Sustainable development in mechanical engineering : case studies in applied mechanics [Second edition] 9781443872591, 1443872598, 9781443879965, 1443879967

Table of contents :
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST OF TABLES
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CHAPTER ONE
CHAPTER TWO
CHAPTER THREE
CHAPTER FOUR
CHAPTER FIVE
CHAPTER SIX
CHAPTER SEVEN
CHAPTER EIGHT
CHAPTER NINE
CHAPTER TEN
CHAPTER ELEVEN
CHAPTER TWELVE
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
INDEX

Citation preview

Sustainable Development in Mechanical Engineering

Sustainable Development in Mechanical Engineering Case Studies in Applied Mechanics (2nd Edition) Edited by

Sylvie Nadeau, Yvan Petit, Stéphane Hallé, François Morency and Louis Dufresne

Sustainable Development in Mechanical Engineering: Case Studies in Applied Mechanics (2nd Edition) Edited by Sylvie Nadeau, Yvan Petit, Stéphane Hallé, François Morency and Louis Dufresne This book first published 2015 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2015 by Sylvie Nadeau, Yvan Petit, Stéphane Hallé, François Morency, Louis Dufresne and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-7259-8 ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-7259-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Illustrations ................................................................................... viii List of Tables ............................................................................................... x Preface ........................................................................................................ xi Acknowledgements ................................................................................... xii Chapter One ................................................................................................. 1 Case Study: Gasket Test Rig H. A. Bouzid, S. Nadeau, J.-P. Kenné Chapter Two ................................................................................................ 7 Case Study: Designing a Log Splitter H. A. Bouzid, J.-P. Kenné, S. Nadeau, T. Gowings Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 14 Case Study: Jewels of Tasmania B. Ateme-Nguema Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 26 Case Study: Designing a Hydraulic Car Lift for Small Auto Repair Shops H. A. Bouzid, S. Nadeau, J.-P. Kenné, C. Giner-Morency Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 37 Case Study: Designing a Boom Lift H. A. Bouzid, S. Nadeau, J.-P. Kenné, T. Gowings, C. Giner-Morency Chapter Six ................................................................................................ 56 Case Study: Designing an Aerial Work Platform Vehicle J.-P. Kenné, H. A. Bouzid, S. Nadeau, C. Giner-Morency

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Table of Contents

Chapter Seven............................................................................................ 64 Case Study: Downtown Toronto Open Loop Geothermal Cooling System – Part I F. Morency, S. Hallé Chapter Eight ............................................................................................. 72 Case Study: Downtown Toronto Open Loop Geothermal Cooling System – Part II S. Hallé, F. Morency Chapter Nine.............................................................................................. 79 Case Study: Toy Design G. Bernier, Y. Petit, F. Marchand, P. Terriault, S. Nadeau Chapter Ten ............................................................................................... 87 Case Study: Ecoinnovation and Ecodesign for Less Polluting Vehicles P. Terrier Chapter Eleven .......................................................................................... 98 Case Study: Hybrid Vehicle S. Nadeau, J. Arteau, C. Giner-Morency Chapter Twelve ....................................................................................... 105 Case Study: Automated Overhead Crane J.-P. Kenné, S. Nadeau, H. A. Bouzid, C. Giner-Morency Chapter Thirteen ...................................................................................... 114 Case Study: Designing an Airplane Baggage Belt Loader S. Nadeau, H. A. Bouzid, J.-P. Kenné, C. Giner-Morency Chapter Fourteen ..................................................................................... 122 Case Study: Designing a Lift Truck J.-P. Kenné, H. A. Bouzid, S. Nadeau, C. Giner-Morency Chapter Fifteen ........................................................................................ 129 Case Study: J.L. Vachon: Industry Leader and Pioneer S. Nadeau, B. Ateme-Nguema, C. Benedetti, C. Vachon

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Chapter Sixteen ....................................................................................... 142 Case Study: The Use of Engineered Wood in the Fondaction Building in Quebec City K. Navilys, E. Raufflet Index ........................................................................................................ 165

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1-1: Pressurization and leakage detection system ........................... 6 Figure 2-1: Log splitter – compact model .................................................. 9 Figure 2-2: Log splitter – high power model ............................................ 10 Figure 4-1: H-type hydraulic lift............................................................... 28 Figure 4-2: X-type hydraulic lift............................................................... 29 Figure 4-3: Pit beneath the H-type lift ...................................................... 30 Figure 4-4: Controls of the H-type lift ...................................................... 30 Figure 4-5: Controls of the X-type lift ...................................................... 31 Figure 4-6: Use of tungsten incandescent lamps ...................................... 32 Figure 5-1: The Panther lift ...................................................................... 39 Figure 5-2: Location of batteries .............................................................. 41 Figure 5-3: Truck-mounted boom / Scissor lift / Articulated, motorized boom lift.............................................................................................. 42 Figure 5-4: Stabilizer supports extended and locking pin......................... 43 Figure 5-5: Stabilizer supports extended .................................................. 44 Figure 5-6: Platform lock pin ................................................................... 44 Figure 5-7: Platform control box .............................................................. 45 Figure 5-8: Manual control of the valves.................................................. 45 Figure 5-9: Front view of the control box................................................. 47 Figure 5-10: Front view of the control box (close up) .............................. 47 Figure 5-11: Side view of the control box ................................................ 48 Figure 5-12: Side view of battery location ............................................... 48 Figure 5-13: Pulley ensuring platform movement .................................... 49 Figure 5-14: Front view of gears .............................................................. 49 Figure 5-15: Side view of wheel ............................................................... 50 Figure 5-16: Front view of wheel ............................................................. 50 Figure 5-17: Side view of the platform..................................................... 50 Figure 5-18: Side view of the ladder ........................................................ 51 Figure 5-19: Front view of the ladder ....................................................... 51 Figure 5-20: Side view of extended supports ........................................... 51 Figure 5-21: Handle to move the foot of the extended supports ............... 52 Figure 5-22: Handle to extend the supports .............................................. 52 Figure 5-23: Side view of supports........................................................... 52 Figure 6-1: Scissor lift .............................................................................. 58 Figure 6-2: Slopes and lateral inclines encountered by scissor lifts ......... 59 Figure 7-1: Diagram of installations ......................................................... 66

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Figure 7-2: View of three pipelines arriving at Island Filtration Plant ..... 68 Figure 7-3: View of the joints................................................................... 69 Figure 7-4: View of the size of the joints ................................................. 69 Figure 7-5: System with three pumps in parallel ...................................... 70 Figure 7-6: System with only one pump................................................... 71 Figure 8-1: Diagram of geothermal system (not to scale) ........................ 74 Figure 8-2: Diagram of supply and return pipes in underground tunnel (not to scale)........................................................................................ 75 Figure 11-1: Interior of the standardization committee project leader’s vehicle ............................................................................................... 101 Figure 12-1: Overhead view of the yacht factory ................................... 107 Figure 12-2: View of crane structure ...................................................... 109 Figure 12-3: View of lateral guiding system and the carriage ................ 110 Figure 13-1: Baggage loader in use ........................................................ 116 Figure 13-2: Baggage conveyor.............................................................. 117 Figure 14-1: High capacity lift truck ...................................................... 123 Figure 14-2: Forklift with adjustable angle ............................................ 124 Figure 14-3: Risk of tipping over ........................................................... 125 Figure 15-1: View of J.L. Vachon factory (from Vachon 2006) ............ 133 Figure 15-2: Interior view of the factory (from photographs of A. Morin) ...................................................................................... 134 Figure 15-3: J.L. Vachon Factory Layout of 1st floor (from Vachon 2006) ................................................................................................. 135 Figure 15-4: J.L. Vachon factory layout of 2nd floor, shows location of 3 workshops (from Vachon 2006) ................................................ 137

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-1: Conditions of usage ................................................................... 2 Table 2-1: Control panel component according to their level of importance ...................................................................................... 12 Table 3-1: Description of the Jewels of Tasmania products ..................... 15 Table 3-2: Projected sales for the 1st year ................................................. 17 Table 3-3: Projected sales for the 2nd year ................................................ 18 Table 3-4: Projected sales for the 3rd year ................................................ 19 Table 3-5: Projected sales for the 4th year................................................. 20 Table 3-6: Projected sales for the 5th year................................................. 21 Table 3-7: Projected sales for the 6th year................................................. 22 Table 5-1: Selection criteria used for lift purchase decision ..................... 38 Table 5-2: Specifications of the Panther lift ............................................. 40 Table 5-3: Maintenance of the Panther lift ............................................... 46 Table 6-1: Importance level of light indicators and activators to be included in the lift's control panel design ................................... 61 Table 8-1 Heat transfer correlations ......................................................... 76 Table 10-1: Characteristics of vehicles studied ........................................ 91 Table 10-2: General data relative to the greenhouse gas emissions generated over entire life cycle of the vehicle (Samaras and Meisterling 2008) ................................................................................ 92 Table 10-3: Materials used in automobiles ............................................... 92 Table 13-1: Baggage loader indicators ................................................... 118 Table 14-1: Importance level of indicators and actuators to be included in the vehicle's control panel design ................................................. 126 Table 16-1: Cost increase (%) of purchase by level of certification ....... 146 Table 16-2: The Project Team ................................................................ 159 Table 16-3: World trends on performance-based codes / objectives Type of building code ....................................................................... 160 Table 16-4: Key stages in the Fondaction building’s construction ......... 161 Table 16-5: FONDACTION LEED Credit breakdown – October 2010 .................................................................................................. 162

PREFACE

The professional practice of engineers around the world is increasingly complex. They play a crucial role in the design and development of new products or infrastructure as well as in the creation of wealth. To perform through this reality, engineers must acquire multidisciplinary technical expertise, as well as personal skills. Sustainable Development in Mechanical Engineering: Case Studies in Applied Mechanics is the product of many years of teaching experience and interdisciplinary collaboration in mechanical engineering. This book is an attempt to favour the assimilation of knowledge and abilities in all disciplines of mechanical engineering with a special perspective of considering the impact of engineering projects on several other aspects such as legal, social, economic, health, environmental and communication. The intent of the book is to provide educational tools to professors and students in mechanical engineering. It is desirable for every professor to support its teaching with tools which help motivate students to master the competencies that are most often used in engineering. From the student point of view, it is important that examples used to develop their knowledge are representative of what actually exists in their future field of practice. Sustainable Development in Mechanical Engineering: Case Studies in Applied Mechanics provides a broad overview of cases applying analysis, synthesis and evaluation aptitudes in a new and innovative way. Every case was developed from current engineering problems. This book gives the future engineer tools to quickly and efficiently integrate the knowledge of several disciplines and to become aware of their role in a larger business and societal context. We hope this book will provide an exciting way to develop state of the art engineering skills.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Editors and Authors wish to express their gratitude for the assistance they have received from a number of different sources, including those mentioned in more detail below, in obtaining much of the material included in this monograph as well in putting everything together. It is the result of more than a decade of collaboration between a good number of people which all deserve our recognition. More specifically, we thank Ms. Andréanne Bouchard for her illustrations of the different cases, Ms. Jennifer Sunde for the translation of the cases originally written in French, and Ms. Jocelyne Dumont for all the typing work. We also wish to acknowledge the collaboration to various degrees of Professors Philippe Bocher, Henri Champliaud, Jean-François Chatelain, Jean-Luc Fihey, Stanislaw Kajl, Frédéric Laville, Van Ngan Lê, Jacques Masounave, Anh Dung Ngô and Victor Songmene. This work has also been made possible through the financial support over the years from different branches of the École de technologie supérieure: Décanat à la recherche et au transfert technologique, Décanat des études, Département de génie mécanique and Équipe de recherche en sécurité du travail. Our last word would be to thank the many students who worked, at one time or another, on these cases and helped improving them by their comments and observations.

CHAPTER ONE CASE STUDY: GASKET TEST RIG H. A. BOUZID, S. NADEAU, J.-P. KENNÉ

Summary This case study will focus on designing a rig to test the leakage performance of gaskets. By presenting this as a case study, engineering students will be able to work in multidisciplinary projects. This case study will combine knowledge in human factors engineering, hydraulics and strength of materials in the course of designing a test rig for gaskets. Students will use knowledge from each of these fields to solve the problems presented in this study. Results obtained from these studies will assist professors in carrying out other projects or case studies. Keywords: Human factors engineering, hydraulics, strength of materials, gaskets, bolted joints

1. Key Considerations and Objectives A researcher in the field of tightness for bolted flange gasketed joint assemblies would like to equip his laboratory with a test rig with which to measure leakage from different gasket types. He wishes to reproduce the industrial conditions of pressure vessel bolted joints. A model for fluid leakage already exists. This model is based on the porous structure of the gasket, its geometry, the type of gas used in the pressure tank and certain thermodynamic parameters. The researcher would like to accurately measure the amount of leak from the gasket. Thus, to improve the model’s predictions, he proposes to measure leaks as a function of the compressive load, gasket thickness, type of gas used and operating pressure.

Chapter One

2

To be able to continue with his other projects, he has decided to entrust the design of the gasket test rig to junior engineers. In this case study, we will examine problems concerning test rig design. More specifically, our objectives will be to: x x x

Conduct a conceptual design study of a gasket test rig and establish its dimensions; Analyze test rig safety and safety measures to prevent risks during operation (inhalation, explosion, etc.); Design the required hydraulic and pneumatic control systems.

2. Facts 2.1

Specifications

The following table lists the conditions of usage that must be reproduced. Table 1-1: Conditions of usage Condition Maximum operating pressure Operating temperature Test gas Level of leakage rate to be measured Testing time Gasketed joint geometry

2.2

Value 1000 psig Ambient Helium, Nitrogen 1 to 0.0001 cm3/s 48 hours Max. external diameter 6.19 in Min. internal diameter 4.50 in Thickness varying from 1/16 to 1/8 in

Operating Mode

The objective of this test rig is to measure leaks from various gaskets according to several parameters, namely the bolt tightening load, thickness of gasket and gas pressure. The test rig is a bolted joint composed of two pieces of pipe sealed at each extremity. Each pipe is welded to a 4-inch diameter flange and the entire piece is assembled with bolts. The gasket rests between the two flanges (see Figure 1-1).

Case Study: Gasket Test Rig

3

The operator first installs the gasket between the two flanges and then tightens the bolts to the required load. The bolts are tightened using a hydraulic tightening device placed on each bolt. The hydraulic tightening devices are actuated by a hydraulic system to ensure even tightening pressure. The operator then introduces pressurized fluid into the assembly. To do so, the operator sets the fluid pressure using a proportional valve. The regulator limits the maximum pressure while the dial gage provides a visual reading. Once the correct pressure is obtained, the operator closes the diaphragm valve using a pneumatic actuator (see Figure 1-1). Leakage may then be measured by: x a flow meter for major leaks; or x a drop or rise in pressure for minor leaks. All data is collected and sent to a computer through a data acquisition system. The various measuring instruments are: x a pressure transducer to measure inlet gas pressure; x a thermocouple to measure temperature in the pressure drop system; x strain gages to measure bolt elongation; x a linear velocity displacement transducer to measure gasket deflection. Once the test is completed, the operator shuts the system down, opens the purge valve and empties the bolted joint assembly in preparation for the next test with a new gasket.

2.3

Safety Measures

If at low pressure major leakage is observed, the operator must increase the bolt load and continue with the leakage measurement procedure. The system is equipped with a safety relief valve to prevent over pressurizing the joint assembly.

3. Questions Faced with a tight budget, the researcher must carefully plan his design. Should priority be given to flange size selection: class 600 or 900? Would you suggest bolts or studs to be purchased? Which hydraulic

Chapter One

4

components should be used? Which control system should be selected to adjust the proportional valve? Have all safety measures been implemented to prevent incidents and accidents with or without material losses and injuries? The main objective of this test is to measure leakage from the gasket being tested. All other rig components must be leak proof. Which design strategies must the researcher prioritize to ensure this? How will the researcher measure leaks from the gasketed joint? The test rig will be used for teaching purposes. Therefore, the researcher would like the work station to be ergonomic and safe. He fears it may be used improperly. He must take into account safety margin requirements when designing the rig and must comply with machine safety standards and the applicable pressure vessel code. The solution that will be chosen will undergo further study in the following aspects:

3.1

Strength of Materials

Refer to the conditions of usage provided in sections I Problem and II Facts to review the problem specifications. Suppose a 4-inch diameter flange joint. x Verify the mechanical integrity of the test rig structural components, namely the flange (material, thickness, class or grade), bolts (material, quantity and length), tank (material, thickness, dimensions). x Specify the maximum bolt load capacity knowing that cyclic loading will be conducted on the gasket, without exceeding a maximum gasket stress of 23,000 psi.

3.2

Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems

Refer to the conditions of usage described in sections I Problem and II Facts to review the problem specifications. Select each of the hydraulic and pneumatic components for the test rig (tubes, valves, connections, and hydraulic and pneumatic devices).

Case Study: Gasket Test Rig

5

You are asked to design a hydraulic system and select hydraulic tightening devices to tighten the bolts (pump, tank, channels, oil, etc.). Also, the bench test rig manufacturing costs are to be kept to a minimum. You are asked to propose a system to control the proportional valve (setting, feedback and actuator). The hydraulic system maximum pressure should be established in accordance to the operating conditions of the test rig.

3.3

Ergonomics and Occupational Safety

Verify that the test rig complies with the act respecting occupational health and safety and the regulation on occupational health and safety. Consult machine safety standards and propose safety measures to prevent risks during operation.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank École de technologies supérieure for its financial support. They also wish to acknowledge the collaboration of Daniel Mongrain, Jean-Claude Bergeron and Hichem Beghoul in collecting information.

References Department of Defense, Design Criteria Standard Human Engineering, MIL-STD-1472F, États-Unis. [Internet]. Available from: www.hf.faa.gov/docs/milstd14.pdf. Labonville, R. Concepts des circuits hydrauliques : une approche énergétique. Éditions de l’École Polytechnique de Montréal, 1991. Lupin, H. et Marsot, J. Sécurité des machines et des équipements de travail. Moyens de protection contre les risques mécaniques. Édition INRS ED 807, France, 2000. Merritt, H.E. Hydraulic Control Systems. John Willey & Sons, New York, 1993. Rabardel, P., Carlin, N., Chesnais, M., Lang, N., Le Joliff, G. et Pascal, M. Ergonomie concepts et méthodes. Éditions Octares, France, 1998. Regulation on occupational health and safety. Gazette officielle du Québec. Décret 885-2001.

6

Chapter One

Sullivan, J.A. Fluid Power System: Theory and Applications. 3rd edition, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1989. The Act Respecting Occupational Health and Safety, R.S.Q., Chapter S2.1.

Figure 1-1: Pressurization and leakage detection system

CHAPTER TWO CASE STUDY: DESIGNING A LOG SPLITTER H. A. BOUZID, J.-P. KENNÉ, S. NADEAU, T. GOWINGS

Summary This case study will focus on designing equipment used to prepare firewood. The case study format is used to enable engineering students to work on multidisciplinary projects. The purpose of this case is to combine knowledge in human factors engineering, fluid power systems and strength of materials to design a log splitter. Students will use material learned from each of these fields to solve the problems presented in this case study. Results obtained from this study will enable professors to carry out further projects or case studies. Keywords: Human factors engineering, fluid power systems, strength of materials, log splitter

1. Key Considerations and Objectives Any fireplace, woodstove or wood furnace owner must eventually stock up on firewood, and this implies chopping wood to the right size for use. A splitting maul and chainsaw are obvious tools at one’s disposal. However, partisans of ready-made products will prefer to simply purchase a cord of firewood. Regardless of how one goes about it, one thing is certain, to get from a log to firewood, one must, among other things, split wood. There are several types of hydraulic log splitters and the focus in this study will be on the vertical models. These systems can split logs 30 cm in diameter and 1 m in length and are designed using classical hydraulic

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principles, J.A Sullivan (1989), R. Labonville (1991) and H.E. Merritt (1993). Dimensions and choice of components must comply with current standards (Rabardel et al. 1998). Equipment must also comply with the act respecting occupational health and safety and be ergonomic. In this case study, we will review the design of commonly used firewood splitters (see Figures 2-1 and 2-2). Our specific objectives are to: x x x

Conduct a conceptual study of the system and establish the dimensions of each of the components and structures used; Analyze and design a work station in accordance with occupational health and safety standards; Analyze and design a hydraulic system by assembling hydraulic power components.

2. Facts 2.1

Characteristics of a Log Splitter

A log splitter can operate at ambient temperatures varying between minus 25°C and 35°C and must be corrosion proof. The hydraulic and electric components are equipped with appropriate gasket joints. Log splitters must sometimes be carried to quite remote locations in the forests of Quebec and are usually kept in cramped spaces (1 m by 1 m by 1½ m). More often than not, the ground on which they are set is hilly, so the equipment structure must be robust and able to maintain secure footing to ensure stability when in use.

Case Study: Designing a Log Splitter

Figure 2-1: Log splitter – compact model

9

10

Chapter Two

Figure 2-2: Log splitter – high power model

The equipment travels along a controlled trajectory. The control panel includes among other things a start button, an emergency stop button, a control device and a safety mechanism.

3. Questions After having carefully researched all the log splitters available on the market and having become aware of the problem stated in this case study, you are asked to re-engineer a log splitter, in view of improving the following aspects: hydraulics, strength of materials and occupational health and safety. The design solution you propose for the log splitter must be inexpensive given that potential clients for this type of equipment operate on modest budgets. The best solution will be studied in greater detail as to the following aspects:

Case Study: Designing a Log Splitter

3.1

11

Strength of Materials

You are asked to establish the dimensions of the log splitter of your choice and provide detailed calculations. You must design the base and main structure of the splitter and make all necessary structural calculations, select the primary hydraulic and electric components (motor, pump, cylinder and tank) and calculate the power requirement. Once this has been completed, use a general purpose finite elements software to model the log splitter structure for the purpose of analyzing the strength of the structure under different operating conditions for example, the machine falls over on a hill, or off a truck during transportation. In comparison with the two systems described above and the other types of splitters available on the market, suggest an alternative which you consider better, based on your own set of criteria.

3.2

Hydraulic and Pneumatic Control Systems

It is required to design a hydraulic system and select components taking into account the pressure loss in the hydraulic circuit and accessories. Study the dynamic aspects and estimate the time required to split a specific number of logs. Calculate the energy efficiency of the system and, if needed, optimize the resulting solution. Finally, simulate the hydraulic system using a software program of your choice.

3.3

Ergonomics and Occupational Safety

Make recommendations as to the ergonomics and safety of the splitter. More specifically: x x x x

Using a causal tree, define 5 possible injuries. Once the causal tree is completed, validate your observations by referring to the articles from the regulation on occupational health and safety that are relevant to your design. Design the log splitter’s work table position to facilitate the worker’s task of manually loading the splitter. Design a control panel which takes into account the following indicators and actuators:

Chapter Two

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Table 2-1: Control panel component according to their level of importance

Light indicator during log splitter blade descent

Level of importance (1-10) 9

Light indicator when log splitter is powered on

3

Light indicator to show status of blade safety breaks Actuator for vertical displacement of blade (up / down) Emergency stop button

6

10

Splitter start / stop pushbutton

4

Component

7

Light indicator: small light. Actuator: Joystick, pushbutton, roller, lever, to choose from and justify your choice. Determine the dimensions and type of indicator and justify your choice. Position the actuators and determine their specifications (dimensions, colour, activation mode, etc.). As an engineer working for a company owning a log splitter similar to the one shown in figure 2-1, you are asked to investigate a reported accident, which has occurred while using this machine. Here is a summary of the event: Mr. T was in a hurry to split a few logs because he had a busy day ahead of him. It was the morning after a rainy night, and because the pile of wood was not properly covered, the logs were soaked. Mr. T knew that the log might slip, so he attempted to secure it with one hand while the other activated the “on” switch. His grip on the log was not strong enough, so the log slipped and flew violently out of place, hitting Mr. T on the head and twisting his wrist. Do you think the product should be recalled by the company and modified? What corrective solutions can you suggest to prevent this type of accident from occurring again? Note that for any modifications to the existing product, cost and facility of implementation are key factors.

Case Study: Designing a Log Splitter

13

Is this accident exclusively a result of misuse and carelessness? What precautions should have been considered when the product was first designed?

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank École de technologie supérieure for its financial support. They would also like to acknowledge the collaboration of Daniel Mongrain, François Potvin and David Prud’Homme in collecting information.

References Department of Defense, «Design Criteria Standard Human Engineering, MIL-STD-1472F», États-Unis. [Internet]. Available from: http://hfetag.dtic.mil/docs/mil-std-1472f.pdf. http://www.inrs.fr/produits/publications.pdf/ed807.pdf. Labonville, R. Concepts des circuits hydrauliques : une approche énergétique, Éditions de l’École Polytechnique de Montréal, 1991. Lupin, H. et Marsot, J. (2000). « Sécurité des machines et des équipements de travail. Moyens de protection contre les risques mécaniques ». Édition INRS ED 807, France. [Internet]. Access: Merritt, H.E. Hydraulic Control Systems, John Willey & Sons, New York, 1993. Rabardel, P., Carlin, N., Chesnais, M., Lang, N., Le Joliff, G. et Pascal, M. Ergonomie concepts et méthodes, Éditions Octares, France, 1998. Regulation on occupational health and safety. S-2.1, r.19.01. [Internet]. Available from: http://www.csst.qc.ca/pdf/RSST.pdf. Sullivan, J.A. Fluid Power System: Theory and Applications, 3rd edition, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1989. The Act Respecting Occupational Health and Safety, R.S.Q., Chapter S2.1. [Internet]. Available from: http://doc.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=/S_2 _1/S2_1.html or http://www.csst.qc.ca/fr/14_lois_et_regl/141_lois/1412_sst/sst.asp.

CHAPTER THREE CASE STUDY: JEWELS OF TASMANIA B. ATEME-NGUEMA

Summary Designing flexible manufacturing workshops, better known as flexible manufacturing cells, will be the focus of this case study. By using a case study format, problems relating to the design, management and installation of a manufacturing system will enable engineering and management students to work on multidisciplinary projects for which integration of knowledge from operations and production management, industrial engineering and occupational health and safety will be essential. Considering the interconnectedness of these fields is part of the approach used to solve problems presented in this case. As well, information gathered and the work hypotheses formulated will enable professors to prepare projects or case studies. Keywords: Manufacturing systems, industrial engineering, operations and production management and occupational, health and safety

1. Context In Dover, on the Island of Tasmania, Australia, a company named Jewels of Tasmania manufactures nine types of golden wooden toys. Since the beginning of the last century, the colour “gold” has become timehonoured and can be obtained from high quality graphite mined in China, where the colour gold symbolizes excellence and royalty.

Case Study: Jewels of Tasmania

15

Table 3-1: Description of the Jewels of Tasmania products Toys Manufactured 18au19b 315-bdc 42161-4 13sh333 23336-2 42255-3 461-cae 12sh333 15sh333

Description

Target market

Quality wooden toys come with a graphite pencil and eraser (For example: slate board on stand with pencil, etc.)

Europe

Toys intended for popular NorthAmerican market (For example: musical mobiles, lamps, small cars, puzzles, etc.) Wooden toys for local market (For example: wooden toys that are small and varied)

North America

Australia

The company Jewels of Tasmania manufactures toys of which certain models prized in Europe come with a graphite pencil tipped with an eraser. The models “18au19b”, “315-bdc”, “42161-4” and “13sh333” are particularly in demand and intended for a wealthy European market with high standards. For the North-American market, Jewels of Tasmania offers models “23336-2”, “42255-3” and “461-cae”, which are all-purpose toys one can find in typical stores intended for the general population. For local sales, Jewels of Tasmania proposes models “12sh333” and “15sh333”. For toys intended for the European market, Jewels of Tasmania decided to include a pencil for which the lead is made of a combination of graphite and clay, balancing hardness and blackness to achieve the desired line. In its choice of wood for its toys, Jewels of Tasmania employs cedar, maple, birch and ozigo. These four wood essences can be easily cut into thin slats and milled, for instance. The wood suppliers of the Jewels of Tasmania guarantee an ample supply of maple and cedar in exchange for a minimal order. The birch is from Canada and the ozigo is from Gabon, Africa. The latter essence is employed for toys intended for the European market, since it confers to the toy and its accompanying pencil an air of luxury and a high quality finish in addition to its good adhesion to the writing core. Note that these essences are not known to cause splinters. For all its toys, Jewels of Tasmania purchases wood that is already cut into blocks. The blocks are cut with precision into thin slats and then placed into a vat to soak an emollient stain. For toys intended for the European market, circular grooves are cut lengthwise into one surface of

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Chapter Three

the slats. Rods of graphite/clay are inserted into the grooves. Then glue is applied to the slat, a second grooved slat is aligned to the first and they are pressed together to encase the writing core. The glued slats are then cut into individual sticks and the ends are trimmed to the standard pencil length. The pencils for European toys are then polished, painted and set to dry. On one end of the pencil a ferrule is glued, clamped and fitted with an eraser held in place by embossing the ferrule. To finish, all the toys are packed and placed into cardboard boxes fitting 25 units. All these operations are automated. Jewels of Tasmania sells its products in cardboard boxes. For the next production lots, ecologists have expressed that industries manufacturing various wood products contribute to irresponsible over-logging by African foresters, particularly the ozigo species for which no effort is made to renew this resource. In light of this, Jewels of Tasmania wishes to take this into consideration and reduce, if possible, its production of luxury toys made with ozigo. The projected sales for the company are:

January February March April May June July August September October November December Total

Months

Number of toys to be manufactured 18au19b 315-bdc 42161-4 13sh333 23336-2 42255-3 461-cae 12sh333 15sh333 # days 3 000 2 225 4 332 1 332 1 343 1 009 1 103 110 113 22 3 000 3 400 1 210 996 1 115 2 080 783 151 55 21 4 000 3 050 6 111 3 133 5 111 17 1 044 104 98 20 5 000 1 775 7 012 3 201 3 012 1 105 203 203 101 21 5 000 4 125 2 337 1 773 2 337 452 408 122 75 20 8 000 6 778 6 667 5 418 1 667 2 031 904 125 202 21 6 000 5 000 3 823 1 227 1 125 2 009 217 210 100 17 3 000 1 115 2 115 1 773 2 005 49 811 181 27 21 4 000 3 075 2 373 1 657 2 376 1 082 247 274 96 22 3 000 2 850 4 016 2 098 1 016 919 503 301 173 21 3 000 2 125 3 377 1 337 377 167 694 121 70 22 3 000 3 010 4 193 3 996 193 702 852 207 83 22 50 000 38 528 47 566 27 941 21 677 11 572 7 769 2 109 1 193 250

Table 3-2: Projected sales for the 1st year

Case Study: Jewels of Tasmania 17

January February March April May June July August September October November December Total

Months

18au19b 3 003 3 666 4 333 5 666 6 333 8 666 7 500 3 666 4 000 5 000 4 333 5 000 61 166

315-bdc 2 222 3 250 4 950 4 333 7 005 7 950 3 980 2 975 1 225 6 800 1 111 1 210 47 011

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Number of toys to be manufactured 42161-4 13sh333 23336-2 42255-3 461-cae 4 932 1 302 2 443 110 1 778 5 100 1 801 1 694 321 1 302 3 111 3 872 5 111 121 1 414 3 012 4 104 3 012 257 655 4 337 6 206 2 337 167 890 3 667 1 708 1 667 2 011 1 101 6 823 1 562 1 125 1 103 711 4 115 1 909 2 005 2 943 1 180 6 373 2 401 2 373 693 1 427 4 016 2 983 3 012 393 802 5 377 2 807 798 1 099 964 7 193 4 045 1 089 1 002 1 208 58 056 34 700 26 666 10 220 13 432

Table 3-3: Projected sales for the 2nd year

18

12sh333 176 190 151 227 174 331 616 130 292 252 161 217 2 916

15sh333 131 545 9 101 7 22 100 27 96 17 170 363 1 588

# days 22 21 20 21 20 21 17 21 22 21 22 22 250

January February March April May June July August September October November December Total

Months

18au19b 6 000 6 750 7 500 9 000 12 000 18 750 15 000 6 000 6 750 6 750 6 333 8 250 109 083

315-bdc 5 450 5 545 6 110 8 083 16 777 12 215 5 115 3 311 5 518 5 975 5 677 4 122 83 898

Number of toys to be manufactured 42161-4 13sh333 23336-2 42255-3 461-cae 9 322 3 798 1 050 331 2 888 7 100 3 303 100 231 1 291 4 111 4 702 2 080 218 1 140 8 012 5 409 3 100 787 555 10 337 5 937 1 065 607 901 13 667 8 208 7 117 1 941 1 902 11 823 7 984 4 050 1 032 877 7 156 4 047 1 090 2 439 2 810 9 873 5 003 3 200 539 2 417 5 716 4 497 1 020 223 1 209 7 177 4 874 2 080 949 1 400 9 931 4 032 500 1 302 1 802 104 225 61 794 26 452 10 599 19 192

Table 3-4: Projected sales for the 3rd year

Case Study: Jewels of Tasmania

12sh333 111 180 551 712 149 133 171 128 314 665 908 715 4 737

15sh333 300 445 291 11 104 98 113 72 69 71 107 633 2 314

# days 22 21 20 21 20 21 17 21 22 21 22 22 250

19

January February March April May June July August September October November December Total

Months

18au19b 7 800 8 775 9 750 11 700 15 600 24 375 19 500 7 800 8 775 8 775 7 800 10 725 141 375

315-bdc 7 000 7 980 9 112 10 011 15 415 22 887 17 778 2 112 3 339 2 321 7 542 4 122 109 619

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Number of toys to be manufactured 42161-4 13sh333 23336-2 42255-3 461-cae 10 902 5 412 2 800 1 020 2 213 9 940 3 802 4 333 1 121 1 192 8 121 5 807 666 1 282 1 405 10 512 6 613 2 775 998 581 13 389 7 608 1 800 1 017 881 17 127 8 879 6 750 1 041 1 767 14 003 10 784 3 333 2 027 797 9 516 9 232 4 000 3 031 2 900 12 173 5 701 500 1 053 2 401 9 786 7 904 1 333 1 273 1 303 9 827 3 589 3 821 564 1 450 10 731 4 871 250 1 992 1 820 136 027 80 202 32 361 16 419 18 710

Table 3-5: Projected sales for the 4th year

20

12sh333 15sh333 301 713 192 445 177 291 228 207 239 104 130 89 219 137 298 127 403 74 112 71 658 170 894 633 3 851 3 061

# days 22 21 20 21 20 21 17 21 22 21 22 22 250

January February March April May June July August September October November December Total

Months

18au19b 6 000 6 750 7 500 9 000 12 000 18 750 15 000 6 000 6 750 6 750 6 000 8 250 108 750

315-bdc 4 133 2 312 10 013 8 011 9 897 11 299 14 348 4 377 2 343 3 002 5 016 2 043 76 794

Number of toys to be manufactured 42161-4 13sh333 23336-2 42255-3 461-cae 9 021 4 051 1 980 910 931 7 494 2 083 3 133 1 020 902 5 221 875 1 069 829 1 101 8 251 2 468 1 375 800 500 10 893 6 087 1 007 1 011 813 11 712 7 189 2 770 704 1 677 9 004 7 841 1 373 2 170 339 5 167 5 728 3 097 2 832 1 020 8 372 5 002 215 1 005 1 240 5 678 7 009 1 013 1 037 999 7 482 3 605 2 218 756 1 074 6 871 4 271 507 620 1 201 95 166 56 209 19 757 13 694 11 797

Table 3-6: Projected sales for the 5th year

Case Study: Jewels of Tasmania

12sh333 99 194 302 101 87 110 204 307 116 77 94 105 1 796

15sh333 311 5 81 110 517 2 25 78 6 37 7 3 1 182

# days 22 21 20 21 20 21 17 21 22 21 22 22 250

21

January February March April May June July August September October November December Total

Months

18au19b 2 080 3 031 3 973 5 005 4 909 7 799 6 987 3 003 3 082 3 391 3 445 2 920 49 625

315-bdc 1 769 2 989 1 017 1 116 452 2 631 2 309 1 019 1 132 989 1 027 748 17 198

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Number of toys to be manufactured 42161-4 13sh333 23336-2 42255-3 461-cae 1 030 1 207 1 890 340 301 3 094 983 3 001 801 211 901 807 1 021 219 865 1 052 918 1 257 780 250 5 002 1 078 1 117 518 372 912 1 079 2 230 455 679 2 004 941 1 310 709 100 1 060 428 3 001 833 220 1 397 1 105 719 975 247 1 248 1 397 993 327 174 1 872 1 176 2 001 506 941 971 1 311 1 107 207 803 20 543 12 430 19 647 6 670 5 163

Table 3-7: Projected sales for the 6th year

22

12sh333 52 165 77 97 110 273 34 23 301 18 271 77 1 498

15sh333 121 85 123 11 107 92 25 89 9 37 67 23 789

# days 22 21 20 21 20 21 17 21 22 21 22 22 250

Case Study: Jewels of Tasmania

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These forecasts are based on a market study covering a six-year period. Upon observing the sales forecasts and particularly the models intended for the European market, the production manager is concerned with the factory’s capacity to fulfill these orders, especially since the entire product line’s growth appears to follow the Jewels of Tasmania’s star-products. Furthermore, the market study indicates that demand will constantly rise with a sudden increase as of the second year. Steady growth is projected for all the products for years 3 and 4, followed by a reduction in the last years of the report. This decline will be more marked for Jewels of Tasmania’s star-products, which are the luxury toys intended for the European market. At a glance, these forecasts reveal that the European market will be saturated after a six-year period and that Jewels of Tasmania will gradually have to abandon the “European” products. Therefore, the company would like to identify products that could be made using the manufacturing system already in use and that would replace the current star products. Ideally, these new products would have to make use of the already existing equipment, notwithstanding minor modifications or adjustments.

2. Key Issues and Considerations Recently hired as manager or project leader engineer by the business Jewels of Tasmania, your task is to fulfill the wishes of your new employer who would like to integrate a new division in a brand new building to be constructed and for which financial profitability is key. The new building will adjoin the current facilities and ideally, will be intended for manufacturing wooden toys. Sales, marketing, supply, engineering and other utilities will need to be integrated into this building, which management requires be completely self-sufficient. Moreover, needs relating to capacity, space and repositioning once the production of certain models ceases are major considerations.

3. Guidelines and Student Task At the request of the Jewels of Tasmania’s management, your task is to design a manufacturing system that will fulfill the projected sales orders, and to demonstrate its economic viability. You will be in charge of purchasing the production equipment, planning the manufacturing facility,

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implementing a start-up plan and choosing the new products (intended for after the 6-year period). If you should sell off equipment, it is better to include their residual values in your economic analysis after the 6th year. One of the members of the Jewels of Tasmania’s management recommends that you observe the following guidelines (which you accept to do), so as to optimize the system’s performance: x x x

Each operation should not require more than one person, No power lift trucks, Never move backwards in a manufacturing process (never reverse the flow).

In addition, the student is invited to document, analyze and propose an installation plan that considers every facet of this organization. The following section contains questions for students to answer.

3.1. General Aspects a.

What working hypotheses would you use to enable you to generate a good design for the manufacturing system for Jewels of Tasmania?

b.

Which equipment suppliers could potentially meet requirements with regards to design and installation?

your

3.2. Installation a.

Describe the type of manufacturing system you would recommend to make these toys, and justify your choice.

b.

Describe the manufacturing strategy you would favour (production by unit, lot, make to order, etc.).

c.

Design the actual layout plan of the new installations as requested of you by Jewels of Tasmania.

d.

Regarding the three guidelines stated by one of the members of management of Jewels of Tasmania, express your view as to the relevance and impact these may have on the performance of the manufacturing system.

Case Study: Jewels of Tasmania

25

e.

Describe the advantages and disadvantages if Jewels of Tasmania were to operate on three work shifts, scheduled within a 7-day work week.

f.

Identify indicators of performance / performance measurements and discuss how these assist in monitoring the progress of this manufacturing system.

g.

Identify and describe potential replacement products, which Jewels of Tasmania could manufacture after its 6th year in business.

3.3. Occupational Health and Safety What work health and safety aspects would need to be taken into consideration for the toy manufacturing system of Jewels of Tasmania?

References Regulation on occupational health and safety. Gazette officielle du Québec. Décret 885-2001. Stevenson, W.J. et Benedetti, C. « La gestion des opérations : produits et services », 2e édition. Chenelière – McGraw-Hill, Canada, 2007 ISBN 2-7651-0406-9.

CHAPTER FOUR CASE STUDY: DESIGNING A HYDRAULIC CAR LIFT FOR SMALL AUTO REPAIR SHOPS H. A. BOUZID, S. NADEAU, J.-P. KENNÉ, C. GINER-MORENCY

Summary This case study focuses on specific problems hydraulic lift operators encounter while working. Presenting these problems in a case study will enable engineering students to work in multidisciplinary projects. The purpose of this case study is to combine knowledge from human factors engineering, hydraulics and strength of materials by designing a hydraulic car lift for auto repair shops. Students will use material learned from each of these fields to solve problems presented to them in this case study. Results gathered from these studies will assist professors in launching other projects or case studies. Keywords: Human factors engineering, hydraulics, strength of materials, car lifts

1. Key Considerations and Objectives Car lifts are used by the majority of auto repair shops to enable access beneath the vehicle to perform maintenance and repair work. These lifts are usually hydraulic lifts, since they are designed to lift heavy loads ranging from 3,000 kg (small cars) to 20,000 kg (trucks). Basic hydraulic concepts are used to design these lifts, J.A Sullivan (1989), R. Labonville (1991) and H.E. Merritt (1993). Sizing and choice of materials are based on current standards CSA (Safety Code for Elevators,

Case Study: Designing a Hydraulic Car Lift for Small Auto Repair Shops 27

CAN/CSA-B44-94, 2001), CSA (Boom-Type Elevating Work Platforms, CAN3-B354.4-M82, 1996) and AFNOR (Appareils et accessoires de levage, 2è éd., Association Française de Normalisation, 1992). Equipment must comply with the Act Respecting Occupational Health and Safety and have an ergonomic design. In this case, we will be studying two types of frame-engaging lifts: one with arms mounted to a crossbeam and the other with adjustable arms (see Figures 4-1 and 4-2). By studying these two types of lifts, our specific objectives are to: x x x

Conduct a conceptual study of a lift system and sizing of its structures. Analyze and correct the car mechanic’s workspace beneath the car so that it meets occupational health and safety standards; Analyze and improve the hydraulic and pneumatic design of a lift in the course of assembling a hydraulic power circuit and pneumatic command circuit.

2. Facts 2.1

Physical Characteristics of Frame-Engaging Lifts

The auto repair shop concerned has several different lift models including two types of single-cylinder in-ground lifts: one with adjustable arms and one with arms mounted on a crossbeam (see Figures 4-1 and 4-2). Each of these lifts has a capacity of up to 8500 lbs. The hydraulic cylinder must be able to reach a maximum height of 10 feet in approximately 20 seconds. For the adjustable lift, the contact pads, extenders and arms extend from the hydraulic cylinder outwards, resembling an “X”, so that the contact pads are positioned beneath the car’s jacking points. For the lift with the crossbeam, the contact pads, extenders and arms are already in line with the car perimeter, mounted onto the crossbeam to form an “H” and the single hydraulic cylinder lifts the assembly from the centre of the “H”. The extenders strengthen the arms, which are designed to pivot horizontally, to enable positioning of the contact pads beneath the vehicle’s jacking supports. For the H-type lift, as the hydraulic cylinder descends, certain mechanical parts retract within a pit surrounding the cylinder base beneath

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the floor. Figures 4-1, 4-2 and 4-3 below illustrate the entire assembly. Based on their respective features the two types of lifts will be used for different types of maintenance work, according to the accessibility needed for the task at hand. For example, an H-type lift is better suited for changing a handbrake cable. Each lift’s control lever is closely located. There is no safety mechanism against accidental activation. It should be noted that a variety of other types of lifts exist.

Arm

Extender

Hydraulic Cylinder

Figure 4-1: H-type hydraulic lift

Contact Pad Guide

Case Study: Designing a Hydraulic Car Lift for Small Auto Repair Shops 29

Guide

Arm Hydraulic Cylinder

Extender

Contact Pad

Figure 4-2: X-type hydraulic lift

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Figure 4-3: Pit beneath the H-type lift

Figure 4-4: Controls of the H-type lift

Case Study: Designing a Hydraulic Car Lift for Small Auto Repair Shops 31

Figure 4-5: Controls of the X-type lift

2.2

Description of Lift Operation

Once the car is positioned above the lift, the mechanic uses his foot to move the lift’s steel arms and contact pads into place and activates the lift to rise to the required height. While the lift is rising, the mechanic observes the lift’s behaviour. If the lift vibrates, the mechanic assumes that the car is too heavy or the lift is undergoing technical difficulty and lowers the vehicle. When lifting an all-terrain vehicle or caravan, the mechanic must watch out for the garage door opening, for there is a risk of it interfering. Once the lift reaches the desired height, it will remain in this position throughout the job, to save time. In the course of his task, the mechanic will use pneumatic tools (connected to a pneumatic control assembly), mechanical parts and various chemical products.

2.3

Work Environment and Conditions

A mechanic spends the most part of his (or her) workday beneath elevated cars, arms raised above his head and head tilted backwards, as shown in Figure 4-6. Since the cars brought in for repair are not always in good condition, mechanics often need to exert all their strength to undo corroded parts. As well, the general lighting of the workshop and natural

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lighting that may enter from the open garage doors is often insufficient for certain tasks requiring attention to detail. In such cases, mechanics use tungsten incandescent lighting, and again to save time, they seldom change the lighting position. In workshops, there is often an accumulation of water and oil on the ground. Metal car parts are often trapped in ice during the winter. When interviewed, mechanics say they often suffer from arm and shoulder pain, which they believe is caused by repeated strenuous effort and poor working habits. The mechanics take their cigarette break while working beneath the lift or nearby and while discussing with clients, who have direct access to the repair shop.

Figure 4-6: Use of tungsten incandescent lamps

2.4

Identification Signs and Safety Equipment

There are no signs posted in the repair shop work bay to identify sources of danger, the location of the first aid kit, fire extinguishers and emergency phone numbers. The garage is not equipped with a controls station to enable an emergency stop of the entire system in case of an

Case Study: Designing a Hydraulic Car Lift for Small Auto Repair Shops 33

irregular situation. There is also no reactivation button to press in case of an emergency stop. Moreover, the garage is not equipped with sound or light warning signals. No personal protective equipment is worn: safety eyewear gets dirty too quickly during the summer because of the heat and during winter because of the melting snow dripping from the cars. And yet, eye injuries represent 15.6 % of workplace injuries occurring in the automotive service industry (Association sectorielle services automobiles 2003).

2.5.

Maintenance Management

When a mechanic notices broken or deteriorated equipment, he will repair it himself, during his free time. A preventive maintenance schedule taking into consideration the performance of the hydraulic pump, air compressor, activators and all other hydraulic and pneumatic accessories has yet to be elaborated and implemented.

3. Questions After having conducted a thorough analysis of car lifts already available on the market and having taken into consideration the problem exposed herein, you are asked to re-engineer a hydraulic car lift, to improve the following points: hydraulics, mechanical strength and occupational health and safety. The solution you propose must be as affordable as possible, since the company concerned has a restrained budget for this project. The solution chosen will undergo further study of the following:

3.1

Strength of Materials

Provide the sizing of the lift of your choice including detailed calculations and taking into consideration a safety factor of 3. Your choice of sizes and lift type (hydraulic, electric, etc.) will depend on your criteria. In relation to the two systems described above and to other types of lifts available on the market, propose an alternative, which you consider better in view of the various criteria you have yourself established.

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3.2

Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power and Command Circuits

The hydraulic power assembly must be able to provide the lift at least 0.95 total efficiency, and travel steadily and safely. The choice of hydraulic pump, lever activators and command valves must take into consideration loss of load in the hoses and accessories. The pneumatic command circuit should enable system operators to lift very heavy loads using the least effort (manual command activated by hand or foot). Propose solutions to the hydraulic problems car garages face and include these additional requirements to the current hydraulic and pneumatic power command circuit designs.

3.3

Ergonomics and Workplace Safety

Propose recommendations to the car repair shop’s owner as to ergonomics and safety regarding the automobile mechanic’s work environment beneath the car lifts. How could visibility beneath the lifted vehicles be improved? As an engineer working for a company that designs car lifts, you are asked to understand the circumstances of a car lift accident that took place in a small auto repair shop. Here is a summary of the accident. Mr. G is a young mechanic working at a small auto repair shop. On one winter day, Mr. G was the only employee in service. He had already repaired several cars that day when he started to repair a Ford Escape 2014 using an X-type hydraulic lift. It was late in the afternoon. The damage to the car was such that Mr. G could strap only three of the four contact pads correctly. He fastened the fourth pad as best he could to keep the car balanced. While the lift was rising, Mr. G took an incoming phone call. When he finished his call, he saw too late that the car had struck something and had become off-centered. Mr. G tried his best to stop the lift, which had also become off centered, but it fell on him. Is this accident only due to technical and mechanical errors? Propose solutions that could have prevented this accident. If we consider that correct use of a lift involves respecting safety rules, has Mr. G made correct use of the car lift? Propose other safety measures that could have prevented this accident. If this accident had not happened, what other risks was Mr. G exposed to?

Case Study: Designing a Hydraulic Car Lift for Small Auto Repair Shops 35

In your research, you are called to evaluate the risks the mechanic was faced with in spite of himself. Establish an overall process of risk identification, risk analysis and risk evaluation taking into consideration standard ISO/IEC 31010:2009. Propose various resources that could have been placed at the employees’ disposal to help them avoid this situation.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank École de technologie supérieure for its financial support. They also wish to acknowledge the contribution of Joanie Savoie, Jean-Claude Bergeron and Hichem Beghoul in collecting information. They would like to express special thanks to the employees of the car repair shop for their hospitality.

References A Regulation respecting occupational health and safety. S-2.1, r.19.01. [Internet] Available from: http://www.csst.qc.ca/pdf/RSST.pdf. http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telechar ge.php?type=3&file=/S_2_1/S2_1R1_A.HTM. AFNOR, Appareils et accessoires de levage, 2e éd., Association Française de Normalisation, 1992. Association Sectorielle Services Automobiles [In French only]. Auto prévention, [Internet] Available from: http://www.autoprevention.qc.ca [Accessed le 25-06-2003]. Available: http://www.autoprevention.qc.ca/cgi-bin/lire.pl?revue/200103/verins_patins.html [Cited on 2001-03]. Available: http://www.autoprevention.qc.ca/cgi-bin/lire.pl?revue/200003/verins_entretien-general.html [Cited on 2000-03]. Available: http://www.autoprevention.qc.ca/revue/200103/verins_patins.pdf [Cited on 2001-03]. Available: http://www.autoprevention.qc.ca/revue/2003-06/ponts-eleva teurs_bras.pdf [Cited on 2003-06-25]. CSA, Boom-Type Elevating Work Platforms, CAN3-B354.4-M82, 1996. CSA, Safety Code for Elevators, CAN/CSA-B44-94, 2001. Department of Defense, Design Criteria Standard Human Engineering, MIL-STD-1472F, United States. [Internet] Available from: http://hfetag.dtic.mil/docs/mil-std-1472f.pdf. Lupin, H. et Marsot, J. (2000). «Sécurité des machines et des équipements de travail. Moyens de protection contre les risques mécaniques». Édition INRS ED 807, France. [Internet] Available from:

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http://www.inrs.fr/produits/publications.pdf/ed807.pdf. Merritt, H.E. Hydraulic Control Systems, John Willey & Sons, New York, 1993. Sullivan, J.A. Fluid Power System: Theory and Applications, 3e edition, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1989. Rabardel, P., Carlin, N., Chesnais, M., Lang, N., Le Joliff, G. et Pascal M., Ergonomie concepts et méthodes, Éditions Octares, France, 1998. Labonville, R. Concepts des circuits hydrauliques : une approche énergétique, Éditions de l’École Polytechnique de Montréal, 1991. The Act Respecting Occupational Health and Safety, R.S.Q., Chapter S-2.1. [Internet] Available from: http://doc.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=/S_2 _1/S2_1.html or http://www.csst.qc.ca/fr/14_lois_et_regl/141_lois/1412_sst/sst.asp http://www.canlii.org/en/qc/laws/stat/rsq-c-s-2.1/latest/rsq-c-s-2.1.html.

CHAPTER FIVE CASE STUDY: DESIGNING A BOOM LIFT H. A. BOUZID, S. NADEAU, J.-P. KENNÉ, T. GOWINGS, C. GINER-MORENCY

Summary This case study focuses on specific problems hydraulic lift operators encounter in the workplace. Presenting these problems in a case study format will enable engineering students to work in multidisciplinary projects. This case study is meant to integrate knowledge from human factors engineering, hydraulics and strength of materials by designing a hydraulic-electric boom lift. Students will use knowledge from each of these fields to solve problems presented to them in this study. Results gathered from these studies will assist professors in launching other projects or case studies. Keywords: Human factors engineering, hydraulics, strength of materials, boom lifts

1. Key Issues and Objectives A higher education institution owns a hydraulic-electric boom lift that is used by its workers. The lift is mostly used to prepare for events in the establishment’s main hall. When pondering to purchase the lift, managers of the service department established a set of selection criteria:

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Table 5-1: Selection criteria used for lift purchase decision Specifications Cost of purchase and maintenance Dimensions Lift structure safety Maintenance Usability Load capacity Lateral extension Lift rotation capacity Maximum torque Lift height Hydraulic system

Criteria Lowest possible Equipment should be as compact as possible. Safety factor 2 for structurerelated elements. Strict minimum. Should enable single-operator usage. 250 kg 15 feet 360 degrees under 30 seconds 20:1 reduction ratio 600 Nm 5 - 30 feet At least 3 hydraulic cylinders, hydraulic motor, a hydraulic unit and accessories (tubes and valves).

Upon having considered several different lift systems, the service department chooses the Panther Lift shown in Figure 5-1. This case study is meant to study hydraulic-electric lifts. More specifically, it will enable students to: x x x

Conduct a conceptual study of the lift and the sizing of its components; Analyze and correct the lift’s operator workstation in compliance with occupational health and safety standards; Design a hydraulic power and command circuit system.

Case Study: Designing a Boom Lift

39

Figure 5-1: The Panther lift

2. Facts 2.1

Specifications as documented by the supplier

The main specifications documented by the supplier of the Panther Lift are listed below.

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Table 5-2: Specifications of the Panther lift Load Permissible platform load including 300 lbs operator Vehicle load capacity 964 lbs Dimensions Height of the platform fully raised 28 ft 10 in Height of the platform fully lowered 6 ft 7 in Dimensions of the platform 26 in u 26 in Dimensions of supports when 8 ft 9 in u 9 ft 9 in extended Dimensions of the vehicle when 2 ft 6 in u 4 ft 8 in u 9 ft 11 in lowered Timing and Speeds Raise time no load 32.5 s Raise time loaded 35.8 s Lower time no load 26.5 s Lower time loaded 26.0 s Raise speed no load 0.69 ft/s Raise speed loaded 0.63 ft/s Lower speed no load 1.25 ft/s Lower speed loaded 1.25 ft/s ELECTRICAL SUPPLY Dry batteries in series 200 Amp/hr, 6 V DC Battery charger 15 Amp, 12 to 15 hours charge time AC cord 14-3 AWG, 100 ft HYDRAULIC SYSTEM Pump electric motor 110 V AC Oil 40 W Safety valves and pressure limiters To prevent platform free fall and maintain its work position Transmission oil Min. temperature -40 ºF: Dextron automatic transmission fluid type A Min. temperature 0 ºF: SAE 5W Temp. below 32 ºF: SAE 10W Pressure without load 14,000 PSI Pressure with load 2,900 PSI

Case Study: Designing a Boom Lift

41

Figure 5-2: Location of batteries

Mr. Cliche is beginning to doubt the soundness of this purchase. He decides to investigate its current usage and maintenance.

2.2

Operation Mode

There are several types of boom lifts including: x Truck-mounted booms: A truck is equipped with a boom lift that may be controlled either from the truck or the basket. x Trailer-mounted boom lift: The basket is separate from the truck and is equipped with hydraulic stabilizers. x Articulating and telescopic booms: These types of boom lifts are motorized (diesel motor) and frequently used. They usually have four-wheel drive and a swinging axle.

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x Scissor lifts: Contrary to other types of lifts that have a basket for the operator, this type is a platform mounted on a scissor-like articulated structure that is either motorized, electric-hydraulic or diesel fuelled. The Figure below illustrates each of these types of lifts.

Figure 5-3: Truck-mounted boom / Scissor lift / Articulated, motorized boom lift

These types of lifts operate similarly. When the lift is in position for use, the lower supports are extended to ensure stability. Then, the operator may raise the lift. A portable command box is used to activate the up and down motion, which is mostly powered by the hydraulic cylinders. Pressing the activation button moves the lift sideways. To lower or raise the lift, turn the knob located to the left of the operation button. A set of photographs of Mr. Cliche’s Panther Lift is provided below to better illustrate each of the lift’s components.

Casee Study: Design ning a Boom Li ft

Figure 5-4: S Stabilizer suppoorts extended an nd locking pin

43

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Figure 5-5: Sttabilizer supporrts extended

Figure 5-6: Pllatform lock pinn

Casee Study: Design ning a Boom Lift

Figure 5-7: Pllatform control box

Manual control of o the valves Figure 5-8: M

45

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46

If the system is malfunctioning, to lower the platform, simply pull on the valves’ manual control knob, located on the side of the electric pump. The 1 ½-inch hydraulic cylinder works with 4 groups of chains and pulleys to raise and lower the lift. This combination enables an elevation of 5 inches for each inch the cylinder lengthens.

2.3

Maintenance

While inspecting the lift, Mr. Cliche discovers that it is losing oil. He decides to check the inspection records for this vehicle. He sees that the service department employees perform the following maintenance tasks and inspections: Table 5-3: Maintenance of the Panther lift Inspection (each usage) Locking pins Preventive maintenance Oil the chains weekly Change the batteries weekly When asking the employees about this, some say that occasionally, when using the lift, the hydraulic cylinder does not respond immediately or it responds intermittently with jolts.

2.4

Sizing

During this same inspection, Mr. Cliche verifies certain measurements. He discovers that the control box was displaced by someone internal who decided to modify the equipment.

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47

Figure 5-9: Frront view of thee control box

Di: 0.7 cm

Di: 3 cm

0.6 cm

Front view of thhe control box (close up) Figure 5-10: F

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Chapter Five

Figure 5-11: S Side view of thhe control box

Figure 5-12: S Side view of baattery location

Casee Study: Design ning a Boom Li ft

Figure 5-13: P Pulley ensuringg platform moveement

Figure 5-14: F Front view of gears g

49

50

Chapter Five

Figure 55-15: Side view w of wheel

Figure 5-17: S Side view of thhe platform

Figure 5-166: Front view off wheel

Casee Study: Design ning a Boom Li ft

Figure 5-188: Side view of the t ladder

51

Figure 5-19: F Front view of th he ladder

Figure 5-20: S Side view of exxtended supportts

52

Chapter Five

Figure 5-21: H Handle to movee the foot of thee extended suppports

Figurre 5-22: Handlee to extend the supportts

Figurre 5-23: Side vieew of supports

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3. Questions Mr. Cliche is slightly concerned as he returns to his office. Does the Panther Lift truly meet the selection criteria established before the purchase was made? Is this equipment ergonomical and safe? Why is it losing oil, not responding immediately or jolting during operation? Why was the control box moved? Is the service department performing adequate equipment maintenance? Was there an error in the equipment design? Further examination of the following three aspects is required:

3.1

Strength of materials

To fully answer Mr. Cliche’s questions, you have been asked to conduct a detailed conceptual study of a hydraulic boom lift. Begin by a multicriteria1 study to choose the type of boom lift. Then, provide the measurements for each of the mechanical components of the system with detailed calculations and diagrams, if necessary. Mr. Cliche’s description of the Panther Lift will assist you in understanding how a boom lift works and direct you towards what is possibly causing the problems encountered in the workplace.

3.2

Hydraulic System

To address Mr. Cliche’s concerns as to the loss of oil and abnormal system response, a conceptual and functional study of the hydraulic system is necessary. Design a hydraulic power and command system; choose the appropriate hydraulic components (cylinder, pump, hydraulic motor, electric motor to command the pump, valves, accumulators, etc.). Mr. Cliche’s description of the Panther Lift will allow you to calculate the transmission’s efficiency and optimize its design, if necessary.

3.3

Industrial Workplace Ergonomics and Safety

Make recommendations to Mr. Cliche as to ergonomics and safety for the boom lift operator’s workstation. Here is the report of an incident that happened with the scissor lift: 1

Use the criteria listed in Part 1: Introduction

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Chapter Five

Mr. T was working on the ceiling lights in the hall of a public building. To be able to work comfortably, he used a scissor lift. But when he wanted to get down, the engine jammed leaving the platform stuck in mid-air. Because Mr. T is a cautious man, he called out for one of his co-workers to bring him a ladder and climbed down carefully. What can we learn from this incident? Even if Mr. T was cautious, was his solution completely risk-free? Try to list all the different ways people could react in this situation, with or without help available. What is the solution you think most people would choose? What solutions can you think of to reduce the risk of injury? Try to find at least one corrective solution regarding the procedure in case of a similar breakdown, and one preventive solution that could have been implemented at the time of the product’s design. As an engineer living in the little municipality of Scantytown, you get a call from the mayor who is concerned about an incident that happened during the day. Your abilities are put to the test as he asks you to find a solution for the very next day. For Christmas, a parade is being organized in one of the biggest avenues of Scantytown. For this occasion, Safe Street is going to be entirely decorated. Mr. Chris and Miss Massy are hired to hang mistletoe branches and huge Christmas baubles on storefronts. To accomplish this task, they use a truck-mounted boom, which the city has had since the early 1990s, almost 25 years. Initially, Miss Massy was giving instructions from the ground and Mr. Chris was up on the lift, but at some point, it became necessary for Miss Massy to join Mr. Chris onto the lift. It should not have been a problem, considering that their combined weight did not exceed the boom’s maximum load capacity (300 lbs). Unfortunately, while they were leaning over the barriers to hang a garland, the truck tipped over. Is it possible that current norms have evolved since the early 1990s? Is it possible that the lift has weakened either over time or from the many occasions it has been used? What are the other possible causes of this accident? Propose other safety measures that could have prevented this accident.

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Define the context that could explain how this kind of situation could have taken place.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank École de technologie supérieure for its financial support. They wish to acknowledge the contribution of Daniel Mongrain, Jean-Claude Bergeron and Hichem Beghoul in collecting information. They also wish to extend special thanks to the personnel of the institution’s service department who kindly accepted to collaborate in this case study.

References ACNOR, Boom-Type Elevating Work Platforms, CAN3-B354.4-M82, 1996. ACNOR, Safety code for elevators, CAN/CSA-B44-94, 2001. AFNOR, Appareils et accessoires de levage, 2e éd., Association Française de Normalisation, 1992. Department of Defense, Design Criteria Standard Human Engineering, MIL-STD-1472F, États-Unis. [Internet]. Available from: www.hf.faa.gov/docs/milstd14.pdf. Labonville, R. Concepts des circuits hydrauliques : une approche énergétique, Éditions de l’École Polytechnique de Montréal, 1991. Lupin, H. and Marsot, J. Sécurité des machines et des équipements de travail. Moyens de protection contre les risques mécaniques, Édition INRS ED 807, France, 2000. Merritt, H.E. Hydraulic Control Systems, John Willey & Sons, New York, 1993. Rabardel, P., Carlin, N., Chesnais, M., Lang, N., Le Joliff, G. and Pascal, M. Ergonomie concepts et méthodes, Éditions Octares, France, 1998. Regulation on occupational health and safety. Extrait de la Gazette officielle du Québec. Décret 885-2001. Sullivan, J.A. Fluid Power System: Theory and Applications, 3e edition, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1989. The Act Respecting Occupational Health and Safety, R.S.Q., Chapter S2.1.

CHAPTER SIX CASE STUDY: DESIGNING AN AERIAL WORK PLATFORM VEHICLE J.-P. KENNÉ, H. A. BOUZID, S. NADEAU, C. GINER-MORENCY

Summary This case study will focus on aerial work platform vehicles. The purpose of this case is to enable engineering students to participate in multidisciplinary projects. The purpose of this case is to combine material learned in human factors engineering and strength of materials in the course of designing an aerial work platform vehicle. Students will use knowledge from each of these fields to solve problems presented in this case study. Results obtained will assist professors in preparing additional projects or case studies. Keywords: Human factors engineering, hydraulics, strength of materials, aerial work platform vehicles

1. Key Issues and Objectives Jolan Semplix, specialized in selling tools and equipment of all kinds, wishes to design an aerial work platform vehicle that will fulfil the urgent demands of its clients. Jolan Semplix currently offers several different models of platform lift vehicles from various suppliers, yet it believes that it might be more profitable to design and manufacture its own lift in its workshop and calculates that it can produce 10 units this year and two units each year for the next 10 years. The company’s president has given you the task of designing the MAXLIFT, Lifts anything anywhere, the most

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versatile, reliable (4,000 hours without servicing) and cost efficient lift vehicle ever made. Several types of aerial work platform vehicles (Figure 6-1) bear loads of 1,500 lbs at a height of 30-35 ft. These systems are based on classical hydraulic and automation concepts, J.A Sullivan (1989), R. Labonville (1991) and H.E. Merritt (1993). Sizing and choice of materials are based on current standards. Equipment complies with Regulations respecting occupational health and safety and is ergonomic. In this case study, we wish to design a lift that is innovative and affordable. More specifically, our objectives are to: x x x

Conduct a conceptual study of the system and size its components. Analyze and design a work station in compliance with occupational health and safety standards. Perform a hydraulic analysis and design by designing a hydraulic power circuit.

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58

Figure 6-1: Scissor lift

2. Facts 2.1 Physical Characteristics of Scissor Lifts Scissor lifts are often used in a great variety of situations, including warehouses for hazardous or explosive material, maintenance of airplanes or various devices such as boom conveyors and presses. They are usually powered by propane gas or electricity. Since they are mostly driven in narrow spaces, both outdoors and indoors, they are usually designed to turn the sharpest angles. On uneven ground, the vehicle must be able to climb and descend slopes of 20 degrees and travel on lateral inclines of approximately 15 degrees without tipping over.

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59

15

Figure 6-2: Slopes and lateral inclines encountered by scissor lifts

To prevent accidents from occurring due to scissor lift and worker interaction, lifts travel at a maximum speed of 5 km/h and when travelling, the platform is always in its lowest position. Gradual and manually controlled deployment of a 65 in x 115 in platform requires approximately 30 seconds. Travelling any faster would undoubtedly threaten the safety of workers onboard, often with tools in hand.

3. Questions After having thoroughly analyzed the lifts already available on the market and having become familiar with the issues hereby presented, you are asked to re-engineer an aerial platform lift vehicle to improve the following aspects: hydraulics, mechanical strength and occupational health and safety. The best solution chosen will undergo further study of the following:

3.1

Strength of Materials

Provide the sizing of the lift of your choice with detailed calculations. Design the structures that play a crucial role in the vehicle’s functionality and perform all necessary calculations; choose the primary hydraulic and electrical components (motor, pump, jacks, reservoirs), and all necessary power calculations. You must also design a suspension system for uneven terrains using a simple study (calculations of forces and moments only). Finally, you must choose wheels that will be appropriate for the conditions of usage. This requires careful consideration of tire diameter and type.

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3.2

Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power and Command Circuits

Design a hydraulic system and select its components (pumps, motors, pressure limit valves, clamps, distributors and conduits), consider loss of load and respect the target deployment speed. You must calculate the energy efficiency of the system and, if necessary, optimize the solution retained. A thorough evaluation of pump assembly efficiency and of any losses in the system is highly recommended.

3.3

Ergonomics and Safety in Work Environment

Formulate recommendations as to the ergonomics and safety of the lift. In particular: x Establish the safety equipment needed for this type of machinery. x Using a causal tree, identify five potential injuries. x Once you have completed the causal trees, validate your observations by supporting them with articles from the act respecting occupational health and safety that relate to your design. x The table below lists the light indicators and activators that should be included in the design of the lift’s control panel:

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Table 6-1: Importance level of light indicators and activators to be included in the lift's control panel design Control panel of equipment according to their level of importance Level of importance Equipment (1-10) Light indicator when lowering the platform 9 (vertical movement) Light indicator for powering-on platform 3 Light indicator for lift safety breaks

6

Activator for platform movement (raise / descend) Emergency stop button

7 10

Motor start / stop activator.

4

Indicator: light. Activator: Joystick, button, roller, lever, (to choose from and justify your choice). Choose the size and type of light indicator and justify your choices. Position the activators and establish their specifications (size, colour, activation mechanism, etc.). Mrs. Ann, a good acquaintance of yours, called you tonight because she knows you are an engineer and that you have had training in occupational health and safety issues. She is in a difficult situation and she does not know what to do. She explains her situation to you. Mr. Ur and Mrs. Ann are two mechanics working for the same ski station. During the summer, they ensure the maintenance of the ski lifts. One day, their team was joined by their employer, Mr. Ben, for a repair needed on tower four, which is at the base of the mountain. The day before, they used an aerial work platform vehicle to work on tower three, which is just higher up from tower four. Because the inclination of the slope is roughly the same between these two towers (about 20°) the team decided to use the same vehicle. However, the vehicle does not extend high enough to reach the top of the tower easily. Mr. Ur proposed that a metal ladder be used on the work platform, propped against the rail. Once they were in position, they realized it was impossible to climb to the top of

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the ladder while wearing a safety harness. Mr. Ben assured them that he would supervise, so that the safety harness would not be mandatory. Because Mr. Ur and Mrs. Ann were afraid to lose their jobs, they climbed the ladder. Should they have climbed? What are the potential dangers in this situation? Propose solutions so that workers can carry out these repairs without exposing themselves to unnecessary danger. Propose a new risk management policy that could help prevent this situation from reoccurring in the future. You are required to devise and implement risk treatment plans to establish which attitude one must adopt when faced with these types of risks. Explain each action you would take.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank École de technologie supérieure for its financial support. They also wish to acknowledge the contribution of Daniel Mongrain, François Potvin and David Prud’Homme for their assistance in collecting information.

References Department of Defense, «Design Criteria Standard Human Engineering, MIL-STD-1472F», États-Unis. [Internet]. Available from: http://hfetag.dtic.mil/docs/mil-std-1472f.pdf. Labonville, R. Concepts des circuits hydrauliques : une approche énergétique, Éditions de l’École Polytechnique de Montréal, 1991. Lupin, H. et Marsot, J. (2000). « Sécurité des machines et des équipements de travail. Moyens de protection contre les risques mécaniques ». Édition INRS ED 807, France. [Internet]. Available from: http://www.inrs.fr/produits/publications.pdf/ed807.pdf. Merritt, H.E. Hydraulic Control Systems, John Willey & Sons, New York, 1993. Rabardel, P., Carlin, N., Chesnais, M., Lang, N., Le Joliff, G. et Pascal, M. Ergonomie concepts et méthodes, Éditions Octares, France, 1998. Regulation respecting occupational health and safety. Q. R. R. c. S2.1, r.19.01. [Internet] Available from: http://www.csst.qc.ca/pdf/RSST.pdf.

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Sullivan, J.A. Fluid Power System: Theory and Applications, 3rd edition, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1989. The Act Respecting Occupational Health and Safety, R.S.Q., Chapter S2.1. [Internet]. Available from: http://doc.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=/S_ 2_1/S2_1.html or http://www.csst.qc.ca/fr/14_lois_et_regl/141_lois/1412_sst/sst.asp.

CHAPTER SEVEN CASE STUDY: DOWNTOWN TORONTO OPEN LOOP GEOTHERMAL COOLING SYSTEM – PART I F. MORENCY, S. HALLÉ

Summary A geothermal system is composed of a heat pump, an underground heat exchanger and a circulation system that distributes (or draws away) heat within a building. A heat transfer fluid circulates through a network of pipes to transfer thermal energy between the various parts of the system. This case study presents the urban cooling system used by the City of Toronto. This particular system uses water from Lake Ontario as a cold reservoir. The objective of this first part is to calculate the head losses in the pipes used to pump cold water from the lake and choose the correct pump system. Keywords: Geothermal system, minor losses, major losses, pump, pipe, pump scaling laws

1. Context A geothermal system is composed of a heat pump, an underground heat exchanger and a circulation system that distributes (or draws away) heat within a building. Geothermal systems can function in either open or closed loop. In the case of a closed loop, the heat pump operating in cooling mode will use the earth as a thermal reservoir. The type of geothermal system used by the City of Toronto is an open loop system. In this case, Lake Ontario is used as a thermal reservoir. Chilled water from the lake cools another cold water loop, which is slightly warmer than the lake water and circulates to the downtown high-

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rises. The main restriction for this type of installation is the temperature of the water pumped from the lake. The colder the water is, the more the system will be cost-effective. The key element in this project was the use of the chilled water from the lake for the drinking water supply (Newman and Herbert, 2009). The double use of the system that pumps the water from Lake Ontario has enabled a public-private partnership; 33 million dollars came from the City of Toronto’s repair fund. The main restriction for this type of installation is the temperature of the water pumped from the lake. The colder the water is, the more the system will be costeffective. As of August 18, 2004, the City of Toronto and Enwave Energy Corporation completed the design and installation of this highly sophisticated urban cooling system that functions with geothermal energy to provide air-conditioning to several downtown Toronto high-rises and replace a number of aging and very polluting chillers. According to the City of Toronto, the Enwave’s system uses one-tenth of the electricity of a standard air conditioning system and avoids emission totalling 79,000 tons of carbon dioxide (Newman and Herbert, 2009).

2. Problem and Objectives The learning objectives of this case study will enable students to: x Solve flow problems in circular pipes, particularly for minor and major losses; x Choose the correct pump for a given system; x Apply design for maintainability guidelines for the conception of a pumping system; x Estimate the environmental impact of a geothermal cooling system, in energy and in ton of CO2.

3. Technical Data 3.1

Brief Description of Enwave’s Project

One of the particularities of the City of Toronto is that it is located near a great lake. The average depth of this lake is 83 m [272 ft] and at this depth, the temperature of the water is continuously cold. Thus, this natural source of cold water is used as a thermal reservoir for the downtown

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Toronto cooling system. The geothermal system may be sub-divided into five sections. Figure 7-1 illustrates the system’s five sections. These are: the intake pipelines (0), the filtration plant (1), the energy transfer station (2), Enwave’s cooling plant (3) and the cold water customer loop (4).

Water to the city 4. Cold water customer loop

3.Enwave’s cooling plant 2. Energy transfer station

1. Island filtration plant

0. Intake pipelines

Figure 7-1: Diagram of installations

3.2

Intake Pipelines

This type of system can only be efficient and cost effective if the temperature of the thermal reservoir remains below a critical temperature, regardless of seasonal variations. In winter, the temperature of Lake Ontario is approximately 4 ºC [39.2 ºF]. In summer, the surface

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temperature rises a few degrees. Warm water is less dense (999.1 kg/ m3 @ 12 ºC) than cold water (999.95 kg/m3 @ 4 ºC), hence the water separates into layers, according to temperature. To ensure continuous intake of cold water throughout the year, water must be pumped from deep below the surface. In the case of Toronto’s geothermal system, water intake requires three pipelines each measuring 1.6 m [63 in] in diameter. Figure 7-2 shows the pipelines converging towards Toronto Island. Makai Ocean Engineering Inc. provided the pipelines and installed them in the lake. Makai based its calculations on the maximum head of the intake pumps to determine the necessary thickness of the pipeline walls. To ensure system durability, a safety factor was used to calculate sizing. Each pipe is immersed to a maximum depth of 83 m [272 ft] and measures a total length of 5 km [16 400 ft]. The spacing between the pipelines in the intake zone is 750 m [2 460 ft]. The pipes are made of HDPE (high density polypropylene), a material that is both resistant and flexible. The nominal flow of the system is 4 410 l/s [70 000 GPM]. Three pumps are used to draw cold water into each of the three intake pipelines and send it to a small island off the shores of the downtown area called Toronto Island. There, water is sent to the Island Filtration Plant, which is meant to ensure that water sent to the energy transfer station is drinkable. The plant operates similarly to other filtration plants. Water at a temperature of 4 ºC [39.2 ºF] enters at a flow rate of 4 410 l/s [70 000 GPM] and exits at a temperature of 4.44 ºC [40 ºF] at the same rate. The slight rise in temperature occurs during the filtration process. The water is filtered at the Island Plant Reservoir. This is where chemicals are added to make the water drinkable. The reservoir’s water level is normally between 75.9 and 77.4 m, compared to the level of the lake’s water, which is normally between 74.2 and 75.2 m above sea level.

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Figure 7-2: View of three pipelines arriving at Island Filtration Plant

3.3

Pipeline Construction

Each pipeline is an assembly of several sections. Each section is approximately 5.5 m [18 ft] long. Joining each section generates singular losses. Cement structures are placed around the joints to facilitate pipeline immersion and prevent all movement once it is placed at the bottom of the lake. Figures 7-3 and 7-4 illustrate these cement structures. For this project, each pipeline required a total of 897 assembly joints.

Downtown Toronto Open Loop Geothermal Cooling System – Part I

Figure 7-3: View of the joints

69

Figure 7-4: View of the size of the joints

One of the major problems Makai Ocean Engineering encountered during the project was the instability of the lake bed between 10 and 40 m deep. At this location, the waves were at their maximum impact on the pipelines and this generated extreme instability. The company could not properly fit the pipes in such unstable conditions. Therefore, they designed pipes that could resist the impact of the breakers.

4. Questions 4.1

Study of Intake Pipeline Internal Flow Rate

Following an exceptionally brutal storm on Lake Ontario, one of the three supply pipelines was severely damaged. Pending its repair, it was suggested that the flow rate of the two other pipelines be increased. Given the facility’s capacity, it would in fact be possible for the pumps to perform the same work for two pipelines as for three. What is the brake horsepower of the pumps? Assuming that the power of the pumps is independent of the flow rate, what could the possible maximum rate of the two pipelines be? Assume that the supply pipelines empty into a reservoir of which the water level is located 3 m above the water level of the lake. a) In your calculations, ignore the minor losses occurring at the assembly joints; b) In your calculations, consider the assembly joints; c) What is the annual energy consumption of the pumping system?

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70

d) Assuuming that thee energy is prrovided by cooal power plaants, how manyy tons of CO2 are emitted?

4.2

Designing a Pump Asseembly

Using thhe required peeak load curv ve according tto the flow raate of the three pipelinnes, study twoo pump assem mblies that enaable a nominaal flow of 4 410 l/s. Coonsider a systeem that uses three t pumps inn parallel and d a system that uses onnly one pump,, as illustrated d on figure 7..5 and 7.6. To o become familiar witth pump curvves, visit a pu ump manufaccturer website, such as Armstrong ((http://www.aarmstrongpum mps.com/). If yyou do not find a pump that meets tthe flow requuirements of the t system, appply the pum mp scaling laws to an already exissting pump and a determinee the diameteer of the impeller thaat would be apppropriate.

Figure 7-5: Syystem with threee pumps in parrallel

Downntown Toronto Open O Loop Geo othermal Coolinng System – Paart I

71

Figure 7-6: Syystem with onlyy one pump

For the two systems: a) Com mpare the eneergy consumption of the twoo systems; b) Com mpare the ease of mainttainability, thhe reliability and the suppportability of o the two systems, uusing a Deesign for Maaintainability approach. a

4.3

Environm mental impaact

Discuss the potential environmentaal impact of tthe downtown n Toronto open loop ccooling system m. Using app propriate assuumptions, evaaluate the amount of eenergy releaseed in the lakee and the poteential temperature rise that could ooccur in the laake. Evaluate the amount oof energy saveed by the open loop coooling system m compared to more classicaal cooling systtems.

Refereence Newman, L.. and Herbert,, Y. (2009) 'Use of deep waater cooling sy ystems: Two Cannadian exampples', Renewab ble energy, Vool. 34, pp.727--730.

CHAPTER EIGHT CASE STUDY: DOWNTOWN TORONTO OPEN LOOP GEOTHERMAL COOLING SYSTEM – PART II S. HALLÉ, F. MORENCY

Summary Geothermal urban air-conditioning systems are increasingly popular. Several are currently in operation worldwide: Ithaca, USA (cooling capacity of 14 500 tons1), Stockholm, Sweden (17 000 tons), Tahiti (450 tons), Toronto, Canada (59 000 tons), Amsterdam, Netherlands (35 000 tons) and the Aruba sea water air conditioning project in the southern Caribbean sea with a planned capacity of 10 000 tons in 2016. Benefits for the environment, economy and society at large gained through these systems are tremendous. This case study presents the main components of the City of Toronto’s urban cooling system. It uses a geothermal loop using water from Lake Ontario as its cold thermal reservoir. The objective of this case study is to put into practice knowledge in the field of thermofluids by studying a complex system. Keywords: Geothermal system, heat exchanger, heat transfer coefficient, internal flow

1. Context In fall 2004, the City of Toronto and the energy corporation and engineering firm Enwave (Enwave, 2014) completed the design and installation of a highly sophisticated urban air-conditioning system that operates on geothermal energy. This system provides air-conditioning to 1

One ton of refrigeration = 12 000 Btu/h = 3517 W

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several high-rise buildings in downtown Toronto and has made possible the removal of several aging and very polluting chillers. It also eliminates 79 000 tons of carbon dioxide emissions annually, which is the equivalent of 15 800 automobiles, if we consider that a significant amount of electricity produced in the province of Ontario is generated by thermal power stations. Geothermal energy consumption is far more efficient than conventional chillers, generating energy savings of up to 61 MW annually compared to the former systems. In addition, the use of geothermal energy generates less noise pollution, air pollution (CFC, NOx and SOx) and atmospheric humidity than systems using chillers, ventilators and water towers.

2. Key Issues and Considerations The learning objectives of this case study will enable students to: x Design and assess the performance of a plate heat exchanger. x Study internal flow patterns and heat transfer performance.

3. Technical Data 3.1

Brief Description of the Geothermal System

One of the particularities of the City of Toronto is that it is located by a great lake. This lake reaches a depth of 83 m [272 ft] and at this depth, the water is continuously cold (4 ºC [39.2 ºF]). This natural source of cold water is used as a cooling reservoir for the urban air-conditioning system of downtown Toronto. The geothermal system is sub-divided into five distinct sections. Figure 8-1 illustrates how part of the system operates. Water from Lake Ontario, which is at a temperature of 4 ºC [39.2 ºF] in deeper waters, is pumped to the filtration plant at a rate of 4 410 l/s [70 000 GPM] and exits at a temperature of 4.4 ºC [40 ºF] at the same rate. The slight rise in temperature occurs during the filtration process. This water is then pumped to the energy transfer station by 9 centrifugal vertical Armstrong Series 4300 pumps. One of these pumps remains on standby. Each pump operates at a nominal flow of 550 l/s [8730 GPM] for approximately 50 m [164 ft] of manometric height.

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Figure 8-1: Diagram of geothermal system (not to scale)

The energy transfer station is the critical part of the system. It is located in downtown Toronto and is approximately 300 metres from Enwave’s cooling plant. At the energy transfer station, water arriving from the filtration plant (4.4 ºC [40 ºF]) enters the heat exchangers and exits at a temperature of 12.5 ºC [54.5 ºF]. This water then circulates to the city’s potable water supply network. A heat exchanger generally has two incoming pipes and two outgoing pipes. At one end, which we will name the “hot” end, water enters the exchangers at a temperature of 13.1 ºC [55.5 ºF]. Water then exits the “hot” end at a temperature of 5 ºC [41 ºF] to supply Enwave’s cooling plant, situated nearby. Plate exchangers are used to perform thermal transfers between the hot and cold water loops. This type of exchanger provides a remarkably high overall heat transfer coefficient for its relatively compact size. As mentioned earlier, cooled water leaves the energy transfer station at a temperature of 5 ºC [41 ºF], however, the temperature of this water is still too warm to supply the downtown client loop. To remedy this, the water is sent to Enwave’s cooling plant via an underground steel pipe, measuring 1.6 m [63 in] in diameter. This 300 m [984 ft] long pipe travels within a cement tunnel that is 15 m [49 ft] below ground level. Water exiting the cooling plant will travel through the same tunnel in the opposite direction. The temperature of the return water is 13.1 ºC [56 ºF]. Figure 8-2 illustrates the approximate dimensions of the tunnel and the supply and return pipes.

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Figure 8-2: Diagram of supply and return pipes in underground tunnel (not to scale)

4. Questions a) At the energy transfer station, water from the "hot" end is cooled by the circulating water-loop of the "cold" side. You are asked to determine the amount and characteristics of the plate heat exchangers required to obtain exit temperatures specified in Figure 8-1. Determine the required number of exchangers, the overall heat transfer coefficient, the number of plates, the surface and the spacing between the plates for each heat exchanger. Several correlations have been proposed to estimate the heat transfer coefficient in plate heat exchangers. Table 8-1 shows three correlations where the Nusselt number is a function of the Reynolds number and Prandtl number.

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Table 8-1 Heat transfer correlations Correlations

Restriction

400 d Re Dh d 1400

2- Nu

§P · 0.377 Re0.617 Pr1/3 ¨ b ¸ Dh © Pw ¹ 1/3 0.218 Re0.65 Dh Pr

600 d Re Dh d 5500

3- Nu

0.317 Re 0.703 Pr1/3 Dh

600 d Re Dh d 2 000

1-

Nu

h Dh k

Source 1: Gherasim et al., 2011 Source 2: Prabhakara Rao et al, 2005 Source 3: Roetzel et al., 1994

In this table,

Pb

and

Pw

are respectively the dynamic viscosity at the

bulk fluid temperature and at the averaged wall temperature. Dh is the hydraulic diameter (Dh= 2L); L, h and k represent the spacing between the plates, the convective heat transfer coefficient and the thermal conductivity of the water. Compare the characteristic of the heat exchangers determined using the correlation presented in table 8-1. Furthermore, in your analysis, determine the pressure drop in the heat exchangers and select a pump model that will supply the required flow and pressure according to the characteristics of the exchangers you have chosen. Several manufacturers (for example Armstrong Pump and TacoHVAC, 2014) supply the pump characteristic curves of their models online. In a plate heat exchanger, the inclination angle between plate corrugations is an important parameter that affects heat transfer and pressure drop. However, the pressure drop may be estimated by using the following relation based on experimental measurements (Subbiah, 2012):

f

2 'P Dh U uav2 H

0.27  ReD0.14 h

for 800 d Re Dh d 1500

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where f is the friction coefficient of the exchanger, H is the length of the exchanger in the flow direction, 'P is the pressure drop. uav and U respectively represent the mean flow velocity between the plates and the water density. b) As previously specified in section 3, water at a temperature of 5 oC travels from the energy transfer station to Enwave’s cooling plant via a 300 m long steel pipe (Figure 8-2). The project leader asks you whether when selecting the chillers, it is reasonable to assume that the variation of the water’s temperature between the energy transfer station and the cooling plant is negligible. Make the necessary hypotheses, estimate the total thermal resistance between the water and air in the tunnel and determine the variation in the water’s temperature between the transfer energy station and the cooling plant.

References Armstrong Pumps, Product catalog [Internet] [Cited Fall 2014]. Available from: http://armstrongfluidtechnology.com/en/products-and-services/heatingand-cooling Enwave, energy corporation, Downtown Toronto is chilling with Enwave [Internet]. [Cited fall 2014]. Available from: http://www.enwave.com/district_cooling_system.html Gherasim, I., Taws, M., Galanis, N. and Nguyen, C.T. Heat transfer and fluid flow in a plate heat exchanger part I. Experimental investigation. International Journal of Thermal Sciences, Vol 50, No. 8, pp 14921498, 2011. Prabhakara Rao, B. Sunden, B. and Das, S.K. An experimental and theoretical investigation of the effect of flow maldistribution on the thermal performance of plate heat exchangers. Journal of Heat Transfer, Vol. 127. pp 332 – 343, 2005. Roetzel, W., Das, S.K. and Luo, X. Measurement of the heat transfer coefficient in plate heat exchangers using a temperature oscillation technique. International journal of heat and mass transfer, Vol. 37 pp 325-331, 1994.

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Subbiah, M. The Characteristics of Brazed Plate Heat Exchangers with Different Chevron Angles, Heat Exchangers - Basics Design Applications, Dr. Jovan Mitrovic (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0278-6, InTech, DOI: 10.5772/32888, 2012. Taco-HVAC, [Internet] [Cited fall 2014]. Available from: http://www.taco-hvac.com/#.

CHAPTER NINE CASE STUDY: TOY DESIGN G. BERNIER, Y. PETIT, F. MARCHAND, P. TERRIAULT, S. NADEAU

Summary The purpose of this case study is to bring students to further realize that their work as future engineers will involve all levels of human activity. This case will focus more specifically on children, their cognitive, psychomotor, emotional and social development, and their safety, through risk analysis and standards and regulations. Becoming familiar with each of these aspects upon commencing the design and analysis phases of this study is crucial if we are to make this task our own playground. Keywords: Mechanical design, human factors engineering, safety, risk management

1. Key Issues and Objectives All too often, parents wishing to take pleasure in an interesting outing to the museum with their children realize once there, that it is not as easy as it seems. Children often come to know museums as a place limited to: “Look but don’t touch!” They are forbidden to run and speak loudly and at length, children and young adolescents feel out of place. For this reason, the board of directors of a science museum would like to create a playground that would stimulate children’s interest in scientific phenomena that occurs in everyday life. This playground would be a place for learning and most of all fun; a place in which it would be of utmost importance that children interact amongst each other through the interactive quality of the playground’s activities.

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The board of directors has given us a mandate, as well as several other universities, to design a playground activity for children between the ages of 5 and 12. The theme of our activity centre will be “machines and mechanisms”. The activity should demonstrate the following scientific phenomena: x x x

Transmission of movement; Conditions of equilibrium; Lifting actions.

The activity is intended to enable children to understand the relationship between their actions and the reactions resulting from these. It must also encourage simultaneous play between more than two children, and must require children to cooperate amongst each other in order to produce a tangible reaction. Any type of mechanical component may be used. The entrance fee will be $ 5.00 for children aged 5 to 12. The playground will be annexed to the current museum and located within a large glass-dome structure, so children may benefit from natural daylight without being exposed to unpleasant weather conditions. The total surface area will be 3000 m2. Management plans to allot an approximate area of 25 m2 per activity centre. The ground surface chosen is fine sand. All children will be asked to remove their shoes and wear special socks, given to them at the entrance. The playground will also have an eating area where children may be served light snacks. For the purpose of this case study, the activity centre described above will be considered as a toy. With this in mind, the specific objectives of this project are the following: x x x x

Analyze children’s needs to establish the characteristics of an appropriate toy and select a toy concept; Conduct a conceptual study of the toy and determine the dimensions of the structures that will be used; Perform a mechanical and dynamic analysis of the toy; Perform a risk analysis of the toy design.

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2. Facts 2.1

Characteristics of Children Ages 5 to 12

It is a widely accepted fact that a child’s cognitive development progresses by age group. Piaget, an eminent researcher in the field of human development, divided the cognitive (intellectual) growth process of children into four distinct stages, namely the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage and formal operational stage. The following paragraphs explain these stages. “From 2 to 5 years of age, egocentric thinking predominates, that is, children believe they are the centre of the events and elements in their environment, all of which act and react according to them. A good example of this is when a four-year-old child is convinced that the moon is following him while he is travelling by car. Pre-operational means that the child is capable of reason, but based on past experiences and only taking into consideration one criteria at a time. For example, if you pour the same quantity of water into a large glass and a tall narrow glass, he will insist that there is more water in the tall glass. He can only take into consideration the height of the liquid. Two to five years of age is a time when the child learns basic concepts. He is able to sort objects based on simple criteria, namely colours, shapes, sizes and textures. He can associate two similar images or two elements having a logical relationship, namely habitats and animals, opposites, jobs and tools, etc.”1 “The concrete operational stage is from ages 6 to 8. This is when children start school and start to learn reading, writing and arithmetic and other skills. These abilities will be assimilated as the child’s level of reasoning evolves. The child may now be capable of placing elements in series or classifying them according to more complex criteria. He begins to understand the concept of time, which is quite difficult to assimilate. Comprehension of spatial and temporal relationships will enable him to undertake more elaborate constructions and more long term projects. He is able to reason in a more logical fashion, taking into account more than two criteria at a time, which will enable him to comprehend games of strategy. Now that he knows how to read and count by himself, he is able to acquire knowledge in a multitude of various fields on his own.” 2

1 2

BERGERON, G., Jocus, Guide du jouet – Automne /Hiver 2004. BERGERON, G., Jocus, Guide du jouet – Automne /Hiver 2004.

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“The end of the last stage, namely formal operational thought, is when intellectual maturity is nearly complete. An older child, similar to adults, may solve problems using hypothesis and deductions. As of this point, it is the self-motivation of each individual that will determine his or her performance in one field or another. Whether in the fields of science, arts or sports, each individual will develop his or her own aptitudes for one activity or another.”3

Other aspects must also be taken into consideration in child development, such as psychomotor (physical abilities), emotional and social (relationship to those around them) skills. It is important to properly understand the general theories of child development, in order to aptly design a toy that will suit the children’s needs and capacities.

2.2

Standards and Regulations / Toy Safety

When designing an object or structure, it is particularly important to comply with the standards and regulations in effect in the country where it will be used. The museum that has contacted us is in Canada, in the province of Quebec. Canadian regulations for hazardous products (toys) may be accessed on the Government of Canada website. Moreover, it should be noted that other standards exist in Canada regarding, for instance, noise levels and advertising intended for children. When designing a toy, it is also important to keep in mind potentially harmful circumstances for the hands, head, torso and various natural orifices that could become obstructed. Harmful situations may also arise during toy usage, for example, mechanical dangers, toxicity, etc. In Canada, certain toys are banned or restricted based on various criteria, such as these actual or potentially harmful risks. “What is a risk? It is the probability that an event will result in undesirable consequences. Studying toy usage repercussions will help to reveal any potential risks.”4 Another important aspect to consider before designing the museum’s activity centre is to understand the difference between a toy and a game. The following is a definition of a toy. “A toy is an object that is primarily used in play. It is usually an object that is easily hand-held, portable and enables manipulability by a primary user. 3 4

BERGERON, G., Jocus, Guide du jouet – Automne /Hiver 2004. http://www.sbf.ulaval.ca/for-19089/Bloc%2011%20Ana.%20risque.pdf.

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Thus, we differentiate toys from the permanent structures found in playgrounds (monkey bars, swings, rides, etc.). Similarly, board games are not considered as toys, even though they promote social interaction. A toy is rather meant to enable the user to individually discover sensations, the laws of physics and experience the world around him. Figuratively speaking, a toy designates the object (real or imaginary) or the person, being subjected to various manipulations, not necessarily in the context of a game.”5

Given that we have been asked to design a playground activity, closer attention should be paid to the latest standards regarding these types of installations. http://www.inspq.qc.ca/pdf/publications/395_AiresAppareilsDeJeu.asp

3. Questions You are asked to analyze the needs of children. x What skills should be developed in 5-year-old children? And 6 to 8 year olds? And 9 and over? x Define a game versus a toy. x Justify your choice of type of toy design using a multicriteria analysis. You are now asked to conduct a study of the mechanical design of your toy. x Provide a 3D CAD model assembly including all proposed concepts with detailed components and assembly constraints appropriately defined. x Provide the dimensions of each of the mechanical components of the system with detailed calculations and appropriate drawings if necessary. x Calculate the structural forces using a lattice grid method (knots and cross-sections). x Choose an appropriate material for the structure of the toy. x Evaluate the toy’s dynamic forces (linear or radial speed, centrifugal or centripetal force). x Model the toy using ANSYS and MATLAB. 5

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toy.

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x Analyze stress on the primary structures. x Analyze the life cycle of the toy to ensure it complies with the principles of sustainable design. x Provide a concept model to describe the mode of operation of the proposed system. Finally, you are asked to conduct a risk assessment of your toy using FMECA, a causal analysis or another appropriate technique.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank École de technologie supérieure for its financial support.

References ASTM International [Online]. Available: http://www.astm.org/. Aubert, B.A. and Bernard, J.G. Mesure intégrée du risque dans les organisations. Les presses de l’Université de Montréal, Canada, 2004. Bazergui, A., Bui-Quoc, T., Biron, A., McIntyre G. and Laberge, C. Résistance des matériaux. 3e éd., Presses Internationales Polytechnique de Montréal, 2002. Bee, H.L. and Mitchell, S.K. Le développement Humain. Erpi, 1984, 536 pp. “Canadian Handbook on Health Impact Assessment” Health Canada. [Online]. Available: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/eval/handbook-guide/vol_3/in dex-eng.php. Canadian Standards Association [Online]. Available: http://www.csa.ca/Default.asp?language=english. Canadian Toy Association. [Online]. Available: http://www.cdntoyassn.com/msafe.htm. Charbonneau, D. and Goldschmidt, C. « Recherche sur la sécurité des jouets sonores » [in French only]. Option Consommateurs, L’Association des Consommateurs du Québec. [Online]. Available: http://www.option-consommateurs.org/documents/principal/fr/File /rapports/jeux/oc_jouets_sonores_fr1004.pdf. Codes on advertising intended for children. Advertising Standards Canada: Clearance Services. [Online]. Available: http://www.adstandards.com/en/Clearance/clearanceAreas/childrensAd vertising.asp.

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Department of Defence. Design Criteria Standard Human Engineering, MIL-STD-1472F, United States. [Online]. Available: www.hf.faa.gov/docs/milstd14.pdf. Department of Justice Canada: Hazardous Products (toys) Regulations. [Online]. Available: http://lois.justice.gc.ca/en/showdoc/cr/C.R.C.-c. 931///en?page=1. Department of Justice Canada: Hazardous Products Act. [Online]. Available: http://lois.justice.gc.ca/en/showtdm/cs/H-3. Enfant et famille Canada. Articles sur le développement de l’enfant : http://www.cfc-efc.ca/menu/childdev_fr.htm. « Développement social de l’enfant de 0 à 5 ans ». Investir dans l’enfance. [Online]. Available: http://www.investirdanslenfance.ca/DisplayContent.aspx?name=ages_ and_stages&audience=parents. « Fiabilité des systèmes industriels : Les arbres de défaillance » [System reliability: Fault tree analysis]. Université Henri Poincaré [Online]. Available: http://www.cyber.uhp-nancy.fr/demos/MAIN-016/model isation/arbre_def.html. Guénette, M. « Jouets sonores à piles – Trop bruyants pour vos enfants,» (in French only) [Battery powered toys – too noisy for your children.] Consommation, Automne 2004. [Online]. Available: http://www.option-consommateurs.org/documents/principal/fr/File/ vol_15_3_dossier1004.pdf. Health Canada. [Online]. Available: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/index-eng. php. International Organization for Standardization [Online]. Available: http://www.iso.org. “International Standardization leads to progress in toy safety”, International Organization for Standardization, ISO Bulletin, June 2003, pp. 23-24. [Online]. Available: http://www.iso.org/iso/en/commcentre/isobulletin/articles/2003/pdf/toy safety03-06.pdf. Jean Piaget Society: Society for the Study of Knowledge and Development [Online]. Available: http://www.piaget.org/. Kuhlthau, C.C. “Meeting the information needs of children and young adults: basing library media programs on developmental states.” Journal of youth services in libraries, No. 2, Fall 1988, pp. 51-57. « Le développement de l’enfant de 0 à 6 ans et ses besoins ». Bureau de Consultation Jeunesse [Online]. Available: http://www.bcj14-25.org/ sitejm/m/Enfants/bebes.html#d%C5%BDv%20enfant. « Le développement de l’enfant de 0-5 ans », Équipe petite enfance. [in French only].

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Legislation on toy safety. [Online]. Available: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ hecs-sesc/spc/publications/jouets/tdm.htm. « Le pouvoir du jeu – Développer les capacités de votre enfant par le jeu actif », Fisher-Price, 2004. « Les jouets sonores, une menace insoupçonnée » [Press release in French only]. Option Consommateurs, L’Association des Consommateurs du Québec. [Online]. Available: http://www.option-consommateurs.org/salle_presse/communiques/38/. Lupin, H. and Marsot, J. Sécurité des machines et des équipements de travail. Moyens de protection contre les risques mécaniques. Édition INRS ED 807, France, 2000. Meriam, J.L. and Kraige, L.G. Mécanique de l'ingénieur – Statique. Les éditions Reynald Goulet Inc., 1996. “Piaget’s Model of Cognitive Development” Canadian Institute of Neurosciences, Mental Health and Addiction and the Canadian Institutes of health research. [Online]. Available: http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_09/i_09_p/i_09_p_dev/i_09_p_dev.ht ml. Rabardel, P., Carlin, N., Chesnais, M., Lang, N., Le Joliff, G. and M. Pascal, M. Ergonomie, concepts et methods. Éditions Octares, France, 1998. Safe Kids Canada. [Online]. Available: http://www.securijeunescanada.ca/safekidscanada/default.asp. Test methods: Chemistry methods, Mechanical Engineering Methods and Flammability Methods. Health Canada, Consumer Product Safety (SPC). [Online]. Available: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/cps-spc/prod-testessai/index-eng.php. The online guide for Jocus toys (In French only). Available: http://www.orthopedagogiek.com/jouets.htm. Thouin, M. Enseigner les sciences et la technologie au préscolaire et primaire, des Éditions MultiMondes, Canada. “Toy Safety Tips”. Health Canada. [Online pamphlet]. Available: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/cps-spc/pubs/cons/toy_safe-jouet_secur-eng. php. U.S Consumer product safety commission [Online]. Available: http://www.cpsc.gov/. Villemeur. Sûreté de fonctionnement des systèmes industriels. Eyrolles, France, 1988. World Health Organization [Online]. Available: http://www.who.int/fr/index.html.

CHAPTER TEN CASE STUDY: ECOINNOVATION AND ECODESIGN FOR LESS POLLUTING VEHICLES P. TERRIER

Summary This case explores how to design an environment-friendly vehicle using ecodesign approaches. Life cycle analysis and calculation of greenhouse gas emissions generated during an automobile’s manufacturing process will guide the engineer towards more sustainable solutions. Keywords: Life cycle analysis, ecodesign, greenhouse gases, hybrid vehicles, biomimicry

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1. Background and Objectives Paul-Émile is the engineer in charge of the ecoinnovation department at Sustainable Car Inc., a company that builds eco-friendly and affordable vehicles. Paul-Émile has been mandated to coordinate the development of a new project for an urban vehicle that is to exceed the strictest of environmental standards. To reach his objective, the young engineer decides to study three types of vehicles that are currently eco-friendly alternatives to conventional vehicles.

2. Reference model eco-vehicles The following three vehicles are considered as references in each category, namely hybrids (Toyota Prius), entirely electric (Nissan Leaf) and longer-range electric vehicles (Chevrolet Volt). Paul-Émile hopes that studying the “best” eco-vehicles will guide him in the ecodesign phase and enable him to propose an urban vehicle that will be state-of-the-art and low impact on the environment. His engineering experience in the field of green transportation leads him to think that the urban vehicle should be an electric vehicle or at the very least a rechargeable hybrid (Plug-in). Nevertheless, he intends to conduct an analysis with your collaboration to shed light on the best solution. Technologies in the industry are mature and several vehicles stand out within each category of technologies being considered. The Nissan Leaf, a 100 % electric vehicle, has become the most-sold vehicle in the history of electric vehicles. Just like all purely electric vehicles, it has limited autonomy. Its actual range is approximately 120 km. It is equipped with a Li-ion battery of 24 kWh. The Toyota Prius, pioneer of hybridization, is still the top reference in the hybrid category. Its fully hybrid architecture enables it to run on several different modes from fully electric to a combination of both engine-battery. The Prius now comes in a plug-in model that can be recharged by plugging it into an electrical outlet. The Chevrolet Volt is known as a new type of vehicle. It is an extended range electric vehicle. Although it is primarily propelled by an electric motor powered by batteries, the Chevrolet Volt is also equipped with an

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engine that acts like a generator. The motor starts when the battery is low, increasing autonomy to 600 km. Influence of power grid on greenhouse gases (GHG) The person in charge of design knows that even if electric vehicles do not emit polluting gases when driven, they may still have an impact in terms of emissions produced during their life cycle. The technology used to generate electricity for a power grid can significantly influence in GHG emissions while an electric vehicle is being recharge However, GHG emissions reduction can reach 30 % for a hybrid vehicle and 50 % for a purely electric vehicle, compared to conventional vehicles of similar size (Aguirre, Eisenhardt et al. 2012) The vehicle of which Paul-Émile must pilot the design is intended for the North-American market in which power grids are quite heterogeneous. In Canada, 60 % of electricity generated comes from hydroelectric dams (10 gr of CO2/kWh) while in the United States, thermal power plants, often fueled by coal and natural gas (average of 500 gr of CO2/kWh) still ensure more than 50 % of electric power generation. (Aguirre, Eisenhardt et al. 2012) Greenhouse gases emissions over entire life cycle The young engineer is well documented on the pollutants emitted over the various stages of the vehicle’s life cycle, from initial manufacturing to end of life. He also knows that a life cycle analysis, based on ISO 14040, will ensure a design that will be better for the environment. This is for the most part how Toyota proceeded for the Prius (Toyota 2010) and Renault for its Fluence (Renault-Automobile 2011). These vehicles are made with bioplastics and recyclable plastic resins. Eco-designed so that it can be easily dismantled at its life’s end, the Prius is more than 80 % recyclable… an inspiring example! Influence of the weight of the vehicle on greenhouse gases emissions Lightening the weight of vehicles enables a reduction in fuel consumption and so, manufacturers are studying all possible ways to reduce vehicle weight. Removing 100 kg of a vehicle’s weight reduces consumption by approximately 0,4 l/100 km (Revue-Ecomine 2005). Our engineer knows that vehicle weight influences greatly energy consumption in use.

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In general, green vehicles are made of materials that are less dense than steel, mainly polymers, composites and aluminum. However, these lighter materials, often more “exotic”, have greater impact on the environment and will simply displace the problem of greenhouse gas emissions rather than actually reduce it. Environmental management at the vehicle manufacturing plant Proposing a green vehicle design is not everything. The manufacturing plant where the vehicle will be assembled must also be up to par in environmental management! An environment management system (certification ISO 14001) for example, has been implemented at the Tsutsumi plant, where the Prius is assembled in Japan (Toyota 2010). Despite knowing all this, our engineer is still not clear about a number of points. Should vehicles in the “green” category all follow an ecodesign process, such as the one for the Prius? Are ecoinnovation approaches such as biomimicry used to develop new vehicle designs that would be even more effective in terms of environment? Do alternative materials that are lighter really reduce the amount of pollutants emitted over the span of the vehicle’s life cycle? Equipped with figures and scientific publications, Paul-Émile will be able to assess the environmental impact of these vehicles and adjust his design to reduce to a minimum the impacts over the entire life span of the vehicle he will design. The task however is great and your participation will be much appreciated.

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3. Technical data: Specifications of vehicles and materials Table 10-1: Characteristics of vehicles studied Characteristics Type Price 2014 (Quebec, Canada) Total weight (kg) Battery capacity (kWh) Type of battery Autonomy (km) Energy consumption (litres of gas/100 km) or kWh/km) Cost of production $ / km (1 kwh electricity = $ 0,11) (1 litre gas = $ 1,3) CO2 emissions over entire life cycle (tons) (Aguirre, Eisenhardt et al. 2012)

Conventional vehicle (compact) Fuel engine

Toyota Prius

Chevrolet Volt

Nissan Leaf

Combined Hybrid

Extended autonomy

Pure electric

$ 28 000

$ 36 900

$ 31 700

$ 20 000

1370

1715

1493

1300

1,5

16,5

24

0

Ni-Mh 810

Li-ion 610 Equivalent in energy to 3,9 l/100 km (combined mode EV+ motor)

Li-ion 115

n/a 800

0,21 kWh/km Equivalent to 2,0 l/100 km

6 l/100 km

3,9 l/100

0,05

Approx. 0,35

0,023

0,078

41

n/a

31

62

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Table 10-2: General data relative to the greenhouse gas emissions generated over entire life cycle of the vehicle (Samaras and Meisterling 2008) Stage of life cycle

Average CO2 emission

Gasoline

3 kg de CO2/litre de carburant

Vehicle manufacturing

6000 kg de CO2

Recharging an electric vehicle

From 10 to 100 gr CO2/km

Battery manufacturing for electric or hybrid vehicles

Approx. 10 kg CO2/kg of battery

Additional information Fuel production: 0,5 kg CO2/litre Fuel consumption: 2,5 kg CO2/litre This could also be allocated over 200 000 km, which comes to 30 g/km Depending on technology used to generate electricity. Emissions attributed to the power station. Rechargeable hybrid: 100 kg of battery Classic hybrid: 30 kg of battery Pure electric: 200 kg of battery

Table 10-3: Materials used in automobiles Material Steel

Nuances Standard steel

Mass Density 7,8 kg/l

Aluminium

Primary aluminum Secondary aluminum

2,7 kg/l

4. Questions You have been chosen to be on the team of the engineer in charge of the project to participate in the ecodesign phase of the vehicle.

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1. Reduction of weight, materials and life cycle analysis 1a) Reduction of the vehicle’s fuel consumption Replacing steel by aluminum is one of the avenues to explore to lighten the vehicle’s weight and lower its energy consumption. According to an article on the topic of replacing steel by aluminum (Revue-Ecomine 2005) we learn that : “Car manufacturers consider that substituting aluminum/steel only gives a competitive edge when the weight is lowered by 30 %. However, if aluminum is three times lighter than steel, the reduction in effective mass of the substituted part is 40 %, since aluminum must meet the same specifications as steel (have same level of mechanical resistance).” The article also tells us that on average, 38 % of a vehicle’s total weight comes from the steel plating of the body frame. An automobile weighed an average 1 300 kg in 2005 as opposed to 1 150 kg in 2000 or so. Vehicle weight is increasing inexorably because an increasing number of accessories are being added for comfort and safety: “airbag: 1,5 to 3,5 kg, A/C compressor: 7 kg, motor for power-operated windows: 0,8 kg, ABS: 1,6 kg, motor for power-operated seats: 1,6 kg, and mechatronics/electronics equipment.” The distance travelled by an automobile over its lifespan is considered to be 200 000 km. Average consumption before weight reduction is 7 l/100 km. Task. Calculate the reduction in fuel consumption and the amount of CO2 not emitted by having substituted aluminum for steel in the entire body of an average car weighing 1 300 kg. 1b) Inventory of pollutants, impacts and environmental damage related to the manufacturing of substitute materials (aluminum vs. steel) To complete this section, you will need life cycle analysis software such as Simapro as well as a database with inventories of processes and emissions such as EcoInvent1.

1

http://www.ecoinvent.org/database/.

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You will now analyze three scenarios of choice of materials, namely primary aluminum, secondary aluminum and standard steel. Conduct a comparative life cycle analysis for various scenarios using the software. To simplify the parameters of this analysis, only consider the manufacturing of the materials and dismiss the processes involved in shaping the body frame. Define the three scenarios using the life cycle analysis software. x

Scenario 1- primary aluminum

You decide to design the vehicle’s body frame in aluminum to reduce its weight and lower pollutant emissions, as based on your previous analysis. However, your supplier in primary materials informs you that due to the amount of aluminum required, he will only be able to supply primary aluminum, which appears in the Ecoinvent database as Aluminium, primary, at plant/RER S x

Scenario 2- secondary aluminum

You decide to design the vehicle’s body frame in aluminum to reduce its weight and lower pollutant emissions. Your primary materials supplier proposes secondary aluminum, listed in the Ecoinvent database under the name of Aluminium, secondary, from new scrap, at plant/RER S. x

Scenario 3 - standard steel

You decide to preserve the traditional use of steel to design the body frame and you foresee other solutions to reduce the vehicle’s weight. The steel you will use is listed in the EcoInvent database as Steel, converter, lowalloyed, at plant/RER S. Once you have defined your three scenarios using the LCA software, look over the inventory of pollutant emissions and conduct an impact analysis. Tasks. Consult the emissions inventory and: 1- Note the carbon dioxide fossil emissions that relate to manufacturing the necessary mass of each material studied. 2- Calculate in view of this the total net reduction (or increase) of carbon dioxide for each scenario using primary and secondary aluminum instead

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of steel for the body frame of a vehicle that will travel 200 000 km. Plot on a single graph chart, for each scenario and life span of the vehicle, the GHG emissions as a function of the number of km travelled. Note: if you plot a curve on the graph chart showing CO2eq emissions (ordinates) as a function of the distance travelled (abscissa), the slope of the curve corresponds to the emissions in relation to consumption in l/100 km, while the ordinate at its origin corresponds to CO2 emissions in relation to the manufacturing of the material. Tasks. Now use the following impact and damage assessment methods: Impact 2002+ and Eco-indicator 99. These methods are available in the databases of the life cycle analysis software. 1- Assess the impacts and damages in relation to each material on human health, climate changes, ecosystems and natural resources. 2- Present the life cycle analysis chart showing the damages according to each material (a comparative chart showing all three materials). Conclusion. Which material do you recommend to build the body frame of an environmentally-friendly vehicle in light of the GHG emissions and life cycle analysis performed? 2. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Based on the results of Life Cycle Assessment such as those provided in the bibliography, which phases of the vehicle’s life cycle emit the greatest amount of greenhouse gases? You may choose to conduct a new LCA on the vehicle by using functional units and reference flows similar to those used in the LCA reports listed in the References section. What would you propose to reduce the vehicles’ GHG emissions? 3. Ecoinnovation Our engineer has heard of biomimicry, an approach used in ecoinnovation. What do you think of this approach? Is it used in the transportation industry? In which way? Name some examples.

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4. Other ways to lower GHG emissions According to certain studies, biofuels could be an interesting avenue in terms of reducing GHG emissions. Which are the top candidates for the automobile industry? Are all of these production chains sustainable? What are their main issues? 5. Closing the loop What would the characteristics of the “ultimate urban ecofriendly vehicle” be in order to engage fully in sustainable transportation? Electric, hybrid, biofuel… Steel or primary aluminum? Which design tools or approaches should be used? How should the vehicle be manufactured? 6. Profitability of alternative vehicles How many kilometres must be driven by the Prius, Volt or Leaf so that the savings in fuel compensate for the higher cost at purchase compared to a conventional vehicle? Suppose a tax on carbon emissions existed, at a rate of $ 150 per ton. If this tax were applied to the price of fuel and knowing manufacturing costs and the consumption of one litre of gas emits 3 kg of CO2, how would this factor change the profitability analysis of alternative vehicles?

Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank École de technologie supérieure of Montréal, Quebec, Canada for its financial support through the PSIRE program. Special thanks are also given to students Jeason Blair and Anna Li from the engineering laboratory for sustainable development (Laboratoire d’Ingénierie pour le Développement Durable LIDD-ÉTS) who participated in collecting information used to produce this case study.

References Aguirre, K., L. Eisenhardt, C. Lim, B. Nelson, A. Norring, P. Slowik and N. Tu (2012). Lifecycle Analysis Comparison of a Battery Electric Vehicle and a Conventional Gasoline Vehicle, California Air Resources Board.

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Renault-Automobile. (2011). "FLUENCE and FLUENCE Z.E. LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT ", from http://www.renault.com/fr/lists/archivesdocuments/fluence-acv2011.pdf. Access date : October 16, 2014. Revue-Ecomine. (2005, 20 août au 20 septembre 2005). "Automobile : les matériaux légers à l’assaut de l’acier." from http://www.mineralinfo.fr/ecomine/ecomine2005-09.pdf. Access date: April 13, 2014. Samaras, C. and K. Meisterling (2008). "Life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions from plug-in hybrid vehicles Implications for policy." Environmental Science & Technology 42(9): 3170-3176. Toyota. (2010). "Prius and the Environment." from http://s3-eu-west1.amazonaws.com/cdnlive.toyotaretail.co.uk/EnvironmentPDF/priusEnvironment.pdf. Access date: October 16, 2014.

CHAPTER ELEVEN CASE STUDY: HYBRID VEHICLE S. NADEAU, J. ARTEAU, C. GINER-MORENCY

Summary This case study focuses on how to prepare to lead a standardization committee mandated to update a standard concerning the dimensions of the driver accommodation space in compact motor vehicles. The use of a case study format is intended to enable engineering students to work on multidisciplinary projects. The purpose of this case is to combine knowledge in human factors engineering and standardization and approval. Material learned from each of these fields will be used by students to solve the problems presented in this study. Results obtained from this case will enable professors to prepare additional projects or case studies. Keywords: Human factors engineering, standardization and approval

1. Context You are a newly appointed project leader for a committee mandated to update the standard concerning the dimensions of driver accommodation space in compact motor vehicles. You are a junior mechanical engineer. The standardization committee is composed of: x a person responsible for the standardization project who will chair the committee meetings; x a committee president and secretary, in charge of administrative tasks (writing the meeting agenda, distributing documentation, correspondence and recording project advancement, etc.); x a terminologist;

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field experts (automobile manufacturers representatives, employees of the Société de l’Assurance Automobile du Québec (SAAQ) [Quebec Automobile Insurance Corporation], members appointed by the deputy ministers of Public Safety and the Department of Transport, university researchers, automobile drivers and automobile dealers).

Your candidature has not yet been approved by the committee members. The committee convenes biannually. The next meeting is scheduled to take place next month and discussions will be held in English. Your objective regarding the agreements decided on during these meetings is that they be the result of a consensus and that each member be entitled to equal participation in the discussions.

2. Key Issues and Considerations The former project leader quickly provided you with a preliminary work document. The standard-drafting project aims to normalize the dimensions of the driver accommodation space of automobiles sold in the province of Quebec. Your objective is to establish driver accommodation space measurements that are suitable for all Quebec drivers. Your predecessor compiled and recommended the following standards from the Society of Automotive Engineers: x

x x

measuring device including a two-dimensional and threedimensional manikin, used to simulate the characteristics and dimensions of motor vehicle passenger seating, standard SAE J826b; a chart listing interior volumes, standard SAE J1100a; a chart for driver hand control reach, standard SAE J287.

You are aware of progress made over the past decades in the field of human factors engineering to characterize the human body (forces, mobility, physical dimensions, etc.) resulting in a great number of anthropometric tables (Sanders et al. 1993, Tilley 2002). Moreover, you are aware that the military, for its own purposes, has established criteria to design equipment for its own vehicles (U.S. Department of Defence 1999, UK Ministry of Defence 2004).

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Your meeting with your predecessor, at which time you obtained the standard-drafting project file, was unfortunately brief and did not enable you to find out whether each of the standardization committee members has access to these technical standards, to general language dictionaries and to technical lexicons regarding this field. In the project file, there are no commentaries or observations referring to the previous meetings (points of contention, linguistic problems or other) and you have one month to prepare for the meeting. Your only experience in the field of automobile seating accommodation dates back to your experience in the SAE university club of École de technologie supérieure and as the owner of the hybrid vehicle of the year. To prepare for your upcoming meeting, you decide to apply the standards to your own vehicle to understand and assess their reach. More or less convinced, you ask your president and secretary to send the committee members copies of the series of SAE standards. Pending the meeting, you get better acquainted with the various dimensions of your vehicle’s interior. In its normal position settings, you obtain the following measurements: x x x x x x x x x x x

Length of the driver seat (d1): 480 mm with adjustment tilt (t1) of 16 degrees; Height of backrest lumbar section (k1): 585 mm; Angle between seat and backrest: 95 degrees; Distance between the lower edge of the steering wheel and the backrest: 510 mm; Clearance between the upper section of the seat (e1) and the steering wheel: 190 mm; Distance between the pedal and the seat (g1): 550 mm; Distance between the lowermost section of the seat and the car ceiling (a1): 955 mm; Distance between the higher most section of the seat and the floor (f1): 240 mm; Width of the seat’s largest section (d2): 535 mm and narrowest section (b2): 440 mm; Width of the backrest at its largest (g2): 450 mm and level with the shoulders (j2) of a SAE manikin: 310 mm; The headrest is an extension of the backrest and is 195 mm long and 170 mm wide (k2) at its narrowest;

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Distance between the brake pedal and the accelerator (f3): 52 mm, while the distance between the brake pedal and the clutch pedal (e3) is 118 mm.

Figure 11-1: Interior of the standardization committee project leader’s vehicle

Your dashboard appears at first glance to comply with the various tables and design criteria established in human factors engineering. Upon closer inspection, you notice that certain aspects of a few of the controls for secondary functions could be improved, as well as certain heights and widths, of characters used for certain displays none of which are critical for driving the vehicle. The day of the meeting, you notice that several of the members arrive late and several have not brought along the copies of the project documents you sent. After having provided members with another copy of the documents, you begin discussing the first document. You notice that certain industrialists attempt to control or influence the standardization process.

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3. Questions 3.1 a)

Ergonomics and Industrial Health and Safety

Compare the dimensions of the project leader’s vehicle with the recommendations of Tiley (2002), Sanders and McCormick (1993), American standards (U.S. Department of Defence MILSTD-1472F) and British standards (UK Ministry of Defence, DEF STAN 00-25).

b) The SAE series of standards proposes the use of two-dimensional, three-dimensional manikins and simplified models. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each of the SAE standards proposed? c)

Design a new or improved measurement system for the driver accommodation space based on your answer to the previous question. Minimize measurement errors and demonstrate how your new system will enable repeatable and reproducible measurements.

d) Many compact motor vehicles are used by employees for work purposes. Propose a road risk assessment for employees offering taxi services for urban areas that have dense traffic, and shuttles between airports and hotels, which are both usually located along the highway. The vehicle should be equipped with navigational assistance such as a GPS, a mobile phone device and devices to communicate with taxi dispatchers and to monitor travel expenses. e)

Beyond standardization and the dimensions of the vehicle interior, you wish to introduce the topic of comfort to this draft standard. Propose a pilot protocol that would enable you to ascertain the comfort of drivers from a given ethnic background according to their preferred postures, the various levels of seat adjustments and the anthropometric characteristics of the subjects. Justify your choice and the size of your sample.

f)

Why does the neutral driver position in an automobile require that both hands be on the steering wheel and the backrest be as vertical as possible?

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g) What is an international average individual? h) What factors come into play regarding hyperextension injuries of the cervical spine, commonly known as whiplash? i)

Propose an interior for a hybrid vehicle that complies with all the safety and relevant design proportion standards. Using a modelling software of your choice (Jack or Catia V5), verify that the standards regulating the passenger compartments are appropriate. In other words, you are expected to demonstrate that the normalized dimensions are suited to the dimensions of the majority of humans according to North American dynamic and structural anthropometric standards. Do the current standards pose a risk for a certain body type? If so, look into resolving this situation by proposing new standards for passenger compartments.

3.2 a)

Approval and Standardization

How will you go about restoring a friendly work climate within the standardization committee?

b) Are there any other standards, other than the SAE regarding the dimensions of the driver space in automobiles? What are they? Provide a detailed comparison of these standards with those of the SAE.

Acknowledgements The authors wish to acknowledge the participation of P. Labrie in taking measurements and photographs of an actual automobile. They would also like to thank the Commission de la santé et de la sécurité du travail (CSST), Université du Québec (UQ) and École de technologie supérieure (ÉTS) for their financial support making this case study possible.

References SAE (1976). Driver hand control reach. SAE J287. SAE (1975). Motor vehicle dimensions. SAE J1100a. SAE (1974). Devices for use in defining and measuring vehicle seating accommodation. SAE J826b.

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Sanders, Mark S., McCormick, Ernest J., Human Factors In Engineering And Design, McGraw-Hill Inc., 7th edition 1993, 790 pages. Tilley, Alvin R., Henry Dreyfuss Associates, The Measure Of Man And Woman, John Wiley & Sons Inc., revised edition 2002, 98 pages. Tilley, Alvin R. et al., Henry Dreyfuss Associates, HUMANSCALE 1/2/3, The MIT Press, Third print 1983, c1974, 32 pages. US Department of Defence, Design Criteria Standard - Human Engineering - MIL-STD-1472F, revised edition August 23, 1999 (with December 5, 2003 notice), 219 pages. UK Ministry of defence, Human Factors For Designers Of Equipment Military Land Vehicle Design - DEF STAN 00-25, revised edition July 30, 2004, Part 14-15-16-17-18-19-20-21-25.

CHAPTER TWELVE CASE STUDY: AUTOMATED OVERHEAD CRANE J.-P. KENNÉ, S. NADEAU, H. A. BOUZID, C. GINER-MORENCY

Summary The following case study examines certain problems engineers may encounter, particularly when preparing proposals. Presenting these problems in a case study format is intended to enable engineering students to work in multidisciplinary projects. The purpose of this case study is to combine knowledge from human factors engineering, hydraulics and strength of materials in the course of designing an automated overhead crane. Students will use learned material from each of these fields to solve problems presented in this case study. Results obtained from this case will pave the way for other projects or case studies. Keywords: Human factors engineering, hydraulics, strength of materials, overhead cranes

1. Key Issues and Objectives A leisure-boat manufacturing company specialized in cabin cruiser motor yachts and located near Québec City is looking to add an automated overhead crane to its final assembly line. The company’s industrial engineering department has chosen to call for an external tender that would include the design, manufacturing and installation of the overhead crane. You are on the engineering team of one of the suppliers who has been contacted to tender on this project and have been provided a summary of the technical quote (see the following section).

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In this case study, we will examine how to prepare an engineering proposal. More specifically, we will focus on the following objectives: x x x

Conduct a conceptual study of an overhead crane and its sizing; Design safe and ergonomic work stations and devise a safety program to oversee equipment installation; Design a hydraulic power circuit and command system.

2. Facts The characteristics sought by the ordering party are quite precise: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Every component of the crane must be easy to maintain; The automated overhead crane must permit simultaneous assembly of two boats; Once the boats are fully assembled, the overhead crane is used to place them onto their shipment trailers; Production rate is 5 to 6 boats per week and the company operates during a daytime work shift of 7:30 a.m. to 12:00 p.m. and 12:30 p.m. to 3:30 p.m., including two 15-minute breaks; Equipment must be safe and enable assembly in compliance with industrial engineering practices and ergonomic principles; The surface area available for boat assembly is 10m x 40m; the ceiling is at a height of 10m and is equipped with sprinklers; The distance between the factory pillars is 8 m; The overhead crane must meet a max. load capacity of 40 tons; It is forbidden to weld any additional structures to the structure of the factory building; This part of the factory is supplied with electricity at 110V and 460V and compressed air at 120 psi; The overhead crane must, without exception, be painted yellow; Equipment must comply with municipal, provincial and federal regulations; Equipment must not interfere with the tasks being performed at either of the two work stations.

Figure 12-1 below illustrates the yacht factory facility, which is composed of three different areas, namely the offices, the sub-assembly factory at the back of the building and the assembly line, which runs along the center of the factory (main alley).

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Figure 12-1: Overhead view of the yacht factory

In this part of the factory, four workers manually assemble outer boat components. Station 1: various decals are applied to the hull and safety cushions are installed; Station 2: the boat is covered with a safety tarp to prepare for shipping. Chemical products are used to stick the decals onto the boats. For this reason, the industrial engineers have installed a safety eye-bath in this part of the facility. The safety cushions and tarps are carried to the work stations on pallets measuring 4 ft x 4 ft. The decals are brought to the work stations in small containers. Each work station is equipped, on either side of each boat, with a work table made of 1 ½ inch hollow square girders and a 14GA painted metal sheet. The tables are 3 ft x 4 ft and set at a height of 39 ½ inches. There is

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also a wall-mounted shelf at 12 ft from the floor and additional shelving mounted at 45 in and 55 in from the floor. During final assembly, which takes place in the factory’s central alley, the sub-assemblies are lifted and carried by the overhead crane, which must be able to carry not only the sub-assemblies but also everything needed for final assembly. Then, the overhead crane must carry the finished product to the factory’s shipping area to load it onto the shipping trailer. The following is a list of characteristics for the factory’s largest yacht model: -

Royal Viking; 73,000 lbs (33,112.8 kg) (36.5 tons); 62 ft (18.9 m) long; 3 ft 3 in (1 m); 17 ft (5.18 m) high; Price: $ 2,000,000.00.

The overhead crane will have to be installed during the month of July, during which the company usually halts production. Suppliers will have to install the overhead crane during daytime between 7:30 a.m. and 3:30 p.m. They will need to apply for all necessary welding permits, if needed, and have the general health and safety cards for construction sites for all their employees as well as all necessary individual protection gear and equipment. The conditions of payment are the following: -

30 % upon confirmation of order; 30 % upon receipt of the crane; 40 % upon successful crane operation validation.

Crane operation validation verifies that the criteria listed in the tender are met. Moreover, this verification makes sure that the overhead crane and its parts meet requirements, maintain production speed and have a feasible lifespan. The verification takes place during the first month of production following installation.

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A foreseeable design could be an I-beam structure (wide flange beams) mounted on columns. The lifting and lowering system could be composed of two beams on which two hoists are mounted and which could travel laterally and horizontally. The hoists would be synchronized by an electronic command system to ensure constant travel speed when both overhead cranes are used simultaneously. The images below illustrate the above mentioned system.

Figure 12-2: View of crane structure

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Figure 12-3: View of lateral guiding system and the carriage

3. Questions You are aware that the ordering party (client) will use the following criteria to evaluate proposals they receive from the various supplier parties: Technical criteria: - Functionality and optimization of the mechanical and hydraulic design - Compliance with good industrial engineering, ergonomics and safety practices - Production capacity and level of competence of the manufacturing and installation team

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Financial criteria: - Cost of the equipment - Credit standing, assets and reputation of the tendering company Project management criteria: - Realistic project planning - Service contract Unfortunately, you do not know the weight of each of these criteria. Aside from preparing the proposal for the ordering company, you must also submit with it an engineering technical document for later use if your team should win the tender. To prepare this document, you must thoroughly examine the following:

3.1

Strength of Materials

In this section, you are required to select an appropriate overhead crane system that meets the requirements of the ordering party. The system should be designed so that the structure is as light as possible, yet safe, robust and easy to maintain. Provide the sizes of each mechanical part of the overhead crane system taking into consideration safety standards currently in effect for lifting devices.

3.2

Hydraulic Power Circuits and Commands

The hydraulic power system must provide the overhead crane with a total efficiency of 0.95 and steady and safe travel speeds. The choice of hydraulic pump, lift actuators and command valves must take into account loss of load in hoses and accessories. Choose a command circuit that will enable crane operators to lift the loads defined by the ordering party with the least effort. Also, propose solutions for hydraulic command system problems crane operators may encounter, by integrating control and loss of load solutions to the hydraulic power circuit system.

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3.3

Industrial Ergonomics and Safety

You are required to comply with all acts and regulations on occupational health and safety both to design and install the equipment. Formulate recommendations to ensure the ergonomics and health and safety of work stations and equipment that will be delivered to the client. Formulate health and safety recommendations to your employer in regards to equipment installation at the client location. One of your former classmates, Ms. F has called you because she is worried her father’s company is exposed to certain risks. She wants to make sure that her fears are well-founded before acting. Here is the situation. Ms. F is a newly graduated engineer. Upon finishing her studies, she came back home to work in the family company. Because she is a good engineer, she inspected the entire yacht factory. During her inspection, she discovered a crack in one of the I-beam structures that supports the cranes. She immediately told her father. Her father answered that he already knew about it and that it did not matter. He based his assessment on the fact that the yachts weigh 36,5 tons, which is far below the maximum weight capacity the I-beam can handle. Is her father right in declaring the structure safe? Is his evaluation of the risks and the probabilities accurate? What advice would you give to her? She recently convinced her father to repair the I-beam. Propose the best solution at the lowest cost. Suggest a possible error that management might have made that explains the situation of risk that occurred. Which aspect of his mandate or commitment did the operations manager not respect when he made that particular decision?

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank École de technologie supérieure for its financial support. They also wish to acknowledge the contribution of Daniel Mongrain, Jean-Claude Bergeron and Hichem Beghoul in collecting information.

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References ACNOR, CAN/CSA C22.2 no. 33-M1984 Ponts roulants et palans électriques. AFNOR, Appareils et accessoires de levage, 2e éd., Association Française de Normalisation, 1992. Department of Defense, Design Criteria Standard Human Engineering, MIL-STD-1472F, États-Unis. [Internet]. Available from: www.hf.faa.gov/docs/milstd14.pdf. Labonville, R. Concepts des circuits hydrauliques : une approche énergétique, Éditions de l’École Polytechnique de Montréal, 1991. Lupin, H. et Marsot, J. Sécurité des machines et des équipements de travail. Moyens de protection contre les risques mécaniques, Édition INRS ED 807, France, 2000. Merritt, H.E. Hydraulic Control Systems, John Willey & Sons, New York, 1993. Rabardel, P., Carlin, N., Chesnais, M., Lang, N., Le Joliff, G. and Pascal, M. Ergonomie concepts et méthodes, Éditions Octares, France, 1998. Regulation on occupational health and safety. Gazette officielle du Québec. Décret 885-2001. Sullivan, J.A. Fluid Power System: Theory and Applications, 3rd edition, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1989. The Act Respecting Occupational Health and Safety, R.S.Q., Chap. S-2.1.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN CASE STUDY: DESIGNING AN AIRPLANE BAGGAGE BELT LOADER S. NADEAU, H. A. BOUZID, J.-P. KENNÉ, C. GINER-MORENCY

Summary This case study examines certain difficulties encountered in mechanical and ergonomic design. These difficulties are presented in a case study format to enable engineering students to participate in multidisciplinary projects. The purpose of this study is to combine knowledge in human factors engineering, hydraulics and strength of materials to design a baggage belt loader for passenger and cargo airplanes. Students will use material learned from each of these fields to solve problems presented in this case. The results obtained will pave the way for professors to launch additional research projects and case studies. Keywords: Human factors engineering, hydraulics, strength of materials, automobile lifts

1. Key Issues and Objectives Belt loaders are used in airports around the world to facilitate loading and offloading passenger luggage and all types of cargo from passenger and freighter airplanes. Several models exist, from the onboard belt conveyer loader to the simple baggage tow tractor. Certain vehicles are designed to carry baggage weighing less than 31.8 kg and for which the sum of the baggage’s measurements (length + width + height) must not exceed 157.7 cm.

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Classic concepts in hydraulics are normally used for these load transportation systems, J.A Sullivan (1989), R. Labonville (1991) and H.E. Merritt (1993). Dimensions and materials are chosen according to the standards currently in effect in Canada and the United States. Equipment must comply with occupational health and safety regulations and must be designed to be ergonomic (Rabardel et al. 1998) (Lupin and Marsot 2000). The following case study is intended to prepare students to reengineer an airplane-hold baggage loading and offloading belt conveyor system for passenger and cargo airplanes. More specifically, our objectives are to: x Conduct a conceptual study of a belt conveyor by measuring its main structural components except for its chassis and axles; x Design a driver cabin for the loader in compliance with ergonomics and occupational health and safety standards; x Analyze and design the hydraulics system in the course of assembling a hydraulic power system and calculating its energetic efficiency.

2. Facts 2.1

Physical Characteristics of a Belt Conveyor and Loader

Baggage loaders are used to load and offload baggage and various types of cargo to and from the hold of airplanes while they are stationed in various locations throughout the airport’s grounds. Factors such as short airplane preparation time for new flights and the variety of airplane models used worldwide result in specific requirements. Belt conveyors must be designed so that they are considerably adaptable and have high speed and load capacity. In order to deliver quality service to travellers, all baggage and freight must arrive at destination, undamaged.

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Figure 13-1: Baggage loader in use

For safety reasons, loaders cannot exceed 35 km/h on airport grounds. The vehicle itself measures approximately 2 m wide and 8 m long. It is equipped with parking brakes doubled by a safety disk and vacuum pump brake system. It is normally powered by a water-cooled 4-stroke engine, which can run at 2,450 rpm. The engine runs on diesel, the most readily available airport fuel.

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Figure 13-2: Baggage conveyor

The baggage belt conveyor runs at 30 m/min. On either side of this belt are flap-like rails that direct baggage and cargo. Baggage and cargo size characteristics (weight, weight distribution, dimensions, shape, location of centre of gravity, etc.), surface (material and state of the surface, ruggedness, angles, bumps, cavities, etc.), rigidity and stability are highly variable.

2.2

Description of the Driver Cabin

Given the volume of traffic circulating at ground level, the baggage loader driver cabin must enable efficient and effective viewing of displays, faultless command control and excellent visibility of the vehicle’s surroundings. Below is a listing of the indicators for this type of vehicle.

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Table 13-1: Baggage loader indicators Equipment displayed on the control panel according to level of importance Level of importance Equipment (1-10) Indicator for close proximity of vehicle in front 6 Display for conveyor height

5

Light indicator for parking brakes

5

Light indicator for safety brakes (disks and vacuum pump) Fuel gauge display

6

Indicator for presence of baggage on the conveyor

7

Display for number of hours in use and mileage

2

Odometer display

3

Light indicator for activation of cabin heating

1

Indicator for conveyor malfunction

9

Activator to move conveyor position vertically

6

Activator to start up / stop conveyor, control belt speed and direction; may be split into three activators Cabin heating activation button

8

2

2

Indicator: warning light, visual or sound signal (to choose from with justification). Warning light: light. Display: LCD display, LEDs, digital, analog, (to choose from with justification). Activator: Lever, pushbutton, scroll wheel, joystick, (to choose from with justification).

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Maintenance Management

A preventive maintenance program of the utmost efficiency and effectiveness should be considered. The rate of conveyor usage and the speed required for airplane preparation are important factors to take into consideration. For instance, standard conveyor belts normally have a twoyear lifespan.

3. Questions After having conducted a comprehensive analysis of the baggage loader systems on the market and having become aware of the problems related to this vehicle, you are asked to reengineer a baggage loader, in order to improve the following points: hydraulics, strength of materials, ergonomics and occupational health and safety. You must propose a cost effective solution, since this type of transportation is not value-added for the client, but rather necessary equipment to ensure travellers a comfortable and pleasant transit to and from their destinations. The best solution proposed will be further developed as to the following aspects:

3.1

Strength of Materials

Determine the structural dimensions of a baggage loader and provide detailed calculations (Meriam and Kraige 1996) (Bazergui et al 2002). You are not required to design the chassis and axles. You will need to select hydraulic components (pumps, jacks and storage tanks), wheels, an engine, and electric components adapted to the conditions of use and prioritizing local suppliers.

3.2

Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power and Circuit Controls

The hydraulic power system must ensure steady and safe conveyor movement. When choosing the hydraulic pump, lift activators and command valves, charge loss in pipes and accessories must be taken into account. Design a hydraulic system, analyze the dynamic forces, calculate the power needed and simulate the behaviour of the proposed system. Any useless energy consumption will reduce the vehicle’s autonomy. A

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meticulous performance evaluation of the pump assembly and any system losses is therefore required.

3.3

Ergonomics and Occupational Health and Safety

Design the driver cabin of the luggage loader with special attention to the need to minimize the cognitive load for the operator, ensure proper comfort angles and grant optimal visibility of activity taking place exterior to the vehicle. Validate your results and justify your design choices using military standard MIL-STD-1472 F. As an engineer working in a small airport, your abilities are required to investigate an accident involving a baggage belt loader that occurred yesterday. Here is a summary of the event. Mr. T and Mr. B have been working together as airplane baggage loaders for many years. This morning the conveyor belt loader they usually use was inoperative so they took another one, different but equivalent. Because of this unforeseen delay, Mr. T and Mr. B were slightly more rushed to do their work. To be more efficient, they decided that Mr. T would throw the pieces of luggage to Mr. B so he would just have to turn and throw it onto the conveyor belt. While they were loading one of the airplanes, they noticed something was wrong with the lift arm of the belt loader. It rose too high, forcing the conveyor belt into an angle that prevented it from being close to the ground. Although this did not seem to affect belt speed, Mr. T and Mr. B informed their supervisor, who told them that it did not matter. Eventually, one of the pieces of luggage got stuck and would not go through the door of the plane hold. Because it blocked the other luggage, a pile began to accumulate until one of the suitcases toppled off the loader belt, onto Mr. T. Is it possible that due to muscle pain, Mr. B had not placed the baggage in the right position? Propose an automated system that could help to prevent this type of accident. Determine the possible sources of risk. Analyse the risk or risks involved and determine the level of risk for each. In other words, you are expected not only to evaluate these risks, but to determine the relative decisions that must be made upon assessment. Then determine the possible consequences of these risks. Determine their likelihood so as to carry out further analysis.

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Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank École de technologie supérieure for their financial support and acknowledge the collaboration of David Prud’Homme, Daniel Mongrain and Jean-François Potvin in collecting information.

References Bazergui, A., Bui-Quoc, T., Biron, A., McIntyre, G. and Laberge, C. "Résistance des matériaux", 3e éd., Presses Internationales Polytechnique de Montréal, 2002. Department of Defence, Design Criteria Standard Human Engineering, MIL-STD-1472F, United States. [Internet]. Available from: www.hf.faa.gov/docs/milstd14.pdf. Labonville, R., Concepts des circuits hydrauliques: une approche énergétique, Éditions de l’École Polytechnique de Montréal, 1991. Lupin, H. and Marsot, J., Sécurité des machines et des équipements de travail. Moyens de protection contre les risques mécaniques, Édition INRS ED 807, France, 2000. Meriam, J.L., and Kraige, L.G. "Mécanique de l'ingénieur - Statique", les éditions Reynald Goulet Inc., 1996. Merritt, H. E., Hydraulic Control Systems, John Willey & Sons, New York, 1993. Rabardel, P., Carlin, N., Chesnais, M., Lang, N., Le Joliff, G. and Pascal, M. Ergonomie concepts et méthodes, Éditions Octares, France, 1998. Regulation on occupational health and safety. Gazette officielle du Québec. Décret 885-2001. Extrait de. Sullivan, J. A., Fluid Power System: Theory and Applications, 3rd edition, Englewood Cliffs, New-Jersey, 1989. The Act Respecting Occupational Health and Safety, R.S.Q., Chap. S-2.1. www.andiamoinc.com/airlinebag.html.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN CASE STUDY: DESIGNING A LIFT TRUCK J.-P. KENNÉ, H. A. BOUZID, S. NADEAU, C. GINER-MORENCY

Summary This case study focuses on designing a lift truck. The use of a case study format is intended to enable engineering students to work on multidisciplinary projects. The purpose of this case study is to combine learned material in human factors engineering, hydraulics and strength of materials in the course of designing a lift truck. Students will use knowledge from each of these fields to solve problems presented in this case study. Results obtained through this study will enable professors to launch further projects or case studies. Keywords: Human factors engineering, hydraulics, strength of materials, lift trucks

1. Key Issues and Objectives Toyota, expert in manufacturing, leasing and selling high capacity lift trucks (see Figure 14-1), wishes to design a lift truck to meet the needs for lightweight material handling (see Figure 14-2). The company owner believes that it would be feasible to undertake designing and manufacturing 10 units per year and two units per year for the next 10 years in his shop. You are a junior engineer and you have been given the mandate to design the most versatile (capacity to turn sharp angles and to circulate in high fire and explosion hazard areas), most reliable (4000 hours operating without failure) and the most cost-effective lift truck on the market.

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These systems are based on classic hydraulic and automation principles (J.A Sullivan 1989, R. Labonville 1991 and H.E. Merritt 1993. Sizing and choice of materials must comply with current standards (Rabardel et al. 1998), equipment must comply with the act respecting occupational health and safety and should be ergonomic. In this case study, we wish to design a lift truck that is both innovative and affordable. Our objectives are to: x x x

Conduct a conceptual study of the system and calculate the sizes of its components; Analyze and design the operator station in compliance with occupational health and safety standards; Analyze and design a hydraulic power system by assembling a hydraulic power circuit.

Figure 14-1: High capacity lift truck

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2. Facts 2.1

Physical Characteristics of Lift Trucks

A lift truck uses an automatic hydraulic lifting system to stack/retrieve loads weighing up to 1 500 lbs and its load fork platform can reach a maximum height of 20 ft. The total time needed for the platform to reach the top of the mast or upright is 15 seconds (see Figure 14-3).

Figure 14-2: Forklift with adjustable angle

The load forks of the hydraulic lift can pick up any load stacked onto standard pallets. A lift truck travels at a maximum speed of 10 km/hr. It can travel on many types of surfaces, although it is mainly driven on even surfaces in factories. Since the driver often needs to turn sharply, it is important to prevent risks of the vehicle tipping over (see Figure 14-3).

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Swing Lock Cylinder

Figure 14-3: Risk of tipping over

3. Questions Once you have conducted a comprehensive analysis of the lift trucks on the market and become familiar with the problem at hand, you are asked to reengineer a lift truck to improve the following aspects: hydraulics, strength of materials and occupational health and safety. The solution that will be chosen will undergo further study in these three areas:

3.1

Strength of Materials

Determine the sizing of the lift truck of your choice and provide detailed calculations. You must design the structures that play a critical role in the vehicle’s operation and perform all necessary calculations, select the primary hydraulic and electric components (motor, pump, cylinders and tanks), perform the necessary power calculations. You must also design a system that minimizes the vehicle’s risks of tipping over through a simplified study (calculations of forces and moments only). Finally, you are asked to choose the appropriate tires for the conditions of use. The choice of diameter and tire type requires careful consideration.

3.2

Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Command Circuits

Design a hydraulic system and choose its components (pumps, motors, relief valves, clamps, distributors and hoses) taking into consideration loss of load in hoses and accessories. Examine the dynamics of the proposed system and make sure it meets the required extension time. You must calculate the system’s energetic efficiency and, if need be, optimize the design. Thorough testing of the pump group and losses is also necessary.

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Finally, a simulation of the hydraulic circuit must be done using a software program of your choice.

3.3 Ergonomics and Occupational Safety Formulate recommendations regarding lift truck ergonomics and safety. More specifically: x List the regulations and standards that refer to operating and designing lift trucks; x Determine the type or types of propulsion that meet occupational health and safety standards; x Using causal trees, define five possible causes of injury; x Once you have established the causal trees, validate your observations using the relevant articles from the regulation on occupational health and safety with reference to your vehicle design; x Determine the dimensions of the lift truck driver space. x Determine the positioning of the driver seat within the cabin and aim to accommodate 95 % of industrial workers; x Design the vehicle’s control panel to include the following indicators and actuators. Table 14-1: Importance level of indicators and actuators to be included in the vehicle's control panel design Controls and Displays Steering wheel Lever to raise the load forks Lever to lower the load forks Lever to tilt the load forks (forward and backward) Lever to move the load forks horizontally Light indicating vehicle in operation Light indicating load forks in motion Speedometer display Display for the fuel/gas/electric gauge (according to the type of power chosen) Gear shifter (forward/reverse)

Level of importance 8 6 6 5 5 3 4 5 4 7

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Choose the size and type of indicator lights and justify your choice. Position the actuators and determine their specifications (size, colour, activation mechanism, etc.). You are an engineer working for a lift truck manufacturer and your boss asks you to investigate the report of an accident that happened to a client while using one of the lift trucks. Here is a summary of the circumstances of the accident. Mrs. Prudence works in a storehouse and is just back from vacation. When she arrived at work, her employer gave her a list of tasks to do. To not waste time, she decided to start right away and got into her usual lift truck to begin to move out the piles of sheets of plywood to the yard. In her hurry, she struggled with one of the piles. When she had finally succeeded in piling the plywood onto the lift, she started towards the yard but, along the way, a part of the pile fell off the lift causing it to tilt and fall. If we consider that the lift truck is generally equipped with a swing lock cylinder to prevent this kind of accident, how would you explain the possible causes of its failure? Except for mechanical errors, what other mistakes might have been made in this situation? Propose safety measures that could have prevented this accident. Consulting standard ISO/IEC 31010:2009, explain which essential principles of effective risk management were not respected and how this led to the increased chances of this situation occurring.

3.4 Mecatronics Draw a block diagram and design the controller that will control the speed of the carriage. Driving speed is controlled by the operator’s use of the foot pedal accelerator.

Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank École de technologie supérieure for its financial support. They would also like to acknowledge the collaboration of Daniel Mongrain, François Potvin and David Prud’Homme in collecting information.

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References Department of Defence, “Design Criteria Standard Human Engineering, MIL-STD-1472F”, United States. [Internet]. Available from: http://hfetag.dtic.mil/docs/mil-std-1472f.pdf. Labonville, R. Concepts des circuits hydrauliques: une approche énergétique, Éditions de l’École Polytechnique de Montréal, 1991. Lupin, H., et Marsot, J. (2000). « Sécurité des machines et des équipements de travail. Moyens de protection contre les risques mécaniques ». Édition INRS ED 807, France. [Internet]. Available from: http://www.inrs.fr/produits/publications.pdf/ed807.pdf. Merritt, H.E. Hydraulic Control Systems, John Willey & Sons, New York, 1993. Rabardel, P., Carlin, N., Chesnais, M., Lang, N., Le Joliff, G. et Pascal, M. Ergonomie concepts et méthodes, Éditions Octares, France, 1998. Regulation on occupational health and safetyS-2.1, r.19.01. [Internet]. Available from: http://www.csst.qc.ca/pdf/RSST.pdf. Sullivan, J.A. Fluid Power System: Theory and Applications, 3rd ed., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1989. The Act Respecting Occupational Health and Safety, R.S.Q., Chapter S2.1. [Internet]. Available from: http://doc.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=/S_ 2_1/S2_1.html or http://www.csst.qc.ca/fr/14_lois_et_regl/141_lois/1412_sst/sst.asp.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN CASE STUDY: J.L. VACHON: INDUSTRY LEADER AND PIONEER S. NADEAU , B. ATEME-NGUEMA, C. BENEDETTI, C. VACHON

Summary This case study focuses on the design and management of a manufacturing system and more specifically, between 1907 and 1965. The use of a case study format is intended to enable engineering and management students to work according to a multidisciplinary approach. The purpose of this case is to integrate material learned in human factors engineering, industrial engineering, and operations and production management in the course of designing and managing a traditional manufacturing system. Students will use knowledge from these fields to solve problems presented in this case study. Information hereby gathered will enable professors to prepare additional projects or case studies. Keywords: Wood processing, entrepreneurship, manufacturing systems, human factors engineering, industrial engineering, operations and production management

1. Context Academic study on the subject of manufacturing system design and management often begins with a historical overview of the evolution of industry, spanning from the Stone Age flint tool workshops to the recent arrival of e-commerce, with highlights along the way including the English “spinning jenny”, Taylorism, Fordism, just-in-time production,

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Toyota approach, etc. Examples from the world over abound from England, Japan, France and the United States. And what of the province of Quebec (Canada)? A curious student would have to consult the history department even though Quebec has nothing to envy other places. It has its St. Maurice Ironworks, its Bombardier, its Desmarais, and other entrepreneurs not so widely known, but just as industrious. The factory of Joseph Linière Vachon is one such outstanding example of entrepreneurship from a self-educated man from the Beauce region. The industrial windows and doors joinery was well-established on SaintJoseph-de-Beauce Street, near Québec City, from 1907 to 1965. J.L. Vachon also owned three farms in the Matapédia valley, Témiscouata, Saint-Odilon de Cranbourne, Ste-Justine, St-Camille-de-Bellechasse and St-Anselme, providing in 1927, work to some 3,500 lumberjacks. The province of Quebec is a treasure grove of natural resources and one of its many jewels is its forests. During the time of J.L. Vachon’s factory, compartments of forest land belonging to the Crown and located on the southern shores of the St. Lawrence River (from the Gaspé region to Bois-Francs) were sold to industrialists for exploitation. At that time, the province believed that the logging industry would stimulate the economy and offset the work shortages in regional areas. Despite high birthrates and the worldwide economic crisis of 1929, the logging industry managed to sustain rural families and prevent an exodus of labour to the mills in northern United States. Financing for all these activities came from personal funds and property guaranteed bank loans. The most popular method of transportation was the railway system. The main source of energy was steam until 1940. The workforce was essentially composed of underprivileged young men coming from a farming background, with little or no schooling (first years of elementary at the most). Public health and security programs were not yet implemented, making the towns and their citizens vulnerable to rampant fires and contagious diseases, such as tuberculosis. The Roman Catholic clergy was all-pervading as much in politics as in personal and industrial matters. In 1907, factory workers often consisted of children and adolescents. The 50-hour work week covered Monday to Friday from 7 a.m. to 12 p.m.

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and 1 p.m. to 5 p.m., with another shift on Saturday morning from 7 a.m. to 12 p.m. o’clock. The work day was marked by the factory whistle and the Angelus church bells at 6 a.m., noon and 6 p.m. Factory managers were like father figures with their workers, creating a friendly and less stressful work environment. J.L. Vachon was attuned to the financial difficulties his workers faced and would at times, without a second thought, increase their wages to help them provide for their families. In 1940, the industrial joinery industry soared in the Beauce region with two military contracts (2nd World War) and the coming of electricity to the region, supplying nearly thirty workshops. The J.L. Vachon factory then began to vary its production line and added to its order notebooks louvers, jalousies, classroom and church benches, desks, chairs for educators, ironing boards, medicine chests, stairways, counters or dining ware, quarter rounds and other mouldings, wardrobes and exterior cladding material (clapboards). By setting up catalogue orders, a storefront adjoining the factory and hiring bilingual and innovative door-to-door sales representatives, by 1930, J.L. Vachon was able to expand its market and offer clients customized and affordable products. This expansion took place in: x Quebec, mainly Montreal, Three-Rivers, Sherbrooke, ThetfordMines and Québec City, x Ontario, x the Maritimes (New-Brunswick) and, x New England (USA). The company’s turnover went from $ 30,000/annually in 1914, to $ 130,000/annually in 1936, to $ 177,500/annually in 1940 with more than 77 people (joiners and workers) employed by the company. J.L. Vachon then implemented an informal system of sub-contracting with the joinery Trefflé Goulet & Fils, as well as an informal method of labour recruitment extending beyond his hometown (Saint-Jules and Vallée-Jonction Parishes). The post-war era provided government contracts up until the late 1950s. For instance, the J.L. Vachon company participated in the following projects: x Housing construction regulated by the federal government (Wartime Housing);

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x Construction of Sherbrooke University; x Construction of the Hospital and the Saint-Georges de Beauce Seminary; x Construction of several churches; x Housing construction in Kuujuak; x Construction for the chain of radars system in the Canadian Arctic (DEW Line); x Construction to increase the number of provincial schools. The J.L. Vachon company’s turnover was $ 588,500/annually in 1948. By the time the J.L. Vachon factory had reached maturity, it supplied work for 175 employees (joiners and workers). x In 1960, the emergence of an associated industry, the plastics industry, bred fierce competition for the joinery industry. Fortunately, the preferred mode of transportation became trucking, with its negotiable rates enabling increased possibilities in delivery locations and more flexibility. J.L. Vachon sub-contracted its transportation needs to Bégin Transport in Saint-Joseph de Beauce.

2. Key Issues and Considerations 2.1

Location

The J.L. Vachon factory was located at one end of the town of SaintJoseph de Beauce, along the railroad.

2.2. General Layout The J.L. Vachon factory included a sawmill, from 1907 to 1942, a steam dry kiln for lumber (125ft * 60 ft), a blacksmith shop, a timber yard and of course, the joinery (Figure 15-1).

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Figure 15-1: View of J.L. Vachon factory (from Vachon 2006)

In the 1940s, an increase in production volume led J.L. Vachon to stock up on sawn boards. Also, a rail conveyor was added to transport timber from the dryer kiln to the joinery. The blacksmith’s shop was used as a maintenance workshop for the factory’s various machinery and tools. It was equipped with a chimney, a hearth, an anvil and various tools. At that time, reuse was common practice. J.L. Vachon would purchase industrial equipment from joineries that had gone out of business. Various parts from the equipment were removed and modified at the forge to eventually be used as replacement parts for the factory’s equipment.

2.3. Detailed Layout In 1949, the space occupied by the joinery was 34,000 ft2, spread out over two stories. Since the joinery was damaged by fire twice, the information describing the dimensions of the first joinery was lost; the second rebuilt in 1936 occupied 26,700 ft2 over two stories. The building was heated by steam. The joinery was, for the most part, equipped with traditional machines and tools from Ontario: planers, borers, mitre saws, head saws, moulders, sanders and mortisers. These tools and machines were activated by a belt pulley system, mounted on steam-powered shafts up until 1945, at which time steam was replaced by electricity. The machines and tools were located in the centre of the building (Figure 15-2). The joinery also had workbenches conveniently located beneath the windows along the perimeter walls and used for assembling parts. It also

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had a freighht elevator, a paint p room an nd a drying rooom adjoining the paint room.

Figure 15-2: IInterior view off the factory (frrom photographhs of A. Morin)

2.4. Productio on Workflow w The woooden planks were w carried from the timberr yard to the dryer d kiln (A: boiler hhouse; Figure 15-3) on raiil carts. Oncee dry (2 ½ daays), they were stocked in the storagge area (R: storage; Figuree 15-3) or saw wn using a band saw (M M: machines--tools; Figure 15-3). The ssawn planks were w then piled onto tthe carts andd sent to the building’s seecond floor by b freight elevator (e: elevator; Figuure15-3). Upon arrriving on thee 2nd floor, the boards weere processed d through planers (M: machines-toools; Figure 15-4), and sent tto the three workshops w for workerss to use to build b the various productss (M: machin nes-tools; Figure 15-4)). The parts thhat were ready y to be assem mbled were theen sent to the joiners (I: workbenchh; Figure 15--4). The stairrcases were assembled a using gluingg equipment (C: glue; Fig gure 15-4). Thhe assembled products were then saanded (o: sandder; Figure 15-4) to embelliish the wood finishing. f

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Annex 3 Factory : 1er floor Scale : ¼” = 10’ Legend : A = Boiler house v = scrap wood chute u = sawdust chute e = elevator G = overhanging roof H = depot M = Machines – Tools P = doors x = rails R = wood storage Z = outdoor shed

Figure 15-3: J.L. Vachon Factory Layout of 1st floor (from Vachon 2006)

Parts to be painted were sent to the paint room (P: paint; Figure 15-4). The parts requiring weather-proofing were sent to the tempering room (t: stain; Figure 15-4). The painted or treated wood parts were laid in an adjoining drying room (S: drying; Figure 15-4) fitted with windows, if required, then packed into wooden crates made from rough sawn timber.

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The finished products were sent down by elevator (e: elevator; Figure 15-4), to be laid in the storage area (H: depot; Figure 15-3) on the 1st floor.

2.5. Hygiene, Occupational Health and Safety and Environment Fire protection measures were not implemented until 1949. The addition of water sprinklers and a fire hydrant near the J.L. Vachon factory were improvements that would at least help to reduce the risk of loosing the entire factory to a fire. Health and work safety practices were also virtually inexistent despite the health hazards of loud noises, chemical contaminants (paint and tempering processes) and dust (including sawdust) and risks of musculoskeletal injury (generally in the timber yard). The most frequently occurring accidents were severed fingers (mainly at the moulding machine) and splinters. Joiners and workers wore coveralls and gloves. The blacksmith wore a welder’s helmet and protective eyewear for welding and grinding. The paint room had many windows and was equipped with two fans. Production waste was reused or recycled: sawdust fed the steam burner and heating system, and production waste (scrap wood) was sold to the villagers of Saint-Joseph de Beauce, who used it as firewood for their wood stoves or to make toys for their children. Scraps of glass were stored in a fenced-off outdoor area, near the railroad tracks.

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Annex 3 Factory : 2nd floor Scale : ¼” = 10’ Legend : c = Foreman v = Scrap wood chute u = sawdust chute C = glue press e = elevator E = work area i = workbench M = machines – tools p = doors o = sander P = paint r = wood stock S = paint drying t = tempering

Figure 15-4: J.L. Vachon factory layout of 2nd floor, shows location of 3 workshops (from Vachon 2006)

2.6. Production and Quality Management The J.L. Vachon factory operated according to their sales orders (make to order). Its travelling sales representatives supplied the factory with the product specifications it was to manufacture: the type, amount, wood essences, surface finishing and desired dimensions. J.L. Vachon did not have, nor did his peers have, much education. In this context, production management meant supervising workers by means of three foremen and monitoring four performance indicators:

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x The number of feet of wood in the timber yard; x The number of feet of wood used during the week; x The sales revenues for finished products; x The number of truckloads of production waste sold to the villagers. Quality control was performed at the beginning stages, mainly, by the foremen of each production batch. Workers and joiners also ensured quality control to a certain extent. Experienced workers were on hand to correct nonconformities, should any occur. If a problem with quality persisted, J.L. Vachon himself would intervene.

2.7. A Disappointing End In spite of its nearly sixty years in operation, the high financial risks taken, two fires that led to two bankruptcies and two business re-openings (once all its creditors had been entirely reimbursed), the J.L. Vachon factory was forced to close its doors. It was no longer profitable. Changes in politics, economics, technology and the recent death of its founder got the better of one of Quebec’s leaders in the doors and windows industry. Efforts made by the community of Saint-Joseph de Beauce to save the company were in vain.

3. Students’ Task Students are invited to analyze, propose and criticize the various design and management facets of this type of manufacturing system.

3.1 a. b. c.

Industrial Strategy

Describe and analyze the internal forces of the J.L. Vachon company. Using the diamond model of Porter, describe and analyze the external environment of the company. J.L. Vachon did not, to the best of his family’s recollection, establish a mission or formal global strategy for his company. The two factory fires destroyed the company’s archives; therefore, no records remain from which to gather the competitive context that enabled J.L. Vachon to position the company best for its market. Based on your previous analysis of the company’s internal and external environment, formulate a mission, global strategy and potential competitive factor for the J.L. Vachon company.

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139

Is the J.L. Vachon company non-diversified (focused on one product or process) or diversified? Justify your answer.

3.2

Productivity and Performance Indicators

What are the advantages and disadvantages of the performance indicators chosen by J.L. Vachon to supervise factory production?

3.3

Study of Production Capacity

What are the various means employed by J.L. Vachon to meet increasing demands?

3.4 a. b.

Study and Measurement of Work

Draw a path chart for this factory. Discuss factory layout, work efficiency and allocation of space. Draw a flow process chart for the materials aspect of this factory. Discuss the non-value added activities for this manufacturing process.

3.5

Localization

What might be the deciding factors J.L. Vachon took into consideration when choosing the location of his factory?

3.6 a. b.

Factory Layout

Which type of process (project, workshop, mass production by lots, continuous mass production by “process”) and which type of work flow (I, T, V, A) are used in this factory? Discuss the J.L. Vachon factory layout in regards to a possible future expansion, adaptability and versatility, efficiency of production flow, efficiency of handling and storage, use of space, ease of supervision and control, ease of maintenance, etc.

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3.7 a.

b.

Quality and Continuous Improvement

Using the 6M method (Machines, Material, Measuring / Monitoring, Manpower, and Environment / Milieu), list improvements that could be made to the J.L. Vachon factory. Using the theory of constraints, identify the physical and political constraints, the J.L. Vachon company faced and that could have led to its closure.

3.8

Occupational Health and Safety

Suppose J.L. Vachon hired you as a consultant. Design and elaborate a workplace hazards prevention plan for his factory.

3.9

Sustainable Development

What are the various measures implemented by J.L. Vachon that comply with sustainable development principles? Justify your answer by contrasting your understanding of the J.L. Vachon factory with other common practices of the day found in related readings.

Acknowledgements We would foremost like to commend the pride, determination, perseverance and entrepreneurial qualities of the Beauce region, passed down from one generation to the next thanks to history (Claude Vachon), museology (Marius-Barbeau Museum and the town of Saint-Joseph de Beauce) and family knowledge (Louise Cliche Nadeau and all the descendants of J.L. Vachon). We thank you all for having accepted to share this precious heritage beyond the families of the Beauce region.

References Regulation on occupational health and safety. Gazette officielle du Québec. Décret 885-2001. Stevenson, W. J. et Benedetti, C. « La gestion des opérations : produits et services », 2e édition, Chenelière/McGraw-Hill, Canada, 2007, 801 pages.

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The Act Respecting Occupational Health and Safety, R.S.Q., Chapter S-2. Vachon, C., "Joseph Linière Vachon un industriel tenace et audacieux", Éditions de la Petite Montagne, 2006, 124 pages.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN CASE STUDY: THE USE OF ENGINEERED WOOD IN THE FONDACTION BUILDING IN QUÉBEC CITY K. NAVILYS1, E. RAUFFLET

Summary This chapter focuses on the design and construction of the innovative and award-winning Fondaction commercial building in Québec City. Inaugurated in May 2010, this building is innovative on several accounts: (1) it is the first all-engineered wood-structure commercial building in North America; (2) it promotes local, abundant and underused timber as an alternative to the overwhelming dominance of concrete in the construction of commercial buildings in the North American context; and (3) from a technical standpoint, it is an example of the feasibility of a noncombustible wood structure. The main objectives of this chapter are (1) to highlight the institutional, organizational and technical challenges and conditions for radical innovation in the construction industry; and (2) to show the challenges of bringing together social, economic, and environmental dimensions in an engineering project. This chapter is organised in four sections. Section 1 briefly introduces the environmental dimensions of the construction industry and of building use; as a vital industry in North America, the environmental impact of the construction industry is significant. Recent innovations in design and construction of engineered wood structures are steadily being introduced. Section 2 focuses on the context and the steps behind the project. Section 3 1

The authors thank Virginie Rigot and Olga Tabernero, HEC Montréal, for contributions on an earlier draft of this chapter.

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describes the innovation process from the initial concept and design per se, in 2007, to the Fondaction Building’s inaugural in 2010, and its first evaluation two years after the inaugural in 2012. Section 4 identifies several lessons from the process of design and construction of the Fondaction Building for both the construction-related professions and organisations more generally. Keywords: Green gold LEED certification, green building, sustainable building , recycling, energy efficiency, water consumption, GHG (greenhouse gases), VOC, deconstruction A special thanks to Mr. Léopold Beaulieu (President and CEO of Fondaction CSN), Mr. Jean-Pierre Simard (Director and Project Manager - Fondaction CSN), Mrs. Suzanne La Ferrière (Communication Department -Fondaction CSN), Mr. Gilles Huot (Architect - GHA DD), Mr. Frédéric Fecteau (Lead Project Manager – Pomerleau; construction and project management firm), Mr. Stéphane Rivest (Structural engineer BES), Mr. Paul Lhotsky (Engineer specialized in fire protection - Civelec). Errors and omissions are the authors’ responsibility.

1. Introduction May 11, 2010 - Québec City, Léopold Beaulieu, President of Fondaction, Nathalie Normandeau, the Quebec Minister of Natural Resources and Wildlife, Régis Labeaume, Mayor of Québec City and the President of Cecobois2, officially inaugurate Fondaction’s new commercial building. This 60 000 square feet commercial building was built from a 100 % FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) certified woodframe structure entirely manufactured in Quebec (See Appendix 1). This inaugural represents a key moment for many individuals and organisations for the following reasons: First, it culminates three years of sustained joint efforts of Fondaction, the promoter, who was motivated to build an exemplary building, Mr. Gilles Huot, the architect, who sought to achieve a technological breakthrough, and several engineering firms and wood manufacturing companies, who had to address and overcome several unexpected technical and administrative challenges. Second, this building is the first six-storey commercial building with a wooden structure in 2

CECOBOIS is the expertise center for non-residential wood construction in Quebec. http://www.cecobois.com/.

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North America, and the day of its inaugural, May 11, is the Wood Materials Day in the Province of Quebec, fitting symbolism for this project. For several members of the crisis-stricken timber industry, this building is expected to represent a successful demonstration that more diversified uses for this material are possible, which may open new avenues. Third, this building sends a strong message to the local community: Fondaction and other social economy organisations have decided to invest and to create employment in the redeveloped Saint Roch neighbourhood of Québec City. This chapter focuses on the design and construction of the innovative and award-winning Fondaction commercial building in Québec City. This chapter is organised into three sections. Section 1 briefly introduces the environmental dimensions of the construction industry and of the use of buildings; construction is a central industry in North America with a major environmental impact; and recent innovations in design and construction are steadily being introduced. Section 2 focuses on the context and the steps behind the project. Section 3 describes the innovation process, from the initial Fondaction Building concept and design per se, in 2007, to the inaugural and first evaluation two years after the inaugural. Section 4 identifies several lessons from the experience of designing and constructing the Fondaction Building related to promotion of the use of timber and engineered wood products for the non-residential construction industry.

Section 1. Environmental Impacts of the Building Industry in North America This section briefly introduces (1) the context of energy and resource use in the construction and maintenance of buildings in North America, and (2) the challenges to bringing about changes toward sustainability, and (3) initiatives addressing these challenges. In the US and Canada, the construction sector represents 15 % and 12 % of GDP, and buildings are a major contributor of GHG (greenhouse gases) emissions. In Canada alone, buildings account for 48 % of GHG emissions, far ahead of transportation (27 %) and industry (25 %) (Institut royal d’architecture 2012). Energy consumption is projected to increase by 37 % and greenhouse gases by 36 % over the next 20 years in North America, and global energy consumption is projected to increase by 54 % over the same period (Domard and Lanoie 2011). In addition, the

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environmental impact of the building industry in North America is considerable. In Canada, Mexico and the United States, the commercial and residential building sector represents, respectively, 20 %, 30 % and 40 % of primary energy consumption. This sector generates 20 % to 25 % of overall landfill waste, and represents 5 % to 12 % of total water consumption (Domard and Lanoie 2011). Therefore, in a context of rising energy prices and increasing environmental constraints, consumption and externalities related to the buildings comprising our urban landscape are becoming a significant issue while creating opportunities for more efficiency and more sustainable resource management. However, despite their undeniable properties in terms of ecoefficiency, reduction of GHG emissions during construction and useful building life, use of wood products in the non-residential building sector is still marginal and faces two major challenges: First, concrete has become the dominant material used in commercial buildings worldwide: twice as much concrete is used as all other building materials put together, and in the next 30 years, the demand for concrete is estimated to double worldwide3. Concrete has recognized properties, such versatility in use and robustness. At the same time, concrete is an energy-intensive construction material. In all, concrete’s dominant position has led to a weakening of expertise and depth of knowledge for more sustainable materials like wood products in the construction industry. Second, there is a perception that the initial cost of green buildings is much higher than conventional buildings, even though several studies show no significant increase in cost, as shown in the Table A below. Indeed, some steps generate higher costs during the process but tend to be compensated by LEED construction measures, including: less finish work, increased efficiency in heating, cooling and water management systems, as well as in energy use due to abundant fenestration and access to natural light.

3

Le Journal de l'habitation, 27 juin 2011 : http://www.journalhabitation.com/Environnement/2011-06-27/article2614914/Exigences-et-particularites-de-la-production-du-beton-et-du-ciment/1.

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Table 16-1: Cost increase (%) of purchase by level of certification Kats (2003) Certification LEED LEED Argent LEED Or LEED Platine Moyenne

0.66 2.11 1.82 6.50 1.83

Morrison Hershfield (2005) 0.8 3.1 4.5 11.5

Syphers et al. (2003)

Yudelson (2010)

0-2.5

0-2

0-3.3 0.3-5.0 4.5-8.5

1-3 3-5 >5

Source: “Rentabilité et Développement Durable des billets verts pour des bâtiments verts » Domard et Lanoie, Janvier 2011. GRIDD-HEC Montréal

In fact, building promoters and users are increasingly aware of the opportunities and advantages of green buildings, particularly regarding the characteristics of the overall useful life of the property: heating and cooling systems, and water and energy efficiency. In 2009 in the US, the US Conference of Mayors, 45 states, and 142 towns supported LEED initiatives, both through decrees, policies and fiscal incentives (US Green Building Council 2010) and acceleration of the building approval process (Domard and Lanoie, 2012). Progress on greater water and energy efficiency is creating a more favourable environment for the green building construction sector and for developers. In all, in North America, a momentum regarding green buildings seems to be occurring.

Section 2. Context and Steps Behind a Visionary Project Created in 1996, Fondaction is the Development Fund of the Quebec Confederation of National Trade Unions for Economic Cooperation and Employment4 (Confédération des Syndicats Nationaux). As of 2010, Fondaction holds the savings of 100 000 workers and manages $ 700 million in assets. Fondaction has three main goals. Its first goal is to democratize access to professionally managed retirement accounts. A network of volunteer local representatives signs up shareholders who direct savings to Fondaction. Participants typically use Fondaction as a supplement to an employer-provided pension. Legally, savings invested in Fondaction are locked in until retirement, except in special circumstances 4 CSN: The Confederation of National Trade Unions for Economic Cooperation and Employment; in French, the Confédération des Syndicats Nationaux.

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such as job loss or periods of retraining. Foundation’s second mission is to support job creation and growth in Quebec, either through long-term investment in small and medium-sized local companies or by investing in outside companies whose activities benefit the province. These two core business activities contribute to maintaining jobs and stimulating the Quebec economy while facilitating access to retirement savings to workers and the population at large. Fondaction’s third goal is to promote economic development focusing on social needs and sustainable development, a vision fostered by Fondaction’s president, Mr. Leopold Beaulieu, who was awarded, in March 2012, the Green CEO Award by the Business Magazine Les Affaires5. As President and CEO of Fondaction since its inception in 1996, Leopold Beaulieu has dedicated almost 40 years of his life to the social economy and the cooperative sectors6. He has notably been very active in various organisations directly involved in sustainability issues like the CIRIEC Canada (Center for InterUniversity Reference and Information on Community Enterprises) and as a member of Technopole Angus' board of directors. Technopole Angus was established in 2004 and is a partnership between Fondaction and Société de Développement Angus (a non-profit organisation), whose purpose is to redevelop a de-industrialised neighbourhood in Montréal (Rosemont–Petite-Patrie). As of 2012, 50 private, social economy and institutional businesses, representing 2,000 jobs, were active in this unique LEED-ND Gold7 business park. (See Appendix 6 for more details on Léopold Beaulieu’s trajectory). In the mid-2000s, Mr. Beaulieu realized that Fondaction needed a new building in Quebec City as Fondaction’s offices were becoming inadequate given the expansion of the organisation in the region. He resolved to pursue several simultaneous objectives. First, the initial intention was to bring together under the same roof the affiliated organisations dedicated to the solidarity economy. Some partners present 5

The Green Award CEO of Les Affaires Business Magazine highlights the personal contribution of a business executive in adopting practices focusing on environmental protection and sustainable development compatible with the goals of profitability and performance of the organisation. 6 See Appendix 6. Highlights on M. Beaulieu’s business career. 7 LEED Neighborhood Development.

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in Montréal, notably Filaction and Caisse d’économie solidaire Desjardins already showed interest in the project. The second objective was to promote a “green” building based on the experience of Technopole Angus. Mr. Beaulieu contacted Architect Gilles Huot, with whom he worked for almost 30 years, notably on the Angus Technopole project, and who shared his vision of sustainable development. Gilles Huot launched fairly quickly into discussing the idea of developing an eco-friendly wood-frame structure for the project. Huot was developing expertise in the use of timber in buildings and proposed to Mr. Beaulieu the use of timber in the structure of the building. The third objective was related to Mr. Beaulieu’s concerns about the crisis in the forestry and timber industry. The forestry sector8 is a pillar of the Quebec economy. It accounted for 2.3 % of Quebec GDP in 2008 and accounted for more than 67 999 direct jobs in 2009 (Quebec Forest Industry Council). Some 31 % of Canadian forest product exports came from the Province of Quebec ($ 7,3 billion) in 2009 and the main markets are, respectively, the United States (78 %), the European Union (8 %) and Latin America (5 %)9. Some 131 000 jobs were directly related to wood processing in 2007. In fact, annually/on annual basis, the industry is generating nearly $ 30 billion in deliverable goods and an added value of more than $ 11 billion to Quebec’s economy (Quebec Minister of Natural Resources and Wildlife 2008). An additional characteristic of the timber industry concerns job location: most jobs are located in remote areas of the Province where other job opportunities are scarce, and the closing of a mill or of a transformation unit often has a very significant social and economic impacts. Since 2005, the entire Quebec forestry sector has faced a deep crisis. Combined cyclical and structural factors, made the crisis complex and short-term implementation of effective solutions was difficult for the following reasons. First, since the signing in 1988 of the Canada-US FTA (Free Trade Agreement), Canada and the US have several times failed to resolve quickly their trade disputes, particularly on softwood lumber products. A turning point in this dispute was the imposition of a duty of 27 % by the United States on imports of Canadian lumber between 2002 and 2005. After four years of intense negotiations, the two countries finally concluded a seven-year agreement on timber on April 27, 2006 which ended countervailing duties 8

The Quebec forest industry is broken down in three main segments : the first segment is the softwood sawmilling, the second consists of hardwood sawmilling including the lumber, board and value-added wood products, and the last segment refers to the pulp, paper and paperboard products.

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on Canadian imports. Unfortunately, the damage to the Canadian lumber industry was already obvious as 412 sawmills closed and 23,807 Canadian workers lost their jobs between 2004 and 2008 (Germain 2012). In Quebec alone, the forestry industry lost 11 000 jobs between 2005 and 2007 (Quebec Minister of Natural Resources and Wildlife 2008). Second, during the same period, the lumber industry faced a combination of cyclical challenges: on the demand side, high inventory of unsold new houses in the US coincided with a drop in housing construction of 70 % for new units, directly causing overcapacity in the industry and leading to a fall in demand and price for lumber products between 2004 and 2010. On the supply side, the sharp appreciation of the Canadian dollar in relation to the US dollar (Mair 2005), combined with increased cost of energy and raw materials have reduced the competitiveness of and further pressured a Canadian industry already weakened. Third, the industry must deal with many structural issues; indeed, due to a lack of investment, the industry is struggling to support innovation, modernize and simply survive in a fierce and changing competitive environment. The poor performance of Quebec’s forest management also placed the industry at a competitive disadvantage in facing new trends such as globalization of markets, acceleration of technological innovation and integration of sustainable development principles. Finally, the public has lost interest in the industry’s difficulties, which results in an alarming lack of leadership succession in the industry. This gloomy context motivated Fondaction’s decision to support the timber industry in Quebec through construction of a commercial building using engineered wood products. From an environmental standpoint, wood is a non-polluting, recyclable material, which acts as a carbon sink. Fondaction’s belief was that the use of wood products (head of black spruce) in the non-residential construction sector could serve as an example to transform the forestry industry, and to help the strategic repositioning and competitiveness of the timber industry. At the same time, after the “Summit on the Future of Quebec Forest Sector” (Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune 2008) in December 2007 and following the recommendations of the Quebec Natural resources and Wildlife Department, the Quebec Government adopted in February 2008, by decree, implementation of an industrial development strategy focused on products with high added-value like wood products. The purpose of this strategy is, notably, to promote the use of wood, especially in the construction of public, institutional and

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commercial buildings. These economic, social and organizational dimensions set the context for the construction of the building per se.

Section 3. Designing and constructing the Building Construction of Fondaction’s new building in Quebec City unfolded in three stages10: design and permitting (December 2007 – February 2009); preparing the site, notably excavation, decontamination, and foundations (August 2008 – June 2009); and construction and completion (June 2009 – May 2010). See appendix 3 for a chronology of the construction process. Phase 1: From Intention to Conception (December 2007 – February 2009)—Design-Administrative Stage In December 2007, the decision to use a wood-frame structure for the construction was taken by the Project Manager and the designers11. Their challenge consisted of adapting the plans and obtaining licences, namely, removing a mortgage on the construction site and obtaining building permits. However, one of the major issues at this stage was directly linked to the innovative nature of the project, constructing a six-storey commercial building using a combustible material. In fact, the first obstacles concerned compliance with the Quebec 2005 National Building Code (NBC) on two issues, namely ensuring the safety of persons and property especially in case of fire, and the non-combustibility of nonresidential buildings with more than four floors. The Code does not prohibit the construction of buildings with combustible materials per se. However, professionals who intend to use a material not prescribed by the Code have the burden of proof and need to demonstrate to the RBQ that the project meets the requirements of the Code as well as would a building constructed with non-combustible materials. The new edition of the National Building Code of Canada (NBC 2005)12 released in March 2008 gave professionals more leeway to demonstrate the suitability of a material such as wood in a frame building 10

See Appendix 3: Major steps of Fondaction’s building construction. See Appendix 2: Jean-Pierre Simard, Fondaction's Project Manager and the Designers; Gilles Huot (architect) and Stéphane Rivest (Structural Engineer from BES). 12 March 2008 refers to the date of publication. The New NBC 2005 is a new edition of the NBC. The NBC is released with a delay of 3 years which explains why it is called NBC 2005 while it was published in 2008. 11

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structure. The NBC 2005 described two different ways to comply and to reach its four main objectives, namely Safety, Health, Access, and protection of the building against fire and structural damage. The first option consisted of adopting the acceptable solutions prescribed by the Code, while the second option involved seeking alternatives that would achieve at least the minimum levels of performance required13; in other words, professionals need to either comply with the acceptable solutions provided by the Code or prove that the alternatives they propose have equal or superior qualities to the minimum levels of performance required. The uncertainty surrounding the suitability of the wood-frame structure building permit lasted almost a year, and obliged the designers to design two projects, one with a concrete structure, a second with a wood-frame structure. Demonstration of compliance with the Code consisted of proving that the planned building would be “a non-combustible building with combustible materials”. Paul Lhotsky, President of Civelec, the engineering firm in charge of the fire protection demonstration stated “it is not because the building contains combustible material that is less resistant to fire and less safe than a building using non-combustible building materials such as concrete or steel”. In February 2009, Fondaction finally received its permit from the Municipality of Quebec City for construction of the 6-storey wood-frame commercial building. This represented a giant step for the wood-products industry in this market segment. Phase 2: Site preparation and foundations (August 2008 – June 2009) Deconstruction of existing buildings on the site was carried out in August 2008; 94 % of materials were recycled and recovered. However, while the dismantling phase took place smoothly in two weeks, the excavation work turned out to be much more difficult: the decontamination area initially identified was much larger than expected and several errors by the subcontractor generated extra costs, which led to delays. The cleanup lasted six months and foundation work started only in February 2009. Foundation work continued until June 2009, including construction in concrete of three levels of underground parking. At this stage, above-ground construction could finally begin.

13

See Appendix 5: Notes on the National Building Code of Canada 2005.

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Phase 3: The building “Above ground” – A high-precision structure (June 2009 – May 2010) The building was erected based on watch-making-like precision for the wood frame. The wood-frame structure was based on a three cycles of two floors each and following the same sequence. First, concrete-block structures were built for stairways and elevators, and include shear walls to counter the effect of lateral load acting on the wood-frame structure. In fact, the technical and innovation issues surrounding the project appeared in both the design and construction stages. Structural engineers faced a lack of technical data on wood-frame structures for commercial buildings, including how to make calculations detailing arrangements of the connections – how the “pieces of the wood puzzle” need to be assembled together and how they would interact. Stéphane Rivest (BES): “Creep of the building, corresponding to the settling assessment of the construction (moisture rate content, load effects on the on-going deformation of the building); research of the most suitable equations for the project to determine the overall settling of the building based on several codes; and the adaptation to the materials supplied by some manufacturers (including dimensions, specs, and resistance) to make them work within the building requirements.” Between July 2009 and March 2012, once the first level of the structure was completed, the construction team began inside work, including installation of plumbing, ventilation, the fire sprinkler system, and mechanical and electronic systems. Special care was taken so as to make the hybrid (Concrete-Wood) nature of the structure visible. Indeed, wood was used as a building material as well as a finish, which made it necessary to protect it during the construction process from heavy equipment brought onto the work site. In addition, electricians and plumbers had to rethink the trajectory flow (pipes) and electrical wires for similar aesthetic concerns. For instance, false ceilings were avoided, which led to savings. Moreover, visible timber offered high quality interior design, which increased comfort (brightness, health aspects of materials) and the aesthetics of the workplace.

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Once the three cycles were completed, the construction manager sealed the building by undertaking exterior finishing work. Special care was taken on several aspects. First, the curtain walls offered large windows, leading to significant reductions in energy consumption. Second, aluminum track systems and terracotta tiles, much lighter for the backbone of the building, are fixed on the metal studs and gypsum walls. Despite the challenges involved, the project did not exceed the initially allocated overall budget of $ 14,5 million. Fondaction’s new building demonstrates that a six storey wood-frame commercial building was not necessarily more expensive when benchmarked to a comparable concretesteel building. That said, to make the project possible, two key factors were necessary. The first concerns the choice of professionals. Fondaction needed to gather a team of experts convinced of the potential of the project in North America. This contrasts very strongly with Europe’s experience with wood-frame structures, where 10- to 12-storey buildings are common. Second, the experts we interviewed unanimously recognized that Fondaction was the ideal client; Fondaction trusted them and was persistent enough to go beyond initial problems and maintain its plans for a wood-frame structure.

Section 4. Lessons from the Fondaction Building in Quebec City The Fondaction building has received several awards since its inaugural, including two Cecobois awards of excellence for structural design and for a commercial project over 600 square meters (June 2010), the Contech Sustainable Development distinction, the Contech Innovative Practices award (October 2010), the first award in the commercial building category of the 2010 Design & Build with FSC Awards, and finally the popular acclaim at the Mérites d'Architecture of Quebec City Award gala (November 2010). The Fondaction building is innovative on several accounts relevant to more sustainable practices in the building and forest industry sectors: First, from a local supply perspective, the wood-frame structure was entirely manufactured in Quebec and 100 % FSC-certified. Second, from an early stage of conception, Léopold Beaulieu intended to build a wood-frame commercial building with low environmental footprint while achieving Gold LEED standards (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) certification. Third, from a technical standpoint, it is the only commercial building project of its kind in North America, involving the use of a

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combustible material in its structure as approved by the Régie du Bâtiment du Québec. Construction of this building has led to the realization of several technical and technological innovations, such as the use of glued laminated wood from heads of black spruce, a technique unique to North America. Several environmental measures taken throughout the construction of Fondaction’s new building reduced GHG emissions and qualified the project to obtain LEED credits, including: recycling of materials from deconstructed buildings on the site, soil decontamination, the use of FSCcertified wood, and use of a white membrane roof to mitigate the urban heat island effect in in summer. The building’s energy use is 40 % less than a comparable reference building from the MNECB (Model National Energy Code for Buildings)14, the benchmark in energy consumption). Further, consumption of drinking water was reduced by about 40 %. Fenestration allows staff to have an outside view from 95 % of the premises and the building has also included indoor parking or 22 bicycles, including showers and changing rooms have also been. Materials and products used are characterized by low emissivity of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The application procedure for Gold LEED certification (minimum score of 60 points) for this type of building is a long process requiring extensive documentation from all project stakeholders. As of April 2012, this process is underway. The building is already eligible for LEED certification on the basis of its current score of 42 points. In addition, the LEED certification process emphasizes integration of sustainable development in the building. From an environmental standpoint, the choice of FSC-certified wood products is in itself an added value for several reasons; it minimizes the environmental footprint of resource use, energy consumption, and reduces air and water pollution. Chantiers Chibougamau, the supplier of FSC-certified wood products for this project, has an FSC certification and uses an ISO 14001-certified vertically integrated production model from forest exploitation to saw mills and processing plants. Their glued laminated wood product is a manufacturing innovation made from heads of black spruce which are often viewed as a waste by-product and left on the ground after the trees 14

CMNÉB : Code modèle national de l'énergie pour les bâtiments. In English, the Model National Energy Code for Buildings.

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are cut. Finally, one of the advantages of using wood products is carbon sequestration: Fondaction’s building captures in its wood frame almost 1,350 tons of CO2 or the GHG emissions of 270 cars per year. From an economic standpoint, the transformation of waste into a high quality engineering product translates into local economic development for an industry hard-hit by the economic crisis. It is also an economic incentive for a wood products industry in crisis, since the frame of the building was manufactured in Northern Quebec. Last, from a social standpoint, the decision to build this project in the Saint-Roch district of Quebec City shows Fondaction’s commitment to participate in the revitalization of this part of the city, a process launched by local grassroots organisations and municipal authorities in the late 1990s. Scaling up: building momentum for the use of timber in construction Wood products account for 95 % of residential construction in Quebec but only 15 % in the non-residential segment (including commercial, industrial, municipal and institutional sectors). The strategy taken by the province of Quebec in 2008 consists of promoting the use of more wood products in the non-residential sector to reach a target of 30 % by 2014. Since 2008, Cecobois has highlighted the growth of such buildings via several buildings, including the Gaspésie Museum, Inukjuak Hotel, the H-Gene Kruger Pavilion at Laval University in Quebec City, as well as the Complexe Chauveau soccer park. These projects have led to a yearly increase of 20 % (Gouvernement du Québec 2012) and 33 %15 in 2010 and 2011, respectively, of this material in the targeted sectors. This being said, there remain several obstacles to sustained growth of this segment in Quebec: x

Go beyond the prejudices against engineered wood products in the non-residential sector: a material perceived, more often than not, as unreliable and poorly resistant to fire. The reality is often more subtle and the debate should be less partisan.

x

Revive and develop a critical mass of know-how in the use of engineered wood products in all areas of the construction sector: To revitalize the forestry industry in the new field of sustainable

15

Source : Cecobois.

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buildings, local expertise, which is building up in the academic network (Laval University in Quebec, engineering schools like École Polytechnique in Montréal), should grow and reach the industry (engineering and architecture firms) and regulatory agencies. Demand will increase only if architects and engineers become more familiar with the properties of this material, and they become better known and used in this specific segment of the market. In February 2011, the Quebec Minister of Natural Resources and Wildlife added several measures in line with the strategy adopted by the government of Quebec in 2008 to stimulate the use of wood in construction. Among these measures, the government has mandated Mr. Beaulieu to lead a working group to analyse and make recommendations for improvement on the following main issues: the advantages of wood building in terms of GHG (greenhouse gases) footprint, the significance of increasing wood material knowledge in the school curriculum, the role of the government as a reference in such strategy, and finally the necessity to ensure that building standards are not a barrier to the use of such a material in this segment of the market. The working group presented their proposals for improvement in a report produced and released in February 2012 (Gouvernement du Québec 2012). The future of wood-frame structures? Beaulieu (November 2011): Historically the Province of Quebec knew how to build non-residential wood-frame buildings, but this expertise has gradually been lost. The know-how on the use of timber as a material in the non-residential building sector has not been properly transmitted over time. In 2000, there were 2 500 artisans. Some 10 years later, there is a critical shortage of craftsmen with the know-how and experience of the old restoration techniques, and this trend is even more acute for the old building trades. Therefore, it was important for Fondaction to contribute to this know-how in North America.

The experience gained from development of the Fondaction Building in Quebec City paves the way for the use of wood in the construction of commercial buildings in North America. This would bring up to date the use of timber products in this market segment, where brick, steel and concrete dominate. The use of this renewable resource along with innovative modern products (glued laminated wood from black spruce heads) and older/traditional techniques contribute to sustainable

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development, as it has the potential to create wealth and boost the weakened forestry sector through innovative engineering technologies. The use of timber materials in commercial construction has several advantages. Timber is energy efficient in both the construction and lifecycle stages of the building, as compared to other materials such as concrete. Determined efforts on the part of industry, government and labor will determine whether this alternative will become accepted.

References Domard, J.M. et Lanoie, P. Janvier 2011 : « Rentabilité et développement durable : des billets verts pour des bâtiments verts ». GRIDD-HEC : Cahier de recherche. Domard, J.M. et Lanoie, P. « Des bâtiments écologiques : un moyen d’améliorer la rentabilité des organisations? » Gestion (2012) Vol. 37, no 2, 68-76. Germain, B. Janvier 2012 : « L'industrie du bois d'œuvre au Canada : un aperçu de 2004 à 2010 » – Statistiques Canada, Direction de la fabrication et de l'énergie. Gouvernement du Québec, février 2012 : « Rapport du Groupe de travail visant à favoriser une utilisation accrue du bois dans la construction. » Présidé par Léopold Beaulieu. Access date : 2012. http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/publications/forets/entreprises/rapportbeaulieu.pdf. Gouvernement du Québec, février 2012, p. 5: « Rapport du Groupe de travail visant à favoriser une utilisation accrue du bois dans la construction. » Présidé par Léopold Beaulieu. Access date : 2012. http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/publications/forets/entreprises/rapportbeaulieu.pdf. Institut Royal d’Architecture du Canada : « 2030 challenge : Climate change and Architecture ». Access date : 2012. http://www.raic.org/architecture_architects/green_architecture/2030/20 30factsheet_e. Mair, J. Calgary Regional Office, Bank of Canada Review, Autumn 2005: "How the Appreciation of Canadian Dollar Has Affected Canadian Firms: Evidence from the Bank of Canada" – Business Outlook Survey. Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune, 2008 : "Forests : Building a Future for Quebec". Access date : 2012.

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http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/english/publications/forest/consultation/gr een-paper.pdf. Quebec Forest Industry Council. http://www.cifq.qc.ca/en/industry. Access date : 2012. Quebec Minister of Natural Resources and Wildlife, May 2008: "Wood use strategy for construction in Quebec". Access date : 2012. http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/english/publications/forest/publications/w ood-use-strategy.pdf. US Green Building Council 2010: LEED Public Policies, LEED Initiatives in Governments and Schools. Access date : 2012. http://www.usgbc.org/.

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Appendix 1 Table 16-2: The Project Team Title Owner

Architecture

Organization Fondaction, Léopold Beaulieu, President and CEO Jean-Pierre Simard, Fondaction's Project Manager Gilles Huot, architect (GHA, architecture and sustainable development)

Civil and structural engineering

BES; Bureau d'Études Spécialisés Inc. Stéphane Rivest

Electromechanical engineering

Roche Ltée, Groupe Conseil

Codes and standards

Civelec Consultants Paul Lothsky

Construction management

Pomerleau

LEED and Green Building Design Consulting Services

Courchesne et associés / Vertima

Mounting Structure

Les Constructions FGP

Engineered-wood product supply

Nordic Structure de bois and Chantiers Chibougamau

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Appendix 2 Table 16-3: World trends on performance-based codes / objectives Type of building code Country

United Kingdom

New Zealand Australia Japan United States of America Canada Sweden, Norway, France, the Netherlands China

Type of Building Code Determination of functional requirements (functional statements) Availability of detailed reference material Performance-based Code Performance-based Code Performance-based Code Performance-based Code Objective-based Code Performance-based Code Design based on performance

Adoption year 1985

1994 1992 1996 2000 2003 2005 In adoption process 2008 Olympic Games

Source : J. R. Mehaffey (2008). Regulatory Environment. Short Course on Performance-Based Fire-Safety Design. Carleton University, Ottawa, Industrial Research Chair in Fire Safety Engineering.

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Appendix 3 Table 16-4: Key stages in the Fondaction building’s construction Dec. 2007-June 2008 2008 2008 2008 June 2008 December 2007 - February 2009 February 2009 August 2008 - June 2009 August 2008 Sept. 2008 – February 2009 Aug. 2008 – February 2009 February 2009 – June 2009 June 2009 - May 2010 June – July 2009 July – August 2009 June – November 2009 December 1, 2009 December 15 – April 26 May 2010

Phase I : Building Design & Administrative Procedures Land acquisition from Quebec City Zoning submission Demonstration to the Régie du Bâtiment Removal of mortgage on the land Design of two projects in parallel: wood structure versus concrete structure Agreement from the Régie du Bâtiment (Construction board) and licence from Quebec City for wood-frame structure building construction Phase II – Site Preparation & Foundations Demolition work (Duration: 15 days) Soil decontamination Excavation works Foundations - concrete works (including concrete construction of three parking levels below and up to the ground floor). Phase 3 : Building Above Ground & Completion Concrete blocks and shear walls Beginning of interior works 3 cycles of wood frame structure Wall coverings External finish: curtains walls, metal studs with gypsum and terra cotta tile fixing Inauguration of the building

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Appendix 4 Table 16-5: FONDACTION LEED Credit breakdown – October 2010 Category

Sustainable development

site

Water efficiency

Energy efficiency

Materials selection

Indoor environmental quality Innovation and design process

Measures x Deconstruction of two buildings on the site and waste recycling rate of 94 % x Soil decontamination x White membrane roof to prevent the urban heat island effect in summer x Reduction of drinking water consumption by 40 % x Thermal resistance (R-30 and R-40 for the roof and surrounding walls) x Reduction of energy consumption by 40 % compared to reference building x Air conditioning and heating by fan-coil-unit system x Glued laminated wood products from black spruce heads x FSC-certified wood products x External coating: curtain walls and stoneware pavement x Maximization of natural lighting for 95 % of occupied space x Indoor parking for 22 bikes, showers and changing room x Materials and products with low COV emissions x Technique of glued laminated wood products from black spruce

Total Source : VoirVert, Le portail du bâtiment durable, Octobre 2010 http://www.voirvert.ca/projets/projet-etude/la-solution-bois-del%E2%80%99edifice-fondaction.

Points

08

02

07

07

12

06 42

Case Study: The Use of Engineered Wood in the Fondaction Building

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Appendix 5: Notes on the National Building Code of Canada (2005) The NBC 2005 presents three divisions: Division A contains implementation and compliance rules as well as its four goals and 46 functional statements. According to section 1.2.1.1, there are two ways to comply with the NBC: by adopting the “acceptable solutions” prescribed by the Code and by achieving a minimal performance (described in section B) or seeking “alternatives” that will achieve at least the minimum level of performance required. Division B contains the solutions knows as “acceptable” and performance requirements. Division C contains administrative requirements (plans, calculations, professional examination) and the required documentation of compliance for an alternative. Under this amendment, it is possible to propose an alternative – objectives-based to be submitted for approval. Assessing and approving alternatives by objectives is RBQ’s mandate. Therefore, changes to the National Building Code 2005 have given some flexibility to proposals for “alternatives” and to compliance to the RBC’S objective in alternative ways. Source: http://www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/eng/ibp/irc/codes/05-national-buildingcode.html

Appendix 6: Highlights on M. Beaulieu’s business career After holding the presidency of the union of SSQ-Vie’s Clerical Workers, Mr. Beaulieu became the first CEO of the Caisse d’économie solidaire Desjardins, a savings institution specialized in the social economy of Quebec (1971). He was subsequently elected to the executive of the Confederation of National Trade Unions (CSN), where for 20 years until February 1996, he served as treasurer. As President and CEO of Fondaction, Mr. Beaulieu has created several CSN-affiliated development and financing tools supporting his vision and strategy toward the social economy, notably Bâtirente (Retirement service system), MCE Conseils (Consulting firm dedicated to economic and local

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development), Filaction (Cooperative and micro-credit Fund) and Caisse d’économie solidaire Desjardins (solidarity-based financing).

Appendix 7: Links and Videos www.cecobois.com/repertoire/index.php?option=com_rea&view=fiches&i d=224&Itemid=91 http://www.cecobois.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article& id=104&Itemid=114 http://www.photos-architecture.com/2011/04/edifice-fondaction-quebec/ http://www.iqe.edu/Fondaction.php www.newswire.ca/fr/releases/archive/May2010/11/c2502.html http://www.oaq.com/pratiquer_larchitecture/centre_de_documentation/esq uisses/hiver_2010_2011/sommaire/dossier_construction_durable/bois_ le_retour_du_mal_aime.html

Videos Fondaction : Nouveaux locaux écolos à Québec 20 déc. 2010 - 4 mn – AlternativChannelTV En mai 2010, les locaux de Fondaction à Québec ont fait peau neuve, avec comme idée de répondre à toujours plus d'enjeux ... http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KT75_NbqnZo Fondaction et la GRI dailymotion.com22 déc. 2010 - 3 mn En 2006, Fondaction faisait figure de pionnier en produisant son 1er rapport de développement durable selon sur les normes de ... http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PUPZIgrs-f4 Le système CarboPoint de Fondaction : youtube.com16 sept. 2010 - 3 mn - par Fondaction Fondaction a fait preuve d'imagination pour promouvoir le transport durable auprès de son personnel. Le système CarboPOINT est ... http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mIr6mnu3NaI&feature=related

INDEX

A aerial work platform vehicles, 56, 57 air-conditioning, 65, 72, 73 automobile lifts, 114 B biomimicry, 87, 90, 95 bolted joints, 1 boom lifts, 37, 41, 42, 53 C car lifts, 26, 33, 34 control, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 28, 31, 45, 46, 47, 48, 53, 60, 61, 99, 101, 111, 117, 118, 126, 127, 138, 139 D deconstruction, 143, 151, 162 E ecodesign, 87, 88, 90, 92 energy efficiency, 11, 60, 143, 146, 162 entrepreneurship, 129, 130 F fluid power systems, 7 G gaskets, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8 geothermal system, 64, 66, 67, 72, 73, 74 green building, 143, 145, 146, 159

Green gold LEED certification, 143 greenhouse gases, 87, 89, 95, 96, 143, 144, 145, 154, 155, 156 H health and safety, 5, 8, 10, 11, 14, 25, 27, 33, 38, 57, 59, 60, 61, 108, 112, 115, 119, 123, 125, 126 heat exchanger, 64, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77 heat pump, 64 heat transfer coefficient, 72, 74, 75, 76 human factors engineering, 1, 7, 26, 37, 56, 79, 98, 99, 101, 105, 114, 122, 129 hybrid vehicle, 87, 89, 92, 100, 103 hydraulics, 1, 10, 26, 33, 37, 56, 59, 105, 114, 115, 119, 122, 125 I industrial engineering, 14, 105, 106, 110, 129 internal flow, 72, 73 L life cycle analysis, 87, 89, 93, 94, 95 lift trucks, 24, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127 log splitter, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12 M major losses, 64, 65 manufacturing systems, 14, 129 mechanical design, 79, 83 minor losses, 64, 69

Index

166 O operations and production management, 14, 129 operations and production management and occupational, 14 overhead cranes, 105, 109 P pipe, 2, 64, 65, 67, 69, 74, 77, 119, 152 pipelines, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70 pump, 5, 11, 33, 34, 40, 46, 53, 59, 60, 64, 65, 67, 69, 70, 73, 76, 111, 116, 118, 119, 120, 125 pump scaling laws, 64, 70 R recycling, 143, 154, 162 risk management, 62, 79, 127

S safety, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 11, 12, 28, 33, 34, 38, 40, 53, 54, 59, 60, 61, 62, 67, 79, 93, 99, 103, 106, 107, 110, 111, 116, 118, 126, 127, 136, 150, 151 standardization and approval, 98 strength of materials, 1, 7, 10, 26, 37, 56, 105, 114, 119, 122, 125 sustainable building, 143, 156 T thermal reservoir, 64, 65, 66, 72 V VOC, 143 W water consumption, 143, 145, 162 wood processing, 129, 148