Survey of Medieval Castles of Anatolia I: Kütahya 9780860543381, 9781407342221

Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION
MAPS, PLANS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
REFERENCES
THE SITE
HISTORY
TESTIMONIA
THE WALLS AND TOWERS
BUILDINGS WITHIN THE WALLS
SPOILS AND INSCRIPTIONS
RELATIVE CHRO NOLOG Y
SYSTEMS OF DEFENCE
CHRONOLOGY OF THE WALLS
KAYSER KALE
ALTINTAS
GEDIZ
COUNTY OF SIMAV
COUNTY OF EMET
COUNTIES OF TAVSANLI AND DOMANIC
CONCLUSIONS: REGIONAL DEFENCES OF THE MIDDLE AGES
ILLUSTRATIONS
KÜTAHYA

Citation preview

Survey of Medieval · Castles of Anatolia I: Kiitahya

Clive Foss with plans by Robin Fursdon

British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara Monograph No. 7

BAR International Series 261

1985

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

DAR -S261,1985:'Survey of Med ieval Castles of Anatolia I'.

©

Clive Foss,1985.

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543381 paperback ISBN 9781407342221 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543381 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION

1

MAPS, PLANS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

4

REFERENCES

7

KÜTAHYA: The Site History Testimonia The Walls and Towers Buildings within the Walls Spoils and Inscriptions Relative Chronology Systems of Defence Chronology of the Walls

12 13 18 25 57 59 64 75 80

KAYSER KALE: The Site The Walls Date and Function

86 88 91

AL TINTA$

95

GEDIZ

99

COUNTY OF SIMAV Simav/ Synaos Bogaz (Kilise) Koy / Ancyra Sidera Bahtilh/ Goloe �M�

100 102 105 100

COUNTY OF EMET Egrigoz/ Acrocus Hisarc1k/ Tiberiopolis (?) Aezani

108 117 118

COUNTIES OF TAV$ANLI AND DOMANIC Tav�anh Saruhanlar

119 119

CONCLUSIONS

122

ILLUSTRATIONS

127

I NTRODUCTIO N The p res en t v o lume i naugura tes an ew s e r ie s , t he p ub l ica t ions o f t he S urvey o f M ed i eva l C a s t le s o f A na to l ia , s ponso red b y t h e B r i t i sh I n s t i tu te o f A rcha eo logy , A nka ra . T he p ro jec t was c once ived i n 1 981 b y D av id F rench , D i rec to r o f t he I n s t i t u te , a s as urvey , w i th p lan s a nd p ho tog raph ic r e co rd , o fs e lec ted B yzant ine c a s t les i n c e n t ra l Ana to l ia . H i s p ro found k now l edge o f t he c oun t ry h ad r e vea led t ha t t here w e re m any c a s t le s , f ew o f t h em s urveyed . Much i mp r es s ive w o rk , o f c our s e , h ad a l ready b een d one . T he s t ud i es o f A .M . S chne ide r o f N ica ea , A lbe r t Gabr ie l o f B ur sa a nd e a s te rn A na to l ia , W . Mu l l e r -W iene r o f I o n ia , a nd H . H e l lenkempe r o f C i l ic ia , a l ong w i th t he p ub l ica t ions o f i n d iv idua l e xcava t ions , h ad e s tab l i shed a m e thodo logy a nd p rov ided a b ase a nd m ode l f o r f u r ther w o rk . Y e t D r . F rench r e cogn i sed t ha t much r ema ined t o b e d one , a nd a sked m e t o d i r ec t an ew s urvey . T he p ro jec t b egan a t K i i tahya i n 1 982 . We c ho s e t h i s c a s t le f o r t he f i r s t s tag e b ecause i ts e emed t o o f e r a l l t ha t c ou ld b e d es i red : i t was l a rg e a nd i nr e la t ive ly g ood c ond i t ion ; i t p la in ly h ad s eve ra l p e r iods o f c ons t ruc t ion ; i t s s ys tems o f d e f ence a ppea red r e la t ive ly s oph i s t i ca ted ; i th ad a p la ce i n t he h i s to r ica l r e co rd s o t ha t i t s r ema ins c ou ld p robab ly b e c o r r e la ted w i th t he w r i t ten s ou rce s ; a nd i th ad n o t b een s t ud ied . A s urvey h e r e , i ts e emed , w ou ld p roduce a m e thodo logy s u i tab le f o r d ea l ing w i th o the r c a s t les , h owever c omp lex , a nd f o r d a t ing r ema ins w h ich h ad n o h i s to ry . A s i tt u rned o u t , t he w a l l s o f e r ed mo r e p rob lems t han w e h ad i mag ined , a nd t he r e su l t s e x ceeded o ur e xpec ta t ions . A f te r t he f i r s t s e ason , t he p ro jec t u nde rw en t as i gn if i can t c hang e , r ef lec ted i n t h e p resen t v o lume . T he s u rvey h ad b een c once ived a s as t udy o f i n d iv idua l monu m en ts . I ts oon b ecam e a ppa r en t , h oweve r , t ha t t he c a s t les w ou ld g a in i n i n te re s t a nd v a lue when c ons ider ed i n a r e g iona l c on tex t , w h ich w ou ld i n c lude a l l m ed ieva l f o r t if ica t ions , o f w ha t eve r s i ze o r n a tur e . T hey i n t u rn w ou ld b enef i t f r om b e ing s t u d i ed t oge the r w i th t h e ma jo r monumen t s w h ich m igh t h ave s e rved a s mode l s f o r t h e i r d eve lopmen t . A r e g iona l a pp roa ch w ou ld make i tp o s s ib le t o i n c lude s ma l l o r r u ined f o r t s , p e rhaps n o t w o r th s t udy ing i n t hems e lves , w ho s e r u ins m igh t b e o n t he w ay t o d i sappea rance . T he p res en t s u rvey , t h er e fo re , p ropo se s t o d ea l w i th t he m ed ieva l f o r t if ica t ions o f A na to l ia b y r e g ion s , w h i ch may mo s t p ra c t ica l ly b e d ef ined b y t he b ounda r ie s o f t h e mode rn T urk i sh p rov ince s , o r v i laye t s . I n e a ch r e g ion , w e a t temp t t o s tudy a l l r e l evant f o r t if i ca t ions c ons t ruc ted o r r e bu i l t b e tween t he t h i rd a nd f i teen th c en tur ie s . T he ma jo r i ty o f t h es e w i l l n a tura l ly b e B yzant ine , b u t c a s t le s o r w a l ls o f t he S e l juks , t h e e m i ra tes , o r t h e e a r ly O t tomans w i l l a l so b e i n c luded , l e av ing a s ide o n ly t ho s e w h ich w er e f ounded i n t h e f i teen th c en tury o r l a te r . T he s e , b y r ef l ec t ing t he a g e o f g unpowde r , p resen t d if e ren t p rob lems a nd a r e n o l o nge r m ed ieva l . A na to l ia i ss uch al a rge a r ea , a nd s o r i ch i nc as t les , t ha t n o p ro jec t c ou ld h ope t os t udy i ta l l . S ince i tc on ta ins 6 3 p rov ince s , mo s t o f w h ich w ou ld n eed aw ho le s ea s on o f s u rvey ing , as i ng le l i f e t ime w ou ld n o t s uf i ce . O ur a ims , t he re fo re , a r e mo r e m odes t . We w i l l c on cen t ra te o n t h e p rov inces o f t he w e s t a nd c en t re , f o r t hes e c on t a in t he h i ghe s t d en s i ty o f f o r t if i ca t ions , a nd o f er p rob lems w h ich a r e r e la t ive ly c ohe rent . O the r s h ave u nde r taken , a nd w i l l n o d oub t c on t inue , t o s t udy t he n o r th a nd e as t : A n thony B rye r a nd D av id W inf i e ld w i l l t r ea t many c a s t les i n t he i r monu m en ta l s tudy o f t h e P ontu s ; Mr R obe r t E dwa rds i sc once rned w i th A rmen ian r ema ins ; a nd H . H e l lenkempe r a nd W . Mu l le r -W iene r h ave d one e xemp la ry w o rk o n c as t le s o f t h e C rusade r s . T he s e a r ea s , t he r e fo r e , w i l l n o t b e i n c luded , b u t t he r ema in ing ma ter ia l i s mo re t han s uf i c i en t . W i th in t h e r e g ion t r ea ted , w e h ave made e ve ry e fo r t t o f i nd a l l r ema ins , h oweve r s ma l l . We p r e s en t h e re o ne w h ich w as u nknown a nd a f ew w h ich h ad o n ly b een m en t ioned i n p a s s ing b y t r ave l le r s ; b ut t her e may b e o the r s w h ich h ave e s caped o ur a t ten t ion , e s pec ia l ly r emo te r e fuge s i tes h idden o n t he h i l l top s o f P hryg ia . We h op e , h ow eve r , t o h ave b een a s c ompr ehens ive a s p o s s ib le , a nd t r us t t ha t o the r f o r tre s s es , w hen d i s cove r ed , w i l l f i t i n to t h e f r amewo rk w e h ave a t temp ted t o p rov ide .

1

T he S urvey o f Med ieva l C a s t les a ims t o s urvey a nd s t udy t he w a l l s o f e a ch c a s t le t o p roduce a s p l an a s c omp le te a s p o s s ib le , a l ong w i th a d e ta i led p ho tog raph i c r e co rd , a nd ac omp rehens ive a c coun t o f i t s r ema ins a nd t h e ir h i s to ry . Much a t ten t ion w i l l b e d evo ted t o c hrono logy , f o r t h e w a l l s , h oweve r i n te re s t ing i n t h em se lve s , a r e u s e l es s a s d o cument s o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l o r h i s to r i ca l r e co rd w i thou t d a te s . D i s cu s s i on w i l l a t temp t t o c ons ide r t h e f o r t re s s e s i n t h e i r h i s to r ica l a nd g eog raph ica l c on t e x t , a nd w i l l t he re fo re make e x tens ive u s e o f t h e w r i t ten s ources a nd o f t h e p hys ica l e nv i ronmen t , e spec ia l ly a s i tw as d e s c r ibed b y t r ave l l e r s w ho s aw i ta t t ime w hen i t r e ta ined much o f i t s m ed ieva l c ha ra c te r . T he t r ave l le r s , o f c our se , w i l l a l so b e u s ed f o r t h e i r d es c r ip t ions o f t h e c a s t le s , w h ich w e re u n ive r sa l ly i n b e t ter c ond i t ion i n t h e i r t ime t han n ow . I n e a ch c a se , t h e r e po r t w i l l p r es en t a n h i s to r i ca l a nd g eograph i ca l o ut l ine , a d e ta i led a ccoun t o f t h e s urv iv ing r ema ins , a n a na lys i s o f s t y le s o f c ons t ruc t ion a nd m e thods o f d e f ence , a nd a d i s cus s ion o f c hrono logy . T hese w i l l b e a c compan ied b y p lans a nd p ho tog raphs . We l l p re s e rved a nd c omp l i ca t ed w a l l s d e mand l o ng d e s c r ip t i on ; t hey w i l l b e t r ea ted t owe r b y t owe r , f o l low ing t h e mode l o f A .M . S chne ide r i n h i s w o rks o n N i ca ea a nd C ons tan t inop le . O the r s w i l l h ave a mo re s umma ry t r ea t m en t . T he c a s t le s w i l l b e p res en ted i ng eog raph ica l o rde r , w i th t ha t o f t h e p rov inc ia l c ap i ta l f i r s t . I n t h is c a se , t hey a r e a r rang ed a c co rd ing t o c ount ies , o r k azas , mov ing c l o ckw i se f r om K ü tahya . T h i s f i r s t r epo r t p re s ent s aw ide r ang e o f ma te r ia l , as amp le o f t he r i che s w h ich t he c oun try c on ta ins . I tb eg ins w i th ama jo r f o r t if i ca t ion , t he l o ng a nd c omp lex w a l l s o f Kü tahya , w h ich h ave mo re t han 8 0 t ower s a nd f our ma in b u i ld ing p e r iod s . T he o ther s a r e s ma l le r b u t n o l e s s v a luab le f o r i l us t ra t ing t he v a r iety o ff o r t re s se s a s w e l l a s t he m ed ieva l h i s to ry o f t h e d i s t r ic t . T hey i n c lude r e fug e s i tes o ft h e D a rk A g e s o ne o f t hem w i th e x tens ive t r a ce s o f t he b u i ld ing s w i th in i t s w a l ls t h e c i rcu i t s o f r e duced a nc ien t s e t t lemen t s , a ma jo r r oad f o r t re s s a nd , p e rhap s mo s t u nu sua l , as t a t i on f o r t he r e lay o f m e s sag es b y b ea con . T he r e po r t a l so c on ta ins a f ew p l a ces w ho s e r ema ins d id n o t j u s t i fy as urvey , b u t w h ich n eve r the l es s p rov ide i n fo rma t ion a bou t t h e m ed ieva l d e f ens ive s ys tem . T hr ee s i te s e ven a ppea r w h ich l a ck r ema in s a l tog e the r ; s i nce t hey o nce h ad c a s t le s , t h ey m e r i t a m en t ion i n t h e r e co rd o f m ed i eva l f o r t if i ca t ions . T he H ead S urveyo r , R ob in F ur sdon o f t h e U n ive r s i ty o f N ewcas t le , h as d rawn mo s t o f t he p lans a t as ca le o f 1 : 1000 , w i th l a rg er s c a le s f o r e s s ent ia l d e ta i l s . O cca s i ona l ly , s ca t te red o r h eav i ly o ve rg rown r ema ins w i l l j u s t i fy o n ly a s ke tch p l an , w h i l e s ome a r e s o i n s ign if i can t o r d e lap ida ted t ha t n o p l an a t a l l i sp os s ib le . I lus tra t ion s f o rm a n e s s ent ia l p a r t o f t h e r e po r t , a nd h ave b een made a s c omp le te a s r e asonab ly p o s s ib le . A l l p ho tog raphs , u n l es s o the rw i se n o ted , a r e b y t he d i rec to r o f t h e S u rvey . T hey r ep re sen t ap a r t o f t h e p ho tog raph ic r e co rd ; many o the r s a r e o n d epos i t a t t h e B r i t i sh I n s t i tu te i nA nka ra , w he r e t h ey c an b e made a va i lab le f o r s tudy . A w o rk l i ke t h i s i st h e p roduc t o f m uch c o l labo ra t ion a nd h e lp . I to we s i t s f i r s t t hanks t o D av id F r ench , w ho c once ived a nd e ncouraged t h e p ro jec t a nd o f e r ed p ra c t ica l a s s i s tance a t e ve ry s t age , a nd t o R ob in F ur sdon , w ho d rew t h e p l ans w i th p a t i ence a nd p a ins tak ing a c cu ra cy . We a r e g ra te fu l t o t he D irecto ra te G ene ra l o f A n t iqu i t ie s i n A nka ra f o r p e rm i s s ion t o u nde r take a nd c ont inue t he p ro ject , a nd t o t h e of i c ia ls o f t he p rov ince o f K i i tahya i n p a r t icu la r , t he G overno r , S ane r A rman a nd h i s D epu ty , H i i sey in T e rba f o r t h e i r s uppo r t . We o we s pec ia l t hank s t o S em ih T u lay o f t h e K i i tahya Mus eum f o r h i s c ons tan t i n te re s t a nd h e lp , a nd t o t he Mun i c i p a l i ty o f K u tahya , a nd n o tab ly t o Mehme t Y ö r i ik , d i rec to r o f i t s Mapp ing D epa r t m en t , f o r t h e l o an o f e qu ipmen t w h i ch g r ea t ly f a c i l i ta ted o u t w o rk . I n a dd i t ion , w e w er e a s s is ted i n e ve ry way b y o ur hel pf ulc omm i s i o ner , D urmu Kaya , a nd b y t h e r e p re s en ta t ive s o f t h e g ove rnmen t a t a l l e ve ls . D r . R udo l f N aumann v ery k i nd ly t ook t h e t ime t o g i ve o u r t e am a d e ta i led l o ok a t t h e r u ins o f A ezan i , a nd a t i t s r e cen t ly d i s cove red B yzan t ine w a l l s . We o we much t o v i l lag e r s e verywhe r e w e w en t w ho n eve r h es i ta ted t o s ha r e t h e i r k now ledge o r t h e i r r ema rkab le h o sp i ta l i ty . We a r e a l so i n deb ted t o T ug ru l c aka r , w ho made p r in t s o f h i gh q ua l i ty f o r t h i s p ub l ica t ion w i th g r ea t e f i c iency . P e r sona l ly , Io we g r ea t t hank s t o t h e m ember s o fo u r s urvey ing -

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Z .

t e am , w ho p ut u p w i th h a rd w o rk o ve r l o ng h ou r s i nu n fam i l ia r s ur round ing s t o c om p e te t he p ro jec t w i th s k i l l a nd e f i c i ency i n ar ema rkab ly s ho r t t ime . J ona than We s t e rn , w i th t he F u rsdon f am i ly D iana , R ebecca , T imo thy a nd B en p a r t i c ipa ted i n1 980 ; a nd M i cha e l W i l l iams , a l ong w i th D iana a nd R ebecca F ur sdon i n 1 984 . I n p ra c t ica l t e rm s , s uch a s urvey , w h i ch i n vo lve s t he w o rk o f s evera l p eop le , r e qu i r es f i nanc ia l s uppo r t , a nd i tr ema ins t o e xp re s s my d eep g ra t i tude t o o ur b ene fa c t o r s : t he B r i t i sh I n s t i tu te o f A rcha eo logy , A nka ra ; t he B r i t i sh A cademy ; a nd t h e U n ive r s i ty o f Mas sa chu s e t t s , B o s ton . T he U n ive r s i ty a l so p rov ided ag enerous s ub s idy f o r p ub l ica t ion , a nd a n i n va luab le r e s ea rch a s s i s tan t , J ef rey K e l ley , w ho se c a re a nd p a t i ence w i th t h e manu s c r ip t a nd t h e c ompu te r h e lped t o p roduce t h i s v o lume e xped i i o u s ly . T he s ame s ub s idy made i tp o s s ib le t o e mp loy E l izabe th Wah le , w ho o b l ig i n g ly u nder took t o r e draw t h e p lans f o r p ub l ica t ion o n v e ry s ho r t n o t ice . F ina l ly , t he s k i l l a nd p a t ience o f G a ry B i sbee e nab led t he w o rk t o e me rg e f r om t he c ompu te r a nd i n to p roduc t ion . My s i n ce r e t hanks t o a l l . -

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C l ive F o s s C amb r idge , Mas s . May 1 985 .

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M APS , PL ANS A ND I LLUSTRATIO NS Maps 1 . Turkey , s how ing t he p rov ince o f Kütahya 2 . K i itahya p rov ince , s how ing t he s i tes h ere d i scussed

1 0 1

P lans 1 . KÜTAHYA : The wa l ls 2 . Towers 5 2 a nd 5 3 3 . The C itade l 4 . KAYSER KALE 5 . ALT INTA 6 . ANCYRA , s ketch p lan a f ter Mordtmann 7 . EGR IGÖZ 8 . SARUHANLAR

F o ld ing p lan , a t e nd 4 2 4 6 8 7 F o ld ing p lan , a t e nd 1 03 13 1 20

I l lustrat ions A . KÜTAHYA : Hypothet ica l r e cons truct ion o f wa l ls o f p er iod I B . Hypothet ica l r e construct ion o f wa l ls o f p er iod I 1 . S cu lptured s arcophagus , a f ter T ex ier 2 . G enera l v i ew i n 1 895 , a f ter Hua r t 3 . Western p o int o f t he f o rtress 4 . T i , s outheast f ace 5 . T i , e ast f a ce 6 . T2 7 . T2 , i mpos t w i th c ross r eused i n b ase S . T8 , o uter f ace 9 . T8 , d eta i l 1 0 . T8 , i nner f a ce 1 . T 11 a nd T 13 1 2 . T 15 1 3 . T 17 , i nner t ower 1 4 . T 17 , o uter f ace 1 5 . T22 , 2 3 , 2 4 1 6 . UW 2 3/24 1 7 . T26 1 8 . T27 1 9 . B arb ican , w ith T29 a nd W29/30 2 0 . L ower Ga te 2 1 . Wa l l b etween LO a nd T 34 2 2 . T32 , i nner t ower 2 3 . T32 , o uter f a ce 2 4 . T34 w ith LW 2 5 . T34 , d eta i l o f f a ce 2 6 . T35 , f ac ing 2 7 . T35 , c r ibwork o f l a rge b eams 2 8 . T35 , d eta i l o f f a ce 2 9 . T41 , i nner t ower a nd o uter f a ce 3 0 . T41 , d eta i l 3 1 . Towers a nd wa l ls o n n or th s i de o f r av ine : T43 , W43/44 , T43 3 2 . Tower a nd wa l l o n s outh s i de o f r av ine : W4 3/44 , T44 3 3 . T44 , e ast f a ce 3 4 . T44 , s outh f a ce

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6 2 6 2 6 0 1 29 1 29 1 31 1 31 1 31 1 33 1 33 1 33 1 35 1 35 1 35 1 37 1 37 1 37 1 39 1 39 1 39 1 41 1 41 1 41 1 43 1 43 1 43 1 43 1 45 1 45 1 45 1 47 1 47 1 47 1 49 1 49 1 49

3 5 . T48 , w i th b as t ion 3 6 . L W48 3 7 . T52 3 8 . T53 , f r om t he s outhwest 3 9 . T53 , u pper s e c t ion 4 0 . T53 , d eta i l o f i nner f a ce 4 1 . T53 , d eta i l o f o u ter f a ce 4 2 . T53 , v au l t ing o f i nner c hamber 4 3 . T53 , c orbe l l ing o f i nner c hamber 4 4 . T53 , i nner c hamber 4 5 . T57 4 6 . Upper Ga te 4 7 . T58 , i nner f a ce , w ith v au lt ing 4 8 . The s outhwes tern p a rt o f t he c i rcu it , f r om t he s outh 4 9 . T59 , f r om t he e a s t 5 0 . T59 , b ase , w es t s i de , s how ing LW 5 1 . T59 , u pper f a ce 5 2 . T59 , d eta i l o f masonry 5 3 . T59 , u pper c hamber 5 4 . W59/60 , w ith a r ches 5 5 . T60 , g enera l v i ew 5 6 . T60 , w es t f a ce. 5 7 . S ect ion o f LW a t T61 5 8 . T62 a nd 6 3 5 9 . T63 , i nner c hamber 6 0 . T64 , o uter f a ce 6 1 . T64 , i n ter ior 6 2 . W8/65 6 3 . T66 6 4 . T67 6 5 . E ast c i tade l w a l l 6 6 . C itade l Ga te 6 7 . W70/59 6 8 . W70/59 , d eta i l s how ing b locked c r ene l la t ions 6 9 . L ower C ity Wa l l , s outhwes t f a ce 7 0 . T73 7 1 . T77 7 2 . W79/80 7 3 . W80/81 7 4 . L ower C ity Wa l l , E as t Ga te 7 5 . KUTAHYA S PO ILS : R oman a rch itrave , T 2 7 6 . F luted c ap i ta ] , ' 1 2 7 7 . Chance l c o lumn , T 14 7 8 . I on ic c ap ita l , T 35 7 9 . P i las ter c ap ita l , T 35 8 0 . Phryg ian ' doo rs tone ' , T35 8 1 . I on ic c ap ita l , T 41 8 2 . Porphyry c hance l c o lumns , T 66 8 3 . B asket c ap ita l , T 81 8 4 . P laque w ith c ro s s , b eh ind T 33 8 5 . I nscr ipt ion i n b a se o f T 16 8 6 . I nscr ipt ion i n f a ce o f T 60 8 7 . KAYSER KALE : g enera l v i ew , f r om t he n or thea st 8 8 . T i a nd g a te 8 . . W2/3 , c l ose ly s e t b eamho les 9 0 . Ti , n o rth f a ce 9 1 . W1/2 , d eta i l w i th h eaders a nd s t retchers

5

1 49 1 51 1 51 1 51 1 53 1 53 1 53 1 55 1 55 1 55 1 57 1 57 1 57 1 59 1 59 1 59 1 61 1 61 1 61 1 63 1 63 1 63 1 65 1 65 1 65 1 67 1 67 1 67 1 69 1 69 1 69 1 71 1 71 1 71 1 73 1 73 1 73 1 75 1 75 1 75 1 77 1 77 1 77 1 77 1 77 1 79 1 79 1 79 1 79 1 8 1 1 81 1 81 1 83 1 83 1 83 1 85 1 85

9 2 . W1/2 , c ross -sect ion , s how ing t wo p hases 9 3 . W2/3 9 4 . ALT INTAS : n o rth wa l l , l ook ing w es t 9 5 . No rth wa l l , l ook ing e as t 9 6 . The l ower t own 9 7 . Northeas t wa l l 9 8 . L ong b u i ld ing a t t op o f h i l l 9 9 . Comp lex s t ructure o n h i l ltop , p erhaps a c i s tern 1 00 . ' C is tern ' d eta i l 1 01 . Quarry b e low c ast le 1 02 . S I MAV : F ac ing o f s urv iv ing f ragment o f wa l l 1 03 . ANCYRA ; S outhwes t wa l l , i nner f ace 1 04 . BAHT ILL I : I nner f ace o f wa l l 1 05 . Outer f ace o f wa l l 1 06 . H ISAR BEY : Rubb le f ac ing o f wa l l 1 07 . D eta i l o f f ac ing 1 08 . EGR IGOZ : G enera l v i ew , f r om t he s outh 1 09 . Va l ley o f Er igöz c a y , l ook ing n orth 10 . Outwork b e low g a te 11 . Vau lted c hamber o f o utwork 12 . E ntrance g a te 13 . Entrance g a te , f r om a bove 14 . S outhwes t t ower 15 . Ga te t ower 16 . E ast wa l l 17 . E as t wa l l , n orth e nd 18 . SARUHANLAR : G enera l v iew f rom v i l lage 19 . Ma in wa l l 1 20 . West wa l l

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1 85 1 85 1 87 1 87 1 89 1 89 1 89 1 91 1 91 1 91 1 93 1 93 1 93 1 95 1 95 1 95 1 97 1 97 1 97 1 99 1 99 1 99 1 99 2 01 2 01 2 01 2 03 2 03 2 03

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C orpus F on t ium H i s tor iae B y zan t inae . C orpus S cr ip torum H i s tor iae B yzan t inae . N i ce tae C hon ia tae H i s tor ia , e d . J .v an D ieten ( CFHB X I/1) . B er l in 1 975 . l oann i s C innamae E p i tome R erum . . .G es tarum , e d . A . Me ineke , C SHB . B onn 1 836 . d e T hema t i bus , e d . R . P er tus i . Va t ican 1 952 . Anecdo ta g raeca I I . Oxford . D i c t ionna i re d ' h i s to i re e td c gog raph i e e c c ls ias t iques " Von P ergamon ü ber d en D indymos z um P ontos" . P e ter inanns M i t te i lungen , E rgànzung shef t 9 4 : 11 00 . e d . F .N . U z luk . Anka ra 1 941 . "Kütahya y e c evres in in F iz ik i C o ra fya s i" i n Kü tahya . I s tanbu l . S eyaha tname . I s tanbu l 1 935 . B yzan t ine a nd T urk i sh S ard i s . Cambr idge , Ma ss . " La te B yzant ine F ort if ica t ions o f L yd ia" , J OB 2 8 : 2 97 -320 . "The D ef ences o f A s ia M inor a ga inst t he Turks" ,

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F . H i ld a nd M . R es t le , T abu la I mper i iB yzan t in i 2 : K app a dok i en .V ienna 1 981 . K . B e lke , T abu la I mper i iB yzan t in i. 4 :G a la t i en u nd L ykaon ien . V ienna 1 984 . "Tombeaux d u moyen a ge a Kutahya e t aN ym p h i" , R evArch 1 :3 20 -325 . C hronog raph ia , e d . C . d e B oor . L e ipz ig 1 883 . e d . I .B ekker , C SHB . Bonn 1 838 . "K i itahya I l ini nBe eri y e I k t isad i C o ra fya s i" , i n Kü tahya . I s tanbu l 1 981 -82 . A l -U inar i ' s B er i ch t ü ber Ana to l i en , e d . F . Taeschner . L e ipz ig 1 929 . U zunca ri l iolu I sma i l Hakk i , Kü tahya $ ehr z . I s tan b u l . G erm iyan -ou l lar z T ar ih i . Ankara . e d . J .P apadopu los -Kerame is , V ar ia s acra g raeca , 14 -129 . S t . P etersburg 1 909 ( =Z ap i sk i i s tor iko -

f i lo log i ch e s kago F aku l te ta i mpera tor skago S . P e t ersburg skago U n iv er s i te ta 9 5 ) . Med i eva l T echno logy a nd S oc ia l C hange . Oxford . -

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n o logy . B erke ley . "Re isen i n Mys ien" , A th M i t t 2 9 : 2 54 -339 .

9

1 0

1 1

THE S ITE C on t inu i ty o f n ame a nd t r ad i t ion h a s n ever l e f t a ny d oub t t ha t K i i tahya i st h e s ucce s so r o f t h e a nc ien t a nd m ed ieva l C o tya eum , a nd t h e modern c i ty s p reads o u t f r om t h e h i l l top w h ich w a s t he c ente r o f i t s a nc ient p r edece s so r . A l though n o b u i ld i n g s o f t he a nc ien t c i ty h ave s urv ived o r b een d i scove r ed , f r agments r e us ed i n l a te r s t ruc tures c l ea r ly r e vea l t h e l o ng c on t inu i ty o fo ccupa t ion b a s ed o n t he p rom inen t h i l l w h ich f o rms an a tura l f o r t if ica t ion . T he f o r t re s s o f K i i tahya o ccup ies t h e u ppe r s l op e s o f t h i s h i l l w h ich , b y r i s ing t o ah e ight o f 1 092m , t owe r s s ome 1 30 m e t re s a bove t h e c en tr e o f t he a d ja cent t own a nd a no the r 5 0m o r s o a bove t h e s u r round ing p l a in . T he h i l l r i ses s t eep ly f r om t h e t own w ho s e c en tr e l i es o n i t s n o r thea s t f l ank . P rec ip i tous s l opes o n t h e s outh a nd w e s t , a bove t h e n a r row v a l ley o f as t ream , s epa ra t e i tf r om t h e moun ta ins b eh ind . T hes e i n t u rn h ave p eaks o f 1 764 a nd 1 901m a nd f o rm ar ang e w h ich d i v ide s t he p l a in o f K i i tahya f r om t ha t o f t h e T emb r i s . K i itahya h as a lways o wed i t s p ro spe r ity t o t h e l o ng a nd n a r row p la in w h ich s t re tches b e fo re i tf o r s ome 2 5km . T he p l a in i s w e l l w a te red , p rov id ing s uf i c ien t v ege ta t ion a nd a g r icu l tu r e t os uppo r t s i zeab l e h uman a nd a n ima l p opu la t ion . I n a dd i t ion , t h e moun ta ins a l a r ound o f e r g enerous s ource s o f s t one a nd m ine ra l s . A s t ra teg ic l o ca t ion h a s b een e ven mo r e s i gn if i cant t han t he l a nd f o r t h e g row th o f t h e c i ty . K i i tahya l i es o n n a tura l r oute s w h ich c onnec t i te as i ly w i th ma jo r c en t re s o f p opu la t ion , a nd p rov ide r e la t ive ly e a sy c ommun ica t ion b etween t he c en t ra l p l a teau a nd t h e c oas t . T hey l e ad f r om K i i tahya t o E sk i eh i r ( Do ry la eum ) a nd t h e c i t ie s o fB i thyn ia o r t oA nka ra ; n o r thwes t t o B ur sa o r B a l ike s i r a nd t he Mys ian p l a in ; s ou thea s t v i a A ezan i a nd G ed iz t o t h e Ma ce s tus v a l ley o r L yd ia ; a nd s ou th t h rough A l t in ta§ a nd Uak t o t h e Ma eande r a nd H e rmus v a l leys , o r v i a A fyon t o t he m a in h i ghway t h rough A na to l ia t o t h e N ea r E as t . S uch a l o ca t ion , ap la ce f r om w h ich l a rge p a r t s o f w e s te rn A na to l ia c ou ld b e r e a ched o r c on t ro l led , a c coun t s f o r t he l o ng h i s to r ica l r o le o fK i i tahya a s am i l i ta ry a nd a dm in i s t ra t ive c en t re a nd t hus f o r t he s i ze a nd i mpo r tance o f i t s g r ea t c a s t le . '

.

P h i l ippson ( 1913 ) 8 5 -89 o f ers a c l ea r s ketch o f t he g eography ; s e e a l so , i n more d eta i l , Dön mez ( 1982) a nd T unce l ( 1982 ) .

1 2

H ISTORY Anc ient C o tyaeum wa s a n o bscure P hryg ian t own , n o ted o n ly a s t he r eputed b i rthp lace o f A esop . I t f l our ished p eacefu l ly u nder t he Romans , e s cap ing t he n o t ice o f w r iters , b ut p roduc ing a n a bundant c o inage a nd n umerous i n scr ipt ions wh ich r ef lect a h igh d eg ree o f p rosper ity . With t he a dvent o f C hr ist ian ity , t he c i ty b ecame a b i shopr ic ; i t s most f amous i n cumbent wa s t he p raetor ian p ref ect C yrus , b u i lder o f t he wa l ls o f C onstant inop le , e x i led t o t he s e e i n 4 43 . O therw ise , t he f i t fu l r e cord o f L a te Ant iqu ity r e la ted o n ly t o t he a rmy . I s aur ian r ebe ls w ere d efea ted h ere i n 4 92 a nd , i n t he r e ign o f J ust in ian , Co tyaeum wa s t he b ase f o r a d etachment o f s cho lae , o r i mper ia l g ua rds . N e i ther o f t hese f a cts n eed i nd ica te t ha t t he c i ty t hen p ossessed a f o r tress ; t he b a tt le s imp ly s hows t ha t t he p lace wa s o n ah ighway , w h i le t he t roops c ou ld h ave b een b i l leted o n t he l o ca l p opu la t ion .2 The t urmo i l a nd r eo rgan isa t ion o f t he Da rk Ages b rought n ew i mportance t o C otyaeum , whose s t ra teg ic l o ca t ion o n ma jor h ighways t rans formed i ti n to o ne o f t he g rea tes t m i l itary b as es o f Ana to l ia , ar o le i tw as t o ma inta in u nt i l modern t imes . The c i ty was o ne o f t he c entres o f t he Ops ic ian t heme , t he p rov ince o f t he m i l ita r ised B yzant ine g overnment wh ich embraced mos t o f n orthwest A s ia M inor . I t i sn o ted b y I bn Khordadbeh , a n A rab g eographer o f t he m id -n inth c entury a nd t he f i rs t med ieva l w r iter t o ment ion i t , a s as ta t ion o n t he ma in h ighways a cros s Ana to l ia ; h e c a l led i t Qut iya , af o rm c l o se t o t he modern .3 I n 8 66 , t he g enera l o f t he Ops ic ian , r ebe l l ing a ga ins t M ichae l I I , t ook r e fuge i n Cotyaeum ; t h is i s t he f i r st w r itten i nd ica t ion t ha t i t w as a f o r tress o f s ome s t rength . 4 The g row ing i mpor tance o f t he c i ty a ppea rs i n t he e l eva t ion o f i t s b i shop t o metropo l itan r ank i n a bout 8 20 ; b ut o ther ment ions i n B yzant ine s ources b efore t he e l eventh c entury a re o n ly i n c identa l . Co tyaeum c ame i n to h i story mos t d rama t ica l ly , a nd i n famous ly , a s t he s i te w here t he u nfortuna te Romanus I V wa s b l inded a f ter h i s c apt iv ity i n t he c i v i l wa r w h ich f o l lowed t he d i sas trous b a tt le o f Manz ikert i n 1 071 . The f o rmer emperor , a l ready i l b ut u nder a p rom ise o f s a f e c onduct f r om t he a utho r it ies i n t he c ap ita l , w as i mpr isoned i n t he f o r tress , t hen t aken t o as hack where h i s e yes w ere b a rba rous ly p ut o ut b y aJ ew who h ad n o s k i l l i n t he b us iness . H e d i ed i n p a in a nd m isery s oon a f ter .° The n a rra t ive s hows t ha t t he c i ty h ad a J ew ish c ommun ity , wh i le a c ontemp ora ry i n scr ipt ion ( t o b e c ons idered b e low ) r evea ls t he p resence o f ac hurch ; n e ither h a s s urv ived . I n t he s ubsequent c onfus ion , Co tyaeum a ppea rs o ccas iona l ly a s am i l ita ry b ase , b ut t he s ources p rov ide n o d eta i ls , n ot e ven f o r t he C omnen ian p er iod , when t here w as c ons tant f i ght ing o n t he f r ont ier b etween B yzant ium a nd t he Turks . The c i ty wa s c l ea r ly i n af r ont ier z one , h owever , a nd c e rta in ly n eeded i t s f o r tress : i n 159 , f o r e xamp le , t he emperor Manue l C omnenus w as a t tacked b y Turk ish f o rces n ea r C o tyaeum a s h e r e turned f r om C i l ic ia . A f ter Manue l 's d ef ea t a t Myr iokepha lon i n 176 , t he f r ont ier r eg ion wa s d angerous ly e xposed t o Turk ish a t tacks , a nd most o f i t s f o rtresses s oon f e l l . Among t hem wa s C otyaeum , wh ich b ecame Turk ish , c aptured b y t he S e l juk s u ltan K i l ich A rs ian , i n 182 . The l o ss wa s d ef in it ive ; f our y ears l a ter , w hen t he S u ltan d iv ided h i s d om in ions among h i s s ons , i tb ecame p a rt o f t he t e rr itory o f Ka ikhos raw who w a s b a sed i n Konya ; i ti sn ever a ga in m ent ioned a s f o rm ing p a rt o f B yzant ine d oma ins .7 2 . F o r a nc ient C otyaeum , s e e t he b r ief a r t ic le Ko t ia ieon ' o f W . R uge i n RE I . 22 .1526 f . r e f erences : PLRE s r . C yrus 7 a nd L ong inus 3 ;T heophanes 2 36 . 3 .

C onstant ine P o rphyrogen i tu s ,

( 1922 ) .

L a te a nt ique

d e T he ina t i bus 6 9 ; I bn Kho rdadbeh i n BGA V I . 1 03 , 13 .

4 . T heophanes C ont inua tus 2 40 , S cy l itzes 1 30 . S . S ee R . J an in C o tya eum ' i n DHGE . T hese p a rag raph s a r e b a sed o n al o nger t r ea tment t o a ppea r i n my w o rk , T he B yzan t ine C i ty , w he re f u l l r e f erences w i l l b e f ound . 6 . A tta l ia tes , 1 75179 . 7 . C innamu s 1 91 ; C hon ia tes 2 62 , 5 21 .

1 3

K i i tahya h a rd ly a ppea r s i ns ource s w h ich t r ea t t h e c en tury o f t h e S e l juk r u le , b u t t h e p hys ica l r e co rd i n d ica te s t ha t t h i s w a s , a s i nm o s t A na to l ian c i t ie s , at ime o f e xpans ion a nd i n c rea s ing p ro spe r i ty . I n s c r ip t ions s how t he t wo s urv iv ing mo sque s w e re t h e w o rk o f H eza r D ina r i , e v iden t ly a S e l juk g ove rno r . T he e a r l ie r w a s b u i l t i n 1 236 i nt h e g en t ly s l op ing a r ea e a s t o f t h e f o r tr e s s , n ow t h e t own c entre , a nd t h e o the r i n 1 243 o n t h e h i gh h i l l o ppo s i te t h e c a s t le . L o ca l t r ad i t ion a l so c r ed i t s h im w i th t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f t wo f o un ta ins , o ne o f t h em a ppa ren t ly a s so c ia ted w i th a mo sque , a nd at omb ; t h e s e a l l s t and i no r n ea r t h e mode rn c i ty c e n t re . I n a dd i t ion , aS e l juk t omb h as b een p a r t ia l ly p r es e rved i n t h e g raveya rd s ou th o f t he c a s t le . 8 S uch c ons t ruc t i ons r e p r e sen t t h e e xpans ion o f c i t ies b eyond t h e i r w a l l s , ap henomenon c ommon a t t h e t ime . H er e , a s i n many o the r c a se s , t h e B yzan t ine c i ty a ppea r s t o h ave b een c onf ined w i th in t h e c a s t le , w h i le g row th a nd mo re a bundan t r e sources c ha rac te r i s e t h e S e l juk p e r iod . N e i the r s our ces n o r i n s c r ip t ions , h ow ever , p rov ide a ny i n fo rma t ion a bou t t h e f o r t r es s . I n 1 262 , K i i tahya w i th a l a rg e a r ea t o t h e s ou thea s t was e n t rus ted t o t h e a dm in i s t ra t ion o f t h e s o ns oft h e vi zi e r Fak h red -D in A h, w ho r u led t h em f or s ome y ea r s i nv i r tua l i n dep endence . S ub sequen t ly t h e c i ty f e l l i n to t h e h ands o ft he t r ib e o f G erm iyan , w ho h ad b een s e t t led i n t h i s f r on t ie r r e g ion b y 1 277 . The s e T urcomans , n om ina l ly s ub jec t t o t h e S e l juk s u l tan , w e r e f r equen t ly i nc onf l ic t w ith h im t owa rd t h e e nd o f t h e t h i r teen th c en tury . F ina l ly , i n 1 300 , t h ey p roc la imed t he i r i n dependence a nd K i i tahya a ch ieved t h e g r ea te s t i mpo r tance i th ad y e t h ad a s t h e c ap i ta l o f a s t a te w h ich c ame t o d om ina te l a rge p a r t s o f w es te rn A na to l ia f o r mo re t han h a l f a c en tury . -

U nde r Y akub B ey w ho r u led t h em f r om a bou t 1 300 -1340 , t h e G erm iyan ids made e x tens ive c onque s ts a nd e xpanded t h e i r a utho r i ty o ver m o s t o f t h e n e ighbo r ing t r ibe s . D ur ing t ha t p e r iod , t h e s t a te a t t ra c ted t h e a t ten t ion o fo uts ide r s a nd i t s c ap i t a l c ame t o b e m en t ioned a nd p ra i s ed . I n ap o em o n K i i tahya , w h ich h e v i s i ted b e fo r e 1 312 , S u l tan V e led e xp re s sed h i s r a the r e x t ravagan t a dm i ra t ion f o r i t s d e f ence s b y s ay ing " w i th in i t , t h e re i s ac a s t le , f o r t if i ed a nd e l egan t , s uch t ha t n o o ne h a s a t a ny t ime s e en i t s l i ke" . 1 0 A l -Uma r i , w r i t ing a bout 1 335 O n t h e b as is o f i n fo rma t ion p ro v i ded b y t r ave l le r s , d i s cus s ed t h e p owe r o f t h e G e rm iyan ids , t h e i r l a rg e t e r r i to ry w i th 7 00 c i t ie s o r c a s t le s , t h e r i ch c our t o f t h e c ap i ta l w i th i t s p a la ce a nd t r easur e s , a nd c a l led K i i tahya a l a rge c i ty a nd i t s l o f ty f o r t r es s . H i s c on tempo ra ry , t h e E gyp t ian Q a lqa shand i , w ho u sua l ly d r ew u pon t h e s ame s ou r ces , w ro te i n s omewha t mo r e d e ta i l : " Ge rm iyan [ The c ap i ta l w a s o f ten c a l led b y t h e n ame o f t he s ta te ] i s ac i ty o f m idd l ing s i ze b u i l t o n ar o ck a nd s ur rounded b y aw a l l ; w i th in i ta r e mo sque s , ma rk e t s , b a ths a nd g a rdens , a nd af o r t if i ed c a s t le o n ah i gh h i l l" . '1 T he s e m en t ions s how t ha t t h e c a s t le w a s m a in ta ined a nd c ons ide r ed a p rom i n en t p a r t o f t h e c i ty , b ut p rov ide n o s pec if i c i n fo rma t ion . T he s ame s ou r ces i n d ica te t ha t t h e c i ty w a s l a rg e a nd p ro spe rous , a n i mp r e s s ion c onf i rmed b y t he r e cen t d i s cove ry o f ah oa rd o f m o r e t han 3 00 s i lve r d i rh ems f o und i n as ubu rban v i l lag e . T hey w e re d epo s i ted i n 1 30 1 , a t t h e v e ry b eg inn ing o fG e rm iyan id r u le , a nd c on s i s t o f I l han id a nd S e l juk c o ins s t ruck a t av a r ie ty o f m in t s s ho r t ly b e fo r e t he ir b u r ia l . K i i tahya d o es n o t f i gure a mong t h e m in t s , f o r n e i the r S e l juks n o r Mo ngo l s st r u c k c o ins t h e r e .1 2 A l though t h e p r inc ipa l i ty o f G e rm iyan f l ou r i shed u nde r Yakub a nd h i s s on Mehmed ( 1 340 -1361 ) , i t s oon b ecame s queezed b e tw een t wo p owe r fu l n e ighbour s : K a raman i n c en t ra l A na to l ia , a nd t h e i n exo rab ly g row ing r e a lm o f t he O ttomans i n t h e n o r thwe s t . T o e s cape d e s t ruc t ion b y o ne o r t h e o the r , S u leymanshah ( 1 361 -1387 ) ma r r ied h i s d augh te r t o t h e O t toman h e i r , B ayez id , i n 1 381 a nd g ave a s h er d ow ry 8 .

F or t hese b u i ld ings , s ee A ltun ( 1982 ) 2 16 -224 , 2 70 -274 , 3 57 , 3 88 1 f ; c f . U zunçari l , ( 1932 ) 2 2f f .

9 .

F or t he o r ig in a nd e a r ly h i story o f t he G erm iyan ids , s ee t he c onven ient t r ea t ment o f Var l ik ( 1974 ) 1 -34 .

1 0 . D ivan .i S u l tan V e led p oem 9 10 , l i ne 7 ( =11633 ) . I . A l -Uma r i 2 2 , 3 4 -37 ; Qa lqa shand i , S ubh u iAh sa V . 3 40 . 1 2 . T he h oa rd w i l l s oon b e p ub l ished a s A lbu m e t a l . a bout t he c o ins .

( f orthcom ing ) .

1 4

My t hanks t o D r .

Rud i L indner f o r i n for mat ion

s ome o f t he s t ronge s t c a s t les o f h i s s t a te . A cco rd ing t o t he O t toman a c coun t s , t h es e e v en i n c luded K i itahya . H oweve r i mp laus ib le t he v o lun ta ry s ur rende r o f t he c ap i ta l , l a rg es t c i ty a nd mo s t i mpo r tan t f o r t res s o f t h e r ea lm m igh t s e em , t h e t r ad i t ion ( w r i t t e n b y O t toman a u tho r s ) i s u nan imous , a nd a dds t ha t t h e S u l tan Murad c ame t o K i i tahya t he f o l low ing y ea r t o r e ce ive t he s ubm is s ion o f t he n e ighbour ing p r inc ipa l i ty o fH am id , a nd t ha t t h e y oung B ayez id w a s made g overno r o f t h e n ew p rov ince o f G e r m iyan w i th K i itahya a s h i s c ap i ta l . S u leymanshah h imse l f r e t i red t o Ku la w he re h e d i ed i n 1 387 . ' Yakub I , t he s on o f S u leymanshah w ho t ook o ver t he r ump o f t he G e rm iyan id s t a te , t hough t h e h ad a n o ppo r tun i ty t o r e cove r t he c eded t e r r i to r ie s i n 1 389 w hen S u l tan Murad was k i l l ed a t t he b a t t le o f K o sovo . H e h ad made s ome p rog res s w hen B ayez id , n ow S u l tan , s udden ly a ppea r ed , c r ushed a l l h i s e nem ie s , a nd i n co rpo ra ted t he r e s t o f G erm iyal i n to t h e O t toman d oma ins i n 1 390 . Y akub a nd h i s c h i e f c ommande r H i sa r B ey , w ere a r r e s t ed a nd i mp r i soned i n T hra ce . S ome y ea r s l a te r , h owever , t hey e s caped , a nd t ook r e fug e w i th a n ew p owe r w ho h ad j u s t a ppea r ed i nt he e a s tern h o r i z on . Tamer lane , u rg ed o n b y Y akub a nd o the r p r ince s d i spo s s es s ed b y t he O t tomans , a dvanced t o A nka ra w he r e h e c ru shed t he O t toman f o r ce s i n 1 402 a nd r e s to red t h e p r inces t o t h e i r s ta te s . A f te r h i s o ve rwhe lm ing v i c to ry , T ame r lane p roceeded t o K i i tahya w h ich h e m ade h i s c amp a nd m a in b as e f o r e xped i t ions a ga in s t t h e r e s i s tance o f t h e s ons o f B ayez id . H e i ss uppo s ed t o h ave s t ayed i n t he c i ty f o r a mon th , n o t h a rm ing t he c i t i zens b u t o b l ig ing t h em o n ly t o p ay a s pec ia l t ax f o r t he ir r e s cue f r om t he O t to m ans . Dur ing t h i s t ime , h i s f o r ces d i scove red ag r ea t t r ea sure w h ich h ad b een s e c re ted i n t h e c as t le b y T imu r tash P asha , t h e O t toman g ove rno r o f t h e r e g ion . T ame r lane o rde red t h i s d i s tr ibu ted t o h i s o wn t r oops , a nd r ep roa ched t he p a sha f o r h i d ing t he m oney r a the r t han u s ing i tt o r a i s e a n a rmy i n s uppo r t o f B ayez id . N om ina l ly , 0 e r m iyan , l i ke t he o the r s t a te s , was r e s to red t o i t s f o rme r r u le r , b u t t he n um i sma t ic e v i d ence make s i t c l ea r t ha t t h e t r ans i t ion o f p owe r w as g radua l . C o ins s t ruck a t K i i tahya i n 8 05 a nd 8 06 AH ( Augus t 1 402 J u ly 1 404 ) b ea r t he n ame o fT imur a l one , w h i le t ho s e o f 8 08 ( 1 405/6 ) w e r e s t ruck i n t he j o in t n ame s o f T imur a nd Y akub . T he se a ppea r s t o s how t ha t T ame r lane r u led G erm iyan d i rec t ly f o r ay ea r o r mo re b e fo re r e s to r ing Y akub w ho , h oweve r , o ccup ied a s ubo rd ina te p o s i t ion f o r s ome t ime 1 4 The p o s i t ion o f Y akub , h ow eve r r e s to r ed , was f a r f r om s e cure s i nce , l i ke h i s f a ther , h e h ad t o f a ce t h e g r ea te r p owe r s o f K a raman a nd t h e O t tomans . A t f i r s t h e w as a l l ied w i th t he f o rmer , b u t t h en j o ined w i th Mehmed C he leb i , t h e mo s t s ucces s fu l o f t he S ons o f B aye z id . A s ar e su l t , K a raman a t ta cked a nd s ucceeded i n o ccupy ing K i i tahya f o r t wo a nd ah a l f y ea r s . B u t t h e g r ea te r f o r ce o f t he O t tomans e ven tua l ly p r eva i led , a nd Yakub was r e s to r ed t o h i s c ap i ta l o nce a ga in i n 1 414 . T her ea f te r , h e m a inta ined p ea ce fu l r e la t ions w i th h i s p a t rons e xcep t f o r h i s p oo r j udg emen t i n s up p o r t ing t he p r e tende r Mus ta fa a ga ins t h i s b ro the r Murad I i n 1 422 . T he r e su l t o f t h is a ppea rs t o h ave b een O t toman a s sump t ion o f r u le w i th Y akub ma in ta ined i np ower a s as ubo rd ina te , f o r c o in s s t ruck a t K i i tahya i n1 422 b ea r t h e n ame s o f b o th Y akub a nd Mu ra t . Y akub c on t inu ed t o r e ign u n t i l 1 429 w hen h e d i ed , l e av ing h i s s t a te t o t h e O t tomans i n h i s w i l l . K i itahya t h e r eby c ame d ef in i t ive ly a nd p e rmanen t ly u nder O t toman s uzera in ty .1 5 K i i tahya r ema ined a p l a ce o f g r ea t i mpo r tance u nde r t h e O t tomans , f o r w hom i t was t he c ap i ta l o f t h e v a s t p rov ince o f A nado lu w h ich e mb ra ced mo s t o f w e s te rn A s ia M ino r . A l though t ha t a g e i sb eyond t h e s cope o f t he p r es en t p ro jec t , w h ich e nds w i th t he f i f teenth c en tu ry , e v idence f o r t he u s e a nd c ond i t ion o f t h e f o r t re s s d u r ing t h e p as t f i ve c en tur ies i so f c ons ide rab le i n te r e s t a nd r e levance . I n t h eo ry , t h e c a s t le a lways h ad a s ub s tan t ia l g a r r i son a nd w a s c a re fu l ly ma in ta ined . A cco rd ing t o a -

1 3 . Aikpa azade c aps .

5 0 -53 , V a r l ik ( 1974 ) 5 7 -66 , b ut n o te t he d oubts o f M . H . I nanc i n I A ,

9V .

B eya z it I ,3 69 .

1 4 . Y akub I , T amer lane a t K i itahya , w ith r e f erences : Va r l ik ( 1974 ) 7 1 -73 ; c o ins : i b id . , 1 41f . 1 5 . V a r l ik ( 1974 ) 7 5 -84 ; c o in s : i b id . , 1 42 ; t he ir e v idence i sc onf i rm ed b y av akf d ocument o f t he s am e y ea r wh ich b ea r s t he t ughra o f Mura t I : i b id . , 8 2f .

1 5

d o cumen t o f 1 698 , t h ere w e re 19 s pec ia l g ua rds , e a ch a rmed w i th t wo p i s to l s a nd r i f l e , a nd a s s igned a p i ece o f l a nd , o r t ima r , f o r t h e i r ma intenance . The c a s t le w a s i n c ha rg e o f ad i zda r , o r w a rden , w ho w a s a ppo in t ed b y i mpe r ia l d ec r ee s a nd w ho r e ce ived a l a rge r e venue f r om a t ima r ; ad o cument o f a ppo in tment o f 1 821 p rov ide s d e ta i l s . O the r ma jo r of i c ia l s o f t h e g a r r i son w e r e t h e s t ewa rd , t he c h i e f o f g unne r s , t h e c h ie f o f a rmour e r s , t he g ao le r a nd t h e g a tekeep e r . T he c as t le h ad 1 7 c annons a s l a te a s 1 820 , a nd w as t hen s t i l l u s ed a s ap r i son f o r e s pec ia l ly i mpo r tan t p er sons . 1 6 O n p ape r , t hen , t he c as t le w as f unc t ion ing i n f u l l s t r eng th t hrough t he e a r ly n i ne teen th c en tury . K i itahya a ppea r s o n ly s po rad i ca l ly i n t he O t toman h i s to r ica l r e co rd w h ich i n d ica te s t he c on t inu ing f unc t ion o f t he c a s t l e , a l though p rov id ing n o d e ta i l s a bout i t s n a ture . I n 1 511 , t h e S h i i te r e be l s o f S hahku l i d e f ea ted a nd i mpa led t h e g ove rno r o f A na to l ia o u ts ide t he c i ty , t hen l a id s i eg e t o t h e c a s t l e . When t hey w ere u nab le t o c ap t u r e i t , t h ey b urned t he h ous es o ut s ide a nd w i thdr ew .1 7 A no ther r e vo l t d e f ea ted a no the r g ove rno r o f A na to l ia a t K i i tahya w hen t he J e la l i s l e d b y D e l i H a san a t ta cked t h e r e g ion i n 1 602 a nd b e s ieged t he c a s t le . C o ld w ea ther f o r ced t hem t o a bandon t h e i r a t ta ck a f ter t h r ee d ays ; t h ey , t oo , b u rned t he c i ty a s t hey w i thdr ew .1 8 T he n ex t r e vo l t , i n 1 659 , w a s h eaded b y s eve ra l g ove rno r s , i n c lud ing t ha t o f K i i tahya . T he i r f o r ce s b es ieg ed t he l o ya l is t t r oop s e s tab l i shed i n t h e c i ty f o r t wo mon ths , a ga in w i thou t s ucces s .1 9 I n a l l t he s e c a se s , t h e f o r t re s s w as e v iden t ly w e l l ma in ta ined a nd c apab l e o f as t rong d e f ence a s l a te a s t h e m idd le o f t h e s even teenth c en tury , i mmed i a t e ly b e fo r e t he v i s i t o fE v l iya C he leb i . A l though n eve r a ga in m ent ioned a s r e s is t ing a s i ege , t he f o r tre s s s t i l l h ad i t s u s es i n w a r . A t t he b eg inn ing o f t he n i ne teen th c en tury , F r ench c ap t ive s f r om t h e c ampa igns o f S e l im I I i n S y r ia a nd Mesopo tam ia w e re i mp r i soned i n K i i tahya , p r esumab ly i n t h e f o r t res s . 20 F ina l ly , t h e c a s t le s aw i t s l a s t d e f ens ive a c t iv i ty a s r e cen t ly a s 1 920 d ur ing t he r e vo l t o f C he rke s E dhem , c ommander o f t h e i r regu la r f o rces w h ich h ad s uppo r ted t h e n a t iona l i s t r e s i s tanc e a ga ins t C reek a t ta ck i n t h e r e g ion . When E dhem 's m en p ene t ra ted i n to t he c i ty , c annon mounted i n t he c a s t le e nab led t h e l o ya l i s t f o rce s t o r e s i s t a nd d r ive t h em o f . 21 W i th t h i s s o l e i n te r lude , t h e mode rn h i s to ry o f t he f o r t r es s , a s t h e a c coun t s o f t r ave l le r s w i l l r e vea l , h a s b een o ne o fd e sue tude a nd d ecay . T he a c coun ts o f t r ave l le r s r e vea l as omewha t d if eren t p i cture . T he f o r t r es s w as e v iden t ly f unc t ion ing a nd i n g ood c ond i t ion w hen E v l iya C he leb i s aw i ti n 1 670 , d es c r ibed i t s t h ree p a r t s t h e l owe r t own , t he ma in e nc lo su re a nd t he c i tade l a nd r e po r ted o n t h e i r c on ten ts [ T e s t imon ia , 2 1 . T he c i tade l h ad a wooden g a te ( who s e c ove r ing o f b ufa lo h i de h ad d i sappea r ed ) , h oused t h e w a rden a nd s t ewa rd a s w e l l a s r e l ig ious l e ade r s , a nd c onta ined s t o rehous e s f o r w hea t . T he g a r r ison l i ved o uts ide i n s e ven ty h ous es , s ha r ing t he a r ea w i th a mo sque a nd a s p r ing . Th is ma in e nc lo sur e h ad t h re e g a te s , o ne o f t hem o f i r on . T he l owe r t own c on ta ined t he c i v i l s e t t lemen t , w h ich s t re tched f a r o u t s ide t h e w a l l s . B o th u ppe r a nd l owe r e nc lo su r e s h ad m i l l s . E v l iya p rov ides n o d e ta i l s o ft h e d e f ences , b u t make s i tc l ea r t ha t t he g un s o f t he c i ta d e l w e re i ng ood o rder , s uf i c ien t t o c ove r a ny p o s s ib le a t ta ck f r om t he s ou th . I n g en e r a ! , h e g i ves t h e i mp r es s ion o f af o r t r es s s t i l l f unc t ion ing , a l though p e rhap s s omewha t d e te r io ra ted , a nd manned b y amode s t g a r r ison , n o t s o d if eren t f r om t ha t d es cr ibed i n o f i c ia l d o cumen t s . T he E u ropean t r ave l le r s , h oweve r , p r es en t a n i mage o f c a t io i w i j i c r i c a r h a rd ly b e e xp la ined b y t he s ho r t t ime w h ich s epa ra te s t he f i r s t o f t hem f r om E v l iya . F o r P au l L ucas , w ho v i s i ted t h e c i ty i n 1 707 , t h e c a s t le w as i n r u ins , a nd c onta inea -

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1 6 . D eta i ls , w ith c i ta t ions o f d ocuments i nU zunca ri i i ( 1 932 ) 9 7 -99 . 1 7 . S a 'd e d -D in I 1164f . 1 8 . Na ima 1 . 294 . 1 9 . S i landa r Mehm ed A ga I . 144f . 2 0 , M . T . Gökb i lg in i n I A , s . v . Kütahya 122 . 2 1 . U zunca ri i i ( 1932 ) 2 05 , p a r t o f al o ng d escr ipt ion o f e vent s i n K i itahya d ur ing t he wa r w ith t he G reeks , i n w h ich t he a u tho r a ct ive ly p a r t ic ipa ted .

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o n ly s ome s ma l l c annon s u sed o n c e remon ia l o c ca s ions [ T es t . 3 ] . I ti sp o s s ib le t ha t h e v i s ited o n ly t h e o u te r e nc lo sure , a nd t ha t t he c i tade l was s t i l l f unc t ion ing i n h i s t ime , a nd t here fo r e c l o s ed t o v i s i to r s . B y t he l a te e i gh teen th c en tury , t he s i tua t ion h ad c l ea r ly c hanged , a nd t h e c a s t le , n ow l a rg e ly r u ined , was o ccup ied b y ac i v i l ian r a the r t ha t am i l i ta ry p opu la t ion : t he a c coun t s o f N iebuhr a nd O l iv ie r [ T es t . 4a nd 5 1 a r e u namb iguous i n t ha t r e spec t . N iebuhr make s i t c l ea r t ha t t he t ima r -ho lder s s t i l l e x i s ted , b ut t ha t t h ey p e r fo rmed n o d e f en s ive d u ty , w h i l e O l iv ier a dds t he d e ta i l t ha t C h r i s t ians w e re f o rb idden t o i n hab i t t he c a s t le , n o d oub t f r om t he r ea l o r i mag ined n e eds o f s e cu r i ty . F o r K eppe l a nd T ex ie r [ T e s t . 6a nd 7 ]w ho v i s i ted i n 1 829 a nd 1 835 , t he c a s t le w as o f g rea ter i n te re s t f o r i t s a n t iqu i t ies t han f o r a ny c ur rent f unc t ion . B o th g i ve t he i mp res s ion t ha t i tw a s r u ined , t hough s t i l l i n t o le rab ly g ood c ond i t ion a nd h ad t hus e s s en t ia l ly a s sumed i t s m ode rn a ppea rance . K eppe l r e po r t s o n t he p r i son , a t tes ted i n t h e of i c ia l d o cumen t s , w h i le T ex ie r d evo ted h i s i n ter e s t t o s ca t ter ed r ema ins o f a n t i q u i ty w h ich h ave n ow d i sappea r ed . H e e n te red t h e c i tade l , w he re h e s aw a n o l d c an n on , e v iden t ly o f n o u s e i nh i s t ime . The mo s t d e ta i l ed a nd c o lour fu l d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e s i te a nd i t s r ema ins c ome s f r om t he i nde fa t igab le C ha r les Ma cFa r lane [ Te s t . 8 ] , w ho s e w o rks a r e f u l l o f c ur ious d e ta i l s o f t he p re s en t s t a te o f T urkey a nd e spec ia l ly i t s C hr i s t ian p opu la t ion . H e s e ems t o h ave e xp lo r ed t h e c a s t le t ho rough ly , a nd t o h ave f ound n o th ing b ut r u ins , a s w e l l a s s ome r ema rkab l e b u t a ppa ren t ly u se les s c annon . Y e t , i nh i s o p in ion , t he c as t le c ou ld s t i l l h ave b een v a luab le f o r d e f ence o f t h e c i ty w hen t he f o rces o f Mehmed A h o c cup ied i ti n 1 833 , a nd h i s r ema rks a bout t he s t r eng th o f i t s n a tura l d e f ences a r e w o r th a t ten t ion f o r u nder s tand ing t he h i s to ry o f t h e p l a ce i n a ny p e r iod . B y t he t ime Mo rdtmann [ Te s t . 9 1 p as s ed t h rough f i ve y ea r s l a te r , mo s t o f t he c annon h ad b een s h ipped t o C ons tan t inop le , a nd o n ly t wo r ema ined . T he c a s t le , w i th i t s c i s te rns a nd p r i son , was ar u in i n hab i ted o n ly b y af ew p oo r f am i l ie s . B y t h e e nd o f t h e n i ne teen th c en tury , w hen H ua r t [ T es t . 1 ] v i s i ted , t he c a s t le w as s o r emo te f r om t h e e xpe r ience o f mo s t o f t h e c i t izens , t ha t i t h ad b ecome a n o b jec t o f s upe r s t i t iou s d r ead , a t l e as t f o r h i gh of i c ia l s , w ho f e a r ed t ha t t he a s cen t t o t h e r u ins w ou ld s omehow l o s e t h em t h e i r j ob . H ua r t , f r ee o fs uch c a re s , i n spected t he r ema ins t o d e te rm ine t ha t l i t t le o f i n te r es t h ad s urv ived f r om t he t ime o f T ex i er . F ina l ly , i n t he l a s t d es c r ip t ion b e fo re t he c ons t ruc t ion o f modern r oads a nd t he a ban d onment o f t he r e s iden t ia l q ua r te r w h ich t h e c a s t le c on ta ined , U zunça ri l i [ Te s t . 1 2 ] r e vea ls t he f o r tf i ca t ion s i n r u ins , b ut s t i l l c on ta in ing g a te s a nd o the r s t ruc tur es w h ich h ave s i nce d i sappea r ed . T he t r ave l le r s t hus g i ve t h e mo s t v i v id p i c tur e o f t he c a s t le d ur ing t he f i ve c e n tur ies o f O t toman r u le , s how ing i t s d ecay w h ich b ecame p rec ip i tous i n t he e i gh teen th c en tury . I ns p i te o f r u in a nd a bandonmen t , t h e c as t le ma in ta ined i t s f unc t i on o n p ape r , w h i le o f i c ia l s w ho n o l o nge r h ad a ny d ut ies , a nd a g a r r ison w h ich p r e sumab ly l o oked t o i t s l a nds r a ther t han d e f ence w e r e s t i l l a ppo in ted a nd p a id . T he l a s t a c tua l f unc t ion o f t h e c a s t le , a t tes ted a s l a te a s t h e e a r ly n i ne teen th c en tu ry , a ppea r s t o h ave b een t ha t o f ap r i son , b u t i t s s i te c ou ld s t i l l b e v a luab le f o r d e f ence a s r e cen t ly a s 1 920 .

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TESTI MO N IA 1 ) BERTRANDON DE LA BROQU IERE ( 1 432 ) . L e v oyage d 'Ou t remer d e B er trandon d e l aB roqu z " ere , e d . C h . S he f e r . P a r i s 1 892 . C o t thay e s t u ne b onne y ule s an s n u l le f e rme tur e , m a is i l y au n b eau c ha s te l e t g ran t , e t s on t t r o i s f o r t re s s es l ' une d e s su s 1 ' autr e , l e c on t r emon t d e l a mon ta igne ; e te s t t r èsb ien f e rme d e d oub l e s mur s . ( p . 1 27 ) 2 )EVL IYA CHELEB I ( 1 670 ) . S eyaha tname . I s tanbu l 1 935 . I ts t ands o n as t eep b l ue a nd r e d r o ck a nd i ss t one -bu i lt . I ti s o n ah i l l s t and ing l i ke t h e g em s t one o f ar i ng . T he c i rcumf e r enc e i n c lud ing t h e l ow er c as t le i s3 , 000 p a c es . A l l f our s i de s a r e b u i l t o n s t eep r o ck w i th n o moa t . T hes e a r e p r ec ip i tous r o cks l i ke t he l augh ing p i t s o fH e l l . N o man c an c l imb t o t h e t op b ut t h e l owe r n ew c as t le i sa l ow p l a ce t o t h e n o r th o f t h e o l d . S u l tan Mehmed I a dded i t i n t h e y ea r 8 42 ( ? ) . B ecause i ti si nt he l ow e r p a r t o f t he c i ty , t h e r e i s as p r ing u nde r al a ye r o f s o f t r o ck , 1 00 a r sh in i ns i ze . I tt urns a m i l l . S o t ha t , i nt ime o fs i ege , t h e e nemy s hou ld n o t s e ize t ha t w a ter a nd t he g a r r i son b e d i s t re s s ed b y l a ck o f w a te r , t h i s c a s t le w a s b u i l t t o t ake i n t h e s p r ing . T her e a r e w ays d own t o t he s p r ing f r om t he u pp e r c as t le . T he n ew c a s t le [ ma in f o r tr es s ] h a s 7 0 t owe r s , e a ch o f t hem a f a thom f r om t h e o ther . I ti s av e ry s ound o l d b u i ld ing w i th t h ree g a te s . One l o ok s e a s twa rd [ L ow e r G a te ] a nd i st he w ay t o t he l ower ma rke t a nd i so f t h r ee -fo ld i r on . T he re a r e w h i te ma rb le l i on s hapes , f e a r some , a nd t h e r e w as a g ood v i ew o f t h e w ho le l ow e r c i ty f r om t h i s g a t e . The r e i s a no the r g a te o n t h e s ou th s i de l o ok ing t owa rds t he S u l tan Ga rden [ Uppe r G a te ] . I ti sv e ry s t rong . A no the r g a te i st he w ay d own t o t h e n ew c a s t le a nd l o oks e as twa rd , [ s i c : p robab ly t he p o s t e rn i n T 1 6 , w h i ch f a ce s w e s t ] . T he c i tade l i sa t t h e s ou th e nd o f t he c a s t le a nd i sa f our c o rner ed f o r t re s s at housand p a c e s i nc i rcum f erence . I th a s as ma l l g a te l o ok ing e a s twa rds . I n a nc ient t ime s , t he w ooden w ing s o f t h i s d oo r w e re c ove red w i th b ufa lo h i de . I ti sn o t a n i r on g a t e . There i sa mo sque a nd h ouse s f o r t he w a rden , i mam , muezz in , a nd t h e s t ewa rd a nd t wo w a rehouse s f o r w hea t . I n a l l , e i gh t h ouse s . The r e a r e n o o the r b u i ld ing s . O u t s ide t he re i s t h e G e rm iyan id Mo sque a nd 7 0 s o ld ie r s ' h ou s es , e a r th -roo f ed . T her e i s a mo sque a nd a s pr ing o f g ood w a t e r . T h i s i st h e D iv ine P rov idence t ha t t h e r e s hou ld b e s p r ing s o f wa te r s o h i gh o n ah i l l . I n t h e n ew f o r t r es s b e low , t her e a r e s ome t w en ty e a r th r oo f ed h ous es a nd a mo sque w i th aw ooden m ina re t . T he s p r ing w h ich f l ow s w i th in t h i s c a s t le g o e s t o t h e m i l ls w i th in t he c as t l e a nd i n t h e l owe r c i ty . F rom a nc ien t t ime s t he p eop le o f t h e l owe r c i ty h ave n o t b een a b le t o b uy s heep l i ve r f r om t h e b u tche r . T he p eop l e o ft he c a s t l e t ook t h em a l l . I n t h e i r p o s s es s ion a r e d o cumen t s r e la t ing t o t h is f r om f o rme r s u l tans . T he r e i s am igh ty q ua r r e l b e tween t he p eop le o f t h e c i ty b e low a nd t h e p eop le o f t h e c a s t le . I th as b ecome p roverb ia l f o r t h ey s ay t h e q ua r r e l i sa bou t l i ve r . I ti s aw ea l thy c i ty . T he f r ont s o f t h i s c a s t le 's h ous es a r e a l l o n t h e n o r th s i de . T hey a re f i ne a i ry h ou s e s w i th a w onder fu l v i ew o ve r t h e K ut i P la in . T he b ig l ow e r c i ty l i es o n

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t he e a s t a nd n o r th s i de s a nd o n t h e s i de o f t he n o r th w inds . T he S u l t an G a rden q ua r te r s a r e w i th in t h e v a l ley a nd o n t he w e s t o f t he n ew q ua r t er . T he Z e reg en q ua r te r i s ap ro spe rous q ua r te r t owa rds t he l e ve l p la in . T he h i l l o f H iz i r l ik o ve r looks t h i s c a s t le b u t n o h a rm e ver c omes f r om t ha t b ecause t he g uns o f t he c i tade l w i l l n o t p e rm i t e ven ab i rd t o a l igh t o n t ha t h i l l . T he d i s tance b e tween t hem i sl o nge r t han t he r ange o fs i ege g un s . ( IX . 1 8 -20 ; t r ans la ted b y G eof rey L ew is ) . 3 )L UCAS ( 1 707 ) V oyage d u S i eur P au lL ucas . . . P a r is 1 712 . L e 2 7 . j e f u s v o i r l e c hâ teau q u i t ombe p r esque p a r t ou t e n r u ine ; i lat r o i s e nce in te s d u mu ra i l le s , & l ' on m 'a a s su re q u ' i l ya vo i t 3 7 . T our s . S a s i tua t ion e s t a van tag eus e : i le s t b â t i s u r u ne mon tagne e s ca rpeé & e n p l us ieu r s e ndro i t s a us s i d ro i te q u 'une mura i l le . I iya p l us i eu r s p e t i te s p i ece s d e C anon d e b ronze & d e f e r , q u i n e s e rvent q ue p our s a lue r l e s B a cha s , q uand u s a r r iven t C u ta i 6 .( I .118 ) 4 )N IEBUHR ( 1 769 ) C .

N i ebuhr ' s R e i sebeschre i bung n ach A rab i en u nd a ndern um l i egenden L aen . d em. H ambu rg 1 837 . Man k ann a be r i m C a s te l l , w e lche s a u f e i nem B e rge l i eg t , d i e g anze S tad t u ebe r s ehen , u nd v on h i er h abe i c h e i nem G rundr i s s n a ch d em A ugenmas s e n two r f en . D a s C a s te l l h a t z wey T ho r e , u nd a n e i ne r S e i te , w o a m F us se d e s B erges e i n k l e iner B a ch v o rbe if l ies s t , i s t a n d e r S e i te d es B e rg es e i ne d oppe l te Maue r h e run te rge fuehr t , d am i t e s d e r F es tung n i ch t a n Wa s s e r f e h len mo ege . A be r d i e se s C a s te l l i s t , s o w ie a l l u eb r ig e F es tungen d e s S u l tans i n A s ien , s ehr v e r fa l len , u nd d i e w en ige K anonen , w e l che i c h h i e r s ah , w a r en n i ch t b e s se r , a l s d i e i nd em C as t e l l z u K a rah i s sa r , n em l i ch v on e i s e rnen S tang en . I n a nde rn R es idenzen d e r P a s cha s v om e r s ten R ang e p f l eg t d as C as te l l i n d en H a ende r i d e r J an i t s cha r en z u s eyn ; z u K u tah ja a ber i s t s o lche s v on B ue rge rn b ewohn t , j a man f i nde t h i er n i ch t e i nma l e i ne B e sa tzung v on J an i t scha ren , d ag egen b e s i tzen d i e S pah i w oh l i n k e inem a nde rn G ouve rnement s o v i e le Z a ime u nd T ima r e , a l s i nd i e s em . ( 1 1 .136 )

5 ) OL IV IER ( 1 797 ) . V oyage D ans L' Emp i re O thoman . . . , p a r G . A . O l iv ie r . P a r i s 1 835 . U ne p a r t ie d e l a y ule e s t b a t ie s ur u n mon t icu le i s o lé , a u tou r d 'un c hâ teau q u i t ombe e n r u ines ; e le e s t e n tou rée , c omme 1 ' au t re , d 'un v i eux mur q u 'on n ég l ig e d e r é pa re r . A u t r e fo i s i ln ' y a va i t q ue l e s g ens d e g ue r re p r épo s é s l a g a rde d u c hä teau , q u i d u s s ent l o ge r d ans c e t t e e nce in te ; i ly aa u jou rd 'hu i d e s T ur cs d e t ous l e s e ta t s ; o n o b se rve s eu lemen t d e n e p as y l a i s s e r h ab i te r d e s A rmén iens e t d e s G recs . ( V I . 4 09 ) .

6 ) KEPPEL ( 1 829 ) . N ar ra t iv e o f aJ ourney a c ros s t h e B a l can . b y Ma jor t h e H onou rab le G eorge K eppe l . L ondon 1 831 . ..

A t ap o in t o f t h e h i l l , i mmed ia te ly o verhang ing t he t own , i sa

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G reek c a s t le i nh i gh p re s e rva t ion . Is aw a t t he g a te a h andsome s ta tue o f al i on , i n w h i te ma rb le . I tw as b roken i n t wo , b ut t h e p i eces w e r e o n ly a t as ma l l d i s tance f r om e a ch o th er . I n t he i n ter io r o ft he c a s t l e I was s hewn a p r i son , w h ich my g u ides a f i rmed was a nc ien t . There was al a rg e w ooden ma ch ine i n t h e m idd le o f t h e r oom , e v iden t ly o f am o r e mode rn d a te . I t was f o r s e cu r ing p r isone r 's l e g s , o n t he p r inc ip le o fo u r s t o cks . T h i s p la ce h ad n o t b een u s ed a s ap r i son w i th in t h e m emo ry o f a ny T urk , u n t i l as ho r t t ime b e fo re my a r r iva l . ( p . 1 85 ) 7 ) TEX IER ( 1 835 ) . C ha r l es T ex i er , A s i c M ineu re . P a r i s 1 862 . S ous l e s e mpe r eur s b yzan t ins K u tayah f u t u ne p la ce f o r t e i mpo r tan te . U n c hâ teau f u t c ons t ru i t s u r l ac o l l ine e s ca rp ée d e t ou t e s p a r te s q u i d om ine l a y ule ; i l e s t f o r t if l é p a r u ne d oub le e nce in t e f l anquée d e t our s . C e c hâ teau o ccupe s an s d ou te l ' emp la cemen t d e l ' anc ienne C o tyo eum . L a p l upa r t d e s v i l le s a nt ique s é ta ien t e n e f e t a s s ises s u r d e s h auteur s ; d e p l us , o n t r ouve a ux a l en tour s d u c hâ teau p l us d e v e s t i g e s d 'an t iqu i té q ue d ans a ucun a u t re q ua r t ier ; n omb r e d e f l i t s d e c o lonne s , d e c hap i taux e td 'a r ch i t raves s on t e nca s t rés d an s l e s mur s ; o n r ema rque u n l i on d e ma rb re b r i s e e n d eux e te x t rememen t mut i lé , ma i s d on t l e mouvemen t i n d ique u ne b onne é poque . . . A u m i l i eu d e l ' ence in te d u c hâ t eau e s t u ne é g l i s e b yzan t ine r u inée , ma i s p as a s sez r avag ée c ependan t p ou r q u 'on n e d i s t ingue p l u s l e s p e in tur e s q u i l a d éco ra ien t . A u -de s sous e s t u n c aveau d ans l e que l o n e n te r ra i t l e s p e r sonnag es d e h au t r ang , u n s a rcophage d ' une c ons e r v a t ion p a r fa i te e n a va i t é t é r é cemmen t t i re a u moment d e n o tre s é jou r aKutayah. Nous n e p ou r r ions a f i rme r q u 'on l er e trouve ra i t e nco re e n p l a ce , c a r l e s T urc s n e r emuen t p as l e s monument s p a r p ur i n terê t h is-t o r ique : i le s t p robab le q ue l e t ombeau d u g ouve rneur b y zant in é t a i t d es t ine af a i r e u ne b e l le a ug e d e f on ta ine . . . E n mon tan t a u c ha teau , o n v o i t , e nca s trés d an s l e s mu r s , q ue lques f r agmen ts d e s c u lp tur e a n t ique e tu ne s e conde f i gu r e d e l i on e n ma rb re d ' un t r è s -mauva i s t r ava i l . D ans l a c our i n tér ieu r e , i n ch k a l e , n ous a vons r ema rqué u ne p i ece d 'a r t i l le r ie q u i e s t u ne v er i tab l e c ur io s i té , e le e s t c ompo s ée d e b ande s d e f e r j ux tapo sées e tr e l iées e n t r e e le s p a r d e s c e r c le s d e f e r . C e t te p i èce e s t s ans d ou te u ne d e s p r em ie r e s q u 'a ient f ab r iquées l e s O sman l i s d e 1 430 a 1 450 . ( pp . 3 94 3 95 ) 8 ) MACFARLANE ( 1 847 ) C ha r le s Ma c fa r lane .

T urkey a nd i t s D es t iny . L ondon .

1 850 .

S een a t as ho r t d i s tance , t h e v i ew o f K u tayah , f r om t he w e s t w a rd ( s t r id ing u p t h e s t eep s i de s o f ah i l l a nd s how ing o u t i t s mo sque s a nd m ina r e t s , w i th t h e r u ins o f i t s i mmens e c as t le , a nd m as s ive d a rk t owe r s , r ugg ed a nd t h i ck , a nd s t and ing t h e o ne c l ose t o t he o the r , t ow e r u pon t owe r , o n as t eep mounta in b eh ind t he t own , a nd w i th l o f t i e r , w ooded moun ta in s t owe r ing h i gh a bove a l l , a nd l ook ing t he l o f t i e r f r om t h e d ead f l a tne s s o f t h e p l a in ) i se x ceed ing ly s t r ik ing a nd r oman t i c , a nd o ne o f t h e mo s t p i c tu re sque w e s aw i nT urkey . ( I .263 f ) O n t h e f o l low ing d ay , w hen t he w ea ther c l ea red u p , w e c l imb ed u p t o t h e o l d c a s t le , a nd s pen t a n h our o r t wo , n o t u np lea san t ly ,

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a mong i t s r u in s . T he s i tua t ion i ss p lend id . T hough i t d oe s n o t s o a ppea r f r om t h e p l a in b e low , t h e l o f ty c a s t le -h i l l i se n t i re ly d e ta ched f r om t h e w ooded moun ta in : ad eep r av ine o f g ood b r ead th r uns e very w he r e b e tween t hem . O n t h e s i de o f t he c a s t le t h e c l if s a r e t r emen d ous ly s t eep , a nd i n s ome p l a ces p e rpend icu la r . Wa l l s , w i th b a t t le m en t s a nd ma s sy t owe r s , r un a l ong t he e dg es o f t hes e c l if s , a nd t h e re i so ne l ow c i r cu la r a r chway a nd g a te l e ad ing o u t t o t he c l if s a nd t o a c ur ious z i g -zag p a thway w h ich d e s cends t o t h e b o t tom o f t he r av ine . T he h i l l -top , w i th in t h e se w a l ls , i s ab road l o ng f l a t , w he reon a r e t h e r en t w a l l s a nd p a r t s o f t h e a r ched , s ha t te r ed r oo f s o f i mmense a pa r t m en t s , c hambe r s a nd g a l le r ie s . T hence t h e h i l l h as al o ng s t eep d es cent t o t h e t own , t o t he v e ry e dge o f w h ich i ti s mo re o r l e s s c overed w i th r u ins , t owe r s h av ing s t ood w i th in t owe r s , c i tade l s w i th in c i tade ls , a nd e a ch a nd a l l h av ing w a l l s o f t r emendous t h icknes s . T he n umber o f t owe r s i nt he o u te r w a l l s mu s t h ave b een p rod igous . T hes e w e re mo s t p e r f e c t o n t h e w e s te rn s i de , b e ing t ha t w h ich w e h ad s e en i n a pproa ch i n g t h e c i ty f r om K ukoo r t . T he w o rks t h e re a r e n ea r ly a l l t ow e r s s qua r e t ow er s , r ound t owe r s , b a r r e l -shaped t owe r s , s exagona l t ow er s , a nd o c tagona l , b u t s t i l l t owe r s , d ec l in ing o ne b e low a no the r a cco rd ing t o t h e s t eep s l ope o f t h e h i l l , b u t a l l h udd led c l o se t oge ther w i th h a rd ly a ny w a l l o r c ur ta in b e tw een t h em , i n aw ay Ih ave n ever s e en b e fo r e . U pon t h i s s i de w e c oun ted f our a nd t wen ty t ow er s , a nd t wo o r t h r ee , a t t he f oo t o f t h e c a s t l e -h i l l , w e re d own . T he b a r re l -shaped t owe r s , b u lg ing o u t i n t he m idd le , a r e v e ry c ur ious ; t hey s t and o n t h e h i l l -top o r n ea r t o t ha t l e ve l p l a t fo rm . T he e n t i re a r ea o f t he c a s t le i s s o v a s t t ha t y ou m igh t p l a ce s i x E d inburgh c a s t le s w i th in i ta nd h ave r oom t o s pa re . A n umbe r o f mode rn T urk i sh h ous es a nd t wo l i t t l e mo sque s s t and , h i gh u p , a mong t h e r u ins , s ome o f t he h ouses b e ing b u i l t u p a ga ins t t he s ha t te r ed w a l l s , o r i nt h e a ng le o f t wo w a l l s , s tand i n g u pon t a l l w ooden p i l la r s , o r s t ems o f t r ees w i th t he b a rk s t i l l o n t hem t h i s b e ing a f a vour i te mode o f b u i ld ing a mong t he T urks w he r e ve r r u ins e x i s t n ea r at own . I n t h e c ompo s i t ion o f t h e se i mmens e d e f en s iv e w o rks b r ick i s ag r ea te r i n g red i en t t han s t one . A v ery l a rg e p ropo r t ion o f t h e b r icks a r e a nc ien t R oman , f l a t , b eau t i fu l ly made a nd b aked , a nd h a rder a nd much l e s s p e r i shab le t han mo s t s t one s . S ome o f t he w o rk a ppea r ed t o b e R oman o f t h e g ood t ime ; b ut mo re f r equent ly mo r e m ode rn h ands h ad w rough t w i th a nc ien t ma te r ia l s . S ome f o r tr es s h ad n o d oub t e x i s ted o n t h e s e h e igh ts l o ng b e fo re t h e R oman c onque s t , a nd e ven a n teceden t ly t o t h e o ccupa t ion o f t h e c oun try b y t he G reeks . T he g r ea te r p a r t o f w ha t n ow r ema ins m us t h ave b een b u i l t b y t h e Empe ro r s o f t h e E as t b e fo r e t h e i r wea l t h , a n dp ower , a n db o l dnes s o f c oncep t ion w e r e g one f r om t h em , a nd h ave b een r epa i r ed i n t h e t we l f th a nd t h i r teen th c en tu r ie s w hen t h e Emp i r e , o ve r run o r t h r ea tened b y t he T urk ish h o rdes , w a s h as ten ing t o d ecay , w hen i t s e f em ina te r u ler s s ough t t h e a i d o f t h e P i sans a nd G eno es e a l te rna te ly , a nd e n terp r i s ing a nd i n g en ious I t a l ian s e r ec ted w o rks w h ich t h e d egene ra te , b a rba r ized G reek s c ou ld n o l o ng e r e x ecu te . Ag ood d ea l o f t h e w o rk o n t h i s A s i a t i c h i l l s e emed t o m e t o b e I t a l ian t h e w o rkmansh ip l i ke t ha t t r a ced i no l d c a s t le s a nd t owe r s i nG eno e s e a nd P i san t e r r i to r ies , a nd i no the r p a r ts o f I t a ly . A n i n s c r ip t ion i n t h e l owe r c a s t le s u rmoun ted b y t h e a rms o f t h e G enoe s e r e pub l ic , i n t ima te s t ha t s ub jec ts o f t ha t s ta te h ad b een e ngag ed h e re . T he t owe r s " by w a r o r t empes t b en t ," t h e b a t t le m en ted w a l l s , t h e d a rk p as sag e s , t h e w ind ing g a l le r ies , t he l ow , d a rk a r che s o f t h e c a s t le o f K u tayah h ad i n t h em a l l t he e l ement s o f t h e r oman t i c . -

-

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T hey l e d u s t o ab as t ion o n t h e S .E . s i de o f t he c a s t le , w he re in w e r e t wo b ras s c u lve r ins o f c u r iou s s hape a nd p rod ig ious l e ng th : t h e

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b o re w ou ld s ca rce ly a dm i t af ou r -pounde r b a l l ; b ut t h e p i ece s w e r e n ea r ly t wen ty f e e t l o ng : t h ey l a y o n t h e g round , w i th t h e i r i n no c en t muzz le s p o in t ing t h rough a w ide e mb rasu re t owa rds t he l o f ty w ooded moun ta in , h av ing n o c a r r iage s n ea r t h em , n o r a ny s i gns o f e ve r h av ing h ad s uch t h ing s . I ft he r e w e r e o ther g uns w i th in t he o l d f o r t if i ca t ions ( wh ich Id oub t ) t h ey w er e c oncea led . S i t t ing u nder t he p onderous w a l l s o f o ne o f t he l o f t i es t t ow er s , a nd l o ok ing d own u pon t h e b road p l a in a nd t he c i ty o f K u tayah , w he re I b rah im P a sha a nd h i s A rabo -Egyp t ian a rmy w e re c omp e l l ed , b y t he p ro tec t ing movemen t o f t he R us s ians u pon C ons tan t inop l e , a nd b y t h e t h rea t s o f t h e d ip loma cy o f a l l E urop e , t o h a l t , a nd t he r e t o s u sp end t h e i r v i c to r ious ma rch i n 1 833 , Ic ou ld n o t a vo id r ef lec t ing o n t h e s e r i o u s t r oub le t ha t m ight h ave b een g i v en t o t ha t a rmy i ft h e u ppe r p a r t o f t h es e w o rks h ad b een o ccup ied b y af ew h undr ed p a t r io t ic , r e so lu te m en , w i th o n ly t h e i r muske ts a nd af ew p i ece s o f a r t i l lery . S ome o ft he ma s sy t ow e r s u p t h e re a r e s t i l l v e ry p e r f ec t , h av ing o n t hem t h e i r d omed r oo f s , w h ich w ou ld n o t b e a f e c t ed b y b a l l o r b omb . The p l a ce i sc ommanded b y t he l o f ty w ooded m oun ta in b eyond t h e r av ine , b ut g r ea t w ou ld h ave b een t he t o i l a nd l o ng t h e d e lay b e fo re I b rah im c ou ld h ave g o t a ny g uns i n b a t te ry o n t h e r ough p r ec ip i tous s i des o f t ha t moun ta in ; a nd t h en , w i th s uch f i r ing a s t he E gyp t ian , i tw ou ld h ave b een s t i l l l o ng er e r e a ny i mp re s s ion c ou ld h ave b een made o n t h e se i mmens e w a l l s . B u t Iw a s s pecu la t ing u pon t ha t w h ich n ever e n te r ed i n to t h e h eads o f a ny o f t he s ub je c t s o f S u l tan Mahmoud . T he ir p a t r io t i sm w as g one e ven t hen , a nd t h e l a s t s hadow o f i th as d epa r ted s i nce . A l l s p i r i t h ad b een c rushed o u t o f t hem b y o pp re s s ion , w rong s , a nd p over ty . ( 1 .299 -302 ) 9 ) MORDTMANN (1852 ) . Ana to l i en , S k i zz en u nd R e i sebr i ef e a us K l e inas i en ( 1850 -1859 ) v on A .D . Mord tmann , e d . F . B ab ing e r . H annove r 1 925 . D a s o be re K as te l l , w e lches a u f d e r S p i tze e i ne s Hüg e l s am We s tende d e r S tad t l i eg t , i s t g anz v e rwüs te t ; e s l i eg en d o r t z we i b ronzene K anonen , d i e ü b r ig en K anonen w urden n a ch K on stan t inope l g e s ch i ck t ; man s i eh t h i er n o ch d re i b i s v i e r g ro s s e Z i s ternen , z um T e i l d ur ch V e r fa l l u nb rauchba r g ewo rden . H e i r w a r a uch d as S tad tg e fängn i s , w e l ches e ben fa l ls e i ng es tür z t i s t ; d aneben i s t n o ch e i ne a l te v e rnage l te Mo s chee v om J ahr e 7 97 ( 1 395 ) . S ons t w ohnen h i e r n ur a rme t ü rk i s che F am i l ien . D a s u n te r e K as te l l i s t b es ser e r ha l ten , a ber e ben fa l l s n ur v on e i n ig en t ü rk i s chen F am i l ien b ewohn t . Man f i nde t d a s e lb s t e i n a l tes K uppe lg ebäude m i t e i nge s tü rz ter Kuppe l u nd e i nem B runnen , v on d e s s en G runde man d i e S te rne a m H imme l b e i T age s ehen k ann , w ie d i e S age b ehaup te t ; i c h f a nd a be r n i emand , d e r s o v i e l a s t ronom i s ches I n te re s se g ehab t h a t t e , um d i e s e S age z u v e r if i z i e ren . E ine Q ue l le m i t l a uwa rmem Wa s se r d i en t d en B ewohne rn z um Wa schen i h re r K le idung s s tucke u nd i s t d aher b e s tänd ig m i t Wä s che r innen b e s e tz t . ( p . 5 9 f . ) . 1 0 ) PERROT ( 1 861 ) C .

P e r ro t , E . G u i l laume , J . D e lbe t . E xp lo ra t ion a rchèo log ique d e l a G a la t ie e td e l aB i thyn i e . . . P a r i s 1 872 . L a y u le m ode rne d e K ou tah ia , a u jourd 'hu i c he f l ieu d ' un s and jak o u d epa r temen t , o ccupe l ' emp la cemen t d e 1 ' anc ienne v i l l e d e

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KOT IA TON , c omme s uf i ra i t al ' i nd ique r l en om q ue t an t d e s i èc les o n t ap e ine a l té ré ; ma i s e i le n ' a c ons e rve a ucun monumen t q u i d a te d e l ' an t iqu i t é g r ecque o u m ême d e l ' emp i r e r oma in . L a c i tade l ie , s ouven t r épa ré e , r emon te al ' époque b yzan t ine , p eut -ê t r e a u t emps d e J u s t in ien . C 'e s t u n e c ons t ruc t ion q u i n e v i s e n u l lemen t al a b eau té , ma i s q u i e s t a ssez f o r t e t a ssez s o ignee d ans s on g enr e ; 1 ' ence in te , f l anquée d e n om b reus e s t o ur s , r e n f e rme d e s v oü tes t r è s -b i en é tab l ie s , d e l a rg es e t p ro f onde s c i t erne s . ( P . 2 9 ) . 1 ) HUART ( 1 891 ) C laude H ua r t .

K on ia , l ay u l e d es d erv i ches t o urneurs . P a r is 1 897 .

A s cens ion d e l av i e i l le c i tade l le , p a r u ne b r i l lan te ma t inée ; n o t r e c o r teg e s e c ompo s e s ur tou t d 'ag en t s mun ic ipaux , t ous é t rang e r s al a y ule ; u s n ous s u iven t s ans d if i cu l té : ma i s l ep ré s ident d e l a mun ic ipa l U 6 , q u i d epu i s l e ma t in n ous f a i sa i t a vec u ne u rban i te e xqu i se l e s h on n eur s d e l a c i te e t n ous a va i t t ou t mont ré d e l a m e i l leure g ra ce , s ' esqu ive a dro i tement s ous u n p ré tex te q ue lconque . E tonnés , n ous n ous d emandons c e q ue s i gn if i e c e b rusque d epa r t . O n n ous e xp l ique q ue c ' es t l ' ef e t d ' un p r é jug é l o ca l a t ta ché ac e t te f o r te r es se e n r u ine s . T ou t f onc t ionna i r e q u i y mon te e s t s ü r d ' ê t re d e s t i tué ab r e f d é la i . L e p ré s iden t , u n i n d igène , q u i t e na i t as a p l a ce , a va i t o bé i ac e p ré jugé , q uo iqu ' i l e n e i l t h on te ; l e s a u t r es of i c ie r s , e sp r i t s f o r t s v enus d e C on s tan t inop le o u d 'aut r es l i eux c i v i l i s és , n ' en a va ien t e u c u re e t n ous a va ien t s u iv is s ans c ra in te . N ous e ümes l a p r euve q ue l ' exp l ica t ion é ta i t e xa c te e n r e t rouvan t , al ad e s cen te , n o t re p r é s ident , l am ine s our i a n te e tl ab ouche e n c o eur , q u i n ous a t tenda i t . D ans l af o r te re s se o n n e r e t rouve p l us a u jou rd 'hu i n i l el i on d e ma rb r e b r i se , n i l es a r cophag e b yzant in s i gna lé s p a r T ex ie r . P our n e p as r e n t r er b redou i l le d e n o t r e a s cens ion , n ou s c op ions t an t b i en q ue ma l , at r ave r s l e s n i ds d ' h i ronde l le s e t l e s t o i les d 'a ra ignées , l ' i ns cr ip t ion d e l a mo squée a i ns i q u 'une i n s cr ip t ion g r ecque s ur u ne p i er re e n ca s tr ée d an s l e s mur s d ' ence in te , s ur l a f a ce s ud , i n s cr ip t ion f uné ra i re s ans g rand i n ter e t : " Luc ius e t S o c ra tes , e n s ouven i r d e L uc ius l e u r p èr e e t d e [ L éod }am ia , l e ur m e re ." ( p . 6 2 f . ) 1 2 ) U ZUN AR$ IL I ( 1 930 ) I sma i l H akk i U zunca ri l iolu , Kü tahya $ ehr i . I s tanbu l 1 932 . T he c a s t le o f K i itahya h a s t h r ee p a r ts : t h e o r ig ina l f o r tr es s o r Ka la iba la ( ' Uppe r c a s t le ' ) , t h e l owe r f o r t res s o r K a la i sag i r ( ' Sma l l C as t l e ' ) a nd t h e I nne r F o r t re s s . A s may b e u nde r s tood c l ea r ly f r om i t s s t y le o f c ons truc t ion , t h e L owe r F o r t r es s w as b u i l t l a te r o n t he n o r th a nd n o r thwe s t s i des o f t h e c a s t le , a nd c o r r e sponds w i th t h e N ew Q ua r te r d i s t r ic t . T h i s c a s t le i sa t t he f o o t o f t he o r ig ina l c a s t l e . T h i s c a s t l e i se n te red b y t wo g a tes , o ne w i th in t h e o the r . W i th in t h e L owe r C a s t l e , t h e r e i s aq ua r te r o f t h e s ame . E v l iya C he leb i r ema rks t ha t t h e L owe r F o r t re s s w as b u i l t t o e nsu re as upp ly o fw a te r . T he o r ig ina l c a s t le , o r U ppe r C a s t le , h as t wo g a te s o n i t s e a s t s i de , o ne a f te r t h e o the r a t ad i s tance o f 4 0 o r 5 0 m e t re s . T he r e i sa s ma l l f l a t o pen s pa ce b e tween t h e t wo g a tes w he re a c annon s t ands w h ich i sf i r ed o n f e s t iva l s a nd i n R ama zan . O ne o f t h e g a tes o f t h e c as t le i s s t and ing ; t he o the r h as c o l lap s ed . T he o r ig ina l c a s t le i s

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e n te red t h rough t h e s e g a tes ; w i th in i t i s t he U pper C as t le q ua r te r . T h i s u s ed t o b e ac r owded q ua r ter b u t n ow a bout 2 0 o r 3 0 h ous e s r ema in . C i s te rns may b e s e en i nv a r ious p l a ce s w i th in t h i s o r ig ina l c a s t l e . T h i s c a s t l e h a s a no the r g a te o n t h e s ou thw es t s i de i n t h e d i s t r ic t o f t h e S u l tan 's G a rdens . T h i s g a te i ss u i tab le f o r g oods o r a n ima l s e n ter ing t h e c a s t le ; i th as ag ood r oad . T he o the r g a te h as o n ly a p a th b ecause i ti si n as t eep a nd s l op ing p l a ce . T he h ouse o f t h e c a s t le w a r d en , o r d i zda r , w a s s uppo sed ly i nt h i s U ppe r c a s t le . The mo sque o f t h e G erm iyan id S u leymanshah i sa l so i nt h i s p a r t . T he t h i rd p a r t o f t h e c a s t le , t h e I nne r C as t le , i sw i th in t h e U ppe r C as t le a nd e n t i r e ly o n i t s w e s t s i de . A f ter e nte r ing t h e U ppe r C a s t le f r om t h e d i rec t ion o f t he S u l tan 's G a rdens , a nd p as s ing t h rough ar a the r b road o pen s pa ce a nd t u rn ing l e f t , t he g a te o f t h e I nne r C as t l e i ss e en . T he of i c ia l r e s idence o f t h e c a s t le w a rden ( t he t ow e r o f t h e d i zda r ) , c i s te rns , maga z ines a nd o the r b u i ld ing s a re w i th in t h e I nne r C as t le . T he o pen s pa ce w i th in t he I nne r C as t le i sp opu la r ly c a l led t h e C our t o f E te rn i ty . E xa c t ly i n t he m idd le o f t h i s s pa ce i s at a l l r o ck d ome . T he t owe r s o n t h e w e s t s i de o ft h e I nne r C as t le a r e i nr e la t ive ly g ood c ond i t ion , b e low t hem i s ap r ec ip ice . S i tua ted i n t h e w es te rn c o rne r o f t h e o r ig ina l c a s t le , t h e I nne r C as t le i sl i ke a n i n ne r r e s idence , a nd i sn o t i nt h e m idd le o ft he c a s t le . . . T h is p la ce h as a n a r ea o f a bou t 6 000 s qua r e m e t re s . T he a r che s o f t h e g a te s o f t he c as t le w e re s tand ing u n t i l a bou t t wo y ea r s a go ; n ow t hey a r e i n t he c ond i t ion o f ab roken w a l l . ( 1 7 f . ; t r ans la ted b y C l ive F o s s ) .

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THE W ALLS A ND TO WERS T he f o r t r es s o f K i i tahya i ss o l a rg e a nd c omp lex a nd h a s b een s ub jec t t o s o much r e bu i ld ing t ha t i ti sn ec es sa ry t o d i scus s t he t ow er s a nd s e c t ions o fw a l l i n d iv idua l ly i n o rder t o p rov ide t h e m a te r ia l o n w h ich a n a na ly s i s o f ma son ry t ypes , t e chn iques o f d e f ence a nd c hrono logy may b e b as ed . T he d i s cus s ion w h ich f o l low s t r ea t s e a ch s e c t i on o f t he w a l l s i n o rde r , b eg inn ing a t t h e h i ghes t p o in t a nd p roceed ing c l o ckw i se a r ound t he ma in c i r cu i t , t hen f o l low ing t he w a l l s o f t h e C i tade l a nd f i na l ly t he a d jo in i n g c i rcu i t o ft he L owe r T own . T o make t he t r ea tmen t l e s s c umbe r some , e a ch s e c t ion h as b een d i v ided i n to f our p a r ts a nd e mp loy s an umbe r o f r ead i ly c omp r ehens ib le a bb rev ia t ions . I n e a ch c a se , p a r t 1 ) p rov ides a g en e ra l d e s cr ip t ion ; 2 ) d e s c r ibes t h e e x te r io r o f t he t owe r o r t he o u t er f a ce o f t he w a l l ; 3 ) t h e i n ter io r o f t h e t owe r s o r i n ne r f a ce o f t he w a l l s ; a nd 4 ) d i s cus ses t he c hrono logy , a s s ign ing v a r ious p a r t s a nd r e bu i ld ing s t o o ne o f f our p e r iods , t o b e i d en t if i ed i n t h e c hap te r , ' Re la t ive C h rono logy ' a nd d a ted i n t he f i na l s e c t ion , ' Chrono logy o ft he F o r t res s ' .

T he f o l low ing a bb rev ia t ion s a r e e mp loyed : W

s e c t ion o f w a l l , u sua l ly f o l lowed b y t wo n umbe r s w h ich a r e t ho se o f t he t wo t ow e r s b e tween w h ich i tr uns ; s im i la r ly UW = U ppe r Wa l l a nd LW = L owe r Wa l l . D i s cus s ions o f t he l a t te r a r e o f ten f o l lowed b y an umbe r a nd a l e t te r ; i n t ha t c a s e , t h e s i de o f t h e t owe r w he r e t h e LW a ppea r s i si n d i ca ted . LG = L owe r G a te ; CG = C i tade l G a te ; UG = U ppe r G a te . =

I n a dd i t ion , f i ve ma in t ypes o f mo r ta r h ave b een d i s t ingu i shed b y l e t ter s ( va r ia t ions a r e p r es en t ed i nt h e d i scus s ion ) : A : G rey l ime a gg r ega te o f d i r ty a ppea rance , w i th v i r tua l ly n o b r ick ; many i n c lus ions , u sua l ly 1 5 mm i nd i ame te r . B : L igh t p i nk t o g r ey l ime a gg rega te ; many i n c lus ions , 3 40 mm , i n c lud ing much b r ick . Much v a r ia t ion . C : D a rk , u sua l ly r e d a gg rega te , o f ten w i th a h i gh p ropo r t ion o f s and ; l a rg e q uan t i ty o fi n c lus ions , mo s t ly b r ick 3 10 mm a nd l a rg e r . D : G rey l i me a gg r ega te o f d i r ty a ppea rance , o f ten w i th t i ny a i r b ubb les ; u su a l ly v e ry h a rd . H igh p ropo r t ion o fi n c lus ion s o f a l l s i zes , l i t t le o r n o b r ick . E : Wh i te p owde ry l i me a gg rega te ; v a ry ing p ropo r t ion o f i n c lus ion s , 3 10 mm , mo s t ly g r ey p ebb les , n o b r ick . T echn ica l t e rms s hou ld n o t p rove a p rob lem ; ' c r ibwo rk ' a l one may b e u n fam i l ia r . T h i s d eno te s as y s t em o f b ond ing w i th w ooden b eams i nw h ich t h e b eams a r e j o ined t o g e ther t o f o rm a n e two rk w h ich u sua l ly r uns d i rec t ly b eh ind t h e f a ce o f aw a l l o r t ower .

The Ma in C ircu it ( P lan 1 ;F ig . 2 )

T i

1 )B road s em i c i rcu la r p l a t fo rm t owe r a t t h e h i ghes t p o in t o f t h e c i tade l : F igs . 4 ,5 . 2 ) F ounda t ion o f m o r ta r ed r ubb le e xpo s ed t o ah e igh t o f a bout 1 m50 ; r ough mo r ta r A . T h i s f o unda t ion r uns i n to s im i la r ma sonry w i th t h e s ame 2 5

mo r ta r b eh ind T 2 . A bove i t , as l igh t ly p ro jec t in g pol yg ona lb a s e o f l o ng r e c tangu la r s po i l s s uppo r t s af a c ing o f t h e s ame ma ter ia l ; mo r ta r A . T he l ow e r p a r t o f t h e t owe r i sf a ced w i th s po i l s i n8 9 i r r egu la r c ou r ses ( c . 2 r n ) t h e i r j o in ts a r e f i l led w i th s ma l l s t one s , b roken b r ick a nd much mo r ta r B . S upe r s t ruc tur e o f b r ick , b o th w ho le a nd f r agmen ta ry , mo s t ly r e used , s e t i n t h ick l a ye r s o f mo r ta r B ; s t ands i m t o 1 m50 h i gh . 3 ) B ur ied i n t h e s upe r s t ruc tu re a nd v i s ib le o n t h e S E s i de i st h e c o rner o f a f a ce o f l a rge w e l l -cu t l ime s tone b l ocks w i th a n ea t b and o f 3 4 b r icks , s epa ra ted b y w ide b ands o f mo r ta r A . T h i s w a s a ppa rent ly p a r t o f ar e c t angu la r s t ruc tu re . B eh ind a nd a bove i t , v i s ib le o n t op o f t h e s uper s truc t u re , i st h e p a r t ly p r es e rved f a c ing i n l i me s tone b l o cks o f a no the r s qua re o r r e c tangu la r s t ruc tu re a bou t 4 m b eh ind t h e p rev ious a nd a ppa ren t ly p a ra l le l t o i t ; t h i s a l so u se s mo r ta r A . 4 )s e e b e low , T4 . T2

1 )R ound t ow er a t u ppe r c o rner o f t h e f o r t if i ca t ions , s im i la r i n c ons truc t ion t o T1 :F ig .6 . 2 ) F ounda t ion o f mo r ta red r ubb le i n v e ry r ough mo r ta r A w i th l a rge p ebb le s b u i l t o n b edro ck a nd e xpo s ed a bou t 2 m h i gh . T h i s s uppo r t s ap ro jec t ing p o lygona l b a s e o f s po i l s w h ich i n c lude a l a te a n t ique c ap i ta l a nd , o n t h e w e s t s i de a t t h e h i ghe s t l e ve l i n t h e mo s t p rom inent p ro jec t ing p o in t , a r e us ed c ap i ta l w i th a c ro s s , e v iden t ly i n t en t iona l ly s o p la ced : F ig .7 . T he f a c ing a bove i so f l a rg e c our s ed r e c tangu la r s po i l s , t o ah e igh t o f a bou t 1 m70 , w i th a s uper s t ruc ture o f b r ick p r es e rved t o as im i la r h e ight . T he b r icks a r e r e used , mo s t ly w ho le , a nd n ea t ly c our s ed ; b r ick a nd s po i ls u s e mo r ta r A . T he b r icks a r e b e t te r l a id t han i n T i , b ut t h e c ours ing i s r ougher i n t h e u ppe r p a r t ; t hey a r e g ene ra l ly , t hough n o t c on s i s tent ly , s e t c l o s e t oge ther . Mo s t o f t h e s ur fa ce i sm is s ing ; t he r e a re t r a ce s o f ap ink s he l te r c oa t i nt h e j o in ts . 3 ) T he u ppe r p a r t o f t h i s t ow e r w a s a ppa ren t ly c onnec ted w i th t h e l ower p a r t o f T 1b y b r ick c our s e s a nd b y aw a l l o f l a rg e l imes tone b l o cks , a l ready i r r egu la r w hen i n s e r ted , m ixed w i th s ma l le r s t one s ; t r a ces o f t h is a r e v i s i b l e o n t h e s ou th f a ce . 4 )S ee b e low , T4 .

W2/3 F a c ing m is s ing ; c o r e i n mo r ta r Ap r e se rved , r unn ing a round t he b as e o f T2 . T3

1 )S em ic i r cu la r t ow e r o f t h e s ame c ons t ruc t ion a st owe r 2 . 2 ) L owe r p a r t o f w e l l -a r rang ed s po i l s , j o int s f i l l ed w i th s t one , a nd s ome b r ick . S upe r s t ruc tu re o f r e used w ho le a nd f r agmen ta r yb r icks , g ene ra l ly c l o se s e t b u t w i th much v a r ia ti i . T he t ow er i sp r e s e rved t o i t s f u l l h e igh t o n t h e n o r th s i de w he r e i tw as i n co rpo ra ted i n to T 4 ,e xcep t f o r t h e NW c o rne r , w h ich w a s a l r eady b roken a way . Mo r ta r A o f v a ry ing c ons is tency t h roughou t . 4 )S ee b e low , T4 .

T4

1 )S em i c i r cu la r s o l id p l a t fo rm , b u i l t d i r ec t ly o ve r T3 . 2 ) B anded ma son ry , mo s t f a c ing m i s s ing ; a l t e rna t ion o f 5s tone s a nd 5 b r icks ; s qua r ed t u fa b l o cks w i th o cc a s i o na le x t r a ho r i z onta la n d v e r t i c a l b r ick . Mo s t i fn o t a l b r ick r e us ed , mo r ta r B . 4 )T owe r s 1 4 . I n p e r iod I , T 1w a s as qua re s t ruc ture w h ich s t ood a bove a nd b eh ind t h e LW w h ich r an f r om T 6 3 o n to t h e p o lygona l p l in th i n f r on t o f T1 . T he LW h ad b r ick b ands , a t l e as t i np a r t , a nd c ont inued a round T 1 t o j o in t h e u ppe r p a r t o fT2 ,w h i ch i tt h en c onnec ted w i th T 3 ;a l l a r e o f t h e s ame p e r iod , d e te rm ined b y t h e i r m o r ta r . T he d e f ence s o f t he u ppe r c o rne r o f t h e f o r t re s s t hus c ons i s ted o f t h e s em ic i r cu la r t owe r s 2a nd 3 , w i th h i gh s up e r s t ruc tur es o f b r ick , c onne c ted b y t he LW ; a nd a bove t hem ,

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a t ah i gh e r l e ve l , t he s qua re T 1 ,p e rhaps f a ced w i th l ime s tone b l o cks . I t s r e la t ion w i th t he l owe r t owe r s h a s b een o bs cur ed b y l a te r b u i ld ing . I n p e r iod I , t he m as s ive r ound T 1 o f s po i l s a nd b r ick w a s b u i l t o ver t he s qua r e t ow er a nd a d ja cen t LW , a nd e x tended i n to t h e u ppe r p a r t o f T 2 . T he s em i c i r cu la r T 4w as e r ec t ed v e ry c l o se t o i to ve r T3 . P a r t o f t he s upe r s t ru c tur e o f T 3 , w h ich a ppea r s t o h ave b een d e lap ida ted b y t h i s t ime , w a s i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e b ody o f T4 ,w h i le t he r e s t w as c u t b a ck s o t ha t t h e s u rv iv ing p a r t s c ou ld s e rve a s ap la t fo rm i nf r on t o f T4 . T2 may h ave h ad t he s ame r e la t ion t o T1 . LW 2 /3 w as ma in ta ined , b u t t he f a te o ft h e LW b e low T 1i sn o t c l ea r . W

T5

4 /5 :L W 4 N : R ea r f a ce p r es e rved w he r e T 4w as b u i l t o ve r i t ; t he LW w as a ppa rent ly j o ined t o t h e b a ck o fT3 ,a nd t hus c ons ide rab ly s e t b a ck f r om i t s c ou r se b e tw een T 2 /3 . LW 5 S : P a r t o ff r on t f a ce v i s ib le w he re i n co rpo ra ted i n to T 5 . 4 ) I n p e r iod I , t h e LW r an a bou t 3 4 m b e low t he UW ( wh ich i s r a re ly p r es e rv ed , t hough i tc ou ld e a s i ly b e f ound b y e xcava t ion ) . I n p e r iod I , t he s em ic i r cu la r t owe r s w e re e x tended o u t f r om t he UW t o s uch a d i s tance t ha t t h ey o ve r rode t h e LW a nd i n co rpo ra ted i tb od i ly . T he LW a ppea r s n o t t o h ave b een d e s t royed b ecau s e many s urv iv ing e xamp le s o f i tp ro jec t f r om t he s i de s o f t h e n ew t owe r s t o s ugg e s t t ha t i tc on t inued t o s tand b e tw een t h em . I fi t s d es t ruc t ion h ad b een i n tended , t h e n ew t ower s w ou ld h ave b een g i ven a s moo th f a ce w he re t hey c over ed t h e LW , a nd t r a ce s o f i tr emoved . 1 )S o l id p la t fo rm t ower , r ounded . 2 ) B anded m a sonry w i th a l te rna t ion o f 5b r icks , 5s t one s . B lo ck s a r e u sua l ly s qua red , s ome s e t o n e nd , c our s ing i si r regu la r . S ca t ter ed b r ick s i n se r ted v e r t i ca l ly , a nd h o r izon ta l ly t o f o rm p a r t ia l c our se s . P ink s ur fa ce mo r ta r c ove r s j o in ts . Mo r ta r B , d a rke r o n o u t s ide . 3 ) L a rge r ound b eamho les i nu ppe r p a r t o f b a ck f i l l ing , p a le mo r ta r B . 4 )T ow er o fp e r iod I b u i l t o ver t he LW .

W 5 /6 :L W 5 N : V i s ib le t o f u l l w id th , p ro jec ts f r om t owe r ; f a ced w i th s qua re t u fa b l o cks , w ho s e w ide j o in t s a r e f i l l ed w i th mo r ta r A . A m as s o f r ubb l e i n mo r ta r Bd i r ec t ly b eh ind i ts ugge s t s t ha t t h e LW w a s t h ickened a nd s t i l l s t and ing i np e r iod I . LW 6 S : F a c ing o f s im i la r m ason ry p r es e rved , w i th s ame r e in fo rcement ; s tands c . 4m h i gh , w i th t r a ce s o f w a l lwa lk . Mo r ta r A , s ome s andy , s ome h a rd , a lmo s t w h i te . T ß

1 )R ounded p l a t fo rm t ow e r . 2 ) S qua r e b as e o f s po i l s b e low o u te r f a ce ; m asonry a s T5 ; mo r ta r C , s had ing i mpe rcep t ib ly i n to B . 3 ) T ra ces o f r e bu i ld ing i nt op o f i n ne r f i l l ing w i th r e used s qua r ed b l o cks s e t i n mo r ta r E . 4 ) T ower o f p e r iod I w i th r e bu i ld ing i n p e r iod I V p robab ly a s soc ia ted w i th c ons t ruc t ion o fW 6 /64 ( s ee b e low ) .

W 6 /7 : LW 6 N : A s 6 S , mo r ta r c a re le s s ly a pp l ied ; n o t v i s ib le 7 S . T 7

1 )S em ic i rcu la r s o l id p la t fo rm t owe r . 2 ) Mason ry a sT5 ,w i th b and s o f 4 6 ( u sua l ly 5 )s t one s . B r i ck c ou r se s i r r egu l a r , w i th b and s 3 4 b r ick s d eep , e x tend ing i n to t he c o r e ; t r a ce s o fc r ibwo rk b eh ind . Mo r ta r v a r ie s a s i nT6 . 4 )T ower o fp e r iod I , b u i l t o ve r LW .

2 7

W 7 /8 : UW : V i s ib le n ea r t h e c o rne r s o f T 7a nd T 8 ;f a c ing mo s t ly g one b ut t r a ce s a d ja cen t t o T 8s how a b and o f 4o r m o r e b r icks . UW r an b eh ind T 8 , w i th w h ich i tw a s n o t b onded . Mo r ta r : v e ry s o f t B . The w a l l wa s t h i ck e ned i n f r on t w i th a r ough f a c ing o f c u t s t one s , f i e lds tone s a nd b roken b r ick , w h ich s how s t r a ce s o f c r ibwo rk ; m o r ta r E . T h is r e in fo rcemen t , 1 . 5 2m t h ick , a bu t s o n t h e n e ighbour ing t ow er s r a the r t han r unn ing b eh ind t hem . E v iden t ly o fp e r iod I , s t r eng thened i np e r iod I V . LW 7 N : C lea r ly p re s e rved l ow o n t ow er , w i th g ood f a c ing ; p erhap s d e lap ida t ed w hen T 7b u i l t o ve r i t . LW 8 S : S ee T 8 . -

T8

1 )S em ic i rcu la r p la t fo rm t ow e r b e tween UW a nd LW r e p resent ing t he r ebu i ld i n g o f a n e a r l i er t owe r o f t h e s ame s hape : F ig .8 . 2 ) S qua re p ro jec t ing f o unda t ion o f l a rge b l o cks i n c lud ing s po i l s ; l ower p a r t o f f a ce , t o ah e igh t o f a bou t 2 m , o f r e gu la r s qua red l i mes tone b l o cks ; s upe r s t ruc tur e o f b anded ma son ry w i th a l te rna t ion o f 5b r icks , 2s t ones ; s c a t t e red e x t ra h o r i zon ta l a nd v e r t ica l b r i ck ; m o r ta r At h roughou t . The s ou th f a ce , r ebu i l t w i th s ma l l er s t one s a nd f ewe r b r ick b ands , u s e s f a ir ly t h i ck j o in t s o f mo r ta r B . As he l te r c oa t o f p i nk mo r ta r c overs m o s t j o ints . LW T he l owe r p a r t o f t h e t owe r , t o t he l e v e l o f t he s e cond b r i ck b and , i si n f a c t t h e f a ce o f t h e LW w h ich p ro jec t s f r om i to n e i ther s i d e ; t he p ro jec t i ons a r e b onded w i th t h e f a c ing o f t h e t ow er , s how ing c l ea r ly t ha t LW a nd t owe r a r e p a r t o f t h e s ame c ons t ruc t ion . F ig .9 . 3 )T he u ppe r p a r t o ft h e i n te r io r , f o rme r ly ac hambe r , i ss o l id ly f i l l ed w i th r ub b l e i n mo r ta r B , a ppa r en t ly w i th c r ibwo rk . T he o r ig ina l w a l ls o f t h e t owe r w e re 1 m30 t h ick . F ig .10 . 4 ) I n p e r iod I ,t h i s w as a c hambe r t owe r c onnec t ing t he UW a nd LW a nd b onded w i th t h e LW o ver w h ich i ts t ood . I n p e r iod I , the c hambe r w as f i l led t o make as o l id p l a t fo rm .

W 8 /9 : UW : B eh ind T 8 :r e p re s en ted b y r e gu la r s qua r ed t u fa b l ocks s e t i n mo r ta r C , v i s ib le b eh ind t h e t owe r o n t he s ou th s i de a nd t hus o f P e r iod I ; much r ebu i l t i nP e r iod I a nd I V ( s ee b e low , c i tade l W 8 /65 ) . B e tw een T 8 a nd T 9s u rv ives a s at umb led a nd o ve rg rown r ubb le c o re , mo r ta r n o t v i s ib le ; s ome l a rge s qua r ed l ime s tone b l ocks may b e i ns i tu . LW 8 N : S ee a bove LW 9 S : F a c ing v e ry c l ea r : l a rge t u fa b l o cks w i th w ide mo r ta r j o in t s , t wo s i ng l e b r ick c our s es ; t h e f i ner b anded ma sonry v i s ib le a t T 8w a s e v ident ly n o t c on t inued . T9

1 )H o r se sho e -shaped p l a t fo rm t owe r ; p oo r ly p r e s e rved . 2 )O n ly o ne b r ick b and o f t h e f a c ing s urv ive s ; mo r ta r Bw i th many i n c lus ions , s omewha t r e s emb l ing mo r ta r C , i n s ide a nd o u t . 4 )P e r iod I .

W 9 /10 :

UW : A t ah i gh l e ve l , i n l i ne w i th a nd b eh ind T 9 , t wo l a rg e s qua red l i me s t one b l o cks a ppa r en t ly r e p r e s en t t h e f a c ing o f t h e w a l l ; t r a c es c on t inue t owa rd t he n o r th . LW 9 N : P ro jec t s c l ea r ly , f a c ing o f t u fa b l o cks w e l l p r es erved ; m o r ta r A w i th t r a ces o f ap i nk s he l te r c oa t w h ich i no ne p l a ce h a s b een c ove r ed w i th g r ey mo r ta r . T he w a l l c on t inue s w i thou t f a c ing t owa rd T 1 0 , a ppa rent ly w i th as i ng le c our s e o f b r ick a nd a f ew r ound b eamho les . P robab ly r ebu i l t i n P e r iod I .

T b

1 )S em ic i rcu la r , o n ly t h e s ou the rn p a r t p r es e rved . 2 )S urv ive s o n ly a s am as s o fr ubb le s e t i nm o r ta r A . 4 )A ppa r en t ly o fp e r iod I ,p e rhap s w i th LW j o in ing i t s f a ce a s i n TS .

2 8

W 1 0/11 : LW HS : I n co rpo ra ted i nt owe r , l i t t le s u rv ive s ; t h ick mo r ta r j o in ts . Tu

W

1 )S em i c i r cu la r p l a t fo rm t ow e r : F ig .11 . 2 )B anded m a son ry w i th a l te rna t ion o f 5b r i ck , 5o r 6s t ones , s ome s e t o n e nd ; s ome e x t ra v e r t ica l a nd h o r i zon ta l b r ick , t h e v e r t ica l o cca s iona l ly r e gu la r , o f ten c ove red w i th mo r ta r ; s andy mo r ta r Bw i th much p i nk mo r ta r i n t he j o in ts . S ome p a tch ing w i th g r ey mo r ta r , a s so c ia ted w i th v e ry l a rge b eamho l e s . 3 ) Ma s s o fr ubb le i n mo r ta r Bw i th l a rge b eamho les n ea r g round l e ve l . 4 )T owe r o fp e r iod I b u i l t o ve r LW ; r epa i red i np e r iod I I . 1 1/12 :

UW : L a rg e l ime s tone b l o cks a t ah i gh l e ve l w e l l b eh ind t h e t owe r s may r ep re s en t a n i n ne r f a c ing . LW uN : P ro jec t ing f a c ing o f u sua l s t y le ; t he LW h e re s tood t o i t s f u l l h e ight w i th p a rape t a nd w a l lwa lk ( s t i l l v i s ib le i n c ro s s -sec t ion ) w hen T 1 w a s b u i l t o ve r i t . T h ick mo r ta r j o in ts .

T12

1 )S em i c i r cu la r . 2 )L i t t l e mo r e t han c o re s u rv iv ing ; s ma l l t r a ce o f f a c ing o n Ns i de u se s s qua red t u fa b l o cks ; mo r ta r At h roughout . 4 ) E v iden t ly a t owe r o f p e r iod I ,p robab ly l i ke T 1 0 . R e la t ion w i th t he n e igh b o r ing t owe r s i sn o t c l ea r ; t h e w a l l i n t h i s s e c t ion may h ave b een b rought f o rwa rd i np e r iod I .

W12/13 : UW : T ra ce s o f c o re , w i th a f ew l ime s tone b l o cks w h ich may r epres en t f a c i n g . LW n o t v i s ib le . T13

1 )S em i c i r cu la r p l a t fo rm t ow e r . 2 ) B anded m ason ry , mo s t ly g one , b u t a ppa r en t ly w i th a n a l te rna t ion o f 5 b r ick s w i th 5 ( ? ) -7 s t one s . B r ick b ands s uperf i c ia l , n o t mo re t han 2 3 b r i ck s d eep , i n c lude many f r agmen ts ; s ome e x t ra b r ick w i th o ne s i ng le b r ick c our se . F ine s po i l s i nb as e . S o f t s andy mo r ta r B . 3 )S o l id ly f i l l ed w i th r ubb le i ns ame mo r ta r . 4 )P e r iod I , b u i l t o ver LW .

W 1 3/14 : UW : P o s s ib le t r a ces o ff a c ing w i th l a rg e b l o cks . LW w i th in T 13 : c l ea r ly v i s ib le w he r e t h e f a c ing o f t he t owe r i sm i s s ing ; f a ced w i th s qua re a nd r e c tangu la r t u fa b l o ck s , j o int s f i l led w i th r ough mo r ta r A , c ove r ed w i th p i nk s he l te r c oa t . O n t h e n o r th s i de , v ery l a rge s po i l s w e re l a id o ve r t h e LW , t hen a ppa r ent ly d e lap ida ted , t o p rov ide as t rong er b a se f o r t h e n ew t owe r . T he f a c e o f t h e LW i ss t ra igh t : i ti se v ident t ha t t he re w as n o e a r l i e r t owe r h er e , b u t t ha t T1 3 w as s imp ly b u i l t o ver t he LW . 4 )P er iod I , b u i l t o ve r LW . T14

W

1 )H o r s e sho e -shap ed p l a t fo rm t owe r . 2 ) Mo s t f a c ing m i s s ing , b u t w he r e v i s ib le s how s b anded masonry o f 5o r mo re b r ick s a l te rna t ing w i th 5o r mo re s t one s i n mo r ta r C . 3 ) F i l led w i th r ubb le i n l i gh t p i nk i sh mo r ta r B . T he f a ce o f l a rge b l o cks i mmed ia te ly b eh ind t h e t op a ppa r en t ly r e p re sen ts a n o r ig ina l e mb rasur e . 4 )S eem s t o b e a n o r ig ina l c hambe r t owe r f i l led t o b ecome ap l a t fo rm i n p er iod I , b u t a ppa r en t ly n o t , a c co rd ing t o t h e mo r ta r , b e long ing t o p er iod I .

1 4/15 : LW 1 4N : p r e s e rved t o l ow h e igh t , f a c ing o f s qua red b l o cks o f v a r ious k i nd s ; t h ick mo r ta r j o in t s . LW 1 5S : S e e b e low .

T15

1 ) Sma l l s em i c i r cu la r t owe r c onnec t ing UW a nd LW : F ig .12 .

2 9

2 ) F a c ing o f r e gu la r ly c our s ed s po i l s a nd f i e ld s tones w i th o ne f u l l b and o f 4 b r ick s , o the r s s i ng le o r p a r t ia l w i th 2 3 b r icks . Mo r ta r A . T ra ces o f a f a c ing o f s qua red t u fa b l o cks b onded w i th t he t ower n ea r t h e p resen t g round l e ve l s how t ha t i tw as b u i l t o n a nd i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e LW , i n t h e s ame r e la t ion t o t h e LW a s T 8 ; t h i s t owe r , h owever , a ppa r ent ly d i d n o t s t and s o h i gh , n o r w a s i tl a te r r e bu i l t . 4 )P e r iod I . W 1 5/16 : UW : T ra ces o f mo r ta r ed r ubb le c o re w i th f ew l imes tone b lo cks o ff a c ing . T16

W

1 )N a r row h o r s e sho e -shaped c hambe r t ower w i th p o s tern . 2 ) T he b a se i n c lude s many l a rge a nd i r r egu la r b l o cks , mo s t ly s po i l s , o ne b ea r i n g ar e l ie f a nd i n s c r ip t ion ( s ee b e low , ' S po i l s a nd I n sc r ip t ion s ' ) , w i th l a rg e r p i ece s i n se r ted t o p rov ide a f o unda t ion d i rec t ly o ve r t he LW . B anded m asonry w i th 5 b r icks a l te rna t ing w i th 6 , 7o r 9s t ones ; o dd b r icks i n s er ted v e r t i ca l ly o r h o r izon ta l ly , m uch p i nk mo r ta r o ve r j o int s . Mo r ta r C t h roughou t . T he p o s te rn w h i ch t u rns a t ar i gh t a ng le w i th in t he t ower i sc l ea r ly p a r t o f t h e o r ig ina l s t ruc ture ; t wo b eams a r e p reserved n ea r i t s e x i t . Much o f i t s p as sag e w as c ove red w i th a mo r ta r o f mud a nd s t raw ,a ppa ren t ly u s ed a s ab a se f o r f r e sco e s . 3 ) Much o f t h e u ppe r p a r t o f t h e c o re i sm i s s ing , b u t t he n o r th w a l l o f t h e u ppe r c hambe r , e x cep t iona l ly , i sp re s erved t o ac ons iderab le h e igh t . U ppe r p a r t o fc o r e u s e s mo r ta r B , l owe r C . 4 )A ppa r en t ly o fp e r iod I , b u i l t o ve r LW .

1 6/17 : UW : We l l p re se rved , b onded w i th T 1 6 , m o r ta r C . Many s po i l s i n b as e . B anded m ason ry : 4 5 b r icks , 7s t one s . A l so b onded w i th f a c ing o f T 1 7 . P e r iod I . LW 1 6N : P r es e rved t o a bou t 3 m w i th u sua l , t hough n o t v ery g ood , f a c ing , a nd t h ick mo r ta r j o in t s . P ro jec t s f r om T 1 6 a nd e v iden t ly wa s p r e s e rved a f t e r t ha t t owe r w as b u i l t . LW 1 7S : S ee b e low .

T17

1 ) L a rge U -shaped c o rne r t ow er b u i l t o ve r LW a nd e nc lo s ing e a r l i er s qua re t ow er : F igs . 1 3 , 1 4 . 2 )T he o u te r f a ce i sb ad ly p r es e rved ; i th ad b ands o f 5b r icks a nd 6s t ones , t h e b r ick b ands e x tend ing 2 3 d eep ; Mo r ta r C , w i th a p ink s he l te r c oa t o ve r t he j o in t s a nd i n t h e b ands . T h i s e nc lo s e s a n i n ner s qua r e t ower f a ced w i th w e l l -a r ranged l a rge l imes tone b l o cks a bove m ixed mo r ta r ed r ubb le a nd s po i l s , w i th s qua r ed t u fa b l o ck s o n t h e n o r th f a ce . I th a s t h i ck b ands o f a mo r ta r w h ich i sg r ey o n t h e s u r fa c e a nd p i nk -o range i n s ide w i th t i ny b r ick i n c lus ions . T h e f a ce b ends t o t h e NW , w he re i ti sb onded w i th t he UW ; s ome b l ocks h e re s e em c ut f o r t h e p urpo se . S ame mo r ta r t h roughou t . Whe r e t h e o u te r f a c ing h a s f a l len a way , i th a s l e f t n o t ra ce o n t h e i n ne r t ow e r . T he o u te r f a ce w a s b u i l t o ve r t he LW , w h ich h e r e t u rns a t ar i ght a ng le b a ck i n to t h e t owe r , a ppa rent ly p a ra l l e l w i th t h e f a ce o f t h e i n ne r s qua r e t owe r . J o in t s c ove r ed w i th p ink m o r ta r . T h i s c o rne r w a s r ounded o r r e pa i r ed b y aw a l l o fs ma l le r b l ocks , m o r ta r D , c on t i nu ing i n to W 1 7/18 ( s ee b e low ) . 4 ) P e r iod I :s qua r e t ow e r w i th g ood l i mes tone f a c ing , w i th t h e LW r unn ing b e fo re a nd a round i ta t ad i s tance o f a bout 1 m75 . I n p e r iod I , t he U s haped t ower w as b u i l t o ve r b o th , u s ing t h e LW a s f ounda t ion . P er iod I p roduced f u r the r m od if i ca t ion o f t h e l ow e r p a r ts , a ppa r en t ly w hen t h e w a l l c onnec t ing t h e l ow e r a nd u ppe r t owns w as b u i l t .

W

1 7/18

UW : G ood l i mes tone o u te r f a c ing c on t inu ing f r om i nner s qua r e T 1 7 a nd t hus o f P e r iod I ;i n ne r f a ce o f t u fa b l o cks . T he w a l l r uns d i r e c t ly i n to T

3 0

1 8 , b u t i t s c ou r s e i sn o t v e ry c l ea r ; much o f i tw ou ld h ave b een c ove red b y t he o u te r f a ce o fT1 7 . LW : Mas s o f m o r ta r ed r ubb le c on t inue s t h e l i ne o f LW 1 7 t o j o in w i th t he r ound ing o f i t s l owe r p a r t ; mo r ta r D , r ound b eamho le s i n b o t tom . T h is a ppa r en t ly r ep re s en t s at h i cken ing o f t h e o r ig ina l LW a t t he p o in t w he re t he w a l l o ft h e l owe r t own j o ined t h i s c i rcu i t . T 18

1 )N a r row U -shaped t owe r b u i l t o ve r ac o rne r o f t he LW . 2 ) Mo s t o f f a ce m i s s ing , b u t e v iden t ly c ompo s ed o f r a the r s ma l l s qua r i sh s t ones i nr ow s o f 5o r 6a l te rna t ing w i th b ands o f 5b r icks . O ccas iona l o dd v e r t i c a l a nd h o r izon ta l b r i ck . Mo r ta r Cw i th c ons iderab le v a r ia t ion . T he LW , w i th a f ew t r a c es o f f a c ing a nd u sua l mo r ta r a nd c o re , s tood a bout 2 . 5 m h i gh , w he r e i tw a s i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e t ower . O n t he s ou th s i de , t h e LW f o rms ar i ght a ng le w h ich s ugg es t s e i the r t ha t i tb ent b a ck t owa rd t h e W 1 7/18 o r t ha t t h e r ema ins a r e t ho s e o f a n e a r l ie r s qua r e t ower i n co r p o ra ted i n to T 1 8 . S i nce t ow e r s s e em t o h ave b een r e la t ive ly i n f requen t i n p e r iod I ,t h e f o rme r h ypo the s i s s e ems mo r e p robab le . 4 ) T owe r o f p e r iod I , b u i l t o ve r LW .

W 1 8/19 : UW : C rude f a c ing o f mo r ta r ed r ubb le w i th r eus ed b r icks i n s er ted a t r an d om ; mo r ta r r e s emb le s D . P robab ly p e r iod I I . T 19 :

1 )T a l l c hambe r t ow e r , l a te r f i l l ed , b u i l t o ve r LW . 2 ) Mo s t o f t h e f a c ing i sm i s s ing , b u t i t s l owe r c our se s o f l a rge l i mes tone b l o cks a r e p re s e rv ed ; t h ey a ppea r t o t u rn a t a n o b tuse a ng le r a ther t han f o rm ing ac urve . T he se a nd t he c o re u se mo r ta r A , i nd ica t ing t ha t t h i s w as o r ig i n a l ly a t ow er o f t h e LW , p e rhap s a na logous t o T 1 0 a nd T 1 5 . T he c o re c on ta ins t r a ce s o f s i ng le o r d oub le b r ick b ands . T he u ppe r p a r t w a s r e bu i l t w i th c rude ma sonry i nm o r ta r E . 4 ) T owe r o f LW , p e r iod I ,r e bu i l t i np e r iod I V .

W 1 9/20 : UW : C ons i s ts o f af ew l a rge l i me s tone b l o cks v i s ib l e a t ah i gh l e ve l , w h ich a ppea r t o r un b eh ind T 2 0 . T 20 :

1 )U -shaped p l a t fo rm t owe r . 2 ) Mo s t o f f a c ing m i s s ing . B anded ma sonry w i th a l terna t ion o f 6 /7 s t ones a nd 5b r icks i nr a the r i r r egu la r b ands ; mo r ta r C . 4 ) P e r iod I .

W 2 0/21 : UW : B i t o f f a c ing o f r ubb le s e t i n much mo r ta r E , v i s ib le b eh ind T 2 0 . B e tween t h e t owe r s , t h e w a l l s t ands t o t h e h e igh t o f t he t owe r ; i t s f a c ing , n ow mo s t ly m i s s ing , w a s a ppa ren t ly o f r e used t u fa b lo cks . A l a rge l ime s t one b l o ck i n t h e f a ce b eh ind T 2 1 i ss e t i n mo r ta r D . E v iden t ly p er iods I I a nd I V . T 21 :

1 )N a r row U shaped p l a t fo rm . 2 ) S urv iv ing t r a ces o f f a c ing s how v a r ied b anded ma sonry o f 5 8 s t ones a l te r n a t ing w i th 4 o r 5b r i cks . S tone s s qua r i sh , b r ick r e us ed . Two l a rg e s qua re b eamho le s a bove s e cond b r ick b and ; mo r ta r C . 4 ) P e r iod I .

W 2 1/22 :

T 22

UW : Mo r ta red r ubb le mo s t ly b ur i ed , w i th t r a ces o f f a c ing o f l imes tone b l o cks b eh ind T 2 .

1 )N a r row h o r s e sho e -shaped p l a t fo rm t owe r : F ig . 1 5 . 2 ) B anded ma sonry w i th a l te rna t ion o f 5b r icks a nd 6 , 8o r 9s ma l l s qua red s t ones , s e t i n mo r ta r C ; much r e d s u r fa ce mo r ta r i nj o in ts ; g ene ra l ly n ea t .

3 1

S ome p a tch ing o n o u te r f a ce w i th r ough g r ey mo r ta r E . 4 )P e r iod I , r epa i r ed i nP e r iod I V . W 2 2/23 : UW : Af ew l ime s tone b l o ck s a t h i gh l e ve l , n o d e ta i ls p reserv ed . LW 2 2N : R ough f a c ing p ro jec t s f r om T 2 2 , i n c lude s s ome l a te a n t ique s po i l s ; b r ick b and o f t owe r s t ops a t LW . LW 2 3S : F a ce w i th l a rge t u fa b l o cks s l igh t ly p ro jec t ing ; n o t i nl i ne w ith 2N ; b r ick b and o ft owe r s t op s a t LW . T23

1 )V ery n a rrow h orseshoe -shaped p la tform t ower : F ig .15 . 2 ) Banded masonry w ith a l terna t ion o f 5o r 6b r ick a nd 9 s t one s ( on ly o ne

b and c omp le te ) ; s t one s s ma l l , s qua r i sh ; s c a t te red a dd i t iona l b r i ck . a s C . 4 )P e r iod I

Mo r ta r

W 2 3/24 :

UW : G ood f a c ing w i th l a rg e w e l l -cu t b l o cks b eh ind 2 3 a nd n ea r 2 4 ; m o r t a r D . Mo r ta r B b eh ind 2 3 . P robab ly p e r iod I , r ebu i l t i n p er iod I . F ig .16 . LW : We l l p re s e rved a d ja cen t t o a nd b e tw een t he t ower s ; t h i s i s t he b e s t s t re tch o f t he LW b e tw een t ow er s . G ood f a c ing o f r ough ly c u t b locks a nd f i e lds tone s , much o f i tm i s s ing . S andy d a rk mo r ta r D , w i th c r ibwo rk o f r ound b eams . P e r iod I .

T24

1 ) Na rrow h orseshoe -shaped p la tform t ower : F ig .15 . 2 ) Most f ac ing g one ; where p reserved , it s hows a n a l terna t ion o f 5o r 9s tones w ith 5 b r icks ; s ca ttered v ert ica l b r icks . Mo rtar C ; r ed s urfa ce morta r c ov e r s j o ints . Tower b u i lt o n s qua re f ounda t ion w ith t he s ame mo r tar . 4 ) P er iod I .

W 2 4/25 : LW 2 4N : G ood f a c ing w i th l a rge n ea t b l o cks p ro jec t ing f r om t ower ; q u i te d if eren t f r om f a c ing o f 2 3/24 . Mo r ta r A , b u t v e ry s o f t , e v ident ly made w i th c l ay . T25

1 ) Overgrown c ore o f mor ta red r ubb le o n ly . 2 ) Mortar C ; much d i s integ ra ted . 4 )P robab ly r ema ins o f t ower o f p er iod I .

T26

1 ) U -shaped c hamber t ower , f i l led i n t o b ecome p la tform : F ig .17 . 2 ) B anded masonry o f 4o r 5b r icks a l terna t ing w ith 4 -7 s tones ; s t ones l a id i n r egu lar c ourses , mos t ly s ma l l a nd s qua re , b ut c ons iderab le v ar iat ion i n s i ze ; s ome v er t ica l a nd e xtra h or izonta l b r ick ; much r ed s ur face mo r ta r , e spec ia l ly i n l ower p a rt . F ounda t ion o f l a rge b locks , many o f t he m s po i ls , v i s ib le i n t he o uter f a ce . Mor ta r v a r ied , most ly C w ith a h i gh p ropor t ion o f i n c lus ions , b ut o n t he s outh s i de , t he l ower c ourses d i sp lay morta r A , r i s ing t o ah e ight o f a bout 1 1 /2 i n a s t he t ower c urves b a ck t o c ont inue a s LW 2 6/27 . Upper p a rt h a s s ome g rey morta r , p robab ly D o r E . 3 ) C lea r t races o f f o rmer c hamber , w ith p os s ib ly t wo embrasures o n t he n o r th a nd s outh s i des , s ubsequent ly f i l led i n w i th mor tar C a nd r ubb le . 4 ) Th is wou ld a ppea r t o h ave b een a t ower o f p er iod I ,b u i lt l i ke T S d i rec t ly o ver t he LW ; f i l led i n p er iod I .

W 2 8/27 UW : R uns b eh ind T 2 7 ; r ubb le w i th s om e c u t b l ocks o f f a c ing a nd p o s s ib ly ab and o f 4b r icks ; m o r ta r r e s emb le s A . P robab ly p e r iod I . LW 2 6N : P ro jec ts f r om t ow e r ; r ough f a ce w i th f i e lds tones , s om e s po i ls , mo s t ly l a id h o r izon ta l ly , b u t many s e t d i agona l ly . A bou t h a l fway t o T 2 7 , t h e w a l l f o rms ar i gh t a ng le , a nd t u rns b a ck i n to T 2 7 .

3 2

T 27

1 )U -shaped p l a t fo rm t owe r : F ig .18 . 2 ) B anded ma sonry w i th a l terna t ion o f 5b r ick s , 5s t one s ; s o f t mo r ta r Bw i th much b r ick . 4 ) P e r iod I .

W 27 /2 8 : UW : Ad oub le w a l l p ro jec t s f r om T 2 7 : T he i n ne r w a l l i sf a ced w i th t u fa b l ock s i nm or ta r B ; d i rec t ly i nf r on t o f i ti sa no the r w a l l o f r ubb le i n mo r t a r D , f a ced w i th s ma l l c u t s t one s . T h i s w as e v iden t ly a w a l l o f p e r iod I d oub l ed f o r r e in fo rcemen t i n p e r iod I I . T he p o in t n eeded s pec ia l p ro tec t i on b ecau s e o f t h e p r e s ence o f as t r eam , w ho se e r o s ion h as c a r r ied a way mo s t o ft h e w a l l . F ig .18 . LW 2 7N : Eme rges w i th f a c ing o f l a rg e b l o ck s , s e ems t o h ave s t ood q u i te h i gh a nd t o h av e h ad a p ro jec t ing f ounda t ion ; mo r ta r A ; f a c ing b ecomes much c rude r t owa rd t h e r av ine , mo r ta r D . A ppa ren t ly aw a l l o f p e r iod Ir ebu i l t i np er iod I .

L ower Gate Area : T 28

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T34

T 28 : Sma l l i na cce s s ib l e p ro jec t ion o n r o ck o u tc ropp ing ; r ubb le s e t i ng r ey mo r ta r . W 2 8/29 : F ig . 1 9 : L owe r p a r t s o f r ubb le , o f m ixed s i ze s s e t i n mo r ta r w h ich r e sem b l e s D ; u pp er p a r t s b u i l t w i th n ea t ly l a id t u fa b l o cks s e t i n t h ick b ands o f mo r ta r D . U ppe r , b u t n o t l owe r , p a r t b onded w i th T 2 9 . Much p a tch ing w i th r ough e r s t onewo rk i n mo r ta r E . A ppa rent ly a w a l l o f p e r iod I I , r ebu i l t o r r a ised ,then r e pa i r ed i n p e r iod I V . S ee t h e d i scus s ion o f t h i s a nd t he f o l low ing s e c t ions b e low , ' R e la t ive C h rono logy ' . T 29

1 )L a rg e r ound c o rne r t owe r w i thou t e mb ra su r e s : F ig .19 . 2 ) B u i l t o n ap ro jec t ing p o lygona l f o unda t ion , n ow e xpo s ed t h rough e ro s ion . A bove , t o ah e igh t o f 6 7 m , r e gu la r ly c our s ed r ubb le s e t i n mo r ta r D , w i th o ne b and o f 4 5 b r icks . T he u ppe r p a r t i so f r e gu la r ly c our sed t u fa b l ocks , e v id ent ly s po i l s , w i th s ome e v idence o f b eams , s e t i n t h ick b ands o f mo r ta r D . Much p a tch ing a nd r ebu i ld ing w i th r ougher s t onewo rk i n mo r ta r E ; t h is p a r t ia l ly c ove r s t h e b r ick b and a nd i n c ludes r e info rcement o f t he f o unda t ion . 4 ) T owe r o f p e r iod I , r e bu i l t o r r a i s ed ; r epa i r ed i np e r iod I V .

W 2 9/30 : L owe r p a r t , t o h e igh t o f a bou t 3 m , f a ced w i th l a rg e f i e ld - s t ones l a id i n n ea t c ou r s e s , r e s emb l ing LW i ns t y le a nd b onded w i th T 2 9 ; s e t i n r ough mo r ta r D , i nw h ich s t one s h ave e v ident ly b een b roken t o make t he a gg re g a te . T h is o nce h ad a s moo th g r ey s ur fa ce mo r ta r , s ub sequen t ly c ove r ed w i th p i nk ; mo s t o f t h es e h ave d i sappea r ed . T he s e c t ion i mmed ia te ly a bove u s e s as ma l le r r ough r ubb le w i th s ome b r ick , i n c lud ing a n o cca s iona l a t temp t a t ac our s e , s e t i n al i gh te r g r ey mo r ta r , p robab ly E . T h i s a ppa r en t ly r ep r e s en t s l a te p a tch ing . T he u ppe r p a r t o f t h e t ower h as m ixed r ubb l e a nd r e us ed t u fa b l o cks s e t i n ab rown i sh mo r ta r D . T h i s s e c t ion i n c lude s t h ree l a rg e e mb ra sur e s ( no t a c ce s s ib le t o b e m easur ed ) w i th b r ick a r che s , p e rhap s o g iva l , a nd i sb onded w i th t he u ppe r p a r t o fT 3 0 . A t t h e b a s e o f t h e w a l l n ea r T 2 9 , t wo a d ja cen t a r ches , b o th l a id a skew t o t h e w a l l , h ave b een e xpo s ed w he r e t he f a ce i sb roken a way . T he l owe r e mp loys r e us ed b r i ck s e t i n ag ood d ea l o fs o f t mo r ta r C ; t he u ppe r , a l so o f r e u s ed b r ick b u t o n ly p a r t ia l ly p r e s erved , s e ems t o h ave b een a r e in fo r c ing a r ch , i n s e r ted w hen t h i s p a r t o f t h e w a l l c o l lap sed , p erhaps w eakened b y t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f t h e f i r s t a r ch . I ta nd t he f i l l ing b e tween t h e t wo u s e ag r ey m o r ta r w i th s ome b r ick , d i s t inc t f r om t he o ther s .

3

4 ) Wa l l o f p e r iod I , r a i s ed o r r e bu i l t ; w i th s u r fa ce p a tch ing o f P e r iod I V . T he m o r ta r o f t h e l ow e r a r ch s ugg e s ts t ha t i t ( and t here fo r e as t ruc tu r e , p e rhaps aw a l l ? ) e x i s ted i np e r iod I . T30

1 )R ound c o rne r t owe r w i th i n ne r c hambe r . 2 ) Mo s t ly o ve rg rown o r b roken a way . L owe r p a r t h a s b and o f 5b r i cks i n m o r t a r Db onded t o a d ja cen t s e c t ion o f W 2 9/30 w h ich h ere i si ns ma l ler r ub b l e , n o t t h e l a rg e f i e lds tones . T he u ppe r p a r t i so f r e used t u fa b locks , a l so b onded ; m o r ta r D . R epa i r s i n mo r ta r Ea ppea r o n t he o u t e r f a ce , w h i ch u s es r ough r ubb l e m asonry w i th many b r ick f r agmen ts . 3 ) T he r ound i n ne r c hambe r h a s r ema ins o f t h e s pr ing ing o f t h e b r ick a r ch o f a n e mb ra su re f a c ing e a s t . C hamber a nd e mb ra su re w ere f i led w i th r ubb le s e t i n mo r ta r E . 4 )T owe r o f p e r iod I , f i led i np e r iod I V .

W 3 0/LG : F a ced w i th t u fa b l o ck s i n r e gu la r c ou r s e s w i th s ome b r i ck , mo s t ly h o r i z onta l ; a l l s e t i nm o r ta r D , c ove red w i th ag r ey s ur fa ce mo r ta r . Th is w a l l c on ta ins l a rg e e mb ra su r es l i ke t ho se o fW 2 9/30 . LG : F ig .20 : As imp le o pen ing , o r ig ina l ly a r ched ; t h e s ou th s i de h as b e en r ebu i l t w i th as t ra igh t l i n te l . T he m ason ry a round t h e g a te i se x cept iona l ly n ea t , w i th r e gu la r r ow s o f s qua re a nd r e c tangu la r t u fa b locks s e t i n t h i ck b and s o f mo r ta r D , w i th m uch mode rn p a t ch ing . T he b l o cks a r e b ad ly e roded , p erhap s b ecaus e t h e c ompo s i t ion o f t he mo r ta r i mpeded p rop er d ra inag e . T he w o rk i sf a r s upe r io r t o t ha t s e en e l s ewhe re , a nd w a s p l a in ly i n tended t o b e s e en ; i tg i ves a n i mp r e s s ive a ppea rance t o t h e ma in e n t rance o f t h e c a s t le . A s t a i rway o n t he i n ne r f a ce o f t h e w a l l l e ads t o t h e t op o f t h e g a te ; i tw a s d e f ended b y as e r ie s o f a r row s l i ts ; t h e g a te i sn o t f l anked b y t owe r s . E v iden t ly a w o rk o f p e r iod I I ; t h e p oo re r ma son ry o f t he s ou th p i e r , w h i ch i n co rpo ra tes s ome l a rge s po i l s , i ss e conda ry , p robab ly p a r t o fa modern e fo r t t o a ve r t c o l lap s e . W LG/34 : F ig .21 : C on t inue s i n as t ra ight l i ne f o r a bout 8 m n o r th o ft h e g a te , i na l e s s r e gu la r m ason ry w h i ch s t i l l c onta in s many s qua red t u fa b lock s i n c our s es s e t i n mo r ta r D , w i th l a rg e b eamho l e s i n t h e u ppe r p a r t . Th is c on n ec t s w i th aw a l l w h i ch c on t inue s s outhwa rd a t a4 5 a ng l e , s ubsequen t ly mak ing a s im i la r b end t o b r ing i ti n t h e d i rec t ion o f T 3 4 ; t h e wa l l s a r e n o t b onded . T h i s s e c t ion i s b u i l t d i r ec t ly o n b edrock , a nd f a ced w i th s ma l l r ubb le i n r ough c our s e s , w i th n ume rous b r ick f r agmen t s , a l l s e t i na c oa r se mo r ta r Ew i th f ew p ebb le s . I te mp loys s ma l l r ound b eamho le s a nd many t u fa b l ocks , p robab ly r e us ed . Wh er e t h e w a l l b ends , t h e t ufa b l o cks a r e r e gu la r ly l a id i nc our se s a s q uo ins . I te ven tua l ly c onne c t s w i th a r ub b l e w a l l i n mo r ta r C , w h ich r e p r e s en ts at r a ce o f t h e o uter s h e l l o f T3 4 . 4 ) F i r s t s e c t ion , p e r iod I ; t h e r e s t p e r iod I V , i n co rpo ra t ing m uch o f t h e ma ter ia l o f t he e a r l ie r w a l l a s s po i ls , b u t a ppa rent ly n o t f o l low ing i t s c ou r s e ( s ee b e low , T3 2 ) . 0

T31

1 )S em i c i rcu la r p l a t fo rm t owe r . 2 )B anded m a son ry w i th a l te rna t ion o f 6o r m o re s t one s , 5b r i ck s , s e t i n av e ry c r umb ly , s o f t mo r ta r B . C onnec t ion w i th T 2 7 n o t e v iden t . 4 )P robab ly p e r iod I .

W 3 1/32 :

UW : F a c ing o f f i e lds tones , m o s t ly m i s s ing , c ove r s ac o re o f r ubb le s e t i n mo r ta r w h ich r e s emb l es A ; g r ey s ur fa c e m o r ta r c over s j o in t s . E lsewhe re , t h e i n te r io r mo r ta r r e s emb le s A b u t m ak es u se o f l a rge b r i ck f r agmen t s .

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B onded w i th T 3 2 , s qua r e s t ruc tur e . LW : R ough r ubb le s e t i n af i ne p i nk i sh mo r ta r w i th h a rd ly a ny i n c lus ions ; g r ey s u r fa ce mo r ta r . A bou t h a l fway b e tween t h e t owe r s , af ew p ro jec t ing s qua r e b l o cks o f u nce r ta in p urpo s e , p e rhap s b onded w i th t he w a l l ; t h ey may h ave b een r e us ed f r om t h e f a ce o f t h e UW . T h is w a l l c on t inue s i n to t h e b a s e o f T3 2 , o u te r s t ruc tur e . T he s e s e c t ion s c on ta in a noma lous p a r t s , w i th m o r ta r s w h ich d o n o t c o r re spond t o t ypes f o und e l s ewhe re . T hey may r e p r e sen t r ebu i ld ing s i n ap e r iod t r ans i t iona l b e tween Ia nd I ; s e e b e low , T3 2 . T 32

1 ) Sma l l s qua re t ow er c onve r t ed i n to U -shaped p l a t fo rm , l a te r r e fa ced : F igs . 2 2 , 2 3 . 2 ) T he o r ig ina l s t ruc tu re w a s as qua re t owe r b u i l t o n ap ro jec t ing p l inth o f a t l e a s t f ou r c our s e s o fl a rg e s po i l s . T he i n te r io r i sn owhe re v i s ib le . Mason ry o f m ixed s po i l s a nd f i e lds tone s l a id i n i r regu la r c our s es , w i th s l ight ly b e t te r s po i l s a s q uo ins . G aps a r e f i l led w i th b roken b r ick a nd s ome s t one ; l a rge s qua r e b eamho le s a ppea r a t i r r egu la r i n te rva l s . Mo r ta r i sw h i t i sh a nd s andy w i th b i t s o f b r ick a nd s ome s t one ; s ome o f i tr e s emb les a p i nk i s h v e r s ion o f A ; much h as d i s in teg ra ted . T h i s w as b onded w i th UW 3 1/32 . I n as e cond s t age , t he s qua r e t owe r w as c ove red w i th r ubb le s e t i n mo r ta r Ca nd f a ced w i th ab anded ma son ry w h ich h as a lmo s t d i sappea red ; i ta ppa r ent ly h ad b ands o f 5o r 6b r icks . T he n ew f a ce a ppea r s t o h ave b een b u i l t o ve r LW 3 1/32 b u t i t s c onnec t ion w i th t h e o the r a d jo in ing w a l l s i sn o t e v iden t . F ina l ly , an ew o u te r f a ce w as a dded , r e in fo r ced b y a s qua re f o unda t ion 3 m h i gh . I te mp loys am asonry w i th r e gu la r c our ses o f s qua red t u fa b l o ck s , a nd f r equen t h o r izon ta l a nd o ccas iona l v er t ica l b r ick , l a id w i th t h i ck b ands o fm o r ta r D ; l a rg e b eams a ppea r i mmed ia te ly b eh ind t he s u r fa ce . T he l ow e r p a r t o f t h e s t ruc tu re f o rms a r i gh t a ng le w i th W LG/34 , a nd w as e v iden t ly o nce c onnec ted w i th i t . 4 ) D a t ing o f t h e o r ig ina l s qua r e t owe r i sd if i cu l t , f o r i td o e s n o t c o r re spond i n s t y le o r m o r ta r w i th o the r s im i la r s t ruc tu re s . T ho s e , a l though o f t he s ame s i ze a nd s hape , e mp loy a f i ne m ason ry w i th b ands o f b r ick a nd mo r ta r A . T h i s w ou ld a ppea r t o b e s e conda ry , p e rhaps a h a s ty w o rk d e s igned t o r e p la ce a n o r ig ina l s im i la r t owe r , a nd t h e re fo re i n termed ia te b e tw een p e r iods Ia nd I . I tw ou ld t hus c o r re spond w i th t he a d ja cen t w a l l s 3 1/32 , o f w h i ch t h e UW h as as im i la r mo r ta r . T he s e cond p e r iod i se v iden t ly I , w h i le t h e t h i rd , w h ich r e s emb le s mo s t o f t h e o the r w o rk a round t he LG , may b e a s s igned t o p e r iod I I . A t t ha t t ime , t h e w a l l c onnec t ing t he LG w i th t h e ma in c i r cu i t e v iden t ly j o ined t h e b a s e o f t h i s t ower .

W 3 2/33 : UW : F a c ed w i th r e us ed t u fa b l o cks m ix ed w i th b r ick a nd f i e lds tones ; t h ick j o in ts f i l l ed w i th mo r ta r D ; u ppe r p a r ts o f r oughe r ma sonry s e t i n mo r ta r E . LW : R ep re s en ted o n ly b y p i le s o f r ubb l e . T he s urv iv ing UW i s a ppa ren t ly o fp e r iod I , w i th r e bu i ld ing i nI V . T 33

1 )U -shaped p l a t fo rm t ow e r b u i l t o ve r LW . 2 ) B anded m a sonry : 7 9 s t one s a l te rna te w i th 5r a ther i r r egu la r c our se s o f t h in b r icks , a l i nm o r ta r C . Much p a tch ing o n s u r fa ce i n mo r ta r D . 4 )T owe r o fp e r iod I , w i th r e pa i r s i nI .

W 3 3/34 : LW 3 3W : V i s ib le w i th f a c ing a t l ow l e ve l w i th in b a se o fT3 3 ; mo r ta r A . T 34

1 )P la t fo rm t ow er , p robab ly U -shaped , b u i l t o ve r LW F igs . 2 4 , 2 5 . 2 ) O u te r f a ce c omp l e te ly c o l lap s ed , m o s t o f r e s t m is s ing . T he t owe r c ons i s t s o f am as s o f r ubb l e i nm o r ta r C , p r e se rved b ecause ah ouse w as b u i l t o ve r i t . Mo s t s u rv iv ing r ema in s a r e t ho s e o f t h e LW , w h ich h e re s t ands t o ah e ight o f 6 m , e xpo sed b y t h e c o l lap s e o f t h e t owe r . I th a s af a c ing o f f i e lds tone s

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l a id i n r ough c our s es a nd p a r t ly c ove r ed b y g r ey s u r fa ce m o r ta r ; i n ne r mo r ta r A . I n t h e m idd le o f t h e f a ce i s ar e u sed c ap i ta l b ea r ing a c ro s s i n r e l ie f . T h i s i ss e t a t ap o s i t ion w h ich w ou ld o ve r look t he l ow e r g a te t o t h e c i tade l . 4 )T owe r o fp e r iod I b u i l t d i r ec t ly o ve r LW . W 3 4/35 : UW : F a c ing o f t u fa b l o cks p a r t ia l ly v i s ib le b eh ind T 3 5 . LW : R ubb le f a c ing p re s e rved f o r a bou t 3 m ; m o r ta r A . T35

1 ) C hambe r t ower o ve r look ing LC w i th e mb ra sur es a t t wo l e ve l s a nd f i ne b r ickwo rk , b u i l t o ve r LW : F igs . 2 6 , 2 8 . 2 ) T he t owe r i ss uppo r ted b y as qua re p ro je c t ing p l in th w h ich c on ta ins many s po i ls , n o tab le a mong t h em a n I o n ic c ap i ta l , ar e c tangu la r a can thus c ap i t a l a nd aP h ryg ian ' d oo r s tone ' ( no i n s cr ip t ion v i s ib le ) . Th i s p a r t , w i th t h e s e c t ion w he r e t h e LW i sr e vea led b y c o l laps e ( on t h e n o r th c o rne r ) , i ss e t i n mo r ta r C . A bove i t , t h e f a c ing i si n ab anded ma sonry w i th a n a l te rn a t ion o f 5 9 s t ones ( mo s t o f ten 7 ) a nd 6b r icks . T he s tone s a r e t he u sua l s qua red t u fa b l o cks , b u t h e re r a the r s ma l l a nd l a id i n n ea t c our ses , s ome o f w h ich c ons i s t e n t i r e ly o f l o ng n a r row b l ocks l a id e nd to -end . I n t h e u pper p a r t , t h e re i s much b r ick a mong t h e s t ones , b ut r a r e ly i n as y s t ema t ic p a t te rn . V e r t ica l b r i cks a r e c ommon , a nd i n many p l a ces b roken b r i cks a lmo s t s ur round t h e s t one s ; t h ey d o n o t , h owever , f o rm ac l o isonné . T he u se o f n ew r a the r t han r e us ed b r ick s i n t h e b ands i sn o tewo r thy : n owhe r e e l s e i n t h e f o r t r es s d o t h ey a pp ea r s o c ons i s tent ly . T h ey mea su r e o n t he a verag e 2 0 c m w ide b y 3 0 c m d e ep a nd 3 c m t h ick ; t h ey a r e s e t w i th r e gu la r h o r i zon ta l a nd v e r t ica l s epa ra t ions o f 2 3 c m . T he l ow e r e mbrasur e o f t he o u te r f a ce ( t he o n ly o ne v i s ib le f r om t he o u t s ide ) h as a b r ick a r ch o u t l ined w i th as i ng le l i ne o f b r i ck , a d jo in ing a b r i ck b and , t h e f our th f r om t h e b o t tom . T he l owe r p a r t a s f a r a s t h e f i rs t b r i ck b and o n t h e o u te r f a ce , a nd s omewha t h i ghe r o n t h e d e lap ida ted w e s t s i de , i ss e t i n mo r ta r C . T he r e s t e mp loy s as o f t g r ey r a the r f l aky mo r ta r w i thout b r ick , o f at ype n o t e ncoun te r ed e l s ewhe re . A n e x tens ive c r ibwo rk o f l a rg e s qua re b eams r an b eh ind t h e f a ce ; s ome o f t h e s e a re e x t r eme ly w e l l p r e se rved ; t h ey , t oo , a r e s e t i ng r ey mo r ta r . F ig . 2 7 3 ) T he i n te r io r e v iden t ly c on ta ined t wo l e ve l s o f c hamber s f o r d e f ence ; t h e l ower , w i th t h e e mb ra sur e vi si b le f r om bel o w , i s n ow i na c ce s s ib le . T he u ppe r c hamber , o n ly p a r t ia l ly p r e s e rved , i sf a ced w i th t u fa b l o cks w i th t h ick j o in t s o f g r ey mo r ta r . An i che t o t h e r i gh t o f t he e n t rance p re sum a b ly c onta ined a h ea r th , w h i le p a r t s o f as p layed e mb rasure a r e p rese rv ed o n t h e n o r th s i de . A l l a r e s e t i nt h e s am e m o r ta r . 4 ) D a t ing o f t h i s t owe r p o s e s ap rob lem , s i nce i ti sn o t a na logou s t o o the r t ower s o f t h e f o r t re s s ( bu t s e e b e low , W 7 9/80 a nd f o l low ing s ec t ion ) . T he re a r e e v iden t ly t h r ee s t ag e s : t h e f i r s t r e p r es en ted b y t h e LW ( when t h er e w as p r e sumab ly no t o w e r he r e ) ; t h e s e cond b y t he f o un da t i o n a n d l owe r s e c t ions i n m o r ta r C ; a nd t h e ma in p r e s erved s t ructu r e w i th f a c ing a nd i n te r io r f o rm ing t h e t h i rd . P a tch ing o f t h e f o unda t ion s i nh a rd g r ey mo r ta r i sp robab ly s ub s equen t t o a l t h e se . T he f i r s t t wo a r e s t ra ight fo r w a rd ; b y c ompa r i son w i th t h e r e s t o f t h e c i r cu i t , t h ey r epr e s en t p er iods I a nd I , w h i le t h e p a tch ing i st yp ica l o f p e r iod I I . U se o f b and ed mason ry w i th c a r e fu l b r ickwo rk i sc ha ra c te r i s t i ca l ly B yzan t ine , t hough t h e mason ry o f t h e i n te r io r h a s s ome r e s emb lance t o t h e w o rk o f Turk i sh p er iod I . T he r e bu i l t s t ruc tu re may t h e r e fo re b e t aken a s r e p resen ta t iv e o f al a t e B yzan t ine p er iod l i t t le a t te s ted e l s ewhe re o n t he s i te ; f o r f u r the r d i s cu s s i on , s e e ' Re la t ive C hrono logy ' b e low .

W 3 5/36 : UW : O n ly p a r t ia l ly p r e s e rved , m o s t ly b u r ied , a d ja cent t o T3 5 . An i n ne r f a ce a ppea r s t o c on ta in l a rg e l i me s tone b l o cks s e t i n ah a rd , l i ght g r ey

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mo r ta r , w h i le a s e conda ry o u te r f a ce b u i l t a ga ins t i tu ses mo r ta r D . T he i nne r f a ce e mp loyed n ea t b r i ck c our se s , p a r t ia l ly e xpo sed . T h i s may b e c on tempo ra ry w i th T 3 5 , w i th t h e t h icken ing a t t r ibutab le t o p e r iod I I . T36

1 )U -shaped p l a t fo rm t ow er . 2 ) F a c ing mo s t ly l o s t ; w he re p r e s e rved , b anded ma son ry w i th a l te rna t ion o f 5 s t ones a nd 5b r icks s e t i n mo r ta r C . L a rg e s qua r e b eamho le n ea r b a s e . 4 ) P e r iod I .

W 3 6/37 : V i r tua l ly n o th ing s u rv ive s i n t h i s s e c t ion , b u t t wo l umps o f mo r ta red r ub b l e , t h e w e s te rn o ne i n c lud ing a l a rg e c u t b l o ck , may r ep re sent t r a ces o f t wo t ow er s w h ich h ave d i sappea r ed . T hey h ave n o t b een a s s igned n umbe r s . T37

1 )U -shaped p l a t fo rm t ower . 2 ) Mo s t o ff a c ing m i s s ing o r b ur i ed , b u t e v ident ly u sed b anded ma sonry w i th 5 b r icks , 5o r 6s t ones s e t i n mo r ta r Cw i th p i nk s ur fa ce mo r ta r i nj o in ts . 4 ) P e r iod I .

T38

1 )U -shaped c hambe r t owe r . 2 ) B anded m asonry o f 5b r icks a l te rna t ing w i th 5 o r 6l a rg e r e gu la r ly l a id s t ones , w i th o ccas iona l e x t ra b r icks i n s er ted h o r izon ta l ly o r v e r t ica l ly ; a l l s e t i n ar a ther p a le mo r ta r C . 3 ) T he i n ne r c hambe r a t ah i gh l e ve l h a s b een p re se rved b y c ons truc t ion o f a h ous e i n i t , n ow r u ined . T he w indow s o f t h e h ouse o ccupy t he p la ce o f e mb rasu re s , o f w h ich t h e r e w e re p robab ly t wo . I n ter io r mo r ta r s ame a s e x te r io r . 4 ) A ppa ren t ly ac hambe r t owe r o fp e r iod I ; r e la t ion w i th LW n o t e v iden t .

T39

1 )U -shaped c hambe r t ow er . 2 ) B anded m asonry w i th 5r e la t ive ly n ea t c our s es o fc l o s e -se t b r icks a l terna t ing w i th 6o fs t one ; mo r ta r C . 3 ) U pper c hamb er s u rv ive s o n ly i no u t l ine , n o d e ta i l s p r ese rved . 4 ) P e r iod I .

W39/40 : UW : R ubb l e c o re a l one s u rv ive s , s e t i n ag r ey , s l ight ly p i nk ish mo r ta r w h ich r e semb le s t ha t o f T3 2 a nd t hus p robab ly r ep resen ts a p er iod i n ter m ed ia te b e tween Ia nd I ; c f . W 3 1/32 , T3 2 . T40

1 )U -shaped p l a t fo rm t owe r . 2 ) L ump o fc o r e o n ly , w i th t r a ce s o fb r i ck b and s ; mo r ta r C . 4 ) A ppa ren t ly at ow er o f p e r iod I .

T41

1 )S em ic i rcu la r c o rne r t owe r , p robab ly w i th ac hambe r , b u i l t o ve r b o th t he LW a nd a n o r ig ina l s qua re t owe r : F ig s . 2 9 ,30 . 2 ) T he o r ig ina l s qua r e t ow er , w ho s e e a s t f a ce h as b een e xpo sed b y t h e p a r t ia l c o l laps e o f t he l a ter s he l l , e mp loys a ma sonry o f r e gu la r ly c our sed s po i ls a nd f i e ld s tones w i th o ne b and o f 6c l o s e -se t b r icks o f v a ry ing s i ze , e v i d en t ly r e u s ed . S tones a nd b r i cks a r e s e t i n mo r ta r A ; p i nk s ur fa ce mo r ta r c ove r s t h e j o in t s . I t s u ppe r c our s e s , a bove t h e b r ick b and , c ons is t o f r e gu l a r ly c u t t u fa b l ocks i n t h e s ame mo r ta r . I t j o ins W 4 1/42 b u t w as a ppa r en t ly n o t b onded w i th i t ; t h e j o in t i so bs cured b y mounds o f r ubb i s h . T h e o ute r s he l l , w h ich o nce e n t i re ly c over ed t h is t owe r , w a s b u i l t o ver t h e LW ( s ee b e low ) a nd r e in fo r ced b y ap ro jec t ing s qua re f ounda t ion b u i l t o n b edro ck . I th as a b anded ma sonry w i th a n a l te rna t ion o f 5c l o s e s e t b r icks a nd 6 s t one s , a l l i n m o r ta r C . Whe re i th a s f a l len a way , i th a s l e f t n o t r a c e o n t h e s u r fa ce o f t h e s qua r e t owe r .

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3 ) T he u pper p a r t , w h ich w ou ld h ave c on ta ined a c hambe r , h a s mo s t ly d i sap p ea red . 4 )S qua r e t owe r a nd LW o f p e r iod I ,o ve rbu i l t b y r ound t ower i np er iod I . W41/42 : UW : C onnec ted w i th s qua r e T 4 1 , b i t o f f a c ing i n t u fa b l o cks p r es e rved n ea r j o in t ; mo r ta r A . P e r iod I . LW 4 1E : V i s ib le o n ly i nc r o s s -s ec t ion c over ed b y r ound t owe r ; f a ced w i th f i e ld s t one s s e t i n mo r ta r A , s moo the r o n t h e s u r fa ce , r ougher i ni n te r io r . T he LW h e re w a s a bou t 1 m65 t h ick a nd s t ood 1 m65 i n f r on t o ft he t owe r . I t a ppea r s t o h ave b een d e lap ida ted w hen i tw a s i n co rpo ra t ed i n to t he l a te r s t ruc ture : F ig . 3 0 . ( T42 -44 : R av ine A rea : C ons ide rab le e r o s ion o f t he s t e ep o u ter f a ce o f t h e h i l l , a s w e l l a s t he p re s ence o f ab road a nd g row ing r a v ine , h ave s eve r e ly d amag ed t h e w a l l a nd p rovoked e x t ens ive r e in fo rcem en t . T he g ap i n t h e w a l l c aus ed b y t h e r av ine w a s a n e spec ia l ly v u lne rab le p o in t w h ich n e eded a t ten t ion . E ro s ion make s i td if i cu l t t o d e te rm ine t h e o r ig ina l s hape o ft h e w a l l h e r e , o r t o u nde r s tand a l t h e r ema ins . ) T42

1 )S u rv ive s o n ly a s as t ump o f mo r ta red r ubb l e . 2 )R ubb le s e t i n mo r ta r C , b onded w i th W 4 1/42 . 4 )P e r iod I .

W 4 2/43 : UW : Mo s t ly d e lap ida ted , b u t s ome f a c ing w i th l a rg e b lo ck s n ea r t he b a se , a nd s ome b roken b r i ck o n t he s u r fa ce . m o r ta r D . R un s b eh ind T 3 8 ; a ppa r en t ly o fp e r iod I . T43

1 )C o re o f mo r ta r ed r ubb le , p a r t ly p r es e rved : F ig . 3 1 2 ) Sma l l s e c t ion o f f a c ing i nt u fa b l o cks p re s e rved o n t h e n o r th s i de ; c o r e s e t i n g r ey mo r ta r , a ppa ren t ly D ; i na cces s ib le . N o t b onded w i th w a l l b eh ind . 4 )P robab ly p e r iod I .

W 4 3/44 O n n o r th s i de o fr av ine : F ig . 3 1 . UW : C on t inues t o e dg e o f r av ine , w he r e i ti sb roken a way f o r as t re tch o f a bou t 1 0 m e t r e s . B eh ind a nd s ou th o fT4 3 , t h e w a l l i sd oub led , w i th i t s o u te r f a ce e mp loy ing t u fa b l o cks s e t i n m o r ta r D . T h i s i st her e fo r e o f p e r iod I , b u i l t a ga in s t a n e a r l i e r w a l l , p robab ly p e r iod I . T43A (? ) : F ig 3 1 : Two w a l l s b eh ind T 4 3 , b u i l t d i r ec t ly o ver t he r a v ine a nd n ow i na cce s s ib l e , may b e long t o ar e in fo rc ing t owe r b u i l t t o c on t ro l a c ce s s t o t he r av ine . T he o ut e r ( e as te rn ) w a l l , a bou t 5m b eh ind W 4 3/44 , i sb u i l t i n ab anded m a son ry w i th b ands o f f i ve b r ick s , mo s t ly r e used , s e t i n a g r ey mo r ta r w i th p ebb le s , a nd a l te rna t ing w i th w e l l -a r rang ed f i e lds tones a nd s ome c u t b l o cks . T h i s w a l l i sn o t p a ra l l e l t o W 4 3/44 b u t t u rn s o r b ends a t a n a ng le o f a bou t 3 0 a way f r om i t . I t may t hu s b e af a ce o f a t owe r w ho s e o the r w a l l s c ou ld b e r e pr e sen ted b y t r a ces o fm o r ta red r ubb le w i th s ome c u t b l o cks v i s ib le i n t h e s c a rp o f t h e r av ine a bou t 5 m f a r ther e a s t . I ft h es e r e p r e s en t at ower , t h ey i n d i ca te t ha t t he r a v ine w a s a l r eady i n e x i s tence a t t h e t ime o f t h e i r c ons t ruc t ion , w h ich w a s p robab ly i n p e r iod I . O n t h e o the r h and , t h e w a l l i nb anded ma sonry c ou ld s imp ly b e at r a ce o f t h e o r ig ina l w a l l r unn ing e a s t o f t h e p r e sent W 4 2/44 . I n t ha t c a s e , h oweve r , n o e xp lana t ion f o r t h e r emnan t s i n t he s ca rp w ou ld b e e v i d en t . '

W 4 3/44 O n s ou th s i de o fr av ine : F ig . 3 2 . UW : D oub le w a l l s u rv ive s f r om T 4 4 t o t h e e dg e o ft h e r av ine . T he o u te r f a ce , b u i l t i n ar ough mo r ta r ed r ubb le a nd l a rg e ly d e lap ida t ed , a ppea r s t o r un

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b e low t h e b as e o f T4 4 . T he w e l l -p re s e rved i n ne r f a ce i sv i s ib le i n c r o s s s e c t ion f r om t h e f ounda t ions t o i t s f u l l h e ight o f a bout 7m . I tc ons i s t s o f ac o re o f m o r ta r ed r ubb le w i th n ume rous l a rg e b eamho le s , f a ced w i th m ixed l a rg e a nd s ma l l f i e ld s tones s e t i n ag r ey mo r ta r w h ich r e s emb le s E . T he w a l l h a s ap ronounced b a t te r , b e ing a lmo s t t w ice a s t h ick a t t h e b o t t om a s a t t h e t op . I tr e s t s o n b ed ro ck , i t s f ounda t ions c ons iderab ly r e in f o rced i nf r on t . T he ma in s t ruc tur e n ow v i s ib le i se v iden t ly o f P er iod I V , a nd a ppa r en t ly r e p la ced a n e a r l ie r w a l l w h ich s t ood s omewha t i n f r on t o f i t . T he p rob lems o fe r o s ion a r e e spec ia l ly a ppa r en t h e re . T44

1 ) S em ic i rcu la r c o rne r t owe r b u i l t o ver LW a nd e nc lo s ing a n e a r l ie r s qua r e t owe r w h ich h ad ac hambe r ; s ame c ons t ruc t ion a sT4 1 : F igs . 3 3 , 3 4 . 2 ) T he o u te r s h e l l , v i s ib le o n t he n o r th a nd w es t s i des , w a s f a ced w i th t h e u sua l b and ed ma sonry w i th 5 b r ick c ou r s es a l t e rna t ing w i th 6 o r mo r e c our s es o f s ma l l s qua red t u fa b l ock s ; mo r ta r C . T he o u te r f a ce i sb u i l t d i rec t ly o v e r t h e LW , w h i ch i tu s es a s af ounda t ion . T he LW w as f a ced w i th r e gu la r ly c our s ed f i e ld - s t one s m ixed w i th s po i l s , i n mo r ta r A . Among t h e s po i l s a r e s eve ra l c o lumn s ha f t s , e v iden t ly u sed t o b ond t h e f a c ing a nd c o re i n as i te o f i n he r en t i n s tab i l i ty , a nd a l a te a n t ique c ap i ta l b ea r ing ac r o s s , s e t i n to t he f a ce a bou t 3 m a bove t h e f ounda t ion . T he LW r an i nf r on t o f a n o r ig ina l s qua r e t ower i n an ea t masonry o f r e c tangu la r t u fa b l o cks a nd b and s o f b r ick , w i th s ome l a rge s po i l s u sed a s q uo in s . T he b r icks a r e l a id i n r e gu la r c our s es o f 5 , w i th n a r row h o r i z on ta l s e pa ra t ions , a nd v e r t ica l j o in t s u sua l ly e qu iva len t i n t h icknes s t o t h e b r icks . T he b r ick b ands s how t r a ces o f p i nk s ur fa ce mo r ta r . T he t u fa b l o cks a r e i n w ide c ou r s es o f 9 11 , a l s e t i n mo r ta r A , w i th t he g ap s b e tween t h em s ome t ime s f i l led w i th b r i ck f r agmen t s . A n e mb rasur e s u r v i ve s i nt h e u ppe r p a r t o f t h e s ou th f a ce . 4 ) T he o r ig ina l d e f ences c ons i s ted o f t he s qua r e c hambe r w i th t h e LW i mmed i a t e ly b e fo r e i t ; b o th a r e o f p e r iod I . I n p e r iod I , t he o u te r s he l l c ove red t he t ow e r a nd r e s ted o n t h e LW .

W 4 4/45 : UW : A d ja c ent t oT4 4 , s how s f a c ing o f t u fa b l o cks w i th t r a ces o f ab and o f 5b r icks , a l i n mo r ta r A . A t t he j o in t o fT4 4 , t h e l ower p a r t o f t he w a l l , t o ah e igh t o f a bout 2m f r om p re s ent g round l e ve l , i sn o t b onded w i th t he t owe r , n o r d o e s t he b r ick b and ma tch t ha t o f t h e t owe r ; t he u pper p a r t , h oweve r , i sc l ea r ly b onded . A f te r a bou t 2 m , t h i s y i e lds t o af a c ing o f c our sed f i e lds tones i n mo r ta r C , w i th a b and o f 5b r icks w h i ch c on t inue s t ha t o f t h e p rev ious s e c t ion . O n ly a f r agmen t o f t h i s s u rv ives b e fo re i ti n t u rn i sr e p la ced b y ar ubb le f a ce i n mo r ta r Dw i th l a rg e r ound b eamho le s i n t he l ow e r p a r t s ; t he u ppe r p a r t s a r e s e t i n mo r ta r E . T h i s s e c t ion a ppea r s t o h ave b een b u i l t o ver a n e a r l ie r w a l l o f b anded ma sonry w h ich c on t inue s b eh ind T 4 5 . T h e r ema ins e v iden t ly r e p re sen t as e r ies o fr ebu i ld ing s : t he o r ig ina l w a l l w a s o f p e r iod I , c on tempo ra ry w i th t he s qua re t ow er 4 4 ; i t w as r ebu i l t i n p e r iod I , p r esumab ly w hen t h e n ew s he l l w a s a dded t o T 4 4 , a nd s ub sequen t ly r e bu i l t o r r e fa ced i n p er iod I , w i th f u r ther r epa i r s i n p e r iod I V . T45

1 )U -shaped c hambe r t owe r b u i l t o ve r LW . 2 ) C o re o f m o r ta r ed r ubb le f a ced w i th t h e u sua l b anded m asonry : c our s es o f 5 b r icks , 6s t one s i n mo r ta r C . T he u ppe r p a r t c on ta ined a c hambe r w i th t h ree s p lay ed e mb ra su re s , o f w h ich t ho s e o n t he w es t a nd n o r th s i de s a r e p a r t ia l ly p r es e rved . T he s e a r e s e t i nt h e s ame mo r ta r , b ut t h e u ppe r p a r t s o f t he t ow e r h ave b een l a rg e ly p l as te r ed o ve r w i th g r ey mo r ta r . 4 ) T owe r o f p e r iod I , b u i l t o ve r LW a nd a ga ins t UW ( s ee b e low ) , w i th r e pa i r s t o c hambe r w a l l s i np er iod I .

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W 4 5/46 : UW : A t a nd b eh ind T 4 5 , t h i s i sf a ced w i th c u t t u fa b locks a nd b ands o f5 b r icks i n mo r ta r C , a nd l a rg e ly c ove red w i th p i nk s ur face m o r ta r . I tw a s e v i - d ent ly s t and ing w hen T 4 5 w as b u i l t a ga ins t i t ; t he s u r fa ce mo r ta r s how s t ha t t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f t h e t ow e r w a s s ub s equent t o t ha t o f t h e w a l l r a the r t han b e ing a n e xamp le o f at owe r s imp ly n o t b onded w i th a w a l l . Mo s t o f t h i s s e c t ion h a s r e gu la r ly c u t t u fa b l ocks w i th t h ick b ands o f mo r ta r D a nd l a rge b eamho le s i n t h e l ower p a r t , w h i le r e used b l o cks a nd r ubb le , w i th s im i la r b eamho le s i nm o r ta r E , a ppea r i n t h e u pper p a r t . T he f i r s t s urv iv ing p e r iod o f t h i s w a l l i se v iden t ly I , b ut e a r l ier t han t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f T 4 5 ; mo s t o f i tw a s r e bu i l t i n p e r iod I I , a nd a ga in i n p e r iod I V . LW 4 5E : We l l -p re s e rved f a ce v i s ib le w he re p a r t o f T 4 5 h as c o l lap sed : r ubb le s e t i n much mo r ta r A ( smoo the r o n t h e s ur fa ce , r oughe r a nd d a rke r w i th in ) , w i th s ome s t one s l a id a t a4 5 a ng l e . LW 4 6W : S im i la r f a c ing a nd mo r ta r , w i th d i agona l ly la id b locks ; s t ands a bou t 3 m h i gh , b u t n o t r a ce o fp a rape t . °

T46

1 )U -shaped p la t fo rm t owe r b u i l t d i rec t ly a ga ins t UW a nd o ve r LW . 2 ) T ra ce s o f f a c ing w i th 5 -br ick b ands , b ad ly e r oded ; c o re s e t i n mo rta r C . A w a l l o f i r regu la r t u fa b l o cks r uns b eh ind t h e t owe r . 4 )P e r iod I .

W 4 6/47 : UW : Mo s t ly e r oded a nd o verg rown ; l ow e r p a r t s h ave t r a ce s o f l a rg e t u fa b l o cks i nc ou r s e s . LW 4 6E : F a c ing a nd c o re a s 4 5E ; s t ands q u i t e h i gh , b ut o ve rg rown . LW 4 7W : Mo s t ly b ur ied b u t s ome f a c ing p r e se rved u s ing d iagona l b lo cks a nd mo r ta r A . T47 :

1 )U -shaped p la t fo rm t ow er b u i l t a ga ins t UW a nd o ver LW . 2 )S tump o fc o re o n ly ; t r a ce s o ff a c ing s how ab and o f 5b r icks , m o r ta r C . T he c o re c on ta ins s ome l a rg e t u fa b l o cks , e v iden t ly r e us ed . T he w a l l b eh ind t h e t owe r i so fs im i la r m asonry . 4 )P e r iod I .

W 4 7/48 : UW : Two f a ces : t he i n ne r h a s w e l l c u t t u fa b l ocks w h ich a r e l a rge r n ea r t h e b a se , s ma l le r i n t h e u ppe r p a r t ; i ta l so c on ta ins s ome s po i l s , i n c lud ing a n I on ic i mpo s t c ap i ta l , a l l s e t i n m o r ta r C . I n f r ont o f t h i s i sa n o u te r f a ce o f r ubb le i n mo r ta r E . E v iden t ly a w a l l o f p er iod I r e info r ced i n p e r iod I V . T48

1 )U -shaped p l a t fo rm b u i l t o ve r t h e LW a nd ab a s t ion . F ig . 3 5 . 2 ) S tump o f c o re o n ly , w i th t h e t r a ce s o f b r i ck b ands p ro jec t ing i nwa rd f r om t h e f a ce ; mo r ta r C . T h i s i s b u i l t d i r e c t ly o ve r t h e LW , w ho se f a ce i s r ema rkab ly w e l l p re s erved w he re t h e o u te r f a ce o f t he t owe r h a s f a l len a way . I tc ons i s t s o f f i e lds tone s i nr e gu la r c our s es , many o f t h em l a id d i ag o na l ly , i n mo r ta r A , a nd s t ands a bou t 1 m50 h i gh . F ig . 3 6 I t w a s a ppa ren t ly d e lap ida ted w hen i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e t owe r . B eh ind i t , a bou t 2 m i n f r on t o f t h e UW , t h e r e i s ac l ea r j o int i n t he t owe r r e vea l ing af a ce o f t u fa b l ocks i n mo r ta r A . T h i s i sv i s ib le o n ly i n c r o s s -s ec t ion , b u t a ppea r s t o c on t inue i n to t h e t owe r a t a n a ng le o f a bout 4 5 r e la t ive t o a nd t owa rd t h e UW . I t wo u l d s e em t o r e p r esent p a r t o f a t r iangu la r o r s em ic i rcu la r b as t ion w h i ch p ro jec ted f r om t h e w a l l b eh ind t h e LW . 4 )B a s t ion ( ? )a nd LW o f p e r iod I ,b o th i n co rpo ra ted i nt ower o f p e r iod I .

W 4 8/49 : UW : F a ced w i th w e l l la id t u fa b l o cks i nt h ick b ands o f mo r ta r D . P e r iod I .

40

T 49

1 )S em ic i rcu la r p l a t fo rm t owe r bui l t ,o ve r p ro jec t ing s qua re b a s t ion a nd LW . 2 ) T he o r ig ina l s t ruc ture w a s s qua r e p ro jec t ion f a ced w i th t u fa b l o cks a nd b ands o f 3 4 b r ick , a l i n m o r ta r A . S i nce t h e o uter f a ce i sm i s s ing , i t s e xa c t s i ze c anno t b e d e te rm ined , b ut i ts e ems t o h ave b een e xcep t iona l ly s ma l l f o r at owe r . I ts t ood i mme dia te ly b eh ind t h e LW . O n t h e e a s t a nd w es t , i tw a s c ove red b y ar ounded w a l l f a ced w i th t u fa b l o cks i n t h ick b ands o f m o r ta r D . T h is w o rk , w h ich s e e ms t o h ave c ons is ted o f f i l l ing i n t h e c o rne r s a nd c hang ing t h e s hape o f t h e s t ruc ture r a the r t han t h e u sua l c omp le te o ve rbu i ld ing , r e s ted o n t h e r ema ins o f t h e LW , w h ich h ad t h e n o rma l ma sonry a nd m o r ta r . 4 ) B a s t ion ( ? )o fp e r iod Ir e bu i l t a nd t r ans fo rmed i np e r iod I .

W 4 9/50 : UW : O n ly c o re i n mo r ta r Dp r es e rved ; a ppa r en t ly p e r iod I . T 50

1 )U -shaped t ow e r b u i l t o ve r LW . 2 ) T he l i t t le f a c ing p r es e rved s how s b ands o f 5b r icks a nd l a rg e t u fa b l o cks n ea r t he b a se ; mo r ta r C . 4 ) P e r iod I .

W 5 0/51 : UW : Sma l l t r a ce s l e f t w i th mo r ta r D ; a ppa ren t ly p e r iod I . T 51

S urv ive s o n ly a s am as s o fo ve rg rown m o r ta red r ubb le .

W 5 1/52 : UW : Two f a ce s : i n ne r o f c our sed t u fa b l o cks w i th b and o f 2 ( ? ) b r icks a nd s o f t mo r ta r A ; o ute r o f r ubb le i n m o r ta r E . T he o r ig ina l w a l l o f p e r iod I w a s d oub led i nt h icknes s i np er iod I V . T 52

1 ) Sma l l s em ic i rcu la r t owe r l a te r c ove r ed w i th a n ew s he l l o f t h e s ame s hape : F ig . 3 7 . 2 ) T he w e l l -pr e se rved o r ig ina l t ow e r w a s f a ced w i th b anded ma sonry i n w h ich 5o r 6c ou r s es o f s t one a l terna ted w i th 3o r 4o f b r ick . T he f a i r ly r e gu la r s t onewo rk h a s w ide j o in ts f i l led w i th s ma l l a nd l a rge s t ones , mo r ta r a nd o cca s iona l b r ick ; much o fi ti sr ough ly p l a s te red w i th ar e d s ur fa ce mo r ta r . T he b r icks a r e l a id i n n ea t c our s e s , w i th r e gu la r , n a r row s epa ra t ions . A l l a r e s e t i nm o r ta r A . T he o u te r s he l l , w h ich h a s a lmo s t e nt i re ly c o l lap s ed , e mp loyed m o r ta r C . 4 ) O r ig ina l t ow e r o f p e r iod Ie n la rg ed i np e r iod I .

W 5 2/53 : UW : T he l ower p a r t o f t h e o u te r f a ce s how s t u fa b l o cks a nd a b and o f 3 b r icks i nm o r ta r A ; t h e r e s t , w h ich s t ands h i gh a d ja cen t t o T5 3 i so f r ub b l e s e t i nm o r ta r E . Wa l l o fp e r iod Ir a i s ed a nd r e bu i l t i np e r iod I V .

4 1

0 1 0 2 0m . I i I i I C ontour i n terva l 5m .

T53

1 ) R ounded p o lygona l t owe r w i th t wo s he l l s ; t h e l a rge s t i n t he c i rcu it : F ig s . 3 9 , 4 0 , 4 1 .

2 ) O u ter f a ce : w e l l -a r rang ed b anded ma sonry w i th 7 c our ses o f s t one a l te rna t i n g w i th 5 o f b r ick . T he s t onewo rk i so f m ixed s po i ls a nd t u fa b locks o f v a ry ing s i ze s a nd s hape s , l a id a s f a r a s p o s s ib le i n s t ra igh t r ow s . S ome , h oweve r , a r e l a id o n e nd a nd i ns ome p l a ce s s ma l l n a r row b l o cks a l te rna te i r r egu la r ly w i th l o ng r e c tangu la r o nes . T he b r icks a r e r ough ly s e t w i th i n cons i s ten t s epa ra t ion s ; t h e mo r ta r b and i su sua l ly o f t he s ame w id th a s t he b r icks . A l l j o in ts , i n s t one a nd b r i ck a l ike , a r e c over ed w i th a t h i ck c oa t o f p i nk s u r fa ce mo r ta r t o p rov ide a s moo th f a ce . T h i s s he lter c oa t c oncea l s l a rge n umbe r s o f b r ick l a id v e r t ica l ly a nd h or izon ta l ly , a lmo s t f o rm ing a c l o i sonné w he r e e xpo s ed . L a rg e b eam h o les a ppea r i n t h e s e cond b r ick b and f r om t h e t op , a nd t wo b eams a r e p reserved o n t he w e s t s i de . T h i s f a ce i ss e t i n mo r ta r Ba nd f o rms ar ough h exagon , o f w h ich a l s i des a r e s omewha t c u rved , t wo o f t h em d i s t inc t ly s o . I tr e s t s o n ap o lyg o na l f o unda t ion o f r ubb l e f a ced w i th s po i l s a nd f i e lds tones . w i th s ca t t e r ed b r ick w h ich i ns ome p l a ce s f o rms c our s e s b e tween t h e s tone s . T he f ounda t i on , n ow p e r i lous ly e xpo s ed , h as e v iden t ly b een r e info r c ed o n s eve ra l o cca s ion s , s i nce i ts t ands o n ap ro jec t ing p o int o f t h e h i l l w h i ch h a s b e en s ub jec ted t os e ve re e r o s ion . I nne r f a ce : V i s ib le o n ly o n t h e n o r th s i de , n ex t t o t h e e ntrance ; v ery i r r egu l a r b anded m a son ry , w i th b ands o f 5t o Sb r ick s , a nd 5 o r mo re s t one s ; t he r e a r e , i n a dd i t ion , p a r t ia l s i ng le a nd d oub le b r ick c ou r s e s a nd o c ca s i ona l e x t ra b r ick . T he b r icks i nt h e b ands a r e b o th n ew a nd r e used , v e ry r ough ly l a id ; t h e s t one s , l i kew i se ar e a m i xt u re ofv a r i o us sh a p es a nd si z e s , w i th m uch f i l l ing o f b r ick a nd s ma l l s t ones i n t h e j o ints . A l l a re s e t i n m o r ta r A , s l opp i ly c ove r ed w i th a p i nk s he l te r c oa t . Th i s o r ig ina l t ow e r a ppea r s t o h ave b een p o lygona l , as hape r e f l ec ted i n t he c on s t ruc t ion o f t h e o ute r s he l l . 3 ) T he e n t rance a nd i n te r io r c hambe r o f t h e i n ner s he l l a re r ema rkab ly w e l l p r e s e rved a nd a c ce s s ib le ( h ence t h e i r c ha ra c ter i s t ic u se a s ap ub l ic t o i l e t ) : F igs . 4 2 , 4 3 , 4 4 . T he e n t rance h ad s t ra igh t s i des , w i th n o s urv iv ing t r a ce s o f t h e g a te , a nd p robab ly a s t ra ight l i n te l . T he i n ne r c hambe r , a

4 2

r ounded p o lygon w i th a d omed r oo f , s how s c ons ide rab le t r a ces o f r ebu i ld i n g . I tc on ta ins f i ve s p layed e mb ra su re s f a ced w i th c u t s t one a nd s e t i n s imp le r e ce s s e s . T hey w e re d es igned t o e nf i lade t h e w a l l a nd c ove r t h e a pp roa che s t ot h i s e xpo sed p o int . T he d om ica l v au l t c ons i s ted o f ac o rbe l l i ng o f c l o se ly -s e t n ew b r icks i n r e gu la r c ou r s e s ; t h ey f o rm a f a c ing o ve r f r agmen ta ry b r icks m ixed w i th r ubb le , a nd d es cended a s p enden t ives t o t h e p res en t g r ound l e ve l . Many o f t h em b ea r ac i r cu la r o r s t ra igh t r ak ing , e v iden t ly m ade w i th b a re f i nge r s a nd d e s igned t o p rov ide a b e t t er h o ld f o r t h e mo r ta r . A l l t h is i ss e t i n mo r ta r A . S l igh t ly a bov e t h e p r es en t f l oo r , a nd l e ve l w i th t h e b a s e o f t h e e mb rasure s , a r e m a s s e s o f r ubb le s e t i n ag r ea t d ea l o f mo r ta r C . T he se a r e p la in ly s e conda ry , a nd r e pr es en t p l a t fo rms f o r a r t i l le ry , p r e sumab ly o f ah eav ier k i nd t han w a s u sed a t t h e t ime o f t h e o r ig ina l c ons t ruc t ion a nd t hus n eces s i ta t ing r e in fo rcemen t . 4 ) O r ig ina l t owe r o f p e r iod I ,r e in fo rced o n t h e i n te r io r b e fo re t h e c ons t ruc t ion o ft h e n ew f a ce i np e r iod I . W 5 3/54 : UW : Sma l l s e c t ion o f f a c ing w i th t u fa b l ocks v i s ib le n ea r T5 3 ; g r ey mo r t a r , p e rhap s A ; p e r iod I ( ? ) . T 54

1 )P la t fo rm t ow e r . 2 ) S tump o n ly , i nm o r ta r C ; b u i l t a ga ins t UW w i th mo r ta r A ( ? ) . 4 ) P e r iod I , a ppa r en t ly b u i l t a ga ins t w a l l o fp e r iod I .

T 55

1 )C hambe r t ow e r . 2 ) B a ck a nd f r agmen t s o f s i de w a l l s s urv ive : r ubb le i n vf t , c l ayey mo r ta r B b u i l t a ga ins t r ough r ubb le UW i n mo r ta r A . 4 ) P e r iod I , b u i l t a ga ins t w a l l o f p er iod I .

W 5 5/56 : UW : o u t e r f a ce i n b anded ma sonry w i th 3 ( ? ) c our s e s o f b r ick , mo r ta r B ; b eh ind i t , aw a l l f a ced w i th t u fa b l o cks ; a ppa ren t ly w a l l o f p e r iod Ir e in f o rced i nf r on t i np e r iod I . T 56

1 )P la t fo rm t ow e r b u i l t a ga ins t UW . 2 ) B anded m ason ry ; mo s t f a c ing m i s s ing . Whe re v i s ib le , s how s r e gu la r c our s e s o f s qua red t u fa b l ocks w i th o ne b and o f 5c l o s e ly -s e t b r icks ; s ome e x t ra b r ick f o rm ing s ho r t c our s es . Mo r ta r B . 4 ) P e r iod I ; e xpo su re o f t h e f o unda t ion r e vea l s t h e c ons iderab le e r o s ion w h ich h a s t aken p l a ce o n t h i s s i de a nd w i l l n o d oub t c aus e t h e t ow e r t o d i sap p ea r i nt h e f o r s eeab le f u tu re .

T 57

1 ) C hambe r t ow e r o f i r r egu la r r e c tangu la r s hape w i th r ounded c o rne r s , b u i l t o ve r a n e a r l i e r , p robab ly r e c tangu la r t owe r : F ig . 4 5 . 2 ) O u ter f a ce : b u i l t o n ap ro jec t ing r e c tangu la r p l in th o fm o r ta red r ubb le f a ced w i th c u t b l o ck s a nd s po i l s i n t h e u ppe r p a r t s ; s ome c o lumn d rums n o tab le i n t h e t op r ow o f t he p l in th . T he a ng le s b e tween t h e c o rne r s o f t h e r ounded t ow e r a nd t h e p l in th h ave b een f i l led i nt o p rov ide as moo th f a ce , l e av ing n o p l a ce f o r a n e nemy t o s t and . T he t ow e r i sf a ced w i th b anded ma son ry , w i th a n a l terna t ion o f 5b r icks a nd 5o r 6s t one s ; t h e c our s ing i s i r regu la r , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e b r ick b ands . Mo s t o f t h e b r icks a ppea r t o h ave b een n ew w hen l a id ; t h ey a r e c l o s e ly s e t , a nd s epa ra ted b y ab and o mo r ta r e qu iva l en t t o t h e ir t h icknes s . F requent h o r izon ta l a nd v e r t ica l b r icks i nt h e j o in ts , mo s t ly c ove r ed b y p i nk s u r fa ce mo r ta r . A l l i n mo r ta r B . T he re h a s b een c ons ide rab le p a tch ing i n t h e u pper p a r t , u s ing r ubb le a nd v e ry t h in b r icks i n ag r ey m o r ta r , p robab ly E . P a r t o f t h i s b l o cked t h e e mb ra su re o n t h e NW s i de . T he i n ne r f a c e i sa lmo s t e nt i re ly c oncea led b y t h e o u te r , w i th o n ly a s ma l l s e c t ion v i s ib le o n t h e e a s t s i de . T h is s how s l a rg e l i mes tone b l ocks i n t h e

4 3

l owe r p a r t , w i th r ubb le a bove ; i tu s e s m o r ta r A , s moo th w i th v e ry f ew i n c lus ions . I tw a s a ppa ren t ly d e lap ida ted w hen t h e n ew f a ce was a dded . N o t r a ce o f t h e LW i sv i s ib le i nt h e w e l l -p re s e rved o u ter f a ce . 3 ) T he i n ne r t r apezo ida l c hamber i sf a ced w i th r ubb le a nd b r ick i nm o rta r B , w i th b r ick b ands w h ich c ont inue t h rough f r om t h e o uter f a ce . T hese e v i d en t ly s uppo r ted a f l oo r , t ha t o f t h e d e f ens ive l e ve l w h ich g av e a c ces s t o t wo l a rge s p layed e mbra su re s o n t h e NW a nd NE c o rners . T he e ntranc e t o o ne o f t h e s e w a s c ove red w i th mud m o r ta r , p e rhaps a s ab a se f o r f r e s co e s . I t w a s l a te r b l o cked o n t h e o u t s ide a nd p a r t ia l ly ( i f n o t c om p l e te ly ) o n t h e i n ne r f a ce , p robab ly w h en a h ouse was b u i l t w i th in t h e t owe r . T he f i l l a t p r e sen t g round l e ve l i ss e t i n m o r ta r E , a nd t here a r e c ons ide rab le t r a ces o f r e bu i ld ing i n t h e u pp e r p a r t s . T here a r e n o c er ta in t r a ces o f ap l a t fo rm a t t h e t op o f t he t ow er , b ut i t s e x is tence i sp robab le . 4 ) O r ig ina l ly a r e c tangu la r ( ? ) t ower o f p e r iod I a d ja cent t o t h e UG ( s e e i mmed ia te ly b e low ) ; i n p e r iod I , ah eavy n ew f a c ing , a bou t i mSO t h ick , w a s a dded t o t h e e x te r io r , w h i le a t l e a s t t wo l e ve l s o f c hambe r s o ccup i ed t h e i n te r io r o ve r t h e r u ins o f t h e o r ig ina l t owe r ; t h e s e cond w a s s uppo r ted b y aw ooden f l oo r . S ub s equen t ly , i n p e r iod I V , t h e l ower c hamber was f i led i n , a nd c ons ide rab le r epa i r s w e r e made o n t h e u ppe r w a l ls . T h e e mb ra su re s w e r e b l o cked b y t h i s t ime , a nd ah ous e w a s l a ter i n s ta l led . UG : F ig . 4 6 : T he c a s t le w a s a pp roa ched f r om t h e n o r th t h rough a n a r row p a s sag e b e tween T 5 7 a nd 5 8 . I t i s n ow a bou t 3 m w ide , b ut w ou ld h ave b e en w ide r b e fo r e t h e r e fa c ing o f b o th t owe r s . T he a c tua l e ntrance w a s ag a t e i nt h e UW , n ow m o s t ly b u r ied . I t s p i e r s a nd t h e a r ch t hey s uppo r ted s u r v i ve i n p a r t ; t h e w ho le s t ruc tu re w a s s t i l l s t and ing w hen t h e p ho tog raph o f U zunca ri l i ( 1 932 ) f i g . 2 w a s t aken . T he p i e r s a r e w e l l la id l i mes ton e b l o cks w h ich s uppo r t a n a r ch o f b r ick s , m o s t ly n ew . T h i s w as i n t u rn o u t l ined i n b r ick . T he p i e r s a r e i n mo r ta r A , t h e b r icks i n as moo th g r ey m o r ta r , l i ke A w i thou t i n c lus ions . E v id en t ly as t ruc ture o f p e r iod I . N o te t ha t n o t r a ce o ft h e LW s urv ive s h e re ; t h e e n t rance g a te w a s t h e r e fore s i n g l e , t h rough t h e UW a l one , r a ther t han d oub le . T58

1 )T rapezo ida l c hambe r t owe r w i th r ounded c o rne r s , b u i l t o ver LW a nd , p rob a b ly , a n e a r l ie r t owe r . 2 )C lo s e ly c o r r e sponds w i th T 5 7 : b u i l t o n ap ro je c t ing r e c tangu la r p l inth , u s e s b anded ma sonry , a nd mo r ta r B w i th p i nk s u r fa ce mor ta r c ove r ing t h e j o int s ; t h e o n ly n o tab le d if e rence i s t ha t t h e b r ick b ands o f T 5 8 a r e s t ra igh te r a nd mo r e r e gu la r t ha t t ho s e o f T 5 7 . T he b r icks w e r e mo s t ly n ew , a nd f r equen t ly h ave f l ang es a round t h e e dge s . A l l s e t i nd a rk mo r ta r B . 3 )T he w e l l -p r e s e rved u ppe r c hambe r h a s ab r i ck d ome o n c o rbe l l ing a nd t h r e e s p layed l o opho l es s e t i n s em ic i r cu la r n i che s ; t h i s ma sonry u s e s m orta r B , e x cep t f o r t h e s ou th f a ce , w h ich r e p r e s en t s t h e UW a ga in s t w h ich t h e t owe r w a s b u i l t ; i th a s mo r ta r A . T he c hambe r r e s ts o n am a s s o f s o l id f i l l w h ich p robab ly i n c lude s t h e r ema in s o f a n e a r l ier t ow e r . T he s ou th w a l l o f t h e t ower , e qu iva len t t o t h e UW , i n co rpo ra tes a s e c t ion o f n ea t e r r ubb le w i th a mo re c a r e fu l ly la id m o r ta r w h ich s u r rounds t h e s t ones . I t s u ppe r p a r t i sl u na te , a nd a bove i ta r e t wo l a rge s qua re b eamho l es . F ig . 4 7 . T h is w e l l -executed s e c t ion r e p r e s en t s t h e i n ne r f a ce o f t he w a l l b e tween p i e r s o f a n a r ch w h ich w ou ld h ave s uppo r ted t he w a l l w a lk . T he r o ugher ma sonry c o r re sponds t o t h e p l a ce s w he r e t he a r ch w ou ld h av e p ro jec ted f r om t h e w a l l , a nd t h e b eamho le s a r e r ema ins o f a dd i t iona l s up p o r t f o r t h e w a l iwa lk . F ur the r t r a ces o f t h is s y s tem a re v i s ib l e w ith in W 5 9 , /60 ( s ee b e low ) . 4 ) P re s en t f a c ing a nd c hambe r o f p er iod I , b u i l t a ga ins t UW o f p e r iod I . I t s e ems p robab le t ha t t h is f a ce c ove r s a n e a r l ie r t owe r b ecaus e o f t he a d ja c e n t g a te a nd t h e t r a ce o f t h e LW ( s e e b e low ) v i s ib le i n t h e w e s t . I n i t s

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p resent s ta te , t he UG i sf l anked b y t wo t owers ; t he r ema ins o f T 5 7 i nd i c a te a s ma l ler t ower i n ap er iod c ontempo ra ry w ith t he a rch o f t he g a te . A s im i la r t ower wou ld b e e xpected o n t he o ppos ite s i de t o p rov ide a de q ua te d ef ence . Tha t c anno t b e t he p resent T 5 8 , wh ich i sl a ter t han t he UG . Mos t p robab ly , t herefore , T 5 8 c oncea ls a n e a r l ier s t ructure . I n a ny c a se , t he w es t f a ce s hows t ha t t he t ower wa s b u i lt o ver t he LW , w h ich r e sumes h ere a f ter a l ong s ect ion where i th a s l e f t n o t race ( and may w e l l h ave b een a bsent ) . Th is may b e v i sua l ized a s c onnected w ith t he o r ig ina l t ower , o r p oss ib ly a s r unn ing p a ra l le l t o t he U W t o f o rm a n o btuse a ng le , a nd t hus af a ce o ppos ite T 5 7 , a t t he UG . W 5 8/59 : UW : S ee b e low , T 5 9 . LW 5 8 W: LW r e sumes h ere , where i t a ppea rs a s ah o le i n t he s i de o f t he t ower ; r ubb le w ith a f a c ing o f c ut t ufa b locks i n a wh it ish morta r w ith sma l l b lack i n c lus ions , p robab ly A . LW 5 9 W: F ig 5 0 . V is ib le a s a n o pen ing i n t he s i de o f t he t ower , where s uperf ic ia l r ema ins o f t he LW h ave b een r emoved ; i ts tands i n l i ne w ith 5 8W . The LW h ere r ose a bout 4m a bove p resent g round l e ve l a nd wa s 2m30 t h ick . I t wa s f a ced w ith r ough mo rta red r ubb le , b ut t he p a rapet was c overed w i th c ut t ufa b locks . The morta r h a s al a rge p roport ion o f i n c lus ions , w ith many b r ick f r agments . I t may h ave b een r ebu i lt when t he t ower wa s c ons tructed o ver i t .

The C itade l ( P lan 2 ; F igs . 3 , 4 8)

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1 ) L a rge , t a l l c orner t ower o f c i tade l , w ith t wo l e ve ls o f c hambers . O r ig ina l ly s em ic ircu la r , l a ter c ons iderab ly r a ised w ith a more a ngu la r s upers tructure . F igs . 4 9-53 . 2 ) The t ower r e s ts o n ar e ctangu la r f ounda t ion ; i th a s af a c ing , t o a bout 2 /3 o f p resent h e ight , o f b anded ma sonry w ith a n a l terna t ion o f 5b r icks , w ith 5 o r 6s tones . T he s tones a re s ma l l a nd r e ctangu lar , w ith r e la t ive ly w ide j o ints o f morta r B ; t he b r icks , mos t ly n ew , w ere l a id i n c ourses wh ich v ary c ons iderab ly i n r egu la r ity . Most j o ints h ave a p ink s ur face mor tar w h ich c oncea ls many e xtra b r icks , mos t o f t hem v er t ica l . F our l oopho les , w i th l i nte ls a bove t hem , a re v i s ib le i n a nd b e low t he f i f th b r ick b and . The u pper f a c ing i s q u ite d if erent , c ons ist ing o f c oursed s ma l l r ubb le , s po i ls a nd o ccas iona l b r ick s e t i n mor ta r D w ith a h eavy c oa t o f g rey s urface morta r . T h is s e ct ion , w ith t wo l o opho les , r epresents a c ons iderab le r a is ing o f t he t ower , i n t wo s tages . The f i r st h ad c r ene l la t ions , t races o f w h ich may b e s e en b ur ied i n l a ter masonry o n t he w est s i de a t al e ve l s o mewha t h igher t han t ha t o f t he l oopho les . These w ere s ubsequent ly b locked a nd t he t ower r a ised b y a bout t wo m etres . B o th u pper s e ct ions h ave a s im i lar masonry o f r ubb le , i t s d if erences p erhaps o bscured b y t he s he lter c oa t . These o pe ra t ions i nvo lve d ac hange i n s hape , s o t ha t t he e a s t f a ce b ecame n otab ly s t ra ight a nd s qua red -of f , w ith a r e -entrant a ng le u s ing q uo ins o f s po i ls a nd r e st ing o n t he r ema ins o f t he U W . Tha t , i n t urn , r an d i rect ly b eh ind t he t ower a nd c ons isted o f r ubb le s e t i n ap a le a nd f l aky morta r B ; i t p reserves s ome t races o f b r ick b ands . B eh ind i t a re t he r ema ins o f a s econd w a l l , o f r ubb le i n a mor ta r wh ich r e semb les D ; t h is was p resumab ly a l a ter s t reng then ing , b ut i t s f r agm e n t a r y r ema i n s c ou l d e qua ly we l r epresent s upport ing a r ches , a na logous t o t hose b eh ind T 5 8 . 3 ) T he i n ter ior o f t he t ower r ef lects a c omp lex s e r ies o f r ehu i ld ings . I n i t s o r ig ina l s ta te , t he t ower h ad a c hamber w ith f our o r , more p robab ly , f i ve l o o p ho les . I tp ro jected b eyond t he o ther t owers o f t h is s e ct ion t o p rov i de f i r e a l ong t he w a l l a nd t he f a ces o f t he n e ighbo r ing t owers . The c hamber wa s

4 5

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w a l l ed w i th r ubb le i n mo r ta r Ba nd c over ed w i th a r oo f o n ac o rbe l l ing o f b r ick , w h ich p r esumab ly r e p re s en ted t h e p l a t fo rm a t t h e t op o f t h e t owe r . S ubs equen t ly , w hen t h e t ow er w a s r a i s ed , an ew c hambe r w a s a dded a t a h i gher l e ve l . I tc on ta ined t wo l o opho les , e a ch n ea t ly f a ced w i th c ut t u fa b l o cks . T h i s w o rk u s es mo r ta r D . S t i l l l a te r , t h e t h icknes s o f t h e o u te r f a ce o f t h e c hambe r w a s d oub led b y t h e a dd i t ion o f aw a l l o fs ma l l r ubb le a nd b roken b r i ck , w i th l a rg e b eambo le s , i n mo r ta r E . T h i s i sa s so c ia ted w i th t he r a i s ing o f t h e c i tade l w a l l , w i th w h ich i tw a s b onded o n t h e s ou th ( s ee b e low , W 7 0/59 ) . 4 ) T he e a r l ie s t s t ruc tur e h e re i sp re sumab ly t h e LW . A l though t h e mo r ta r w ou ld i n d ica te ad a te i np e r iod I f o r t h e p r es en t r ema ins , t h e re i sn o r e a s on t o d oub t t ha t t h ey r e p r es ent ar e bu i ld ing o f as t ruc tu re o f p e r iod I ,a s e l s ewhe re . I ti sp robab le t ha t at owe r s t ood h e re a t t ha t t i me , b ecaus e t h e s i te i s ac ommand ing h e igh t , a t t h e t op o f as t eep r i s e w h ich a l low s i tt o d om ina te t h e w ho le s t re tch o f t h e w a l l f r om T 5 3 , t he l a rg e c o rne r t owe r . N o r ema ins , h owever , h ave s urv ived . T he l owe r p a r t o f t h e t owe r n ow v i s ib le , w i th b anded m a sonry a nd t h e c hamber w i th f i ve l o opho les , b e long s t o p e r iod I . I n p e r iod I , i tw as r a i s ed c ons ide rab ly , a nd a n ew c hambe r w i th l o opho les b e low a c r ene l la ted p l a t fo rm w as a dded a bove t h e o l d c hambe r . A t t ha t t ime , t h e re w ou ld h ave b een t h ree d e f ens ive z one s w i th in t h e t ow e r . P e r iod I V s aw f u r the r r a i s ing , a nd a d oub l ing o f t h e w a l l o n t h e i n t e r io r . T he t owe r o f p e r iod I w as b u i l t o ve r t h e LW , w h i ch w as e v iden t ly p r e s e rved , a nd d i rec t ly a ga ins t t h e UW . L a te r t he UW , w h ich s e rved t o s uppo r t t h e n ew r a i s ing s o f t h e t ow e r , w a s p e rhap s s t reng thened ; mo s t o f i t , h oweve r , w a s i n co rpo ra ted i n t h e n ew c i tade l w a l l w h ich r an a t r i gh t a ng le s t o i t . W

5 9/60 : F ig . 5 4 : UW : T he o r ig ina l w a l l c on ta ined a t l e as t t wo e n igma t ic a r ches a nd w as s ub jec ted t o ac omp lex s e r ie s o f r e bu i ld ing s w h ich e ventua l ly p ro d uced a n ew f a c ing i n f r on t a nd b a ck . T he a r che s a r e n ow v i s ib le o n t h e n o r th s i de o f t h e w a l l w he r e l a te r f a c ing h as b een b roken a way . T he w e s t a r ch s t ood a bou t 1 m50 a bove t he l e ve l o f i t s s p r ing ing w h ich i nt u rn i sn o l e s s t han 4 m a bove t h e p r e s en t g round l e ve l ; t h e o the r , i mmed ia te ly a d ja c ent o n t h e e a s t , w a s much l owe r a nd f l a t te r , a nd i sn ow mo s t ly c oncea led b y l a te r r e bu i ld ing s . B o th w e re r ough ly b u i l t o f b roken a nd r e us ed b r ick , w e re n o t o u t l ined i n b r i ck , s how n o t r a ces o f al i n te l , a nd a r e i n n o w ay d eco ra t ive . T hey r e a ch a bout i m i n to t he t h icknes s o f t h e w a l l a nd l e ad t o s pa ce s d if i cu l t t o a c ce s s b u t n o t a r ched ; t h ey d i d n o t e x tend t h rough t h e w a l l . B o th a r e s e t i n ag r ey s andy mo r ta r w i th a h i gh p ropo r t ion o f i n c lus ion s i n c lud ing b r ick . T he w e s t a r ch w a s e ven tua l ly b l ocked w i th r ubb le i n m o r ta r E , t he e a s t w i th mud . S ub s equen t t o t h e i r c ons t ruc t ion , t h e w a l l b e tween t h em a nd a bove t h e e a s t a r ch w as t h ickened b y a bou t a m e t re o f r ubb le i n mo r ta r B , w i th t r a ces o f ab and o f 2( ? )b r icks a nd a c ove r ing o f r ough r e dd i sh s u r fa ce m o r ta r . I n a no ther s t ag e , af a c ing o f r ubb le i n aw h i t i sh m o r ta r w i th b r i ck f r agmen t s a nd p ebb le s , a bou t 3 0 c m t h ick , w a s a dded ; i th as t r a ce s o f ab and o f 3b r i ck s a nd p i nk s ur fa ce mo r t a r , a nd o f ac r ibwo rk o fl a rge b eams . F ina l ly , t h e w ho le w a l l w as c ove r ed w i th a f a c ing o f s ma l l r ubb le a nd b r ick i n m o r ta r E . T h is f a ce , w h ich d i sp lays a d i s t inc t b a t te r o n t h e n o r th ( o u te r ) s i de , i sv i s ib l e i n f r on t a nd b a ck o f t h e w a l l I t h a s l a rg e r ound b eamho le s i mmed ia te ly b eh ind t h e s u r fa ce . 4 ) T h i s s ho r t s e c t ion o f w a l l c on ta ins a t l e a s t f our p e r iods o f c ons t ruc t ion : t h e e a r l ies t r e p re s en ted b y t h e a r che s a nd t he f i l l b e tween t h em , t he n ex t t wo b y t h e w a l l s i n f r on t o f t h em , a nd t h e f our th b y t he p r es ent i n ne r a nd o ute r s he l ls . T he o r ig ina l p e r iod i sp robab ly t o b e c ons ide red i n te rmed ia te b e tween Ia nd I b ecau se o f i t s o dd mo r ta r w h i ch , t hough b as ica l ly g r ey , u s es a f a i r a moun t o f b r i ck ; i ti sa na logous t o t h e mo r ta r s o f UW 3 1/32 a nd T 32 : s e e b e low , ' R e la t ive C hrono logy ' . A t t h i s t ime , a nd i n t h e t wo

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s ucceed ing p e r iod s , t h e UW e v iden t ly h ad aw a l iwa lk s uppo r t ed o n a r che s . T he r ough b r ickwo rk o f t h e a r ches n ow v i s ib le was p la in ly n o t i n tended t o b e s e en , b u t i sm o r e a pp ropr ia te t o as t ruc tur e b u i l t a ga in s t a n e x i s t ing w a l l . T he p oo r a ppea rance a nd s ha l lownes s o f t h e a r ches s how t ha t t hey d id n o t f o rm g a te s o r p o s te rns , w h i le t h e i r s i ze , l o ca t ion a nd l a ck o f f i l l ing i n d ica te t ha t t h ey w e re n o t r e i nf o r c i n g a r c h e s wh ich , i n a ny c a s e , d o n o t a ppea r i n t h e w a l l s o f K i i tahya . T he d if e r ing h e igh t o f t h e a r ches p rob a b ly s how s t ha t t h ey s uppo r ted a s t a i rway r i s ing t owa rd T 6 0 . I n P e r iod I , t h e UW w a s r e bu i l t b e fo r e a nd a bove t h e a r che s . I tt hen s t ood a bou t a m e t re t h i ck b u t w a s r e in fo r ced b y t h e e qu iva len t t h icknes s o f t he a r che s a nd t h e ma sonry a bove t h em . T he w a l l w a s f u r the r s t reng thened s ome w ha t l a te r i n ap e r iod w h ich u s ed a n a noma lous mo r ta r b u t w hose b r ick b ands i n d ica te a B yzan t ine d a te . T he f i na l s t age , w h ich i n c luded a c om p l e te r e fa c ing b e fo re a nd b eh ind , w i th b l o ck ing o f t h e a r che s , i so f P e r iod I v . LW : Eme rg e s f r om t h e s i de o f T5 9 t o f o l low a r o ck o u tcrop a nd r un d i r e c t ly i nf r on t o fT6 0 ; s e e t h e f o l low ing d i s cus s ion . Mo r ta r A . T60

1 ) S qua re p l a t fo rm t ower w i th b ase o f s po i l s a nd d eco ra t ive b r i ckwork , t h e p roduc t o fe x tens ive r ebu i ld ing : F igs . 5 5 , 5 6 . 2 ) T he l owe r p a r t o f t h e t owe r , t o ah e igh t o f a bou t 4m , i sf a c ed w i th r e c t angu la r l ime s tone b l o ck s , e v iden t ly s po i ls . O ne o f t hem b ea r s a n i n s c r ip t i on ( s ee b e low , ' S po i l s a nd I n sc r ip t ions ) . T he l owe s t c our se s , o f wh ich f o u r a r e c l ea r ly v i s ib le o n t h e e a s t s i de , p ro jec t t o f o rm a b ase . A bove t h em , t h e b l o ck s a r e l a id i n r e gu la r c our s e s w ho se a l ignment o n t h e o uter f a ce i n d ica tes h as te o r c a re les snes s . T he l ow er t h ree c our ses w e r e l a id p a ra l le l w i th t he g round , w h ich r e su l ted i n o ne s i de o f t he t owe r b e ing n o tab ly l ow e r t han t h e o ther . T o c ompensa te , a n e x tra c our se o f s ma l ler b l o ck s w a s i n se r ted o n t h e e as te rn p a r t o f t h e f a ce . A l l a r e s e t i n h a rd g rey m o r t a r . T he s upe r s t ruc tur e h as af a c ing o f r e gu la r ly l a id t u fa b l o cks , many o f t h em b ad ly c o r roded , a nd much b r i ck i n se r ted h o r izonta l ly o r v er t ica l ly ; i ns ome p la ce s t h e v e r t ica l b r icks a r e d oub l ed . I n t h e u ppe r p a rt , a f te r 1 2 c our s es o f s t one , an ea t b and o f 5c l o s e ly -s e t b r icks r uns a c ro s s t he o u t e r f a ce . I td o es n o t c on t inue a round t h e s i des , w he re t he c ro s s s e c t ion s how s t ha t t h e b and i s2 3 b r icks d eep . I t s f unc t ion , t he r e fo re , w as d eco ra t ive , r a ther t han t h e p ra c t ica l o ne o f b i nd ing f a c ing a nd c o re . E ach o f t h e s t ones o f t h e r ow i mmed ia te ly a bove t h e b and i ss epa ra t ed b y ab r i ck ; t h i s , t oo , i sd eco ra t ive . T he s upe r s t ruc tur e t h en c ont inues a s b e fore . A l l t h i s i ss e t i n mo r ta r D , w i th many i n c lus ions ; j o in ts w e r e c overed w i th g r ey s ur fa ce m o r ta r . T he u pper p a r t o f t h e w e s t f a ce s how s m uch r ebu i ld i n g w i th r ough s ma l l r ubb le a nd b r ick f r agment s s e t i n mo r ta r E . O n t h e w es t s i de , p a r t o f t h i s f a c ing h a s f a l len a way t o r e vea l a n e a r l i e r s t a te , c ons is t ing o f af a ce o f s ma l l t u fa b l o cks i n r e gu la r c ourses i n te r r up ted b y a t l e a s t o ne b and of5 bri ck s,al i n a s an dy da r kg r ey mo r ta r w i th l a rge p ebb l e s a nd n o b r ick . As ma l l s e c t ion o fs im i la r m asonry a bove u s e s mo r ta r B . T h i s f a ce s how s n o b eamho le s , b u t l a rge r ound b eams d i d f o rm ac r ibwo rk w i th w h ich t h e l a te r f a c e w a s a t ta ched t o i t ; h o les l e f t b y t h e s e a r e v i s ib le i nt h e o pen ing a nd a t t h e c o rne r o ft he t ow e r . E x tens ive r ema ins o f m o r ta r ed r ubb le b e low t h e t ower , a nd t races o f a f a c ing o f l i me s tone b l o cks a bou t 5 m i n f r on t o f i t , i nd ica t e t ha t t he LW r an a round t h i s t owe r , i mmed ia te ly a d ja cen t t o i t , p erhaps w i th a n a r row g ap w ho s e s i ze c anno t n ow b e d e te rm ined . T he se f r agmenta ry r ema ins u s e mo r ta r s Aa nd B . 3 ) T he i n te r io r c hambe r , w h i ch g ave a c ces s t o t h ree e mbra sur e s , i sd i s t inc t ly s p layed a nd f a ced w i th w a l l s o f r ubb le i n mo r ta r E w i th e x t ens ive c r ib w o rk . T he se w a l l s r ep re s en t at h icken ing o f t h e o r ig ina l w h i ch h ad b e en f a ced w i th t u fa b l o cks a nd a l so u s ed c r ibwo rk . T he w a l l b eh ind t he t ow e r

4 8

was s im i la r ly t h ickened ; i n i t s l ower p a rts , i t d i sp lays t races o f e ar l ier wa l ls i n mo rtars A a nd B . These r epresent t he u W r unn ing b eh ind t he t ower a nd , i n t he f i na l p er iod , f o rm ing i t s b ack . L a ter r ebu i ld ings h ave o b l itera ted most o f t he e a r l ier w ork . 4 ) The o r ig ina l t ower wa s s qua re w ith a s uperstructure o f t ufa b locks a nd t he b ase o f s po i ls n ow v i s ib le . The s po i ls a re s e t i n a morta r w h ich i s p rob a b ly A a nd w ere l a id a t at ime when e ach s tone p reserved i t s o r ig ina l s ha rp e dges , ap henomenon i nd ica t ive o f a n e a r ly d a te . S ome r ebu i ld ing wa s d one i n p er iod I ; i th as l e f t t races whose s i gn if icance c anno t b e d eter m ined o n t he w es t s i de . Ma jor r e cons truct ion t ook p lace i n p er iod I I , when t he n ew s upers tructure w as a dded , a nd t he b ack a nd i n ter ior r ebu i lt . A t t ha t t ime , t he t ower h ad a c hamber a t a h igh l e ve l , a ppa rent ly u ncovered , a nd t hus o ne z one o f d ef ence . F ina l ly , i n p er iod I V , t he i n te r i or a nd r ea r wa l ls w ere c ons iderab ly s t rengthened , a nd t he w est f ace w as p a tched . R e la t ion b etween t he t ower a nd t he LW i s d if i cu lt t o d eterm ine : t he LW a ppa rent ly r an a round i tw ith a n a rrow s epa ra t ion , o r w as b u i lt n ext t o t he t ower t o s e rve a s ak ind o f p la tform p rov id ing a l ower l e ve l o f d ef ence . S urv iv ing t races s uggest t ha t t he LW w as r ebu i lt i n p er iod I . W

6 0/61 : UW : S tand ing b eh ind T 6 0 a nd 6 1 a nd p a rt ia l ly p reserved b etween ; n ot b onded t o e i ther . B eh ind T 6 0 , t he wa l l h as b een e xtens ive ly r ebu i lt w ith r ubb le i n morta r E , b ut t he masonry o f t he r e st c onta ins t races o f ab and o f 3b r icks , a nd i ss e t i n mo rta r C b etween t he t owers a nd C b eh ind T 6 1 . Thus a wa l l o f p er iod I p a rt ia l ly r ebu i lt i n p er iod I V . LW 6 1E : F ig . 5 7 . We l l p reserved i n c ross -sect ion t o ah e ight o f a bout 2m50 a nd c . 1 m60 w ide . The wa l l was f a ced w ith c ut t ufa b locks b eh ind wh ich l ay a c ore o f r ubb le i n mor tar A . I t s d ef ens ive s ys tem i s h ere w e l l r evea led : t he wa l l h ad a n e mbra sure f a ced w ith i r regu la r c ut b locks n ea r t he p resent g round l e ve l , ap a rapet o f c ut b locks a bout 7 5cm t h ick a nd s omewha t h igher , a nd a wa l l -wa lk p aved w ith a d oub le t h ickness o f b r ick , s l op ing i nwa rd a t a n a ng le o f a bout 2 0 d egrees ; t h is w as a bout 8 5cm t h ick . Morta r t hroughout i sc ons is tent , e xcept t ha t s ome p a rts n ea r t he s ur face o f t he t ower u se morta r C , t o i nd ica te s ome r ebu i ld ing i n p er iod I when t he wa l l wa s c overed b y t he t ower .

T61

1 ) E xcept iona l ly w ide r e ctangu la r p la tform t ower w ith r ounded c o rners .

2 ) A bove a r e c tangu la r f o unda t ion o f s po i l s , t h e t owe r h ad af a c ing o f b anded ma son ry w i th . 5c ou r s es o fb r ick a l te rna t ing w i th 7 , 8 , o r 9o ft u fa b lo cks o f v a r ied s hap e s a nd s i ze s l a id i n r e gu la r c our s e s . T he s t onewo rk i sh i gh ly v a r ied , w i th b l o cks o f q u i te d if e ren t s i ze s l a id i nr e gu la r c ou r s e s . I n s ome c a se s , s t one s h ave b een s e t o n e nd . T he j o in t s a r e f i l led w i th a g ood d ea l o f r ough m o r ta r Ca nd s ome b r ick f r agmen ts . T he b r ick b ands , f a i r ly r e g u la r , a l so h ave t h i ck j o in t s o f t h e s ame mo r ta r . P ink s ur fa ce c oa t v i s ib le t hroughout . I n s ome p a r t s , p a r t icu la r ly n ea r t h e t op , t h e r e i s p a tch ing w ith r ubb le i n morta r Ea nd s o me t i les l a id p a ra l le l t o t he s ur face . 4 ) T owe r o fp e r iod I w i th r e pa i r s i np e r iod I V .

W 6 1/62 : LW 6 1W : T he s i ze a nd s hape o f t h e LW a r e e x cep t iona l ly c l ea r . Mo s t o f i t s c u t b l o cks h ave b een r obbed , l e av ing t he c o re o f t h e t ower e xpo s ed . T he c r o s s -s ec t ion r e vea l s t h e w a l l t o ah e igh t o f c .3 m w i th i t s p a rape t ; o the rw i s e t h e t op i sm i s s ing . Mo r ta r A . LW 6 2E : O n ly r ough ly v i s ib le i no u t l ine . T62

1 ) Wide r e ctangu la r p la tform t ower w ith r ounded c orners , s im i la r i n s i ze a nd

s hape t oT6 1 : F ig . 5 8 . 2 ) B u i l t o n as qua r e f o unda t ion o f s po i l s , t h is t owe r h as m asonry v i r tua l ly i d en t ica l w i th t ha t o f T 6 1 : b anded , w i th 5 b r i cks a l te rna t ing w i th 6o r 7

4 9

s t one s . Many o f t he b r i cks a ppea r t o h ave b een n ew ; t he c ou r s ing o f b r i ck a nd s t one i sr e gu la r . D a rk mo r ta r C w i th p i nk s ur face m o r ta r E uch i n e v idence . O n t h e SW s i de w her e t he f a c ing h a s b een l o s t , c r ibwo rk o f r ounded b eams i se v iden t . 4 )T ow er o f p er iod I . W62/63 : LW 6 2W : L i t t le p r es e rved a bove g round ; l a rg e t u fa b locks o n f a ce ; mo r ta r A . LW 6 3E : G ood c r o s s -sec t ion p r es e rved w i th u sua l c o r e , mo r ta r a nd f a c ing ; b r icks o f w a l l -wa lk e v iden t . T63

1 )U -shaped c hambe r t owe r : F igs . 5 8 ,59 . 2 )U sua l b anded m a sonry a nd c o re p ro jec t ing o n af ounda t ion o f s po i l s w i th b r ick f r agments . T he f a c ing h a s a n a l te rna t ion o f 5o r 6c our s e s o fs t one w i th 5o f b r ick ( e x cep t t he l ow e s t b and , w h ich h a s 7b r icks ) , a l n ea t ly l a id i n r e gu la r c our s e s . The b r i cks a r e g ene ra l ly t h ick a nd c l o se ly s e t , t h e s t one s s qua re o r r e c tangu la r , w i th a f ew l a id o n e nd ; a l l s e t i n mo r ta r B . T he re a r e o ccas iona l v er t ica l a nd h o r izon ta l b r icks i n t h e j o in t s , a nd p a r t ia l b r ick c our ses e l s ewhere . J o in t s w er e u n ive r sa l ly c ove red w i th a bou t ac en t ime ter o f s moo th p ink s u r fa ce mo r ta r , s ome e r oded ; i tp r e s e rves t r a ce s o f p o int ing p a ra l l e l t o t he b r i ck s . B r ick b and s r ea ched a t h ickne s s o f 3b r icks , a bout i m , i n to t he c o r e , w h ich c on ta ined s ome b roken b r ick a nd l a rg e s qua re w ooden b eams . T h i s ma sonry d if e r s f r om t ha t o fT6 1 a nd 6 2 b y c on ta in ing mo r e b r ick b and s , l e s s c ons i s ten t s t onewo rk , p a r t ia l e x tra b r ick c our ses , a nd m o re c a re fu l ly a pp l ied s ur fa ce mo r ta r . 3 )T he i n ne r c hambe r w as r oo f ed w i th ad om i ca l b r ick v au l t o n c o rbe l l ing a nd f a ced w i th s ma l l n ea t s t onewo rk i n m o r ta r B . I t g ave a c ce ss t o t h r ee s p layed l o opho les s e t i n n i ches , v i s ib le f r om t h e o ut s ide a s n a r row s l i ts i n t h e t op b r ick b and ; t h ey c ove red t h e a pp roa ch f r om t he s ou th a s w e l l a s t h e f a ces o f t h e a d ja cen t t owe r s . 4 )E v iden t ly at owe r o f p e r iod I , b u i l t o ver t h e LW .

W 6 3/1 : LW 6 3W : O u te r f a ce w i th c u t b l o cks , u sua l c o re a nd mo r ta r ; b r icks o f w a l l w a lk p re se rved i nc r o s s -s ec t ion . O u te r Wa l l b e low LW : s t ands mo re t han 3 m h i gh w i th a f a c ing o f r ough ly c our sed r ubb le a nd many b r ick f r agmen t s i n mo r ta r E ; e v iden t ly a w o rk o f p e r iod I V . L a rg e b l o cks v i s ib l e b e low T 6 2 a nd T 6 3 may b e long t o t h e s ame s t ruc tur e , w h i ch c ou ld h ave r un f r om T 1 ,a t t he h ighe s t p o int o ft h e c i tade l , a s f a r a s T 6 0 , w he re t h e re a ppea r t o b e s im i la r t r a ce s b e low t h e LW , o r T 5 0 w he re many r ema ins w ou ld h ave b een o b l i te ra ted b y t h e mode rn r oad . S uch a w a l l w ou ld h ave p rov ided a n a dd i t iona l l i ne o f d e f ence a l ong t h e s ou th f a ce o f t h e c i tade l , p e rhaps a t at ime w hen t h e LW w a s n o l o ng e r i nu s e . NW c i tade l wa l ls : T6 5 , o n t h e n o r th s i de o f t h e c i tade l , i sj o ined t o t h e ma in f o r t r e s s b y t wo c onnec t ing w a l l s , a n u pp e r d e f ended b y T 6 4 a nd a l ow e r , a ppa ren t ly w i thou t t owe r s . T he s e r un a t d if e r en t a ng les a l ong s t eep c on t our s o f t h e h i l l a t ap o in t w he r e a n a bandoned r oad , e v iden t ly mode rn , e n te r s t h e c i tade l . T hey a ppea r t o r e p r es en t t wo p er iods , b u t b o th w e re e ven tua l ly i nu s e a t t h e s ame t ime . W6/64 : T ra ce s o f r e bu i ld ing i n t h e b a ck o f T 6( q .v . ) , w here t he n ew wa l l w as a t ta ched t o t h e f o r t r e s s , b e long s t o p e r iod I V . Mo s t o f t he a r ea b etw een T 6a nd T 6 4 i so ve rg rown a nd d i s turbed b y r oad c ons truct ion , b ut o ne t r a ce o f t h e w a l l s u rv ive s a bout h a l fway b e tween t he t owers , w he r e al ump o f c o re w i th a f a c ing o f r ough ly c our s ed r ubb le a nd b r ick f r agments i ss e t i n m o r ta r Ea nd h a s m uch g r ey s u r fa ce m o r ta r . T h i s f r agmen t may b e a t t r i b u ted t o p e r iod I V .

5 0

T 64

1 )S em ic i rcu la r c hambe r t ow er o fp ecu l ia r c ons t ruc t ion . F igs . 6 0 ,61 . 2 ) T he l ow e r p a r t o f t h e f a c ing , w h ich r e s t s o n b ed ro ck , c ons i s t s o f r eused t u fa b l ock s l a id i n r e gu la r c our s e s w i th a g r ea t d ea l o f b r ick w h ich a lmo s t f o rms a c l o i sonné . A b and o f 3 /4 r e us ed b r icks f o l low s , t h en a s e c t ion o f s ma l l er b l ocks m ix ed w i th f i e lds tone s a nd b roken b r ick . A f ter a s i ng le c our s e o fb r i ck , t h e s upe r s t ruc tur e h a s as im i la r f a c ing , much c ove red w i th a g r ey s h e l te r c oa t a nd i n te r rup ted b y 3 r ow s o f e no rmous r ound b eamho le s . I t make s c ons i s ten t u s e o f mo r ta r D . 3 ) T he i n te r io r , w h ich c on ta ined a r ound c hambe r w i th w a l l s a bou t 1 m50 t h ick , c on s i s t s o f am a s s o f m o r ta red r ubb le w i th r ow s o f e no rmous b eamho le s s e t c l o s e ly t og e the r ; t h e f a c ing i sm i s s ing . 4 ) P la in ly at owe r o f p e r iod I I , b u i l t i n ap rom inen t s i te o ve r look ing t he w ho le f o r t re s s a nd t hus , i ts e ems , g i ven a f a c ing w h ich i m i ta ted t h e B yzan t ine a nd w a s p robab ly i n tended t o b e d eco ra t ive . I t s c ons t ruc t ion o f r ubb le a nd l a rg e n umbe r s o fb eams i sw i thou t p a ra l le l a tK i i tahya .

W64/65 : A t r a ce o f c o re w i th s ome f a c ing o f r ubb le i n mo r ta r D s t ands a bout 2 0 ii e a s t o f T 6 4 , i n ad i rec t l i ne b e tween i t a nd T 6 5 . T h is e v ident ly r ep re s en t s t h e r ema ins o f aw a l l o f p e r iod I I . W8/65 : F ig . 6 2 : R ema ins o f e x tens ive r e bu i ld ing d i r ec t ly b eh ind T 8 ,w i th i n se r t ion o f l a rge b eams p a ra l le l t o t h e b a ck o f t h e t ower , r e p re sen t t h e w o rk n eces s i ta ted b y t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f t h e n ew c i tade l w a l l ; t h e a c tua l j o int b e tween i ta nd t h e ma in f o r t r e s s w a l l , h ow ever , i sn ow o b scur ed b y u nde r g row th a nd a f o o tpa th . I mmed ia te ly t o t he e a s t , as ho r t s e c t ion o f t h e w a l l i sp r e se rved . I th as af a c ing o f r ough ly c our s ed l a rg e f i e lds tones w i th much f i l l ing o f s ma l l s t one s a nd b roken b r ick , a nd a s ys tem o f c r ibwo rk w i th s ma l l r ound b eams i mmed ia t e ly b eh ind t h e f a ce . I t s u s e o f mo r ta r E i n d ica te s p e r iod I V . T he s e c t ion a d ja cen t t o a nd b onded w i th T 6 5 , h ow e ve r , h a s an onde s c r ip t f a c ing o f r ubb le i n mo r ta r D , a nd i st hus o f p e r iod I I . I t may a s w e l l b e long t o W 6 4/65 a sW 8 /65 . T 65

1 ) Sma l l s qua r e t owe r o r b a s t ion w i th i n ner c i r cu la r c hamber . 2 ) F a c ing o f c our sed r ubb le i n mo r ta r D , w i th c r ibwo rk o f l a rge r ound b eams ; b roken b r i ck a ppea r s i n p l a ce s , a s d o f l a t s t one s a r rang ed t o f o rm p a r t ia l c our s e s . 3 ) I nner m ason ry a so u te r . T he c hamber i se x cep t iona l ly s ma l l ( no t mo re t han 2 m i nd i ame te r ) a nd h as n o v i s ib le e n t rance o r o pen ing t o t h e o u ts ide . I t s d e f ens ive f unc t ion , t h e re fo r e , i su nce r ta in ; i t may r e p res en t a n e conomy o f ma ter ia l i nw h ich ah o l low r a the r t han as o l id t owe r w as b u i l t . 4 ) P e r iod I .

W65/66 : B onded w i th T 6 5 , s ame ma sonry ; p e r iod I . T 66

1 )S qua re o p en -go rg e t owe r : F ig . 6 3 . 2 ) T he t owe r i sb a s ica l ly f a ced w i th r e gu la r ly c our s ed r e c tangu la r t u fa b l o cks s e t i nt h ick b ands o f mo r ta r D , t h e j o in t s c ove r ed w i th ag r ey s he l te r c oa t . Many o ft h e b l o cks a r e t yp i ca l ly e r oded . T he l owe r p a r t o ft h e o u te r f a ce , h oweve r , h as af a c ing o f l a rg e s po i l s , s ome o f t h em o f p o rphyry , s e t i n t h e s ame m o r ta r . F ig . 8 2 . A t m id -he igh t , much o f t he f a c ing i sm i s s ing a nd h as b een r e p la c& i w i th i r r egu la r s ma l l r ubb le a nd b roken b r ick i n mo r ta r E . Sma l l r ound b eamho le s a ppea r i n r e gu la r r ow s o n t h e f a ce , mo s t o f t h em i nt h e mo r ta r b ands ; s ome , h ow eve r , h ave b een d r i l led i nt he s po i l s . 3 ) T he i n te r io r , w h ich w as e v iden t ly h o l low , i sn ow f i l led w i th d eb r is ; n o t r a ce o f d e f en s iv e w o rks h as s urv ived ; i ti si na ny c a se a ppa rent t ha t t her e w e re n o l o opho l e s i nt h e s t and ing p a r t o f t h e t ow er . 4 ) T owe r o f p e r iod I w i th e x tens ive r e pa i r s i np e r iod I V . A t t ha t t ime , much o f t h e f a c ing h ad c o l lap s ed ; t h e n e two rk o f b eams p robab ly r e p re s en t s a

5 1

s e conda ry a t temp t a tc onso l ida t ion . W66/67 : T h i s w a l l r un s b eh ind T 6 a nd i sb onded w i th T 6 7 . Much o fi ti sb u i l t o n b edro ck . I ti sf a ced w i th r ubb le , s ome c u t , a nd b r ick f r agments ; i ns ome p l a ces s ma l l f l a t s t one s f o rm c our s e s , a nd t h e e a s tern p a r t c onta ins s ome c our se s o f t u fa b l o cks . A l l a r e s e t i n m o r ta r D w i th a g r ey s he lte r c oa t . E v iden t ly o fp e r iod I . T67

1 ) Sma l l s qua r e t ow e r o r b a s t ion w i th n a r row c i r cu la r c hamb e r , a s T 6 5 : F ig . 6 4 2 ) H a l f o f t h e t owe r h a s c o l lap s ed , l e av ing t h e i n ne r c hamb e r e xposed . T he i n ner a nd o u te r f a c es u s e r ubb le m ixed w i th o cca s iona l r e u s ed t ufa b l o ck s . T he re i s a n e x ten s ive c r ibwo rk o f l a rg e b eams ; mo r ta r D i s c ons i s t en t t h roughou t . T he u ppe r p a r t s , h owev e r , h ave s ma l l r ubb l e a nd b roken b r ick i n mo r ta r E . T he t ow e r i sb onded w i th b o th a d jo in ing w a l ls . 3 ) A s i n T 6 5 , t h e c i rcu la r c hambe r h as n o i n d ica t ion o f a n e n t rance o r d e f en s i ve f unc t ion . I ti sa l so a ppa ren t t ha t i th ad n o f l oo r s . 4 )P e r iod I I , w i th r a i s ing i np e r iod I V .

T68

1 )S qua re t ow e r a t t h e c o rne r o f t h e c i tade l . 2 ) B u i l t a lmo s t t ouch ing T 6 7 , w i th w h i ch i t may h ave f o rmed a c omp l ex s t ruc tu re t o p ro tec t t h e p ro jec t ing a ng l e o f t h e c i tade l w a l l , t h is t owe r h as af a c ing o f c u t t u fa b l o cks , a ppa r ent ly a l r e used , w i th i regu la r j o in t s f i l led w i th o dd f r agmen t s o f b r ick . O n t h e o u te r f a ce , t h e b lo ck s a r e n ea t ly f i t ted , b u t t h e u ppe r p a r t i s l e s s r e gu la r , w i th l a rg e r j o int s a nd mo re b r i ck , mo r ta r Di nc o r e a nd f a c ing , c ove r ed w i th ah a rd g rey s u r fa ce mo r ta r ; c r ibwo rk o f l a rg e r ound b eams . T he u ppe r p a r t o ft h e w es t s i de i s o fs ma l l r ubb le i nm o r ta r E . 4 )P e r iod I , p a r t ia l ly r e bu i l t o r r a i s ed i np e r iod IV .

W

6 8/69 : N o r th p a r t b onded w i th T 68 , u s ing s ame mo r ta r s . Mo s t o f t he w a l l i s f a ced w i th r ough ly c ou r s ed r ubb le a nd s po i l s w i th v e ry l i t t l e b r ick , b u t h a s s ome c ou r s ing o fs ma l l f l a t s t one s . O n t h e i n ne r f a ce a nd n ea r T6 9 , m any r e u sed t u fa b l o cks h ave b een i n co rpo ra ted , w h i le t he l ow e r p a r t o f t h e o u ter f a ce c on ta ins a n a l te rna t ion o f l a rg e r e c tangu la r a nd l o ng n a r row b l o cks , a s i fh eade r s a nd s t r e tche r s . A n e x tens ive c r ibwo rk o fl a rge r o und b eams r uns d i r ec t ly b eh ind t h e s u r fa ce . T he l ow e r p a r ts a r e b onded w i th T 6 9 , w h i ch p ro jec t s b a ck f r om t h e l i ne o f t h e w a l l . T he u pper p a r t s a t t h i s j o in t a r e o f s ma l l e r r ubb l e i n mo r ta r E . Wa l l o f p e r iod I I , p a r t ia l ly r e bu i l t i np e r iod I V .

C itade l Ga te : F ig . 6 6 : T he CC i sf l anked b y t wo h o l low s qua re t ow e r s , T 6 9 a nd 7 0 , s im i la r i n c ons t ruc t ion , b u t w i th a m asonry d if e ren t f r om t ha t o f o the r p a r t s o f t h e c i tade l . T he p r e s en t g a te h a s b e en c ons ide rab ly w idened t o a dm i t mo to r t r af f i c , a nd i t s a ppea rance f u r the r d i s to r t ed b y r e cen t r e s to ra t ion . T69

1 )H o l low s qua re t ow e r f l ank ing g a te . 2 ) T he o ute r f a ce h a s b roken a way , l e av ing o n ly t he s i de w a l l s s t and ing , a nd t h e i n te r io r c hambe r e xpo s ed . T he n o r th f a ce , w h ich i sb onded w i th W 6 8/69 b u t n o t w i th t h e r e s t o f t h e t ow e r , i so f m ixed r ubb le a nd s po i l s w i th s ome b roken b r ick i n r e gu la r c ou r s e s ; i tu s e s mo r ta r D a nd a g r ey s ur fa ce mo r ta r . T he r e i so ne b and o f 5f r agmen ta ry b r i ck s n ea r t he b o t t om a nd e v idence o f ac r ibwo rk o f v e ry l a rg e r ound b eam s . The s ou th f a ce , w h ich a d jo ins t h e CG , i sf a r mo r e e l abo ra te , c ons i s t ing o f ab anded m a sonry o f 3o r 4b r icks a l te rna t ing w i th 2 , 3o r 4c our s e s o ft ufa b l o cks . T he b r ick i sr e us ed , t h e mo r ta r D , h e r e a s e l sewhe re h a rde r a nd b e t te r p r es erved t han t h e s t ones . Much o f t h i s f a ce h a s s uf e red r e s to ra t ion .

5 2

3 ) T he s qua re i n t er io r c hambe r i sf a ced w i th b roken t u fa b l o cks a nd r ubb le i n r e gu la r c our s es w i th c r ibwo rk a s d e sc r ibed , mo r ta r D , a nd a h a rd s u r fa ce mo r ta r w h ich v a r i es i nc o lour f r om g r ey t o y e l low i sh - b rown . N o e nt rance o r e v idence o f i n te r io r f l oo r s i sv i s ib le ; t h e t owe r w a s t hus p r esumab ly e n te red f r om t he t op , b u t t h e f unc t ion o f t h e c hambe r i sn o t c l ea r . I t s s urv iv ing p a r ts c on ta in n o t r a ce o f o pen ing s , b ut s ome c ou ld h ave e x i s t ed i nt he d e s t royed o u te r f a ce . 4 ) P e r iod I . CG : T he o r ig ina l g a te , w h ich h a s mo s t ly s uccumbed t o r e s to ra t ion , w as n a r row ( abou t 2 m50 ) a nd a r ched . I ti sb onded t o b o th t owe r s . T he s uper s t ruc t u re w a s f a c ed w i th a b anded ma son ry w h i ch c on t inued t ha t o f T6 9 , a nd b e longed t o t h e s ame p e r iod . L a ter , e v ident ly i n p e r iod I V , i tw as e x ten s i ve ly r e bu i l t . T70

1 )H o l low s qua r e t owe r f l ank ing g a te . 2 ) T he n o r th a nd o u te r f a ces h ave b een d es t royed b y r oad c ons t ruc t ion , a nd t h e s ou th f a ce i sh eav i ly r e s to r ed . T he s u rv iv ing r ema ins , h owever , i n d i c a te a ma sonry s im i la r t o t ha t o f T 6 9 , w i th c our s ed r ubb l e a nd r e us ed t u fa b l o ck s , a nd s ome s ma l l f l a t s t one s i nr e gu la r c our ses . 3 )I nne r c hambe r a sT6 9 . 4 ) P e r iod I I .

W 7 0/59 : F igs . 6 7 , 6 8 : T h i s w a l l , t h e mo s t i n fo rma t ive o f t h e c i tade l , s hows c l ea r e v idence o f t wo p e r iods b y p r e s e rv ing t h e o r ig ina l c r ene l la t ions w h ich w e re b l o cked w hen t he w a l l w as r a i s ed . T he l ower p a r t o f t he o u te r f a ce h a s b een h eav i ly r e s to red i n amode rn r ubb le i nc emen t . A bove i t , t h e o r ig ina l f a ce c on s i s t s o f r ubb le i n r e gu la r c our s e s d e te rm ined b y r ow s o f s ma l l f l a t s t ones . I te mp loys mo r ta r Dw i th a h eavy s he l te r c oa t o f b rown i sh i n o r t a r . T h i s c u lm ina te s i n as e r i es o f r e c tangu la r c r ene l la t ions a bout 1 m50 h i gh . T hey w e r e p r es e rved w hen t h e w a l l w a s r a i s ed w i th f l e lds tone s a nd b roken b r ick i n mo r ta r E . T h i s f i l l ing c on t inues t o t h e i n te r io r , w he re a n e n t i r e i n ne r f a ce o f t h e s ame ma te r ia l w as a dded t o d oub le t h e t h icknes s o f t he w a l l . T he i n ne r f a ce i sb onded w i th t he i n te r io r o fT5 9 a nd , a t t h e j unc t ion o f w a l l a nd t owe r , p a r t o f t h e o r ig ina l p a rape t a nd w a l lwa lk o f t h e t owe r h ave b een p r es e rved w he re t h ey j o ined t h e c r ene l la t ions o f t h e w a l l , w h i ch s t ood a t as l ight ly h i ghe r l e ve l . Wa l l o f p er iod I e x tens ive ly r e bu i l t i np e r iod I V . T71

W

1 )L ow b road p ro jec t ing b as t ion b e low t h e c o rne r o f t h e c i tade l w a l l . 2 ) N e i the r t h e r e la t ion o f t h is t owe r , w h i ch i sb roken o n t he w es t s i de , t o t h e c i tade l w a l l , n o r i t s o r ig ina l h e igh t c an b e d e term ined . A t p r es ent , i tc on s i s ts o f as o l id m as s o f r ubb le f a ced w i th m ixed s ma l l a nd l a rge f i e lds tone s w i th s ome c our s ing o f s ma l l f l a t s t ones ; a t m id -he igh t i ts how s ar ow o f n ea t r e u s ed t u fa b l o cks . T he f a ce u se s m o r ta r D , w i th a s he l te r c oa t o f a no the r s andy b rown i sh mo r ta r . T he o u te r f a ce h as b een p a tched w i th s ma l le r r ubb le i n mo r ta r E . 3 ) Mason ry a nd mo r ta r a r e s im i la r t o t ho se o f t h e w a l l a bove , a nd i n d ica te a d a te i np e r iod I I f o r t h is s t ruc tur e , w i th r e pa i r s i np e r iod I V . R ob in F u r s d on s ugg e s t s t ha t i tw as u s ed a s ac annon p la t fo rm , s i nce i ti sb road a nd l ow a nd o ver looks t h e w ho le f o r t re s s . T h i s s e em s ah i gh ly p laus ib le s ugg es t ion f o r t h e O t toman p e r iod , b u t c ou ld n o t h ave a pp l ied t o t h e o r i g i na l c on s t ruc t ion , w hen g unpowde r w as n o t y e t i nu s e .

7 1/58 :

P a r ts o f t h i s w a l l h ave b een d e s t royed b y mode rn r oad c ons t ruct ion i n f r on t o f t h e g a te a nd a d ja cen t t o T 5 9 . I t s r e la t ion t o t he CG a nd t h e ma in f o r t re s s w a l l , t h e r e fo re , c anno t b e d e te rm ined . Wher e s t and ing , i ti s f a ced w i th ar ough ly c our s ed r ubb le i nm o r ta r Da nd a ppea r s t o b e aw o rk

5 3

o f p e r iod I . A t p r e s ent , i ti sc omp le te ly f i l led b eh ind s o t ha t i tr e s emb les ap l a t fo rm mo re t han a w a l l . W i thou t c l ea r ing o r e xcava t ion , i t s o r ig ina l n a ture r ema ins u nce r ta in . I ts e ems p robab le , h owever , t ha t i tw a s b u i l t a s aw a l l , a nd t ha t t h e f i l ing h a s r e su l ted i n mode rn t imes f r om t he c o l laps e o fs t ruc tu r es b eh ind i t . ( Ea st c i tade l wa l l : F ig . 6 5 ) : O n t h e e a s t s i de , w h i ch c on ta ins t he CG , t he c i tade l w a l l i sd oub led b y al ow w a l l o fc ou r sed r ubb le s t r e tch ing f r om t he b a s t ion T7 1 t o ap o int j u s t w e s t o fT5 8 . N o t r a ce o ft h i s w a l l c ou ld b e f o und o n t he n o r th s i de .

The L ower C ity Wa l l ( F ig . 6 9 )

Genera l : Mo s t o f t h e l owe r w a l l i so f o ne p e r iod , w i th s qua re t ow e r s o f ak i nd n o t f ound e l s ewhe re i n t h e f o r t re s s . I tw a s b u i l t a l ong t he l i n e o f ap r ev ious ly u nknown e a r l ie r w a l l w ho s e s ubs tant ia l r ema in s s urv ive a t t he n o r the rn mo s t c o rne r . W

1 8/72 :

T72

T he w a l l w h ich j o ined t h e ma in f o r t r e s s w i th t he l ow e r t own h a s l e f t t r a ce s n ea r T 1 8 ( s ee a bove , W 1 7/18 ) w he r e i t b egan , a nd i s w e l l p r es erved a d ja cen t t o T 7 2 . I ti sb u i l t o f s ma l l r ubb le a nd b roken b r ick w i th s ome l a rg e r s t ones i nt h e f a c ing . R ubb le o f t h e f a c ing i sc our s ed , b ut o the rw i se t h ere i sl i t t le d if e r ence b e tw een f a ce a nd c o re . T he w a l l u s es a b rown i sh mo r ta r D a nd h a s r ow s o f l a rg e c l o se ly -se t r ound b eamho l es i n t h e c o re p a ra l le l t o t h e f a ce , o ne n ea r p r e sen t g round l e ve l , t h e o ther a bout 4 m h i ghe r . As t one s t a i rway , n ow b roken , f o rmed p a r t o f t h e b a ck o f t h e w a l l a nd l e d t o t he c hamber o f t h e t ower . The w a l l a ppea r s t o b e o fp er iod I V ( s ee b e low , T7 2 ) .

1 )S qua re t owe r w i th s o l id b as e a nd u pper c hambe r . 2 ) T h i s t owe r , l i ke t h e o the r s o f t h is s i de , s t ands i n dependen t o f t h e w a l l , w h ich r uns b eh ind i t . I t c ons i s t s o f as o l id ma s s o f m asonry a bou t 5m h i gh s uppo r t ing a n u pper s l igh t ly s p layed c hamber w i th v e ry t h ick w a l l s . T he m ason ry i sl i ke t ha t o f t h e w a l l j u s t d e sc r ibed ; i th a s ar ough f a c ing o f c ou r s ed l a rg e a nd s ma l l r ubb l e , w i th much b rown ish m o r ta r a nd ma rb le c h ips i n t h e j o in t s , a nd a g ood d ea l o f g r ey mo r ta r o n t h e s ur fa ce . S ome l a rge r s t ones a r e u s ed a s q uo ins . I ts how s e v idence o f ac r ibwork o f l a rge r ound b eams . 3 )T he s ma l l i n ner c hambe r , t hough a bou t 6 m h i gh , p r eserve s n o t r ace o fo pen i n g s . 4 )S ty le o f ma sonry a nd t h e e v idence o fE v l iya C he l eb i ] Tes t . 2 1i nd ica t e ad a te i np e r iod I V f o r t h is c i rcu i t .

T73

1 )S qua re t owe r , a s T7 2 : F ig . 7 0 . 2 ) T h i s t owe r d if e r s i n n o ma jo r r e spec t f r om t h e p r ev iou s ; i t make s a mo re d i s t inc t u s e o f q uo ins , h oweve r , a nd t h e r e s t o fi t s s tonewo rk . i sl e s s r e gu l a r ly c ou r s ed . 4 )P e r iod I V .

T74

1 )S qua re t owe r , a sT7 2 . 2 ) A s p r ev ious , b u t w i th s ome i n d ica t ion o f c ou r s ing w i th s ma l l f l a t s t ones w he r e t h e s he l te r c oa t h a s d i sappea r ed . 4 )P e r iod I V .

5 4

T75

1 )F ragmenta ry c o rne r t owe r o fu nc e r ta in s hape . 2 ) S urv iv ing ma sonry n ea r g round l e ve l i n c lude s r e gu la r t u fa b l o cks s e t w i th w ide b ands o f mo r ta r D . 4 ) A ppa ren t ly p e r iod I I .

W 7 5/76 : S how s s am e m ason ry a sT7 5 w he re s t and ing n ex t t o T7 6 . T76

1 )S qua re t owe r , a sT7 2 . 2 ) N o s i gn if i can t v a r ia t ion f r om t h e t owe r s s o f a r d e s cr ibed . 4 ) P e r iod I V .

T 77

1 )S qua r e t owe r , a sT7 2 :F ig . 7 1 . 2 )U sua l s hape a nd m a sonry ; c r ibwo rk o fl a rge a nd s ma l l r ound b eams . 4 ) P e r iod I V .

( T78 : D es t royed b y r oad c ons t ruc t ion , b u t , a c co rd ing t o t h e m emo ry o f t he l o ca l s , c o r re sponded t o T7 9 , t oge the r w i th w h ich i tf l anked t h e w e s t g a te o f t he l owe r c i ty . ) T 79

1 )S qua re t owe r , a s T7 2 . 2 ) U sua l r ough ly c ou r s ed r ubb le w i th a g ood d ea l o f b r ick , much c ove red w i th g r ey s he l te r c oa t ; mo r ta r D . 4 ) P e r iod I V .

W 7 9/80 : F ig . 7 2 : T he p a r t s o f t h e o u t er f a ce v i s ib le f r om t h e c our tya rd o f ah ouse c on s t i tu te , a l ong w i th t h e s e c t ions i mmed ia te ly f o l low ing , t he f i nes t ma sonry i n t h e e n t i r e c a s t le . T he w a l l i s f a ced w i th r e c tangu la r t u fa b l o cks , f i n e ly c u t t o f i t c l o s e t og e the r i n r e gu la r c our s es , w i th s ome f i l l ing o f b r ick f r agmen t s a nd f a i r ly w ide b ands o f g r ey mo r ta r . T he s t onewo rk i si n ter rup ted b y b ands o f 6b r icks , a l l n ew w hen l a id i n t h e s ame g r ey mo r ta r . T he i n te r io r o f t h e w a l l , t h rough w h ich a l a rge p as sag e h a s b een b roken t o g i ve a c ce s s t o t h e h ous e , i so f r ubb le i n as andy g r ey ish mo r ta r , w ho se c o lour s ome t imes v e rge s o n o rang e . A cco rd ing t o t h e o wner o f t h e h ouse , t h e a gg rega te w as made f r om e gg she l l s ; h i s a u tho r i ty f o r t h is p l au s i b le s t a tement i su nknown . T he c o re i sb onded w i th a c r ibwo rk o f b eams w h ich s u rv ive s i n p a r t ; o ne h uge s qua re b eam f o rms t he b as e o f t he p a s s age , a no ther l a rge r ound o ne i sn ea rby . T he i n ner f a ce o f t h e w a l l i sf a r l e s s a t t ra c t ive , w i th a m ix tu re o fs ma l l r ubb le a nd r e us ed t u fa b l ocks , a nd ag ood d ea l o f p a tch ing . T he w a l l a ppea r s t o b e o f p er iod I w i th r epa i r s i np e r iod I V . T 80

1 )R ound c o rne r t owe r . 2 ) A l though t h e s hape a nd a pp rox ima te s i ze o f t h i s t owe r may b e e s t ima ted f r om s u rv iv ing r ema ins , mo s t o f i th as b een o b s cured b y l a te r b u i ld ing . S ince a h ous e i sb u i l t o ve r t h e o u te r p a r ts , i t s c onnec t ion w i th W 8 0/81 c anno t b e d e te rm ined , b u t i tp l a in ly h a s t he s ame e xce l l en t f a c ing a s t h e p reced ing a nd f o l low ing w a l l s . T he i n te r io r i so ccup ied b y a mo sque , t h e Aai K a le Me sc id i ( s ee b e low , ' Bu i ld ing s w i th in t he c a s t le ' ) b u i l t o ver t h e v au l t ing o f ac hambe r w h ich c on ta in s al a rge s p r ing , n ow u s ed a s t he l o ca l l a und ry . T he b r ick b a r r e l v au l t s o f t h e c hambe r a r e p robab ly c on tem p o ra ry w i th t h e t ow er . 4 ) P e r iod I .

W 8 0/81 : F ig . 7 3 : R ema rkab ly f i ne f a c ing l i ke W 7 9/80 b u t e ven mo re d eco ra t ive . T he ma sonry i so f w e l l -cu t a nd c l o se ly f i t ted t u fa b l o cks i n b ands o f 3 5 w i th v a ry ing b r ick b ands ; t h e t h ickes t h a s 1 0 b r icks , t h e n a r rowes t 4 . T he t opmo s t b and i s d eco ra ted w i th a d oub le d en t i l f r ieze i n b r ick , u npa ra l le l ed i n t h e c a s t le . T he w a l l u s es t h e s ame g r ey mo r ta r a s W

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7 9/80 . T81

1 )L a rge s em ic i rcu la r t ow e r . 2 ) T h i s s ubs tan t ia l s t ruc tur e s e rve s a s t h e f o unda t ion f o r ah ous e w h ich h a s c over ed a nd b l o cked t h e i n te r io r . I ti sf a c ed w i th f i ne b anded ma son ry o f w e l l -cut c our s ed t u fa b l o ck s a nd s ome s po i l s ( o ne o f t hem a n I on ic i mpo s t c ap i ta l ) , w i th a n a l te rna t ion o f 5o r 6c ou r s es o f s t one w i th 8o f b r i ck : I t u se s g r ey mo r ta r a nd c o r re sponds i ne ve ry w ay w i th t he p r e ced ing s e c t ions o f t h e w a l l . T he t owe r i sb onded t o W 8 0/81 ; a t t h e l e ve l o f t he f o unda t i on , t he s t onewo rk o f t h e w a l l d o e s n o t j o in t he c urve o f t h e t owe r , b ut c u t s i n f r ont o f t h e j o in t a t a n a cu te a ng l e . Much o f t he w e s tern p a r t o f t he f a ce i sm i s s ing a nd h a s b een r e p la ced b y s ma l l r ubb le a nd b roken b r ick i n mo r ta r E . 4 )P e r iod I , r e pa i r ed i np e r iod I V .

T82 : O n ly o ne c o rne r o f t h e b a s e , i nm o r ta r Ds urv ive s ; a ppa r ent ly w a s o fp er iod I V . W 8 2/83 : F a ce o f r ough r ubb l e , l i ke t h e w a l l s o n t h e w es t s i de . T83

1 )S qua re t owe r , a sT7 2 . 2 ) F a c ing o f s ma l l r ough ly c ou r s ed r ubb le w i th s omewha t l a rg er q uo in s ; n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ions f r om p r ev ious ly d es c r ibed t owe r s . B onded w i th a d ja cent t owe r s . 4 )P e r iod I V .

W 8 3/84 : F a ced w i th v ery r ough r ubb le w i th u sua l mo r ta r ; t h e u ppe r p a r ts u s e m o r t a r E . T84

1 )A r ched g a te t owe r : F ig . 7 4 . 2 ) T h i s c ons i s t s o f t wo h eavy p i e r s f l ank ing a n o pen ing o f a bou t 3m w h i ch i s u s ed b y t h e mode rn r oad . T he b e t te r p r es e rved n o r the rn p i er e mp loys l a rg e s po i l s i n i t s o ute r f a c ing , b u t o the rw i s e h as t h e u sua l i regu la r r ubb le i n mo r ta r Dw i th a g r ey s he l t e r c oa t . T ra ce s o f t h e s pr ing ing o f t he g a te a r ch a r e c l ea r ly v i s ib le a t ah e ight o f a bou t 3 m , t o s ugge s t t ha t t he l ower t own w a s h e r e e nte r ed t h rough a l a rg e p ro jec t ing t ower , r a the r t han b e ing f l anked b y t owe r s o n t h e w es t s i de . S i nc e t h e t ower e x t ends h igh a bove t h e a r ch , t he ma in d e f ens ive z one w a s p r e sumab ly o n t h e t op , o ve r t h e a r ch , f a c ing a p o tent ia l a t ta cke r a nd o f e r ing c ove r t o t h e a d ja cen t w a l l s . A cco rd ing t o t h e d e s cr ip t ion a nd p l an ( f i g . 1 8 ) o f U zunca rih [ T es t . 1 2 1 , t h e g a te w a s o r ig ina l ly d oub le . T h i s p r e sumab ly m eans t ha t t here w a s a g a te a t e i the r e nd o f t h e v au l ted p a s sag e . Much o f t he s t ruc ture h as b een o b l i te ra ted b y h ous e c ons t ruc t ion . 4 )P e r iod I V .

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BU ILDI NGS WITH IN THE W ALLS I n s p i te , o r p e rhap s b ecaus e o f , t h e l o ng h i s to ry o f t h e f o r t r es s , w h ich w a s i n u s e f o r a bou t at hou sand y ea r s , n o b u i ld ing s o f t h e B yzan t ine p e r iod a nd f ew o f l a te r a g e s h ave s u rv ived w i th in i t . A l though v i s i to r s t h rough t he n i ne teen th c en tury r e po r t v a r ious s t ruc tur es , o n ly t wo mo sques a nd a c i s te rn r ema in f r om a ny t ime b e fo r e t h e p r e s ent c en tu ry . F o r t h e B yzan t ines , K i i tahya was ama jo r m i l i ta ry b a se w h ich w ou ld h ave h ad as ub s tant ia l g a r r i son o f t h ema t ic t r oop s a nd a n a dm in is t ra t ive s t af o f c i v i l a nd e c c l es ia s t ica l of i c ia l s . T roop s a nd of i c ia ls n o d oub t o ccup ied t he c a s t le , b u t l a ck o f r ema ins make s i ti mpo s s ib le t o d e te rm ine w he ther i t s s ub s tan t ia l a r ea a l so a ccommo d a t ed a c i v i l ian p opu la t ion . O n ly o ne b u i ld ing , ac hurch , s urv ived u n t i l mode rn t imes . I t was a l ready r u ined w hen T ex i er s aw i ti n 1 835 [ T es t . 7 1b u t i t s w a l l s s t i l l c onta ined t r a ces o f p a in t ing s a nd ama rb le s a rcophagus h ad r e cen t ly b een d i s cove r ed i ni t s c r yp t . T h i s b o re as cu lp tur ed d eco ra t ion o f a n e ag le , al i on a nd g eome tr ic d es igns a l ong w i th t h e i n scr ip t ion , n o ted a bove , o f 1 071 . T ex ie r g ave n o d es c r ip t ion o f t h e c hurch , n o r i t s e xa c t l o ca t ion . I ts t ood ' a u m i l ieu d e l ' ence in te ' , e v iden t ly i n t h e ma in e nc lo sure , n o t t h e c i tade l . B y t h e e nd o f t h e n i ne teenth c en tury , i t s r ema ins h ad d i sappea red [ Hua r t , T e s t . 1 ] . The S e i juks w e r e a ppa ren t ly r e spons ib le f o r t he s ma l l mo sque , Aai K a le M e s c id i , b u i l t o ve r t h e s p r ing a t t he n o r the rnmo s t p o in t o f t he L ower C i ty Wa l l w i th in t he r ema ins o f t h e l a rge B yzan t ine c o rner t ower . T h is i s as imp le h exagona l s t ruc ture n o t mo re t han 6 m w ide , c ove r ed b y ad ome ; i tr e s emb le s at omb a s much a s am o sque . B y t he m id -n ine teen th c en tu ry , w hen Mo rd tmann [ Te s t . 9 1d es c r ibed i ta s a n o l d b u i ld ing w i th a c o l lap s ed d ome , i th ad f a l len i n to d i sus e . I t h as n ow b een r e s to r ed a s amo sque , b u t i t s o r ig ina l f unc t ion r ema ins u nc lea r . T he s t ruc ture a ppea r s t od a te f r om t h e l a te t h i r teen th c en tury , a nd i st hus t he s o le monumen t o f S e l juk r u le w i th in t he c a s t le . 1 R ema ins o f t h e G e rm iyan id p e r iod a r e o n ly s omewha t mo re s ubs tan t ia l . T he m o sque i n t h e ma in f o r t re s s m en t ioned b y E v l iya C he l eb i [ T es t . 2 ] i ss t i l l s tand ing , t h ough i n as t a te o f a lmo s t c omp le te r e s to ra t ion . O n ly s ome l owe r p a r t s o f t he w a l l s a nd o f t he m ina r e t may r e p r e s en t t h e o r ig ina l s t ruc tur e w h ich a s urv iv ing i n sc r ip t ion a t t r ibutes t o 1 377 . T he b as e o f t h e m inar e t h a s af a c ing i n c l o isonné w i th s qua red t u fa b lo ck s s u r rounded b y b r icks . A l though t h i s mo s t c l ea r ly r e s emb les O t toman w o rk o f t h e f i teen th c e n tu ry a sf ound a t B ur sa a nd o the r s i tes i nw e s tern A na to l ia , i t f i nd s a n a na logue i nt h e e xa c t ly c on tempo ra ry K u r un lu C am i o f t h e l owe r c i ty . T ha t e mp loys a r ough c l o i sonné i ni t s w a l l s a nd an ea t a l te rna t ion o f b r ick a nd s t one i nt h e b a s e o f t he m ina r e t t os ugg es t t ha t t h e r ema ins o ft h e C a s t le Mo sque a r e i n deed o f t h e G e rm iyan id p e r iod . I n t h i s a nd o the r c a s es , h oweve r , e x tens ive r e s to ra t ion a t v a r ious t i me s ( t he m o s t mode rn b e ing t h e mo s t d e s t ruc t ive ) h as made i d ent if i ca t ion o f e a r ly w o rk d if i cu l t . 2 O the r b u i ld ing s r e po r ted b y E v l iya a nd l a ter t r ave l ler s m ight h ave i n c luded w o rks o f t h e C e rm iyan ids , b u t t h e l a ck o f r ema ins i n v i tes o n ly s pecu la t ion . O ne s t ruc ture i nt h e C i tade l w h i ch w ou ld n o t h ave a t t ra c ted much a t tent ion may c e r ta in ly b e a t t r ibu t ed t o t h em . Al a rge v au l ted c i s te rn w i th t wo c hambe r s a t r i gh t a ng l es t o e a ch o the r l i e s b eh ind a nd a d ja c ent t o t h e s ou thea s t c o rne r o f t h e C i tade l . T he w a l l s o ft h e o u te r c hamb e r , a bou t 3 m h i gh , s uppo r t ab a r re l v au l t o f mo r ta r ed r ubb le a nd a r e c ove red w i th a f i ne p i nk h ydrau l i c c emen t ; t h e r ubb le b eh ind t h is l a yer e mp loys t h e t yp ica l mo r ta r D o f p e r iod I . A s omewha t p o inted a r ch s epa ra tes t he t wo i . A ltun ( 1982 ) 1 9 0 . 2 . K a le Mesc id i : A ltun ( 1 982 ) 1 9 3 -195 ; Kuriun tu C am i : i b id . , 2 26 -229 , b ut n o te t he d oubt s e xpres sed a bout t he e a r ly d a te o f b o th :

i b id . , 4 10 .

T he c o mprehens ive s urvey o f A ltun i s f undamenta l f o r t he s tudy o f t he Tu rk ish

m onu ment s o f Kütahya ; i ti s ma r red o n ly b y i lu st ra t ions s o p oo r ly r eproduced t ha t many a re q u ite u se les s .

5 7

c hambe r s ; t h e i n ne r , w h ich i ss im i la r i n s i ze a nd s hap e , u s es mo r ta r Eo fP e r iod I V . T he e v idence f o r d a t ing t h e se p e r iods , w h ich w i l l a s s ign t h em r e spect ive ly t o t he C e r m iyan ids a nd O t tomans , w i l l b e p r es en ted b e low i n' Ch rono logy o f t he F o r t res s ' . I ti s i n a ny c a se a ppa r ent t ha t t h e c i s te rn i sl a te r t han t h e C i tade l w a l l w ho s e l i ne i tf o l l ow s . T here i s e ve ry r e a son t o b e l ieve t ha t t h e l owe r c i ty w a s i n hab i ted i n t h e p e r iod , b u t n o t r a ce h a s s urv ived . O n ly a t omb s tone o f 1 366 w h ich w as f ound a t a f ounta in w ho se l o ca t ion c anno t n ow b e d e te rm ined i tw as a ppa rent ly a tt h e b o t tom o f t he c a s t le p res e rves t h e m emo ry o f t h i s e po ch . B e s ide t h e C e rm iyan id mo sque , t h e c i s te rn , a nd a f ew h ous e s u n l ike ly t o a n teda te t he p re sen t c en tury , t h e p as t h a s l e f t n o r ema ins i nt h e i n ter io r o ft he c a s t l e . N eve r the le s s , d e s cr ip t ions o f t r ave l le r s make i tp o s s ib l e t o f o rm a n i d ea o fi t s a ppea r a nce i n t he O t toman p e r iod , b eg inn ing i n t h e s e ven t eenth c en tury . I n t h e t ime o f E v l iya C he leb i , w ho v i s i ted K ütahya i n 1 670 [ T e s t . 2 ] , t h e c i tade l h ad o n e g a te f a c ing e a s t w i th w ooden d oo r s c ove r ed w i th b ufa lo h i de . W i th in i tw ere e i gh t b u i ld ing s w h ich i n c luded amo sque , h ous e s f o r t h e i mam , t h e m uezz in , t h e c as t le w a rden a nd t h e s t ewa rd a s w e l l a s t wo w a r ehouse s f o r w hea t . S ub s equen t t r ave l le rs mak e n o men t ion o f t hes e b u i ld ing s , q u i te p o s s ib ly b ecaus e t h e c i tade l w as n o t o pen t o t h em . B y t h e t ime o f T ex ier ( 1 839 ) , t h ey h ad d i sappea red . Y e t a s l a te a s 1 930 , U zunca ri l i [ T e s t . 1 2 1 c ou ld f i nd t he s i te o f t h e r e s idence o f t h e c a s t l e w a rden , a s w e l l a s c i s terns a nd maga z ines . I n h i s t ime , h ow ever , i ta ppea r s t ha t o ne o f t he t owers w a s i d ent if ied a s t h e w a rden 's d we l l ing . T he t a l l r o ck d ome w h i ch h e n o ted i nt h e m idd le o ft he c i tade l i s n ow c ove red b y at a l l t owe r l ike s t ruc tur e , ar e vo lv ing r e s tauran t o f r ema rkab ly i n cong ruous a ppea rance . I n E v l iya 's t ime , t h e a r ea o f t h e ma in e nc lo su r e c onta ined t he C e rm iyan id mo sque a nd t h e s e ven ty e a r th -roo f ed h ou se s o f t h e g a r r i son , a s w e l l a s a no the r mo sque a nd a s p r ing . T he w ho le a r ea w as t hus o ccup ied b y t h e m i l ita ry . A c en tury l a te r , h oweve r , t h e g a r r i son h ad d i sappea red a nd o rd ina ry c i t i zens o f a l c l as s es i n hab i ted t h e c a s t l e , w i th t h e s o le p rov i s ion t ha t C reek s a nd A rmen ians ( who i n mode rn t imes h ad a s ub s tan t ia l c ommun i ty i n t h e c i ty ) w e re f o rb idden t o d w e l l t h er e [ N iebuhr ( 1 769 ) , O l iv ie r ( 1 797 ) : T e s t . 4a nd 5 1 . T he o n ly o the r b u i ld ing m en t i oned i st h e p r i son w h ich a ppa ren t ly s t ood n ea r t h e m o sque . T h is w as s t i l l i n ac on d i t ion t o b e u s ed i n 1 831 [ K eppe l : T es t . 6 ]b u t h ad f a l len i t o r u in a g ene ra t ion l a t e r [ Mo rd tmann ( 1 852 ) : T e s t . 9 1 ; n o e v iden t t r a ce o f i ts u rv ive s . I n g ene ra l , t he ma in e nc lo sure s e ems t o h ave l o s t i t s f unc t ion b y t h e n i ne t een th c en tury , o ccup i ed o n ly b y s ca t te red h ous e s o f n o d i s t ingu i shed c ons t ruc t ion , a nd s ome c annon . H ou s e s a nd c an n on s t i l l s urv ive , t h e l a t te r f unc t ion ing n ow o n ly t os i gna l t h e s e t t ing s un o fR amadan . T he L ower C i ty , s ma l l e r a nd c u t o f f r om t h e c i tade l , a t tra c t ed l e s s n o t ic e . A cco rd ing t o E v l iya , i tc on ta ined a mo sque a nd t w en ty h ous e s r oo f ed w i th e a r th , a s w e l l a s m i l l s . I t s b as ic a ppea rance r ema ined u nchang ed t h roughout t he c e n tur ies , a nd d if e r s n ow o n ly b y t h e d ec r ep i tude o f t h e w a l l s a nd t h e d i sappea rance o ft h e m i l l s . I t s e ems n eve r t o h ave c on ta ined a ny ma jo r e l emen t o f d e f ence , b ut t o h ave b een p r i ma r i ly ac i v i l ian d i s t r ic t . -

-

3 .

I b id . , 1 98 .

5 8

SPOILS A ND INSCRIPTIO NS The w a l l s o fK ü tahya c on ta in ag r ea t d ea l o f r e us ed ma te r ia l , t r a ces o f a n e a r l i e r s t age i n t he l i f e o f t h e c i ty . Mo s t o f t h i s c ons i s t s o f p l a in c u t b lo cks , u sua l ly o f l i me s tone , b u t s e ve ra l p i ece s h ave s cu lp tur ed d eco ra t ion , a nd t wo b ea r i n s cr ip t ions . I n a dd i t ion , t r ave l le r s o f t h e p a s t h ave m en t ioned o the r p i ece s . A l l w i l l b e l i s ted h e r e w i th ab r ie f d es c r ip t ion a nd s ome i lus t ra t ion t o make t hem a va i lab le f o r f u r ther s t udy b y s p ec ia l i s t s , f o r r e s ea r ch i n to s uch ma te r ia l w ou ld l e ad f a r f r om t he p urpo s es o f t h e p r e s ent v o lume . I n mo s t c a s es , t hanks t o t he a dv i ce o f P ro f . J ean -P ie r r e S od in i o f P a r i s , i th a s b een p o s s ib le t o d e r ive t h e f unc t ion a nd a pp rox ima te d a te o f t he p i ece s , b u t n one may b e a s so c ia ted w i th a b u i ld ing , f o r t h e s po i l s a r e r e la t ive ly f ew , a nd n o s t ru c ture o f t he a nc ien t o r l a te a n t ique c i ty h a s s u rv ived . Mo s t o f t h e i d ent if iab le s po i l s a r e o f L a te A n t iqu i ty , a nd p rov ide a h in t o f w ha t h as b een l o s t . Ma te r ia l f r om G r e ek o r R oman t ime s , o n t h e o ther h and , a ppea r s t o b e r a re , ap henomenon f o r w h i ch t he re i sn o o bv ious e xp lana t ion . T he p i ece s a r e p r es en ted i n t he o rder o f t h e w a l l s a nd t ower s w h ich i n co rpo ra te t h em . S po i ls T 1 ,ba se ( Pe r iod I ) : L a t e a n t ique c o lumn b ase : F ig . 5 T 2 , b a se ( Pe r iod I ) : P iece o fR oman a r ch i t rave , 1 / hic . : F ig . 7 5 W indow mu l l ion , l a te a n t ique . C ap i ta l w i th f l u t ing , V /V Ic . : F ig . 7 6 I mpo s t w i th c ro s s , V /V Ie . : F ig . 7 T 14 ( Per iod I ) : L a te a n t ique c hance l c o lumn : F ig . 7 7 LG ( Per iod I I ) : N o t r a ce o f t h e w h i te ma rb le l i ons r epo r ted , i n r a ther d if e r ing t e rms , b y E v l iya C he l eb i , K eppe l a nd T ex ie r [ T es t . 1 , 6 , 7 ] h as s ur v i ved . T 32 ( b e tween P e r iods Ia nd I ) : L a te a n t ique mu l l ion : F ig . 2 2 T 34 , f a ce o f LW ( Pe r iod I ) : Sma l l w indow c ap i ta l w i th c ro s s , l a te a nt ique : F ig . 2 4 T 35 , b ase ( Pe r iod I ) : I o n ic c ap i ta l , I l/ lY e . : F ig . 7 8 P i las te r c ap i ta l , I/ IV c . : F ig . 7 9 P hryg ian ' d oo r s tone ' , i n sc r ip t ion i n v i s ib le ; p robab ly h Ic . : F ig . 8 0 T 41 , i nner t owe r ( Pe r iod I ) : R oman I o n ic c ap i ta l , 1 / hic . : F ig . 8 1 S qua re c hance l c o lumn , l a te a n t ique . T 44 , f a ce o f LW ( p e r iod I ) : L a te a nt ique i mpo s t w i th c ro s s F ig . 3 3 UW 4 7/48 ( Pe r iod I ) : R ec tangu la r w indow c ap i ta l , l a te a n t ique . T 53 , o uter f a ce ( Pe r iod I ) : U ndeco ra ted R oman a r ch i t rave . T 66 ( Per iod I I ) : P o rphy ry c hance l c o lumns , l a te a n t ique : F ig . 8 2 T 8 1 ( l a te P er iod I ) : B aske t c ap i ta l , V I c . : F ig . 8 3 T 84 ( Per iod I V ) : P i la s t e r , p robab ly f r om c hance l , V /V i le . : F ig . 7 4 I n t e r io r o f ma in e nc lo sure , i n h ous e b eh ind T 33 : S qua re p l aque w i th Ma l tese c ro s s , V /V T c . ; F ig . 8 4

I nscr ipt ions

1 . T 16 ( Pe r iod I ) : G r ey l i me s tone , H1 07 c m , W 4 8 , h e igh t o fl e t te r s 2 ;d eco ra t ion i n t he s hape o f a n a l ta r a do rned w i th l a rge b us ts o f man a nd w oman a nd s ma l l b us t o fc h i ld : F ig . 8 5 . .Z WT IK

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4 . H e p ub l i shed i tw ith i lu st ra t ion a nd c ommenta ry a s T ex ier ( 1845 ) . 5 .

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a nd t h e d a te s d o n o t c o r r e la te : t h e t e n th i n d ic t ion f e l l i n t he y ea r o f t he w o r ld 6 580 , n o t 6 579 . I ts e ems p robab le t ha t A s ianos i st o b e t aken n o t a s p a r t o f a t i t le , b ut a s ap e r sona l n ame . G r ego ras was a ppa r en t ly a g ene ra l w ho d i ed h ere d ur ing a c ampa ign , b u t was n o t , i n a ny c a s e , c ommande r o f t he r e g ion , f o r t he Ops ic ian t heme was n o rma l ly h eaded b y ac ount . A s f o r t he d a te , t h e l a s t l e t te r , o r t h e l a s t t wo , a ppea r t o h ave b een m i s r ead , a nd n o o bv ious s o lu t i on i s ah and . T he l e t te r ing a ppea r s t o s u i t t h e e l even th c en tury , b u t w ou ld n o t i ni t s e l f e x c lude a n e a r l ie r d a te . 5 . I n 1 847 , Ma c fa r lane [ T es t . 8 ] s aw a n i n s c r ip t ion w i th t he a rms o f t he G eno es e r epub l ic i n t h e ' l ower c a s t le ' ( t he ma in e nc lo sur e ) . I fh i s i n terpr e ta t ion o f t h e a rms i sc o r rec t , t h e s t one p robab ly r e f l ec t s t h e a c t iv i t ie s o f G enoe s e t r ade r s i n t he d ays o f t h e G erm iyan id s t a te w hen , a cco rd ing t o t he F lo ren t ine m e rchan t P ego lo t t i , K i i tahya w as ap r ime s ou rce o f a l um , ac ommod i ty h i gh ly d e s ir ed b y t he I t a l ian s t a te s b ecaus e o f i t s i mpo r tanc e i nt h e pr o du c t io n ofd y ed c l o th . ° S ince a l um was e x tens ive ly t r aded b y t h e G eno e se , i ti sl i ke ly t ha t t h e i n sc r ip t i on was t he t ombs tone o fs uch am e r chan t . T he s t one h as s i nce d i sappea red .

6 . P ego lo tt i 4 3 , 3 69 , 3 70 .

6 1

6 2

F ig .A . Reconstruct ion o f Wa l l s o fP er iod I T h i s r epres en ts a n i mag ina ry s e ct ion o f w a l l , r e con s tructed t o s how f e a tures o f t he p er iod , a s i nd i ca ted : A : U -shaped p ro jec t ing t ower , b u i l t o ver a nd c onnected w i th LW , a s T 8 . T he e xam p l e o n t he l e f t s how s a n o pen ing a t g round l e ve l t o g i ve a cces s t o t he s pace b etween t he w a l l s . T he e x i s tence o f s uch o pen ing s , t hough p robab le , i s n o t a ttes ted i nt he s u rv iv ing r ema ins . B : T he L ower Wa l l , c onnected w i th s em i c i rcu la r t owers o n t he w es t f a ce , a nd r un n ing b e fo re b u t tre s ses , s ma l l er t ow ers a nd s qua re c o rner t ower s ; d eco ra ted o n ly o ccas iona l ly w i th b ands o fb r ick . C : T he Upper Wa l l : s u rv iv ing r ema ins d o n o t a l low i t s h e igh t o r r e la t ion w i th t owers t o b e d e term ined . D : S quare c o rner t owe r , b u i l t a t p o in ts w here t he w a l l c hanges d i rec t ion , a s T 41 ; a cces s t o t he r oo f p la t fo rms w a s p robab ly f r om t he i n ter io r . E a nd F : B u ttres s es , s qua re o r t r iangu la r , p ro ject ing o n ly s l ight ly f r om t he w a l l , a s o n t he s ou thea s t f a ce ; t hey may h ave b een s o l id p ro ject ions f o r r e in fo rcemen t , l a ck ing c r ene l la t ions . G : S ma l l s em ic i rcu la r t ower , l ower a nd p ro ject ing l e s s f a r t han i t s n e ighbour , a s T 15 .

F ig . B . Reconstruct ion o f Wa l l s o fP er iod I T h i s r e cons truct ion i sb as ed o n , b ut d o es n o t r ep res en t , t he s outhwes t w a l l b etween t he UG a nd T 53 . A : T a l l p ro jec t ing U shaped t ower b y g a te . B : G a te w i th as imp l e a r ched o pen ing . C : T ower o f c omp l ica ted p lan , w i th c hamber a t u pper l e ve l . A cces s t o t he t op p la t f o rm may h ave b een f r om as ta i rway b eh ind t he t ower , o r t hrough a t rap d oo r . D : T he L ower Wa l l , r unn ing b e tween t ower s a nd f o rm ing a s e r ies o f c l o sed s paces o f u ncer ta in f unc t ion . E : P l inth , u sua l ly o f s po i l s a nd l a rge s t ones , e mp loyed t o s uppo r t t owers b u i l t o n s t eep s l opes . F : U shaped t ower s , b u i l t o ver t he LW ; o n t he l e f t , ac hamber t ower ; t he o thers a re s hown a s s o l id p l a t fo rms . G : T he Upper Wa l l ; h e igh t a pp rox ima te ly c o rrect , t o j udge b y o cca s iona l r ema ins ; f r equen t ly e mp loy s b r ick b ands . H : L a rge r ound p la t fo rm t ow er a t c o rner , a s T 53 . I : Wa l iwa lk o f UW s uppo r ted o n a rches , w i th s ta i rway l e ad ing t o i n ner c hamber . I n mo s t c a ses , t he w a l l w ou ld h ave b een h i gher r e la t ive t o t he t ower .

6 3

RELATIVE CHRO NOLOG Y T he v a ry ing s t y le o f ma son ry a nd t e chn ique s o f d e f ence d i sp lay ed i n t he w a l l s o fK ütahya make i te v iden t t ha t t h ey w e r e t h e p roduc t o f al o ng a nd c omp lex s e r i e s o f b u i ld ing a nd r ebu i ld ing w h ich s t re tched f r om o ne e nd o ft he M idd le A g e s t o t he o the r . Y e t n o p a r t o f t h em b ea r s a n i n s c r ip t ion n o r d oe s t h e h i s to r ica l r e co rd o f er d i r ec t i n fo rma t ion f o r a ny b u t t h e l a s t p er iod ( o f t he f i t een th c en tury ) . D a t ing o f e a r l ie r s tage s mus t t he re fo re r e s t o n i n te rna l e v idence . F o r tuna te ly , t h e c hang e s o f s t y l e a r e s o ma rked t ha t as equence o f p e r iods may b e e s tab l i shed a nd a r e la t ive c hrono logy d e r ived . T he d e ta i led d es cr ip t ion o f t h e w a l l s a nd t owe r s r e f e r r ed t o f ou r ma in p e r iod s . T hes e h ave b een d ef ined b y t h e i r r e la t ion t o e a ch o the r e spec ia l ly o bv iou s i n t he c a se o f t owe r s s ub jec t t o mo re t han o ne r e bu i ld ing a nd b y t he k i nd o f m o r ta r t hey u s e . A t K i i tahya , a s i n o the r s i te s , t h e c ompo s i t ion o f t h e mo r ta r e mp loyed i n t he w a l l s v a r ied f r om o ne p er iod t o t h e o the r . T he r e asons f o r t h e c hange s c anno t b e k nown , n o r c an t he v a r ia t ions , w h i ch a r e l i ke ly t o b e t h e r e su l t o f l o ca l c ond i t ions , b e e xpec ted t o r e cur i nt h e s ame f o rm e l sewhe re , b u t t h ey a r e o f g r ea t u t i l i ty i ne s tab l i sh i n g s equence s a nd i d en t i fy ing w o rk o fd if e ren t p e r iod s . F o r t h i s , h oweve r , they n eed t o b e u s ed i n t he c on tex t o f a l l a va i lab le e v idence , a nd may b e c ons idered l e s s s i gn if i can t t han c hang es o f ma son ry o r t e chn ique s o f c ons t ruc t ion . T he mo r ta r s f o rm a s equence w h ich c omb ines w i th o the r d a ta t o i n d ica te f our p e r iods : af i r s t w h i ch u ses a g r ey mo r ta r ( A ) w i thout b r i ck ; as e cond w i th b r ick m o r ta r s ( B a nd C ) ; at h ird w i th a d if e r ent g r ey mo r ta r ( D ) a nd a f o ur th wh e r e aw h i te mo r ta r ( E ) i se mp loyed . T he d e ta i l s w i l l b e p r es en ted b e low . T he f our ma in p er iods r e p re sen t n o t s o much p o in ts i n t ime a s l e ng ths o f t ime w h ich r ema in t o b e d ef ined . T hey f o l low a n o rder w h ich may b e e s tab l i shed w i thout much d oub t , l e av ing o n ly a f ew a mb igu i t ie s ; b u t e a ch o f t hem , e xcep t t h e f i rs t , c on t a ins e v idence o f mo r e t han o ne s t ag e o f c ons t ruc t ion . R easons f o r t h e d i v i s ion i n to f o ur p e r iods w i l l b e p r e sen ted h e re w i th spe c i alate n t io n t o m asonry a n d mo r ta r ; th e v a ry ing t e chn iques o f d e f ence w i l l f o rm t he s ub jec t o ft h e f o l low ing s e c t ion ; a nd f i na l ly a n a t temp t w i l l b e made t o r e cons t ruc t t h e h i s to ry o f t he f o r t res s o n t h e b as is o f a l a va i lab le e v idence . T he f o l low ing d i s cus s ion i si n tended a s a n a na lys i s o ft he ma t e r ia l a l r eady p re sented ; f o r mo r e d e ta i l s o f t h e i n d iv idua l t owe r s a nd w a l ls , r e f e r ence s hou ld b e made t o t h e p r eced ing t r ea tmen t . -

-

P er iod I ( F ig . A )

T he w a l l s a nd t owe r s o f t h e f i r s t p e r iod may b e i d en t i f ied a s t ho s e w h ich a r e n o t b u i l t o ve r o r r e p re s en t a ny mod if i ca t ions t o e a r l ier s t ruc ture s . T hey m ake c ons i s tent u s e o f g r ey mo r ta r Aw i thou t b r ick , e a s i ly d i s t ingu i shed f r om t he b r ick m o r ta r s o ft h e r e bu i ld ing s w h ich l a rge ly o b l i te ra ted t h em . A lmo s t a l t h e se w a l l s h ave s uf e red c ons id e r ab le mod if i ca t ion a nd many h ave c omp le te ly d i sappea red , b u t t he s u rv iv ing r ema ins e nab le a n i mag e o f t h e o r ig ina l c i rcu i t t o b e r e cons t ruc ted . T he g r ea t s u rp r i se o f t h e p r es en t s urvey was t h e d i s cove ry t ha t t h is f i r s t s y s t em o f d e f ence s e x i s ted a t a l l mo s t o f i ti so bs cur ed b y r ebu i ld ing s a nd t ha t i tc on s i s ted o f ad oub le c i r cu i t , t h e U ppe r Wa l l w i th i t s s qua re a nd s em ic ircu la r t ower s r un n i ng d i r ec t ly b eh ind t h e L owe r Wa l l w h ich h ad f ew t owe r s . A l l a r e u n if i ed b y m o r ta r A a nd , t o al e s s e r e x ten t , b y t h e i r ma sonry . T he c on s i s ten t u se o f t h i s mo r ta r p ro v i ded t h e f i r s t c l ue f o r r e cogn i s ing t h e d e f ens ive s y s tem a nd f o r i d en t i fy ing i t s p a r t s . T he L ower Wa l l h ad b een s o o b s cur ed b y r e bu i ld ing t ha t i t s e x is tenc e w a s n o t e v en s u spec ted , y e t i t f o rmed a n i n teg ra l p a r t o f t he d e f ence s a nd made t he w a l l s o f -

-

6 4

K ü tahya a r ema rkab le s pec imen o f B yzan t i ne f o r t if i ca t ion . T he o r ig ina l c i rcu i t t hus c on s i s ted o f ad oub l e w a l l d e f ended b y t ow e r s w h ich i ns ome c a s es c onnec ted t h em i n a n u nexpec ted a nd u npa ra l l e led f a sh ion . T hes e w a l l s f o rmed as i ng le c i rcu i t w i th o ne l a rg e e nc lo sure o f a bou t 3 50 b y 3 00 m e tr e s ; t h ey d if er ed f r om t h e p re sent ly v i s ib le r ema ins b y h av ing n o C i tade l , L owe r C i ty Wa l l , o r b a rb ican b y t h e L ower G a te . The ma in d e f en ces c on s i s ted o f t h e U pper Wa l l a nd i t s t owe r s , mo s t o f w h ich w e r e b ur ied i n l a t er s t ruc ture s a nd o n ly r e vea led w hen t h e n ew f a c ing c o l lap s ed . T he t ow e r s a re o f t wo t ype s , s qua re a nd s em ic i r cu la r w h ich a r e d i s t ingu i shed b y t he i r f unc t i on , mason ry a nd r e la t ion t o t h e L owe r Wa l l . The s qua re t ow e r s o ccup ied v u lne rab le p o in ts w he re t h e w a l l c hang ed d i r ec t i on , a nd w e re t hus s i gn if i cant f o r t h e d e f ence o f t he c a s t le . T h i s a spec t o f t he s u rv iv i n g e xamp le s , t owe r s 1 ,1 7 , 4 1 , 4 4 a nd 6 0 , w i l l b e t r ea ted i n t h e s e c t ion o n d e f ens ive t e chn iques . T hes e may h ave b een c hambe r t ow er s , b u t o n ly o ne , T 45 , i sp re s e rved w e l l e nough t o s how a n e mb ra sur e . E a ch o f t h e t owe r s , w i th t h e p a r t ia l e xcep t ion o f T 60 , h as b een s o c ove r ed b y l a te r c ons t ruc t ion t ha t d e ta i l s o f a ppea rance a nd f unc t ion a r e d ef ic ien t , b ut t h ey a ppea r t o h ave h ad a c ons i s ten t m asonry o f w e l l c u t s qua r ed s po i l s a nd t u fa b lo ck s i nr e gu la r c ou r se s w i th i n f requen t b ands o f 5o r 6b r i cks . Thr ee o r f ou r o the r t owe r s a r e p robab ly t o b e a s so c ia ted w i th t h i s g roup . T he p r e s en t T 32 c onta in s a s i t s e a r l ie s t s t age as ma l l s qua re t owe r w h ich w i l l b e d i s cus s ed i n t h e n ex t s e c t ion s i n ce i ta ppea r s t o b e long t o ap e r iod i n te rmed ia te b e tween Ia nd I . I t i s l i ke ly , h owev er , t ha t i t r e p la ced a n o r ig ina l s qua r e t owe r w h ich h ad t h e i mpo r tant f unc t ion o f c ove r ing t h e a pp roa ch t o t h e ma in g a te . T owe r 5 3 , t he l a rg es t a nd mos t i mpo s ing o f t h e w ho le c i rcu i t , o ccup ie s ah i gh p ro jec t ing p o in t o f t he h i l l w he r e t he s ou the rn w a l l make s ar i gh t -ang le t u rn . I t s o r ig ina l f o rm w as a ppa ren t ly p o lygona l , n o d oub t t o o f e r b e t te r c ove r f o r t h e b road a r ea a round i t ; i tc onta ined a l a rg e r ound c hambe r w i th f i ve e mb ra sur es . U n l ike t h e o the r s , i ti sf a ced w i th r e gu la r b anded masonry . As ma l l e xpo s ed s e c t ion o f o r ig ina l f a ce i n d ica tes t ha t T 57 w a s a r e c tangu la r s t ruc tur e w i th af a c ing o f l i me s tone b l o cks . I tw a s d e s igned t o p ro te ct t h e U pp e r Ga te w h ich l a y b e tween i ta nd T 58 . T he l a t te r may a l so c oncea l as qua re t ow e r o ne w ou ld b e e xpec ted i ns uch a l o ca t ion b u t n o t r a ce i sv i s ib le t h rough t h e m a s s ive w a l l s w h ich c ove red i ti nP e r iod I . I n mo s t o f t h e s e c a s e s , t h e s qua re t ow er s s t ood b eh ind a nd a bove t he L owe r Wa l l , wh ich r an i n f r ont o f t h em , w i thou t t owe r s o f i t s o wn , a t ad i s tance o f a bout 1 m75 . T he r e la t ion i sc l ea r a t T i , 1 7 , 4 1 a nd 4 4 ; t h e L owe r Wa l l d o es n o t a ppea r i n t h e v i c in i ty o f T 53 o r 5 7 ; a nd i t s c onnec t ion w i th T 60 i su nce r ta in . T her e , i t may h ave s tood d i r ec t ly b e fo r e t h e t ow er w i th a v e ry n a r row s epa ra t ion , o r i tc ou ld h ave s u r rounded t h e t owe r t of o rm ak i nd o fp l a t fo rm . T he s em ic i rcu la r t owe r s , w h i ch h ave s urv ived i n g r ea te r n umbe r s , d if e r f r om t h e s qua re i n mo s t r e spec t s . T he i r r ema ins a r e v i s ib le a t T 2 , 3 ,8 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 5 , 1 9 , 2 6 a nd 5 2 . T h i s p a t te rn o f s urv iva l i sa ppa ren t ly n o t t h e r e su l t o f c hance , b u t r e f l ec t s t h e p redom inance o f s em ic i r cu la r t ow e r s o n t he w es tern s i de o f t he c a s t le , a p henomenon w h ich w i l l b e c on s ide red b e low . T he t owe r s v a ry i n s i ze , a nd u sua l ly e mp loy a b anded m asonry . A l though T 2 , 3 ,8 ,a nd 2 6 a ppea r t o h ave b een q u i te s ub s t an t ia l ( w i th T 8 p e rhaps t a l le r t han t h e o the r s ) , t owe r s 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 5 , 1 9 a nd 5 2 a r e n o t a b ly s ma l le r . T he b e s t p r e se rved m asonry i st ha t o f T 8 , w ho se a l terna t ion o f t wo c ou r s e s o f s t one w i th f i ve o f b r ick , p roduces a f a c ing w i th a l a rg e n umbe r o f b r ick b and s . T owe r s 1 5 a nd 5 2 a l so u s e b r ick b ands , b u t t h ey a r e f a r f ewe r , c onfo rm ing r a th e r t o t h e f a c ing o f t h e s qua r e t owe r s . T he t wo t owe r s a t t h e t op o f t he f o r t r es s , T 2 a nd 3 , h owever , h ave q u i te a d if er en t a spec t , w i th a h i gh b ase o f s po i ls a nd a s up e r s truc tu re e n t i r e ly i n b r ick . T hey t hus d if er f r om a l l o ther t owe r s a t K i i tahya e x c ep t t he r e bu i l t T i w h ich s tands d i rec t ly b eh ind t h em a nd p robab ly i m i ta tes t h e i r m a sonry . T he r e s t a r e i np oo r c ond i t ion , p r e s e rv ing o n ly t r a ces o f b r ick b ands . The r e la t ion o f t h es e t ow e r s t o t he L owe r Wa l l i sv a r ied , c omp lex a nd s urp r i s i n g . Two o f t hem , T 52 a nd 5 3 , h ave n o r ema ins o f t h e L owe r Wa l l n ea rby , a nd t ow e r s 2a nd 3 a r e q u i t e u n l ike t h e r e s t . T hes e a r e a c tua l ly t ower s o ft he L ower Wa l l ; t h ey p ro jec t f r om i ta nd a r e j o ined b y i t , f o rm ing a s e cond l i ne o f d e f ence b e low t h e s qua r e c o rner T i . S i n ce t h e i r u ppe r p a r t h a s d i sappea r ed , i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o t e l l -

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w he the r t h ey w e re c hamber o r p la t fo rm t owe r s . F o r t he r e s t , T 8 m ay s e rve a s a mode l . T h i s t owe r was a s so c ia ted w i th t h e U ppe r Wa l l , w h i ch r an b eh ind i ti n t h e n o rma l w ay , w i thou t b ond ing . I t s o u te r f a ce , h oweve r , was b u i lt d i re c t ly o ve r t h e L ower Wa l l a nd f o rmed a n i n teg ra l s t ruc ture w i th i t . T he l ower p a r t s o f t he t ow e r a r e i d en t i ca l w i th t he f a ce o f t h e L ow e r Wa l l , w h ich f o rms a s moo th c urve a t t h e t owe r a nd p ro jec t s f r om i to n b o th s i de s . T he t owe r t hus s e rved t o j o in t he U pp e r a nd L owe r Wa l l s a nd t o p rov ide a u n if i ed w a l l s y s t em f o r w h i ch t he r e a r e n o e v iden t p a ra l le l s . T owe r s 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 5 , 1 9 a nd 2 6 , a l though i n v a r ious s tage s o f d e lap ida t ion , a ppea r t o r ep r es en t t he s ame p henomenon . T owe r s 8a nd 2 6 w ere c hambe r t ow e r s ; e v idence f o r t he r e s t i s l a ck ing , b u t t h e e xamp l e o f T 14 , b u i l t i n P e r iod I a s a c hambe r t owe r a nd l a ter c onve r ted t o ap l a t fo rm , s ugg e s ts t ha t c hamb e r t owe r s w e r e t he r u le o n t h i s s i de . I ts e ems t ha t t h e w es tern s i de o ft he c a s t le i n P e r iod Iwas q u i te d if e ren t f r om t h e o ther p a r t s , a nd t ha t t h e p ecu l ia r c onnec t ion b e tw een t owe r s a nd w a l l s w as c onf ined t o t h is s i de . I ta l so a ppea r s t ha t t owe r s w e re mo re f r equ en t h ere t han e l sewhe re . A l though t he a c c iden ts o f s urv iva l a nd d i scove ry may d i s to r t t he p i c ture , c o inc idence a l one w ou ld n o t p re se rve s o many t ow er s i n o ne s e c t ion a nd s o f ew i n o the r s . T he r e a r e p robab ly t owe r s s t i l l b ur ied i nl a te r s he l l s ; y e t i ti sq u i te c l ea r t ha t many l a ter t ow e r s d i d n o t i n co rpo ra te e a r l ie r o ne s b u t s t ood o ve r t h e L owe r Wa l l a l one . S uf f i c i en t n umbe r s a r e s o r u ined t ha t e a r ly w o rk w ou ld b e e xpo s ed i fi th ad e x i s t ed . I ti st h e r e f o re p robab le t ha t t ower s w er e c ons ide rab ly l e s s f r equen t i n P er iod It han l a te r a nd t ha t many o f t he se w e re c oncen t ra ted o n t h e w e s t w a l l . O ne p a r t o f t h e c i rcu i t , t he s ou thw e s t f a ce b e tween T 44 a nd 5 2 , c e r ta in ly h ad f ew t owe r s , e mp loy ing s ma l l b u t r es s e s i n s tead . T h i s s e c t ion n ow c on s i s t s o f U -shap ed p l a t fo rm t owe r s o f P er iod I , f r equen t ly s o d e lap ida ted a s t o r e vea l r ema ins o f e a r l i e r w o rk , i n c lud ing many f i ne s t r e tche s o f t h e L owe r Wa l l . Two o f t hes e l a te r t owe r s , 4 8 a nd 4 9 , w e re b u i l t o ve r s t ruc tu re s p ro jec t ing f r om t h e U pper Wa l l , e v iden t ly t oo s ma l l t o i d en t i fy a s t ower s . I n s p i te o f p oo r p r e s e rva t ion , i ti sa ppa rent t ha t T 48 r ep 1aed a t r iangu la r ( o r p o s s ib ly s em ic i rcu la r ) b u t t re s s w h i le T 49 may h ave c ove red a s im i la r r e c tangu la r s t ruc tur e . I n t he s e c a s es , s o l id b u tr es se s s ma l le r t han t ow e r s a nd p robab ly o f ad if e ren t f unc t ion , r e in fo r ced t h e w a l l s . S uch s t ruc tures , e a s i ly b u r ied , m igh t h ave a ppea red i n o ther p a r t s o f t h e w a l l s . T hey s ugg es t i n a ny c a s e t ha t t h i s s e ct ion h ad f ew i fa ny t owe r s i nP e r iod I . T he t owe r s o f P e r iod Id i sp lay s ome v a r ie ty . Mo s t , a nd a lmo s t u n iver sa l ly o n t h e w e s te rn s i de , w e re s em ic i rcu la r t ow e r s w i th b anded masonry w h i ch v a r ied f r om t h e a bundance o f T 8 t o t he r e la t ive s imp l ic i ty o f T 15 . Ma sonry w i th f ew b r ick b and s a nd g ood s t onewo rk c ha ra c te r i s ed t h e s qua re t ow e r s w h ich w e re l e s s c ommon . Two t owe r s i n ap rom inen t l o ca t ion , T 2 a nd 3 ,h ad h i gh b a se s o fs po i ls a nd s upers truc tu r e s i nb r ick . S uch v a r ie ty w i l l b e f o und l a ck ing i nl a te r p e r iods . T he U ppe r Wa l l , w h ich c onnec ted t h e t owe r s a nd f o rmed t he m a in b u lwa rk o f d e f ence , h as mo s t ly s uccumbed t o r e bu i ld ing o r c o l laps e . I t s f ew s u rv iv ing r ema ins , i d en t if iab l e b y t he i r d i s t inc t ive u s e o f mo r ta r A , g i ve a n i d ea o f i t s a pp ea rance . O n t h e w es t s i de o f t h e f o r t re s s , i tw as a ppa r en t ly f a ced w i th c u t l imes tone b l ocks o n t h e e x te r io r a nd t u fa b l o cks o n t h e i n ne r f a ce , w h i le i nt h e r e s t o f t h e c i rcu i t i t s f a c ing w as o f t u fa . I n s ome p la ces , i tw a s d eco ra ted w i th b and s o fb r ick w h ich c on t inued t ho s e o f t he t ow e r s ; b u t i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o t e l l w he the r t h i s was g enera l . T hree s e c t ion s , 1 7/18 , 4 1/42 , a nd 4 4/45 , a r e b onded w i th t h e a d ja cen t t owe r s ; i ft h i s w e re t he u sua l p ra c t ice , t h i s w a l l w ou ld d if e r f r om t ha t o f P e r iod I . I n mo s t c as e s , t hough , j o in t s b e tween w a l l a nd t owe r s a r e c ove red w i th d eb r i s w h i ch c ou ld b e r emoved b y as ma l l a moun t o fc l ean ing . T he L ower Wa l l , t h e mo s t s i gn if i cant d i s covery o f t h is s u rvey , r an a r ound mo s t , i fn o t a l l , t h e c a s t le t o f o rm a d oub le s y s tem o f f o r t if i ca t ion r ema rkab le f o r i t s t ime . I t s r ema ins , n o t a t a l l a ppa r en t a t f i r s t s i gh t , a r e b es t p res e rved w he re t h ey h ave b een c ove red b y l a ter t owe r s . T hey may b e f o und a lmo s t e verywhe re e x cep t o n t he n o r th s i de b e tween T 35 a nd 4 1 , a nd o n t he s outh b e tween T 48 a nd 5 8 . I n t h e s e s e c t ions , g enera l d e lap ida t ion may a c coun t f o r t h e l o s s , b ut i se qua l ly p o s s ib le t ha t t h e L ower Wa l l w as n o t f e l t n ece s sa ry a l ong t he s t eep s l opes b e tween t h e l a rge c o rne r

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t ower 5 3 a nd t he U ppe r G a te . T he L ower Wa l l i sv i s ib le mo s t c l ea r ly i n c r o s s -s ec t ion w he re i t e me rg e s f r om t h e s i des o f t he l a te r t owe r s . S uch p l a ce s s how t ha t i tw as b u i l t w i th a f a c ing a nd c o re o f r ubb le s e t i n t h e g r ey mo r ta r A w h i ch a s so c ia te s i tw i th t he o the r w o rk o f P e r iod I . A l though t h e f a c ing v a r ies , t h e mo r ta r i s r ema rkab ly c ons i s ten t . T he se c r o s s -sec t ions a r e t h e o n ly p l a ce w he r e t h e w a l l s t ands t o i t s f u l l h e igh t t o s how t ha t i t w a s 3 -4m h i gh a nd a bou t 1 m60 t h ick . I tn o rma l ly h ad a f a c ing o f c ut t u fa b l o cks w i th w ide b ands o f m o r ta r A ; t h e f a c ing e x t ended u pwa rd t o f o rm a p a rape t 0m75 t h i ck a nd mo re t han am e t re h i gh ( t he e n t i re p a rape t s e ems n owhe re t o b e p r es e rved ) . Aw a l lwa lk a bout 0m85 w ide a nd p aved w i th t i l e s r an b eh ind t h e p a rape t ; i ts l oped g en t ly t owa rd t he i n t er io r t o p rov ide d ra inag e . T he w a l l h ad e mb ra sur es a t al ow l e ve l , p erhap s 1 m50 a bove t he g round . T he b es t p r e s e rved c ro s s -s ec t ions , i n t h e u ppe r p a r t o f t h e f o r t re s s , f o rm t h e b a s i s f o r t h i s d es c r ip t ion . I n o the r p a r t s , t h e f a c ing v a r ied , a l though t u fa b l o cks s e em t o h ave b een t he g ene ra l r u le . A t a nd b es ide T 8 , t h e w a l l s ha red t h e b anded m asonry o f t he t ow e r ; b ut t h e b r ickwo rk d i d n o t e x tend f a r , e v iden t ly b e ing c ons ide red mo re s u i tab le f o r t he t ow er s t han t h e w a l l . A t T 26 a nd i nt h e s e c t ion b e tween T 45 a nd 4 7 , t h e wa l l w as f a ced w i th f i e lds tone s l a id a t a n a ng l e o f a bou t 4 5 p erhap s t o g i ve s ome v a r i e ty t o i t s a ppea rance , f o r t he f a c ing i n t h e n o r the rn p a r t o f t he c i rcu i t i s o f ten m e re ly o f c ou r s ed f i e lds tone s . G ap s b e tween t h e s t one s a nd j o int s i nt he m asonry w e re a ppa ren t ly c ove r ed w i th a p i nk s he l te r c oa t . I n g ene ra l , t h e a ppea rance o f t h e w a l l wou ld h ave b een f unc t iona l r a the r t han a e s the t ic ; i n t h i s r e spec t , i tw as b u i l t w i th f a r l e s s c a re t han t he U ppe r Wa l l a nd i t s t owe r s . T he L owe r Wa l l u s es s po i l s i n ap ecu l ia r ly s i gn if ican t f a sh ion . A l though r e used m a ter ia l i sr a re i ni t s c i rcu i t , l a te a n t ique c ap i ta l s b ea r ing c r o s s e s a r e i n se r ted a t t h ree p o ints s omewha t a bov e g round l e ve l w he r e t h ey c ou ld n o t f a i l t o a t t ra c t n o t ice . T hes e p o ints a r e t he b a s e o f T 2 , a nd t h e f a ce o f t h e L owe r Wa l l w he r e i th as b een e xpo s ed b y t he p a r t ia l c o l lap s e o f T 34 a nd T 44 . E a ch o f t h e se i s ap la ce w he re t he f o r t r es s w as e spec ia l ly v u lne rab le : T 2 g ua rds t h e h i ghe s t p o in t o f t he c a s t le , w he re t he s ou th a nd w es t w a l ls m ee t ; T 34 o ve r looks t h e L ow er G a te ; a nd T 44 s tands a bove a d eep r a v ine a t ap o in t w he r e t he w a l l c hang es d i re c t ion . T he p r e sence o fs uch s po i ls , t he re f o r e , i sn o t a cc iden ta l ; t hey w er e s u re ly i n tended t o g i ve t h e mag ica l p ro tec t ion o f t he c r o ss t o p l a ces w h i ch e s pec ia l ly n eeded i t . S uch ap ra c t i ce i sn o t u n ique , t hough o n ly , i ts e ems , a t tes ted f o r l a te p e r iods . I n t h e w a l l s o f T r ipo l i s o n t h e Ma eande r , b u i l t b y J ohn Va ta tzes ( 1 222 -1254 ) , al a rg e r ound t owe r g ua rd s t he a pp roa ch t o t he c a s t le f r om t he t own ; ac ap i ta l w i th a c r o s s i sp l a ced d i rec t ly i n t he m idd le o f t h e f a ce , a t t h e c ent r e o f ar ow o f r e used c ap i ta l s w i thou t c r o s s e s . S im i la r ly , a t N ica ea , s uch a c ap i ta l h as b een i n s e r t ed a t e ye l e ve l i n to o ne o f t he t ow er s w h ich o ve r look t h e l a ke . ' T he s i gn if i cance o f t h e c r o s s e s f o r d a t ing t h e w a l l s o f K ü tahya w i l l b e c ons ide red b e low . T he f i r s t p e r iod t hus s aw t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f ad oub le r ampa r t c ons i s t ing o f t h e h igh U ppe r Wa l l w i th s qua re a nd s em ic i rcu la r t owe r s , a nd t h e s ma l le r L ow e r Wa l l b e fo re i t , u sua l ly w i thou t t owe r s . Mo r ta r , m ason ry a nd c ons i s tency o f d e f en s ive t e ch n i ques l e ave n o d oub t t ha t t h e s e a r e t h e p roduc t o f au n if i ed e fo r t w h ich c r ea ted t h e w ho le s ys tem f r om t h e b eg inn ing . T he s e w a l l s a pp ea r t o h ave b een t he f i r s t d e f ence s o f t he f o r t r es s h i l l . N owher e , i ss p i te o f e x tens ive s ea rch ing , w a s i tp o s s ib le t o d i s c over t r a ce s o f e a r l ie r w a l ls . I ts e ems u n l ike ly t ha t ah i gh h i l l i ns uch as t ra teg ic p o s i t i on w ou ld n o t h ave b een f o r t if i ed i n e a r l ie r p e r iods , a nd p o s s ib le t ha t many o f t he l i mes tone b l o cks a nd o ther s po i l s w h ich a ppea r i nt h e w a l l s o f P e r iod Imay h ave b een t a ken f r om s tand ing o r r u ined w a l l s . I fs uch w a l l s e x i s ted , h oweve r , a l l t r a ce o f t h em w a s o b l i t e ra ted b y t h e n ew c ons t ruc t ions . T hes e may t h er e fo r e b e c ons ide r ed a s t h e f i r s t s tag e o f f o r t if i ca t ion o f K ü tahya a nd a s i n augura t ing a n e po ch i n t he l i f e o f t h e c i ty . 0 ,

1 . F or t hese , s e e F o s s ( 1979 ) 3 01 a nd F o s s a nd W inf ie ld ( 1 985 ) p t .2 ,c .2 .

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P er iod I ( F ig . B )

T he c a s t le o wes i t s p r e s en t a ppea rance t o t h e v a s t r ebu i ld ing w h ich a f ec t ed a lmo s t e ve ry p a r t o f i tb y i n t roduc ing au n i fo rm s t y le o f c ons t ruc t ion a l ong w ith n ew p r inc ip le s o f d e f ence . Mo s t o f t h e n ew w o rk i sc ons i s ten t i n ma sonry , m o r ta r a nd t e chn ique , b u t s ome a noma lou s s e c t ions i n c luded i n t h e l i s t a bove a s b e long ing t o P e r iod I p l a in ly r e p r es en t t r an s i t iona l s t age s b e fo r e o r a f ter t h e ma in r e con s truc t ion a nd w i l l b e c ons ide r ed s epa ra te ly h e re . O f t he 6 3 t owe r s i n t he c i r cu i t , 5 6 w e r e a f ec ted b y t h i s r e bu i ld ing , a nd o ft h es e 4 2 w e re e nt i r e ly n ew . T he t r ans fo rmed c a s t l e w as d e f ended b y U -shaped t ower s w i th b anded ma sonry c onnec ted b y a n U pper Wa l l o f s im i la r s t y le a nd b u i l t d i r e c t ly o ver t h e L ower Wa l l . Mo s t o l d t ow e r s w e re r emode l led t o c on fo rm w i th t he n ew s t y le . T he n ew t owe r s c ons i s ted o f s o l id p l a t fo rms d e f ended o n ly f r om t h e i r t ops , a nd c hamb e r t owe r s w h ich h ad t wo l e ve l s o f d e f ence . T he f o rme r p r edom ina te o n t h e w e s t s i de o f t he c a s t le , w he re a l t owe r s b u t o ne a r e o f t h i s t ype ; t h e e xcep t ion , T 16 , i n c lude s a p o s te rn , t h e o n ly e n t rance o n t h i s s i de o f t he c as t le . T he se t owe r s a re b u i l t e xcep t ion a l ly c l o s e t og e ther , u sua l ly s epa ra ted b y ag ap n a r rowe r t han t h e i r o wn w id th a nd i n s ome c a se s v i r tua l ly t ouch ing . E l sewhe re , p la t fo rm a nd c hamber t ow e r s a l terna t e , t hough n o t i n a ny r e gu la r s equence . C hambe r t ow e r s a r e mo re c ommon i nt he n o r th f a ce w her e s ome t ow e r s , h ow eve r , a r e t oo d e lap ida t ed t o r e vea l t h e ir n a tu r e . They a r e w e l l r ep r esented o n t he s ou th s i de , e spec ia l ly i n t h e u ppe r p a r ts , w h e re c hamb e r t owe r s 5 7 a nd 5 8 f l ank t he U ppe r Ga te , a nd 5 9 a nd 6 3 d om ina te t he h ighe s t s e ct ion o f t h e w a l l . V i r tua l ly a l l t h e t ow e r s a r e h o r s e sho e -shaped . E xcep t ions r e f l e c t mod if i ca t ions o f p r e -ex i s t ing t owe r s o r t h e n eeds o f d e f ence : T i a nd 4 5 a r e s em ic i r cu l a r , w h i le T 53 f o rms a n a lmo s t c omp le te c i r c le ; e a ch o f t hes e c over s a ma jo r c hang e o f d i rec t ion . S im i la r ly , T 57 a nd 5 8 a r e o f a n o dd r e c tangu la r s hape t o a ccommoda te t h e t owe r s w h ich t hey o ve rbu i l t a nd t h e g a te b e tween t h em . T he g r ea t ma jo r i ty o f t h e n ew t owe r s e mp loy ab anded ma sonry w i th a n a l t e r n a t ion o ff i ve b r icks a nd f i ve s t one c our s e s a nd w i th a dd i t iona l b r icks i n s e r t ed h o r izon t a l ly o r v e r t ica l ly , a nd s ome t ime s f o rm ing p a r t ia l s i ng le c our s e s . I n s ome c a ses , t h e b ands o f f i ve b r icks a l te rna te w i th s t one s i n s i x , s e ven o r mo re c our s e s . T h is v a r ia t i on , w h i ch i sn o t a c compan ied b y a ny o the r s i gn if ican t c hange , s e ems t o i nd ica te a d if e rence i ns t y le r a the r t han p e r iod o r m e thod o fc ons truc t ion . T h i s p e r iod u s e s t wo k i nds o f b r ick mo r ta r : B , w h ich h as b roken b r ick o f a l s i zes i n ap a l e l ime b as e , a nd C , w h ich e mp loys a s andy a gg rega te w i th l a rge r a nd mo re n ume rous i n c lus ions . T he s e c o r re la te c omp le te ly w i th t h e o ther c ha ra cter i s t i c s o f P e r iod I a nd a r e s uf i c ien t ly d i s t inc t f r om e a r l ie r a nd l a ter g r ey mo r ta r s t o i d en t i fy ap e r iod o f c ons t ruc t ion . D if e r ences b e tween t h e t wo mo r ta rs d o n o t a ppea r t o r e p res ent a s i gn if i can t v a r ia t ion , n o r t o p rov ide e v idence f o r c hrono logy w ith in t h e p e r iod . Mo r ta r Bp r edom ina te s i n t he u ppe r p a r ts o f t he f o r t r es s , f r om T 55 t o T 15 , w h i le C i sa lmo s t u n ive r sa l i nt h e r e s t . T he i r v a r ied c ompo s i t ion may t h e r e fo re r e f l e c t t h e d if e r en t a va i lab i l i ty o f ma te r ia l s o n t h e s po t . I ns ome c a s e s , t he t wo mo rta r s a r e e v iden t ly c ontempo ra ry : i n T 6 a nd 7 t h ey b l end i mp er cep t ib ly i n to o ne a no ther ; T O h a s a mo r ta r w h ich a ppea r s i n te rmed ia te b e tween t h e t wo ; a nd t he f i l l ing o f T 16 u s e s b o th , w i th B i nt h e u ppe r p a r t s a nd C i nt h e l owe r . N one o f t h e se v a r ia t ions i sa s so c i a t ed w i th a ny c hange i n c ons t ruc t ion . O the r e xamp l es , h owever , i nv i t e t h e o ppo s i te c onc lus ion : i n T 14 , a n o r ig ina l c hambe r w h ich u s ed C w as f i l led w i th r ubb le i n B , w h i le t h e a r t i l le ry p l a t fo rms i n mo r ta r Co f T 53 w e r e r e nde red u se le s s b y t he o u t e r s he l l i nB . T he s e s ugge s t t ha t m o r ta r Bw a s l a te r t han C . T owe rs 2 6 a nd 4 5 o f e r a f u r the r c omp l ica t ion . T he f o rme r e mp loys C i n b o th s he l l a nd l a ter f i l l ing , wh i le t h e l a t te r , i nC , i sb u i l t a ga ins t aw a l l i n t h e s ame mo r ta r w ho se p i nk s he l t e r c oa t c l ea r ly s how s t ha t i tw a s s t and ing w hen t h e t owe r w as a dded i n f r on t o f i t . T h i s e v iden ce p robab ly i n d ica te s t ha t t h e t wo m o r ta r s w e re u sed t o g e the r o ve r al ong p e r iod , w i th B p e rhap s t e nd ing t o r e p la ce C . A n a l te rna t ive h ypo thes i s , w h ich m igh t a t temp t t o r e f ine t h e d ef in i t ion o f p e r iods b y t h e i r u s e o f o ne m o r ta r o r t h e o the r , s e ems t o o f e r

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n o s a t i s fa c to ry s o lu t ion , s i nce i tw ou ld r e qu i r e o the rw i s e h omog enous p a r t s o f t he f o r t r e s s t o b e long t o d if e ren t p er iod s . I n g ene ra l , t h e e v idence o f ma sonry a nd t e ch n i ques o f d e f ence may b e c on s ide red mo r e i mpo r tan t t han t ha t o f mo r ta r , w h i ch c ou ld e a s i ly v a ry ag ood d ea l . T he b r ick mo r ta r s Ba nd C may t h e r e fo re b e s e en a s c ha ra c t e r i s t ic o f P e r iod I , a nd t h e i r v a r ia t ion s b e t aken t o s ugg e s t t ha t t h e p e r iod w as a l o ng o ne d u r ing w h ich t h e b a s ic w o rk o fr e cons t ruc t ion u nde rwen t many c hanges . On many t owe r s , ac oa t o f p i nk s u r fa ce mo r ta r s urv ives t o g i ve a n i n d ica t ion o f t h e i r o r ig ina l a pp ea rance . I tc ove r s t h e j o in t s b e tw een t h e s t one s a nd s moo th s o u t t h e s u r fa ce a ga ins t t h e i n t rus ion o f t h e e l emen t s o r t he h ooks o f t h e e nemy . T h i s s h e l te r c oa t f r equen t ly c over s t he b ands o f mo r ta r a nd c oncea l s t h e a dd i t iona l b r icks i n s e r ted v e r t i ca l ly b e tw een t he s t one s ; i tw ou ld h ave i mp roved t he a ppea rance o f t h e t ow e r s w h ich g ene ra l ly e mp loy r e us ed ma ter ia l . T he b r icks o f t he b ands a r e u sua l ly b roken ( t he c omp le te s i de , i fa ny , w a s p u t o n t h e f a ce ) a nd t h e s t one s a r e o f m ixed s i z e s a nd u sua l ly s omewha t b a t te red a round t h e e dg es . S uch i r r egu la r i ty a ccoun t s f o r ac ommon u se o fb r i ck t of i l l g aps a nd f o r t h e n ece s s i ty o f a n a dequa te s he l ter c oa t . The s t onewo rk i sa lmo s t e n t i re ly o f r e c tangu la r o r s qua red t u fa b l o cks o fv a ry i n g s i zes a r ranged i n c our s es a s r e gu la r a s t he ma te r ia l w i l l a l low . I n s ome c a se s , t h e c ou r s ing i se x t reme ly n ea t , b ut mo s t o f ten a c our s e w i l l v a ry c ons ide rab ly i n h e igh t a c co rd ing t o t h e s i ze a nd s hape o f t he b l ocks ; f r equen t ly , s t one s a r e s e t o n e nd , r e s t ing o n t h e i r n a r row s i de s . Many s t one s a ppea r t o b e r e used , p e rhap s t aken f r om t he e a r l i e r c i rcu i t o f w a l l s . S po i l s o f a nc ient b u i ld ing s , h owever , a r e f a r l e s s c ommon t han i n t h e w a l l s o f P e r iod I ,p r e sumab ly b ecaus e mo s t o ft h is ma te r ia l h ad a l ready b een u s ed , o r w a s l e s s a c ces s ib le t han t h e t u fa b l o cks . N o t owe r o f t h e ma in c i r cu i t c on ta ins s po i l s i n i t s f a c ing , b u t t h ey f r equen t ly a ppea r i n t h e b a s e , w he re t h e i r s i ze a nd r e gu l a r i ty c ou ld p rov ide a d eg r ee o f s t ab i l i ty . L a rg e a nc ien t s po i l s a r e a l so i n s er ted o n o c ca s ion a bove t he r ema in s o f t he L ower Wa l l t o e s tab l i sh a f i rme r f o unda t ion f o r a n ew t ower . N ew ma t e r ia l i sa l so r a r e . A l though i ti ss ome t ime s d if i cu l t t o d i s t in g u i sh b etween b lo cks w h ich w er e n ew o r u sed w hen i n s e r ted i n to t he f a ce , t he o dd s i ze a nd s hape o f b roken b r ick i sr ead i ly a ppa ren t . O n ly t wo t owe r s , T 57 a nd 5 8 b y t h e U ppe r Ga te , make e x t ens ive u s e o f n ew b r ick ; a no ther a noma lous c a s e w i l l b e c on s i d e red b e low . Mo s t o f t h e n ew t ower s w e re s o l id U -shaped p l a t fo rms c onnec ted b y t he U ppe r Wa l l w h ich r an d i r ec t ly b eh ind t h em a nd w i th w h ich t h ey w e re a ppa rent ly n o t b onded . O n ly o ne c a s e , W16/17 , o f e r s c l ea r e v idence o f b ond ing , a nd t h is i s t he e x c ep t iona l i n s tance o ft h e o n ly c hambe r t owe r ( i t a l so h a s ap o s tern ) i nt he w es t s i de . O the rw ise , t owe r s a nd w a l l w e re b u i l t s epa ra te ly , ac ommon p ra c t ice i nB yzan t ine a nd o t he r f o r t if i ca t ions , s o t ha t t h e d e s t ruc t ion o f o ne w ou ld n o t e n ta i l t h e c o l lap se o f t h e o the r . Mo s t o f t h e U ppe r Wa l l h a s d i sappea r ed , f r om l a ter c ons t ruc t ion , c o l laps e , o r b u r ia l i n d eb r i s . S u rv iv ing r ema ins i n d ica te t ha t i tc on fo rmed t o t h e t owe r s b y i t s f a c ing o f t u fa b l o ck s a nd o ne o r mo re b ands o f b r icks . T he m asonry a ppea r s t o h ave b e en l e s s r egu la r t han t ha t o f t he t ow er s , w i th t h e b ands c on ta in ing s ome t ime s 3 , 4o r 5b r icks ; o ccas iona l ly t h e b r ick b ands a r e om i t ted a l toge the r . The r e bu i ld ing o f P e r iod I b rough t ma jo r c hang e s t o t he L owe r Wa l l . T he n ew t ower s w e re s o l a rge t ha t t h ey p ro jec ted b eyond i t s l i ne a nd w e re t hus b u i l t d i r e c t ly o ver i t . Y e t t h e w a l l w a s n o t t h e r eby d e s t royed , b u t c on t inued t o e x is t , p ro j e c t ing f r om t he s i de s o f t h e n ew t owe r s . H owever c ur ious t h i s a r rang emen t may s e em , t he e v idence f o r i ti su namb iguous . I fr emova l o f t h e L ow e r Wa l l h ad b een i n t ended , t he s i de w a l l s o ft h e t owe r s w ou ld h ave b een made s moo th , n o t o n ly t o e l im i n a t e t he u nnece s sa ry t r a ce s , b u t t o a vo id p ro jec t ions w h ich m ight make t he f a ce e a s i e r t o s ca le . I n s e ve ra l p la ces , r ema ins o f t h e L owe r Wa l l a c tua l ly p ro jec t f r om t h e s i de s o f t he n ew t ow er s , a nd o ccas iona l l o ng s t r e tches a r e p r e se rved ; i no the r s , r e pa i r s i nP e r iod I I i n d ica te al o ng s urv iva l . O n ly o ne s e c t ion , t hough , a round t owe r s 6 0 a nd 6 1 , c onta ins t h e b r i ck m o r ta r w h ich u sua l ly i n d ica tes t h is p e r iod . T he re i sn o th ing t o s how t ha t t h e L ow e r Wa l l a s sumed ad if e r en t a ppea rance a t t h i s t ime , f o r mo s t o f t h e r ema ins a r e o fP e r iod I . I t s f unc t ion , w h ich i sn o t a t a l l e v iden t , w i l l b e t r ea ted b e low i nt h e d i scus s ion o fs y s t ems o fd e f ence . I n t h e d e s c r ip t ion o f t ow er s a nd w a l l , P e r iod I h as b een a dop ted a s a

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c onven i en t d e s igna t ion f o r s e c t ions w h ich a r e p l a in ly l a te r t han t he f i r s t p er iod a nd e a r l ie r t han w o rk a t t r ibu tab le t o P e r iod I I . T he g r ea t ma jo r i ty o f t hes e b e long t o o ne r e con s t ruc t ion , b u t af ew , a s m ight b e e xpec ted f r om t h e l o ng h i s to ry o f t h e f o r t r e s s , r ep r e s en t i n te rmed ia te s t age s a nd t hus e v idence f o r al o ng c on t inu i ty o f r ebu i ld ing . T he s e o ccur i n v a r ious p a r t s o f t h e f o r t re s s a nd i n c lude , i ts e ems , t he f i r s t p er iod o f t he L ow er C i ty Wa l l . B y i t s s i ze a nd s hape , t he s ma l l s qua re T 32 s e em s t o b e long t o P e r iod Ia nd i t s i n c lus ion i n aU -shaped t owe r w i th b anded ma son ry a nd m o r ta r C s hows t ha t i t a nteda tes t he r e bu i ld ing o f P e r iod I . I td if e r s f r om w o rk o f P e r iod I ,h ow ever , i n i t s a noma lous mo r ta r w h ich c on ta ins b r ick , a nd i n i t s u s e o f r ough s po i l s a nd f i e lds tone s r a the r t han t h e n ea t m asonry c ha ra c te r i s t ic o f t ha t t ime . I t may t he r e fo r e b e a t t r i b uted t o a n i n te rmed ia te p e r iod , a nd p robab ly b e s e en a s at ower d es igned t o r ep la c e a s im i la r o ne w h ich c ou ld h ave b een d es t royed i n a n e a r thquake o r a t ta ck : i t s l o ca t ion n ea r t h e L owe r G a te w ou ld h ave made i tp a r t icu la r ly v u lne rab le . The a d ja cent U pp e r Wa l l 3 1/32 i sb onded t o t h e t owe r a nd t he c o r r e spond ing L owe r Wa l l a l so u s es as im i l a r mo r ta r ; t h ey a r e t h e r e fo re c on tempo ra ry . L ikew i s e , t he mo r ta r o f U pper Wa l l 3 9/40 s ugge s t s a s so c ia t ion w i th t he o the r s . F ina l ly , t h e mo r ta r o f t h e a r ches a nd a d ja cen t f i l l i n W60/61 i n d ica tes t ha t t h ey , t oo , w e re p roduc t s o f t h i s i n termed ia t e p e r iod . I ti sn o t c l ea r , h ow ever , w he ther t h ey w e re f i r s t b u i l t a t t ha t t ime , o r s us tan t i a l ly r e cons t ruc ted . F our t owe r s , a l r eady n o ted , i n d ica te mod if i ca t ions t o t h e c i rcu i t w i th in P e r iod I a nd r ef l ec t t h e c omp lex i ty w h i ch t h i s d e s igna t ion n ece s sa r i ly o bscu r e s . The i n ne r c hambe r o f t h e r ound c o rne r t owe r 5 3 w a s s t reng thened b y t he a dd i t ion o f a r t i l le ry p la t fo rms w ho s e u s e o f mo r ta r Cs ugg es t s ad a te i nP e r iod I . T h is w o rk i sn eces sa r i ly e a r l i e r t han t h e n ew s he l l i n mo r ta r Bw h ich r e nde r ed t h e p la t fo rms u s e l e s s . Mo r ta r s s ugg e s t t ha t b o th b e long t o t he s ame g ene ra l p er iod , b u t i ti s n o t y e t p oss ib le t o d e te rm ine w he the r t he p l a t fo rms o r t h e n ew s he l l r e p r e sen t t he g ene ra l r ebu i ld ing . L ikew i s e , T 14 a nd 2 6 , o r ig ina l ly c hambe r t ow e r s , w e r e f i l led t o b ecome p la t fo rm s ; b o th s t ages h ave t h e mo r ta r s o f P e r iod I . I ti sp robab l e t ha t t h ese t ow e r s w ere o r ig i n a l ly r e bu i l t f o r s ome s pec if i c r e a son a nd t ha t t h ey w er e c onve r ted t o p l a t fo rms a t t h e t ime o f t he ma jo r r e bu i ld ing t o c on fo rm w i th t h e s y s t em o f d e f ence a dop ted f o r t h e w e s te rn c i r cu i t . O ne t owe r a nd a d ja cen t w a l l a r e l a te r t han P e r iod I , y e t s t i l l B yzan t ine . T owe r 3 5 , w h ich o ve r look s t h e L ow e r G a te , i so ne o f t h e mo s t s t r ik ing i n t he w ho l e f o r t r e s s w i th i t s t wo l e ve l s o fc hambe r s , i t s c r ibwo rk o fg r ea t s qua red l o g s , a nd i t s f i ne m a son ry o f w e l l - c u t s t one s a nd n ew b r icks . T h e s upe r s t ruc ture , w h i ch u se s a n a noma lous g r ey m o r ta r , r e s t s o n t he r ema ins o f at owe r w i th b anded m a sonry i n m o r t a r C , i t se l f b u i l t o ve r t h e L owe r Wa l l . I t s f i ne m a son ry i st hus l a ter t han P er iod I b u t s t i l l , b y i t s g ene ra l c ha ra c te r i s t ic s , B yzan t ine a nd n o t T u rk i sh w o rk , a nd t he re fo r e e a r l i e r t han P e r iod I . A l though T 35 h as n o p a ra l le l i nt h e ma in f o r t re s s , as ec t ion o f t h e L owe r C i ty Wa l l i sr ema rkab ly s im i la r . T he w a l l s a nd t owers b e tw e en T 79 a nd T 82 , w h ich c omp r i s e t h e n o r the rn p a r t o f t ha t c i r cu i t , a r e c ons truc ted i n t he f i ne s t m a son ry o f a l : t h ey h ave l a rg e w e l l -cu t s t one s a nd s po i l s i nr e gu la r c ou r s e s a nd b ands o f c a r e fu l ly l a id n ew b r ick t o p rov ide a n e xcep t iona l ly s moo th a nd a t t ra c t ive s ur fa c e . I n a dd i t ion , W 8 0/81 b ea r s ad oub le d en t i l f r ieze i nb r ick , af o rm o f B yzan t ine d eco ra t i on n o t f o und e l s ewhe re a t K i itahya . T hes e w a l l s a r e s e t i n ag rey m o r ta r a nd u s e t h e s ame k i nd o f g r ea t s qua r ed b eams n o ted i n T 35 . T he i r f i ner a ppea rance m ay r e f l ec t ag r ea te r a va i lab i l i ty o f s po i l s i n t he l owe r t own , p e rhap s e v idenc e f o r t he s i t e o fR oman C o tya eum , w h ich h as n eve r b een e xa c t ly l o ca ted . E ve ryth ing s ugges ts t ha t t h e s e w a l l s a r e c on tempo ra ry w i th T 35 a nd t hus l a te r t han t he ma in r e bu i ld ing o f P e r iod I . T he L owe r C i ty Wa l l , w h ich e mb ra ce s a n a r ea o f a bout 1 80 b y 10 m e t r e s , i st h e r e fo re t o b e c ons ide r ed a p roduc t o f t he l a t te r p a r t o f P e r iod I . We f ound n o t r a ce o fa n e a r l ie r w a l l a round t h i s a r ea . P e r iod I t hus c omp r i s es as e r ie s o f r e pa i r s o ve r al o ng t ime . T he mo s t i mpo r t an t i n vo lved t h e c omp le te r e bu i ld ing o f t he c a s t le w i th r e gu la r U -shap ed t ower s o v e r r i d ing t h e e a r l i er s t ruc tu r e s . Mo s t o f t h es e a r e p l a t fo rm t owe r s ; a l l h ave a b anded m ason ry a nd u s e b r ick mo r ta r . A f te r t h e r e cons t ruc t ion , t h e f o r tr e s s w ou ld h ave

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c on s i s ted o f t he U ppe r Wa l l w i th i t s m as s ive t owe r s a nd t he L owe r Wa l l w h ich r an b e low a nd i n to t hem . P r io r t o t h i s , a n a r ea a round t h e L owe r G a te ( wh ich d id n o t y e t e x i s t i n i t s p re sent f o rm ) h ad b een r e bu i l t , a nd o the r s e c t ions w e re mod if i ed b e fo r e o r a t t h e s ame t ime a s t h e g ene ra l r ebu i ld ing . S ome o ft h i s w o rk i n vo lved t h e c onver s ion o f c hamber t owe r s i n to p la t fo rms . F ina l ly , o ne t owe r o f t h e ma in f o r t r e s s a nd t h e f i r s t p er iod o f t he L ow e r C i ty Wa l l a r e l a te r t han t h e r e bu i ld ing . T hey c ur ious ly r e p r e s ent t he f i ne s t B yzan t ine w o rk , a nd t h e l a s t .

P er iod i f i

The t h i rd p e r iod o f t h e f o r t re s s w h ich , f o r r e asons t o b e d i scus s ed b e low , i s T u rk i sh , s aw c hange s l e s s e x tens ive b u t n o l e s s f undamen ta l t han t ho se o f P e r iod I . T hey i n c luded c r ea t ion o f ac i tade l a t t h e t opmo s t p o in t o f t h e f o r t r es s , c ons t ruc t ion o f ab a rb ican w i th t he p r e sen t L ow e r G a te , a nd w ide sp r ead r epa i r t o t h e w ho le c i r cu i t . Wo rk o f t h i s p er iod i si n t wo q u i te d if e r en t s t y les w h ich may i n d ica te t wo s t age s o f a c t iv i ty , a nd u ses av a r i e ty o fg r ey mo r ta r s n o t a lways e a sy t o d i s t ingu i sh . I n t he f i r s t t wo p e r iods , t h e c a s t le c ons i s ted o f o ne l a rg e e nc lo sure s ur rounded b y p owe r fu l w a l l s . P e r iod I b rought g r ea t c hange b y p roduc ing ad iv i s ion i n to ma in e nc lo sure a nd C i tade l w h ich p e r s i s ted u n t i l mode rn t imes . T o a f ec t t h i s , an ew w a l l w a s c ons truc ted b e tween T 6 a nd T 59 t o e nc lo se a r e c tangu la r a r ea o f a bou t 7 0 b y 9 0 m e t r e s a t t he h i ghe s t p o int o f t h e f o r t re s s . T h i s w a l l c on ta ined s i x r e la t ive ly s ma l l t ow e r s , o ne o f t hem , T 64 , s em i c i r cu la r , t h e r e s t s qua re ; t wo , T 65 a nd 6 7 , w e re o f a p e cu l ia r c ons t ruc t ion . T he s e a r e s o s ma l l t ha t t h ey a ppea r t o b e b ut t r e s se s r a the r t han t ower s ; t h ey c on ta in n a r row r ound i n ne r c hambe r s w i th n o v i s ib le e n t rances o r e v iden t f unc t ion u n le s s t o e conom i se b u i ld ing ma te r ia l . T he c i tade l w a l l w a s d oub led o n t h e e as t s i de b y al ow o u te r w a l l w i thou t t owe r s w h ich a ppea r s n o t t o h ave c on t in u ed a r ound t h e n o r th f a ce . Mo s t o f t he t owe r s a nd w a l l s o f t h e c i tade l a r e o f au n i fo rm s t y le . T hey e mp loy a r egu la r f a c ing o f f i e lds tone s a nd o cca s iona l b roken b r ick w i th s ome c our s ing d e t e rm ined b y r ow s o f s ma l l f l a t s t one s . B eh ind t h e f a ce i s ac r ibwo rk o f l a rg e r ound b eam s . T ufa b l o cks , e v iden t ly r e us ed , a ppea r i n s ome p la ce s ; t h ey f o rm mo s t o f t h e f a c ing o f T 68 . A l l u s e mo r ta r Dw i th ag r ey o r b rown i sh s he l te r c oa t . Two t owe r s , a s w e l l a s t he g a te , d i ve rg e s ub s tan t ia l ly f r om t h i s p a t te rn . T 64 , t h e o n ly s em ic i rcu la r t ow e r o f t he c i tade l , i sf a ced w i th r e us ed t u fa b l o ck s a nd a g ood d ea l o f b roken b r ick i n t h e l owe r p a r t , w h ich a l so c on ta ins ar a ther r ough b and o f 3o r 4c our s e s o f b roken b r i ck . T he u ppe r f a ce i s ma rked b y h uge r ound b eamho le s a nd a h eavy c oa t o f b rown i sh s ur fa ce mo r ta r ; i th as a s i ng le c our se o f b r i ck . T 66 e mp loys a n u nusua l ly g ood f a c ing o f l a rg e s po i l s ( s ome o f p o rphyry ) a nd r e us ed t u fa b l o cks . F ina l ly , t h e C i tade l Ga te , w i th t h e a d jo in ing f a ces o f t h e f l ank ing t owe r s , h as a b anded ma sonry w i th f o ur c our ses o f b roken b r ick a l te rna t ing w i th t wo o r m o re c our s es o f w e l l -cu t s t on e . T h i s , t oo , h as m o r ta r D , ag r ey i sh s he l te r c oa t w h ich v a r i es i n c o lour , a nd a c r ibwo rk o f l a rge r ound b eams . O the r w o rk i n t h e c i tade l i n c luded s ubs tan t ia l mod if i ca t ion t o t owe r s 5 9 a nd 6 0 . T he f o rmer w as c ons ide rab ly r a i s ed , w i th a n ew c hambe r a dded a bove t he o l d . T h i s w as e v iden t ly d one i n c on junc t ion w i th t he c ons t ruc t ion o f t he a d jo in ing c i tade l w a l l ; t h ey s ha re t he s ame m asonry a nd m o r ta r , a nd a r e b onded . T he r e cons t ruc t ion o f T 60 e xh ib i t s u nusua l f e a tu re s . A n ew s upe r s t ruc tu re a dded t o t he o r ig ina l h i gh b a s e o fs po i l s c on ta ins b r i ck d eco ra t ion o f ak i nd n o t f o und e l s ewhe re , w i th a b and o f b r i ck s w h ich a do rns o n ly t he s u r fa ce o f t h e o u te r f a ce , a nd a bove i t ar ow o f b r icks i n s e r t ed v er t ica l ly b e tw een e a ch s t one . T he m asonry i s o f r e gu la r ly c our s ed t u fa b l o ck s l a id i n mo r ta r Da nd r e in fo rced b y ac r ibwo rk o fl a rge r ound b eams . Mo s t o f t he c i tade l w a l l s a r e h omog enous a nd e v iden t ly o fo ne p e r iod . A s so c i a t ion o f t he w a l l w i th t h e r ebu i ld ing o f T 59 l e ave s n o d oub t t ha t i ti sl a te r t han P e r iod I w h i ch , l i ke P e r iod I ,i sn owhe re r e p re sen ted i ni t s c i rcu i t . O ne o f t h e v a r ia t i on s f r om t h e c ommon s t y le a dm i t s o f a n e a sy e xp lana t ion : t h e g a te h ad a n o bv iou s

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i mpo r tance w h ich h e re , a s i n o the r f o r t r es s e s , i se xp re s s ed b y i t s s upe r ior mason ry . T h i s p la in ly i m i ta te s t h e B yzan t ine a nd w a s i n tended t o i mp res s t he b eho lde r . T he o the r v a r ia t ions a r e u n i ted b y t h e i r mo r ta r a nd c r ibwo rk , b ut r ema in s omewha t a mb i g uous . T he s em ic i rcu la r t ow er 6 4 i sa l so i n a n e x tr eme ly p rom inen t l o ca t ion , o ve r l o ok ing t h e w ho le f o r tr e s s f r om t h e g r ea ter h e igh t t han t he o ther t ow e r s . I t s u s e o f s po i l s a nd a d eco ra t ive b r ick b and , t he r e fo re , may h ave b een i n tended t o i mpr e s s i n t h e s ame w ay a s t h e ma sonry o f t h e g a te ; t h i s d e co ra t ion i n c luded i m i ta t ion o f t h e B yzant ine s t y le . When n ew , i tp robab ly h ad a f a r d if er ent a ppea ran ce , w ith a t h i ck s he l ter c oa t c ove r ing mo s t o f t h e i r r egu la r i t i es o f t h e m asonry , l e av ing o n ly t he b r i ck b ands a nd s moo the r f a ces o f t h e s po i l s e xpo s ed . E x tens ive u se o f b r i ck i n t he l ow e r p a r ts m igh t i n d ica te t ha t a n i m i ta t ion o f c l o i sonné , w h i ch a ppea r s n owhe re e l s e i nt h e w a l l s , w as i n tended . L ikew i s e , t h e s qua r e T 66 o ve r looked t he f o r tres s a nd m ight h ave b een t hough t w o r thy o f as upe r io r f a c ing . T he c as e o f T 60 may b e a mb iguous , f o r i t t oo i si n ap rom inen t p o s i t ion a nd h as a f a c ing w h i ch i m i ta te s t he B yzan t ine . O n t h e o the r h and , P e r iod I I c ou ld h ave l a s ted a l o ng t ime a nd b rought much r e bu i ld ing , s o t ha t t he t owe r s w i th s po i l s o r i n mo re r e gu la r m asonry may r epres en t as e conda ry p e r iod . I t m ight b e w o r th n o t ing i n t h i s c on tex t t ha t T 66 , u n l ike i t s n e ighbou r s , i s n o t b onded t o t he a d ja cen t w a l l . I t may t h e r e fo re , w i th T 64 a nd T 60 , r e p resent w o rk s ubs equen t t o t he c ons t ruc t ion o ft h e ma in c i tade l w a l l . Many o ther c hange s t ook p l a ce i nt h e f o r tr e s s d ur ing P e r iod I I . Many o f t h e s e i n vo lve r e pa i r s t o t h e U pper Wa l l w h i ch r e c e ived a n ew f a c ing o r r e in fo r cement , u su a ly w i th t u fa b lo cks i n mo r ta r D . S ome s e c t ions p r e se rve t r a ces o f ac r ibwo rk o f l a rg e r ound b eams , w h i le o the r s h ave ar e gu la r f a c ing o f f i e lds tones . S im i la r a t ten t ion w a s d evo ted t o t he L owe r Wa l l , w h i ch w a s t h ickened o r r e fa ced i ns eve ra l p laces ; s u ch w o rk s how s , r a the r s u rp r i s ing ly , t ha t t h e w a l l w a s s t i l l i n u se . F ew c hang es , h ow eve r , w e re made t o t he t owe r s , p robab ly b ecaus e t h e r e bu i ld ing o f P er iod I w a s s o w e l l d one o r r e cent t ha t l i t t le r e s to ra t ion w as n eeded . A f ew t owers w e r e p a tched ; T 32 r e ce ived a n ew f a ce ( i t s t h i rd ) ; b u t o n ly T 49 s e ems t o h ave b een e nt i r e ly n ew . I l it ha t c a s e , ar ound t owe r r e p la ced ab u t t r e s s . Wo rk o n t h e w a l l s g ene ra l ly c on fo rms t o t ha t i n t h e c i tade l , e xcep t t ha t ar e gu la r f a c ing o f t u fa b l o cks a ppea rs t o h ave b een m o re c ommon . T he w a l l s a round t h e L ow e r G a te a r e mo re d if i cu l t t o i n terp r e t . H ere , ah i gh o ut er w a l l , o r b a rb ican , w as a dded b e fo re t h e ma in c i r cu i t a nd a t al ow e r l e ve l b e cau se o f t h e s t eep ly -s lop ing g round . T h i s w a l l c on ta ins t wo r ound c o rne r t ower s , at h i rd p ro jec t ion o r t ower , t h e p re s en t L owe r G a te , a nd s t re tches o f w a l l w h i ch c onnec ted i t t o t h e ma in f o r t r es s . O ne o f t h e j o in t s w i th t h e ma in w a l l h as b een d e s troyed b y a r a v ine , t h e o the r o b s cu red b y l a te r c ons t ruc t ion . T he L ower Wa l l d o e s n o t f o rm p a r t o ft h e se d e f ence s . I ts e ems mo s t p robab l e f r om t he p l an t ha t t he wa l l w a s as e conda ry s t ruc tu re d e s igned t o s t r eng then t h e a pp roa ch f r om t he c i ty b y p rov id ing a n a dd i t i ona l g a te a nd a n o pen s pa ce f o r f i r e b eh ind i t . T h i s w a l l s e ems t o h ave h ad t wo s t ag es o f c ons t ruc t ion , p a r t i cu la r ly c l ea r i n t h e t wo r ound t ower s a nd t h e w a l l b e tween t h em . A bove t h e e xpo s ed f ounda t ion o f s po i l s a nd f i e lds tone s i nT 29 i s af a c ing o fc our s ed r ubb le w i th ar ough b and o f f o ur o r f i ve b r ick s . I n T 29 , ar ound t owe r n ow f i l l ed , af a c ing o f c ou r sed r ubb l e w i th a b and o ff o ur o r f i ve b r icks r e s t s o n a n e xpo s ed b a se o fs po i l s a nd f i e lds tone s . A bove t h i s i sa q u i te d if e r en t f a c ing o f r e gu la r ly c our s ed b u t e v iden t ly r e used t u fa b l o ck s , a ppa r en t ly w i th c r ibwo rk . B o th p a r t s u s e g r ey mo r ta r s w h ich a ppea r s t o b e v a r ian t s o f D . T he a d ja cen t w a l l 2 8/29 i ss im i la r , w h i le W 2 9/30 h as a l ower f a ce o f l a rg e w e l l -cou r s ed f i e lds tone s ( wh ich r e s emb le s s e c t ions o f t h e L ower Wa l l ) a nd a n u ppe r o f t ufa b l o cks a nd s po i l s . T 30 , ar ound t owe r w i th ac i rcu la r c hambe r , i sl i ke T 29 : al ower f a c ing o f r ubb le w i th b r ick b ands , a n u ppe r o f t u fa b l o cks . T he u pper p a r ts o fw a l l s a nd t ow er s a r e b onded , a s i n mo s t c a se s a r e t h e l owe r . N ea r i t s b a se , W 2 9/30 h a s t wo p e cu l ia r a r ches , a ppa r ent ly f o r d ra inag e ; o ne o f t h em may s u rv ive f r om a n e a r l i e r s tage o fc on s t ruc t ion w h i ch i sn o t o the rw i s e a t te s ted . T he e a s te rn s e c t ion o f t h e w a l l , w h ich i n c ludes t he L owe r G a te , i s o f f a r d if e ren t a ppea rance , b e ing f a ced w i th u nusua l ly r e gu la r r ow s o f s qua r ed t ufa b l o cks s e t i n w ide b ands o f m o r ta r D . A s i tc ont inue s t owa rd t he ma in c i r cu it , t h i s w a l l

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s how s l a rge r ound b eamho les . I n i t s f i r s t s t ag e , i tw as a ppa ren t ly c onnec ted w i th t h e b as e o fT 32 w ho se f a c ing i so fP e r iod I I . T he t wo t ype s o f m asonry f ound i n t h e s e w a l l s m igh t r e p re sen t t wo p e r iod s . A t f i r s t s i gh t , t he l owe r s e c t ions o f t h e t ow e r s a ppea r t o b e B yzan t ine b y t h e i r u s e o f b r i ck b ands . I n t ha t c a s e , t h e i r g r ey mo r ta r w ou ld i n d i ca te P e r iod I ,w h i le t he g ene ra l l a ck o f b r ick mo r ta r w ou ld s ugge s t t ha t n o r e pa i r s w e r e made h e re d ur ing P e r iod I , a q u i te u nexpec ted s i tua t ion . A c tua l ly , mo r ta r s Aa nd D a r e s ome t imes d if i cu l t t o d i s t i ngu i sh ; a l though t he l a t ter i su sua l ly h a rde r , b o th e xh ib i t much v a r ia t ion . I n t h i s c a s e , t here fo re , t he mo r ta r c ou ld a s w e l l b e o fP er iod I a s P e r iod I . A s f o r t he b r ick b and s , t he e xamp le o f t h e c i tade l l e aves n o d oub t t ha t t h ey c on t inued t o a ppea r i n P e r iod I I , t hough r a re a nd l e s s r e gu la r ly e xecu ted t han i ne a r l ie r t ime s . T he b ands o f t h e s e t ower s c on fo rm f a r b e t te r t o t h e e xamp le s i n t h e c i tade l , w h i le t he r e s t o f t h e m a sonry h a s n o o bv iou s p a ra l le l i nP e r iods Ia nd I b e s ide t he l e a s t c a re fu l p a r ts o f t h e L ow e r Wa l l . S ince t h i s b a rb i can i si n ap rom inen t l o ca t ion , t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t he c a s t le t o b e s e en f r om b e low , P e r iods Io r Iw ou ld n o rma l ly h ave d eco ra ted i tw i th f i ne r ma sonry t han t he r ough a nd f unc t iona l f a c ing o ft he L owe r Wa l l . T he c onc lus ion t ha t t h e s e w a l l s a r e c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e c i tade l t hus s e ems d emanded . T hey e xh ib i t t h e s ame v a r ia t ion b e tw een r ough a nd n ea t m ason ry , w i th t h e g a te , h e r e a s a bove , b e ing s up e r io r t o t h e r e s t . A s i n t he c i tade l , t h e t wo s t y les may r ep r es en t t wo p e r iods , a n e a r l i e r w i th r ough m ason ry a nd b r ick b and s i ni m i ta t ion o f t h e B yzant ine , a nd al a te r w h i ch t ook mo re c a re t o p rov ide a c a re fu l f a c ing . T he w ho le w a l l may t hus b e a s s igned t o P e r iod I I , w i th t he p o s s ib i l i ty o ft wo s tage s o fe xecu t ion . F ina l ly , o ne s e c t ion o f t he d e f ences o f t h e l owe r c i ty , t h e r u ined T 75 a nd a b i t o f a d jo in ing w a l l , d i sp lay t h e c ha ra c te r i s t i c s o f P e r iod I I t o s ugg es t t ha t t h i s c i rcu i t , t oo w as r epa i r ed . T he e v idence , h oweve r , i sf r agmen ta ry , f o r n o o ther p a r t o f t he w a l l h a s a n a pprop r ia te m asonry . P er iod I I t hu s i n c ludes i mpo r tan t d eve lopmen ts i n t he l i f e o f t he f o r t res s : t he c r ea t ion o f t h e c i tade l a nd c ons t ruc t ion o f t h e b a rb ican w i th t he L owe r Ga te . F o r t h e f i r s t t ime , p a r t o f t h e a r ea w i th in t h e w a l l s w a s s epa ra ted t o f o rm a n i n ne r d e f ence s u r rounded b y as t rong w a l l , t hough l e s s i mpo s ing t han t ho s e o f e a r l ier p e r iods . T he b a rb i can p roduced a d e f ens ive s y s tem f o r t h e ma in e n t rance w h ich w a s mo r e c omp l i c a t ed a nd s oph i s t i ca ted . A s f o r t h e r e s t o ft h e c i r cu i t , i tw a s ma in ta ined a nd r epa i red , w o rk w h ich may h ave a l so a f ec ted t h e L ow e r C i ty Wa l l . T hes e o pe ra t ion s a ppea r t o h ave b een c on tempo ra ry , b u t b o th c i tade l a nd b a rb ican may r e f l ec t t wo p e r iods o f c on s t ruc t ion , w i th t h e s e cond u s ing mo re c a r e fu l ma son ry t han t h e f i r s t .

P er iod W

P er iod I V , a l though i tb rough t n o f u r the r c hang e , d i d i n vo lve a g r ea t d ea l o f r e pa i r a nd r e bu i ld ing . T he a c t iv i ty i se spec ia l ly a ppa r en t i n t h e C i tade l , w he re w a l l s w e r e t h ickened a nd t ow e r s r a i s ed ; i t s mo s t s t r ik ing e xamp le i si nt h e s ou thea s t c o rne r . Wa l l 7 0/59 w a s r a i s ed b y a bou t 2 m w i th af i l l ing w h i ch p r es e rved t h e e a r l ie r c r ene l la t i on s b y b l o ck ing t h em ( p rov id ing , i n c iden ta l ly , t h e mo s t i mmed ia te e v idence f o r t h e e x i s tence o f t wo p e r iods i n t he C i tade l ) , a nd i tw as d oub led i n t h icknes s b y h eavy r e in fo rcemen t o f t h e i n ne r f a ce . T he a d jo in ing t owe r w a s a l so r a i s ed a nd i t s c hambe r r e fa ced i n s ide a nd o ut , w i th t he o u te r f a ce s how ing a d i s t inc t b a t ter . A l l t h i s w o rk w a s e x ecu ted i n ar ough ly -cour sed s ma l l r ubb l e a nd b roken b r ick w h i ch u s ed mo r ta r E a nd ac r ibwo rk o f l a rg e r ound b eams . T he c ons t ruc t ion o f W 8 /65 w as a no ther ma jo r p ro je c t i n t h e C i tade l ; t h i s d oub l ed t h e d e f ence s o f t he n o r th f a ce a t ap o int w he re i t w as e a s i ly a pp roa chab l e . T he n ew w a l l , p r es e rved o n ly i np a r t , h as t he c ha ra c te r i s t ic s d e s c r ibed , b u t u se s s ma l l r ound b eams i ni t s c r ibwo rk , a s d o mo s t o ft he o the r r epa i r s . N o tab le a mong t ho s e a r e t h e n ew s p layed c hambe r o fT 60 , a nd t he r a i s ing o r r ebu i ld i n g o ft ower s 6 , 6 7 , 6 8 a nd t he C i tade l G a te . Mod if i ca t ions t o t h e ma in f o r t r es s w a l l s w er e o f as im i la r n a tu re , w i th a g r ea t d ea l o f r a i s ing , f i l l ing a nd p a tch ing . Many r e pa i r s w e re made t o t h e U pper Wa l l

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b e tween t h e r av ine a nd t h e U ppe r G a te , o f ten d oub l ing i t s t h icknes s . A t t he b eg in f l i ng o f t h i s s e c t ion , t he n ew f a ce a dded n o r th o f T 44 d i sp lays a d i s t inct b a t t e r . T owe r 3 0 w a s f i l led t o b ecome a p la t fo rm , a nd t h e i n te r io r o f T 57 w a s c omp le te ly r e bu i l t . A l l t h i s w o rk , w i th a n o cca s iona l e xcep t ion , d i sp lays t he c ha racte r i s t i c s d es c r ibed . N o e v idence o f r epa i r s t o t h e L ower Wa l l , h oweve r , c ou ld b e i d en t if ied . T he mo s t i mpo r tan t r ema ins o f P e r iod I V a r e t ho se o f t he L ow e r C i ty Wa l l , w h ich i sa l so t h e o n ly p a r t o f t h e e n t i re f o r t res s t o h ave a k nown d a t e . The o p e ra t i ons h e re w e re s o e x tens ive t ha t t h e d i s cove ry o f t h e B yzan t ine w a l l s c ame a s a s u rp r i se . T he n ew t ower s a nd w a l l s a r e r ema rkab ly h omogenous , e v iden t ly t he p ro d uc t o f o ne b u i ld ing c ampa ign . T hey a r e c ons t ruc ted o fs ma l l r ubb le m ixed w ith b ro k en b r ick , o n ly s l igh t ly mo re r e gu la r i n t h e f a c ing t han i n t h e c o re . T he f a c ing i s s ome t ime s d i s t ingu i shed b y t h e u s e o f s po i ls a nd o f l a rg er b l o cks a s q uo ins . I n g en e r a l , i t s ma sonry i s v e ry s im i la r t o t ha t o f t h e C i tade l , e x cep t t ha t i t r egu la r ly e mp loys l a rge r ound b eams , a nd a mo r ta r w h ich m o s t c l o s e ly r e semb l e s D , u sua l ly c ove r ed w i th a g r ey s he l te r c oa t . T he t owe r s a r e s qua re s t ruc tures w i th t h ick w a l l s , w i th as o l id l ower h a l f a nd a n u ppe r o pen -go rge c hamb e r . T owe r s o f t h e e a s t f a ce a r e b onded w i th t he w a l l ; t ho s e o f t he w e s t a r e n o t . O ne t owe r , T 84 , w as o f at yp e u npa ra l le led a t K i i tahya , w i th a d oub l e e n t rance p as sag e p i e rc ing i tt o f o rm a g a t e t owe r . O the rw i se , t h e w o rk i sc ons i s ten t , a nd f o r t h e mo s t p a r t e nt i re ly n ew . None o f t h e t ow er s r ep res en t s r ebu i ld ing o f a n e x i s t ing t owe r , n o r d o e s a ny i n co rpo ra te e a r l ie r t r a ce s . O n ly t he s e c t ion a d ja cen t t o t h e B yzan t ine T 81 s how s a ny a ccommoda t ion t o e a r l ie r w o rk . I tw ou ld t hus a ppea r t ha t t h e L owe r C i ty Wa l l o fP er iod s Ia nd I I w a s i ns uch as t a te o f r u in t ha t i t s r ema ins w e re s imp ly r emoved b y t he n ew b u i lders . C on s t ruc t ions o f P e r iod I V a r e u n if i ed b y t h e i r masonry , b u t t h e w a l ls o f t h e f o r t re s s u sua l ly d if e r f r om t ho s e o f t h e l ow er t own i n t h e i r mo r ta r a nd c r ibwo rk . S i nce t h e p e r iod c ou ld h ave b een e x t reme ly l o ng , i ti sp o s s ib le t ha t t h e s e d if e renc e s r e p re s en t t wo ma in s t age s o fc ons t ruc t ion . T he s im i la r i t ie s o f m asonry , h owever , s e em mo r e s i gn if i can t t han t h e d if e rences o f mo r ta r ( wh ich c ou ld b e t he r e su l t o f l o ca l c on d i t ions ) s o t ha t P e r iod I V may b e c on s ider ed a s c ons i s t ing o f o ne ma jo r s tage u n t i l f u r the r e v idence i sf o r thcom ing . I t may t h e r e fo re b e s e en a s at ime o f r e pa i rs a nd c on s o l ida t ion , b u t n o t o fa ny s i gn if i can t c hang e t o t h e s i ze o r n a ture o f t he f o r t ress .

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SYSTE MS OF DEFENCE T he d e f ens ive s y s tem o f K i i tahya e vo lved d ur ing t h e l o ng c en tur ies w hen t h e f o r tres s was i n a c t ive u s e , a s t h e b u i lde r s s ough t t o k eep a b r ea s t o f d eve lopmen t s i n m i l i ta ry t e chno logy o r made c hang e s t o r e f l ec t n ew f unc t ions o f t he c a s t le o r i t s c on s t i tuent p a r t s . T he d e f ences w e r e r ema rkab le f r om t h e b eg inn ing , a nd v i r tua l ly w i thout p a ra l le l i nB y zan t ine l a nds . P e r iod Ir e p re sent s as t r ik ing e xamp le o f e xpe r i m enta t ion , t o w h ich P e r iods I a nd I I b rough t s ub s tant ia l mod if i ca t ion . T he f o r t re s s a lways e n joyed d e f ences p rov ided b y N a tur e a s w e l l a s b y man . T he p rec ip i tous s l opes o f t h e h i l l o n w h ich i t was b u i l t w e r e af o rm idab le n a tura l b a r r i e r , wh i le t h e w a l l s o f P er iod I ( F ig . A ) o f e red t h e t wo e s s en t ia l e l emen ts o f d e f ence , o b s ta c le a nd p ro tec t ion . T hes e a ppea red i n t h e c on jo ined U ppe r a nd L owe r Wa l ls ; t he s t eepnes s o f t h e s i te r e nde red a d i tch u nnece s sa ry . A n a pp roa ch ing e nemy w ou ld f i r s t h ave h ad t o f a ce t h e L owe r Wa l l w h i ch h ad t wo l e ve l s o f d e f ence i n s p i te o fi t s s ma l l s i ze . Emb rasu re s a t e ye leve l a nd aw a l l -wa lk , p robab ly c r ene l la ted , a bove w ou ld e a s i ly h ave c ompen sa ted f o r i t s mode s t h e igh t , a bou t 4m , a nd i t s t h ickne s s o f l e s s t han 2m . When f u l ly manned , i tw ou ld h ave p r es en ted a n e f ec t ive o bs ta c le , b u t t h e s ca rc i ty o f i t s r ema ins o n ly o ne o f t he l owe r o pen ing s h a s s u rv ived make s i t i mpos s ib le t o c a lcu la t e t h e f o r ce n eeded f o r i t s d e f ence . T h i s w a l l was l ow a nd a ppa rent ly e a sy t o o ve r th row , b u t i tg a ined s t reng th b y f o rm ing au n if i ed s ys tem w i th t h e much h i ghe r U pp e r Wa l l w h ich s t ood i mmed ia te ly b eh ind i t , u sua l ly a t as epa ra t i on o f l e s s t han 2 m . N o s e c t ion o f t h e U ppe r Wa l l i sc omp le te ly p r e s e rved , h i it s ur v i v ing t r a ce s i n d i ca te a t h i ckne s s o f am e t re o r mo re , w i th aw a l lwa lk a bou t am e t re w ide s uppo r ted b y a r che s b u i l t d i r ec t ly b eh ind t h e w a l l . T he a r ches w ou ld h ave p ro v i ded a s t rong r e in fo r cemen t w i th a mp le r oom f o r maneuve r a t t h e l e ve l w he re t h e s o le d e f ens ive z one o f t h i s w a l l w as b a s ed . T he l ower p a r t o f t he w a l l h ad n o o pen i n g s , f o r t h i s l e ve l w a s c ove red b y t h e L owe r Wa l l . T he L owe r Wa l l was b as ica l ly a n o b s ta c le , w i th v e ry f ew t owe r s . O n ly t wo , T 2 a nd T 3 a t t h e h i ghe s t p o in t o f t h e f o r t r es s , b e longed e xc lus ive ly t o t h i s c i rcu i t . B o th a r e r ound , a nd p r e s e rve n o t r a ce o f t h e d e f ence s w h ich w e re p r esumab ly l o ca ted o n t h e i r t op s ; r e la t ive h e igh t o f t ow e r s a nd w a l l c anno t b e d e te rm ined . O the rw is e , t h e L ower a nd U ppe r w a l l s s ha r ed t owe r s i n as y s tem w h ich a ppea r s t o b e u npa ra l l e led i n B yzant ine f o r t i f ica t ion . O n t h e w e s t s i de o f t h e f o r t res s , t ow er s o f t h e U ppe r Wa l l e x tended s o f a r f o rwa rd a s t o b e b u i l t d i rec t ly o ve r t h e L owe r Wa l l a nd a s ac on t inua t i on o f i t . E x tens ive r e bu i ld ing h a s o b s cu red t h e d e ta i l s o f t h e o r ig ina l s ys tem , b u t s u rv iv ing r ema ins s ugg e s t t ha t i tw as f r equen t . E xamp le s s u rv ive a t t owe r s 8 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 5 , 1 9 a nd 2 6 ; o f t h e s e , T 8 a nd T 26 a r e n o tab ly l a rge r t han t he r e s t . S uch a s y s tem h ad t he a dvantag e o fo f e r ing p ro tec t ion a l ong t h e s pa ce b e tween t h e t wo w a l l s , w h ich w ou ld b e c ove r ed b y f l ank ing f i r e f r om t h e t owe r s . As im i la r m e thod , t hough i n vo lv i n g f a r f ew er t owe r s , w a s e mp loyed i n t h e t h i r teen th c en tu ry a t C a r ca s sonne , w he re l a rge t owe r s b l o cked t h e p as sag e , o r l i s t s , t o p r even t a n e nemy g a in ing c on t ro l o f t h e f a ce o f t h e ma in w a l l . ' A t K i i tahya , h oweve r , t h e f r equency o f t he t owe r s w ou ld h ave r e duced t h e v a lue o f t h e p as sag e b y d i v id ing i t i n to s e c t ions o f a bou t 2 0 m e t r es . D e f ende r s , o f c ou r s e , c ou ld s t i l l h ave a s s emb l ed , b u t t he re w ou ld h ave b een l i t t le c on t i nuous p a s sag e b e tw een t h e t wo w a l l s . E n t rance t o t he s e s e c t ion s w ou ld p re sumab ly h ave b een t h rough p o s te rn s i n t h e U ppe r Wa l l o r p e rhap s t he t ow e r s . P o s te rns i n t ower s w ou ld h ave b e en mo r e n o rma l , b u t n o t r a ce s urv ive s f r om t h i s p e r iod . T he t owers t h ems e lve s a ppa r en t ly h ad c hambe r s a nd t hus , i ft h ey w e re r oo f ed , t wo d e f en s i ve z one s , o ne i n t h e c hamb e r f o r t h e e mp loymen t o f b a l l i s tas , t h e o the r o f t h e r oo f w here c a tapu l t s w ou ld h ave b een i n s ta l led . I n t ha t c a se , t h e r ampa r t a s aw ho le c ou ld h ave m ena ced a n e nemy w i th f o ur s ou rce s o f f i r e , t wo f r om e a ch w a l l , a sw e l l a s f l ank i n g f i re o ve r t h e s e c t ions i n to w h ich t h e l i s t s w e re d i v ided . -

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1 . S ee , e . g . , T oy ( 1950 ) 1 43 f .

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T h i s p ecu l ia r a r rang emen t a pp l ied o n ly t o t h e w e s t f a ce o f t he f o r t ress . E l s e w he r e , t owe r s w e re l e s s c ommon a nd t h e L owe r Wa l l r an i n f r ont o f t h em w i thou t c onnec t ion . V u lne rab le p o in t s , w her e t h e w a l l c hang ed d i rec t ion , w e re p ro tec ted b y r e la t ive ly s ma l l s qua re t ow e r s , l e s s t han t e n m e t r e s o n as i de , who se s hape o f e r ed mo r e r oom f o r i n s ta l la t ion a nd maneuve r o f a r t i l l e ry t o c ove r t he f a ce s o f t he w a l l . T he s e , a l so , a ppea r t o h ave h ad c hambe r s . O n ly o n e t owe r , t h e p o lygona l c o rner T 53 , w h ich s t ood a t a n e x cep t iona l ly e xpo sed p o in t , h a s p r es e rved d e ta i ls o f i t s d e f ens ive s y s tem . I t c on ta ined a r ound c hambe r w i th f i ve s p layed l o opho les c ove r ing t he f u l l s w eep o f t e r ra in o u ts ide t h e w a l l . T he c hambe r h ad ad ome o f b r ick c o rb e l l ing w h i ch w ou ld h ave s uppo r ted as e cond d e f ens ive z one o n t h e r oo f . O n ly o ne g a te o f t h e p e r iod h as s u rv ived , t h e U ppe r G a te b e tw een T57 a nd T 58 . T h i s w a s as imp le n a r row e n t rance , n eve r t h e ma in g a te t o t he c a s t l e , p ro tec t ed b y t wo s qua re o r p o lygona l t owe r s . T he a pproa ch w ou ld h ave b een c over ed b y t h e t ow e r s , a nd t h e g a te i t s e l f b y m en s t a t ioned o n t h e U pper Wa l l a s w e l l a s t he t ow e r s . T he g a te w as e v iden t ly s i ng le , f o r t h e L owe r Wa l l a ppea r s n o t t o h ave e xtend ed b e tween t he s e t owe r s . T he d e f ence s o f P e r iod Ir e l ied h eav i ly o n t h e s t eep c on tours o f t h e h i l l , e s p e c i a l ly o n t h e n o r th , e a s t a nd s ou th s i des , w he re t owe r s w e re r e la t ive ly f ew a nd w he r e t h e L owe r Wa l l w as n o t c on t iguous . S ome s e c t ion s w i thou t t ower s w e r e r e info rced b y s qua re o r t r iangu la r b as t ions , w ho s e s ma l l s i ze s ugg e s ts t ha t t he i r p r ima ry f unc t ion w as t ha t o f s t reng then ing r a ther t han o f e r ing s pa ce f o r m en o r ma ch ine s who m igh t p rov ide f l ank ing f i r e . F o r mo s t o f i t s c i rcu i t , t h e w a l l s f o rmed a p ow e r fu l r ampa r t w i th t h ree o r f ou r d e f en s ive z one s . T he m o r e a pp roa chab le w es t s i de u sed t ow e r s c ommon t o b o th w a l l s , d e s igned t o r e in fo r ce t h e r ampa r t a nd t o o f er s p ec ia l p ro t ec t i on t o t he l i s t s . T he se d e f ences , w h i ch h ad mo re n ume rous t owers , w e r e t he s t rong e s t o ft h e f o r t r es s . T he g r ea t r e bu i ld ing o f P er iod I ( F ig . B ) s aw a ma jo r c hang e i n t he d e f en s i ve s y s tem . T he n umbe r o ft owe r s w as i n c r eas ed mo re t han d oub led , i ts e ems w i th t h e v as t ma jo r i ty c ons i s t ing o fs o l id p l a t fo rms . I n a dd i t ion , s ome o lde r c hamber s w e r e c onve r ted t o p l a t fo rm s . A s ar e su l t , t h e w es t f a ce c ons i s ted a lmo s t e nt ire ly o f e x t r eme ly c l o s e -s e t s o l id U -shaped p l a t fo rm s , w h i l e c hambe r t owers w e r e more c om mon o n t h e o the r s i des . T he n ew t owe r s w e r e b u i l t o n s uch as ca le t ha t t hey c ov e r ed t h e L owe r Wa l l w h ich , h owever , w as n o t d es t royed b u t m e re ly o verbu i l t , a l low ing t h e s e c t ions b e tw een t h e t owe r s t o c on t inue t o s t and . T h i s p roduced a d oub le r ampa r t o f aq u i te d if e r en t k i nd f r om t ha t o f P e r iod I . T h e L ower Wa l l w as n ow d iv ided i n to s ho r t s e c t ions b e tween t h e t owe r s , c r ea t ing as e r i e s o fc e l lu la r s pa ces w ho s e f unc t ion i s d if i cu l t t o d ef ine . T he s e s pa ce s w e re n o t e n te red f r om t he t ower s , w h i ch p rese rv e n o t r a ce o f p o s te rns ( s ave T 16 , t o b e d i s cus s ed b e low ) , n o r i s i t p robab le t ha t e a ch c o r r e spond ing s e c t ion o f t h e U ppe r Wa l l w as p i e r ced , a nd t hus w eakened , b y a n e n t rance t o t h e se s ma l l a r eas . Two p o s s ib le e xp lana t ions s e em t o e x i s t . I ft he L ow e r Wa l l w e r e manned , i t s g a r r i son c ou ld h ave e nte r ed t he i r p o s ts b y l a dde r s l e t d own f r om t h e U pp er Wa l l o r t h e t owe r s . I n t ha t c a s e , t h e d e f ences o f t he w a l ls wou ld h ave b een s t reng thened b y i n c reased f i r epowe r , b u t t h e d e f ende r s w ou ld h ave h ad g r ea t d if i cu l ty i n r e a c t ing t o a n e me rgency . A l te rna t ive ly , T he s pa ce b e tw een t he w a l l s m igh t h ave b een f i l led i n t o c r ea te as o r t o f g l a c i s b e fo re t h e U pper Wa l l , s o t ha t t h e L ow e r Wa l l w ou ld h ave t h en f unc t ioned a s a n o b s ta c l e . S uch f i l l ing w ou ld h ave m ade t h e L ow e r Wa l l v i r tua l ly i mperv ious t o b a t te r ing . T he r ema ins , h ow ever , c on ta in n o i n d i ca t ion o f f i l l ing , w h ich m igh t h ave b een e xpe c ted t o s urv ive i n p la c e s . The f o rme r p o s s ib i l i ty may t hus b e c ons ider ed t he mo r e p robab l e , t hough l a ck ing c onf i rma t ion . T he g r ea t ma jo r i ty o f t owe r s w e re s o l id p l a t fo rms w i th o ne d e f en s ive z one , e v i d en t ly i n tended t o s uppo r t s ome f o rm o f h eavy a r t i l l e ry . Af ew t owe r s , h oweve r , h ad c hambe r s , mo s t o f t h em a t s t ra teg i c p o in t s w he r e a dd i t iona l f i repow e r w as d e s i rab l e . T he s e i n c lude T 16 , w h ich h ad a p o s te rn a nd t he o n ly c hambe r o n t he w e s t f a ce ; T 38 a nd T 39 , w h i ch c ommanded t h e a pp roa ch t o t h e L owe r G a te ; T 56 a nd T57 , w h i ch f l anked t h e U ppe r G a te ; T 59 , w ho s e h e igh t g ave i tc ommand o f t he w ho le s ou thw es t f a ce a nd a pp roa ch t o t h e c as t le ; a nd T 60 , a d ja c en t t o t he h i ghes t p o in t . I n a dd i t ion , t h e g r ea t c o rne r T 53 p r e se rved i t s i n ne r c hamb e r w h ich w a s n ow o f n o d ef ens ive u s e -

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s i nc e i t s o pen ing s h ad b een b l o cked . T he w e l l p r es e rved i n te r io r s o f t owe r s 5 7 , 5 9 a nd 6 0 c ons is t o f r ound c ha m be r s w i th s p layed l o opho l e s i nn i ches . T hey w e r e r oo f ed w i th d om i ca l b r ick v au l ts w h i ch s uppo r ted a s e cond d e f en s ive z one . F o r t h e mo s t p a r t , h ow ever , t he t owe r s o fP e r iod I , l i ke t h e U ppe r Wa l l , h ad o n ly o ne l e ve l o fd e f ence . The n ew s y s t em r ep r es en ted b y t h i s e x tens ive r e bu i ld ing p la ced g r ea te r r e l i a nce o n a r t i l le ry t o s t r ike t h e e nemy ( a nd h i s ma ch ine s ) a t ad i s tance . T he n o tab l e i n c r ea se i n t h e n umbe r o f t ow e r s a l lowed f a r mo r e a r t i l le ry t o b e d ep loyed , b u t d emanded mo r e m en . T o s ome e x ten t , c ompensa t ion f o r t he i n c reas ed r e qu i remen ts o f manpower w ou ld h ave b een p rov ided b y t h e c onve r s ion o f c hambe r t owe r s t o p l a t f o rm s , r educ ing t he d e f en s ive l e ve l s b y h a l f . D e f ence a t c l o s e r ange d epended o n m en s t a t ioned o n t h e U ppe r Wa l l , i n t h e c hambe r s w h i ch s t i l l e x i s ted , a nd o n t he L owe r Wa l l , w h ich w ou ld h ave a s sumed g r ea te r i mpo r tance a s as ou rce o f s ho r t -rang e f i r e w hen t he ma in t owe r s w e re d evo ted t o l o ng -rang e a r t i l le ry . The d e f ens ive s y s tem o fP e r iod I w as t hus mo re v a r ied a nd c omp lex t han t ha t o f P e r iod I . A r t i l le ry p l ayed a g r ea te r r o le , e s pec ia l ly o n t h e w e s t f a ce w ho s e r e la t i ve ly manag eab le s l op es w ou ld h ave b een mo re t emp t ing f o r t he s i eg e t r a in o f a n e nemy . Throughou t t h e c a s t le , h oweve r , a r t i l l e ry w ou ld h ave c omb ined w i th w eapons o f s ho r ter r ange t o o f e r ac ons tan t t h r ea t t o a n a t ta cke r . T he s o l id i ty o f t he t owe r s s ugg e s ts t ha t t hey w e re d es igned t o s uppo r t ah eav ie r w e igh t t han p r ev ious ly f e l t n ec e s sa ry . T he mo s t p l aus ib l e e xp lana t ion f o r t h e c hange i st he i n t roduc t ion o f t h e t r ebu chet , at ype o f c a tapu l t w o rked b y ac oun te rw e igh t r a the r t han t o r s ion , a nd c apab le o f p rope l l ing f a r h eav ie r l o ads o ve r a much g r ea ter d i s tance . T he c ounte r w e igh t w h i ch p rov ided t he f o r ce was m as s ive , w e igh ing a s much a s s e ve ra l t ons . I n a dd i t ion , t he ma ch ine h ad a n a rm t e n o r mo re m e t re s l o ng . E xpe r imen t s a nd c a lcu la t i on s h ave d e term ined t ha t at r ebuche t w i th a n a rm o f f i teen m e t r es a nd a t en ton c oun t e rwe igh t c ou ld p ro jec t am i s s i le o f 5 00 k g o ve r 4 00 m e tr es , w i th a dded h e igh t g i v ing g rea te r r ange . S uch a ma ch ine d emanded as o l id p l a t fo rm t o s uppo r t t he g r ea t w e igh t , a nd a n o pen s pa ce t o g i ve t h e a rm r oom t os w ing . T he p la t fo rm t owe rs u ou ld b e s u i ted t o t h e i n s ta l la t ion o f t h e n ew ma ch ine s , a nd t he c han es w h ich t h ey r e p r e s ent may b e c ons ide red a s a dap ta t ion s t o t h e n ew t e chno logy . T he i mp l ica-t i on s o f t h i s f o r d a t ing w i l l b e c ons ide red b e low . Ga tes o f t h i s p e r iod a r e p oo r ly k nown . T he U ppe r G a te c on t inued w i thou t ma jo r c hang e , e ven t hough t h e a d ja cen t t owe r s w e re c omp le te ly r ebu i l t . O ne p o s te rn h a s s u rv ived , i nT 16 . I tc ons i s t s o f ap a s sage a bou t t wo m e t r e s w ide w h ich t u rns a t a r i gh t a ng le w i th in t h e t owe r , s o t ha t d e f ende r s mak ing as a l ly w ou ld e me rge w i th t h e U pp e r Wa l l o n t h e i r r i ght , a nd t h e i r l e f t s i de s c ove r ed b y t h e i r s h ie lds . T he p o s te rn o p en s a t al e ve l h i ghe r t han t h e p r es en t g round a nd w ou ld h ave g i ven a c ces s t o a s pa ce e nc lo s ed b y t h e L owe r Wa l l , w h i ch mus t h ave h ad a n o pen ing a t t h is p o in t . T h i s p o s te rn w as e v iden t ly o f v a lue f o r mak ing s o r t ie s a l ong t he w es t f a ce , f o r w h ich i tp r ov ides t h e o n ly e x i t , a nd u l t ima te ly f o r p ro tec t ing t he l i ne o f t he L owe r C i ty Wa l l . A no the r ma jo r c hange a ppa r en t ly b e long s t o t h e l a s t p a r t o f P e r iod I , a f te r t h e m a jo r r e bu i ld ing . T h i s c on s i s ts o f t h e L owe r C i ty Wa l l , a t ta ched t o t he ma in f o r t r e s s a round T 18 a nd T 27 . S u rv iv ing B yzan t ine r ema ins a r e f ew b ut s how g r ea t s t r eng th , a s b ef i t s aw a l l i n ap l a in w h ich l a cked t h e a dded p ro tec t ion o f h e igh t . T he s e c t ion a round T SO i n d ica te s aw a l l much t h icke r a nd h i gher t han t he ma in f o r t re s s w a l l , a nd a g r ea t r ound c o rne r t owe r , p robab ly w i th a c hamber . T h i s w a l l w a s a ppa r ent ly b u i l t t o i n co rpo ra te t he a bundan t s p r ing w h ich f l owed i n to t he l ow e r c hamber o f t h e c o rne r t owe r . Mo s t o f i t s c ha ra c te r i s t ic s , h owever , h ave b een o b l i t e ra t ed b y l a te r r e bu i ld ing . C on tempo ra ry w i th t h i s w a l l i st h e r e cons t ruc t ion o fT 35 n ea r t he L ow er G a te . I tc ame t o c on ta in t wo l e ve l s o f c hambe r s a nd t hus t o p rov ide c on s iderab l e c ove r t o t h e a pp roa ches t o t he g a te . T he l a s t g r ea t c hange s b e long t o P er iod 1 1 , w hen t h e C i tade l a nd b a rb i can , w i th t he p r e s en t L owe r G a te , w e r e a dded . O the rw i s e , t h e d e f ences o f P er iod I 2

2 . F o r t he t r ebuchet , s e e P ayne -Ga i iwey ( 1 903 ) 3 09 -315 , w ith r e s to red d raw ing s , a nd Wh i te ( 1962 ) f o r i t s h i sto ry ; c f . Wh ite ( 1978 ) 2 83 -285 .

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r ema ined i n ta c t , w i th o n ly s l igh t mod if i ca t ion . T he n ew c i tade l w as d e f ended b y o ne s em ic i rcu la r a nd s e ven s qua r e t owe r s , s ome o fp ecu l ia r c ons t ruc t ion . T he s em ic i r cu la r T 64 h ad a n i n ner c hambe r w ho s e f unc t ion i s n o t e v iden t ; s i nce i t s w a l ls a r e n o t p i e rced b y l o opho les , i t may h ave b een u s ed f o r s t o rag e o f w eapons o r t o s uppo r t a p l a t fo rm f r om w h ich d e f ence c ou ld b e c a r r i ed o u t . T he s qua re o pen -go rge t ow e r s 6 a nd 6 8 o f er as im i la r p ecu l ia r i ty s i nce t h ey , t oo , l a ck o pen ing s . E ven m o re d if i cu l t t o u nde r s tand a r e t he s qua re t owe r s o r b as t ions w h ich h ave i n ne r c i rcu la r c hamber s w i th n o o pen ing s o r e n t rance s , u n le s s f r om a bove , a nd a ppa ren t ly n o d e f ens ive f unc t ion . E a r l ie r t ow e r s a round t h e C i tade l w e re m od if i ed , s o t ha t T 60 r e ce ived a n ew s upe r s t ruc ture w i th a c hambe r , a ppa r en t ly u n roo f ed , o n t op , a nd T 59 was c ons ide rab ly r a i s ed b y t he a dd i t ion o f an ew c hambe r w i th l o opho le s . T h i s t ower , u n l ike a ny o the r , c ame t o h ave t h ree d e f en s ive z one s i n t h e o l d a nd n ew c hambers a nd o n t he r oo f top p l a t fo rm . T h i s a dded s t r eng th was n ow a n eces s i ty , s i nce t h e t ower c ommanded t h e a pp roa ch t o t h e C i tade l . T he C i tade l was e n te r ed t h rough as imp le a r ched g a te p ro tec t ed b y t wo f l ank i n g t owe r s . I n t h e t ime o fE v l iya C he leb i , a nd e v iden t ly e a r l i e r , t he g a te h ad d oo r s o f w ood c ove red w i th b ufa lo h i de , a s i fn o ma jo r a t ta ck w e re c ontemp la t ed i n t h i s s e c t o r . T he s qua re f l ank ing t owe r s , l i ke t he o the r s , c on ta ined c hamber s w i thout o pen ing s o r e n t rances n ow v i s ib le . I n b o th c a s es , h owever , t h ey c ou ld h ave h ad l o opho les f a c ing o u twa rd ( t he i r o u te r f a ce s h ave d i sappea r ed ) , b u t s e em n o t t o h ave r e p resented a ny s oph i s t ica ted f o rm o f d e f ence . O n t he o the r h and , t h e a pp roach t o t h e C i tade l w a s g r ea t ly s t r eng thened b y a n o u t e r w a l l a l ong t he e a s t f a ce , w h ich c u lm ina ted i n t h e l a rge s qua re T 76 . A l though d e ta i l s o f i t s d e f ences a r e n o t p r e served i tm igh t h ave c ons t i tuted a r e a l w a l l o r ak i nd o f p la t fo rm i tw ou ld h ave p rov ided a s ubs tan t ia l b u lwa rk a ga ins t a t ta ck , a nd w ou ld a c coun t f o r t h e a ppa ren t w eakne s s o f t he o the r d e f ence s o f t h e g a te . T he B a rb i can a nd L ow e r G a te o f e r t h e mo s t d eve loped d e f enc e s o f t he p e r iod . T hey c on s i s ted o f ah eavy w a l l w i th t wo l a rge r ound t owe r s a nd t h e g a te s t ruc tu re i t s e l f . D e ta i l s a r e o b scu red b y t h e h i gh mode rn g round l e ve l w h ich h a s p roduc ed a s o l id m as s o f f i l l b eh ind t h e w a l l , b u t i ti sc l ea r t ha t o ne o f t he t ow e r s , T30 , h ad a r ound i n ne r c hambe r w i th e mb rasur es ; t h e o the r was p robab ly s im i la r . T he w a l l b e tween t hem h ad t h r ee l a rg e e mb ra su re s , n ow i n a cces s ib le , w h ich p robab ly o p ened o n to a c ove r ed g a l l e ry . I t t h e re fo re h ad t wo d e f ens ive z ones , b o th s u i tab le f o r t he i n s ta l la t ion o f a r t i l le ry , p robab ly b a l l i s ta s i nt h e e mb rasur es a nd c a tapu l t s o n t h e b a t t l emen t s ( wh i ch n o l o ng e r e x i s t ) . T he g a te i t s e l f w as a s t ra igh t fo rwa rd a r ched s t ruc t u re , c l o s ed b y d oo r s o f i r on w h ich E v l iya C he leb i s aw . I tw as d e f ended n ot b y f l ank i n g t owe r s b u t b y as e r ie s o f l o opho le s a l ong a p a s sage a bove t he g a t e a nd t he s t a i r w ay w h ich l e d u p t o i t . T he a pp roa ch , h oweve r , w as w e l l c overed b y T 30 a s w e l l a s t h e a d ja cen t t owe r s o f t h e ma in c i rcu i t , o f w h ich T 35 o f e red t wo l e v e l s o f f i re t owa rd t h e g a te . C on s t ruc t ion o f t h e B a rb ican g r ea t ly s t reng thened t h e d e f enc e s o ft he e n t rance f r om t he c i ty , f o r a n a t ta cke r w ou ld n ow b e o b l iged t o b r eak t h rough t h e L owe r G a te b e fo re a pp roa ch ing t h e ma in c a s t le g a te . I n t he p ro ces s , h e w ou ld b e e xposed t o c on s t an t f i r e f r om h i s f r on t a nd l e f t f l ank , much o f i tr a ined d own f r om a c ons ide rab le h e igh t , f o r t h e t ow er s o f t h e ma in c i rcu i t s t ood f a r a bove t h e B a rb ican . I ft h i s a t ta ck w e r e s ucce s s fu l , h e w ou ld t h en e n ter a n e nc lo s ed r e c tangu la r s pa c e i n to w h ich f i r e c ou ld b e d i rec ted f r om a l l s i de s a s h e a t temp ted t o s t o rm t h e ma in g a te . No t r a ce o f t ha t g a te s urv ive s , b u t i t s l o ca t ion c ou ld s t i l l b e d e te rm ined i n1 930 [ T e s t . 1 ] . P er iod 1 V , f o r t h e mo s t p a r t , b rough t r e pa i r a nd r ebu i ld ing r a the r t han c hang e , b u t n o tab l e mod if i ca t ions d id a f ec t t h e C i tade l a nd t he L owe r C i ty Wa l l . T he n o r th s i de o f t h e c i tade l , a pp roa ched b y ar a the r g en t le s l ope , w a s o r ig ina l ly p ro t e c ted b y t h e w a l l b e tween t owe r s 6a nd 6 5 w h i ch c on ta ined t he s em i c ircu la r T 64 . T h i s w as n ow d oub led b y t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f W8 -65 b e fo re i t a t al ower l e ve l . R ema ins o f b o th a r e i n sub s tan t ia l , b u t i ta ppea r s t ha t t h e ma in d e f ence s wou ld h ave c on t inued t o b e p rov ided b y T 64 . T he n ew w a l l a ppa r en t ly h ad n o t ower s , n o r i s t h e re e v idence o f a n e n t rance o n t h i s s i de . S im i la r ly , a n o u te r w a l l w a s a dded b e low t h e L owe r Wa l l b e tw een t owe r s 1a nd 6 3 ; i t may h ave c ont inued a s f a r a sT5 9 . I ft he -

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L owe r Wa l l w a s s t i l l i nu s e a t t h is t ime , t h i s a pp roa ch t o t he C i tade l w ou ld h ave b een c ove r ed b y at r ip le r ampa r t . E l s ewhe re , mo s t o f t he t owe rs o f P er iod I I w e re r a i s ed , a nd s ome n o tab le r e bu i ld ing t ook p l a ce o n t h e s ou thwe s t , w he re T 59 was r a i s ed a nd t he a d jo in ing w a l l s w e r e b o th r a i s ed a nd t h ickened ; W 5 9/60 was g i ven a d i s t inc t b a t te r t o make i tl e s s s u s cep t ib le t o d i rec t a t ta ck . A s im i la r o pera t ion a f ec ted t h e wa l l n o r th o f T 44 w h i ch s t ood n ex t t o t h e r av ine , a n e spec ia l ly v u lnerab le p o in t ; o the r c hang e s t o t he ma in c i rcu i t w e r e n o t s ub s tan t ia l . The L owe r C i ty Wa l l , o n t h e o the r h and , w a s c omp l e te ly r ebu i l t . T he n ew w a l l , w h ich w as s ome t imes b onded w i th i t s t owe r s , w as n o tab ly t h ick , b u t i t s b a t t le m en t s h ave n o t s urv ived . T he t owe r s w e re u n i fo rm ly s o l id p la t fo rms t o m id -he igh t a nd o p en g o rg e a bove . T hey t hus c ou ld o f e r s t rong r e s i s tance t o b a t te r ing , a nd p o s s e s s ed o ne d e f ens ive z one . T hey w e re e n te red f r om t h e w a l lwa lk w h ich i n t u rn was a pp roa ched b y s t one s t ep s b u i l t d i r ec t ly b eh ind . T he w e s t e n t rance t o t h i s c i rcu i t w a s t h rough a s t ruc tur e u n ique a t K i i tahya , ag a te t owe r : t he e n t rance p as sage p as s ed d i r e c t ly t hrough a p ro jec t ing t ower , a nd w as f u rn i shed w i th a d oub le g a te , o ne a t e i the r e nd . I t was a ppa r en t ly s t i l l s t and ing i n1 930 [ T e s t . 1 ] . P er iod I V t h e re fo re i n vo lved a f i na l s t reng then ing o f t he c a s t le b y t h icke r w a l l s , s ome t imes w i th a b a t te r , a nd h i ghe r a nd h eav ie r t owe r s . T he s o l id i ty o f t he n ew c ons truc t ions s ugg e s ts t ha t t h ey w e re b u i l t t o w i ths tand s uper io r m e thods o f a t ta ck . Th i s i sc e r ta in ly n o a c c ident , f o r t h e i r b u i lder , Mohammed t he C onque ro r , g a ined h i s g r ea te s t f ame b y b r eak ing t h rough t h e w a l l s o f C ons tan t inop le w i th c an n on . H is e ng inee r s w ou ld t h e r e fo re h ave b een a wa re o f t h e l a tes t t e chno logy a nd d e s igned wa l l s t o w i ths tand i t . I n t he O t toman p e r iod , K i i tahya s e ems s ucces s fu l ly t o h ave r e s is ted a t ta cks , w h ich p r e sumab ly d i d u s e c annon . T he d e f ens ive s y s tem s aw n o ma jo r c hang e s a f te r t h e f i teen th c en tury , b u t g radua l ly f e l l i n to d i sus e .

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CHRO NOL O G Y OF THE W ALLS A l though K i i tahya w a s a n i mpo r tant m i l i ta ry a nd a dm in is tra t ive c entr e o ft h e B yzan t ine a nd O t toman e mp i r es a nd t he C e rm iyan id s t a te , t h e w r it t en r e co rd i su n in f o rma t ive a bou t i t s f o r t if i ca t ions , r e co rd ing n e i the r t h e d a te o f t he i r c on s t ruct ion , n o r m en t ion ing a ny s t ag e o f r ebu i ld ing b e fo re t h e l a s t . L ikew ise , i n scr ip t ion s , w h i ch n o r ma l ly s upp lemen t t h e s our ce s o n s uch ma t te r s , a r e c omp le te ly l a ck ing . I n t h is d ef i c iency o f c oncr e te a nd c on tempo ra ry i n fo rma t ion , t h e c hrono logy o ft h e c a s t le , a nd i t s p hase s , w i l l h ave t o r e ly v ery l a rg e ly o n a na logy a nd h i s to r ica l p robab i l i ty . B y c ons ide r ing t h e w a l l s i n t h e c on tex t o f o the r m ed ieva l f o r t if i ca t ion s i n A s ia M ino r , a ga ins t t he b a ckg round o f t h e h i s to r ica l c i rcums tance s , i ti sp o s s ib le t o d e r ive c onve r g en t e v idence t o s ugg e s t a n o u t l ine o f t h e i r d eve lopmen t . F o r t he m omen t , i th as n o t b een p o s s ib le t o c a l l o n t he p o ten t ia l ly g r ea te r p r e c is ion o f d endroch rono logy o r m o r t a r a na ly s i s w h ich , w hen a va i lab l e , w i l l t e s t a nd p e rhaps c hange t he c h rono logy p ro p o s ed h e re . P er iod Ir ep r e sen t s t h e f i r s t s t age o f t he p r es ent ly v i s ib le f o r t r e s s . A l though i ti sl i ke ly t ha t t he h i l l w a s f o r t if i ed i n e a r l i er t ime s , e ven o n s eve ra l o ccas ion s , n o t r a ce s o f s uch w o rk c ou ld b e f o und . D i scus s ion m u s t t h er e fo re b eg in w ith t h e f i r s t p e r iod , w h ich i sp la in ly m ed ieva l . D esp i te t h e l a ck o fd i rec t e v idence , t h e c ontex t p ro v i de s c hrono log ica l l im i t s . T he w a l l s o f P e r iod Ia r e n eces sa r i ly l a te r t han L a t e A n t i q u i ty , f o r t h ey u s e s po i l s o f t ha t p e r iod a ts e ve ra l p l a ce s , n o tab ly t he v u lnerab le p o int s w he re l a te a n t ique c ap i ta l s b ea r ing c r o s s es w e r e i n s er ted n ea r t he f ounda t ions t ' g i ve , p e rhaps , ak i nd o f mag ica l p ro tec t ion . T ow e r s a r e f a ced w i th s po i ls , aw idesp read u s e w h ich s ugg es t s at ime w hen much o f t h e a nc ient o r l a te a n t ique c i ty l a y i n r u in s t o p rov ide a s our ce f o r b u i ld ing ma t er ia l . L ikew i se , t h e w a l ls a r e e a r l ie r t han t he ma jcr r e bu i ld ing o f P e r iod I w h ich i sa l so c e r ta in ly B yzan t ine . S i nce t he B yzant ine p e r iod a t K i i tahya e nded i n 182 , t h e f i r s t p e r iod w ou ld s e em t o d a te b e tw een t he s e ven t h a nd t he t we l f th c entur ie s . A na logy o f m e thods o f d e f ence a nd s t y le s o f m asonry a l low an a r rowe r p e r iod t o b e d ef ined . T he d e f ens ive s y s tem o f P e r iod Ii se x cep t iona l . T he f o r t r es s c on s i s ted o f ad oub le w a l l w ho s e c ons t ruc t ion s how s t ha t b o th p a r t s , t he U pper a nd L ower Wa l l s , w er e c on tempo ra ry . Mo re r ema rkab ly , t he t wo w a l l s w ere j o ined i n ap ecu l ia r f a sh ion , w i th t owe r s ( o n t h e w es t s i de ) c onnec t ing t h em b o th . A t f i r s t s i ght , ad oub le w a l l a ppea r s t o b e an o rma l B yzan t ine p ra c t ice a nd s o i ti so f ten d e s c r ibed , y e t , i n f a c t , a p ro te i ch i sma , o r l owe r o u te r w a l l , w as a c tua l ly a r a r i ty i n t h e e a r ly M idd le A g e s , a l though i th ad a v ogue i n L a te A n t iqu i ty a nd i n t he t h i r teen th c entury . C on s t an t inop le , o f c our s e , h ad a n o ute r w a l l f r om t h e f i th c entury t h roughou t i t s e x i s tence . N ica ea , o n t h e o the r h and , w h ich i sc i ted a s a n e xamp l e o f ac oncen t r ic B yzan t ine f o r t if i ca t ion , d i d n o t a cqu i re i t s o u te r w a l l u n t i l t h e m id -th i r teenth c en tury . O the r e xamp l e s a r e w o r th e xam in ing mo r e c l o s e ly . T he g r ea te s t c onc en t ra t ion f o rmed p a r t o f t h e d e f ence s o f t he e a s te rn f r on t ie r i n L a t e A n t iqu i ty , w he r e as t r ing o f f o r t r es s es f r om Z enob ia o n t h e E uphra te s t o T heodo s iopo l i s i n A rmen ia w ere p rov ided w i th a n o u te r w a l l . Ad ozen o f t h e s e w e re r e s to r ed o r n ew ly c ons truc ted b y J us t in ian a s p a r t o f h i s p rog ram t o s t reng then t h e d e f ences o ft h e Emp i re . 1 A t t ha t t ime , d ou b l e w a l l s d i d n o t a ppea r i no the r p a r t s o f t h e Emp i r e ; t h ey w ere t hu s c ons ide red a s a s u i tab le e l ement t o r e pe l t h e a t ta cks o f as oph i s t ica ted a nd h eav i ly -a rmed e nemy . T he s e f r on t ie r a r eas , h oweve r , w e r e l o s t i n t h e i n i t ia l w ave o f A rab a t tacks , s o t ha t n one o f t h e se d oub le w a l l s p l ayed ar o le i nt h e d e f ence o f t he m ed ieva l Emp i re . P ro te i ch i sma ta o ccur i nB yzan t ine t e r r i to r ie s a t C o rycus i n C i l i c ia , A t ta l ea i n P amphyha , C a esa r ea i n C appado c ia , a nd D idymo te ichon i n T hra ce ; i n a dd i t ion t he f o r t re s se s o fT op rakka le i nC i l ic ia a nd K ec ika l es i n ea r E phesus h ave o u t e r wa l l s w h ich r e in fo r ce mo s t , b ut n o t a l l , o f t h e i r c i r cu i t s . O f t h e s e , C o rycus a l one may b e a s e a r ly 1 . P rocop ius ,

d e Aed if ic i is . I . 1 -3 , 5 -9 ,11 ; I I . 2 , 4 , 5 .

8 0

a s t h e s eventh c en tury ; t he r e s t a r e l a te r : A t ta l ea g a ined i t s o u ter w a l l , n ow l o s t , i n a bou t 9 10 ; t ha t o f C a esa rea w a s a dded b y t he S e l juks i n t he t h i r te en th c en tu ry , t hough p e rhaps f o l low ing B yzan t ine f o unda t ions ; t h e w a l l s o f D idymo te i chon a r e n o e a r l i e r t han t he t h i r t e en th o r f o ur teen th c en tury ; T oprakka le , i fi n deed B yzant ine , m ay b e a s e a r ly a s t h e t en th c en tury ; a nd K eç ika le s i i so f t h e t h i r teen th c en tu ry o r l a t e r . 2 I t t hus a ppea rs t ha t t h e d e f ens ive s y s tem o f K i i tahya h as f ew p a ra l le l s i n B yzant ine f o r t if i ca t ion a nd i st o b e s e en a s a n e x t rao rd ina ry d eve lopmen t , e ven mo re s o b e cause o f i t s p ecu l ia r w ay o fr e la t ing t h e t wo w a l l s . T he e xamp les c i ted , l i ke C on s t an t inop le , e mp loy a n o rma l o u te r w a l l , c omp le te ly d e ta ched f r om a nd s u r round ing t h e i n ner ; C o rycus a l one p rov ide s ap a r t ia l p a ra l le l t oK ütahya : o ne l a rg e c o rner t owe r o f i t s i nne r w a l l c omp l e te ly f i l l s t h e p a s sag e b e tween t he w a l l s a nd s t re t che s f o rwa rd t o p ro jec t o n to o r b eyond t h e o u te r w a l l . T h i s f o r t r es s may b e long t o t h e l a te s even th c en tu ry , w hen t h e c i ty a ppea r s a s a n a dm in i s t ra t ive h eadqua r ter s o f t h e B yzan t ine f l e e t a nd t he t heme a s so c ia ted w i th i t . I n g ene ra l , t h e w a l l s o f K ü tahya w ou ld a ppea r t o b e long t o ap e r iod o f e xpe r i m en ta t ion , w hen n ew t e chn iques o f f o r t if i ca t ion w e re b e ing d eve loped t o m ee t n ew t h r ea ts . T he s even th c e n tury w a s s uch a t ime , p roduc ing ag r ea t v a r ie ty o f d e f ens ive s y s t ems , s ome o f t h em n o t r e pea ted i n l a ter t imes .3 I ft h e w a l l s o f C o rycus i n deed b e long t o t h i s p e r iod , t h ey may s e rve a s af u r the r g u ide t o t h e d a te o f K i i tahya , y e t t h e t wo c i r cu i ts a r e f a r f r om i d en t ica l . T he re i s , i n f a c t , n o c l o se p a ra l le l t o t h i s d e f ens ive s ys tem , a nd t h e e xamp le o f A t ta l ea s how s t ha t ap ro t e i ch i sma c ou ld a s w e l l b e long t o t he t en th c en tury a s t h e s e ven th . T he e v idence o f t h e d e f ence s , b y r e vea l ing t h e i r u nusua l a spec t s , p o in t s t o t h e D a rk A g e s , at ime o f e xpe r imen t a nd c hang e , b u t d o e s n o t p rov ide as uf i c ient ly c l o s e p a ra l le l t oe nab le ad a te t o b e a s s igned . C ompa r i son o f t h e ma sonry o f K ü tahya w i th t ha t o f o the r s i te s w i l l e nab le a p e r iod t o b e b e t te r d ef ined . T he t ow er s o f t h e U ppe r Wa l l , a s n o ted , make e x tens ive u s e o f s po i ls , u sua l ly m ix ed w i th b r i ck b ands i n t h e f a c ing . S uch b anded m asonry i n i t s e l f a ppea r s t o b e o fl i t t le h e lp i nd a t ing , s i nce i tw as w ide ly u s ed f r om t h e t h i rd c en t u ry t h rough t he t h i r teen th , w i th n o tab le e xamp le s a t C ons tan t inop le , N i ca ea a nd A nka ra . Y e t , w hen t h e se a r e e xam ined mo r e c l o s e ly , ap a t tern o f d eve lopmen t e me rges . A t C ons tan t inop le , b anded m a son ry w as c ont inuous ly i n u s e f r om t he f i th c e n tury t h rough t h e t we l f th , i n b o th t h e l a nd a nd s ea w a l l s . I n t he g r ea t ma jo rty o f c a s e s , t hough , i ti sa ppa r en t t ha t t h i s s t y l e w a s t h e r e su l t o f i m i ta t ion o f t h e o r ig ina l w a l l s , a nd t ha t t h e b u i lde r s o f l a t er r e pa i r s w e r e a t temp t ing t o ma in ta in a u n i fo rm a pp ea rance . I n o ne s e c t ion , w he re a n e n t i r e n ew s t r e tch o fw a l l w a s b u i l t ( b e tween t h e B la cherna e a nd t he G o lden H o rn ) , i te mp loyed ah i gh b as e o fs po i ls w i th as upe r s t ruc t u r e o f b r ick ; t h i s d a te s t o t h e e a r ly n i n th c en tury . B anded m asonry w a s a ga in e mp loyed i n t he w a l l s o f Manue l C omnenu s a round t he B la che rna e , b u t t h ey a r e i n a s t y l e q u ite d i s t inc t f r om e a r l ie r w o rk . ‚ T he c ap i ta l , t h e re fo re , may n o t p rov ide a g u ide t o d eve lopment s i n t h e p rov inces w h ich w i l l b e u s e fu l f o r a l l p e r iod s . S im i la r ly , t h e w a l ls o f N ica ea w e re b u i l t i nt h e l a t e t h i rd c entu ry w i th b ands o f b r ick ( t he t ow e r s w e r e e nt ir e ly f a ced w i th b r ick ) , as t y le c l o s e ly f o l low ed b y l a ter r e pa i r s i n to t he t h i r t e en th c en tury . T he r e , t oo , h oweve r , l a rg er s e c t ions w e r e r e cons t ruc ted i n d if er en t s t y l e s : wo rk o f t he e i gh th c en tu ry e mp loys af a c ing o f w e l l -cu t s po i ls a r ranged a s a sh l a r , w h i le t ha t e xecu ted b y M icha e l I i n8 58 makes u s e o f ab anded ma sonry . I n t h is c a s e , a l so , i m i ta t ion w as a p owe r fu l f a c to r w hen i n d iv idua l t owe r s o r s ma l l s e c t ion s o f w a l l w ere b e ing r e pa i red , b u t mo r e s ub s tan t ia l p ro jec t s f o l lowed t h e i d iom o f t h e i r t ime .5 T he e xamp le o f A nka ra i sa l so i n s truc t ive . T he o r ig ina l f o r t re s s w a l l s w e r e f a ced w i th n ea t ly , s ome t imes e l egan t ly a r ranged s po i l s . T he l owe r c i r cu i t a dded b y 2 .

C orycus i s v ar ious ly d a ted b etween t he s i xth a nd t we lf th c entury : s ee most r ecent ly , D . W in f ie ld i n F oss a nd W inf ie ld ( 1985 ) p t .1 , c . 3 f o r t he e a r ly d at ing a nd f u rther r e f erence ; A tta lea : o uter wa l l d ated b y i n scr ipt ions , R ICA 3 02 -304 ; Caesarea : Gabr ie l ( 1931) 1 9 -30 ; D idy mote ichon : p ersona l i n spect ion ; Toprakka le : D . W inf ie ld i n F oss a nd W in f ie ld ( 1985 ) p t .1 , c . 3 ; K eç ika les i : Mu l ler -W iener ( 1961) 1 12 -116 , c f . F oss a nd Winf ie ld ( 1985 ) p t .3 , c l , n .84 .

3 .

S ee F oss a nd Winf ie ld ( 1985 ) p t .3 , c l .

4 .

On t he ma sonry o f Constant inop le , s ee F oss a nd Winf ie ld ( 1985 ) p t .2 , c l .

5 .

I b id . , p t .2 , c . 2 .

8 1

N icepho rus I a t t he b eg inn ing o f t h e n i n th c entu ry e mp loys l a rge r o ugh ly a r rang ed s po i l s , s ome t imes w i th b ands o f b r ick , and , b y t he g a t e s , a s uper s t ru c ture o f b ri c k . T he e x tens ive r epa i r s w h ich M icha e l I made t o t h e o r ig ina l w a l l a r e i n b anded ma sonry . 6 F rom t h e se a nd o the r e xamp le s , i tw ou ld a ppea r t ha t b anded m a son ry w a s ac ha ra c te r is t ic o f L a te A n t iqu i ty t o b e f o l low ed c a r e fu l ly i n p l a ces w he r e i t a l r eady e x i s ted ; o therw i se , i t was r e v ived i n t h e n i n th c entury , ag ene ra t ion a f t e r a m asonry w h ich u s ed ah i gh b as e o fs po i l s a nd as up e r s t ruc tur e o f b r ick . T he u se o f s po i l s i ss im i la r ly d i agno s t ic f o r d a t ing . Wa l ls b u i l t t o m ee t t h e c r i s i s o f t h e t h i rd c en tury o f ten e mp loy s po i l s i nv a r iou s f a sh ions . D u r ing L a te A n t i q u i ty , af a c ing o f g ood a sh la r o r b r ick u sua l ly a ppea r s , w i th b ands o fb r ick i n t h e c ap i t a l , A n t io ch , a nd e l s ewher e . T he D a rk A g e s b rough t ag r ea t n eed f o r f o r tres s b u i ld i n g a nd a m as s o f r u ins f o r t h e i r c ons t ruc t ion . C on s equent ly , w a l ls o ft h e p e r iod t e nd t o b e f a ced w i th w e l l -cu t s po i l s a r rang ed i n i m i ta t ion o f a sh la r , ad i s t inc t ive s t y le w h ich c anno t e a s i ly b e c on fu s ed w i th a no ther ( t h i s a ppea r s i n ma jo r f o r t res s e s a nd c i ty w a l l s ; r e fuge s i te s i n r emo te a r eas n a tura l ly h ad as imp le r mason ry ) . The s e w a l l s d a te t o at ime w hen s po i l s o f g ood q ua l i ty w e r e r e ad i ly a va i lab le , t h e s even th a nd e i ghth c en tur ie s . L a te r , a s t h e q ua l i ty o f s po i ls d e te r io ra ted , b r ick c ame i n to p rom i n ence , a t f i r s t i nt he f o rm o fs upe r s t ruc tu re s , t h en i nb anded m asonry , a nd f i na l ly i na g r ea t v a r i e ty o fs t y l es . T he w a l l s o f P e r iod Ia tK i i tahya make u s e o fw e l l -a r ranged s po i l s i n ab anded m asonry w h ich o f ten i n c ludes s qua re -cu t t u fa b l o ck s . B r ick b ands a r e r e la t ive ly f ew , e x cep t i n t h e l a rge c o rner t owe r 5 3 . T he L owe r Wa l l i s much s imp le r , f a ced w i th t u fa b l o cks o r f i e lds tones , a nd o n ly s how ing b r ick b ands w her e i tj o in s at ower o f t h e U pper Wa l l . T he m e thod o fu s ing s po i l s m igh t p o in t t o t h e D a rk A g e s , b u t t he i r c om b i na t ion w i th b r ick b ands i n d ica te s t ha t t h e n i n th c en tury i s a mo r e p robab le d a te . C onf i rma t ion c ome s f r om t he t wo t owe r s o ft h e L owe r Wa l l , T 2 a nd T 3 a t t he h i ghe s t p o int o f t he f o r t res s . T hes e h ave h i gh b as e s o f s po i l s w i th as uper s t ruc ture o f b r i ck , c ha ra c te r i s t ic s w h ich a ppea r a t C ons tan t inop le a nd A nka ra i n t he f i r s t p a r t o f t h e n i nth c en tury . T he m asonry t hus t e nd s t o i n d ica te t h e n i n th c en tury a s t he d a t e f o r t he o r ig i n a l c ons t ruc t ion o f t he f o r t r e s s . A t f i r s t s i ght , t h i s s e ems i n c on t rad ic t ion t o t h e k nown h i s to r ica l c i r cums tance s . Mo s t o fA s ia M ino r was o ve rwhe lmed b y t he P .r s ian a nd A rab i n vas ions o f t h e s even th c en tury , w h ich l e f t i n nume rab le c i t i e s i n r u in s a nd p rovoked t he c ons t ruc t ion o f an e two rk o ff o r t re s s e s t h roughou t t he c oun t ry . Much o f t h i s a c t iv i ty i s t o b e a s so c ia ted w i th t h e c r ea t ion o f an ew a dm in i s t ra t ive s y s tem b as ed o n a rmy d i v i s ions , r u l ing t h rough n ew p rov ince s c a l led t heme s . Among t h e s e w as t he Op s ic ian , i n n o r thwe s t A s ia M ino r , o f w h ich C o tya eum w a s ab u lwa rk . I t w ou ld s e em l o g ica l t o s uppo s e t ha t t h i s f o r tr es s , l i ke many o ther s , o w ed i t s o r ig in t o t h i s p er iod o f t u rmo i l a nd g r ea t n eed f o r f o r t if i ca t ion . O n t h e o the r h and , i ti sn o t m ent ioned i n s ource s b e fo re t h e m idd le o f t h e n i n th c en tury , w hen i ta ppea r s a s t h e s t rong f o r t re s s o f ac i ty w ho s e b i shop h ad r e cen t ly b een e l eva ted t o m etropo l i tan s t a tus . B y i t s l a ck o f e a r l ier m en t ion s , t h e r e fo r e , t h e h i s to r ica l r e co rd may b e t a ken t o s uppo r t t he i n d ica t ions o f t h e m a son ry , a nd a l so t op o in t t o ad a te i nt h e e a r ly p a r t o ft he n in th c en tury . S uch a d a te r a is e s a n i mmed ia te p rob lem : h ow was t h e c i ty d e f ended b e fo re t h e n in th c entury ? C o tya eum was c e r ta in ly a m i l i ta ry b a se i n t he t ime o f J us t in ian , w hen a d e ta chmen t o fs cho la r ian t r oop s w a s s t a t ioned t h e re . T he i r p r e s ence , h ow ever , n eed n o t i n d ica te t h e e x i s tence o f af o r t r e s s , f o r t h ey may h ave b een b i l le ted o n t h e t owns fo lk . T he s i lence o f t h e s ource s a bou t t h e D a rk A ge s , ac ommon p henomenon , c ou ld b e t aken t o m ean t ha t t h e c i ty h ad d ec l ined d ras t ica l ly i n i mpo r tance , a nd i t s p opu la t ion b een s o r e duced o r s ca t te r ed t ha t f o r t if i ca t ions w e r e n o t c on s idered n e ce s s a ry . A l te rna t ive ly , af o r tr es s m igh t h ave b een b u i l t a t t h e t ime o f t h e A rab a t ta cks , o n ly t o b e r emoved w hen t h e n ew w a l l s w e r e c ons t ruc ted . T he B yzan t ine a cropo l i s a t S a rd i s , o f t h e s even th c en tury , o f e r s s uch ap henomenon , f o r i t s b u i lde r s c l ea red a way 6 .

I b id . , p t .3 , c l .

7 . O n a l t h is , s e e i b id . , p t .3 , c . 2 .

82

a l l t r a ces o fe a r l ie r w o rk b e fo re e r ec t ing t he n ew w a l l s .8 I f , a ss e ems p robab l e , ad a te i nt he e a r ly n i n th c en tury i si n d ica ted f o r t he f o r t r e s s , i tw ou ld p resumab ly h ave b een i n tended a s am i l i ta ry b as e , ac en t r e f o r g a the r i n g o r s ta t ion ing t r oop s , l o ca ted a t t he j unc t ion o f n a tu ra l r ou te s w h ich g ave a c ces s t o mo s t p a r t s o f t h e c ount ry . I t s s i z e a nd c omp l ex i ty s how s t ha t i tw a s ap owe r fu l c a s t l e , s u i tab l e a s o ne o f t h e ma in c en t re s o f t h e O p s ic ian t h eme . I n t he n i n th c en tu ry , i t s f unc t ion s w ou ld h av e i n c luded t he i mpo r tan t a spec t o f c onso l ida t ion o f t e r r i to ry p r ev ious ly s ub jec t t o c on s tan t t h r ea t f r om t h e A rab s , a nd p ro tec t ion o f t h e r oad s w h ich t hey f o l lowed . A rab r a ids h ad d evas ta ted t h e c oun t ry v i r tua l ly w i thou t i n te r r u p t ion f o r mo re t han a h undr ed y ea r s , o n ly b eg inn ing t o d im in i sh i n s ca le a nd f r e q uency a f t e r t he c ap i ta l o f t he c a l ipha te was t r ans f e r r ed t o B aghdad i n 7 50 . T he rea f ter , t h e a t ta cks w e re f ew e r , b u t t h e c ap tu re a nd d e s t ruc t ion o f Amo r ium i n 8 28 s howed t ha t t hey c ou ld s t i l l b e l a rg e a nd d es t ruc t ive . N eve r the les s , t he n i n th c en t u ry w as a t ime o f i n c r eas ing s e cu r i ty i nA s ia M ino r , w hen t h e B yzan t ine g ove rnmen t c ou ld f i na l ly t ake a dvan tage o ft he r e sp i te f r om c ons tan t a t ta ck t o c onso l ida te t he t e r r i to ry t hey c ont ro l led a nd p r epa r e f o r mov ing o n t he o f ens ive . M icha e l I I ( 8 42 -867 ) w a s e spec ia l ly a c t ive i nt h i s r e a lm , b u i ld ing o r r e pa i r ing f o r t re s s e s a nd p av ing t he w ay f o r t he a dvances w h i ch b egan u nde r h i s s ucces so r B a s i l I( 8 67 -886 ) . T he f o r t res s o f K i i tahya i st hus t o b e s e en i n t h e c on tex t o f t h i s p e r iod o f c onso l ida t ion , a nd t o b e c ons ide red o ne o f t h e n ew b as es w h ich e nsu r ed B yzan t ine c on t ro l o ver t h e s t ra teg ic A na to l ian p l a teau a nd p rov ided t h e s e cur i ty o n w h i ch t h e g r ea t a ch ievement s o f f o l l ow ing g ene ra t ions w e re b as ed . I fP e r iod I i so f t he n i n th c en tury , t he g r ea t r e bu i ld ing o f p er iod I mus t n eces sa r i ly b e l a ter , y e t s t i l l e a r l i e r t han t h e e nd o fB yzan t ine r u le . B o th d e f ences a nd m asonry may b e u sed t o e s tab l i sh a p robab le , t hough n o t p r ec i s e , d a te . T he ma jo r a spec t o f t h e t r ans fo rma t ion o f t he w a l l s w a s t h e c r ea t ion o f n ume rous c l o s e -s e t s o l id t owe r s , a nd t h e c on s equent c onve r s ion o f t h e L owe r Wa l l i n to a s e r ies o f i n d iv idua l c e l lu la r s pa ce s o f u nce r ta in f unc t ion . T he w o rk w as a ppa r en t ly d e s igned t o a c commo d a te s ome f o rm o f h eav i er a r t i l le ry w h ich r e qu i r ed ap l a t fo rm r a the r t ha t t he r oo f o fa t owe r f o r i t s o pe ra t ions . I n f a c t , s uch a c hange i n m i l i ta ry t e chno logy t ook p la ce l a t e i n t h e B yzan t ine p e r iod , w hen t h e t r ebuche t c ame t o s upp lemen t t he mangone l , o r c a tapu l t , w h ich h ad b e en i ng ene ra l u s e s i nce t h e t ime o f t he R omans . D e f ences w e r e s im i la r ly mod if i ed a t C ons tan t inop le w he re t h e t owe r s o f t h e B la che rna e e r ec ted b y Manue l C omnenus ( 1 143 -1180 ) w e re f a r mo re m as s ive t han e a r l ier w o rk ; t he se , a l so , h ave b een a s so c ia ted w i th t he i n t roduc t ion o f t h e t r ebuche t .9 T he o r ig in a nd d ifus ion o f t he n ew w eapon a r e o b s cu re , b u t i tw as c e r ta in ly i n u s e i nw es tern E urope b y t h e m id - t w e l f th c en tury , a nd may b e p re sumed t o h ave r e a ched B yzan t ium b y t ha t t ime o r e a r l ie r . I ft h e n ew t owe r s r e f l ec t t h is a dvance , t h ey c ou ld b e s e en a s ap roduc t o f t h e t we l f th c en tury , a nd p a r t icu la r ly o f t h e t ime o ft h e C omnene e mpe ro r s ( 1 081 -1185 ) w ho s howed a n e spec ia l i n te re s t i n m i l i ta ry t e chno logy a nd w e r e i n c l o s e t ouch w i th d eve lopmen t s i nt he We s t a nd a mong t h e C ru sade r s . T he m asonry o f t h es e w a l l s w ou ld a l so i n d i ca te a C omnen ian d a te . A l though , a s n o ted , b anded m ason ry i sf o und a t a l l t imes d ur ing t h e B yzan t ine p er iod , i th a s many v a r ia t ions w h i ch may b e d i s t ingu i shed . Among t hem i s at e ndency t o u se e x t ra b r i cks i n s e r ted b o th v e r t i ca l ly a nd h o r izon ta l ly a mong t h e s t onewo rk , t o c over s uch b r icks w i th a c oa t o f s u r fa ce mo r ta r , u sua l ly p i nk , a nd t o s e t s t one s o n t h e i r n a r row s i de . T hes e c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s a r e n o tab le i n t h e w a l l s o f t h e Manue l C omnenus a t C on s t an t inop l e a nd i no the r e xamp le s o fC omnen ian f o r t if i ca t ion , a l l d a t ing t o t he t we l f th c en t u ry . 1 0 T hey a l so a ppea r c ommon ly i n t he w a l l s a nd t owe r s o f P e r iod I a t K ü tahya . T he e v idence o f ma sonry a nd d e f ens ive t e chn ique b o th p o in t t owa rd t h e t we l f th c en tu ry , p e rhap s mo re s pec if i ca l ly t o t h e r e ign o f Manue l C omnenus . S uch a d a te w ou ld a c co rd w e l l w i th h i s to r ica l c i rcums tance s . A f te r t h e d i sas t rous d e f ea t 8 . S ee F o s s ( 1976 ) 5 8 . 9 .

S ee F o s s a nd W inf ie ld ( 1 985 ) p t .2 , c . 1 a nd , f o r t he t r ebuchet , a bove , p . 7 7 .

1 0 . On C omnen ian m asonry i nf o r t if ica t ion s , s e e F o s s ( 1982 ) .

83

w h ich t he T urks i n f l i c ted o n t he B yzan t ine s a t Manz ike r t i n 1 071 , mo s t o ft h e i n te r io r o f A s ia M ino r was l o s t f o reve r . A lex iu s C omnenus ( 1 081 -1118 ) , w i th t h e h e lp o f t h e F i r s t C rusade , g radua l ly r e es tab l i shed B yzan t ine p owe r a l ong t h e c oa s t s a nd i n t h e A eg ean r e g ion s , w h i l e h i s s ucce s so r s J ohn ( 1 118 -1143 ) a nd Manue l a dvanced o n to t h e p la teau , mak ing n o tab le a cqu i s i t ions i n P aph iagon ia a nd P hryg ia . I ts e em s p robab le t ha t K i itahya , a l though n o t s pec if i ca l ly m en t ioned i nt h e s ou r ce s , was r e conque red b y J ohn C omnenu s , o r p o s s ib ly Manue l . I n a ny c a s e , i t was B yzan t ine b y 159 , a nd s o r ema ined u n t i l 182 . Manue l was i n te re s ted i n s t r eng then ing i mpe r ia l c on tro l i n t h e w es tern p a r t o f t he p en insu la , a nd e nsur ing s e cur i ty a ga ins t T u rk i sh r a id s . T o t h i s e nd , h e c r ea ted a n ew t heme i n t he A eg ean r e g ion b a s ed o n f o r t re s s es t o w h ich t h e p opu la t ion c ou ld t ake r e fuge i n t ime o f a t ta ck a nd w h i ch w ou ld s e rve a s b as es f o r i mpe r ia l r i po s te s . F o r t if i ca t ion p l ayed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i n h i s p o l ic ie s , a s i td i d i n t ho s e o f h i s f a the r , J ohn . T he r ebu i ld ing o f K i i tahya , n o d oub t a bandoned t o t h e T urks f o r mo r e t han a g ene ra t ion , may b e a t t r ibu ted t o t h e p o l icy o f J ohn o r Manue l a nd t hus a s s igned a pp rox ima te ly t o t h e p e r iod 120 -1150 . T he ma jo r r e cons t ruc t ion o f t h e f o r t r e s s w a s n o t t h e l a s t B yzan t ine mod if i ca t ion t o t he s i te , n o r t h e mo s t f i ne ly e xecu ted . T ha t d i s t inc t ion b e long s t oT 35 a nd t o t he L ower C i ty Wa l l , b o th o f w h ich s e em t o b e c on tempo ra ry a nd e v iden t ly p o s tda te t he ma in r ebu i ld ing . I ft ha t b e long s t o t h e t we l f th c en tury , t h i s w o rk mu s t b e o f t he l a t te r p a r t o f t h e c en tury , p r io r t o 182 , a nd t hus p robab ly o f t h e r e ign o f Manue l . I ta ppa ren t ly r ep r es en t s a n e fo r t t o a c commoda te a c i v i l p opu la t ion a s w e l l a s t he a bundan t s p r ing w h i ch l a ys a t t h e c o rner o ft h e n ew c i rcu i t . P er iod i f i f a l l s w i th in c hrono log ica l l i m i t s : i ti sn ece s sa r i ly l a te r t han t h e t we l f th c en tury , a nd e a r l ie r t han t h e m id -f i f teen th w hen , a s w i l l b e s e en , t h e ma in w o rk o f P e r iod I V w a s e xecu ted . B as ica l ly , P er iod I s hou ld b e S e l juk o r G e rm iyan id . A l though t he p e r iod b rough t ma jo r c hange s b y a dd ing a c i tade l a nd b a rb i can , t h e w o rk i s o n af a r l e s s i mp re s s ive s ca le t han t h e mo s t f amous S e l juk f o r t res s e s o f A lanya , A n ta lya a nd S i nope . S i nce , h ow eve r , K ü tahya s e em s t o h ave b een a n o b s cur e p la ce d ur ing t h e S e l juk p e r iod , a nd p e rhap s m e r i t ed l i t t le a t ten t ion , i t s w a l l s s hou ld n o t b e c ompa r ed w i th c en t ra l f o r t res s e s d e s igned t o a dver t i s e t h e p owe r o f t h e n ew s ta te , b u t w i th a n e ighbo r ing p rov inc ia l f o r t l i ke A fyonka rah i sa r , w h i ch l i e s s ome 6 0km t o t h e s ou thwe s t a nd h a s as e t o f w e l l -p res e rved S e l juk f o r t if i ca t ion s d a ted b y a n i n s c r ip t ion t o t he r e ign o f A la edd in K eykubad ( 1 220 -1237 ) . T he i r l o ca t ion o n t h e t op o f a n e xcep t iona l ly s t eep a nd p rec ip i tou s h i l l m eans t ha t t h e se d e f ence s a r e n ece s s a r i ly d if e r f r om t ho se o f K i i tahya , b u t t h ey d o e mp loy a d i s t inc t ive m ason ry o f a k ind f ound i n o the r S e l juk f o r t re s se s . T he w a l l s a nd t owe r s a r e f a ced w i th r e gu la r ly c our sed s qua red b l o cks w i thou t b r icks a nd e mp loy a g r ea t n umbe r o f w ooden b eams , o f ten c l o se ly s e t i n r ow s . W i th t he e x cep t ion o f t h e r ow s o f b eams , t h i s b ea r s s ome r e s emb lance t o t h e masonry a round t h e L owe r G a t e a tK i i tahya . I t s s t onewo rk , h ow e ver , i s much l a rge r a nd mo re r e gu la r t han t ha t f o und i n mo s t o f t h e w a l l s o f P e r iod I I . 1 S im i la r ly , t he s t onewo rk o f S e l juk mo sque s i n K i i tahya a ppea r s t o c ons i s t o f l a rge w e l l -cour sed b l o cks w i thou t b r ick , as t y le n o tab l e i n t h e H id i r l ik mo sque o n t h e h i l l o ppo s i te t h e c as t l e ; o ther e xamp les a r e o b s cu red , a tl e as t i np a r t , b y r e s to ra t ion .1 2 Wh i le t h i s s o r t o f m ason ry a c co rds w i th t h e m o r e i mpo s ing p a r ts o f t h e w a l l s o f P e r iod I I , i ti sq u i te d if e rent f r om t h e r e s t , a nd d o e s n o t p rov ide ac onv inc ing e nough p a ra l le l t o s ugg es t ad a te . N o r d o t h e c i rcums tances o f t h e S e l juk p e r iod , w hen K i i tahya w a s a ppa ren t ly a n o bs cu re f r on t ier f o r t re s s , s e em a pp rop r ia t e t o s uch a ma jo r t r ans fo rma t ion a s t ook p l a ce . T he re i se ven s ome q ue s t ion a bou t t h e u s e o f t h e f o r t re s s a t t h e t ime . T he b u i ld ing n ow k nown a s t h e L owe r C a s t l e Mo sque s e em s o r i g i na l ly t o h ave b een a t omb ; i ti si n s e rted i n to t h e l a rge c o rne r t owe r o f t h e L ow e r 1 . T he c as t le o f A fyon h a s n ever b een p roper ly s t ud ied ; s e e t he s u mma ry a ccount o f S evgen ( 1959 ) 2 5 -30 a nd c f . D . W in f ie ld

i n F o s s

a nd

W inf ie ld

( 1985 )

p t .1 ,

c . 3 w ho se

a t t r ibu t ion o f t hese

w a l ls t o t he B yzant ines s e em s

q ues t ionab le . 1 2 . F o r t he H id ir l ik mo sque , s e e A l tun ( 1983 ) f i gs . 7 /1 -7/3 , made b e fo re t he r e cen t r e sto ra t ion , a nd c f . t he B a l ik l i mo sque ,

i b id . , 2 16 -220 , who se f i ne s tonewo rk may b e S e l juk ; t he o uter w a l ls o f t he a ppa rent ly S e l juk L ower C as t le

Mo sque a re o bscured , b ut i t s i nner c ons t ruct ion i so f b r ick :

84

i b id . 1 96 -198 .

C i ty Wa l l , t o s ugge s t t ha t t ha t c i rcu i t w a s n o t i n u s e a t t h e t ime . T he S e l juk a ge , d e sp i te i t s n o tab le p ro sp er i ty i n c en t ra l A na to l ia , d o e s n o t t he re fo re a ppea r t o b e a s u i tab le t ime f o r t he c ons t ruc t ion s o fP e r iod I I . U nder t he G e rm iyan ids , K ü tahya a ch ieved t h e u n ique d i s t inc t ion o f b ecom ing t h e c ap i ta l o f t he s ta te , a nd e v iden t ly f l ou r i shed i n t he f ou r teen th c en tury w hen b o th c i ty a nd s ta te w e re a t t h e i r h e igh t . I ti st h i s p e r iod w h ich b r ing s t h e f i r s t p ra i s es o f t h e f o r tres s , i n t h e w o rk o f S u l tan V e led o f 1 312 . H i s to r ica l ly , s uch a t ime w ou ld b e m o s t a pprop r ia te f o r e x tens ive w o rk o n t h e c a s t le , n ow t h e mo s t c r uc ia l p o in t i n t h e s t a te . A t t he s ame t im e , t h e c i ty o u t s ide t h e w a l l s s aw g r ea t d eve lopmen t , s o t ha t a n e l abo ra te p a s sag e b e tw een i ta nd t h e c a s t le , w h ich o f e red a h i ghe r d eg r ee o f p ro tec t i on f r om t ha t s i de , m igh t b ecome mo re s u i tab l e . A l though o the r c a s t le s o ft h e G e rm i y an ids r ema in t o b e i d en t if i ed , t he m a sonry o f t h e i r c i v ic b u i ld ing s i sa va i lab le f o r c ompa r ison . Mo s t a r e n a tura l ly b u i l t i n as t y le s uper io r t o t he w a l l s o f t h e c a s t le b ut t h ey d i sp lay a n i mpo r tan t e l emen t i nc ommon . G e rm iyan id mo sque s a nd o ther s t ruc t u r e s f r equen t ly e mp loy a m ix ture o f b r i ck a nd s t one i n t h e i r w a l l s , s ome t ime s i n t h e f o rm o f c l o i sonné o r b ands o f b r ick ; o n o ccas ion , s po i ls a nd r ubb le a r e e mp loyed .1 3 N one o f t hes e i se xa c t ly l i ke a ny p a r t o f t h e c a s t le w a l l s , b u t t he i r s t y le s how s t ha t m a sonry d er ived f r om t h e B yzan t ine w a s i n c ur r en t u s e u nde r t he G e rm iyan ids , w ho a l so e mp loyed w a l ls o f r ough ly c ou r s ed r ubb l e , s ome t imes w i th i r r egu la r c our s e s o f b r i ck . I n g ene ra l t e rm s , t h e f o r t re s s w a l l s o f P e r iod I I c on fo rm f a r b e t te r t o w o rk o f t h i s p er iod t han t o t ha t o f t h e S e l juks . I tt hus s e ems p robab le o n b o th h i s to r ica l a nd s t y l i s t ic g rounds t ha t P e r iod I i st o b e a s s igned t o t he p r ince s o fC e rm iyan . P er iod 1 V i st h e o n ly s t ag e i n t h e h i s to ry o f t h e c a s t le f o r w h ich a d a te i s k nown . A cco rd ing t o E v l iya C he leb i , t h e L owe r C i ty Wa l l was b u i l t b y Mohammed t h e C onque ro r ( 1451 -1481 ) i no rde r t o i n c lude t h e s p r ing w i th in t he c i rcu i t o f t he f o r t r e s s . The B yzan t ines h ad i n f a c t a l r eady b u i l t aw a l l f o r t ha t p u rpo se , a nd t h e G er m iyan ids h ad a ppa r en t ly r e s to r ed i t : t h e f i r s t t r ave l l er t o d e s c r ibe K ü tahya , B e r t ran d on d e l a B roqu iè re [ T e s t . 1 w ho v i s i t ed t h e c i ty j u s t a f te r t he O t toman c onques t r ema rks t ha t i t s f o r t re s s h ad t h r ee p a r t s ; t ha t i s , t ha t t h e C i tade l a nd t h e L owe r C i ty Wa l l w ere i n e x i s tence i n h i s t ime . N eve r the le s s , mo s t o f t h e c i r cu i t n ow v i s ib le i s a t t r ibutab le t o P e r iod I V a nd may b e t aken w i thou t a ny h es i ta t ion t o r ep r e sent t he w o rk o f t h e C onque ro r . I t s m ason ry r e semb le s t ha t o f h i s g r ea t f o r t r es s e s i n a nd a r ound I s tanbu l ; t h ey s ha re a u se o f c our s ed r ubb le f a c ing w i th l i t t le o r n o b r ick , b a r e ly d i s t ingu i shed f r om t h e c o r e o f s im i la r ma ter ia l . T he c i r cu i t o f t h e L owe r C i ty c o r re sponds w e l l e nough w i th r e pa i r s t o t h e ma in f o r t re s s , n o tab ly t h e C i tade l , t o l e ave n o d oub t t ha t t h e r e ign s aw c on s ide rab l e r e bu i ld ing . W i th t h i s , t he a c t ive h i s t o ry o f t he c on s t ruc t ion a t K i i tahya c ame t o a n e nd , b u t many o f t h e r epa i r s a t t r i b u ted t o P er iod I V may o f c our s e b e long t o t h e f o l low ing t wo c en tur ie s w hen t he f o r t r e s s was s t i l l i na c t ive u s e .

1 3 . S ee t he v ar ious b u i ld ings d i scussed a nd ( poor ly) i lustrated b y A ltun ( 1983 ) 2 16 -220 , 2 24 -226 ( Pek mezpaza r i C ) , 2 26 -229 ( Kuriun lu C .) , 2 92 ( Ima ret Mesc id i ) , 3 41 -347 ( Ba l ik l i T ekke) , 3 64 ( Dörtd irek l i Turbe , d a te u ncerta in ) , 3 69 -371 ( Sa ray Hama m ) , 3 95 -397 ( Kücük B edesten) .

8 5

K AYSER KALE Kays er Ka le , t he ' Ca s t l e o f C a e sa r ' , s t ands i ni mpr es s ive i s o la t ion o n t op o f a t a l l c on ica l h i l l a bove t h e c onf luenpe o f t wo s t r eams i n ar emo te a nd u n f r equen ted l o ca t ion a bou t f i ve k i lome t re s s ou th o f t h e v i l lag e o f I n c ik , i n t he s ubd i s t r ic t o f S abuncup ina r w h ich f o rm t h e n o r theas te rn c o rne r o ft h e c oun ty o fK i i tahya . F ig . 8 7 . S abuncup ina r l i e s i n h i l ly c oun t ry o n at r ibuta ry o ft h e P o r suk ( t he a nc i en t T emb r i s ) 3 5k n o r thea s t o f K i i tahya , w i th w h ich i ti sc onnec t ed b y r oad a nd r a i l . T he t r a in f o l l ow s ar e la t ive ly l e ve l r ou te t h rough ag en t ly r o l l ing c oun try o f w hea tf i e ld s a nd b road h i l l s w h ich f o rm t h e f oo th i l l s o f t h e m a s s ive T urkmen moun ta in t o t he e as t . T he r oad l e ads n o r th , d i rec t ly a c ro s s t h e b road p la in o f K i i tahya t o f o l low t he c our se o f t h e P o r suk w h ich h e re w inds c ons tan t ly t h rough r ang e s o f mode ra te ly h igh h i l l s , i t s v a l ley r a r e ly e xceed ing a k i lome t re i n w id th . A b ranch r oad l e ave s t h e v a l ley 2 3k f r om t h e c i ty t o h ead e a s t 1 2k a c ro s s ar ange o f h i l l s a nd d es cend t o t he f e r t i l e v a l ley o f S abuncup ina r , a ma rke t t own o f a bou t 7 000 i n hab i tan ts , n o tab le f o r t i t s h ou ses made f r om c u t t u fa b l ocks l i ke t ho se o f t h e c a s t le o f K i itahya . I ta ppea r s t o c on ta in f ew i f a ny a nt iqu i t ie s , t hough p r eh i s to r ic r ema ins h ave b een r e po r ted . ' A f te r S abuncup ina r , t h e c oun t ry b ecome s n o tab ly mo r e b roken , w i th t h e r oad r i s ing t h rough f o r es ted h i l l s , y e t w i th f r equen t f i e lds a nd c a t t l e , o n i t s w ay t oI n c ik , 6 k t o t he s ou theas t . T he r oad d es cends i n to a v a l l ey p erhap s ak i lome t r e a c ro s s a nd t w ice a s l o ng , w h ich c on ta ins t he w e l l -wa te red a nd c u l t iva ted f i e lds o f t h e v i l lag e . A f oun ta in ma rks t h e j unc t ion o f t h e r oad f o r t he v i l lag e ; l y ing o n t he g round n ex t t o i t i sa n a lmo s t p e r f ec t ly p r e s e rved b ap t i sma l f on t w i th a l a rg e ly e fa ced i n s c r ip t ion , a n u nexpec ted t r a ce o f B yzan t ium . K ays e r Ka le i sc l ea r ly v i s ib le f r om t h e v i l lag e , a s t r ik ing s ha rp ly -po in ted h i l l r i s ing f r om t h e s ur round ing f o r es t s . I ti sa pp roa ched b y a t r a ck w h i ch l e ads i n to a r ough r e g ion o f n a r row v a l leys a nd s t eep h i l l s a nd p as 's b y t he b a s e o f t he c a s t le h i l l . T he r u ins o f t h e c a s t le may b e c l ea r ly s e en f r om t h e r oad , o n t h e p eak o f t h e h i l l w h ich r i s es t o ah e igh t o f 1 417m , a nd t hu s s ome 4 00m a bove t h e s u r round ing c oun t ry . Y e t t he a pp roa ch i sb y n o m eans o bv iou s , i ns p i te o f t he c a r e fu l d i rec t ion s g i ven b y av i l lage r w ho a c compan ied u s t o t he b as e o f t he h i l l . T he f i r s t p a r t o f t h e a s cen t i se a sy e nough , a l ong s moo th o pen s l ope s u s ed f o r g ra z ing , b ut f r om t he re , i ti s n ece s sa ry t o e n te r d ens e t h icke t s w h ich s oon y i e ld t o p i ne f o r e s ts a nd o f e r n o c l ea r t r a ck . F ina l ly , b y t r ia l a nd e r ro r , i tw as p o s s ib le t o l o ca te t h e c o r r ec t r ou te w h i ch t u rned o u t t o b e ap aved t r a ck , n ow mo s t ly d e lap ida ted a nd o verg rown . T he t r a ck , e v iden t ly b u i l t a s t h e a pp roa ch t o t h e c a s t l e a nd p robab ly c ontempo ra ry w i th i t , w inds a round t he h i l l t o as ma l l p l a teau b e tw een t h e ma in p eak a nd a l ower s ubo rd i n a te h i l l f a c ing i t . T he l a t te r may b e e a s i ly s ca led f o r ag ood v i ew o f t h e c a s t le , b u t o f er s n o g ood p o s s ib l i ty o f d e f ence . T he c a s t le i t s e l f t owe r s a bove t h e p l a teau , w i th i t s ma in d e f ences c oncen t ra ted o n t h e e a s t s i de , t h e o n ly o ne f r om w h ich i tc ou ld f e a r a t ta ck ; t h e o ther s l opes a r e p r ec ip i tou s . A f te r al o ng , f a t igu ing c l imb , t h e s umm i t o f e r s ap l ea san t a nd r e f resh ing s urp r i se . I t c ons i s t s o f as ma l l p l a teau , l o ng a nd n a r row , o f a bout 1 75 b y 5 0m ; t h e w ho le a r ea i ss ur rounded b y w a l l s o f v a ry ing s t a te s o f d ecr ep i tude , a nd c ove red w i th g ra s s a nd w i ldf lowe r s . I t s h e igh t a nd i s o la t ion p rov ide magn if i cent v i ew s f a r o f a c ro s s t h e r o l l ing c oun t ry t o t h e n o r th , w e s t a nd s ou th ; t h e e a s t i sb l o cked b y t h e T urkmen moun ta in , w h ich r e a che s ap eak o f 1 829m , f a r h i ghe r t han K ays e r Ka le . T he w a l l s a r e e x t reme ly w e l l p r es e rved i ns ome p l a ce s , b u t r u ined i no the r s . E nough i ss t and ing t o a l low ad e ta i l ed d es c r ip t ion , w h ich f o l low s . We w er e n o t t h e f i r s t t o s e e o r e ven s t udy t h i s r a r e ly -v i s i ted s i t e . T he a dm i r a b le Ma jo r v on D ie s t i n 1 880 n o ted i t s e x i s tence a nd p l a ced i to n h i s map , b u t d id n o t 1 . No ted i n Ha spe ls ( 1971 ) 2 87 , a magn if i cent w o rk f undamenta l f o r s t udy o f t he r eg ion t o t he e a s t o fK i itahya , mo s t o f i to uts ide t he b ound s o f t he p resent s urvey .

8 6

8 7

make t h e d e tou r a nd c l imb . 2 E . B randenburg i n 1 902 w as t h e f i r s t a c tua l ly t o d i s c over t h e c as t le b y c l imb ing t h e h i l l a nd p rov id ing s ome a ccoun t o f t h e r ema ins . H e n o ted t ha t t he p l a ce h ad n o t y e t b een v i s i ted , d es c r ibed i t s r u ins a s ' e a r ly B yzan t in e ' ( and t hus o u t s ide h i s s phe r e o f i n te re s t ) a nd p ub l i sh ed t wo p ho tog raphs o ft he e as te rn a nd s ou thea s tern p a r t o f t h e w a l l s ( Ti , W 2 /3 ) w h i ch s how t h em i n a lmo st p rec i s e ly t he c ond i t ion t h ey s t i l l p r e s e rve . H e o f e red n o f u r ther c omment .3 I t r ema ined f o r Em i l ie H aspe l s , w ho e xp lo r ed t h e w ho l e r e g ion b e tw een 1 946 a nd 1 958 , t o p rov ide t h e f i r s t c a re fu l d e sc r ip t ion w i th a n a c coun t a nd m easu r emen t o f s ome o f t h e s urv iv ing w a l l s .4 S ince h e r i n te res t s , t oo , l a y i n a n e a r l ie r p e r iod , s he d i d n o t o f e r a ny d e ta i l ed t r ea tmen t , b u t h ad t h e m e r i t o f mak ing t h e c a s t le ap a r t o f t h e a rcha eo log ica l r e co rd a nd d raw ing i tt o t h e a t ten t ion o fs cho la r s . K ays er Ka l e h as n o h i s to ry . I th as n o t b een i d en t if i ed w i th a ny m ed ieva l p l a c e m en t ioned i n t he h i s to r i ca l r e co rd ; i t s B yzan t ine n ame i su nknown . We s ha l l t he re fo r e u s e i t s modern a nd r a the r r oman t i c n ame w i thou t h av ing a ny i d ea o f i t s o r ig in o r a nt iqu i ty . Ac a s t le i np opu la r l e g end may a s w e l l b e n amed f o r C a esa r a sa nyone e l s e . T he n ame mo s t p robab ly r e f l ec t s aB yzan t ine Empe ro r , r a the r t han h i s f amous R oman p redece s so r , b u t i n t h i s c a s e i tc ou ld d e r ive f r om a r e a l t oponym . P la ce s n amed f o r C a e sa r a r e a c tua l ly q u i te u ncommon , a nd u sua l ly r e p r e s en t a n a nc ien t n ame e nd ing i n c a e sa rea , a s t he D io ca e sa rea s o f P h ryg ia a nd C appado c ia , w h ich b o th l e f t t ra ce s i n mode rn v i l lag es n amed K ays e r .5 Y e t , i n t h i s c a s e , t h e r e i sn o ' m is s ing ' C a esa r ea o f P hryg ia w a i t ing t o b e i d en t if i ed w i th as i te i nt h i s r e g ion , n o r i si ta t a l l p robab le t ha t t h i s c a s t le w as t h e s ucce s so r o f ap l a ce i mpo r tan t e nough t o b ea r t h e n ame o f t h e e mpe ro r . F o r t he momen t , i ti sp e rhap s b e s t t o s uppo s e t ha t s ome l o ca l l e gend h a s c onnec ted t he c a s t l e w i th a r e a l o r i mag ined e mpe ro r , j u s t a s al e gend h ea rd b y M i s s H aspe l s c l a imed t ha t i tw as t h e c a s t le o f t h e f amou s A rab h e ro S id i B a t ta l , w ho f e l l f i gh t ing a ga in s t t h e B yzan t ine s i nt h e e i gh th c en tury a nd i sr e ve r ed a t t h e g rea t s h r ine o f S ey i tga z i o n t h e o the r s i de o f t h e T urkmen moun ta in .6 I fs ources a r e f o und a nd a n i d en t if i ca t ion made , t he h i s to ry o f t h e c a s t le may b e w r i t ten ; f o r t he momen t , i tm u s t d er ive f r om t he e v idence o f t h e r ema ins w h ich , a ss ha l l b e s e en , h ave much t o t e l l . T he f o l low ing d i s cus s ion w i l l p r e s en t t h e w a l l s a nd t ow e r s i n d e ta i l , p roceed ing c l o ckw i s e f r om t h e e n t rance g a te o n t h e e a s t . A f t e r t ha t , t he n a ture a nd f unc t ion o f t he c a s t le w i l l b e t r ea ted , a l ong w i th e v idence f o r i t s c h rono logy .

The Wa l ls

G ene ra l : F o r i t s w ho l e l e ng th , t h e c i rcu i t h a s ad oub le t h ickne s s o f w a l l s , t he r e su l t o f ac omp le te r e bu i ld ing . A n i n ner , o r ig ina l f a ce i sf o l low ed a nd c om p l e te ly c ove r ed b y at h ick o ute r f a ce w ho s e c a r e fu l a sh la r m asonry u su a l ly make s as t r ik ing c on t ras t w i th t h e r oughe r s t onewo rk o f t he o r ig i n a l . T he l a t te r i sa lmo s t a lways o b s cur ed , b u t i so ccas iona l ly v i s ib l e f r om a bove , o r i n c r o s s -s ec t ion w h e r e t h e w a l ls h ave b een b roken t h rough ; o ne s e c t ion s t ands a l one f o r as ho r t d i s tance . Gate:

T he s o le e n t rance t o t h e f o r t w h ich h a s l e f t a ny d ef inab le t r a ce i s as imp l e o pen ing i mmed ia te ly a d ja cen t t o T i , o n t h e e a s t s i de f a c ing t he o n ly p ra c t icab le a pp roa ch . I t c ons i s ts o f as imp le o pen ing w i th a f i n i shed f a ce o f s qua r ed t u fa b l o cks a nd a s i ng le b and o f b r icks o n i t s s ou th s i de . T he o ppo s i te s i de i sr oughe r a nd g i ve s t h e i mpr e s s ion o f h av ing

2 .

Von D iest ( 1889) 5 0 ; f o r t he e xp lora t ion o f t he r eg ion , s ee t he d eta i led s urvey o f Ha spe ls ( 1971) 3 -19 .

3 .

B randenburg ( 1906 ) 6 61f . ; c f . ( 1910 ) 9 8 , where t he s i te i sa ga in m ent ioned , b ut i n n o more d eta i l .

4 .

Ha spe ls ( 1971) 2 17f .

5 .

On t hese , s ee Robert ( 1962 ) 1 20 f , 3 20 .

6 .

Ha spe ls ( 1971) 2 82 .

8 8

b een b l o cked . m e t re w id e . Ti :

W

T he g a te s e em s n eve r t o h ave b een mo re t han a bou t a

Th i s s em i c i rcu la r t ow er , a bou t 1 2m i n d iame t r e a nd n ow s t and ing 9 . 7m n i gh , i st he l a rg e s t o f t h e c i r cu i t , d e s igned t o p ro tec t t h e s ma l l a d ja cen t g a te a nd t he a pp roa ch t o t he c a s t l e : F ig . 8 8 . Oute r f a ce : T he t ow er i sb u i l t o n ap ro jec t ing f o unda t ion o fc our s ed f i e lds tone s o f l o ca l g ran i te , a bove w h ich i s ab and o f 7b r icks . T he ma in f a c ing i s o f c u t t u fa b l o cks , c a r e fu l ly a r rang ed a s h eade r s a nd s t re tche r s . T hes e b l o ck s f i t c l o s e ly t og e the r , a nd w e re e v iden t ly c u t f o r t h e p u rpo s e . T he h eader s , a bou t am e t re l o ng , p ro jec t d eep i n to t h e r ubb le c o re . I n many p l a ce s , t hey h ave b een p a r t ly b roken a way , l e av ing t h e i n ne r p a r ts e mb edded i n t h e c o r e , a s i ft h ey h ad b e en s po i l s . T he f a c ing , h oweve r , g i ves n o i n d ica t ion o fh av ing e mp loyed s po i l s . An ea t b and o f 5b r icks s e t s o c l o s e ly t ha t t h ey a r e a lmo s t t ouch ing , w i th b ands o f mo r ta r o f e qu iva len t t h i ckne s s , r uns a c ro s s t h e f a ce n ea r t h e t op . T he b r icks , l i ke t h e s t one s , w e r e a ppa r en t ly a l l n ew w hen t h e f o r t re s s w a s b u i l t ; t h ey a r e u sua l ly a bou t 3 0 c m s qua r e a nd 3 m50 t h i ck , w i th a r ak i n g o f t r ip le d i agona l f i ng e r ma rks i n t he s hape o f ac r o s s o f S t . A ndrew . D i r ec t ly a bove t h e b r ick b and , a nd c oncea led b y t h e n ex t c our se o f s t one s , i s ar ow o f l a rg e r ound b eam h o le s l a id a d ja cen t t o e a ch o the r : F ig . 9 0 . B ond ing o f f a c ing a nd c o re w a s e v iden t ly o f p r ima ry i mpo r tance i n t hes e w a l l s , b ecaus e t h e s t eepne s s o f t h e h i l l r e nde red t h em e s pec ia l ly v u lne rab l e t o e a r thquake ; i tw a s d if i cu l t t o b u i ld t h em i ns uch a w ay t ha t t h ey w ou ld h ave a s t ab l e b as e . S tone s a nd b eams t h e r e fo re w e re b o th u s ed a s b ond ing w i th t h e c o r e w h ich c ons i s ted o f r ough ly l a ye red f i e lds tone s , u sua l ly o f t h e l o ca l g ran i te , s e t i n ag ood d ea l o f w h i te t o g r ey m o r ta r w i th s ma l l i n c lus ions o f s t one a nd b r i ck ; t h e mo r ta r i s s omewha t c oa r s e r i nt h e b r ick b ands . I nne r f a ce : T he e n t i r e f a c ing j u s t d e s c r ibed f o rms a s he l l o ve r t h e o l de r f a ce , w h ich i so n ly p a r t ia l ly v i s ib l e i n c ro s s -s ec t ion o n t h e t op o f t h e t o e r , o n t he s ou th s i de . I tc on s i s t s o f c our s ed b l o cks o fl o ca l g ran i te s e t i n a g r ey m o r ta r w i th f i ne i n c lus ions w h ich d o n o t c on ta in b r ick . T h i s o r i g i na l t owe r w as much s ma l l er t han t h e p re s en t ly v i s ib l e s t ruc tur e , p robab ly a bou t 6 m i n d iame te r , f o r t h e n ew c o r e a nd f a c ing a r e s ome 3m t h ick . I t s m asonry s o c l o se ly r e s emb le s t ha t o f t h e f o unda t ion c our s e s o f t h e n ew f a ce t ha t t hey may p e rhaps b e c ons ide r ed a s p a r t o f t he o r ig ina l s t ruc tur e w h i ch w ou ld t h en h ave b een b u i l t o n ab road p ro jec t ing p l in th . S uch a c ons t ruc t ion m igh t s e em u nusua l , b u t w ou ld h ave b een ap ra c t i ca l n eces s i ty o n t h e s t eep h i l l s w ho s e s l ope s w e re c on s t an t ly s ub jec t t o e r o s ion . S eve ra l t owe r s a t K ü tahya , n o tab ly i n t h e s ou the rn p a r t o f t h e c i r cu i t , w e r e b u i l t o n s im i la r , t hough s ma l ler , p l in th s f o r t h e s ame r e g ion . 1 /2 : F igs . 9 1 ,92 O u te r f a ce : A l though mo s t o f t h e f a ce i sm i s s ing , i ta ppea r s t ha t t h i s s e c t ion o f w a l l c l o s e ly r e s emb led T i , w i th a f a c ing o f t u fa b l o ck s a r rang ed i n a sh la r w i th h eade r s a nd s t re tche r s o ve r ac o re o f r ubb le , w h ich i n c luded l a rg e a nd d en s e ly p a cked f i e lds tone s a nd s ome b roken b r ick s e t i n t h e s ame l i gh t -co lour ed m o r ta r , h e r e o c cas iona l ly w i th a s andy a gg rega te . T ra ce s o f b r i ck b ands a r e f ew , b u t s uf i c i en t t o s ugge s t t ha t t h ey f o rmed p a r t o f t h e f a ce . A l a rge d ra in p ro jec t s d ownwa rd t h rough t h e f a ce n ea r T 2 . T he w a l l i sc ons i s ten t ly 2 m t h ick a nd s t and s t o ah e igh t o fa bou t 6 m . I nne r f a ce : C on t inuous ly v i s ib le t h rough t h i s s e c t ion , w i th a f a c ing o f c l o s e ly s e t g ran i te f i e lds tones i n af r iab le g r ey m o r ta r w i thou t b r ick .

8 9

T2 :

C o re o n ly s urv ive s , b u i l t a round a p ro jec t ing r o ck ; u sua l mo r ta r . A t ow e r o f t he o r ig ina l w a l l w a s n o t e v iden t .

W2/3 : F ig . 9 3 . O u te r f a ce : T he f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s w a l l , w h ich c on t inue s t o ar o ck o u tc rop , h a s aw e l l c ons t ruc ted f a c ing o f c our sed f i e lds tone s w i th t h e i r f l a t tened s i de p la ced o u twa rd . T hey a r e s epa ra ted b y t h r ee b and s o f b r ick , t h e l ow er d oub l e , t he u ppe r t wo t r ip le . T he b r ick s a r e n ew a nd b ea r t r ip le s t r ia t ions i n t h e f o rm o f ac r o s s o f S t . Andr ew . R ow s o f l a rg e c i r cu la r b eamho le s , n o t i mmed ia te ly a d ja cen t t o e a ch o ther , a r e v i s ib le b eh ind t h e u ppe r a nd b e low t h e m idd le b r ick b and . T he mo r ta r i sw h i te , w i th many i n c lus ions a mong w h ich a r e n ume rou s f r agmen t s o f b r ick . T he b a ck o f t h i s w a l l i s r o ugh , e v iden t ly h av ing b een b u i l t a ga in s t t h e i n ne r f a ce , h e r e n o t v i s ib le . T he n ex t p a r t o f t he w a l l , a l o ng i s o la ted f r agmen t , p r e s e rve s a lmo s t n o f a c ing , b u t i sr ema rkab l e f o r al o ng r ow o f r ound b eamho les a bou t 1 5 c m i n d iame t er s e t a d ja c en t t o e a ch o the r s omewha t a bove p r e s en t g round l e ve l . F ig . 8 9 . A bove i ti s ar ow o f t u fa b l o ck s , p e rhap s r e p r e s en t ing h eade rs o f t h e o r ig ina l f a ce . T he r e w a s a ppa r en t ly a s im i la r r ow o f b eamho les n ea r t he t op . I nne r f a ce : c l ea r ly v i s ib le i nc r o s s -s ec t ion w he re t h e w a l l h a s b een b roken a way , i t was f a ced w i th l o ca l f i e lds tone s a nd w a s 1 m50 o r mo r e t h i ck . T3 :

A ppa r en t ly as qua re t ow e r , p ro jec t ing a bou t 4 m f r om t he w a l l ; r a re t r a ce s o f f a c ing s how r e gu la r ly c our s ed f i e lds tone s , b ut mo s t o f t h e r ema ins c on s i s t o f ac o r e o fl a rge f i e lds tone s i nw h i te mo r ta r .

W3/4 : C o r r e sponds c l o s e ly w i th W2/3 ; s ame f a c ing a nd mo r ta r w i th t wo t r ip le b r i ck b ands a nd e x ten s ive b eamho le s b e low t h e u ppe r b and . T he wa l l t ake s a dvan tag e o f as ha rp r o ck p ro jec t ion b y u s ing i ta s ab as e a nd c on t inu i n g o ve r i t . T4 :

O u te r f a ce : Mo s t o f t h i s t owe r , w h ich i sb u i l t a d ja cen t t o ar o ck f a ce , h a s c o l l a p sed , l e av ing ag ood d ea l o f c o r e e xpo s ed , w i th as ma l l t r a ce o f f a c ing v i s ib le o n t he s ou thwe s t . T he f a ce s how s t h e u sua l c our s ed f i e lds tone s w i th t wo b ands o f 4b r icks . T he c o r e i so f r ubb le s e t i nw h i te mo r ta r a nd c on ta ins ag ood many r ough ly s qua r ed t u fa b l ocks i nt h e l owe r s e c t i on ; t h e s e a ppea r n o t t o b e p a r t o f t h e f a ce , b u t mo re p robab ly s t one s l e f t o ver o r d amag ed d ur ing c ons t ruc t ion . I nne r f a ce : p r e se rved b eh ind t h e s urv iv ing t owe r , a nd c ons t ruc ted w i th af a c ing o f f l a t tened g ran i te b l o cks w i th l a rg e g a p s wh ich were p ro b ab ly f i l l ed wi th mo r ta r . T he s e w e r e s e t i n ac r umb ly g r ey mo r ta r . B eh ind , a t a h i ghe r l e ve l a nd a q u i te d if e ren t a ng le , i s af a ce o f s im i la r g ran i t e b l o cks w i th ab and o f 4b r icks . I t s r e la t ion w i th t h e w a l l i sn o t c l ea r ; i t may r e p re sen t p a r t o f ab u i ld ing w i th in t h e c i rcu i t r a th er t han a n e x tens ion o f t h e d e f ence s .

W4/5 :

T5 :

T h i s c ons i s t s o f p rec ip i tous r o cks a l ong t h e n a r row w e s tern s i de o f t he f o r t , w i th t r a ce s o f mo r ta r ed r ubb le o ve r t h em , a nd o ne s ho r t s t r e tch o f f a ce o f t h e i n ne r w a l l . S urv ive s o n ly a s at r a ce o fc o r e w i th w h i te m o r ta r .

W5/6 : Two c l ea r s t re tches , s epa ra ted b y ag u l ly . T he f i r s t s e c t ion i so f n ea t ly c our s ed f i e lds tone s a nd s ome b roken b r i ck i n w h i te mo r ta r , w i th n o b r ick b ands o r b eamho le s e v iden t . B eyond i t , t h is o u te r f a ce , w ho s e r ema ins a r e p r es e rved a t t h e b ase i n t h e ir u sua l w h i te m o r ta r , h a s mo s t ly d i sappea red , l e av ing t h e i n ne r f a ce c l ea r ly v i s ib le f o r t he o n ly

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t ime . I t c ons i s t s o f c ou r s ed f i e ld s tone s w i th o cca s iona l f r agmen t s o f b r ick a nd f l a t s t ones u s ed i n c our s ing ; t h e mo r ta r i sh a rd , w h i t i sh t o o rang e , w i th s ma l l i n c lu s ions b u t a ppa ren t ly n o b r ick . T6 :

P ro jec t ing r e c tangu la r t owe r , p oo r ly p r es e rved , w i th f a c ing a nd mo r ta r a s t h e o u ter w a l l .

W6/7 : We l l -p re se rved l o ng s e c t ion o f t yp ica l o u te r f a ce , i d en t i ca l w i th t h e f i r s t s e c t i on o f W5/6 ; p a r ts o f t h e i n ne r f a ce h e re v i s ib le a r e v e ry r ough , w i th s ome b rok en b r ick i nt h e m asonry . T7 :

L ump o fc o re o n ly ; f o l low ing w a l l g one .

T8 :

Appa ren t ly a s qua r e t owe r , f a c ing m i s s ing , b u t s how s t r a ce s o f ab and o f 3 b r ick s , a nd a r ow o f l a rg e c l o s e s e t b eamho l e s i n t h e l owe r p a r t , a l l i n t he u sua l w h i te mo r ta r .

W8/G : F a c ing o f c our s ed f i e lds tones w i th a b and o f t h r ee b r icks i n t h e l owe r p a r t a nd a no the r , p e rhap s s i ng le , a bove . I mmed ia te ly b e low t h e f i r s t b r ick b and i s ar ow o f l a rge r ound b eamho le s w h ich w ou ld h ave b een c on c ea led b y t h e f a c ing . Bu i ld ings w ith in t he wa l ls : I n a dd i t ion t o t h e e n igma t i c a nd f r agmen ta ry s t ruc tur e b eh ind T 4 , t h e r e i s ar e c tangu la r c i s te rn , 7x 1 0 m e t re s , i mmed ia te ly b eh ind W8/C ; i ti s mo s t ly f i l led w i th d eb r i s . We s t o f i t , a t ah i gh l e ve l a bou t 4 0m b eh ind t he g a te , a r e t r a ce s o f w ha t a ppea r s t o h ave b een a l a rge a r t if i c ia l p l a t fo rm . Ag r ea t d ea l o f mo r ta r a nd r ubb le a r e v i s ib l e , b ut n o s t ruc tu re c ou ld b e d i s ce rned .

Date a nd Funct ion

The s ma l l i n a cc e s s ib le f o r t r es s o f K ays e r K a l e s how s c l ea r a nd c ons i s ten t e v i d enc e o f t wo p e r iods o fc ons t ruc t ion . I n t h e f i r s t , t h e h i l l top w a s s ur rounded b y aw a l l o f n a t ive g ran i te , w i th f i e lds tone s a r rang ed i n r ough c our s e s a nd s e t i n ag r ey mo r ta r w i th s ma l l i n c lus ions a mong w h ich b r ick u sua l ly d o e s n o t a ppea r . T h i s w a l l w a s a t l e a s t 1 m50 t h ick a nd c on ta ined f ew t ow er s ; t h e o n ly o ne w ho s e e x i s tence c ou ld b e d e t e rm ined w i th c e r ta in ty s t ood a d ja cen t t o t h e g a te a nd w a s a bou t 6 m i n d iame te r . S ub s equent ly , t h i s c i r cu i t w as c omp l e t e ly e nc lo s ed i n a much mo re e l abo ra te f o r t if i ca t ion , b u i l t d i rec t ly a ga ins t t he e a r l ie r w a l l s . T he re i sn o i n d ica t ion t ha t t h e f i r s t w a l l w a s r u ined a t t ha t t ime . T he n ew w a l l s w e r e i n con s i s t en t i ns t y le , w i th t h e s e c t ions t owa rd t he a pp roa ch a nd a l ong t h e s ou th s i de much mo re s ub s tan t ia l ly b u i l t t han t he r e s t . T he t ow e r b y t h e g a te a nd t h e a d ja cen t w a l l 1 /2 h ad at h ick f a c ing o f 2 3 m etres w h ich d i sp layed ar ema rkab ly c a re fu l a nd a e s the t i c m e thod o fc ons truc t ion , w i th s qua re -cu t l ime s tone b l o cks , e v iden t ly made f o r t h e p urpo s e , a r ranged i nr e gu la r r ow s o f h eade r s a nd s t r e tcher s . T he s e w e r e i n te r rup ted b y b ands o f c a re fu l ly l a id n ew b r i cks a nd c oncea l ed r ows o f w ooden b eams w h ich f o rmed p a r t o f a n e x tens ive s y s tem o f c r ibwo rk . T h i s m a son ry i s d i s t ingu i shed b y t wo f e a tur e s : t h e u ncha ra c te r i s t i c a b s ence o f r e us ed ma t e r ia l , a nd t h e e l abo ra te s y s tem o f b ond ing . H eade rs , b r ick b ands a nd c r ibwo rk c omb ine t o p rov ide a b ond o f g r ea t s t r eng th b e tween f a ce a nd c o r e a t ap o in t w he r e t h e s t eep a nd h i gh ly f r iab le s l opes o f t h e h i l l w ou ld h ave p r e s ented a d ange rous s i tua t ion : w a l l s c ons t ruc ted t h e r e c ou ld e a s i ly c o l lap se o r b e u nd erm ined . T he r e su l t s w e re e v iden t ly s ucce s s fu l , f o r s ome o f t h e f a c ing h a s r e s i s ted t h e c ha l leng es o f n a tu r e a nd , e ven w he re i th as s hea r ed a way , ag ood many h eade r s r ema in e mbedded i n t h e c o r e . B ecaus e o f t h e b ond ing , m o s t o f t h e c o r e i s s t i l l p r e s e rved , i n c lud ing s e c t ions a l ong e spec ia l ly s l ippe ry s l ope s .

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T he r e s t o f t h e ma sonry o f t h i s p e r iod was s imp le r , w i th a f a c ing o f c ou r s ed f i e ld s tone s . I n mo s t p l a ces , t h is , t oo , h ad ab ond ing o fb r i ck b ands a nd c r ibwo rk , w i th e x tens ive r ow s o f l a rg e b eams l a id c l o s e ly s i de b y s i de . T hes e c ha ra c t e r i s t ics , a l ong w i th t h e c ons i s ten t u s e o f w h i te mo r ta r , s how t ha t t h e w ho le o uter c i r cu i t i so f o ne p e r iod . O n t h e w es t a nd n o r th , t h e w a l l s w e r e b u i l t w i th l e s s c a re , b ecau s e t hey c ou ld t ake a dvan tage o f t h e r o ck o u tc ropp ing s a nd p r ec ip i tou s s l ope s w h ich w ou ld h ave r e n d e red a t ta ck f r om t h es e d i r ec t ions e x t r eme ly u n l ike ly . C hrono logy o f t he s e t wo p e r iods i sd if i cu l t t o e s tab l i sh . T he f o r t r e ss a pp ea r s n o t t o b e m en t ioned i n h i s to ry , n o r d o e s i tc on ta in a ny d i re c t e v iden c e f o r d a t ing , s uch a s i n s c r ip t ions . P o t te ry f o und w i th in t h e c i r cu i t c ons i s ted mos t ly o fc oa r se r e d c ook ing w a r e , a nd a n o ccas iona l p i ece w i th a g r een l e ad g l a ze . T her e w as a l so o n e f r agmen t w h ich a ppea r ed t o b e long t o af r es co ( t h i s w as t aken t o t h e museum i n K i i tahya ) , a s w e l l a s many p i ece s o f b roken g l as s o f i n de te rm ina t e d a te . T he mason ry o f t he s e cond p e r iod o f e r s d i s t inc t ive c ha ra c te r i s t ic s w h ich s hou ld i nd ica te a c hrono l o gy . I t s u se o f g ood a sh la r w i th b ands o f b r i ck m igh t a t f i r s t s ugges t ad a te i n L a t e A n t iqu i ty , b y a na logy w i th t h e w a l l s o f C ons tant inop l e o r A n t ioch . H i s tor ica l c i r c um s tance s , h ow eve r , make s uch a n e a r ly p e r iod u n l ike ly f o r t h i s r emo t e h i l ltop f o r t r es s , w h ich w ou ld h a rd ly s e em n ece s sa ry i n t ha t l o ng p e r iod o f p ea ce f o r t he i n te r io r o f A s ia M ino r . L ikew i s e , t h e p r e s ence o f a n e a r l ie r w a l l p r ec ludes a n e a r ly d a te . I t s c ha ra c te r , h oweve r u nd i s t ingu i shed , c e r ta in ly i n d ica t es a B yzan t ine o r ig in b y t he u s e o f ar ough f a c ing o ve r a mo r ta r ed r ubb le c o r e , w i th b roken b r ick a nd o c ca s iona l b r i ck b ands . T he o u te r f a ce mus t t h e r e fo r e b e l a te r , a nd m ed ieva l . S uch b anded m asonry o ccur s p r ima r i ly i n t wo p e r iods , t he n in th c e ntury a nd t he a g e o f t h e C omnen i . A na logy may b e s ought i n t h e n ea rby wa l l s o f Kütahya , w h ich w ou ld n o d oub t h ave p rov ided a mode l f o r t h i s f o r t r es s . 7 The r e , w a l ls o f t h e n i nth c en tu ry d i sp lay a f i ne a r rang emen t o f s qua re -cu t s po i l s a nd b and s o fb r ick , b u t c ommon ly e mp loy r e u s ed ma te r ia l , s o t ha t t h ey a r e r a r e ly a s f i ne a s t h e b e s t p a r t s o f t h i s f o r t . T he c l o s es t a na logy a pp ea r s i nt h e l a te B y zan t ine w a l l s , T 35 a nd t he L ow e r C i ty Wa l l , w h i ch make u s e o f a n e x cep t iona l ly r e gu la r f a c ing w i th s qua r e c ut b lo ck s a nd n ew b r icks . T hey d o n o t , h oweve r , c on ta in a s y s tem o f h eaders a nd s t retch e r s . T he c ho ice b e tween t h e d a te s s ugge s ted b y t h e s e t wo t ypes o f m asonry i sd if i cu l t , b u t a i ded b y t he u s e h e re o f c r ibwo rk . A t K i i tahya , t h i s r a re ly a ppea r s i n t h e f i r s t p e r iod o f t he w a l l s , b u t i sc ommon i nP e r iod I , w h ich i sa s s igned t o t h e C omn en i . The l i n e w a l l s o f t h e l a s t p e r iod u s e ar ema rkab le s y s tem o f g r ea t s qua re l o g s i nc r ibwork , b u t n owhe r e i n t h e B yzan t ine w a l l s d o es t h e p r es en t s y s tem o f c l o s e ly s e t p a ra l le l b eam s a ppea r . S uch a n a r rangemen t o f b eam s , h oweve r , i su s ed a t K a lec ik ( Ma lo s ) n o r th o f A nka ra , a nd i ns ome c a s t l es o f t h e P on tus , n o tab ly a tN eo ca esa r ea . The r e l evant w a l l s may b e d a ted t o t h e B yzan t ine p e r iod , p e rhap s t o t h e t e n th o r e l even th c entur ie s .8 U s e o f c r ibwo rk t hus s e ems t o i n d ica te a l a te r r a the r t han a n e a r l ier d a t e a nd , w h en c omb ined w i th t h e e v idence o f t he m asonry , w ou ld s ugg e s t t ha t t he o u te r f a ce i st o b e a t t r ibu ted t o t h e C omnen i , p e rhap s t o t h e r e ign o f Manue l ( 1 143 -1180 ) . H e made e very e fo r t t o d e f end h i s l a nds a ga ins t t h e T urks a nd was e spec ia l ly c once rned w i th t he p ro tec t ion a nd o rgan isa t ion o f f r on t ie r a r eas s uch a s t h e d i s tr ic t i nw h ich Kay s e r Ka le l i es . T hes e w a l l s , i n a ny c a s e , r e p r es en t t h e r e su l t o f ac ons ide rab l e e fo r t : t h e t u fa b l o cks o f t h e f a c ing a r e n o t n a t ive t o t h e h i l l b u t h ad t o b e b rough t f r om a c on s i de rab le d i s tance a nd c a r e fu l ly c u t t o f i t i n to a n a sh la r o f h eade r s a nd s t r e tchers , a nd b r icks h ad t o b e made . U n l ike K i i tahya , t h i s c a s t le d i d n o t h ave o ld ma t e r ia l o f s u i t a b le q ua l i ty a va i lab le o n t h e s i te s imp ly t o b e i n co rpo ra ted i n t he n ew w a l ls . S uch e fo r t a nd e xpens e s ugg e s t t h e i n vo lvemen t o f t h e i mpe r ia l g overnmen t , p erhap s a s p a r t o f aw ide r p rog ram o f d e f ence , a nd t ha t t h e s i te was c ons idered t o b e o f s om e i mpo r tance . I ft h e o u te r f a ce i so f t h e t we l f th c en tury , t h e i n ne r c ou ld i n t h eo ry b e long t o a ny t ime i n t h e p r ev ious h a l f m i l lenn ium . Whe r e t h e f a c ing i s v i s ib l e , t h is w a l l 7 .

S ee a bove , 8 0 -83.

8 .

These wa l ls h ave n ot b een s tud ied i n d eta i l : s ee F rench e t a l . ( 1 972 ) 9 3 -95 a nd D . Winf ie ld i n F os s a nd Winf ie ld ( 1985 ) p t .1 , c . 3 .

9 2

r ep r e sents a n u nd i s t ingu i shed s t y le , o f c our s ed r ubb le made f r om t h e l o ca l g ran i te . I t s l a ck o f e v iden t d iagno s t i c f e a tu re s make d a t ing d if i cu l t , b u t s e em t o p o in t t o t h e D a rk A ges , w hen w a l l s o fv a r iou s k inds w e re c on s t ruc ted . Mo s t o f t he s e h ave ar e gu l a r f a c ing o f s po i l s , b u t s i nce n o r e usab le ma te r ia l w ou ld h ave b een a va i lab le h e re , a s imp le r s ty le m igh t h av e b een e mp loyed . L ikew i se , ad a te i n t h e n i n th c en tury , w hen many f o r tre s se s w e re b u i l t i nA s ia M ino r , w ou ld s e em p r ec luded , s i nce t ho s e w a l l s n o r ma l ly make u se o f b and s o f b r i ck , a s may c l ea r ly b e s e en a t K ü tahya . O n t h e o the r h and , t he mo s t i mpo r tant p a r t o f t h i s w a l l , t h e s e c t ion n ea r t he e n t rance , i sc om p l e te ly c oncea led b y l a te r c ons t ruc t ion , a nd may w e l l h ave p re s en ted a d if e ren t a ppea rance f r om t he r e s t , j u s t a s t he l a te r f a ce i se l abo ra te i n t ha t s e c t ion , b u t r e la t i ve ly s imp le e l s ewhe re . Ma son ry , t h er e fo r e , i sn o t d ec i s ive , t hough i t s e v idence m igh t i n c l ine t owa rd t he D a rk A g es . H i s to r ica l c i r cums tance s , h ow eve r , w i l l b e s e en a s s up p o r t ing ad a te i nt he n i n th c en tu ry . A t f i r s t s i gh t , i ti sn o t e a sy t o u nde r s tand w hy ac a s t le s hou ld b e b u i l t h e r e a t a l l . I tc ommand s o n ly an a r row v a l ley , u nsu i tab le f o r s e t t lemen t o n al a rg e s ca le a nd i sa n h our o r mo re d i s tant ( by f o o t ) f r om t h e n ea r e s t a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd . I ts t ands i na s o r t o f c u l -de -sa c w i th ah i gh w a l l o f moun ta ins a round i ti na n a r c f r om t h e n o r theas t t o t h e s ou th . T he c a s t l e i sv e ry s ma l l a nd d if i cu l t o f a c ces s ; e ven w i th t h e p aved r oad w ho s e t ra ce s w e f ound , t h e c l imb w ou ld h ave b een l o ng a nd s t eep . T he s e f a c to r s s ug g e s t t ha t Kayse r K a le w as b u i l t n e i the r t o p ro tec t ar oad f o r i tl i es o n n o c onven ien t r ou te n o r t o p rov ide r e fuge f o r l o ca l p opu la t ions i n t ime o f a t ta ck s i nce i ti ss ma l l a nd r emo te f r om l a rg e o r n ume rous s e t t l emen t s . F o r s im i la r r e a sons , i tw ou ld s e em h i gh ly u nsu i ted a s am i l i ta ry b ase f o r t h ema t ic o r o the r t r oop s , s i nce a g a r r ison h e r e ( e ven i ft he s i te c ou ld a c commoda te i t ) w ou ld b e i n ap oo r l o ca t ion f o r a t ta ck o r d e f ence . A s Iw as p onde r ing t h e e n igma o f t h is f o r t r es s , l o ok ing o f a t t h e magn if i cen t v i ew f r om t h e h i l l top , t h e l a nd s cape i t s e l f s ugge s ted a s o lu t ion . T he v i ew f r om t h i s s t eep a nd r emo te h i l l i sh i gh ly i mp re s s ive . T he s udden d rop o f t h e s l opes p roduces a v i s ta s o e x tens ive t ha t o ne a lmo s t s e ems i s o la ted i n m ida i r . T he p ano rama o pens u p i n a l l d i rec t ions e x cep t t h e e a s t , w he r e i ti sb l o cked b y ac r es cent o f f o r e s ted h i l l s , a l l a s h i gh o r h i ghe r t han Kays e r K a le . E l s ewhe r e , t h e re i s much t o s e e . O n t he n o r th , t h e v i ew e x tends p as t t h e w ooded h i l l s o ppo s i te t o as e r ie s o f r i dge s a nd t he e r oded c l if s o f t he b anks o f t h e P o r suk . T hes e r i s e s c u lm ina te i nt h e h i gh r i dg e o f Ka ra cah i s a r , w h ich s h ie lds E sk ieh i r f r om s i gh t . O n t he h o r izon , a bou t 5 0 km a way , r i s es t h e l o ng r ange o f t he B ozdala r , w h ich c ove r s t he s ou the rn s i de o f t h e S anga r ius v a l ley . T o t he n o r thwe s t , b eyond I n c ik a nd t h e a r t if i c ia l l a ke o ft he P o r suk d am , d ry h i l l s r i s e c ons tant ly t owa rd t h e f o o th i l l s o f t h e Mys ian O lympus , w h i le a s e em ing ly e nd le s s s e r i es o f r i dg es a nd m oun ta ins w i thout a ny c l ea r r e f e r ence p o in t s o r l a rg e s e t t lemen t s ma rks t he b roken c oun t ry o n t h e w e s t . T he v i ew t o t he s ou thwe s t s how s l ow r i dg e s w i th m ixed w oods a nd a g r icu l tu re b e fo r e t h e p l a in o f K i i tahya , w i th t h e c i ty a nd i t s a c ropo l i s c l ea r ly v i s ib l e a t t h e b as e o f h i gh moun ta ins a t ad i s tance o f a bou t 2 5 km . T he v i ew d ue s ou th , l i ke t ha t t o t he e a s t , i sb l o cked b y h i gh w ooded r i dg es w h i ch ma rk t he e dge o f t h e g r ea t c en t ra l p l a teau . Al i t t le r e f l ec t ion o n t h i s p ano rama s ugg e s ted t h e f unc t ion o f t h e c a s t le . I tw a s b u i l t o n a n i s o la ted h i l l top mo s t s u i tab le f o r i t s v i ew , a nd t ha t v i ew i n c luded t wo B yzant ine c as t le s , a t K a ra cah i sa r a bove t h e v a l ley o f t h e P o r suk , a nd a t K i itahya . C l ea r ly , t he p la ce w ou ld h ave b e en i d ea l a s as t a t ion f o r r e ce iv ing a nd t r ansm i t t ing s i gna l s b y b ea con f i r e s , a s as t ag e i n r ap id c ommun ica t ions a c ro s s aw ide s t re t ch o f o the rw i se r ough a nd b roken c oun t ry . S uch a f unc t ion w ou ld e xp la in t h e l o ca t ion n o t o f much u se f o r a nyth ing e l s e a nd t h e s ma l l s i ze o ft h e f o r t . T he m ound o fb ro k en masonry w i th in t h e w a l l s w ou ld t h en b e t h e p l a t fo rm o n w h ich t h e b ea con was l i t , a nd t he s i te f o r aw a t ch towe r . A l though i t s r ema ins w e re n ow s hape le s s , i t s s i ze a nd l o ca t ion s e emed s u i tab le f o r s uch as t ruc tu re . A s y s tem o f b ea cons w as i n w ide sp r ead u s e i n t h e B yzant ine p e r iod , t he m o s t f amous e xamp le b e ing t h e n e two rk w h i ch l i nked t h e C i l ic ian G a te s o n t h e f r on t ie r w i th t he c ap i ta l . B y m eans o f n i ne s t a t ions o n h i gh i s o la ted h i l ls w i th c l ea r v i ew s o ve r t he i n te rven ing c oun t ry , am e s sag e c ou ld b e f l ashed a c ro s s A s ia M ino r i na n h our . -

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9 3

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Wha teve r t he a ccu ra cy o f t h i s f i gu re o r t h e d e ta i l s o f t he o pera t ion ( wh ich i n vo lv ed s ome k ind o f s ynch ron i sed c l o ck s ) , t he re i sn o d oub t t ha t t h e s ys tem w a s e s tab l i shed b y T heoph i lus ( 8 29 -842 ) a nd w a s mod if i ed i ns om e w ay b y h i s s ucces so r , M i cha e l 1 .9 S ou rce s g i ve t he n ames o f t h e s t a t ions w he r e t he b ea cons w e re l o ca t ed , s o t ha t t h e i r g ene ra l l i ne may b e f o l low ed , b u t t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f s eve ra l i ss t i l l i nd oub t . B a s i c a l ly , t he c ha in r an f r om L u lon o n t h e f r on t ie r t o af o r t o n t h e s l ope s o f Mt . A rgo s o r A rga eus , t he mode rn H asan D ag i n C appado c ia , a nd f r om t h e re t o p l a ce s w h ich w e r e p robab ly w e s t o f t he S a l t L ake , o n t h e s l ope s o fM t . D indymus , a nd i nt h e n e ighbou r h ood o f D o ry la eum . T hes e c onnec ted w i th s t a t ion s i nB i thyn ia a nd o n t he P ropon t i s t o l e ad t h e s i gna l t o t h e c ap i ta l . '° K ays er Ka le , o f c our se , d oe s n o t l i e o n t h i s l i ne , n o r w ou ld i tb e as u i tab l e l o ca t ion f o r ab ea con d es t ined t o c ommun ica te b e tw een t h e f r ont ier a nd t he c ap i ta l . O the r l i ne s , h oweve r , w e re i nu s e , a nd t h e v a lue o fb ea cons w h ich c ou ld p as s t h e n ew s o f a n i n va s ion t o ma jo r p rov inc ia l m i l i ta ry b a s e s i so bv ious . S ource s o ft h e t e n th c e n t u ry r e co rd t h e e x i s tence o f b o th B yzan t ine a nd A rab c ha ins o f b ea cons a l ong t h e f r on t ie r s , a nd t he re i s n o r ea so n t o s uppo s e t ha t t he s e w e re t he o n l y o nes wh ich e x i s ted .' 1 O ne o f t h e b ea cons o n t h e l i ne t o t h e c ap i ta l i ss uppo s ed t o h ave b e en s i tua ted n ea r D o ry la eum . T he mo s t s u i tab le l o ca t ion f o r t ha t w ou ld h ave b een t h e h i gh h i l l o f Ka ra cah i sa r w h i ch d om ina te s t h e p l a in w he re t h e c i ty i s( f o r ab ea con ) i n conven ien t ly l o ca ted . T he s i te c onta ins r ema in s o f aB yzant ine f o r t if ica t ion , n ow c ompr is ed w i th in a r ada r b a se s o t ha t p o s s ib l e r ema ins o f ab ea con s t a t ion o r o f w a l l s o f a n a pprop r ia te p e r iod c anno t b e i n ve s t iga t ed .1 2 P ub l i shed p ho tog raphs a nd d e sc r ip t ions s ugg es t t ha t t h e f o r t r es s i so f C omnen ian d a te , p e rhap s b u i l t b y Manue l i n h i s e fo r t s t o s t reng then t h e f r on t ie r . T h i s h i l l i si nf u l l v i ew o f K ay s e r Ka le , w h i ch t hu s w ou ld s t and i n a n e xce l len t s i tua t ion f o r c ommun ica t ions w i th t h e e a s te rn f r on t i e r o r t he c ap i ta l w hen t ha t l i ne o f b ea con s w as i nu s e . S im i la r ly , i ti si d ea l ly s u i t ed f o r p as s ing m es sag e s o n t o K i i tahya w h ich w a s a n i mpo r tant m i l i ta ry b ase i n t h e n i n th c en tury a nd t h e p l a ce e s s en t ia l f o r t h e d e f enc e o f aw ho l e r eg ion . I tt hus s e ems e x t reme ly p robab le t ha t t h e f u nc t ion o f Kayse r K a l e w as t ha t o f ab ea con s t a t ion , t o c ommun ica te b e twe en K i itahya a nd t h e ma in c ha in o f b ea con s . I n t ha t c a se , t he e a r l i e r s t ag e o f t h e f o r t r es s may b e a t t r ibu ted t o t h e n i nth c en tu ry , w hen t he s y s tem o f b ea cons w as e s tab l i shed a nd i n f u l l u s e . T he l a te r w a l l s r i s e a p o s s ib i l i ty w h ich s e em n o t t o h ave b een c ons id e red b ecaus e o f t h e s i l ence o f t h e s ou rce s . S ince t he h i l l top f o r t r es s h a s n o o ther o bv ious f unc t ion , i ti sr e asonab l e t o s uppo s e t ha t i tc on t inued t o b e ab ea con s t a t ion w hen i tw a s r ebu i l t , p robab ly i nt h e t we l f th c en tury . I ti st h e r e fo re u n l ike ly t o b e ac o inc idence t ha t t he w a l l s a r e c on t em p o ra ry w i th a r ebu i ld ing o f K i i tahya a nd , a ppa r en t ly , w i th t h e r ema in s o f Ka ra cah i s a r . A l l t h ree c ou ld b e s e en a s s t a t ions i n as y s tem o f b ea cons i n s ta l l ed b y Manue l t o g i ve a dded p ro tec t ion t o t h e f r on t ie r s a t at ime o f i n ces san t T urk i sh a t ta cks . C on s i de ra t ion o f s uch a p o s s ib i l i ty w hen o the r f o r t r es s e s a r e v i s i ted o r s t ud ied m igh t e nab le a s ub s tan t ia l s e c t ion o f s uch a n e two rk t o b e r e cons t ruc ted . F o r t he momen t , h owever , i tw i l l s uf i ce t o h ave s ugg es ted a d a te a nd f unc t ion f o r t h i s c a s t le , a nd t o r a i s e a s so c ia ted q ue s t ions w h i ch i t s r ema ins m igh t p r e sen t .

9 .

F or a d eta i led d i scuss ion o f t he s yste m a nd t he p rob le ms i tp resent s , s e e P attenden ( 1983 ) -

1 0 . I n a dd it ion t o t he work c i ted i n t he p rev ious n ote , s ee Ramsay ( 1890 ) 3 52f , 1 87 , 2 0 ; T IB 2 . 135 -137

8v .

a l -Aghrab ;

T IB 4 .180 , 1 86 , 1 17f ( s ta t ions i n L ycaon ia a nd Ga la t ia ) . 1 . F or t hose s ee , Pa ttenden ( 1983 ) 2 66 , 2 70 , w ith r e f erences t o s ources . 1 2 . S ee t he v i ews i n MA MA V , p lates 4 a nd 5 a nd B itte l ( 1 942 ) c f . t he d escr ipt ions o f Körte ( 1895 ) 1 4f . a nd ( 1897 ) 3 38f .

Is ha l l d i scuss t he s i te a nd i t s r ema ins i n t he c ontext o f t he g eography o f t he r i se o f t he O tto man Turks .

94

ALTINTA S

The h igh moun ta ins w h i ch r i s e d i rec t ly b eh ind K ü tahya s epa ra te t h e c i ty a nd i t s p la in f r om t he b roade r p l a in o f t he U ppe r T emb r i s , w h i ch l i e s t o t he s ou th . T h i s p l a in , wh ich l i es a t ah e igh t o f 1 000 m e t re s o r mo re , i sr i nged b y moun ta ins a nd s t r e tches s ome 4 0 km n o r thwe s t a nd s ou thea s t a l ong t h e r i ve r , a t ta in ing a w id th o f a bou t 2 0 km . I ti s ag en t ly r o l l ing c oun try w i th f ew t r ee s , e xcep t a l ong w a ter cour s es a nd a t s e t t lemen t s , b u t w e l l -wa te red a nd f e r t i le . I t p roduce s ag ood d ea l o f w hea t , b u t h as a n o tab ly h i gh w a te r t ab le man i f e s t i n t he p r e s ence o f n ume rous p onds ( s o t ha t g eese a r e c ommon i n t h e v i l lag e s ) ; t h e c oun t ry e a s i ly b ecome s w a te r logg ed a nd ma r shy . I n a n t iqu i ty , t h e p la in c on ta ined many v i l lag e s , b u t n o c i ty ; i tw a s c a l led P ra epen is sus , an ame w h ich s urv ived i n to t h e s i x th c entury , a nd f o rmed p a r t o f a n i mpe r ia l e s ta te . T he e a r ly g row th o fC h r i s t ian i ty i nt h e r e g ion p roduced ar ema rkab le s e r ie s o f monumen t s , C hr i s t ian e p i taphs o f t h e l a te t h i rd a nd e a r ly f ou r th c en tur i es w h i ch h ave l o ng a t t ra c ted t he a t ten t ion o fs cho la r s . I n t h e M idd le A ge s , i ta ppea r s t o h ave b een d i v ided b e tween t h ree b i shop r ics , n one o f w h ich h ave b een l o ca ted . S i nce t h en , i t s ma in c en t re h as b een a tA l t in ta, ap l a ce w ho s e i mpo r tance d e r ived f r om t h e c a ravan r oute o n w h ich i tf o rmed a s t op ; i ti sm en t ioned i n t h e a c coun t s o f t h e c am p a igns o f T ame r lane , a nd b y mo s t t r ave l le r s t h rough t h e n i ne t een th c en tury . R ecent ly , h owever , t h e a dm in i s t ra t ive c en t re h as b een moved a bou t 5 km t o t h e n o r thwes t t o t he f o rm e r v i l lag e o f K i i rd K öy ,wh ich i sn ow c a l led b y t h e n ame o f t h e o l d c ent re , A l t inta. T o c ompound t h e c onfus ion , t h e f o rme r c en t r e s t i l l b ea r s i t s o l d n ame , a nd i s n ow d i s t ingu i shed f r om t he c oun ty s ea t b y b e ing c a l led A l t in ta v i l l a g e .1 3 A l t in ta, a t h r iv ing ma rke t t own o f a bou t 3 000 i n hab i tan t s , s e ems n o t t o h ave b een t he s i te o f a n a n c ien t s e t t l emen t o f a ny s i ze ; t h e n o tab le l a ck o f s po i l s s ugg es t s t ha t t he p la ce h ad f a r l e s s s i gn if i cance t han A l t in ta§ v i l lag e , t h e a nc ien t S oa , w h i ch h as p roduced s evera l i n s c r ip t ions a nd o the r d eb r i s o f a n t iqu i ty . A l t in ta t own , h ow e ve r , d id c on ta in o ne s i te o f u t i l i ty t o t h e R omans , al a rg e q ua r ry o f ' Do c imean ' ma r b l e w h ich i ss t i l l c l ea r ly v i s ib le o n t h e s ou thea s t , w he re e x tens ive c u t t ing s a ppea r i n t h e f i e lds b eh ind t h e h ous es ; t h ey c on ta in s e ve ra l h ug e u nf lu ted c o lumns a nd o the r h a l f -f in i shed b lo cks . F ig . 1 01 . P e r ro t m easu r ed o ne o ft h e c o lumn s i n1 861 a nd f ound t ha t i tw a s 5m90 l o ng a nd 1 m20 t h ick . I n 1 924 , B uck l e r , C a lde r a nd C ox d e term ined t ha t t he p i eces t hen ( a nd n ow ) v i s ib le h ad b een r e jec ted , a nd t ha t t h e q ua r ry wa s a n i mper ia l e s tab l ishmen t i nu s e i nt he l a te f i r s t a nd e a r ly s e cond c en tu r ie s .' 4 O the rw i s e , A l t inta§ s e ems t o o f e r l i t t le i n te r es t . A l though t h e t own i sv i r tua l ly u nknown t o h i s to ry , i ti sm en t ioned o nce i n a s i gn if ican t c ontex t . T he l o ng i n s c r ip t ion w h i ch Y akub I o f G e rm iyan s e t u p i n K i i tahya i n 1 411 l i s t s t h e c onque s t s o f h i s a nce s to r s . Among t h em i sK u r t K öy , w h i ch Y akub I( 1 300 -1340 ) b ough t f r om t he ' s ons o f K ur t ' . i tw ou ld t hus a ppea r t ha t t h e p l a ce wa s t he c en t r e o f a n i n dep enden t d i s t r i c t f o r at ime i nt h e e a r ly f o ur teen th c en t u ry . We f ound n o th ing t os uppo r t o r r e fu te s uch an o t ion .1 5 A l t in ta§ l i e s a t t h e f oo t o f al a rg e , i s o la ted a nd r e la t ive ly s t eep h i l l w h ich a t f i r s t s i gh t a ppea r s t o b e b a r ren a nd q u i te u s e les s . When D av id F r ench a nd Iw e re d r iv ing t h rough t h i s c oun t ry i n 1 982 , w e l o oked u p a t t h e h i l l a nd n o t iced t ha t i t s e emed t o c on ta in t r a ce s o f ar i ng -wa l l , p e rhaps a n I r on A g e f o r t if i ca t ion . We s t opped , made t he c l imb , a nd d i s cove red as u rp r i s ing q uan t i ty o f r ema ins . A s i tt u rns o u t , t hey w er e n o t a l toge ther u nknown . P e r ro t r e po r ted t ha t ' Ku rd K eu i e s t u n p e t i t v i l lage n o rd -oue s t d 'A l t in ta ch . . . S ur l a h au teu r q u i d om ine l ev i l lag e s e t r ouvent l e s 1 3 . F or t he h i stor ica l g eography a nd d escr ipt ion o f t he r eg ion , s ee Anderson ( 1906 ) 1 85 -193 ; c f . G ibson ( 1978 ) f o r g eography a nd i n scr ipt ions . 1 4 . P errot ( 1872 ) 1 27 ; B uck ler e t a l . ( 1928 ) 2 2f . 1 5 . Tal Vakf iye , s ec . 8i n U zunca rp i l i ( 1932 ) 8 0 , 8 3 ; c f . Va r l ik ( 1 974 ) 8 7 .

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r e s te s d ' un c ha teau b yzan t in ' . '6 H e d id n o t d e s c r ibe a nd a ppa r ent ly d i d n o t v i s i t t h e s i te , h i s a t ten t ion d rawn r a the r t o t he r ema ins o f t h e q ua r ry . T he c as t l e d oes a ppea r , h oweve r , o n t he T u rk i sh 1 : 200000 map s , w h ich w e re c omp i led a round 1 940 , a nd s hown a s h av ing a n a l t i tude o f 1 200 i n . T he w a l l s a nd r ema in s w i th in t hem t u rned o ut t o b e o fc ons ide rab le i n te r e s t a nd w o r th as urvey . T he s urvey o fA l t in ta§ f a ces a n i mmed ia te p rob lem , w h ich c an b e s urmoun ted o n ly i n p a r t : t h e w a l l s a nd t h e b u i ld ing s w i th in t h em , w i th o n ly a f ew p a r t ia l e x cep t i ons , h ave b een r obbed d own t o g round l e ve l , a nd s u rv ive o n ly a s p i l e s o f b roken s t one w h i ch r e vea l m e re ly t h e o u t l ine s o f s t ruc tu re s . W i th t he a i d o f a n a e r ia l p ho to g raph , i tw ou ld p robab ly b e e a sy t o d raw ac o r r ec t s i te p l an , b u t s uch i sn o t a va i lab l e , a nd w e h ad t o d o w ha t w e c ou ld f r om g round l e ve l . I n g ene ra l , t he f o r t if i ca t ion w a l l i sc l ea r e nough i no u t l ine , a s a r e ac oup le o f ma jo r s t ruc ture s . T he s ma l le r b u i ld ing s , h oweve r , a r e o f ten d if i cu l t t o d i s t ingu i sh , a nd i ns ome p l a ce s f o rm a h ope les s j umb l e f r om w h i ch w e c ou ld e x t ra c t l i t t le i n fo rma t ion . T he a c company ing p l an , t he re fo r e , s how s t h e b u i ld ing s w ho s e o ut l ine s s e emed r e asonab ly c e r ta in . B y s pend ing a c ons id e rab le t ime , a nd b e ing a b le t o c hoo s e t ime o f d ay a nd s ea son o f t he y ea r , i tm igh t b e p o s s ib le t o e x ecu te a mo re c omp le te p l an , b u t t h e i mag e w h ich i t w ou ld o f e r , w e b e l ieve , w ou ld n o t d if e r s ubs tan t ia l ly f r om t ha t w h i ch w e w er e a b le t o t r a ce . A t f i r s t s i gh t , t he w a l l s l o ok l i ke a m ean ing l es s h eap o f s tone s a round t h e w ho le h i l l top . F igs . 9 4 , 9 5 . F u r the r e xam ina t ion , h oweve r , r e vea led m any d e ta i l s , a l ong w i th t h e n a tu r e o f t he d e f ence s . T he w a l l s f o rmed ac omp le te c i r cu i t w i th s em i c i rcu la r t owe r s a t f r equen t i n te rva l s o f a bou t 2 5m ; i tw a s d oub led o n t h e w es t w he r e t h e ma in g a te a ppa ren t ly s t ood . N e i the r h e igh t n o r w id th c ou ld b e d e term ined : a l though o cca s iona l s e c t ions o f f a c ing w e r e v i s ib l e a t g round l e ve l , t h ey n ever c o in c i ded t o p rov ide a c r o s s s e c t ion . T he w a l l w a s b u i l t w i th a c o re o f r ubb le , i r regu la r p i ece s o f t he l ime s tone o f w h ich t h e h i l l i sc ompo s ed . I tw as a ppa ren t ly f a ced w i th l a rg e r b l o cks w ho s e o u te r f a ce w a s s moo thed . N ume rous f r agmen ts o f b r i ck f ound o n t h e s l ope s i mmed ia te ly b e low t he w a l l i n d ica te t ha t t h e f a c ing c on ta ined s ome b r i ck ; i t w a s a bs ent f r om t h e c o re . Ma s se s o f t i ny s t one s a nd b r i ck f r agments r e p r es ented t h e i n c lus ions o f t h e m o r ta r w h ich , i n t h e f ew p l a ce s w he r e i ts u rv ives , w a s c oa r se a nd w h i te , a ppa ren t ly q u i te f r iab le s i nce s o l i t t le o fi th a s c ohe red . T owe r s c ou ld b e r e cogn i sed b y g ap s i n t h e w a l l , w i th p i les o f r ubb le e x te 'd ing b e low t h em i n as em ic i rc l e ; t h e r ema ins i n d ica ted t ow e r s w h ich w ere b o th s em ic i r cu la r a nd h o r se sho e -shaped . A t o ne p o in t o n t h e s ou thea s t f a ce , t r a ces o f al a rg e c i r cu la r s t ruc tu re p ro jec ted o u twa rd a nd i nwa rd f r om t h e w a l l ; t h i s a ppea r s t o h ave b een a mo r e s i zab le t owe r w h ich u ncha ra c te r i s t ica l ly o ve r rode t h e w a l l i n b o th d i rec t ion s . D e f ence s o f p a r t o f t he w e s te rn f a ce , w he re t h e w a l l c hang e s d i rec t ion a nd f a ces a q u i te manag eab le s l ope , w e r e mo re c omp l ica ted , a nd p r es en ted f ea tu re s w h ich c ou ld n o t b e c omp le te ly i d en t if i ed . T h i s s e c t ion o f t h e c i r cu i t w a s d oub led a nd p r eceded o n t he n o r th b y as qua r e s t ruc tu re , e i the r at owe r o r ag a te . F ig . 9 7 . T he d oub le w a l l w a s d e f ended o n i t s n o r th s i de b y at owe r w h i ch p ro je c ted f a r ther t han t h e o ther s a nd a ppea red t o b e e l ip t ica l . T hr ee t owe r s s ucceeded , o ne e l ip t ica l , o ne s em i c ircu la r , a nd o ne U -shaped . T he f i r s t a nd t h i rd o f t h e s e a ppea r ed t oj o in i n ner a nd o u t er wa l l s i na s y s tem s im i la r t o t ha t o b s e rved i n t h e w e s t w a l l a t K i i tahya ; t he i n te rven ing t ow e r w as s e t b a ck . N o c e r ta in e n t rance c ou ld b e d i s cove r ed , b u t i ts e ems l i k e ly t ha t t h e ma in g a te w a s a d ja cen t t o t h e d oub le w a l l , p e rhap s t h rough t h e s qua r e s t ructu re , o r p o s s ib ly t h rough t h e l a rge r ound p ro jec t ion b e low . T he w a l l s c ou ld , o f c ourse , h ave h ad mo re t han o ne e n t rance . T he a r ea w i th in t h e w a l l s a ppea r s t o h av e b een a lmo s t c omp l e te ly c ove r ed w i th b u i ld ing s . F ig . 9 6 . S i nce t h e h i l l i sb a r r en , t h e o u t l ines o f many o f t hese c ou ld b e t r a ced . T hey f o rm t wo d i s t inc t ive s e c t ions : t h e u ppe r a nd b roade r p a r t o f t he h i l l , d om ina ted b y t wo l a rg e b u i ld ing s ; a nd a d ens e n e two rk o f s ma l ler s t ruc tures w h i ch c on t inue s d own t h e s l ope s a nd f i l l s a bou t t wo -th i rd s o f t h e w a l led a r ea . T he m o s t i mpo r tan t w a s ar e c tangu la r s t ruc tur e o f a bou t 1 5 b y 2 5 m e tres . F ig s . 9 9 , 1 00 . S ome p a r t s o f i t s w a l l s s t i l l s t and t o ah e igh t o f a bou t am e t re t o s how t ha t i tw a s 1 6 . P er rot ( 1872 ) 1 27 .

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b u i l t o f r ubb le f a ced w i th f l a t tened f i e lds tones a r rang ed i n r ough c ou r se s . A l l w as s e t i n ah a rd a nd g ra iny g r ey mo r ta r w i th many i n c lus ions ; b r ick w a s n owhe r e a ppa ren t . T he b u i ld ing c ons i s ted o f t wo ma in p a r t s : as o r t o f a mbu la to ry a bou t 3 m w ide w h ich r an e n t i re ly a round t h e i n s ide o f t he e x te rna l w a l l ; a nd a s e r ie s o f f ou r p a ra l l e l c hamber s w h i ch i te nc lo s ed . T he c hambe r s a r e s epa ra ted f r om e a ch o the r b y t h ick w a l l s a nd a ppea r n o t t o h ave o pened o n to t h e a mbu la to ry . S uch ap lan s ugg e s ts t ha t t he b u i ld ing may h ave b een a g rana ry o r p o s s ib ly a c i s te rn . A d ja cen t t o i to n t h e n o r th w as a no the r l a rg e b u i ld ing w h ich c ons i s ted o f al o ng r e c tangu la r c hambe r a bou t 2 0 b y 5m e t re s ; i t may h ave h ad as e r ie s o fs ma l l c hamber s a t ta ched t o i to n t h e w es t , w he r e s ugge s t ive p i le s o fr ubb le a l low n o c l ea r i n te rp re ta t ion . F ig . 9 8 . I t s f unc t ion i s n o t e v ident , b ut i t s o r ien ta t ion a nd l a ck o f a n a ps e p r ec lude i d en t if i ca t ion a s ac hur ch . C u r ious ly , w e c ou ld n o t d i scove r a ny b u i ld ing w ho s e s hape c l ea r ly i n d ica ted ac hurch . O the rw i se , t he u ppe r s e c t ion c on ta ins s ca t te r ed s t ruc ture s o f v a ry ing s i ze s , r ang ing f r om s i ng le c hamb er s a s s ma l l a s 2x3m e t r es t o a mo r e c omp lex b u i ld ing w i th f i ve r ooms . Much o f t h i s a r ea p re s e rve s o n ly ab a r e r o ck s u r fa ce f r om w h ich o the r r ema ins may h ave b een r emoved . The r e s t o f t h e s i te a ppea r s t o h ave b een d ens e ly o ccup ied , w i th s ma l l b u i ld i n g s c r owded a l ong n a r row p a ra l le l a l leys w h ich i n t u rn g ave o n to a b road c en t ra l s t r ee t w ho s e l i ne i s c l ea r ly d i s ce rn ib le . T he s t a te o f t he r u ins made i te x tr eme ly d if i cu l t t o d i s t ingu i sh i n d iv idua l s t ruc tu re s , a l though a v as t n umbe r o f s ma l l r ooms c ou ld b e n o ted ; b u t i tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t o t e l l w he re o ne b u i ld ing s t opped a nd a no the r b egan . The g enera l i mp re s s ion w a s o f al a rg e n umbe r o fv e ry s ma l l b u i ld ing s , o fo ne o r t wo r ooms . I n s ome p l a ce s , t h e re a ppea r ed t o b e l i ne s o f s i ng le r ooms a r rang ed a l ong as t r ee t , a s i ft hey w er e s hop s . C i s te rns h ave l e f t o ccas iona l t r a ce s a mong t h e h ab i ta t i ons , t he l a rg es t o c cupy ing a h o l low i n t h e r o ck n ea r t he c en t re o f t he h i l l top . T he b a r r en a spec t o f t he h i l l t h e re a r e h a rd ly a ny w eeds g row ing a mong t he d eso la te p i les o fs t one l e ave s n o d oub t t ha t a ny p rov i s ion o f a n a dequa te w a te r s upp ly w ou ld h ave b een a ma jo r c once rn . S ince t h e f ew c i s te rns a mong t h e h ou s e s a r e s ma l l , i ts e ems l i ke ly t ha t t h e l a rge s t ruc tur e a t t he t op o f t h e h i l l may h ave b een a c i s te rn r a the r t han a g rana ry . T he l owe r p a r ts o f t h e s i te w e re a lmo s t i mpo s s ib le t o p l o t , f o r h e re s t one r obb ing h as b een mo s t e f i ca c ious , a nd many o f t h e r ema ins a r e g r ea t ly d i s t u rbed . We h ave t h e r e fo re u s ed c r o s s -ha tch ing t o i n d i ca te o n t h e p lan s e c t ions w he re r ema ins , t hough d en s e , d i d n o t p r e s en t c l ea r e nough o u t l ine s t ob e p l anned . Th i s f o r t r es s i sr ema rkab l e b ecaus e i tc on ta ins c l ea r e v idence o f t h e b u i ld ing s w i th in t he c i rcu i t . I n t ha t r e spec t , i ti su n ique i n t h e p rov ince . T he t own e v iden t ly c on ta ined a s ub s tan t ia l p opu la t ion w ho l i ved i n s ma l l s t one h ous es o n n a r row s t ree t s b eh ind t he s e cu r i ty o f as o l id a nd w e l l -des igned r ampa r t . T he g ene ra l c r owd ing , w i th l i t t le r oom t o maneuve r , s ugge s t s t ha t t h e s e t t l emen t w as c i v i l ian r a ther t han t he o rd e r ly e s tab l i shmen t o f ag a r r i son . I t may t h e r e fo re b e i d en t if i ed a s ar e fug e s i te , s u i t a b l e f o r s he l te r ing t h e p opu la t ion o f t h e s u r round ing f e r t i le d i s t r ic t . T he p la in o f A l t in ta, a s n o ted , h a s p roduced n ume rous i n sc r ip t ions o f e a r ly C hr i s t ian d a te a nd a ppea rs t o h ave c on ta ined v i l lag es w h i ch f l ou r i shed u nde r t h e R omans a nd c on t inued t o e x i s t i n L a te A n t iqu i ty . T he i r s u rv iva l i sa t te s ted n o t o n ly b y i n sc r ip t ion s b u t b y r e us ed ma te r ia l s ca t te red t h rough t h e d i s t r i c t . I n t ha t p ea ce fu l t ime , s uch a w a l led s e t t l ement , i n conven ien t ly s i tua ted o n ar a the r s t eep h i l l r a ther t han n ea r t h e f i e lds , w ou ld h a rd ly h ave b een n eces sa ry . T he s ucceed ing a ge , h oweve r , w h ich s aw t he c on s t an t a t ta ck s o f t h e A rab s , w ou ld h ave p roduced t h e n eed f o r as i te w he r e t h e v i l lag e r s w ou ld b e s a f e d ur ing at ime o f c r i s i s . T h i s f o r t r es s i sw e l l s u i ted f o r t ha t p urpo s e : i t o ccup ies t he o n ly i s o la ted a nd e a s i ly d e f ens ive h i l l top o f t h e p l a in , a nd s t ands i n t h e m idd le o f af e r t i le d i s t r ic t , w he r e a t p r e s en t t h e re a r e a t l e as t e i gh t v i l lage s w i th in a n h ou r 's wa lk . E s tab l i sh ing ad a te f o r t h e w a l l s a nd s e t t l ement i sn o t e a sy , s i nce s o much h a s d i sappea red . T hey m ay b e a s s igned i n g ene ra l t e rms t o t h e D a rk A ge s , t h e s e ven th t h rough n i n th c en tu r ies , o n v a r ious g rounds . T he h i s to r ica l c i rcum s tance s a r e a pp ropr ia te : t h i s w a s at ime w hen t h e r u ra l p opu la t ion o f A s ia M ino r f r equent ly h ad t o s e ek r e fug e , f o r mon ths a t a t ime , f r om A rab r a id s a nd w hen n ume rou s -

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9 7

f o r t if ica t ion s w er e b u i l t o n mo re o r l e s s r emo te h i l l s a bove f e r t i le d i s t r ict s .1 7 T he d e f ens ive s y s tem i mp l ied b y t h e w e s te rn p a r t o f t h e c i r cu i t w i th i t s o dd a r rang emen t o f t ower s b u i l t b e tween t he i n ne r a nd o u te r w a l l , f i nd s as o le p a ra l le l i n t he w a l l s o f K ütahya o f t h e n in th c en tury .1 8 F inds o f p o t te ry , t hough p oo r , t end t o c onf i rm t h e g ene ra l d a te : s he rds w e r e e xc lus ive ly r ough r e d c ook ing w a r e , w i th n one o ft he c omb ed w a re o f t he L a te A n t iqu i ty o r t h e g l a zed w a r e o f t h e l a te r B yzan t ine p e r iod . T h e s e s e em t o s how t ha t t h e s i te w a s n o t o ccup ied t h rough many c entur i e s . When p ea ce r e turned l a t e i n t he n i n th c en tury , t he p opu la t ion p robab ly w ent b a ck t o t he i r m o r e c onven i ent v i l lag es i n t h e p l a in , a nd h ave t h e re l e f t t r a ces , a s a t A l t in ta§ v i l lag e , w he re B yzan t ine s po i l s o f t he t e n th o r e l even th c en tu ry a r e e mbedded i nt he w a l l s o f a n o ld mo sque .1 9 Wa l l s a nd b u i ld ing s , t h en , may b e o f t h e D a rk A g e s , a nd c on s idered a s a n e x t reme ly u nusua l e xamp le o f at own p lan o f t ha t t ime . U n fo r tuna t e ly , n o th ing b u t t h e p lan h a s s urv ived , b u t e ven t h e p oo r f o unda t ion s v i s ib le i n d ica te ad ense ly p a ck ed s e t t lemen t , a nd b y t h e i r n a tu re t h e b u i ld ing s a r e a l o fs t one s ugg e s t t ha t i tw a s a s i te o f p e rmanen t o ccupa t ion , t ha t i s , t ha t t h e i n hab i tan t s o f t h e n e ighbou r ing v i l lag e s w e re c oncen t ra ted h er e f o r s ome t ime , r a the r t han u s ing t h e h i l l a s a n o ccas iona l r e fuge . I n t h i s , i ta ppea r s t o d if e r f r om o the r r e fug e s i te s u s ed d ur ing at ime o f c r i s i s , a f ter w h ich t h e l o ca l p eop le r e tu rned t o t h e i r v i l lag e s . When f u r ther e xamp les o fs u ch s i tes a r e r e vea led a nd s t ud ied , t h ey s hou ld a dd a g r ea t d ea l t o t he p r e s en t k now ledg e o ft h i s c r i t i ca l b u t o b s cu re p e r iod . -

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1 7 . F or s uch f o rt if ica t ions , s ee F oss a nd Winf ie ld ( 1985 ) p t .3 , c l . 1 8 . S ee a bove , 6 5 f . 1 9 . I lustra ted i n B uck ler e t a l . ( 1925 ) 3 2 n o .248 .

9 8

GEDIZ G ed iz , w ho s e n ame d e r ive s f r om t h e a nc ien t a nd m ed ieva l C ad i , o ccup ie s a s t ra teg ic l o ca t ion o n t h e u ppe r w a te r s o f t h e H e rmus , w h ich i nT urk i sh i sc a l led a f t er t he c i ty . I ts t ands o n ar i dg e w h ich s epa ra te s t h e moun ta inous c oun t ry t o t h e n o r th f r om a l ong w e l l -cu l t iva t ed p la in s t r e tch ing s ome 2 0 km t o t h e s ou th a nd s ou thwe s t . T he s i te d er ive s i t s i mpo r tance f r om t h e j unc t ion o f s e ve ra l n a tura l r ou te s w h ich c on n ec t i t , o n t he n o r th , w i th A ezan i a nd K i i tahya ( 9 0km b y t h e mode rn r oad ) , w i th T av an l i a nd t he B i thyn ian O lympu s , a nd w i th H i sa rc ik , Eme t a nd t h e R hynda cus v a l l ey ; a nd o n t he s ou th , w i th S imav a nd t h e Ma ces tus v a l ley , w i th e a s te rn L yd ia , a nd w i th Uak a nd s ou the rn P hryg ia . T he s i te h as a h i l l s u i tab le f o r a n a c ropo l is , a nd w a s t h e n a tu ra l p la ce t o c ons t ruc t d e f ence s f r om t h e H e l len i s t ic p e r iod , w hen i tw a s t he b as e f o r as e t t lemen t o f Ma cedon ian s , t h rough t h e M idd le A g e s . L ike mo s t p rov inc ia l c i t ie s , C ad i h as n o h i s to ry i n t h e B yzan t ine p e r iod . I t a pp ea r s a s ac i ty o f P hryg ia P a ca t iana i n t h e s i x th -cen tury l i s t o f H ie ro c le s , a nd i t s e x i s tence a s ab i shop r ic i sa t tes ted t h rough t h e t we l f th c entury . T he s e e w a s o r ig i n a l ly s ub jec t t o t he m e t ropo l i tan o f L aod i cea i n t h e p rov ince w h ich t he B yzan t ine s c a l l ed Kapa t iana , b ut i n t h e e i gh th c entu ry w as t r ans f e r r ed a l ong w i th t h e n e ighbo r i n g c i t ies o f A ezan i , T ib e r iopo l i s , A ncy ra a nd S ynaus t o t h e j u r i sd ic t ion o f H ie rapo l i s , a nd t h ere r ema ined .' A b s ence o f t h e b i shop r i c f r om t h e l a te r l i s t s s ugge s t s t ha t i t c ame u nde r S e l juk c on t ro l , p e rhap s s oon a f te r K i i tahya , a nd w as n eve r r e taken b y t h e B yzan t ines . U nde r t h e p r ince s o f C e rm iyan , t h e c i ty w as a k aza o r a dm in i s tra t ive c en te r .2 L ike t h e r e s t o ft ha t s t a te , i tw ou ld h ave p as s ed t o t h e O t tomans i n 1 390 f o r as ho r t t ime , t h en d ef in i t ive ly i n 1 429 . C ad i w ou ld n o t a ppea r i n t h i s d i scus s ion h ad i tn o t b een v i s i ted b y E v l iya C he l eb i i n 1 670 a nd d es c r ibed i ns ome d e ta i l . A cco rd ing t o h i s a c coun t , t h e c i ty h ad a c a s t l e b u i l t b y aR oman e mpe ro r n amed C eduz , a nd w as t aken b y t h e G e rm iyan id Yakub b ey ( 1 300 -1340 ) , f i na l ly p as s ing i n to t he h ands o f t h e O t toman Y i ld i r im B ayez id ( 1389 -1402 ) . I n h i s d ay , t h e c a s t l e w as as t rong s t ruc ture s t and ing o n as t eep b lue r o ck a c ro s s av a l ley o n t he e a s t s i de o f t h e c i ty . U nde r A hmed I( 1 589 -1617 ) , h ow ever , p a r ts o f i th ad b een d emo l i shed s o t ha t i tc ou ld n o t b e u s ed b y t h e J e la l i r eb e l s . N eve r the les s , E v l iya b e l ieved t ha t i tw as a v e ry s t rong c a s t l e w h i ch c ou ld e a s i ly b e r e s to red . T he c a s t l e t hen h ad t h e p opu la r n ame o f A croba t 's C as t le b ecaus e af ew y ea r s p r ev ious ly at e am o f a c roba t s h ad v i s i ted t h e c i ty , t i ed ar ope t o ap a r t ic u la r ly h igh t ower o ve r ap rec ip t ious r o ck a nd p e r fo rmed f e a ts w h ich e a rned t h em much a pp lau s e .3 E v l iya s aw a c a s t le w i th o ne o r mo r e t ower s s t i l l s t and ing i n ap o s i t ion o f s t r eng th , b u t a l ready s omewha t b a t te red . C ons ide r ing t h e h i s to ry o f t he c i ty , i ti s p robab le t ha t t h is w a s am ed ieva l , a nd q u i te l i ke ly a B yzan t ine , f o r t re s s . U n fo r t una te ly , n o t r a ce o f i ta ppea r s t o s u rv ive . When H am i l ton v i s i ted t h e t own i n 1 836 , h e f o und n o r ema ins o f a ny c ons equence , b u t B u re s ch i n 1 895 made a mo re t ho rough i n ve s t iga t ion , a nd d e te rm ined t ha t t h e f o r t r e s s mus t h ave s t ood o n t h e s t eep r o ck c a l l ed A sa r ( ' Ru ins ' ) o n t h e e a s t s i de o f t h e c i ty , al o ca t ion w h i ch c o r r esponds w i th t ha t m en t ioned b y E v l iya .4 S ince t h en , t h e t own h as b een c omp l e te ly f l a t tened b y t h e e a r thquake o f 1 972 , a nd i t s s i te moved t o as a f e r l o ca t ion i n t h e a d ja cen t p l a in . P eo p l e s t i l l l i ve a m id t he r a the r d ep r e s s ing r u in s o f t h e o l d c i ty , h oweve r , a nd c ou ld s how u s t h e r ema ins i tc on ta ins . We f o und a r o ck s u i tab le f o r ac a s t le , b u t n o th ing a t a l l s u rv ived o n i t . T h i s s i t e , t h en , may b e r e co rded a s o ne w h ich o nce p o s s es s ed a f o r t r e s s , p robab ly m ed ieva l , b u t n o l o nge r a va i lab le f o r s t udy . 1 .

S ee t he d i scuss ion i n No t i tE pp 2 1f , 3 2 .

2 .

Va r l ik ( 1974 ) 6 1 n 2 .

3 .

E v l iya c e leb i I X .40f .

4 .

Ham i lton ( 1842 ) 1 . 106 ; B uresch ( 1898 ) 1 56f .

99

COUNTY OF S IMAV T he c oun ty o f S imav , t h e w es te rnmo s t d i v i s ion o f t h e p rov inc e o f K i i tahya , e mb ra ces t wo v a l leys , t ho s e o f t h e K o ca c a y which f l ow s a lmo s t d ue n o r th b y t h e t own o f D aa rd i , a nd o f t h e Ma ce s tus w h i ch f l ow s w es twa rd f r om t h e f o rme r l a ke w h ich b o re t he n ame o f t h e c i ty . B road r ang es o f h i gh w ooded moun ta ins s epa ra te t he v a l ley f r om t h e h i gh p l a ins o f P h ryg ia w h ich c ompr is e t h e r e s t o f t h e p rov inc e . T he mo s t v a luab le p a r t o f t h e c oun ty , a nd t h e a r ea w he re t h e c a s t les t o b e c ons ide r ed a r e c oncen t ra ted , i s t h e p l a in n o r thw e s t o f S imav a nd i n t h e u pp e r c our se o f t h e Ma ce s tus . F o rme r ly , t h e p l a in s l oped g en t ly d own f r om t h e c i ty t o al a rge l a ke a nd s t re tched a l ong i t s n o r the rn s ho r e a nd b eyond f o r 2 0 km u n t i l t he r i ve r e n ter s an a r r ow p a s sag e b e tween moun ta ins . T he l a ke , h ow eve r , i s n o l o nger a f e a ture o f t h e l a ndscape ; i n 1 960 , i t was d ra ined a nd i t s b as in i sn ow i n ten s ive ly c u l t iva t ed . F o r B ur es ch i n 1 895 , t h e p l a in o fS imav w a s o ne o f t h e mo s t a t t ra ct ive c o rne r s o f t he w o r ld . H e p ra is ed t h e c on t ra s t b e tween t h e g r een , w e l l -wa te r ed l a nd a nd t h e s t eep w a l l o f Moun t T emnus w h i ch r i se s d i rec t ly b eh ind i t , a nd n o ted t h e a bundan c e o fs pr ing s , t h e g r ea t p l ane a nd n ut t r ee s , a nd t h e i n numerab le v i l lag es . T he p la in was e x tr eme ly f e r t i le , p roduc ing a n a bundance o f o p ium , w hea t a nd f l ax , w h i le t he l a ke w as f u l l o f f i sh a nd w a s n o ted f o r ak i nd o f l o ca l c av ia r . H i s d e scr ip t ion c an h a rd ly b e i mp roved , f o r t h e s i gh t o f t h i s i mmens e ly g r een v a l l ey a s o ne d e scends f r om t h e d r y P hryg ian p la ins t h rough t h e s t eep m oun ta ins ide s i s ad e l igh t . Mo rd tmann , o n t h e o the r h and , t ook a d imme r v i ew w hen h e p as s ed t h rough i n 1 852 . T he b ad f ood a nd a i r o f t h e n e ighbourhood h ad g i ven h im a f e ve r , a nd h e w a s t hus s t ruck b y t h e u nhea l thy a spec t s o f t h e p l a ce : t h e l a ke i t s e l f was h a l fs wamp a nd was o ve rg rown w i th r e eds ; m i l l ions o ff r og s p rov ided a n u nw e l come c once r t ; a nd t h e a i r was d epr es s ing . I n s p i te o f t h e f e r t i l i ty o f t h e l a nd , t h e v i l lage s w e r e p oo r a nd h i s t r ave l l ing c ompan ion , a n A rmen ian money lende r , h ad many a c coun t s t o s e t t le . When J eanne a nd L ou i s R ober t v i s i ted S imav i n 1 960 , t h ey s aw t h e l a ke i nt h e p ro ces s o f d es s i ca t ion , a nd t h e v i l lag e r s d ep res s ed a nd a pp r ehens ive a t t he l o s s o f t h e i r t r ad i t iona l l i ve l ihood s o f f i sh ing a nd mak ing ma t s f r om t h e r e eds o f t h e l a ke . Y e t t h ey w er e p l ea sed a t t h e p ro spec t o f t h e e nd o f f e ve r s a nd mo squ i to e s ,a n dt h e hope ofa bete r l i fe f o r t h ei r c h i ldren . ' I n A n t iqu i ty , t h e r e g ion o f t h e l a ke c on ta ined t wo c i t ie s , S ynao s a nd A ncy ra ; t h ey s urv ived a s b i shop r ic s t h rough t h e B yzant in e p e r i od . Bot h were def e n ded b y c a s t l e s w h i ch h ave l e f t af ew t r a ce s . I n a dd i t ion , E v l iya C he leb i r epo r t s a no ther f o r t r e s s o n t h e l a ke sho re , a nd w e f o und t wo o ther s t o t h e w e s t , i n t h e u pp e r v a l ley o f t h e Ma ces tus . T hey w i l l b e p r e s en ted h e r e i ng eog raph i ca l o rder , f r om e as t t ow es t .

Simav

T he i d en t if i ca t ion o fS imav w i th t h e a nc ien t S ynao s w a s made b y H am i l ton o n t he f i rm b a s i s o f s im i la r i ty o f n ame a nd p r e s ence o f a n i n s cr ip t ion r e us ed i n t he m a in mo sque o f t h e c i ty w h ich n ame s S tephen , b i shop o fS ynao s .2 T he i n s c r ip t ion s t i l l s u r v i ves , a nd a ppea r s t o b e o f L a t e A n t ique d a te . O the rw i s e , l i t t le i sk nown o f t ha t p e r iod o r o f t h e B yzant ine c en tur ie s , e xcep t f o r s ome c u r ious d e ta i ls f r om t he l i f e o fa l o ca l s a in t . T he a c coun t o f t h e l i f e a nd m i ra c les o f S a in t A gape tus , w ho i ss uppo s ed t o 1 .

B uresch ( 1898 ) 1 43 ; Mordt mann ( 1925 ) 3 8 ; Robert ( 1982 ) 3 52 -357 ; s ee a l so P h i l l ipson ( 1913 ) 2 1 -23 , who p rov ides

2 .

Ham i lton ( 1842 ) I .123f ; t he i d ent if ica t ion h a s g enera l ly b een a ccepted .

f u rther i n for ma t ion . W.Ruge i n RE I .8 .1326f ( 1932 ) .

1 00

F or f u l l r eferences , s e e t he a rt ic le o f

h ave l i ved i n t he t ime o f t he G rea t P ersecut ions , r evea ls s ometh ing o f c ond it ions i n S ynaos . He w as o r ig ina l ly a monk i n t he mounta ins a bove t he c i ty , a nd wa s e ventua l ly c ho sen a s t he l o ca l b i shop . A lthough a ssoc ia t ion o f t he b i shop w ith t he Counc i l o f N icaea , l i ke h i s s lay ing o f al o ca l d ragon , m ight n o t mer it much c r edu l ity , o ther m ira c l e s r ef lec t r ea l c ond it ions . S ome d ea l w ith t he i n s tab i l ity o f t he e nv ironment r i vers t hrea ten f i e lds a nd t he f o unda t ions o f t he c hurch o thers a re mo re s pec if ic . A gapetus f ounded a c hurch d ed ica ted t o t he martyrs V ic t .or inus , Do ro t .heus , Theodu l t is a nd Agr ippa , a ppa rent ly l o ca l v i ct ims o f t he p ersecu t ions , a nd b u i l t , i to n as i te b locked b y ah uge r ock . B y h i s p rayers , t he s i te w as made l e ve l , a nd l a ter , w hen i tw as a ppa ren t t ha t t he h i l l o ver t he c hurch k ep t . i tc ons tan t ly i n t he d a rk , t he s a int 's p rayers c aused t he h i l l t o c o l lapse i n to a n e ighbour ing h o l low . A l though t he c hurch h as n o t s urv ived , i ti se asy t o v i sua l ise i t . s s i te i n t he h i l ly n e ighbourhoods o f S imay . When h e w as b u i ldi ng h i s c hurch , Agapetus w anted s ome h uge c o lumns , t oo l a rge f o r m en t o move , a nd s ucceeded i n h av ing t hem t r anspo r ted m iracu lous ly ; a n u nusua l c ase o f t he t yp ica l e mp loy men t o f s po i ls . S im i lar ly , o ne o f t he g rea t b enef i ts w h ich h e c onf erred o n h i s n a t ive c i ty w as t o r i d i tp ermanen t ly o f t he mosqu i toes w h ich c ame f r om t he l a ke t o af l ict man a nd b eas t w ithou t m ercy . A cco rd ing t o h i s b iographer , t he w o rk w as s o e f ect ive t ha t S ynaos w as s t i l l f r ee f r om mosqu i toes i n h i s own d ay , e ven t hough n e ighb our ing t owns a nd v i l lages c ont inued t o b e t roub led . T he l i f e a ppea rs t o h ave b een w r it ten i n t he D ark A ge s , f o r i tc onc ludes w i th a p rayer f o r t he s uccess o f t he Empero r a ga inst t he g od less A garenes , t ha t i s , t he A rabs , w hose r a ids r eached e verywhere f o r -

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t wo c entur ies .3 Throughou t t he B yzan t ine p er iod , S ynao s h ad a b i shop , s ub ject a t f i r s t t o t he m etropo l itan o f L aod icea , t hen t r ans ferred a l ong w ith Cad i a nd o ther c i t ies t o t he s e e o f H ierapo l is i n t he n inth c entury .' I t s o n ly a ppea rance i n h i s tory i s q u ite l a te , i n 12 , when t he S e l juk s u ltan s en t t wo a rm ies d own f r om c entra l A na to l ia a ga ins t t he Bzant ines ; o ne o f t hem i sr e co rded a s p as s ing t hrough t he d i s tr ic t , o f S ynao s . 5 The ir e xped i t ion w as f o l low ing a p rac t ica l n a tura l r oute , t he v a l ley o f t he Maces tus wh ich p rov ides e asy a ccess f r om t he e dge o f t he p la teau t o t he p la ins o f t he A egean r eg ion . A t t hat t ime , t he a r ea was a ppa rent ly s t i l l B yzant ine , a nd i t s b i shops a r e r e co rded t hrough t he m idd le o f t he t we lf th c en tury . I t may h ave p assed t o t he T urks i n t he c hao t ic d ecades b e tween t he b a tt le o f Mvr iokepha lon ( 1 176 ) a nd t he F our th C rusade , o r p os s ib ly h ave b ecome p ar t o f t he L asca r id d oma ins , t o s uccumb i n t he l a te t h ir t e en th c en tury . On t he o ther h and , Yakub I o f G erm iyan , i n af amous d ocument o f 1 411 , t he s o -ca l led T a§ Vakf ive , c l a ims t ha t h i s g randfa ther Mehmet B ey ( 1340 -1361) t ook t he l a ke o f S imav f rom t he u nbe l iever .6 I ft ha t i sc o rrect , t he B yzant ines ma inta ined t he ir c on tro l o ver t he r eg ion u n t i l as upr is ing ly l a te d a te , f o r b y t hen t he s urround ing t e r ri t o ry h ad l ong s i nce f a l len t o t he T urks . Y e t i t s e ems e qua l ly p robab le t ha t t he p r ince o f G erm iyan a c tua l ly c aptured t he p lace f r om a nother Turk , a nd made h i s c onquest mo re r espectab le i n t he e ves o f p oster i ty , i fn o t c ontempo ra r ies , b y c l a im ing a v i ctory o ver t he I nf ide l . Ac o in p rov ides s om amb iguous e v idence i n s uppor t o f s uch a n o t ion . S imav was t he m in t o f a n a nonymous c o in a ppa rent ly s t ruck i n t he t ime o f t he G erm i y an ids . S ince i t d o es n o t b ear t he n ame o f a ny o f t he ir p r inces , i t may r epresent a p er iod when t he c i ty w as i ndependent , i n t he h ands o f al o ca l r u ler ; b ut w i thout f u r ther e xamp les o r a more p rec ise d at ing , n o c e r ta inty i sp oss ib le .' I n a ny c ase , t he 3

V i ta . 4qapr 1 i , c aps .15 . 2 8 . 3 5 . 4 8 , 5 3 . 5 8 7he l i f e i sk nown f r om a manuscr ipt o f t he t enth c entury ; t he s a int i sf i r s t m en t ioned i n t he n inth .

Much o f t he ma ter ia l may h e o f l a te a nt ique o r ig in , f o r Agapetus a ppea rs t o h ave b een

c onfused w i th a n A r ian h omony m . s upposed ly f r om S ynnada , whose l i f e h as p rov ided many d eta i ls f o r t he c a reer o f t he l a ter ( and o r thodox ) s a in t : s ee t he i n troduc t ion t o t he l i f e . x i i i -x jx . 4

T he e ar ly . ' % ' o ti t iar I a nd 2 . a pparen t ly o f t he e i ghth a nd e a r ly n inth c entur ies , j o in S ynao s a nd Anc yr a i n o ne b i shopr ic . Ancyrasynao s : v e t No t i t ia 3 . o f t he n inth c entury , l i st s b oth t h is a nd S ynaos . The e xp lanat ion i s n o t e v iden t : s ee ‚ " . ' ot i tEpp . i ndex . svv. .

5 .

A nna Co mnena 1 4 .3 .7 .

6 .

T ex t i n Varhk ( 1974) 1 47 a nd U zunçari l i ( 1932 ) 8 0 . 8 2 ,

7 .

A r tuk ( 1970 ) 1 340 .

101

c i ty b ecame a n a dm in i s t ra t ive c en t re o f t h e G e rm iyan id s t a te a nd r e ta ined s ome i mpo r tance u nder t h e O t tomans . S imav h as h ad n ume rous v i s i to r s , b u t o n ly o ne p a id much a t t en t ion t o i t s r a the r s ma l l c a s t le . When t he i n de fa t igab le E v l iya C he leb i v i s i ted t he c i ty i n 1 670 , h e d e s cr ibed t h e c as t le b u i l t b y aR oman e mpe ro r n amed B a t l imo s , i n a nc i ent d ay s , i n t h e t ime o fA lexander t he G r ea t , a nd c a l l ed F ind icak C a s t le i nt he h i s to r i e s . I ts t ood o n ah i gh r o ck o n t he s ou th o f t h e c i ty a nd w as a n a t tra c t ive s t rong s t one c a s t l e , r ound i n s hape . A cco rd ing t o E v l iya , t he c a s t le h ad b een t aken f r om a R oman k i ng n amed S imavna b y B ab ik b ey , t h e v i z ie r o f t h e s on o f G e rm iyan a t a n u nsp ec if i ed d a te , a nd w as l a ter d emo l i shed b y T ame r lane i n h i s c ampa ign a ga ins t t h e O t toman B ayez id . A s ar e su l t , i tw a s e mp ty i n h i s d ay .8 L a t e r t r ave l le r s m en t ion i to n ly i n p as s ing : H am i l ton n o ted t h e r u ins o f ac a s t le o n al ow h i l l o n t he o u t sk ir t s o f t h e t own , w h i le Mo rd tmann s aw s ome t r a ces o f w a l l s a nd t wo t ower s w h i ch f o rmed t h e c i tade l o n ah i l l i n t h e m idd l e o f t h e t own .9 B y t h e b eg inn ing o f t he p r e s ent c entu ry , a lmo s t n o th ing w a s l e f t : W i egand d e s c r ibed t h e c i ty a s r i s ing u p t wo h i l l s , o f w h ich t h e w es te rn b o re t h e b a re ly r e cogn i sab l e t r a ce s o f aB yzant ine c a s t le , w h i le t h e e a s te rn , t h en c over ed w i th h ous es , w a s t h e s i te o f t h e a c ropo l i s o f t he a nc ient c i ty . '° T he s u rv iv ing r ema ins o f t h e c a s t l e a r e i n de ed p oo r , a s m ight b e e xpec ted f r om t h e l o ng a bandonmen t o f t he s i te . T hey s t and o n ar o ck w h ich r i ses p e rhaps 2 0m o ve r t h e t own a nd o f er s magn if i cen t v i ew s o f t h e p l a in a nd m ounta ins b eh ind . Mo s t o ft h e r o ck , c a l l ed a pp ropr ia te ly H i sa r T epe , ' Fo r tr e s s H i l l ' , i s o ccup ied b y at ea g a rden w h ich h a s c overed o r d emo l i shed w ha teve r m ight h ave s urv ived w i th in t h e w a l l s . T he w a l l s t hems e lve s h ave a lmo s t e n t i r e ly d i sappea r ed , b u t t h e i r t r a ce s c an b e f o l lowed t o s how t ha t t h e c a s t le w as o nce r ough ly t r apezo ida l , w i th t h r ee l o ng s i de s o fa bou t 6 0m a nd as ho r t s ou the rn s i de o f a bou t 4 5m . O ne s e c t ion o n ar o ck o n t he e a s t s i de s t ands mo r e t han a m e t re h i gh a nd s how s t h e n o rma l B yzan t ine c on s truc t ion o f ac o r e o f m o r ta red r ubb le r e in fo rced b y an e two rk o f w ooden b eams , a nd a f a c ing o f ma son ry . F ig . 1 02 . T he f a c ing c ons i s ts o f l a rg e a nd s ma l l f i e lds tone s a r ranged i nr ough c ou r s e s a nd s how s t r a ce s o f l e ve l l ing c our se s o fb r ick ; t h e f r equen t g ap s b e tween t h e s tone s a r e f i l l ed w i th b roken b r ick a r rang ed p a ra l l e l t o t he c our se s . T h is c rude a nd u nd i s t i ngu i shed s t y le s ugg es t s al a te d a te , p e rhap s i nt he t h i r teenth o r e a r ly f o ur teen th c en t u ry . Many e xamp les o f i ta r e f ound t h roughout w e s te rn A na to l ia , u sua l ly i n p oo r c ond i t ion . When t h ey c an b e d a ted , t h ey a ppea r t o b e o f t he L a sca r id o r P a la eo logue p e r iod , e i the r b ecaus e o f s pec if i c e v idence , o r b ecau s e t h ey a r e l o ca ted i n a r eas w h i ch w e re t hen o n t he f r on t ie r b e tween B yzan t ium a nd t h e T u rks . I no the r c a s e s , h oweve r , t h e d a t ing i su nce r ta in a nd i tm igh t b e s uppo s ed t ha t s uch a n a ppa r en t ly h as ty s y s t em o f c on s t ruc t ion c ou ld a s w e l l b e a pp rop r ia te t o t h e t ime w hen t he B yzant ine s f i r s t h ad t o d e f end t hemse lve s a ga ins t t h e T urks , i nt h e a f te rma th o f t he b a t t l e o f Manz ik e r t ( 1071 ) ." F o r t he momen t , p robab i l i ty a nd a na logy a ppea r t of avour t h e l a te r d a te f o r s uch w a l l s a s t he s e , b u t t h e i r p oo r r ema ins c anno t s uppo r t a ny p rec i s ion .

Bo az ( K i l ise ) Köy

/Ancyra

S idera

A h i gh h i l l w h i ch p ro jec t s i n to t h e w e s te rn s i de o f t he l a ke o f S imav c on ta ins r ema ins o f f o r t if i ca t ion a nd s e t t lemen t w h ich h ave l o ng b een n o ted . T he f i r s t w e s t e rn t r ave l le r t o d e sc r ibe t h em w a s H am i l ton , w ho i n 1 837 w ro te : ' A t t e n w e r ea ched a r ema rkab le look ing h i l l , t h e A c ropo l i s o f a n a nc i ent c i ty , w h ich Ih ave n o h e s i ta t ion i n c a l l ing A ncyra o f P hryg ia . I ti ss i tua ted c l o s e t o t h e l a ke , a nd i s a lmo s t i n su la ted , b e ing o n ly c onnec ted b y an a r row p o in t w i th t h e r ang e w h ich f o rms t he w e s tern b oun d a ry o f t h e p l a in . A m as s ive w a l l o f r ude s t ones e x t ends a round t he s umm i t o f t h e 8 .

E v l iya c e leb i I X .44 .

9 .

Ham i lton ( 1842 ) 1 .124 ; Mordt mann ( 1925 ) 3 9 .

1 0 . W iegand ( 1904 ) 3 24 , w ith a p hotograph o f t he w estern h i l l . 1 1 . S ee F oss a nd Winf ie ld ( 1985 ) p t .3 , c l .

1 02

h i l l t owa rds t he w es t , w he re i ti sh i ghe s t , a nd o the r w a l l s a nd b roken p o t tery a r e v i s i b l e t h roughou t ' . H e p r e s en ted t h e e v idence w h i ch s uppo r ted h i s i d en t if i ca t ion w i th Ancyra , n o t ing t he r ema ins o f a n a nc ien t t h ea t re b e tween t h e h i l l a nd t h e v i l lag e o f K i l i s e Köy , a nd r e co rded a n i n s c r ip t ion f r om t he v i l lag e , e v iden t ly o f B yzan t ine d a te , w h i ch p roc la imed t he r e s to ra t ion o f ac hu rch o f S a in t T heodo re .1 2 H e was f o l lowed f i teen y ea rs l a ter b y Mo rd tmann w ho d es cr ibe s t h e w a l l s i ns omewha t mo r e d e ta i l a nd made t he p lan r ep roduced h e re : ' Man e rkenn t n o ch z i em l ich g enau d i e A usdehnung d e r S tad tmauern , w e lche g enau d en Um fang d e s w ahr s che in l ich d ur ch K uns t a bg ep la t te ten Hüg e l s e i nnahmen . E in T e i l d er S tad t w a r C i tade l le , d i e s i ch d u r ch s t . rke r e Maue rn a u s ze ichnete . A n d en b e iden E cken d e r d em S ee z ugekehr ten S e i te d e s H üg e l s s i eh t man n och d en U nte rbau v on z we i T ürmen . ' Mo rd tmann a l so r e po r ted ar e l ie fs how ing S t .Ceo rge a nd t he d ragon , a nd t hus o f C hr i s t ian t ime s , a nd p u r chas ed s eve ra l c o ins , a ppa r en t ly o f A ncy ra , f o r h e j o ined H am i l ton i ns uppo r t ing t h e i d en t if i ca t ion .1 3 S ub s equent t r ave l ler s a dd n o th ing t o t h e d e s c r ip t ion , a nd c onf i rmed t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f t he s i te w i th A ncyra u n t i l L ou i s R obe r t i n 1 935 q ue s t ioned i t , p r e f e r r ing a l o ca t ion s omewha t t o t he n o r thea s t b ut s t i l l n ea r t h e l a ke .1 4 T he q ue s t ion a ppea r s t o b e u nr e so lved b u t , u n t i l f u r the r e v idence i sp r e s ented , i ts e ems b e s t t o a c cep t t h e t r ad i t i ona l i d ent if i ca t ion . I t h a s i n i t s f a vou r t h e p re s ence o f at h ea t re a s w e l l a s t h e d i s cove ry o f c o ins a nd i n s cr ip t ions , a nd t h e e v idence o f B yzan t ine t e x t s w h ich a t l e a s t s how t ha t S ynao s a nd A ncyra w e re n e ighbour s .1 5

P lan 6 .A ncyra , s ke tch p l an , a f te r Mo rd tmann . 1 2 . H am i lton ( 1842 ) 1 .126 . 1 3 . Mo rdtmann ( 1925 ) 3 6 f .

The p lan d oes n o t a ppea r i n t he e d it ion o f Mo rdtmann 's d ia ry , b ut i sr eproduced f r om

W iegand ( 1904 ) 2 56 ; t he d ia ry w a s g i ven b y Mo rdtmann 's s on , t hen c on su l g enera l i n Smyrna , t o W iegand , w ho p r inted e xt ra cts f r om i tt o i lu s tra te h i s o wn r e sea rches . 1 4 . R obert ( 1962 ) 9 5n .2 . 1 5 . S ee t he l i f e o f S t .Therapon o f S a rd is , c i ted b y Rober t ( 1 962 ) 9 5 f r om AASS May 2 7 .674 , a nd t he b i shopr ic A ncyra synao s n o ted a bove n . 4 .

1 03

K i l i s e K öy o f t h e t r ave le r s i sn ow c a l led B oa z K öy ( p resumab ly b ecaus e i t c on ta ins n o t r a ce o f ac hur ch ) a nd l i e s 1 5km n o r thwe s t o f S imav o n t h e e dge o f t h e f i e lds w h ich r e ta in t h e s hape o f t h e f o rme r l a ke . T he b a re h i l l i ss t r ik ing i n i t s i s o la , t i on a nd d e f ens ib i l i ty , b u t i t s c onven ien t s i tua t ion n ex t t o ar oad h as made i ts uch a n a tura l q ua r ry t ha t v e ry l i t t le h a s s u rv ived o f i t s w a l l s . T he g round p lan may s t i l l b e t r a ced c omp le te ly , b u t t h e r ema ins w e re s o i n sub s tan t ia l t ha t t hey a ppea red n o t t o j u s t i fy as urvey e spec ia l ly s i nce t h e s ke tch map o f Mo rdtmann g i ve s a n a dequa te i d ea o f t he s i ze a nd s hape o f t h e f o rme r f o r t re s s . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , t he w a l l s h ave b een r obbed t o t h e i r f o unda t ions . T he c i tade l d e sc r ibed a nd f i gur ed b y Mo r tdmann i s c l ea r ly v i s ib l e , b u t t h e t owe r s w h ich h e m en t ioned a r e d if i cu l t t o l o ca te . Wa l ls a r e s t and ing o n ly o n t he h i ghe s t p o in t , a nd e ven t h e re a r e n o mo re t han a m e t re h igh a nd l a rge ly c ove r ed i n s c rub o ak . F ig . 1 03 . T hey s how t h e u sua l c ons t ruc t ion o f c o r e a nd f a c ing a nd e mp loy a h a rd g r ey mo r ta r w h ich c ove r s t h e j o in ts o n t h e o u ter f a ce . I nne r a nd o u ter f a ce a l ike a r e c ompo sed o f r ough ly c ou r s ed f i e lds tones , l a rg er n ea r t h e f ounda t ions .The f r equen t g aps b e tween t h em a r e f i l l ed w i th b roken b r ick w h i ch f o rm s n e i the r c our s es n o r ar e gu la r p a t tern , a nd ag ood d ea l o f mo r ta r . I n s ome p la ce s , t h e b r ick f r agmen t s a lmo s t s e em t o s ur round t h e s t one s . S po i l s a r e n o t i n e v idence , b u t a ny g ood c u t s t one s w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een l o ng s i nce r emoved f o r l o ca l u s e . T he se w a l l s , l i ke t ho s e o fS imav , a ppea r t o b e o fl a te B yzan t ine d a te . H i s to ry i so f l i t t le h e lp i nd a t ing t h e w a l l s , f o r A ncyra a ppea r s n o t t o b e m en t i oned o u t s ide t he l i s t s o f b i shop s , w h i ch c on t inue t h rough t h e t we l f th c e ntury . T he p la ce w a s c onquer ed b y t h e T u rks o f G e rm iyan a t t h e s ame t ime a s S imav , b ut s e em s t o h ave p l ayed n o l a te r r o le . F o r tuna te ly , ma te r ia l s o f o the r k i nds e x i s t t o s upp l e m en t t h i s m eag re r e co rd . T he h i l l , a s H am i l ton n o t ed , c on ta ins ag ood d ea l o f b roken p o t te ry . T he s amp le w e c o l lec ted , w h ich a ppea r s t o b e r ep r esenta t ive , c on ta ined s he rds o f t h e M idd le B ronze , P hryg ian a nd e a r ly H e l l en is t ic p e r iods , a s w e l l a s ag r een g l a zed w a re w h ich c ou ld a s w e l l b e B yz an t in e a s Tu r k ish . T h is e v i de nce c o rrespon ded w i th t ha t o f t he c o ins , w h ich w e d i d n o t s e e , b u t w ho s e t ype s w e re d e s c r ibed b y a w e l l in fo rmed v i l lag e r . S ince t h e l o ca l s a r e a wa re o f c e r ta in p ra c t ica l a sp e cts o f t h e i r p a s t , a nd c l ea r ly k now h ow t o d i s t ingu i sh o ne c o in f r om a no the r , t he s umma ry o f e r ed s e emed t r us two r thy . T he mo s t c ommon c o ins f o und a r e L yd ian , b ut many A lexande r s a l so a ppea r , a s d o l a rg e b ronze m eda l l ions a nd j ewe l l e ry a nd g o ld l e a fo fv a r ious s o r t s . Mo s t o f t he s e a ppa r en t ly c ome f r om t h e h i l l s i te , b u t s ome , p a r t icu la r ly t h e j ewe l lry , w e re d es c r ibed a s o r ig ina t ing i n u nspec if i ed n e ighbou r ing v i l lages o r f i e lds . T aken t oge the r , t h e c o ins a nd p o t te ry i n d ica te a n e x t r eme ly e a r ly s e t t lement , w h ich c ont in u ed u nder t h e L yd ians a nd i n to t h e H e l l en i s t ic p e r iod , b u t t he r ea f ter l e f t n o t ra ce u n t i l t he l a te B yzan t ine o r e a r ly T u rk i sh a ge . S uch a h i s to ry i st yp ica l o f much o f t h e c oun t ry , a nd a pp rop r ia te t o as i te o n ah i l l top . E a s i ly d e f ens ib le p laces w e re n o rma l ly o ccup ied i n e a r ly t ime s a nd ma in ta ined u n t i l t h e p ax r omana b rough t as i tua t ion i n w h ich s e t t lement s c ou ld b e e s tab l i shed i np l a ins w i thou t ma in ta in ing t he i r d e f ences o n a n a c ropo l i s . D ur ing t h e c hao s o f t h e D a rk A g e s , h ow eve r , t he s i tes u sua l ly r e t rea t ed b a ck t o t h e i r h i l l top s a nd t h e re r ema ined t h rough t h e B yzan t ine p er iod . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e g ap i n t h e p o t te ry i s t o b e f i l led b y t h e f i nd s f r om t h e v i l lage w he re t hea t r e , i n sc r ip t ions a nd r e l i e f s i n d ica te R oman a nd l a te a n t ique s e t t lement . T aken t og e the r , t h e e v idence s how s as ub s tan t ia l a nd l o ng l ived s e t t lemen t , mo s t p robab ly t he s i te o fa c i ty , a nd t hus s t r eng thens t h e p ropo s ed i d en t if i ca t ion w i th A ncyra . A l though t h e s u rv iv ing f a c ing s ugg e s ts ad a t e l a te i n t h e B yzan t ine p e r iod , t h e r ema ins a r e s o p oo r ly p r es e rved t ha t i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o s ugg es t ac hrono logy f o r t h e w ho le f o r t re s s . I t s s i ze a nd s hape r e vea l as t ruc tu re mo re c omp lex t han t he o the r s ma l l f o r t s o f t h i s r e g ion , a nd t h e p r e sence o f as epa ra te l a rg e c i tade l i mp l ie s am i l i t a ry a s w e l l a s c i v i l ian f unc t ion . T he f o r t res s t hus s e ems t o h ave b een mor e t han a s imp le r e fug e s i te , b u t t o r e p re s ent t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f ac i ty o n ad e f en s ib le h i l l top , w i th t wo ma in e nc lo su r e s . S ince n one o f t h e f a ce o f t h e c i tade l w a l l h a s s u rv ived , a nd i t s r ema ins a r e h eav i ly o ve rg rown , i t w a s n o t p o s s ib le t o d e term ine w he the r i t r e p re sen ted p a r t o f t h e o r ig ina l f o unda t ion o r al a t er a dd i t ion . G iven t h e h i s to r ica l c i rcums tance s , i ts e ems l i ke ly t ha t af o r t re s s w a s e s tab l i shed h e re i n t h e D a rk A g e s , w h i le t h e p o t tery i n d ica tes t ha t i tw a s i no ccupa t ion i n to aT urk ish p e r iod . T he f a c i n g o b se rved w as o f i n de term ina te c ha ra c te r , b u t l e s s c r ude t han t ha t o f S imav ( a nd

1 04

o the r s im i la r s i tes ) . I tm ay b e f a r o l der t han i ta ppea red a t f i r s t , o r may r e p r es en t a l a te r r epa i r t o t he o r ig ina l w a l l . I n t h e p r es en t s t a te o f t he r ema ins , w e c an o n ly s ug g e s t t ha t t he c a s t le h ad i t s o r ig in i n t h e D a rk A ge s a nd p re s e rved i t s f unc t ion i n to t h e O t toman p e r iod . T he f o l low ing e xamp l e , o f B ah t i l l i , w i l l i lus t ra te t h e p rob l ems w h ich masonry o f t h i s k i nd c an r a i s e . Ancy ra d id n o t e s cape t h e n o t i ce o f E v l iya C he leb i , w ho m en t ion s ar u ined c a s t le c a l led Y en ice H isa r o n t he w e s te rn s ho re o f t h e l a ke . I n h i s t ime , i t s o n ly i n ha b i tan t s w er e f i shermen . H e a l so n o ted a no the r c a s t l e , D e uce H i sa r , w h ich o ccup ied a s i te l i ke a n i s land o n t h e e a s te rn s ho re ; i t , t oo , h ad n o g a r r i son . '6 S ince h i s d e s c r ip t i on o f t hes e t wo b ea r s n one o f t he s i gns o f a u top sy , i ti sd if i cu l t t o a s s es s i t s a c cu r a cy . I ts e em s l i ke ly t ha t E v l iya h a s c on fu s ed t h e s i de s o f t h e l a ke , f o r t h e c a s t l e o n a p romonto ry c o r respond s t o t h e f o r t re s s o f A ncy ra . T he o the r c a s t le i su nknown ; w e w e re u nab le t o l e a rn a ny th ing a bou t i t , a nd n o p r ev ious t r ave l le r ( s ome o f w ho made t he e n t ire c i r cu i t o f t h e l a ke ) makes a ny m en t ion o f i t . I t may a t b e s t b e c ons ide red a s ah ypo the t ica l s e cond c a s t l e o n t h e l a ke , w i th t h e ma in d e f ence o f t h e r e g ion c on c en t ra ted a tA ncyra . Baht i l l i /Go loe The Ma ces tu s r i ver , n ow c a l l ed t h e S imav c a y , r i s e s i nt he l a ke o fS imav t h en p a s s es t hrough a r ange o f h i gh h i l ls w h i ch s epa ra te A ncyra f r om a f e r t i l e p l a in a bou t 1 0 k i lome t r e s l o ng a nd t h r ee b road . B e low i t , t h e r i ve r p as s e s t h rough a l o ng g o rg e b e fo re e me rg ing n ea r B igad ic f a r t o t h e w e s t . T h i s s ma l l p l a in t hus r e p re s en t s t h e s ou thernmo s t e x tens ion o f P hryg ia , c u t o f o n t h e n o r th a nd s ou th b y t h e h i gh m oun t a in b a r r ie r s . T he l a nd i sn ow , a nd p robab ly a lways h a s b een , w e l l w a te red a nd i n t en s i ve ly c u l t iva ted . N ume rous v i l lag e s s ur round t h e p l a in , t he e as te rnmo s t b e ing B ah t i l l i , b u i l t a t t h e b a s e o f t he h i l l s w h i ch s epa ra te i tf r om A ncy ra . T he v i l lag e i s f i l l ed w i th s po i l s o f a l k i nds , w h ich i n c lude many i n s c r ip t ions o f R oman d a te a nd p i ece s o f l a te a n t ique a r ch i tec tu re . A cco rd ing t o t h e v i l lag e r s , mo s t o f t he s e c ome f r om t he s i te c a l led ' k a le ' , o r c a s t le , a bou t ak i lome t re t o t he w es t , i n t h e m idd le o f t h e f i e lds . We w er e g u ided t he r e a nd s t ud ied t h e r ema ins , w h ich h ad a l ready b e en v i s i ted a nd d e sc r ibed b y Ka r l B ures ch : E twa 4 km SW v on K i l i s s ek jö i l i eg t i n e i ner k l e inen k es s e l fö rm igen N iede rung n a ch a l len S e i ten h i n v e r s teck t d a s D o r f B ah ty ly . Wes t l i ch b e i d em s e lben b ef inden s i ch , v on d en D o r fbewohne rn " Ka l e" d . i .Burg g enann t , d i e v on d i ch tem G es t rüpp ü be rwa chsenen T rümme r e i ne s a n 7 0 i n i n s G ev i er t m e s s en d en G ebäud es , w e lche s m i r a u f d en e r s ten B l ick a us u nbea rb e i te ten k l e inen S te inen m i t Mö r te l e r bau t z u s e in s ch i en . D a s s a b e r d em n i ch t s o i s t , s onde rn d a s s d a s g anze a ns ehn l iche G ebäude a us s en e i n s t m i t g ro s s en , g u t b ehauenen Quadern v e rk l e ide t w a r , l e h r t e i ne B e t ra ch tung d e r n o ch i n b e t rä ch t l i che r H öhe s t ehenden NO -Ecke d e r R u ine , w o s i ch n o ch R es te d e r a l t en V e rk l e idung e rha l ten h ab en . i s t e s h i e rna ch s chon s i che r , d as s e ss i ch um d i e R e s te i r g end e i ne s ö f en t l ich en G ebäude s r öm i s che r Z e i t h ande l t , s o w i rd d i es n o ch d ur ch e i ne a n d e r S -Se i te d e r R u ine a usg eg raben , j e tz t i n B ah ty ly b ef ind l i che ma r mo rne B as i s b e s tä t ig t , d e ren I n schr i f t ( l e ide r o ben v e r s tümme l t ) v on d e r S t i f t ung e i nes S tandb i lds d e s Ka is e r s C laud ius d u rch e i nen g ewes enen X oy taric u nd 6 opcwó j 1os b e r ich te t . R ing s um d i e R u ine h e rum s i nd i n w e i t em Umk re i se d i e A cke r m i t Z i eg e l s che rben b e sä t u nd s o l l d e r B oden n a ch b e s t imm tes ten A us sag en n i cht n u r z ah l lo s e F undamen te , s onde rn s oga r n o ch E s t r i che u . dg l .en tha l ten . V on h i e r s t ammen d i e i ng ro s s e r Z ah l d u rch B ah ty ly z e r s t reu ten a n t iken S te ine , w o run te r a uch e i ne R e ihe I n s chr i f ten t r agende r G rab s te len ; v on h i e r s t ammen n a ch a le r Wah r s che in l ichke i t d i e a us s e ro r d en t l ich z ah lr e ichen a n t iken A rch i tek tu r s tücke , w e lche i c h a u f d e r R e i s e v on 1 6 . E v l iya c e leb i I X .46 .

1 05

J en ik jö i n a ch K i l is s ek jö i i n d em o ben S . 142 e rwähn ten t ürk i s chen F r iedho f b ewunde r t h a t te .1 7 B ure sch w a s f o l lowed b y W iegand w ho d i s cove red a n i n scr ip t ion w h ich g ave t he n ame o f t h e s i te b y m en t ion ing t h e g erous ia G o lo i enon , s ugges t ing a n om ina t ive G o lo e o r G o lo i . '8 T he p l a ce a ppea r s n ever t o b e m en t ioned i nh i s to ry , b u t i t s r ema ins i n d ica te a s ub s tan t ia l s e t t lemen t w i th s t one b u i ld ing s a nd n umerous i n s c r ip t ions , i t s e x i s tence c on t inu ing i n to L a te A n t iqu i ty . T he f o r t d e s cr ibed b y B u r e s ch e v iden t ly r e pr es ented t he l a te r s t age s o f i t s h i s to ry , a f ter i t s w a l l s h ad a bso rbed much o f t h e a nc ien t s i te i nt h e i r c ons t ruc t ion . T he w a l l s a r e o n ly s omewha t l e s s w e l l p r e s e rved t han t hey w e r e i n B ur e s ch 's t ime . T he q uadrangu la r o u t l ine i ss t i l l a ppa r en t , a nd mo s t o f t h e c i r cu i t i ss tand ing t o ah e ight o f am e t re o r mo re , b u t s o d ens e ly c ove r ed w i th i mpene t rab l e s c rub o ak a nd o ther v eg e ta t ion t ha t i tc anno t b e i n ve s t iga ted . O n ly o ne s e c t ion a d ja cent t o t h e mode rn e n trance a t t h e n o r thea s t c o rner s t ands a bou t 7m e t re s h i gh a nd h a s i nne r a nd o u te r f a ces e xpo s ed . F ig . 1 04 . A no ther s e c t ion , o n t h e n o r thwes t , h as c o l lap s ed s o t ha t h e re , t oo , as ma l l b i t o f f a ce i sv i s ib le . T he s e s how a c o re o f r ubb le s e t i n a s moo th l i gh t g r ey mo r ta r w i th f ew i n c lus ions . S ec t ion s o fc o r e w h ich c ou ld b e s e en a r e c ons is ten t , t o s ugg es t au n if i ed s t ruc ture . T he i n ne r f a ce b y t he e n t rance s how s c our s ed f i e lds tone s , s moo th s i de s o u twa rd , w i th o cca s iona l p i ece s o f b r i ck a nd p e rhap s t r a ces o f b eamho le s ; t h e r e w as n o e v idence , h owev e r , o f ar e gu la r c r ibwo rk . A ga in s t t h is f a ce , o n t he i n s ide , w a s as e cond w a l l o f i d en t i ca l s t y le a nd mo r ta r ; i ta ppea r ed t o r e p res en t ar e in fo r cemen t , o r p e rhap s p a r t o f at ow e r w h ich h ad b een b u i l t o n t h e i n ter io r o f t he s qua re . T he o the r f a ce , o n t h e n o r thw es t , w as s im i la r , w i th t he f i e ld s t ones a r ranged i nc ou r s e s a c co rd ing t o t h e i r s i ze . T he o ute r f a ce w a s o f g r ea te r i n te r es t . F ig . 1 05 . S t r ic t ly s peak ing , t he r e w a s n o f a ce a t a l l , b u t e xpo s ed c o r e o f d en se ly p a cked r ubb le a nd o ccas iona l s po i ls i ng r ey mo r ta r . Much o f t h is , h ow eve r , h ad a n e xcep t iona l ly s moo th s u r fa ce , t o i n d ica te t ha t i t h ad b een c l ad w i th l a rg e r e c tangu la r s po i l s . B ure s ch a l ready n o ted t h i s p henomenon , a nd i tw as c onf i rmed b y t h e v i l lag e r s , w ho t o ld u s t ha t t h ey h ad t a ken a way a ny g ood s t one s t h ey c ou ld f i nd , a nd t ha t m o s t o f t h e s po i ls i n t h e v i l lag e h ad c ome f r om t he se w a l l s . O ne v i l lag e r p o in ted o u t t ha t t h e w a l l h ad b een c ove r ed i n g ood s t ones s e t a t r i gh t a ng le s t o e a ch o the r , a nd , i nf a c t , many o f t he b l o cks l a id h o r i z on ta l ly s t i l l s u rv ived , c l o s e ly s e t i nr ow s a bou t am e t r e a pa r t . T h is i n d i ca tes ac a r e f u l s ys tem o f c ons t ruc t ion , w i th a l te rna t ing r ow s o f v er t ica l a nd h o r izonta l s t one s a r ranged i n as y s tem w h i ch r e s emb le s h eade r s a nd s t re tche r s . A cco rd ing t o t h e v i l lage r s , t h e e n trance t o t h e f o r t w as a t t he s ou thea s t c o rne r , w here i ti sn ow , a nd t h e i n te r io r , i n tens ive ly f a rmed a t p re s ent , w as f i l l ed w i th s ma l l r ooms w h ich t h ey d i s cove r w h i le d i gg ing i n t h e f i e ld . S po i l s a nd a n t iqu i t ies o f a l k i nds a r e s uppo s ed ly s t i l l f o und h e re , a s t h ey w e re i n t h e t ime o f B u resch , w ho r epo r ted s im i la r f i nds i n aw ide a r ea a round t h e f o r t . T he f i e ld s w ere t h en f u l l o f b ro k en p o t te ry a nd f ounda t ions , a nd f l oo r s w e re p r es e rved . I tw ou ld s e em t ha t t he f o r t w a s b u i l t w i th in , o r a d ja cen t t o , t h e a nc ien t s e t t lemen t w h ich p rov ided t h e s po i l s f o r i t s c ons t ruc t ion . T he se w a l l s d if e r f r om t h e o the r s o f t h e i mm ed ia te r e g ion b y t h e ir o nce f i ne c on s t ruc t ion . T hey w e re c a r e fu l ly f a ced w i th s qua r e s po i l s r e gu la r ly a r rang ed i n a l t e r n a t ing w ide a nd n a r row c our s e s . S uch c a re i st yp ica l o ft h e s e venth c en tu ry , w hen t h e a nc ien t c i ty , t hough i n c o l lap se , s t i l l a t temp ted t o m a in ta in s ome o f t h e f i ne a pp ea r a nce o f i t s a nc ient p r edece s so r . F o r t re s s e s o f t h is s t y l e a t S a rd i s , P ergar num , E phe su s a nd e l s ewhe re h ave b een a t t r ibuted t o t h e i n i t ia l p has e o ft he A rab i n va s ions , many o f t h em t he r e su l t o f t he d evas ta t ion w h i ch a c compan i ed t h e g r ea t w a r w i th t he P e r s ian s a t t he b eg inn ing o f t h e c en tu ry .1 9 I n s p i te o f i t s p oo r c ond i t ion , t h e f o r t o f G o lo e w ou ld a ppea r t o o r ig ina t e i n t h e s ame p e r iod , a nd t o r e p res en t t he r e duc t ion o r c on c en t ra t ion o f t h e a nc ien t s i te . 1 7 . B uresch ( 1898 ) 1 44 . 1 8 . Wiegand ( 1904 ) 3 17 . 1 9 . S ee F oss a nd Winf ie ld ( 1985 ) p t .3 , c l .

106

The w a l l s o ccupy a c u r ious ly w eak l o ca t ion , i n t h e m idd le o f af l a t p l a in , r a th e r t han o n t h e h i l ls a t i t s e dg e . T h i s c ho ice o f t h e s i t e p robab ly r e f l ec t s t h e p rox i m i ty o f t he a nc ien t s e t t lemen t , a s w e l l a s t h e d e s i re t o b e n ea r ag ood s ou rce o f w a t e r . S ince t he e nc lo sure w a s b u i l t i nt he o pen , r a the r t han o n ah i l l top w ho s e c on t o u r s wou ld d i c ta te i t s s hape , i ts e em s t o h ave f o l lowed t h e p l an o f aR oman f o r t , b u i l t i n as qua re w i th t owe r s a t t h e a ng le s , p e rhap s o n t h e i n s ide .Th i s , t oo , s e ems t o i n d i ca te a r e la t ive ly e a r ly o r ig in .2 0 We f o und n o p o t te ry b u t i ta ppea r ed t ha t t he v i l l a g e r s d i scove r ed m ed ieva l o b jec t s o n t h e s i te . I fs o , i t was p robab ly l o ng o ccup ied . U nde r t he p r es en t c i rcums tance s , h ow eve r , i t s h i s to ry w i l l r ema in u nknown , a nd i t s r ema ins u np lanned , f o r w e d ec ided t ha t t h e a moun t o f c l ea r ing n ece s sa ry t o p roduce a p rope r s urvey c ou ld n o t b e j u s t if i ed i nt e rms o ft h e t ime i n vo lved o r t h e l i ke ly r e su l t s . I fe x cava t ions a r e e ver c a r r ied o u t i n t h e a r ea , t h i s w a l led e nc lo sur e i sl i ke ly t o r e vea l ag r ea t d ea l o f i n te re s t f o r al o ng p e r iod o f h i s to ry .

Husar Bey

The v i l lage o f H i sa r B ey l i e s a bout 4 k i lome t re s s ou thw es t o f B ah t i l l i a t t h e e dg e o f t he p l a in . F o rmer ly c a l led H i sa r K öy ' Fo r t r es s v i l lag e ' , i ta pp ea r s t o o w e i t s m ode rn n ame t o t he G e rm iyan id c ommande r H i sa r B ey w ho , t og e the r w i th h i s p r inc e , Y akup I , was s en t i n to e x i le b y B ayez id Ii n 1 389 . T he s i te was v i s i t ed i n 1 894 b y J .H . Munro , w ho r e po r t ed : ' N ea r t h i s l a s t v i l lag e [ A s sa r K eu i ] a r e t wo r u ins , t h e o ne a l a rg e o b long e nc lo sur e i nt h e p l a in a bou t 8 0 y a rds l o ng b y 5 0 b road , t h e o the r ac a s t le o f w h ich b u t s l igh t t r a ce r ema ins , j u s t o u ts ide t h e v i l lag e .The v i l lag e s t ands a t t h e m ou th o f aw ooded g l en i n t h e s ou the rn h i l l s , a nd t h e c a s t l e mus t h ave d e f ended t h e e n t rance a nd t h e h i l l r oad o ve r t o D em i rd j i . ' 2' T he f i r s t o ft h e s e r u in s i se v iden t ly t h e c i r cu i t o f B ah t i l l i ; t h e o the r b a r e ly s u rv ives w he re Munro s aw i t .W e f o und t h e r ap id ly d i sappea r ing t r a ce s o f af o r t r es s o n t h e mode rn t r a ck w h i ch l e ads i n to t h e m ounta in s , b y as t ream a bou t ak i lome t r e a bove t h e v i l lag e . T he r ema ins c ons i s t o f as ho r t s t r e tch o f w a l l , a bou t 2 0m , w i th p a r t s o f t wo r ound t ow e r s , a nd a f r agmen t o f w a l l n ea r t he r oad w h ich s ugge s t s aw a l l g o ing b a ck a t a n o b tus e a ng le f r om t h e f i r s t , w i th p e rhaps a l a rg e t owe r o r e n t rance p ro jec t ing f r om i t . N e ighbour ing f i e lds c on ta in m any p i le s o f f i e lds tone s , o f ten w i th o ne f i a t f a ce , a nd p r e sumab ly d e r iv ing f r om t h e w a l l s . S urv iv ing s e c t ions a r e f a ced w i th r ough u nso r ted r ubb le w i th a g r ea t d ea l o f b roken b r ick , s ome t ime s a lmo s t s ur round ing t h e i n d iv idua l s t one s ; t h e m o r ta r i sg r ey a nd f r iab le , w i th a l ow p ropo r t ion o f i n c lus ion s . F igs . 1 06 , 1 07 . S i nce s po i l s a r e n owhere i ne v idence , t h i s was p robab ly n o t a n a nc ien t s i te . T he s e f r agmen ta ry r ema ins , f r om w h i ch n e i the r t h e s i ze n o r s hape o f t h e f o r t if i ca t ion c ou ld b e r e cons t ruc ted , d i d n o t j u s t i fy a s u rvey , b u t t h ey d i d p rov ide s ome i n fo rma t ion w h ich m igh t s ugg e s t ad a te . T he r ough m asonry w i th i t s f r equen t p i ec es o f r eus ed b r ick w ou ld b e a pp rop r ia te f o r al a te B yzan t ine p e r iod , p robab ly t h e t h i r teenth o r f ou r teenth c en tury , e i the r w hen t h e L a s ca r ids w e re mak ing aw idesp r ead e fo r t t o d e f end t h e i r t e r r i to r ies a ga in s t T urks o r L a t ins , o r w hen t h e l a s t B yzan t ine r u l e r s o f t he d i s t r ic t w er e a t temp t ing t o h o ld o u t a ga in s t t h e T u rks . P o t te ry o n t h e s i te t ends t o c onf i rm a l a te d a te : i tc ons i s ted o f t h i r teen th c en tu ry s g raf f ia to a nd T u rk ish g la zed w a re . T he p ro tec ted l o ca t ion o f t h i s f o r t r e s s , w ho s e m ed ieva l n ame i s u nknown , w ou ld s ugge s t t ha t i t was i n tended a s ar e fug e f o r i n hab i tan t s o ft h e n ea rby p l a in . I t w ou ld a l so h ave s e rved t o p ro tec t t h e e n t rance o f t h e p as sag e a c ro s s t h e m ounta ins i n to L yd ia ( wh ich n ow f o l low s ar ou te f u r the r w e s t ) , a nd c ou ld h ave b een a s u i tab le b as e f o r u nexpec ted ly a t ta ck ing a n e nemy p as s ing a l ong t h e h i ghway b y t h e r i ve r . I t may i n a ny c a s e b e t aken a s a n i l us t ra t ion o f t h e u ns e t t led d ay s o f c onf l i c t b e tween B yzan t ine s a nd T urk s . 2 0 . T he p oss ib i l ity o f a n e ven e a r l ier d a te m ight a r ise , f o r wa l ls o f t he t h ird c entury , t he t ime o f a ttack b y t he Goths , d i sp lay s im i la r c ha racter ist ics ; t he ir b u i lder s , h owever , w ere u sua l ly c a refu l t o s pa re t he a nc ient s i te a nd i t s monu ments wh i le t hose o f t he s eventh c entury t ended t o d i srega rd b oth a s t hey c r eated a n ew e nt ity a l together . T he p resent wa l ls c onform f a r b etter t o t he l a tter p er iod . F or t he t wo , s ee F os s a nd W inf ie ld ( 1985 ) p t .3 , c l . 2 1 . Munro ( 1897 ) 2 62 .

1 07

COUNTY OF E MET T he d i s t r i c t a dm in i s te r ed f r om t he t own o f Eme t f o rms t he c en t r e o f t he p ro v i nce , a nd i sc ompo s ed o f t wo q u i te d if e r en t g eog raph ica l a r ea s . T he w e s t ern p a r t i s h i gh ly moun ta inous , w i th p eaks r i s ing o ve r 2 000 m e t re s a nd c ove red w i th f o res ts , u su a l ly o f c on i f e r s . H e re , t h e ma in a g r icu l tura l d i s t r ic t c ons i s ts o f t he v a l ley o ft he Eme t c ay , o f ten v e ry n a r row b u t b roaden ing i np l a ce s t o ak i lome t r e o r mo r e , a nd t he l a nd w h ich s l opes d own t o i t . T he s t r eam w i th i t s t r ibu ta r ie s p rov ides t he s i te f o r mo s t o f t h e s e t t lemen t s . Eme t i t s e l f s t ands o n t he h i l l s a t t h e e dge o f t h e v a l ley a nd a ppa r en t ly o w es i t s o r ig in t o t h e a bundan t h o t s p r ing s w h ich a r e s t i l l i t s m a jo r a t t ra c t i on . T he t own c on ta ins n o a n t iqu i t ie s a nd a pp ea r s n o t t o h ave b een a n a nc ien t s i t e , t hough i t s b a th b u i ld ing s ( a s v i s ib le a c en tu ry a go ) may o r ig ina te i n t h e B yzan t ine p e r iod . 1 T he r e s t o f t h e c ounty , a dm in i s te r ed f r om t h e s ubd i s tr ic t o f O r enc ik , c on s i s t s o f h i l ly c oun t ry a nd a b road t r ee le s s p l a in p l anted w i th w hea t , w h i ch s t re tche s s ou theas t t o a nd p as t t he r u ins o fA ezan i . T he c oun ty c on ta ins o ne i mpo s ing f o r t r e s s a t Er igöz , t h e s i te o f as ma l le r , n ow v an ished f o r t a t H i sa r c ik , a nd t h e w a l ls w h i ch s u r rounded t h e t emp le o fA ezan i ; t he f o rme r a l one w a s s u rveyed a nd may b e r epo r t ed i nd e ta i l . Egr igoz

/Acrocus

T he m ed ieva l f o r t re s s o f Er igd z , w h ich i sr e la t ive ly w e l l p rese rved b ut r a r e ly v i s i ted , o ccup ie s t h e mo s t s pec ta cu la r l o ca t ion i n t h e p rov ince . F ig . 1 08 . I t s tand s o n as t eep r o ck w h i ch t owe r s a bove t h e g o rge o ft h e Eme t c a y( f o rme r ly k nown a s t h e Er igö z c ay ) i n as t ra teg ic l o ca t ion f o r c on t ro l l ing t h e n a tura l r outes a l ong t he r i v e r a nd a c ro s s t h e moun ta in s . T he v a l ley p rov ides t h e b es t r oute n o r th a nd s ou th t h rough t h i s p a r t o f P hryg ia , o f er ing a c ces s f r om G ed i z o r S imav t o t h e v a l ley o f t h e R hynda cus , t h e p l a ins o f Mys ia , a nd P rus a . . F ig . 1 09 . A no the r n a tu ra l r oute l e ad s d i r ec t ly w es t t o t h e v a l ley o f t h e S imav c a y which o f e r s ap a ra l le l r ou t e . S ince t h e c a s t le o f Er igö z h as l o ng s i nce l o s t i t s i mpo r tance , t h e r ou te w h ich i tc ommands h a s f a l len i n to d e sue tude , a nd t h e s i te i sa pp roa ched b y ad i r t r oad f r om Eme t , 1 2 k i lom e t r e s t o t he s ou thea s t . T he r oad n o r th i sn ow a n u n f requen ted t r a ck w h i ch l e ads t o a f ew v i l lage s ; t h rough t r af f i c n o l o ng e r e x i s t s . I n t h e p as t , h owever , t he s i tua t ion w a s much d if e ren t , a nd t he s i te a ppea r s t o h ave h ad c on s ide rab le s i gn if i cance . Er igö z a t t ra c ted s ome s cho la r ly i n te r e s t i n t h e l a s t c en tury b o th b ecaus e o f i t s s t r ik ing l o ca t ion a nd b ecaus e i tw a s c ons ide red a s ap o s s ib l e s i te f o r t h e Roman c i ty o f T iber iopo l i s . A cco rd ing ly , s ome o f t h e ma jo r e p ig raph i s ts a nd e xp lo re rs o f t h e t ime v i s i ted a d d e s cr ibed t h e s i te , f r om L e B as i n 1 844 t o B u re s ch i n 1 8 95 . Thre e o f t h es e a r e w o r th q uo t ing i nd e ta i l , f o r t h e d e sc r ip t ion s t h ey p rov ide c an h a rd ly b e b e t t e r ed . L E BAS ( 1 844 ) : P our s e r e ndr e d 'Ame th a E r igueuz , o n c ont inue a mon t e r d uran t q ue lque t emp s d ans l a d i r e c t ion d u n o rd -no rd -oues t ; p u i s , t r ave r san t u n p ays o ü l e s mon t i cu le s e t l e s r av ines s e s u c c edènt s an s i n te r rup t ion , o n a r r ive , a p rè s d eux h eu r es d e ma rche , au ne d es cen t e r ap ide q u i a bou t i t au n r u i s s eau t r ibuta i re d e l ' Ame th -Sou . Que lque s m inutes p l us t a rd , o n a t te in t l a r i ve d ro i te d e c e t te r i v i è r e q u i , a p r è s a vo i r t r ave r s e l a v a l lée d ans t ou te s a l o ngueur , af i n i p a r t r ouver u ne i s sue e n t re d eux mon tagnes ; ma i s c e t t e e au s i p a is ib l e e s t d evenue t o r r en t i mpé tueux , t an t l e p as sag e q u i l u i e s t o uver t e s t é t ro i t e t a b rup te , t ant e s t r ap ide s on c ou r s , t an t s ont f r equen t s l e s o bs ta c l e s q u ' i l r e ncon t r e . 1 . S ee Mo rdtmann ( 1925 ) 4 0 -44 f o r ad escr ipt ion o f t he t own a nd i t s b u i ld ings i n 1 852 .

108

O n s u i t e nco re q ue lque t emp s l e s s i nuo s i t és d e l a r i v i è re e t p a r c onsequen t l ef ond d e l ag o rg e q u i l u i s e r t d ' i s sue ; p u i s au n d e tour o n a pe rco i t u n i mmens e r o che r ap i e q u i d om ine t ous c eux d on t i le s t e n tour é , e ts emb l e c omme u ne mura i l l e g i gan tesque q u i f e rme l av a l lée . L a c ou l eu r , t an tô t r oug eâ t r e , t an tô t g r i s e e t m éme n o i re , d e c e t te g rande m a s se c omp l é temen t d épourvue d e v ég é ta t ion , s a p o s i t ion e x trao rd ina i re , s a f o rme b i za r re c on t ra s tan t a vec t oute s l e s a u t r e s c r ê te s d e mon tagnes q u i l ' avo i s inen t , p rodu i sen t l ' ef e t p i t to re sque l e p l us s auvag e , e t r epe l l ent , e n l e s s u rpa s san t , c e s c on t ra s te s f a n ta s t ique s q ue r e che r chent l e s C ice r i e tl e s D ague r r e d ans l e s d rame s d e R ob in d e s B o i s o u d e R obe r t l eD iab le . O n a vance e nco r e , e t , p a s san t s u r l ' au t r e F i ve a u i n oyen d ' un p ont e n b o i s s uspendu a u -des sus d e l ' ab Ime , o n r ema rque a d ro i te d u r o che r u ne g rande f i s sur e q u i ap l us d e c i nquan te m e t re s d ' é léva t ion , e t n ' a p a s as a p a r t ie i n f é r ieur e p l us d e q ua t re m e t re s d e l a rg eur . C 'es t p a r c e t te o uve r ture q ue s ' é lance l ' Ame th -Sou p ou r a l le r au ne d em i h ele p l u s l o in d ébouche r d ans u ne a u t re p l a ine o i ' i , s u ivan t t oute v ra i s emb lance , e le s ej e t te d an s l eR hynda cus . S u r l a g auche d u r o che r o n r ema rque u ne d ep r e s s ion q u i l e r é un i t a ux montagne s v o i s ine s e t s u r l es omme t d e l a que l le e s t b a t i l e v i l lag e d 'E r igueuz , ap l us d e 2 00 m e t r e s a u -de s sus d u r av in . O n y a r r ive p a r u ne mon tée t r è s -rap ide . L a c r e te q u 'o cdupe l e v i l lag e s ' aba i s s e d u c ô té d u n o rd , e t f o rme u ne p en te q u i s > a r r ê te t out ac oup e t d ev i en t u n p r ec ip ice a u f o nd d uque l g i s ent e n ta s sé s c on fus émen t d e s b l o cs é no rme s d é ta ché s d e s s omme t s v o i s ins , e t q u i s on t a u tan t d e b a r r ages q ue l e s e aux f r anch i s s en t a vec f u r ie . L 'a spec t d u c ô té o ppo s e n ' es t p as m o ms e x t rao rd ina i r e . T ous c e s i mmen se s q ua r t ie r s d e r o ch e r s , t ous c e s p i e s s i l loné s d e p ro fondes c r eva s s e s e td on t l e s d écoupur e s a f ec ten t l e s f o rme s l e s p l u s é t range s , c e s e aux q u i s e b r i s en t e n b ou i l l o nnan t c ont re l e s o b s ta c le s q u i l e s a r ré ten t o f ren t u n s pec ta c l e i mpo s an t e tt e r r ib le t ou t al af o i s , d on t l ' o e i l n e s ed é ta che q u 'avec p e ine . L ' é tab l i s s emen t d ' un v i l lage a s s ez c ons ide rab le d ans u ne c on t rée a us s i s auvage e ts u r u n p o in t d ' un a us s i d if i c i le a c cè s p a ra I t ra i t i n ei1 i c ab le , s iP on n ' ava i t l a c e r t i tude q ue c e l i eu a e u a n te r ieur emen t u ne i mpo r tance m i l i ta i re q ue s a p o s i t ion e xp l ique . C e p o in t f o rme e n e f e t u ne b a r r ie re i n f ranch is sab le e n t re l a v a l lée d 'Ame th e t c e l le o i i l ' Ame th -Sou v a g ro s s i r l e s e aux d u R hynda cus . C e r o che r i mmens e , a bo rdab l e d ' un s eu l c ô té , au ne f o rme q u i s e p r é te a dm i rab lemen t l ' é tab l i s s emen t d ' une f o r te r e s s e . T ou te l ap a r t ie i n f ér ieu re , j u squ 'à u ne h au teur d ' env i ron 5 0 m e t r e s , e s t c oupée p i e e t p a r fa i tement l i s s e . A u -de s su s e t s u r l e p our tou r r è gne a u n o rd e t aF e s t u ne b anque t te n a tu re l le , d ' une l a rgeur a s s ez r é gu l iè re d e 2m e t re s e nv i ron , e t a u s ud u n t a lus d ' env i ron 1 4 a1 5 m e t r e s , p rop re ar e cevo i r l e s e d if i ce s o ü p eu t s ' ab r i t e r u ne g a rn i son . A u n o rd e t aF es t s on t d e s c i te rne s c r eus ée s d ans l er o che r . A u -de s sus d e t ou te l ap l a te fo rme s ' é lève , au ne h au teur d 'au m o ms 2 5 m e t re s l a c r e te d écoupée e t i n a cce s s ib le d u r o cher . L e s c i te rne s d on t j e v i en s d e p a r l e r e t q ue lques r e dans , é ga lemen t t a i h lé s d ans h er o c , s on t l e s s eu l s i n d ices q u i p o r tera ien t ac r o i r e q ue c e l i eu a é t é o c cupé d ans l e s t emp s a nc iens , s ans q ue p our tant i ls o i t p o s s ib le d 'af f i rme r q ue d es c e t te é poque i la i t é t é mun i d e r empa r t s . L a m eme i n ce r t i tude n ' éx i s te p as p ou r h em oyen a g e . D e s mur s d e c e t te é poque , d ont o n v o i t e nco re d es r e s te s d u c ô té d u s ud , n e p euven t l a i s s e r a ucun d ou te s u r l ' ex is tence d ' un c hâ teau f o r t E r igueuz p endan t l e s d e rn ie r s s i èc le s d e l ' emp i re g r ec . O n n e p éné t ra i t d ans c e c hâ teau q ue d u c ô té d u v i l lag e , p a r u n e s ca l ie r d e c ons t ruc t ion b yzan t ine al ' i nt e r ieur , ma i s d on t l e s mur s e x té r ieur s s on t e n g ro s ma t t c ' r iaux e t o f ren t q ue lque r a s s emb lance a vec l e s m ur s a n t ique s aa ppa re i l s g ro s s ie r s e t i r r égu l ie r s ,

1 05

d 'o i i l ' on p our ra i t c onc lu re q u ' i ls a ppa r t iennen t u ne e nce inte r emon t an t a u mo m s al ' époque d e D io c lé t i en . B ien q ue c e t te f o r te re s s e s o i t d éman te lée d epu i s t r è s long temp s , l ' o rgue i l n a t iona l l a c ons idè r e c omme s ubs i s tant e nco r e , e t l ' of f i c i e r p répo sé as a g a rde n ' au ra i t j ama is c ons en t i an ous y l a i s s e r p éné t r e r s i n o t r e f i rman n e l u i e n e ü t f a i t u n d evo i r . I ie s t v ra i q ue d e s t r ad i t ions r é l ig ieus e s a j ou ten t e nco r e a u r e spe c t q ue l e s m usu lmans o nt p ou r c e s l i eux . A l ' ang le s ud -es t d e l a p la te fo rme o n r ema rque s u r u ne p a r t ie d u r o che r e n t iè remen t i s o lée P e s t e ta u s ud q ua tre t r a c e s l u isante s q u i n e p euven t ê t re q ue l er e su l tan t d u f r o t t ement f r equent d ' un c o rp s q u e l c onque c on t re l ap i e r r e . S ' i l f a u t e n c r o i re l e s T urcs , c e n e s e ra i t a u t r e c ho se q ue l e s v es t ig e s d es p i eds d e Mahome t q u i , d an s u ne d e s e s c our s e s m i ra cu leus e s , a ura i t f r anch i d ' un s au t l e p re c ip ice , a u f o nd d uque l c ou le l ar i v iè re e ts e s e ra i t a r r ê t é d ans c e l i eu o u i la ura i t l a i s s é c e t é t e rne i s ouven i r d e s on d i v in p a s sage . D ans l e v o i s inage e s t u n p e t i t s ap in a uque l l e s ma lade s v i ennen t a t ta che r d es b ande le t tes p our o b ten i r l e ur g u6 r i son .2 .

MUNRO ( 1 894 ) A s t h e r i ve r f l ows n o r th t h e v a l ley b ecome s n a r rowe r a nd s t eepe r , i t s s i de s m o r e p r ec ip i tous . A t E g r iguz a l ime s tone c rag , 5 00 f e e t i n h e igh t a nd c r owned w i th a r u ined c a s t le , b l o cks t he v a l l ey . U nde r t h e e a s te rn e nd o f t h i s c rag , a nd b enea th t r emendou s p rec ip i ce s o n t h e o ppo s i te s i de , t h e E g r iguz C ha i h as c ut an a r row g a t eway o n ly a f ew y a rds b road , k nown a s D em i r K apu . T h i s p ro jec t ing c rag i sn o t mo re t han 2 00 y a rds i nt h icknes s , a nd i sc onnec ted w i th t h e h i l ls o n t h e w es t b y as add le -shaped i s thmus , a s t r ide o fw h i ch i st he v i l lag e o f E g r i g uz . T he c a s t le i sB yzan t ine , b u t l i t t le i sl e f t o f i ts ave as t rong g a t e w ay o n t h e w e s te rn s i de , p ro tec t ing a s t eep s t a irway n ow i n r u in s . T h i s i st h e o n ly m eans o f a c ce s s t o t h e c r ag , a nd l e ads t o as he l f w h i ch r uns r i gh t a round t h e r o ck . A bove t h e s he l f ( wh ich i sa bout 1 00 f e e t h i ghe r t han t h e t own ) r i s e s a no the r c r ag , ac i tade l w i th in a c i tade l , w ho s e w e s te rn e nd b ea r s t r a ce s o f b u i ld ing . A m i le o r t wo n o r th o f E g r iguz t h e r i ve r pa s se s t h rough a s e cond r av ine , o n ly i n f er io r t o t h e D em i r K apu i n g randeur . T h rough t h i s w ooded h i l ls a r e v i s ib le i n t h e d i s tance , b u t t h e c our s e o ft h e r i ve r b e low i sc oncea led f r om v i ew .' BURESCH ( 1 895 ) E in v on Emed k ommende r Wander e r e r b l ick t d as D o r f z um e s ten Ma le e twa d r e i V ie r te l s tunden , b evo r e r e s e r re ich t : e s e r sche in t i hm a n e i ne r d a s T ha i p l ö tz l ich a b s ch l ie s s enden F e lswand a ngek leb t z u s e in . E ine V ie r te l s tunde s pä te r i s t m an a m r e chten U f e r d es i n s t a rk g ewundenem , f e l s ig em B e t te d ah in raus chenden A s sa rds chyk T s cha i a ng e lang t , u nd n un b i e te t s i ch d em A ug e e i n e benso s e l t sames a l s g r o s s a r t ig e s B i ld . W ie e i n g ewa l t ig e r R i eg e l s pr ing t v o r d e r B e rgwand d e s E g r ig jö z D agh i n d a s s chon s t a rk v e r eng te F lus s tha l e i n s e i ler F e l sg ra t v o r , w e lche r s i ch a n s e inem o s t l ichen E nde j äh a uf s te igend a l s s chrof e r K eg e l h o ch i n d i e L ü f te e r heb t , e i ne a n a l len S e i ten u ner s te ig l i che n a tur l iche F e l sburg . S e inen 0 -Fus s b e spü l t t i e f u n ten d er F lu s s , w e lche r s i ch h i e r d ur ch e i ne e her a l s S pa l te d een a l s S ch lucht z u b eze ichnende ö fnung z w i s chen d en s e nk r echt a u f s te igenden F e lswänden r e ch ts u nd l i nks b rausend h i ndur chzwäng t . A u f d em s c hma len R ücken 2 .

L e Ba s ( 1845 ) 3 28 -330 .

3 .

Munro ( 1897) 2 72 .

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d es F e l sg ra t s , w e lche r d i e s e s u ne r s türm l iche D éf i lé b i lde t , l i eg t d as D o r f E g r ig jö z , m i t s e inem 0 -Rand a n d i e Wu rze l d e s F e l skeg e l s g e lehnt . D er l e tz te re t r äg t d i e R u inen e i ne s m i t te la l te r l ichen C a s te l l s .4

•F rom t hes e d e s c r ip t ions , i ti so bv ious t ha t t h e s i te h ad as t ra teg ic i mpo r tance w h ich j us t if i ed c ons t ruc t ing as ub s tan t ia l f o r t re s s . S uch ap l a ce s hou ld h ave ah i s to ry , b u t t here a ppea r s t o b e n o r e co rd b e fo re t h e G e rm iyan id p e r iod . A l though i t s e a r l ie r n ame i s u nknown , o ne a t t ra c t ive s ugg e s t ion w h ich h as b een made w i l l l e nd i t s e l f t o d emons tra t ion a nd p rov ide i n fo rma t ion a bou t i t s m ed i eva l h i s to ry . I n 1 939 , E rns t H on igmann b r ief ly p ropo s ed t o i d en t i fy Er igö z w i th t h e B yzant ine A c ro cus , a nd p rom i sed f u r ther d i s cu s s ion i n s uppo r t . & A s f a r a s Ic an d e te rm ine , t h e l a te r t r ea t m en t n eve r a ppea red , b u t h i s s ugge s t ion i sa dequa te t o i n d ica te as o lut ion . A c ro cus a ppea r s o n ly t w ice i n h i s to ry , i n t h e n i n th a nd t h e t we l f th c en tur ies . A monk n amed Me l e t ius , w ho c omp i led a w o rk o n t h e n a tur e o f man , l i ved i n t h e m onas tery o f t he T r in i ty a t T ibe r iopo l i s ( h e re q ua l if i ed a s av i l lag e ) i n t h e b andon o f A c rocus w h ich f o rmed p a r t o f t h e O ps i c ian t h eme .6 T h i s m en t ion i n d ica ted t ha t A c rocus w as t he h eadqua r te r s o f a b andon , o r ma jo r s ubd iv i s ion o f at h eme .7 T he p l a ce t her e fo re h ad a n a dm in i s t ra t ive r o le w h ich n o d oub t r e f l e c ted s ome s t ra teg ic i mpo r tance , f o r t he s y s tem o f t h emes c on s i s t ed o f m i l i ta ry d i s t r ic t s w h ich h ad p owe r f u l f o r t if ica t ions a s t h e i r h eadqua r te r s . T he s ubd iv i s ions , l i kew i s e , w ou ld h ave b een b a s ed o n f o r t re s s es t os e rve ag a r r i son a sw e l l a s a dm in i s t ra t ive of i ce r s . A c ro cus i sh e r e a s so c ia ted w i th T ibe r iopo l i s , b u t d if e ren t ia ted f r om i t . T h i s c i ty , l o ng s ought , h as s t i l l n o t b een l o ca ted , b u t s cho la r s a r e i ng enera l a g r eement t ha t i tw as i n t h e r eg ion o f Eme t ; t h e mo s t p robab le s i tes a r e H asan la r a nd H i sa rc ik , b o th t o t h e s ou th . 8 D i scus s ions h ave b een b as ed o n H ie ro c les a nd t h e r e su l t s o f e xp lo ra t i on , w i th t h e p re sen t t e x t o f Me le t ius n o t u s ed . I t may t h e r e fo r e b e t aken t o i n d i ca te i n ag enera l w ay t ha t A c ro cus , t oo , s t ood i nt h e n e ighbourhood o f Eme t . I n t h e t ime o f Me le t ius , A c ro cus w a s w e l l w i th in t h e f r on t i e r s o f t h e B yzan t ine e mp i re , b u t w hen i tr e appea r s i nh i s to ry , i nt h e r e ign o fA l ex ius C omnenus , t h e s i tua t i on h ad c omp le te ly c hanged . T hen , a l w e s te rn A s ia M ino r l a y o pen t o t h e a t ta cks o f t h e Turks w ho f o l low ed n ume rous r ou te s f r om t h e p l a teau t o d eva s ta t e t h e f e r t i le p l a ins o f t h e c oas ta l r e g ion . I n o ne s uch c ampa ign , i n 117 , t h e T u rks l a unched t wo a rm ies , o ne w h ich a t ta cked t h e c i t ie s o f t h e Mys ian p l a in , a dvanc ing t o t h e r e g ion o f P o emanenon ( Manya s ) w he re i t d e f ea ted a B yzan t ine f o rce s en t i n p e r su i t ; a nd a no ther w h ich moved t h rough t h e C a i cus v a l l ey a f t e r p l unde r ing t h e T road . T he e mpe ro r h ims e l f d e c ided t o d ea l w i th t h e s e cond g roup b y t ak ing as ho r t c u t o ve r t he Mys ian O lympus t os u rp r i s e t h em a s t h ey a dvanced . H e d e s cended f r om t h e moun ta in t o A cro cus , w here h e c augh t t h e T u rks i n t h e r i ve r v a l ley . T hey t ook r e fug e i n t h e r e eds wh ich g r ew a l ong t he b ank s b u t f e l l i n to t he h ands o f t h e e mpe ro r w hen t h e r e eds w ere s e t o n f i r e . Meanwh i le , t h e o the r T u rk i sh f o r ce a pp roa ched , made a n a t ta ck a nd k i l led t wo B yzan t ine g ene ra l s b e fo re f i na l ly b e ing d e f ea ted . T he g ene ra l s w e re t aken n ex t t o a n o l d f o r t . g T h i s a rmy h ad c ome u p f r om C h l ia ra i nt h e C a icus v a l ley , a nd f ound t h e e mpe ro r c amped b e tween A c ro cus a nd P h i lade lph ia i n av a l ley l a rge e nough t o h o ld s e ve ra l a rm ie s .1 0 A l though s ome o f t h e p l a c es m en t ioned c anno t b e i d en t if i ed a nd s ome d e ta i l s a r e f a r f r om c l ea r , i ti se v iden t t ha t A c ro cu s w as i n a

4 . B uresch ( 1898 ) 1 49f . 5 . H on igmann o n H ieroc les 6 68 .9 . G . C ramer ( 1836 ) 1 1 .1 . F o r t h e d a te , s e e L eo Med icus 9 . 7 . T he d es igna t ion o f ap la ce b y t he n ames o f v i l lage ,

b andon a nd t heme a ppea r s t o h ave b een a r egu la r B yzant ine

s ys te m : s e e t he e xact ly p a ra l le l c a se o f A tyokome i n t he b andon o f L ampe i n t he Ana to l ic t heme , w here S t . L uke t he S ty l ite w a s b o rn i n8 79 , d i scus sed b y R ober t ( 1 962 ) 3 57f . , w ith f u r ther r e f erences . 8 . S ee b e low . 9 . A nna C omnena X IV .6 .2 ; t h e w o rd e mp loyed i s

n c sX c s iox c 'p Io i i wh ich c ou ld m ean a n o l d p l a ce , t ha t i s , a n a nc ient

s i te , a s w e l l a s a n o ld f o r t ; u se o f X O 'POV a s ' f o rt ' i sc l as s ica l a nd c ommon . 1 0 . A nna Comnena X IV .5 -6 . Is ha l l d i scus s t he t opog raphy i n mo re d eta i l i n a no ther c ontex t .

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l o ca t ion w h ich w ou ld c o r re spond w e l l w i th t ha t o fE g r igö z . A lex ius r e a ched i tb y d es c end ing f r om Mt . O lympus ; h e c ou ld e a s i ly h ave d one s o b y f o l low ing t h e n a tura l r ou te s w h ich l e ad t o t h e v a l ley o f t h e Eme t c a y . L ikew i se , t h e T urk s w ere r e tu rn ing f r om P o emanenon , a nd c ou ld h ave f o l low ed a r ou te a l ong t h e R hynda cus , w h i le t h e o ther T urks , a dvanc ing f r om C h l ia ra , w ou ld h ave c r o s sed t o t he Ma c e s tus v a l l ey a nd p a s sed S imay . T he n a t u ra lr ou t e s w h ich l e a dt o th e r e g i o n o f Eme t w ou ld e xp la in t h e c i r cums tance s o f t h e b a t t le a nd t e nd t o s uppo r t al o ca t ion o f A c ro cu s o n t h e b road v a l ley o f t h e Eme t c a y , which in i t s u ppe r r ea che s c ou ld i n deed h o ld s eve ra l a rm ies a nd i si n p a r t s t i l l ma r shy . T he s t ream p a s s e s t h e c a s t le i n ag o rg e , b ut i tb ecomes much b roade r a bove a nd b e low a nd i sw e l l c u l t iva ted ; t h i s w ou ld h ave b een as u i tab le a r ea f o r t h e T urks t o h i de i nt h e r e eds . F ina l ly , t h e ' o ld f o r t ' w ou ld c o r r espond t o t h e c a s t le o fE g r igö z ; t h e re i sn o o the r i nt h e n e ighbou rhood . T he i d en t if i ca t ion o f A c ro cus a nd Er igö z , w h ich n a tura l ly s ugg e s ts i t s e l f f r om t he se p as sage s f i nds s uppo r t i nt h e mode rn n ame . A l though Er igö z h a s am ean ing i n T urk i sh , ' s qu in t -eyed ' , a nd c ou ld p l au s ib ly b e ap l a ce n ame n o t d e r ived f r om G r eek , t he s im i la r i ty o f t h e t wo n ame s i ss t r ik ing . I n f a c t , Er igöz may b e c ons ide red a s a n e a sy T urk ic iza t ion o f t h e B yzan t ine n ame i n a n e fo r t t o g i ve i ts ome m ean ing . T he e v idence t hus c onve rg es t o r i ake t h e i d en t if i ca t ion h i gh ly p robab le . I tw i l l b e a c cep ted h e re . A lex ius o ccup i ed t h e a r ea o f h i s v i c to ry , a nd a ppo in ted a m i l i ta ry g ove rno r . S ubs equen t ly , A c rocus i s n eve r m en t ioned , b u t t h e n ea rby T iber iopo l i s r ema ined a b i shop r ic t h rough t h e t we l f th c en tury . I ti st h e r e fo r e p robab le t ha t t h e d i s t r ic t w a s r e ta ined b y t h e C omnen i a nd l o s t t o t h e T u rks i nt h e c hao s w h ich f o l lowed t h e i r f a l l . I n mo s t c a se s , p l a ces w h ich w e r e i mpo r tan t u nde r t h e B yzan t ines r ema ined s o f o r t h e f i r s t c en tur ie s o f T urk i sh r u le ; Er igö z i sn o e x c ep t ion . U nde r t he G e rm iyan ids , i t f o rmed p a r t o f t h e d ow ry g i ven t o t h e O t toman s u l tan Murad Ii n 1 38 1 , a l ong w i th K ü tahya , S imav a nd T av an l i . T he c on t ex t i n d i ca te s t ha t i tw a s t hen c ons ide r ed o ne o f t h e ma jo r f o r t r e s s e s o f t h e p r inc ipa l ity . 1' Y e t i t s g r ea te s t a nd mo s t c u r ious r e nown d er ives f r om a n e ven t i n t h e f i teen th c en tury , w hen f o r t he o n ly t ime t he c a s t l e may b e a s so c ia ted w i th a f i gu re w ho s e f ame h as r e a ched e verywhe re . I n 1 444 , t h e s u l tan Murad I c ap tur ed V lad D ra cu l , p r ince o f Wa l la ch ia a nd h i s t wo s ons , V lad a nd R adu . T he p r ince was s oon r e lea s ed o n ap rom i s e t o b e l o ya l t o t h e s u l tan , b u t h i s s ons w e re s en t t o b e i mp r isoned i n E g r igö z i n t h e p rov in ce o f G e rm iyan . T he f o rme r was r e lea sed i n 1 448 , b u t h i s b ro the r r ema ined i n T u rk i sh h ands . I t i st h e e l de r b ro the r w ho g i ve s s ome d ub ious r e nown t o t h e c a s t le , f o r h e e ven tua l ly b ecame o ne o f t h e mo s t r e pu l s ive mona r chs o f h i s to ry , V lad T epe s , ' t he I mpa le r ' , w ho s e p erver se c r ue l t i e s made h i s n ame t h e s ub jec t o f h o r ro r t h roughou t E urope a nd e ven tua l ly g a ined h im t h e r epu ta t ion a nd s ob r ique t o f D ra cu la , t h e v amp i r e p r ince .1 2 T he r ea f te r , Er igö z a ppea r s t o p l ay n o r o le i n h i s to ry , b u t i t s r ema ins s u rv ive i ns uf i c ien t q uan t i ty a nd s t a te o f p r e se rva t ion t oj u s t i fy ad e s c r ip t ion a nd s u rvey . T he c rag o n w h ich t h e c a s t le was b u i l t i sd e ta ched f r om t he s t e ep s l ope o f t h e v a l ley b y p r ec ip i tous c l if s o n t h e n o r th , s ou th a nd e a s t , a nd c an o n ly b e a pp roa ched f r om o ne n a r row s po t o n t h e w e s t , a d ja cen t t o t h e v i l lage . T he u ppe r p a r t o f t h e r o ck r e s emb le s ah a t , w i th t h e c r own r e p re s en ted b y t h e b a re f a ce o f r o ck , a nd t h e b r im c o r r espond ing t o t h e n a r row t e r ra ce w h ich w as s u r rounded b y w a l ls . F ig . 1 08 T he se w a l l s a c ted l i ke a n i n ne r d e f ens ive r i ng a bove t h e s t eep s l ope w h ich l e d d own t owa rd t he r i ve r ; h e r e , t h e d e f ences w e re n a tu ra l , s upp lem en ted b y o n ly o ne t ow e r n ex t t o t h e r i ve r a t ap o in t w he re t h e h i l l s ide w ou ld b e v i r tua l ly i mpo s s ib le t o s c a l e . T he i n ne r c i rcu i t o f e r s f ew p ecu l ia r i t ie s , b u t t h e d e f ence s o f t h e e n t rance w e re q u i te e l abo ra te , c ons i s t ing o f as o r t o f b a rb ican a nd ah eav i ly d e f ended p a s sag e t h rough af i s sure i nt h e r o ck w h ich l e ads t o t h e u ppe r t e r ra ce . A ma s s ive p ro jec t ion , r ough ly t r iangu la r i ns hape , w i th c urved s i des , f o rms t h e f i r s t d e f ence s e ncounte red a s t h e c a s t le i s a pp roa ched f r om t h e w e s t . F ig . 1 10 I t 1 . Aikpa azade , c ap .50 . 1 2 . A l lkpalazade c ap .113 ; c f .

t he modern s o mewha t f anc ifu l a ccount o f Mc Na l ly a nd F lorescu ( 1972) 3 8f , w ith s o me

n ot i mp laus ib le s pecu la t ion o n t he t r ea t ment t he b oys r e ce ived a t t he h ands o f t he ir c aptors .

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1 13

c ons i s t s o f ap la t fo rm f a ced w i th l a rg e g ran i te b l o cks e v iden t ly f a l l en f r om t he h i l l ; q uan t i t ie s o f s uch s t one s a r e v i s ib le a l l a round t h e e dg es o f t h e c rag i n d i ca te t ha t t h e ma te r ia l i s h i gh ly f r iab le a nd v u lne rab l e t o e a r thquakes . T he s t on e s a re r ough ly c our s ed a nd s e t i n g r ey i sh mo r ta r w i th s ma l l i n c lus ions a nd l i t t le b r i ck . The m o r ta r o f t he s u r fa ce e v iden t ly c on ta ined a g ood d ea l o fs and , f o r mo s t o f i th a s e roded a way t o l e ave l a rg e g ap s b e tween t h e s t ones . Af ew s po i l s a ppea r i n t he f a c ing , a nd l a rg er s qua red s t ones a r e u s ed a s q uo ins a t t h e a ng le s . O ne c o rne r h as b een r epa ired w i th s ma l le r s t ones s e t i n ad a rke r mo r ta r w i th ah i ghe r p ropo r t ion o f i n c lu s ions . Ac o r e o f mo r ta red r ubb le l i e s b eh ind t h e f a c ing a nd s uppo r ts t h e f l a t t op o f t h e p la t fo rm . A t p res en t , t h e d e f ens ive s ys tem i su nc lea r : t h e w a l l h a s n o l o opho les a nd t h e u ppe r p a r t i sb a re , b u t w ou ld p r e sumab ly h ave c onta ined ac r ene l la ted p a rapet t os upp lemen t t h e d e f ence s o f t he h i gh w a l l o f t h e e n t rance g a te b eh ind . S ince t h is p a r t i sc l o ses t t o t h e v i l lage , i th as b een mo s t v u lne rab le t os t one r obb ing . T h i s o u two rk p robab ly c ont inued e a s twa rd t o j o in t h e s t eep f a c e o f t he c r ag , b u t i sb roken a way j u s t b e low t he e n t rance g a te . T he p o in t a d ja cen t t o t he b r eak c on ta ins a n o pen ing w i th ab r ick v au l t w h ich a ppea r s t o r i se a t a n a ng l e . F ig . 1 11 I t i s p o s s ib le t ha t t h e s e a r e t h e r ema in s o f a n i n te rna l s t a i rway w h ich l e d u p t o t h e p r es en t e n t rance . I n t ha t c a s e , t h e a pp roa ch t o t h e c a s t le w ou ld h av e b een d if i cu l t , i n vo lv ing a t l e a s t t wo r i gh t turns , b u t i t s d e f ence s e a sy . I ti sa l te rna t ive ly p o s s ib le t ha t t h e r e w a s a mo re n o rma l g a te i n t h e p a r t o f t h e w a l l n ow m is s ing , i mmed ia t e ly b e low t h e s hee r r o ck f a ce . I ft ha t i ss o , t h e o pen ing m igh t h ave r ep r e s ented a g ua rd p o s t o r p o s te rn . T he d e s c r ip t ion o f L ebeau , h oweve r , f a vour s t he f i r s t p o s s ib i l i ty , f o r h e n o te s [ s ee a bove [ t ha t t h e c a s t l e w a s e n te red b y as t a i rway o f B yzan t ine c on s t ruc t i on o n t h e i n te r io r , w i th e x t e r io r w a l l s o fl a rge b l o cks w h ich a r e p la in ly t h is o utwo rk . T he i n ne r g a te , a bove a nd b eh ind t h e o u two rk , c ons i s t s o f ab roken a rch a tt h e b ase o f ah i gh w a l l w h ich b l o ck s a nd t ake s a dvantage o f an a tura l o p en ing i n t he r o ck . F ig . 1 12 R ema ins o f t h e b r i ck v au l t ing o f t h e a r ch , v i s ib l e o n t he e as t f a ce , a pp ea r t o s how t wo p er iods o f c ons t ruc t ion : ah i ghe r i n ne r a r ch s e t i n ab rown i sh g rey m o r ta r w i th s ma l l i n c lus ions a nd af a ce w i th t r a ce s o f as omewha t muddy s ur fa ce mo r ta r ; a nd af l a t te r o u te r a r ch w i th w h i te mo r ta r a nd ah i gh p ropo r t ion o fi n c lus ion s , mo s t ly p eb b l e s . T h i s a r ch i so ut l ined i n b r ick . T ra ce s o n t h e w e s t f a ce , h ow eve r , whe r e t h e v au l t ing i sm i s s ing , a r e n o t s o c l ea r . I ta ppea r s i na ny c a s e t ha t t he o r ig ina l w a l l w as r e in fo rced b y t he f a c ing n ow v i s ib le . T h i s i sc ompo s ed o f mo r ta red r ubb l e w i th s ome s po i l s , a r rang ed i n r ough c ou r s e s , t he s t one s b ecom ing s ma l le r i n t he u pp e r p a r t . T he w a l l w as c ove red w i th a c oa t o f r ough p i nk mo r ta r w i th m ed ium i n c lu s ions o f s t one a nd b r i ck . I tw as d e f ended f r om t wo l o opho le s s i tua ted a bou t t wo m e t r es a bove t h e t op o f t h e g a te , o ne o f t hem a r ched o n t h e i n te r io r , t h e o the r as imp l e s l i t . I n al a te r p e r iod , t h e w a l l w a s a ga in r e fa ced , w i th ar ough m ix tur e o f f i e lds tone s a nd l a rge b r i ck f r agmen t s i n as o f t f r iab l e w h i te mo r ta r . T he n ew f a ce w as b onded t o t he w a l l b y s qua r e w ooden b eams w ho se e fo r t s w e r e i nv a in , f o r t h e p oo r ly c ons t ruc t ed f a c ing h as f a l len a way , l e av ing b eams p ro jec t ing f r om t h e e a r l i e r w a l l . T he g a te l e ads t o as t eep a nd n a r row p as sag e b e tween t he b a r e f a c e o f t he r o ck a nd t he i n s ide o f t h e w a l l . F ig . 1 13 T he w a l l i sc ompo s ed o f s ma l l r ubb le , r ough ly a r rang ed w i th t h e f l a t f a ce s o u twa rd a nd c l o se j o in ts f i l l ed w i th s tone s ; m or ta r , w h e re v i s ib le , i sc r umb ly a nd s andy w i th f ew i n c lus ions . T he p a s sage w as o nc e c omp l e te ly c ove red w i th a f i a t r oo f o f b r icks , s e t i nb e tw een t h e w a l l a nd t h e r ock f a c e . S urv iv ing p a r t s h ave b r icks w h ich v a ry c ons ide rab ly s i ze a nd s hape ; s ome a pp ea r t o h ave b e en n ew w hen l a id a nd h ave a d i agona l r ak ing , b u t e ven t h es e a r e t h ick a nd p oo r ly m ade . A l l a r e s e t i n ac oa r s e s andy m o r ta r w i th ah i gh p ropo r t ion o fi n c lus ion s . T he p a s sag e l e ads o ve r as t eep a nd n a r row l e dge i n to a v au l t w h ich f o rms t he s ub s t ruc tur e o f a t owe r a nd t h e e x i t t o t he ma in p a r t o f t h e c a s t le . T he v au l t g radua l ly t u rns u n t i l i t h as made a r i gh t a ng le , a nd i sf a ced w i th b r icks , many o f t h em n ew w i th d iagona l s t r ia t ions , w i th much r eus ed b r ick b eh ind ; t h ey e mp loy a g r ey ish b rown mor ta r w i th s ma l l i n c lus ions a nd n o b r ick f r agmen t s . T he t owe r w h ich s t ands a bove t h e e nt ranc e p a s sage w a s t he m o s t s t ra teg i c i n t he c i r cu i t , f o r i tc over ed t h e o n ly p ra c t icab le a pp roa ch t o t h e c as t le , a nd n ow o ve r l o oks t h e v i l lag e f r om c ons ide rab le h e igh t . A s s u ch , i tb ea r s ad eco ra t ion o f b r ick

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b ands , u n ique a mong t h e u nd i s t ingu i shed ma sonry o f t h i s c as t le . F ig . 1 15 T he t owe r c on s i s ted o f ar e c tangu la r c hambe r s uppo r ted b y t h e v au l t o f t h e e n t rance p as sag e . I t c on ta ins t r a ce s o f t wo s p layed e mb rasu re s c ove r ing t he n o r thwes t a nd s ou thwes t a pp roaches ; t h ey a ppea r t o h ave b een a bou t 1 m50 h i gh . T ha t o n t h e n o r thwe s t w as l a t e r b locked w i th s t one s . T he c hambe r h ad w a l l s o f r ough mo r ta r ed r ubb le w i th l a rg e g aps p a r t ia l ly f i l led w i th b r i ck a nd s t one , s e t i nb rown i sh g r ey mo r ta r w i th s ma l l i n c lus ions . S u rv iv ing p a r t s o f t h e o u te r n o r thw es t w a l l a r e f a ced w i th w e l l a r rang ed f i e lds tones a nd t wo b ands o f t h r ee b r ick c our s es , c ompo s ed o f am ix tur e o f n ew a nd r e u s ed b r ick s e t i n r ough r ow s w i th i n cons i s ten t s epa ra t ions . T hey r un a t t h e l e ve l o f t h e b o ttom a nd t op o ft h e e mb ra su re . F rom h e re , t h e w a l l c on t inue s a round t h e t e r ra ce i nv a ry ing s t a te s o fp r e se rva t i on . Th i s t e r ra ce , a s n o ted , e nc i r c l es a s hee r r o ck f a ce w h ich , a c co rd ing t o t h e mo re a g i l e v i l lag e r s , b ea r s r ema ins o f as qua re s t ruc tur e . We d i d n o t a t temp t t o s ca le t h e r o ck , b ut v i ewed i tf r om t h e v i l lag e a nd g a ined a n i mp re s s ion o f w a l l s . I t i s mo s t p robab le t ha t aw a tch towe r s t ood o n t h e s umm i t , w h ich may h ave b een mo r e a c ces s i b l e i n t he M idd le A g e s , f o r r o ck i sc on s tan t ly s hea r ing o f t h e f a ce , a nd t h e s hape o f t h e c rag g radua l ly c hang ing . T he t e r ra ce i s mode ra te ly w ide o n t h e s ou th s i de , w i th a s l op ing a rea 1 0 -15 m e tr e s b ack f r om t h e w a l l s a nd a l low ing r oom f o r s t ruc ture s w h ich h ave n ow e n t i r e ly d i sappea r ed . O n t h e n o r th , h oweve r , i ti se x t r eme ly n a r row , r a re ly e x c eed ing t wo m e t re s , s o t ha t t h e a r ea w as s u i tab le o n ly f o r c i s te rns a nd p a t ro ls . T he w e s t s i de , o ve r t he r i ve r , i sb roade r , a nd o f e r s as t eep b ut u sab le s l ope w h i ch e x tend s 7 5m o r mo r e b e low t h e w a l l s . On t h e s ou th s i de , t h e w a l l s r un a l ong t he s t eep p r ec ip ice ; t h e i r i n ne r f a ce i s f i led w i th d eb r is a nd t h e o u te r i n a c ces s ib le . T hey a r e c ons t ruc ted o f ac o r e o f r ubb le f a ced w i th r ough ly c ou r s ed f i e ld s tone s a nd h ave a n o ccas iona l s l igh t ly p ro jec t ing t ow e r . Th i s w a l l t e rm ina te s i n ar e c tangu la r t owe r w h ich f o rms t h e s ou theas t c o rne r o f t he f o r t if i ca t ions . F ig . 1 14 I ti sf a ced w i th c ou r s ed s ma l l r ubb l e w i th v e ry l i t t le b r i ck a nd c on ta ins s ome s e c t ions w i th r andom ly a r ranged s ma l l f i e ld s tone s w h ich a ppea r t o r e p re s en t r e pa i r s . L a rg e r s t one s , a ppa rent ly i n c lud ing s ome s po i l s , a r e u s ed a s q uo ins . I n t he u ppe r s e c t ion , w he r e t h e c o r e i se xpo s ed , many s t one s a r e l a id a t a 4 5 a ng le i mmed ia te ly b eh ind t h e f a c ing . T he s moo th g ran i te f a ce b eh ind t h i s w a l l c on ta ins s eve ra l s ha l low w a te r c hanne l s c u t i n t h e s u r fa ce , e v iden t ly l e ad ing t o s ma l l c i s terns . T he se c hanne l s a r e p robab ly t h e t r a ce s o f t h e f o o tp r in t s o f Mohammed w h ich h i s g u ides i d en t if i ed f o r L e B a s . The b es t p re s e rved s e c t ion o f t h e c i r cu i t i st he e a s t w a l l w h i ch c ove r s t he l o ng s l ope d own t o t he r i ve r . F igs . 1 16 , 1 17 . T h i s r uns f r om t h e t owe r j u s t d e s cr ibed t o a s im i la r s t ruc tu re o n t h e n o r thea s t c o rne r , a nd c ons i s ts o f aw a l l b end ing a t o b tus e a ng les t o f o l low t h e c on tour s o f t h e h i l l a nd o ne p ro jec t ing t owe r w h i ch w ou ld o f e r f l ank ing f i r e a l ong t h e w ho le s e c t ion . Masonry o f w a l l s a nd t owe r s i sc ons i s ten t , w i th a n o uter f a c ing o f w e l l -cou r s ed a nd p a r t ia l ly s qua red f i e lds tone s o f s im i la r s i ze s . I n s ome p la ce s , a dd i t iona l c our s ing h a s b een p rov ided b y r ow s o f f l a t s t one s , b u t b r ick i s n o t i n e v idence , e xcep t f o r o ccas iona l f r agmen t s . T h i s i sa l l s e t i n t h e u sua l b rown i sh g r ey mo r ta r w i th s ma l l i n c lus ions w h ich c on ta ined a h i gh p ropo r t ion o f s and a nd h a s c ons equen t ly d i sappea r ed i n mo s t p l a ce s . S ome s e c t ions s how p a tch ing w i th aj umb l e o f s ma l l s t one s a nd b roken b r ick , u sua l ly i n ad a rke r mo r ta r . T he i n ne r f a ce i sl e s s c a r e fu l , w i th s ma l le r s t one s r ough ly s e t i n as o f t g r ey s andy mo r ta r w i th a h i gh p ro p o r t ion o f i n c lus ions . B eams a r e p r e s e rved i ns ome p l a ces , b u t t h e r e a r e f ew , i fa ny , t r a ce s o f s y s tema t ic c r ibwo rk . T he p ro jec t ing t owe r c onta ins av au l ted s t one c hamber w i th n o o pen ing s w h i ch p r e sumab ly s e rved t o s uppo r t a n u ppe r d e f ens ive c hambe r w h ich h as d i sappea red . F a r b e low , a t t h e e dg e o f t h e s t eep d rop t o t h e r i ve r , i s as ho r t s t r e tch o f w a l l w h ich a ppa ren t ly f o rm ed p a r t o f al ow e r c i r cu i t . I t s e l emen t o f g r ea t e s t i n te re s t i sa t ower , n ow i s o la ted , w h i ch s t ands a bou t 3 0m a bove t h e s t r eam . I ti se n te r ed f r om t h e w e s t s i de t h rough a n a r ch f a ced w i th a n i r regu la r m ix tur e o f b r ick a nd s t one . O the r w i s e , i t s m asonry a nd m o r ta r a r e c ons i s ten t w i th t ho s e o f t h e e a s t w a l l . T h i s a r ch l e ads t o ac hambe r w i th a n e mb ra su re c ove r ing t h e r i ver . I n i t s f l oo r i st h e e n t rance t o al ong t unne l w h ich g i ve s a c ce s s t o as e cond t ower a t t h e b a s e o ft h e h i l l , b es ide t h e '

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s t r eam . A cco rd ing t o t h e v i l lage r s , t h i s t unne l was o nce l i ned w i th b r icks , w h ich t h ey h ave l o ng s i nce r emoved f o r u se i n t h e i r o vens . T h i s t ow er , w h ich r e s emb l e s t he o th e r s , was e v ident ly d e s igned t o p ro tec t t h e r ou te a l ong t h e s t r eam a nd t o p rov ide a c ce s s t o as our ce o ff r e sh w a te r ; i t was b o th p o s te rn a nd w a te r t owe r a nd a dded s t reng th t o t h e d e f ences b y c ove r ing t h e p a r t s o f t h e v a l l ey w h ich c ou ld n o t b e s e en f r om t h e u ppe r w a l l s . Wa te r mus t a lways h ave b een a p rob l em i n t h i s f o r tres s , f o r t he mo s t n ume rous s t ruc tur es v i s ib le w i th in i t s w a l l s a r e c i s te rns . T ho se o n t h e s ou th s i de a ppea r t o h ave b een q u i te s ma l l , b u t t h r ee o n t h e n o r th w e re s ub s tan t ia l ly l a rg e r . T he f i r s t o f t h es e , n ea r t h e n o r thea s t c o rne r a nd a bou t 3 0m b a ck f r om t h e w a l l , c on t a ins t r a ce s o fw a l l ing i n av e ry r ough mo r ta r ed r ubb le s e t i n ap i nk b r i ck m o r ta r w i th v e ry s ma l l i n c lus ions . I tw a s a ppa ren t ly f a ced w i th b r ick s o n t h e i n s ide , a nd s t ood i n c u t t ing s i n t he r o ck . T he s e cond , i nt h e m idd le o ft h e n o r th s i de , i sm o r e i mpres s ive , w i th h eavy r ubb le w a l l s c ove r ed w i th p i nk mo r ta r a nd l i ned w i th b r ick w h i ch i n t u rn b o re a l a ye r o f f i ne p i nk h ydrau l ic m o r ta r . T h i s s u r rounded al a rge n a tu ra l h o l low o n t h e r o ck w h ich i ss t i l l f i l led w i th w a te r . A cco rd ing t o t h e v i l lage rs , t he r e was as p r ing h e r e u nt i l ar e cen t e a r thquake . Ab i t f u r ther o n i sa no the r s im i la r s t ruc tur e o f r ubb l e s e t i n ac oa r se g r ey mo r ta r a nd c ove r ed w i th t wo l a ye r s o f p ink mo r ta r : t he f i r s t , a bou t 5 cm t h ick , c onta ins many b r i ck f r agmen t s ; i tf o rms t h e b ase f o r t h e i n ner l i n ing o f f i ne h ydrau l ic mo r ta r a bout Y 2c m t h i ck . T h i s w ho le n o r th s i de w as p ro t ec ted b y a c on t inua t ion o f t h e c i rcu i t w a l l b u i l t a l ong t h e t op o f t he p r ec ip ice a nd n ow h i gh ly d e lap ida ted . Whe r e i ts urv ive s , i tr e s emb le s t h e r e s t , b u t h as r a ther m o r e b r ick t han u sua l i nb o th f a c ing a nd c o r e o n t h e n o r theas t s i de . T he f unc t ion o f t h i s c a s t le i sn o t d if i cu l t t od e te rm ine : i t was i n tend ed t o p ro t e c t p as sag e a l ong t h e r i ve r , a nd t o c ove r t h e j unc t ion o ft he n a tura l r ou t e s w h ich m e t a t t h e s i te . S ince i t may b e i d en t if i ed w i th A c ro cu s , i tw ou ld a l so h ave p l ayed t he r o l e o f a n a dm in i s t ra t ive c en t r e a nd a b as e f o r t h ema t ic t r oop s . D a t ing t h e w a l ls , h ow e ve r , i s ap rob l em . F o r t h e mo s t p a r t , t h ey o f e r n o c ha ra c te r is t ic s w h i ch may b e a s so c ia ted w i th o ne p e r iod r a ther t han a no the r ; t h e c onc lus ions r ea ched h e re , t h e r e f o r e , w i l l n eces sa r i ly b e t e n ta t ive . T he re i sn o d oub t t ha t mo s t o f t he c i r cu i t i st h e w o rk o f o ne p e r iod . Wa l l s a nd t owe r s a l ike e mp loy t h e s ame m asonry o f c ou r s ed f i e lds tones , f i ne r o n t he o u t e r f a ce , l e s s c a re fu l o n t h e i n ne r , a nd a u n i fo rm b rown i sh g r ey mo r ta r w i th f ew i n c lu s i ons . N e i the r f a c ing n o r mo r ta r make s much u s e o f b r ick . T h i s mason ry c ha ra c te r i s e s t he w ho le u pper c i rcu i t . B r ick a ppea r s i n t h e t unne l l e ad ing t o t h e w a ter t ow e r a nd i nt he s qua re t owe r o ve r t h e e n t rance , b o th o fw h ich c on fo rm t o t h e g enera l s t y l e . I n t h e l a t te r , i ta ppea r s i n t h e f o rm o f b ands w h i ch a do rn a m asonry o the rw ise c on s i s ten t w i th t h e r e s t . B y a na logy w i th K ü tahya a nd o ther f o r t re s ses , t h e b ands s hou ld i n d ica te a d a te f r om t h e n i n th o r t we l f th c en tury , w i th t he f o rmer p e rhap s mo r p rob a b le s i nce t he b r icks a r e l a id i n r ough f a sh ion w h ich a l so a ppea r s i n t h e w a l l s o f M icha e l I I a t N ica ea ( t hough t h e e xamp l e o f K i i tahya s ugg e s t t ha t t h e r e c ou ld b e much v a r ia t ion i nt h e t e chn ique o fl a y ing b r i ck ) . D if e ren t m asonry a ppea r s i nt h e e n t rance g a t e a nd t h e o utwo rk b e low i t . T he o u two rk u s e s l a rg e s t ones w h ich a t f i r s t s i gh t r e s emb l e w o rk o ft he D a rk A g e s . I t s u s e o f as im i la r mo r ta r , w ho s e s andy a gg rega te h as c aus ed i tt o e r ode , s ugg e s t s , h oweve r , t ha t i ti sc on tempo ra ry w i th t h e u pp e r c i r cu i t . Ma sonry a nd mo r ta r o f t h e o pen ing a nd p o s s ib le c ove r ed s t a i rway w ou ld s e em t o c on f i rm s uch a s uppo s i t ion . T he w a l l a round t h e g a te s how s t h r ee s t ag e s o f c ons t ruc t ion : a n e a r l ier w h ich a ppea rs t o c o r r espond w i th t he ma in c i r cu i t ; t h e s e conda ry a r ch a nd ma in f a ce , e v id en t ly a l a te r r e in fo r cemen t , a nd t h e o u te r f a ce w h i ch h as m o s t ly c o l lap s ed . I ft he a na ly s i s o f t h e g a te i s c o r rec t , t h e ma in c i r cu i t w ou ld b e e a r l i e r t han a ny s urv iv ing r e pa i r , a nd r e p res ent t h e p r ima ry s t ruc tu re o f t h e f o r t r es s . I t w ou ld h ave u nde rgone a ma jo r r e pa i r w hen t h e n ew f a ce w a s a dded t o t h e g a te , a nd o ne o r mo r e l a te r r epa i r s r e p r es en ted b y t he o u te r f a ce a nd v a r ious s e c t ions o f p a tch ing . T hes e s e em t o r e p re s en t t wo p er iods : t h e p a tch ing , w h ich u s e s ad a rk mo r ta r a nd a m a s s o f s ma l l s t one s ; a nd t h e o u ter f a ce , w i th w h i te mo r ta r a nd a r andom m ix tur e o f b r ick a nd s t one .

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O f t hes e p er iods o fc ons t ruc t ion , t he f i r s t may b e j udged B yzan t ine b y i t s t yp i c a l u s e o f ac o r e a nd f a c ing , a nd b y t h e b r ick b ands o f t he e n t rance t owe r . T he s e cond , l i kew i s e , a ppea r s B yzan t ine b y i t s u s e o f ap i nk s he l te r c oa t , a nd b y t h e a r ch o u t l ined i n b r ick . T he m o re r andom ma son ry o f l a ter r e pa i r s , o n t h e o the r h and , h a s mo r e r e semb lance o fT u rk i sh w o rk , p e rhaps C e rm iyan id o r e a r ly O t toman . E s tab l i sh i n g ad a te f o r t he B yzant ine w o rk i sn o t s imp le , s i nce s o l i t t le l e nds i t s e l f t o c om p a r i son w i th o ther w a l l s . T he ma in c i r cu i t , a s n o ted i nt h e c a se o f t h e e n t rance t owe r , c ou ld b e o f t h e n in th o r t we l f th c en tu ry . L a ck o f c r ibwo rk m igh t i n c l ine j udgemen t t owa rd t he f i r s t p o s s ib l i ty , a s w ou ld t he a ppa r en t f a c t t ha t t he re a r e n o e a r l i e r w a l l s o n t h e s i te . H i s to r ica l c i r cums tance s , t oo , w ou ld s e em t o f a vour t h e e a r l ie r d a te , f o r t h e b andon o f A c ro cu s , h eadqua r te r s o f t h e d i s t r ic t Me le t ius l i ved , w as i n a l l p roba b i l ty f o r t if i ed . I t may t hus b e i d en t if i ed w i th t h i s c i rcu i t . When A lex ius C omnenus f o ugh t t he T u rks a t A c ro cus , h i s t wo g ene ra l s , d e ta ched f r om t h e i r t r oop s , w e re c augh t a nd k i l led n ex t t o a n o l d f o r t . T h i s a lmo s t c e r ta in ly i n d ica te s t ha t t h e p re s en t f o r t r e s s w as t h en a bandoned ( i t w a s n o t u s ed b y e i the r s i de d ur ing t h e c ampa ign ) , a s m igh t b e e xpec ted a f t e r al o ng p e r iod o f p ea ce w h i ch h ad f o l lowed t he t ime o f M e l e t ius . H e re , t oo , i se v idence o f w a l l s s t and ing l o ng b e fo r e t h e t we l f th c en tury . T h ey s hou ld b e long t o t h e ma in c i r cu i t s i nce e a r l ie r w a l l s a r e l a ck ing . I f t he ma in w a l l s a r e o f t h e n i n th c en tury , t h e o ther s t ag e s a r e n eces sa r i ly l a t e r . A p robab le t ime f o r r e cons t ruc t ion w ou ld b e t h e r e ign o f A lex ius , w ho s e t u p a m i l i ta ry d i s t r ic t i n t h e r e g ion , o r o f h i s s ucce s so r s , w ho w e r e c once rned t o p ro tec t t h e B y zant ine f r on t ie r l a nds a ga ins t t h e r a ids o f t h e T urks . T he r ebu i ld ing o f t he ma in g a t e , t he re fo r e , c ou ld b e a t t r ibuted t o t h e t we l f th c en tu ry . I t may w e l l h ave b een p a r t o f a more e x tens ive p rog ram o f r e cons truc t ion w ho s e t r a ce s h ave b een l o s t w i th t he d i sappea rance o f t h e u pper p a r t s o f w a l l s a nd t owe r s . T he l a s t s t ag e s a r e p robab ly T u rk i sh . A l though much i sh ypo the t i ca l i n t h i s c hrono logy , s t ag e s o f c ons t ruc t ion i n t h e n i nth a nd t w e l f th c en tu r ies w ou ld c o r re spond t o k nown h i s to r ica l c i r cums tance s , a nd w ou ld a c co rd w i th t h e t ype s o f m ason ry u s ed , t hough b y i t se l f t h e m asonry w ou ld n o t s uppo r t a ny p r ec i s e d a t ing . P o t tery f o und w i th in t h e w a l l s w a s o f t h e l a te r p e r iods , w i th g r een s g raf f ia to o f t h e t we l f th a nd t h i r teen th c en tur ie s , t u rquo i s e g l a zed w a r e o f t he t h i r teen th , ' M i l e tus w a re ' o f t h e f i teen th o r s i x teen th , a nd s he rd s w i th a m ix ed g la ze w h ich c ou ld b e a s l a te a s t h e s e ven teen th c en tury . T hes e f r agmen ts r e f l e c t t he l a te B yzan t ine o ccupa t ion , a nd i t s c on t inua t ion w e l l i n to t he O t toman p e r iod .

H isarc ik ( T iber iopo l is !) The s ma l l t own o f H i sa r c ik s tands a bove t h e Eme t c a y , j u s t o f t h e modern r o ad f r om Eme t t o S imav , a bou t 1 2 km s ou th o f t he f o rme r . I to ccup ie s ar i s e , s ome w ha t c i rcu la r i n s hap e , w h i ch a ppea r s t o b e t he n a tu ra l s i te f o r af o r t if i ca t ion . H i sa rc ik i so ne o f t h e s i tes p ropo s ed f o r T ibe r iopo l i s , f a vour ed b ecaus e o f i t s l o ca t ion a d ja cent t o af e r t i le p l a in a nd o n ama in r oad ; b u t d ef in i te p roo f h as b een l a ck ing . 1 3 We made n o a t temp t t o i n ve s t iga te t h e q ue s t ion o f T ibe r iopo l is , b u t d id v i s i t t h e t own b ecaus e o f i t s n ame w h ich m eans ' l i t t le f o r t ' . We f o und t ha t t he s i te c o r r e sponded t o t h e n ame , w i th a s i ze a nd s hape w h i ch w ou ld b e i d ea l f o r aw a l led e n c lo sure , b u t t ha t n o r ema in s w e re s t and ing . C onve r sa t ion w i th t h e l o ca l s c onf i rmed t ha t n o th ing w as n ow v i s ib le , b u t d i d r e vea l t ha t i nt h e p as t t h e re h ad b een t r a ce s o f w a l l s . Th i s s i te may t h e re fo r e b e l i s ted a s ap la ce w h ich h ad a f o r t re s s , p e rhaps m ed ieva l , w ho se r ema ins c ou ld o n ly b e d i s cover ed b y e x cava t ion . E x i s tence o f w a l l s m igh t i nd ica te s uf i c ien t i mpo r tance i n t h e M idd l e A g e s t o s uppo r t t he i d en t if i ca t ion w i th T iber iopo l i s w h ich r e ta ined i t s s t a tus a s ab i shop r ic t h rough t h e t we l f th c en tu ry .

1 3 . S ee t he d i scuss ion o f W. Ruge i n RE

A 1 1 . 7 90 -792 ( 1936 ) .

1 17

Aezan i

F rom a l l p o in t s o f v i ew e xcep t t ha t o f t h e p r e s en t s t udy , A ezan i i sb y f a r t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t s i te o f t he r e g ion , w i th i t s r ema rkab ly p re s e rved t emp l e o f Z eu s , i t s c opy o f t he e d i c t o f D io c l e t ian , a nd i t s w ea l th o f p ub l ic b u i ld ings o f R oman d a t e . T he se a l l a t te s t a n i mpo r tan t a nd f l our i sh ing s e t t l emen t u nde r t he R oman s w h ich c on t i nued t o L a te A n t iqu i ty . T her ea f ter , t h e p l a ce s ank i n to a n o bscur i ty o n ly p a r t ia l ly r e l ieved b y i t s p r e sence i n t h e l i s t s o f b i shop r ic s , w he re i ta ppea r s c on s i s tent ly u nde r t he n ame A zano i t h rough t h e t w e l f th c en tury ; a f te r t h e n i n th , i t was p a r t o f t he s ma l l d io ce s e o fH ie rapo l i s w h ich c omp r i sed t h e o the r c i t i es o ft h e r e g ion . T he a nc ient n ame l o ng s urv ived u nde r t h e f o rm S a zano s , m en t ioned i n d o cumen t s o f t h e s i x teenth c e n t u ry a s as ubd i s t r ic t ( nah iye ) o f K ü tahya , w i th a s ubo rd ina te v i l lag e c a l led H i sa r i c avda r . Owne r sh ip o f t h e p rope r ty i n q ue s t ion c ou ld b e t r a ced b a ck t o t he t ime o f Murad I ,t o i n d ica te t ha t i t was p a r t o f t h e d ow ry o f h i s d augh ter in law i n 1 38 1 . ' S a zano s , t he re fo re , was i n e x i s tence u nde r t h e G e rm iyan ids , a nd was s t i l l a n a dm in i s t r a t ive c en t re i n t h e s i x teen th c en tury . T he n ame S a zano s i sn o t Tu rk i sh a nd p l a in ly d er ived f r om t he B yzan t ine A zano i i n t h e a c cu sa t ive e i s A zanou s , w h i le H i sa r i ça vda r r ep re s en t s t h e mode rn n ame o f t h e s i te . A ezan i , l i ke o the r s i t es h er e c on s i der ed , t hus c on t inued t o r e ta in s ome i mpo r tan ce i n t h e f i r s t c en tu r i e s o f T u rk i sh r u le , t hough t he mode rn n ame h ad a l r eady c ome i n to e x i s t ence , p robab ly t o r e f e r t o t he r u ins a round t h e t emp le . A ezan i i st h e s i te o f a ma jo r e xcava t ion u nde r t h e d i rec t ion o fP ro f . R udo l f N aumann , w ho i si n t he p ro ces s o f i n ve s t iga t ing a nd p ub l i sh ing t he m onument s o ft h e c i ty . Among t h e s e i s an ew ly d i scove r ed f o r t if i ca t ion w a l l , w h i ch P ro f . N aumann w a s k ind e nough t o s how t o o u r t e am . A l though many t r ave l lers h ave v i s i ted a nd d e sc r ibed t he s i te s i nce t h e e a r ly n i ne teen th c entu ry , n one h ad m en t ioned wa l l s , a nd s ome h ad e ven r ema rked o n t h e i r a b s ence . T he p r e s en t f o r t if i ca t ion s w e re f ound b y e xcava t ion ; t h ey s t and l e s s t han t wo m e t re s a bove t h e i r f o unda t ion s a nd w e r e l o ng o bs cur ed . E s s en t ia l ly , t hey c on s i s t o f ar e in fo r cem en t o f t h e p e r ibo lo s w a l l o f t he t em p l e o f Z eus , b y t h e a dd i t ion o f c i rcu la r t owe r s f a c ed w i th s po i l s a nd r ubb l e , w i th l i t t le o r n o b r ick . F rom t h e i r a ppea rance , t h ey w ou ld b e B yzan t ine , p erhap s o f ar e la t ive ly l a te d a te . T he d e s c r ip t ion a nd c h rono logy o f t h e s e w a l ls w i l l b e w o rked o ut b y t h e p re sen t e xcava to r s a nd p rope r ly p ub l i shed ; u n t i l t h en , t h e i r e x is tence i sm e re ly n o t ed h ere a s p a r t o f t h e r e co rd o fm ed ieva l f o r t if i ca t ion s i nt h e p rov ince .

1 4 . Va r l ik ( 1974 ) 6 1 n .2 , 6 2 ; c f .

12 , wh ich n ames a nother v i l lage , H i sa rc ik , a s s ubo rd inate t o S a zano s .

1 18

COUNT IES OF TAVS ANLI AND DO MAN I Thes e t wo c oun t i e s c omp r i s e t h e n o r the rn p a r t o f t h e p rov ince , al a rge a r ea o f b roken c oun t ry d om ina t ed b y moun ta ins w h ich r i s e g radua l ly t owa rd t h e f o o th i l l s o f t h e Mys ian O lympus . F r equen t r i ve r s w ind t h rough t h e h i l l s a nd moun ta in s t o p ro v i de f e r t i le v a l leys f o r s e t t l emen t a nd a g r icu l tur e , a nd t he c oun t ry o cca s iona l ly o pens i n to p la ins , o f w h ich t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t l i es a round t h e t own o f TAVSANL I . T h i s l o ca l c ap i ta l s t ands a t t h e j unc t ion o fn a tu ra l r ou te s w h ich l e ad e a s t a nd w e s t b e tween K i i tahya a nd B ur sa o r t h e p l a ins o f Mys ia , a nd n o r thwa rd o ve r t h e f l anks o f M t . O lympus t o I n egö l a nd t h e p l a ins o f B i thyn ia . A t p res en t , t h e t own a ppea r s t o c on t a in n o t ra ce o f a n t iqu i t i e s , a nd o ur i n qu i r ie s f o r r ema ins o f ac a s t le w e r e f r u i t les s . T he re i s , h owever , ar ema rkab le t ü rbe , o r t omb , o f A s lan B ey , b u i l t n ex t t o t he ma in m o sque i n 1 432 i n as t y l e w h ich s o c l o s e ly r e s emb le s t h e B yzan t ine t ha t i tc ou ld a t f i r s t s i ght b e m i s taken f o r am ed i eva l C h r i s t ian b u i ld ing : i tb ea r s ad eco ra t ion i nb r ick w h ich s t r ik ing ly r e s emb l es w o rk o f t h e L as ca r id o r P a la eo logue p e r iod .1 5 S uch m a sonry s ugge s t s t ha t m ed ieva l b u i ld ing s o nce e x i s ted t o b e i m i ta ted , a nd t h ere i se v i d ence t ha t t h e s i te e x i s ted a nd w as f o r t if i ed a s e a r ly a s t h e f o ur teen th c entury . T av an l i i sm ent ioned i n 1 381 a s o ne o f t h e f o r t r es s e s w h ich t h e p r ince o f C e rm iyan c e ded t o Mu rad Ia s p a r t o f t h e d ow ry o f h i s d augh te r i n 1 381 . 16 I tw as t hus a m a jo r f o r t re s s o f t h e s t a te , a nd p r e sumab ly e x i s ted e a r l ie r . I ti sl i ke ly , t h e r e fo re , t ha t t h e t own c on ta ined a m ed ieva l c a s t le , p robab ly B yzan t ine , w h i ch h a s n ow d i sap p ea red . The o n ly f o r t if i ca t ion w h i ch w e c ou ld l o ca te i n t h e s e d i s t r ic t s o ccup ie s a r emo te h i l l top a bove t h e v i l lage o f S ARUHANLAR i n t h e c oun ty o f D oman ic . T he v i l lage l i es 8 km w e s t o f t h e ma in r oad f r om T av an l i t o D oman ic , a nd i sr e a ched f r om a j unc t ion a bou t 2 5 km n o r th o f t h e f o rme r . T h i s i s af a i r ly o pen c ount ry o f h i l l s a nd l ow p la teaus c u t b y s t r eams w ho s e v a l leys s uppo r t v i l lag es a t a ve rag e i n te r v a l s o f f i ve k i lome t r e s o r l e s s . S a ruhan la r l i e s b enea th a l o ng f o re s ted b u t te w h ich r i s e s a bout 1 00 m e t re s a bove t h e v i l lag e t o r e a ch ah e igh t o f8 00 m . F ig . 1 18 A t f i r s t s i gh t t he h i l l c on ta ins n o s i gn o ff o r t if i ca t ions , a nd f ew s po i l s a r e v i s ib le i nt he v i l lag e . N eve r the les s , w e made t h e s t eep c l imb f r om t h e s t ream b ed u p t h e s l ope s t o d i s cove r r ema ins w ho s e e x i s tenc e w e h ad l e a rned f r om t h e T urk i sh 1 : 200000 map ; a s f a r a s I c an d eterm ine , t h i s s i te h as n eve r b een n o ted o r v i s i ted . The v i ew f r om t h e h i l l top i se x t ens ive , w i th r i ve r v a l leys i nt h e f o r eg round a nd h i l l s a nd moun ta ins s t r e t ch ing o f i n e very d i rec t ion . W i l low s a nd p op la r s l i ne t h e e x t ens ive ly p l an ted s t r eam b eds w h ich s ur round t h e h i l l o n t h r ee s i de s . I ti si s o la ted f r om t he n e ighbour ing h i l l s , w h ich h ave w hea tf i e lds a nd g ra z ing l a nd a l ong t he i r s l ope s a nd o n t he b road f l a t t op s w h ich t h ey o f ten s uppo r t . N ume rous v i l lag e s l i e a l ong t h e s t r eams , s ome o f t hem a ppa r ent ly q u i te l a rg e , s o t ha t t he a r ea , h ow eve r r emo te , s up p o r t s as ub s tan t ia l p opu la t ion . Mo s t o f t he n e ighbou r ing h i l l s a r e o f a bou t t he s ame h e ight , b u t t he l a nd g radua l ly r i s e s i n t h e d i s tance , mo s t n o tab ly t owa rd t he n o r th w he re t he f l anks o f M t . O lympus ( U lu D a) a r e c l ea r ly v i s ib le , t hough t he s umm i t c ou ld n o t b e s e en . The f o r t if i ed p a r t o f t h e h i l l i sl a rg e , p e rhap s 4 00 b y 3 00 m e t re s . I t s n o r th a nd s ou th s l opes a r e p r ec ip i tous a nd n eeded n o d e f ence , b u t t h e e a s t a nd w e s t s i des o f e r p o s s ib le a pp roa che s , a nd w e re t hu s b l o cked . T he mo s t s ub s tan t ia l w a l l i so n t h e e a s t s i de , whe re t he h i l l top e x tends a c ons ide rab le d i s tance b eyond t h e w a l l s . T he l a rg e e n c lo sed a r ea i s mo s t ly c ove r ed w i th s c rub o ak a nd e ve rg r eens w h i ch t h e v i l lage r s s a id w e r e p lanted i n t he l a s t f ew y ea r s f o r t h e c onven ience o f t h e i r c a t t le . F ragmen t s o f b r ick a nd r ubb le a r e s c a t te red a round t he h i l l top t o s ugge s t t ha t i to nce c on ta ined n ume rous b u i ld ing s , b u t mo s t a r e n ow s hape le s s p i le s . O ne , a t t h e h i ghe s t p o in t , a ppea rs t o h ave b een as ma l l r e c tangu la r s t ruc tur e , p e rhap s q u i te h i gh , t o j udg e f r om 1 5 . S ee t he d escr ipt ion a nd i lus t ra t ion o fA yverd i ( 1972 ) 5 39f . 1 6 . A 1 ikpa a zade , c ap .

5 0 .

1 19

t he a moun t o f s t one p i led a round . I t may h ave b e en aw a tch tower . C oa r s e r ed c ook i n g w a r e w as v i s ib le h e re a nd t he r e b u t n o o the r p o t te ry w a s f ound . T he s i te w a s l a rge a nd v i s ib i l i ty w i th in i t p oo r b ecaus e o f t h e v eg e ta t ion . S ince t h e w a l ls w e r e l a rge ly o ve rg rown a nd n o r ema ins w i th in c ou ld b e c l ea r ly i d en t if ied o r p l o tted , w e d ec ided t ha t ad e ta i led s urvey w ou ld b e i n app rop r ia t e , a nd c oncentra ted i n s tead o n p roduc ing as ke tch p lan a nd d e s cr ip t ion .

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T he f o r t if i ca t ions h ave t wo d i s c re te s e c t ion s , as ho r t s pur o n t h e w e s t , a nd a l o ng e r a nd mo r e e l abo ra te ly d e f ended w a l l o n t h e e a s t . T he w e s t wa l l c u t s o f t he e nd o f t h e p en insu la , w h ich h e r e c ont ra c t s t o an a r row p o in t o ve r t he c onf lu ence o f t wo s t reams . I td ef ine s t he c ont inuous p a r t o f t h e h i l l top , s epa ra t ing i tf r om ap ro jec t ing t ongue o f l a nd s ome d i s tance b e low a nd a ppa r en t ly i n a cce s s ib le . T h i s s ho r t w a l l , w h ich h as t wo s qua re t owe r s , i s b u i l t w i th a f a c ing o f l a rge f i e lds ton e s c a re fu l ly a r rang ed i nr ough c our se s w i th t h e i r f l a t s i des o u twa rd o ve r ac o re o f mo r ta r ed r ubb l e ; i tu s es a w h i te mo r ta r w i th s ma l l b l a ck i n c lus ions b u t n o b r ick . F ig . 1 20 . N o t r a ce o f w a l l s c ou ld b e f o und o n t h e l o ng n o r th a nd s ou th s i de s o f t he h i l l , w h i ch a r e s o s t eep t ha t t hey p robab ly n eve r n eeded t o b e f o r t if i ed . T he e a s te rn w a l l i st h e l o ng e s t a nd m o s t c omp l ex p a r t o f t he f o r t r e s s , f o r i t d i v ided t he h i l l top i n t wo , l e av ing al a rg e f l a t a r ea w he r e a n e nemy c ou ld c oncent ra t e h i s f o rces o ut s ide i t s c i r cu i t . C ons equen t ly , i tw as mo re h eav i ly b u i l t a nd w a s r e in f o rced w i th s e ve ra l t owe r s a t r e gu la r i n te rva l s . F ig . 1 19 . Mo s t o f t he t owe rs a r e U s haped , b u t o ne i ss qua r e . Wa l l a nd t owe r s a l ike a r e f a ced w i th w e l l -cou r s ed r ubb l e a nd u s e s ome g r ey t o w h i te mo r ta r w i th s ma l l i n c lus ions . I n s ome c as e s , t h e t owe r s h ave a mo r e r e gu la r f a c ing o f f l a t f i e ld s tone s , b u t o the rw i s e c o r respond t o t he r e s t . T owe r s a nd w a l l a r e b onded , a nd s how n o i n d ica t ion o f r e bu i ld ing ; t he w ho l e f o r t r e s s a ppea r s t o b e o f o ne p e r iod . T he i n ne r f a ce o f t h e w a l l h a rd ly d if er s f r om t h e o u te r , e xcep t t ha t t h e s t ones a r e s ome t imes l e s s c a r e fu l ly l a id . I mmed ia te ly b eh ind t he w a l l

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i s as e r ies o f s ma l l c hamb er s , w a l led i ns t one a nd r unn ing i t s w ho le l e ng th . A l though i t i st emp t ing t o s e e t h em a s p a r t o f t he d e f ences , p e rhaps q ua r te r s f o r ag a r r ison , t hey u s e d ry w a l l s a nd mo s t p robab ly r e p r e s en t mode rn s t ruc ture s b u i l t f r om t he i mmed ia te ly a va i lab le s t one s o f t he w a l l , p e rhap s s heep fo lds . T he w a l l s a r e r e la t ive ly w e l l p r eserved b ecaus e , a c co rd ing t o t he v i l lag er s , t h e r e i sn o r oad u p t he h i l l w h ich w ou ld e nab le t hem t o t ake t he s t one s . When s uch a r oad i sb u i l t , t hey w i l l p robab ly s oon d i sappea r . The w a l l s o f S a ruhan la r , a s u sua l , p rov ide n o e v idence f o r d a t ing . T he i r ma son ry e xh ib i t s n o d i s t inc t ive s t y le , n o r w a s d a tab le p o t te ry s e en . I t n eve r the les s s e em s p robab l e t ha t t h i s i s ar e fug e s i te o f t h e D a rk A g e s . I to ccup ies as u i tab le l o ca t i on , o n as t eep a nd e a s i ly d e f ens ib le h i l l top i n t he m ids t o f ar e g ion w h i ch n ow s up p o r t s n umerou s v i l lag e s . I tc ou ld t hus h ave s e rved a s ac onven ien t r e fuge f o r s eve ra l s e t t l ements , a nd h as t h e a dd i t iona l a dvan tag e o f b e ing i n v is ib le f r om b e low . T ha t i s , a l though t he h i l l i s aman i f es t l a ndma rk a bove t h e v i l lag e , n o t r a ce o fi t s w a l l s may b e s e en s i nce t hey c r o s s t h e h i l l top r a the r t han f o l low i t s c on tou r s . S uch ac oncea led s i te w ou ld h ave b een d oub ly v a luab le . T he r ema ins a r e s u i tab le t o t h i s p er iod : t h e w a l l s l a ck c ha ra c te r i s t ic s w h i ch w ou ld i n d i ca te a n e a r l i e r o r l a ter d a te , a nd t h e i r p l a in s t onewo rk r e s emb le s t ha t o f o the r s i te s w h ich h ave b een a t t r ibu ted t o t he t ime . I t may t hus b e t aken a s a no the r e xamp le o f t h e m eans b y w h ich t h e p opu la t ions o f P h ryg ia ( and o ther p a r t s o f A na to l ia ) p ro te c ted t h em s e lves f r om t h e t u rmo i l o f i n va s i on s , a nd o f t h e c ond i t ions w h i ch p r eva i led i nt h e c oun t ry t h rough l o ng c entur ies .

1 7 . S ee F oss a nd W inf ie ld ( 1985 ) p t .3 , c l .

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C O NCL USI O NS : REGIO NAL DEFENCES OF THE MIDDLE AGES T h i s s urvey h a s p re s en ted c a s t le s w e l l d i s t r ibu ted i nt ime a nd s pa c e f r om t h e s even th c en tury t h rough t h e f i teen th a nd f r om e v e ry p a r t o f t he p rov ince b u t n o t p a r t icu la r ly t h ick o n t h e g round : w e h ave i d en t if i ed t h e s i te s o f t h i r t e en i n a n a r ea o f 1 2000 s qua re k i lome t r es w h i ch s t r e tche s a bou t 1 40 k i lome t re s n o r th t os ou th a nd o ve r 1 00 e as t a nd w es t . N eve r the le s s , t h ey s hou ld p rov ide ma te r ia l f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e m ed ieva l d e f ens ive s y s tem o f t h e r e g ion , a nd g i v e s ome i n d ica t ion o f i t s s e t t lem en t p a t te rn t h rough al o ng p e r iod . F o r t h e s e p urpo s es , t h e f unc t ion a nd c h rono logy o ft h e c as t les n eed t o b e c ons ide red . F o r t if i ca t ions , b y t h e i r v e ry n a tu r e , p e r fo rm t h e m i l i ta ry f unc t ion o f d e f ence , b u t t he i r s i ze a nd f o rm may i n d ica te t h e r e la t ive i mpo r tance o f t he m i l i ta ry a nd a low t he a t ten t ion d evo t ed t o t h e a rmy o r t h e c i v i l ian p opu la t ion t o b e a pp ra i sed . T he p rov ince o f Kü tahya o f e r s e xamp le s o f a l l k i nds o f c a s t l es , r ang ing f r om t he p u r e ly m i l i ta ry t o t h e p r ima r i ly c i v i l ian . T he w a l l s o fK i i tahya c on ta in e xamp le s o f b o th : t h e u pper f o r t r e s s w i th i t s e l a b o ra te d e f ence s a ppea r s d e s igned a s t h e b a s e f o r al a rge g a r r i son , w h i l e t he c i v i l ian s e t t lemen t w a s d e f ended b y t h e s ma l le r c i rcu i t o f t h e L owe r C i ty Wa l l . L a ter , t h e f o r t r es s b ecame f u r the r s pec ia l i s ed , w i th a dm in i s t ra t ive o f i c ia l s i n t he C i tade l , a nd s o l d i e r s i n t h e ma in e nc lo sure . I n f unc t iona l t e rms , i t s w a l l s w e re t ho se o f ama jo r m i l i t a ry b a se , a n a dm in i s t ra t ive c en t re a nd a t own . Er igö z , o n t h e o the r h and , s e em s t o h ave h ad n o a ccommoda t ion f o r ac i v i l ian p opu la t ion , b u t t o h ave b e en d e s igned f o r a b ody o f t r oops . I tf unc t ioned a s t h e h eadqua r te r s o f ab andon , o r m i l i ta ry d i s tr ic t , a nd o wed i t s i mpo r tance t o t h e r oad w h ich i tp ro tec ted . I t w as t hus , l i ke Kütahya , a g a r r i son b ase a nd a dm in i s t ra t ive c en t r e , a nd may b e c ons ide r ed a l so a s ar oad c a s t le . Kayse r K a le , u n ique i nt he p rov ince , h ad t h e p u re ly m i l i ta ry f unc t ion o f ab ea con s t a t i on : i t s s ma l l s i ze a nd r emo te l o ca t ion s ugg e s t t ha t t h i s wa s i t s s o le p u rpo se . A t t he o the r e x t reme a r e t h e r e fuge s i te s o f A l t in ta§ a nd S a ruhan la r . T he b u i ld ing s a nd s t ree t s o f t h e f o rme r s how t ha t i tw as p r ima r i ly i n tended t o p ro te c t a c i v i l ian p opu la t ion , a nd i t s l o ca t ion i n d ica te s t ha t t h e p eop le w ou ld h av e c ome f r . jm a w ide a g r icu l tura l d i s t r ic t . T he s i te a nd c ha ra c te r o f S a ruhan la r s ugg e s t t ha t i tp e r f o rmed a s im i la r f unc t ion . H i sa r B ey , s i tua ted a t t h e e dg e o f af e r t i l e p la in b u t s l igh t ly h i dden f r om t h e ma in r ou tes o f i n va s ion , m ay h ave b een o f t h e s ame n a tu r e . I t s l o ca t ion s ugge s t s t ha t i tw as a l so i n tended t o p ro t ec t ar oad . The s ma l l f o r t r e s s o f B ah t i lh s e ems a na logous , i fs omewha t d if e ren t . I n s tead o fp rov id ing r e fug e f o r al a rg e d i s t r ic t , i ta ppea r s t o h ave b een t h e d i rec t s ucce s so r o f a n a nc ient s e t t l ement w h i ch s t ood o n t h e s ame s i te a nd p rov ided t h e ma te r ia l f o r i t s w a l l s . L ikew i s e , t he w a l l s o f A ezan i , w h ich i n c lude o n ly t h e t emp le p r ec inc t , may b e t aken a s r e p r e sent ing t h e d ra s t ic r e duc t ion o f a n a nc ien t s e t t lemen t i n t h i s c a s e , ac i ty w i th ar e la t ive ly l i m i t ed a r ea f o r r e fug e . T he w a l l s o fA ncyra , a l so , a r e t ho s e o f ar e duced a nc ien t c i ty , w i thdrawn t o a d e f ens ib le h i l l top . I t s d oub l e c i rcu i t , h ow eve r , s ugg e s t s a na logy w i th K i i tahya , w i th d i s t inc t p rov i s ion f o r ag a r r i son a nd a c i v i l ian p opu la t ion . T he f o r t o f S imav w a s p l a in ly t h e d e f ence o f ac i ty . I t s s ma l l s i ze p e rhap s i n d ica te s ac i tade l , l e av ing o p en t he p o s s ib i l i ty t ha t t h e t own may h ave h ad a no the r c i rcu i t o f w a l l s , b u t t hes e h ave n ever b een r epo r ted a nd c ou ld n o t b e f o und . F ina l ly , t h e f unc t ions o fH i sa rc ik , G ed iz a nd T av anh c an o n ly b e g ue s s ed t h ey w e r e p robab ly a l l t h e w a l l s o fs ma l l c i t i e s s i nce n o th ing o f t h em h a s s urv ived . T he f o r t re s s e s g a in i n s i gn if i cance w hen c o r r e la ted w i th c hrono logy . N one o f t hem r ep r e sen ts a p e r iod e a r l i e r t han t h e s e ven th c e n tu ry , t hough s e v e ra l i n co rpo ra te t h e r ema ins o f p a s t a ge s . D ur ing t h e p ax r omana , w h ich h e re l a s t ed t h rough L a te A n t iqu i ty , t he re w a s l i t t le o r n o n eed f o r f o r t if i ca t ion s i nce e nem ies w e r e f a r a way a nd c ou ld b e r e s t ra ined b y t h e d e f ence s o f t h e f r ont ier . E ven t h e t r oub les o ft h e t h i rd c e n t u ry , w h ich w rough t s uch d evas ta t ion e l s ewhe re , s e em n o t t o h ave a f l i c t ed t h is m oun t a inous i n land r e g ion o r , i ft h ey d i d , t h ey h ave l e f t n o t r a ce i nt he m a t e r ia l r ema ins . -

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T he f i r s t a g e o f f o r t if i ca t ion t hu s c ame w i th t h e D a rk A g e s , w h ich s aw c ons tan t a nd d e s t ruc t ive a t ta ck , f i r s t f r om t h e P e r s ians , then t he A rabs . ' The c hanged s i tua t ion w h ich t h es e c a s t l es r ep r es en t a ppea r s i n a n o pen p la in a tB aht i lh , w her e h eavy w a l l s i nt h e s hap e o f aR oman c amp s ur rounded t h e s ucces so r o f a n o pen a nc ien t s e t t l emen t . Mo r e o f ten , t he r e su l t s a r e v i s ib l e o n h i l l top s : i n t h i s r e g ion , t he l a rg e r e fuge s i tes o f A l t in ta§ a nd S a ruhan la r r e f l ec t t h e n eeds o f t h e l o ca l p opu la t ion t o f i nd a s e cure s he l te r i n t ime o f a t ta ck . C i r cums tance s o f t h e a g c ' k nown f r om s our ce s w h i ch d ea l w i th o ther p a r t s o f A s ia M ino r , a nd a r e mo s t c l ea r ly e xp r e s sed i n t h e M i ra c le s o f S a in t T heodo r e , w ho s e c u l t was c e lebra ted a t E ucha i ta i n t h e P ontus . T he a c coun t o f h i s w o rks n a r ra te s t he f r equen t a t ta cks o f t h e A rab s , w ho c am e e very y ea r , o f t en s pend ing t h e w in te r i n t h e t own . O n o ne o ccas ion , w hen d rought f o r ced t h e e a r ly w i thdrawa l o f t h e e nemy , t h e i n hab i tan ts o f E ucha i ta r e tu rned t o f i nd t h e i r c i ty i n as t a te o f d e so la t ion , a nd t hought o f a bandon ing i ta l to g e th e r u n t i l t h ey w e r e s aved b y am i ra cu lous r a in w h ich t h e S a in t p rov iden t ia l ly s en t . I n t h i s c as e , t h e i n hab i tan t s h ad c ome d own t o t he c i ty f r om t h e s t rongho ld s w he re t h ey n o rma l ly r e t rea ted d u r ing t h e i n va s ions .2 T hes e s t rongho lds w e r e e v iden t ly i n t h e h i l ls , y e t c l o se e nough t o t h e c i ty t ha t t h e e nemy c ou ld b e s e en . T hey w er e p l a in ly o ft h e s ame n a ture a sA l t in ta§ a nd S a ruhan la r , b o th c onven ien t f o r a g r icu l tura l a r e, a nd i ns i gh t o fv i l lag e s , b u t p ro tec ted f r om v i ew a nd a t ta ck . The s i tua t ion was w e l l a pp ra i s ed b y aP e r s ian g eog raphe r o ft he n i n th c en tury , w ho w ro te ' I n t he d ays o f o l d , c i t ie s w e re n ume rous i n R um [ A s ia M ino r [ , b u t n ow t h ey h ave b ecome f ew . Mo s t o f t h e d i s t r ic t s a r e p ro spe rous a nd p l easan t , a nd h ave a n e x t r eme ly s t rong f o r t re s s o n a c coun t o f t h e r a ids w h ich t h e f i gh te r s o f t he F a i th d i r ec t u pon t hem . T o e a ch v i l lage a ppe r ta ins ac a s t le w he re i nt imes o ff l i gh t t h ey may t ake s h e l t e r ' .3 T he P hryg ian r e fug e s f i t w e l l i n to t h i s i mag e o f t h e c oun t ry . The s e r e fug e s i tes r e p r e s en t c ond i t ions i n t he c oun t rys ide . U rban l i f e a l so u nd e rwent f undamen ta l c hang e , w i th c i t ie s b e ing d ras t i ca l ly r e duced i n s i ze a nd f r e q uen t ly w i thdraw ing t o t h e h i l l top s w hence t h ey h ad d es cended i n t he H e l len i s t ic p e r iod . Ancyra r e f l ec t s t h e p henomenon i nt h i s r e g ion , e ven t hough i t s s urv iv ing w a l l s a r e p robab ly o f a much l a te r d a te . C ur ious ly , n o r ema ins o f t h e D a rk A g es w e r e i d en t if ied a t K i i tahya ; e i the r t h e c i ty w a s v i r tua l ly a bandoned , o r i t s e a r ly w a l l s , a s s e em s mo r e p robab le , h ave s uccumbed t o l a te r r ebu i ld ing . The d e f ens ive s y s tem w h ich e me rge s f r om t h e s e e xamp les i sf r agmen ta ry , a nd l o ca l . H ere , a s i n mo s t p a r t s o f A na to l ia , t h e w a l l s a r e o f at ime w hen t h e n eed s o f d e f ence w e re p a ramoun t a nd e a ch t own o r g roup o f v i l lag es h ad t o t ake m easur e s t o e n su re i t s o wn s e cur i ty . I f mo r e e xamp le s h ad s urv ived , i tm igh t b e p o s s ib l e t o c on s i de r ar eg iona l d e f ens e , a nd t o s e ek a c o r r e la t ion w i th t h e m i l i ta r i s ed a dm in i s t ra t ive s y s t em o f t h eme s w h ich d eve loped i nt h e s e c en tur ies . The n ex t ma jo r p er iod o f f o r t if i ca t ion i n A s ia M ino r w as t h e n i n th c en tury w hen t he i mpe r ia l g ove rnmen t c onso l ida ted i t s c on t ro l b y b u i ld ing f o r t r es s e s p repa ra t o ry t o t he ma jo r o f ence a ga in s t t he A rab s w h ich s oon g a ined s ucces s a nd b rought p ea c e t o t he c oun t ry . P roduc t s o f t h i s a g e , w h ich b rough t ma jo r r e bu i ld ing a t N ica ea , A nka ra a nd Smyrna , a r e e spec ia l ly n o tab l e h e re . T he g r ea t f o r t r es s o f K i itahya o w e s i t s o r ig in t o t h e n i n th c en tury , a s d o t h e b ea con s t a t ion o f Kays e rka le a nd t h e c a s t l e o f A c rocus . T og e the r , t h ey i n d ica te e x ten s ive m i l i ta ry a c t iv i ty , w i th a ma in b ase a t K i i tahya , j o ined b y al i nk i nt h e l o ng -d i s tance b ea con s y s tem , K ays e rka le , t o t h e c ha in w h i ch r an a c ro s s A na to l ia , a nd a s t ra teg i c r oad f o r t r es s a t A c ro cus . T hes e r e p re s en t t h e c ond i t ions o f t h e d eve loped t h eme s y s tem : K i itahya w a s a n i mpo r tan t f o r t o f t h e O p s i c ian , A c ro cus i sn amed a s ab andon o r d i s t r ic t h eadqua r te r s , a nd K ays erka le may b e a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e s ys tem o f c ommun i ca t ions e s tab l i shed i n t h e n i n th c en tury . T hey p la in ly r ep r es en t a n e fo r t t oo rgan i se as y s tema t ic r e g iona l d e f en s ive s y s tem . A t K i i tahya , t h e d e f ence s w e re c on s i s ten t ly ma in ta ined i nt h e f o l low ing c en tu r i e s , b ut t he c a s t le o fA c ro cus h ad a ppa r en t ly b een a low ed t o f a l l i n to r u in b y t h e e nd 1 .

F or t he d eve lop ment o f f o rt if icat ion i n Ana to l ia , a s ab ackground t o t he p resent d i scuss ion , s ee F oss a nd Winf i e ld ( 1 985 ) p t .3 , c l .

2 . M iracu la T heodor i , s ecs .

1 3 , 1 4 , 1 5 , i n A .ASS . Nov . IV .53 .

3 . H udud a l -A la m 1 57 .

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o f t he e l even th , a f te r al o ng p e r iod o f p ea ce w hen a n e two rk o f f o r tr e s s e s p erhap s n o l o nge r s e emed n eces sa ry . T he p ea ce w a s r ude ly s ha t t e r ed i nt h e a f terma th o f t he b a t t l e o f Manz ike r t . E ven b e fo r e 1 071 , T urk i sh b and s w e r e h a r ry ing mu ch o f Ana to l ia ; a f te r t he b a t t le , e ve ry p a r t o f t he c oun t ry l a y o p en t o a t ta ck , a nd m o s t o f i ts o on p a s s ed i n to T u rk i sh h ands . T he T u rk s w e r e p ush ed b a ck f r om t he w e s t b y t he c om b ined e fo r t s o f C rusade r s a nd B yzan t ines , a nd i mpe r ia l f o r ce s a r r ived t o r e es tab l i sh c on t ro l . T he i r f i r s t e fo r t s , w h ich r ep r e s en t t h e i n augura t ion o f an ew a g e o f f o r t if i ca t ion b y A lex ius C omnenus ( 1081 -1118 ) , h ave l e f t t r a ces i n t h e c oa s t land s , w he re s ma l l a nd r ap id ly c ons t ruc ted o r r epa i r ed f o r ts c ou ld s e rve a s ab a s e f o r f u r the r a dvance . S uch e fo r t s may a ppea r i nt h i s r e g ion a tA c ro cus , w h ich s aw m a jo r r ebu i ld i n g , a nd p e rhap s a t A ezan i w ho s e r ough w a l l s c ou ld b e c ompa red w i th t ho s e o f D idyma , s im i la r ly b u i l t a round at emp le i n 1 094 . A s o rder w a s r e s to r ed a nd a b a lance o f p owe r e s tab l i shed w i th t h e S e i juk s o f c ent ra l A na to l ia , s ucceed ing e mpe ro r s d evo ted m uch e fo r t t o t he d e f ence o f A s ia M ino r a nd t o t he f r on t ie r a r ea s i np a r t icu la r . T he a ch i evement s o f Manue l C omn enus ( 1 143 -1180 ) a r e p a r t icu la r ly n o tab le : h e o rgan is ed an ew t h eme b ased o n c a s t les i nt h e A eg ean r e g ion , t he N eo ca s t ra , a nd w a s a c t ive i n r e in fo rc ing t h e f r on t i e r . The g r ea t r ebu i ld ing o f K i i tahya , w i th i t s c l o se r anks o fs o l id t owe r s s u i tab le f o r h eavy a r t i l l e ry , p robab ly d a te s f r om h i s r e ign , a s may t h e r e cons t ruc t ion o fK ays er K a l e . I n t he s e , h e w a s a ppa ren t ly r e v iv ing t he c oo rd ina ted d e f ens ive s y s tem o f t he n in th c e ntury , w i th i t s s ub s tan t ia l f o r t re s s e s a nd c ha in o f b ea cons . A t K i i tahya , h e may h ave a l so b e en t he a u tho r o f t he L owe r C i ty Wa l l , t hus p rov id ing a n a dd i t iona l d e f enc e f o r t he c i v i l i an p opu la t ion . I t s s i ze , h oweve r , s ugg es t s t ha t c i v i l ians w e re c on s ide red f a r l e s s i mpo r tan t t han s o ld i er s , t hough t h ey w e r e n o t n e ce s sa r i ly l e s s n ume rou s ; t he s e t t l e m en t c ou ld h ave e x tended o u ts ide t h e w a l l s . K i i tahya a nd t he s ur round ing r e g ion p as s ed t o t h e S e l juks s oon a f t e r t he d ea th o f Manue l . T he i r c ha ra c te r i s t ic b u i ld ing a c t iv i ty i s man i f e s t i n t he e xpans ion o f t h e c i ty o u t s ide i t s w a l l s , b u t n o t , i ts e ems , i n t h e f o r t if i ca t ions . T he f a r w e s tern p a r t o f t h e r e g ion , h owever , r ema ined i n B yzan t ine h and s f o r ac ons ide rab l e t ime , w i th t h e d i s tr ic t o f S imav p e rhaps h o ld ing o u t u n t i l t h e l a t e t h i r teen th c entury . T he e v idenc e i s u nce r ta in , b ut S imav , A ncy ra , a nd H i sa r B ey c on ta in w a l l s o f as t y le w h i ch i s c l ea r ly l a te a nd may r ep re s en t t h e w e l l - k nown w o rk o f t he L a sca r id s ( 1 204 -126 1 ) i n o rgan i s ing a nd d e f end ing t h e i r k i ngdom . We s te rn A na to l ia c on ta ins l a rg e n umbe r s o f t h e i r c as t le s , r emnan ts o f t h e l a s t g r ea t a ge o fB yzan t ine f o r t if i ca t ion . B y t he b eg inn ing o f t h e f i teen th c en tu ry , t h e w ho le r e g ion c ame u nde r t h e c on t ro l o f t he T urks o f G e rm iyan , w ho e s tab l i shed t h e i r c ap i ta l a t K i i tahya . T ha t f o r t res s s aw ma jo r c hange w i th t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f as epa ra t e c i tade l a nd o f t he b a s t i on a t t he L owe r G a te . T he C i tade l p robab ly r e f l ec t s t he n ew r o le o f t h e c as t l e a s t ha t o f ac ap i ta l , w i th mo r e i mpo r tan t o f i c ia ls a nd g r ea te r t r easu r e s t o p ro t e c t . U n fo r tuna te ly , i th a s n o t b een p o s s ib le t o i d en t i fy o the r e xamp les o f t h e i r w o rk . T he w a l l s o f T av anh a nd G ed iz c e r ta in ly e x i s ted u nde r t h e G e rm iyan ids , b u i t t he l a ck o f r ema ins makes i ti mpo s s ib le t o d e te rm ine w ha t , i fa ny th ing , t h ey b u i l t o n t ho se s i te s . T he l a s t f o r t if i ca t ion s t o b e c ons ide r ed a r e t ho s e o f t h e O t toman s , w ho w e r e c once rned d ur ing t h e f i r s t c en tu ry o f t h e i r r u le t o b u i ld a nd r e s to r e l o ca l d e f enc e s . K i i tahya p rov ide s t h e c l ea re s t e xamp le o f t h e i r w o rk , w i th t h e f undamen ta l r ebu i ld ing o f t he L owe r C i ty Wa l l b y Mohammed t h e C onque ro r a nd t h e e x tens iv e r e pa i r s i nt h e ma in c i r cu i t p robab ly a t t r ibu tab le t o t h e s ame t ime . L ikew i s e , t he r e pa i r s a t Er igö z w ou ld a ppea r t o b e O t toman . T he d e f ence s o f K i itahya w e r e l ong m a in ta ined , a nd t he p o t te ry o f Er igö z a nd A ncy ra i n d ica te s t ha t t h ey c on t inued t o b e o ccup ied a nd t h e i r w a l l s p re sumab ly k ep t i no rde r . A f te r t h e f i teen th c en tury , h ow eve r , t he re i sn o d a tab le e v idence f o r r e s to ra t ion i n a ny o f t h e c a s t l e s . B y t h en a n ew a g e o f g un p owder h ad b egun , a nd w a s s oon t o d emand b as i c t r ans fo rma t ions . T o s ome e x tent , t h e c a s t le s s hou ld r e f l ec t am ed ieva l s e t t lemen t p a t te rn . I t s d e ta i l s , o f c our s e , c anno t b e k nown w i thou t as t udy o f h i s to r ica l g eog raphy b a s ed o n t he t e x ts a nd a c omp rehens ive s u rvey , v i l lag e b y v i l lag e . S uch w o rk i sf a r b eyond t h e s cope o f t h i s p ro jec t , a nd s e ems u n l ike ly t o b e u nde r taken i n t h e n ea r f u ture , b u t t h e ma te r ia l o f t h is s urvey p r e s en t s s ome i n d ica t ions w h ich a r e w o r th c ons ide r ing .

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I n mo s t o f t he p rov ince , t he c a s t les a r e w ide ly s ca t te red , w i th a ve rage s epa ra t i on s o f f i f ty k i lome tre s o r mo re . O n ly i n t h e s ou thwes t c o rner , a round t he l a ke o f S imav , a re t hey c ons id e rab ly c l o s e r t og e the r . T h i s d i s t r ibut ion r e f l ec t s ag eog raph ic r e a l i ty : l a rg e p a r ts o f t h e p rov ince a r e moun ta inous , a nd l a ck t h e b road e xpens e o ff e r t i l e l a nd w h ich w ou ld s uppo r t ad ens e p opu la t ion ; f u l ly 7 5% o f t h e l a nd c ons i s t s o f m ounta ins a nd s l ope s . T he o n ly e xcep t ion i st h e p l a in i n t h e s ou thw e s t , w h ich g eo g r aph ica l ly h a s mo re i nc ommon w i th t h e A eg ean r e g ion t han t h e h i gh b roken c oun t ry o f t h e r e s t . I n A n t iqu i ty , c i t ie s w e r e r e la t ive ly f ew i n t h i s p a r t o f P hryg ia : t h e t e r r i t o r i es o f A ezan i , C o tya eum , a n d Ged iz ap pe a r t o ha ve o ccup i ed mo s t ofth e r e g i o n , w i th T iber iopo l i s , A ncy ra a nd S ynao s r e la t ive ly c l o se ly s i tua ted i n t h e w e s te rn p a r t . S im i la r ly , i n mode rn t ime s , t h e ma jo r c en t r e s K i i tahya , A 1 t in ta, G ed iz , S imav , Eme t , Tav an l i a nd D oman ic a r e w ide ly s ca t te r ed . I n g ene ra l t e rms , t h e d i s t r ibu t i on o f t he c a s t les c o r re sponds t o t h e p e rmanen t f e a tur es o f t h e l a nds cape . H is to r ica l t e x ts , n o tab ly t h e l i s t s o f b i shop s , s how t ha t t h e a nc ien t c i t ie s c on t i nued t o e x i s t t h rough t h e M idd le A ge s , a nd t ha t t h e i r n umbe r a c tua l ly i n cr ea s ed . A n u n iden t if i ed c i ty , T heodo s iana , a ppea r s i nt h e s i x th c en tury ( bu t n o t l a te r ) a nd t h e t h r ee s uf ragan b i shop r i c s o fK i i tahya , S po ra , K ona a nd G a ioukome a l u nknown n ow a ppa ren t ly a ch ieved m un ic ipa l s t a tus a f te r t h e c i ty b ecame a m e t ropo l i tan b i shop r ic i nt h e n in th c en tu ry . T he f o r t re s s e s , h oweve r , i n d ica te u rban d ec l ine ; t h e c i t ie s may h ave c on t inued t o e x is t , b u t i n af o rm s ub s tan t ia l ly d if e r ent f r om t ha t o f A n t iqu i ty . E v idence f o r t h e D a rk A g e s s ugg e s t s c on t ra c t ion a t B ah t i l l i a nd A ncyra , a nd w i th d rawa l o f p opu la t ion f r om p l a ins a nd v a l leys , a t l e a s t i nt ime s o f t r oub le , a t A l t in ta a nd S a ruhan la r . Y e t t h es e p l a ce s r e f l ec t ac on t inu ing s e t t lemen t p a t te rn b as ed o n g eog raph ic c ond i t ions . T he f i r s t t wo a r e q u i te c l o s e t oge ther i n t h e f e r t i le l a ke d i s t r i c t , a nd A l t in ta§ d om ina te s ap l a in w h ich c on ta ined n ume rous v i l lage s u nde r t h e R omans . T he m i l i ta ry r e qu i r emen t s m an i f e s t i nt h e c a s t le s o f t h e n i n th c en tury b rough t s ome c hange . K i i tahya b ecame t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t p l a ce i n t h e r e g ion a s A ezan i d e c l ined v i r tua l ly t o o b l iv ion , ap ro ces s p robab ly b egun w hen t h e t r iumph o f C hr i s t i an i ty r obbed i t s ma in a t t ra c t ion a nd r a ison d ' ê t re , t h e T emp le o f Z eu s , o f i t s s i gn if icance . A c ro cus a ppa ren t ly c ame i n to e x i s tence a t t h i s t ime , b e caus e o f i t s s t ra t e g i c l o ca t ion , a nd l o ng f l our i shed . K ays e r K a l e , o n t h e o the r h and , as t a t ion r a the r t h an as e t t lemen t , d o es n o t r e f lec t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f p opu la t ion . U nde r t h e C omnen i a nd t h e i r s ucce s so r s , K i . itahya r ema ined t h e ma jo r c en t r e , Er igöz w as r e s to r ed , a nd t h e f o r t res s e s o f S ynao s , A ncyra , G o lo e a nd H i sa r B ey w e r e b u i l t o f r e pa i red . T he l a t te r g roup r e f l ec t s t h e g r ea te r d ens i ty o f s e t t lemen t i n t h i s c o rner o f t h e c oun try , a s w e l l a s i t s i mpo r tance a s ar ou te t o t he A egean r e g ion . I ti s m o s t p robab le , t oo , t ha t t h e f o r t res s e s o f C ad i , T av an I i a nd H i sa r c ik ( T ibe r iopo l i s ? ) w e r e i n e x i s tence , i fn o t a c tua l ly c ons t ruc ted , i nt h i s a ge . Mo r e a bundan t d o cumen ta t ion h a s made t h e C e rm iyan id s e t t lemen t p a t te rn b e t te r k nown t han t h e B yzan t ine . I ta ppea r s t o h ave d if e red l i t t le f r om t h e mode rn . T h e i r ma in f o r t r es se s w er e a t K i i tahya , T av an l i , Er igö z a nd S imav t h e s e f o rmed t h e d ow ry o f t h e d augh te r o f S u leyman S hah i n 1 381 b u t E v l iya C he leb i s how s t ha t t h ey o ccup ied a nd ma in ta ined G ed iz , a nd d o cumen t s r e vea l t h e n ames o f m o s t o f t h e t owns w h i ch h ave s ub s equen t ly d om ina ted t h e r e g ion . T he o n ly ma jo r c hange s i nce t h e i r d ay h a s b een t h e a bandonmen t o f Er igö z a nd i t s r e p la cemen t b y Eme t , at own b u i l t a round ah o t s p r ing . T he c a s t le s r e p re s en t ac e r ta in c on t inu i ty f r om A n t iqu i ty t o m ode rn t ime s , b ut a l so r evea l c hange d ur ing t h e M idd le A g e s . T he m e re f a c t o ft h e i r e x is tence i sp e rhap s t h e g rea te s t c hang e , f o r t h e d i s t r ic t w as n o t f o r t if ied u nde r t h e R omans , n o r h a s i t , b e en i n mode rn t ime s . T he i r w a l l s a nd r u ins t hus p rov ide t h e ma jo r w i tne s s t o al o ng a nd d if i cu l t p e r iod i n t h e l i f e o f t h e c oun t ry w hen i n secur i ty p r eva i led , p opu la t ion s h rank , a nd t h e n eeds o f d e f ence w e r e p a ramount . W i thout t h e ir e v idence , t h e r e co rd o f K i itahya p rov ince i n t h e B yzan t ine p e r iod w ou ld b e o ne o f d a rknes s , f i t fu l ly i l um ined b y o ccas iona l t e x ts a nd t h e l i s ts o f b i shop s . When ma te r ia l o f t h is k i nd h a s b e en g a the red a nd p ub l i shed f r om a w ide r r e g ion , i ts hou ld h e p o s s ib le t o u nde r s tand f a r b et ter t h e t r ans fo rma t ion o f t h e c ount ry i nt h e M idd le A g e s , a s w e l l a s t h e ri atijr a nd a ccomp l i shmen t s o ft h e B yzan t ine s t a te a nd i t s T urk ish s ucce s so r s . -

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I LLUSTRATIO NS

1 27

K ÜT AHYA

2 . K i i tahya i n 1 895 , f r om Hua r t . T he v i ew , t aken f r om t he p la in f a c ing n o r th , s hows t h e c i rcu i t f r om T 1 t o T 41 i n r a ther b e t ter c ond i t ion t han a t p re sen t . The c i tade l wa l l i sv i s ib le a t t he t op r i gh t , a nd t h e b a re s l ope s b e low t he w e s t wa l ls p robab ly g ive a f a r b e t ter i d ea o f t h e ir o r ig ina l a ppea rance t han d o t he r e cen t ly p lan ted t r ee s , wh ich w ou ld h ave o bs truc ted d e f en ce b y g iv ing c over t o a t tacker s . No te t h e L ower C i ty Wa l l i n t he c en tre ; a t t ha t t ime , i tw a s a lmo s t c o mp le te ( c ompa re f i g . 6 9) . T he n o r theas t wa l ls , f r om t he L ower Ga te t o T 41 , w e re a l so mu ch b e tter p re served .

3 .

Th e w es tern p o in t o f t he f o r tre ss , f r om T i t o T b. No te , o n t he u ppe r r i gh t , t h e r ound t ower s 2a nd 3 , w i th T i r i s ing b eh ind t h em , a nd T 4 b u i l t d i rec t ly o ver T 3 . Th e c u r iou s s t ru c tu re b eh ind T 5 a nd T 6 i sa r evo lv ing r e s tau ran t .

1 28

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K ÜT AHYA

4 . T i , s ou theas t f a ce . The l e f t h a lf s hows t he b ase o f r ubb le f aced w i th s po i l s a nd t he s uper s truc tu re o f b r ick . No te , o n t he r i gh t , t he l a rg e l imes ton e b lock s a nd b r ick b and o f t he o r ig ina l s qua re t ower , i n corpo ra ted i n t h e l a ter wo rk . P er iod s Ia nd I .

5 .

T i , e as t f a ce , w i th e xpo sed f ounda t ion o f r ubb le s uppo r t ing a f a c ing c om p o sed a lmo s t e n t ire ly o f s po i ls , wh ich i n co rpo ra te a l a te a n t iqu e c o lumn b ase . P er iod I .

6 . T 2 , b ase o f s po i ls a nd s uper s truc tu re o f b r ick ; p er iod I . P ar t o fT i , wh ich e x tended o ver t he c o rner o ft h i s t owe r , i sv i s ib le a t u pper r i gh t .

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KÜTAHYA

7 .

T 2 , l a te a n t ique i mpo s t w i th c ro ss i n ser ted i n to t h e b ase o f t he t owe r ; p er iod I .

S .

T 8 , o u ter f a ce , i n ab anded ma son ry w i th a n umerou s b and s a nd n ea t s tonewo rk . T he l ower b lock s b e long t o t he LW ; s ee f i g .9 . P er iod I , r epa ired i n p er iod I .

0 .

T 8 , d e ta i l . T he l ower b r ick b and s a nd t h e b l ock s b e low i tb e long t o t he f a ce o f t he LW , wh ich h ere c on t inued d i rec t ly f r om t h e b ase o f t h e t ower : n o te t he p ro jec t ion s o n t he l e f t , a nd t o t he r i gh t o f t he s t af . P er iod I .

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KÜTAHYA

1 0 . T 8 , i nner f a ce , s how ing h ow t h e o r ig ina l c hamber t ower wa s f i led t o mak e as o l id p la tfo rm . J o in ts o f t he f i l l ing a r e v i s ib le o n t he l e f t a nd r i gh t , a nd t ra ce s o f al a rge b eam may b e s e en i nl e f t c en tre . T ower o f p er iod I f i l led i n p er iod I .

1 1 .

T u, w i th T 13 o n r i gh t . S o l id p la tfo rm t owe r s , t yp ica l o f p e r iod I . N o te t h e f a ce o ne s tone t h ick , t he b r ick b and s wh ich p ro ject d eeper t o b ind f a ce a nd c o re , a nd t he d en se mas s o f r ubb le i nt h e i n ter io r . T he b a ck o f T 11 i sf l a t b ecau se i tw a s b u i l t a ga in s t t h e UW , wh ich h a s d i sappea red .

1 2 .

T 15 , as ma l l s em ic ircu la r t ower , wh ich c onnec ted t h e T J ' vV a nd L W i n a s im i la r f a sh ion t o T 8 . P er iod I .

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KÜT AHYA

1 3 .

T 17 , s qua re t ower , s ou thwes t f a ce . T h i s o r ig ina l t ower , f a ced w i th s qua red l ime s tone b lock s , p erhap s s po i ls , wa s l a ter e nc lo s ed i n aU s haped t ower who se c o re i sv i s ib le a t t he l e f t . P er iod I .

1 4 .

T 17 , o u ter f a ce o f b anded ma son ry e nc lo s ing n or thwest f a ce o f o r ig ina l t ower , wh ich s hows b lock s o f l ime s tone a nd t u fa . The s om ewha t p ro j e c t ing f ounda t ion r ef l ec ts mod if i ca t ion s a s soc ia ted w ith c on s truc t ion o f t he L ower C i ty Wa l l . P er iod s Ia nd I .

1 5 .

T 22 7 2 3 , 2 4 , n a rrow U shaped p la tform t ower s o f p er iod I s e t e xtrem e ly c l o se t o e a ch o ther .

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KÜTAHYA L

1 6 . R ema ins o f UW 2 3/24 , s how ing t h e l ime s ton e b lock s wh ich a r e f r equen t ly r eu sed i n t h is wa l l , mo s t o f wh ich h as d i sappea red . Mo r ta r i nd ica te s w o rk o fp e r iod I I .

1 7 .

T 26 , ac hamber t owe r f i l led t o b ecome a p l a tfo rm . n ec ted t h e UW a nd LW , p er iod s Ia nd I .

T h is a ppa ren t ly c on -

1 8 . T 27 , o f p er iod I . No te , o n t he l e f t , t he U W o f p er iod I r e in fo r ced i n f r on t i n p er iod I I , a nd t h e t ra ce s , l ower r i gh t , o ft he LW wh ich s hows p er iod s Ia nd I I .

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KÜT AHYA

1 9 .

B a rb ican : T 29 , W29/30 . No te t he p oo r b r ick b and n ea r t h e b a se o f t h e r ound t ower , a nd l a rge e mbra su res i nt he u pper p a r t o f t he w a l l . P e r iod I I .

2 0 . L ower Ga te , o nce c a re fu l ly f a ced w i th c ou r sed r e c tangu la r b l ocks o f t u fa , mo s t o f wh ich h ave e roded f a s ter t han t he mor ta r . No te t h e a rrow s l i t s o n t he r i gh t , wh ich f o l low t he s ta irway l e ad ing t o t he t op o f t he g a te . The l e f t -hand p i er a nd a d ja cen t wa l l a re modern . The ma rb le l i on s e en b y t rave l ler s wa s e mbedded i nt h is g a te . P e r iod I I .

2 1 .

W LG/34 , w i th mason ry o f s ma l l r ubb le a nd b roken b r ick i n corpora t ing many t u fa b lock s , e spec ia l ly a t t he b end . P er iod 1 V , f o l low ing wa l l o f p er iod I I .

1 40

1 41

K ÜTAHYA

2 2 .

T 32 , f a ce o f i nner s qua re t ower . No te t he h i gh p ropo r t ion o fs po i ls ( wh ich i n c lud e al a te a n t ique w indow mu l l ion ) , r ough ly l a id w i th l a rge f i e ld s tone s . Appa ren t ly o f ap er iod i n termed ia te b e tween Ia nd I .

2 3 .

T 32 , o u ter f a ce . T he ma son ry i so f c ou r sed t u fa b lo ck s , w i thou t b r ick b and s ; n o te t he l a rge b eam o f c r ibwo rk , u pper r i gh t . Th i s e n c loses a f a ce o f b anded ma son ry wh ich i n t u rn c over s t he s qua re s t ru c tu re o f f i g . 2 2 . P er iod I I , c over ing p er iod I .

2 4 .

T 34 . O r ig ina l ly , t he LW r an t hrough h ere w i thou t at ower . I n p er iod I , ap la tform t ower wa s b u i l t d i rec t ly o ver i t . Ha lf o f t ha t , w i th a l l t h e f a ce , h as n ow c o l lapsed t o l e ave t he c o re e xpo sed a nd r e s t ing d i rect ly o n t he f a ce o ft he LW . P er iod s Ia nd I .

2 5 .

T 34 , d e ta i l . P a r t o f t he f a ce o f t he LW , s how ing ( i n s hadow , c i rc led ) , a n I on ic i mpo s t w i th c ro ss i nr e l ief , o f l a te a n t iqu e d a te . P er iod I .

1 42

1 43

K ÜTAHYA

2 6 . T 35 , f a ce . No te t h e r egu la r s tonewo rk a nd b and s o f n ew b r ick s . The e l ect r ic p o le s tand s i n t he i nner c hamber , n o t h ere v i s ib le . Byzan t ine , l a te r t han p er iod I .

2 7 . T 35 , c r ibwo rk o f b ase , c ompo sed o f l a rge s qua re l o g s wh ich j o in i nt he c en t r e o ft he p i c tu re .

2 8 . T 35 , d e ta i l o f f a ce . No te t h e h o les o f t he c r ibwo rk m ee t ing a t r i gh t i n t h e c o rner o ft he t ower , b eh ind t he b r ick b and .

1 44

'

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KÜTAHYA

i . T u, s icning t he o r ig ina l s qua re t ower b u r ied i n t he l a ter s em ic ircuhr c o rner t ower . Ma son ry o f t he o r ig ina l i so f m ixed l imes tone s po i ls a nd r ubb le b e low t he b r ick b and , t u fa b lock s a bove . P er iods Ia nd I T .

3 0 .

T 41 , d e ta i l . On t h e l e f t , c orner o f t he o r ig ina l s qua re t ower , a nd o n t i n r i gh t , b y t he s taf , f a ce o f t he LW ; t he l a ter t ower was b u i l t o ver b o th . P er iod s Ia nd I T .

31 .

T 43 , W43/44 , T 43A , b y t he r av ine . I n t h e b a ckground , T 41 , w i th a s h ed b u i l t o ver i t . T 43 s u rv ives o n ly a s t he l ump o f c o re o n t he r i gh t o f t he w a l l ; p robab ly p er iod I I . N o te t he d oub le f a ce o f t he w a l l , p robab ly p er iod s Ia nd I I . J u s t l e f t o f c en tre , p ro jec t ing f a ce w i th b r ick b and s , a nd t o t he l e f t o f i t , s e c t ion o f f a c ing p reserved i n t he s carp . T he se c ou ld b e long t o T 43A , a nd b e o f p er iod I .

1 46

1 47

K ÜT AHYA

•S ou th s i de o f r av ine , w i th W43/44 a nd T 44 . No te t he d i s t inc t b a tter a nd r e in fo rced f ounda t ion o f t he wa l l , who se r ema in s s hown h er e a re o f p er iod 1 V . B eyond i t , t he n o r th f a ce o f T 44 , w i th t he u sua l b and ed mason ry o f p er iod I a nd , i ti t s u pper r i gh t , p a r t o f t he f a ce o ft he o r ig in a l s qua re t ower ( s ee f i g . 3 3 ) .

3 3 .

T 44 , e a s t f a ce . B anded ma son ry o f p er iod I w i th l a ter r epa irs b u i l t d i rec t ly o ver t h e LW . No te t he c o lumn d rum s u sed f o r r e in fo rcemer t o f t he n ew f a ce , a nd t he I on ic i mpo s t w i th c r o s s ( c irc led ) . P er iod s Ia nd I i .

3 4 .

T 44 , s ou th f a ce , s how ing t he o r ig ina l s qua re t ower w i th a f a c ing o f c u t b l ock s a nd b r ick b and s , a nd t ra ce s o f a n e mbrasure i n t he u pper p ar t . I t was e n t ire ly b u r ied i nt he n ew f a ce . P er iod s Ia nd I .

3 5 .

T 48 , s how ing t he f a ce o f t he t r iangu la r o r s em ic ircu la r b as t ion p ro ject ing f r om t he t ower . N o te t he b reak o n t he r i gh t ; t he c u t s tone s o n i t s l e f t a r e ac ro s s s e c t ion o f t he f a ce o f t he b a s t ion , a nd t he r ubb le o n t he r i g ht f o rm s p a r t o ft h e c o re o ft he l a ter t ower . P er iod s Ia nd I .

1 48

1 49

K ÜTAHYA

3 6 .

LW48 , v i s ib le where t he f a c ing o f t he t ower h a s c o l lap sed . No te t he s tone s l a id d iagona l ly , s ome a lmo s t i n ah er r ingbone p a ttern . P er iod I .

3 7 . T 52 , T 53 i nb a ckground . T he o u ter s he l l o fT 52 h as f a l len a way , l eav ing a s ma l l s em ic ircu la r t ower f a ced w i th r e gu la r b anded ma son ry e xpo sed . P er iod I . B eh ind , t he e a s t f a ce o ft he o u ter s he l l o ft he mu ch l a rger T 53 . P er iod I .

3 8 .

T 53 , f r om t he n o r thwe s t . No te t he d om ina t ing p o s i t ion o f t h e t owe r , a t t he e nd o f ap ro jec t ing p o in t o f t he h i l l w i th p rec ip itou s s l opes . T he l and h as e roded ag rea t d ea l l e av ing t he f ounda t ion s o f T 53 e xpo sed , a nd c a r ry ing a way mo s t o f T 54 who se s tump i sv i s ib le i n t he s carp i n t he m idd le d i s tance .

150

1 51

KÜT AHYA

3 9 .

T 53 , u pper s e c t ion f r om t he n o r th . T h is s hows t he e n trance t ot he t ow er , i n t he o r ig ina l f a ce o f p er iod I ,w i th t ra ce s o f t he t h ick s h e l l wh ich w a s a dded i np er iod I .

4 0 .

T 53 , d e ta i l o f i nner f a ce . T h is s e c t ion , t o t h e r i gh t o f t he e n trance , s hows t he r ough b anded ma son ry h ere e mp loyed , w i th i r regu la r c our s ing a nd much e x tra b r ick ; o f p e r iod I ,b u t q u i te d if eren t f r om t he f i n er mason ry u sua l ly t hen e mp loyed .

4 1 .

T 53 , d e ta i l o f o u ter f a ce , s ou th s i de . No te t he r egu la r c ou r s ing o f s po i l s a nd b r ick , a s w e l l a s t he h eavy c oa t o f s u rface mor ta r i n t he j o in t s , wh ich o f ten c oncea ls b r ick s i n ser ted v er t ica l ly b e tween t he s ton e s . P er iod I .

1 52

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KÜTAHYA

4 2 .

T 53 , i nner c hamber , d e ta i l o fv au l t ing . Mo s t o f t he b r ick s w e re n ew w hen l a id , a nd b ea r p a ra l le l s t r ia t ion s , u sua l ly i n ac i rcu la r p a t te rn . P er iod I .

4 3 .

T 53 , i nn er c hamber , c o rbe l l ing . T he b r ick s , t hough o f m ixed s i ze s a nd s hape s , a re c l o se ly s e t i ns t ra igh t c ou r ses , w i th a n a rrow b and o f mo r ta r A . T he d ep th o f t he b r ickwo rk i se v iden t o n t he r i gh t , w h ere t he f a ce b eh ind i se xpo sed . P er iod I .

4 4 .

T53 , i nner c hamber .

f o rm , l ower r i gh t . P er iod s Ia nd I .

No te t he t wo b l ock ed e mbra su res a nd r ubb le p l a t T he e mbra su re s w ere c overed b y t he n ew o u ter s h e l l .

1 54

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KÜT AHYA

4 5 .

T 57 . F ac ing o f t yp ica l b anded m ason ry , r e s t ing o n ap ro jec t ing s qua re p l in th ; p er iod I . R epa ir s o f p er iod 1 V t o t h e u pper p a r ts .

4 6 . Upper g a te , w i th T 58 o n r i gh t . On ly p a r t o ft he a rch h as s u rv ived ( on t he r i gh t , b eh ind t he t ower ) , a l ong t he s uppo r t ing p i ers . T he V iew o f U zunça ri l i ( 1 032 ) f i g . 2 2 s hows t ha t t h e a r ch wa s f i l led w i th mason ry s uppor ted b y aw ooden b eam . P er iod I ,w i th t ower o f p er iod I b eh ind .

4 7 .

T 58 , i nner f a ce , t ra ce s o f v au l t ing . T he r ounded s moo th s ec t ion w i th t h e b r ick b and j u s t a bove g round l e ve l r ep re sen ts t he i n s id e o f t he a r ch wh ich s uppo r ted t he w a l lwa lk . T h e r ougher s ec t ion s a round s how wh ere t he a rch p ro jec ted b a ck f r om t he wa l l , a nd t he l a rge s qua r e b eamho le s a bove i nd ica te t he r e in fo rcemen t wh ich j o ined i t t o t he b ack o f t he t ower . P er iod I .

1 56

1 57

KÜT AHYA

4 8 .

We s tern p a r t o f t he s ou th wa l l , f r om t h e s ou th . F rom l e f t t o r i gh t : t h e t h ree c l o se ly s e t r ounded t ower s 6 3 , 6 2 , a nd 6 1 ( p er iod I ) ; t h e s qua r e t ower 6 0 , w i th h i gh b a se o fs po i ls ( p er iod s Ia nd I I ) ; 5 9/60 w i th e xpo sed a rches ( p er iod I V ) a nd t he h i gh c orner t ower 5 9 ( p er iod s I , I I , a nd I V ) . The l ow wa l l i n f r on t o f T 59 i s modern . No te t h e n umerou s t ower s s e t w i th in as ho r t d i s tance o n t h is f a ce .

4 9 .

T 59 f r om t he e a s t . T he l ower I . Above a re t h e r a i s ings o f b anded ma son ry o f p er iod I ; f o r t he r a i s ing o f t he t ower . wa l l ; p robab ly p er iod I .

t wo th ird s i so f b and ed mason ry o f p er iod p er iod s I I a nd I V . T ra ces o f t h e 1 5W , w i th i tw as l a te r r e in forced a nd u sed a ss uppo r t R igh t f o r eground : e nd o f t he e a s t c i tade l

5 0 . T 59 , b ase , w e s t s i de , s how ing t h e s i lhoue t te o ft he L ower Wa l l . T he o pen i ng r epre sen ts t h e LW wh ich f o rmer ly p ro jec ted f r om t he s i de o f t he t ower . I nner a nd o u ter f a ce s , w i th p a rape t a nd wa l lwa lk , a r e c l ea r ly v i s ib le . P er iod I .

1 58

5 0

1 59

K ÜT AHYA

5 1 .

T 50 , u pper f a ce , f r om t he s ou th . T he l ower b anded ma sonry w i th t he t wo e mbra su re s , wh ich h ave l a rge s po i l s a s l i n te ls , r epre sen ts t h e u pper p a r t o f t he o r ig ina l t ower o f p er iod I , wh i le t h e r e s t s how s t he n ew f a c ing o f p er iod I V b u i l t o ve r t he r a is ing o f p e r iod I I , wh ich a dd ed a no th e r c hamber w i th e mbra su res .

5 2 .

T 59 , d e ta i l o f ma son ry . T yp ica l w o rk o f p er iod 111 1 t h is s ec t ion : r egu la r c ou r ses o f t u fa b lock s w i th f ew s po i ls ; b r ick b and s wh ich a r e r a re ly s t ra igh t ; ar ow o f s tone s l a id o n e nd ; a nd much s u r face mo r ta r i n t h e j o in ts .

5 3 . T 59 , u pper c hamber . F a c ing o fs ma l l r ubb le o f p er iod I V , b ond ed w ith t h e a d ja cen t c i tade l wa l l .

1 60

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KÜT AHYA

5 4 . W59/60 , w i th a rche s . T he o u ter f a c ing i ns ma l l r ubb le i so f p e r iod I V a nd c over s t he e a r l ier b anded ma son ry ( p er iod I a nd l a ter ) . Th e t wo a rche s , o f d if eren t h e igh ts b u t w i th s im i la r c rude b r ickwo rk , r epre sen t s uppo r t f o r t he wa l iwa lk o n t he i nner f a ce o ft he o r ig ina l wa l l o f p er iod I .

5 5 .

T 60 , w i th h igh b ase o f l a rge l ime s tone s po i ls ( p er iod I )a nd s up e r s truc tu r e o f t u fa b lock s w i th a b r ickband a nd d eco ra t ion o f s i ng le v e r t ica l b r ick s b e tween t he s tones i mmed ia te ly a bove i t( p er iod I I ) . I n t h e f o reground , r ema in s o ff a c ing a nd r ubb le wh ich a ppa r en t ly b e longed t o t h e LW .

5 6 .

T 60 , w e s t f a ce . T h e b r ick b and s d o n o t c on t inue a round t h i s s ide , b u t w ere p u re ly d eco ra t ive o n t he e xpo sed f a ce . No te t he sma l l s t ones v i s i b l e i n t he g ap o n t he l e f t ; t he se r epresen t t he o r ig ina l s upe r s t ructu re o f p er iod I ,t o wh ich t he n ew f a ce w as a n cho red w i th l a rge b eam s who se t ra ces a re v i s ib le o n t he r i gh t a bove t he s po i ls .

1 62

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KÜTAHYA

5 7 .

S ec t ion o f L ower Wa l l a t T 61E . No te t he f a ce o f l a rge b lock s ( l ef t o f t h e s taf ) , a nd s l op ing b r ick s o f t he wa l lwa lk , u pper l e f t . P er iod I , i n a t ower o f p er iod I .

5 8 .

T ower s 6 2 a nd 6 3 , n ea r t he u pper p o in t o f t he c i rcu i t . Bo th w i th b and ed ma son ry o f p er iod I , a nd u nu sua l ly r egu la r b r ick b and s . N o te l oopho le s i nu pper p a r t o f T 63 ( on t he l e f t ) .

5 9 .

T 63 , i nner c hamber f r om t he n or th , w i th l o opho les s e t i n r e ce s ses . P er iod I .

1 64

1 65

K ÜTAHYA

6 0 .

T 64 , o u ter f a ce . T he l ower p a r t h a s ar ough c l o isonné a nd a b r ick b and , t he u pper i s r endered s moo th b y as he lte r c oa t . No te t h e l a rge b eam h o le s . P er iod I I

6 1 .

T 64 , i n ter io r . A l though t he i nn er f a ce i s m is s ing , i ti s e v id en t t ha t t h e wa l ls o f t he t ower w ere e x treme ly t h ick a nd made e x ten s ive u se o f l a rge r ound b eam s .

6 2 .

W8/65 ; s econd c i tade l wa l l o n n or th s i de , o f r ubb le a nd b rok en b r ick . P er iod I V .

1 66

1 67

K ÜT AHYA

6 3 .

T 66 , f a ced w i th t yp ica l c ou r sed t u fa b lock s i nt h ick b and s o f m o r ta r , t yp i c a l o f p er iod I I . T h is i sv i s ib le i n t he u pper p a r t ; t he c en t re r ubb le r epresen ts a r epa ir o f p er iod 1 V , wh i le t h e l ower p a r ts a re c ov e red w i th s po i ls ( s ee f i g . 8 2 ) .

6 4 .

T 67 . The f a ce o f t h is s ma l l s qua re t ower o r b as t ion h as f a l len a way t o r evea l t he c u r iou s c y l ind r ica l i nner c hamber , wh ich h a s n o e n tran ce , u n les s f r om t he t op . P er iod I I .

6 5 . E a s t c i tade l w a l l : T 67 , w i th i t s f a c ing o f c ou r sed t u fa b locks a nd s po i ls o f p er iod I I i n t he f o reground ; r e s tored f a ce o f T 70 i n t he m idd le ; a nd t he c orner t ower 5 9 i nt h e b a ckground .

1 68

1 69

K ÜTAI IYA

6 8 .

C i tade l Ga te , w ith T 69 o n t he r i gh t a nd t he s ou th f a ce o f T 70 r e s tored o n t he l e f t . The n o r th f a ce o f t ha t t ower , a s i nd ica ted b y b r eak s i n t he ma son ry , wou ld h ave s tood a bove t he mod ern e n trance . N o te t he f i n er ma son ry w i th t race o f b r ick b and s l e f t o fT 69 . P er iod I I .

6 7 . W70/59 w i th a d ja cen t t ower s , e a s t C i tade l Wa l l i n f o reground . P er iod I I w i th r a is ing i n p er io d I V . T he l ower f a c ing o f t he wa l l i sm odern ; t h e h eav i ly p la s tered c ou r sed r ubb le a bove i st yp ica l o f p er iod I I . S ee f i gu re 6 7 .

6 8 .

W70/59 d e ta i l o f u pper p a r t . No te t he c r ene l la t ion s o f p e r iod I I wh ich h ave b een b l ocked b y t he l a ter f i l l ing . They p rov ide t h e c l ea res t e v i d ence f o r t wo p er iod s i nt h e C i tade l .

1 70

1 71

KÜTAHYA

6 0 .

S ou thwe s t f a ce o f t he L ower C i ty Wa l l , w i th t ower s 7 2 , 7 3 a nd 7 4 . Th e se a re c on s tru c ted a s o pen -go rge t ower s i n t he u pper p a r t , w i th ah igh s o l id b a se . The c u r ta in wa l l , l ower r i gh t , r un s d i rec t ly b eh ind . P e r iod I V .

7 0 . T 73 , o u ter f a ce , s how ing t he t yp ica l r ough ly c our sed r ubb le o ft hese wa l l s , d a tab le t o t he m id -f i f teen th c en tu ry . T he ma son ry h ere a ppears mo re i r regu la r t han u sua l b ecau se t he s he l ter c oa t h a s e roded a way . No te t h e l a rger b lock s u sed a q uo in s .

7 1 .

T 77 , s l igh t ly s p layed o pen -go rge t ower . I n t h is ma sonry , f a c ing a nd c o re h a rd ly d if er . T hey a re b onded w ith a c r ibwo rk o f l a rge b eam s ; n o te t he b eamho les o n t he r i gh t . P er iod I V .

1 72

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K ÜTAHYA

7 2 . W79/80 , w i th f i ne f a c ing o f r egu la r s qua red b l ock s i n a sh la r , w i th b and s o f n ew b r ick . T h is ma son ry h a s t he b es t a ppea rance o f a ny i nt he f or tre s s , w i th a s t reng th r ef l ec t ing t he n eed s o f d e f ence o n ap la in . La s t B yzan t i ne p er iod , i n termed ia te b e tween I a nd I I .

7 3 . W80/81 , ma son ry l i ke t he p reced ing , b u t w i th w ider b ands o f b r ick . N o te t he d en t i l f r ieze o f b r ick , u n ique i nK i i tahya , a t t he t op .

7 4 .

L ower C i ty Wa l l , E as t Ga te , w i th T 84 . T he t ower a ppa ren t ly w as a n a r ched e n tran ce p a s sage , w i th g a tes a t e i th er e nd . No te t h e l a te a n t ique p i la s ter i nt he r i gh t p i er .

1 74

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KÜTABYA SP OILS

7 5 . P iece o fR oman a r ch i trave , I l / I l l c en tu ry AD , r eu sed i n b ase o fT 2 .

7 6 . C ap i ta l w i th f l u t ing , f i th o r s i x th c en tu ry , r eu sed i nb ase o f T 2 ( p er iod I ) .

7 7 . L a te a n t ique c han ce l c o lumn , r eu sed i n T 14 ( p er iod I ) .

7 8 . I on ic c ap i ta l , t h ird o r f ou r th c en tu ry , i n b a se o f T 35 ( l a te p er iod I ) .

7 9 . P i la s ter c ap i ta l , t h ird o r f ou r th c en tu ry , i nb ase o f T 35 .

1 76

1 77

K ÜTAHYA SP OILS

8 0 .

P h ryg ian ' d oo r s tone ' , p robab ly t h ird c en tu ry , i n b ase o f T 35 ( l a te p e r iod I ) .

8 1 .

R oman I on ic c ap i ta l , s e cond/th ird c en tu ry , i n f a ce o f i nn e r t ower , T 41 ( p er iod I ) .

8 2 . L a te a n t iqu e c hance l c o lumn s o f p ophyry , f a ce o f T 66 ( p er iod I I ) .

8 3 . B a ske t c ap i ta l , s i x th c en tury , f a ce o f T 81 ( l a te p er iod I ) .

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8 4 .

P laque w i th c ro ss , f i th/s ix th c en tu ry . T 33 .

8 5 . I n scr ip t ion i nb ase o f T 16 ( p er iod I ) .

8 6 . I n scr ip t ion i nf a ce o f T 60 ( p er iod I ) .

1 80

F ound w i th in t he c a s t le b eh ind

1 81

K AYSER KALE

8 7 . Kay serka le f r om t he n o r thwe s t . T he c a s t le , who se r ema ins a r e b a re ly v i s i b l e f r om b e low , i so n t he h i gh p eak o ft h e s t eep a nd i s o la ted h i l l .

8 8 . T i , w i th f a c ing o f a sh la r h eader s a nd s t re tcher s a bove a p ro jec t ing b a se o f g ran i te b lock s . On t he r i gh t , o ne o f t h e f a ces o f t he e n tran ce g a te . S ee a l so F ig . 9 0 .

8 9 . W2/3 , r ow o f b eamho le s s e t s i de b y s i de n ea r t he b a se o f t he w a l l .

1 82

1 83

K AYSER KALE

9 0 .

T i , n o r th f a ce . b and .

N o te t he r ow o f b eamho le s i mmed ia te ly a bov e t he b r ick

9 1 .

W1/2 , d e ta i l o f f a ce , s how ing t he c a refu l ly c u t s tonework o f h eaders a nd s t re tch er s .

9 2 . W1/2 , c ro s s -sec t ion . Ou ter f a ce o fs e cond p e r iod o n r i gh t ; R ema in s o fo r i g ina l i nner f a ce o fg ran i te b lock s , b eh ind .

9 3 . W2/3 : m ason ry o fc ou r sed r ubb le w i th b r ick b and s .

1 84

1 85

ALTI NTAS

9 4 .

The n or th wa l l , l o ok ing w es t . I n f o reground , t he e nd o f t h e d oub le w a l l ; s e t t lemen t o n t he l e f t , a l l o ver look ing t h e a lmo s t t r ee le s s b u t f e r t i le p la in .

9 5 .

The n o r th wa l l , l o ok ing e a s t . T he wa l l , l i k e t he r ema in s o f t h e t own , s u r v ive s o n ly a s p i le s o f r ubb le . I n t he i mmed ia te f o reground , t races o f a t ower , a nd i n t he m idd le d i s tance , t he l a rge r ound s t ructu re , a ppa ren t ly at ower , wh ich p ro jec ts b o th o u twa rd a nd i nwa rd f r om t he w a l l .

1 86

1 87

ALT I NTAS

9 6 .

T he l ower t own . No te t he c en tra l s t ree t , a nd t he p i les o f r ubb le a t r i gh t a ng les t o i t , r epresen t ing s i de s t ree ts a nd b u i ld ings a l ong t h em .

9 7 .

Nor thea s t wa l l , r ema in s o f d oub le c i rcu i t . No te t he s epa ra te p i les o f r ub b l e wh ich i nd ica te t he t wo wa l ls o ft h is s e c t ion .

9 8 . L ong r e c tangu la r b u i ld ing a t t he t op o ft he h i l l , a d ja cen t t o t he ' c i s tern ' .

122

1 89

ALTINTA S

9 9 .

1 00 .

C omp lex s t ructu re o n t he h i l l top , p erhap s ac i s tern . The l o ng s ou th e rn c hamber i so n t he l e f t , a nd p erpend icu la r t o i t a re t race s o f t he s ma l l r e c tangu la r c hamber s o ft he i n ter io r .

' C is tern ' , d e ta i l o f i n ter io r mason ry . p reserve s c l ea r t ra ce s o f i t s f a c ing .

T h is i s t he o n ly s t ru c ture wh ich

1 01 . A l t in ta t own : q ua r ry b e low t he c as t le h i l l , w i th u nf in ished a nd d ef ec t ive b lock s .

1 90

1 91

S I MAV COUNT Y

1 02 . S imav : f a c ing o fs u rv iv ing p i ece o f c a s t le w a l l .

1 03 . B oa z Köy/ Ancyra : s ou thwes t w a l l , i nne r f a ce .

1 04 .

B ah t i l l i/ Go loe : i nner f a ce o f u pper p a r t o f wa l l n ea r e n tran ce . No te t he s t ruc tu re b u i l t i mmed ia te ly b e fo re t he w a l l .

1 92

1 93

S I MAY COUNTY

1 05 .

B ah t i l l i : o u ter f a ce , n ea r e n tran ce . No te t he r egu la r c ou r s es o f n a r row b lo ck s wh ich p ene tra te i n to t he c o re , a nd t h e s moo th s urfa ce i nt he r i gh t where f a c ing b lock s h ave b een r emoved .

1 06 . H isa r B ey : r ubb le f a c ing .

1 07 . H isa r B ey : d e ta i l o ff a c ing .

1 94

1 95

EÖR IGÖZ

1 08 .

G enera l v i ew , f r om t he s ou th . The c a s t le s tand s o n t he r o ck a t r i gh t c en tre , u s ing i t s p rec ip i tou s f l ank s a s ab a r r ier a nd e x tend ing s o me d i s t ance d own t he s l ope t o t he r i ver . I t s s o le e n trance i sf r om t he s i de o f t he v i l lage , o n t h e l e f t .

1 09 . Va l ley o f Er igöz c ay , l o ok ing n or th f r om t he c as t le . The v a l ley p rov id e s an a tu ra l a nd i mpo r tan t r ou te n or th a nd s ou th , a s w e l l a s a gr icu l tu re f o r s uppo r t ing amode s t p opu la t ion .

1 10 .

Ou two rk b e low g a te , f a ced w i th l a rge , r ough ly c ou r sed b lo ck s p robab ly f a l len f r om t he h i l l a bove ;no te t he c u t b l ock s u sed a s q uo in s a tt he a ng le o n t he l e f t .

1 97

E

RIGÖZ

1 11 .

Vau l ted c hamber o f o u twork , p robab ly p a r t o f a n e nc lo sed s ta irway wh ich l e d t o t he e n trance .

1 12 .

E n trance g a te . No te t he d oub le a r ch , b e low r i gh t , t he a dd i t iona l f a c ing t o t he r i gh t o f i t , a nd t he p ro jec t ing b eam , a bove l e f t , t o wh ich a ttach ed t he n ew f a c ing t o t he o ld .

1 13 . T he e n trance p a s sage , f r om a bove . F rom t he g a te , t he a pproa ch i nvo lv e s p as s ing t h rough t he g a te , mak ing a r i gh t a ng le t u rn , t hen c l imb ing s t ee p ly u p an a rrow p a ssage b e tween t he wa l l a nd as heer r ock f a c e ; t he p a s s age wa s c overed w ith b r ick s s e t i nv er t ica l ly .

1 14 . S ou thwes t t ower , f a ced w i th c ou r sed f i e ld s tou es w ith c u t b lo ck s a s q uo in s a nd ar epa ir , i nt he c en tre , o f r andom s ma l ler r ubb le .

1 98

1 99

EÖRIG ÖZ

1 15 .

Ga te t ower , s uper s truc tu re ; n o te t h e e mbra sure a nd t he b r ick b and s b es ide i t , t he o n ly s uch ma son ry i nt h e f o r tre ss .

1 16 .

The e a s t wa l l ; p ro jec t ing t ower w i th av au lted i nner c hamb e r i nt he c en t r e . Th is wa l l i sa bou t h a lf -way d own t h e s l ope , f a r a bove t he e n tran ce o ft he p a ssage t o t he wa ter t ower .

1 17 . E a s t wa l l : n o r th e nd , s how ing t he f a c ing o fw e l l -cou r sed f i e ld s tone s o ver a r ubb le c ore .

2 00

2 01

SARUHANLA R

1 18 .

G enera l v i ew f r om t he v i l lage . T he f o r t if i ed a rea o ccup ie s mo s t o f t he f l a t t op o f t he h i l l ; n one o f t he wa l ls a re v i s ib le f r om b e low .

1 19 .

Ma in wa l l , o n r i gh t , w ith U -shaped t owe r b onded i n ; t yp ica l f a c ing o f c ou r sed f i e ld s tone s , s l igh t ly more r egu la r i nt he t ower .

1 20 . We s t wa l l , s how ing t he c a refu l ly l a id u ndr e s sed f i e ld s tones wh ich c ha ra c t e ri s e t he who le c i rcu i t .

2 02

2 03

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Per iod I

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Per iod I

Per iod i f i

Per iod W

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1 0 I

C ontour i nterva l 5m .

5 0

1 00 M .