Survival by Hunting: Prehistoric Human Predators and Animal Prey 9780520927964

Table of contents :
Contents
List of Illustrations
Preface
Acknowledgments
1. Where the Buffalo Once Roamed
2. The Education of a Hunter
3. Paleoindian Hunters and extinct Animals
3. The North American Bison
5. The North American Pronghorn
6. The Rocky Mountain Sheep
7. Hunting Deer, Elk, and Other Creatures
8. Weaponry and Tools Used by the Hunter
9. Concluding Thoughts
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

Survival by Hunting

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Survival by Hunting Prehistoric H u m a n Predators and Animal Prey

George C. Frison

U S I \ ' F R S I T ~ ' O F L.At.If.OKSli\ PRESS Bcrkr1c.1, Los ,-\iisi,1es T.oiltic117

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ITntvcrstry of C:,il~tort?l,lPre\\ Kel-keley and Los i\ilgele\, C:alitorni.i

0 roo4 h) rhr Rcgeilts of rlie LTni\-er\ir! i

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~lifortlia

Lthrary of Congl-ess Car~loging-in-Pub1lkir11111 l),ira F1.1so1i.C,corge (.. Survtv,ll bp hunting: p r e h i \ r o r ~ i11um,i11 preiiaror, 'ilid ,iiltrnal pre) 1 George ('. F r ~ s o n . F. Clll. Includes hililiographical reference\ , ~ n d1ndc1. r s n N O-520-~3180-L jclorli : aIL. pllper). I . H u ~ i t ~ n Prch~srortc. g, r. I'alro-IndiansHunting. j. Hunting atid garhertng \octeries. I. Title. C;h-1)9.I384F75 LOO4 306.;'64-dc~r ~ooio18i)i)il

To June, M Z spozlse ~ for vzore than half a century, and my paternal grandparents, Jacob and Margaret Frison

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Contents

List of Illustrations Preface Acknowledgnients

I.

Where the Bufialo Once Roamed

L.

The Education of

'1

Hunter

3. Paleo~~ldiail Hu~ltersand Ext~rlctAnlmals

3. The North Amenccin Bi\on j.

The North Arner~canPronghorn

6. The Rocky Mountam Sheep

7. H ~ ~ ~ l t iDeer, i l g Elk, ' ~ n dOther Creatures

8. Weaponr) and Tools Used 13) the Hunter 9 . Concl~~ding Tlio~~ghts

B~bliography Index

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Illustrations and Table

FIGURES

Chronological chart and cultural complexes Prehistoric cave painting of a bear, a bison, and a human form Entrance to Spring Creek Cave, northern Wyoming Clovis points from the Colby Mammoth Kill Mammoth bone pile no. 2 from the Colby site Mammoth bone pile no. I from the Colby site Experimental Clovis point mounted in a split foreshaft and inserted into a mainshaft Split African elephant skull Experimental shaft buried in the rib cage of a mature female African elephant Cut in hide of a juvenile male African elephant made with experimental tool Bison latifrons horns from Lipscomb County, northeast Texas Changes through time in the size and shape of bison horn cores The Hawken site in northeast Wyoming Bison bone bed at the Powder River site in northern Wyoming

Y

Illustr~tionsand Table Modern analogue of an arroyo bison trap The Cache Hill bison kill, northern Wyoming Bone bed at the 10,ooo-year-old Casper bison kill site Parabolic sand dune in the dune field near the Casper site The Kobold Buffalo Jump, south-central Montana The Vore Buffalo Jump in northeast Wyoming Bison bone bed at the Vore Buffalo Jump Bison hone bed a t the Horner site, northwest Wyoming Nearly complete bison skeletons at the Horner site Agitated and charging female Bison hison Selected projectile point types from bison kill sites Penetration of Yonkee-type projectile into a bison thoracic vertebra Artist's erroneous corlception of jumping bison Artist's conception of golden eagles attacking prollghor~l Frozen Wyoming pronghorn retrieved from a snow-filled arroyo Location of the Fort Bridger, Wyoming, pronghorn corral Mixed bison and pronghorn bones in a Folsom component at the Agate Basin site, eastern Wyoming Part of the area of nlountain sheep traps in northwest Wyoming Wooden remains of the Bull Elk Pass sheep trap, northwest Wyoming The Black Mountain sheep trap, northwest Wyoming Mountain sheep trap located on the Wiggins Fork of the Wind River in northwest Wyonling Mountain sheep trapped under a drop net Mountain sheep rams grazing in early May Tree growth partially enveloping a large ram skull Wooden club found in a nlou~ltainsheep trap Game blind just above the timberline in northwest Wyoming Paleoindian-age mountain sheep net Location where the mountain sheep net was discovered Arrangement of mule deer skulls at the Dead Indian Creek site

Illustrations and Table

Elk antler tool from a Folsom component at the Agate Basin site Elk antler and bison rib digging tools from a stone quarry in northern Wyoming Elk antlers from a prehistoric lodge in northwest Wyoming Base of a large elk antler with deeply incised grooves Small animal snare from a dry cave in southwest Wyoming Hell Gap-type projectile points from the Casper site Sharp and dull working edges on a chert biface Juniper tree with a section removed for bow material Sinew-backed mountain sheep horn bow Sinew-backed elk antler stave bow with arrows Atlatl and foreshaft with projectile point from Spring Creek Cave Wooden foreshafts with sharpened distal ends and spirally rasped proximal ends Cylindrical ivory shaft from the Sheaman Clovis site and bone shafts from the Anzick site Elk antler point from a Folsom component at the Agate Basin site Break on an experimental bone projectile point Petrogl~phpanel with animal figures penetrated by arrows MAPS

Geographic locations of prehistoric large mammal hunters Selected paleontological sites and mammoth kill locations Selected bison kill site locations The Ruby site: bison corral, drive lane, and structure Selected pronghorn archaeological sites Detailed map of the Fort Bridger pronghorn corral Selected mountain sheep archaeological sites Selected archaeological sites with deer remains TABLE I.

Common late Pleistocene and Holocene mammals

xi

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Preface

My awareness of the need for a book on prehistoric hulnan hunting has evolved gradually over more than three decades of teaching and research. This awareness is the result of dissatisfaction with ethnographic and archaeological interpretations of human hunters and hunting that fail to acknowledge the years of experience and the accun~ulationof knowledge of anirnal behavior required to become a successful hunter. Particularly annoying is the reliance on artists' unrealistic portrayals of prehistoric hunting episodes that become imprinted o n the minds of viewers, especially students, and are alrnost impossihle to eradicate. Equally disturbing to me is the attitude students are acquiring toward hunting. Faunal studies have steadily increased the information that call be derived from bone beds in archaeological kill sites, and during the past three decades, taphonomy has become a substantial part of the jargon of archaeology. Faunal analysis, especially in comlnunal kill sites containing the remains of large numbers of animals, call reveal many past activities, including the seasonality of killing events, animal population structure, butchering and processing techniques, and the amount of nutrients provided to the hunters. Yet faunal analysis tells us little about what happens from the time the hunter or l ~ ~ ~ n tleave e r s their camp until the hunt is terminated. Thus students questioned about animal procurement strategies cornmonly respond, "When they got hungry, someone would simply kill a bison or whatever other animal was selected as the target for the day and bring it back to camp." I believe such inter-

pretations to be totally inadequate, and I hope that the contents of this book convince others of the vast reservoir of learned behavior involved in hunting. Those contents are derived mainly from two sources. One is the archaeological record of large lnanlillal hunting in a part of western North America; the other is my personal experiences, which began at a time and place in which hunting Lvas an integral part of the econolllic process. The time was the early 1930s ancl the place was in northern Wyoming, where the combined effects of severe drought and econonlic depression resulted in an increased dependence on wild aninlals for food; at the same time, the survival of domestic animals on the open range required their constant protection from predators. As I recall my earliest experiences in academic archaeology, most published interpretations of prehistoric hunting strategies appeared to me inadequate and often inaccurate. 'rhe data coming out of the ground revealed llluch of what happened but not how it happened. The participant ethnographic analogies of K i c h ~ r dLee and Irven DeVore (1968) and Lewis Binford (1978) seenled to me a step in a positive direction, but the former dealt with African Bushmen and the latter with Eskimo caribou hunters. Though both contained observations relevant to hunting in general, I found them difficult to apply to Great Plains and Rocky Mountain prehistoric hunters. The multidisciplinary approach was another positive research strategy, intended to reconstruct the past ecosystems within which prehistoric human groups lived. Geologists reconstructed old landforms; palynologists reestablished old plant conlnlunities; and biologists used presentday small mammal ecology to pinpoint similar conditions in the past. Borrowing heavily from paleontology, taphonomists began to examine archaeological bone beds and develop innovative methods of identifying the age of aninlals to determine the seasonality of procurement activities, establish animal population profiles, and distinguish between human, animal, and natural modification of faunal remains. Wildlife biologists interested in behavioral studies were yet another source of valuable information. Their efforts brought archaeologists another step closer to the reality of prehistoric animal procurement; but unless a particular wildlife biologist's interests happened to lie in the area of human predator-large animal prey relationships (i.e., hunting), he or she could supply very few details on prehistoric hunting strategies. After reviewing the literature, I becaille convinced that an experi-

eliced modern hunter could raise practical questiorls and provide possible answers. An intimate knowledge of animal habitats and behavior, expertise in the use of weaponry a n d tools, and experience acquired through both hunting a n d predator control might lead t o a better understanding of past hunting strategies. These are the topics that shape the followilig discussion.

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Acknowledgments

Numerous individuals have influenced my thoughts co~lcernitlgprehistoric hunting. My grandfather, Jacob Frison, began my enthusiasm for wild animals and hunting at an early age. He, along with an uncle, Theodore (Ted) Frison, guided me through my early hunting years. In the past few decades, George Zeimens of Torrington, Wyoming, helped me realize the advantages gained when two closely cooperating hunters, both familiar with anirnals and their territory, pool their efforts. William Mulloy, University of Wyoming; Preston Holder, University of Nebraska; and H. Marie Worrnington, Denver Museum of Natural History, provided the encouragement for someone then considered a nontraditional student to embark on an academic career. James B. Griffin and Arthur Jelinek at the University of Michigan continued that encouragement through graduate school. After I finished graduate school, Paul McGrew, a paleontologist at the University of Wyoming, and Ialong with Charles Reher, Danny Walker, and Michael W i l s o ~who ~ , were among my first graduate students at the University of Wyorning-were able to initiate methods of faunal analysis that, although improved on since then, are still being used to good advantage. Working with C. Vance Haynes, Jr., of the University of Arizona, and John Albanese, a consulting geologist in Casper, Wyoming, I rapidly perceived the importance of geological expertise in the identification of landfornls used by humans in animal kills. I am indebted to the Smithsonian Institution for research support and

X\ III

Acknowledgments

to Dennis Sta~lford,Waldo Wedel, and Clifford Evans, all frorll the Smithsonian, for access to Paleoindian collections housed there. Throughout the years, research support came from the National Science Foundation, the National Geographic Societ): the L. S. R. Leakey Foundation, the U.S. National Park Service, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the University of Wyoming, the Wyoming Archaeological Foundation, the Wyoming Archaeological Society, the Wyoming Council for the Arts, the Wyoming Council for the Humanities, the Wyoming Recreation Cor-nmission, and the Colorado Historical Society. Private research support came from varied sources, including the Carter Mining Corporation, the Kerr-McGee Corporation, Joseph Cramer, Forrest Fenn, Mark Mullen, Mike Kammerer, Jack Krmpotich, and William Tyrrell. The Wyoming Game and Fish Department has continually cooperated in providing faunal specimens for what has become a major large mammal comparative faunal collection at the University of Wyoming. Ned Frost and Roy Coleman of Cody, Wyonling, were guides and outfitters who acquainted me with a large part of the high country in northwest Wyoming and shared their experiences with mountain sheep and grizzly bear. Kay Bowles was the manager of the mountain sheep herd on Whiskey Mountain at Dubois, \X7yoming,and allowed me to participate in the trapping of winter sheep to transplant them elsewhere. He and Amos Welty, also of Dubois, took me on several trips into the high country to visit sheep traps. Over a period of several years, Pete (Bison Pete) Gardner of Wheatland, Wyoming; Arthur Buskohl of Gillette, Wyoming; and George Crouse of Laramie, Wyoming, acquainted me with the ways of bison. Dale Guthrie of the University of Alaska gave me a short introduction to Dall sheep hunting in Alaska. Olga Soffer, University of Illinois, and Nikolai Praslof, Russian Academy of Sciences, arranged access to preserved mammoth remains in the zoological collections in St. Petersburg. Gary Haynes, University of Nevada, Reno, smoothed the way for me to participate in elephant culls in Zimbabwe in 1984 and 1985. Besides introducing me to African wildlife, Clem Coetzee, a wildlife manager in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, generously provided food and lodging while we were on the elephant culls. Bruce Bradley, an archaeological consultant in Cortez, Colorado, provided the fluted points used in my weaponry experiments. Robert Cole, of Thermopolis, Wyoming, aroused my early interest in the manufacture and use of the bow and arrow.

Acknowledgments

xix

Anne Slates, University of Wyoming, and William Woodcock, a consulting editor in Berkeley, California, spent many hours reading, correcting bad grammar, and pointing out inconsistencies in my thinking. Lee Lyman, University of Missouri, and an anonymous reviewer made many valuable comments on the first draft of the manuscript. Line drawings of stone projectile points were made by Connie Robinson, a very talented commercial artist from Sheridan, Wyoming. Down through the years, I have had the benefit of excellent students and volunteers on field crews. I acknowledge all the persons who allowed access to their land, permitted the use of buildings and equipment, and in innumerable ways extended their services toward my involvenlent in archaeology. I thank my wife of more than a half century, June Frison, for sharing and thus tolerating my passion for both hurlting and archaeolog): which has required long periods away from home. To these and many others, my sincere thanks. Their help, thoughts, and ideas have influenced my thinking, but the contents of this book reflect how my own hunting experiences and involvement with animals have affected my interpretation of the archaeological record as it pertains to prehistoric l~untersand their subsistence strategies.

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Where the Buffalo Once Roamed

T H E HISTORICAL BACKGKOUND

My paternal grandparents, Jake and Margaret Frison, were true pioneers. Jake was a ra~lroadengineer, and he and 171) grandmother rtlarr~edand moved to Leadville, Colorado, In 18qo. Their dream of the future was to own a cattle ranch; so three years later, they purchased a small place along the Roaring Fork River at Basalt, Colorado. However, they were not able to expand the plopert) Into the h ~ n dof ranch operarlon the) were search~ngtor, and In 1901, In t h e ~ late r th~rtiesand with four young children, they decided to abandon a secure but to them unsatisf) ~ n g l~fe In Colorado to move to northern Wyom~ng.After spend~ngmost of the summer of I 900 travel~ngthrough several western states, and after cons ~ d e r ~ nseveral g poss~blelocations, they finally chose a spot in the Big Horn Bas111in north-central Wyom~ng.In the summer of 1901, they gathered up their ssnall herd of cattle, loaded t h e ~ rbelongings on wagons, and began the trek from Basalt to Ten Sleep, a distance of about 500 k~lon~eters as the crow fl~esbut cons~derabl)further on the long, winding ro'lds of that tlme. Following a route that took most of the summer of 1901, the) reached their destination; the home ranch was to be at the base of the western slope of the Big Horn Mountaiils along a flow~ilg snountaln stream with mountains to the east and plains to the west. Even w h ~ l efac~nga long, cold W y o ~ n ~ nwlntel, g they were inak~ngplans to beg111 acqulrlng the range land needed to support cattle ranching.

L

Where the Butfalo Once Roamed

B, 1918, the ranch was a modeat but able cattle operatlon. Also 11) t h ~ stlme, each of the couple's three sons, one of them my father, had completed all necessar) requirements for owning a homestead of 640 acres, which together formed a block of i ~ e ~ ~2,000 r l ) acres of prime mountam range. It was a t~anshu~nanceoperatlon: cattle were taken to the mountains in summer and to the p l a ~ n sIn wlnter. ELen rely~ngon11 on horses for transportation, one could gather cattle from the p l a ~ n sone day and inove them to the nlountalns the next. Bes~desthe domestic animals, deer, elk, and pronghorn, along w ~ t ha host of predators, occupled the area. My grandfather was an ' I L I ~ hunter and trapper: I am sure s select~onof a place the presence of w ~ l dgame strongly ~nfluencedh ~ final to put down permanent roots. The tarnilj's way of life was harsh but st111r e \ ~ a r d ~ nbecause g of the unfettered access and freedom found In the w ~ d eopen spaces. MI father was killed In an acc~dentin 1914, just before I was born, and m j mother could not \isualve a future for herself on the ranch. Con5equentl1, when I was three, my mother left and my grandparents took on the chore of l-alslng me. I tool\ to ranch life l ~ k ea duck to water from the day I was placed on the back of a horse and follo\ved my grandfather around the ranch. As soon as I co~lldput a saddle and bridle on a horse by myself, a whole new world opened up. At an earl) age, I began to see the p l a ~ n sand the nlouiltalns not as two separate ecosystems but as a cont~nuum,a concept I haxe used repeatedl) in anallzing p l a n s and mountain preh~story.To me, the two ecos\ stems were ~nseparable,and ranchers had to deal w ~ t hthem as complements; the same was undoubtedly true for p r e h ~ s t o r ~hunters. c Othel ecologists have arr~vedat s ~ m ~ l conclusions ar (see, e.g., K n ~ g h t1994). THE PLAINS A N D THE h I O U N T A I N S

The late Waldo Wedel, the first widely recognized authority on Great Plains archaeology, referred to the area as a land of sun, wind, and grass (Wedel 1961). These are appropriate terms, but they strike me as inadequate to convey a realistic picture. Just a few of the obvious characteristics missing from his description are bitterly cold winters; oppressively hot summers, with hailstorms and tornadoes; spring, fall, and winter blizzards; abrupt weather changes; wood ticks; swarms of biting insects; and rattlesnakes. It is a land of grass but there are also seemingly endless stretches of sagebrush, yucca, greasewood, salt bushes, and juniper, along with many areas of soil incapable of producing any vegetation. Livestock

Where the Buffalo Once Roamed

3

raisers arid wildlife managers have as many ways of describing grass as the Inuit have to describe sno\v-conditions that, although very different, are critical to the daily lives of both. One has to be close to the land at all tlmes of the year, over man) years, to acqulre a true feel~ngfor ~tand be able to extract a living from ~ tFor . all their good and bad qual~ties,the plains and the Rocky Mountalns together prov~dea large share of the ~ n f o r m a t ~ oabout n prehlstor~c large mammal huntlng during the more than 11,000 )ears of known human habitation in North America. This is where the evidence for the hunting of these an~malsI S found In good geologic contexts. Yet the records of the livestock industry over more than a century suggest that prehistoric human survival inust have been tested on many occasions. In reality, the plains and Rocky Mountains are composed of an almost endless variety of landforms-flat to rolling plains, mountain ranges, isolated uplifts, semideserts, playa lakes, vegetated sand hills, active sand dunes, foothills, intermontane basins, flowing springs, intermittent streams, permanent watercourses, large rivers, dry arroyos, swamps, mountain meadows, buttes, deep canyons, glacial features, high peaks, and year-round snow fields. However, to avoid endless description of landscapes that are peripheral to the main topic of prehistoric hunting, I will reduce the area of reference to the commonly recognized physiographic regions of the Great Plains, Rocky Mountains, Great Basin, Colorado Plateau, and Columbia Plateau. Within these are several snlall geographic locations that I believe have yielded information pertinent to prehistoric hunting; these include the Wyoming Basin and the Big Horn Basin, both in Wyoming; the Black Hills, situated mostly in South Dakota and partly in Wyoming, with a small extension into Montana; Middle Park and the San Luis Valley, both in Colorado; and the Yellowstone Plateau in Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana (map I ). Continuing research in plains and mountain archaeology will undoubtedly result in the recognition of other pertinent geographic areas. The wide variety of physiographic features provides very different and rapidly changing vegetative covet- critical to animal ecology. The wide expanses of open plains are mostly treeless and, depending on soil conditions and moisture, are covered with several different species of grasses, yucca, and sagebrush. Low-lying and poorly drained areas support alkalitolerant greasewood and salt bushes. In contrast, riparian areas along river valleys with terrace systems support trees, shrubs, and tall grasses. Foothills are carved by arroyos of varylng sues and depths, depending on gradients and underlying bedrock: footh~llvegetation conslsts of

2 Rocky Mountains 3 Colorado Plateau

MAP I .

Geographic locations of prehistoric large mammal hunters.

Where the Buffalo Once Roamed

i

juniper, mountain mahogany, scattered trees, and bunch grasses. There is an arbitrary and not always well-defined boundary between upper foothills and mountain meadows and slopes; in places, it extends to the tinlberline. Increased moisture at the higher elevations produces pine and aspen forests interspersed with open parks that support tall, dense stands of grass and big sagebrush. Alpine vegetation begins at the timberline and continues up to more than 4,000 meters (13,000 ft.). Thick stands of trees and browse may be found on north- and eastfacing mountain slopes, because there less moisture is lost through evaporation. On south- and west-facing slopes, drier conditions result in scattered pines, junipers, mountain mahogany, sagebrush, and hunch grass. Certain sedimentary sandstone and limestone fortnations are aquifers; in Inany locations, where exposed, flowing springs provide water for all animals. Mountain ranges for111 rain shadows that deny rainfall to certain areas; for example, parts of the interior of the Big Horn Basin in northern Wyoming, aptly referred to as badlands, receive as little as 12 centimeters of annual precipitation and are more reminiscent of the Great Basin than the Great Plains. Mountain ranges also affect the movement of storm systems, influencing both winter snow accumulations in higher elevations and rainfall patterns during the warm months. The open plains and foothills usually become dry by early surnnler, and vegetation turns brown. Meltwater from deep winter snow in the mountains feeds and flushes out the river systems and provides moisture for trees, brush, and tall grasses on banks and floodplains; these may remain green throughout the summer, in marked contrast to areas that lack adequate moisture (see Knight 1994). Seasons are clearly defined over the entire area, and one must frequent it at all times to gain a basis for understanding the significance of these changes to the hunters who lived there in the past. There is a stark contrast between the long, hot days of sumnler and the extended periods of sub-zero temperatures in winter. Everyone hopes that warm, sunny days in early spring and late fall presage early grass and inild xvinters, respectively; but more often than not, these short periods of good ~veather rapidly deteriorate into blizzard conditions hazardous to ani~nalsboth wild and domestic. Having more than once experienced the loss of much of a calf crop from range cattle hecause of a severe spring blizzard, I find not unreasonable the proposal that the absence of an entire age group from the ro,ooo-!ear-old Casper bison kill site could have resulted from a spring blizzard that had the same etfect on a herd of bison (see Reher T974: 115 ) .

6

K'herr the Buffalo Once Roamed

Severe winters must have tested the survival skills of prehistoric illhabitants. Some winters have moderate temperatures and light snowrfall, \vhile others are marked by deep snow and long periods of intense cold. These variations are totally unpredictable: several mild winters may follow several bad ones, or a single bad winter may occur in a string of several mild ones-or vice versa. Late-nineteenth- and early-twentiethcentury livestock raisers suffered through a number of bad winters. Pero ~ l of converhaps the most notable, and one I rememher as a c o n ~ n ~topic sation a half century after its occurrence, was the winter of 18x6 and 1887, which elinlinated much of the livestock on the open range in Montana and Wyoming (see L.arson 1978: 190-94) and, according to one rancher (now long deceased), killed the last nine bison known to have been in the Big Horn Basin. These winters were cynically referred to by livestock operators as "equalizer years," because having lost their economic base, everyone hegan the follo\ving year as equals. Livestock operators quickly learned to pi-epai-efor the ivorst and hope for the best. There is no reason to assunle that these vicissitudes of weather were limited only to historic times, and prehistoric year-to-year human subsistence strategies had to allon. for similar rapid and unpredictable changes. One way to acquire a lasting impression of the region is to view it on clear days from the windon- of 311 airplane on flights up and down the spine o f the Rocky Mountains from about Alhuquerque, New Mexico, to Calgary, Alberta. Flights at all seasons of the year emphasize the contrasts, and shadows-particular1)- just after sunrise and hefore sunsetcliliance the area's physiographic features. The Rocky Mountains might aptly be described as a ridgepole mritli major rivers flowing in all directions. The Rio Grande and the Colorado flo\v to the south, the Snake flows west into the Columbia, and the Missouri first flows northerly and gradually turns east. The Yellowstone flows east to the Missouri, as do both the North and South Platte. The Arkansas begins in the niountains in southern Colorado and flows east, eventually ending at the Mississippi. These river systems appear to have been avenues that many prehistoric groups followed in moving into the countr!; and they were critical to the overall prehistory of the area. M A M M A L S PAST A N D PRESENT

The area described pro\ided ecologlcdl conditions favorable for large grazers and browsers; ~s a result, ~tbecame the nlain ~ O C U Sof prehistoric large land mammdl hunt~ngIn North Xmer~ca.The complete llst ot

TABLE 1

Common Late Pleistocene and Holocene Mammals Antilocilpra L ~ ; T ~ C T ~ C L ~ Y I U Arrtodzls siwnts:' Bison clntiqtt~ts:" Bison bison Bison latifions" Bison occiClent~zlis'" Canzelops sp.'" C n z i s Nlir~ts". (:anis lL~tr~lns Ccrnis lrrprts CIastor ci7nader7s1s C E I U Z IelL7plgits S C y n o l n y s sp. Dicrostonyx tor(l~tutrrsl Eq~tzrsc~nt:erside~zs" Frethizon tiorsutrtn~ Ettilrc-tos alncrirani4s Felis L7tro~:' Fclis ca~i~zdcnsis Felis cone-olor Felis rrrfzrs (;lllo 1 2 1 ~ ~ 1 1 ~ L C / " ~ Ssp. Man?nz~tth~rs col1i;i7bi" ~Wnrwzotaflaz l z ~ ' e ~ ~ t ~ z s Mcpbitis 11zephltls M i r ~ z ~ i n o n y~ xY L L ~ ~ Q Y Z I : ' Neotonza c-irzeuea C)cbotoizii pri~zceps OiZocoilezis h e n ~ i o n ~ i s Otiosoilcits ~~irginz~7nirs O n d a t r a :iOt~thic~{s P e r o n z ~ ' s c ~tno~zicrrlatzts ts Sperrnophilzts r~c./?~zrdsonli '

Syll~ilagzisnutt~zllii Tilxlticil t~lxzts T h o ~ z o r r i >t~7lpoltics ~s U i s ~ r scrrc tos

pro~lghorn short-faced bear bison bison, plains his011 bison, giant Ice Age bison bison, western bison camel dire wolf coyote gray \volt beaver clk jxairle dog collared lemming Mesican horse porcupine

black bear Amerrcan I1011 1\ 119 t n o ~ 1 1 1 t ~110n 1n hohc'lt n ol\ erlne lackrdbb~t C o l u m h ~ , ~rnamrnoth n 1 ello\v-bellled mar nlor skunk r i m e r ~ i a nclleet,lh hurhl - t a ~ l e d\vood r,it prk'l mule deer \vh~te-t'~~led deer rlluskrat deer mouse Richardson's ground squirrel cottontail rabbit badger northern pocket gopher g r ~ z z lhedr ~

8

Where the Buffalo Once Roar-~~ed

animals recovered in archaeological contexts is large, but the ones relevant to the following chapters consist of a relatively few species, some extinct and others still present (table r 1. The late Pleistocene mainmoth and bison are extinct, but the latter were apparently the progenitors of the modern hison. Paleontologists seem to generally agree that there was a late Pleistocene mountain sheep that gave rise to the modern species. Pronghorn, deer, and elk are apparently unchanged from the earliest specimens known in archaeological contexts. The Pleistocene camel and horse are both extinct, and the extent of their contribution to the Paleoindian economy remains unclear.

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back at their pursuers. If the 1eh~cleaccele~ates too fast dur~ilgthe process, the anlmals wlll veer away and abandon the attempt to outrun lt. Pronghorn also show an out-of-sight, out-of-~lllndattltude toward hunters even when the) are under liltense hunting pressure. The\ usually run away from a percell ed threat at top speed u n t ~ well l out of sight of their pursuer, and then apparently disn~issthe danger and resume whatever the) were doing when d~sturbed.In t h ~ ssltuatlon, the best strategy for the hunter 1s to keep out of a~ght,allow the a n ~ n ~ aal sshort rest, and then resume the stalk. To elude predators, human and other, pronghorn rel) strongl) on speed, eyesight, and quick reflexes and less on scent than do bison and elk. Then curloslty extends to dornest~canimals; they are often observed grazlng close to and unconcerned about cattle, sheep, and horses on the open range. Under severe LvlnteJ- condit~onsthey are a cominon

The North r\merican Pronghorn

111

sight around the fringes of human habitation areas, as long as they are unmolested. When their feed is deeply buried under snow and ice, it is not unusual to look out a window and see pronghorns eating any exposed vegetation and pawing for food buried under the snow. A field-dressed mature male pronghorn in good bodily condition with head, hide, and feet removed usually weighs about 3 6 kilograms. Fernales weigh about 7 kilograms less, and a healthy fawn in early fall should weigh between 1 6 and 18 kilograms. Their habitat is nearly always in areas of low topographic relief and sparse vegetation, so when they are killed their carcasses usually are easily accessible to the hunter. Even a large male pronghorn is not too great a load for the average hunter to shoulder and carry a long distance back to camp. Since pronghorn are fairly easy to locate, procure, and retrieve when killed, the success of single hunters and small groups over the long term is relatively high. Pronghorn behavior makes it possible for humans to drive and otherwise manipulate them readily enough to trap them in relatively sinlple enclosures. The reluctance of pronghorn to go over or through simple barriers is the behavioral trait that made prehistoric comnlunal human hunting easier. As is the case with bison, ethnographic and eyewitness accounts of past pronghorn trapping, along with renlnants of trapping conlplexes utilized in the past and a close familiarity with their presentday behavioral characteristics, provide archaeologists with sufficient information to arrive at accurate reconstructions of past procurement strategies. Unlike prehistoric and historic bison kill sites, however, pronghorn sites of the same age that provide good evidence for procurement are limited (see map 5 ) . ETHNOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL EVIDENCE

OF P R O N G H O R N HUNTING

The Great Basin covers a large area of western North America and was occupied in prehistoric times by various Shoshonean groups. Eyewitness accounts give us a detailed picture of historic communal pronghorn procurement by Shoshoni in the region. The general plan involved traps consisting of strategically placed brush fences leading to circular enclosures that were of relatively sirnple construction; they were effective because the animals refused to jump or force their way through them. Once inside the enclosure, the animals could be run to exhaustion and killed with clubs. Classic examples of this type of pronghorn trap are located in the

I 32

The Korth American I'ronghorn

M o n o Basin in east-central California (Arkus11 1986: 248) and a t the Little Whiskey Flat site in west-central Nevada (Arkush 1986: 247). According t o Brooke Arkush, the latter site -,as first seen a n d described as a deer trap by a member of the 1845 Fremont expedition, but later archaeological investigations confirmed that nearly all faunal remains were pronghorn. H o w a r d Egan ( 19 I 7: 23 8-4 I ) actually participated in a Gosiute p r o ~ ~ g h o r drive -n into a trap a t Deep Creek in northeast Nevada in the late nineteenth century (see LIISO Arkush 1786: 214; Reagan 1934). Julian Steward's accounts (17; 8 ) of Shoshonean pronghorn procurement are revealing in that he records the impo~-tanceof the shaman's presence during communal trapping a n d the refusal t o carry out a communal hunt if a shaman was unavailable. Steward also mentions communal hunts that could eliminate so many animals in an area that a period of years had t o pass before their numbers recovered enough to allow another hunt. ~ of animals be availCommunal hunts required that a m i n i n ~ u nnumber able t o justify the effort involved in constructing and maintaining drive lines and enclosures. The acquisition of horses by the Wind River Shoshoni in historic times apparently changed their pronghorn hunting strategy. According t o one eyewitness account, a n estirl~ateclfifty riders were able t o surround a pronghorn herd; the participants took turns running them in circles until they collapsed f r o ~ nfatigue and Lvere then easily killed (E. Wilson a n d Driggs 1919). No shaman's presence is mentioned. Robert Lowie presents a brief account o t the Northern Shoshoni pursuing pronghorn ~lsinghorses: one o r t w o men would pursue a herd until their horses were winded and other h~lnterswith fresh horses would resume the chase. This was repeated until the animals were exhausted, when they were killed \vitJi arrows. According t o Lowie ( ~ 9 0 9r:8 j ) , "It would sometimes take forty o r fifty hunters half a day t o kill t w o o r three s and Clark: "twenty antelopes by this method." H e then q ~ ~ o t eLewis men set out after a herd of ten head a n d were unable to capture a single anirnal in a t w o hour's run." If these are accurate accounts, I would have t o interpret this tactic as more sport than serious hunting. The extreme southwester11 part of Wyoming is considered part of the Great Basin; the remains of a Shoshonean pronghorn trapping c o n ~ p l e x , known as the Fort Bridger Pronghorn Trap, are still visible there, in good pronghorn hahitat, about 40 kilometers north\vest of the s ~ n a ltown l of Fort Bridger (figure 30). It lvas constructed of juniper trees, but most of the larger logs were removed during the first part of the twentieth century by local homesteaders because they were a n easily obtaiilable source

The North American Pronghorn

I33

F I G U R E 30. Location of the Fort Bridger, Wyoming, pronghorn corral. (From Frison 1978: 2 5 5 . )

of firewood. Though what is left is rapidly rotting away, enough still remains to provide the details of the entire complex (map 6). The site is close to two playa lakes-a location where pronghorn congregate at present, especially after late summer and fall rains regenerate the vegetation around their edges. When a herd of desired size gathered, the animals were driven against the wing of the trap, which led them to the opening of the circular enclosure. Once inside, they were circled until exhausted and, given the lack of projectile points within the enclosure, were most likely killed with clubs. A juniper or sagebrush bark rope may have been added to the top of the fence to better ensure that the animals were contained. A small concentration of juniper tree limbs incorporated into the northwest part of the enclosure fence appears out of place and may have been part of a shaman's structure. Outside the enclosure is an exposed area that was almost certainly a camp or processing area; it has yielded Late Prehistoric-type projectile points, lithic tools, and a few badly deteriorated bone fragments, but no historic items. The northwest side of the trap has a double fence (map 6 ) that most likely represents an effort at rebuilding to improve the function of the trap. The last stage of building was most likely accomplished largely by pirating brush from the earlier fence, but the more recent removal of most of the wooden parts for firewood has made it difficult to determine which was the abandoned section. That parts of a complex of this nature were rebuilt does not suggest a poor original understanding of pronghorn

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The North Xmer~c,~n Pronghorn

Iij

behavior. In my own experience, I have found that trial and error usually reveals unexpected problems in corrals built for domestic livestock on the open range; the same ~ v o u l dapply to those built to contain wild animals. Relatively simple modifications usually rectify the situation; in rare cases, the original site has to be abandoned and a new location selected. There are no known eyewitnesses to the use of the trap, but judging from the deterioration of its wooden parts, its last use most likely dates to at least late historic times, toward the end of the nineteenth century. , elderly resident of Fort Bridger, Wyoming, said I11 the late ~ q h o s an he had seen this pronghorn trap and another one of similar size and shape in the same general area but co~lstructedof sagebrush. He said he also remembered a rnan who claimed to hare witnessed Shoshoni on foot attempting to drive pronghorn into the latter trap. If the account is reliable, this hunt would have occurred near the end of the nineteenth century. The informant provided a good description of the trap and its location, but his age and health prevented him from guiding me to the area. Although I searched the area thoroughly, I could locate no remains of it; my failure was not surprising, because sagebrush ~ v o u l dhave deteriorated much sooner than juniper. Intensive use of the area b!; do~nestic livestock over the past hundred years is another factor that very likely haste~ledthe trap's disappearance. The known pattern of historic pronghorn hunting on the Great Plains involved the use of horses. George Hyde (1974: 21) describes a Brule Sioux pronghorn trap in the Sand Hills area of Nebraska. In this account, hunters on horses drove the ariinlals through a gap in the hills and over a low cliff into a hrush-and-log enclosure; there hunters waiting outside the ellclosure killed them with bows and arrows. The historic Cheyenne were observed usirig horses in corllmu~lalpronghorn procurement, accompanied by shaman activity. Such acco~npanimentmight he expected, because a comrnu~lalpronghorn hunt had about the same possibility of failure as a cominunal bison hunt, making supernatural help welcome in both cases. Two drawings by Howling Wolf, a Southern Cheyenne, depict hunters on horseback with lances and with bows and arrows pursuing pronghorn (reproduced in Sundstrom 2000: 122-23). Driving pronghorn into excavated pits was apparently also part of the Cheyenne procurement strategy (Sundstrom 2000: 128). Remains of juniper brush fences terillinating in a pit are still present a t a location in the Little Missouri liead\\~~ters area in northeastern Wyoming on the western edge of the Black Hills (Frison 1991 h: 24 j ) . This trap complex, known locally as the Missouri Buttes pronghorn trap,

136

The North American Pronghorn

was undoubtedly historic; out of the area of the Shoshoni, it was most likely Cheyenne, though it might have been of Sioux or Crow origin. A Cheyenne pronghorn pit was reportedly still visible in 1977 within the city limits of Belle Fourche, South Dakota (Stands in Timber and Liberty 1967: 84-85; Sundstrom 2000: 126). Sioux pronghorn procurement strategies would have developed over a relatively brief time, because their original home was to the east of the Missouri River beyond the range of pronghorn habitat (see Walker 2000); their approaches were most likely copied from tribes already residing west of the Missouri River. PREHISTORIC PRONGHORN PROCUREMENT

Although in western North America pronghorn are commonly seen today and found in numerous archaeological contexts, relatively few pronghorn site studies have supplied the kind of data that enlighten archaeologists about actual prehistoric procurement strategies. Bison studies have overshadowed them, mainly because the skeletal remains of bison are better preserved and more visible, and more often provide adequate specimens for taphonomic analyses. When the Union Pacific Railroad was built through southern Wyoming in the mid-nineteenth century, the railroad was given every other section of land 20 miles on each side of the railroad right-of-way. This checkerboard pattern of federal and private land covers a large part of southwest Wyoming that, past and present, is prime pronghorn habitat. The area contains reserves of oil, gas, coal, and other natural resources whose exploitation requires extensive surface damage. However, federal regulations governing cultural resource management require surveys and mitigation of harm to archaeological resources, and as a result many prehistoric archaeological sites in this area have been found that contain pronghorn remains. After information had been collected for more than three decades, a symposium was organized at Western Wyoming College in Rock Springs, Wyoming, to bring together and present as much data as possible concerning prehistoric human pronghorn procurement. The outcome was a good synthesis of the presently known data, which provides an excellent foundation for further research (see Pastor and Lubinski 2000). The earliest investigation of a pronghorn site in the area was during 1969 at the Eden-Farson location about 50 kilometers north of Rock Springs at the western edge of the Killpecker sand dunes, one of the largest areas of active dunes in North America. Partial remains of more than

The North X r n e r ~ c Pronghorn ~~~l

13;

200 pronghorn were recovered in what is believed t o be a Shoshonean campsite of one season's occupation (Frison 197 I b, 2ooob). Wind-blown sand drifted over the site and preserved the skeletal remains. Taphonomic analysis demonstr:~testhat most of the aninlals were killed over a short period during the latter part of Octoher and early November. It could represent a single use o r multiple kill events (Nirnrno 1971). At that time of year, p r o ~ l g h o are r ~ ~still in good conditio11, beginning t o aggregate in larger herds; it is thus an ideal time for communal hunting. There is n o evidence of a trap in the vicinity, though the site is located in a11 area of tall sagebrush, well suited for constructing brush fences capable of containing pronghorn. A radiocarbon date of r 7 z o C . E . l o o yeai-s (RL101) could place it someivhere in the seventeenth, eighteenth, o r nineteenth century. As was true of the Fort Bridger pronghorn trap, n o European itenls o r evidence of horse remains o r horse gear xvas in the c ~ ~ l t u rassenlblage al recovered a t the site. And also like the Fort Bridger site, the Eden-Farson site has all the earmarks of pedestrian pronghorn co~llmunalprocurement. This site contains the o111y presently known skeletal evidence of a large Late Prehistoric- o r Early Historic-age conimunal pronghorn kill in the south~vesternW'yomi~lgarea. It is difficult t o explain why similar sites have n o t heen found, although poor bone preservation could be part of the reason. Another possibility is that the site represents a n overkill from which the local pronghorn p o p u l a t i o ~n7as l unable t o recover enough t o allo\v communal hunts i11 succeeding years. T h e pronghorn hone a t the Eden-Farson site w a s excellently preserved hecause it is in a depression immediately t o the leeward of a source of \ v i n d - b l o \ \ ~sand. ~ \Ye can hardly conclude that Eden-Farson is the only communal kill site in the area: the Fort Bridger site described above is the kind of trapping complex that one ~ v o u l dexpect to yield the number of aninlals foulld a t EdenFarson, but apparently there the bones were exposed on the surface and disintegrated. Known pronghorn traps are in exposed locatioris that, unlike arroyo bison traps, allo\v only rare opportunities for skeletal material t o be covered b!, sediments; this may well be the most important reason that pronghorn procurement sites have been lost. T h e data fro111 other excavated sites with good integrity in southwestern W y o n ~ i n gsuch , as site 48SWz70, yield small n u n ~ b e r sof pronghorn and strongly suggest "a less spectacular picture of pronghorll exploitation" involving "llu~ltingindividual pronghorn as part of a more generalized procurement strategy" (S~llithand McNees 2000: 71; see also Fisher and Frison 2000).

+

138

The North American Pronghorn

There is a topographically determined bottleneck hetween pronghorn summer range as far north as Grand Teton National Park and crucial winter range on the open sagebrush country east of the Green River and north of Interstate 80 in western Wyoming. This constriction of the migration route lies on a ridgetop between the Green River on the west and the New Fork River 011 the east, at a location known as Trappers Point. Recent widening of a lrigh\vay exposed a stratified archaeological site with Early Archaic components radiocarbon-dated to ahout 7,700 to 4,700 years ago, wit11 pronghorn dominating the faunal remains. It is known as the Trappers Point site (Aliller, Sanders, and Francis 1999), and one component dated at about j,-oo years ago suggests a catastrophic mass kill. An estimated one-quarter of the bone bed in this component produced a minimum nuinber of: tn-enty-seven individuals and, in addition, parts of eight fetuses. Tooth eruption and wear, along with the stages of fetus development, indicate that the animals were killed from the middle of March through April, a time period during which, judging from present migration patterns, the animals were beginning their move f r o ~ n winter to summer range. An alternative interpretation is that hunters, instead of waiting for migrating anirrials, drove pronghorn through this bottleneck \veil before the anirmals began their regular migration. This component strongly suggests a catastrophic kill; but whether it was a silrgle event, more than one el-ent at about the same time during one year, or multiple events at about the same time over more than one year cannot be determined on the basis of present evidence. 111 addition, it is not yet know11 if other site components represent pronghorn procurement at this early spring season. Much of the Trappers Point site is still intact, although an unknown proportiolr has been lost to erosion and highway construction. However, the evidence strongly suggests long-term and repeated use of the location either to intercept seasonal migration patterns or to execute planned drives of animals resident to the area. Although one component suggests a communal kill involving large numbers of hunters and some kind of artificial trap, it is also possible that fewer hunters used simple blinds or topographical features of the locatioii to anlbush animals. One or more traps, similar to those kn0n.n historically, may have been nearby; the lack of evidence is no surprise, given the several thousand years that have lapsed since the last knorvn use of the site. However, this site provides strong evidence of hitherto unknown, but long suspected, time depths for both human procurement of proilghorn and patterns of pronghorn migration. The surface evidence of' lithic assen~blagessuggests the like-

The North American Pronghorn

739

lihood that this pronghorn procurement strategy began even earlier, in Late Paleoindian times. This hypothesis might be proven by further investigations at Trappers Point if it contains as yet undiscovered older components. Included among the faunal remains at the Trappers Point site, and presumably utilized for food, were small numbers of bison, elk, ground squirrel, cottontail, and sage grouse. With few exceptions, all skeletal elements demonstrate intensive breakage to salvage all edible parts, in contrast to many plains' hison kill sites where carcasses were used less intensively (see Todd 1987). The Lost Terrace site along the Missouri River in northern Montana portrays a single winter's exploitation of pronghorn by Late Prehistoricage Avonlea hunters, probably about 1,200 years ago. The investigators (Davis, Fisher, et al. 2000) suggest one or more con~munalwinter kills it1 a herd of pronghorn forced to survive on a river terrace. As was also true of the Trappers Point pronghor11, seasonality was determined by tooth eruption in postnatal animals and by the development of fetal bones. It was not the kind of location where pronghorn normally choose to spend the winter: however, I have observed pronghorn in both Colorado and Wyoming forced into similar situations by unfavorable weather conditions. Blizzards cause them to drift into arroyos or up against tight fences. A few warm days followed by intense cold forms a thick crust of ice on the deep snow, causing the aninlals to exhaust the available feed and become too weak to paw for more or move to another area. Unless they gain relief from a spell of warm winter weather, often in the form of a wind comnlonly referred to as a chinook, their chance of survival is extremely low. In the case of the pronghorn at the Lost Terrace site, an artificial trap may not have been necessary. The location of the site on a river terrace and the timing of their death suggest animals unable to gain access to their normal winter feeding grounds. It may have been a relatively simple matter- to kill animals weakened by lack of food and cold weather. I have observed pronghorn in late winter, trapped by fences along highways, that are too weak to move more than a short distance; when disturbed, they lie down and never regain their feet. This or something sirnilar may very well have been the scenario at Lost Terrace. Perhaps the only positive result of present-day large winter kills of pronghorn is that they provide archaeologists with large samples of comparative material for taphonomic study. Data on population structures derived from a large herd of pronghorn dying throughout the winter and

740

The North Xmeric,ln Pronghorn

another from a large herd li~lled\v~thinthe space of 1' few days are d ~ f tel-ent enough to convince most insestigdtors of tlie value of taphonomic analysis as 1' means of deterin~ningseasoilal~ty, ~ n dthe populat~oilstructure of a n ~ n l a l srecovered In communal k1ll4. Late P r e h ~ s t o r ~ekidence c of p r o n g h o r i ~procurement is k n o n 11 from t w o sltes, 19FA1; and ;8l-AS;, both In the Cheyenne River nrea a t the southern end of South Dakota's Black H ~ l l s .The first In\estlgator (Wheeler 199 5 ) found el ~ d e n c eo t at least twenty-one pronghorn a t the 1 9 F h r ~site, and a later In\ estlg'ulon ( L ~ p p ~ n c oand t t BJ rne 1996) j ~ e l d e d fifteen more. The site 1s thought to be a result of P l a ~ n sVlll,~gegroups m,tk~ng1,lte-summer o r ear11 -tall hunting forays Into the southern Black H ~ l l sarea ( L ~ p p ~ n c o A t t ,d a ~ r .et al. ~ 9 9 6 102). : Provided the sample of pronghorn remains IS adequ'lte, t , ~ p h o n o m ~~ cI I J I J sis could strengthen the seasonal~t?determ~nationsand ,llso glve clues as to the actual strateg ~ e es n i p l o ~ed to procure pl-onghorn. Accord~ngt o the Investigators, only ,I small part of the slte has bee11 excakated, 4 0 the potentla1 to o b t a ~ na large skeletal sa~ilpleof pronghorn remains appears to be high. The other site, 3 9 F h 8 3, v~eldedrenlalns of t n ent\ -rime nlclture and nineteen ~ n l m,lture pronghorn, but numbers o t 1nd11dual skeletal elenlents are not given (Wheeler 199 5 : 1 8 8 ) .The qu,lnt~t! of hone leads one to expect t h , ~ t anal\ 51s could ) ~ e l d~ n f o r ~ n , ~ on t ~ otulle n of e'ir ,lnd t? pe of k ~ l lThese . t w o sltes strong11 suggest Intense Late Preh~storicpronghorn procurement a c t i l ~ t )In a n are,l \\it11 large numbers of animals present then, as they are todaj. P~ctographC 1' 1 e 'llong the Yellowstone R ~ v e near r R~llrngs, Montana (hli1110) 19 581, p ~ o d u c e dsmall ~ i u m b e r so t pl-ongliorn bones throughout cultural deposlts dating from Earl\ Middle Prehistor~c( M i d dle Archaic) tunes, est~matedat about j,ooo >ears ago, t o li~storictulles (01~01 1958). 1 This is a n area of the plains that n o ~ vsupports large numbers of pronghorn. The LaidlC~w site, In southern Alberta ile'lr the town of Xledlc~neH a t , IS with little doubt 1 ' pronghorn trap d a t ~ n gto bout ;,ooo years ago (Brumle) 1984). L ~ n e sof stones m,lrl< d r ~ v e11ne fences tli'lt c o n ~ e t - g ae t J. snlall catch pen that 'Jppear5 t o Ila\e been a pit, although p ~ r ma) t ha\ e been '1 wooden structure constructed above ground. Inspect~onof the site area conv~ncesme that ~ t location W,IS deterrn~nedb!. topogras ph) f,11 or,ible for d r l v ~ n gpronghorn. The site pro^ ides a time depth well Into the Arch,irc perlod for c o m r n u i ~ ~prongllorn ll Iiunt~ngon the plains. Ev~denceof P , ~ l e o ~ n d ~piong1io1-n ,~n procurement 1s l i n ~ ~ t eO d .n e ulna \\as r e c o ~ e r e dat tlie ( o l b ~Xlamrnoth site (Walker and F r ~ s o n1980),

The North American Pronghorn

141

3 I. Mixed bison and pronghorn bones in a Folsom component at the Agate Basin site, eastern Wyoming. (From Frison 1982b: 41.) FIGURE

and a cut-off proximal end of a metatarsal was recovered at the Sheaman Clovis site very near the Agate Basin site in eastern Wyoming (Frison and Craig 1982: 164). The Agate Basin site is located on the plains to the west of the southern end of the Black Hills. The Folsom component at the site contained partial remains of five pronghorn along with the remains of eight bison (figure 3 I).The pronghorn bones most likely represent animals killed elsewhere at different times throughout the winter and then brought to the site. Cutmarks, impact fractures, anvil damage, and burning indicate butchering and processing (Walker 1982; Hill, Frison, and Walker 1999). A small number of pronghorn bones also appeared at the Lindenmeier Folsom site in northern Colorado (Wilmsen and Roberts 1978). Both sites have radiocarbon dates of about 10,800 years ago on their Folsom components. The small number of known pronghorn bones in Paleoindian sites severely limits our information on procurement strategies. Pronghorn have made a good recovery because of management practices that have allowed them to be transplanted into former habitats. Modern trapping methods are hardly reminiscent of the aboriginal ones, though they too rely strongly on animal behavior. While fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, and high fences simplify these efforts, experience and

742

The i%orth Anerican Pronghor11

extreme care are ~mportantto a v o ~ dunnecessary Injury to an~nlals.A good description of strategies used In modern pronghorn trapplng is offered by Bert Popowsk~and Wllf Pyle (1982: 188-98). In summary, pprnghorn have heen ubiquitous and little changed long before and throughout the more than rl,ooo years of known hullla11 llunting of large manlmals on the North American Plains and in the Great Basin. Their behavior patterns are different from those of other herbivores of similar size, such as deer and mountain sheep, requiring procurenlent strategies that took these differences into consideration. They were easy prey for hunters \\-orking alone and in small groups because they are amenable to being driven. They were taken coml~iunnllyby pedestrian hunters during Late I'rehistoric times and by mounted hunters after the introduction of the horse. A growing body of evidence suggests communal hunting may have begun niuch earlier than previously suspected. Pronghorn were a reliable food source that, in some cases and in some areas, may have rivaled bison in iniportance.

The Rocky Mountain Sheep

T H E PRECARIOUS EXISTENCE O F A THREATENED SPECIE5

Beginnlilg a t '111 early age and 1' s the result of a m u l t ~ t u d eof unrelated ~ a l~felongfascln,ition ~ 7 1 tmounh events oaer several decades, I d e eloped tain sheep ( O ~ l l sctznade~zsls).In the ~nimediatearea of the Big H o r n h l o u n t a ~ n cIn northern Wyorning v\ here I w ~ r as ~ s e dthey , had been neal-I! e l ~ m ~ n a t eb!d hunters soon after the h e g ~ n n ~ nofg the t w e n t ~ e t hcentus). Ho~vexer,sheep horns and skulls were niuch in ev~dence,attesr~ngt o t l m r former presence in considerable numbers, and a few managed t o s~1rvii.e In the more ~n,lccess~ble and rare]\ v ~ s ~ t eh,ickcountr~. d A large ran1 s ~ l liouetted against the sky, or traversing what from a d ~ s t a n c eappe,~redt o be a seemingly perpend~cularcliff face, \\.a\ a rare a n d t h r ~ l l ~s ~~g~h gt . When I was about six years old and riding for cattle with my grandfather, he pointed t o a locatio11 near the bottorii of a steep canyon where 1 killed t w o rams in 1 9 0 ~They . salvaged the Ineat he and another n 1 ~ had from the t w o animals and threw the skulls into a rock crevice, t ~ ~ l inly te~ldlrlgt o retrleve them I'lter. They were never able t o revlslt the locatlon and the sltulls rern,~lnedthere u n t ~ la l i ~ k e rfound them, still well preserved, in the early rghos. When I told him the story of their origin, t ) VIryom~ng'sb~ologlhe gave me one that I donated t o the U n ~ v e r s ~ of cal c ~ l l e c t i o r i ~ . The x e a g a ~ n e dsome notorrety for its sheep hulit~ngin the late nineteenth century when a titled Englishman, I.ord Gilbert L e ~ g h fell , o~ er a

141

The Rocky b l o u n t a ~ nSheep

steep cl~tfand to h ~ death s In the can\on more than roo meters below w h ~ l eIn pursult of nlouiltain sheep. A crude stone monument on 3' h ~ g h promontor\ ox erlook~ngthe locat~onthat was v~siblefrom the old fam11y rarlch conlnlen1ordtes the e\ ent. I-(31 a \ oung and ~rnpressionableboy, ~tadded an element o i lntrlgue and danger to mountain sheep hunt~ng. It also nltletted 1115 d e s ~ l eto explore the can?on countr), where I found nuillerous skulls, h o ns, ~ and caricature\ of niountaln sheep, along n ~ t h those of other an~m,ils,pa~ntecion a n d pecked ~ n t othe w'llls of cd\es and rock shelters b\ earher ~ n h a b ~ t a n t s . One daj when I was about utio~~ to Anthropology. no. 30. V(i,lshington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.

1982e A probable Pc~leoinclianflintknapping kit fro111 the Xlcdicine Lodge Creck site 48BH49q, Wyoming. Lrtbic- Tee-bnology ~ ( 1 )3 :- 5

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Pleistocene and Holocene records of Antiloc~praanzericana: X review of the FAUNbIAP data. In I-'ronghorn past and preserzt: Archaeology, etht~ogmphy,'znd l~iology,edited by J . \'. Pastor and P. M. Lubinski, 13-28. Plains Anthropologist Memoir 3 z. 1-incoln, Neb.: Plains Anthropological Society.

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Index

I-\bsaroka hloui~tains:mountain sheep in, 1 4 6 , I j z , 157, ~ 6 oinouritai~l ; sheep ) 2 2 9 ; mule traps in, 1 4 ~ )163-64, deer remains in, 1 7 3 m a p , I 7 4 - 7 5 ; protlghorn in, 1 2 8 . See also Sunlight B'isi11 (K'yo.) Agate Basin sire (WJ-o.):bison and pronghorn remains at, 6 4 , 7 2 - 7 3 , 141, I 4 I fig~tre,2 1 7 ; elk antlers from, r o 9 , 18 r, I 8 2 figidre, 2 1 4 , 2 1 6 ;ineat cache at, h I ; projecrrle point froru, I T O ; sigllificance of, 19;. See also She,iinan Clovis site (V;lvo.i Agric~~ltural Adlusttneilt Administration, ri6-17

Alberta ( C a ~ l ~ i d abison ) : kill sites in, 343.5, 8 0 , 9 8 , 9 9 ; Clovis points and horses linked In, 50; pronghorn trap in, 140. Sce also Head-Smashed-In slte (Alberta) All~ertaprojectile point, 108 fiXure, TIO-I1

Alces sp., I 8. See also [noose Altithermal period, h4,8;-88

American Association tor the Advancetncnt of Science, j r ,lnderson, Ro): 4 j Anell, Rengt, r 77-78 a n ~ m a kill l sites, alternate uses of, I I 37 4 . Set, also blson kill sites; corrals and traps; mountain sheep traps; spec-zfic aninzals

atliinal spirits. See ritual activities

anthropolog); limits of, 3 2-34. 2 2 8 . See also hunians; hunters A n t i l o c a p ~ aa n z e ~ i c a n a ,3 L), See also pronghorn

I 2I .

antlers, deer: as atlatl hook, 1 0 9 ; as hunter's trophy, r7o; stone-flaking hammer from, I 7 4 antlers, elk: as atlatl hook, I 0 9 ; ho\vs from, 206, r o 7 figure, 208; as clubs, 16 1; as digging tools, 1 8 2 , 1 8 3 figure; item5 m,lde from, 2 1 6 figuue; piles of, 2;; 183-84; present-day collectioil and use of, 184-86; as project~lepoints, 2 1 4 , r i 6-1 7;wire entarigled in. r 8 0 A~~toilseil Buffalo J u m p (hlont.), 8 2 hn7ick Clovis cache, r r q , 2 1 j figure, 2 1 9 Arapaho Itldiatis, 183-84 archaeology: evidence on hunters from, 3 8-41, 4 2 "zap, 4 3 ; geology combined with, 70, - 9 , 9 6 ; interests in, 29-32; interpreting record of, 3;; ne\v methods needed for, 34-3 j ; soclal organllatlon and evidence t r o ~ n ,226-2; , See dlso bear, Arctocirrs S I I M I ~ S 40. short-faced Arkush, Brooke, I 3 r arroyo b ~ s o ntraps: advantages of, ; j; butchering at, 112; examples of, 44-48, 70--6; excavatioi~of, 3 4 , 7 0 figure; geological processe, at, 69-70, 7 4 ; modern dnalogue to,

.lrroyo blson trap5 ( ~ o ~ ~ t i i i u ~ d / Big H o r n R,lsrn (\X1yo.): as h s o n country, 84-85; death of i ~ s bisoil t in, 6, -3 figure; p h o t o g l - ~ p h sof, 7 1 figure, 28. 227; feral horse remembered 75 fiX1~rf'; practical test for, 68-69 In, 49-50; lnfoniiation gained from, a r t i s t ~ crenditioils: of hear, 188; of c,linel. 3 ; rii,lmrnal hunters in, 4 ni~ip; j 2 - j l ; cave paiiltiilgs as, 26-2-, 1 88; limits of, 3 3-34, 97; n ~ ~ ~ u " x q > mountain sheep 111, L 5-; 17aleo11tolotions ill, 11; 118 figitre; of proriggists' interests in, 29, 30; pronghorn horn, r r j fig~tre;of prongliorn 111, 128; rar~ifallin, j . See ~zlxoAIedlhuiiti~lg,I ; j ; rock art a\, 219-20 cine Lodge Creek sire (Wyo.);Spring Creek C:a\ e ilY7yo.) arlarls: author's d~scovcr!- of, zo-3 1; tor biuds, 194; I ~ o n eor ,intlcr point\ with, Big Horn .2lounr,l1ns illT> o.): elk antleld~ggrngtools from. I 82; elk antler 216-17; CIovis p o i ~ i t son, j 4 , (658; decline of use of, I I 2; efft.ctirepiles in, 184; elk in, 779; slleep 1111nr~ ness agalnst elephant hick, jfi-ji); i n s 111. 1-13-44; ~ v o o d uol>jects from, Log, 2 r o Jigitre, 211, 218 elk 'intler as spur for, I 81; Icarliing t o use, 196-97, 118; i l l d i l ~ ~ f d c t ~ ~ r c Bintord, Lewis, rr; b ~ r d s :d e s c r ~ p t ~ oof, n I 93-94; \veaporis of, 209-1 i; materials for. 109; tor. 21 8 throxvi~lg,lnci velocity ot, 1I ;-I 4 atlati ~veights,212-1 3 hiso~i:cave painting of, 2- figtire; C l o l ~ s hunting of, 39, J I 9; a s domlnant h o n l e a hunters, r 39 111 reruains, I I ; extinct varieties of, 4 r ; eutlnct vs. modern, 8, 63-64, 6.5 l.ec~r (generali: c a \ e painting of, 2f,qlirr; A S food, 34-3 7 , 204, 224-2 5; figure; '1s food, I 8, ~ 8 8h;u n t ~ n g of, 188-90 food preferences of, 10j-6; hornr hear, black: characteristics ot, 186-87; ot. 63-64, 6 j figure; I10fie"in h~111ttrapping of, r 5-1 6 rig of, j2, 120; human predatiori's 1111pncron, 222-rj; niigr,ition of, hear, grizzly: char,icteristio of, I 87-88; as dangerous to huilr, I j; horses in 62. 64, 11 9; lx~p~1lati0i1 studies of, I i ~ ~ n t i nof, g 52; parts used of, I 6 ; as 6 j , 67-68; present-ciay handling a n d pred'itor, 18 r , ~ 8 8 protection hreedlng of, roo-106; preserr,ition ; ot, 189-90; short-t~ceciIJear conlpare~i ot, 28-29: surv~valof, 49; t C ~ x o 1 ~ ( ~ ~ n y w ~ r h 40; , rroplly hunting of, 25-zh of, 62-65; treat1menc after kill~ng, hear, short-f'lced, 40, 41 96, r r j - 1 7 ; weaponry anti tools in beaver. r 9 3 h~intingof, 106-1; Biso17 ii~7ti~qliz~s, 39, 62-63, 64, 6 j fig14~e. bzh,~vior,animal: ahnormal, 16; anthro--, TT9 pology's Ignoring of, 32, 228; of I>ison be11,lrior: abrupt turns in, 91; cattle, r o o - r o ~ ;of deer, 123-14, I - r ; of elephants, 54-56; o t extiilct ,i\v'~reiless of danger a n d , j , 82; cattle belia\ior compared ~ v ~ t h , 1s. present specles, 4;; of feral c~iid prehistoric horses, j 1-j1; human 100-102, I o j ; d r ~ v elines' effects aggression and, 34; l~tinter'skno\vl011, X 5-86, 93-94; hunters' knowledge of, z ~ j - ~ c of ) ; n l o l ~ ~ l t a isheep, il edge of, 93-94, 99; inlsccli1ceptloi1s 1 4 j, I jI--j2, I j7, I j8, 1 6 j ; of of, I I 7-20; in open rarige vs. fericed pronghorn, I 2 3-5 I . Sce 'Z/S(I h ~ s o n pasture herds, 3 j ; present-da); deheh,l\ ior scribed. l o o - T Oj; research on, r o b ; Kenedict, James, 166-67 2s ~~ilprcdict,lhle, 29, 68-69 Benetoient and Protecr~veOrder of Elk 63, 64, 6 j figure, 71, 88, B ~ S O bison, II (B.P.O.E.), 179 I oo, l o r figr~ve,I ry Besanr hunting group: bison corr.lls b ~ s o i corrals: l soristruction of. 68; e:lrliest of, 89-94; projectile polnt of, 108 use of, 14-95; esdniples of, 89-94; figure; kveaponry and s k ~ l l sof, 88a t lump sites, 79-80, 83-84, 87-88: 89, I r r locat~onsof, y o 11rap, 97-98; number Klg Goose Creek site (Vi'yo.): elk antler of anirn,~lsin, roo; pract~calapproach tools and, r8r-83; features of, 85, to. 68-69, 99-106; ritual dcriv~ties 86-87; metal projectile point from, at, 89. y z 21 8; whitetailed deer retnai~isne'ir, b ~ s o i l~ u i n p s :artistic renditions of, 117, 173 m~lp,1 7 7 r r 8 figure; descript~oriof, -9-83;

-

drive line markers for, 8 5-86; excar,ltion of, 3 4 , 8.5 figzlrr; as i n n o ~ a tion, 119; varial~tsof, 83-88 hison kill sites: ,llternate uses of, T I ; 1 4 ; bears porsibly attrclcted to, 1 8 9 ; bone heds at, 68-69; burned bones at, 8 4 ; at cxnpsite area, 8 6 ; cultural infor111,ltion from, I T ; itlterprerarions ot, 10.5; locatio~lsof. 6 6 ~ i z f l p ; overview of, T I Y - 2 0 ; peninsulartraps as, 9 9 ; CIS p o p u l a t i o ~evidence, ~ 6 5 , 67-68; questions ~ h o u t 97-98; , r ~ t u a lacti\-itie~at, 7 4 , K c ) , 9 2 , 9 6 o 9 7 ; S I Z ~ Sof, 9 8 - 9 9 . See ~ l s arro!o b ~ s o ntraps; h ~ s o ncorr,ils; bison I L I I ~ sand ~ S ; dune b ~ s o ntraps Bisi11z / ~ z t i f r ~ n6s 2, , 67, figure, 6 4 , 1 1 9 R z j o ~~ ~ ( ~ ~ d3 9~ , 6l 2~- 6 f3 ,~ 6 i4 ,~6 ji ~ , fig"'.", ", 7 ; , 1 1 s

Bitterroot L~Iounta~os i-llont.). game rr,lp in, 1 7 8 B1,lcktoot Indi'lns, 208 Black Hills ( S . Dak., \X1yo., and Ylont.): description of. 8 3 ; inforrnatio11 g,iitleci from, j; mammal hunters 111, 4 Inat,; pronghorn remains in, 140. Src also Wawken slte (\TJyo.) Black hfounraii~,sheep traps of, r 4 9 , I jo

J i g z ~ ~Icj6 ,

Klc~ckwc~ter Draw ( N . h4ex.): Clovis artifact and mcimmotll associ,itions at, 4 8 ; significance of, 38 Bleed, Peter, 2 2 0 - 2 1 blue grousc, 193-94 Koarciing Scliool Bison Drive site ( M o t ~ t . ) , 34-35, 8-

hohc'lt, r;-14 hogs, bison In, 117-1 8 hones: ,inalys~sot, con\idet-'itions in, 676 8 ; 111irledfot- fert~lizer,8 0 , 8 2 ; as projecr~lepoints, 2 ~ 4 - 1 8 ;prongllorn attrcictioi~to, f i i . See also specific ii~al~rtnnls

Bonfire Shelter slte (Tex,isi, h ~ s o njump at, 7~ Boone ,uid Crockett Club, 24-26, I 7 4 B o s t l z u ~ I~00-1 ~~0 , I . See iilso cattle Boulder R ~ d g esheep trap, I 6 4 how ,incl arrows: for birds, I 9 4 : i ~ i hum,in burial sltes. 2 8 ; learning t o use, 1 9 6 - 9 7 ; mdnuf,lcrure of, 202-8; preferellces for, 112-1 3; prc~jectilepoints frorn, at b ~ s o n jumps, 8 4 ; for pro1lghor11, 1 3 2 ; h r small an~nials,1 9 1 , I 9 3 ; uses of, 2 2 0 - 2 1 ; \vorld\vrde users ~ i2 0, 9 Bowles, Tidy, 1 4j , I 17-48

bow tree, 203 fig~we Boy Scouts, i 8 4 B.P.O.E. (Bene\.olent clrid Protective Order of Elk), 1 7 9 Kt-adle!; Bruce, 40, 54, 59, I 0 - ; Clo\ 1s point made b!; 5 - fig~ii.e Brown, Barnum, 29 Br) an, Kirk, ; o buck fever, use of term, 1 9 6 Buffalo Creek site, hutshering at, I I 2 Bugas-Holding site: elk dntler tools and, 182-8;; ~ n o ~ ~ n tsheep ~ i i n rem,iins at, 160, 174

Bull Elk Pass tr'lp, 1 4 9 fig~tre, I 5 5, I j8 burchering: of hison, 80-8 I . 86-8: 8 8 , 9 5 , 114-1 6 , I 1 7 ; hide thickness and, 1 9 9 , 200 fiCyt4re,2 0 1 ; i~lte~lsive rs. 1 3 9 ; in interwar yecirs, less i~ltens~ve, 11-22; of m o u n t a ~ nsheep, 1 6 0 ; ot rnule cieer, 1 - 2 ; of prehistoric horse, j o ; projecr~lepoints ior, 1 1 0 , 1989 9 ; of proiighorn, 1 3 i ; stone tools for, 59-6 I , 6 0 figr~re;lvild-gameprocessing plants for, 23-24 Cache Hill bison kill (\\'yo.): 7 4 , 7 5 &"re Ccllifor~~ia: gr~zrl)-human contests in, I 8 9 ; pronghorn trap 111, I ; 1-32 c,lmel: extinction o f , 8 , 4 1 ; hutlting of, 3 9 , 52-5.3; modern ,lnd preh~itoric, compared, 8 , 5 3 Ca7izelops sp., 3 9 , j 7 C:at~lsdzrigs, 4 0

c a r ~ h o u 4, - 1 7 8 Carrcr/Kerr-,\lc(;cc \ite [Mko.), geological processes at, 7 1 - 7 2 Casper hiion kill site (\YTyo.):age group absent from, 5; hone bed at, fig14r~r,7 8 ; carnei remains from, 5 3 ; Hell Gap-type project~lepoint\ from, r o 8 &lire, T L ) ~ figtilt' ) (:,istle hlol~ntainsihlotlt.), game trap in, 178

--

C'zstor cannrielrsis, 1 y 3

cattle: hison compared w t h , 100-102, 10j ; food preferences of, 105-6; horses' iiltercxction \virh, 1 0 4 ; killing of, 1 1 6-1 7. See also livestock industry cattle guards, 1 0 4 Cattleguard site (C.olo.), sand dune hison trap at, 7 8 cave paintings, 26-27, I 8 8 . Scc also rock art Cetztrocerz~suropliaslutzrts, I 9 3 - 9 1 C e r v u s claphrts, 4 1 , 1 7 8 . Sc~eulso elk cheetah, African, I 24

cheetah, Amer~can,40 Che)enne Indians, 13 j, 136, 208, 218 Chippewa Indians, r78 chronolog!; cultural, 8, 9 figure, r o Chugwater (Wyo.),b~soiiju~iipat, 82 Clark, W~lliarn,I 32, I 78 climate: Altithermal period in, 64, 87-88; bison population's variatiori hy, I r 9; drought in, 11 6-17, 197, 227; eyewitness accounts of, 228; horses' sense of change in, 20; inountai~ls' effects on, j; mountain sheep hunting and, 153-54 See also sedsoris Clovis Paleoind~ancultural complex: arrival routes of, 40; h ~ s o nkill sites of, 48, 74; bone objects from, 214, r r j figure; as first bison hunters, jy, 119; hunting strategies of, 39-40, 44-49, 50, 61; red ochre and, 21920; weapons of, 43. See ulso specific sites (ilovis projectile polnts: along Atlantic coast, 40; efficacy of, quectloned, 43, 53, 56-58; experimentc with, 54-61, 211-1 2; horse lmked with, jo; illustration of, 4 j figure; mammoth remains linked with, 41-49; superior design of, TO; club, wooden, 16 r figure Cody Paleoindian cultural complex: '11-royobison trap of, 7r-72; bison bone bed of, 94 figure, 9 j figure; deer antler atlatl hook of, 109; elk antler from, 182; features of site of, 9 7-96; mule deer remains and, 173; projectile points of, 108 figure, I I I; type site of, jo; whitetailed deer remains of, 177 Colhy, Ilonald, 44 (:olhy Mammoth Kill (Wyo.):d~scovery of, 44-15; geolog~calprocesses at, 69; mammoth remains from, 46 figure, 47 fiRure; perisodacr'jl (horse) reni,~insfrom, 49; procurement strategy at, 6 I ; pronghorn remalns from, I 40-4 L Cole, Rohert, 204-5 , -0, 79, 96, r r o

geologic changes: in arroyos, 14-15, 6972, 74; knowledge nccdcd to Interpret, 96, r z o Glenrock Buff,ilo Jump (\Y7yo.),80 go'lt, I 21 golden eagle, 1 2 j figzrue gopher, 192, 19; Goshen age: projectile polnt of, 107; tools of, 76. See '11so Xlill Iron site (hlonr.) Gosiute Indians, r q I G r m d Teton National Park (\Vyo.i. 127-28. 1 3 8 C;re,lr Bas~n:description of, I j I ; figure-4 traps for wood rats in, 191; pronghorn trap In, I 3 2-3 j Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem ('XT>o.. hIc>~it.,and Idaho): gr~zzl)hears in, 189; inaccessible areas of, 1 4 j ; nitormatiou gained from, 3 ; marumal hunters In, 4 rrzilp; mountain sheep in, 146-47, I 68. See rilso Yeliowsrone National Park Great Plains, prehistory of, 3 8 - 4 . See also plains and mountains Greal-es, Russell, 2 2 r Gr~nnell,George, 18 3-84, 204, 208, 218 Gros Ventre Mountains (Wyo.),how from, 20 5-6 grOllS" 193-91 Hanson site: excavation of, 29; ram skull from, T h 7 Harringron, M. R., 3 T I-Iawken site [Wyo.): descr~ptionof, 70-77; projectile points from, 108 fiRt-' ~ n d .107-8 Roberts, Frank H. H., ; o rock 'irr, 219-20, 220 fig~rrc'.SCC (iiso c a r e p,lintings ' Rocky hfountain elk. S ~ Lelk Tlocky h I o ~ ~ n t n riiule i n deer. Scr deer. rn~ile Rock! hlountaln nT,~r~on,ll I'xk. ~ 6 6 - 6 7 Rock!- ,\lount,lins: hison in, -6; incre'lied ,lni~nalpopulation in, 22-zj; Iie\ved from dirpl,ine, 6 Kocky Xlountclin sheep. See nloutit,xln sheep Koosevelt, Theodore, 24 Ross, .Alex.irider, 159 Ruby B ~ s o nPourid \itc (\\!yo.): features of, 89-92, 90 I ~ Z L I ~ II, 00: L I ~ i d d y Creek slre compclred w ~ r h 9, 3 , 94; people needed 10 consrruct, 22-5; projectiie points trom, r r r Russell, O s h o r t ~ e ,T jR u s s ~ nlanimoth ~, in, 54 c,ige grouse, I 93-94 sand ilt~ne,p a r ~ h o l i c 7, 8 figrrrr s m d dune bison rr,lps. 76--L) Sa~iciHrlls ,Ires ~ N e b r a s k a i ,pro~lgliorn tl-'lp Ill, 1 .i j Snn Luis \7ciller 1C:olo.i: m,i~ii~ii,ll huntel-s In, 4 t ~ r r ~ sigtlific:~~~ct. p; of, j !ichmitt chert mine, digging tools from. I 82 !;coggrn srtr (\Y'yo.): festures of, 8--88, 98; proiectile p0i11ts frorii, I I I ; Kuby Bison Pound site comp,ired \\ith, 9; Scotrshluff projectile point, j o se'lsc)lls: '1111111'1ls~ sllrrlr'll 'lll(i, 99; of bison kills, 74-78, S;, 86, 9 j , 969-, I 19; butchering considerclrions and, 114-1 j: extremes of, j-6;

and, 1 2 1 - r r , p ~ - o n g h o hunting r~~ 1 2 5-28. 139. See ~llsocliniate Serneno\; serge^, T y 8 serises: o t elephant, j-; human \ s . a n ~ m a l , I - ; ot llunter, I 6. Sce ,rlso hear~ng: smell sh,iin,ins. Srr ritual , ~ c t i r i t ~ e e She,im,~n(:lovis slte (\X'yo.): Iror!- shafr trorn. 2 r 4 , 2 r j figrirc: pronghorn remains , ~ t ,r 4 r sheep, ilesrrt b~ghortl,I 61-63 sheep, domestic, 146, I j I sheep E,trers, use of term, 1 6 2 . See ~ l s o Shoshonean groups Sheep I l o u n t a i n (\X'!-o. I , mountain sheep net from, [ h i - 6 6 , I 6 6 figziur, 1 6 7 fiyirrc Slio3honec~ngr-oupi: campvte of, r l - ; ~ n o ~ i n t , l sheep ln hunting of, I h r ; net rr~l2p111got, 1 9 ~pronghorn ; hunt~ng o f , 131-33 S h o s h o n ~Indians: adopted c h ~ l d r e nof, roz-3; be,ir's etlcounter \\ ith, I 8-: ho\vs ot, 203, 105-6; 1101.ses of, I 32; pronghorn h~intingo f , I I. 13 5; sage grouse p ~ - o c ~ ~ ~ - eof. n i e194; ~it rerrn~nolog! ot. I 6 2 srghr, eleph,~nr's. 57 S I ~ I ~Iridi,lns, IX I 35, 176 smell: I,e,~r'ssense ot, r 89. i .lo; o t dead ~rn,lil,in~m,ils,r y o ; elephant's sense of. 57; elk's sense of, Lo, T-9; feces and. 16-1 7 , 11 sn,ir-cs and tr'lps, I 9 I -9 3; fol- sriiiiIl ~1111ma15. 1 y 2 f i ~ u r c Sec . (ilso corrals and tl-'ips; tiers; tr'lpping ,lnd tl-apl~nes Spanrsll D ~ g g i n g(\Yyo.). lo; Spanl\h I'oint Stone Quai-I-y (V'yo.i, TO:; digguig tools from, I 83 figrirc spears, thrusting: tor hrson in corrals, r o l ; C:lor~spor~itso n , 54, 56-58; ettccriveness o f , for elephant hide, rx-jq Spelicer. Robert, 3; spir~ruairelL1t~onships. Scc r ~ t ~ i aa cl t ~ r ~ t i e s Spring Crcek C,,lve (\Vyo.i, cltl,~tls, ~ n d PI-olectilepol1115 from, jo,3 I f i g u ~ c , 209, 2 1 0 fjgurc, 2 1 I Sr,~nford,Dennrs, 40, 9 7 S t e ~ v s r dJulian, , j;, 131, 162 itone-flaking, 201-2. Sre N/ZOtoo15 Stuart, Robert, T jSurnmer. Jay, 1 8 9 Sunlrght Basin (\Y7yo.i: ,irirrn,~itl-,ip in, 1 4 , 148; forest fil-es in, I 6;; mountam slirep rernains ill, r h o ; ~ l l u l edeer ~rerii~iiris in, 1-3 I J Z L I ~ , r74, 1 - 5

&tlvi,. S c i ~also I)e,id 11itl1,lnCreek site (ViTyo.1 s\vc~nips,hison 111. I I 7-1 8 Syi3llagus sp., 191. I:);. .\-cP i l / s ~r.ll~hit ~ t,lxliler~nyshops, 24 Texas: bison j ~ u n p111. ;.y; feral horse h,lhirat in, 7 r ; procurclnent str,ltegy 111, 98. See also I.uhbock Z.ake site (Texas) Thornas, D'ivid, I 62-63. ry;-~)4 Thoi~zor~iys tal,/)oiLics, 1 9; Tholnl?suli, D,II ~ d 224 , Tirmus. Gene, rrc) Toiid, Lawrence. 4 8 tools: for butchering, I I 5-1 6: chert tor, 79-(3 I , I 82. z o o fiRiwe; choice of stone for. I 07, LO r ; CIS c11tt11ighlde, 59-6 r , 60 fixtlrc.; for i i ~ g g ~ n gI .82, I 8; fiyi~ri';elk ,intiers for, I 8 1-83; iildll~~fact~lri. of, 201-2; 111etdniorphoseil s h , ~ l efor. I r2; nt pl-ongliorr~ tr'ip, 13); qu'lrtzite for, 19-61: stone-fl,~ki~ig hamrners, 174 18182; uses of, 11, 1951, z o o figz~re, Lor; \ve,lpoiis comparcd nirli, 198; ~ v o o d c nclubs as, 161. 16 j. Sre d/so knives: project~lepoiiits tr'icks, I 6 rr,lnshuma~iceoperations, ciefinitlon of, 2 'I'rLii~pcrsI'oinr site iTyo.1, pronghorn r e r n ~ ~ from, ns ri8-39 rl-'lpping dntl tr,ipllne\: tnvorire spots tor, I j-rh; of feral horses, y o - j r ; tnerhods of, 1.;-14; for pred,itor\, r 2. Src, 'rlso corr,lls allti rr'ips; ncts; sn'ircs ,ind tr'ips rropli\ cm~mcllc:hears ,IS. 188; h1'1ck rnarker for, 26; dezl- as, r;o; elk as, 27-26, ~ 7 8 1, -i): h~lllflllg01. 24-2 5. ; I ; moullrarti sheep .IS, 145-46, T 53; pronghorn ,IS, I 19 T w o h l e d ~ c i n ekill site ( h l o n r . ) , 8 1-82 Ulln I'ishkun Buffalo J u m p (LLotlt.1, 8 2 1Jn1onPacific hlanirnorli slte (\Yryo.l, 4 8 LJliion I'dcific: K,lilroa~l, 1:6 L'nlvcrslty of\Yyorning. 3 5 1 J p p u IP,lieollrli~co l u t r e a n , Clovis litiks to, 4 0 LJpper Twill h l o r l ~ i r ~ ~site i i l ((:oIo.l, his011 hone bed of, -6 I:i.sor .rrctos, 40. .YL'(T i l I s ~bear, ~ grl~~ly \ole, 1 9 ; \'ore Buffalo J u m p (\\'yo.): honc bcci ot, 8 j Ji,Sliur; feat~rrcsof, 83, 8 4 figirr~?;

grizzly beclr remains frorn, 189: projectile polnt from, 216; \voIt-s~ze c,iniii remarns from, 1 9 1 \V"lhp.i Chu'gn B u f f ~ l ol u m p (hloiir.1, 82 W'all! 's Beach site ii\lhe~-[a).Clovi> poi~irs,lnd horses I ~ n k e dat, 50 \T7-0.1,possihle corral of, 9 8 \Ye~-t, 18, I 21, 190. 192 \V~lson, Ilichnel. 6 j K'ilsoli, Nick, 18-, 202-;, 205-6 W'ind Illvet- llour~t,lins,mountaln \beep in. 146, I 57 \Y'i