Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises: Foundations and Case Studies 3030665798, 9783030665791

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Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises: Foundations and Case Studies
 3030665798, 9783030665791

Table of contents :
Preface
Introduction
Contents
Abbreviations
Chapter 1: Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises: Basic Provisions
1.1 The State Corporation “Rosatom” and the SM–NI Development
1.2 The Concept of the SM–NI
1.2.1 Generic Principles of Environmental Monitoring Systems
1.2.2 The Concept of the SM–NI
1.3 Observed Parameters, Subsystems, and Types of Observations in the SM–NI Practice
1.3.1 Observed Environment Parameters and the SM–NI Subsystems
1.3.2 Types of the SM–NI Observations
1.4 Summary: The SM–NI Basic Provisions
References
Chapter 2: Impact of Nuclear Enterprises on the Subsoil
2.1 General Impact Features
2.2 Types of Impact
2.2.1 Radioactive Contamination (Samsonov 2010)
2.2.2 Hydrochemical Impact
2.2.3 Hydrodynamic Impact (Samsonov 2010)
2.2.4 Thermal Effects (Samsonov 2010)
2.2.5 Electromagnetic Effects (Rosatom 2007)
2.2.6 Mechanical and Seismic Impacts (Samsonov 2010)
2.3 Uranium Ore Mining and Processing Enterprises
2.3.1 Sources of Environmental Impact
2.3.2 Quarries and Mines
2.3.2.1 Quarries (Rosatom 2007)
2.3.2.2 Mines (Mine Fields) (Rosatom 2007)
2.3.3 Dumps (Rosatom 2007)
2.3.4 Open Leaching Enterprises
2.3.5 Processing of Ore-Mining Mass
2.4 Radiochemical Production
2.4.1 Sources of Impact on Geological Environment (Samsonov 2010)
2.4.2 LRW Storage Reservoirs (Glinsky et al. 2010)
2.4.3 LRW Underground Disposal Sites (Glinsky et al. 2010; Samsonov 2010)
2.4.4 Separation Production (Glinsky et al. 2010)
2.5 Nuclear Fuel Production (Glinsky et al. 2010)
2.6 Nuclear Power Plants
2.6.1 Sources of Environmental Impact (Samsonov 2010)
2.6.2 NPP Power Units (Glinsky et al. 2010)
2.6.3 NPP Hydraulic Engineering Constructions (Glinsky et al. 2010)
2.6.4 Cooling Towers, Splash Pools, and Special Water Treatment Units (Glinsky et al. 2010)
2.6.5 Aging Pools (Glinsky et al. 2010)
2.7 RW Management Facilities
2.7.1 Sources of Environmental Impact
2.7.2 Tailings, Pulp, and Sludge Storage Facilities (Rosatom 2007)
2.7.3 Near-Surface SRW Burial Sites (Glinsky et al. 2010)
2.7.4 LRW Settling Storage Tanks and Filtration Fields (Glinsky et al. 2010)
2.7.5 LRW Storage Tanks (Glinsky et al. 2010)
2.7.6 LRW and SRW Temporary Storage Sites, Stockpiling of Spent Installations (Glinsky et al. 2010)
2.8 Summary: Impact of Nuclear Enterprises on the Subsoil
2.8.1 General Impact Features
2.8.2 Types of Impact
2.8.3 Uranium Ore Mining and Processing Enterprises
2.8.4 Radiochemical Production
2.8.5 Nuclear Fuel Production
2.8.6 Nuclear Power Plants
2.8.7 RW Management Facilities
References
Chapter 3: Organization of the SM–NI System
3.1 The SM–NI System Structure
3.1.1 Classification of Nuclear Industry Enterprises for the SM–NI Tasks
3.1.2 Functional Structure of the SM–NI System
3.1.3 Organizational Structure of the SM–NI System (Glinsky et al. 2010; Organization Standard 2010a; Organization Standard 2012)
3.2 Conducting the SM–NI Observations
3.2.1 Basics of the Observation System (see Organization Standard 2010a)
3.2.2 Monitoring Programs (Glinsky et al. 2010; IAEA 2005; Glinsky et al. 2013a)
3.2.3 Formation of Observation Networks
3.2.4 Sampling
3.2.5 Subsoil Monitoring (Glinsky et al. 2010)
3.2.6 Radiation Monitoring (Glinsky et al. 2010, 2013a)
3.2.7 Hydrochemical Monitoring (Glinsky et al. 2010, 2013a)
3.2.8 Hydrodynamic Monitoring (Glinsky et al. 2010, 2013a)
3.2.9 Temperature Monitoring (Glinsky et al. 2010, 2013a)
3.2.10 Electromagnetic Monitoring (Glinsky et al. 2010, 2013a)
3.3 The SM–NI Features at Typical Nuclear Industry Enterprises
3.3.1 Organization of Observations at Monitoring Objects
3.3.2 Enterprises for Mining and Processing of Uranium Ore (Glinsky et al. 2010; Samsonov 2010)
3.3.3 Radiochemical Production
3.3.4 Nuclear Fuel Production (Glinsky et al. 2010)
3.3.5 Nuclear Power Plants (Glinsky et al. 2010; Organization Standard 2012)
3.3.6 RW Management Facilities (Glinsky et al. 2010)
3.4 Support of Management Solutions
3.4.1 General Approach to Environment Assessment
3.4.2 Assessment of Observed Environment Components State (Glinsky et al. 2010; Organization Standard 2010a; Organization Standard 2012)
3.4.3 Environmental Measures
3.5 Summary: Organization of the SM–NI System
3.5.1 The SM–NI System Structure
3.5.2 Conducting the SM–NI Observations
3.5.3 The SM–NI Features at Typical Nuclear Industry Enterprises
3.5.4 Support of Management Solutions
References
Chapter 4: The SM–NI Analytical Information System
4.1 Purpose and Functions of the AIS–SM–NI
4.1.1 Purpose and Functions of the AIS–SM–NI (Glinsky et al. 2010; Svyatovez et al. 2012)
4.1.2 Reports Preparation
4.2 The AIS–SM–NI Structure
4.3 The AIS–SM–NI Technical Features
4.3.1 Generic Approach to the AIS–SM–NI Development (Glinsky et al. 2011)
4.3.2 Geographic Information System (Glinsky et al. 2011)
4.3.3 The AIS–SM–NI Subscriber Stations (Center for Assistance 2010; Svyatovez et al. 2012)
4.4 Summary: The SM–NI Analytical Information System
4.4.1 Purpose and Functions of the AIS–SM–NI
4.4.2 The AIS–SM–NI Structure
4.4.3 The AIS–SM–NI Technical Features
References
Chapter 5: The SM–NI Software
5.1 Modeling
5.1.1 Goals and Objectives (Glinsky et al. 2010; Organization Standard 2012)
5.1.2 Modeling Methodology (Glinsky et al. 2010; Organization Standard 2012)
5.2 Main Model Types
5.2.1 Generic Hydrogeological Model (Organization Standard 2012; Kuvaev 2013)
5.2.2 Exploration Models (Kuvaev 2013)
5.2.3 Hydrogeological Models
5.2.4 Permanent Hydrogeological Model (Organization Standard 2012; Aleksakhin et al. 2007; Kuvaev 2013)
5.3 Program Packages
5.3.1 Requirements to Enterprise’ AIS Model Blocks (Glinsky et al. 2010; Organization Standard 2012)
5.3.2 Software Products Used
5.3.3 Integrated Program Package (Alexandrova et al. 2006)
5.3.4 The “NYMPHA” Program Package (Glinsky et al. 2013b)
5.4 Summary: The SM–NI Software
5.4.1 Modeling
5.4.2 Main Model Types
5.4.3 Program Packages
5.4.4 The “NYMPHA” Program Package (Glinsky et al. 2013b)
References
Chapter 6: Case Studies: Use of the SM–NI at Nuclear Industry Enterprises
6.1 Overview of Results
6.2 Production Association “Mayak”
6.2.1 General Information and the Physical–Geographical Pattern of the PA “Mayak” Area
6.2.2 Geological Structure and Hydrogeological Description of the PA “Mayak” Area
6.2.3 Sources of Environment Impact at the PA “Mayak” Industrial Sites
6.2.4 Observation Network and SM–NI Results at the PA “Mayak”
6.2.5 Modeling of Subsoil Pollution Distribution at the PA “Mayak” Industrial Sites
6.2.6 Summary: SM–NI Results at the PA “Mayak”
6.3 PC “Siberian Chemical Complex”
6.3.1 General Information and Physical–Geographical Pattern of the SCC Area
6.3.2 Geological Structure and Hydrogeological Description of the SCC Site
6.3.3 Sources of Environment Impact and the SM–NI Observation Network at the SCC Industrial Sites
6.3.4 Modeling of Pollution Distribution in the Subsoil at the SCC Industrial Sites
6.3.5 Summary: SM–NI Results at the SCC
6.4 Novovoronezh NPP
6.4.1 General Information and Physical–Geographical Pattern of the NV NPP Site
6.4.2 Geological Structure and Hydrogeological Description of the NV NPP Site
6.4.3 Sources of Environment Impact at the NV NPP Site
6.4.4 Observation Network and the SM–NI Results at the NV NPP
6.4.5 Geofiltration and Geomigration Models of the NV NPP Site
6.4.6 Summary: SM–NI Results at the NV NPP
6.5 PC State Research Center: Research Institute of Nuclear Reactors
6.5.1 General Information and Physical–Geographical Pattern of the RINR Area
6.5.2 Geological Structure and Hydrogeological Description of the RINR Industrial Site
6.5.3 Sources of Environment Impact at the RINR Industrial Sites
6.5.4 Observation Network and SM–NI Results at the RINR
6.5.5 Modeling of Pollution Distribution in the Subsoil at the RINR Industrial Sites (Kuvaev et al. 2013)
6.5.6 Summary: SM–NI Results at the RINR
6.6 Kirovo-Chepetsk District Department of the FEO
6.6.1 General Information and Natural Conditions of the K-ChD-FEO Area
6.6.2 Geological and Hydrogeological Conditions at the K-ChD-FEO Area
6.6.3 Sources of r/a Environment Pollution at the K-ChD-FEO Industrial Site
6.6.4 Observation Network and Technogenic Impact on the Subsoil at the K-ChD-FEO Industrial Site
6.6.5 Summary: SM–NI Results at the K-ChD-FEO
References
Annex I: Contents of the Standard SM Program for a Nuclear Industry Enterprise
Annex II: Contents of the Report “Results of the SM–NI Observations at the (…Nuclear Industry…) Enterprise/Organization in 20xx Year”
References

Citation preview

SPRINGER BRIEFS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Mark Glinsky Vladimir Vetrov Alexander Abramov Leonid Chertkov

Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises Foundations and Case Studies 12 3

SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science

SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science present concise summaries of cutting-­ edge research and practical applications across a wide spectrum of environmental fields, with fast turnaround time to publication. Featuring compact volumes of 50 to 125 pages, the series covers a range of content from professional to academic. Monographs of new material are considered for the SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science series. Typical topics might include: a timely report of state-of-the-art analytical techniques, a bridge between new research results, as published in journal articles and a contextual literature review, a snapshot of a hot or emerging topic, an in-depth case study or technical example, a presentation of core concepts that students must understand in order to make independent contributions, best practices or protocols to be followed, a series of short case studies/debates highlighting a specific angle. SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science allow authors to present their ideas and readers to absorb them with minimal time investment. Both solicited and unsolicited manuscripts are considered for publication. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8868

Mark Glinsky • Vladimir Vetrov Alexander Abramov • Leonid Chertkov

Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises Foundations and Case Studies

Mark Glinsky (Deceased) FSE “Gidrospetsgeologiya“ Ministry of Natural Resources Moscow, Russia

Vladimir Vetrov FSE “Gidrospetsgeologiya“ Ministry of Natural Resources Moscow, Russia

Alexander Abramov State Corporation “Rosatom” Moscow, Russia

Leonid Chertkov FSE “Gidrospetsgeologiya“ Ministry of Natural Resources Moscow, Russia

ISSN 2191-5547     ISSN 2191-5555 (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science ISBN 978-3-030-66579-1    ISBN 978-3-030-66580-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66580-7 © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

With heartache and sadness we devote this book to its main author, Mark Glinsky. We all respected and appreciated his work as the head of a large team of specialists of the Federal state enterprise “Gidrospetsgeologiya.” For us, he was a source of inexhaustible energy and a generator of ideas. His high standards of performance and communication continue to inspire us to extend working in this area of monitoring. With this publication we want to pay tribute to his tireless efforts—until his death in May 2019—to spread the idea of monitoring the geological environment to all creative workers in the nuclear and other industries, for whom the environment protection has become an imperative of their daily work. A. Abramov, L. Chertkov, V. Vetrov.

Preface

The monograph “Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises: Foundations and Case Studies” is a publication in English language of the revised version of the monograph “Object’s Monitoring of the Subsoil State at Nuclear Industry Enterprises” (by Mark Glinsky, Vladimir Vetrov, Alexander Abramov, Leonid Chertkov, Ed. by V.  Vetrov), published in 2015  in Russia (Moscow, publisher B.S.G. Press). As a result of a long-term study of the geological environment radioactive contamination the authors of the first (Russian) edition came to the conclusion to summarize the extensive experience accumulated over nearly 10 years of theoretical and practical work in a specific area of environmental monitoring—monitoring of the subsoil conditions at the nuclear industry enterprises. An important motivation for the first book edition was the low coverage of protecting the geological environment from radioactive contamination in the scientific literature on environment protection. In its original form, the book was the first comprehensive review of the theory and practice of subsoil monitoring, which systematized and summarized extensive research data and results of monitoring the main types of so-called radiation-­ hazardous objects (RHOs) impact on the subsoil. The first edition of the book was intended mainly for employees of the nuclear industry in Russia—specialists in environmental protection and radiation safety at nuclear fuel cycle (NFC) enterprises. The idea of publishing the monograph in English was dictated by the great interest of international experts in the field of nuclear energy to the problem of environmental safety of subsoil, especially in connection with the localization of radioactive waste in geological formations. For the preparation of the second (present) edition, the first version of the book had to undergo a significant revision, mainly by reducing the details related to internal Russian circumstances, which could hardly be of interest to a foreign reader. In addition, the monograph was supplemented with new data that we have received after 2015. This publication presents the rationale for the system of monitoring the subsoil state in the nuclear industry enterprises (the SM-NI) and considers the impact of the main types of NFC enterprises on the geological environment and the methodology vii

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Preface

of the SM-NI, including description methods of observation, analysis, and evaluation of monitoring data. Separate subsystems of the SM-NI developed for the majority of environmentally significant types of NFC enterprises are considered as well as corresponding inform-analytical systems and methods for modeling the transport of radioactive and chemical substances in the subsoil. The final Chap. 6 provides five examples (case studies) of the SM-NI use for solving environmental problems at typical nuclear industry enterprises. In that way, the monograph contains a systematic description of all aspects of the SM-NI system, which should operate in areas of nuclear enterprises impact on the environment. In our opinion, the ideas and practical results of the SM-NI implementation in the nuclear industry can and must be used in the development of subsoil monitoring systems at any industrial facilities that affect the subsoil. The book may be of interest to a wide range of the nuclear industry employees and specialists in environmental protection and radiation safety of industrial facilities, as well as to ecologists, students, and postgraduates interested in environmental issues. The authors are grateful to the employees of the Federal state enterprise “Gidrospetsgeologiya” A.V.  Glagolev, E.G.  Drozhko, A.  Ryabykh, V.F.  Kotlov, A.A. Kuvaev, T.I. Klimova, L.N. Alexandrova, N.V. Kochergina, and V.V. Shtompel, who rendered invaluable assistance in selecting materials for the book and made useful comments and additions. The authors are also grateful to the employees of the State Corporation “Rosatom”—O.V. Kryukov, Director for State Policy; S.G. Novikov, Director of the Communications Department; M.V. Udalaya, chief specialist, and E.G. Kudryavtsev— former Director of the Department for Spent Nuclear Fuel and Radioactive Waste Handling—for their support and assistance in publishing the monograph. Moscow, Russia

V. Vetrov

Introduction

One of the most critical aspect of the nuclear industry development in Russia and in the world is to ensure the environmental safety of newly designed, operating, under construction, and decommissioned so-called radiation-hazardous objects (RHO)— industrial enterprises that have a radiation impact on the environment. By this, environmental safety is generally understood as certain (acceptable) limits for various types of RHO environmental impact. Technogenic impact on the geological environment usually leads to negative changes in its state, which should, if possible, be observed and evaluated, as it is done with other natural environments, by monitoring their state. It should be recognized that monitoring of the subsoil state, in comparison with other types of environmental monitoring, is at the initial stage of its development. Until recently, its role in the overall system of monitoring the state of the biosphere was clearly underestimated, given that the subsoil is often a natural barrier, protecting terrestrial ecosystems from the spread of pollutants that have entered the underground (geological) environment. Monitoring of geological environment is a unique type of environmental monitoring that provides information for studying the relationship between terrestrial and underground migration processes of radioactive (r/a) and chemical substances. This allows predictive modeling of subsurface pollution not only in RHO impact areas but also for other environmentally significant enterprises in the industry and social sector. According to the general concept of environmental monitoring (Izrael 1984), subsoil monitoring (SM) operation should include the following stages: 1. Continuous observations of parameters that describe the state of the geological environment. 2. Compilation and analysis of these observations results, assessment of the state. 3. Forecast the state of the geological environment. These functions were initially incorporated into the industry-specific subsoil monitoring (SM) system at nuclear industry (NI) enterprises—the SM-NI, which was developed in the early 2000s and since 2008 has been implemented at the ix

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enterprises and organizations of the State Corporation (SC) “Rosatom”—a large holding company in the industrial structure of Russia that unites more than 350 enterprises and organizations in all production areas of the nuclear fuel cycle (NFC) (Rosatom 2007). SC “Rosatom” is the largest producer of electric energy in the country, providing more than 19% of the country’s energy needs and more than 16% of the global nuclear fuel market (as of 2019). Since 2008, the Center for Subsoil Monitoring at the SC “Rosatom” enterprises (the SM Center) as part of the Federal State Enterprise (FSE) “Gidrospezgeologiya” (under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology of Russia) has been carrying out methodological formation, implementation, and maintenance of the SM-NI at the SC “Rosatom” enterprises and organizations. In 2009–2010, the SM Center prepared and approved all the necessary regulatory documents for the organization of the SM-NI at the SC “Rosatom” enterprises and organizations (Glinsky et  al. 2010; Center for Assistance 2010; Organization Standard 2010a, b). The SC “Rosatom” considers ensuring the environmental safety of the nuclear industry as one of its priority areas of its activity. The development of environmental monitoring and inform-analytical systems (IAS) plays an important role in the State Corporation’s environmental policy, as it creates a scientific basis for solving problems of nuclear technology safety for nature and society. At the same time, monitoring of subsoil state is used as a basic tool for assessing both the environmental safety of the nuclear industry’s enterprises and the effectiveness of measures to mitigate the impact of existing and decommissioned RHOs on the environment. The SM-NI value increases over time, primarily due to the increase in the volume of radioactive materials, that needs handling and storage (localization, burial) with the growth of nuclear power industry. By 2016, storage facilities for radioactive waste (RW) at the enterprises and organizations of the SC “Rosatom” accumulated more than 550 million m3 of liquid radioactive waste (LRW) and more than 75 million tons of solid radioactive waste (SRW). A large amount of LRW was contained in storage tanks. A significant part of SRW was located in burial sites that were not equipped with a system of protective engineering barriers. The rate of LRW and SRW accumulation currently exceeds the rate of their conditioning, which leads to an increase in both the volume and total activity of accumulated RW (Glinsky et al. 2010). Possible consequences of RW disposal in storage tanks may be radioactive (r/a) contamination of the subsoil, in particular, groundwater—the main carrier of radioactivity. Although groundwater is inherently sufficiently protected from external influences, the history of RW management and radiation accidents provides numerous examples of radioactive contamination of groundwater that has led to serious water management problems. Conducting the SM-NI requires not only knowledge of the features of various technological NFC stages, but also a large amount of special geological information. When setting up an SM-NI, it is necessary to take into account both features of various NFC enterprises—from uranium ore mining to RW disposal, and the wide variety of geological and hydrogeological conditions in monitoring area. NFC enterprises, despite their relatively high level of environmental safety in comparison

Introduction

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with other industrial facilities, inevitably would have a negative impact on the environment, including the subsoil. By 2020, SM-NI subsystems were implemented at 55 enterprises of the SC “Rosatom.” The content of the monograph covers all aspects of activities in the field of construction and implementation of the SM-NI systems—from theoretical foundations, through the description of sources of impact on the subsoil, the structure and functions of SM-NI subsystems to examples of using monitoring results to solve environmental problems at typical environmentally significant NFC enterprises within the SC “Rosatom.” The structure of the book has been arranged in this order. The monograph is based on numerous publications and official reports on the topic, mainly with the participation of the authors themselves. At the same time, a fairly large amount of text in Chaps. 2 and 3 is a compilation of fragments from publications by other authors on relative topics in relevant sections—with the necessary stylistic and semantic editing of the cited borrowings and with correct references to the original works (usually in the titles of sections). Each of the Chaps. 1–5 has a final paragraph (“Summary”)—a summary of the chapter consideration results. A summary of the five examples of the SM-NI implementation at typical NFC enterprises is given in Chap. 6 in each “case study” section.

Contents

1 Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises: Basic Provisions��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1 1.1 The State Corporation “Rosatom” and the SM–NI Development ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1 1.2 The Concept of the SM–NI��������������������������������������������������������������    3 1.2.1 Generic Principles of Environmental Monitoring Systems ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������    3 1.2.2 The Concept of the SM–NI��������������������������������������������������    5 1.3 Observed Parameters, Subsystems, and Types of Observations in the SM–NI Practice����������������������������������������������������������������������    9 1.3.1 Observed Environment Parameters and the SM–NI Subsystems��������������������������������������������������    9 1.3.2 Types of the SM–NI Observations����������������������������������������    9 1.4 Summary: The SM–NI Basic Provisions������������������������������������������   10 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   11 2 Impact of Nuclear Enterprises on the Subsoil��������������������������������������   13 2.1 General Impact Features ������������������������������������������������������������������   13 2.2 Types of Impact��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   15 2.2.1 Radioactive Contamination (Samsonov 2010)���������������������   15 2.2.2 Hydrochemical Impact����������������������������������������������������������   15 2.2.3 Hydrodynamic Impact (Samsonov 2010) ����������������������������   16 2.2.4 Thermal Effects (Samsonov 2010) ��������������������������������������   18 2.2.5 Electromagnetic Effects (Rosatom 2007) ����������������������������   19 2.2.6 Mechanical and Seismic Impacts (Samsonov 2010)������������   19 2.3 Uranium Ore Mining and Processing Enterprises����������������������������   20 2.3.1 Sources of Environmental Impact����������������������������������������   20 2.3.2 Quarries and Mines ��������������������������������������������������������������   22 2.3.3 Dumps (Rosatom 2007)��������������������������������������������������������   24 2.3.4 Open Leaching Enterprises ��������������������������������������������������   24 2.3.5 Processing of Ore-Mining Mass ������������������������������������������   26 xiii

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2.4 Radiochemical Production����������������������������������������������������������������   29 2.4.1 Sources of Impact on Geological Environment (Samsonov 2010)������������������������������������������������������������������   29 2.4.2 LRW Storage Reservoirs (Glinsky et al. 2010)��������������������   30 2.4.3 LRW Underground Disposal Sites (Glinsky et al. 2010; Samsonov 2010)����������������������������������   32 2.4.4 Separation Production (Glinsky et al. 2010)������������������������   32 2.5 Nuclear Fuel Production (Glinsky et al. 2010) ��������������������������������   33 2.6 Nuclear Power Plants������������������������������������������������������������������������   33 2.6.1 Sources of Environmental Impact (Samsonov 2010)�����������   33 2.6.2 NPP Power Units (Glinsky et al. 2010)��������������������������������   34 2.6.3 NPP Hydraulic Engineering Constructions (Glinsky et al. 2010) ������������������������������������������������������������   34 2.6.4 Cooling Towers, Splash Pools, and Special Water Treatment Units (Glinsky et al. 2010)����������������������������������   35 2.6.5 Aging Pools (Glinsky et al. 2010)����������������������������������������   35 2.7 RW Management Facilities��������������������������������������������������������������   36 2.7.1 Sources of Environmental Impact����������������������������������������   36 2.7.2 Tailings, Pulp, and Sludge Storage Facilities (Rosatom 2007)��������������������������������������������������������������������   36 2.7.3 Near-Surface SRW Burial Sites (Glinsky et al. 2010)����������   37 2.7.4 LRW Settling Storage Tanks and Filtration Fields (Glinsky et al. 2010) ������������������������������������������������������������   38 2.7.5 LRW Storage Tanks (Glinsky et al. 2010)����������������������������   39 2.7.6 LRW and SRW Temporary Storage Sites, Stockpiling of Spent Installations (Glinsky et al. 2010) ������������������������������������������������������������   39 2.8 Summary: Impact of Nuclear Enterprises on the Subsoil����������������   40 2.8.1 General Impact Features ������������������������������������������������������   40 2.8.2 Types of Impact��������������������������������������������������������������������   40 2.8.3 Uranium Ore Mining and Processing Enterprises����������������   41 2.8.4 Radiochemical Production����������������������������������������������������   41 2.8.5 Nuclear Fuel Production ������������������������������������������������������   42 2.8.6 Nuclear Power Plants������������������������������������������������������������   42 2.8.7 RW Management Facilities��������������������������������������������������   42 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   43 3 Organization of the SM–NI System��������������������������������������������������������   45 3.1 The SM–NI System Structure����������������������������������������������������������   45 3.1.1 Classification of Nuclear Industry Enterprises for the SM–NI Tasks ������������������������������������������������������������   45 3.1.2 Functional Structure of the SM–NI System��������������������������   46

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3.1.3 Organizational Structure of the SM–NI System (Glinsky et al. 2010; Organization Standard 2010a; Organization Standard 2012)������������������������������������������������   47 3.2 Conducting the SM–NI Observations ����������������������������������������������   49 3.2.1 Basics of the Observation System (see Organization Standard 2010a)��������������������������������������������������������������������   49 3.2.2 Monitoring Programs (Glinsky et al. 2010; IAEA 2005; Glinsky et al. 2013a)����������������������������������������   49 3.2.3 Formation of Observation Networks������������������������������������   51 3.2.4 Sampling ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   52 3.2.5 Subsoil Monitoring (Glinsky et al. 2010) ����������������������������   53 3.2.6 Radiation Monitoring (Glinsky et al. 2010, 2013a)��������������   54 3.2.7 Hydrochemical Monitoring (Glinsky et al. 2010, 2013a)��������������������������������������������������   56 3.2.8 Hydrodynamic Monitoring (Glinsky et al. 2010, 2013a)��������������������������������������������������   56 3.2.9 Temperature Monitoring (Glinsky et al. 2010, 2013a)��������������������������������������������������   58 3.2.10 Electromagnetic Monitoring (Glinsky et al. 2010, 2013a)��������������������������������������������������   58 3.3 The SM–NI Features at Typical Nuclear Industry Enterprises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   59 3.3.1 Organization of Observations at Monitoring Objects����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   59 3.3.2 Enterprises for Mining and Processing of Uranium Ore (Glinsky et al. 2010; Samsonov 2010)��������������������������   60 3.3.3 Radiochemical Production����������������������������������������������������   65 3.3.4 Nuclear Fuel Production (Glinsky et al. 2010) ��������������������   68 3.3.5 Nuclear Power Plants (Glinsky et al. 2010; Organization Standard 2012)������������������������������������������������   69 3.3.6 RW Management Facilities (Glinsky et al. 2010)����������������   70 3.4 Support of Management Solutions����������������������������������������������������   73 3.4.1 General Approach to Environment Assessment��������������������   73 3.4.2 Assessment of Observed Environment Components State (Glinsky et al. 2010; Organization Standard 2010a; Organization Standard 2012) ��������������������   75 3.4.3 Environmental Measures������������������������������������������������������   78 3.5 Summary: Organization of the SM–NI System��������������������������������   80 3.5.1 The SM–NI System Structure����������������������������������������������   80 3.5.2 Conducting the SM–NI Observations����������������������������������   81 3.5.3 The SM–NI Features at Typical Nuclear Industry Enterprises����������������������������������������������������������������������������   82 3.5.4 Support of Management Solutions���������������������������������������   82 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   83

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4 The SM–NI Analytical Information System������������������������������������������   85 4.1 Purpose and Functions of the AIS–SM–NI��������������������������������������   85 4.1.1 Purpose and Functions of the AIS–SM–NI (Glinsky et al. 2010; Svyatovez et al. 2012) ������������������������   85 4.1.2 Reports Preparation��������������������������������������������������������������   87 4.2 The AIS–SM–NI Structure ��������������������������������������������������������������   87 4.3 The AIS–SM–NI Technical Features������������������������������������������������   89 4.3.1 Generic Approach to the AIS–SM–NI Development (Glinsky et al. 2011) ������������������������������������������������������������   89 4.3.2 Geographic Information System (Glinsky et al. 2011) ������������������������������������������������������������   90 4.3.3 The AIS–SM–NI Subscriber Stations (Center for Assistance 2010; Svyatovez et al. 2012)������������   91 4.4 Summary: The SM–NI Analytical Information System ������������������   92 4.4.1 Purpose and Functions of the AIS–SM–NI��������������������������   92 4.4.2 The AIS–SM–NI Structure ��������������������������������������������������   93 4.4.3 The AIS–SM–NI Technical Features������������������������������������   93 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   94 5 The SM–NI Software ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   95 5.1 Modeling ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   95 5.1.1 Goals and Objectives (Glinsky et al. 2010; Organization Standard 2012)������������������������������������������������   95 5.1.2 Modeling Methodology (Glinsky et al. 2010; Organization Standard 2012)������������������������������������������������   96 5.2 Main Model Types����������������������������������������������������������������������������   97 5.2.1 Generic Hydrogeological Model (Organization Standard 2012; Kuvaev 2013)�����������������������   97 5.2.2 Exploration Models (Kuvaev 2013)��������������������������������������   98 5.2.3 Hydrogeological Models������������������������������������������������������   99 5.2.4 Permanent Hydrogeological Model (Organization Standard 2012; Aleksakhin et al. 2007; Kuvaev 2013)������������������������������������������������������������������������  101 5.3 Program Packages����������������������������������������������������������������������������  102 5.3.1 Requirements to Enterprise’ AIS Model Blocks (Glinsky et al. 2010; Organization Standard 2012)��������������  102 5.3.2 Software Products Used��������������������������������������������������������  103 5.3.3 Integrated Program Package (Alexandrova et al. 2006)������������������������������������������������������  105 5.3.4 The “NYMPHA” Program Package (Glinsky et al. 2013b) ����������������������������������������������������������  109 5.4 Summary: The SM–NI Software������������������������������������������������������  111 5.4.1 Modeling ������������������������������������������������������������������������������  111 5.4.2 Main Model Types����������������������������������������������������������������  111

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5.4.3 Program Packages����������������������������������������������������������������  112 5.4.4 The “NYMPHA” Program Package (Glinsky et al. 2013b) ����������������������������������������������������������  112 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  113 6 Case Studies: Use of the SM–NI at Nuclear Industry Enterprises������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  115 6.1 Overview of Results��������������������������������������������������������������������������  115 6.2 Production Association “Mayak”������������������������������������������������������  116 6.2.1 General Information and the Physical–Geographical Pattern of the PA “Mayak” Area ������������������������������������������  116 6.2.2 Geological Structure and Hydrogeological Description of the PA “Mayak” Area������������������������������������  119 6.2.3 Sources of Environment Impact at the PA “Mayak” Industrial Sites������������������������������������������������������  120 6.2.4 Observation Network and SM–NI Results at the PA “Mayak”����������������������������������������������������������������  120 6.2.5 Modeling of Subsoil Pollution Distribution at the PA “Mayak” Industrial Sites ��������������������������������������  123 6.2.6 Summary: SM–NI Results at the PA “Mayak”��������������������  124 6.3 PC “Siberian Chemical Complex”����������������������������������������������������  126 6.3.1 General Information and Physical–Geographical Pattern of the SCC Area��������������������������������������������������������  126 6.3.2 Geological Structure and Hydrogeological Description of the SCC Site��������������������������������������������������  128 6.3.3 Sources of Environment Impact and the SM–NI Observation Network at the SCC Industrial Sites����������������  130 6.3.4 Modeling of Pollution Distribution in the Subsoil at the SCC Industrial Sites����������������������������������������������������  131 6.3.5 Summary: SM–NI Results at the SCC����������������������������������  133 6.4 Novovoronezh NPP��������������������������������������������������������������������������  133 6.4.1 General Information and Physical–Geographical Pattern of the NV NPP Site��������������������������������������������������  133 6.4.2 Geological Structure and Hydrogeological Description of the NV NPP Site ������������������������������������������  135 6.4.3 Sources of Environment Impact at the NV NPP Site������������  135 6.4.4 Observation Network and the SM–NI Results at the NV NPP����������������������������������������������������������������������  136 6.4.5 Geofiltration and Geomigration Models of the NV NPP Site ��������������������������������������������������������������  138 6.4.6 Summary: SM–NI Results at the NV NPP ��������������������������  140 6.5 PC State Research Center: Research Institute of Nuclear Reactors��������������������������������������������������������������������������  141 6.5.1 General Information and Physical–Geographical Pattern of the RINR Area������������������������������������������������������  141

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6.5.2 Geological Structure and Hydrogeological Description of the RINR Industrial Site ��������������������������������������������������  143 6.5.3 Sources of Environment Impact at the RINR Industrial Sites��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  143 6.5.4 Observation Network and SM–NI Results at the RINR ��������������������������������������������������������������������������  145 6.5.5 Modeling of Pollution Distribution in the Subsoil at the RINR Industrial Sites (Kuvaev et al. 2013)����������������  147 6.5.6 Summary: SM–NI Results at the RINR��������������������������������  149 6.6 Kirovo-Chepetsk District Department of the FEO ��������������������������  150 6.6.1 General Information and Natural Conditions of the K-ChD-FEO Area ������������������������������������������������������  151 6.6.2 Geological and Hydrogeological Conditions at the K-ChD-FEO Area�������������������������������������������������������  152 6.6.3 Sources of r/a Environment Pollution at the K-ChD-FEO Industrial Site����������������������������������������  153 6.6.4 Observation Network and Technogenic Impact on the Subsoil at the K-ChD-FEO Industrial Site����������������  153 6.6.5 Summary: SM–NI Results at the K-ChD-FEO��������������������  155 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  156  Annex I: Contents of the Standard SM Program for a Nuclear Industry Enterprise������������������������������������������������������������������  159  Annex II: Contents of the Report “Results of the SM–NI Observations at the (…Nuclear Industry…) Enterprise/Organization in 20xx Year”���������������������������������������������������������  161 References ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  163

Abbreviations

AIS AIS-SM-NI AWP BOD CC CL COD CP CRWM DB DBMS DIL DSIS EDR EGP EMRPS EURT FA FE FEO FSE GHGM GIS HAW HL HMP IAS ICS IL IPP

Analytical information system Analytical information system within SM-NI Automated workplace Biological oxygen demand Close corporation Control level Chemical oxygen demand Cooling pond Complex of installations for RW management Data base Database management system Derived intervention level Decision support information system Exposure dose rate Exogenous geological processes Environmental monitoring, radiation control and environmental protection system East-Ural radioactive trace Fuel assembly fuel element The FSE “Federal Ecological Operator” Federal state enterprise Generic hydrogeological model Geographic information system High-active (liquid) r/a waste Heap leaching Hydrometallurgical plant Inform-analytical system Information-control system Intervention level Integrated program package xix

xx

Abbreviations

ISD Industrial-storm water drainage ISL In-situ leaching ISP Isotope separation plant IW Injection well KB Knowledge base K-ChD-FEO Kirovo-Chepetsk district department of the FEO LAW Low-active (liquid) r/a waste LCN Local computer network LLC Left longshore channel LRW Liquid r/a waste LRWS Liquid r/a waste storage LWS Liquid waste storage MAW Medium-active (liquid) r/a waste MCC Mining-Chemical Combine MPC Maximum permissible concentration NFC Nuclear fuel cycle NI Nuclear industry NPP Nuclear power plant NSBS Near-surface RW burial site NV NPP Novovoronezh NPP OP Observation point OW Observation well OZ Observation zone PA Production association PC Public corporation PHGM Permanent hydrogeological model PP Program package r/a Radioactive RCWM Research complex on radioactive waste management RHO Radiation hazardous object RINR Research Institute of Nuclear Reactors RLC Rjght longshore channel RN Radionuclide RSS Radiation safety standards (Radiation Safety Standards 2009) RW Radioactive waste SC State Corporation SCC Siberian Chemical Combine SF Sublimate fabrication SFCP Spent fuel cooling pool SFP Sublimate fabrication plant, sublimate plant SM Subsoil monitoring SM-DB Subsoil monitoring database SM-NI Subsoil monitoring system at nuclear industry enterprises SNF Spent nuclear fuel SP Subscriber point

Abbreviations

SPZ Sanitary protection zone SRW Solid r/a waste SRWS Solid r/a waste storage SSC-RINR State scientific center—Research Institute of Nuclear Reactors TCR Techа cascade of reservoirs TPS Thermal power station UDS Underground RW disposal site (landfill) UHF Uranium hexafluoride UL Underground leaching UML Underground mine leaching UWL Underground well leaching WR Water reservoir

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Chapter 1

Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises: Basic Provisions

Abstract  The chapter provides the basics of the SM–NI system—the need for the system, the theoretical foundations of monitoring, and types of observations. Environmental monitoring systems were developed and implemented within the SC “Rosatom” to obtain reliable information on the current and future impact of its enterprises on the environment, including the subsoil. In accordance with the SM– NI concept, we have adopted the purpose of any kind of environmental monitoring is to obtain the necessary and sufficient information for environmental management. The main tasks and activities within the functional blocks of the SM–NI conceptual scheme are outlined. Observed environment parameters, subsystems, and types of the SM–NI observations are considered. Keywords  SM–NI system · Concept · Environment management · Observed parameters

1.1  T  he State Corporation “Rosatom” and the SM– NI Development The Russian SC “Rosatom” is the leader of the Russian nuclear industry, one of the global technology leaders, working in all links of the NFC production chain—from uranium mining to nuclear power plant (NPP) decommissioning and nuclear waste processing (Table 1.1). The “Rosatom” group is the largest electricity producer in Russia, providing about 19% of the country’s energy needs. The company ranks first in the world in terms of the portfolio of foreign projects, 36 nuclear power units in 12 countries are at different stages of implementation. The SC “Rosatom” ranks second in the world in uranium reserves and fourth in its mining and also provides 17% of the global nuclear fuel market. The State Corporation unites about 400 enterprises and organizations, which employ about 25,000 people. Thus, almost all major environmentally significant nuclear facilities in Russia are part of the SC “Rosatom.”

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 M. Glinsky et al., Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises, SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66580-7_1

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1  Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises: Basic Provisions

Table 1.1  Ecologically significant companies and enterprises of the nuclear industry within the SC “Rosatom” Type of activity in the nuclear industry 1. Exploration and mining of uranium ores 2. Radiochemical production 3. Nuclear fuel production 4. Nuclear energy

5. RW management

Leading company: enterprises Uranium holding “ARMZ”: “Priargun production mining and chemical association” Production association (PA) “Mayak” “Mining-chemical combine” (“MCC”) Fuel company “TVEL”: Public corporation (PC) “Siberian chemical complex” (“SCC”) and seven other major companies “Rosenergoatom” corporation: 11 NPPs with 36 operating power units with a total capacity of 30.3 GW, 18.7% of electricity generation in Russia (2019) “Atomenergoprom”: “State scientific center—Research Institute of Nuclear Reactors” (“SSC–RINR”) and three other large enterprises The FSE “Federal Ecological Operator” (FEO): Far Eastern center “DalRAO,” North-Western center “SevRAO” and 5 territorial FEO branches with 16 district departments

The SC “Rosatom” carries out systematic work in the field of ensuring environmental safety of nuclear power facilities, environmental protection, and management. In this area, environmental monitoring systems are being developed and implemented to obtain reliable information on the current and future impact of the SC “Rosatom” enterprises on the environment, including the subsoil. A special place in environmental monitoring is an SM within the sanitary protection zone (SPZ) and the observation zone (OZ) around an RHO. The SM activity is regulated by a large number of Federal laws, government regulations, and legal documents. In particular, according to Federal law No. 317FZ (Rosatom 2007), the authority and functions of the SC “Rosatom” include the organization and implementation of the state control over the radiation situation in the areas of RHOs locations owned by the Corporation. A systematic approach to this task was to organize SM activity at nuclear industry enterprises (SM–NI) to ensure the radiation safety of RHOs within the limits of their possible impact on the geological environment during their operation and decommissioning. At the same time, SM–NI results for a large and diversified RHO had to be supplemented by the routine environmental monitoring results necessary to justify solutions for different scenarios of their operation. In 2008, the SC “Rosatom” administration decided to establish and develop an SM system at the nuclear industry enterprises—the SM–NI system. The Centre for the Subsurface Monitoring at the SC “Rosatom” Enterprises (the SM–NI Center) was established in 2008 for methodological support in the creation, development, and maintenance of the SM–NI at the SC “Rosatom” enterprises. Its main functions include providing a unified methodology for the SM–NI management, assessment of the subsoil state, and forecast its change according to the results of the SM–NI.

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1.2  The Concept of the SM–NI

In 2010, the SM–NI Center issued “Methodological recommendations for conducting the subsoil monitoring at the SC ‘Rosatom’ enterprises” (Glinsky et  al. 2010). The “Recommendations” consider the principles of organization and maintenance of the SM–NI and features of monitoring at typical facilities of the nuclear industry, taking into account specific geological and hydrogeological conditions. In 2009–2010, the SM–NI Center prepared and approved all the necessary regulatory documents on the development of SM–NI systems at the SC “Rosatom” enterprises (Center for Assistance 2010; Organization Standard 2010a, b).

1.2  The Concept of the SM–NI 1.2.1  Generic Principles of Environmental Monitoring Systems In general, monitoring the state of any natural environment is a system of regular observations of the environment parameters describing its conditions (“state”), according to the accepted definition of the concept “state of the environment.” According to our ideas, the purpose of any kind of environmental monitoring is to obtain the necessary and sufficient information for the block “Decision support information system” (Fig. 1.1) (Vetrov and Kuznetsova 1997). Unit “Environment quality management” is a key work in the conceptual diagram of Fig. 1.1, since it provides criteria for selection of observation parameters, frequency of observations, assessment of the environment state (quality), etc. Our definition of the environmental monitoring purpose places it in a strictly subordinate position to the practical objectives of environmental protection. In practice, this makes it possible to set priorities in the selection of observation objects and in planning of the observations space–time matrix, i.e., in general, to optimize the system in conditions of obviously limited costs for its operation.

ENVIRONMENT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Decision support information system

Monitoring of impact sources

Monitoring of the environment

Observations

Assessment

Fig. 1.1  Conceptual diagram of the environmental monitoring

Forecast

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1  Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises: Basic Provisions

The conceptual scheme of the monitoring shown in Fig. 1.1, in principle, is suitable for any kind of monitoring of anthropogenic impact on the environment. The main tasks and activities within the functional blocks of the conceptual scheme are outlined below. Environment Quality Management  Main management tasks are: • Development of the environment state general concept, including the definition of the “state” concept, a list of describing parameters/indicators, and criteria for its assessment. • Development of a strategy for maintaining and improving the environmental quality and management concept. • Setting up an expert scientific and information system (“knowledge base,” “database”) for support of management decisions. • Development of short- and medium-term programs to mitigate the impact of anthropogenic factors on the environment and reduce damage effects. Decision Support Information System (DSIS)  The main functions of this unit are to provide requirements for the environmental monitoring activities, i.e., monitoring indicators necessary and sufficient to justify management decisions. Monitoring of Impact Sources  The activities of this supporting unit involve the regular collection of information on anthropogenic factors of impact on the observed environmental components. Observations  The content of this stage of the “Monitoring of environment state” blocks—rationale, development, and implementation of observation programs in accordance with the requirements of the “Decision support information system” block: • Analytical review of relevant data and knowledge in the area under consideration. • Determining of monitoring tasks, selection of observed parameters/indicators, and frequency of observations. • Development of observation programs (matrix in coordinates “observed environment indicator–space–time”) necessary for the provision of the stages “Assessment” and “Forecast” with sufficient amount and quality of data. • Maintaining observations database. Assessment (of Environment State)  We must have a clear definition of the concept “State of the environment” (had to be made in the block “Environment quality management”)—a set of parameters/indicators describing the status and criteria for assessing the state and its changes under the anthropogenic impacts. The assessment of the environmental state should answer two key questions: • Has a change been detected in observed (“monitored”) parameters/indicators of the environment state relative to their natural (initial, “background”) levels due to the impact of anthropogenic or other factors?

1.2  The Concept of the SM–NI

5

• Are the detected changes (“time trends”) threatening from the point of view of maintaining an acceptable state of the monitored environment within the existing norms/standards/requirements of environmental quality? The answer to the last question can be obtained only with the involvement of forecast calculations performed at the “Forecast” stage. Forecast  In fact, this stage is the key to solve the basic tasks of monitoring, since predictive models are a tool to organize both available data and the monitoring system as a whole. It is the most “knowledge-intensive” stage of the monitoring process since the development of even a relatively simple predictive model requires deep enough knowledge of the considered natural environment, accumulated in the course of special studies. Therefore, one of the objectives of this stage should be to collect and review the scientific knowledge needed to develop predictive models. It should be emphasized that the activities within the framework of monitoring programs have an applied nature, i.e., initially limited to practical objectives, which the environmental quality management poses to the information system. This means, for example, that the area of monitoring of the geological environment can be only partially overlapped by purely scientific research in such areas as hydrogeology, hydrochemistry of groundwater, lithology, etc. In fact, monitoring observations should be conducted on different methodological principles than traditional scientific research, but at the same time monitoring results provide rich material for scientific analysis. On the other hand, the scientific justification of monitoring programs should be based on the up-to-date knowledge of the monitored object. Such close system interrelation of monitoring and scientific research often leads to semantic and terminological confusion when results of traditionally scientific researches are issued for monitoring data, and systematic observations in monitoring aspects are considered as results of scientific research. At the same time, the systematic relationship between monitoring and scientific research is the necessary condition for the development of optimal monitoring programs (Vetrov and Kuznetsova 1997).

1.2.2  The Concept of the SM–NI The concept of subsoil monitoring in the nuclear industry (SM–NI) defines (Glinsky et al. 2010): –– goals, tasks, and basic principles of organization and improvement of the monitoring system –– general methodology and based on its methodological framework of the SM–NI management –– the structure of the SM–NI systems at the SC “Rosatom” enterprises and organizations.

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1  Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises: Basic Provisions

Rationale  The main provisions, principles, and objectives that make up the concept of the SM–NI were developed on the basis of the current legislative acts, normative, and technical documents of the Russian Federation in the fields of nuclear energy use, radiation safety, sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population, waste management, and environmental protection. According to the concept, the creation of the SM–NI system is aimed at ensuring and improving the environmental safety of newly designed, built, operating, and decommissioned RHOs at enterprises and organizations of the nuclear industry. A large number of RHOs, which directly impact on the geological environment or can have such an impact, requires the use of modern methods and means of control, comprehensive analysis, and forecasting to ensure the necessary level of environmental safety around an RHO, especially for the subsoil, where there is an accumulation of man-made radionuclides (RN) for a long time. Construction and operation of RHOs and NFC enterprises lead to violation of geological, geochemical, and ecological conditions in the surrounding areas, which in turn impact on the environment and with a certain probability causes its transformation and violation of its basic (background) characteristics. It is obvious that in order to assess and predict adverse effects and possible environmental damage, it is necessary to monitor the changes in the geological environment parameters at operating enterprises and to use the most effective technologies in the design of industrial enterprises. All this makes the SM to be an urgent task of nuclear industry safety policy. At the same time, the SM–NI is considered as a subsystem of State ecological monitoring system, radiation control, and environmental protection systems operating at an enterprise. Definition  Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises (SM–NI) is defined as a system for regular observations of changes in subsurface, soils, surface water, and bottom sediments of water bodies under the impact of technological processes and production waste in the areas of the SC “Rosatom” enterprises, having RHOs in their structure (Organization Standard 2010b). Herewith the soil/subsurface is understood as a part of the earth’s crust located below the soil layer, and in its absence—below the earth’s surface and the bottom of waterbodies. As can be seen from this definition, in addition to the subsoil itself, the observed components of the natural environment include soils, surface water, and bottom sediments of reservoirs in the area of an industrial facility, since these components can experience a negative impact of the RHO and through it—have a negative impact on the subsurface. Thus, soils are considered, on the one hand, as the main natural barrier that prevents the penetration of pollutants into the subsoil, and on the other hand—as a source of derived pollutants inflow in it. Objectives and Tasks  As for any environmental monitoring system, the purpose of the SM–NI is to assess the environmental risks associated with the operation and decommissioning of nuclear facilities, which is necessary for the information sup-

1.2  The Concept of the SM–NI

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port of environment protection measures. Thus, the general task of the SM–NI is to obtain information on the monitored objects’ impact on subsurface, soil, surface water, and sediments. This task is solved as a result of the activities at “Observation,” “Assessment,” “Forecast” stages (Fig. 1.1). Observations  The SM–NI at geological and other components of the natural environment is carried out at the geological array and the earth’s surface within potential impact sources areas. The SM–NI methodology at the “Observations” stage contains: –– requirements for observations based on the SM–NI objectives and tasks and the body of knowledge and experience in the SM –– foundation of the observation points (OP) network and sampling methods –– justification and development of observation programs –– development and maintenance of observations database (DB). The main content of the stage “Observation”: • Carrying out systematic observations to obtain data describing the state of rocks, underground and surface waters, their contamination by chemical and r/a substances, extension of adverse geological processes. • Control of protective barriers’ integrity on liquid r/a waste (LRW) and production of waste storages (objects of isolation). • Detection of water flow between different aquifers. • Information support of requests on the state of groundwater and other environment objects. Assessment  It should be noted that the name of the stage “Assessment” is rather conditional, because at this stage, we analyze the quality of primary observation data, replenish the subsoil monitoring database (SM-DB), perform the calculation and presentation (visualization) of monitoring indicators and, strictly speaking, give an assessment of the environment state under consideration. Meanwhile, the subsoil state is understood as a set of values (levels) of the observed indicators reflecting the impact of the monitored object on the subsurface itself, soils, surface water, and bottom sediments of reservoirs at the observed object area. Such indicators include, for example, r/a and chemical pollution of groundwater, groundwater level, etc. Tasks to be undertaken in the “Assessment” stage: –– assessment of groundwater and surface water quality according to the criterion of compliance with the existing regulations for the observed chemical and r/a substances within the observed area –– systematization and analysis of the SM–NI data on the geological environment and the factors that have a negative impact on it

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1  Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises: Basic Provisions

–– timely detection of natural and man-made processes that affect the subsoil, the integrity of structures, and elements of RHOs and related objects –– soil pollution assessment in the adjacent to the RHO area according to the current standards –– justification of measures and development of recommendations to prevent or mitigate adverse effects of changes in the geological environment –– check the assessment of the effectiveness of the RHO and related facilities protection measures against hazardous geological processes, as well as protection of the geological environment, including groundwater. Forecast  The phase of “Forecast” in the concept of the SM–NI performs the functions: –– an analysis of monitoring indicators to determine the role of anthropogenic and natural sources in changing the state of the geological environment –– predictive assessments of the impact of changes in the geological environment on the engineering and technical conditions of the RHO and other facilities –– projecting (extrapolation) of monitoring indicators values to the foreseeable future (with a horizon of 10–20 years). According to these functions, the collection and analysis of scientific knowledge necessary for the development of predictive models should be an important task of the “Forecast” phase. For example, rationales for decommissioning, RHO conservation, or RW disposal projects must necessarily be performed on the basis of geomigration modeling of the project’s impact on the geological environment. To develop recommendations to mitigate the negative consequences of a project, it is necessary to have appropriate databases: –– –– –– ––

surface and groundwater monitoring data geological and hydrogeological properties of water-bearing rocks hydrological parameters of surface watercourses draining within the project area operating water intakes, etc.

Creation of such databases is one of the main functions of the SM–NI at the “Forecast” stage. It should be noted that the content of the functional stages of the SM–NI and the tasks solved with their help correspond to the general conceptual scheme of environment monitoring, shown in Fig. 1.1. The objectives and main tasks of the SM–NI are generally identical to the goals and tasks of radiation and environmental monitoring set out in the IAEA recommendations on environmental monitoring for radiation protection (IAEA 2005).

1.3  Observed Parameters, Subsystems, and Types of Observations in the SM–NI…

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1.3  O  bserved Parameters, Subsystems, and Types of Observations in the SM–NI Practice 1.3.1  O  bserved Environment Parameters and the SM– NI Subsystems The objects of the SM–NI observations would be man-made sources and components of the natural environment affected by these sources: –– –– –– –– –– ––

soils soils of aeration zone underground water water-bearing rocks surface water bottom sediments of reservoirs.

Soils of aeration zone, groundwater, and water-bearing rocks are subsoil components. Soils, surface water, and sediments are subjects of environmental monitoring. As noted above, these objects (components of the natural environment) are included in the SM–NI observation program since the migration of pollutants is possible both from the subsurface to surface waters and bottom sediments and in the opposite direction. For the listed components of the natural environment, the following types of anthropogenic impact would be considered: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

radiation hydrochemical hydrodynamic thermal electromagnetic

In accordance with the specified components of the environment and types of the SM impact subsystems, soils, surface waters, bottom sediments, and corresponding types of observations are distinguished in the structure of the SM–NI for monitoring their state indicators.

1.3.2  Types of the SM–NI Observations The SM–NI system performs observations on the following five basic types of monitoring (Rosatom 2007). 1. Radiation monitoring is to conduct radiation logging of wells and sampling of groundwater, soils, surface water, and bottom sediments of reservoirs and streams, soils of aeration zone, followed by the analysis of RN content.

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1  Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises: Basic Provisions

2. Hydrochemical monitoring is carried out by sampling underground water from the same wells in which radiation monitoring is conducted, and from other observation wells (OWs) drilled around the objects—sources of chemical exposure. 3. Hydrodynamic monitoring is organized primarily in the areas of possible changes in the groundwater level and associated extension (activation) of various geological processes (mainly flooding) under the influence of a monitored RHO. In the second place, hydrodynamic observations are organized in the presence of intensive water intake from the underlying aquifers for water supply or drainage purposes. 4. Temperature monitoring involves systematic measurements of groundwater and surface water temperatures, which are necessary for several reasons, often interrelated. First of all, the increase in their temperature causes a warming effect on certain areas of territories and waters. This effect also contributes to the a­ ctivation of a number of adverse geological processes, which leads to a deterioration of the bearing properties of soil foundations of structures, which leads to deformation of the latter. Temperature monitoring is carried out in the same OPs and synchronously with hydrodynamic monitoring. 5. Electromagnetic monitoring consists of the measurement of electric fields in the soil layer, caused by both natural processes and the presence of stray and leakage currents. Man-made anomalies of the electric field in the soil are dangerous for underground metal structures. Mechanical and seismic impacts lead to violations of the geological array integrity and landscape deformations, which are combined in the concept of “exogenous geological processes” (EGP). The SM–NI observations of EGP formation are usually not of a monitoring nature, since in practice it is not included in the system of constant and regular measurements of the relevant parameters (indicators) for most objects controlled by the SM–NI. One of the basic provisions of the SM–NI concept is that the main role of the SM–NI should be assigned to the study of man-made RNs distribution and accumulation in subsoil with all the variety of monitoring types and options for integrated environmental impact at all stages of NFC. Types of nuclear enterprises’ impact on the subsoil are discussed in detail in Chap. 2 and the SM–NI features at typical nuclear industry enterprises are set out in Chap. 3.

1.4  Summary: The SM–NI Basic Provisions 1. Almost all major environmentally significant enterprises of the nuclear industry in Russia—from uranium mining to nuclear power plant decommissioning and nuclear waste processing—are part of the SC “Rosatom.” The management of

References

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the SC “Rosatom” in 2008 decided to establish and develop a system of subsoil monitoring at nuclear industry enterprises—the SM–NI. 2. The purpose of any kind of environmental monitoring is to obtain the necessary and sufficient information for environmental quality management. 3. Within the framework of the general conceptual scheme of monitoring, the main tasks and activities are identified for the functional blocks of the monitoring system: • • • • • •

“Management of the environment state (quality)” “Decision support information system” “Impact sources” “Observations” “Assessment” (of the environment state) “Forecast”

4. The concept of the SM–NI is aimed at ensuring and improving the environmental safety of newly designed, built, operating, and decommissioning RHOs within enterprises and organizations of the nuclear industry. The SM–NI is defined as a system of regular observations of subsoil, soil, surface water, and bottom sediments of water bodies in the area of the SC “Rosatom” enterprises, which have RHOs in their composition. The main task of the SM–NI is to obtain information about the impact of RHOs on the state of subsoil, soil, surface water, and sediments. This task is solved as a result of activities at the stages of “Observations,” “Assessment,” “Forecast.” 5. The objects of the SM–NI observations are man-made sources and components of the natural environment that are affected by these sources: soils, soils of aeration zone, underground water, water-bearing rocks, surface water, bottom sediments of reservoirs. 6. The SM–NI performs observations on five basic types of monitoring: radiation, hydrochemical, hydrodynamic, temperature, and electromagnetic. With all the variety of monitoring types and options for the integrated impact of RW on the environment, the main role in the SM–NI activities is given to the study of the distribution and accumulation man-made RNs in subsoil.

References Center for Assistance to Social and Environmental Initiatives of the Nuclear Industry (2010) Normative materials on conducting monitoring of the subsoil state at the State Corporation “Rosatom” enterprises and organizations. Moscow, p 64. (in Rus) Glinsky ML, Glagolev AV, Vetrov VA et  al (2010) Methodological recommendations for conducting the subsoil monitoring at the State Corporation “Rosatom” enterprises. FSE “Gidrospetsgeologiya”, Moscow. (in Rus) IAEA (2005) Environmental and source monitoring for purposes of radiation protection. IAEA Safety Standards Series, No. RS-G-1.8. IAEA, Vienna

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Organization Standard (2010a) The Concept of object’s monitoring of subsoil at the SC “Rosatom” enterprises and organizations. SC “Rosatom”, Center for Assistance to Social and Environmental Initiatives of the Nuclear Industry, Moscow. (in Rus) Organization Standard (2010b) Regulations on the procedure for object’s monitoring of the subsoil state at the SC “Rosatom” enterprises and organizations. SC “Rosatom”, Center for Assistance to Social and Environmental Initiatives of the Nuclear Industry, Moscow. (in Rus) Rosatom (2007) Federal Law No. 317-FZ of December 01, 2007 on the State Atomic Energy Corporation “Rosatom”. Moscow. (in Rus) Vetrov VA, Kuznetsova AI (1997) Trace elements in natural environments of the lake Baikal region. Siberian Branch of the RAS, Novosibirsk, p 236. (in Rus)

Chapter 2

Impact of Nuclear Enterprises on the Subsoil

Abstract  The chapter discusses different types of impact on the subsoil and the environment from various enterprises of the nuclear industry—from uranium ore mining to RW management. Particularly dangerous and technically aggregated industrial objects within nuclear enterprises are considered as sources of technogenic impact on the subsoil. What we consider in this chapter are five groups of production facilities that belong to the most environmentally hazardous NFC stages (in brackets—number of production facilities types): uranium ore mining and processing enterprises (5); radiochemical production (3); production of nuclear fuel (1); nuclear power plants (4); radioactive waste management (5). For each type of production facilities, we consider different types of impact on the subsoil: r/a contamination; hydrochemical, hydrodynamic, thermal, electromagnetic, mechanical, and seismic impacts. Keywords  Subsoil · Type of impact · Nuclear enterprises · Production facilities

2.1  General Impact Features Various enterprises of the nuclear industry—from uranium ore mining to RW management—have different types of impact on the subsoil and the environment. Different objects of these enterprises can have both a complex impact and one type of impact, which determines the features of the SM–NI at each enterprise. Impact of a production facility on the natural environment is such effects provided for by the enterprise’s project that change the natural state of the geological environment, landscapes, and the design state of other technological objects (Samsonov 2010). Particularly dangerous and technically aggregated industrial objects within nuclear enterprises are considered as sources of technogenic impact on the subsoil. According to the IAEA recommended safety requirements (IAEA 2009), these include:

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 M. Glinsky et al., Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises, SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66580-7_2

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–– –– –– ––

nuclear power plants and other reactor installations enrichment plants, fuel production plants, and uranium conversion plants irradiated fuel storage and its processing plants RW treatment plants where radioactive waste is processed, conditioned, stored, or localized (buried) –– installations where radioactive ores are extracted and processed, etc. Many of these impact sources are quite compound production systems, the objects of which perform different production functions. These objects can have different types of impact on the subsoil listed in Sect. 1.3.1: r/a contamination; hydrochemical, hydrodynamic, thermal, geochemical, electromagnetic, mechanical, and seismic impacts. When conducting an SM–NI system, observations are performed corresponding to these effects. At the same time, as already mentioned in Sect. 1.3.2, mechanical and seismic impacts lead to the development of EGP, observations of which in the SM–NI system are usually not in monitoring mode. Features of the impact on the subsoil and the environment for 28 typical enterprises of the SC “Rosatom” were considered in the “Methodological recommendations” (Glinsky et al. 2010). What we consider in this place are five groups with 18 typical production facilities (RHOs) that belong to the most environmentally hazardous NFC stages (Table 2.1). Table 2.1  Types of NFC production facilities that have a significant impact on the subsoil and the environment NFC stage Uranium ore mining and processing enterprises

Radiochemical production

Production of nuclear fuel Nuclear power plants

Radioactive waste management

Hazardous production facilities (RHOs) 1. Careers 2. Mines (minefields) 3. Dumps 4. Open leaching enterprises 5. Processing of ore-mining mass 6. LRW storage reservoirs 7. LRW underground disposal sites (UDS) 8. Separation production 9. Fuel rods and fuel assemblies production 10. Nuclear power units 11. NPP hydraulic engineering constructions 12. Cooling towers, splash pools, and special water treatment units 13. Aging pools 14. Tailings, pulp, and sludge storage facilities 15. Near-surface SRW burial sites 16. LRW settling storage tanks and filtration fields 17. LRW storage tanks 18. LRW and SRW temporary storage sites, stockpiling of spent installations

2.2  Types of Impact

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2.2  Types of Impact 2.2.1  Radioactive Contamination (Samsonov 2010) Radiation impact is essentially radioactive contamination of groundwater and filtering geological media, surface watercourses and reservoirs, and the earth’s surface, i.e., their contamination with natural and man-made RNs. Among natural RNs, the isotopes of natural elements U238,235, Th232,230, Ra228,226, 210 Po , Pb210, and others that form the RN composition of uranium ores and their processing wastes, are considered to be normalized in Russia (Radiation Safety Standards 2009). Representative indicators of radiation impact in the exploration and mining of uranium ores are uranium, radium, radon, and stable process reagents. Technogenic radionuclides affecting the geological environment include relatively long-lived products of energy production in reactors: U238,234,235, Am241, Ce144, Co60, Cs137, H3, Pu239,241, Ru106, Sr90, Sb125, Zr95 + Nb95. At the same time, Cs137, Sr90, Pu239,241, U238 are used as indicators of r/a contamination from technogenic radioactivity. R/a contamination level is expressed in specific radioactivity of a substance— Bq/L, Ci/L, Bq/kg, Ci/kg or in a dose rate on the ground—μSv/h, mSv/h. Dispersion areas of dissolved gases in underground waters occur when there are filtration losses of LRW from a hydrometallurgical plant (HMP) tailings storage, storage pools, filtration fields, and underground landfills. The main factors for the formation of dissolved gas areas in groundwater are filtration dispersion, radioactive decay of indicators, and RN sorption by solid phase of filter medium. Dispersion areas in solid phase of a geological array (a “solid” area) are a trace of the water dispersion area—it is the result of physical and chemical interaction in the solution–rock system. The main factors for the formation of “solid” areas are the chemical form of RN indicators and the presence of sorbent substances on the walls of filtration channels. Such areas in the solid phase are secondary sources of r/a contamination of groundwater after the elimination of the main source. Under the impact of drainage waters, when they are diverted “to the terrain,” r/a contaminated area of the landscape is formed. The degree of landscape r/a contamination is controlled by the so-called derived intervention levels (DIL), which are calculated for contamination of the earth’s surface with dose-forming RNs (Ci/km2) in radiation accidents (IAEA 1994). DIL can serve as indicators for delineating r/a contamination area.

2.2.2  Hydrochemical Impact By hydrochemical impact, we mean contamination (change in chemical composition) of underground and surface natural waters, the filtering geological environment and bottom sediments with dissolved chemicals, mechanical suspensions, and immiscible liquids.

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Sources of hydrochemical impacts: drainage water of exploration and mining complexes; residual solutions of underground leaching; tailings filtration losses; residual solutions of water treatment plants and other liquid wastes; filtration losses from storage pools of radiochemical production; solutions from UDS; leakage of process repositories. Consequently, the sources of hydrochemical and radiation impacts are common, which causes the formation of combined impact areas. However, since almost all of these sources contain highly mineralized solutions, the formation of stable indicators areas of hydrochemical impact occurs with the participation of the gravitational component. Components with the best migration properties are selected as representative indicators, which are contained in sources in relatively high concentrations and are quite simple in analysis—nitrate—and sulfate–anions, sometimes acetate–anion and other components (Fig. 2.1). Longitudinal and transverse filtration dispersion and sorption by the solid phase of the geological array are considered to be the main dispersion factors during the migration of nonradioactive material. An assessment of the hydrochemical impact, as well as a radiation impact assessment, is performed based on the value of the maximum permissible concentration (MPC) contour, within which all objects belong to the category of physical damage.

2.2.3  Hydrodynamic Impact (Samsonov 2010) Hydrodynamic impact is understood as a change in the natural structure of underground water flows under the impact of water sampling or the inflow of liquid waste into aquifers. Sources of hydrodynamic impact on underground waters of the geological array are: –– –– –– –– –– ––

drainage from exploration and mining workings all types of water reduction water intakes of all aquifers operating systems for water supply filtration losses from HMP tailings and industrial waste storage ponds solutions of UDSs and filtration fields leaks from technological and municipal water supply and sewerage networks.

Indicators of hydrodynamic impact are values of underground water pressure: a decrease in the level during drainage and an increase in the level due to external inflow (repression cones). Hydrodynamic impact is evaluated by the change in the level relative to the natural level of groundwater or project level of an industrial object. Changes in underground water level that affect the normal functioning of natural and industrial objects lead to violations of spring flow, flow of small (spawning) rivers, loss or reduction of groundwater resources, damage to groundwater exploitation facilities, flooding, and waterlogging of territories. For hydrodynamic impact, there are no standards similar to Radiation Safety Standards (RSS) (Radiation Safety Standards 2009), so its impact is estimated by

2.2  Types of Impact

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Fig. 2.1  The areal of nitrate ion distribution in underground waters in 2004 resulting from the LRW reservoir storage В-9 at radiochemical Production Association (PA) “Mayak” (Samsonov 2010)

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2  Impact of Nuclear Enterprises on the Subsoil

effects on the project indicators for water intakes and on the water flow of spawning rivers. For water intakes, the effect should not be more than the pressure above the roof of the aquifer or should not exceed half the capacity of the operated nonpressure horizon. In case of hydrodynamic impact on small spawning streams, the damage to them should be determined using ichthyological regulation of low water runoff. In the case of LRW disposal at UDSs, project pressures should not allow hydraulic fracturing and flow into adjacent aquifers with groundwater of economic and drinking quality. Repression cones should not reach the daily surface.

2.2.4  Thermal Effects (Samsonov 2010) Thermal effects on the geological environment are understood as changes in the temperature of natural watercourses, reservoirs and underground waters, changes in the temperature, and phase state of natural waters and rocks of the geological array. Sources of thermal impact are heated NPP water cooling systems, which use open water areas, as well as underground burial of highly active LRW (HAW). The use of open water areas involves the disposal of heated water with simultaneous intake of natural water of everyday temperature. The need for water in the cooling system of one WWER-1000 reactor block is 50 m3/s. The cooling system of the NPP power unit must maintain the natural quality of water in terms of its chemical composition. In the cooling pond (CP) a thermal area is formed under the impact of the heated water of the NPP cooling system, which occupies a significant part of the water area. For example, thermal effects of the heated waters of the Kola NPP covers 25 km2 of water area 160 km2 of the Imandra lake reservoir cooler; winter lake temperature increases at 8–10 °C in the 0.1 km2 impact area, in summer—on 12–14 °C; depth of the thermal effects in the area—2–4 m from the water surface. Heating of open water areas creates climatic anomalies in the adjacent territory: an increase in the average daily air temperature by 3–4 °C, an increase in evaporation from the water surface by 3–4 times, fog formation, and ice phenomena. Biological consequences are manifested in the movement of spawning grounds of some fish species, stimulation of the growth of undesirable flora, and other phenomena. Thermal effect of HAW solutions at a UDS can be illustrated by the example of site 18a of the Siberian Chemical Complex (SCC), where the temperature in injection wells reached 150  °C.  Heating occurs during the disposal of LRW with an activity of several Ci/L. In this case, such heating of the formation does not lead to vaporization due to rock pressure at the depth of 300 m: the temperature of vaporization in these conditions is about 220 °C (Rybalchenko et al. 1994).

2.2  Types of Impact

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2.2.5  Electromagnetic Effects (Rosatom 2007) The electric field intensity is 5–10 mV/m in the natural environment near the earth’s surface. The main sources of the technogenic electric field at industrial sites of enterprises are electric rail transport, cathodic anticorrosion protection stations, industrial facilities that consume direct electric current (in particular, electrolytic cells), telecommunication installations, power supply systems, transformer substations, etc. Linear sources provide electric field strength 300–1600 mV/m, and local (e.g., cathodic protection)—about 60–280 mV/m. Under conditions conducive to leakage current in the earth from rail-tracked electric transport (no butt joints on the rails, polluted ballast, etc.), the strength of earth currents in the ground can reach 70–80% of the total power traction current, i.e., tens or hundreds of amperes. It is characteristic that earth currents are very long range. The distribution of the electric field in space depends on the parameters of the electromagnetic impact source—current strength, transient resistances, source geometry, leakage protection, and soil properties (electrical resistivity). Technogenic changes in the electric field intensity can occur at a distance of up to 10 km from the sources. The negative impact of man-made electromagnetic fields is the generation of corrosion processes in underground metal structures, mainly pipelines.

2.2.6  Mechanical and Seismic Impacts (Samsonov 2010) Mechanical Impact  Mechanical action is understood as a violation of the integrity of the geological array and deformation of the landscape. The main sources of violation of geological array integrity are abandoned non-­ tamped wells for exploratory drilling and mining exploration and production workings. Deformation of natural landscapes is caused by the appearance of open mining pits, dumps and waste heaps, tailings dumps, abandoned structures, and industrial clutter. A mechanical impact depends on the volume of exploration and mining operations. The number of exploration wells, determined by the density of exploration networks, reaches many hundreds and thousands. The total length of exploration workings is tens of linear kilometers. So, on two exploration horizons of Elkonskaya mining square, the total length of the abandoned mine workings was 28 km. The total length of the mining workings is much larger. For example, the total length of operational workings of four production horizons (135, 94, 50, 25 m) of the average reserves of the Koenigstein uranium field (Germany) is 112 km. In staged aquifers, search and exploration wells lead to a violation of the integrity of water barriers between individual horizons. This causes the probability of hydrodynamic and hydrochemical effects. Negative hydrodynamic effects are

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manifested in the draining of upper aquifers—sources of water supply. An adverse hydrochemical effect in this case is the deterioration of the chemical composition of drinking quality groundwater due to the flow of substandard water from adjacent aquifers. In conditions of high-pressure aquifers spreading in areas where the piezometric surface exceeds the daily surface level, leaving wells creates the possibility of unplanned self-discharge, which may eventually threaten groundwater resources. This situation took place in Central Kyzylkum, an area with a shortage of water resources. Uranium deposits are processed by underground and open methods. Abandoned quarry craters are hundreds of meters deep. Modern practice of open mining of a general profile (non-uranium deposits) already operates at depths of up to 700 m. Technogenic damage to the integrity of the geological array is proportional to or exceeds such a geological phenomenon as karst array, which complicates all types of underground construction. Spatial forms of mechanical impact are voids. When rocks collapse in abandoned voids, the fringing zones of fracturing are formed. In shallow mining, fracturing zones can reach the daily surface with subsequent deformation. Violation of the integrity of the geological array occurs in the form of collapses and failures over old workings. Abandoned quarry craters create a deep violation of array integrity with drastic changes in the terrain. Placement of dump fields and tailings dumps without a reasonable choice of sites and open mining operations leads to excessive alienation of land, including agricultural land. Seismic Effects  Seismic effects are understood as vibrations (concussions) of a geological array. Two types of seismic impacts are considered in relation to social and industrial objects: earthquakes as geological phenomena and industrial shocks. Sources of industrial shocks include drilling and blasting operations, especially in open-pit mining, shock mechanisms’ operation, and explosive seismic sounding. Seismic effects from industrial sources cause direct repellent effects on live creatures and a sense of discomfort in humans. Drilling and blasting operations in open-­ pit mining are accompanied by unorganized gas and aerosol emissions and dusting.

2.3  Uranium Ore Mining and Processing Enterprises 2.3.1  Sources of Environmental Impact Mining companies include traditional and geotechnological mining enterprises. Traditional Mining Quarries (Samsonov 2010)  Mining of uranium ores is carried out by open pits (quarries) and underground mining methods, as well as by combined mining using the quarry–underground mining scheme.

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21

The main types of solid waste of the open mining are overburden and host (containing) rocks, off-balance ores, and in the underground mining—containing rocks and off-balance ores. Mass of overburden and host rocks form piles, mass of off-­ balance ore—heap storage. Warehouses of off-balance ores contain radionuclides of natural radioactive series. Thus, the sources of environmental impact of traditional mining enterprises are quarries, mines, and dumps of overburden and host rocks. The main types of liquid mining waste are drainage and subdrainage waters, which are subject to water treatment and disposal. Drainage water flows are usually 200–2000 m3/h. The quality of drainage water is formed by the chemical composition of the drained groundwater and the technogenic pollution acquired during processing in the form of mechanical radioactive suspension and a dissolved component with the presence of natural radionuclides. Water treatment of drainage waters before discharge in the simplest case consists in deposition of a suspension, in other cases (exceeding RSS (Radiation Safety Standards (NRB-99/2009) 2009))—in extraction of a dissolved substance. Drainage water is discharged through pipelines or open channels into natural streams or closed natural reservoirs. Subbasement waters are formed in the filter media of dumps when the latter are irrigated with atmospheric precipitation in the form of man-made aquifers. Subbasement water is collected and diverted to the drainage system shared with the drainage water. Underground uranium mining is accompanied by a violation of geological array integrity. Voids are exposed to the spontaneous flooding of the underground waters. Geotechnological Mining Enterprises (Samsonov 2010)  Technological methods of mining include so-called open (non-shop) leaching and processing of the ore-­ mining mass. Leaching is the selective dissolution of uranium. Open leaching methods are underground well leaching (UWL), underground mine leaching (in situ leaching, ISL), and heap leaching (HL). Underground well leaching is used for full development of exogenous uranium deposits in loose pore media with uranium content 0.02–0.03% within contoured 0.01% ore deposits. The actual production complex of the UWL is the field of injection and pumping wells. For ore deposits of an elongated shape, schemes of alternating linear rows of injection and pumping wells are used with distances between wells in rows of 15–40 m and between rows of 30–80 m. For ore deposits of an isometric shape, cellular schemes of wells are used—quadrate and hexagonal cells with a pumping well in the center of each cell. The main products of the production well field are productive solutions with a uranium content of more than 20 mg/L. Practice of the UWL is currently limited to the depth of ore deposits up to 700 m from the surface. Small ore depths (up to 50 m) are not desirable for environmental reasons. Leaching is performed using sulfuric acid and soda technology. Potential sources of impact on the geological environment for various methods of open leaching are:

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–– residual UWL technological solutions in the subsoil, on the surface in HL stacks, in UML blocks –– left HL stacks on the surface –– abandoned technological wells of a UWL production field. In situ leaching (ISL) is carried out from workings created by conventional mine preparation of the deposit with the development of individual ore blocks by leaching systems. Heap leaching (HL) consists of obtaining metals by dissolving prepared and stacked mineral raw materials (“heaps”), followed by their separation (precipitation) from circulating solutions. Enterprises for Processing Ore-Mining Mass (Samsonov 2010)  The mining processing complex is an HMP with a complete processing process: crushing and grinding of ore mass, uranium leaching in vats, separation of solid and liquid phases, sorption (extraction), desorption and deposition of U3O8 product, storage, and maintenance of solid and liquid waste in tailings dumps. This group of enterprises also includes the sublimate production of uranium hexafluoride (UHF).

2.3.2  Quarries and Mines 2.3.2.1  Quarries (Rosatom 2007) A quarry for uranium ore extraction is an active technogenic source of environmental impact due to the excavation of rocks. First of all, mechanical action during the operation of the quarry changes the stress state of the rocks of the developed array. There are separate artificial microforms of the terrain—dumps, embankments, terraced slopes, etc. As a result, negative geological processes are activated, mainly slope—landslide and erosion. There is also weathering of exposed rocks, their decompression, swelling, waving, etc. Open mining has a dynamic impact on the subsoil. It occurs during drilling and blasting operations and, to a lesser extent, due to quarry equipment operation. As a result, the stress–strain state of the rock mass changes, their continuity is violated, and increasing the permeability of existing zones of decompression, fracturing, and fault zones and also the thixotropic and quicksand properties of dispersed soils are manifested. In addition, explosive operations are accompanied by mass emissions of harmful substances and dust. The concentration of dust emitted by the explosion reaches 17 g/m3; the dust and gas cloud can rise to a height of up to 1600 m. Poisonous gases remaining in the exploded rock array are released for a long time, which leads to dust and gas pollution of the environment. To a much lesser extent, such contamination is observed during excavation, loading into vehicles and transporting rock mass during the formation of internal and external dumps, etc.

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Thus, the operation of quarries leads not only to intensive growth of adverse geological processes but also to chemical and r/a contamination of the earth’s surface, soil, vegetation, hydrosphere, and bottom sediments in own areas. The following sources of impact on the natural environment and their effects are associated with the quarry-mining method: –– abandoned quarries: violation of the integrity of the geological array, deep deformation of the landscape, and irrevocable alienation of land –– overburden dump and tailings storage of off-balance ores: deformation of the landscape and irrevocable alienation of land –– quarry drainage: depressions in groundwater levels, earth’s surface and surface water pollution, flooding, and waterlogging of land –– uncontrolled gas and dust emissions: gases–aerosol effects on the air basin and the earth’s surface. 2.3.2.2  Mines (Mine Fields) (Rosatom 2007) There are following sources of impacts on the natural environment in underground mining: –– abandoned spent closed space: violation of the geological array integrity –– waste rock and off-balance ores dumps: landscape deformation and land alienation –– mine drainage: depressions in groundwater levels, earth’s surface, and surface water pollution –– sub-dump waters: earth’s surface pollution –– organized ventilation emissions: air pollution. The main impact on the subsoil from the mines (mining fields) reveals changes in the stress state of the mined rock mass, as well as in r/a contamination of the environment. When underground workings are dug, a reference pressure zone is formed around them. As a result of this, as well as the dynamic impact of drilling and blasting operations, exploitation of mining and transport equipment, the following are developing: –– –– –– –– –– ––

technogenic rock fracturing roof stratification swelling of clay rocks and rocks on clay cement softening of rocks on carbonate and clay cement melting of permafrost rocks changes in the chemical composition of rocks and groundwater.

Conditions of surface and underground waters are changing. Technogenic fracturing is most often revealed in the formation of a zone of water supply cracks around the mine workings, the permeability of which is an order of magnitude higher than that of the surrounding rocks. Such zones intersected by

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aquifers are drains for them. In clayey rock arrays, the height of such zones does not exceed four values of the extracted layer thickness, and in metamorphosed tectonically disturbed rocks it can exceed their thickness by 80 times. Above the underground mine workings, the earth’s surface subsides and cauldrons (anticline) formation occurs. As a result of sub-worked strata displacement, the conditions of its occurrence change—fracturing increase, strength decreases, and water permeability increases. Therefore, there is a sharp increase in infiltration of surface and atmospheric waters in the decomposed strata. The presence of undisturbed water barriers in molds (kettles, watersinks) contributes to the rise of the groundwater level, flooding of these kettles with surface and soil waters, and the formation of swamps. In addition, due to the subsidence of the earth’s surface, ground structures are deformed, the supports of mine shafts are destroyed, etc.

2.3.3  Dumps (Rosatom 2007) In open-pit mining, both external and internal dumps are formed, while in underground mining only external dumps do. There are dumps of off-balance ores and dumps of overburden rocks. In the areas where they are located, there may be r/a contamination of the atmosphere, the earth’s surface and the soil at a distance of more than 4–5 km due to the release of radon, dusting of dumps, and their erosion washout.

2.3.4  Open Leaching Enterprises Underground Leaching (UL) Sites (Rosatom 2007)  The main types of UL impact on the subsoil are radiation, chemical, hydrodynamic, and mechanical ones. Radiation and chemical effects. On UL production sites and shops for the processing of productive solutions, the air environment is exposed primarily due to wind erosion of contaminated production areas. So, in the process of cleaning UWL boreholes, finely dispersed r/a aerosol is formed. As a result of its transfer by wind soil r/a contamination occurs, as well as due to various leaks and solution spills. The main pollution of the environment occurs as a result of the UL process itself: irrigation of rock array with working solutions (mine method) or injection of these solutions into the subsurface through wells (well method) and their reaction with underground waters and rocks mainly of ore-containing horizon. The area of contamination in UL is usually limited to the zone of working solutions circulation in the subsoil. This zone is located in the contour of industrial mineralization, only slightly beyond its limits. With the mine-leaching method, the solutions spread through the cracks no further than 5–8 m, and when creating pressure (the well method)—within a radius of 30–100 m, depending on the hydrodynamic scheme used. Vertically, the circulation

2.3  Uranium Ore Mining and Processing Enterprises

25

zone is bounded by the water barriers of the productive aquifer. In this way, a limited array of rocks saturated with UL solutions is formed in a productive aquifer during ore mining. Potential sources of pollution from UL: –– –– –– ––

sedimentation tanks of UL solutions with accumulated suspensions pipelines that supply reagents working, productive, and masterbatch solutions a storage pond for collecting effluents from the UL landfill and various technological installations.

Local areas of contamination of the soil layer with sulfates, nitrates, and natural RNs of the uranium–radium series are formed in the places of spills. Violations of the injection operating mode, deformation of the well structure, and flows through the annulus lead to contamination of aquifers above the ore body. Composition of productive solutions will vary depending on the working solutions used. By now sulfuric acid, carbonate, and nonchemical (or mini-reagent) leaching modes are used. The effect of sulfuric acid leaching on the subsoil is most pronounced. With sulfuric acid leaching, the total salinity of solutions in the mining circuit increases by 5–15 times compared to the background values, and the pH value decreases from 7 to 1.5–2.2. A significant increase in mineralization is mainly due to the accumulation of sulfate ion in technological solutions. The radius of the spreading solutions area beyond the contour of ore deposits in the direction of natural flow, set at the border of pH values >6, in general, does not exceed 150–200 m. Increased RNs content is observed at a distance of no more than 50–60 m beyond the contour, according to other indicators, the value of spreading is even smaller. In end (open) cells and the injection wells rows of longitudinal schemes leaching solutions with dissolved uranium are found at distances of 50–100 m or more beyond the contour of ore deposits. In underground waters of ore-containing horizons, the content of most components significantly exceeds MPCs. These components primarily include solvent components (SO42− and H+ ions), leaching products (U, Fe, Al, Mn, and other toxic elements), processing products (nitrates), and others. Especially high contrast of contamination can be observed for SO42−—20 times or more, Al and U—100 times, Fe and Be—1000 times higher natural levels. The nonreagent leaching method has virtually no radiation or chemical effects inside the contour of ore deposits. The spreading of solutions over the contours of the working blocks is up to 30–50 m and is localized by a stable depression funnel along the rows of pumping wells. After deposit mining using the UL method, residual solutions become an active source of the subsurface contamination. They flow into adjacent above- and below-­ ground aquifers through wells and “windows” in water barriers that limit the ore-­ bearing horizon. The precipitated hydroxides sorb almost all trace components from the solution. Thus, residual UL solutions can be considered as liquid industrial waste with low radioactivity and having SO42− as the main component with a variegated cation composition.

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Hydrodynamic impact on the subsoil occurs when conducting hydraulic fracturing of layers to increase their permeability, when pumping to them working solutions and pumping out productive solutions. In the first case, the result is the expansion of cracks and additional water inflow to the aquifer containing the productive layers, with an increase in its pressure. A similar effect, but with a lower intensity, occurs when pumping working solutions. The opposite effect is observed when pumping out productive solutions. The least hydrodynamic effect occurs when the balance of the volumes of the injection and pumping stations is maintained. These effects are most pronounced in the area of end cells and far rows of longitudinal UWL schemes up to the formation of depression funnels. Intake of underground water for the preparation of working solutions also has a hydrodynamic effect with a decrease in the pressure and level of unproductive aquifers. Mechanical impact occurs due to the creation of various cavities in the subsoil during the UL process. This mainly applies to UML sites where a large rock array is covered by mine workings; in this case, there is a redistribution of stresses within the array. When using a combined (i.e., UML and UWL) method, it is possible to form cauldrons (molds, depressions) on the earth’s surface. Post-operational Stage (Samsonov 2010)  After the end of ore bodies mining by the UL method, the processes caused by technogenic intervention continue in the subsoil. In the course of mining, sufficiently large man-made volumes are formed in the subsoil, extending several kilometers and 100 m wide. After completion of the operation, solutions remain in these volumes, which subsequently change their composition and state when interacting with the host rocks, causing adverse processes and phenomena. In this regard, monitoring of the spread of residual solution in the groundwater flow should be organized. Heap Leaching (HL) Sites (Rosatom 2007)  Sources of r/a and chemical contamination of soil and groundwater at sites of HL stacks are dusting and precipitation. In addition, at HL sites, due to constant leaks of working solutions containing sulfuric acid and productive solutions, a local increase in the groundwater level is possible. Residual HL solutions exceed MPC and RSS limits for many components. UWL solutions have the greatest impact. An example is the residual areal of the Devladovo spent deposit at a depth of 70  m: the sum of salts is 29  g/L, U–20  mg/L, Po210–1·10−10 Ci/L, Th230–1,8·10−10 Ci/L, Pb210–15·10−10 Ci/L (Fig. 2.2). Solid waste is created only with HL—this is the residual ore mass of the spent stack.

2.3.5  Processing of Ore-Mining Mass Hydrometallurgical Plant (HMP) (Rosatom 2007; Samsonov 2010)  Hydrometallurgy—water-intensive production. The flow rate of the liquid phase of the uranium HMP is 200–300 m3/h. A large part of this expense, minus the

2.3  Uranium Ore Mining and Processing Enterprises

27

Fig. 2.2 The sulfate ion areal in residual solutions of the Devladovo spent deposits (Ukraine) at a depth of 70 m (Samsonov 2010). 1- ore bodies, 2 - isoline of SO42− conc., 3 - productive layer boundary

internal plant part of the water turnover goes to waste. Composition of liquid waste: technological components of ore processing and components of chemical interaction in the ore-solution system, including RNs of the uranium and thorium series. Thus, HMP liquid waste contains cations of Ca, Na, Mg, Mn, Fe, anions—SO42−, NO−, Cl−, NH4−, ammonia, and other components. Together with uranium, when leaching, the accompanying components in the ores—“mobilization components”—pass into the solution. The composition of mobilization components varies widely depending on the ore composition. HMP liquid waste is characterized by a salt content of 10–15 g/L, high acidity (pH  =  2–3), and increased oxidability. The content of most stable components exceeds the corresponding MPC, the RNs contents are at the low-active (liquid) r/a waste (LAW) level: according to current standards (Ministry of Health 2010), they are less than 103 kBq/kg for beta-emitting RNs (without tritium), 20 g/l

Water intake wells

a) - several Northern water intake wells in the village Novogorny were shut off since 1996; b) - water intake wells in the village Novogorny works during the entire forecast period. Fig. 6.5  Forecast for 2040 of groundwater contamination with nitrate ion at a depth of 75 m from reservoir B-9 (Kuvaev 2013). (a) several Northern water intake wells in the village Novogorny were shut off since 1996; (b) water intake wells in the village Novogorny works during the entire forecast period

2. According to SM–NI data, by 2013 a relatively stable pattern of r/a and chemical contamination of surface and underground water was formed in the controlled area of the PA “Mayak.” 3. Longtime monitoring data were used to develop predictive models and to calculate pollutants distribution around the LRW storage reservoir B-9  in order to assess the risk of contamination of the TCR and water intake aquifers from accumulated LRW in the reservoir. 4. Operating on the PA “Mayak” SM–NI system requires improvement in terms of including additional subsystems for monitoring the state of surface air, soil, and biological environment components both in the OA and beyond.

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Fig. 6.6  Distribution of 90Sr flow density (−Lg activity CL/m2) in the aquifer around reservoir B-9—scenario 1

6.3  PC “Siberian Chemical Complex” The content of this section is based on reports (Alexandrova and Maseeva 2014; Alexandrova et al. 2009).

6.3.1  G  eneral Information and Physical–Geographical Pattern of the SCC Area The Siberian Chemical Complex (SCC) is located in the Tomsk district of the Tomsk region. The city of Seversk is the main center of the population located in the immediate vicinity of the SCC’s SPZ (Fig. 6.7). The Northern edge of the city of Tomsk is located 10–15 km South of the SCC industrial site. The area of the SPZ is 112 km2, and the area of the OZ is 519 km2.

6.3  PC “Siberian Chemical Complex”

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Fig. 6.7  The SCC map scheme—district infrastructure and the OW network of the SM–NI system. 1 OW equipped for VI aquifer, 2 OW equipped for V aquifer, 3 Industrial site and its name, 4 UDS and its departmental number, 5 The SPZ boundary, 6 Liquidated pool B-2 for LRW, 7 LRW storage pool and its name, 8 The TPS site, 9 The geological and hydrogeological cross-section line, 10 A part of the water intake three project area. 11 The water intake site, 12 Gardening plots

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The main activities of the SCC are: –– production and processing of fissile nuclear materials, their storage, and transportation –– RW management, operation of solid and liquid RW storage facilities –– operation of nuclear industrial reactors –– the management of hazardous waste In the SCC’s OZ there are two groundwater intakes for domestic and drinking purposes, which provided water supply to Seversk, as well as water intake wells of the sublimate fabrication plant (SFP, Fig.  6.7) with a flow rate of 24,000–30,000 m3/day. The SCC site is located in the marginal part of the West Siberian lowland, on the river Tom’s right bank, 30–40  km south of its confluence with the river Ob. The company’s industrial sites are in the Tom river valley (on the second and third terraces) and partially on the root bank with a relief altitude of 80 m in the valley to 195 m on the watershed. The climate of the district is sharply continental. The area under study is classified as a zone of excessive moisture in terms of precipitation amount—500–600 mm/ year. The district hydrographic network consists of the Tom river and its tributaries—the rivers Samuska, Romashka, and Bolshaya Kirghizka. Lowland and upper swamps are widespread in the SСС area.

6.3.2  G  eological Structure and Hydrogeological Description of the SCC Site The SCC site is located at the junction of the Kolyvan–Tomsk folded zone and the South-Eastern part of the West Siberian plate. In the geological section of the district there are: 1. the lower structural floor, composed of Devonian–Carboniferous deposits of the Kolyvan–Tomsk folded zone and 2. the upper structural floor, which combines deposits of the Cretaceous, Paleogene, and Quaternary systems Below, the text preserves the numbering of hydrogeological divisions adopted by the SCC from the bottom up: the first aquifer layer from the surface is numbered VI, the second one from the surface is numbered V, and so on. The features of the geological structure are shown in the geological–hydrogeological cross section (Fig. 6.8). Water-bearing rocks are represented by sand and sand–gravel–pebble deposits with a thickness of 12–60 m, averaging 30–40 m. Groundwaters are nonpressure water, there are areas with local pressure, specific well flow rates vary from 0.01 to 2.69 L/s.

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Fig. 6.8  Geological–hydrogeological cross section of the SCC area along line II in Fig. 6.7

The water-bearing layer of the VI Oligocene–Quaternary deposits is hydraulically connected with surface water courses and reservoirs of the district; groundwater flow is directed to the Tom river and its tributaries. Discharge of aquifer layer VI is carried out into surface water courses, as well as into the underlying Eocene– Oligocene aquifer layer V.  The main source of power for the VI aquifer layer is atmospheric precipitation. In the first water-bearing layer VI from the surface, as a result of the creation of the TPS ash dumps and WR-3, WR-4, groundwater domes spreading with increasing levels up to 3 m were formed, and depression funnels were formed in the area of water intakes 1 and 2. The groundwater of layer VI is polluted from the earth’s surface. Second from the surface lies the Eocene–Oligocene aquifer layer V, which is widespread in the SCC area at a depth of 50–150 m. Water-bearing rocks are represented by sands with clay layers with a capacity from 50 to 85.8 m; the head value is 40–60  m, specific flow rates are 0.09–2.97  L/s, filtration coefficients are 9.34–47.5  m/day. The water-bearing layer V is fed mainly by overflowing from layer VI and water inflow from the Paleozoic array outside the district. The aquifer

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layer V discharge is carried out mainly into the Tom and Samuska river valleys. Aquifer layer V is the main source of large-scale centralized water supply in the city of Seversk and is operated by water intakes 1 and 2 (Fig. 6.7).

6.3.3  S  ources of Environment Impact and the SM–NI Observation Network at the SCC Industrial Sites In accordance with the basic sanitary rules for ensuring radiation safety (Ministry of Health 2010), the SCC is classified as a category I enterprise in terms of potential radiation hazard: in case of an accident, radiation exposure to the population is possible and measures for its protection may be required. As of 2014, there were 56 ground-based RHOs in the SCC controlled area, including (Fig. 6.7): –– MAW storage facilities (pools P-1, P-2) –– LAW storage facilities (pulp storages PS-1, PS-2, pool B-25, water reservoirs WR-3, WR-4) –– SRW storage facilities within the SCC industrial site According to multiyear monitoring, data contamination areas were formed in the aquifer layer VI during the operation of the above RHOs on the SCC industrial sites (Table.  6.1). Groundwater r/a contamination was not detected above the MPC standards (Radiation Safety Standards 2009) outside of the industrial

Table 6.1  Areas of groundwater pollution on the SCC industrial site and measures to eliminate or isolate sources of pollution Uderground water pollution locations Primary pollutants Pool P-1 Nitrates, 90Sr, 137Cs, 239 Pu Pool P-2 Nitrates, 90Sr, 39Pu Pool P-25

Nitrates, 239Pu

Site of the sublimate plant

Sulfates, nitrates, ammonium, fluoride ion Nitrates, ammonium, tritium,

Site 13

Sites 2 and 11

Sulfates, nitrates 239 Pu, tritium

Measures to eliminate or isolate sources of pollution (as of 2014) Works are being carried out to eliminate the pool The pool was eliminated and an external safety barrier is being constructed in the polluted aquifer An external safety barrier is being constructed in a polluted aquifer, and the pool elimination is being planned The source of pollution is planned to be eliminated in 2016–2020 The reconstruction of Site 13 is being completed for the subsequent elimination of reservoirs - sources of pollution Work is underway to eliminate RW storage facilities and create barriers to isolate potential sources of pollution

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sites. Chemical contamination of groundwater above the MPC was either not observed outside of industrial sites or it goes only a few dozen meters beyond their borders. The groundwater of the first from the surface aquifer layer VI is the primary observation object in the SM–NI system at the SCC industrial sites. As of the beginning of 2014, the observation network consisted of 217 control and observation wells (Fig. 6.7). The SM–NI observation system includes radiation, hydrochemical, and hydrodynamic monitoring of groundwater at all sites of its contamination (Table 6.1).

6.3.4  M  odeling of Pollution Distribution in the Subsoil at the SCC Industrial Sites To forecast the expansion of pollution processes, multi-scale local geomigration models were created for almost each of the controlled objects at the SCC industrial sites (see Sects. 5.3.2 and 5.3.3). Below is an example of a forecast assessment of groundwater pollution in the areas of the SFP, the isotope separation plant (ISP), the TPS, and WR-1 (Fig. 6.1), performed by geomigration models. The creation of a local geofiltration model of the area where the SFP, the ISP, the TPS, and WR-1 are located was carried out using the PP “PMWIN-8,” designed to simulate groundwater flow and transport processes of substances in these sites, and includes a model of the groundwater flow “MODFLOW” and supporting software (see Sect. 5.3.2). During geofiltration schematization of the modeling area, five geometric layers were selected in depth. The roof and sole layers’ altitudes, as well as their filtration properties, were set in each calculation block of the model. The input data were the surface topography of the modeling area and layer power isolines constructed from actual data, which were converted into cartograms on the model grid. When developing a numerical model of the geological environment, in accordance with the general scheme for developing hydrogeological models (see Fig. 5.3), its validation (“calibration”) and verification were carried out using monitoring data: i.e., justification of the model’s adequacy to natural conditions based on the results of epignosis calculations based on retrospective monitoring data. The forecast calculations were performed for 50 years (starting from 2008) under the assumption that the current hydrodynamic situation—the general structure of the groundwater flow and the presence of a depression funnel—persists for the entire forecast period. The migration of neutral pollution components—sulfate-, chloride-, and nitrate ions—was considered, but their interaction with rocks was not taken into account. This assumption allows us to estimate the maximum possible pollution spread in groundwaters.

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Fig. 6.9  Forecast of sulfate-ion propagation in the layer VI underground water from sulfuric acid leaks at the SFP industrial site and from WR-1 (Alexandrova et al. 2009)

As an example, Fig. 6.9 shows the forecast for the sulfate ion distribution in the layer VI groundwater from sulfuric acid leaks at the SFP industrial site and from WR-1. The areal of groundwater sulfate ion contamination from the SFP within the 10 mg/L isoline (background level) will spread at a distance of 800 m South-East from the source. At the same time, in the lower layer V (the source of centralized water supply for the SCC and the city of Seversk—the water intake site 1, see Fig. 6.7), the concentration of sulfate ion will not exceed the background level of 10 mg/L during the forecast period. The sulfate ion contamination areal from WR-1  in the layer VI within the 10 mg/L isoline (background) will spread downstream for a distance of 570 m from the source over 50 years and will not reach the water intake site 1, located 1.5 km South of WR-1. In layer V (the water intake site 1), the sulfate ion concentration will not exceed the background values during the forecast period.

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6.3.5  Summary: SM–NI Results at the SCC 1. Observation objects of the SM–NI system at the SCC industrial sites are groundwater in Quaternary deposits and the first from the surface aquifer layer in of the oligocene–quaternary deposits. As of 2014, the observation network consisted of 217 wells distributed at sites of potential groundwater contamination sources. 2. According to multiyear monitoring data areas of contamination were identified in aquifer VI, which were formed during RHOs operation on the SCC industrial sites. R/a groundwater contamination was not detected above the MPC standards outside of industrial sites. Chemical contamination of groundwater above the MPC was either not observed or it goes only a few dozen meters beyond enterprise borders. 3. The results of monitoring under the implemented SM–NI system and predictive modeling allow stating that the SCC does not pose a potential threat to the environment outside the SPZ.

6.4  Novovoronezh NPP This section is based on the report on the results of the SM–NI application at the Novovoronezh NPP for 2013 (Poluektov et al. 2013).

6.4.1  G  eneral Information and Physical–Geographical Pattern of the NV NPP Site The NV NPP is located 45  km South–South-East from the city of Voronezh and 5 km South of Novovoronezh on the left bank of the Don river (Fig. 6.10). Of the seven power units commissioned since 1964, the four remaining power units operated in 2019 at the NV NPP with reactors types WWER-440 (unit 4), WWER-1000 (unit 5), and WWER-1200 (units 6 and 7) with a total electrical capacity of 3747 MW. The NV NPP is located in an area of moderate continental climate with well-­ defined seasons. The average annual temperature is +4.70 °C, the average long-term precipitation rate—554 mm/year, of which 378 mm falls during the warm period. The terrain of the NV NPP site is a gently undulating plain, the surface of the site itself has a general slope to the West toward the Don river valley. The site altitude is 96.3 m.

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Fig. 6.10  Geographical position of the NV NPP with the OZ border (30 km around the NPP)

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6.4.2  G  eological Structure and Hydrogeological Description of the NV NPP Site Deposits of the Quaternary and Devonian systems take part in the geological structure of the NV NPP industrial site. The Quaternary system is represented by: • Modern man-made (bulk) soils that were used in the planning of the industrial site and the construction of power units; sediment thickness—from 0.5 to 4.0 m. • Upper Quaternary deposits of the first and second above floodplain terraces; different grained sands of the I above floodplain terrace make up the bulk of deposits, the thickness of which is from 4.0 to 10.0 m; alluvial deposits of the II above floodplain terrace are composed of sands with loam layers, the thickness of deposits is up to 15 m, the roof altitude is 97.8–101.5 m. Within the industrial site, the Devonian system is represented by deposits of the upper division, the Fran tier. Hydrogeological conditions within the NV NPP industrial site are caused by the presence of two aquifers, but only the first one is observed on the SM–NI network. The first aquifer capacity is about 10–12 m, the aquifer water is nonpressurized, fresh with mineralization of 0.5–0.8 g/L, filtration coefficients according to the data of trial pumping—from 3 to 5 to 18 m/day. The first aquifer water is separated from the second one by a local water barrier, which is represented by clays with limestone interlayers. The second aquifer is pressure-free, the filtration coefficient of groundwater is from 0.5 to 30.5  m/day, fresh and ultra-fresh water with mineralization of 0.09–0.3 g/L, with a slightly alkaline reaction (pH = 7.4).

6.4.3  Sources of Environment Impact at the NV NPP Site The following RHOs are the main sources of r/a pollution of underground and surface waters at the NV NPP industrial site: –– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– ––

LRW storage facilities SRW storage facilities reactor compartments of power units 1–5 spent fuel cooling pools (SFCPs) of power units 1–5 spent nuclear fuel (SNF) storage facilities of power units 1–5 SRW processing shops filter fields special block of power units 3, 4 special water treatment systems, etc.

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Fig. 6.11  Map scheme of RHOs and the OW network locations at the power units 1, 2 industrial sites. 1 RHO, 2 engineering facility, 3 motor roads, 4 surface water, 5 fences, 6 OW

The location of the RHOs with the OW network is shown in Fig. 6.11 (sites of power units 1, 2) and Fig. 6.12 (sites of power units 3, 4, 5). The inset on Fig. 6.12 shows the map scheme of filtration fields (cells) used for dumping excess volumes of unbalanced water together with black water to ensure biological treatment of wastewater due to oxygen and microbial activity in cells’ silt deposits.

6.4.4  O  bservation Network and the SM–NI Results at the NV NPP Groundwater Monitoring  The SM–NI observations were made on the RNs and chemical composition of groundwater (radiation and hydrochemical monitoring), their level (hydrodynamic one), and temperature (temperature one). Observations in 2008–2012 were made at 112 wells (Figs. 6.11 and 6.12). with a frequency of 2–4 times a year. According to the results of groundwater radiation monitoring at the NV NPP industrial sites and the adjacent area, several spots were identified where the presence of man-made RNs was detected in groundwater. The first spot is adjacent directly to the LWS-2 (Fig. 6.11), where LW leaks were noted; 137Cs, 60Co, and tritium were detected in the groundwaters of this spot. In 2012, the specific activity of 137Cs was 2–2.5 times higher than its IL (Radiation

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Fig. 6.12  Map scheme of RHOs and the OW network locations at the power units 3, 4, 5 industrial sites. 1 RHO, 2 engineering structures, 3 motor roads, 4 surface reservoirs; 5 fences

Safety Standards (NRB-99/2009) 2009), while the 60Co activity was lower than relevant IL, and tritium specific activity was an order of magnitude lower than its IL. The second spot includes power units 3, 4 industrial sites, and the surrounding area (Fig. 6.12). Since 2012 tritium-specific activity in groundwater in some wells on this spot was 10–12 times higher than its IL. The third spot of groundwater contamination by technogenic RNs is confined to filtration fields (Fig. 6.12), where during the entire observation period tritium specific activity in groundwater exceeded its IL by 1.5–3 times. Hydrochemical monitoring of groundwater was carried out once a quarter in the area of filtration fields (ammonium ion, petroleum products, total iron, BOD), at the power units 1, 2 site (permanganate oxidability) and the power unit 5 site (ammonium ion) (Figs. 6.11 and 6.12). During the observation period, almost all objects showed positive changes in the hydrochemical state of groundwater—individual component concentrations did not exceed corresponding MPC. According to hydrodynamic monitoring data (quarterly) at the power units 1, 2 sites and the adjacent area, the fluctuations pattern in groundwater level did not change significantly. Altitudes of groundwater level at the power unit 5 site vary widely and abnormally high levels may have been associated with leaks from underground utility systems. The rise of the level in the year second quarter is clearly visible in all OWs (after the snow cover melts), and its gradual drawdown by the fourth quarter of each year. During the observation period of 2008–2012, there was an increase in the

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groundwater level from 0.3 to 0.57 m. The flow of groundwater is generally directed from the watershed toward the Don river. At the filtration fields, site level fluctuations in 2008–2012 were minor—within 0.3–0.5 m. Temperature monitoring of groundwater, which is performed only at the power units 3, 4, 5 sites, in 2008–2011 was carried out with a frequency of 2–4 times a year. All sites are located in the impact area of the NV NPP power units 3, 4, 5 (Fig. 6.12), with the groundwater temperature near the sites (24–32°C) significantly higher than natural values due to the impact of various heat-bearing underground utilities. Surface Water Monitoring  The objects of surface water monitoring are the Don river and its dead arm, the cooling pond, the takeout channel to the fish farm, the supply and discharge channels of power units 1–5 (Fig. 6.13). Monitoring of the RN and chemical composition of surface waters has shown that within the SPZ and OZ, the water quality meets the standards for fishery basins except for BOD and phosphates. High values of these indicators were typical for the Don river receiving waters, i.e., they were not associated with the NV NPP activities.

6.4.5  G  eofiltration and Geomigration Models of the NV NPP Site Based on the SM–NI observations geofiltration and geomigration models were developed for the NV NPP site and adjacent area. The main task of these models was to assess the environmental impact of the NPP in the foreseeable future. As a result of geofiltration modeling, the underground flow was found to direct from the watershed located to the East of the modeling NV NPP site toward the Don river and its dead arm with a total flow rate of up to 252 m3/day. Geomigration modeling was performed using a three-dimensional geofiltration model of the NV NPP site and a profile model of the filtration field section. SFCP-3, 4, LWS-2, 3, 4, and filtration fields at industrial sites of power units 3–5 were selected as pollution sources (Fig. 6.12). According to geomigration modeling, the dynamics of r/a pollution from potential sources were described, the effectiveness of implemented rehabilitation measures and RNs activities in sources were evaluated, and the sorption parameters of water-containing sediments were clarified. Epignosis and forecast calculations of tritium migration at the power units 3, 4 industrial sites (2014) showed that tritium areal with an external border of specific activity 2.5 kBq/L has spread in groundwater 400 m to the East of the source (downstream) and does not reach the Don river dead arm (Fig. 6.14). The tritium areal in its Northern part is partially discharged into the open channel of power units 3, 4 and does not reach the first aquifer. Full stabilization of the tritium areal is predicted by 2082.

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Fig. 6.13  Map scheme of surface water observation points at the NV NPP industrial site (2012)

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Fig. 6.14 Estimated 3H areal in the Neogene–Quaternary aquifer at the power units 3, 4 industrial sites (2014). 1 OW: №/specific average long-term 3H activity (kBq/L), 2 3H source, 3 buildings, 4 surface waters, 5 hydroisogypses, m

6.4.6  Summary: SM–NI Results at the NV NPP 1. The following RHOs are the main sources of r/a pollution of underground and surface waters at the NV NPP industrial site: –– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– ––

LRW storage facilities SRW storage facilities reactor compartments of power units 1–5 spent fuel cooling pools (SFCPs) of power units 1–5 spent nuclear fuel (SNF) storage facilities of power units 1–5 SRW processing shops filter fields special block of power units 3, 4 special water treatment systems, etc.

2. The SM–NI observations were made on the RN and chemical composition of groundwater (radiation and hydrochemical monitoring), their level (hydrodynamic one), and temperature (temperature one). Observations in 2008–2012 were made at 112 OWs (Figs. 6.11 and 6.12) with a frequency of 2–4 times a year. According to the results of radiation monitoring of groundwater at the NV NPP industrial sites and the adjacent area, several spots were identified where the presence of 137Cs, 60Co, and tritium was detected in groundwater.

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During the observation period, almost all objects showed positive changes in the hydrochemical state of groundwater—individual components’ concentrations did not exceed corresponding MPC. According to hydrodynamic monitoring data (quarterly) at the power units 1. In the two sites and the adjacent area the pattern of fluctuations in groundwater level did not change significantly. At the industrial site of power unit 5 during the observation period 2008–2012 an increase in the level of groundwater from 0.3 to 0.57  m was noted. The groundwater flow was directed from the watershed toward the Don river. Temperature monitoring at the NV NPP power unit sites in 2008–2011 showed that the groundwater temperature near these sites (24–32°C) was significantly higher than natural values. 3. The objects of surface water monitoring are the Don river and its dead arm, the cooling pond, the takeout channel to the fish farm, the supply and discharge channels of power units 1–5 (Fig. 6.13). Radiation and hydrochemical monitoring of surface waters showed that within the SPZ and OZ water quality met the fishery basins standards with the exception of BOD and phosphates—which was not related to the NV NPP activities. 4. Based on the SM–NI observations, geofiltration and geomigration models were developed for the NV NPP site and adjacent area, the main task of which was to assess the environment impact of the NPP in the foreseeable future. Forecast calculations of tritium migration at the industrial site of power units 3, 4 showed that its areal did not reach the Don river dead arm and the first aquifer. Full stabilization of the tritium areal was predicted by 2082. 5. The main conclusion obtained on the basis of the SM–NI data on the state of subsurface resources at the industrial site of the enterprise: the NV NPP has a local impact only on groundwater within its industrial site.

6.5  P  C State Research Center: Research Institute of Nuclear Reactors This section is based on the report (Kochergina and Lazareva 2013) and the article (Kuvaev et al. 2013).

6.5.1  G  eneral Information and Physical–Geographical Pattern of the RINR Area The Research Institute of Nuclear Reactors (RINR) is Russia’s largest research and experimental complex for civil atomic power engineering. The institute operates six research nuclear reactors, the largest complex in Europe for research of industrial

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Fig. 6.15  Map scheme of the RSS–RINR location

reactor active zones, a compound of installations for research and development in the NFC field, a radiochemical research facility, and a complex of installations for RW management (CRWM). The RINR industrial site is located ~5  km South-West from the city of Dimitrovgrad in the Ulyanovsk region. The SPZ with a radius of 5 km and the OZ with a radius of 30 km is around the enterprise (Fig. 6.15). The RINR industrial sites are located in the low-lying left bank of the Cheremshan Gulf of the Kuibyshev water reservoir (middle reaches of the river Volga). The district is the area of developed alluvial terraces of the Volga river and its tributaries with altitudes ranging from 50 to 140 m. The climate of the district is moderately continental with warm summers and moderately cold winters, the average annual precipitation is 622  mm. The area belongs to an area with insufficient moisture. The hydrographic network is formed by the Bolshoy Cheremshan river (Cheremshan Bay of the Kuibyshev reservoir) and its tributaries. The normal retaining water level in the reservoir in the RINR range is 53.0 m. The Kuibyshev reservoir has a fishing significance of the highest category and is a source of drinking and household water supply.

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6.5.2  G  eological Structure and Hydrogeological Description of the RINR Industrial Site Quaternary and Jurassic deposits take part in the geological structure of the area up to a depth of ~140 m. From the surface to a depth of 44–57 m Quaternary deposits are common. Jurassic deposits are widespread and mainly represented by clays of the middle and upper divisions, the depth of cover is 44–57 m, the penetrated bed thickness is 80 m. Hydrogeological conditions of the upper zone of active water exchange up to a depth of 108 m are described by two aquifers. The first from the surface nonpressure late Pleistocene–Holocene alluvial aquifer has a capacity of 7–30  m, well yields—0.08–10  L/s, rock filtration coefficient—0.14–3.5  m/day. The aquifer waters are bicarbonate magnesium–calcium, fresh, with mineralization of 0.3–0.5 g/L, moderately hard and hard, used by single wells for household and drinking water supply. The second from the surface middle Pleistocene alluvial aquifer is pressure-free, the lower water barrier is Jurassic clays. Well yields are 0.07–10 L/s, the sand filtration coefficient is from 1.5 to 4.7–10  m/day. Aquifer waters are bicarbonate calcium–magnesium and magnesium–calcium, less often—sodium–calcium, moderately hard and hard, fresh, with mineralization of 0.3–0.6 g/L. The aquifer is operated by water intake for the RINR drinking and household purposes. Aquifers are hydraulically connected and represent a single aquifer complex with a common level and flow structure. The groundwater flow is directed to the South and South-East. The depth of the groundwater level varies from 0.2 to 15–17  m. Aquifers are fed mainly by infiltration of atmospheric precipitation. Groundwater is unloaded mainly into the Cheremshan Bay and partially into the river network.

6.5.3  S  ources of Environment Impact at the RINR Industrial Sites There are industrial sites No. 1 and No. 2 located within the RINR SPZ. Industrial site No. 1 houses RHOs, workshops, and laboratories of the main production (Fig. 6.16); industrial site No. 2—auxiliary production facilities (the TPS, etc.). LRW and SRW, formed in the enterprise production activities, are processed and stored on the CRWM site. A significant amount of LAW and MAW is buried in deep geological formations on the UDS within the CRWM site, which includes: stations for receiving and processing LRW; storage facilities of MAW, HAW, SRW, and SNF; the UDS (injection wells IW1–IW4 in Fig. 6.16). Major RNs in LRW are 3H, 60 Co, 90Sr, 106Ru, 137Cs, 152Eu. Water r/a contamination in the SNF pools is formed by 3 H, 60Co, 90Sr, 106Ru, 134Cs, 137Cs. Research nuclear reactors are located at the industrial site No. 1 (Fig. 6.16).

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Fig. 6.16  Map diagram of RHOs, OW network and injection wells of the UDS (IW1–IW4) location at the RINR industrial site No. 1.

building, structure,

IW3 of the UDS,

OW

Industrial and storm drainage wastewater from industrial site No. 1 (ISD-1) and industrial site No. 2 (ISD-2) is drained into the Cheremshan Bay by special releases. Petroleum products, chloride-, sulfate-, nitrate-ions, copper, total iron, and dry residue contents in wastewater exceeded relevant MPC for fishery basins. As a result of filtration losses, polluting chemicals and r/a substances can enter groundwater from catchment ditches.

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Thus, the above-mentioned RHOs, as well as the ISDs are potential sources of radiation and chemical impacts on groundwater and water-bearing rocks in the RINR area.

6.5.4  Observation Network and SM–NI Results at the RINR Observation Network  The SM–NI system at the RINR industrial sites provides regular monitoring of underground and surface waters, water-bearing rocks, and bottom sediments of the Cheremshansky Bay. Mandatory control is subject to ISD-1 and ISD-2 wastewater, discharged into the Cheremshansky Bay. The OP network within the RINR SPZ includes three sampling points for surface water and bottom sediments of the Cheremshan Bay and 57 OWs. Groundwater monitoring is carried out in 27 OWs, while gamma logging is performed in the remaining OWs. The OWs network monitors the state of groundwater on the CRWM (Fig.  6.16), water intake site No. 3, and sludge storage facilities of the TPS (Fig. 6.17). The total alpha- and beta-activity, 90Sr, 137Cs, 3H, chloride-, sulfate-, nitrate-ions, total iron, petroleum products, and dry residue were determined in groundwater. State of the Subsoil on the CRWM Site  The radiation impact of RW storage facilities on groundwater was detected at five local spots within the CRWM area—near buildings 135, 135A, 138, 140, and structure 178 (Fig. 6.16). Groundwater contamination in the identified spots differs in intensity and composition of pollution indicators (total alpha- and beta-activity, 137Cs, 3H). The nature of the radiation impact is from episodic to stable. Stable and well-defined tritium contamination of groundwater was observed since 2009 on the site of the construction 178 since 2012—on the site of the building 135A (Fig.  6.16). Excess of the RSS (Radiation Safety Standards 2009) for drinking water in terms of total alpha activity (226Ra and 232Th) and beta activity was occasionally observed on the sites of the buildings 135 and 135A (LRW storages). Hydrochemical RHO’s impacts on groundwater in 2012 were observed at the site of the building 135A: the excess of the background sulfate ions levels—in 10 times (background—32 mg/L), chloride-ion—in 18 times (background—10 mg/L). The State of Groundwater Along the Route ISD-1 (Fig.  6.16)  The results of observations indicated the presence of filtration losses from the channel bed, which leads to chemical and r/a contamination of groundwater. In groundwaters standards for drinking water were constantly exceeded: for petroleum products—up to 2–44 MPC (= 0.1 mg/L), for total iron—up to 5–26 MPC (= 1.0 mg/L). The State of Groundwater in the Water Intake Site No. 3 and Sludge Storage Facilities of the TPS (Fig.  6.17)  The quality of groundwater sampled at water intake wells on site No. 3 met the standards for most components. Excess of MPC for total iron (up to 8 MPC) and Mn (up to 3 MPC) was observed in most water

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Fig. 6.17  Location of water intake site No. 3 and the average content of chlorine ion in water supply wells in 2000–2012 (Kochergina and Lazareva 2013). 1, 2 contours of potential sources of contamination, average chloride content, mg/L, 3 water intake well, average chloride content, mg/L, 4 hydroisohypses, m, 5, 6 boundaries of geochemical zones, 7 line of the hydrogeological cross-section, 8 exploratory well, 9 the area of water intake № 3

supply wells. High concentrations of Fe and Mn in the Quaternary deposits waters were typical for that area and were due to the composition of water-containing deposits and the presence of wetlands on the surface of the first above-floodplain terrace of the Great Cheremshan river. The chlorine ion was the primary indicator of the RINR hydrochemical impact on groundwater in the water intake site No. 3 area, for which the most contrasting spatial distribution was established: its content in the South-Western part of the site was close to the MPC (up to 200 mg/dm3, MPC = 350 mg/dm3), and in the North-­ Eastern part—at the background level (10–30 mg/dm3, Fig. 6.17). The most likely source of increased chlorine ion concentrations in the South-Western wells was the ISD-2, in the discharge waters of which the content of chlorine ion reached 1900–6100 mg/dm3.

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According to the results of the SM–NI, the hydrochemical situation in the area of the TPS sludge storage facilities remained stable in 2010–2012. The Fe concentration in OWs’ water exceeded the MPC (1  g/dm3) by 2–9 times. The content of chemical pollution indicators in the first aquifer from the surface was close to background levels but occasionally exceeds them up to 3 times. In the groundwaters of the exploited underlying aquifer, the content of sulfates, chlorides, and dry residue generally corresponded to background levels.

6.5.5  M  odeling of Pollution Distribution in the Subsoil at the RINR Industrial Sites (Kuvaev et al. 2013) Geofiltration and geomigration models of the RINR site were developed to investigate causes of chlorine ion excess of the background level in several production wells at the water intake site No. 3 (Fig. 6.17), The modeling had to solve the following problems of the water supply: –– determination of chlorine ion sources of getting to water supply wells at the water intake No. 3 site –– forecast of the chlorine ion content in the water supply wells –– justification (if necessary) of measures to rehabilitate sources of groundwater chlorides contamination The quantitative parameters of hydrodynamic conditions of the water intake site № 3 were calculated using the regional geofiltration model of the RINR site developed by the FSE “Gydrospezgeologya” in 2011 (Fig. 6.18). The calculations were performed using the “MODFLOW-2000” computer program integrated into the “PMWIN-8” (see Sect. 5.4.3). Validation of the geofiltration model was performed based on the average annual values of groundwater levels. According to the results of geofiltration modeling, the most likely source of chlorine ion increased content in water intake wells was industrial sewer (ISD-2), in which the chlorine-ion content in the discharge water reached 1.9–6.1 g/dm3 with an average value of 163  mg/dm3 according to monitoring data during the observation period. Based on the regional geofiltration model for the water intake site No. 3, a detailed geomigration model was created—an inset of the water intake site (Fig. 6.18). The average thickness of the geomigration model layers was 2–3 m, the migration was calculated taking into account convective transport, dispersion, and diffusion. The hydrodynamic field was assumed to be stationary and the chlorine ion was considered as a nonabsorbable impurity. Geomigration modeling was performed in two stages using the MT3DMS software integrated into the PMWIN-8 (see Sect. 5.3.2). At the first stage of modeling, calculations of the chlorine ion areal were performed based on its average long-term concentrations in sources determined from

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Fig. 6.18  Map scheme of the regional geofiltration model boundaries at the RINR site with the border of the geomigration model–inset (cell sizes 25 × 25 m2)

monitoring data. The TPS sludge reservoirs, ISD-2, and the water area of the Cheremshan Bay were considered as potential sources of chlorides (Fig. 6.18). The solution of the main geomigration problem showed unsatisfactory convergence of model and actual chlorine ion concentrations in groundwaters. At the second stage of the simulation, the reverse geomigration problem was solved to assess the effective chlorine ion concentrations in potential sources of pollution in the current hydrogeological situation. The model was used to adjust chlorine ion concentrations in pollution sources in such a way as to ensure the best convergence of the average observed and model chlorine ion concentrations in the production wells of water intake No. 3. At the same time, industrial site 2 was also considered as a potential source of pollution. As a result of the selection, the average long-term calculated concentrations of chlorine ion in potential sources were obtained. In particular, the calculated chlorine ion content in ISD-2 was 650 mg/L, i.e., almost 4 times more than according to monitoring data. The forecast of the chlorine-ion distribution in 2040 calculated using the geomigration model with the sources obtained in solving the inverse task is shown in Fig. 6.19. According to the simulation data, hypothetical pollution areal from industrial site 2 was identified, the specific sources of which should be clarified in further research. As shown by the simulation results, the most intensive chlorides inflow occurs from ISD-2.

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chloride conc., mg/l

TPS sludge collectors

Cheremshan Bay

Fig. 6.19  Forecast of the chlorine-ion distribution in 2040  in the middle Pleistocene aquifer (operated by water intake No. 3), calculated using the geomigration model (Kochergina and Lazareva 2013)

6.5.6  Summary: SM–NI Results at the RINR 1. The RINR operates six research nuclear reactors, the largest complex in Europe for research of industrial reactor active zones, the compound of installations for research and development in the NFC field, a radiochemical research facility, and a complex of installations for RW management (CRWM). The hydrographic network is formed by the Bolshoy Cheremshan river (Cheremshan Bay of the Kuibyshev reservoir) and its tributaries. The Kuibyshev reservoir is a source of drinking water supply. 2. Quaternary and Jurassic deposits take part in the geological structure of the area up to a depth of ~140 m. Hydrogeological conditions of the upper zone of active water exchange up to a depth of 108 m are described by two aquifers: the first from the surface nonpressure late Pleistocene–Holocene alluvial aquifer, a capacity of 7–30  m, well yields—0.08–10  L/s; the second from the surface ­middle Pleistocene alluvial pressure-free aquifer, well yields—0.07–10  L/s. Aquifers are hydraulically connected and represent a single aquifer.

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3. There are industrial sites No. 1 and No. 2 located within the RINR SPZ. Industrial site No. 1 houses RHOs: LRW, SRW, and SNF storage reservoirs, the UDS, research nuclear reactors), workshops, and laboratories of the main production. Industrial site No. 2 houses auxiliary production facilities—the TPS, etc. These objects, as well as the ISD-1, 2 are potential sources of radiation and hydrochemical impacts on groundwater and water-bearing rocks within the RINR area. 4. The SM–NI system at the RINR industrial sites provides regular observations of underground and surface waters, water-bearing rocks, and bottom sediments of the Cheremshan Bay. The OP network within the RINR SPZ includes three sampling points for surface water and bottom sediments and 57 OWs. The total alpha- and beta-activity, 90Sr, 137Cs, 3H, chloride-, sulfate-, nitrate-­ ions, total iron, petroleum products, and dry residue were determined in groundwater. Hydrochemical impacts on groundwater (sulfate and chloride ions) were observed at one spot at the industrial site No. 1. Groundwater along the ISD-1 route was polluted by r/a and chemical substances. The quality of groundwater at water intake site No. 3 met the standards for most components. The chlorine ion was the primary indicator of the RINR hydrochemical impact on groundwater in the water intake No. 3 area. 5. Geofiltration and geomigration models of the RINR site were developed to investigate causes of chlorine ion excess of the background level in several supply wells at the water intake No. 3 site. Geofiltration calculations were performed using the “MODFLOW-2000” computer program integrated into the “PMWIN-8”; geomigration calculations—using the “MT3DMS” software integrated into the “PMWIN-8.” According to the results of geofiltration modeling, the most likely source of increased chlorine-ion content in water supply wells was industrial sewer ISD-2. The solution of the main geomigration problem showed unsatisfactory convergence of model and actual chlorine ion concentrations in groundwater. Geomigration forecast of the chlorine-ion distribution in 2040 showed that the most intensive chlorides inflow to the production aquifer occurs from the ISD-2. 6. The existing SMI–NI system on the RINR should be recognized as insufficiently informative for assessing the impact of production facilities on the state of the subsoil at the enterprise industrial sites. Recommendations for the SM–NI upgrade on the RINR include the expansion of the observation network and observation programs: drilling 47 new OWs, organization three additional OPs for surface water and sediments, equipment two gauging stations, organization hydrodynamic and hydrochemical monitoring of groundwater on the CRWM site and the ISD-1 route.

6.6  Kirovo-Chepetsk District Department of the FEO This section is based on the publication (Glinsky 2009) and working reports (Klimov et al. 2012; RosRAO 2018).

6.6  Kirovo-Chepetsk District Department of the FEO

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Fig. 6.20  Geographical position of the K-ChD-FEO

6.6.1  G  eneral Information and Natural Conditions of the K-ChD-FEO Area As described in Sect. 1.1 (Table 1.1), the enterprise considered in this section is a district department of the Federal state enterprise “Federal environmental operator” (FSE “FEO”)—a specialized organization within the SC “Rosatom,” which is engaged in the management of all types and hazard classes waste throughout the country. RW management company “Kirovo-Chepetsk district department of the FEO” (K-ChD-FEO) is located 1–3 km West of the residential area of Kirovo-Chepetsk, Kirov region, with a population of about 100,000 people (Fig. 6.20). Production and disposal of r/a and toxic waste facilities are located within the Kirovo-Chepetsk city borders, within the SPZ of the source of household and drinking water supply of the Kirov city with a population of 543,000 people. The Kirov water intake site is located from Kirovo-Chepetsk 19 km downstream of the Vyatka river. The total area of the K-ChD-FEO industrial site is about 7 ha. From the West the territory of the enterprise is bounded by the Prosnitsa river, from the North—by the Vyatka river (Fig. 6.21). The terrain is mostly undulating, with altitudes varying from 105.1 to 110.8 m within water meadows and up to 114.6 m in areas of floodplain ridges. The climate of the district is continental with relatively hot summers and long harsh winters. The average annual air temperature is +1.8°C, the amplitude of extreme temperatures is 83°C. The study area is located in the zone of excessive moisture: annual precipitation perennial layer 605  mm/year, evaporation E0 = 441 mm/year, the annual runoff layer 250 mm/year. The main waterway of the district is the Vyatka river. Within the research area, its left tributaries flow—the small rivers Voloshka, Prosnitsa, and Elhovka.

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Fig. 6.21  Map scheme of RHOs location on the K-ChD-FEO industrial site

Adverse physical and geological processes developed on the K-ChD-FEO area include the presence of swamps, the groundwater level close to the ground surface, flooding of the area by the Vyatka river, as well as the regional seismic activity.

6.6.2  G  eological and Hydrogeological Conditions at the K-ChD-FEO Area Quaternary sediments and upper Permian deposits and underlaying them the Tatar tier take part in the geological structure of the studied territory. Quaternary deposits are represented by a thick layer of alluvial sand and clay deposits, overlain by soil and vegetation layer soils, peat in places, and bulk soils within waste storage facilities. The thickness of alluvial deposits varies from 10 to 16 m, the size of the sand is usually increased from top to bottom. Upper Permian deposits are represented by clays, hard and semihard loam, with layers and lenses of hard sandy loam, fine-grained sandstone of very low hardness, and rarely limestone. The hydrogeological features of the area are described by the development of a ground aquifer confined to the upper part of alluvial Quaternary deposits. In summer the water table is at a depth of 1.5–3.5  m, and in swampy depressions, it approaches the daytime surface. The groundwater stream is directed mainly from East to West, toward the Vyatka river.

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Upper Permian clays serve as a water barrier for the aquifer. The horizon is fed by the infiltration of atmospheric precipitation and surface water, as well as by organized and unorganized wastewater from the K-ChD-FEO industrial site and neighboring enterprises. The main discharge of groundwater occurs to the Vyatka river, partial discharge—to floodplain lakes, and the Elhovka river (Fig. 6.21). The natural (background) level of groundwater mineralization is within 0.08–0.34 g/L.

6.6.3  S  ources of r/a Environment Pollution at the K-ChD-FEO Industrial Site RHOs at the controlled area of the K-ChD-FEO are confined to two parts. The first part is located directly within the K-ChD-FEO industrial site, the second one—at the area adjacent to the K-ChD-FEO site (Fig. 6.21). At the K-ChD-FEO industrial site, there are r/a muddy soils in the immediate vicinity of the RHOs indicated in Fig. 6.21 (2 production buildings and 3 storage facilities for technological SRW). In the second part storage 205/1–2 and the third section of the sludge collector are classified as the RHOs (Fig. 6.21). As of 2012, the area of soil r/a contamination in the first and second parts was estimated to be about 0.66 km2. About 250,000 m3 of SRW and LRW were placed in storage facilities sites. The main contribution to r/a soil pollution was made by 239,240 Pu, 234U, 238U, the total activity of which was almost 10,000 times higher than the relevant standards for soils. Monitoring of the RW storage facilities’ impact on groundwater established that r/a contamination of groundwater was registered in all OWs. The main RN pollutants (in descending order) were 238U, 90Sr and 239Pu.

6.6.4  O  bservation Network and Technogenic Impact on the Subsoil at the K-ChD-FEO Industrial Site As for the other NFC objects discussed above (Sect. 6.2–6.5), when organizing the SM–NI at the K-ChD-FEO site the following main tasks were envisaged: –– determine the spatial and temporal patterns of the RW storage impact on the subsoil –– perform predictive assessments of changes in the subsoil state under the impacts of man-made and natural factors –– provide the necessary information for the development of projects for environment protection, rehabilitation, and liquidation measures Observation network at the K-ChD-FEO area is shown in Fig. 2.1. Three parts could be distinguished in the K-ChD-FEO controlled area by the degree of environmental pollution and the level of technogenic impact (Fig. 6.22).

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Fig. 6.22  Technogenic pollution on the controlled K-ChD-FEO area (Glinsky 2009)

Part 1 (North) was practically unaffected by man-made impact; the level of the environmental pollution was typical for areas adjacent to industrial and urban agglomerations: gamma-radiation was at the natural background level—0.06–0.12 mSv/h. Part 2 (medium) combines the swampy floodplain of the Elhovka river, low-lying areas of the floodplain, the TPS, and industrial sites of various enterprises. Within this area, there were places of r/a and chemical contamination of soils, sediments, ground, and surface waters. The greatest r/a contamination of soil was observed in the North-Western part of the site, where the specific activity of 239,240Pu reached 5.8·103 Bq/kg (exceeding RSS (Radiation Safety Standards (NRB-99/2009) 2009) by almost 6000 times!). Surface runoff and discharge of groundwater from this site occur mainly to the Elhovka river (the Southern border of the site), floodplain lakes, quarries, etc. The Elhovka river, in fact, is a combined collector of wastewater from the enterprise and part of the stormwater runoff from Kirovo-Chepetsk drainage system. Combined wastewater with the waters of the Elhovka river enters the lake Prosnoye, then are sent to the river Prosnitsa and further to the Vyatka river. Groundwater

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contaminated by filtration from storage facilities and sedimentation tanks with chemical and r/a substances, taking into account the flow structure, is directed both toward the river Elhovka and in the direction of the river Vyatka. Maximum r/a contamination of groundwater was observed in the South-Western part of this site; the main RN pollutants were uranium isotopes 234U and 238U, each of which had the maximum volume activity of 600 Bq/L (about 200 IL according to RSS (Radiation Safety Standards 2009)). Storage 205/1-2 and 3rd section (see Fig. 6.21) of the sludge storage facility are the most significant RHOs outside of the K-ChD-FEO industrial site. The area of groundwater contamination formed as a result of RNs migration was about 150 m long and at least 40 m wide. The main RNs pollutants were 234U, 238U, and 90Sr with a maximum total volume activity of more than 2  kBq/L (about 300  IL for 90Sr (Radiation Safety Standards (NRB-99/2009) 2009)). Part 3 (South)—the area without technogenic violations; gamma-radiation was at the background level, there was no r/a soil contamination. In general, observations on the SM–N1 network on the K-ChD-FEO controlled area showed relative stability of the 90Sr contamination areal in groundwater and revealed a tendency to decrease its chemical contamination. General conclusion: the production facilities operating at the K-ChD-FEO site did not have a significant negative impact on the subsoil and surface waters in the area of the enterprise (RosRAO 2018).

6.6.5  Summary: SM–NI Results at the K-ChD-FEO 1. At the K-ChD-FEO industrial site, the RHO category includes 2 production buildings and 3 storage facilities for technological SRW. Outside of the K-ChD-­ FEO industrial site, the sources of r/a and chemical contamination of soils, ground, and surface waters are the RW storage, the section of the sludge collector, the Elhovka riverbed, and the lake Prosnoye (Fig. 6.21). 2. Three parts could be distinguished in the K-ChD-FEO controlled area by the degree of environmental pollution and the level of technogenic impact (Fig. 6.22): –– Part 1 (North) was practically unaffected by man-made impact; –– Part 2 (medium) combines the swampy floodplain of the Elhovka river, low-­ lying areas of the floodplain, the TPS, and industrial sites of various enterprises. Within this area, there were places of r/a and chemical contamination of soils, sediments, ground, and surface waters. Combined wastewater with the waters of the Elhovka river enters the lake Prosnoye, then get to the river Prosnitsa and further to the Vyatka river. Groundwater contaminated by chemical and r/a substances due to filtration from storage facilities and sedimentation tanks got directed both toward the river Elhovka and in the direction to Vyatka river; –– Part 3 (South)—the area without technogenic violations.

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3. In general, observations on the SM–IN network within the K-ChD-FEO controlled area showed relative stability of the 90Sr contamination areal in groundwater and revealed a tendency to decrease its chemical contamination. General conclusion: the production facilities operating at the K-Ch-FEA site did not provide a significant negative impact on the subsoil and surface waters in the enterprise area in recent times (RosRAO 2018).

References Aleksakhin AI, Glagolev AV, Drozhko EG, Zinin AI et  al (2007) Reservoir-9—storage of liquid radioactive waste and its impact on the geological environment. Ozersk-Moscow, p 255. (in Rus) Alexandrova LN, Maseeva OI (2014) Methodological support of object’s monitoring of the subsoil state at 10 enterprises included in the SM-NI system in previous years (in 10 parts). Part 5. The Siberian Chemical Combine. Report foundation of the FSE “Gidrospetsgeologiya”, Moscow Alexandrova LN, Khonskaya IV, Zubkov AA, Danilov VV (2009) Development of a local geomigration model and forecasting of the geomigration situation in the SFP, ISP, TPS and WR-1 location areas. Report foundation of the CC “Geospetsecologiya”, Moscow, p 120. (in Rus) Drozhko EG, Kuvaev AA, Egorova VA et al (2013) Forecast of hydrogeological regime of underground waters on the PA “Mayak” site depending on various strategies of the TCR operation. Stage 1 “Development of a unified adapted model base for regional geofiltration and geomigration model of the PA “Mayak” site”. Report foundation of the FSE “Gidrospetsgeologiya”, Moscow. (in Rus) Glinsky ML (2009) The role of object’s monitoring of the subsoil state to ensure radioecological safety of the Kirovo-Chepetsk district population of the Kirov region. In: Materials of the scientific and practical conference “Modern radioecological situation in the Kirov region”. Kirov, 10–11 December 2009, pp 36–44. (in Rus) Klimov TI, Prozorov LB, Vilenica EP, Polagushin AD (2012) Methodological support of object’s monitoring of the subsoil state at 5 industry enterprises in 5 parts. Part 2. Kirovo-Chepetsk department of the FSE “RosRAO”. Report foundation of the FSE “Gidrospetsgeologiya”, Moscow, p 132. (in Rus) Kochergina NV, Lazareva EA (2013) Methodological support for object’s monitoring of the subsoil state at 11 enterprises included in the SM-NI system in previous years. Stage 16 in 11 parts. Part 1. The JSC “SSC-INR”. Report foundation of the FSE “Gidrospetsgeologiya”, Moscow. (in Rus) Kuvaev AA (2013) Experience of mathematical modeling under the SM-NI conducting. Scientific and practical conference “Geoecological Problems of Water Protection in the Nuclear Industry”, 30–31 October 2013, Moscow. In: AtomEco 2013, VII International Forum, 30–31 October, Moscow, p 51. (in Rus) Kuvaev AA, Semenov ME, Sokolova OV, Gremyachkin VA (2013) Conditions for the formation of underground water pollution with chlorides at the site of the economic and drinking water intake of the JSC “SSC-INR”. J Explor Prot Subsoil 10:56–60. (in Rus) Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation (2010) СП 2.6.1.2612–10 Basic sanitary rules for radiation safety (OSPORB-99/2010). Moscow. (in Rus)

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Poluektov MI, Brizitsky VM, Mamatov AP et  al (2013) Results of object’s monitoring of the subsoil state at the Novovoronezh NPP in 2012. Report Novovoronezh nuclear power plant. Novovoronezh, p 18. (in Rus) Radiation Safety Standards (NRB-99/2009) (2009) Approved by the resolution of the Chief state sanitary inspector of the Russian Federation, dated July 07, 2009. No. 47. Moscow. (in Rus) RosRAO (2018) Report on environmental safety for 2017. “Privolzhsky territorial district” branch of the FSE “RosRAO”, Nizhny Novgorod, p 54. www.rosrao.ru. (in Rus)

 nnex I: Contents of the Standard SM Program A for a Nuclear Industry Enterprise

Title Page List of Abbreviations Basic Terms and Definitions 1. General Provisions (Goals and Objectives of the SM–NI in the Enterprise) 2. Description of the SM–NI Object 2.1  Brief Information About the Company 2.2  Features of the SPZ and the OZ 2.3  Physical and Geographical Conditions 2.4  Geological Structure 2.5  Hydrogeological Conditions 3. Observations 3.1  Observation Types and Indicators 3.2  Observation Network 3.3.  Observations Schedule 3.4  Methods of Measurement and Analysis 3.5  Observations Database 3.6  Methods of Presenting Observation Data 4. Assessment of the Environment 4.1  Methods of Analysis and Processing of Observational Data 4.2  Criteria for the Assessment of the Environment Components 5. Forecast of Changes in the State of the Environment 5.1  Methods for Predictive Assessments 5.2  Database and Knowledge Required for Predictive Modeling

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 M. Glinsky et al., Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises, SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66580-7

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5.3  Production and Presentation of Forecast Results of Environment Components State 6. Recommendations on Environmental Measures Based on the SM–NI Results 7 . Requirements for the Report Contents • References • Annex

 nnex II: Contents of the Report “Results A of the SM–NI Observations at the (…Nuclear Industry…) Enterprise/Organization in 20xx Year”

List of Abbreviations Introduction 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Enterprise Features Physical and Geographical Conditions of the Area Area Geological Structure Area Hydrogeological Conditions Engineering and Geological Conditions of the Industrial Site and the SPZ Main Enterprise’s RHOs Characteristics Observation Network Description Monitoring Methodology Monitoring Results 9.1.  Radiation Monitoring 9.2.  Hydrochemical Monitoring 9.3.  Hydrodynamic Monitoring 9.4.  Temperature Monitoring 9.5.  Electromagnetic Monitoring 9.6. Others 9.6.  Forecast Changes in the State and Regime of Groundwater Summary List of the Used Published and Fund Materials and Regulatory Documents Graphic Materials

1. Overview Map of the Enterprise Location 2. Geological Map with a Geological Cross Section 3. Hydrogeological Map with Two Hydrogeological Cross Sections 4. Engineering–Geological Map 5. Map Diagram of the RHOs Location and the OPs Network © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 M. Glinsky et al., Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises, SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66580-7

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6. Maps of Hydroisogips at the Maximum and Minimum Levels of the First Aquifer from the Surface During the Observation Period 7. Maps of the Minimum Depths of Groundwater 8. Maps of hydroisotherms of Average Values of Groundwater Temperature for the Observation Period 9. Map of Groundwater Minimum Depths 10. Hydrogeological Cross Sections Through the Main RHOs and Water Bodies 11. Characteristic Graphs of Time Changes in Ground and Surface Water Levels and Temperature 12. Maps of Distribution of Radioactive and Chemical Contamination Indicators in Underground and Surface Waters 13. Characteristic Graphs of Time Changes in Radioactive and Chemical Contamination in Underground and Surface Waters 14. Map of Groundwater Aggressiveness to Concrete and Corrosion Activity to Metal Structures

References

Aleksakhin AI, Glagolev AV, Drozhko EG, Zinin AI et al (2007) Reservoir-9—storage of liquid radioactive waste and its impact on the geological environment. Ozersk-Moscow, p 255. (in Rus) Alexandrova LN, Maseeva OI (2014) Methodological support of object’s monitoring of the subsoil state at 10 enterprises included in the SM-NI system in previous years (in 10 parts). Part 5. The Siberian Chemical Combine. Report foundation of the FSE “Gidrospetsgeologiya”, Moscow. (in Rus) Alexandrova LN, Vetrov VA, Zubkov AA et al (2006) Development of models for possible consequences of hypothetical emergencies at the underground landfill of the Siberian Chemical Combine to justify measures to eliminate negative consequences and prevent accidents. Report foundation of the FSE “Gidrospetsgeologiya”, Moscow, p 160. (in Rus) Alexandrova LN, Khonskaya IV, Zubkov AA, Danilov VV (2009) Development of a local geomigration model and forecasting of the geomigration situation in the SFP, ISP, TPS and WR-1 location areas. Report foundation of the CC “Geospetsecologiya”, Moscow, p 120. (in Rus) Center for Assistance to Social and Environmental Initiatives of the Nuclear Industry (2010) Normative materials on conducting monitoring of the subsoil state at the State Corporation “Rosatom” enterprises and organizations. Moscow, p 64. (in Rus) Drozhko EG, Samsonov BG, Samsonova LM et al (1997) Mathematical model of pollution spread in the system of underground water object’s monitoring. J Radiat Saf Issues, 2:31–41. (in Rus) Drozhko E, Ivanov I, Mokrov J (1999a) Experience of contaminant transport forecasting at the PA “Mayak” site (GEON-3D Model). In: Book of abstracts of the Fourth Joint Conference on Environmental Hydrology and Hydrogeology, San Francisco Drozhko E, Samsonova L, Zinin A, Zinina G (1999b) Calibration of geofiltration models using extreme methods of inverse problem solution. In: Book of abstracts of the Fourth Joint Conference on Environmental Hydrology and Hydrogeology, San Francisco Drozhko EG, Kuvaev AA, Egorova VA et al (2013) Forecast of hydrogeological regime of underground waters on the PA “Mayak” site depending on various strategies of the TCR operation. Stage 1 “Development of a unified adapted model base for regional geofiltration and geomigration model of the PA “Mayak” site”. Report foundation of the FSE “Gidrospetsgeologiya”, Moscow. (in Rus) Glinsky ML (2009) The role of object’s monitoring of the subsoil state to ensure radioecological safety of the Kirovo-Chepetsk district population of the Kirov region. In: Materials of the scientific and practical conference “Modern radioecological situation in the Kirov region”. Kirov, 10–11 December 2009, pp 36–44. (in Rus) © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 M. Glinsky et al., Subsoil Monitoring at Nuclear Industry Enterprises, SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66580-7

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