Sustainable construction materials copper slag 9780081009864, 9780081009871, 9780081009970, 9780081009840, 9780081009857, 0081009860

Table of contents :
Front Cover......Page 1
Sustainable Construction Materials......Page 2
Related titles......Page 3
Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Dedication......Page 6
Contents......Page 8
Author Profiles......Page 12
Preface......Page 14
1 - Introduction......Page 16
1.1 Background......Page 17
1.2 Sustainable Construction Materials......Page 18
1.3 Recycled Aggregates......Page 20
1.4 Layout and Contents......Page 23
References......Page 25
2 - Methodology......Page 30
2.1 Introduction......Page 31
2.2.1 Identifying and Sourcing Literature......Page 32
2.2.2 Publication Timeline......Page 33
2.2.4 Publication Types......Page 35
2.2.5 Researchers Involved......Page 38
2.2.7 Subject Area Distribution......Page 40
2.3 Building the Data Matrix......Page 43
2.3.2 Data Mining and Parking......Page 44
2.4 Analysis, Evaluation and Modelling of Data......Page 47
References......Page 49
3 - Availability of Recycled Aggregates......Page 50
3.2 Sources of Construction and Demolition Waste......Page 51
3.2.1 European Waste Catalogue......Page 52
3.2.2 Construction and Demolition Waste......Page 53
3.3 Generation of Construction and Demolition Waste......Page 55
3.4 Barriers to Recycling Waste in the Construction Industry......Page 63
3.4.2 Price Sensitivity and Supply of Recycled Aggregates......Page 64
3.4.4 Quality of Recycled Aggregates......Page 65
3.4.5 Environmental Impact of Recycled Aggregate Production......Page 66
References......Page 67
4 - Processing of Recycled Aggregates......Page 72
4.2 Benefits of Selective Demolition......Page 73
4.3 Environmental Impact of CDW Processing......Page 75
4.4 Production and Collection of CDW......Page 77
4.5 CDW Recycling Plants......Page 80
4.5.1 Recycling Procedure......Page 83
4.5.2 Crushers......Page 86
4.5.3 Sorting and Contamination Removal......Page 88
4.5.4 Additional Recycled Aggregate Quality Enhancement Techniques......Page 90
4.5.5 Storage of CDW Before and After Processing......Page 93
4.6 Conclusions......Page 94
References......Page 95
5 - Properties and Composition of Recycled Aggregates......Page 104
5.2 Types of Recycled Aggregate......Page 105
5.3 Contamination in Recycled Aggregates......Page 106
5.4 Size and Shape of Recycled Aggregates......Page 107
5.5.1 Density......Page 108
(b) Processing......Page 109
(d) Fragments from Crushed Masonry......Page 110
(e) Statistical Analysis of the Density of Recycled Aggregates......Page 112
(a) Adhered Cement Mortar......Page 114
(c) Strength of the Source Materials......Page 115
(e) Statistical Analysis of the Water Absorption of Recycled Aggregates......Page 116
(a) Amount of Old Cement Paste Adhered to the Aggregate......Page 118
(d) Fragments from Crushed Masonry......Page 119
5.6 Chemical Composition of Recycled Aggregates......Page 120
5.6.1 Sulphate......Page 121
5.6.3 Alkali......Page 122
5.7.1 Classification of Recycled Aggregates......Page 123
5.8 Methodology for the Classification of Recycled Aggregates......Page 127
References......Page 138
6 - Use of Recycled Aggregates in Mortar......Page 158
6.2.1 Consistence......Page 159
(a) Recycled Aggregate Mortars Without Water Compensation......Page 160
(b) Recycled Aggregate Mortars with Water Compensation......Page 161
(c) Retention of Consistence......Page 162
6.2.2 Rheological Characterisation of Fresh Mortars......Page 163
6.2.3 Fresh Density......Page 164
6.2.5 Water Retentivity......Page 165
6.3 Hardened Mortar Properties......Page 166
(a) Recycled Aggregate Replacement Level......Page 167
(b) Effect of Water Compensation......Page 169
(c) Potential for Cement Reduction......Page 170
6.3.2 Flexural Strength......Page 171
6.3.3 Modulus of Elasticity......Page 174
6.3.4 Shrinkage......Page 175
6.3.5 Adhesive and Bond Strength......Page 176
6.3.6 Absorption, Permeability and Diffusion......Page 179
6.3.7 Water Vapour Permeability......Page 181
6.3.9 Freeze–Thaw Resistance......Page 182
6.3.10 Resistance to Sulphate Attack......Page 183
6.3.11 Efflorescence......Page 184
6.4 Conclusions......Page 185
References......Page 186
7 - Fresh Concrete Properties......Page 196
7.2 Consistence (Workability)......Page 197
7.2.3 Water Compensation during the Mixing Process......Page 198
7.2.4 Use of Superplasticisers in Mixes with Constant Total Water/Cement Ratio......Page 200
7.2.5 Evaluation of the Effects of Incorporating Recycled Aggregate with Different Moisture States......Page 201
7.2.6 Retention of Consistence......Page 205
7.2.7 Compaction Factor......Page 208
7.2.8 Recycled Aggregates with Varying Quality......Page 209
7.2.9 Water-Reducing Admixtures......Page 210
7.2.10 Mineral Additions......Page 211
7.3 Rheology......Page 212
7.4 Stability......Page 214
7.5 Air Content......Page 216
7.6 Fresh Density......Page 218
7.7 Conclusions......Page 219
References......Page 221
8 - Strength Development of Concrete......Page 234
8.1 Introduction......Page 235
8.2.1 Influence of Recycled Aggregate Content......Page 236
8.2.2 Size of Recycled Aggregate......Page 239
8.2.3 Type of Recycled Aggregate......Page 241
8.2.4 Quality of Recycled Aggregate......Page 243
8.2.5 Influence of Mineral Additions......Page 248
8.2.8 Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag......Page 249
8.2.9 Other Additions......Page 251
8.2.10 Moisture State of Recycled Aggregate......Page 252
8.2.11 Influence of Chemical Admixtures......Page 254
8.2.12 Strength Development With Time......Page 258
8.2.13 Multiple Recycling......Page 261
8.3 Tensile and Flexural Strength......Page 262
8.3.1 Influence of Recycled Aggregate Content......Page 263
8.3.2 Strength Development with Time......Page 266
8.3.4 Tensile Strength and Compressive Strength of Recycled Aggregate Concrete......Page 269
8.4 Impact Loading......Page 271
8.5 Resistance to High Temperatures......Page 274
8.6 Conclusions......Page 277
References......Page 279
9 - Deformation of Concrete Containing Recycled Concrete Aggregate......Page 298
9.2.1 General Information......Page 299
9.2.2 Stress–Strain Relationship......Page 302
(a) Effects of Recycled Concrete Aggregate Content......Page 303
(b) Concrete Strength Grade Effect......Page 307
(c) Elastic Modulus and Compressive Strength Relationship......Page 309
9.2.4 Dynamic Elastic Modulus......Page 312
9.3 Creep Deformation......Page 313
9.3.2 Effects of Recycled Concrete Aggregate Content......Page 314
9.3.3 Effects of Concrete Strength Grade......Page 317
9.3.4 Effects of Recycled Concrete Aggregate Concrete Porosity......Page 319
9.3.5 Effects of Fly Ash......Page 321
9.4.1 General Information......Page 323
9.4.3 Autogenous Shrinkage......Page 326
(a) Effects of Recycled Concrete Aggregate Content......Page 327
(c) Strength Grade Effect......Page 330
9.4.5 Carbonation Shrinkage......Page 331
9.5 Estimation of Deformation of Concrete Using Existing Models......Page 333
9.5.1 Elastic Modulus Models......Page 334
(a) Estimated and Measured Elastic Modulus......Page 336
(a) Estimated and Measured Creep......Page 339
9.5.3 Shrinkage Deformation Models......Page 345
(a) Estimated and Measured Shrinkage of Concrete......Page 348
9.6 Authors’ Proposed Models for Estimating Deformation of Concrete......Page 351
9.7 Conclusions......Page 352
References......Page 354
10 - Recycled Aggregate Concrete: Durability Properties......Page 380
10.2.1 Recycled Aggregate Replacement Level......Page 381
10.2.2 Size of Recycled Aggregate......Page 384
10.2.3 Quality of Recycled Aggregates......Page 385
10.2.4 Moisture State of Recycled Aggregates......Page 386
10.2.5 Effect of Mineral Addition......Page 387
10.3.1 Recycled Aggregate Replacement Level......Page 389
10.3.2 Type of Recycled Aggregates......Page 391
10.3.3 Quality of Recycled Aggregates......Page 392
10.3.4 Moisture State of Recycled Aggregates......Page 393
10.3.5 Influence of the Mix Design......Page 394
10.3.6 Carbonation Rate Over Time......Page 396
10.3.7 Influence of Mineral Additions......Page 397
10.4.1 Recycled Aggregate Replacement Level......Page 398
10.4.3 Quality of Recycled Aggregates......Page 402
10.4.4 Moisture State of Recycled Aggregates......Page 404
10.4.6 Chloride Ion Penetration Over Time......Page 406
10.4.7 Influence of Mineral Additions......Page 408
10.5 Internal and External Chemical Attack......Page 410
10.5.1 Sulphate Attack in Recycled Aggregate Concrete......Page 411
10.6 Freeze–Thaw Resistance......Page 412
10.7 Resistance to Abrasion......Page 414
10.8 Conclusions......Page 415
References......Page 417
11 - Use of Recycled Aggregates in Geotechnical Applications......Page 434
11.1 Introduction......Page 435
11.2 General Information......Page 436
11.3.2 Particle Size Distribution......Page 437
(d) Los Angeles Abrasion......Page 440
(g) Sulphate Content......Page 442
11.5 Shear Strength......Page 444
11.7 Resilient Modulus......Page 448
11.8 Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 450
11.9 Sulphate Soundness......Page 451
11.10 Freeze–Thaw Resistance......Page 453
11.12 Case Studies......Page 454
11.13 Conclusions......Page 456
References......Page 457
12 - Use of Recycled Aggregates in Road Pavement Applications......Page 466
12.1 Introduction......Page 467
12.2.2 California Bearing Ratio......Page 468
12.2.3 Resistance to Permanent Deformation......Page 470
12.2.5 Deflection......Page 471
12.3.1 General Information......Page 472
12.3.2 Unconfined Compressive Strength......Page 473
12.3.3 Tensile Strength......Page 474
12.3.4 Resilient Modulus......Page 475
12.3.6 Freeze–Thaw Susceptibility......Page 476
12.4 Hydraulically Bound Applications: Concrete Pavements......Page 477
12.4.1 General Information......Page 478
12.4.2 Consistence......Page 479
12.4.3 Compressive Strength......Page 480
12.4.4 Flexural Strength......Page 481
12.5.1 General Information......Page 482
(b) Marshall Flow......Page 483
(d) Voids in Mineral Aggregates......Page 486
12.5.3 Stiffness Modulus......Page 487
12.5.4 Rutting Resistance......Page 489
12.5.5 Fatigue Resistance......Page 491
12.6 Environmental Impact......Page 493
12.7 Case Studies......Page 495
12.8 Conclusions......Page 497
References......Page 499
13 - Environmental Impact, Case Studies and Standards and Specifications......Page 510
13.2.1 Chemical Composition of Recycled Aggregates......Page 511
13.2.2 pH of Recycled Aggregates......Page 514
(a) Influence of pH......Page 515
(b) Influence of Particle Size......Page 518
13.2.4 Recycled Aggregates Used in Concrete Applications......Page 519
13.2.5 Recycled Aggregates Used in Geotechnical Applications......Page 520
13.2.6 Recycled Aggregates Used in Road Pavement Applications......Page 521
13.3.1 Recycled Aggregates Used in Non-structural Concrete......Page 522
13.3.2 Recycled Aggregate Use in Structural Applications......Page 525
(b) Recycled Aggregate Replacement Level......Page 529
Consistence......Page 531
(e) Long-Term In Situ Assessment......Page 533
(a) Unbound Applications......Page 534
(b) Hydraulically Bound Mixtures......Page 538
(c) Concrete Pavements......Page 541
(d) Bituminous Bound Applications......Page 555
(a) Classification and Composition of Recycled Aggregates......Page 557
(c) Density and Water Absorption......Page 564
(e) Design of Concrete Containing Recycled Aggregates......Page 568
13.4.2 Recycled Aggregates in Geotechnical and Road Pavement Applications......Page 573
13.5 Conclusions......Page 581
References......Page 583
14 - Potential for the Recycled Aggregate Market......Page 600
14.1 Introduction......Page 601
14.2 Life Cycle of Construction and Demolition Waste......Page 602
14.3.1 Taxation......Page 604
14.3.2 Deconstruction and Selective Demolition......Page 605
14.3.3 Construction and Demolition Waste Recycling Plants......Page 608
14.4 Certification of Recycled Aggregates......Page 609
14.5 Conclusions......Page 612
References......Page 613
15 - Epilogue......Page 618
References......Page 622
A......Page 624
B......Page 625
C......Page 626
D......Page 630
E......Page 631
F......Page 632
G......Page 633
H......Page 634
I......Page 635
L......Page 636
M......Page 637
N......Page 638
P......Page 639
R......Page 641
S......Page 646
T......Page 648
V......Page 649
Z......Page 650
Back Cover......Page 652

Citation preview

Sustainable Construction Materials

Related titles Sustainable Construction Materials: Copper Slag (ISBN: 978-0-08-100986-4) Sustainable Construction Materials: Sewage Sludge Ash (ISBN: 978-0-08-100987-1) Sustainable Construction Materials: Municipal Incinerated Bottom Ash (ISBN: 978-0-08-100997-0) Sustainable Construction Materials: Glass Cullet (ISBN: 978-0-08-100984-0)

Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil and Structural Engineering

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

Ravindra K. Dhir OBE Jorge de Brito Rui V. Silva Chao Qun Lye

Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier The Officers’ Mess Business Centre, Royston Road, Duxford, CB22 4QH, United Kingdom 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-08-100985-7 For information on all Woodhead publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Matthew Deans Acquisition Editor: Gwen Jones Editorial Project Manager: Charlotte Cockle Production Project Manager: Poulouse Joseph Cover Designer: Alan Studholme Typeset by TNQ Technologies

This book is dedicated to Singapore where it all began & Our families for their unwavering support

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Contents

Author Profiles Preface

xi xiii

1 Introduction 1.1 Background 1.2 Sustainable Construction Materials 1.3 Recycled Aggregates 1.4 Layout and Contents References

1 2 3 5 8 10

2 Methodology 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Literature Search and Appraisal 2.3 Building the Data Matrix 2.4 Analysis, Evaluation and Modelling of Data 2.5 Dissemination 2.6 Conclusions References

15 16 17 28 32 34 34 34

3 Availability of Recycled Aggregates 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Sources of Construction and Demolition Waste 3.3 Generation of Construction and Demolition Waste 3.4 Barriers to Recycling Waste in the Construction Industry 3.5 Conclusions References

35 36 36 40 48 52 52

4 Processing of Recycled Aggregates 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Benefits of Selective Demolition 4.3 Environmental Impact of CDW Processing 4.4 Production and Collection of CDW 4.5 CDW Recycling Plants 4.6 Conclusions References

57 58 58 60 62 65 79 80

viii

Contents

5 Properties and Composition of Recycled Aggregates 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Types of Recycled Aggregate 5.3 Contamination in Recycled Aggregates 5.4 Size and Shape of Recycled Aggregates 5.5 Main Physical Properties of Recycled Aggregates 5.6 Chemical Composition of Recycled Aggregates 5.7 Standards and Specifications of Recycled Aggregates 5.8 Methodology for the Classification of Recycled Aggregates 5.9 Conclusions References

89 90 90 91 92 93 105 108 112 123 123

6 Use of Recycled Aggregates in Mortar 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Fresh Mortar Properties 6.3 Hardened Mortar Properties 6.4 Conclusions References

143 144 144 151 170 171

7 Fresh Concrete Properties 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Consistence (Workability) 7.3 Rheology 7.4 Stability 7.5 Air Content 7.6 Fresh Density 7.7 Conclusions References

181 182 182 197 199 201 203 204 206

8 Strength Development of Concrete 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Compressive Strength 8.3 Tensile and Flexural Strength 8.4 Impact Loading 8.5 Resistance to High Temperatures 8.6 Conclusions References

219 220 221 247 256 259 262 264

9 Deformation of Concrete Containing Recycled Concrete Aggregate 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Elastic Deformation 9.3 Creep Deformation 9.4 Shrinkage Deformation 9.5 Estimation of Deformation of Concrete Using Existing Models

283 284 284 298 308 318

Contents





9.6 Authors’ Proposed Models for Estimating Deformation of Concrete 9.7 Conclusions References

ix

336 337 339

10 Recycled Aggregate Concrete: Durability Properties 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Permeability and Sorptivity 10.3 Carbonation 10.4 Chloride Ion Penetration 10.5 Internal and External Chemical Attack 10.6 Freeze–Thaw Resistance 10.7 Resistance to Abrasion 10.8 Conclusions References

365 366 366 374 383 395 397 399 400 402

11 Use of Recycled Aggregates in Geotechnical Applications 11.1 Introduction 11.2 General Information 11.3 The Material 11.4 Compactability 11.5 Shear Strength 11.6 Unconfined Compressive Strength 11.7 Resilient Modulus 11.8 Hydraulic Conductivity 11.9 Sulphate Soundness 11.10 Freeze–Thaw Resistance 11.11 Environmental Impact 11.12 Case Studies 11.13 Conclusions References

419 420 421 422 429 429 433 433 435 436 438 439 439 441 442

12 Use of Recycled Aggregates in Road Pavement Applications 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Unbound Applications 12.3 Hydraulically Bound Applications: Hydraulically Bound Mixtures 12.4 Hydraulically Bound Applications: Concrete Pavements 12.5 Bituminous Bound Applications 12.6 Environmental Impact 12.7 Case Studies 12.8 Conclusions References

451 452 453 457 462 467 478 480 482 484

x

Contents

13 Environmental Impact, Case Studies and Standards and Specifications 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Environmental Impact 13.3 Case Studies 13.4 Standards and Specifications 13.5 Conclusions References

495 496 496 507 542 566 568

14 Potential for the Recycled Aggregate Market 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Life Cycle of Construction and Demolition Waste 14.3 Economic Viability of Recycling CDW 14.4 Certification of Recycled Aggregates 14.5 Conclusions References

585 586 587 589 594 597 598

15 Epilogue References

603 607

Index609

Author Profiles

Ravindra Kumar Dhir OBE is an honorary professor of concrete engineering, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom; adjunct professor, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland, and emeritus professor of concrete technology, University of Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom, where he held the position of founding director of the Concrete Technology Unit (1988–2008) and developed it to an internationally acknowledged Centre of Excellence. His approach to research is visionary and creative, and by working closely with industry, he ensures a meaningful dissemination of his research into practice. He has won many recognitions, awards and honours, including, from the Queen in 1989, the Order of the British Empire, Officer rank, for services to concrete technology; Secretary of State for Trade and Industry for innovative partnership with industry (1989 and 1990 consecutively) and honorary fellowships from the Institute of Concrete Technology, United Kingdom, and the Indian Concrete Institute. He has served on numerous technical committees, including as chairman of the Concrete Society (Scotland) (1986–87), as president of the Concrete Society (UK) (2009–10) and on the editorial board of the Magazine of Concrete Research. Jorge de Brito is a full professor of civil engineering in the Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Georesources; the head of the CERIS Research Centre and the director of the Eco-Construction and Rehabilitation Doctoral Programme at the Instituto Superior Técnico (IST), University of Lisbon, Portugal, from which he graduated and obtained his MSc and PhD degrees. Although his research covers bridge management systems and construction technology, his main research area is sustainable construction, with emphasis on the use of recycled aggregates in concrete and mortar. He has participated in 23 competitively financed research projects and supervised 40 PhD and 180 MSc theses. He is the author of 6 books, 27 book chapters and 390 papers in peer-reviewed international journals and has two patents. He is the editor-in-chief of the Journal of Building Engineering, an associate editor of the European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering and a member of the editorial board of 32 international journals and of the following scientific/professional organisations: CIB, FIB, RILEM, IABMAS, IABSE.

xii

Author Profiles

Rui Vasco Silva is a lecturer of civil engineering in the Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Georesources at the IST, University of Lisbon, Portugal. He completed his PhD on the use of recycled aggregates derived from construction, demolition and excavation waste in the production of structural concrete. He is a member of the CERIS Research and Development Unit, hosted by IST-ID, and an honorary member of the CIB Student Chapter at IST. He is the author of several publications concerning sustainable construction and is currently researching other approaches that can further decrease the environmental impact of concrete, namely reactive magnesium oxide and alkali-activated materials. Chao Qun Lye, a graduate of the National University of Singapore, obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy from the University of Birmingham, United Kingdom, for his research in the use of recycled and secondary aggregates in concrete: deformation properties. He was recently appointed as a senior technical manager for ready-mix concrete with the G&W Group in Singapore. He holds a strong interest in sustainability and innovation, applied to the use of cement additions such as fly ash and ground granulated blast-furnace slag and the use of recycled and secondary materials in concrete, geotechnics and road pavement applications.

Preface

Sustainability is now commonly referred to in the construction sector world-wide, zero-waste scenarios are frequently floated, a great deal of research has been undertaken in the use of recycled and secondary materials (RSMs) and has, in the main, been published. Additionally, the standards and codes of practice are generally becoming more sympathetic to their adoption. However, it would be fair to say that, a clear view of the potential for RSM use and how this may affect the performance of structures still remains to be established. This is important and needed in order to absorb recycled and secondary materials within the present hierarchy of construction materials. The use of RSMs requires a clear understanding of their characteristics and the potential for required applications. This can be problematic, as the variability of the material can be high, though this is not unusual, as well-established materials such as Portland cement and naturally occurring sand and gravel and crushed-rock aggregates are also known for their high variations at individual plants and even more so between plants. Material processing methods and design procedures adopted can, to some extent, help to minimise variability. Why, then, is the construction industry slow in adopting the use of the new breed of materials arising from wastes, such as copper slag from material extraction processes, sewage sludge ash and municipal incinerated bottom ash from the incineration of sewage and municipal solid wastes, glass cullet from used and industrial waste and recycled aggregate arising from demolition and excavation wastes? It can be argued that the inertia in accepting the use of RSMs is due mainly to two main reasons: research has not come together to exploit the present knowledge of RSMs and their potential use and, second, a robust case for the value-added use of RSMs has not yet been made. This fifth and the last book of the series of five, produced by Professor Ravindra K. Dhir together with different invited co-authors, brings together the global research information, published in English, that deals with recycled aggregate production, characteristics and classification and its potential for use in mortar and concrete construction, geotechnical and road pavement applications. It includes the related case studies, standards and evaluation of environmental impacts. The data analysed and evaluated for the book were sourced globally from 1,413 publications contributed by 2,213 authors, from 965 institutions in 67 countries, over 42 years with the time period from 1977 to 2018.

xiv

Preface

The main purpose of the book, which is aimed at academics, researchers, design engineers, specifiers and contractors, and is structured in an incisive and easy-tofollow manner, is to bring out what is known and can be considered for use, and at the same time to avoid unnecessary repetitive research and wasting of resources. In completing this work, the authors gratefully acknowledge the help of many individuals at different stages of the work, but would like particularly to thank Edwin Trout of the Concrete Society (UK) for his help with sourcing of the literature and Ciaran J. Lynn, Mike Madden and Abdurrahman A. Elgalhud for their help with the preparation of this book. The timely understanding of Mdm Koh Siew Kiang, CEO, RMC-G&W Group, Singapore, in allowing Dr. Chao Qun Lye an extended leave of one month for the work to proceed uninterrupted at the very final stages is greatly appreciated. Ravindra K. Dhir OBE Jorge de Brito Rui V. Silva Chao Qun Lye

Introduction

1

Main Headings

• Background • Sustainable construction materials • Recycled aggregates • Layout and contents

Synopsis The experiences of a wide range of collaborative industrial research projects, supported by a large number of organisations (in the main from industry, government departments and research councils), and in particular their dissemination to the point of application, which laid the foundation for this work of producing a series of five books on the subject of sustainable construction materials, are briefly described in this chapter. The role of recycled and secondary materials in achieving sustainable construction, leading to sustainability, is explained. This book, the fifth, and the last, of the series, deals with recycled aggregates arising from construction, demolition and excavation waste. An introduction to the material is provided, along with a brief description of the novel procedure of systematic analysis and evaluation of the large volume of experimental data sourced for use in developing this work. The structure of the book, in terms of the layout and the contents, is also described. Keywords: Sustainable development, Sustainable construction materials, Recycled aggregates, Book layout, Book contents.

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100985-7.00001-7 Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

2

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

1.1  Background The basis of this book stems from years of active research and development work undertaken since 1988 at the Concrete Technology Unit (CTU). The CTU is known worldwide for its excellence in research and for working in close collaboration with the construction industry, involving, in large part, small- to medium-sized enterprises, national/multinational companies, charities and government departments. It is also known for its commitment to dissemination of knowledge, as well as an active and decisive involvement in promoting sustainability and the use of sustainable materials, both as a component of cement and as aggregate in the construction sector. This work has involved the undertaking of carefully planned and focused research to address some of the most challenging issues over the years, including sustainability in construction in general (Dhir et al., 2002a, 2006a,b; Whyte et al., 2005; Dhir et al., 2003); the sustainable use of natural resources to reduce CO2 emissions, for example, by reducing the cement content of concrete mixes across all strength grades (Dhir et al.,2000, 2004a,b, 2006a,b; Dhir and Hewlett, 2008), and the recycling of waste materials to conserve natural resources (Limbachiya et al., 2000; Dyer and Dhir, 2001; Paine et al., 2002, 2004; Dhir, 2006; Dhir et al., 2008a,b, 2010; Dyer et al., 2006; Paine and Dhir, 2010a,b; Dhir and Halliday, 2006). Of note, an outreach programme was launched to share and transfer knowledge, in the form of organised seminars, workshops and conferences, during the period of 1988–2008 (Dhir and Green, 1990; Dhir and McCarthy, 1996; Dhir et al., 2002b, 2008b, 2015), and in doing so, a centre for the advancement of small- to medium-sized enterprises in the construction sector was established. This also included the initiation of the globalisation of concrete research and the forming of the UK–India (UKIERI) (Newlands and Dhir, 2011) and Ireland–India research collaboration groups in 2008 and 2012, respectively, and the establishment of the UKIERI Concrete Congress in 2013 (Dhir et al., 2013, 2015). Working at the forefront of cutting-edge research, in close partnership with a wide industrial base, also brought to light the fragmented and therefore often ineffective nature of the research that has generally been undertaken. Indeed, in the area of sustainable construction materials, this has stifled the rate of progress in realising the potential for developing greater adoption of these materials. As a response to this, a new approach to research, analytical systemisation, has been developed to bring together and analyse and evaluate the published data in the global literature, to better understand and utilise information in making technological advancements. Using this analytical systemisation method, the following selected successful comprehensive studies have been published:

• A study undertaken by Silva et al. (2014a) has provided a method for classifying recycled

aggregates (RAs) derived from construction demolition waste for use in concrete, which could help with their certification and boost stakeholders’ confidence in their use. The same authors have produced a series of further studies assessing the effect of using RAs in concrete and geotechnical applications (Silva et al., 2014b, 2015a,b,c, 2016a,b, 2017a,b).

Introduction



3

• A series of studies aimed at assisting the design engineer in adopting the use of sustainable construction materials, within the framework of existing design codes such as Eurocode 2 (2004), has been published by Lye at el. (2015a,b, 2016a,b,c,d, 2017). This work assessed the effects of coarse recycled concrete aggregate, glass cullet as a fine aggregate and copper slag as a fine aggregate on the modulus of elasticity, creep and shrinkage of concrete.



• On the carbonation, chloride ingress and associated corrosion of steel reinforcement in

concrete made with cement incorporating fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag and ground limestone, complying with the European standard EN 197-1 (2011), the analysis and evaluation of global data have revealed some challenging facts about the performance of concrete and the accompanying impacts on sustainability that had hitherto not generally been appreciated (Lye et al., 2015b, 2016d; Elgalhud et al., 2017a,b).



• Similarly, in the area of incinerated ashes, a series of studies has been undertaken using the analytical systematisation method in characterising sewage sludge ash and municipal incinerated bottom ash and assessing their environmental impacts and potential for use as components of cement or aggregate in mortar and concrete, geotechnics, road pavements and ceramic applications (Lynn et al., 2015, 2016a,b,c, 2017a,b).

The analytical systematisation method is proving to be an increasingly powerful tool in analysing and evaluating globally published experimental data on recycled and secondary materials, in terms of characterising the materials and establishing their potential applications and engineering performance across different disciplines, as well as addressing the important environmental impacts and sustainability issues. This approach has been adopted in developing this series of five books on sustainable construction materials, and the first, second, third and fourth, dealing with copper slag (Dhir et al., 2016a), sewage sludge ash (Dhir et al., 2016b), municipal incinerated bottom ash (Dhir et al., 2017) and glass cullet (Dhir et al., 2018), respectively, have been published. This work, the fifth of the series, dealing with RA, which is obtained from processed construction, demolition and excavated waste, should serve as a useful resource for academics, researchers and practitioners, providing an up-to-date, comprehensive view of the research undertaken on RA and its use in construction (mortar and concrete, geotechnics and road pavements) and other applications, as well as the associated environmental impacts, case studies and issues related to standards, codes and specifications. Of equal importance, this work should help to reduce wasteful repetitive studies and potentially spark new ideas and useful projects in areas of need.

1.2  Sustainable Construction Materials Whilst it could be argued that the term ‘sustainability’ is now generally recognised, the wider implications of this are still difficult to comprehend. Alternatively, ‘sustainable development’ appears to be a much more straightforward and graspable expression, which is easier to appreciate. It is defined in the prominent United Nations’ Brundtland Report (1987) as ‘development which meets the need of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs’.

4

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

In this context, the ever-growing demand for building of infrastructure is fast assuming a central stage in national development, as a major consumer of natural sources of non-renewable materials and energy. This development is expected to affect increasingly the environment in terms of CO2 emissions, which can lead to subsequent climate change and temperature rises on the earth’s surface, as well as having a major influence on social and economic conditions. The possible consequences in this respect are frightening, potentially leading ultimately to famine, floods, mass movement of people and the destruction of species (Stern, 2006). As such, it is not surprising that governments across the world look to the construction industry to play a major role in addressing the issues relating to sustainable development and therefore sustainability. Along with the more efficient design, construction and operation of buildings, the growing use of recycled and secondary materials, which, for obvious reasons, are increasingly being addressed as sustainable construction materials, can also help to lower the environmental impact of construction work. For example, minimising the use of Portland cement, for which the current annual global production was around 4.2 billion tonnes in 2017 (see Figure 1.1), can lead to significant reductions in CO2 emissions. The use of RA as a component of aggregate is discussed in Chapters 6–12. Whilst this has the potential to make some contribution in reducing CO2 emissions, similar use of other waste materials can collectively make a significant contribution. Indeed, in this respect, EN 197-1 (2011) on common cements recognises several by-product materials as constituent materials of cement. Furthermore, it is interesting

4500

Production, million tonnes

4000

Total China

3500

India

3000

USA

2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0

Year

Figure 1.1  World cement production from 1994 to 2017. Data taken from USGS (2018).

Introduction

5

to note the total cement production in China, shown in Figure 1.1, which brings home the threat that emerging countries will present to sustainability in future as the development of infrastructure in these countries, which account for nearly two-thirds of the world, begins to move full speed ahead. As another example, minimising the consumption of natural aggregates (NAs), for which the annual global production is around 50 billion tonnes and forecasted to increase further at the rate of 5% per annum, can be realised by developing the use of recycled and secondary aggregates (RSAs) in construction. Whilst this is perhaps generally appreciated, the pertinent question is how to change the mindset and accelerate the process of routinely specifying RSA in the construction industry. Figure 1.2 clearly emphasises the need to develop the use of RSA materials. In this context, the quantity of manufactured aggregates used in 38 European nations amounts to only 1.5% of the total estimated production of RSA. The numbers become even more daunting when one considers that the corresponding share of RAs arising from construction, demolition and excavation waste (CDEW) used in this region stands at only 5.5%. It is recognised that national standards the world over are moving towards facilitating the use of RSA in construction and the performance-based approach is being advanced (Silva et al., 2014a,b; Paine and Dhir, 2010b; Collery et al., 2015). Figure 1.3 emphasises the pertinent point of sustainability as a simple workable philosophy that is easy to understand and points the way forward to adopting the sustainable use of construction materials by matching the material quality with the application demands.

1.3  Recycled Aggregates CDEW is a generic term that refers to the waste materials generated from demolition, renovation, maintenance and construction of buildings and infrastructure, as well as the soils and rocks arising from excavation works. As the term implies, CDEW consists of a wide variety of waste materials with variations in type, quantity and Maufactured aggregates, 1.5% Re-used aggregates, 0.5% Recycled aggregates, 5.3%

Crushed rock, 53.8%

Sand and gravel, 37.7%

Marine aggregates, 1.5%

Total: 3.95 billion tonnes Figure 1.2  Aggregate production in 38 European countries and Israel in 2016. Data taken from UEPG (2017).

6

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

Excellent Poor

Aggregate quality

Poor

Low grade

Application

High grade

Low grade

Application

Excellent

(b) High grade

Aggregate quality

(a)

Figure 1.3  General and sustainable practices in dealing with aggregates. (a) General practice. (b) Sustainable practice. Adapted from Dhir et al. (2004b).

value. In general, it can broadly be classified into two groups, namely, inert waste and hazardous waste (SPD, 2006). The former category is voluminous, and its typical main composition includes concrete, bricks, metals, wood, glass, plastics, bitumen and excavated soils, much of which can be recovered for reuse and recycling. The latter category, such as asbestos, treated woods and emulsions, is low in quantity but presents a threat to the environment and needs to be handled carefully. CDEW constitutes a significant amount of the total waste stream produced in many regions and countries of the world, but is normally within the range of 20% to 40% of it; for example, CDEW accounted for 25% to 30% of the total waste generated in the European Union (EU) (European Commission, 2018). On a global scale, the annual generation of CDEW is estimated to reach nearly 4 billion tonnes, and this figure is likely to increase further as the remaining three-fifths of the world develops its infrastructure to the level that is currently enjoyed in the developed counties. Thus, recycling and reusing CDEW is a vital step in the endeavour to conserve natural resources and, at the same time, reduce CO2 emissions contributed by the construction sector. The recovery of CDEW is driven mainly by government policies such as incentives to recycle and the application of taxes on construction waste going to landfill and levies on the extraction of natural rock to produce aggregates in the form of crushed rock and sand and gravel. It can also be affected by material availability, market value and on-site waste management, as well as codes of practice, standards and specifications. Figure 1.4 shows the generation and recovery rates of CDEW in the EU, as well as other countries of different economies, including Australia, Brazil, China, Hong Kong, India, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea and the United States, during 2011–17. It should be mentioned that as the inventories, definitions and measurement methods of CDEW, particularly for the inclusion of excavated soils, vary across countries, cross-country comparisons can be difficult, and the data presented in Figure 1.4 may be treated as indicative rather than as hard statistics.

Introduction

7

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Figure 1.4  Construction, demolition and excavation waste (CDEW) generation and recovery rates in various regions during 2011–17. Data taken from Duan and Li (2016) for China; Eurostat (2018) for EU-28; US EPA (2018) for waste generation in United States, CDRA (2014) for recycling rate in United States; Ministry of Environment and Forest (2016) for India; MLIT (2016) for Japan; Pickin and Randell (2017) for Australia; DEA (2012) for South Africa; NEA (2018) for Singapore; Ministry of Environment (2015) for South Korea; Environmental Protection Department (2017) for Hong Kong; Schmidt (2016) for Brazil; PEMANDU (2015) for Malaysia.

Overall, the CDEW generated in the EU and other countries was 3.13 billion tonnes. Within the EU in 2011, although the level of the recovery rate varied considerably, from nearly 0% in Greece to nearly 100% in the Netherlands and Luxembourg (European Commission, 2015), about half of the member states had comfortably achieved the target of 70% minimum recovery of construction and demolition waste by 2020, which was set by the Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC). CDEW has been mostly used in backfilling in the EU. However, countries such as Cyprus, Finland and Greece are still struggling to meet the target, with recovery rates of less than 10%. As for other countries, it can be seen from Figure 1.4 that recovery rates achieved in the developed countries have been more than 60%, with Singapore, South Korea and Japan having rates exceeding 95%. On the other hand, rates in the developing countries have been less than 20%. Overall, except for India, for which the data are unavailable, the total average recovery rate in the EU and other countries has been 44%.

8

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

Thus, it would appear that a more robust and effective action plan needs to be established regionally and internationally to ease the environmental impacts associated with the construction sector. Although not novel, the use of RAs arising mainly from concrete and masonry has always been a significant step towards sustainability. The global data on RA generated are not easily available, but typically it accounts for 80% of demolition waste (BRE, 2006). The history of the research on using RA in concrete can be traced back as far as early post-World War II, when the physical properties of RA concrete and the effects of impurities were studied in Russia and Germany (Dosho, 2007). Since then, numerous more specific and advanced studies on the use of RA in various construction applications, including concrete, geotechnical and road pavement applications, have been conducted around the globe. As of this writing, the use of RA in such applications is permitted in some regions, but mostly in the developed countries; for example, the Netherlands allows the inclusion of RA at up to 100% in concrete of strength 40 MPa and below (De Brito and Saikia, 2013). The use of RA as a NA replacement, however, is often undervalued and, as mentioned previously, its use is normally limited to non-structural applications such as backfilling. The main barrier is that a stigma attached to the use of RA persists, and as a result the construction industry is sceptical about its performance and feasibility. In addition, other issues, such as mismatches of supply and demand, inconsistent material characteristics and poor quality of final products, remain to be addressed.

1.4  Layout and Contents The book consists of 15 chapters, and as a guide, the subject matter of each is briefly described next. Chapter 1 introduces the nature and purpose of the work undertaken for this book, as well as providing the basic statistics on the production of RA. Details of the methodology, the analytical systemisation method, adopted in accomplishing the work described in this book, which involved bringing together the global knowledge of the characteristics of RA and its potential use in construction, are described in Chapter 2. This chapter explains how the near-exhaustive search of globally published literature, in the English medium, consisting mainly, but not exclusively, of journal papers, conference papers and reports produced by public and private bodies, has been carried out. The manner in which the systematic analysis, evaluation and structuring of the published information dealing with the use of RA in various construction applications is also described. Chapter 3 deals with the availability of RA obtained from the processing of CDEW, its sources and the types of materials that can be found therein. In addition, information on the amounts of CDEW generated in major countries is provided, and the barriers to its wider use as RA in place of natural rock aggregate are discussed.

Introduction

9

Chapter 4 is on the processing of RAs and provides an overview of cost-effective methods and procedures to produce good-quality RA. It also addresses the main benefits of selective demolition over conventional demolition in producing quality RA and describes the typically used recycling procedures, crushers, sorting of waste and contamination products. The properties of RA and the factors affecting its performance are discussed in Chapter 5, as well as the relevant standards and specifications dealing with its use and the development of performance-based classification for encouraging an appropriate application of the material. Chapter 6 deals with the use of fine RA in mortar mixes and its effects on the fresh and hardened properties of the mixes. The information provided shows that the mortar produced with fine RA can develop properties comparable to those of the corresponding conventional mortars, suggesting that fine RA can be a cost-effective alternative to the use of natural sand in mortars. Chapter 7 provides a comprehensive evaluation of the use of RA in comparison to NA and the fresh properties of concrete, as well as its effects on the rheology of concrete. The effects of several factors associated with RAs on the strength development of concrete subjected to compressive, tensile and flexural loading are assessed in Chapter 8, as well as the use of RAs with additions such as fly ash, limestone in the ground form and chemical admixtures. In addition, the effects of RA on resistance to impact loading and high-temperature exposure conditions are also investigated in this chapter. Chapter 9 deals with the deformation properties of concrete made with only recycled concrete aggregates and compares them with the corresponding concrete made with NA. The deformation properties studied include elastic deformation in the form of elastic modulus, and time dependent deformation in the form of creep and shrinkage. In each case, the existing models, in particular those used in the design codes, have been studied and new models, based on the present studies, have been proposed. The durability properties of concrete made with RA, compared with those of the corresponding NA concrete, are covered in Chapter 10. The properties studied include water absorption, permeability, carbonation, chloride penetration and resistance to internal and external chemical attacks, as well as to freeze–thaw and abrasion. In addition, the methods of improving the durability of RA concrete are discussed. Chapter 11 deals with the potential applications of RA in the field of geotechnical engineering and examines the effects of using RA on a wide range of geotechnical engineering properties. The use of RAs in road pavement applications is addressed in Chapter 12, covering all three main types, namely unbound, hydraulically bound and bituminous bound. This chapter also provides information on the environmental impact of using RA in road pavement applications, as well as some case studies. Chapter 13 is devoted to the environmental impact, case studies and the standards and specifications relating to and/or arising from the use of RA as a partial or full replacement of NAs in mortar concrete, geotechnical and road pavement-related applications.

10

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

Chapter 14 covers matters dealing with the marketing of RA, within the present state of technology, legislation and practice, as well as economic environment considerations. The tools that can help the wider acceptance of RA, such as certification of RA, and stricter legislations to improve the confidence of stakeholders are discussed. The epilogue is presented as Chapter 15, providing, in essence, the salient closing points emerging from the entire work presented in this book.

References BRE, 2006. Developing a Strategic Approach to Construction Waste – 20 Year Strategy Draft for Comment. BRE, Watford, UK. Brundtland G H, 1987. Report of the World Commissions on Environment and Development: Our Common Future, United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development. Available from: http://www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf. BS EN 1992, 2004. Eurocode 2, Design of Concrete Structures – Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings. BSI, London, UK. CDRA, 2014. The Benefits of Construction and Demolition Materials Recycling in the United States. Construction & Demolition Recycling Association, Aurora, IL, USA. Collery D J, Paine K A and Dhir R K, 2015. Establishing rational use of recycled aggregates in concrete: a performance related approach. Magazine of Concrete Research 67 (11), 559–574. DEA, 2012. National Waste Information Baseline Report (Draft). Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria, South Africa. De Brito J and Saikia N, 2013. Recycled Aggregate in Concrete: Use of Industrial, Construction and Demolition Waste. Springer, London, UK. Dhir R K and McCarthy M J, 1996. Appropriate Concrete Technology. E & F N Spon. 642 pp. Dhir R K, Tittle P A J and McCarthy M J, 2000. Role of cement content in specifications for durability of concrete. Concrete 34 (10), 68–76 Discussion: 35(3), 2001, 11-13. Dhir R K, Dyer T D and Halliday J E, 2002a. Sustainable Concrete Construction. Thomas Telford Publishing, London. 836 pp. Dhir R K, Paine K A and Newlands M D, 2002b. Composite Materials in Concrete Construction. Thomas Telford Publishing. 378 p. Dhir R K, Tittle P A J, McCarthy M J and Zhou S, 2006a. Role of cement content in specifications for concrete durability: aggregate type influences. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Structures and Buildings 159 (4), 229–242. Dhir R K, Dyer T D and Whyte A A, 2006b. Guide to Determining Best Practical Environmental Options for Recycling Demolition Waste. Technical Report CTU/3806. RMC Environmental Fund. 193 pp. Dhir R K, 2006. Towards total use of fly ash in concrete construction. In: Proceedings of Coal Ash Technology Conference. United Kingdom Quality Ash Association (CD ROM). Birmingham, 15-17 May.

Introduction

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Dhir R K and Green J W, 1990. Protection of Concrete. E. & F. N. Spon, London. 1090 pp. Dhir R K and Halliday J, 2006. Resolving Application Issue When Using Sewage Sludge Ash as a Concrete Component. Technical Report CTU/3906, Department of Trade and Industry. 112 pp. Dhir R K and Hewlett P C, 2008. Cement: a question of responsible use. Concrete 42 (7), 40–42 plus correspondence, Concrete 42(10), 11-12. Dhir R K, Newlands M D and McCarthy M J, 2003. Role of Concrete Bridges in Sustainable Construction. Thomas Telford Publishing. 420 pp. Dhir R K, McCarthy M J, Zhou S and Tittle P A J, 2004a. Role of cement content in specifications for concrete durability: cement type influences. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Structures and Buildings 157 (2), 113–127. Dhir R K, Paine K A, Dyer T D and Tang M C, 2004b. Value-added recycling of domestic, industrial and construction arising as concrete aggregate. Concrete Engineering International 8 (1), 43–48. Dhir R K, Hewlett P, Csetenyi L and Newlands M D, 2008b. Role for Concrete in Global Development. IHS BRE Press, Garston, Watford, UK. 910 pp. Dhir R K, Paine K A and Halliday J E, 2008a. Facilitating the Wider Use of Coarse and Fine RA from Washing Plants. WRAP Technical Report No AGG 105-003. Waste and Research Action Programme, Banbury. 46 pp. Dhir R K, Csetenyi L J, Dye T D and Smith G W, 2010. Cleaned oil-drill cuttings for use as filler in bituminous mixtures. Construction and Building Materials 24, 322–325. Dhir R K, Singh S P and Goel S, 2013. Innovations in Concrete Construction. Excel India Publishers, New Delhi. 312 pp. Dhir R K, Singh S P, Bedi R and Goel S, 2015. Concrete Research Driving Profit and Sustainability. Excel India Publishers, New Delhi, India. Dhir R K, de Brito J, Mangabhai R and Lye C Q, 2016a. Sustainable Construction Materials: Copper Slag. Woodhead Publishing, Elsevier, Cambridge. 322 pp. Dhir R K, Ghataora G S and Lynn C J, 2016b. Sustainable Construction Materials: Sewage Sludge Ash. Woodhead Publishing, Elsevier, Cambridge. 274 pp. Dhir R K, de Brito J, Lynn C J and Silva R V, 2017. Sustainable Construction Materials: Municipal Incinerated Bottom Ash. Woodhead Publishing, Elsevier, Cambridge. 443 pp. Dhir R K, de Brito J, Ghataora G S and Lye C Q, 2018. Sustainable Construction Materials: Glass Cullet. Woodhead Publishing, Elsevier, Cambridge. 462 pp. Dosho Y, 2007. Development of a sustainable concrete waste recycling system – application of recycled aggregate concrete produced by aggregate replacing method. Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology 5 (1), 27–42. Duan H and Li J, 2016. Construction and demolition waste management: China’s lessons. Waste Management & Research 34 (5), 397–398. Dyer T D and Dhir R K, 2001. Chemical reactions of glass cullet used as a cement component. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering 13 (6), 412–417.

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Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

Dyer T D, Dhir R K and Halliday J E, 2006. Influence of solid solutions on chloride leaching from waste forms. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Waste and Resource Management 159 (3), 131–139. Elgalhud A A, Dhir R K and Ghataora G S, 2017a. Carbonation resistance of concrete: limestone addition effect. Magazine of Concrete Research 69 (2), 84–106. Elgalhud A A, Dhir R K and Ghataora G S, 2017b. Chloride ingress of concrete: limestone addition effect. Magazine of Concrete Research 70 (6), 292–313. EN 197, 2011. Cement Composition, Specifications and Conformity Criteria for Common Cements. Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN), Brussels, Belgium. Environmental Protection Department, 2017. Monitoring of Solid Waste in Hong Kong Waste Statistics for 2016. Environmental Protection Department, Hong Kong. 33 pp. European Commission, 2015. Resource Efficient Use of Mixed Wastes. European Commission, Brussels, Belgium. Available from: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/ studies/mixed_waste.htm. European Commission, 2018. Construction and Demolition Waste. European Commission, Brussels, Belgium. Available from: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/construction_ demolition.htm. Eurostat, 2018. Waste Statistics. See http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained. Limbachiya M C, Leelawat T and Dhir R K, 2000. Use of recycled concrete aggregate in highstrength concrete. Materials and Structures 33 (9), 574–580. Lye C Q, Koh S K, Mangabhai R and Dhir R K, 2015a. Use of copper slag and washed copper slag as sand in concrete: a state-of-the-art review. Magazine of Concrete Research 67 (12), 665–679. Lye C Q, Dhir R K and Ghataora G S, 2015b. Carbonation resistance of fly ash concrete. Magazine of Concrete Research 67 (21), 1150–1178. Lye C Q, Dhir R K and Ghataora G S, 2016a. Elastic modulus of concrete made with recycled aggregates. ICE Proceedings: Structures and Buildings 169 (5), 314–339. Lye C Q, Dhir R K and Ghataora G S, 2016b. Creep strain of recycled aggregate concrete. Construction and Building Materials 102 (1), 244–259. Lye C Q, Dhir R K and Ghataora G S, 2016c. Shrinkage of recycled aggregate concrete. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Structures and Buildings 169 (12), 867–891. Lye C Q, Dhir R K and Ghataora G S, 2016d. Carbonation resistance of GGBS concrete. Magazine of Concrete Research 68 (18), 936–969. Lye C Q, Dhir R K and Ghataora G S, 2017. Deformation properties of concrete using glass cullet fine aggregate. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers: Structures and Buildings 170 (5), 321–335. Lynn C J, Dhir R K, Ghataora G S and West R P, 2015. Sewage sludge ash characteristics and potential for use in concrete. Construction and Building Materials 98, 767–779. Lynn C, Dhir R K and Ghataora G S, 2016a. Sewage sludge ash characteristics and potential for use in bricks, tiles and ceramics. Water Science and Technology 74 (1), 17–29.

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Lynn C J, Dhir R K and Ghataora G S, 2016b. Municipal incinerated bottom ash characteristics and potential for use as aggregate in concrete. Construction and Building Materials 127, 504–517. Lynn C, Ghataora G S and Dhir R K, 2016c. Environmental impacts of MIBA in geotechnics and road applications. Institution of Civil Engineers Journal: Environmental Geotechnics 5 (1), 31–55. Lynn C J, Ghataora G S and Dhir R K, 2017a. Municipal incinerated bottom ash (MIBA) characteristics and potential for use in road pavements and geotechnical applications. International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 10 (2), 185–201. Lynn C J, Dhir R K and Ghataora G S, 2017b. Municipal incinerated bottom ash use as a cement component in concrete. Magazine of Concrete Research 69 (10), 512–525. Ministry of Environment, 2015. Environmental Review 2015. Ministry of Environment, Sejong City, South Korea. Ministry of Environment and Forests, 2016. Environment Ministry Notifies Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules for the First Time. Ministry of Environment and Forest, Delhi, India. Available from: http://www.moef.nic.in. MLIT, 2016. White Paper on Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism in Japan 2014. Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Tokyo, Japan. NEA, 2018. Waste Statistics and Overall Recycling. National Environment Agency, Singapore. Available from: http://www.nea.gov.sg/energy-waste/waste-management/wastestatistics-and-overall-recycling. Newlands M D and Dhir R K, 2011. Concrete for High Performance Sustainable Infrastructure, Proceedings of International UKIERI Concrete Congress, Concrete for 21st Century Construction. Shroff Publishers and Distributors, PVT. Ltd., Mumbai, India. 294 pp. Paine K A and Dhir R K, 2010a. Research on new applications for granulated rubber in concrete. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Construction Materials 163 (1), 7–17. Paine K A and Dhir R K, 2010b. Recycled aggregates in concrete: a performance related approach. Magazine of Concrete Research 62 (7), 519–530. Paine K A, Dhir R K and Doran V P, 2002. Incinerator bottom ash: engineering and environmental properties as a cement bound paving material. International Journal of Pavement Engineering 3 (1), 43–52. Paine K A, Moroney R C and Dhir R K, Septermber 14–15, 2004. Application of granulated rubber to improve thermal efficiency of concrete. In: Proc. Int’l Conf. Sustainable Waste Management and Recycling: Used/Post-consumer Tyres. Thomas Telford, London, pp. 85–96. Performance Management and Delivery Unit (PEMANDU), 2015. Solid Waste Management Laboratory, 2015. Available on: http://www.kpkt.gov.my/. Pickin J and Randell P, 2017. Australian National Waste Report 2016. Blue Environment Pty Ltd, Victoria, Australia. 74 pp. Schmidt T, 2016. Mapping Report, Part 4 – Solid Waste Management. GFA Consulting Group GmbH, Hamburg, Germany. 101 pp.

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Silva R V, de Brito J and Dhir R K, 2014a. Properties and composition of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste suitable for concrete production. Construction and Building Materials 65, 201–217. Silva R V, de Brito J and Dhir R K, 2014b. The influence of the use of recycled aggregates on the compressive strength of concrete: a review. European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering 19 (7), 825–849. Silva R V, de Brito J and Dhir R K, 2015a. Tensile strength behaviour of recycled aggregate concrete. Construction and Building Materials 83, 108–118. Silva R V, Neves R, de Brito J and Dhir R K, 2015b. Carbonation behaviour of recycled aggregate concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites 62, 22–32. Silva R V, de Brito J, Neves R and Dhir R K, 2015c. Prediction of chloride ion penetration of recycled aggregate concrete. Materials Research 18 (2), 427–440. Silva R V, de Brito J and Dhir R K, 2016a. Establishing a relationship between the modulus of elasticity and compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete. Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (4), 2171–2186. Silva R V, de Brito J, Evangelista L and Dhir R K, 2016b. Design of reinforced recycled aggregate concrete elements in conformity with Eurocode 2. Construction and Building Materials 105, 144–156. Silva R V, de Brito J and Dhir R K, 2017a. Availability and processing of recycled aggregates within the construction and demolition supply chain: a review. Journal of Cleaner Production 143, 598–614. Silva R V, de Brito J, Lynn C J and Dhir R K, 2017b. Use of municipal solid waste incineration bottom ashes in alkali-activated materials, ceramics, and granular applications: a review. Waste Management 68, 207–220. SPD, 2006. Construction and Demolition Waste. East Sussex County Council and Brighton and Hove City Council, UK. 53 pp. Stern N, 2006. The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. HM Treasury, London, UK. 662 pp. UEPG, 2017. Estimates of Aggregates Production Data 2016. European Aggregates Association, Brussels, Belgium. see http://www.uepg.eu/statistics/estimates-of-production-data/data-2015. US EPA, 2018. Advancing Sustainable Materials Management: 2015 Fact Sheet. United State Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC, USA. USGS, 2018. Mineral Commodity Summaries. United States Geology Survey, Reston, VA, USA. Available from: http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cement/. Whyte A, Dyer T D and Dhir R K, 2005. Best practicable environmental option (BPEO) for recycling demolition waste. In: Dhir R K, Dyer T D and Newlands M D (Eds.), Achieving Sustainability in Construction, pp. 245–252.

Methodology

2

Main Headings

• Literature search and appraisal • Building the data matrix • Analysis, evaluation and modelling of data • Dissemination

Synopsis For the reader to benefit fully from this work, the methodology adopted in preparing the base material for writing this book is described in detail. This consists of three main tasks, undertaken in sequence. First, the globally published literature on the subject of recycled aggregates and their use in construction is thoroughly sourced and appraised. The second stage of the work involves organising the literature, mining the data from the sourced publications and parking this information to build up the data matrix. The third part of the work involves a systematic analysis, evaluation and modelling of the sourced data. Keywords: Recycled aggregates, Literature sourcing and appraisal, Data matrix, Data analysis, Evaluation and modelling.

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100985-7.00002-9 Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

16

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

2.1  Introduction The work described in this book has been developed using an approach that is very different to the norm, and is best suited to establishing what is already known, and how well it is known, in a field of study. It can further the value-added sustainable use of recycled aggregates (RAs) in construction and, at the same time, and equally important, help to minimise repetitive research and better channel the resources to advance the material’s use. To realise this, a robust and clearly structured methodology, analytical systemisation, has been developed. To understand and achieve the full impact and benefit of the work presented in this book, a detailed description of the methodology is provided. Figure 2.1 outlines the four main stages of the work, beginning with the sourcing and assembling of the base information from the published literature. As an indication of the sheer scale of the work, it would be useful to consider the effort required to produce this publication, which involved four experts working over a prolonged period of time. This book is based on 1413 publications on the production, characteristics and use of RA in construction. There was a large amount of information to be managed, with, where necessary, reference to an additional 218 works of authoritative persons and standards/codes of practice in construction, bringing the number of publications used to 1631. All 1413 publications were vetted and sorted and the data therein extracted, to construct the complete data matrix. Thereafter, with the combined pool of extracted experimental results in hand, a fresh analysis, evaluation and modelling of the data was undertaken. To bring the work to a conclusion, the findings were carefully structured in this book, and in a form to facilitate effective dissemination. The book contains 15 chapters, covering first the nature of construction, demolition and excavation waste and its processing leading to the production of RA, and this is followed by the characteristics and use of RA in various applications, its environmental impact, case studies and relevant standards and codes of practice. Each chapter has been assigned its own Excel file, containing up to as many as 25 separate sheets for the different subheadings. Individual sheets were subsequently populated with the extracted data, each containing hundreds to thousands of distinct data points. These sheets then formed the basis of the analysis, evaluation and modelling of the sourced data in developing this book.

Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Sourcing and appraisal of literature

Building the data matrix

Analysis, evaluation and modelling of data

Dissemination

Figure 2.1  Outline of the main stages of the methodology.

Methodology

17

2.2  Literature Search and Appraisal Whilst it is recognised that the literature on the subject of RA and its use in construction has been published in many languages, for practicality, the global search of the literature has been limited to the material published in English. The main contribution has come from peerreviewed journal papers, which provided a reputable source of information, covering most of the different relevant subject areas. Though more difficult to obtain, conference papers have also been sourced. Reports produced from government bodies and private organisations have been included, where available. In addition, there were several other minor sources of information that were used in completing this search, as detailed in Section 2.2.4.

2.2.1  Identifying and Sourcing Literature The process of sourcing the literature was wide-reaching and thorough. A list of the relevant keywords covering the scope of the work, and the search engines and websites used for sourcing the literature, is provided in Table 2.1. Table 2.1  Keywords and search engines and websites used (A) Keywords Used Recycled aggregate

Aggregate

Recycled aggregate concrete

Concrete

Recycled concrete

Mortar

Recycled concrete aggregate

Geotechnical applications

Recycled masonry

Fill/backfill

Construction and demolition waste

Hydraulically bound mixture

Waste concrete

Road pavements

Waste masonry

Unbound

Waste brick

Hydraulically bound

Crushed concrete

Bituminous bound

Crushed masonry

Road base

Crushed brick

Leaching

Properties

Environment

Characteristics

Life cycle assessment

Production

Case studies

Processing

Field studies

Composition

Specifications

Waste management

Regulations

Barrier

Statistics Continued

18

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

Table 2.1 Continued (B) Engines and Website Searches Used Academic Search Complete

Construction Information Service

American Concrete Institute

ProQuest

American Society of Civil Engineers

Researchgate

ASTM

RILEM

BASE

Sagepub

British Standards Online

ScienceDirect

EBSCOhost

Science.gov

Engineering Village

Scientific.net

Google

Scopus

Google Scholar

SpringerLink

JSTOR

Taylor & Francis Online

Inderscience Online

Web of Knowledge

Ingenta Connect

Web of Science

Institute of Civil Engineering

Wiley Online Library

The literature search was undertaken until no further publication could be sourced and it could be judged assertively to be exhausted. This search policy proved to be necessary, but at the same time rewarding, though a challenging and time-consuming exercise. To systematically catalogue the sourced literature and, thereafter, the information extracted from the publications, a data matrix was created in Excel, containing all the various subject areas. Once the search was concluded, the initial background information was logged to determine the nature of the sourced literature, including the year of publication, details of the authors in the form of their affiliated institution and country and the publication type. A few points of interest emerging from this exercise are discussed next.

2.2.2  Publication Timeline In total, 1413 RA publications were sourced and used for data mining and developing the data matrix to prepare for writing this book; these were published over a period of 42 years, from 1977 to 2018. As Figure 2.2 shows, there was little literature published during the first 19 years from 1977 to 1995, though of the 37 publications, with an average of two publications per annum produced during this period, seven were from the United States, four from the United Kingdom, three each from Japan and Singapore, two each from Belgium, Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands and only one each from France, India, Portugal, Saudi Arabia and Sweden. Amongst the early work published in this subject area was the report by Bergren and Britson (1977), from the Iowa Department of Transportation (USA), which described Iowa’s first experience of using recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) originating from

Methodology

19

160

Number of publications

140 120

1413 Publications

100 80 60 40 20

0

Year

Figure 2.2  Publications on recycled aggregate per year.

Portland cement concrete pavement in a new concrete pavement construction. The project was satisfactory without encountering any major issues. It also led to the development of at least further two projects using RAs for the new pavement. Two journal papers by Frondistou-Yannas and Itoh (1977) and FrondistouYannas (1977a) from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts (USA), discussed the operation cost of running a recycling plant and the production cost of producing RCA concrete. The use of RCA was shown to be more economically attractive when natural aggregate was not available locally, such as in many metropolitan areas in the United States. The hardened properties of concrete made with coarse RCA were also discussed in FrondistouYannas (1977b). Nixon (1978) reviewed the research on the effects of RCA, mostly uncontaminated material from old laboratory test specimens, on the properties of concrete, undertaken during the period 1945–77. The paper highlighted the need for more thorough investigation on the durability aspect, and also the lack of knowledge of studies on RCA originating from general building rubble. Two conferences with a theme focusing on RAs from construction and demolition waste were held in the United Kingdom during 1995–2005: 1. The International Symposium on Sustainable Construction: Use of Recycled Concrete Aggregate was organised by the Concrete Technology Unit from the University of Dundee, and it was held in Dundee (UK), in 1998 (Dhir et al., 1998). 2.  The International Conference on Sustainable Waste Management and Recycling, Construction Demolition Waste, organised by the Concrete and Masonry Research Group, was held in London (UK), in 2004 (Limbachiya and Roberts, 2004).

20

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

Of the three peaks shown in Figure 2.2, the one in 1998 was due to the contribution of 29 publications from the aforementioned conference held in Dundee in the same year. The second peak in 2004 was due to the contributions of 35 publications from several conferences held worldwide, but mostly from the RILEM Conference on the Use of Recycled Materials in Building and Structures, Barcelona, Spain (16 publications), and the aforementioned conference held in London (nine publications). The third peak in the year 2016 is not explainable as there was no particular dedicated event held in that year, and 124 of 156 publications were journal articles.

2.2.3  Global Publication Status The country-wise distribution of the published literature, based on all the authors of each publication, not only the first author, was logged, and this information is presented in Figure 2.3. This shows that the distribution of publications amongst the 67 countries has tended to concentrate in a few countries, with 28 in Europe (Spain ranking the top), 24 in Asia (China ranking top), five in Africa (South Africa ranking top), four in North America (USA ranking top), four in South America (Brazil ranking top) and two in Oceania (Australia ranking top). The publication timeline for the top 10 countries, with a minimum of 50 publications each, is different, as shown in Figure 2.4. The United States started to publish in 1977, showing increasing rate of publication, moving from 1.2 publications per annum during 1980– 2000, to 6 publications per annum during 2001–10 and 18.3 publications per annum from 2011–18. Spain started to publish in 1995, with 2 publications per annum during 1995– 2010, and this increased suddenly to 16 per annum from 2011 onwards. The cumulative trend lines observed for Portugal and China are essentially similar to that of Spain. The United Kingdom started publishing in 1978, about the same time as the United States, but became active in the late 1990s, having a steady rate of 6.3 publication per annum since 2010. Australia also has a rate of 6.3 publications but only started to publish in 2006. The remaining four of the top ten Japan, Hong Kong, Italy and India, started to publish in 1994, 2004, 2002 and 2002, with a slow steady rate of publishing, with cumulative trend lines exhibiting similar trends and reaching in 2018 a total number of publications of 68 for Japan and 62, 59 and 57 for Hong Kong, Italy and India, respectively.

2.2.4  Publication Types Knowing where the sourced literature has been published is another important aspect of the process of evaluating the overall credentials of the research. As can be seen from Figure 2.5, slightly more than 60% of the publications on RA are journal papers, with conference papers and reports contributing about 18% and 9%, respectively, of the total published material. There are also a good number of related specifications published (about 4%). Together, these four types of publications accounted for 93% of the total literature sourced. It would be expected that the research published in these source types would generally be of a reasonably high standard. There were also smaller amounts of additional research information found (7%) in the forms of theses, online articles, bulletins, presentation slides and digests.

Methodology

21

USA

235

Spain UK Portugal

150 136 125

China Australia Japan

67 Countries

106 97

Europe: 28 Asia: 24 Africa: 5 North America: 4 South America:4 Oceania: 2

68

Hong Kong Italy India Canada

62 59 57 42

Germany Brazil South Korea

39 35

the Netherlands Belgium Singapore

Bulgaria Iraq Romania Saudi Arabia Chile Greece Indonesia Kuwait Nigeria Austria Bangladesh Colombia Croatia Cuba Finland Israel Libya Slovenia Cyprus Czech Republic Hungary Ireland Latvia Lebanon Mauritius Oman Pakistan Qatar Senegal Slovakia UAE

30 27 26

France Thailand Turkey Norway

24 18 16

Algeria Iran Malaysia

14 11

Argentina Denmark Taiwan

10

Serbia South Africa Sweden Egypt

9

8

Switzerland New Zealand Mexico

6

Poland Jordan

5

7

0

0

50

1

2

3

4

100

5

150

NUMBER OF PUBLICATIONS

Figure 2.3  Publications on recycled aggregates per country.

200

250

22

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

Cumulative rate of publications

250

200

150

100

US Spain UK Portugal China Australia Japan Hong Kong Italy India

50

0

Year

Figure 2.4  Cumulative rate of publications on recycled aggregates produced by the top ten countries.

6SHFLILFDWLRQV %RRNFKDSWHUV

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7KHVHV

2WKHUV

-RXUQDO3DSHUV 

2QOLQHDUWLFOHV %XOOHWLQV 3UHVHQWDWLRQV 'LJHVWV

Figure 2.5  Breakdown of the publication types sourced for recycled aggregate.

Investigating further into the nature of the biggest publication type, a staggering number of 204 journals were found to contain information on the subject of RA. This stretched across the fields of engineering, material sciences and environmental sciences. Journals with a minimum of five papers are listed in Table 2.2, with 9 of 23 journals published by Elsevier. Construction and Building Materials of Elsevier has published the highest number of papers, at 221, the only journal with more than 100 papers. It is followed by the Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering of the American Society of Civil

Methodology

23

Table 2.2  Main journals publishing on recycled aggregates

Journal

Number of Publications

Time Period

Construction and Building Materials

221

1999–2017

Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering

44

2003–16

Waste Management

38

1996–2017

Journal of Cleaner Production

34

2010–17

Cement and Concrete Research

33

1990–2016

Materials and Structures

32

1986–2017

Cement & Concrete Composites

29

2002–17

Magazine of Concrete Research

27

1985–2017

Resources, Conservation and Recycling

21

2003–17

ACI Materials Journal

15

1977–2013

Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board

14

1992–2015

Materials

13

2014–16

Materiales de Construccion

10

2005–16

Materials & Design

9

2010–16

European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering

8

2014–16

Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology

6

2005–08

Journal of Wuhan University of Technology – Materials Science Edition

6

2006–13

Procedia Engineering

6

2015–17

Waste Management & Research

6

2009–17

Engineering Structures

5

2006–17

Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials

5

2013–17

Road Materials and Pavement Design

5

2012–16

Structures and Buildings

5

1999–2016

Engineers, with 44 publications, and Waste Management, published by Elsevier, at 38. Of the remaining 180 journals, seven have published four papers each, 11 have published three papers, 24 have published two papers and 119 have published only one paper each.

2.2.5   Researchers Involved The background information gathered from the literature on the subject of RA and its use in construction showed that 2213 authors have published their research in this area, although Table 2.3 has been limited to authors with a minimum of 10 publications. They

24

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

are from Australia, China, Hong Kong, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom. In addition to these, there are 81 authors with five to nine publications, 71 authors with four publications, 124 authors with three publications each, 346 authors with two publications each and a staggering number of 1562 authors with only one publication each. Table 2.3  Key researchers in the field of recycled aggregates

Author

Country

Time Period

Number of Publications

de Brito, J.

Portugal

2004–17

95

Dhir, R.K.

United Kingdom

1996–2018

53

Poon, C.S.

Hong Kong

2004–17

46

Kou, S.C.

Hong Kong

2004–15

28

Evangelista, L.

Portugal

2004–17

26

Tam, V.W.Y.

Australia

2005–17

25

Corinaldesi, V.

Italy

2002–16

22

Jimenez, J.R.

Spain

2011–16

22

Moriconi, G.

Italy

2002–17

19

Paine, K.A.

United Kingdom

2002–15

19

Agrela, F.

Spain

2011–16

18

Ayuso, J.

Spain

2011–16

18

Xiao, J.

China

2005–17

18

Etxeberria, M.

Spain

2006–16

17

Arulrajah, A.

Australia

2009–16

15

Limbachiya, M.

United Kingdom

1998–2015

15

Silva, R.V.

Portugal

2014–17

14

Tam, C.M.

Hong Kong

2005–09

13

Barbudo, A.

Spain

2012–16

12

Galvin, P.

Spain

2012–16

11

Gonzalez-Fonteaboa, B.

Spain

2004–17

11

Lopez, M.

Spain

2011–16

11

Vazquez, E.

Spain

1996–2014

11

Chan, D.

Hong Kong

2004–08

10

Disfani, M.

Australia

2013–15

10

Engelsen, C.

Norway

2002–17

10

Gomez-Soberon, J.M.

Spain

2001–17

10

Martin-Abella, F.

Spain

2004–17

10

Methodology

25

There are several interesting points that emerge from Table 2.3:

• Amongst the authors listed in Table 2.3, R.K. Dhir from the United Kingdom, M.C. Limbachiya from the United Kingdom and E. Vazquez from Spain started to publish relevant RA research before the 2000s, whilst the rest started after the 2000s.



• The research focus of the top three authors, J. De Brito from Portugal, R.K. Dhir from the

United Kingdom and C.S. Poon from Hong Kong, as well as most of the authors listed in Table 2.3, was mainly in the area of RCA and its applications in concrete.



• Only A. Arulrajah and M. Disfani, both from Australia, were actively involved in research into the use of RCA and mixed recycled aggregates in geotechnical and road pavement applications and the relevant study of environmental assessment.

2.2.6  Institutions and Organisations Involved A staggeringly high number of institutions and organisations, 965 worldwide, have been involved in research in the area of RA and its use in construction. Institutions with a minimum of 20 publications are listed in Table 2.4, with about half of them being from Europe. Further interesting points to note are:

• Of those not listed in the table, there are 14 institutions having 15–19 publications, 28

institutions with 10–14 publications, 131 institutions having 5–9 publications and 767 institutions with 1–4 publications.



• The top three contributors are all from Europe, having more than 100 publications. They are the Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, in Portugal, with 260 publications; the University of Dundee in the United Kingdom, with 125 publications, and the Universidad de Córdoba in Spain, with 113 publications.



• The

top institutions from the other four continents listed in the table are, in Asia, Hong Kong Polytechnics University in Hong Kong; North America, the University of Wisconsin at Madison in the United States; South America, the University of São Paulo in Brazil, and Oceania, Swinburne University of Technology in Australia.

2.2.7  Subject Area Distribution In the main, the sourced literature has been categorised under 12 main subject areas, as shown in Figure 2.6. On the availability of RA in terms of sources and types of the material, as well as the statistics on the amounts generated in major countries (Chapter 3), and the perceived barriers to its use in construction, data were sourced from 46 publications and reference was made to 4 standards and specifications and three supplementary publications. The work in Chapter 4 is based on 114 publications and four supplementary references, which discuss the processing of RAs, whilst the properties and composition of RAs, as well as the classification of RAs given various standards and specifications, are discussed in Chapter 5, with 178 publications, 19 standards and specifications and 3 supplementary references.

26

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

Table 2.4  Key institutions and organisations involved in research on recycled aggregates

Institution/Organisation

Country

Number of Publications

Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa

Portugal

260

University of Dundee

United Kingdom

125

Universidad de Córdoba

Spain

113

Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Hong Kong

100

Swinburne University of Technology

Australia

46

Tongji University

China

44

Università Politecnica delle Marche

Italy

42

University of A Coruña

Spain

42

Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil (LNEC)

Portugal

37

University of Wisconsin at Madison

United States

30

Iowa State University

United States

29

National University of Singapore

Singapore

28

University of São Paulo

Brazil

28

University of Waterloo

Canada

25

Delft University of Technology

The Netherlands

24

Universidad Politécnica de Cataluña

Spain

24

Kumamoto University

Japan

23

Griffith University

Australia

22

Kingston University

United Kingdom

22

Universidad de Cantabria

Spain

22

Universidad de Oviedo

Spain

21

University of Illinois

United States

21

King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi

Thailand

20

Technical University of Denmark

Denmark

20

University of Belgrade

Serbia

20

The use of fine RA as a component of sand in mortar and how this may affect its performance in both fresh and hardened states are described in Chapter 6, based on 85 publications, 24 standards and 4supplementary works. The studies on the use of RAs as aggregate components in concrete applications have been studied extensively. The effects of RA on the fresh properties of concrete, and on strength, deformation and durability properties, are discussed in Chapters 7–10, respectively. The studies have been based on the information sourced from a total 1065 publications, 37 standards and specifications and 18 supplementary references.

Methodology

Recycled aggregates publications Supplementary references

Standards and specifications

Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Number of publications Figure 2.6  Recycled aggregate publications, standards and specifications and supplementary references used in Chapters 3–14.

27

28

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

The numbers of publications, standards and supplementary references sourced regarding the use of RAs in geotechnical applications, presented in Chapter 11, are 100, 12 and 8, respectively. The corresponding numbers for the use of RA in road pavement applications, in the form of unbound, hydraulically bound and bituminous bound, presented in Chapter 12, are 143, 8 and 5. The environmental impact of the use RA in construction, relevant case studies and standards and specifications are discussed in Chapter 13, based on the data and related information sourced from 173 publications, 82 standards and specifications and 4 supplementary references. Chapter 14 deals with the marketing aspects of RA, and the current technology, legislation and practice, as well as economic considerations of the use of RA, based on 46 RA publications, 4 standards and specifications and 3 supplementary references.

2.3  Building the Data Matrix This work consists of two main tasks required to facilitate the process: 1. Systematic analysis and evaluation of the experimental data. 2. Structuring and modelling of the analysed work.

Similar to laying the foundation of a building, it is extremely important to set a solid base for this work. This is done through the initial sorting of the literature and the meticulous data mining and parking of the experimental results. Although it may be

Aastheesan et al. Alam et al. Aqil et al. Aqil et al. Arm Arm Arulrajah et al. Arulrajah et al. Arulrajah et al. Arulrajah et al. Arulrajah et al. Arulrajah et al. Ashtiani and Saeed Aurstad et al. Aurstad et al. Ayan et al. Ayan et al. Ayan et al. Aydilek

M

C

F

X X X X X

X X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X X X

X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X

F

M

X

C

F

M X

C

F

M

C

F

M

X

X

X X X

X X X

X X

X X X X X X X

C

X

X X X X X X X X X X X

M X

RAP

F

CDRA

C

MRA

Australia USA Japan Japan Sweden Sweden Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia USA Norway Norway Iran Iran Iran USA

RMA

2009 2009 2005 (b) 2005 (a) 2001 2003 2011 2013 (a) 2012 2013 (b) 2014 (a) 2014 (b) 2012 2006a 2006b 2015 2014a 2014 2015

RCA

Year

NA

Authors

Country

Aggregate Type

X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X X

X X X

X

X

X

X

X X X X X

Figure 2.7  A partial screen capture of the initial sorting of literature showing the research subject covered in Chapter 11 on geotechnical applications.

Methodology

29

seen as repetitive, and at times laborious and tiresome, owing to the sheer size of the task involved, the work demands a keen attention to detail, as the thoroughness of the process can greatly affect the quality and reliability of the findings.

2.3.1  Initial Sorting of Literature This stage of the work is very much like the post office sorting the mail to deliver letters. It serves as the foundation and needs to be carried out correctly. Each publication must be thoroughly vetted and allocated to specific relevant subject areas, such as concrete, geotechnics and ceramics. The publications are then sorted into further subdivisions in each subject area of the selected application; an example of this is shown in Figure 2.7 on the use of RA in geotechnical applications.

2.3.2  Data Mining and Parking The next stage consists of identifying and extracting both qualitative descriptive information in the text and quantitative results in tables and figures, making use of the software package Plot Digitizer when required, from the sourced publications, for each subject area. The data matrix was formed through this process of data mining and parking. A partial screen capture of a sample of the data matrix is shown in Figure 2.8, for the data on the elastic modulus of concrete with RCA.

X X X X X X X

X

X

X X X X X X X X X

X

X X

X

X X X X

X X X X

X

X

X X X

X

X X

X X X X X X X

X X X X X

X

X

X X X

X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X

X X X X X

X X

X X X X X X X X

X

X X X X X X X X X X X X

X

X

X X X X X X

X

X X X X X X X

X

X

X

X X X X

X

X X X

X X

X X X

X

X

X

Figure 2.7 Cont’d 

X

X

X X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

Soundness

Freeze-thaw

Sulfate Aack

Fague

X

Stability

X

Permeability

X X

Swelling

Resilient Modulus

CBR

X X

X X X

X X X X

Bearing Capacity

Shear Box

Confing Pressure

Triaxial Tesng

Shear Strength

Dry Density

Opmum Water Content

Compacblity

Chemical Leachate Analysis

pH

Organic Content

X

X X

X

Porosity

X

X

X

Water Absorpon

Flakiness Index

Micro Deval

Los Angeles Abrasion

Sand Equivalent

Specific Gravity

Aerberg Limits X

Compressibility

X X

Geotechnical Properties

Sffness

X X X X

Characteristics Parcle Size Distribuon

Field Work

Lab Work

Work

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

51

29.9

78 2352 3.2 Cyl 14

31.7

27.6

Ahmad et al

1996

100 114 2236 6.2 Cyl 14

31.4

25.7

Ahmad et al

1996

Ahmad et al Ahmad et al Ahmad et al

1996

Ahmad et al Ahmed and Vidyaadhara Ahmed and Vidyaadhara Ahmed and Vidyaadhara Ahmed and Vidyaadhara Ahmed and Vidyaadhara Ahmed and Vidyaadhara Ajdukiewicz A and Kliszczewicz A Ajdukiewicz A and Kliszczewicz A Ajdukiewicz A and Kliszczewicz A Ajdukiewicz A and Kliszczewicz A Ajdukiewicz A and Kliszczewicz A Ajdukiewicz A and Kliszczewicz A Ajdukiewicz A and Kliszczewicz A Ajdukiewicz A and Kliszczewicz A Ajdukiewicz A and Kliszczewicz A Ajdukiewicz A and Kliszczewicz A Ajdukiewicz A and Kliszczewicz A Ajdukiewicz A and Kliszczewicz A Ajdukiewicz A and Kliszczewicz A Ajdukiewicz A and Kliszczewicz A Ajdukiewicz A and Kliszczewicz A

Strength, MPa

50 2268 6.3 Cyl 14

60

Elasc Modulus, GPa

0

1996

Day

1996

Ahmad et al

Air %

Ahmad et al

%

Cu/ Cyl

Year RCA,

Density, kg/m3

Authors

Slump, mm

30

0

50 2268 6.3 Cyl 28

53.2

36.2

1996

60

78 2352 3.2 Cyl 28

35.9

30.7

1996

100 114 2236 6.2 Cyl 28

35.5

22.2

0

50 2268 6.3 Cyl 270 64.7

36.6

1996

60

78 2352 3.2 Cyl 270 55.2

2013

0

-

-

-

Cu

28

31

27.8

2013

20

-

-

-

Cu

28

29.4

27.1

2013

40

-

-

-

Cu

28 28.19

26.5

2013

60

-

-

-

Cu

28

27.6

26.3

2013

80

-

-

-

Cu

28

24.2

24.6

2013

100

-

-

-

Cu

28

21.9

23.4

2002

0

V2 2400

-

Cyl 28

48.4

30

2002

100

V2 2320

-

Cyl 28

44.5

27.4

2002

0

V2 2420

-

Cyl 28

68.3

32.3

2002

100

V2 2370

-

Cyl 28

63.1

30.7

2002

0

V2 2390

-

Cyl 28

48.9

30.9

2002

100

V2 2350

-

Cyl 28

46.1

28.1

2002

0

V2 2460

-

Cyl 28

85.3

35.8

2002

100

V2 2360

-

Cyl 28

79.2

34.8

2002

0

V2 2390

-

Cyl 28

48.9

30.9

2002

100

V2 2330

-

Cyl 28

52.5

30.1

2002

0

V2 2460

-

Cyl 28

85.3

35.8

2002

100

V2 2360

-

Cyl 28

89.2

34.3

2002

0

V2 2390

-

Cyl 28

48.9

30.9

2002

100

V2 2370

-

Cyl 28

45.2

27.5

2002

0

V2 2460

-

Cyl 28

85.3

35.8

39.3

Figure 2.8  A partial screen capture of data mining and parking showing the results for elastic modulus of concrete made with recycled concrete aggregates taken from various studies.

0

80

-

-

Cyl 28 21.6

18.7

2012

100

80

-

-

Cyl 28 20.2

17.55

Konin and Kouadio

2012

0

80

-

-

Cyl 28 23.5

19.4

Konin and Kouadio

2012

100

80

-

-

Cyl 28 21.6

18.5

Konin and Kouadio

2012

0

80

-

-

Cyl 28 27.7

20.2

Konin and Kouadio

2012

100

80

-

-

Cyl 28

Konin and Kouadio

2012

0

80

-

-

Cyl 28 29.9

20.85

Konin and Kouadio

2012

100

80

-

-

Cyl 28 27.1

19.85

Kou and Poon

2008

0

-

-

-

Cu 28 43.8

26.9

Kou and Poon

2008

20

-

-

-

Cu 28 41.9

26.4

Kou and Poon

2008

50

-

-

-

Cu 28 38.2

25.3

Kou and Poon

2008

100

-

-

-

Cu 28 36.5

22.2

Kou and Poon

2008

0

-

-

-

Cu 28 43.8

26.9

Kou and Poon

2008

20

-

-

-

Cu 28 41.2

25.1

Kou and Poon

2008

50

-

-

-

Cu 28 36.4

23.9

Kou and Poon

2008

100

-

-

-

Cu 28 34.3

20.8

Kou and Poon

2008

0

-

-

-

Cu 28 43.8

26.9

Kou and Poon

2008

20

-

-

-

Cu 28 41.6

25.4

Kou and Poon

2008

50

-

-

-

Cu 28 37.8

24.3

Kou and Poon

2008

100

-

-

-

Cu 28 35.6

21.7

Kou and Poon

2008

0

-

-

-

Cu 90 47.6

27.8

Kou and Poon

2008

20

-

-

-

Cu 90 46.8

27.2

Kou and Poon

2008

50

-

-

-

Cu 90 43.1

26.1

Kou and Poon

2008

100

-

-

-

Cu 90 40.9

23.5

Kou and Poon

2008

0

-

-

-

Cu 90 47.6

27.8

Kou and Poon

2008

20

-

-

-

Cu 90 45.8

26.3

Kou and Poon

2008

50

-

-

-

Cu 90 41.2

25.2

Kou and Poon

2008

100

-

-

-

Cu 90 39.2

21.9

Kou and Poon

2008

0

-

-

-

Cu 90 47.6

27.8

Figure 2.8 Cont’d

Strength, MPa

2012

Konin and Kouadio

25

Elasc Modulus, GPa

Air %

Konin and Kouadio

Day

Year RCA, %

Cu/ Cyl

Authors

Slump, mm

31 Density, kg/m3

Methodology

19.1

32

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

2.4  Analysis, Evaluation and Modelling of Data This step involves the critical assessment of the globally published experimental results on RA and its use in construction. Using Excel, the data were assembled in a manner allowing a great deal of flexibility in the analysis and evaluation and, where possible, the development of models, whilst retaining a very close connection with the results. The analysis and evaluation process proved to be very demanding, with no magic recipe or straightforward set strategy. The exercise was very much dependent on the nature of the available results and the knowledge and experience of the assessor, requiring sensitivity and attention to detail in the handling of the data, whilst retaining a pragmatic and imaginative touch. The immediate problem one faces with the analysis and evaluation of global data is the large amount of variation in the test results obtained by different researchers, and this must be assessed carefully. This variability can be controlled, to some extent, by working 65% RCA

75% RCA

80% RCA

100% RCA

RCA, %

Rel, %

RCA, %

Rel, %

RCA, %

Rel, %

RCA, %

Rel, %

66

81

75

64

80

59

100

49

65

85

75

65

80

66

100

50

65

85

75

65

80

81

100

50

65

88

75

71

80

83

100

52

63.5

98

75

74

80

84

100

54

75

74

80

88

100

54

75

74

80

88

100

54

75

74

80

89

100

54

75

75

80

90

100

54

70% RCA RCA, %

Rel, %

70

59

75

76

80

90

100

55

70

62

75

78

80

91

100

55

70

81

75

79

80

91

100

56

70

82

75

81

80

91

100

57

70

86

75

81

80

91

100

57

70

86

75

82

80

91

100

57

70

94

75

82

80

93

100

58

70

96

75

82

80

94

100

58

75

85

80

94

100

58

75

85

80

94

100

59

75

86

80

100

100

60

75

86

100

60

75

87

100

60

90% RCA

75

87

100

61

75

88

RCA, %

Rel, %

100

61

75

88

85

69

100

62

75

89

90

83

100

62

75

90

90

88

100

62

75

91

90

100

100

62

75

92

100

64

75

94

100

64

75

98

100

64

75

99

100

64

100

64

100

65

100

65

Figure 2.9  A partial screen capture of the analysis and evaluation showing the effects of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) as a natural aggregate replacement on the modulus elastic of concrete.

Methodology

33

with relative values, with respect to the reference test material, usually comparing RA with accepted construction materials. The data were analysed systematically using varying approaches depending on the volume of the data, nature of the subject (e.g., chemical composition of RA, strength properties of concrete, compaction behaviour of soil, Marshall stability of bituminous mix, moisture susceptibility of mix and leaching tests), application of the material and test parameters involved. In addition, reference was made to the current standards and specifications when necessary, to assess the products for compliance. One example of this work is shown in Figure 2.9, which was created for Chapter 9 for the effects of RCA as a coarse natural aggregate replacement on the elastic modulus of concrete. A total of 1368 data points were considered in this exercise, in which the results were expressed in a relative form. Box-and-whiskers plots were adopted to visualise the distribution of the data and identify potential outliers. In addition, data with relative values greater than 100% (indicating that the stiffness of RCA is higher than that of natural aggregate) were considered outliers, owing to the presence of a significant amount of adhered cement paste on the RCA, which was porous and weak. Polynomial regression was also used to obtain the overall trend line to reveal the underlying relationships in the collective data. 110

RELATIVE Ec OF RCA CONCRETE WRT NATURAL AGREGATE CONCRETE , %

y = 0.0015x2 - 0.3095x + 100 R² = 0.7612 100

90

80

70

60 Data > 100% Maximum Q3

50

Median Mean (excluded outliers) Data ≤ 100% Q1 Minimum Outlier

40 0

20

40

60

COARSE RCA CONTENT, %

Figure 2.9 Cont’d 

80

100

34

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

2.5  Dissemination The findings emerging from the analysis, evaluation and modelling of the combined experimental results are structured in an incisive and easy-to-digest manner that can be usable for researchers and practitioners. The work is disseminated in written form as part of a series of books on sustainable construction materials, published by Elsevier. With the novel approach undertaken, it is hoped that this book can contribute towards establishing a more widespread practical use of RA as a sustainable construction material, stimulating forward-thinking research and reducing repetitive work.

2.6  Conclusions So that the reader can understand and benefit from this work, the clearly structured methodology that has been designed and adopted to develop the base material to enable writing this book has been described. This methodology is in three distinct parts, which follow in sequence. The first part deals with the procedures used in sourcing and appraising the literature on the subject of GC and its use in construction. The next step involves sorting of the literature and the subsequent mining and parking of the data in a well-defined and orderly manner. Finally, the data are analysed and evaluated as part of the critical assessment of the combined experimental results to determine the emerging findings, which are then presented in a manner that can be clearly understood and disseminated.

References Bergren J V and Britson R A, 1977. Portland Cement Concrete Utilizing Recycled Pavement. Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, USA. Report No.: FHWA-DP-47-1, 35 pp. Dhir R K, Henderson N A and Limbachiya M K (Eds.), 1998. Sustainable Construction: Use of Recycled Concrete Aggregate. Thomas Telford, London, UK. 519 pp. Frondistou-Yannas S, 1997a. Recycled concrete as new aggregate. In: Progress in Concrete Technology CANMET. Energy Mines and Resources Canada, Ottawa, Canada, pp. 639–684. Frondistou-Yannas S, 1997b. Waste concrete as aggregate for new concrete. ACI Materials Journal 74 (8), 373–376. Frondistou-Yannas S and Itoh T, 1977. Economic feasibility of concrete recycling. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 103 (ST4), 885–899. Limbachiya M K and Roberts J J (Eds.), 2004. Sustainbale Waste Management and Recycling: Construction and Demolition Waste. Thomas Telford, London, UK. 405 pp. Nixon P J, 1978. Recycled concrete as an aggregate for concrete - a review. Matériaux et Construction 11 (5), 371–378.

Availability of Recycled Aggregates

3

Main Headings

• Sources of construction and demolition waste • Generation of construction and demolition waste • Barriers to recycling waste in the construction industry

Synopsis This chapter contains an analysis of the availability of recycled aggregates that can be obtained from processed construction and demolition waste. It identifies and presents the amounts of the main types of materials that can be found in that waste as well as the main sources of its generation. The amounts of construction and demolition waste generated in several key countries are revealed. This chapter also presents the main identified barriers to the wider reuse and recycling of construction and demolition waste as recycled aggregates in a number of applications as a natural aggregate replacement. Keywords: Construction and demolition waste, Recycled aggregates, Waste generation, Barriers.

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100985-7.00003-0 Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

36

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

3.1  Introduction There has been a large investment in the construction industry in recent years, due to increasing economic development and population growth in several countries, especially China, India and Brazil. As a result, there has been a large demand for aggregates worldwide (Freedonia, 2012). This has led to the relentless extraction of natural resources, with severe repercussions on the environment. The global demand for construction aggregates is anticipated to increase from 45 billion tonnes in 2017 to 66 billion tonnes by the end of 2025 (PMR, 2017). In light of the generally anticipated limiting availability of good-quality aggregates, as well as the ever-increasing road haulage distance and cost (Behera et al., 2014), global efforts are being made to seek alternatives within the construction industry to close the loop of the supply chain (de Brito and Silva, 2016). The construction and demolition industry produces huge amounts of waste every year, which needs to be managed from a sustainability point of view. With a proactive approach, it is possible to address this problem using techniques and facilities that involve the recovery, reuse and recycling of waste. However, a good waste management system can take a significant amount of time and expertise to develop into a reliable and sustainable industry. For this to materialise, it is essential that all stakeholders (e.g., contractors, clients, planners and producers) play their part in the management of construction and demolition waste (CDW) (Silva et al., 2017). Some countries have healthy waste management policies that allow accurate quantification and segregation of CDW. However, it is widely believed that the amount of CDW generated is still severely underestimated in several countries, and is also influenced by the non-selective type of demolition approach (Noguchi et al., 2015), resulting in the mismanagement of valuable materials that otherwise could have been beneficiated and used in new construction. This chapter seeks to provide an insight into the main sources of CDW and the amounts generated, to establish, to a certain degree, the availability of recycled aggregates (RAs) resulting from the processing of wastes from construction and demolition. The main barriers to the wider reuse and recycling of CDW as RA in a number of applications as a natural aggregate (NA) replacement are also discussed.

3.2  Sources of Construction and Demolition Waste It is widely acknowledged that CDW includes a wide variety of materials that are generated from various sources, such as concrete, bricks, steel, wood, gypsum and plaster, which may come from the construction of new buildings, roads and bridges and other structures, renovation-related activities, demolition of end-of-life structures and natural disasters (USEPA, 2016; Arisoy and Sgem, 2016).

Availability of Recycled Aggregates

37

Table 3.1  European Waste Catalogue codes for different types of materials in construction and demolition waste (EC, 2000) EWC Code

Type of Waste

17 01

Concrete, bricks, tiles, ceramics and gypsum-based materials

17 01 01

Concrete

17 01 02

Bricks

17 01 03

Tiles and ceramics

17 02

Wood, glass and plastic

17 03

Asphalt, tar and tarred products

17 03 01

Asphalt containing tar

17 03 02

Asphalt not containing tar

17 04

Metals (including their alloys)

17 05

Soil and dredging spoil

17 06

Insulation materials

17 07

Mixed construction and demolition waste

EWC, European Waste Catalogue.

3.2.1  European Waste Catalogue Improved information concerning identification and separation at the source is the starting point of the CDW management process. It is fundamental to the whole process of management that definitions for waste identification are clear and unambiguous and that they are widely disclosed, clearly understood and fully agreed upon (EC, 2016). Doing so, in combination with selective demolition and other adequate on-site operations, will improve the collection and segregation of materials capable of being reused and recycled. For this reason, the European Commission published a comprehensive list containing specific codes for several types of wastes coming from different economic sectors, commonly referred to as the European Waste Catalogue (EWC) (EC, 2000). In this catalogue, there is a specific section for CDW, ‘17 – Construction and demolition wastes (including road construction)’, which gives the main types of materials that are normally found in CDW (Table 3.1), with special emphasis on the 17 01 03 wastes, which are considered to have the highest potential of being recycled as new aggregate in construction products and, therefore, as explained in subsequent chapters, within the scope of this book. Although excavated soils and dredging spoils are included in the EWC list of CDWs, according to the decision of the European Commission (EC, 2000), these are not included within the scope of the EU Construction & Demolition Waste Management Protocol, published in 2016 (EC, 2016), nor in the European Waste Framework Directive (CEU, 2008). This directive excludes ‘uncontaminated soil and other naturally occurring material excavated in the course of construction activities, where it is certain that the material will be used for the purposes of construction in its natural state on the site from which it was excavated’ (CEU, 2008).

38

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

6WHHO %ULFNDQGFOD\  WLOHV 

'U\ZDOODQG :RRG SODVWHUV  

$VSKDOW VKLQJOHV  $VSKDOW FRQFUHWH &RQFUHWH  Figure 3.1  Composition of construction and demolition waste generated in the United States in 2014. Values sourced from USEPA (2016).

3.2.2  Construction and Demolition Waste Even though CDW may arise from other sources that produce a notable amount of wastes, such as refurbishment activities and natural disasters, estimates for the generation of CDW are normally given in terms of construction- or demolitionrelated activities. It is widely acknowledged that demolition operations generally produce higher amounts of waste compared with that generated in construction works (Mália et al., 2013; Jin and Chen, 2015). This is natural, considering that, at the demolition stage, the materials normally comprise end-of-life components, which are generally deemed as unusable, whereas in construction, there is a higher resource efficiency of the new and valuable construction materials, thereby resulting in lower amounts of waste produced. Furthermore, demolition always involves replacement of a very large volume of materials, even when their physical service life has not expired, owing to criteria such as functional obsolescence, aesthetics and fashion. The US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) provided estimates of different types of materials present in wastes arising from both construction and demolition works across the United States, showing that construction waste, in general, amounted to 5% of the total waste produced in the years 2012 to 2014 (USEPA, 2016). Figure 3.1 shows the composition of CDW generated in the United States in 2014, in terms of type of material present. It shows that the composition of CDW did not vary significantly from that of the two previous years and that concrete was by far the largest stream, representing 70% of the total amount of CDW generated, followed

Availability of Recycled Aggregates

D

:RRG

39

E

&RQFUHWH $VSKDOW %ULFN 2WKHUV

&RQFUHWH $VSKDOW %ULFN 2WKHUV 6RLO

F

6RLO

:RRG

G

:RRG &RQFUHWH $VSKDOW %ULFN 2WKHUV

&RQFUHWH $VSKDOW %ULFN 2WKHUV 6RLO

:RRG

6RLO

Figure 3.2  Proportions of different materials by mass of the total amount of waste from construction activities of (a and b) two residential and (c and d) two non-residential building sites. Data sourced from Marrero et al. (2017).

by asphalt concrete and wood. The estimates provided by the USEPA (2016) also showed that the composition of construction waste could be distinguished from that of demolition, mainly with the absence of asphalt concrete and steel. Despite the apparently constant relative weight of the streams of waste materials over the course of time, as given in USEPA (2016), their amounts may vary significantly. Figure 3.2, based on Marrero et al. (2017), gives the amounts of several materials produced at four construction sites in Spain, two residential and two non-residential. In contrast to what may normally be expected in CDW, wherein the quantities of concrete outweigh those of every other type of material, at those four construction sites, the volume of excavated soil was extremely high. Furthermore, since all building sites were in a highdensity forest area, much of the resulting waste comprised wood. Such findings are in line with those of Mália et al. (2013), who determined that the main type of waste coming from new residential and non-residential constructions is wood, whereas demolition and refurbishment activities tend to produce higher amounts of concrete and bricks. Another aspect that also influences the estimation of generated CDW from a specific structure is its purpose and date of construction. Figure 3.3 presents the main types of structures designed and built in the area of Shanghai over time. Before 1980, a significant portion of the buildings comprised brick–wood structures. After that, there was a rise in brick–concrete structures in both residential and non-residential buildings. In the 1990s, these structures started to be replaced by concrete structures, becoming the major type until today, with a notable increase in steel-frame structures (Ding and Xiao, 2014).

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

20 years

No visible distresses were observed

Halm, 1983

Street road, Grand Rapids

1981

USA

—

—

>20 years

Satisfactory performance

Reza and Wilde, 2017

MN 15-U, highway segment

1984

USA

—

19 mm

>20 years

No visible distresses were observed

Reza and Wilde, 2017

MN 60-D, highway segment

1987

USA

—

19 mm

>20 years

No visible distresses were observed

Reza and Wilde, 2017

US 169-U, highway segment

1991

USA

—

25 mm

>20 years

No visible distresses were observed

Reza and Wilde, 2017

MN 19, highway segment

1993

USA

—

19 mm

>20 years

No visible distresses were observed

Reza and Wilde, 2017

US 169-U, highway segment

1994

USA

—

19 mm

>20 years

No visible distresses were observed

(a) Coarse RCA

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

Table 13.14 Continued

Case Name

Year

Country

RA (%)

Max. Agg. Size

Period

Remarks

Centre of Excellence for Airport Technology, 2016

Gate F7B, O’Hare Airport

2009

USA

100

—

—

RCA pavement was in good condition and did not experience high deformation

Cleary, 2013

Carpenter Street sidewalk

2011

USA

100

—

1 year

No distress was observed in the pavement

Cleary, 2013

Concrete apron

2011

USA

100

—

1 year

No distress was observed in the pavement

Cleary, 2013

Robinson Hall sidewalk

2011

USA

100

—

1 year

No distress was observed in the pavement

Cleary, 2013

Wilson Hall pavement

2011

USA

100

—

1 year

No distress was observed in the pavement

Rajab et al., 2014

C2 sidewalk, Ontariob

2013

Canada

10, 20, 30

20 mm

6 months

No significant difference between RCA and NA sections

Halm, 1983

La Guardia Airport —

USA

—

—

—

—

Hendriks, 1987

Test pavement near Helmond

—

Netherlands

—

—

4 years

No damage caused by freeze–thaw actions was observed on the pavement

Koulouris et al., 2004

Industrial pavement, Day Group Ltd.

—

UK

30, 100

20 mm

—

The performance of RCA pavement was similar to that of NA pavement

Li, 2009; Shi et al., 2010

Concrete pavement, Shanghai

—

China

50

—

>3 years

Satisfactory performance 537

Reference

Environmental Impact, Case Studies and Standards and Specifications

Application

Continued

538

Table 13.14 Continued Application Reference

Case Name

Year

Country

RA (%)

Max. Agg. Size

Period

Remarks

Yin et al., 2010

Test sections of G325

—

China

60, 80, 100

31.5 mm

1 year

The overall performance of RCA pavement was excellent, and no cracks were observed

Zhang and Ingham, 2010; Zhang et al., 2009

Residential driveway

—

New Zealand

100

—

—

The RCA concrete pavement was indistinguishable from NA pavement

(b) Mixed RCA (Coarse and Fine Fractions) I-680, Pottawattamiea

1977

USA

—

—

—

—

Iowa Department of Transportation, 1984; Yrjanson, 1989

Route 2, Taylor and Page County

1978–79

USA

100 coarse 40 fine

38 mm

5 years

Satisfactory performance

Gerarddu and Hendriks, 1985; Hendriks, 1987

Volkel Airfield pavement

1979

Netherlands

85–90 by vol.

31.5 mm

—

RCA mix was difficult to work with

Gerarddu and Hendriks, 1985; Hendriks, 1987

Taxiway, Maastricht Airport

1981

Netherlands

80

30 mm

—

The RCA mixture met the strength requirements

Rajab et al., 2014

C2 sidewalk, Ontariob

2013

Canada

20

20 mm

6 months

No significant difference between RCA and NA sections

—, data not available; NA, natural aggregate; RA, recycled aggregate; RCA, recycled concrete aggregate. aThe application type was pavement shoulder for that case study. bNA section is available to compare.

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

Yrjanson, 1989

Environmental Impact, Case Studies and Standards and Specifications

539

Nassar and Soroushian, 2016; Darter et al., 2012; Rens et al., 2008; Reza and Wilde, 2017; Roesler and Huntley, 2009; Tompkins et al., 2009; Yrjanson, 1989; Wade et al., 1997). This suggests that concrete pavements made with RA had been tested for various traffic levels under real field conditions. Core tests have been conducted to evaluate the in situ properties of RCA concrete pavements. The tested pavements normally had been in service for about 10 and 30 years. Where the results of both RCA concrete and NA concrete are available (American Concrete Pavement Association, 2010, 2015; Gress et al., 2009; Sturtevant, 2007; Sadati and Khayat, 2016; Nassar and Soroushian, 2016; Hansen, 1995), it generally appears that:

• The compressive strength and tensile strength of the two concretes were about the same. • The static elastic modulus and dynamic elastic modulus of RCA concrete were lower than those of NA concrete.



• The

coefficient of thermal expansion of RCA concrete was higher than that of NA concrete.

In terms of field performance evaluation, falling weight deflectometer tests have been conducted in a number of case studies to assess the deflection property of the pavement and the load transfer efficiency (LTE) of its joints and cracks. For JPCP and JRCP, the joint LTE value of RCA concrete pavements was lower than that of reference NA concrete pavements, and on the other hand, the deflection of the RCA concrete pavements was higher (American Concrete Pavement Association, 2010; Cuttell et al., 1997; Gress et al., 2009). Only in two cases were the joint LTE and deflection values for RCA concrete pavements and NA concrete pavements found to be the same (Cuttell et al., 1997). For CRCP, although the comparison with NA concrete pavements was not available, the field results for the crack LTE and deflection of RCA concrete pavements suggested that the values obtained for RCA concrete pavements were within the expected values for NA concrete pavements (Cuttell et al., 1997; Roesler and Huntley, 2009). Another important field performance evaluation was to examine the pavement distresses in terms of cracking, faulting (difference in elevation across the joint) and spalling (breakdown of the joint). The distress of RCA concrete used in three conventional pavement types, i.e., JPCP, JRCP and CRCP, has been investigated extensively. Although the results were mixed, it appears that RCA concrete pavements tend to show poor performance in cracking, which could affect the structural integrity of the pavement. On the other hand, the faulting and spalling behaviour of RCA concrete pavements was generally acceptable and comparable to that of NA concrete pavements. Apart from structural adequacy, the ride quality of pavements is the other key performance indicator. The riding quality of concrete pavements made with RCA has been evaluated in terms of pavement serviceability rating (PSR) and IRI. The thresholds for PSR and IRI for classifying road quality as recommended by the US Federal Highway Administration (Arhin et al., 2015) are given inTable 13.15. Typically, concrete pavements made with RCA with less than 10 years of service had a PSR of about 4.0, indicating good riding quality (Gress et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2008; Irali et al., 2013; Sturtevant, 2007). However, the PSR for concrete pavements in

540

Sustainable Construction Materials: Recycled Aggregates

Table 13.15  Road quality based on pavement serviceability rating and international roughness index Riding Quality

PSR

IRI, m/km

Good

>3.5

90