrative Dynamics in Paul: A Critical Assessment (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2002). Longenecker, R. N., Biblical Exegesis in the Apostolic Period (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1975). —Galatians (WBC 41; Dallas, TX: Word, 1990). Longman III, T., The Book of Ecclesiastes (NICOT; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998). Maier, J., The Temple Scroll: An Introduction, Translation and Commentary (JSOTSup 34; Sheffield: JSOT, 1985). Malherbe, A. J., ‘Antisthenes and Odysseus, and Paul at War’, HTR 76 (1983), pp.143– 73. Marshall, I. H., ‘An Assessment of Recent Developments’, in Carson and Williamson (eds.), It Is Written, pp.1–21. —‘The Meaning of “Reconciliation”’, in Unity and Diversity in New Testament Theology: Essays in Honor of G. E. Ladd (ed. R. A. Guelich; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1978), pp.117–32. Martin, R. P., 2 Corinthians (WBC 40; Waco, TX: Word, 1986). —New Testament Foundations (2 vols.; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2nd edn, 1986). —Reconciliation: A Study of Paul’s Theology (London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1981). Martyn, J. L., Galatians: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 33A; New York: Doubleday, 1997).

198

Bibliography

Matera, Frank J., II Corinthians: A Commentary (NTL; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2003). Mayes, A. D. H., Deuteronomy (NCB; London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1979). McCant, J. W., 2 Corinthians (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1999). —‘Paul’s Thorn of Rejected Apostleship’, NTS 34 (1988), pp.550–72. McKelvey, R. J., The New Temple: The Church in the New Testament (Oxford: Clarendon, 1969). McLay, T., The Use of the Septuagint in New Testament Research (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003). Mell, U., Neue Schöpfung: eine traditionsgeschichtliche und exegetische Studie zu einem soteriologischen Grundsatz paulinischer Theologie (BZNW 56; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1989). Menken, M. J. J., ‘Allusions to the Minor Prophets in the Fourth Gospel’. Paper presented at the Annual Seminar on the Use of the Old Testament in the New Testament, Hawarden, Wales, 3 April 2009. Metzger, B., ‘The Formulas Introducing Quotations of Scripture in the New Testament and the Mishna’, JBL 70 (1951), pp.297–307. —A Textual Commentary On The Greek New Testament (New York: UBS, 2nd edn, 1994). Meyers, C. L., and E. M. Meyers, Zechariah 9–14 (AB 25C; New York: Doubleday, 1993). Milgrom, J., Leviticus 17–22 (AB 3A; New York: Doubleday, 2000). —Leviticus 23–27 (AB 3B; New York: Doubleday, 2001). Minn, H. R., The Thorn that Remained: Materials for the Study of St. Paul´s Thorn in the Flesh: 2 Corinthians XII. vv. 1-10 (Auckland: Institute, 1972). Mitchell, H. G., J. M. P. Smith and J. A. Bewer, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi and Jonah (ICC; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1912). Moffatt, J., An Introduction to the Literature of the New Testament (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 3rd edn, 1918). Moore, G. F., Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era: The Age of the Tannaim (3 vols.; Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1927, 1930). Morgenstern, J., ‘Suffering Servant—A New Solution’, VT 11 (1961), pp.406–31. Moule, C. F. D., ‘Obligations in the Ethics of Paul’, in Christian History and Interpretation: Studies Presented to John Knox (ed. W. R. Farmer et al.; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967), pp.386–406. —The Origin of Christology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977). Moyise, S. Evoking Scripture: Seeing the Old Testament in the New (London: T&T Clark International, 2008). —(ed.), The Old Testament in the New Testament: Essays in Honour of J. L. North (JSNTSup 189; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2000). —‘Quotations’, in Porter and Stanley (eds.), As It Is Written, pp.15–28. Moyise, S., and M. J. J. Menken (eds.), Deuteronomy in the New Testament (LNTS 358; London: T&T Clark International, 2007). —(eds.), Isaiah in the New Testament (NTSI; London: T&T Clark International, 2005). —(eds.), The Minor Prophets in the New Testament (LNTS 377; London: T&T Clark International, 2009). —(eds.), The Psalms in the New Testament (NTSI; London: T&T Clark International, 2004).

Bibliography

199

Mullins, T. Y., ‘Paul’s Thorn in the Flesh’, JBL 76 (1957), pp.299–303. Munck, J., Paul and the Salvation of Mankind (Richmond: John Knox; London: SCM, 1959). Munro, W., Authority in Paul and Peter (SNTSMS 45; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). Murphy-O’Connor, J. The Theology of the Second Letter to the Corinthians (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). Newton, M., The Concept of Purity at Qumran and in the Letters of Paul (SNTSMS 53; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985). Nickelsburg, G. W. E., 1 Enoch 1 (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001). Nitzan, B., ‘The Laws of Reproof in 4QBerakhot (4Q286–290) in Light of their Parallels in the Damascus Covenant and Other Texts from Qumran’, in Legal Texts and Legal Issues: Proceedings of the Second Meeting of the International Organization for Qumran Studies, Published in Honour of Jseph M. Baumgarten (ed. M. Bernstein et al.; Leiden: Brill, 1997), pp.149–65. North, C. R., The Suffering Servant in Deutero-Isaiah (London: Oxford University Press, 1948). O’Day, G. R., ‘Jeremiah 9.22-23 and 1 Corinthians 1.26-31: A Study in Intertextuality’, JBL 109 (1990), pp.259–67. O’Mahony, K. J., Pauline Persuasion: A Sounding in 2 Corinthians 8–9 (JSNTSup 199; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2000). Oakes, P., ‘Moses in Paul’, in T. Römer (ed.), La Construction de la figure de Moïse (Paris: Gabalda, 2007), pp.249–61. Ogden, G. S., Qoheleth (Sheffield: JSOT, 1987). Oostendorp, D. W., Another Jesus: A Gospel of Jewish-Christian Superiority in II Corinthians (Kampen: Kok, 1967). Orlinsky, H. M., The So-called ‘Servant of the LORD’ and ‘Suffering Servant’ in Second Isaiah (VTSup 14; Leiden: Brill, 1967). Pate, C. M., Adam Christology as the Exegetical and Theological Substructure of 2 Corinthians 4.7–5.21 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1991). Patte, D., ‘A Structural Exegesis of 2 Corinthians 2.14–7.1 with Special Attention on 2.14–3.6 and 6.11–7.1’, in Society of Biblical Literature 1987 Seminar Papers (ed. K. H. Richards; SBLSP 26; Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1987), pp.23–49. Paulien, J., ‘Criteria and the Assessment of Allusions to the Old Testament in the Book of Revelation’, in Studies in the Book of Revelation (ed. S. Moyise; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 2001), pp.113–29. Pedersen, J., Israel: Its Life and Culture, vols. 3–4 (Copenhagen: Branner Og Korch, 1940). Philo, Philo, with an English Translation by F. H. Colson (LCL 8; London: W. Heinemann; Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960). Plummer, A., A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Second Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians (ICC; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1915). Porter, J. R., ‘The Legal Aspects of the Concept of “Corporate Personality” in the Old Testament’, VT 15 (1965), pp.361–80. —Leviticus (CBC; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976). Porter, S. E., ‘Further comments on the Use of the Old Testament in the New Testament’, in The Intertextuality of the Epistles: Explorations of Theory and Practice (ed. T. L. Brodie et al.; Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2006), pp.98–110.

200

Bibliography

—(ed.), Hearing the Old Testament in the New Testament (Cambridge, MA: Eerdmans, 2006). —‘Introduction: The Use of the Old Testament in the New Testament’, in Porter (ed.), Hearing the Old Testament in the New Testament, pp.1–8. —Katallasso in Ancient Greek Literature with Reference to the Pauline Writings (EFN; Cordoba: Ediciones el Almendro, 1994). —‘The Use of the Old Testament in the New Testament: A Brief Comment on Method and Terminology’, in Evans and Sanders (eds.), Early Christian Interpretation, pp.79–96. Porter, S. E., and C. D. Stanley (eds.), As It Is Written: Studying Paul’s Use of Scripture (Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2008). Rensberger, D., ‘2 Corinthians 6.14–7.1: A Fresh Examination’, SBT 8 (1978), pp.25–49. Richard, E. ‘Polemics, Old Testament, and Theology: A Study of II Cor., III, 1–IV, 6’, RB 88 (1981), pp.340–67. Richards, E. R., Paul and First-Century Letter Writing: Secretaries, Composition and Collection (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 2004). Robinson, H. Wheeler. Corporate Personality in Ancient Israel (Philadelphia: Fortress, rev. edn, 1980). —The Cross in the Old Testament (London: SCM, 1955). Rogerson, J. W., ‘The Hebrew Conception of Corporate Personality’, in Anthropological Approaches to the Old Testament (ed. B. Lang; Philadelphia: Fortress; London: SPCK, 1985). Rosner, B. S., ‘Deuteronomy in 1 and 2 Corinthians’, in Menken and Moyise (eds.), Deuteronomy in the New Testament, pp.118–35. Rost, Leonhard, Judaism Outside the Hebrew Canon: An Introduction to the Documents (Nashville: Abingdon, 1976). Rowley, H. H., The Servant of the Lord and Other Essays on the Old Testament (Oxford: Blackwell, 2nd edn, 1965). Shum, S. L. Paul’s Use of Isaiah in Romans: A Comparative Study of Paul’s Letter to the Romans and the Sibylline and Qumran Sectarian Texts (WUNT 2/156; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2002). Sanders, E. P., Paul and Palestine Judaism (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977). Sandnes, K. O., Paul – One of the Prophets? A Contribution to the Apostle’s SelfUnderstanding (WUNT 43/2; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991). Savage, T. B., Power Through Weakness: Paul’s Understanding of the Christian Ministry in 2 Corinthians (SNTSMS; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). Schlatter, A., Paulus, der Bote Jesu: Eine Deutung seiner Briefe an die Korinther (Stuttgart: Calwer, 4th edn, 1969). Schmid, H. H., ‘“Ich will euer Gott sein, und ihr sollt mein Volk sein”. Die sogennante Bundesformel und die Frage nach der Mitte des Alten Testaments’, in Kirche: Festschrift für Günther Bornkamm zum 75 Geburtstag (ed. D. Lührmann and G. Strecker; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1980), pp.1–25. Schmithals, Walter, Gnosticism in Corinth: An Investigation of the Letters to the Corinthians (trans. J. Steely; Nashville: Abingdon, 1971). Schoeps, Hans Joachim, Paul: The Theology of the Apostle in the Light of Jewish Religious History (London: Lutterworth, 1961). Schröter, J., ‘Schriftauslegung und Hermeneutik in 2 Korinther 3. Ein Beitrag zur Frage der Schriftbenutzung des Paulus’, NovT 40 (1998), pp.231–75.

Bibliography

201

Schulz, S.. ‘Die Decke des Moses – Untersuchungen zu einer vorpaulinischen Überlieferung in 2 Cor. III 7–18’, ZNW 49 (1958), pp.1–30. Schütz, J. H., Paul and the Anatomy of Apostolic Authority (SNTMS; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975). Schweitzer, Albert, The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle (London: Black, 2nd edn, 1956). Scott, J. M., Adoption as Sons of God: An Exegetical Investigation into the Background of ȊǿȅĬǼȈǿǹ in the Pauline Corpus (WUNT 2/48; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992). —‘“For as many as are of the Works of the Law are under a Curse” (Gal 3.10)’, in Evans and Sanders (eds.), Paul and the Scriptures of Israel. —‘Paul’s Use of Deuteronomic Tradition’, JBL 112 (1993), pp.645–65. —‘The Use of Scripture in 2 Corinthians 6.16c–18 and Paul’s Restoration Theology’, JSNT 56 (1994), pp.73–99. Seitz, Christopher, ‘How is the Prophet Isaiah Present in the Latter Half of the Book? The Logic of Chapters 40–66 within the Book of Isaiah’, in Word Without End: The Old Testament as Abiding Theological Witness (ed. C. Seitz; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998), pp.168–93. Seow, C. L., Ecclesiastes (AB 18C; New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997). Sjöberg, E., ‘Wiedergeburt und Neuschöpfung im palästinischen Judentum’, ST 4 (1951–52), pp.44–85. Smith, D. M., ‘The Pauline Literature’, in Carson and Williamson (eds.), It is Written, pp.265–91. Stamps, Dennis L., ‘The Use of the Old Testament in the New Testament as a Rhetorical Device: A Methodological Proposal’, in Porter (ed.), Hearing the Old Testament in the New Testament, pp.9–37. Stanley, C. D., Arguing with Scripture: The Rhetoric of Quotations in the Letters of Paul (London: T&T Clark International, 2004). —‘A Decontextualized Paul? A Response to Francis Watson’s Paul and the Hermeneutics of Faith’, JSNT 28 (2006), pp.353–62. —‘Paul and Scripture: Charting the Course’, in Porter and Stanley (eds.), As It Is Written, pp.3–12. —Paul and the Language of Scripture: Citation Technique in the Pauline Epistles and Contemporary Literature (SNTSMS; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). —‘Paul’s “Use” of Scripture: Why the Audience Matters’, in Porter and Stanley (eds.), As It is Written, pp.125–55. Stegman, T. D., The Character of Jesus: The Linchpin to Paul`s Argument in 2 Corinthians (AnBib 158; Rome: Pontificio Istituto Biblico, 2005). Stockhausen, C. K., ‘2 Corinthians 3 and the Principles of Pauline Exegesis’, in Evans and Sanders (eds.), Paul and the Scriptures of Israel, pp.143–64. —Moses’ Veil and the Glory of the New Covenant (Rome: Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico, 1989). Strachan, R. H., The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians (MNTC; New York: Harper; London: Hodder, 1935). Stuhlmacher, Peter, ‘Erwägungen zum ontologischen Charakter der MCKPJMVKUKL bei Paulus’, EvT 27 (1967), pp.1–35. —Reconciliation, Law, and Righteousness: Essays in Biblical Theology (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986).

202

Bibliography

Sumney, J. L., Identifying Paul’s Opponents: The Question of Method in 2 Corinthians (JSNTSup 40; Sheffield: JSOT, 1990). Tasker, R. V. G., 2 Corinthians (TNTC; Leicester: IVP, 1958). Thiselton, Anthony C., The First Epistle to the Corinthians: A Commentary on the Greek Text (NIGTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans; Carlisle: Paternoster, 2000). —‘The Significance of Recent Research on 1 Corinthians for Hermeneutical Appropriation of This Epistle Today’, Neot 40 (2006), pp.320–52. Thrall, M. E., ‘The Problem of II Cor. vi.14-vii.1 in Some Recent Discussion’, NTS 24 (1977–78), pp.132–48. —The Second Epistle of the Corinthians (ICC; 2 vols.; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1994, 2000). Tov, E., ‘The Status of the Masoretic Text in Modern Text Editions of the Hebrew Bible’, in The Canon Debate: On the Origins and Formation of the Bible (ed. L. M. McDonald and J. A. Sanders; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2002), pp.234–51. Tuckett, C. M., ‘Paul, Scripture and Ethics. Some Reflections’, NTS 46 (2000), pp.403– 24. van Unnik, W. C., ‘“With Unveiled Face”: An Exegesis of 2 Corinthians III 12-18’, NovT 6 (1963), pp.153–69. Wagner, J. R., Heralds of the Good News: Isaiah and Paul in Concert in the Letter to the Romans (Leiden: Brill, 2002). —‘“Not Beyond the Things Which Are Written”: A Call to Boast Only in the Lord (1 Cor 4.6)’, NTS 44 (1998), pp.279–87. Washburn, D. L., A Catalog of Biblical Passages in the Dead Sea Scrolls (TCS; Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2002). Watson, Francis, Paul and the Hermeneutics of Faith (London: T&T Clark International, 2004). Watts, J. D. W., Isaiah 34–66 (WBC 25; Waco, TX: Word, 1987). Webb, W. J., Returning Home: New Covenant and Second Exodus as the Context for 2 Corinthians 6.14–7.1 (JSNTSup 85; Sheffield: JSOT, 1993). Welborn, L. L., ‘By the Mouth of Two or Three Witnesses? Paul’s Invocation of a Deuteronomic Statute’, NovT 52 (2010), pp.207–20. Westerholm, Stephen, Israel’s Law and the Church’s Faith: Paul and His Recent Interpreters (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1988). —‘Letter and Spirit: The Foundation of Pauline Ethic’, NTS 30 (1984), pp.229–48. —Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The ‘Lutheran’ Paul and His Critics (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004). Westermann, Claus, Isaiah 40–66: A Commentary (OTL; London: SCM, 1969). Wevers, J. W., Text History of the Greek Exodus (AAWG; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1992). Wilcox, Peter, and David Paton-Williams, ‘The Servant Songs in Deutero-Isaiah’, JSOT 42 (1988), pp.79–102. Wilk, F., Die Bedeutung des Jesajabuches für Paulus (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1998). —‘Isaiah in 1 and 2 Corinthians’, in Moyise and Menken (eds.), Isaiah, pp.133–58. Williams, D. H. H., III. ‘The Psalms in 1 and 2 Corinthians’, in Moyise and Menken (eds.), The Psalms in the New Testament, pp.163–80. —The Wisdom of the Wise: The Presence and Function of Scripture within 1 Cor. 1.18– 3.23 (Leiden: Brill, 2001).

Bibliography

203

Williamson, H. G. M., Variations on a Theme: King, Messiah and Servant in the Book of Isaiah (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1998). Windisch, H., Der zweite Korintherbrief (KEK; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1924). Winter, B. W. Philo and Paul among the Sophists: Alexandrian and Corinthian Responses to a Julio-Claudian Movement (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2nd edn, 2002). Witherington, Ben, III, Conflict and Community in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1995). Wolff, C., Der zweite Brief des Paulus an die Korinther (THKNT; Berlin: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 1989). Wrede, William, Paul (London: P. Green, 1907). Wright, N. T., The Climax of the Covenant: Christ and the Law in Pauline Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992). Yinger, Kent L., Paul, Judaism, and Judgement According to Deeds (SNTSMS; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999). Young, F., and D. F. Ford, Meaning and Truth in 2 Corinthians (BFT; London: SPCK, 1987). Ziesler, J. A., The Meaning of Righteousness in Paul (SNTSMS; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972). Zimmerli, W., Ezekiel 1 (trans. R. E. Clements; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1969).

INDEXES INDEX OF REFERENCES OLD TESTAMENT Genesis 1–3 14 1 84 1.26-28 36 1.31 27 2.7 26, 27 2.17 41, 42, 185 3 21, 163, 187 3.1 165 3.4 42 3.6 165 3.7 42 3.8 96 3.18 172 3.19 27 5 105 5.24 96 6.9 96 9.2 113 11 105 17.1 96 17.7-8 92 17.8 96 24.40 96 26.22 77 47.21 169 49.15 96 Exodus 1.14 4.10 6.5 6.7 10.1-2

169 11 169 96 76

15.16 16 16.4 16.6-7 16.12 16.16 16.18 16.19 16.20 16.27 16.28 22.6 25.2 25.8 26.1 26.31 27.1 28.6 28.15 29.14 29.16 29.40 29.45 29.46 30.2 32–34 32.1-6 34 34.24 34.29-35 34.34 35 35.5 35.21 35.22 35.29

113 123 123, 124 124 124 123 119, 121, 126, 186 123 123 123 124 172 131 92, 96 84 84 83 84 84 64 83 83 92, 96 96 83 11, 12 86, 110 7, 8, 12 77 8, 12 10 135 131 131 131 131

37.25 39.1 39.9 39.29 Leviticus 6.28 11.33 11.45 15.12 16.5 19.2 19.3-10 19.3-5 19.11-18 19.18 19.19 19.19-29 19.20 19.23 19.34 20.16 22.31-33 25.38 25.42 25.55 26 26.3 26.11-12 26.11 26.12 26.14 26.15

83 83 83 84

26 26 102 26 64 83 83 102 83 83 83–5, 87, 88, 186 83 83 83 102 83 102 102 102 102 96 96 92, 94, 95, 186 93, 95 92, 95, 96 96 96

Index of References Numbers 18.9 33.55 35.30 Deuteronomy 2.25 8 9.2-3 11.16 11.18-19 11.25 12.20 14.19 15.1-3 15.4-5 15.7-11 15.7 15.10 15.11 15.14 16.17 17.1-7 17.6 17.7 19.8 19.15

64 171, 172 176, 180

9.16 19.20-21

172 76

1 Samuel 2.10 22.37

159 77

19.16-21 22.9-11 22.9 22.10 22.11 23.15 25.3 29.1-4 29.28–30.1 33.20

113 124 124 75, 76 76 113 77 119 130 130 130, 135 130 119, 130 130 119 119 176 180 179 77 174, 175, 178, 180, 187 176 85 84 15, 84 84 96 170 8 76 77

Joshua 14.8-9 23.13

76 172

1 Kings 7.31

83

Judges 2.3 9.7

172 172

3 Kingdoms 15.34 18.21

76 89, 90

1 Kingdoms 1.8 2 2.1-2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6-9 2.10

6.6-7 16 16.7 26.25–27.1 2 Samuel 7.6 7.10-14 7.14 7.18 23.6 24.1 2 Kingdoms 2.10 7 7.8 7.14

76 158, 161 161 161 161 161 161 158–61, 163, 181, 182, 185, 187 76 46 45, 185 76

96 105 15, 96, 104 96 172 172

159 103, 114 106 99, 103– 5, 108, 184, 186

205 1 Chronicles 21.1 22.10 29 29.3 29.6 29.7 29.9 29.14 29.17

172 96 131, 135 131 96, 131 131 131 131 131

2 Chronicles 32.11

28

Job 1.12 2.6 4.8 4.19

172 172 129 37

Psalms 2.11 3 3.1 4.2 5 6 7 8.4-8 9.18 10 11 17.37 19.36 20.4 20.6 24.2 24.17 25.17 26.12 27.5 30.14 34.4 34.15 34.21 35.21 36.27

112, 113 173 169 77 173 173 173 36 136 173 173 77 77 136 136 136 75–7 77 169 155 169 169 169 77 77 136

Index of References

206 Psalms (cont.) 40.2 40.12 42.1 44.6 47.14 53.5 54.4 54.6 54.19 60.8 80.11 81.11 84.5 85.14 90.1 103.31 110 110.3 110.4 110.5 110.6 110.7 110.9 110.10 111 111.1 111.2 111.3 111.4 111.7 111.9 112 112.1-3 112.9 114 114.1 114.2 114.3 114.6 114.8 114.9 115 115.1

129 136 169 136 136 168, 169 169 113 169 136 77 77 136 169 92 136 138, 141 138, 139 138, 139 138 138 138 138 138 137-41 137, 138 141 137–9 138, 139 138 136–9, 187 138 140 137 32 32 32 32, 34 32, 34 32, 34 32 32, 35 31, 32, 183, 185

115.2 115.4 115.6 115.7 115.8 115.9 116 116.3 116.10 117 117.1-4 117.5 117.6-9 117.10-12 117.13 117.14 117.17-18 117.18 117.22 117.22-23 117.23 117.24 117.25 117.26 118 118.17-18 118.32 119.12 119.32 139.3 144.2 Proverbs 1.7 1.10 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.9-10 3.27-29 3.27-28 3.28 6.19 8.7

32 32 32, 33 32 32 32 32 34 31 73, 74 73 73 73 73 73, 74 74 73, 186 73 74 74 74 74 74 74 73 73 75–7 172 76, 77 83 136

9.12 11.1 11.24-26 11.24 11.25 11.26 12.5 12.6 12.17 12.20 12.22 12.24 12.27 13.9 13.13 14.5 14.25 16.28 17.4 17.7 19.5 19.9 19.16 20.23 21 21.6 21.22

154 153 128 126–8, 187 128 143 118 117, 118, 186 117 153 153

22.8

21.28 22.6-8 22.8-9

22.9 22.11 23.3 24.2 24.22 24.28 25.14 25.18 26.23 26.24 26.28

153 153 130 130, 135 130 130 153 153 153 153 153 153 153 153 153 153 153 153 153 153 153 153 77 153 153 153 152–5, 187 153 136 131, 132, 135, 136, 187 132–4, 154 132 133 153 153 153 153 153 153 153 153 153

Index of References 28.6 30.6 30.8 30.9 31.30 Ecclesiastes 3.3 9.14-16 11.9 12 12.1 12.2 12.3-4 12.5 12.7 12.13 12.14

Isaiah 1–66 1–39 1.26 5.10 5.14 6.1-11 9.1 9.4 9.6 9.7 11.5 19.16 22.11 25 25.1-5 25.1 25.2-5 25.2 25.4-5 25.6-8 25.6 25.8 25.9 26.2

153 153 153 153 153

155 151 43 42, 43 42 42 42 42 42 43 42, 43, 185

58 59 64 129 77 8 26, 53 55 64 64 64 113 53 39 39 39, 53 39 39 39 39 39 37–9, 107, 185 39 64

29.10-15 30.14 32.13 32.17 33.5 33.6 33.12 37.26 39.19 40–66

40–55 40–48 40.8 40.28-31 41.1-13 41.8 41.17-20 41.22 41.26 41.27 42 42.1-9 42.1-4 42.4 42.5-9 42.6-7 42.6 42.7 42.9-10 42.9 42.10-12 42.13-15 42.16 42.17 42.18-25 42.18-20 42.24 42.25 43 43.1-7 43.1-5 43.2 43.3

8 26 172 64 64 64 172 53 64 14, 15, 46, 48, 53, 68, 107 15, 70, 189 62 144 48 61 70 48 53 53 53 49, 50 61 58, 60 58 48 14 64 66, 70 53 49, 53 49 49 14, 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 105 50 105 105

207 43.5-9 43.6 43.9 43.10-11 43.10 43.14 43.16-17 43.18-21 43.18-19 43.19 44.1-2 44.6-8 44.21 44.24-28 45.1-13 45.4 45.8 45.9-19 45.11-13 45.11 45.13 45.21 45.22-25 45.23-24 46.9-10 46.13 48.1-2 48.3 48.6-7 48.20 49–55 49 49.1-7 49.1-6 49.1 49.3-6 49.3 49.4 49.6 49.7 49.8-13

50 104, 105, 186 53 50 70 50 50 53 49–52, 107, 185 51, 54 70 53 70 48 48 70 64 61 61 53 64 53 48 64 53 64 61 53 53 70 59 66, 67, 72 157 47, 58, 107 66 53 53, 70 66 53, 66, 70, 72 53 48

208 Isaiah (cont.) 49.8 39, 52, 65, 67, 70, 107, 111, 125, 186 49.12 53 49.13 64, 111, 186 49.16 53 49.17 156 49.18 64 49.22 105 50.4-9 58 51.1-3 48 51.5 64 51.6 50, 64 51.8 64 51.9-16 48 51.9 53 51.11 50 51.12 111 52.1-10 98, 100 52.7 57 52.11 86, 98– 101, 105, 110, 186 52.12 100 52.13–53.12 47, 58, 101, 107 53 28, 47, 52, 57, 63–5, 165, 185, 186 53.4-9 57 53.5 58 53.10 58 53.12 28, 29, 35, 107, 185 54.1-10 48 54.2 77 54.5-6 164 54.14 64 55 144-46 55.1 144 55.2 144 55.3 144 55.5 144

Index of References 55.6-13 55.7 55.8 55.9 55.10-11 55.10 55.11 55.12 56–66 57.15 57.18 57.19 59.2 59.8 59.17 60 60.1-2 60.4-5 60.4 60.5 60.7 60.10 60.12 60.13 60.15-22 60.15 60.16 60.17 60.18 60.19 60.20 60.22 61.1-2 61.3 61.8 61.11 62.1 62.2 62.5 63.7 63.8 63.9 63.11-14 63.16 65.16-17

48 144 144 144 144, 145 142–4, 187 144 144 15 111 111 57 64 64 64 77 77 76, 77, 186 77, 105 77 77 77 77 77 48 77 77 64, 77 77 77 77 77 111 64 64 64 64 64 164 64 105 53 53 105 53

65.17-25 65.17-18 65.17 66.19-24 66.22 Jeremiah 1.5 1.10 3.10 3.19 3.23 4.3 5.2 6.6 6.13 7.4 7.8 7.23 8.8-9 8.8 9.2 9.4 9.5 9.7 9.8 9.13-14 9.22-23 9.22 9.23-24

9.23 9.24 10.14 11.4 12.13 13.25 14.14 14.15 15.14 15.18 16.19 19.11 20.6

48, 54 53 54 48 53, 54

66, 157 156 162 105 162 172 162 162 162 162 162 96 162 162 162 162 162 162 162 162 158 160, 163 158–60, 162, 163, 181, 182, 185 158, 160, 162, 163 187 162 96 129, 172 162 162 162 169 162 162 26 162

Index of References 23.3 23.14 23.22 23.25 23.26 23.32 24.6 24.7 29.17 30.22 31 31.1 31.7-9 31.13 31.28 31.33 31.39 32.33 32.38 34.10 34.15 38.28 39.39 42.10 44.14 45.4 47.16 49.6 49.10 50.2 51.34

101 162 162 162 162 162 156 92, 96 162 96 12 96 105 111 156 92, 96 55 40 92, 96 162 162 156 76 156 162 156 162 43 156 162 156

Lamentations 4.2 26 Ezekiel 1.5-11 1.8 1.17 6.14 6.17 10.9-14 10.11 11.17 11.20 14.11 16.8

84 83 83 86 110 84 83 101 92, 96 96 164

20 20.7 20.8 20.16 20.18 20.24 20.30 20.31 20.34

40.47 41.21 43.7 43.9 43.16 43.17 45.2

101 101 101 101 101 101 101 101 86, 99, 101, 103, 105, 110, 186 101 101 101 101 101 101 101 171, 172 169 172 169 12 40 92, 96 96 96 92 92, 94-96, 186 83 83 92 92 83 83 83

Hosea 1.10-11 2.6 2.14-15 2.19-20 2.23 8.10 10

105 172, 173 145 164 92 101 143, 145

20.35 20.36 20.38 20.39-41 20.41 22.19 22.20 28.24 29.18 29.24 34.27 36 36.26-27 36.28 37 37.23 37.26-27 37.27

209 10.8-9 10.8 10.10 10.12-13 10.12 10.15 11.10-11 14.2-7 14.5-8

145 172 145 145 142, 143, 145, 187 145 105 145 145

Amos 1.13

77

Micah 1.16 4.6 6.15

77 101 129

Habakkuk 2.5

77

Zephaniah 3.19 3.20

101 101

Haggai 1 1.6 2

106 129 106

Zechariah 1 2 2.10-11 3 4 6 7 8 8.8 9.8 9.12 10 10.1 10.2 10.3

106 106 92 106 106 106 106 106 96 92 150 78 78 78 78

Index of References

210 Zechariah (cont.) 10.4-6 78 10.7-9 76, 77, 186 10.7 78 10.8 78, 101 10.9 78 10.10 101 11 106 12 106 13 106 13.9 92 Malachi 1 2 3 APOCRYPHA Tobit 4.5-11 4.5 4.6-7 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11

106 106 106

118 118 118 118 117, 118, 186 118 118 118

Wisdom of Solomon 7.28 133 Ecclesiasticus 4.14 4.31 7.3 34.28 43.19 49.7

133 118 129 156 172, 173 156

1 Maccabees 5.65 8.10 8.18

152 152, 169 169

2 Maccabees 1.5 5 5.15-16 5.17 5.19 5.20 7 7.32 7.33 9.29

55 56 56 56 56 55, 56 56 56 55 55

NEW TESTAMENT Matthew 10.4 28 10.17 170 17.22 28 18.15-17 177 20.18 28 20.19 28 21.42-44 74 23.5 75 23.34 170 26.2 28 26.15 28 26.16 28 26.21-25 28 26.45 28 26.46 28 26.48 28 26.59-61 177 27.2-4 28 27.18 28 27.26 28 27.51 91 Mark 3.19 5.33 9.31 10.33 12.10-11 14.10 14.11 14.18 14.21 14.41

28 112 28 28 74 28 28 28 28 28

14.42 14.44 15.1 15.10 15.15 15.38

28 28 28 28 28 91

Luke 2.32 2.37 4.13 6.37-42 6.38 8.13 9.44 13.27 19.32 20.17-18 20.20 22.4 22.6 22.21 22.22 22.48 23.25 23.45 24.7 24.20

66 172 172 130 129 172 28 172 28 74 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 91 28 28

John 2.20-21 5.19 6.64 6.71 12.4 13.2 13.11 13.21 19.2 19.5 19.11 19.16 19.30 19.35 19.36 21.20

91 177 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28

Index of References Acts 2.24 3.13 5.37 5.38 7.48 13.47 15.38 17.24 19.9 22.24 22.29 26.18 26.23

34 28 172 172 91 66, 70 172 91 172 170 172 66, 70 66

Romans 1.15 1.16 1.23 2.6 2.7-10 2.22 2.24 3.10-18 3.21-22 4 4.22 4.25 5.10 5.11 5.12-19 5.15-19 6.5-8 7.4 7.17 8.3 8.11 8.14-17 8.14 8.19 8.29 9–11 9.7 9.19-23 9.20 9.25-26 9.26

131 154 27 40 40 86 100 93, 95 141 69 22 28 55 55 44 62 62 63 95 64 95 103 106 106 27 157, 189 22 51 134 95 106

9.32 9.33 10.6 10.15 10.18 11.8 11.15 11.26-27 11.34-35 11.34 12.5 12.8 12.17 12.20 14.10 14.19 15 15.2 15.4 15.16 15.31 1 Corinthians 1 1.11-12 1.17-25 1.17 1.18-31 1.18 1.23-24 1.26 1.27-28 1.30 1.31 2.1-5 2.1 2.3 2.4 2.6 2.8 2.9 2.13 3.12-15 3.14 3.15

28 95 141 57 22 95 55 95 95 22 63 91 127, 128 22 40 157 157, 189 148, 157 79 119 119

158 179 154 153 159 154 154 159, 161 160 141, 159 158-61, 163 153, 154 153 112, 113 153 153 154 92 153 41 41, 91 41

211 3.16-17 3.16 3.17 4.7-13 5 5.9-13 5.9 5.10 5.11 6.1-17 6.1-7 6.6 6.9 6.16-17 6.16 6.18 6.19 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 8–10 8 8.4 8.7 9.1 9.10 9.16 10 10.1-13 10.6-11 10.14-22 10.14 10.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 10.21 10.22

91, 100, 109 91, 131 91 109 86, 87 178 2 86, 87, 100 2 88 179 87 180 88 100 88 88, 91, 100, 131 55 87 87 87, 89 87 91 109 86 86 157 92 30 86-88, 109, 110 86, 110 79 88, 109 87 63, 86, 110 86, 110 88 86 86, 88, 110 86-88, 110 110

212 1 Corinthians (cont.) 10.23 148, 157 10.26 22 10.27 87 11.1 148 11.7 27 11.17-34 179 11.19 179 11.32 28 12 63, 69, 179 12.2 86 12.12 63, 91 12.13 63 12.20 63 12.26 63 12.27 63, 91 14.3 157 14.4 157 14.5 157 14.12 148, 157 14.14 148 14.17 157 14.22 87 14.23 87 14.24 87 14.26 148, 157 14.27 157 15.3-4 48 15.21 36 15.22 62 15.27 22, 36, 100 15.32 22 15.33 22 15.45 36 15.47 26, 36 15.49 27 15.54-55 95 15.54 37, 39, 107 17.13 96 2 Corinthians 1–7 9 1.3-11 112 1.3-10 28

Index of References 1.3-7 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.20 2.14–7.16 2.14–7.4 2.14–4.6 2.14–3.3 2.14-16 2.14 2.15 2.17 3 3.1–4.6 3.1 3.2-3 3.2 3.4-18 3.5 3.6 3.7-18 3.7-11 3.7 3.10 3.12-18 3.12 3.14 3.16 3.17 3.18 4–13

4–7 4–6 4.1-7 4.1-6 4.1 4.2 4.3

71 71 71, 148 71 71 27, 72 24 15 24 11 11 150 11 149 9, 10, 12, 13, 24, 40 4, 7, 8, 24 44 10 148 11 148 4, 9, 11 6, 7, 10, 11, 30 4, 24 27 27 9 10, 24 66 22 22, 24 10, 24, 27, 66, 190 13, 15, 18, 20, 183, 187 24, 172 13 154 24 26 24, 33 26

4.4

4.5 4.6 4.7–7.16 4.7–6.13 4.7–5.21 4.7-18 4.7-15 4.7

4.8-10 4.8-9 4.10-11 4.10 4.11

4.12 4.13–7.1 4.13-14 4.13

4.14-18 4.14 4.15 4.16-18 4.16 4.17 4.18 5–6 5 5.1-10 5.1-4 5.1 5.3

25-27, 36, 37, 66, 87, 148 25 25-27, 37, 42, 190 20 20, 24, 78, 181, 183 14, 42 112 32 24-27, 30, 55, 79, 148, 149, 185 28, 32 25, 26, 30 25, 30, 72 32, 33, 70 28, 29, 32, 33, 35, 46, 65, 79, 107, 183, 185, 188 30, 32, 33 108 32 13, 22, 30, 31, 34, 35, 75, 79, 185, 188, 189 26 30, 41 25, 27, 32 36, 37 36 27, 41 25 27 43 13 51 37, 40, 179 40

Index of References 5.4

5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9-10 5.9 5.10

5.11–7.4 5.11–6.2 5.11

5.12 5.13-20 5.13 5.14–7.7 5.14–7.1 5.14–6.10 5.14–6.2 5.14-21

5.14-20 5.14-15 5.14 5.15 5.16-21 5.16 5.17-21 5.17

27, 37-40, 46, 65, 76, 107, 183, 185, 188 40, 41 40, 41 40 41, 51 42 41, 85 40-44, 51, 85, 185, 189 46, 107 125 41, 43, 44, 71, 109, 125 44, 45, 51, 185 68 125 14 80 15, 46, 107 25, 46, 52, 107 27, 28, 47, 76, 107, 165, 183, 185 65 25, 48, 51 48 48 13 46, 48, 51, 53 14, 46, 107 27, 46, 4853, 63, 64, 69, 72, 79, 84, 107, 170, 185, 188

5.18-21 5.18-20 5.18-19 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21

6 6.1-11 6.1 6.2

6.3-13 6.3-10 6.4-10 6.5-8 6.6-18 6.7 6.9 6.11-13 6.11 6.13

6.14–7.16 6.14–7.1

25, 56 55, 66 48, 64 55, 148 55 55, 57, 64, 65, 69, 85 47, 48, 52, 57, 63-65, 69, 72, 79, 109, 141, 186, 188 86, 87 9 65, 68, 69, 71, 82 13, 27, 39, 47, 52, 55, 65, 67-69, 76, 79, 91, 104, 107109, 111, 119, 126, 170, 183, 186, 188, 189 24, 80 109 72, 73, 77, 80, 112 66 83 154 72, 73, 186 24, 75, 77 75-80, 82, 186 75, 77, 78, 80, 81, 186 20, 80, 83, 184 13-15, 81, 84-86, 93, 108-10,

213

6.14-16 6.14

6.15 6.16-18

6.16

6.17-18 6.17

6.18

6.19-20 7.1 7.2-16 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7-12 7.7 7.13-14 7.14 7.15-16 7.15 7.16

114, 125, 179 80, 110 80, 81, 83, 86, 90, 109, 110, 186, 189 86, 89, 90, 109, 186 22, 23, 80, 92, 93, 106, 108, 114, 188, 189 13, 85-88, 90, 91, 94, 95, 98, 131, 186, 188 98 13, 85, 87, 99, 100, 103, 105, 109, 110, 186 13, 85, 103, 104, 106, 186, 188 125 81, 87, 109, 126 110 80, 81 75, 80 80 80 110, 111, 115, 186 80 111 80 85 112 111-13, 115 80, 85

214 2 Corinthians (cont.) 8–9 20, 109, 131, 140, 145, 158, 181, 184 8 116, 118, 141 8.1-5 116 8.1 140 8.5 140 8.9 116, 117, 134, 140, 147 8.10-11 116, 129 8.10 117 8.11 117, 118 8.12 116-18, 186, 189 8.13-15 119 8.13-14 118, 119, 122 8.15 13, 11921, 128, 146, 147, 184, 186, 188, 189 8.16–9.5 132 8.16-19 126 8.16-18 126 8.16 126, 140 8.19 118, 127 8.20-21 116 8.20 126 8.21 126-28, 187 8.22-23 132 8.23 126 8.24 116, 129 9 116, 118 9.2 116, 118, 129 9.4 132 9.5 129, 133 9.6-15 140 9.6-11 145 9.6-8 129, 131, 132, 135, 187, 189

Index of References 9.6

9.7-8 9.7

9.8-12 9.8-11 9.8-10 9.8 9.9-10 9.9

9.10

9.11 9.12-15 9.12 9.13-14 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.21 9.23 10–13

10 10.1-6 10.1 10.2 10.3-6 10.3-5 10.3 10.4-5

116, 129, 130, 132, 133, 135, 140 130, 146 116, 118, 130-34, 140 125 117, 139 135 132, 134, 138-40 147, 184 13, 131, 136, 137, 139-42, 145-47, 187-89 22, 131, 139-43, 145-47, 154, 187, 189 140 135 117-19, 140 117 140 140 117, 122, 140 127 148 20, 109, 148, 180, 181, 184 161, 162 150 148, 149, 179 149 151 149, 187 149 153

10.4 10.5 10.7 10.8

10.10 10.12-17 10.12 10.14 10.15-16 10.17

10.18 11.1–12.13 11.1 11.2-4 11.2 11.3-15 11.3

11.4 11.6 11.7-11 11.13-15 11.13 11.14 11.15 11.16 11.17 11.18 11.19 11.20

11.21-33

150, 152, 154, 155 150, 153, 161, 162 162 153, 155, 157, 164, 179-81, 187, 188 154, 179 149 162 179 163 13, 23, 158, 161, 163, 181, 182, 185, 187-89 46, 148, 161 164 164 86, 179 166, 167, 179 42 21, 164, 166, 167, 170, 181, 182, 187, 188 149 149 149, 179 86, 149 163 86, 165 86, 150, 165 164, 179 46, 164 46 164 149, 168, 169, 181, 187, 189 149

Index of References 11.23-29 11.23-28 11.24 12.6 12.7 12.11 12.14-17 12.14-15 12.16 12.19 12.20-21 12.21 13 13.1-2 13.1

13.2-4 13.2 13.3 13.10

Galatians 1–2 1.8 1.15 2.2 2.4 2.18 2.19-20 2.20 2.21 3.1-18 3.6 3.12 3.13 3.15-29 3.16 3.21-22 3.23–4.11 3.26 3.27 3.28

173 148 170, 178 164 171 164, 179 149 180 162, 179 148, 157, 179 180 178, 179 179 175, 178 13, 174, 175, 178, 181, 182, 187, 189 179 178, 179 179 148, 155, 157, 17880

190 149 66, 157 66 169 157 62 28, 70, 149 141 141 22 22 169 104 104 141 169 103, 106 104 106, 169

215

3.29 4.5 4.6-7 4.11 4.14 4.22-31 5.1 5.13 5.19-21 6.7-10 6.15

104 15, 169 103, 106 66 171 169 169 169 180 135 48

5.5 5.11

106 148, 157

1 Timothy 4.1 5.19

172 177

2 Timothy 1.5 1.14 2.19 2.20

95 95 172 26

Ephesians 2.13 2.14-16 2.17 2.18-22 2.21-22 2.21 3.6 4.12 4.16 4.17 4.29 5.2 5.25 6.2 6.5 6.12 6.17

57 57 57 57 106 91 63 148, 157 148, 157 134 148, 157 28 28 100 112, 113 150 154

Hebrews 1.5 3.12 10.28

103, 106 172 177

1 Peter 2.5 2.7

119 74

Jude 14–15

1

Revelation 4.6-8 21.7

84 106

Philippians 1.22 2.6-11 2.12 2.16 3.7-9

149 25 112, 113 66 25

Colossians 1.13 1.15-20 3.5 3.15 3.16

106 25 87 63 95

1 Thessalonians 1.9 87 3.5 66

OLD TESTAMENT PSEUDEPIGRAPHA 1 Enoch 1.9 1 5.5-9 53 10.16-22 53 25.5-6 53 72.1 53, 54 90.37-38 53 91.13-16 53 2 Enoch 22.8 31.5 31.6

39 166 166

3 Maccabees 2.6

169

Index of References

216 Apocalypse of Adam 1.11 113

1QH 3.19-22 11.10-14 13.11-12

54 54 54

1QS 4.25 5.1-26 6.1

54 175 175

97 105

4QTestim 1–8

93

Liber antiquitatum Biblicarum 50.2 161 51.3 161 51.6 161 59.1-2 45 59.2 45

CD 6.13 8.9 8.14-15 9.16c-23 19.27-28

Apocalypse of Moses 17.1–18.6 166 Joseph and Aseneth 8.9 54 Jubilees 1.17 1.24

93 93 93 176 93

Life of Adam and Eve 9.1–11.3 165 33.3 165

RABBINIC LITERATURE Mishnah m. Abot 2.1 127

Pseudo-Phocylides 22 118 53–54 162

Midrashim Genesis Rabbah 19.1-12 167

Testament of Abraham 13.5 177 13.6 177 13.7 177 13.8 177

NEW TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA AND PSEUDEPIGRAPHA Apocryphon of John 23 167

Testament of Job 12.1 135

Protevangelium of James 13 167

Testament of Levi 13.6 135

CLASSICAL AND EARLY CHRISTIAN WRITINGS Aristotle Rhetoric III, 3.4 129

DEAD SEA SCROLLS 11Q19 61.6-7 176 61.7-12 176 64.7-9 176

Cicero Orator II, lxv

129

Diognetus 12.8

167

Epiphanius Panarion 40.5.3

167

Hippolytus Refutatio omnium haeresium 5.26.22-23 167 Ignatius To the Trallians 8.1 127 10.7 167 Josephus Jewish Antiquities 1.41-51 167 4.259 169 5.1 169 13.1 169 Life 65–96 122-25 133 136-38 189-90 201-203 246 253 256-57 257 259 292-304 313-16

177 177 177 177 177 177 177 177 177 177 177 177 177

Jewish War 1.51

169

Philo De confusione linguarum 128-32 151

Index of References De ebrietate 84

127

Legum allegoriae 2.79 167 De mutatione nominum 1.266 93 Quod omnis probus liber sit 1.160 169 Quis rerum divinarum heres sit 145 119 191 121

De somniis 1.148 2.248

93 93

De specialibus legibus III, 45-46 87 4.41-77 176 4.41-47 176 4.48-54 177 4.53-54 177 4.55-58 177 IV, 203-18 88 IV, 204 88 De virtutibus 1.184

93

217 De vita Mosis 1.95 169 1.141 169 1.142 169 Plato Phaedrus 260C-D

129

Polycarp To the Philippians 6.1 127

INDEX OF AUTHORS Abasciano, B. J. 19, 33, 34, 122 Adams, E. 51 Albl, M. C. 7 Allen, L. C. 139 Andersen, F. I. 166, 167 Anderson, A. A. 74, 138 Balla, P. 36 Baltzer, K. 65 Barclay, J. M. G. 149 Barnett, P. W. 73, 80, 92, 118 Barré, M. L. 171 Barrera, J. T. 19 Barrett, C. K. 33, 133, 140, 152 Bauckham, R. 38, 48 Beale, G. K. 4, 14, 46, 48, 66, 71, 76, 78, 83, 92, 93, 107 Beetham, C. A. 22, 23 Beker, J. C. 6 Belleville, L. L. 9, 33, 82, 91, 125, 134, 140, 175 Best, E. 134 Betz, H. D. 22, 81, 82, 85, 92, 116, 118, 127, 129, 133–5, 143, 151 Bewer, J. A. 78 Black, M. 54 Blenkinsopp, J. 39, 77 Boers, H. 25 Braude, W. G. 141 Bring, R. 5 Bruce, F. F. 26, 92, 137, 140, 171, 175 Brueggemann, W. 39, 59, 66, 77, 144 Bruehler, B. B. 129, 134, 139 Bultmann, R. 24, 26, 33, 40, 48, 73 Büschel, F. 41 Byrne, B. 105 Campbell, D. A. 34, 35 Campbell, W. S. 62 Carrez, M. 69 Carson, D. A. 4 Cerfaux, L. 41 Charles, R. H. 166 Charlesworth, J. H. 175

Chau, W. S. 13 Chesnutt, R. D. 54 Childs, B. S. 61, 66, 100, 144 Ciampa, R. E. 190 Clifford, R. J. 139 Clines, D. J. A. 60 Cohen, S. J. D. 177 Collange, J. F. 68, 69 Colson, F. H. 177 Conrad, E. W. 78 Cooke, G. A. 101 Craigie, P. C. 158 Cran¿eld, C. E. B. 5 Dahl, N. A. 81, 86 Dahood, M. J. 32, 74, 138, 139 Danker, F. W. 70 Davies, W. D. 5, 54 Dawson, A. 171, 173 DeSilva, D. A. 81 Delamarter, S. 19 Derrett, J. D. M. 15, 85 Dimant, D. 188 Dinter, P. E. 66 Dodd, C. H. 3, 16, 52 Driver, S. R. 180 Dumbrell, W. J. 12 Dunn, J. D. G. 36, 40 Eissfeldt, O. 61 Ekblad, E. R. 59 Ellis, E. E. 3, 67, 92, 95, 106, 167 Evans, C. A. 3, 4 Fee, G. D. 33, 41, 81, 82, 86, 88, 91, 100, 109, 110 Fishbane, M. 1, 124 Fisher, F. 122, 171, 173 Fitzmyer, J. A. 13, 40, 55, 81, 82, 93, 109 Ford, D. F. 2, 79, 148 Fowl, S. E. 25 Fox, M. V. 42 France, R. T. 23 Fuller, D. P. 5

Index of Authors Furnish, V. P. 24, 26, 33, 45, 54, 73, 75, 80, 82, 91, 92, 95, 117, 123, 127, 133, 135, 138, 148–52, 155, 157, 158, 171 Garland, D. E. 70, 178, 179 Georgi, D. 7, 44, 82, 133, 134 Gerstenberger, E. S. 84, 102 Gignilliat, M. S. 3, 15, 25, 46, 48, 59, 65, 68–70, 107 Gnilka, J. 81, 82 Goettsberger, J. 5 Goldingay, J. 59, 66, 100, 101, 139 Grässer, E. 69 Green, J. B. 92 Grindheim, S. 13 Guthrie, D. 82 Hafemann, S. J. 5–7, 10–12, 15, 42, 144, 164 Hanson, A. T. 6, 34, 69, 123, 132, 141, 150, 165, 180 Harman, A. M. 31 Harris, M. J. 24, 26, 33, 40, 41, 46, 50, 52, 65–8, 80, 81, 87, 88, 91–3, 96, 98, 99, 108, 109, 113, 117, 122, 125, 127, 129, 134, 135, 138, 145, 148, 149, 157, 164, 170, 171, 174, 175 Harrisville, R. A. 139 Hartley, J. E. 96 Haubeck, W. 50 Hays, R. B. 1–4, 6, 9, 10, 16, 23, 34, 65, 92, 124, 125 Heil, J. P. 1 Hickling, C. J. A. 13, 47, 107 Ho¿us, O. 47, 62 Hollander, J. 16 Hooker, M. D. 7 Hubbard, M. V. 51 Hughes, P. E. 24, 26, 33, 41, 64, 85, 91, 92, 109, 122, 133, 135, 140, 171 Hunter, A. M. 7 Instone-Brewer, D. 6 Jewett, R. 150, 151 Johnson, A. R. 66 Johnson, M. D. 165 Joubert, S. 134 Juel, D. 103, 105

219

Kamlah, E. 6 Käsemann, E. 6 Kautzsch, E. 120 Kim, H. C. P. 48, 58, 62 Klaus, H. J. 32, 74 Knight, G. A. F. 58 Koch, D. A. 3, 6, 16, 22, 68, 81, 92, 93, 95, 120, 160 Kraus, H. J. 139 Krüger, T. 42 Kruse, C. 88, 154, 167, 171, 178 Lambrecht, J. 13, 52, 69, 71, 81, 92, 96, 164 Lane, W. L. 108 Lang, F. 93 Levin, C. 95 Levison, J. R. 42 Liebers, R. 13 Lieu, J. 1 Lim, K. Y. 161, 163 Lim, T. H. 3, 16 Lincoln, A. T. 36 Lindars, B. 16 Lindblad, U. 58 Litwak, K. D. 3 Longenecker, R. N. 1, 20, 169 Longman III, T. 42 Maier, J. 176 Malherbe, A. J. 151, 152 Marshall, I. H. 3, 21, 55 Martin, R. P. 24, 26, 33, 41, 49, 55, 56, 80– 2, 91, 92, 98, 123, 152, 158, 167, 171–3 Martyn, J. L. 169 Matera, F. J. 34, 92 Mayes, A. D. H. 180 McCant, J. W. 122, 171 McKelvey, R. J. 91 McLay, T. 18 Mell, U. 54 Menken, M. J. J. 4, 13 Metzger, B. 22, 91 Meyers, C. L. 78 Meyers, E. M. 78 Milgrom, J. 83, 84, 95, 96 Minn, H. R. 171 Mitchell, H. G. 78 Moffatt, J. 81 Moore, G. F. 52 Morgenstern, J. 58

220

Index of Authors

Moule, C. F. D. 52, 63 Moyise, S. 3, 4, 20 Mullins, T. Y. 171 Munck, J. 13 Munro, W. 82 Murphy-O’Connor, J. 51, 133, 164, 171 Newton, M. 85 Nickelsburg, G. W. E. 53, 54 Nitzan, B. 176 North, C. R. 58, 59 O’Day, G. R. 160 O’Mahony, K. J. 126 Oakes, P. 13 Ogden, G. S. 42 Oostendorp, D. W. 13 Orlinsky, H. M. 58 Pate, C. M. 13, 26, 27, 36, 41, 42 Paton-Williams, D. 58–60, 62 Patte, D. 108 Paulien, J. 23 Pedersen, J. 60 Plummer, A. 41, 80, 87, 91, 92, 98, 117, 133–5, 137, 139, 140, 149, 171, 172, 175, 178 Porter, J. R. 61, 96 Porter, S. E. 2, 4, 21, 23, 55, 56, 62 Rensberger, D. 85, 86 Richard, E. 7 Richards, E. R. 82 Robinson, H. W. 60, 61, 66 Rogerson, J. W. 61 Rosner, B. S. 176, 180 Rost, L. 167 Rowley, H. H. 58, 60, 61, 63, 79 Sanders, E. P. 5 Sanders, J. A. 3, 4 Sandnes, K. O. 95 Savage, T. B. 25 Schlatter, A. 103, 171 Schmid, H. H. 95 Schmithals, W. 31 Schoeps, H. J. 5 Schröter, J. 13 Schulz, S. 7

Schütz, J. H. 157 Schweitzer, A. 5 Scott, J. M. 14, 15, 81, 83, 92, 93, 96, 103, 105, 108 Seitz, C. 59 Seow, C. L. 42 Shum, S. L. 47, 57, 107 Sjöberg, E. 52 Smith, D. M. 13, 92 Smith, J. M. P. 78 Stählin, G. 119 Stamps, D. L. 1, 19 Stanley, C. D. 1, 3, 16, 17, 19–21, 31, 33, 38, 92–4, 98, 100, 103, 106, 120–2, 125, 140, 160 Stegman, T. D. 71 Stockhausen, C. K. 7–9, 26 Strachan, R. H. 31 Stuhlmacher, P. 5, 6, 51, 54 Sumney, J. L. 44, 149 Tasker, R. V. G. 33, 129, 140, 171 Thiselton, A. C. 25, 41 Thrall, M. E. 24, 33, 41, 44, 45, 51, 64, 68, 76, 80, 81, 91, 95, 96, 109, 117, 129, 134, 135, 138, 139, 150, 152, 164, 166, 171, 173, 175, 178 Tov, E. 18 Tuckett, C. M. 19 van Unnik, W. C. 4 Wagner, J. R. 3, 18, 19, 21, 38, 47, 57, 107, 108, 157–9, 189 Washburn, D. L. 19 Watson, F. 1, 2, 4, 19, 53 Watts, J. D. W. 58, 100 Webb, W. J. 14, 26, 28, 40, 46, 48, 51–3, 57, 66, 67, 76, 81, 82, 85–8, 92, 96, 101, 102, 105, 107 Welborn, L. L. 178 Westerholm, S. 5, 11, 50 Westermann, C. 60, 66, 72, 77 Wevers, J. W. 120 Wilcox, P. 58–60, 62 Wilk, F. 28, 47, 53, 57, 107, 111 Williams, D. H. H. III 140, 164 Williamson, H. G. M. 59 Windisch, H. 4

Index of Authors Winter, B. W. 45 Witherington, B. III 45, 151 Wolff, C. 31, 69 Wrede, W. 5 Wright, N. T. 10, 64

Yinger, K. L. 40, 41 Young, F. 2, 79, 148 Ziesler, J. A. 64, 140 Zimmerli, W. 102

221