Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Systems (SMES) for Distributed Supply Networks 3031347722, 9783031347726

Table of contents :
Executive Summary
Contents
1 Introduction
References
2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve by a Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage: Application to the Case of the Spanish Electrical System
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Material and Methods
2.2.1 Theoretical Framework
2.2.2 Calculations
2.3 Results
2.3.1 Economic Analysis
2.3.2 Economic Benefits
2.3.3 Environmental Benefits
2.4 Discussion
2.4.1 Community Legislation (EU)
2.4.2 National Legislation
2.4.3 Regulation and Standardization
2.4.4 Comparison with Other Countries
2.5 Conclusions and Political Implications
Appendix 1
Normative Aspects
Economics Aspects
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Appendix 4
United States of America
Japan
Germany
References
3 Technical Approach for the Inclusion of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage in a Smart City
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Material and Methods
3.3 Theoretical Framework
3.4 Results
3.4.1 Charge of the Storage System
3.4.2 Discharge of the Storage System
3.5 Discussion
3.6 Conclusions
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
References
4 Analysis on the Electric Vehicle with a Hybrid Storage System and the Use of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Materials and Methods
4.2.1 Hybridization Systems
4.2.2 Regulatory Framework
4.2.3 Economic Analysis
4.3 Results
4.3.1 Environmental Benefits
4.3.2 Economic Benefits
4.4 Discussion
4.4.1 Advantages of the Hybrid System
4.4.2 Disadvantages of the Hybrid System
4.4.3 Factors to Enhance EV
4.5 Conclusions
References
5 Conclusions

Citation preview

SpringerBriefs in Energy Enrique-Luis Molina-Ibáñez · Antonio Colmenar-Santos · Enrique Rosales-Asensio

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Systems (SMES) for Distributed Supply Networks

SpringerBriefs in Energy

SpringerBriefs in Energy presents concise summaries of cutting-edge research and practical applications in all aspects of Energy. Featuring compact volumes of 50 to 125 pages, the series covers a range of content from professional to academic. Typical topics might include: • • • • •

A snapshot of a hot or emerging topic A contextual literature review A timely report of state-of-the art analytical techniques An in-depth case study A presentation of core concepts that students must understand in order to make independent contributions.

Briefs allow authors to present their ideas and readers to absorb them with minimal time investment. Briefs will be published as part of Springer’s eBook collection, with millions of users worldwide. In addition, Briefs will be available for individual print and electronic purchase. Briefs are characterized by fast, global electronic dissemination, standard publishing contracts, easy-to-use manuscript preparation and formatting guidelines, and expedited production schedules. We aim for publication 8–12 weeks after acceptance. Both solicited and unsolicited manuscripts are considered for publication in this series. Briefs can also arise from the scale up of a planned chapter. Instead of simply contributing to an edited volume, the author gets an authored book with the space necessary to provide more data, fundamentals and background on the subject, methodology, future outlook, etc. SpringerBriefs in Energy contains a distinct subseries focusing on Energy Analysis and edited by Charles Hall, State University of New York. Books for this subseries will emphasize quantitative accounting of energy use and availability, including the potential and limitations of new technologies in terms of energy returned on energy invested.

Enrique-Luis Molina-Ibáñez · Antonio Colmenar-Santos · Enrique Rosales-Asensio

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Systems (SMES) for Distributed Supply Networks

Enrique-Luis Molina-Ibáñez Department of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control, Telematics and Chemistry Applied to Engineering Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia Madrid, Spain

Antonio Colmenar-Santos Department of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control, Telematics and Chemistry Applied to Engineering Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia Madrid, Spain

Enrique Rosales-Asensio Department of Electrical Engineering Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas Spain

ISSN 2191-5520 ISSN 2191-5539 (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Energy ISBN 978-3-031-34772-6 ISBN 978-3-031-34773-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34773-3 © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Executive Summary

The need to develop energy supply systems, to increase their efficiency and to be able to store energy in large quantities for future technological and social challenges has provided that research and regulations in the electricity sector are oriented in this direction. In this context, electricity distribution networks are oriented towards distributed networks, where small relocated generation sources are created, or in very disparate locations, with small supply sub-networks. All of this is controlled and monitored by means of an electronic supply monitoring and control system. The sources of generation for which they are mainly betting on this type of networks are mostly renewable, photovoltaic and wind energy sources. To this must be added an energy storage system that can guarantee supply at all times. Currently, the main energy storage system available is pumping water. Pumped energy storage is one of the most mature storage technologies and is deployed on a large scale throughout Europe. It currently accounts for more than 90% of the storage capacity installed at a European level. The main problem that it provides is the large size and the physical characteristics that are required for its installation. Another problem is what we could consider as the “self-discharge” of this storage system, the evaporation of the dammed water. Other systems include chemical systems, such as hydrogen storage (as an energy vector, where many resources are being put into its development and implementation); electrochemical, such as lithium batteries; thermal, such as latent heat storage; mechanical, such as Fly Energy Storage (FES) or Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES); or electrical, such as supercapacitors or Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) systems. SMES electrical storage systems are based on the generation of a magnetic field with a coil created by superconducting material in a cryogenization tank, where the superconducting material is at a temperature below its critical temperature, Tc. These materials are classified into two types: HTS—High Temperature Superconductor, and LTS—Low Temperature Superconductor. The main features of this storage system provide a high power storage capacity that can be useful for uninterruptible power supply systems (UPS—Uninterruptible Power Supply). v

vi

Executive Summary

In addition, they are also useful for the regulation and control of voltages, suppression of network fluctuations, which helps the integration of renewable energies in the energy system. The problem of implementing a storage system is due to two main factors, regulatory and economic. Regarding the first, an excess of regulations or a lack of it can limit its implementation or help its implementation and its diffusion. In this sense, depending on the structure of each country, we can find different legislative levels. Thus, for example, in the case of Spain, different regulatory levels must be taken into account, with the aim of guaranteeing an adequate inclusion of SMES systems, promoting their use and regulation in manufacturing systems. These levels can be summarized in: 1. European Union (EU), through the corresponding Community Regulations or Directives. 2. National, through ordinary laws, Royal Decree-Law or Regulations (Royal Decree, Ministerial Order, Circulars, Resolutions…). 3. Other regulations of regional application, such as Decrees or Orders. In relation to the regional regulatory level (Autonomous Communities), it is very limited, except for the possibility of both economic and administrative aids for its implementation. In other countries, such as the United States, energy policy is set by the Department of Energy (DOE—Department of Energy), through an energy plan approved for the medium/long term (Energy Policy Act of 2005) or Japan with its Basic Energy Plan (Enerugi Kihon Keikaku). The second problem that this storage system must face is economic. To know the viability of an investment of this type and the possible economic benefits of using this type of system, several aspects must be taken into account: – Investment costs: the construction costs of the system, which will depend on the size and technology to be used, the electrical costs of the system or the costs of the auxiliary systems. – Operation and maintenance costs: Depending on the size of the plant and a factor related to the lifetime of it. – Financial costs: To be taken into account in medium and large size installations. Among the benefits, it is necessary to take into account the times of network unavailability, considering that during this time there are companies or factories that are not producing and are generating considerable losses, as well as the possible environmental benefits due to the non-emission of greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases (GHG) or other gases that are harmful to humans. But in order to analyse the penetration of this type of energy storage systems in the energy system, it is necessary to analyse where it is in relation to the electrical network. In this sense, everything points to the distributed generation of electricity, where there are small generators interconnected and monitored to the network. On the other hand, it must be taken into account that the world population tends to be urban, for example, more than 80% currently live in a city in Spain compared

Executive Summary

vii

to 65% who did 50 years ago. This phenomenon is widespread in all countries of the world, which implies that energy management, generation and distribution models should be oriented towards the development of intelligent cities or Smart Cities, which seek to increase the efficiency of different levers of action, such as power generation, construction, mobility or administration and social services, as well as the improvement of the operation of the network or the incorporation of renewable energies. In relation to the levers of the Smart Cities, some crosscutting elements to all of them allow to obtain the necessary synergy to increase the management efficiency that was mentioned. There can be found among these elements: – – – –

Information and communication technologies. Systems sensorization. Security/cybersecurity. Construction and manufacturing materials.

It is important to analyse the characteristics of energy storage systems, such as the SMES system in Smart Cities, in relation to the generation and support of electrical energy, given its characteristics. These systems, during charging and discharging, can help to withstand large power peaks, such as starting motors or in other industrial processes that require very low response times and high capacity for punctual power supply. Even with everything, despite the characteristics that a storage system of this type can provide, it has some shortcomings that currently cannot be supplied with the technology developed for SMES systems, such as the low energy density that they have. To complement the support systems for the generation of electrical energy, there is the possibility of carrying out a hybridization of the storage systems. The idea is to look for a system with high power density and low response times, such as the SMES system, with systems that can store large amounts of energy, like batteries, CAES system or through water reserves with reversible pumps. Among the possibilities of hybridization of the storage systems, we can talk about systems in Active Parallel, in Passive Parallel or in Cascade, depending on the needs that are required at each moment and situation. Knowing the limitations of the distribution networks, generation and storage systems are important to know the possibilities of implantation and inclusion of new systems to the electrical network. In relation to this, SMES storage systems allow to provide support to new electricity supply networks. On the other hand, there is the need to find energy storage solutions for the processes and elements that can interact with the network. One of the important points is the charging and autonomy system of electric vehicles. Not only the possibility of intelligent systems where one of the generation/storage systems of the network is through the SMES system, but the internal storage element of the vehicles implies a storage system with high power density. The growth in sales and manufacturing of electric vehicles, as well as the regulations aimed at suspending sales of internal combustion vehicles (Diesel or Gasoline) in the coming years, makes essential to find solutions that allow the autonomy of

viii

Executive Summary

vehicles or the recharging time of these improve and can resemble the current internal combustion vehicles. Despite the fact that lithium-ion batteries have a high power density, necessary to start the electric traction motor of this type of vehicle, another storage element is required capable of providing the necessary power at specific moments. The new electric vehicles have a range of a few hundred kilometres with a fully charged battery and in perfect condition (there is a phenomenon of capacity degradation, so the capacity of the batteries is not always the initial one) and a battery recharge time of around hours or minutes, despite the fact that there are systems that can recharge very quickly but that can affect the life of the batteries. It must be borne in mind that the advantages that including an SMES storage system can provide can be set against the disadvantages that it entails. These disadvantages provided by this system are mainly two; the first is the need for a refrigeration system for the coil so that it is at a temperature below the critical temperature of the coil material at all times. As for the second, it is the size of these devices and the weight, given the specific and energy density of these devices. Another of the possibilities of these elements is in processes, whether connected to the grid or on an island, where renewable generation sources are combined with mixed energy storage elements, with elements of high energy density with others such as the SMES system. In these systems, the need to control at all times the quality of the electricity provided, from renewable sources, from the network or from storage systems and for proper functioning of the process machinery is essential to allow the system to extend its useful life.

Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 20

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve by a Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage: Application to the Case of the Spanish Electrical System . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Material and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Theoretical Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Economic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Economic Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Environmental Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Community Legislation (EU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 National Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3 Regulation and Standardization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.4 Comparison with Other Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Conclusions and Political Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25 26 29 30 30 34 34 35 37 40 40 41 43 44 44 46 48 48 60 62

3 Technical Approach for the Inclusion of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage in a Smart City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Material and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Theoretical Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69 70 72 74 76 ix

x

Contents

3.4.1 Charge of the Storage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Discharge of the Storage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77 78 80 84 86 89 93 94

4 Analysis on the Electric Vehicle with a Hybrid Storage System and the Use of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Hybridization Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Regulatory Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Economic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Environmental Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Economic Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Advantages of the Hybrid System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Disadvantages of the Hybrid System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3 Factors to Enhance EV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97 98 100 103 106 108 111 111 113 116 116 117 118 120 120

5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Chapter 1

Introduction

Currently, among the main challenges that are presented for the coming years is the reduction of the emission of Greenhouse Gases, GHG, among which are the energy generation systems, in order to fight climate change. That is why being able to develop technologies that guarantee electricity supply and can improve the quality of supply is essential. Related to this we may find energy storage systems, such as the superconducting magnetic energy storage system, SMES. This system has been researched and developed in order to improve its operating characteristics, such as the investigation of new materials to increase the critical temperature of the coil [1], or by researching new manufacturing processes [2]. Knowing how the device is, the main characteristics of these are Table 1.1. The device is made up of the superconducting coil, a cryogenization tank to keep the coil below the critical temperature and the auxiliary systems that allow the operation and cryogenization of that coil, through a control and sensor system, as described shows in Fig. 1.1. In order to see the possibilities of development in electrical systems, a study oriented towards the analysis of the possibility of evolution and implementation of the superconducting magnetic energy storage system (SMES) must be defined and planned. To do this, we have sought to analyse the different areas where any device must act and focus in order to have an impact and be able to be implemented. In the first case, it seeks to analyse the regulatory and economic aspects that may affect a storage system of this type so that it can develop and “compete” in the electrical system, specifically for the Spanish electrical system. In this sense, an adequate regulatory base, that is to say from the Public sector, can allow storage to gain momentum in the energy mix and that different technologies, such as SMES or CAE, for example, can provide their advantages to production and power supply. In addition to the above, the economic aspect is essential. On the one hand, the cost of the device must be analysed, both in terms of investment and in terms of maintenance, based on its useful life. As seen above, this technology is not fully © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 E.-L. Molina-Ibáñez et al., Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Systems (SMES) for Distributed Supply Networks, SpringerBriefs in Energy, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34773-3_1

1

Specific energy (Wh/kg)

0.5–5

Energy density (Wh/L)

0.2–8

Daily self-discharge (%)

10–15

1000–4000

Power density (W/ L)

Table 1.1 Main characteristics of a SMES [3–8]

500–2000

Specific power (W/ kg) 0.01–10

Power (MW) < 5 ms

Response time ms-min

Discharge time

min-h

Suitable storage duration

> 95

Efficiency (%)

Lifetime (cycles) 100.000

Lifetime (year) 20 +

2 1 Introduction

1 Introduction

3

Fig. 1.1 Basic scheme of the system SMES [3]

developed and the manufacturing and maintenance costs are relatively high. On the other hand, the economic benefit that the use of these storage systems can provide in an electrical system where it will be implemented must be taken into account. The total cost of a system of this type is given by the investment, operation and maintenance costs and by the financial costs, according to [3]. It must be taken into account that the construction and maintenance processes have been improved and can be reduced, in fact the operation and maintenance costs are around 2–3%, according to [9]. In relation to the possible benefits that its implementation would entail, the articles developed show the possible economic and environmental benefits [3]. In the Spanish electricity system, as a reference, it must be borne in mind that in recent years investments have been made to improve the infrastructure and the network control and monitoring system, as well as the electric power generation systems. With this, the need for an anti-interruption power system, UPS, such as the SMES storage system, can be shown. As shown in Fig. 1.2, it can be seen that availability in recent years has improved slightly thanks to the improvements made, but a lot needs to be done to avoid possible supply problems [10]. On the other hand, the amount of Energy Not Supplied (ENS) and the Average Interruption Time (AIT) do not improve in relation to availability, as shown in Figs. 1.3 and 1.4. This is due to the increase in installed power, of the order of 9.21% despite the closure of some coal plants [10]. On the other hand, the environmental benefits are more than remarkable, as shown in Table 1.2, which shows the decreases in the main harmful substances, such as CO2 , CO, SO2 , NH3 or NOx in recent years, produced solely by the power generation from coal. These can also be considered an economic benefit, since millions of euros are invested every year for conditions caused by pollution [11, 12]. According

4

1 Introduction

100.000 99.500 99.000

98.590

98.500

98.270

98.280

98.000 97.500

98.510 98.370

98.220 98.130

97.900

97.000 96.500 96.000 95.500 95.000 2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

Fig. 1.2 Network availability in Spain [10]

3,000.000 2,674.463 2,500.000 2,000.000 1,500.000 1,000.000 500.000

231.847

535.375 351.187

359.380 164.192 221.130

140.133

0.000 2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

Fig. 1.3 Energy not supplied (ENS), MWh

with the Strategic Health and Environment Plan of the Spanish Ministry of Health [13], according to a study published in 2016 by the OECD in which the economic consequences of air pollution and its variation with respect to environmental policies are collected. It shows the current and estimated situation for the future, if efficient

1 Introduction

5

6.000 5.320 5.000 4.000 3.000 2.000 1.066

1.000

0.454

0.738

0.275

0.000 2015

0.347

0.688

0.464 2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

Fig. 1.4 Average interruption time (AIT) min

policies are not applied, of direct costs (labour productivity, health spending and agricultural yield) and indirect costs (factors of production, international trade and banking, and changes in prices) of air pollution. These costs could go from 0.3% of current GDP on average in each OECD country to 1% in 2060. This table shows the more than considerable reduction in the emissions of these harmful substances, sometimes reductions of more than 80%. This is mainly due to the closure of thermal power plants such as the Teruel Thermal Power Plant in Andorra, which, according to a report presented by Greenpeace in 2008, emitted an average of 6828.042 tons of CO2 per year [16]. All this is due to the policies carried out by the European Parliament and the Government of Spain to achieve the objectives set in the reduction of GHG and in the fight against climate change. These policies show an important boost to energy storage systems as a guarantor of stabilization of the national electrical system. At the policy level, the electrical system continues to be governed by Law 24/2013, of December 26, on the Electrical Sector [17], which supplements the previous law on the electricity sector, Law 54/1997. Within the national normative level are laws, Royal Decree-Laws, Royal Decrees, Orders, Resolutions, Circulars, among others. Making a summary of the regulations that can affect the SMES storage systems in particular and the rest in general, within the Spanish electrical system Table 1.3 is obtained, below. Apart from those already mentioned in the studies carried out in this sense [3], there are others related to economic compensation systems and technical regulation of the systems. On the other hand, there are also regulations that promote research and development of technologies in order to improve the energy efficiency of supply networks.

1900.9

418,968.7

6539.3

83,641.7

CO

NH3

NOX

101,923.7

7968.6

510,544.8

2316.4

2015

21,283,512.3

2014

17,465,901.8

SO2

CO2

72,353.9

5656.8

362,427.2

1644.4

15,108,808.7

2016

86,922.3

6795.7

435,401.6

1975.5

18,150,952.9

2017

Table 1.2 Generation of substances by the consumption of Coal, in Tn [10, 14, 15] 2018

71,973.0

5626.9

360,519.5

1635.7

15,029,281.5

2019

24,464.1

1912.6

122,543.0

556.0

5,108,554.0

2020

9693.9

757.9

48,557.4

220.3

2,024,253.5

2021

9626.5

752.6

48,220.0

218.8

2,010,188.1

6 1 Introduction

1 Introduction

7

Table 1.3 List of Spanish regulations Rule

Date

Scope

Law 24/2013 [17]

December 26, 2013

Which regulate the electric sector

Law 7/2021 [18]

May 20, 2021

Climate change and energy transition

Royal Decree 148/2021 March 9, 2021 [19]

Which establish the calculation methodology of electrical system charges

Royal Decree 184/2022 March 8, 2022 [20]

Which regulate the activity of provision of energy recharging services for electric vehicles

Royal Decree 244/2019 April 5, 2019 [21]

Which regulate the administrative, technical and economic conditions of self-consumption of electrical energy

Royal Decree 568/2022 July 11, 2022 [22]

Establishing the general framework of the regulatory test bench for the promotion of research and innovation in the electricity sector

Royal Decree 900/2015 October 9, 2015 [23]

Which regulate the administrative, technical and economic conditions of the modalities of supply of electrical energy with self-consumption and production with self-consumption

Royal Decree 960/2020 November 3, [24] 2020

Which regulate the economic regime of renewable energies for electrical energy production facilities

Royal Decree 1183/ 2020 [25]

December 29, 2020

Access and connection to electricity transmission and distribution networks

Royal Decree 1955/ 2000 [26]

December 1, 2000

Which regulate the activities of transport, distribution, commercialization, supply and authorization procedures of electrical energy installations

Royal Decree-Law 15/ 2018 [27]

October 5, 2018

Urgent measures for the energy transition and consumer protection

Royal Decree-Law 23/ 2020 [28]

June 23, 2020

Which approve in the field of energy and in other areas for the economic reactivation measures

Order TED/1161/2020 [29]

December 4, 2020

By which the first auction mechanism for the granting of the renewable energy economic regime is regulated and the indicative calendar is established for the period 2020–2025

Circular 1/2021 [30]

January 20, 2021

Of the National Commission of Markets and Competition, which establishes the methodology and conditions of access and connection to the transmission and distribution networks of electricity production facilities

Circular 2/2019 [31]

November 12, 2019

Of the National Commission of Markets and Competition, which establishes the methodology for calculating the financial remuneration rate for the activities of transmission and distribution of electricity, and regasification, transportation and distribution of natural gas (continued)

8

1 Introduction

Table 1.3 (continued) Rule

Date

Scope

Circular 3/2020 [32]

January 15, 2020

Of the National Commission of Markets and Competition, which establishes the methodology for calculating electricity transmission and distribution tolls

Circular 4/2019 [33]

November 27, 2019

From the National Commission for Markets and Competition, which establishes the remuneration methodology for the operator of the electrical system

Circular 6/2019 [34]

December 5, 2019

Of the National Commission of Markets and Competition, which establishes the methodology for calculating the remuneration of the activity of electricity distribution

This not only implies that investment is being made at the central level and commitment is being made to renewable generation and storage systems and elements, but it also implies that supply networks tend to evolve considering energy storage systems. On the other hand, it must be borne in mind that the first regulatory step available to Spain is the European Commission. All the regulations that are developed in the European Parliament must be implemented at the national and regional level in each member country. Considering the most important European Directives developed in recent years and the Regulations made in relation to the object of study, there would be: • Directive 2009/125/CE: Establishes the basic ecodesign requirements related to energy systems. • Directive (EU) 2018/2001: By which it supports the integration into the transmission and distribution grid of energy from renewable sources and the use of energy storage systems for integrated variable energy production. • Directive (EU) 2019/944: calls on Member States to provide the necessary legal framework to encourage the use of flexibility in distribution networks. • Regulation (EU) 2019/941: By which it establishes rules regarding cooperation between Member States with a view to preventing electricity crises, preparing for them and managing them in a competitive internal electricity market. On the other hand, the Horizon 2020 program covered the period 2014–2020, and was the Union’s main instrument to promote energy research. Funds of up to e5900 million were allocated to obtain clean, safe and efficient energy and sustainable development. The new framework programme, Horizon Europe [35] will be executed between 2021 and 2027 with a budget of e95.5 billion, including the NextGenerationEU program. Apart from Europe, the United States is legislating to give significant support to energy generation and storage, as well as research into technologies that can help energy supply problems. In the recently approved regulations Act of 2022 [36], Additional 30% tax credit allocations are provided for qualified advanced energy

1 Introduction

9

projects for investments in projects that retrofit, expand, or establish certain manufacturing energy facilities for the production or recycling of proprietary renewable energy, storage systems and components of energy. On the other hand, such law seeks to encourage and promote distributed generation and storage in rural areas of the country, among other actions. In addition to this entire regulatory framework, the standardization model for the manufacturing process and development of storage systems must be taken into account, specifically for this storage system. Without going into detail, a list of the UNE standards that affect these storage systems is available in Sect. 2.1, Table 2.16 of the study [3]. Bearing in mind the limitations or legislative and economic needs, the technical possibilities of this type of storage systems in the networks of the future must be analysed, and specifically in the new concept of Smart Cities. This term joins the term of Distributed Generation, or DG for its acronym in English. Simulating how its use can affect the electrical system and seeing the response time and the technical advantages/disadvantages that it can provide is essential to see the possibility of an adequate implementation of high power density systems, such as this one, in support of other storage systems. For this, the energy and communication networks of a Smart City and the possibilities that it can offer must be studied. Knowing the communication, monitoring, sensorization system and the relationship with the other blocks that constitute a standard Smart City model is essential to be able to see the possibilities of implementation and inclusion of a storage system of this type. This future and present scenario, at the same time, both globally and nationally, tends to become urbanized, that is, the population lives in an increasing percentage in cities. The evolution of the urban population in Spain since 1960 can be seen in Fig. 1.5, where it can be seen that in 2021 the percentage of urban population in Spain is more than 80%, with an upward slope [37]. On the other hand, today, 78% of Spanish municipalities have fewer than 5000 inhabitants and 9.4% of the population resides there, according to the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food [38]. In this sense, this situation can provide opportunities and challenges for said electrical system. In this sense, a more decentralized, multidirectional and complex model is foreseen, where self-consumption, citizen participation and distributed energy resources, such as storage, distributed generation or demand management, will be key factors [22]. Distributed generation is based on the generation of electrical energy through many small generation sources, installed near the consumer that is connected to the electrical energy distribution network. Having distributed generation reduces losses in the network and unloads the transmission network. Having small widely distributed generation sources, can provide an improvement in the reliability, quality and safety of the electrical system.

10

1 Introduction

90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55

1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020

50

Fig. 1.5 Evolution of the urban population in Spain (%) [37]

Distributed generation is associated with the generation and development in the implementation of renewable energies, new storage systems and advanced automation and control systems, which reduces CO2 emissions and establishes itself as a fundamental part of the new smart grids, also called Smart Grids. Figure 1.6 shows a diagram with the locations and the advantages that storage systems can provide in each section of the network, in the so-called smart networks. New types of smart grids, seeking greater control, efficiency, and reliability, go hand in hand with smart cities. The concept of Smart City, or intelligent cities, gains strength in relation to the implementation of management, control and efficiency measures in the generation, distribution and supply of electrical energy in future cities. In the concept of smart cities there are 4 levers of action, according to the document of the Interplatform Group of Smart Cities, of its acronym in Spanish, GICI [40], and that shows in Fig. 1.7, which are: – – – –

Government and social services. Mobility and intermobility. Infrastructures and buildings. Energy and environment.

In this document, the related projects in the Energy and Environment group already show the importance, in 2015, of the need to propose an electrical distribution system based on storage elements. In smart cities, as well as in Smart Grids themselves, the generation system, loading and unloading of storage systems, storage status and auxiliary processes must be controlled by means of a control system. Figure 1.8 shows a basic schematic of a network-attached storage system.

1 Introduction

11

Fig. 1.6 Location of storage systems in a smart grid [39]

These systems must be interconnected with the rest of the elements of the network, as shown in the transversal elements of Fig. 1.7 called Information and Communication Technologies. A very graphic example of this communication system can be seen in the Endesa project on the Smart City of Malaga [42]. In it, you can see the mixed communication fibre optic topology, where there is a main ring, which communicates the information of all the systems to the control centre, as shown in Fig. 1.9. In addition, the links used for ring redundancy and to provide network capillarity are 2 Mbit/s and 64 kbit/s connections, depending on existing transmission technologies, respectively. A Gigabit Ethernet ring has been built for this fibre optic network that allows the integration of all services in a safe, flexible and efficient way. Finally, there is the access network, made up of transformation centres that communicate with one or more AT substations. In such document, the electrical support system is also discussed, using lithium batteries, LiFeMgPO4 , specifically with a total capacity of 106 kWh in the Medium Voltage network and 24 kWh in the Low Voltage network. It is at this point, where hybrid storage systems with high power density storage elements can do a great job. It is also important to know the advantages that hybrid systems with different storage elements can provide, that is, using elements with high power density with others with high energy density, for example, batteries with SMES. The use of

12

Fig. 1.7 Groups or technological work areas of the smart city [40]

Fig. 1.8 Diagram of a storage system [41]

1 Introduction

Fig. 1.9 Physical diagram of the fibre optic network deployed in smart city Málaga [42]

1 Introduction 13

14

1 Introduction

Fig. 1.10 Topologies of hybrid storage systems

these two types of energy storage can provide great advantages so that they can be definitively implemented in a generic way in current electrical grid systems. That is why the possibility of hybridization possibilities of the storage elements for Smart Cities or Smart Grids would be based fundamentally on the union of: – – – –

Batteries, normally lithium-ion or metal hydride, with the SME system [43, 44]. Compressed air systems, CAES, with the SMES system. Hydrogen cells, or fuel cells, with the SMES system [45]. Pumping systems with the SMES system.

Regarding the topologies of the hybrid systems, they are summarized in three main options, active parallel, passive parallel and cascade. These topologies can be subclassified and broken down into others, as shown [46]. The three main topologies are shown in Fig. 1.10.

1 Introduction

15

Table 1.4 Characteristics of hybrid storage system topologies [43, 44, 46–53] Active parallel

Passive parallel

Cascaded

Scalability Scalability is higher because Limitation provided the number of power by a single fitting conversion steps between any system ESS and the load is always two, and the power conversion loss does not increase as heterogeneity increases

Scalability in these systems is limited to operation

Flexibility

A variety of energy control and management strategies can be implemented

There is no flexibility in the selection of the nominal voltage of the ESS

Lack of freedom in the control policy

Operation

Each ESS can operate at its specific voltage, allowing specific power and specific energy to be optimized using the best available technology

Simplicity, but the distribution of current between the ESSs is not controlled and is determined only by factors that vary with voltage

It provides ESS decoupling that enables active power management by using additional power conditioning between the ESSs in turn

Cost

More expensive

Less expensive

Expensive

Others

Stability is also improved as a failure of one source still allows operation of the other

Easy implementation

The cascaded architecture is restricted in terms of scalability because it suffers more conversion losses as the number of power conversion steps increases

There are many studies that analyse hybrid battery storage systems, mainly with high power density storage elements, usually with supercondenser/supercapacitors [46–53]. With the possible characteristics of the different existing hybridization topologies, and depending on the different studies, a comparative table can be made showing the main advantages and disadvantages that they show in relation to the others, Table 1.4. One of the key points associated with the Smart Grid or Smart City concept is mobility, as seen above. The option of having a fleet of electric vehicles, or plug-in hybrids, which when connected to the network can behave like a storage system. If the network generates surpluses, it allows vehicle batteries to be charged but at specific times, it can support the electrical system when there is a high demand that the generators cannot supply. This is what is known as V2G, Vehicle to Grid. In this sense, it is important to know the trend in the sector and whether it is feasible to carry out a stored energy management system with an SMES-type element. For this, the advantages and disadvantages must be analysed, as well as the possible impediments or incentives, both economic and regulatory.

16

1 Introduction 35,00,000.00

30,00,000.00

EV Sales

25,00,000.00

Japan 20,00,000.00

Europe China

15,00,000.00

USA Rest of World

10,00,000.00

5,00,000.00

0.00 2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

Fig. 1.11 Sales of electric vehicles by region [54]

Table 1.5 Tons of CO2 , SO2 and NOX produced by transport in Spain [55] 2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

CO2

74,422.72

75,295.56

77,967.71

80,010.92

81,359.65

82,230.56

SO2

3.15

3.21

3.34

3.43

3.52

3.60

3.59

295.12

299.57

310.76

319.71

326.24

331.92

335.57

NOX

83,057.30

On the other hand, and thanks to the measures and objectives imposed by the different governments, the sales of these vehicles, whether they are BEV, Battery Electric Vehicle, or PHEV, Plug-Hybrid Electric Vehicle, have increased almost exponentially, except for a slight stagnation during 2019 and 2020 possibly caused by the global pandemic of COVID-19. These data can be seen better in Fig. 1.11, with the data provided by the IEA (International Energy Agency) [54]. In this figure, only private vehicles are shown, without taking into account company or transport vehicles. Several things stand out about this figure. The first is the significant rise in both China and European countries, not just the EU, in recent years. Another feature to highlight is that the increase can be generalized in the rest of the world, with a rebound in the last year. Lastly, it is important to bear in mind the stagnation in electric vehicle sales in Japan, one of the leading countries in the industry. In relation to the GHG produced by vehicles in Spain, without counting other means of transport such as rail or plane, according to the Observatory of transport and logistics in Spain [55], there has been an increase in terms of CO2 , SO2 and NOX , Table 1.5. This implies that the need to change the transport model is essential to fight climate change, and different countries have realized this by committing to promoting electric vehicles and reducing GHG emissions. Apart from the environmental impact itself,

1 Introduction

17

€100.00

€90.00

€80.00

€70.00

€60.00

€50.00

€40.00

€30.00

€20.00

€10.00

Jul-22

Apr-22

Jan-22

Jul-21

Oct-21

Apr-21

Jan-21

Jul-20

Oct-20

Apr-20

Jan-20

Jul-19

Oct-19

Apr-19

Jan-19

Jul-18

Oct-18

Apr-18

Jan-18

Jul-17

Oct-17

Apr-17

Jan-17

€0.00

Fig. 1.12 European price of CO2 [58]

there is also an economic impact. The economic benefits that the use of the Electric Vehicle, EV, can cause can be monetized considering the phases of the process of fossil fuels, extraction, processing, transportation and distribution and storage. To this we should add taxes, customs, regulatory changes and other factors that cause uncertainty in this type of energy vector [56]. Due to the complexity and great variability of these factors, it is difficult to carry out an exhaustive study of each case. There are studies that involve GHGs with diseases that entail health expenses and even multimillion-dollar compensation, depending on the cases [57]. When it comes to monetizing, in the EU there is the figure of Emissions Trading Schemes (ETS) [58], where CO2 is priced per ton of emission. Figure 1.12 shows the evolution of its price in recent years. If you look at the above figure, it can be seen that the CO2 emission price in Europe has multiplied by 10 in the last 5 years, with no downward trend. For all these reasons, the implementation of the EV and its development is necessary. In this sense, different countries have opted for electric vehicles as an alternative to vehicles with internal combustion engines, with the idea of being able to reduce GHG. In this sense, in Spain, as a member country of the European Union, and to continue with the analysis carried out so far, two main objectives have been set, the first to install 500.000 electric vehicle charging stations by 2030 and the second to

18

1 Introduction

Fig. 1.13 EV charging stations in the USA [54, 59]

have more than 5 million light vehicles, buses and electric two- and three-wheelers on the market by 2030 [15]. In this sense, the PERTE, Strategic Projects for Economic Recovery and Transformation in Spanish, were created in 2021. The Council of Ministers approved on July 13, 2021 the first of the (PERTE), the one dedicated to the Electric and Connected Car. It is a project based on public–private collaboration and focused on strengthening the value chains of the Spanish automotive industry. The objective of the PERTE with the electric car is to create in Spain the necessary scenario for the development and manufacture of electric vehicles and those connected to the network and to turn Spain into the European Hub for electric mobility. The development of this project foresees a total investment of more than 24.000 million euros in the period 2021–2023, with a contribution from the public sector of 4.300 million euros and a private investment of 19.700 million euros. On the other hand, another important point is the capillarity of the supply systems. The advantage they have is the possibility of creating a supply station isolated from the network, through renewable generation and with storage elements. The problem is that until the network of charging stations is adapted to the needs of the population, they will not have the incentive to purchase an EV. This is seen in the installation of charging stations in the United States, according to the Alternative Fuel Data Center, belonging to the Department of Energy [59], from Fig. 1.13.

1 Introduction

19

Figure 1.13 shows the density of charging stations based on where they are located, whether in urban locations, rural locations or on interstate highways. High density can be observed in more populated areas, consistently, but the lack of capillarity in other areas that could make it impossible for EV to penetrate rural areas. In this scenario, there is a possibility to introduce the SMES energy storage system for EVs. These devices show a high degree of efficiency in high-demand processes and can complement EV batteries. The possible hybridization of the energy storage system could help to increase the performance of the EV and its useful life. In return, it is found that this system requires a refrigeration system as well as a significant size for its installation. The cost involved in developing a system of these characteristics in a utility vehicle is also an impediment. In this sense, studies and investments are being carried out to improve manufacturing processes and to reduce costs [4, 7, 50, 60–71]. On the other hand, there is also the option of carrying out the hybridization system using fuel cells or hydrogen cells together with an SMES system. These models are called LIQHYSMES, and it could be used in the model that the hydrogen from the fuel is used to cool the coil of the SMES system [43, 72–75]. In addition to everything previously mentioned above about EVs, there are different opportunities and projects in which the storage system allows to support the electrical network or a specific process, on an island. In this sense, multiple patents have been developed in which renewable energies, such as wind power, are related to storage elements, normally battery systems or hydropump systems [76, 77]. One of these processes in which energy efficiency and the use of resources are sought are the desalination processes of seawater. According to the National Action Plan against desertification, of the Ministry of the Environment [78], more than 15% of the surface in Spain is at medium, high or very high risk of desertification, as shown in Fig. 1.14. This is due to the use of land carried out for years and the lack, or relative scarcity, of water resources in large areas of the peninsula. In this sense, the investigations carried out around improving the desalination processes in order to obtain fresh water from the sea have increased, as shown by the patents [79–82]. These patents seek to link renewable energy with the desalination process in order to reduce the carbon footprint of current saltwater desalination plants.

20

1 Introduction

Fig. 1.14 Desertification map in Spain, in 2008 [78]

References 1. Wang Z, Han W (2021) Recent developments on rare-earth hexaboride nanowires. Sustainability 13:13970. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132413970 2. Van Stephenson G (2021) Dual winding superconducting magnetic energy storage. US 10,957,473 B2, 2021 3. Colmenar-Santos A, Molina-Ibáñez E-L, Rosales-Asensio E, Blanes-Peiró J-J (2018) Legislative and economic aspects for the inclusion of energy reserve by a superconducting magnetic energy storage: Application to the case of the Spanish electrical system. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 82:2455–2470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.012 4. Yang B, Zhu T, Zhang X, Wang J, Shu H, Li S et al (2020) Design and implementation of battery/SMES hybrid energy storage systems used in electric vehicles: a nonlinear robust fractional-order control approach. Energy 191:116510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019. 116510 5. Koohi-Fayegh S, Rosen MA (2020) A review of energy storage types, applications and recent developments. J Energy Storage 27:101047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2019.101047 6. Kumar A, Jeyan JVML, Agarwal A (2020) Electromagnetic analysis on 2.5MJ high temperature superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) coil to be used in Uninterruptible power applications. Mater Today Proc 21:1755–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.01.228 7. AL Shaqsi AZ, Sopian K, Al-Hinai A (2020) Review of energy storage services, applications, limitations, and benefits. Energy Rep S2352484720312464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. egyr.2020.07.028 8. Huang Y, Ru Y, Shen Y, Zeng Z (2021) Characteristics and applications of superconducting magnetic energy storage. J Phys Conf Ser 2108:012038. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/ 2108/1/012038 9. Granados X (2019) Superconducting magnetic energy storage. Brussels

References

21

10. REE (2021) Red Eléctrica de España 2021 11. Marrero Marrero M, Petersson Roldán M, Gutiérrez Loza V, Arozarena Fundora R (2012) Measuring the health costs attributable to changes in the environmental quality. Méd Electrón 6:9 12. Vargas MF (2005) La contaminación ambiental como factor determinante de la salud. Rev Esp Salud Pública 79:117–127. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1135-57272005000200001 13. Ministerio de Sanidad (2021) Plan Estrategico de salud y medio ambiente 14. Grupo Red Eléctrica (2021) Informe de Sostenibilidad 15. Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el reto Demográfico (2020) Estudio Ambiental Estratégico Plan Nacional Integrado de Energía y Clima 2021–2030, p 414 16. el carbón en España 2008, pp 192 17. Jefatura del Estado (2013) Ley 24/2013, de 26 de diciembre, del Sector Eléctrico, p 108 18. Jefatura del Estado (2021) Ley 7/2021, de 20 de mayo, de cambio climático y transición energética, p 46 19. Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico (2021) Real Decreto 148/2021, de 9 de marzo, por el que se establece la metodología de cálculo de los cargos del sistema eléctrico, p 21 20. Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico (2022) Real Decreto 184/2022, de 8 de marzo, por el que se regula la actividad de prestación de servicios de recarga energética de vehículos eléctricos, p 16 21. Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica (2019) Real Decreto 244/2019, de 5 de abril, por el que se regulan las condiciones administrativas, técnicas y económicas del autoconsumo de energía eléctrica, p 48 22. Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico (2022) Real Decreto 568/2022, de 11 de julio, por el que se establece el marco general del banco de pruebas regulatorio para el fomento de la investigación y la innovación en el sector eléctrico, p 21 23. Ministerio de Industria, Energía y Turismo (2015) Real Decreto 900/2015, de 9 de octubre, por el que se regulan las condiciones administrativas, técnicas y económicas de las modalidades de suministro de energía eléctrica con autoconsumo y de producción con autoconsumo, p 31 24. Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico (2020) Real Decreto 960/2020, de 3 de noviembre, por el que se regula el régimen económico de energías renovables para instalaciones de producción de energía eléctrica, p 31 25. Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico (2020) Real Decreto 1183/ 2020, de 29 de diciembre, de acceso y conexión a las redes de transporte y distribución de energía eléctrica, p 42 26. Ministerio de Economía (2000) Real Decreto 1955/2000, de 1 de diciembre, por el que se regulan las actividades de transporte, distribución, comercialización, suministro y procedimientos de autorización de instalaciones de energía eléctrica, p 91 27. Jefatura del Estado (2018) Real Decreto-ley 15/2018, de 5 de octubre, de medidas urgentes para la transición energética y la protección de los consumidores, p 40 28. Jefatura del Estado (2020) Real Decreto-ley 23/2020, de 23 de junio, por el que se aprueban medidas en materia de energía y en otros ámbitos para la reactivación económica, p 49 29. Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico (2020) Orden TED/1161/2020, de 4 de diciembre, por la que se regula el primer mecanismo de subasta para el otorgamiento del régimen económico de energías renovables y se establece el calendario indicativo para el periodo 2020–2025, p 24 30. Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia (2021) Circular 1/2021, de 20 de enero, de la Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia, por la que se establece la metodología y condiciones del acceso y de la conexión a las redes de transporte y distribución de las instalaciones de producción de energía eléctrica. BOE, p 15 31. Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia (2019) Circular 2/2019, de 12 de noviembre, de la Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia, por la que se establece la metodología de cálculo de la tasa de retribución financiera de las actividades de transporte y distribución de energía eléctrica, y regasificación, transporte y distribución de gas natural. BOE, p 10

22

1 Introduction

32. Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia (2020) Circular 3/2020, de 15 de enero, de la Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia, por la que se establece la metodología para el cálculo de los peajes de transporte y distribución de electricidad, p 27 33. Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia (2019) Circular 4/2019, de 27 de noviembre, de la Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia, por la que se establece la metodología de retribución del operador del sistema eléctrico, p 10 34. Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia (2019) Circular 6/2019, de 5 de diciembre, de la Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia, por la que se establece la metodología para el cálculo de la retribución de la actividad de distribución de energía eléctrica, p 42 35. Comisión Europea (2017) Horizonte Europa 36. Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America (2022) Act of 2022 HR5376 37. Banco Mundial (2022) Porcentaje de población urbana en España—Evolución. https://datos. bancomundial.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?end=2021&locations=ES&start=1960& view=chart. Accessed 21 Aug 2022 38. Ministerio de Agricultura, pesca y alimentación (2021) Demografía de la Población rural en 2020 39. Palizban O, Kauhaniemi K (2016) Energy storage systems in modern grids—matrix of technologies and applications. J Energy Storage 6:248–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2016. 02.001 40. Grupo Interplataformas de Ciudades Inteligentes (2015) Smart cities: documento de visión A 2030. CIRCE 41. Akinyele DO, Rayudu RK (2014) Review of energy storage technologies for sustainable power networks. Sustain Energy Technol Assess 8:74–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2014.07.004 42. ENDESA (2014) Smartcity Malaga: a model of sustainable energy management for cities of the future 43. Hemmati R, Saboori H (2016) Emergence of hybrid energy storage systems in renewable energy and transport applications—a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 65:11–23. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.06.029 44. Li J, Gee AM, Zhang M, Yuan W (2015) Analysis of battery lifetime extension in a SMESbattery hybrid energy storage system using a novel battery lifetime model. Energy 86:175–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.03.132 45. Louie H, Strunz K (2007) Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) for energy cache control in modular distributed hydrogen-electric energy systems. IEEE Trans Appl Supercond 17:2361–2364. https://doi.org/10.1109/TASC.2007.898490 46. Caldas FJD (n.d.) Facultad de ingeniería eléctrica, p 85 47. Sáenz K de JB (2014) Diseño de una smart grid para un sistema híbrido de energía. Prospectiva 11:94. https://doi.org/10.15665/rp.v11i2.44 48. Parwal A, Fregelius M, Temiz I, Göteman M, de Oliveira JG, Boström C et al (2018) Energy management for a grid-connected wave energy park through a hybrid energy storage system. Appl Energy 231:399–411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.09.146 49. Li J, He H, Wei Z, Zhang X (2021) Hierarchical sizing and power distribution strategy for hybrid energy storage system. Automot Innov 4:440–447. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42154-02100164-y 50. Lencwe MJ, Chowdhury SPD, Olwal TO (2022) Hybrid energy storage system topology approaches for use in transport vehicles: a review. Energy Sci Eng 10:1449–1477. https:// doi.org/10.1002/ese3.1068 51. Darvish Falehi A, Torkaman H (2021) Robust fractional-order super-twisting sliding mode control to accurately regulate lithium-battery/super-capacitor hybrid energy storage system. Int J Energy Res 45:18590–18612. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.7045 52. Aktas A, Erhan K, Özdemir S, Özdemir E (2018) Dynamic energy management for photovoltaic power system including hybrid energy storage in smart grid applications. Energy 162:72–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.08.016

References

23

53. González-Rivera E, Sarrias-Mena R, García-Triviño P, Fernández-Ramírez LM (2020) Predictive energy management for a wind turbine with hybrid energy storage system. Int J Energy Res 44:2316–2331. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.5082 54. Global Electric Vehicle Outlook 2022, p 221 55. Observatory of Transport and Logistics in Spain, Ministry of Transport, mobility and urban agenda (2022) Energy consumption in transport by mode, type of fuel and type of traffic (national and international) 56. European Commission (2015) Joint research centre. Institute for Energy and Transport, ACEA. A smart grid for the city of Rome: a cost benefit analysis. Publications Office, LU 57. Jefatura del Estado (2007) LEY 26/2007, de Responsabilidad Medioambiental 58. European CO2 Trading System (2021) SENDECO2 59. AFDC (2021) Alternative Fuels Data Center 60. Li J, Xiong R, Yang Q, Liang F, Zhang M, Yuan W (2017) Design/test of a hybrid energy storage system for primary frequency control using a dynamic droop method in an isolated microgrid power system. Appl Energy 201:257–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016. 10.066 61. Bizon N (2018) Effective mitigation of the load pulses by controlling the battery/SMES hybrid energy storage system. Appl Energy 229:459–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018. 08.013 62. Bizon N (2019) Hybrid power sources (HPSs) for space applications: analysis of PEMFC/ Battery/SMES HPS under unknown load containing pulses. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 105:14– 37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.01.044 63. Sun Q, Xing D, Yang Q, Zhang H, Patel J (2017) A new design of fuzzy logic control for SMES and battery hybrid storage system. Energy Proc 105:4575–4580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egy pro.2017.03.983 64. Zheng C, Li W, Liang Q (2018) An energy management strategy of hybrid energy storage systems for electric vehicle applications. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 9:9 65. Ruan J, Walker PD, Zhang N, Wu J (2017) An investigation of hybrid energy storage system in multi-speed electric vehicle. Energy 140:291–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017. 08.119 66. Itani K, De Bernardinis A, Khatir Z, Jammal A (2017) Comparative analysis of two hybrid energy storage systems used in a two front wheel driven electric vehicle during extreme startup and regenerative braking operations. Energy Convers Manag 144:69–87. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.enconman.2017.04.036 67. Atmaja TD, Amin (2015) Energy storage system using battery and ultracapacitor on mobile charging station for electric vehicle. Energy Proc 68:429–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro. 2015.03.274 68. Sanfélix J, Messagie M, Omar N, Van Mierlo J, Hennige V (2015) Environmental performance of advanced hybrid energy storage systems for electric vehicle applications. Appl Energy 137:925–930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.07.012 69. Gopal AR, Park WY, Witt M, Phadke A (2018) Hybrid- and battery-electric vehicles offer low-cost climate benefits in China. Transp Res Part Transp Environ 62:362–371. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.trd.2018.03.014 70. Song Z, Li J, Hou J, Hofmann H, Ouyang M, Du J (2018) The battery-supercapacitor hybrid energy storage system in electric vehicle applications: a case study. Energy 154:433–441. https:/ /doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.04.148 71. Colmenar Santos A, Rosales-Asensio E, Borge Díez D (eds) (2019) Technologies and applications for fuel cell, plug-in hybrid, and electric vehicles. Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York 72. Shaukat N, Khan B, Ali SM, Mehmood CA, Khan J, Farid U et al (2018) A survey on electric vehicle transportation within smart grid system. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 81:1329–1349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.092 73. Wang X, Yang J, Chen L, He J (2017) Application of liquid hydrogen with SMES for efficient use of renewable energy in the energy internet, p 21

24

1 Introduction

74. Chatzivasileiadi A, Ampatzi E, Knight I (2013) Characteristics of electrical energy storage technologies and their applications in buildings. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 25:814–830. https:/ /doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.05.023 75. Mukherjee P, Rao VV (2019) Design and development of high temperature superconducting magnetic energy storage for power applications—a review. Phys C Super Appl 563:67–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physc.2019.05.001 76. Garces LJ, Liu Y, Bose S (2007) System and method for integrating wind and hydroelectric generation and pumped hydro energy storage systems. EP 1 813 807 A2 77. Liu Y, Garces LJ (2008) Systems and methods for an integrated electrical sub-system powered by wind energy. US 2008/0001408 A1 78. Ministerio de medio ambiente y medio rural y marino (2008) Programa de Acción Nacional contra la Desertificación 79. Krokoszinski H-J, Farouk Said El-Barbari S (2007) Hybrid water desalination system and method of operation. US 2007/0235383A1 80. Kunczynski J (2006) Hybrid, reverse osmosis, water desalinization, apparatus and method with energy recuperation assembly. WO 2006/039534 A2 81. D’Amato FJ, Shah AM, Baldea M (2007) Desalination system powered by renewable energy source and methods related thereto. WO 2007/018702 A2 82. Sanford A, Hussain F, Bryson C (2019) System and method for transportation and desalization of a liquid. US 10,370,261 B2

Chapter 2

Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve by a Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage: Application to the Case of the Spanish Electrical System

Abbreviations AENOR AIT BSCCO CAES CEN CENELEC CNC COPANT EDLC EN ENS ESS EU FES FIT GDP GHG HTS ISO LANL LTS PHS OP REE SMES UNE

Spanish Association for Standardization and Certification. Average Interruption Time. Bismuth Strontium Calcium Copper Oxide. Compressed Air Energy Storage. European Committee for Standardizacion. European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization. Coal Not Consumed. Panamerican Commission on Technical Standards. Electric Double Layer Capacitor. European Norms. Energy not supplied. Energy Storage System. European Union. Fly Energy Storage. Feed in Tariff. Gross Domestic Product. Greenhouse Gases. High Temperature Superconductor. International Organization for Standandarization. Los Alamos National Laboratory. Low Temperature Superconductor. Pumped Hydro Storage. Operating Procedure. Spanish Electricity Network. Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage. Una Norma Española.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 E.-L. Molina-Ibáñez et al., Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Systems (SMES) for Distributed Supply Networks, SpringerBriefs in Energy, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34773-3_2

25

26

UPS YBCO

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

Uninterruptible Power Supply. Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide

2.1 Introduction The growing concern for the environment and climate change over the past years has led to several voices beginning to question the present electric model. For some decades, the use of energy resources of renewable origin [1], which limits the use of polluting sources, has been promoted. Furthermore, the use of strategies that make more rational and efficient consumption possible, such as demand management, has been encouraged. Considering the inclusion of sources of renewable energy generation in the electrical system, in which the generation of energy by wind turbines and solar photovoltaic panels stands out [2], the use of elements that make energy storage possible is necessary. This is owing to the generation of irregular power that is largely dependent on weather conditions. Energy storage systems (ESS) can be characterized by different metrics that facilitate the choice of one device or another [3]. The devices that are currently marketed and/or in development are grouped into four major groups: Electrochemistry (different types of batteries), mechanical (FES, PHS, CAES), electrical (SMES, EDLC) and heat. Approximately 95–98% of the total, storage at the global level is based on PHS owing to the simplicity and maturity of its technology. In spite of this, the quota of ESS compared with that of PHS has grown from less than 1% in 2005 to more than 1.5% in 2010 and 2.5% in 2015 (a growth rate greater than 10%) [4, 5]. These systems should support the proper functioning of the network. It is necessary to bear in mind that the supply and the quality of energy are categorized as a basic need in everyday life. As a result, electricity consumption has been associated with the level of development of a city, region or country, and its evolution has been reflected in its gross domestic product (GDP). Figure 2.1 shows the variation of the demand for energy in peninsular Spain in comparison with the evolution of the GDP in recent years. Considering the characteristics of each of energy storage system, there are plenty of cases of the use of elements. The main applications that the ESS are capable of realizing are load tracking applications, energy storage, emergency elements, systems of uninterruptible power supply (UPS), fitness levels of voltage and frequency regulation and elements of protection [7, 8]. The main aim of this article is to analyse the storage of magnetic energy by superconductivity (SMES) system. This type of systems has not reached commercial ripeness for generalized use in a network, as reported [9], owing to different aspects. These problems can be summarised as resulting from high cost of manufacture/ maintenance, technical difficulty in the application in different environments and the lack of normative support.

2.1 Introduction

27 GDP

Corrected peninsular demand

6

% last year

4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Fig. 2.1 Comparative GDP versus energy demand [6]

An SMES system allows the storage of energy under a magnetic field because the current through a coil is cooled at temperature below the critical temperature of superconductivity. The system is based on a superconducting coil, a cooling system that allows the critical temperature to be obtained, and an electrical and control system for the adaptation of currents and the optimization of the process. Given the large spectrum of research concerning the solution of the problematic technique for the inclusion of SMES systems in different configurations, this article focuses on two important aspects to enhance its use in power system, that is, legislative and regulatory aspects and the economic aspect. To perform a correct analysis of this type, the status of capacity of the main characteristics of this type of ESS must be born in mind, as summarised in Table 2.1. The characteristics of these systems may vary depending on the type of SMES. SMES are categorized according to their critical temperature (Tc), LTS (NbTi) and HTS (YBCO, BSCCO), and according to the configuration for their use [10–17], in which the optimization of the performance of the device is searched for in different processes and systems. This implies betting for the investigations of new alloys with higher critical temperature than the HTS [18], the optimization of the elements of electrical adaptation, as well as investigations in the systems of regulation and control [19] or the study of the inclusion of these systems in the microgrids/smart grids [20, 21]. Owing to the characteristics of these type of systems, applications are restricted to a group of potential uses focused on electrical power systems, which are essential for providing an adequate quality system. Table 2.2 shows the applications of this type of ESS. The methods used to carry out the chapter of this article are outlined in Sect. 2.2. In this section, the legislation on ESS for the application in the Spanish electrical system is shown as an example of a system in which the penetration of renewable energies has had a high impact. The main problem that prevents the complete maturation of the system, the economic casuistry, and a feasibility analysis of such a system are also addressed in this section. This is why the economic impact of its use in the electrical system, from manufacturing costs to maintenance costs, is analysed. The results of the economic study concerning the inclusion of SMES storage systems in the electricity network are presented in Sect. 2.3. This allows the possible economic

Specific energy (Wh/kg)

0.5–5

Energy density (Wh/L)

0.2–8

Daily self-discharge (%)

10–15

1000–4000

Power density (W/ L) 500–2000

Specific power (W/ kg)

Table 2.1 Main characteristics of a SMES [3, 7, 8, 22–38]

0,01–10

Power (MW) < 5 ms

Response time ms–min

Discharge time

min–h

Suitable storage duration

> 95

Efficiency (%)

Lifetime (cycles) 100,000

Lifetime (year) 20 +

28 2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

2.2 Material and Methods

29

Table 2.2 Applications of SMES [7, 8, 29, 38–41] Application area

Standing reserve

Emergency and telecommunications back-up power

Load following

Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)

Voltage regulation and control

Black-start

Frequency regulation

Integration of Grid fluctuation Spinning renewable suppression reserve power generation

benefits of the inclusion of these systems in the electricity network, and other indirect benefits to be determined. The legislative and normative issues are discussed in Sect. 2.4, both in terms of standardization of the equipment and regulation, conditioning the implementation of SMES systems and its competitiveness with other systems [42]. Finally, Sect. 2.5 is reserved to show the main conclusions obtained from the normative and economic study of these systems.

2.2 Material and Methods For this case study, an analysis differentiated in two parts has been realized. On the one hand, the Department of Energy of Spain has the legislative and normative information relative to the whole process of generation and energy consumption. All legislation approved in relation to the Spanish electricity system is published in the BOE (Official Bulletin of the State), this being an essential reference. This legislation affects, in a direct or indirect way, the systems of energy storage. With regard to the legislation in other countries, information can also be found primarily in the concerned ministries or departments of the State. The normalization and standardization are detailed in Appendix 1. Various documents were analysed for the economic study: the economic cost of the construction of SMES, the potential economic benefits of the inclusion of SMES in the electrical system and the environmental benefit use of an ESS. Finally, the amount of harmful gasses generated from coal consumption was analysed and the possible saving from the inclusion of the ESS. For the quantity of generated gasses it is necessary to bear in mind the type of coal that is mainly

30

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

consumed and the proportion of gasses generated by typology for each kilogram of consumed coal. With this information, it is possible to perform an analysis of the large amounts of these gasses that might be avoided thanks to the ESS, as well as determine the economic implications of reducing the emission of these gasses.

2.2.1 Theoretical Framework At the legislative level, in Spain there is no law or specific regulations that enable the research, development and implementation of these systems. However, the inclusion of other ESS as kinetic energy storage has been promoted. A laboratory prototype has been developed which an emulator for railway catenary, an emulator of consumption of electric vehicles and a unit for the storage of energy based on ultracapacitor have been integrated and tested on a system installed in the underground of Madrid [43]. In addition, a flywheel of 25 kW, 10 MJ has been adapted for operation in a microgrid, for the application as compensation during consumption peaks and regulation of frequency [44]. In the case of the Spanish electricity system, we should take into account the different policy levels, in order to ensure an adequate inclusion of SMES systems, enhancing its use and regulation in manufacturing systems. These levels can be summarised as: • European Union (EU), through the corresponding Regulations or Directives [45]. • National, through ordinary laws, Royal Decree Law or Regulations (Royal Decree, Ministerial Order, Circulars, Resolutions, etc.) [46, 47]. • Other regulations of regional application, such as Decrees or Orders. The legislation relating to the regional level is very limited in regard to the inclusion of ESS of large or medium scale. Despite this, Spain may grant economic aid to encourage the installation on a small scale, for micro-SMES systems of local storage.

2.2.2 Calculations There are several studies that seek to perform an economic analysis on the ESS in a general way [16, 48–54]. In this way, the costs can be grouped in Invested Capital (CI ), Capital of Operation and Maintenance (CO&M ) and Financial Capital (CF ), or Capital of Investment. In spite of everything, it remains that the total storage is: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) T SC $ = C I $ + C O&M $ + C F $

(2.1)

In which the total invested cost, CI, can be defined as the sum of costs of material, construction and commissioning, own of this ESS. For this analysis of costs, it is

2.2 Material and Methods

31

Fig. 2.2 SMES system [55]

necessary to carry out a revision of the main components listed previously. These systems are mainly composed of: • • • •

Superconductive coil Criogenization system Electrical system Monitoring and control system.

The adequacy of analysis takes into account materials and configuration to be treated, as the cost of the superconductor element itself, which is the most expensive element of the device, in either LTS or HTS devices. Figure 2.2 shows an example of a coil and the main elements of the SMES storage system. The investment costs can be grouped into three subgroups: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) C I $ = Cst $ + Ce $ + C B O P $

(2.2)

In which: Cst ($) is the cost of construction of the storage system, is the cost of the electrical system of the device, and Ce ($) CBOP ($) is the cost of balance of the plant and cost of the auxiliary system. Despite how meticulous this analysis can be, in which you can compute the minimum cost of the most basic element, it possible to be simplified using the sizing of the device, that is: ( ) C_st $ = (C E · E)/η

(2.3)

32

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

( ) Ce $ = C P · P ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) C B O P $ = C B O P $/kW · P or C B O P $ = C B O P $/kWh · E

(2.4) (2.5)

In which: CE E η CP P

is the energy cost ($/kWh), is the stored energy (kWh), is the efficiency of the system, is the cost of power ($/kW), and is the capacity of power (kW).

In Eq. (2.5) it is possible to use on formula or another depending on the available data for the analysis. The cost of balance of the plant incorporates the control module that enables the proper functioning and performance of the system. Figure 2.3 shows a schematic diagram of a control module but it can vary depending on the configuration blocks (D-SMES), its application or if it is part of some type of hybrid storage system. The wear of the materials in the working conditions, electrical or thermal, must be considered in the costs of maintenance and operation. It is also important to take into account the energy expenditure at the criogenization to maintain the temperature at the optimum operating conditions, a variable expense that can be supplanted by annex systems. It is estimated that a typical cooling system requires approximately 1.5 kW per MWh of stored energy [57]. Furthermore, the skilled labor needed for the operation of the system operation should be borne in mind. As with other factors, these operating costs are variable and can be approximated as a function of the capacity of power and the years of operation.

Fig. 2.3 Control module of a SMES system [56]

2.2 Material and Methods

33

( ) ( ) C O&M $ = C O&M $/kW · P · k

(2.6)

Finally, we find a variable term, depending on the interests of the investment and the years. Normally this cost is characterized by: ( ) ( ) CF $ = CI $ · δ

(2.7)

With a multiplier factor δ which is given by: ( ) ) ( δ = r · (1 + r )k / (1 + r )k − 1

(2.8)

In which: r is the interest of the investment, and K is the time of life, in years. After analysing the costs of the manufacture and maintenance of the SMES systems, the economic advantages of the use of these systems must be analysed. To do this, the information of the availability is obtained in the Spanish electrical system. Energy not supplied (ENS) measures the power cut to the system (MWh) throughout the year resulting only from network service interruptions. Only interruptions of over a minute duration zeros of tension are counted. In this case, the inclusion of an SMES system would reduce the cuts that are limited duration, owing to its low energy density. For electricity cuts of longer duration, hybrid systems could be implemented [58]. Another solution could be the improvement of the energy density of these systems; an extensive number of studies have been performed on this topics [55, 58–61]. Average interruption time (AIT) is defined as the relationship between the energy not supplied and the average power of the system, expressed in minutes: T I M = H A · 60 · E N S/D A In which: HA is the hours per year, and DA is the annual demand of the system in MWh. Appendix 1 shows some of the aspects to keep in mind about regulation and economic facets not indicated previously but which may have importance for the compression of some aspects.

34

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

2.3 Results To evaluate the cost of the storage of the SMES system and determine its economic viability, it is necessary to bear in mind that different characteristics play an important role in the manufacture of these elements, such as the size of the element of storage. This study focuses on systems destined for the regulation and storage of the Network of Transport and Distribution, so neither systems Micro-SMES nor MiniSMES would be described; their storage capacity is more limited and they would be destined for domestic use.

2.3.1 Economic Analysis The costs of an ESS tend to be according to the capacity of potency and/or energy, that is, $/kW or $/kWh. In recent years the processes for the production of SMES modules as well as the auxiliary systems have been improved, the price of the manufacture of elements have been lowered, in some cases replacing them with elements that have the same properties but are more accessible economically. All this has allowed a variety of costs across a wide range, as shown in Table 2.3. The price of a HTS in recent years has been approximately 35 $/A·m for a BSCCO and 15 $/A·m for a YBCO, and it continues to decrease [56]. This also happens with other ESS, for which it is estimated that the costs will be reduced by approximately 20% on average, as shown in Fig. 2.4 for other technologies. As example, using the information of the text of Sundararagavan [52], Table 2.4 shows the costs, which depend on the characteristics and on the materials. With these data, and considering the study by Ren et al. [30] in which there is a SMES system Energy/Power (MWh/MW) = 6.49/1.52, as well as an interest of r = 10%, the entire cost of the project is: CI ($)

$ 68,781,524.47 $ 304,000.00

COM ($) CF ($) TSC ($)

$ 3,735,244.77 $ 72,820,769.24

In this study Ren et al. show a cost of approximately 1358,300 $/year, with an average useful life of more than 20 years, for a total of 27,166.000$. These data indicate the wide ranges in the projects of installation of a system of this type, influenced by different factors and technologies. Table 2.3 Price range of a SMES system [7, 22, 24–29, 31, 36–38, 59–62]

SMES system

( ) C E $/kWh

( ) C P $/kW

700–10.000

130–515

2.3 Results

35

Fig. 2.4 Estimation of the cost for storage technology [63]

Table 2.4 Example of costs of a SMES system [52] Technology

Energy cost ($/ kWh)

Power cost ($/ kW)

Balance of Operation and plant cost ($/ maintenance kWh) cost ($/kW)

Efficiency (%)

Lifetime (yr)

SMES

10

300

1.5

95

20

10

With the obtained data, a comparison could be performed show the impact of this cost on the budget of a Spanish city of importance, such as Zaragoza, which has a budget of 744.3 Me [64] (808 M$), so the creation and operation of such a system would account for approximately 7.7% of its overall budget.

2.3.2 Economic Benefits The information of the availability and quality of electricity supply provided by the system operator in the Spanish electrical system (REE) must be analysed to obtain the possible economic benefits. This information for the electricity transport network from 2011 is given in Tables 2.5, 2.6 and 2.7 [65]. From this, the total direct losses from energy that has been generated but not supplied can be obtained, as shown in Fig. 2.5. This figure is generated with data from REE. It is necessary to add the indemnifications of the electrical companies to the users to the losses generated by the cost of generation. The minimum established quality according to the regulation will bear in mind both the number of cuts and the total

36

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

Table 2.5 Peninsular transport network Peninsular transport network

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Network availability (%)

97.72

97.78

98.2

98.2

97.93

Energy not supplied (ENS) MWh

259

113

1.126

204

52

Average interruption time (AIT) min

0.535

0.238

2.403

0.441

0.111

Balear transport network

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Network availability (%)

98.21

98.07

97.96

98

96.87

Energy not supplied (ENS) MWh

35

7

80

13

7

Average interruption time (AIT) min

3.194

0.678

7.366

1.205

0.642

Canarian transport network

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Network availability (%)

98.95

98.91

98.3

98.37

96.76

Energy not supplied (ENS) MWh

17

10

3

64

29

Average interruption time (AIT) min

1.023

0.613

0.177

3.938

1.763

Table 2.6 Balear transport network

Table 2.7 Canarian transport network

Fig. 2.5 Losses due to cuts of service [65]

amount of time, in a year, in which there has been no supply, according to the area and how it is categorized. A user is entitled to receive a discount on the bill for the first quarter of the year after the incident. The clients may also request another type of compensation in case any of their goods are damaged owing to power cut.

2.3 Results

37

The National Commission of the Markets and the Competition (CNMC) has valued penalties to the Spanish electrical distributors at 52.5 Me for their network losses in 2016 [66]. Furthermore, it is necessary to count the economic losses produced by the time of non-operation of different factories and different productions. In this case, it is more complicated to know the exact amount of the losses, because it depends on factors such as the type of industry, the time it occurs, or the location. It is at this point at which the most significant losses occur. The industries in which a continuous process is important, in which the shutdown of the production can result in a high amount losses, because a determined time is needed to restart engines. It is in this case that the SMES systems have an important role; the starter time would be reduced considerably owing to the high thickness of potency.

2.3.3 Environmental Benefits In addition to the direct economic benefits, there are also indirect benefits, which include the environmental benefits. These environmental benefits allow a reduction of energy produced by sources of pollution, such as coal. The consumption of different types of coal produces substances that are harmful to human beings and can produce alterations in the biological cycles of the species, as well as other consequences. These consequences may involve an increase in the costs of treatment of diseases, treatments for environmental recovery as well as treatment for the protection of architectural elements produced as a consequence of the increase in the proportion of different substances diluted in the air. A great variety of harmful substances appears with the consumption of coal because of its composition. This is the reason why it is necessary to perform an analysis of the amount of derived but not consumed coal from the use of elements of energy storage. The quantity of not consumed coal (CNC) can be estimated as a result of the use of the ESS with the following formula: C N C = E S E SS · h %C · Rconv In which: ESESS is the energy provided by ESS (kWh), h%C is the percentage of energy provided by sources of coal (%), and Rconv is the conversion factor of energy of the coal ((kg(Coal))/MWh). The variation of the energy mix during the day must be taken into account, so the formula changes to:

38

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

Table 2.8 Emission factor of the main substances [67]

Emission factor (χ)

Units

Carbon dioxide, CO2

2.29700

Kg of CO2 /kg of coal

Carbon monoxide, CO

0.00025

Kg of CO/kg of coal

Sulfur anhydride, SO2

0.05510

Kg of SO2 /kg of coal

Ammonia, NH3

0.00086

Kg of NH3 /kg of coal

Nitrogen dioxide, NOX

0.01100

Kg of NO2 /kg of coal

⎛ C N CD = ⎝

23 ∑

⎞ E S E SS j · h %C j ⎠ · Rconv

j=0

This formula considers the factor of energy conversion of coal constant, but depending on the mix of used coal it may vary. With this, the amount of substances emitted to the atmosphere can be calculated. This depends on the emission factor of the different substances. Table 2.8 shows the emission factor of the main substances: As a result it is possible to obtain the quantity of substances released from the coal that are not released owing to the use of ESS by using this formula. Rx = χ y · C N C In which: y; It can be : CO2 , CO, SO2 , NH3 , NOX The information from the last few years in Spain of the coal consumption is summed up in Table 2.9. The amount of harmful substances is obtained from this information. These substances are generated by coal consumption for the generation of electric power, during the year, in tons, as shown in Table 2.10. For these reasons, this is one of the goal for using this systems for the storage of electric power. It is necessary to bear in mind that this information only corresponds to the generation of substances derived by coal consumption. It would be necessary to add the use of other sources for the generation of electricity, such as those of a combined cycle system or fuel oil. From these data, it is possible to estimate the amount of coal saved as a result of using energy storage systems. Knowing the percentage of energy supplied by coal sources, the energy supplied by the energy storage sources and the energy conversion

2.3 Results

39

Table 2.9 Coal statistics in Spain [67, 68]

Average annual generation (%)

Energy generation (GWh)

2009

12.50

34,793.03

2010

8.30

23,700.61

2011

15.60

43,266.69

2012

19.20

53,813.42

2013

14.70

39,527.56

2014

16.50

43,320.30

2015

19.90

52,789.04

2016

14.50

37,474.06

Table 2.10 Generation of substances by the consumed coal [68] Amount of substance generated per year [ton] CO2

CO

SO2

NH3

NOX

2009

14,027,869.55

1526.76

336,497.87

5252.05

67,177.43

2010

9,555,625.39

1040.01

229,218.53

3577.64

45,760.50

2011

17,444,287.85

1898.59

418,450.27

6531.17

83,538.17

2012

21,696,521.14

2361.40

520,452.03

8123.21

103,901.49

2013

15,936,743.31

1734.52

382,287.57

5966.74

76,318.75

factor of the coal [71], the carbon saved and the CO2 emission not made as a result of saving coal were calculated and are shown in Table 2.11. These data are obtained thanks to the energy produced by the PHS systems, because they are the main storage system in Spain. The energy obtained by the other systems can be considered residual at the moment. Table 2.11 Saved tons of carbon and CO2 by ESS [71] % Carbon

ESESS (MWh)

CNC

CO2

2010

8.30

4,457,782.58

3909.58

8980.30

2011

15.60

3,214,959.82

5299.48

12,172.90

2012

19.20

5,022,547.79

10,189.62

23,405.56

2013

14.70

5,957,844.99

9254.21

21,256.92

2014

16.50

5,329,590.05

9292.03

21,343.79

2015

19.90

4,520,094.18

9504.59

21,832.04

2016

14.50

4,819,413.08

7384.05

16,961.17

40

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

2.4 Discussion In the current stage in which high capacity SMES systems are (research/pre-sale), economic and financing support and a legislation that regulates their application are important. Therefore, adequate regulation at different levels would allow this storage system to be developed and to provide its advantages or, conversely, to be discarded for inclusion in an electrical system in which the use of other systems is more technically or economically appropriate. The potential storage of energy that the Spanish electrical system has and the predisposition for the inclusion of the ESS are notorious, as shown in Fig. 2.6. The power of installed storage and developed storage projects are represented in this figure.

2.4.1 Community Legislation (EU) There are numerous resolutions of the European Parliament that aim to promote the use of renewable energy and the reduction of GHG emissions. For example, obligatory targets for 2020 [72], the resolution of February 2014 [73] for the Horizon of 2030 or the Roadmap of the Energy for 2050 [74], among others [75]. Furthermore, there are resolutions of the European Parliament which demand the creation of a long-term system of common incentives to scale the EU in favour of renewable energy sources [76]. These resolutions also support the technologies of smart grids [77], as well as the microgeneration of electricity and heat at a small scale [78], which seeks to support the personal energy consumption of citizens, as well as the need to establish incentives that encourage the generation of energy at a small scale. To realize a transition to an energy model such as the one proposed by the Parliament in Europe, it is necessary to provide flexibility to the European energy system through the improvement of the technologies of storage of energy.

Fig. 2.6 Stored power—storage projects [5]

2.4 Discussion

41

Innovation activities relating to storage at the local level as, for example, in residential areas or industrial estates, seek to create synergies between technologies and to improve connections of a secure and stable form, even in remote areas without a sufficient connection to the electrical network. For the large-scale storage, the investment seeks to ensure high rates of penetration of renewable energy sources to cover high electricity demands for longer periods of time. Furthermore, the innovative actions must ensure the integration and management of networks and synergies between an electric network and others. It also gives importance to the development and improvement of the technologies of energy storage that achieve better results with lower costs. For each technology, the profitability cost–benefit is being studied and analysed using scenarios and simulations, the expansion of the electricity network, the incorporation of other storage systems and the management of the energy economy. One of the examples of this type is the project “Grid + Storage” [79]. It identifies actions focused on the integration of the energy storage in the distribution networks with the target of making them more flexible. Concerning the main regulation relative to the ESS, the European legislation that appears in Table 2.12 must be taken into account.

2.4.2 National Legislation The European directives involve a series of laws to the Member States such as Spain. These laws are listed in Appendix 2. This appendix shows the two main laws governing the electricity sector in Spain, Law 54/1997 [85] and Law 24/2013 [86]. These laws have made possible the liberalization of the electrical sector in Spain. One of the points that distinguishes Law 24/2013 from the previous one is the disappearance of the previous “special regime”, which included renewable energies, cogeneration and waste. Article 23 of this law indicates that electric energy producers make economic offers of energy sales in the daily market, with the particularity that all production units must make offers to the market, including those of the former special regime [86]. In these law, as in the others listed in Appendix 1, SMES storage systems are not refereed to explicitly but the features and functions of the different components of an electrical system are discussed. That is why these and other regulation on the table are important in relation to the SMES storage system and its applications. Table 2.13 indicates the Operative Procedures (OP, Appendix 1) that can affect the ESS and that are specifically named in the regulations owing to their application in an electrical system. The Operative Procedures seek the technical adequacy of the elements in the transport network. As for storage systems, these procedures focus on pumped storage systems. The companies that own the plants have the obligation to transmit different data to the system operator, such as quotas and volumes stored in the reservoirs or foreseeable variations of availability of the pumping groups, on a weekly basis [87].

42

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

Table 2.12 Main European legislation Norm

Date

Ambit

Summary

The treaty on European union and the treaty on the functioning of the European union [77]

2010

Charter of fundamental rights of the European Union

– To guarantee the functioning of the market of the energy – To guarantee the safety of the energy supply in the Union – To encourage the energy efficiency and the energy saving as well as the development of new and renewable energies – To encourage the interconnection of the energy networks

Directive 23 April, 2009/28/EC of 2009 the European parliament and of the council [78]

Concerning the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and which modify and repeal the Directives 2001/77/CE and 2003/30/CE

– Supports the integration into the network of transport and distribution of energy from renewable sources and the use of systems of energy storage for the variable integrated production of energy from renewable sources

Directive 13 July, 2009/72/CE of 2009 the European parliament and of the council [79]

Concerning common rules for the internal electricity market

– Establishes common rules for the generation, transport, distribution and supply of electricity, as well as rules concerning the protection of consumers, with a view to improve and integrate competitive markets of the electricity in the EU

Directive 25 October, 2012/27/EU of 2012 the European parliament and of the council [80]

Concerning the energy – Shows the different criteria of efficiency, which modify energy efficiency for the regulation the Directives 2009/125/ of the network of energy and for the CE and 2010/30/UE, tariffs of the electrical network and which repeal the Directives 2004/8/CE and 2006/32/CE

Regulation 17 April, (EU) No 347/ 2013 2013 of the European parliament and of the council [81]

Concerning the guidelines for trans-European energy infrastructures

– The projects related to transport and storage of energy should promote the use of renewable sources, storage systems, guaranteeing the supply, opting for financial aid from the Union in the form of grants

It should be borne in mind that storage systems can be considered production units at any given time, so they must meet the requirements of the system operator [92] as well as ensure supply [90] and interruptibility [96]. The main functions of the system operator are presented in the OPs, such as generation scheduling, solution of technical restrictions, resolution of generationconsumption deviations or complementary service of tension control of the transport network, in which it can play the essential role of ESS [92].

2.4 Discussion

43

Table 2.13 Operative Procedures Operative procedures

Ambit

P.O. 1.2 [87]

Allowable levels of load network

P.O. 2.1 [88]

Demand forecasting

P.O. 2.5 [88]

Maintenance of units of production plans

P.O. 3.1 [89]

Programming of the generation

P.O. 3.7 [89]

Application of limitations to deliveries of energy production in non-resolvable situations with the application of the adjustment of the system service

P.O. 3.10 [90]

Resolution of restrictions by assurance of supply

P.O. 7.4 [91]

Complementary service of voltage control of the transport network

P.O. 8.2 [92]

Operation of the system of production and transport

P.O. 13 [93]

Criteria of the planning of the networks of transport of the insular and extrapeninsular electrical system

P.O. 13.1 [94]

Criteria of development of the transport network

P.O. 13.3 [95]

Transport network facilities: criteria of design, minimum requirements and verification of their equipment and commissioning

P.O. 15.2 [96]

Management service of demand of interruptibility service

It is possible to observe the varied legislation that can affect the ESS as elements of the electrical system. This legislation largely focuses on the part of generation and transportation of energy from the electrical system, with consideration of the system operator (REE). They are based on the technical and regulatory aspects that allow the involvement of the State and society through public subsidies for its development improvement. The importance of knowing the legislative structure and the context regulatory in the electrical system lies here, to encourage the inclusion of these elements, both in the transport network and in the distribution, and to be able to make a synthesis of these aspects that may directly or indirectly affect the inclusion of the SMES storage systems. The management of subsidies and incentives in the implementation of renewable energies, (and consequently of the storage systems) is the main focus of action, as well as the regulation of technical aspect for its proper connection to the network.

2.4.3 Regulation and Standardization Appendix 3 shows the standard UNE that is applied to manufacturing processes, research and development as well as to the operation and maintenance of these SMES systems. It must be born in mind that these systems can also affect standards as the

44

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

protections of wiring, electrical protection systems, and a long list which focuses on the storage system itself. Much of this regulation will depend on the characteristics, size and application of the system to apply. For this reason, it is necessary to take into account the elements of construction and the type of device to be able to apply this type of standardization.

2.4.4 Comparison with Other Countries In addition to have in mind the grade of adaptation of the ESS in the electrical systems, it is necessary to take into account that the electrical networks are interconnected and that the way of operation of one can affect others. This shows the importance of considering the regulation level of other countries to see the implication of the regulation in the inclusion of these ESS. Furthermore, the need to know the regulations of other countries with a similar development, and referents in that field, makes it possible for these regulations, or part of them, to be adapted to the Spanish electricity system with the necessary changes with the security of its correct operation. Therefore, the electrical regulation field of some countries was revised. USA, Japan and Germany can be highlighted for the creation and implementation of ESS of the type SMES, with different characteristics and situations. The made devices they can stand out are: – Chubu Electric Power Company (Japan): Material Bi-2212, Energy 1 MJ [59]. – Los Alamos Laboratory (USA): Material NbTi, Energy 30 MJ [60]. – ACCEL Instruments GmbH (Germany): Material Bi-2223, Energy 150 kJ [61]. Table 2.14 shows the comparison of these three energy models with the action plan and the main standard. The table focuses on measures to take into account on the basis of renewable energies and their promotion at the institutional level. It is explained in more detail in Appendix 4. Apart from these examples, the Paris Conference on Climate [101] is also important. It was celebrated in December 2015, during which 195 countries signed the first binding agreement on global climate. One of the most important points was to ensure that the global average temperature rise was kept below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels. The renewable systems will play a key role in achieving this target and all elements influence.

2.5 Conclusions and Political Implications Considering the importance and the impulse of the generation of energy through renewable sources in the energy mix, the elements that orbit around it become vital for the correct inclusion of renewable sources without an impact on the supply quality.

2.5 Conclusions and Political Implications

45

Table 2.14 Comparative table USA-Japan-Germany [97–100] (Japan)

(Germany)

Main energy Energy policy act law at national of 2005 PL level 109–58

(USA)

Basic law of energy policy—4th strategic plan of energy (enerugi kihon keikaku)

Erneuerbare-Energie-Gesetz 2017

Renewable objectives

Does not specify

3rd plan: 50% (2030) 45% (2025) 4th plan: does not specify

Financing of renewable energies

The law provides loans guarantees to the entities that develop or use innovative technologies that prevent the sub-production from greenhouse gases

Sets that renewable energies will expand their market rate by 10% thanks to the “Feed-in tariff” (FIT). FIT is a remuneration set by the government for energy injected into the network

Sets the FIT as a mechanism of incentives for renewable energy. The cost of the FIT moves to the users through the finalist EEG rate

Research and development

It encourages the research and the development of new elements of generation and energy efficiency that make possible the decline of GHG

Increase in financing of renewable energy and energy efficiency projects. Japan is one of the largest exporters of technology in the energy sector and has a strong program of research, development and innovation backed by the Government

Aid for the new projects related with the renewable energies and the facilities that are considered for domestic use or that do not come into the consideration of intensive exploitation

Other

In Sec. 925 it is explicitly indicated that there should be a focus on storage systems and systems of high-temperature superconductivity research

The storage system introduction is promoted in an explicit way using batteries to ensure the supply and quality. It also refers to other system of electrical energy storage, as the PHS or fuel cells

Electricity used for temporary storage operators of transport networks to the payment of the surcharge EEG shall not apply if the power is removed from the installation of electricity storage only for feedback on the electricity in the network system

Example SMES

Los Alamos national laboratory: material NbTi, ENERGY 30 MJ

Chubu electric power company: material Bi-2212, energy 1 MJ

ACCEL instruments GmbH: material Bi-2223, energy 150 kJ

46

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

The need to know the regulation that affects the storage systems, directly or indirectly, implies realizing the potential inclusion of these elements. There are a few legislations in Spain with direct implications for storage systems but there are regulations that indirectly affect them, despite the fact that the contributions from institutions in this regard have been reduced in recent years. Not having a specific legislation can negatively affect SMES systems in favour of other more mature systems, such as batteries or PHS (despite the geographical limitations of these). The rise of renewable energy at the expense of other less clean energy has enabled the development and investment, both public and private, in storage systems. These initial investments and specific regulation are indispensable to allow the competitiveness of very advantageous elements but in an unfavorable commercial position. Another critical lever on the inclusion of any element is the economic vision of a project. The technological complexity derives from the materials and the cooling system, which involves always maintaining the coil at a temperature below the critical temperature of the material of the coil. This complexity involves some manufacturing and maintenance costs of SMES systems that make it difficult to apply in the transport network of the electricity network in Spain. Therefore, the applicable legislation to the storage systems and the economic viability of its construction, commissioning and maintenance, as well as the interrelation between both can be determinants for eventual insertion into the electrical network. The solution seems obvious: greater institutional involvement in the development and research of storage systems and their components, which make possible the improvement of the technical capabilities of the systems at a lower cost. This involvement can not only come from grants from public institutions, but also through tax aid, shared financing or other appropriate formulas that enable this development. It is a fact that the inclusion of renewable sources of energy and the ESS as a result of its intermittent and unstable characteristics, can bring great benefits of different types: social, environmental and economical. It is necessary to invest in the development of SMES systems, or hybrid systems that combine the strengths of high energy density of the batteries with the high power density of SMES systems.

Appendix 1 Normative Aspects All community legislation and regulation must be translated in regulatory laws in every Member State. This makes possible the adequacy of the activity to the proposed one of the European regulation. The EU has two bodies with the power to adopt

Appendix 1

47

binding decisions and to solve the problems that the national regulatory authorities are unable to resolve: • The Agency for the Cooperation of the Energy Regulators (ACER). • The European Network of the Operators of the Systems of Transmission of Electricity. Furthermore, it is necessary to bear in mind that SMES storage systems are in the part of the transport and distribution of electrical system. It is work of the company dedicated exclusively to the transport in the Spanish electrical system, Electrical Network of Spain (REE). This company acts as the system operator and has some technical and instrumental protocols, called Operative Procedures (OP). An adequate technical management of electrical system peninsular and electrical systems outside the Iberian Peninsula is guaranteed. These OP are approved by resolutions of the Ministry of Industry which seek to guarantee the stipulation in the Law. The study and development of the standards is the responsibility of a number of institutions that have the legal power to its realization. The ISO (International Organization for Standandarization) [102], is in charge of the ISO standards. It is formed by 163 agencies of normalization of their respective countries. At the European level are the European Committee of Standardization (CEN) [103] and the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) [104], which are responsible for the development of the European Norms (EN). The Spanish case focuses on the regulations created by the Spanish Association for Standardization and Certification (AENOR) [105], which disseminates the Spanish rules that are identified with the acronym UNE (a Spanish Norm). AENOR is the Spanish representation in the international standardization organizations ISO and IEC, European CEN and CENELEC, and the Pan American Commission for Technical Standards (COPANT) [106]. To take into account the specific normative in the manufacture and inclusion of the SMES systems, its construction schema must be considered. A possible schema of a SMES storage system, either LTS or HTS, is shown in the Fig. 2.7.

Economics Aspects In this sense, it is necessary to emphasize that the first used SMES for experimentation and for commercial use was designed by Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) and constructed for Bonnevile Power Company in 1982. It was in use for 5 years and was dismantled for investigation [60, 108]. This project had an energy capacity of 30 MJ and it was used to stabilize the potency system, because it cushioned the oscillations in a line of transmission of

48

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

Fig. 2.7 Basic schema of a SMES system [107]

1500 km long. In this case, the cost of construction of this system of storage was distributed in the following way: • • • • •

Superconductive coil, 45%. Structure, 30%. Labor, 12%. Converter, 8%. Cooling system, 5%.

Appendix 2 Table 2.15 shows a list of legislation related to the Spanish electricity system and which affects, directly or indirectly, the implementation, use and development of storage systems.

Appendix 3 The main application standards for the construction and development to take into account for a SMES device are found in Table 2.16.

Appendix 3

49

Table 2.15 Main Spanish legislation relative to the electrical system Norm

Date

Ambit

Ley 54/1997 [85]

27 November 1997

Basic Law of the Spanish electricity sector

Real Decreto 2019/ 1997 [109]

26 December 1997

It organises and regulates the electricity production market

Real Decreto 1955/ 2000 [110]

1 December 2000

Regulates the activities of transport, distribution, marketing, supply and installations of electricity authorisation procedures

Real Decreto-Ley 6/ 2009 [111]

30 April2009

Certain measurements are adopted in the energy sector and the social bond is approved

Real Decreto 134/ 2010 [112]

12 February 2010

The procedure of resolution of restrictions by supply guarantee is established and the Royal decree 2019/ 1997, of December 26 which organizes and regulates the market of production of electric power, is modified

Real Decreto-Ley 6/ 2010 [113]

9 April 2010

The content of articles 1, 9, 11 and 14 of law 54/1997 of 27 November are modified, in the Electricity Sector

Real Decreto 1221/ 2010 [114]

1 October 2010

Establishes the procedure of resolution of restrictions by security of supply and amending Royal Decree 2019 / 1997, of 26th December, which organizes and regulates the electricity production market

Real Decreto 1565/ 2010 [115]

19 November 2010

Regulates and modifies certain aspects relating to the activity of production of electrical energy in special regime

Real Decreto 1614/ 2010 [116]

7 December 2010

Regulates and modifies certain aspects relating to the activity of production of electrical energy from technologies solar thermoelectric power and wind power

Real Decreto-Ley 14/ 2010 [117]

23 December 2010

Urgent measurements are established for the correction of the tariff deficit of the electrical sector

Real Decreto 1699/ 2011 [118]

18 November 2011

Regulates the connection to network of production facilities of electrical energy of small power

Real Decreto-Ley 1/ 2012 [118]

27 January 2012

Proceeds to the suspension of the procedures of preallocation of compensation and to the suppression of the economic incentives for new facilities of production of electric power from cogeneration, renewable energy sources and residues

Real Decreto-Ley 2/ 2013 [119]

1 February 2013

Urgent measures in the electrical system and in the financial sector

Real Decreto-Ley 9/ 2013 [120]

12 July 2013

Urgent measurements are adopted to guarantee the financial stability of the electrical system

Ley 24/2013 [86]

26 December 2013

The electricity sector

50

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

Table 2.16 Main standards relative to the SMES systems [105] Norm

Ambit

European equivalent

International equivalent

CTN

UNE-EN 286-1:1999

Simple pressure receptacles EN 286-1:1998 not submitted to the flame, designed to contain air or nitrogen. Part 1: Pressure receptacles for general uses

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 286-1/ A1:2003

Simple pressure receptacles not submitted to the flame, designed to contain air or nitrogen. Part 1: Pressure receptacles for general uses

EN 286-1:1998/ AC:2002; EN 286-1:1998/ A1:2002

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 286-1:1999/ A2:2006

Simple pressure receptacles EN 286-1:1998/ not submitted to the flame, A2:2005 designed to contain air or nitrogen. Part 1: Pressure receptacles for general uses

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 13371:2002

Cryogenic receptacles. EN 13371:2001 Couplings for cryogenic use

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 13275:2001

Cryogenic receptacles. Pumps for cryogenic use

EN 13275:2000

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 1797:2002

Cryogenic receptacles. Gas / material compatibility

EN 1797:2001

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 13648-1:2009

Cryogenic receptacles. EN Safety devices for 13648-1:2008 protection against excessive pressure. Part 1: Safety valves for the cryogenic service

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 13648-2:2002

Cryogenic receptacles. EN Safety devices for 13648-2:2002 protection against excessive pressure. Part 2: Safety Devices with rupture disks for the cryogenic service

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 13648-3:2003

Cryogenic receptacles. EN Safety devices for 13648-3:2002 protection against excessive pressure. Part 3: Determination of the required discharge. Capacity and sizing

AEN/ CTN 62

(continued)

Appendix 3

51

Table 2.16 (continued) Norm

Ambit

European equivalent

International equivalent

CTN

UNE-EN 13530-1:2002

Cryogenic receptacles Big transportable receptacles isolated in vacuum. Part 1: Fundamental requirements

EN 13530-1:2002

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 13530-2:2003

Cryogenic receptacles Big transportable receptacles isolated in vacuum. Part 2: Design, fabrication, inspection and testing

EN 13530-2:2002

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 13530-2:2003/ AC:2007

Cryogenic receptacles Big transportable receptacles isolated in vacuum. Part 2: Design, fabrication, inspection and testing

EN 13530-2:2002/ AC:2006

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN Cryogenic receptacles Big 13530-2/A1:2004 transportable receptacles isolated in vacuum. Part 2: Design, fabrication, inspection and testing

EN 13530-2:2002/ A1:2004

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 13530-3:2002/ A1:2005

Cryogenic receptacles Big transportable receptacles isolated in vacuum. Part 3: Operating Requirements

EN 13530-3:2002/ A1:2005

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 13530-3:2002

Cryogenic receptacles Big transportable receptacles isolated in vacuum. Part 3: Operating Requirements

EN 13530-3:2002

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 14398-1:2004

Cryogenic receptacles Big transportable receptacles non isolated in vacuum. Part 1: Fundamental requirements

EN 14398-1:2003

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 14398-2:2004 + A2:2008

Cryogenic receptacles Big transportable receptacles non isolated in vacuum. Part 2: Design, fabrication, inspection and testing

EN 14398-2:2003 + A2:2008

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 14398-3:2004

Cryogenic receptacles Big EN transportable receptacles 14398-3:2003 non isolated in vacuum. Part 3: Operating Requirements

AEN/ CTN 62 (continued)

52

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

Table 2.16 (continued) Norm

Ambit

European equivalent

International equivalent

CTN

UNE-EN 14398-3:2004/ A1:2005

Cryogenic receptacles Big EN transportable receptacles 14398-3:2003/ non isolated in vacuum. Part A1:2005 3: Operating Requirements

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 12300:1999

Cryogenic receptacles. Cleaning for cryogenic service

EN 12300:1998

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 12300:1999/ A1:2006

Cryogenic receptacles Cleaning for cryogenic service

EN 12300:1998/ A1:2006

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 12434:2001

Cryogenic receptacles. Cryogenic flexible hoses

EN 12434:2000; EN 12434:2000/ AC:2001

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 1252-1:1998

Cryogenic receptacles. Materials. Part 1: Requirements of tenacity for temperature below—80 °C

EN 1252-1:1998

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 1252-1/ Cryogenic receptacles. AC:1999 Materials. Part 1: Requirements of tenacity for temperature below—80 °C

EN 1252-1:1998/ AC:1998

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 1252-2:2002

Cryogenic receptacles. EN 1252-2:2001 Materials. Part 2: Requirements of tenacity to temperatures ranging from—80 °C and—20 °C

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 12213:1999

Cryogenic receptacles. Evaluation methods of the yield of the isolation

EN 12213:1998

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 13458-1:2002

Cryogenic receptacles. Static vacuum insulated receptacles. Part 1: Fundamental requirements

EN 13458-1:2002

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 13458-2:2003

Cryogenic receptacles Static vacuum insulated receptacles. Part 2: Design, fabrication, inspection and testing

EN 13458-2:2002

AEN/ CTN 62

(continued)

Appendix 3

53

Table 2.16 (continued) Norm

Ambit

European equivalent

International equivalent

CTN

UNE-EN 13458-2:2003/ AC:2007

Cryogenic receptacles EN Static vacuum insulated 13458-2:2002/ receptacles.. Part 2: Design, AC:2006 fabrication, inspection and testing

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 13458-3:2003

Cryogenic receptacles Static vacuum insulated receptacles. Part 3: Operating Requirements

EN 13458-3:2003

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 13458-3:2003/ A1:2005

Cryogenic receptacles Static vacuum insulated receptacles. Part 3: Operating Requirements

EN 13458-3:2003/ A1:2005

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 14197-1:2004

Cryogenic receptacles EN Static non vacuum insulated 14197-1:2003 receptacles Part 1: Fundamental requirements

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 14197-2:2004/ A1:2006

Cryogenic receptacles Static non-vacuum insulated receptacles. Part 2: Design, fabrication, inspection and testing

EN 14197-2:2003/ A1:2006

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 14197-2:2004

Cryogenic receptacles. Static non-vacuum insulated receptacles. Part 2: Design, fabrication, inspection and testing

EN 14197-2:2003

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 14197-2:2004/ AC:2007

Cryogenic receptacles. Static non-vacuum insulated receptacles. Part 2: Design, fabrication, inspection and testing

EN 14197-2:2003/ AC:2006

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 14197-3/ AC:2004

Cryogenic receptacles. Static non-vacuum insulated receptacles. Part 3: Operating Requirements

EN 14197-3:2004/ AC:2004

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 14197-3:2004

Cryogenic receptacles Static non-vacuum insulated receptacles. Part 3: Operating Requirements

EN 14197-3:2004

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 14197-3:2004/ A1:2005

Cryogenic receptacles. Static non-vacuum insulated receptacles. Part 3: Operating Requirements

EN 14,197-3:2004/ A1:2005

AEN/ CTN 62 (continued)

54

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

Table 2.16 (continued) Norm

Ambit

European equivalent

International equivalent

UNE-EN 1251-1:2001

Cryogenic receptacles EN 1251-1:2000 Portable receptacles vacuum isolated, not more than 1000 L volume. Part 1: Fundamental requirements

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 1251-2:2001

Cryogenic receptacles EN 1251-2:2000 Portable receptacles vacuum isolated, not more than 1000 L volume. Part 2: Design, fabrication, inspection and testing

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN 1251-2:2001/ AC:2007

Cryogenic receptacles EN 1251-2:2000/ Portable receptacles AC:2006 vacuum isolated, not more than 1000 L volume. Part 2: Design, fabrication, inspection and testing

AEN/ CTN 62

UNE-EN ISO 21029-2:2016

Cryogenic receptacles EN ISO Portable receptacles 21029-2:2015 vacuum isolated, not more than 1000 L volume. Part 2: Operating Requirements

UNE-EN 1626:2009

Cryogenic receptacles. Valves for cryogenic services

UNE-EN 61788-1:2007

Superconductivity Part 1: EN Measurement of the critical 61788-1:2007 current. Continuous critical current of superconductors consisted of the type Cu/ Nb-Ti (Ratified by AENOR in April 2007)

IEC 61788-1:2006

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-10:2007

Superconductivity Part 10: EN Measurement of the critical 61788-10:2006 temperature. Critical temperature of the superconductors composed by a method of resistance

IEC 61788-10:2006

AEN/ CTN 206

ISO 21029-2:2015

EN 1626:2008

CTN

AEN/ CTN 62

AEN/ CTN 62

(continued)

Appendix 3

55

Table 2.16 (continued) Norm

Ambit

UNE-EN 61788-11:2011

European equivalent

International equivalent

CTN

Superconductivity Part 11: EN Measurement of the relation 61788-11:2011 of residual resistance. Relation of residual resistance of compound superconductors of Nb3 Sn. (Ratified by AENOR in November 2011)

IEC 61788-11:2011

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-12:2004

Superconductivity Part 12: EN Measurement of the relation 61788-12:2002 between matrix and superconductor volumes. Relation between volumes of copper and the rest of the threads compound superconductors of Nb3 Sn

IEC 61788-12:2002

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-12:2013

Superconductivity Part 12: EN Measurement of the relation 61788-12:2013 between matrix and superconductor volumes. Relation between volumes of copper and the rest of the threads compound superconductors of Nb3 Sn. (Ratified by AENOR in November 2013)

IEC 61788-12:2013

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-13:2012

Superconductivity Part 13: Measurement of losses in alternating current. Methods of measurement for magnetometer compounds hysteresis losses in superconducting multifilaments (Ratified by AENOR in November 2012)

EN 61788-13:2012

IEC 61788-13:2012

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-14:2010

Superconductivity Part 14: EN Superconductors of power 61788-14:2010 devices. General requirements for the testing of characterization of the current cables designed to feed the superconductor devices (Ratified by AENOR in November 2010)

IEC 61788-14:2010

AEN/ CTN 206

(continued)

56

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

Table 2.16 (continued) Norm

Ambit

European equivalent

International equivalent

CTN

UNE-EN 61788-15:2011

Superconductivity. Part 15: Measurement of the electronic characteristics. Impedance of the intrinsic surface of superconductive movies to the microwave frequencies. (Ratified by AENOR in March 2012)

EN 61788-15:2011

IEC 61788-15:2011

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-16:2013

Superconductivity Part 16: EN Measures of electronic 61788-16:2013 characteristics. Surface resistance dependent on the power of superconductors at microwave frequencies (Ratified by AENOR in May 2013)

IEC 61788-16:2013

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-17:2013

Superconductivity Part 17: Measurements of the electronic characteristics. Local critical current density and its distribution in superconductive movies of big surface. (Ratified by AENOR in May 2013)

EN 61788-17:2013

IEC 61788-17:2013

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-18:2013

Superconductivity Part 18: Measurement of the mechanical properties. Tensile Test at ambient temperature superconductors compounds of BI-2223 and BI-2212 with silver covering. (Ratified by AENOR in January 2014)

EN 61788-18:2013

IEC 61788-18:2013

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-19:2014

Superconductivity Part 19: EN Measurement of the 61788-19:2014 mechanical properties. Tensile test at ambient temperature of superconductors compound of Nb3Sn in reaction (Ratified by AENOR in March 2014)

IEC 61788-19:2013

AEN/ CTN 206

(continued)

Appendix 3

57

Table 2.16 (continued) Norm

Ambit

UNE-EN 61788-2:2007

European equivalent

International equivalent

CTN

Superconductivity Part 2: EN Measurement of the critical 61788-2:2007 current. Continuous critical current of superconductors compound of Nb3 Sn type (Ratified by AENOR in April 2007)

IEC 61788-2:2006

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-21:2015

Superconductivity. Part 21: Superconducting wires. Test methods for practical use of superconducting wires. Guidelines and General characteristics (Ratified by AENOR in August 2015)

IEC 61788-21:2015

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-3:2006

Superconductivity Part 3: EN Measurement of the critical 61788-3:2006 current. Continuous critical current of superconductors oxides of Bi-2212 and Bi-2223 with silver covering (Ratified by AENOR in November 2006)

IEC 61788-3:2006

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-4:2016

Superconductivity. Part 4: EN Measurement of the 61788-4:2016 residual resistance ratio. Relation of residual strength of superconductors compound of Nb-Ti y Nb3 Sn. (Ratified by AENOR in May 2016)

IEC 61788-4:2016

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-4:2011

Superconductivity. Part 4: EN Measurement of the 61788-4:2011 residual resistance ratio. Relation of residual strength of superconductors compound of Nb-Ti. (Ratified by AENOR in November 2011)

IEC 61788-4:2011

AEN/ CTN 206

EN 61788-21:2015

(continued)

58

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

Table 2.16 (continued) Norm

Ambit

UNE-EN 61788-5:2013

European equivalent

International equivalent

CTN

Superconductivity Part 5: EN Measurement of the relation 61788-5:2013 between matrix and superconductor volumes. Relation between volumes of copper and of superconductor cables compound of Cu/Nb-Ti. (Ratified by AENOR in October 2013)

IEC 61788-5:2013

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-5:2002

Superconductivity Part 5: EN Measurement of the relation 61788-5:2001 between matrix and superconductor volumes. Relation between volumes of copper and of superconductor cables compound of Cu/Nb-Ti

IEC 61788-5:2000

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-6:2011

Superconductivity Part 6: Measurement of the mechanical properties. Tensile Test at ambient temperature of superconductors compounds of Cu/Nb-Ti. (Ratified by AENOR in November 2011)

EN 61788-6:2011

IEC 61788-6:2011

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-7:2006

Superconductivity Part 7: Measurement of the electronic properties. Surface resistance of superconductors at microwave frequencies. (Ratified by AENOR in April 2007)

EN 61788-7:2006

IEC 61788-7:2006

AEN/ CTN 206

(continued)

Appendix 3

59

Table 2.16 (continued) Norm

Ambit

European equivalent

International equivalent

CTN

UNE-EN 61788-8:2010

Superconductivity Part 8: Measures of losses in alternating current. Measure through detection coils of total losses in alternating current of the superconductor wires of circular section exposed to a magnetic transverse alternate field from the temperature of liquid helium. (Ratified by AENOR in March 2011)

EN 61788-8:2010

IEC 61788-8:2010

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE-EN 61788-9:2005

Superconductivity Part 9: EN Measures for solid 61788-9:2005 superconductors of high temperature. Density of residual flow of oxides superconductors of bulk grain. (Ratified by AENOR in November 2005)

IEC 61788-9:2005

AEN/ CTN 206

UNE 21302-815:2001

Electrotechnical vocabulary. Chapter 815. Superconductivity

IEC 60050-815:2000

AEN/ CTN 191

UNE 21302-482:2005

Electrotechnical vocabulary. Part 482: Batteries and electric accumulators

IEC 60050-482:2004

AEN/ CTN 191

60

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

Appendix 4 United States of America In the USA, the normative elements of the electrical system are structured in hierarchical levels, which implies that the energy policy of the United States is fundamentally determined by State and federal public entities. Energy policy may include legislation, international treaties, subsidies and investment incentives, advice for saving energy, taxes and other public policy techniques. The main law in the U.S. electrical system is the Energy Policy Act of 2005 PL 109-58 [97], which regulates the electric system. The rest of the rules and regulations at the federal level depends on this law. The federal agencies are obliged to comply with the orders of the administration of energy that, apart from the indicated law, include the following federal laws: • Executive Order 13,693—Planning for Federal Sustainability in the Next Decade [122]. • Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 [123]. • Executive Order 13,221—Energy Efficient Standby Power Devices [124]. • Energy Policy Act of 1992 [125]. • National Energy Conservation Policy Act.

Japan The Japanese energy policy is based on the Basic Law of Politics of Energy, which came into force in June 2002, Law number 71, and it is possible to summarise by the trilemma of “3 E”: the energy safety (article 2), the environment sustainability (article 3) and the economic efficiency (article 4) [125, 126]. The Basic Law does not establish quantifiable targets, but it authorizes the government to formulate a strategic plan of energy that promotes measurements to guarantee an energy supply that satisfies the needs for the demand. The First Strategic Plan of Energy dates of 2003 and since then it has been checked on three occasions: 2007, 2010 and 2014. With the Third Strategic Plan of Energy, economic efficiency and energy security were subordinate to the “E” of the environment. This plan supported the forecasts from an energy mix in which nuclear energy (in quality of clean energy, efficient and economical) was called to play a leading role, and renewable energies would complement it. This Plan was valid at the beginning of 2011, at the time of the Fukushima nuclear accident. However, after the accident of Fukushima, the government took a radical turn to aim at the total abandonment of the nuclear energy model. This rotation is materialized in the Innovative Strategy for Energy and the Environment of 2012.

Appendix 4

61

The Innovative Strategy sought to reduce the dependence of both nuclear energy and fossil fuels, maximizing the “green energy” and enhancing the energy efficiency and the renewable energies. The new strategy also reviewed the objectives for CO2 emissions for 2030. A White Paper on Energy 2013 was published in June 2014, preceded in March 2014 by the Fourth Strategic Plan of Power [98] (enerugi kihon keikaku) with a horizon of 2030 without specifying the future energy mix in Japan. In regard to the lines of the Fourth Strategic Plan of Energy, the new energy policy of Japan aims to simultaneously reduce the costs of generation and purchase of primary energy, distribution and consumption, paving the way for the return of nuclear energy.

Germany Germany is in the same status as Spain, it must fulfil the community regulation of the European Parliament. Furthermore, it has a hierarchical legislative structure, in which the first level is the federal government followed by the 16 states that compose Germany, called Länder or Bundesländer, as well as subdivisions of these. At the federal level, the law of power supply (Stromein-speisungsgesetz) entered into force in 1991 [127]. For the first time the obligation of the big electrical companies to buy electric power generated with renewable conversion processes was regulated, and they have to pay for it at tariffs previously established. This greatly facilitates the access of “green electricity” to the networks [99]. In the year 2000 the Law of Renewable Energies (EEG) entered into force. With the EEG is enshrined the priority of electricity from renewable energy sources and the connection to the network. The EEG is transformed from then on engine for the development of renewable energies, among other reasons, owing to the regulatory framework. Since the year 2000 the EEG has already been subjected to several amendments: EEG 2004, EEG 2009, EEG 2012 and EGG 2014. It is in this last reform of the Law [100] that it is intended to increase the energy capacity. Renewable energies and converted energy storage is a key aspect for the future. The main objective is to balance the problems of flashing that the renewable energies created in the electrical system. The German authorities have opted for the storage of water by pumping as a solution to the energy storage. But the research and development of new ESS, as hybrid systems, have increased for the development of the German electrical system. Part of the amendments that have been mentioned, the reform of the Law on renewable energy, called EEG 2017, entered into force on 1 January 2017. With this reform, the premium is not fixed by the State, but through market auctions, which depend on the type of renewable energy, with an annual amount being fixed for each one. The aim is to increase the share of renewable energies, from the current 33% to 40–45% in 2025 and to 55–60% in 2035.

62

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

References 1. Peck P, Parker T (2016) The ‘sustainable energy concept’ e making sense of norms and coevolution within a large research facility’s energy strategy. J Clean Prod 123:137–154 2. Shivarama-Krishna K, Sathish KK (2015) A review on hybrid renewable energy systems. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 52:907–916 3. Aneke M, Wang M (2016) Energy storage technologies and real life applications—a state of the art review. Appl Energy 179:350–377 4. Global EV Outlook (2015) IEA, Paris. https://www.iea.org/. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 5. Global Energy Storage Database (2017) Sandia National Laboratories. http://www.energysto rageexchange.org/. Accedido 05 Jul 2017 6. El Sistema Eléctrico Español, Informe 2015. Red Eléctrica de España (REE). http://www. ree.es/es/estadisticas-del-sistema-electrico-espanol/informe-anual/informe-del-sistema-ele ctrico-espanol-2015. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 7. Palizban O, Kauhaniemi K (2016) Energy storage systems in modern grids—matrix of technologies and applications. J Energy Storage 6:248–259 8. Kousksou T, Bruel P, Jamil A, El Rhafiki T, Zeraouli Y (2014) Energy storage: applications and challenges. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 120:59–80 9. Li Y, Li Y, Ji P, Yang J (2015) Development of energy storage industry in China: a technical and economic point of review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 49:805–812 10. Zhu J et al (2013) Design, dynamic simulation and construction of a hybrid HTS SMES (high-temperature superconducting magnetic energy storage systems) for Chinese power grid. Energy 51:184–192 11. Saboori H, Hemmati R, Jirdehi MA (2015) Reliability improvement in radial electrical distribution network by optimal planning of energy storage systems. Energy 93:2299–2312 12. Ould-Amrouche S, Rekioua D, Rekioua T, Bacha S (2016) Overview of energy storage in renewable energy systems. Int J Hydrog Energy 45:20914–20927 13. Jin JX, Chen XY (2012) Study on the SMES application solutions for smart grid. Phys Procedia 36:902–907 14. Aly MM, Abdel-Akher M, Said SM, Senjyu T (2016) A developed control strategy for mitigating wind power generation transients using superconducting magnetic energy storage with reactive power support. Electr Power Energy Syst 83:485–494 15. Farhadi-Kangarlu M, Alizadeh-Pahlavani MR (2014) Cascaded multilevel converter based superconducting magnetic energy storage system for frequency control. Energy 70:504–513 16. Zhu J et al (2015) Experimental demonstration and application planning of high temperature superconducting energy storage system for renewable power grids. Appl Energy 137:692–698 17. Hasan NS, Hasan MY, Majid MS, Rahman HA (2013) Review of storage schemes for wind energy systems. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 21:237–247 18. Hirano N, Watanabe T, Nagaya S (2016) Development of cooling technologies for SMES. Cryogenics 80:210–214 19. Dargahi V, Sadigh AK, Pahlavani MRA, Shoulaie A (2012) DC (direct current) voltage source reduction in stacked multicell converter based energy systems. Energy 46:649–663 20. Tan X, Li Q, Wang H (2013) Advances and trends of energy storage technology in microgrid. Electr Power Energy Syst 44:179–191 21. Mariam L, Basu M, Conlon MF (2016) Microgrid: architecture, policy and future trends. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 64:477–489 22. Colmenar-Santos A, Linares-Mena AR, Velazquez JF, Borge-Diez D (2016) Energy-efficient three-phase bidirectional converter for grid-connected storage applications. Energy Convers Manag 127:599–611 23. Castillo A, Gayme DF (2014) Grid-scale energy storage applications in renewable energy integration: a survey. Energy Convers Manag 87:885–894 24. Luo X, Wang J, Dooner M, Clarke J (2015) Overview of current development in electrical energy storage technologies and the application potential in power system operation. Appl Energy 137:511–536

References

63

25. Zheng M, Meinrenken CJ, Lackner KS (2015) Smart households: dispatch strategies and economic analysis of distributed energy storage for residential peak shaving. Appl Energy 147:246–257 26. Chatzivasileiadi A, Ampatzi E, Knight I (2013) Characteristics of electrical energy storage technologies and their applications in buildings. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 25:814–830 27. Ferreira HL, Garde R, Fulli G, Kling W, Lopes JP (2013) Characterisation of electrical energy storage technologies. Energy 53:288–298 28. Evans A, Strezov V, Evans TJ (2012) Assessment of utility energy storage options for increased renewable energy penetration. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 16:4141–4147 29. Rodrigues EMG et al (2014) Energy storage systems supporting increased penetration of renewables in islanded systems. Energy 75:265–280 30. Ren L et al (2013) Techno-economic evaluation of hybrid energy storage technologies for a solar–wind generation system. Physica C 484:272–275 31. Gaudard L, Romerio F (2014) Reprint of “the future of hydropower in Europe: interconnecting climate, markets and policies.” Environ Sci Policy 37:172–181 32. Gallo AB, Simoes-Moreira JR, Costa HKM, Santos MM, Moutinho-dos-Santos E (2016) Energy storage in the energy transition context: a technology review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 65:800–822 33. Lund PD, Lindgren J, Mikkola J, Salpakari J (2015) Review of energy system flexibility measures to enable high levels of variable renewable electricity. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 45:785–807 34. Hemmati R, Saboori H (2016) Emergence of hybrid energy storage systems in renewable energy and transport applications—a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 65:11–23 35. Solomon AA, Faiman D, Meron G (2012) Appropriate storage for high-penetration gridconnected photovoltaic plants. Energy Policy 40:335–344 36. Theo WL et al (2016) An MILP model for cost-optimal planning of an on-grid hybrid power system for an eco-industrial park. Energy 116:1423–1441 37. Planas E, Andreu J, Gárate JI, Martinez-de-Alegría I, Ibarra E (2015) AC and DC technology in microgrids: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 43:726–749 38. Mahlia TMI, Saktisahdan TJ, Jannifar A, Hasan MH, Matseelar HSC (2014) A review of available methods and development on energy storage; technology update. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 33:532–545 39. Yang J, Liu W, Liu P (2014) Application of SMES unit in black start. Phys Proc 58:277–281 40. Selvaraju RK, Somaskandan G (2016) Impact of energy storage units on load frequency control of deregulated power systems. Energy 97:214–228 41. Koohi-Kamali S et al (2013) Emergence of energy storage technologies as the solution for reliable operation of smart power systems: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 25:135–165 42. Kyriakopoulos GL, Arabatzis G (2016) Electrical energy storage systems in electricity generation: energy policies, innovative technologies, and regulatory regimes. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 56:1044–1067 43. Tuya-Merino M (2017) Simulación eléctrica de líneas ferroviarias electrificadas para el diseño de un sistema de almacenamiento de energía para la recarga de vehículos eléctricos. Escuela Ingenierías Industriales, Depto. Ingeniería Energética y Fluidomecánica. http://uvadoc.uva. es/handle/10324/13760. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 44. La Energía en España (2014) Ministerio de Industria, Energía y Turismo, Secretaria General Técnica. http://www.minetad.gob.es/energia/balances/Balances/LibrosEnergia/La_ Energ%C3%ADa_2014.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 45. Official website of the European Union. https://europa.eu/european-union/law/legal-acts_en. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 46. Constitución española Título III. De las Cortes Generales. Capítulo segundo. De la elaboración de las leyes. http://www.congreso.es/consti/constitucion/indice/titulos/articulos.jsp?Ini=81& fin=92&tipo=2. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 47. Constitución española Título III. De las Cortes Generales. Sinopsis artículo 81. http://www. congreso.es/consti/constitucion/indice/sinopsis/sinopsis.jsp?Art=81&tipo=2. Accessed 05 Jul 2017

64

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

48. Yan X, Zhang X, Chen H, Xu Y, Tan C (2014) Techno-economic and social analysis of energy storage for commercial buildings. Energy Convers Manag 78:125–136 49. Bradbury K, Pratson L, Patiño-Echeverri D (2014) Economic viability of energy storage systems based on price arbitrage potential in real-time U.S. electricity markets. Appl Energy 114:512–9 50. Spataru C, Kok YC, Barrett M, Sweetnam T (2015) Techno-economic assessment for optimal energy storage mix. Energy Proc 83:515–524 51. Landry M, Gagnon Y (2015) Energy storage: technology applications and policy options. Energy Proc 79:315–320 52. Sundararagavan S, Baker E (2012) Evaluating energy storage technologies for wind power integration. Sol Energy 86:2707–2717 53. Zheng M, Meinrenken CJ, Lackner KS (2014) Agent-based model for electricity consumption and storage to evaluate economic viability of tariff arbitrage for residential sector demand response. Appl Energy 126:297–306 54. Leou R-C (2012) An economic analysis model for the energy storage system applied to a distribution substation. Electr Power Energy Syst 34:132–137 55. Han P, Wu Y, Liu H, Li L, Yang H (2015) Structural design and analysis of a 150 kJ HTS SMES cryogenic system. Phys Proc 67:360–366 56. Jin JX (2014) Emerging SMES technology into energy storage systems and smart grid applications, pp 77–125 57. Vasquez S, Lukic SM, Galvan E, Franquelo LG, Carrasco JM (2010) Energy storage systems for transport and grid applications. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 12:3881–3895 58. Li J, Gee AM, Zhang M, Yuan W (2015) Analysis of battery lifetime extension in a SMES battery hybrid energy storage system using a novel battery lifetime model. Energy 86:175–185 59. Nagaya S et al (2004) Development of MJ-class HTS SMES for bridging instantaneous voltage dips. IEEE Trans Appl Supercond 2:770–773 60. Rogers JD, Schermer RI, Miller BL, Hauer JF (1983) 30-MJ superconducting magnetic energy storage system for electric utility transmission stabilization. Proc IEEE 9:1099–1107 61. Kreutz R et al (2003) Design of a 150 kJ high-Tc SMES (HSMES) for a 20 kVA uninterruptible power supply system. IEEE Trans Appl Supercond 2:1860–1862 62. Zakeri B, Syri S (2015) Electrical energy storage systems: a comparative life cycle cost analysis. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 42:569–596 63. Akinyele DO, Rayudu RK (2014) Review of energy storage technologies for sustainable power networks. Sustain Energy Technol Assess 8:74–91 64. Mahto T, Mukherjee V (2015) Energy storage systems for mitigating the variability of isolated hybrid power system. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 51:1564–1577 65. Spataru C, Kok YC, Barrett M (2014) Physical energy storage employed worldwide. Energy Procedia 62:452–461 66. Energy Storage Trends and Opportunities in Emerging Markets (2017) ESMAP, IFC. http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/ed6f9f7f-f197-4915-8ab6-56b92d50865d/7151IFC-EnergyStorage-report.pdf?MOD=AJPERES. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 67. Resumen del Presupuesto General Consolidado (2016) Zaragoza. http://www.zaragoza.es/ciu dad/encasa/hacienda/presupuestos/presupuestos.htm. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 68. Informe de responsabilidad corporativa, Resumen 2015. REE; 2016. http://www.ree.es/es/ publicaciones/informe-anual-2015. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 69. Acuerdo por el que se remite a la Secretaría de Estado de Energía la propuesta motivada de la cuantía a percibir por cada empresa distribuidora sobre el incentivo o penalización par la reducción de pérdidas en la red de distribución de energía eléctrica para el año. Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y Competencia (CNMC); 2016. https://www.cnmc.es/sites/default/ files/1553612.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 70. Ministerio de Energía, Turismo y Agenda Digital. http://www.minetad.gob.es/es-ES/Paginas/ index.aspx. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 71. Estadísticas del Sistema Eléctrico. Series estadísticas del sistema eléctrico español; 2017. http://www.ree.es/es/estadisticas-del-sistema-electrico-espanol/indicadores-acionales/ series-estadisticas. Accessed 05 Jul 2017

References

65

72. Europea Comisión, Estrategia 2020. http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/index_en.htm. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 73. Resolución del Parlamento Europeo, de 5 de febrero de 2014, sobre un marco paralas políticas de clima y energía en 2030. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?PubRef=-//EP// TEXT+TA+P7-TA-2014-0094+0+DOC+XML+V0//ES. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 74. Resolución del Parlamento Europeo, de 14 de marzo de 2013, sobre la Hoja de Ruta de la Energía para 2050, un futuro con energía. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc. do?PubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P7-TA-2013-0088+0+DOC+XML+V0//ES. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 75. Resolución del Parlamento Europeo, de 21 de mayo de 2013, sobre los desafíos y oportunidades actuales para las energías renovables en el mercado interior europeo de la energía. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?PubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P7-TA2013-0201+0+DOC+XML+V0//ES. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 76. Resolución del Parlamento Europeo, de 25 de noviembre de 2010, sobre una nueva estrategia energética para Europa 2011–2020 (DO C 99 E de 3.4.2012, p. 64). http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?PubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P7-TA2010-0441+0+DOC+XML+V0//ES. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 77. Resolución del Parlamento Europeo, de 5 de julio de 2011, sobre las prioridades de la infraestructura energética a partir de 2020 (DO C 33 E de 5.2.2012, p 46). http://eur-lex. europa.eu/legal-content/ES/TXT/?Uri=CELEX%3A52011IP0318. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 78. Resolución del Parlamento Europeo, de 12 de septiembre de 2013, sobre la microgeneración – generación de electricidad y de calor a pequeña escala. http://www.europarl.eur opa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?PubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P7-TA-2013-0374+0+DOC+XML+V0/ /ES⟩. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 79. Grid+Storage Consortium. http://www.gridplusstorage.eu/. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 80. Title XXI, energy, article 194, consolidated versions of the treaty on European union and the treaty on the functioning of the European union; 2010. http://eurlex.europa.eu/legal-content/ EN/TXT/?Uri=celex%3A12012E%2FTXT. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 81. Directive 2009/28/EC of the European parliament and of the council, 23; 2009. http://eur-lex. europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?Uri=CELEX:32009L0028. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 82. Directive 2009/72/CE of the European parliament and of the council, 13; 2009. https://www. boe.es/doue/2009/211/L00055-00093.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 83. Directive 2012/27/EU of the European parliament and of the council, 25; 2012. http://eur-lex. europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?Uri=CELEX:32012L0027. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 84. Regulation (EU) No 347/2013 of the European parliament and of the council, 17; 2013. http:/ /eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/AUTO/?Uri=CELEX:12012E172. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 85. Ley 54/1997, de 27 de noviembre, del Sector Eléctrico. https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt. php?Id=BOE-A-1997-25340. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 86. Ley 24/2013, de 26 de diciembre, del Sector Eléctrico. https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt. php?Id=BOE-A-2013-13645. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 87. Resolución de 30 de julio de 1998, de la Secretaría de Estado de Energía y Recursos Minerales, por la que se aprueba un conjunto de procedimientos de carácter técnico e instrumental necesarios para realizar la adecuada gestión técnica del sistema eléctrico; 1998. https://www. boe.es/boe/dias/1998/08/18/pdfs/A28158-28183.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 88. Resolución de 17 de marzo de 2004, de la Secretaría de Estado de Energía, Desarrollo Industrial y Pequeña y Mediana Empresa, por la que se modifican un conjunto de procedimientos de carácter técnico e instrumental necesarios para realizar la adecuada gestión técnica del Sistema Eléctrico; 2004. http://www.ree.es/sites/default/files/01_ACTIVIDADES/Docume ntos/ProcedimientosOperacion/PO_resol_17mar2004_correc_c.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 89. Resolución de 18 de diciembre de 2015, de la Secretaría de Estado de Energía, por la que se establecen los criterios para participar en los servicios de ajuste del sistema y se aprueban determinados procedimientos de pruebas y procedimientos de operación para su adaptación al Real Decreto 413/2014, de 6 de junio, por el que se regula la actividad de producción de energía eléctrica a partir de fuentes de energía renovables, cogeneración y residuos. https:// www.boe.es/boe/dias/2015/12/19/pdfs/BOE-A-2015-13875.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017

66

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

90. Resolución de 10 de marzo de 2000, de la Secretaría de Estado de Energía, por la que se aprueban los procedimientos de operación del sistema P.O. 3.10, P.O. 14.5, P.O. 3.1, P.O. 3.2, P.O. 9 y P.O. 14.4 para su adaptación a la nueva normativa eléctrica; 2010. https://www.boe. es/boe/dias/2010/10/28/pdfs/BOE-A-2010-16441.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 91. Resolución de 7 de abril de 2006, de la Secretaría de Estado de Industria y Energía, por la que se aprueba el procedimiento de operación del sistema (P.O.—7.4) “Servicio complementario de control de tensión de la red de transporte”; 2000. https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2000/03/18/ pdfs/A11330-11346.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 92. Resolución de 7 de abril de 2006, de la Secretaría General de Energía, por la que se aprueban los procedimientos de operación 8.1 “Definición de las redes operadas y observadas por el Operador del Sistema” y 8.2 “Operación del sistema de producción y transporte”; 2006. https:/ /www.boe.es/boe/dias/2006/04/21/pdfs/A15341-15345.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 93. Resolución de 28 de abril de 2006, de la Secretaría General de Energía, por la que se aprueba un conjunto de procedimientos de carácter técnico e instrumental necesarios para realizar la adecuada gestión técnica de los sistemas eléctricos insulares y extrapeninsulares; 2006. https:/ /www.boe.es/boe/dias/2006/05/31/pdfs/A20573-20574.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 94. Resolución de 22 de marzo de 2005, de la Secretaría General de la Energía, por la que se aprueba el Procedimiento de Operación 13.1. “Criterios de Desarrollo de la Red de Transporte”, de carácter técnico e instrumental necesario para realizar la adecuada gestión técnica del Sistema Eléctrico; 2005. http://www.ree.es/sites/default/files/01_ACTIVIDADES/Doc umentos/ProcedimientosOperacion/PO_resol_22Mar2005.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 95. Resolución de 11 de febrero de, de la Secretaría General de la Energía, por la que se aprueba un conjunto de procedimientos de carácter técnico e instrumental necesarios para realizar la adecuada gestión técnica del Sistema Eléctrico; 2005. https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2005/03/ 01/pdfs/A07405-07430.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 96. Resolución de 5 de agosto de 2016, de la Secretaría de Estado de Energía, por la que se modifica el Procedimiento de Operación 15.2 “Servicio de gestión de la demanda de interrumpibilidad”, aprobado por Resolución de 1 de agosto de 2014; 2016. https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2016/ 08/12/pdfs/BOE-A-2016-7800.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 97. Energy Policy Act of 2005 PL 109-58PL 109-58. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-109 publ58/pdf/PLAW-109publ58.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 98. Strategic Energy Plan. 2014. http://www.enecho.meti.go.jp/en/category/others/basic_plan/ pdf/4th_strategic_energy_plan.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 99. Frankfurter Societäts-Medien GmbH en cooperación con el Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de Alemania. https://www.deutschland.de. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 100. Renewable Energy Sources Act: Plannable. Affordable. Efficient. http://www.bmwi.de/Eng lish/Redaktion/Pdf/renewable-energy-sources-act-eeg-2014,property=pdf,bereich=bmwi20 12,sprache=en,rwb=true.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 101. Conferencia de París sobre el Clima (COP21). http://www.cop21paris.org/. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 102. International Organization for Standardization, ISO. http://www.iso.org/. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 103. European Committee for Standardization, CEN. http://www.cen.eu/. Accessed 05 Jul 2017. 104. European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization, CENELEC. https://www.cenele c.eu/. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 105. Asociación Española de Normalización y Certificación, AENOR. http://www.aenor.es/aenor/ inicio/home/home.asp. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 106. Comisión Panamericana de Normas Técnicas, COPANT. http://www.copant.org/. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 107. Handbook for energy storage for transmission or distribution applications [Report no. 1007189]. Technical Update; 2002. www.epri.com. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 108. Ter-Gazarian AG, Superconducting magnetic energy storage. In: Energy storage for power systems, pp 154–171

References

67

109. Real Decreto 2019/1997, de 26 de diciembre, por el que se organiza y regula el mercado de producción de energía eléctrica. https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/1997/12/27/pdfs/A3804738057.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 110. Real Decreto 1955/2000, de 1 de diciembre, por el que se regulan las actividades de transporte, distribución, comercialización, suministro y procedimientos de autorización de instalaciones de energía eléctrica. https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2000/12/27/pdfs/A45988-46040. pdf. Accessed on 05 Jul 2017 111. Real Decreto-ley 6/2009, de 30 de abril, por el que se adoptan determinadas medidas en el sector energético y se aprueba el bono social. https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2009/05/07/pdfs/ BOE-A-2009-7581.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 112. Real Decreto 134/2010, de 12 de febrero, por el que se establece el procedimiento de resolución de restricciones por garantía de suministro y se modifica el Real Decreto 2019/1997, de 26 de diciembre, por el que se organiza y regula el mercado de producción de energía eléctrica. https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2010/02/27/pdfs/BOE-A-2010-3158.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 113. Real Decreto-ley 6/2010, de 9 de abril, de medidas para el impulso de la recuperación económica y el empleo. https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2010/04/13/pdfs/BOE-A-2010-5879. pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 114. Real Decreto 1221/2010, de 1 de octubre, por el que se modifica el Real Decreto 134/2010, de 12 de febrero, por el que se establece el procedimiento de resolución de restricciones por garantía de suministro y se modifica el Real Decreto 2019/1997, de 26 de diciembre, por el que se organiza y regula el mercado de producción de energía eléctrica. https://www.boe.es/ boe/dias/2010/10/02/pdfs/BOE-A-2010-15121.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 115. Real Decreto 1565/2010, de 19 de noviembre, por el que se regulan y modifican determinados aspectos relativos a la actividad de producción de energía eléctrica en régimen especial. https:/ /www.boe.es/boe/dias/2010/11/23/pdfs/BOE-A-2010-17976.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 116. Real Decreto 1614/2010, de 7 de diciembre, por el que se regulan y modifican determinados aspectos relativos a la actividad de producción de energía eléctrica a partir de tecnologías solar termoeléctrica y eólica. https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2010/12/08/pdfs/BOE-A-2010-18915. pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 117. Real Decreto-ley 14/2010, de 23 de diciembre, por el que se establecen medidas urgentes para la corrección del déficit tarifario del sector eléctrico. https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2010/ 12/24/pdfs/BOE-A-2010-19757.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 118. Real Decreto 1699/2011, de 18 de noviembre, por el que se regula la conexión a red de instalaciones de producción de energía eléctrica de pequeña potencia. https://www.boe.es/ boe/dias/2011/12/08/pdfs/BOE-A-2011-19242.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 119. Real Decreto-ley 1/2012, de 27 de enero, por el que se procede a la suspensión de los procedimientos de preasignación de retribución y a la supresión de los incentivos económicos para nuevas instalaciones de producción de energía eléctrica a partir de cogeneración, fuentes de energía renovables y residuos. https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2012/01/28/pdfs/BOE-A-20121310.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 120. Real Decreto-ley 2/2013, de 1 de febrero, de medidas urgentes en el sistema eléctrico y en el sector financiero. https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2013/02/02/pdfs/BOE-A-2013-1117.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 121. Real Decreto-ley 9/2013, de 12 de julio, por el que se adoptan medidas urgentes para garantizar la estabilidad financiera del sistema eléctrico. https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2013/07/13/pdfs/ BOE-A-2013-7705.pdf⟩. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 122. Executive Order 13693—Planning for Federal Sustainability in the Next Decade. https:// www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-03-25/pdf/2015-07016.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 123. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 PL 110-140. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/ BILLS-110hr6enr/pdf/BILLS-110hr6enr.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 124. Executive Order 13221—Energy Efficient Standby Power Devices. https://energy.gov/sites/ prod/files/2013/10/f3/eo13221.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 125. Energy Policy Act of 1992 PL 102-486. http://www.afdc.energy.gov/pdfs/2527.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017

68

2 Legislative and Economic Aspects for the Inclusion of Energy Reserve …

126. Casado MF (2016) El futuro energético de Japón: entre el regreso a la senda nuclear y el giro hacia las renovables. UNISCI J 41 127. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. http://www.meti.go.jp/english/index.html. Accessed 05 Jul 2017 128. Ley de alimentación de energía eléctrica (Stromeinspeisungsgesetz). http://dip21.bundestag. de/dip21/btd/11/078/1107816.pdf. Accessed 05 Jul 2017

Chapter 3

Technical Approach for the Inclusion of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage in a Smart City

Nomenclature BSCCO CAES CPLD DFACTS DG EDLC ESS EU FES HV HTS IGBT LTS LV MCU MPLS MV NbTi PHS REBT REE SMES YBCO

Bismuth Strontium Calcium Copper Oxide Compressed Air Energy Storage Complex Programmable Logic Device Distributed Flexible AC Transmission Systems Distributed Generation Electric Double Layer Capacitor Energy Storage System European Union Flywheel Energy Storage High Voltage High Temperature Superconducting Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor Low Temperature Superconducting Low Voltage Micro Controller Unit Multiprotocol Label Switching Medium Voltage Niobio-Titanio Pumped Hydro Storage Reglamento Electrotécnico de Baja Tensión Spanish Electricity Network Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 E.-L. Molina-Ibáñez et al., Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Systems (SMES) for Distributed Supply Networks, SpringerBriefs in Energy, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34773-3_3

69

70

3 Technical Approach for the Inclusion of Superconducting Magnetic …

Symbols C C1 i1,2,3 iSMES IC IO Tc LSMES L1,2 Req THD U1,2,3 UDC Vo ω ωres ωcon Δvo

Filter capacitor capacity Capacity of the rectifier capacitor Input current to the converter SMES coil input current Maximum current in the filter capacitor Rated filter current Critical temperature Coil Inductance Inductance of filter coils Equivalent resistance seen from the coil Total Harmonic Distortion Input voltage to the converter Voltage at the rectifier capacitor Average voltage in the rectifier capacitor Frequency of the grid Resonance frequency Switching frequency Curing of the voltage allowed in the grinding capacitor

3.1 Introduction A smart grid is a concept that has evolved quickly with the implementation of renewable energies and concepts as distributed generation (DG) and micro-grids. According to the electricity system operator in the Spanish electricity network, REE, a smart grid [1] is “one that can efficiently integrate the behaviour and the actions of all the users connected to it, so that it ensures a sustainable and efficient energy system with low losses and high-level quality and supply security”. The definition given by the REE of Smart grids encompasses both the electrical system and the communications system. The main idea is to synergize efforts and capabilities to improve the system so that it allows optimal results to be obtained, despite the complexity of factors and entities acting in the electrical network. Within that concept and in the electricity supply networks of the near future, we may find the concept of smart city, which can be defined as those cities that already have an innovative system and networking to provide an improved model of economic and political efficiency allowing social, cultural and urban development. To support this growth, there is a commitment to innovation industries and to high technology, which permits urban growth based on the impulse of capabilities and networks. This will be achieved through strategic and inclusive plans that enable the improvement of the local innovative system [2].

3.1 Introduction

71

Nowadays, the focus is on the development of models that permit to increase the efficiency of the elements which electric network has towards cities. This is based on statistics and data that shows that 54% of the world’s population lives in cities. This percentage will increase, not only owing to the migration of the rural population towards cities but also by the growth of the population. It is estimated that in the next 25 years, the world population will increase from 7300 to 9500 million people and that the population will be more urban, increasing to 66% in 2050 [3]. This urbanization process is even more advanced in Europe and particularly in Spain, in which more than two-thirds of the population is urban and is expected to reach 85% by 2050, which, along with the American continent, leads this population change [3]. The model of the electricity system by means of DG allows to diversify generation systems and adapt them to temporal or geographical needs. This model promotes renewable generation systems of low and medium power. This is associated with the use of energy storage systems (ESS). Besides traditional storage systems, such as different types of batteries or compressed air systems (CAES), there are other systems such as flywheels and Li-ion batteries; and supercapacitors or Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES), which might face system’s requirements with high power density energy storage. The use of SMES systems in smart cities provides an element of support to zones in which peak power is required at certain times, such as in industrial areas. Furthermore, SMES systems can provide other applications, which enable its inclusion in the network, such as Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), adequacy systems of voltage levels and frequency control. The inclusion of an ESS in the electricity network in a Smart city complements the use of renewable generation systems because these systems could bring distortions in the quality of the network signal. Therefore, a DG system is related to ESS, which implies different possibilities in the connection to the network, as will be seen during the article. In addition to the introductory section, the methods and materials used in this article will be explained in Sect. 3.2. In this section, Sect. 3.2, the actual electric network model will be presented followed by distribution grid settings of the ESS towards the reference distribution grid. In the Sect. 3.3, the theoretical framework concerning the inclusion of storage system SMES in a Smart city is explained. This allows to obtain possible benefits of the inclusion of these systems on the electric network, so as another type of indirect profits. In the Sect. 3.4, the results are shown according to simulations performed following the methodology and calculations indicated in the previous sections. In this section, Sect. 3.4, obtained signals in the inlet and outlet of the converter during the charge and discharge of these systems are shown. The discussion of the results obtained in the Sect. 3.4 at a theoretical level as well as the analysis of the different architectures of the network are presented in Sect. 3.5, considering the characteristics and main assumptions developed earlier. Finally, in Sect. 3.6, the main conclusions learned throughout the technical study

72

3 Technical Approach for the Inclusion of Superconducting Magnetic …

of the inclusion of these systems in a smart city connected to the Spanish electric network will be presented.

3.2 Material and Methods In this section, we describe the processes we carried out during this study to obtain the results. The analysis of the electricity network is one of the most important aspects in this process and, also, the main point. We have to keep in mind that the actual electricity network in the Spanish system is based on a pyramidal structure. Currently, energy is mainly generated in big production centres, such as thermal power stations, hydroelectric power plants, and nuclear power plants. Energy is carried at a HV until it reaches the distribution grid and final consumers, Fig. 3.1. In the last years, this structure has started to change owing to the inclusion of small generation centres in the network, which has been empowered by the expansion of renewable energies. This is possible thanks to a meshed grid with distributed generation, a concept which is very much linked to smart grids, Fig. 3.2. The use of cogeneration systems that allow the generation of district heating and electric generation systems is also enhanced [5]. In the new electricity grid model, renewable generation sources play a very important role. In addition, renewable energies are linked systems, such as ESS, that enable proper operation in the electrical system. Fig. 3.1 Model of the Spanish electricity grid. Source Adapted from [4]

Generation

230/400 kV

Transmission 20/30 kV

Substation systems HV/MV

Distribution 220/380 kV

Consumption

3.2 Material and Methods

73

Fig. 3.2 Distributed generation model. Source Adapted from [6]

In relation to ESS, it is important to consider that storage systems can act in two ways. On the one hand as loads in the network when they are in charge mode, and on the other hand, as generators when they are in discharge mode. The connection of these systems to the network can be done at any point of the network. In the study, we focused on network transport at MV. For the connection of the ESS of the terminals normalized in the transformer is ΔYn11, that is to say, the primary voltage from the transformer goes in a triangle and the secondary in star, with an accessible neutral terminal in order to power the various receivers and also to connect for electrical grounding the neutral point of the secondary. The secondary voltage of the transformer, which is normalized by the European Union [7] (EU), is 400 V between phases and 230 V between phase and neutral for supplying final user in the distribution grid. With the aim of understanding the behaviour of the SMES system in the network, the data of the study conducted by Ref. [8], in which there is a SMES system Energy/Power = 6.49 MWh/1.52 MW, with the idea of being able to simulate the circuit by means of the program Proteus 8.3. With these indications, it was determined that a secondary voltage of 2000 V from the transformer and a coil current of 325 A are required to obtain the required power requirement. In this case, it is considered that we work both in primary and in secondary voltage with MT. For this reason, voltages have to be over 1001 V (doing so we intend to mark an initial limit of medium voltage). The aim is to limit the current in every electrical and electronic devices for the purpose of reducing losses. Also, this implies working with elements with huge voltage drops, something to bear in mind while designing the rest of the circuit, especially considering semiconductors. With these premises, a circuit has been designed that seeks to adapt the network signal to the working of the SMES system. The circuit shown in Fig. 3.3 has been configured, where it is divided into the filter, converter, chopper and SMES coil. The calculation for obtaining the characteristic values of the components is developed in Appendix 1.

74

3 Technical Approach for the Inclusion of Superconducting Magnetic …

Fig. 3.3 Storage system circuit. Source Adapted from [9]

For the design of this circuit has taken into account the working frequency of the grid in Spain, 50 Hz, for the design of the LCL filter placed after the transformer. That transformer will be designed to bear the operating power of the system and will also act as a protective element both in the input and in the output, because it acts as an overcurrent limiter. In relation to the design of the converter, two main points were considered. The first one is if the converter in rectifier mode can or cannot be controlled. Due to the simplicity of the design and the little importance in the simulated system, we chose the uncontrolled system throughout power diodes. The second point are peak voltages to work with. It is important to keep in mind the voltage design selected in order not to work with higher voltages than the breakdown voltage of the IGBT’s and from the rectification capacitor. This can be applied with the IGBT’s of the Chopper. As for the simulation, to obtain the graphs of the corresponding signals, voltage and current probes have been placed at the input of the coil to see its charge and discharge. This probes of Proteus are also provided which show the voltage and current signals to the rectifier input. For this simulation, power losses in transformers, wiring resistances and others elements influencing the measurement of the characteristic values of the SMES system have not been taken into account. It is important to point out that for the study realization we dismissed samples taken during a second, t = 0–1 s. This is mainly due to the lack of a smooth start circuit, which prevents undesired fluctuations to appear during the boot.

3.3 Theoretical Framework In this section, we analyse the theoretical framework of the network and the ESS in which the present research was performed. To do that we are going to analyse one of the main smart cities in Spain, Málaga [10]. In Appendix 2, a smart cities analysis along with SMES storage systems and control and monitoring systems are shown. The interconnection of all the network elements is indispensable in Smart grids.

3.3 Theoretical Framework

75

It is important to keep in mind that nowadays cities occupy 2% of earth surface, consume 75% of world energy and generate 80% of greenhouse gases [11]. A model that encompass the main aspects of a smart city is shown in Fig. 3.4. Within these aspects, we may find transversal elements, such as: – – – –

Information and communication technologies Sensors Security Materials.

Inside transversal systems is the concept of information and communication technologies, which allows information interconnection among different systems. The communication system of the project smart city Málaga is shown in Appendix 3 [10], which displays the interconnection of the different nodes and transformation centres; the communication nodes mostly match with the centres.

Fig. 3.4 Smart city model. Source Adapted from [3]

76

3 Technical Approach for the Inclusion of Superconducting Magnetic …

There are also 4 blocks to focus on when developing a Smart city: Energy and environment, buildings and facilities [12], mobility and inter-modality and government and social services. All these blocks are connected, they are not isolated. Inside the first block, Energy and Environment, one important element in the smart city is the energy storage systems, ESS, whose main purpose is to guarantee energy supply. Energy storage systems (ESS) can be grouped according to different characteristics which facilitate the choice of one device or another for the storage system [11]. Devices that actually are commercialized and/or in development are grouped in four main groups: Electrochemistry (different kind of batteries), Mechanic (FES, PHS, CAES), Electrical (SMES, EDLC) and Thermal. Most of the electricity storage across the world, approximately 95–98%, is based on PHS owing to the simplicity and maturity of this technology. Nevertheless, the number of ESS that are different from PHS has grown from less than 1% to more than 1.5% in 2010, and 2.5% in 2015 (a growth rate higher than 10%) [13, 14]. As stated above, the present article focuses on superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), and the technical possibilities of its inclusion in a Smart city. We have to keep in mind that superconducting magnetic energy storage is a system that allows the storage of energy under a magnetic field thanks to the current going through a refrigerated coil at a temperature under critical superconductivity temperature, Tc . The system is based on a superconducting coil, a refrigeration system that allows the critical temperature to be obtained, an electric system to convert and adequate the signal and a control system to adapt currents and optimize the process. In order to develop these systems and reach the proper working levels, a lot of studies have been realized about performance optimization of these systems, as well as network connection settings [9, 15–21]. Other studies deal with optimization of the electrical adaptation elements, as well as in regulation and control systems [22] or the study of inclusion of these systems in the microgrids/smart grids [23, 24].

3.4 Results In this section, we present the results of simulations realized through the Proteus program. It is divided into two subsections. The first one shows signals obtained during the charge of the device, using a converter in rectify mode, both in the coil and in the other entry of that rectifier. Once the coil charge is simulated, the second subsection shows the signals obtained during the discharge of the SMES system to the network, showing the signal at the terminals of the SMES coil and at the output of the inverter in inversion mode.

3.4 Results

77

3.4.1 Charge of the Storage System To carry out simulation in the charge mode, we set the circuit with the non-controlled three-phase full wave rectifier. The circuit has been designed with the calculations shown in Appendix 1. The input voltage to the rectifier, with the 3 phases differenced and out of phase by 120°, is shown in Fig. 3.5. The peak voltage of the waves is at 2828 V with a frequency of 50 Hz. Trials have been carried out, introducing noise and interference, with the intention of verifying the efficiency of the LCL filter design adapted for the case, showing at all times a perfect sinus signal at the entry of the rectifier. On the other hand, there are input currents in the rectifier. This is shown in Fig. 3.6, where charge moments can be distinguished and when t = 0.36 s, approximately, permanent mode is reached. At this time, the control system considers the ESS charged, consequently the system will disconnect from the rest getting into permanent mode.

Fig. 3.5 Signal to rectifier input. Source Own elaboration

Fig. 3.6 Current at the rectifier input. Source Own elaboration

78

3 Technical Approach for the Inclusion of Superconducting Magnetic …

Fig. 3.7 Voltage at the output of the rectifier. Source Own elaboration

Fig. 3.8 Current at the entrance of the SMES. Source Own elaboration

Furthermore, we have to bear in mind voltage and current signals in the SMES system. In this case, as shown in Fig. 3.7, the voltage reached after rectification of full wave is 4600 V after the charge period. Also in Fig. 3.8 it is shown the slope given by the current in the coil during the charge, reaching approximately 325 A. This current is regulated and adapted at each moment by the chopper, achieving a total control over the energy we want to store. For a system connected to the network, a reliable and rapid response data acquisition system allows the increase of the efficiency and accuracy of the measurements, and therefore in the system operation.

3.4.2 Discharge of the Storage System Once the system is charged, we can discharge the energy stored in the coil. This energy is provided by means of the control of the current, with the chopper and the converter in inverter mode. Then, by means of the control system, a rapid drop in the coil current iSMES (t) is imparted, as shown in Fig. 3.9. This setting is reflected in

3.4 Results

79

Fig. 3.9 SMES output current during discharge. Source Own elaboration

Fig. 3.10 Voltage in the capacitor during discharge. Source Own elaboration

the voltage in the capacitor of the converter, noticing the change from the reached values to 0 V, Fig. 3.10. Furthermore, the inverter provides a sinus signal (Fig. 3.11), at 50 Hz and an effective voltage of 2000 V, which, after going through the filter, is refined to remove the undesired harmonics hat are introduced by the electronic elements of the circuit. In order to obtain the three sinusoidal phases, the signal inversion is carried out by means of the IGBT’s continuous voltage switching with weighted sinusoidal pulse width (SPWM) [25]. The inverters with this kind of setting are easy to filter because the coupled harmonics are distant from the main harmonic. An important characteristic has to be emphasized, obtained from the simulations of this type of ESS. Because of the short distance between the storage systems and loads, small network losses occur. These losses are only shown in the loads that are connected to the ESS.

80

3 Technical Approach for the Inclusion of Superconducting Magnetic …

Fig. 3.11 Phase voltage at the inverter output during discharge. Source Own elaboration

3.5 Discussion It is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the electricity network, such as the large number of generation sources, the length of the transmission and distribution grid, as well as the wide variety of loads in the electricity network. In the case of the smart city, the SMES system has been positioned in the distribution grid, in medium voltage, to support the loads related to industrial production. This implies that the distance between the storage systems and the loads is not large, so the resistive and capacitive effects are not relevant in this study. With the simulations, you can see the limitations that these types of systems have on the electricity grid. The main technical limitation is the short discharge time of these systems, owing to their high power density. On the contrary, this provides great advantages, such as the possibility of being used for the compensation of energy fluctuations. However, at present, they cannot be considered as a long-lasting auxiliary energy support system. Although it is true that these ESS allow control of the fluctuations of the network, largely caused by the connection of loads, there are elements or configurations that allow to control that connection of loads. Among the most used are three-phase star-triangle motor connection, connection by means of a soft starter or frequency converter connection. However, the “Reglamento Electrotécnico de Baja Tensión” (REBT), electric normative manual Spanish, in Instruction ITC-BT-47, requires the incorporation of suitable systems that limit the intensity at the engine start [26], or another loads, that greatly introduce distortions to the network. Despite the use of these devices or configurations, signals that can influence the quality of the network signal are always introduced. As discussed at the outset, one must take into account the interrelation between the different blocks that interact in the smart cities. In the case of the electrical network, it is important to highlight the communications system in the electricity system. The main objective of the communication systems in the smart grids is to strengthen

3.5 Discussion

81

and automate the network, improve its operation, the quality indexes and reduce the losses during operation. Increased storage capacity in SMES systems and the adequacy of the energy conversion rate are the most important factors in the applications of this ESS in intelligent electric grids. In terms of configuration, it should focus on DFACTS models, distributed AC distribution systems with the aim of solving the quality problems of power. On the other hand, there are technical limitations that prevent its use being generalized in storage systems. Until technical solutions and technologies are developed to solve this problem, a hybrid systems called HESS can be used as a solution. Compared to SMES high power density systems, hybridization focuses on combining them with other high energy density systems, the most important factors in the applications of these systems in smart electric grids: • Batteries-SMES: Hybrid models with SMES and batteries is the most used, owing to the wide variety of battery types. The simulation of this type of systems has been carried out and a suitable mathematical model has been obtained [27, 28]. • CAES-SMES: This type of system has not been used because of its high complexity and cost. In spite of this, this hybridization is compatible because of the technical characteristics of each of the systems. • Fuel Cells-SMES: This type of system has been tested and simulated with the aim of creating a small-scale efficient storage system for use in electric cars [29]. • PHS-SMES: PHS systems are the most widespread storage systems and are oriented towards large capacity systems. This type of systems should be utilized for power supply in HV. Table 3.1 shows different types of ESS with their associated characteristics. Here you can see the storage capacity and operation of different ESS and the possibility of hybridizing the systems: As for the architecture model to be used, hybrid systems can be grouped into 3 main types: • Active Parallel. This model consists of connecting each ESS with an independent adaptation system to converge in another one and to be able to adapt the signals in a single one that meets the conditions to be supplied to the electric network, Fig. 3.12. • Passive (or direct) parallel. This model consists of the direct connection with a single adaptation system, without other intermediaries, Fig. 3.13. • Cascade: Finally, the cascade model consists of linking the ESSs with their corresponding adaptation system (Fig. 3.14). Table 3.2 shows a summary of the characteristics of the different architectures discussed [27]. These hybrid architectures are controlled by the central control system of each ESS that communicates with the communications equipment of the central control system of the facility, being able to send status and alarm signals, and receive commands. On the other hand, has four outputs for contactor control or equivalent protection elements of the ESS.