Studies in the History of the Roman Province of Arabia: The Northern Sector 9780860543794, 9781407345628
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English Pages [438] Year 1986
Polecaj historie
Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
PREFACE and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LIST OF PLATES AND FIGURES
PART I: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
1. The Lava-Lands in Ptolemy's Geography
2. Archaeological and Historical Research in the Lava-Lands: 1975-1985
EPIGRAPHY AND NUMISMATICS
THE ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY OF BOSTRA
THE ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY OF THE SYRIAN HAWRĀN
THE ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY OF THE JORDANIAN HAWR N
3. The Road System and the Peutinger Table
4. The Provincial Era
APPENDIX 1: THE ERA OF THE PROVINCE OF ARABIA: PROBLEMS AND SOLUTION?
CHAPTER II: SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION IN TRACHONITIS AND AURANITIS FROM HERODIAN TIMES THROUGH THE FOURTH CENTURY
1. Introduction
2. Geography and History
3. Roman Administration
4. Village Life in Trachonitis
5. Excursus: Caesarea Eitha
6. The Damascus-Bostra Road and Suwaydá/Dionysias
7. Excursus: Gabinia Canatha
8. The Metrocomiai of Trachonitis
9. Farming Communities and Land-Holding in Trachonitis
APPENDIX 1: INSCRIPTIONS RELEVANT TO THE ROMAN ADMINISTRATION OF TRACHONITIS AND AURANITIS
APPENDIX 2: AGRICULTURE AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER III: TRIBAL AND CLAN NAMES IN THE GREEK INSCRIPTIONS FROM PROVINCIA ARABIA
1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Analysis
4. Interpretation
5. Historical Considerations
6. Register of the Tribes and Clans
CHAPTER IV: VILLAGE ADMINISTRATION IN TRACHONITIS AND AURANITIS
1. Introduction
2. The Village Assembly
3. Village Officials
4. The Veterani of the Lava-lands and Their Role in Village Life
APPENDIX 1: BOULEUTES BOSTRENÕN
APPENDIX 2: BOULEUTAI OF UNIDENTIFIED CITIES ATTESTED IN VILLAGE INSCRIPTIONS
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND PROSPECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. Political Allegiance in the Lava-Lands
2. New Governors of Roman Arabia
3. The Babatha Archive
4. Linguistics
5. Archaeology and History in Roman Arabia
Citation preview
Studies in the History of the Roman Province of Arabia The Northern Sector
Henry Innes MacAdam
BAR International Series 29 5 · 1986
B.A.R. 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK
GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.
BAR-S295, 1986 : 'Studies in the History of the Roman Province of Arabia'. ©
Henry Innes MacAdam,1986
The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543794 paperback ISBN 9781407345628 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543794 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
For ROGER EMILE SAIDAH ( 1930-1979)
Sunt
l acrimae
r erum ( Aeneid
i ii
1 .462)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
P reface
and
L ist
Figures
of
Acknowledgements and
Plates
i x x iii
PART I SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY
C HAPTER
I :
I NTRODUCTION
1 . 2 .
The Lava-Lands i n Ptolemy's Geography Archaeological and Historical Research in t he Lava-Lands: 1 975-1985 -Epigraphy and Numismatics -The Archaeology and History of Bostra . , The Archaeology and History of t he Syrian -H awrän - he Archaeology and History of t he Jordanian -H awran 3 . The Road System and t he Peutinger Table 4 . The Provincial Era Appendix 1 . The Era of the Province of Arabia: Problems a nd Solution? by Philip Freeman
C HAPTER
1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 .
I I:
1 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 6 1 9 3 4 3 8
S OCIAL TRANSFORMATION I N TRACHONITIS AND AURANITIS FROM HERODIAN T IMES THROUGH THE FOURTH CENTURY
Introduction Geography a nd H istory Roman Administration Village L ife i n Trachonitis Excursus: Caesarea Eitha The Damascus-Bostra Road and Suwaydä/Dionysias Excursus: G abinia • Canatha The Metrocömiai o f Trachonitis Farming Communities and Land-Holding i n Trachonitis Appendix 1 . I nscriptions Relevant t o t he Roman Administration of Trachonitis and Auranitis Appendix 2 . Agriculture and Urban Development, by Doris M iller
4 7 4 8 5 4 5 8 6 1 6 8 7 5 7 9 8 4 9 1 9 7
CHAPTER
I II:
TRIBAL AND CLAN NAMES I N THE GREEK INSCRIPTIONS FROM PROVINCIA ARABIA
1 . 2 .
Introduction Methodology
1 01 1 01
3 . 4 . 5 .
Analysis Interpretation Historical Considerations
1 03 1 08 1 13
6 .
Register of the Tribes A . Tribal Names B . C .
CHAPTER
and
Clans 1 19
Tribal or Clan Names Clan or Smaller Sub-Group
IV:
1 32 1 37
Names
VILLAGE ADMINISTRATION AURANITIS
I N TRACHONITIS
AND
1 . 2 .
Introduction The Village Assembly
1 47 1 49
3 . 4 .
Village Officials The Veterani of the Lava-Lands A . Arabs Attested in Legio I II Cyrenaica B . Arabs Attested in Unspecified Legions or
1 54 1 76 1 82 1 84
C . Preliminary Remarks on the Veterani D . Register of Veterani Appendix 1 . Bouleutes Bostrenön Appendix 2 . Bouleutai of Unidentified Cities in Village Inscriptions
CHAPTER V :
CONCLUSION
AND
1 . 2 .
Political Allegiance in New Governors of Arabia
3 .
The
4 . 5 .
L inguistics Archaeology
Babatha
PROSPECTS the
FOR
Archive and
History
in
vi
1 87 1 91 2 12 Attested
FURTHER
Lava-Lands
Roman Arabia
Units
2 18
STUDY 2 23 2 26 2 27 2 28 2 29
PART CATALOGUES OF
OF
I I
PHOTOGRAPH
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXPEDITIONS
COLLECTIONS TO
THE
NEAR EAST
ON FILE AT PRINCETON UNIVERSITY AND PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY ( INCLUDING
1 .
Introduction
2 .
The
3 .
Surveys ( 1875-1877) The Brünnow and von
A CATALOGUE
OF
CASTS)
2 33
American
Palestine
Exploration
Society 2 34
Domaszewski
Expeditions
( 1897-1898)
2 38
4 .
The American ( 1899-1900)
5 ,
The
Archaeological
Expeditions Additional
7 .
The
to
Syria 2 41
Princeton
6 .
Expedition
University
to
Syria
Notes
Catalogue
of
on
Archaeological
( 1904/05
and
Photograph
Casts
made
by
1 909)
2 44
Collections the
AAES
1899-1900
2 53
CATALOGUE OF AMERICAN
PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN EXPRESSLY FOR THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION SOCIETY, 1 875
CATALOGUE
PHOTOGRAPHS
A.
OF
VON
Notes
2 49
in
DOMASZEWSKI, and
TAKEN
BY
R . E.
BRUNNOW AND 2 77
1 897-1898.
2 78
i ndex
Photograph
257
2 83
catalogue
CATALOGUE OF PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN BY THE AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXPEDITION TO SYRIA, 1 899-1900, AND
THE
PRINCETON
EXPEDITIONS
TO
UNI VERSITY
SYRIA,
1 904-05
ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND
1 909.
Notes and i ndex Photograph catalogue
CATALOGUE OF CASTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL
3 11 3 12 319
MADE BY THE AMERICAN EXPEDITION TO SYRIA,
1 899-1900
3 71
B IBLI OGRAPHY
3 79
I NDEX
413
v ii
PREFACE and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The t itle o f t his volume i s t hat o f my doctoral t hesis p resented t o t he University o f Manchester i n 1 979. The c ontents a re, w ith s everal exceptions, c onsiderably d ifferent. T hat i s p artly b ecause s ome portions of t he t hesis w ere s ubsequently p ublished a fter r evision. O ther p ortions, notably c hapters d ealing w ith t he h istory o f B ostra a nd a r egister of t he k nown governors, were s imply o vertaken by n ew r esearch i n print o r a nnounced f or p ublication. T his i s i ndicative t hat t he f ield o f A rabian h istory i s e xperiencing a r enewal o f s cholarly i nterest, a nd I hope t hat t he p resent Studies r epresents a positive c ontribution. At t he t ime I began r esearching t he t hesis ( 1974) R oman Arabia was h ardly a c atchword i n a cademic c ircles. I w as t hen e specially l ucky t o h ave t he s upport a nd a dvice of P rof. C .E. Bosworth a nd D r. Alan K . Bowman, w ho s upervised t he research i n t he e arly s tages. P rof. G .D.B. Jones s aw i t through t o c ompletion. I n t hose i ntervening y ears I b egan t o make c ontact w ith o thers who s hared my i nterest a nd enthusiasm, a nd my debt t o t hem h as b ecome e normous. A lthough I h ave e ndeavoured t o t hank t hem i ndividually a t t he appropriate p lace i n t hese S tudies t his does not p reclude a c ollective e xpression o f g ratitude here. The r enaissance i n Arabian s tudies may be d ated p recisely t o D ecember, 1 971. T he publication of G . W. B owersock's " A R eport o n A rabia P rovincia" i n t he Journal o f Roman Studies f or t hat y ear s truck a n u nusually r esponsive chord. By t he e nd o f t hat d ecade s ome t wo dozen a rticles h ad a ppeared o n v arious a spects of t he p rovince's h istory. By t he e nd of t his decade t here may be t wo dozen books a vailable. One must l ook b ack t o t he b eginning of t his century t o f ind a parallel f or s uch a n a stonishing u psurge o f i nterest. Bowersock's " Report" c annot c laim t o h ave i nspired e very contribution t o t he f ield s ince i ts .a ppearance, b ut e very s ubsequent publication h as h ad t o t ake account o f i t. The t opics I have explored h ere a re quite d iverse, r anging f rom h istorical g eography t o v eteran s ettlement. T o s ay t hat t hey a re o f p ersonal i nterest i s o nly t o s tate t he obvious. But t hey were c hosen a lso b ecause t hey r epresent a spects o f s ocial a nd e conomic h istory w hich h ave b een i gnored e ntirely o r d iscussed i nadequately. Though my f ocus o f i nterest h as b een t he l ate H erodian/Nabataean p eriod t hrough t he e arly f ourth c entury, I h ave n ot h esitated t o e xplore a t opic i nto t he l ate R oman/Byzantine e ra when a nd i f necessary. Published material t hat was a vailable t o me b y t he e nd o f 1 985 h as b een u tilised. I n g eographical e xtent I have l imited myself t o t he n orthernmost s ector of R oman A rabia. T his i s t he r egion w ith w hich I f irst became f amiliar during a f ield t rip i n
i x
1 970 and t o which I h ave r eturned t o v isit on s everal occasions i n t he s ubsequent f ifteen years. Thanks to my colleague Helga Seeden at t he American University o f B eirut I was able t o spend two memorable weeks in Bostra a ssociated with t he f irst s eason ( 1980) o f her ethnoarchaeological project i n and a round t he provincial c apital. I have been f ortunate on s uch o ccasions t o t ravel extensively on both s ides o f t he modern Syria-Jordan border. Only t he Golan r egion i n t he west a nd t he Safg d istrict t o t he east a re blank spots o n my t ravel-map. • Transliteration o f Arabic t erms a nd place-names i s as accurate and consistent a s I could make i t. This s hould permit t hose w ith a knowledge o f A rabic t o recreate the words i n t hat alphabet. The ancient names of most districts i n t his r egion f ortunately h ave only one corresponding modern n ame, e .g. Trachönitis i s now t he Lejg ( " Refuge"). The prominent exception i s Auranitis, northeast of Bostra, a n a rea of f ertile h ills pimpled with extinct volcanoes. I t i s now known a s t he Jebal D rüz, Jebal Hawran o r t he Jebal c Arab. A ll t hree modern t erms a re used i nterchangeably i n t he t ext. I have no individual preference f or one o r t he other, and my moods c hanged considerably during t he various s tanges o f preparation. My wife C arol h as i ndulged t his whim, a nd others, with e xtreme g race and good humour a s s he word-processed the entire volume. Only t hose who have a ccomplished i t realise the present difficulties of i nstructing a machine t o add numerous diacritical marks a nd s till r etain a required l ine l ength. That s he managed i t efficiently and c heerfully i s wonder enough; t hat s he a ccomplished p art of i t as a s ingle parent completing a n M .A. i s a major t riumph. F or her patience and e ndurance I am v ery g rateful i ndeed. I also owe a particular debt of g ratitude to Ward and Ruth Murray of Saffron Walden, Essex a nd t o t he e state of t he l ate Anna Ruth MacDonald. Their constant s upport t hroughout t he l ean and f at years has done much t o s ustain my hope o f bringing t his volume t o c ompletion. Thanks are a lso due t o my colleagues i n t he Department of History and Archaeology, American University o f Beirut f or supporting f ield trips a nd f unding r esearch t hrough t he Dean's O ffice and t he University Research Board. Leave of absence f rom t he AUB has g iven me t he f ree t ime n ecessary to c omplete t he book. But t his would not have b een possible w ithout t he a sistance of t he Department o f Ancient History and Classical Archaeology a t t he University o f Sheffield. To i ts Chairman, P rof. Derek Mosley, a nd i ts i ndividual f aculty members and s taff, I o ffer my thanks and appreciation. The year at S heffield a s a Visiting R esearch Fellow was made f ar easier t hrough a g rant f rom that u niversity's Research Development Fund. G enerous contributions by Harold Lewis Cook and K athleen MacAdam, a nd t he k ind cooperation o f t he S chool o f H istorical Studies, a llowed me t o enjoy t he privileges of
a Summer Visitor a t t he I nstitute f or Advanced Study, P rinceton, i n 1 982. This enabled me t o i nvestigate t he p hotograph collections a t n earby P rinceton University and P rinceton Theological Seminary. The results of t hat s ummer c omprise Part I I of t hese Studies. Lawrence Conrad, J 9 3rgen N ielsen and I rfan Shahid have consistently a nd c ompetently a ssisted me i n t racking down source material i n A rabic a nd analysing i ts u sefulness. Erica Dodd, Ramzi Baclbakki, T arif K halidi, a nd William Ward know well what i t i s l ike t o plan conferences and f ield t rips i n presentd ay Lebanon a nd t o maintain t he publication s chedule of A l-Abhath and Berytus. Philip F reeman and James Wilson h ave been welcome companions on a number o f Jordanian a dventures, a nd Derrick R iley h as u sed such f ield t rips and s urveys t o demonstrate h is s kills i nterpreting aerial p hotographs. D oris Miller a nd F ran9ois Villeneuve have k indly s hared w ith me t heir enthusiasm f or r esearching t he r ural communities o f t he Hawrän. I have often turned t o Robert and Janie Miller, s teadfast f riends of many years, f or help i n obtaining material o f a particularly obscure n ature. Thomas Bauzou and Alexandre G roushevoi have been w illing t o s hare w ith me t heir ongoing r esearch which w ill l ead each, u ltimately, t o a doctoral degree. Michael Speidel h as e ver b een helpful on matters military: Roman, H erodian or Nabataean. Julian Bowsher and Rob Falkner have b een congenial h osts i n Jerash, a s have David McCreery a nd Andrew Garrard i n c Amman. Adnan Bounni i n Damascus and t he l ate Sulayman Moughdad i n Bostra expedited r esearch i n t he Syrian Hawrän. Adnan Hadidi, Fawzi Z ayyadine and G hazeh B isheh ' did t he s ame f or t ravels i n t he Jordanian Hawrän. T homas Parker a nd Alastair K illick have k ept me i nformed o f t heir ongoing excavations at Lejjün and U dhr e, r espectively. Bert DeVries has done t he s ame f or Umm a l-Jimal, and Burton MacDonald f or t he Wadi H esä . .. There a re a f ew t o whom I wish t o make a special g esture of a ppreciation s ince my debt t o t hem i s p articularly l arge. Glen Bowersock has been a constant s ource of i nspiration and a ssistance i n correspondence and c onversation; t here a re f ew pages of t hese Studies t hat h e h as not a lready s een i n s ome s tage o f preparation. David K ennedy h as made me welcome at Sheffield on more t han one o ccasion, but no v isit was more b eneficial t han t his past y ear. Julie K ennedy prepared a n umber of maps a nd plates w ith consummate s kill. David G raf has managed t o p rovide a c ounterbalance t o my preoccupation w ith t he northern r egions o f p rovincia Arabia by k eeping me abreast of h is own i mportant s urveys o f N abataean/Roman s ites i n t he H ismä and H ijäz. Maurice Sartre has already made a s ubstantial contribution t o t he e ssential l iterature on R oman A rabia, e specially s o f or Bostra. I h ave b een r ewarded with h is encouragement and good counsel on a n umber of occasions. To a ll o f t hese I offer my g ratitude f or c riticism and a dvice; what e rrors r emain a re entirely my
own
r esponsibility.
x i
F inally, a f ew r emarks c oncerning t he dedication. Roger S aidah d ied on 3 1 D ecember, 1 979, a fter a l ong and painful i llness. I knew h im f irst a s my t eacher, t hen a s a colleague, a t t he AUB. H is r escue e xcavation o f a Byzantine c hurch a t K halde, a nd t he i nitial excavation o f Phoenician Porphyrion, were a mong t he f inal projects h e u ndertook i n Lebanon b efore c ivil w ar e njulfed t hat l and i n 1 975. Roger continued t o t each, w rite a nd a ttend s cholarly meetings f or t he n ext f ive y ears i n s pite of s erious r estrictions on h is a bility t o c onduct f ield-work, both f rom t he w idening c ivil c onflict a nd h is own f ailing health. The l ast f ew years o f h is l ife were d ivided between h is t eaching r esponsibilities a t t he AUB a nd h is duties a t t he Lebanese D epartment o f Antiquities. H e well u nderstood t he s cope of t he t ragedy o vertaking a v enerable e dcuational i nstitution and t he c ountry w hich h ad b een i ts home f or more t han a c entury. Roger's i nfluence u pon o thers i n h is f ield o f s tudy c an b est b e j udged by t he c ollection o f p apers published i n h is honour, Archeologie a u L evant: R ecueil a l a Memoire d e Roger S aidah ( 1982). H e w as a g ood a nd g racious man w ho will l ong b e remembered w ith a ffection b y h is f amily, h is s tudents, h is a ssociates a nd h is f riends. To h im t his volume o f S tudies i s dedicated w ith r espect.
H enry I nnes M acAdam 2 2 March, 1 986
Department o f H istory a nd Archaeology American University o f Beirut
D epartment of Ancient H istory Classical Archaeology University o f S heffield
a nd
x ii
LIST OF PLATES AND F IGURES
F igure
1
P late Plate
1 2
F igure
2
F igure F igure
3 4
F igure
5
F igure F igure
6 7
F igure
8
Plate
3
F igure
9
F igure F igure
1 0a 1 0b
Plate Plate Plate Plate P late Plate Plate
4 a 4 b 5 a 5 b 6 a 6 b 7 a
Plate
7 h
Plate Plate Plate
8 a 8 b 9 a
Plate . Plate P late Plate
9b 1 0 ha l lb
Plate Plate Plate Plate
1 2a 1 2b 1 3a 1 3b
Plate
1 4
Plate F igure
1 5 1 1
Graph-map of Ptolemy's Batanaea and environs. Segment o f Codex Urbina Graecus 8 2. Jebal Says ( Mt. Alsadamus?) i n Southeastern Syria. Map of Pre-Roman Archaeological S ites i n t he Syrian Hawrän. Segmentum IX o f t he Peutinger Table. Roman Roads i n Syria based on t he Peutinger Table. The Roman Roads of t he Lava-Lands based on Recent Surveys. The Roman Roads in Northeast Jordan. Phases of Volcanic Activity i n t he Lava-Lands. An Over-View of t he Lava-Lands t o t he Southeast of Damascus. Aerial View of One Section o f Roman Road in t he Lejä. Sketch-Plan of t he Roman Road between Masmayah and c Ahira. Tribes and Clans of t he Lejä. Tribes and Clans of t he Jebal Drüz and Hawrän. The Temple at Sulaym i n t he Jebal D rüz. Castle at Arak al-cEmir n ear c Ammän. Castle at Salkhad in t he Hawran. Camp of t he APES near Salt, Jordan. Church and Convent at Umm al-Jimäl. Panoramic View of Bostra. Camp of Brünnow and von Domaszewski at c Ayn Hesbän. Camp o f Arünow and von Domaszewski at Mär Säbä. Temple at Dayr Ashayr i n t he Jebal Drüz. Reservoir o r " Birkeh" at Dercä. An Ancient Building at Sanamayn i n t he Hawrän. Damaged altar-base n ear c Ammän. A Tower-Tomb at Bostra. D iocletianic Fort at Dayr a l-Kahf. Greek-Nabataean Bi -Lingual I nscription f rom S IC in t he Jebal D rüz. G reek I nscription f rom Umm a l-Jimäl. G reek I nscription f rom Umm a l-Jimäl. Skyline of Umm a l-Quttayn. Architectural Fragment f rom Umm al-Quttayn: I nterior Corner o f a Building at Umm al-Quttayn. Ornamental Lintel at Umm al-Quttayn. Route o f t he P rinceton University Expeditions to Syria.
3 5 8 1 5 2 5 2 6 3 2 3 3 4 9 6 3 6 9 7 0 1 17 1 18 2 73 2 73 2 74 2 74 2 75 2 75 3 07 3 07 3 08 3 08 3 09 3 09 3 10 3 65 3 65 3 66 3 66 3 67 3 67 3 68 3 69 Endpiece
PART
I
SOCI AL AND ECONOMIC
The
t ext was
p repared Carol L .
XV
f or
HISTORY
publication by
MacAdam
CHAPTER I
I NTRODUCTION
1 .
The Lava-Lands
i n Ptolemy's Geography
The geographic a rea encompassed by t hese Studies i s v ery roughly t he b lock o f t erritory between t he Golan a nd Jebal Dri iz r egions e ast a nd west o f t he Hawrän p lain r espectively, a nd f rom t he Lejä p lateau i n t he north t o t he modern Tapline Road a long t he Jordanian Hawrän t o t he s outh. I n a ntiquity t he Hawrän was c alled Batanaea, t he Lejä, Trachönitis a nd t he *Jebal Drüz, Auranitis. The p opular collective t erm t oday f or t he entire r egion i s t he " lava-lands"; t his i s both a ccurate a nd evocative.' Any g ood physical map w ill depict t he a rea a s a b road, f ertile p lain nearly b ut n ot c ompletely bordered t o t he west, north a nd east by l arge t racts of l ava-flows a nd extinct c raters. These a re t he r emnants o f volcanic a ction i n p re-historic t imes, t he p hysical e ffects o f which a re examined i n more d etail i n Chapter I I, P art 2 . I mportant t o n ote h ere i s t hat t he l ava-lands e ffectively s eparated t he r egion c entered on Damascus f rom t he Hawrän, and t hat t he c ultural a nd political d evelopment o f t he t wo a reas were quite d istinctly d ifferent. Even t hough t he Nabataean Arabs t wice exercised political c ontrol of Damascus, t heir c ultural i nfluence was g reatest t o t he s outh o f t he l ava belt. There a re o nly t wo maps f rom a ntiquity which depict t he lava-lands. One i s a road-map o f t he Mediterranean b asin a nd adjacent l ands k nown a s t he Peutinger Table, t he p rototype o f which may date t o t he f irst c entury B .C. I ts u sefulness w ill b e d escribed i n Part 3 of t his c hapter. The other map i s t hat d rawn t o accompany Ptolemy's Geography, and i ts w itness i s o f more immediate i nterest. T he Geography i tself i s e ssentially a r egister o f p lacen ames and t heir map c o-ordinates compiled about t he middle o f t he s econd c entury i n Alexandria, Egypt. I ncluded a s well, and plotted s ystematically, a re t he major p hysical f eatures s uch a s mountains, r ivers, i slands a nd g ulfs. The n ames of t ribes a ssociated w ith particular r egions a re a lso n oted i n t he t ext, a nd t hose n amed a re appended t o t he maps i n t he corresponding l ocations. The maps were e ither c reated by Ptolemy h imself o r a n ear-contemporary o f h is, b ased on t he c alculations i n t he G eography. We a re
' I f F .E. P eters d id not a ctually h imself h e has c ertainly been r esponsible u sage. See t he r eferences u nder h is b ibliography.
1
coin t he t erm f or i ts w ide n ame i n t he
f ortunate to possess a number o f medieval c opies which demonstrate t hat t hey all a re v ariants o f a lost original. 2 The t ext o f t he Geography contains s everal references t o t owns, mountains, r egions a nd t ribes which a re u nmistakably to be a ssociated with portions o f t he l ava-lands. The major entry to this e ffect occurs i n Book V .14.20. Between a l ist of t owns i n Palmyrene a nd the names o f i slands near the Syrian c oast i s a , , . v erbless and f ar f rom l ucid s tatement: Ban TavaCa X o5P a( ., . f i g C o t' AV GTOX F L IV
Z axxaCa Xat T a l5T 1C t m? ) T ä ' AXodbagov A paßgc. This i s f ollowed by a l ist o f
5 po‘ o t
T paxwviTat
four place-names and t heir co-ordinates: Gerrha ( 70°E, 3 2°50' N), Elera ( 70°, 3 2°40'), Nelaxa ( 70°10', 3 2°30') a nd Adrama ( 69°10', 3 1°30'). This i s roughly a north t o s outh-east order. The mountain named i n t he passage above i s not a ssigned co-ordinates, but i n a n e arlier p assage Ptolemy locates i t precisely. I n Book V .14.6 he g ives a l ist o f well-known mountains o f t he Near East: Pieria, Casius, L ibanus and Anti-Libanus, Alsadamus and Hippus. The co-ordinates for each a re c arefully g iven; f or Alsadamus t hey are exactly 7 1°E and 3 3°N. For Mt. Alsadamus a lone a f urther n ote i s appended; i t i s l ocated H ape t , ...Te iv w E ngov ' ApaßCay . We t hus have f ive f ixed points t o p lot, a s d id c artographers i n antiquity. From two other passages we c an g lean t he names o f additional towns a ssociated with t he l ava-lands. The register o f c ities i n Arabia Petraea ( V.16.4ff) i ncludes f our i n t he northeast ( Surattha, Bostra, Mesada, Adra). Only Bostra c an be i dentified with c ertainty. The r egister of t owns a ssociated with ' Ko ng Syria a nd the Decapolis" ( V.14.18) i ncludes f ive more to t he northwest ( Adra, H ippus, D ium, Capitolias, Canatha). Of t hese, Canatha i s i dentified w ith certainty, and t he others l ess so. Other t ribal g roups t hat border on t he l ava-lands a re noted by Ptolemy at Book V .18.1ff, but a re o f peripheral i nterest here. S ince we a re g iven c o-ordinates f or a ll the named l ocalities, t he results can best be summarised and a nalysed by s eeing t hem projected on a g raph-map ( Fig. 1 ). Söme s triking f eatures a re evident a t once. The t owns of G errha, Elera and Nelaxa l ie i n a compact g roup, northeast of Bostra and southeast o f Damascus. Mt. Alsadamus i s a considerable d istance f arther e ast, a nd the only other town i n Ptolemy' s Batanaea Adrama - i s just a s f ar f rom t hem t o t he s outhwest. Among t he northern towns of Arabia Petraea, only Bostra a nd Surattha would s eem t o l ie within t he l ava-lands p roper, the f ormer d irectly east of Adrama, and t he l atter southeast. Among t he northern t owns of " Koile Syria a nd t he Decapolis" only
The best facsimile e dition i s ( 1932). See the d iscussion of t his and
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3 5)
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Capitolias, Adra a nd Canatha a re c lose e nough t o b e c onsidered. Damascus i s among t he c ities o f t his l isting, and i s p lotted f or i ts v alue a s a point o f r eference. Most c onspicuous o f t he p hysical f eatures a re t he L ebanese mountains, which i ntrude d iagonally f rom n orthwest t o s outheast. They t erminate j ust t o t he north and w est o f Ptolemy' s t rio o f e asternmost t owns i n B atanaea. T hose t hree t owns actually l ie a t t he e astern e ntrance t o t he v ast v alley b etween t he Lebanese mountains, a v alley which a lso i ncludes Damascus, Abila a nd Heliopolis. All o f t hese f eatures c an b e s een l ess s chematically i n t he photograph o f t he relevant s egment o f Codex U rbina G raecus 8 2 ( Plate 1 ). Several oddities a re i mmediately noticeable. The a lignment o f t he Lebanese mountains i s a lmost 9 0° f rom t heir actual north-south axis parallel t o t he Mediterranean coast. Canatha l ies west a nd s lightly n orth o f Bostra; i t s hould b e north a nd s lightly east. T he p lace-name Adra occurs i n two l ists. I n Arabia P etraea i t i s located at co-ordinates 6 9°40', 3 0°40'. Among t he e ighteen c ities o f "Koile Syria a nd t he Decapolis" i t i s l ocated at 6 8°40, 3 2°10'. Damascus i s t oo f ar west, but r easonably l ocated i n relationship t o t he known c ities s ave Canatha. I ts l ocation b etween t he Lebanese mountians i s d isturbing. Some o f t hese a nomalies c an b e a ttributed t o s heer i gnorance on t he p art o f Ptolemy o r h is s ource(s). I have suggested e lsewhere 3 t hat t he mistaken a lignment o f t he Lebanese mountains c an p robably b e a ttributed t o Ptolemy's r eliance upon Strabo, a nother a rmchair g eographer. B ut t he l ocation of Canatha i s manifestly P tolemy's deliberate attempt t o g roup a ll t he c ities o f h is " Koile Syria a nd t he Decapolis" i n one r egional " block", r egardless o f t heir a ctual l ocation. P hiladelphia a nd Gerasa h ave b een s hifted north a nd west o f where t hey should be f or p recisely t he s ame r eason. Whether by a ccident o r d esign, B ostra a ppears t o be p roperly l ocated, particularly s o w ith r egard t o t he f ive place-names i n Ptolemy's Batanaea. S ince t he i dentity of Bostra js c ertain, t he i dentity o f t he f our t owns c an be r easonably e stablished. T he Adrama o f Ptolemy must b e t he Adraha o f t he Peutinger Table ( see Part 3 , below), a nd both a re v ariant s pellings o f Adraa ( modern D ercä). All t hree versions l ook s uspiciously s imilar t o t he duplicate p lacename Adra. The t wo Adras l ie a long t he s ame d iagonal axis which i ncludes Adrama, a nd e ach Adra i s a lmost e xactly equi-distant f rom t hat t own. I t s trains c redulity t o t hink t hat t his i s accidental, t hough n ormally t wo o r more s imilar p lace-names i n a ny g eographical a rea o f t he Near East i s not i mpossible. What f inally e xposes Ptolemy's
3
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5
duplicity, o r even t riplicity, i s t he r ealisation t hat Adraa a ctually h ad a t riple i dentity i n antiquity. I t was a c ity o f Batanaea, and a member o f t he Decapolis, a nd i t l ay w ithin t he borders of Arabia " Petraea". This t reble r ole c ould not b e c laimed b y a ny o ther c ity i n t he l ava-lands. I t i s p robable t hat Ptolemy r ealised t his, a nd j ust a s p robable t hat h e p lotted t he c ity i n t riplicate a long a l ine t hat c onnected t he t hree r egional divisions o f h is map. The c entral point o f t he l ine, Adrama i n Batanaea, r epresents t he t rue l ocation of Adraa - i .e. d irectly west o f Bostra. At t he t ime t hat Ptolemy w rote, Canatha was t he only other c ity i n t he l ava-lands which c ould a lso b e c ounted among t he c ommunities i n " Koile Syria a nd t he Decapolis". But he a lso k new t hat i t l ay a cross t he p olitical b order i n p rovincia Syria. The other towns of Batanaea a re n ot so e asily i dentified, t hough t hey were no l ess r eal t o P tolemy. G errha, Elera a nd Nelaxa a re p lotted s o c losely together t o t he north a nd east o f Bostra t hat w e c an s afely l ook f or t hem i n t he upland r egions which a ctually l ie t here. Gerrha and Elera I would p lace i n Trachonitis. Nelaxa i s p lotted s lightly s outh a nd east, a nd i s l ikely t o be f ound i n Auranitis. Within e ach r egion one may g uess a t a more d efinite i dentity. Gerrha might b e e ither modern Buräq o r Masmayah on t he northern e dge o f t he Lejä. Elera ( al-Era?) could well b e modern c Ahira, t ransliterated i nto Latin i n a ntiquity a s Aerit(t)a." Buräq and c Ahira a re d irectly north a nd s outh o f e ach other, r espectively, and b oth a re w ithin t he Lejä. Nelaxa i s p lausibly modern Mushannaf i n t he Jebal D r i az, where Waddington c opied a b uilding i nscription a ttesting t he p lace-name Nelkömia. 5 The i dentity of Mt. Alsadamus i s a s eparate p uzzle, but a lso one which c an b e r esolved w ith f air c ertainty. I ts a ssociation w ith t he name Saccaea a nd t he Trachonite Arabs i n t he exceedingly opaque s tatement by P tolemy q uoted above h as naturally l ed t o i ts i dentification w ith a mountain i n Auranitis, o r w ith t he Jebal D rüz i n g eneral. This i s quite u nderstandable. Saccaea i s quickly equated w ith t he modern v illage o f Shaqqä, a ttested by t he name g iven i n Ptolemy a nd i n epigraphy f rom t hat v ery s ite. The n ame Alsadamus i tself h as l ed t o much s peculation, s ince i t occurs i n v ariant f orms. The a pparatus t o Müller' s e dition of Ptolemy notes t hree other s pellings i n t he v arious MSS: Alsalamus, Asalmanus a nd Oualsadamus. Müller h imself p referred Alsadamus, a nd l ooked t o Heinrich K iepert's ( al)
O ther p ossibilities a re Aere ( modern S anamayn) j ust west o f t he Lejä, a nd a nother Aere ( 'Ir ) i n the w estern f oothills o f t he Jebal D ri az. 5 Wadd. 2 217. S ee a lso Eusebius' Onomastikon s .v. 4
" Neela".
6
S adam f or a l ikely meaning. 8 K iepert h imself h ad l ater c hanged h is m ind, p erhaps accepting Benzinger's ( RE I 1 638) p reference f or t he v ariant Asalmanus: " da s ie d em h ebräischen Namen Z almon e ntspricht". 7 Benzinger e ven i dentified t he volcanic p eak of Jebal Kulayb ( alt. 1 718m) a s Ptolemy' s mountain. Rene Dussaud a lso p referred t he v ariant Asalmanus " si on p eut l ' appuyer p ar l e S almon d e Psaumes LXI, 1 5 e t s uivant." 8 Uncharacteristically, Dussaud g ave n o c redit t o Benzinger, n or s uggested t he a lternative o riginally p roposed by K iepert. A s f ar a s I k now, no-one h as f avoured t he variant Alsalamus, which i s t he one w ith t he most obvious a nd s traightforward e tymology. But a ll o f t hese a re c ircular a rguments, s ince n o modern mountain o r r ange o f mountains i n t he l ava-lands b ears a name which i s c losely reminiscent o f a ny v ariant. Etymology i s n ot t he only a spect o f t he i nvestigation worthy of c riticism. The i nsistance t hat t he Jebal Drüz i s t he place t o l ook demonstrates t hat l ittle a ttention was p aid to what Ptolemy actually wrote. H is c o-ordinates f or t he mountain ( 71°E, 3 3°N) a re round numbers, f ar l ess vulnerable t o c opyists' e rrors. What i s more, t hey l ocate t he mountain f ar t o t he e ast a nd i t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat Ptolemy h ad some knowledge, however v ague, o f t he v olcanic p lateaux o f t he Qura° a nd even t he Safa, both o f which a re e astern c ounterparts o f t he Lejä: T he i mposing c rater of Jebal S ays l ies p recisely i n t hat e asternmost r egion. T he p eak a nd i ts surrounding t erritory ( see Plate 2 ) were r emarked upon by a number o f early t ravellers, but no description I h ave r ead i s a s evocative a s t hat which William Henry Waddington delivered t o t he a ssembled members o f t he French Academy i n March, 1 865: Les l aves du S afa v iennent p resque l ' ouest a vec c elles du I i& lja p ar
s e r elier d es c oulees
K iepert ( 1878) 1 58, who s uggested t hat s adam meant " brennen" but o ffered no e tymology. Yaqüt ( 1957) I II 2 00 mentions a Sadüm ( "grief, sorrow") which h e i s obviously i dentifying w ith t he Biblical Sodom, t he e tymology o f which h as n ever b een s ettled. S alibi ( 1985) 9 1 r esolves a ny d ifficulties by s tating t hat OT Sodom ( Sdm) i s a metathesis f or Dms, which h e t hen d iscovers i s t he Wadi Dämis i n t he A sir region o f Saudi Arabia. Yaq i it apparently overlooked t hat possibility. See a lso sadam ( "to s trike s omething h ard with s omething h ard") i n t he L isän a l°Arab ( Beirut) I I 2 42 K iepert ( 1907) both i n t ext ( p. 4 ) a nd on t he a ccompanying map ( VI) s hows h is acceptance of " Alsamanus" a nd i ts i dentification w ith t he Jebal D rüz. Dussaud ( 1927) 3 46-347 r eferring t o R indfleisch ( 1898) 3 . The " mont Asaldamus" of Dussaud a nd Macler ( 1901) 1 39 must b e a misprint. Abel ( 1983) 3 77-378 a lso 6
7
8
a ccepts Asalmanos t he Jebel H awrän. •
( "slm,
etre
7
obscur")
a nd
equates
i t
w ith
Plate 2 : The e xtinct volcanic c rater o f Jebal Says, 1 00 km east o f Damascus. Very probably t his i s t he Mt. Alsadamus of Ptolemy, Geography V .14.6; V .14.20. R eproduced f rom Poidebard ( 1934) I I Planche L IV.
i ntermediaires q ui p artent d ' une s erie d e crateres e chelonnes ä l ' est d e Chakka. Vers l ' est e t l e n ord, e lles s ' etendent f ort l oin, l ' espace d e d eux f ortes j ournees d e marche environ, j usqu' au D jebel S es, qui e n f orme l ' extreme l imite; au d elä c ommence l e s teppe qui s ' etend j usqu' ä l ' Euphrate. L e D jebel S s e st u n point t res-important p our l a g eographie du desert de S yrie, i l e st souvent question d ans l es r ecits des Bedouins du s able dore q u' on y t rouve e t d es ruines q ui e xistent au p ied d e l a montagne. 9 There i s g ood r eason t o t hink t hat t he Jebal S ays, a t 6 90m e levation a nd t he major l andmark o f t his e ntire r egion, i s t he mountain k nown t o Ptolemy a s Alsadamus, l ocated . 7m4A , wE r mgov ' ApaßCay. This was t he e asternmost point o f what h e u nderstood a s Batanaea. There i s no r eason t o b elieve, a s Waddington d id,' ° t hat c lassical Batanaea a nd t he c Ard a l-Bathanayyah o f e arly I slamic g eographers were one a nd t he s ame. On t hat i ssue s ee t he i mportant observations b y Dussaud and Macler. " B ut it i s worthwhile noting t hat Josephus o r h is s ource i n a t l east one i nstance speaks o f T rachonitis a s a d istrict w ithin B atanaea. 1 2 The Saccaea o f Ptolemy would b e a nother, o f which t he modern t own o f Shaqqä i s a r emnant. This i s yet another i nstance of Ptolemy' s a ccuracy i n p lotting p lace-names a nd r egions t hat h ave no p articular p olitical s ignificance. The only o ther l iterary w itness o f t he l ava-lands i s Strabo, a nd a d iscussion of t hat i s g iven i n Chapter I I, P art 1 .
Waddington ( 1865) 8 6-87. T he a ddress i s a model o f g raceful p rose a nd d isplays t he extraordinary a cumen o f t his s cholar a t t he a ge o f t hirty-nine. He was t hen e ngaged i n t he p reparation o f t he I GLS, published f ive y ears l ater. 1 0 Commentary t o Wadd. 2 136. ( 1901) 1 37-142. Vita 5 4 = BJ 1 1.481: geTe c 1 1 7 ) 1 , Av BaTava 4 T paxwytT7 A ,... C ontrast t his w ith BJ 1 .20.4 ( 398-399) o r AJ X VII.2.1 ( 25-26); c f. Vita 5 5-61. But t he extent of P tolemy' s Batanaea may b e r eflected i n two Agrippan m ilitary i nscriptions. A c ertain D iom&-des t he s on o f C haretos i s a ttested a s " eparchos a nd s trategos o f B atanaea" ( AE [ 1952] 2 46) n ear c Aqraba i n t he western H awrän a nd a s " eparchos o f t he g reat k ing Agrippa" ( IGR I II 1 194) a t Dayr a l-Shayr i n t he n orthern Jebal D rüz. 9
12
9
2 .
Archaeological and Historical Lava-Lands: 1 975-1985
Research
i n
the
A summary o f a rchaeological w ork i n Syria f or t he y ears 1 965-1970 l isted f orty-two s ites i n t hat c ountry i ncluded i n surveys o r excavations. 1 3 Only s ix e ntries were l ocated i n o r n ear t he Syrian H awrän. T he number o f s ites i nvestigated during t he s ame p eriod i n t he Jordanian Hawrän was n o g reater.'" Happily t he s ituation h as i mproved g reatly i n t he i ntervening y ears. S ince 1 975 more a rchaeological s urvey work h as b een u ndertaken i n t he l ava-lands than f or a ny comparable p eriod of t ime t his c entury, i ncluding t he d ecade 1 899-1909. Maurice Sartre has entitled t hat l atter age " La G rande Deferlement" " and I c an t hink o f n o b etter phrase w ith which to sum i t up. I t was a n e ra when B rünnow a nd von Domaszewski, t he American a nd Princeton Expeditions, Dussaud and Macler, Germer-Durand a nd o thers c onducted f ield surveys overlapping e ach other i n t ime a nd t erritory. The p ublications which r esulted f rom t hat concentrated activity h ave not yet outlived t heir u sefulness, b ut the l imitations o f what w as done b ecome more e vident e ach y ear. One h as only t o r ead Butler's occasional comments r egarding t he p ainted pottery o f t he Hawrän t o r ealise what l ittle s ignificance i t h ad f or h im a nd h is c ontemporaries. " The new surveys a re aware o f more t han j ust t he i mportant role c eramic typology p lays i n f ieldwork, a nd t he past decade i s a lso w itness t o f ar more t han t he account o f surface d iscoveries. Sondages, t rial excavations a nd multi-season c ampaigns a t a number o f s ites a re now beginning t o c ontribute t o our k nowledge o f t he a rea. Comprehensive s tudies o f t he r egion's epigraphy a nd numismatics, some a lready i n p rint a nd o thers s oon t o b e, add valuable t estimony t o t he s ocial a nd economic l ife of t his r egion. H istorical a nalysis h as b egun. The f ollowing pages a re a brief account o f t hat d ecade's major accomplishments i n b oth the Syrian a nd Jordanian Hawrän.
1 7
Voute ( 1971). M ittmann ( 1970) 1 66-207 r ecords a n epigraphical survey o f twenty-two s ites v isited i n t he l ate 1 960's. The excavations a t Jawa a nd Umm a l-Jimäl d id not begin u ntil t he early 1 970's. S artre ( 1982b) 2 1-25. E .g. B utler ( 1919) 1 43 on t he s ite o f Mithräyah: " There a re t hree well-built c isterns on t he outskirts of t he r uins, and r ubbish h eaps i n which q uantities o f s herds o f decorated, g lazed pottery a re t o b e s een." Not a s ingle s herd was c ollected f or a nalysis. For a nnual a rchaeological i nformation f rom t he S yrian 13
14
15
16
17
Hawrän one s hould c onsult t he " Chronique Archeologique" i n Syria, t he occasional n otices i n AAAS, a nd I .F.A.P. O. summaries o f f ieldwork. For Jordan t here i s a s y et no
1 0
E PIGRAPHY AND NUMISMATICS In a n a rticle t hat c omprised f ive p ages o f t ext a nd s eventeen o f b ibliography, W ilfried Van Rangen ( 1977) p resented a r etrospective o f epigraphic developments r elated t o t he o ngoing I GLS s eries f or t he y ears 1 950-1975. S outhern Syria was c onspicuously absent f rom t he r egions i ncluded i n h is s urvey. Damascus and t he Hermon r egion, we w ere told, " ont e te omis i ntentionnellement" s ince v olumes o f IGLS f or t hose a reas " etant sur l e p oint d e p araitre." T he Hawrän a nd a djacent d istricts were not e ven mentioned. W hat . d id appear f ollowing t his t runcated r eport was I GLS Vol. V II ( 1980), t he corpus o f Hadrianic f orestry i nscriptions a dmirably edited b y Jean-Fran9ois Breton, and I GLS Vol. X III Pt.1, ( 1982), t he corpus of Bostran i nscriptions e dited w ith magisterial s kill b y Maurice S artre. Van Rangen was apparently u naware t hat e ither o f t hese volumes w as i n p reparation. Sartre's v olume r epresents t he s ingle most i mportant c ontribution t o t he epigraphy o f t he Hawrän i n f ifty y ears. I t more t han doubles t he number o f i nscriptions p reviously k nown f rom t he p rovincial c apital, a nd s erves e ffectively a s a general i ntroduction to t he f our volumes ( IGLS X III P ts.2-5) now i n p reparation which w ill i nclude t he i nscriptions f rom Batanaea, Auranitis, T rachonitis a nd G aulanitis r espectively. Corresponding volumes f or Jordan w ill f or t he f irst t ime t ake t he I GLS s eries " across t he border". Vol. 1 ( "Ammonitide") i s p resently i n p rogress u nder t he e ditorship of P ierre-Louis Gatier; i t s hould i nclude t he e pigraphy of t he Jordanian Hawrän. S artre i s p resently p reparing a s econd v olume o t I GLJ ( Arabie P etree). Eventually t he t wo s eries w ill s upersede t he v arious c orpora a nd s cattered p ublications which one must p resently c onsult. I f I GLS V III a nd X III/1 a re a ny example, we may e xpect t he s ame h igh q uality o f s cholarship e stablished b y J ean-Paul Rey-Coquais when he i nherited t he moribund s eries in the early 1 960's a nd p roduced i n swift s uccession IGLS V I ( 1967) a nd VII ( 1970). There i s p resently no c orresponding enthusiasm f or p roducing comprehensive v olumes o f t he S emitic i nscriptions f rom t he Hawran.
1 7 ( continued) exact equivalent t o t he " Chron. A rch." i n ADAJ, a f eature which i s b adly needed. T he Department o f Antiquities i n Jordan does s upply upon r equest a m imeographed l ist o f e xcavations a nd s urveys i n Jordan f or e ach year. Might one h ope t hat such a n i ndex c ould be made a vailable t o t he e ditors o f ADAJ? A f ull a ccount o f a rchaeological work t hen i n p rogress i n Jordan was p resented i n A rchiv f ür Orientforschung 2 9/30 ( 1983/84). T he forthcoming volume of AFO ( 1986) i s t o r eview more r ecent a rchaeological work. I w ish t o t hank D r. Khaled N ashaf f or t his i nformation.
1 1
There h as b een a d ramatic u psurge o f i nterest i n numismatics. William Metcalf ( 1975) p ublished a h oard o f Trajanic c oins f ound a t " Tell K alak" i n Jordan thirty years ago. Metcalf believed t he m int was a t Bostra. T his was c hallenged by Weder ( 1977), who opted f or a m int a t Cappadocian Caesarea. A monograph on Nabataean coinage by Yackov Meshorer ( 1975) i s n ow t he s tandard work. A g ap i n coinage between 4 B .C. a nd A .D. 1 n oted by h im w as l ater a dduced by Bowersock ( 1983) a s support f or a t emporary ( 3-1 B .C.) a nnexation of Nabataea by Augustus f ollowing t he death o f Herod t he G reat. Two i mportant c omprehensive s tudies were published i n 1 978: F r. Spijkerman's Coins o f t he Decapolis a nd Provincia Arabia a nd Rosenberger's The Coinage of E astern Palestine. The f ormer i s e specially u seful f or i ts meticulous p resentation o f coins f rom Bostra, C anatha, Philippopolis a nd Adraa. More r ecently t he ongoing S ylloge Nummorum G raecorum h as p roduced ( 1981) a monograph on Palestine a nd South Arabia which i ncludes coins o f Roman Arabia. A riel K indler's The Coinage o f Bostra ( 1983) f alls short o f becoming t he s tandard work on t hat topic. H is i nclusion of a f ew Umayyad c oins m inted at Bostra i s, however, a c ogent reminder t hat a monograph on I slamic c oins o f Biläd a l-Shim would b e a welcome addition t o numismatic s tudies a nd an i nvaluable a id t o h istorians.
THE ARCHAEOLOGY AND H ISTORY OF BOSTRA The a rchaeological i nvestigation o f Bostra h as only j ust b egun. Rey-Coquais' s ummary f or t he P rinceton Encyclopedia of Classical s ites ( 1976) demonstrates c learly what l ittle work had b een done u ntil t hen. An I talian expedition i n t he mid-1970's c onducted l imited explorations i n a nd a round t he r emains o f t he Cathedral. P rofs. Cerulli, Gualandi, G addoni a nd F rattini h ave a ll p ublished a spects o f t his, which may b e f ound c onveniently i n v arious i ssues of Felix R avenna, e specially t he volume f or 1 978. The American University o f Beirut sponsored t hree s easons o f excavations on t he tell i n t he northwestern c orner o f t he c ity. P reliminary r eports p ublished b y Helga Seeden ( 1981/82; 1 983) a nd by Seeden a nd K adour ( 1983) n ow attest a s ettlement a t Bostra f rom a t l east t he Early Bronze t hrough t he e nd o f t he Late Bronze Age. There i s t hen a n occupational g ap, i n t he a rea o f t he t ell excavated, until t he l ate Roman period. I t i s possible t hat the s ite was abandoned a t t he e nd o f t he s econd m illenium B .C. a nd when re-settlement d id occur i n t he l ate Hellenistic p eriod i t was i n t he eastern s ector o f t he p resent s ite. We n ow h ave t he f irst r eal evidence t hat a s ettlement c ontemporary with t he Egyptian M iddle K ingdom a nd Empire Period existed. T he p lace-name Bu-us-ru-na which o ccurs i n t he Execration Texts a nd t he Amarna Letters c an now b e c onfidently i dentified w ith Busra a l-Sham. The s o-called Nabataean s ector o f Bostra A t the eastern end of the "decumanus" awaits
1 2
e xcavation. T he a ncient t own i s n ow n early u ninhabited, t hanks t o a p rogram o f g radual resettlement o f v illagers s ponsored b y t he S yrian Department o f Antiquities. We a re p romised a f ull volume of s tudies d evoted t o t he a rchaeology a nd h istory o f Bostra i n B erytus 3 2 ( 1984) c urrently being e dited by Helga S eeden. This w ill i nclude t he f irst publication o f m ilitary t ile-stamps o f l egio I II Cyrenaica, t he g arrison l egion o f Roman Arabia, by Raymond B rulet. The s ite o f t he c amp ( outside t he northern g ate o f t he c ity) was e stablished s ome twenty-five y ears a go, but t here i s l ittle p hysical evidence t o i ndicate how much s pace i t a ctually occupied, t he duration o f o ccupation, o r t he numerical s trength o f t he garrison. Very p robably a s izeable p ortion o f t he l egion was outstationed i n v arious p arts of t he p rovince, l eaving only a force l arge e nough t o p olice t he c ity a nd surrounding t erritory. On t he h istory o f t he exercitus Arabicus s ee Speidel ( 1977). The h istory o f Roman a nd Byzantine Bostra was r eviewed b y Maurice Sartre ( 1976). A s hort posthumous s tudy o f t he s ite was contributed by Sulayman Moughdad ( 1981), f ormer C urator o f Antiquities a t t he s ite. A volume d evoted t o t he development o f t he c ity i n c lassical a ntiquity i ncluded a n a rticle on Bostra by Doris Miller ( 1983). Equally b rief a ccounts o f t he c ity's l ayout a nd i mportant monuments were o ffered b y Segal ( 1981) a nd P eters ( 1983). Gatier ( 1982) h as re-examined a t roublesome passage i n L ibanius ( Or. 5 5) a nd demonstrated t hat i t r efers t o Bostra a nd n ot t o Gaza. A phantom Bostran l urking i n a l etter o f C icero ( ad Q . F rat. 1 1.11.3) was e xorcised b y MacAdam a nd Munday ( 1983). A xel Knauf ( 1984a) has re-examined t wo f amous S afaitic r eferences t o " the Medes" ( i.e. P ersians) a t Bostra a nd a rgues p lausibly f or a date i n t he mid-250's f or both. M aurice Sartre's n arrative h istory o f t he c ity, B ostra: D es o rigines ä l 'Islam, i s t he l ong-awaited s equel t o h is e pigraphic s tudy. Publication i s a nnounced f or e arly 1 986.
THE ARCHAEOLOGY AND H ISTORY OF THE SYRIAN HAWRÄN l 'he Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical S ites ( 1976) i ncluded f ive e ntries b y Rey-Coquais o n t owns o ther t han B ostra: Sulaym ( Selaema), S uwaydä ( Dionysias), Q anawät ( Canatha), Shuhba ( Philippopolis) a nd S ic ( Seeia). More r ecent work a t S ic h as subsequently b een p ublished b y J ean-Marie a nd Jacqueline Dentzer ( 1979; 1 981; 1 985). A nnie Sartre ( 1983) h as p ublished t he f irst c omprehensive r eport o f tomb a rchitecture f rom s outhern Syria s ince t he work by Butler s ixty y ears a go. Various a spects o f l inguistics a nd h istory r egarding t he Nemära i nscription h ave been examined by Beeston ( 1979; 1 981), Shahid ( 1979; 1 984b), MacAdam ( 1980) a nd B ellamy ( 1985). B ellamy' s s tudy i s by f ar t he most exhaustive, but i t i s n ot c ertain t hat t he message on t he s tone i s a ny b etter u nderstood a fter h is r ecent autopsy t han when i t was when f irst s een i n 1 901.
1 3
S tudies o f a more g eneral n ature h ave been contributed b y Peters i n a s equence o f a rticles t racing t he h istory of t he l ava-lands f rom Nabataean t imes t hrough t he I slamic c onquest ( 1977; 1 978; 1 978-79; 1 980). Doris Miller ( 1984) h as u tilised t his a nd much more i n h er d octoral d issertation on t he u rbanisation o f t he r egion. Notable i n t hat s tudy was h er u se o f t he daftars, ( census registers) p roduced by t he Ottoman r egime i n 1 596/97 a nd r ecently e dited and t ranslated b y Hütteroth a nd Abulfattah ( 1977). The daftar r ecords i nclude s ize o f t he c ommunity ( village o r l arger), c rops g rown, a nd male population. This i s a s v aluable a s ource f or Syrian v illages a s i s t he Domesday Book f or t heir counterparts i n England. Administrative modifications o f t he border b etween Roman Syria and R oman Arabia were i ndependently published b y Kettenhofen ( 1981) a nd S artre ( 1982a Chap. 1 ). T heir conclusions a re e ssentially i dentical, a nd a re summarised by Bowersock ( 1983) passim. The i mminent d emise o f t he TAVO project a t Tübingen p robably means t hat t he s heets r elevant t o R oman Arabia will not b e published. The s ocial a nd e conomic h istory o f t he Syrian H awrän h as f inally b egun t o r eceive t he s erious a ttention i t warrants. F ran9ois Villeneuve's doctoral d issertation Recherches s ur l es v illages a ntiques du Haurane ( 1983) i s p resently being r evised f or publication. Three o f h is a rticles which a re c losely r elated t o t his t opic are n ow i n p ress ( 1984; 1 985; 1 986). Aspects o f my own s tudy ( 1983) of v illage l ife reflected i n t he e pigraphy have b een developed by Sartre ( 1986, i n p ress) a s a p reliminary s tudy of t he Byzantine Hawrän a nd i ts c ommercial r elations w ith t he H ijäz. Both t he forthcoming Hauran I ( IFAPO, 1 985) a nd Berytus 3 3 ( 1985) p romise e ntire i ssues d evoted t o t he l ava-lands. Thomas Bauzou's work o n t he road s ystem b etween Damascus a nd Bostra w ill a ppear a s a p reliminary r eport i n Hauran I , augmented a nd updated by a paper i n t he Proceedings o f a c onference on h istorical g eography at Välbonne ( 1986). Some o f t his will u ndoubtedly challenge i deas i n David K ennedy' s ( 1982, Chap. 5 ) r eview of t he r oad system; The Valbonne p roceedings w ill a lso contain a v aluable c ontribution by t he Dentzers o n " Frontieres et materiel a rcheologique en Syrie du s ud". The Golan a rea i n t he Roman a nd Byzantine periods h as now b een t he subject of a volume by Daniel U rman ( 1985). I t r eviews a rchaeological work done i n t hat a rea f rom 1 973 u ntil t he d ate of publication, but t here i s n o a ttempt a t h istorical a nalysis. Especially v aluable f or s tudents o f pre-history t hrough t he I slamic p eriod i s t he i nitial p ublication ( two more a re t o f ollow) on " Prospections a rcheologiques" u ndertaken i n t he Hawrän b y I FAPO i n D amascus s ince 1 983. The p resent r eport by F rank Braemer ( 1984) deals only w ith s ites a long t he s outhern b order o f t he Lejä a nd t he northern Jebal D rüz ( see t he western s houlder o f
F ig. 2 ). t he Jebal
1 4
Surveys u ndertaken on D rüz b etween Suwaydä and
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Fig. 2: The Syrian t:1awrJ.n: map of the pre-Roman sites throughout the area. Upright numerals represent sites included in the survey by Beaulieu (1944/1945); numerals in Italics represent sites visited by the Princeton Expeditions of 1904/05 and 1909 (Butler [1919] passim). The three areas blocked by dotted lines are those marked out by I.F.A.P.O. for present surveys. I am indebted to the Librairie Orientaliste P aul Geuthner for permission to reproduce this map, which appeared in Braemer (1984) opp. page 222.
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S alkhad, a nd south o f t he Bostra-Salkhad r oad t o the Jordanian border, a re yet t o b e p ublished. The c eramic a nalysis a lready i ndicates t hat t he a rea of t he e astern Hawrän may n ot h ave b een occupied i n t he I ron Age. This äoes not c onflict w ith t he l imited evidence t o date f rom t est excavations a t Bostra. Old a nd new i n t he u se of p hotographs f or t heir a rchaeological value a re exemplified i n t wo s tudies published a d ecade apart. One i s a n e ssay b y Stephen Hill ( 1975) b ased on photographs o f t he " Praetorium" at M asmayah t aken by Tancrede Dumas i n 1 875. The o ther i s a c areful examination by David Kennedy ( 1985) o f a erial photographs of t he Syrian Hawrän n ear t he v illage o f Shanira t aken b y t he RAF i n 1 953. The Dumas photographs a re t he most a ccurate r epresentation of a monument which no l onger exists. The RAF photographs b ear w itness t o a regularity of f ield p atterns which s trongly suggests a ncient cultivation, perhaps c enturiation i ntitiated by v eterans f rom t he u nit o f Gothi gentiles ( Speidel [ 1977] 7 12-716) who a re a ttested a t n earby I mtän ( Motha) i n the S everan period.
THE ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY OF THE JORDANIAN HAWRÄN The s ite o f Umm a l-Jimäl a gain b egan to a ttract a ttention i n t he early 1 970's, a nd t he ongoing excavations t here h ave p roduced s ome s tartling r esults a lready. A p reliminary r eport by DeVries ( 1979) d id l ittle more than outline what t he p roject h oped t o do, but l ater publications by h im ( 1981; 1 982) p rovided much new i nformation a nd c onclusive p roof t hat t he t own underwent a p eaceful t ransition i nto t he I slamic period. W e a re p romised two new r eports o n J imäl i n t he forthcoming Studies i n t he H istory and Archaeology o f Jordan I I ( 1985). One will p robe t he e thnic composition o f t he c ity t hrough a statistical a nalysis o f names o n t ombstones ( Sartre); the other will d iscuss t he u rbanisation o f t he t own ( DeVries). The l ast f ew s easons ( DeVries [ 1986]) have revealed a D iocletianic f ort built against t he c ity walls a nd a m ilestone of Tetrarchic date f rom t he p resumed road c onnecting Umm a l-Jimäl a nd Umm a l-Quttayn to t he east ( Parker [ 1986]). Most i mportant, t hough, i s t he u nexpected d iscovery t hat a n a rea t hought t o b e t he c emetery f or the Byzantine c ity i s t he remains o f t he e arliest ( Nabataean/ Early Roman) s ettlement, s lightly t o t he s outheast. For r easons not yet c lear, t his s maller t own was abandoned i n t he l ate t hird c entury and u sed a s a q uarry f or the c onstruction o f t he p resent s ite. Umm a l-Jimäl h as a lso b een t he s ubject o f a s hort and very s uperficial e ssay outlining t he h istory o f t he town ( Knauf [ 1984b]), i nevitably u naware o f t he most r ecent d iscoveries. Knauf concludes t hat t he a ncient name o f the t own may remain a mystery u nless a nd u ntil a n epigraphic
1 6
d iscovery r eveals i t, s ince t here a re no p lace-names on t he P eutinger Table ( Thantia i s now a cceptably i dentified w ith T hughrt a l-Jubb) o r i n t he Notitia D ignitatum t hat c ould a pply. He h as overlooked t he possibility t hat among t he u nidentified p lace-names i n Ptolemy' s ( Geography V .16.4) l ist of t owns i n Arabia Petraea t here i s one whose l ocation i s v ery p romising. T hat i s Surattha, which Ptolemy l ocates s outheast of Adrama a nd s outhwest of Bostra, a t h is c o-ordinates 6 9°15'E a nd 3 1°10' N. Obviously no modern s ite c ould b e equated w ith Surattha purely on t he basis o f t hese c o-ordinates, but t he l ocation when p lotted on a g raph ( see F ig.1 above) i s f arther north a nd e ast than a ny other t own i n Arabia Petraea except Bostra. I t i s t empting t o make a t oponymic i dentification w ith Umm a l-Surab, a s ite ( 12km n orthwest of J imäl) v isited b y t he Princeton e xpedition ( Butler [ 1919] 9 5-99) a nd more recently by Geoffrey K ing ( 1982; 1 983). B ut t he a vailable evidence o f occupation i s n o earlier t han t he Byzantine period. This i s t rue a lso f or , Sabhah, s ome 1 4km e ast o f J imgl. J imäl i s t herefore a t own now k nown t o b e f lourishing a t t he t ime ( c.150) t hat P tolemy compiled h is r egister, and i ts possible i dentification w ith Surattha s hould not b e i gnored. Not f ar f rom Umm a l-Jimäl, Thomas Bauzou ( 1986b) r ecorded two n ew milestones f rom t he Via Nova Traiana a ttesting Septimius Vaballathus a s Augustus c .270; t hese c omplement a s imilar d iscovery made earlier i n I srael. A c areful s tudy o f d istances between milestones on t his n orthermost s ection of t he Via Nova h as c onvinced Bauzou t hat the " long s tade" computations made by Kennedy ( 1982: 1 50) are i ncorrect. The y ear 1 81 now s tands o ut a s t he t urning p oint ( literally ) for t he Via Nova. Not o nly do t he many milestones o f t hat year mention road r epair-work ( attested on milestones f rom other e astern p rovinces a s w ell), but mileage d istances a re computed f rom Bostra r ather t han Petra. T he r eason f or t his r eversal o f caput v iae precisely t hen r emains u nclear ( Bauzou [ 1986a]). The road s ystem t o t he east of t he Via Nova was f urther c larified by t he d iscovery o f a made v ia t o t he n ortheast of Umm a l-Quttayn ( Kennedy and MacAdam [ 1986a]). A ssociated with t he road was a milestone o f Tetrarchic date ( Kennedy a nd MacAdam [ 1986b]). A c areful s tudy o f a erial p hotographs a nd a g round survey i ndicate t hat t he n orthern s ector o f Umm a l-Quttayn was i n o rigin a n auxiliary f ort. T he unit s tationed . t here may b e a ttested i n a Latin i nscription f rom t hat s ame s ector o f t he v illage. A s tudy o f t he damaged portion o f t he t ext ( already published t wice) i ndicates t hat i t s hould r ead Cohors I II ( not I ) Augusta Thracum equitata. An i ncomplete Latin i nscription mentioning a v exillation o f Legio I II Cyrenaica was f ound o n the summit o f Tell K ucays f ive km s outh of Quttayn. T hese were among t he results o f a s urvey o f t hat a rea c onducted by D avid K ennedy and myself, and w ill b e p ublished
i n
t he
t wo
a rticles
1 7
j ust
c ited.
A f ull a ccount o f t he multi-season ( 1972-76) excavation of Jawa was published by Helms ( 1981). P erhaps t he most i mportant c ontribution o f t hat work w as t he knowledge g ained of t he water-gathering a nd s torage t echniques u sed by t he i nhabitants o f t hat a ncient c ity. Might i t be t hat t hese extensive ruins evoked a s ense of mystery even i n c lassical a ntiquity, a nd t hat t he e nigmatic "polis ? o f Abgar" i n a G reek i nscription " f ound a t n earby Jathum i s a reference t o Jawa? The l ocal f olk o f t he r egion a re v ery f ond o f a ttributing a ncient r emains t o " the old men" o f t he p ast. 1 9 F arther y et t o t he e ast, n ear t he ruins o f Qasr Burquc, Winnett a nd Harding ( 1978) 5 14 f ound a Safaitic * g raffito i n which t hey r ead a r eference t o a rhwy ( Ruhawi), i .e. a man o f Edessa, c apital o f Osrhoene. Jamme ( 1979) 5 25-527 believes t he " Edessene" i s a p hantom, a nd p roposes i nstead t hat t he r eference i s t o a l ocal t ribe. Two p reliminary surveys of s ites w ithin t he Jordanian , Hawrän a nd t he a rea d irectly s outh a nd e ast o f there h ave now b een published by Geoffrey K ing ( 1982; 1 983). T hese a re part o f a c o-ordinated r egional survey of a rchaeological s ites i n Jordan; s ee my c omments in C hapter V , below. The K ing s urveys a re e specially i mportant f or t heir careful attention t o evidence o f c ontinuity i n occupation a t t he s ites v isited. Umayyad c eramics, i f not a rchitecture, a re a ssociated with earlier r emains a t most of t he s ites i ncluded i n t he survey. T he e vidence continues t o g row t hat t he p rosperity a ttested f or t he Byzantine e ra i n t he l ava-lands extended i nto t he e arly I slamic period. There i s a n i dentifiable h iatus o nly at t he onset o f t he Abbasid a ge ( 750), a nd t he explanation for t his i s f ar f rom c lear. The t entative c onclusions o f t he K ing survey i ndicate t hat many, i f n ot a ll, of t he major towns i n t he Jordanian Hawrän were abandoned a t the t ime of t he Abbasid t akeover. S ince t hese t owns l ay along the major t rade route t o i nner Arabia v ia t he A zraq o asis and t he Wadi S irhän, t heir e conomic existance was t ied t o the f low of c ommercial t raffic t o a nd f rom t he Hawrän. One cannot rule out a natural c alamity s uch a s *earthquake. James Sauer ( 1981) noted t hat a number o f a rchaeological s ites i n northwestern Jordan s how s igns o f earthquake d amage a ssociated with s eismic a ctivity documented i n 7 47 p recisely. Further evidence f or t he w ide-ranging e ffects of t his may be t he c ollapsed f armhouse r ecently e xcavated i n t he tell at Bostra. The house dates t o t he l ate U mayyad
1 9 AE ( 1956) 1 83 = S EG XVI 8 19. T he v ariant reading i n place of polis p roposed b y S chwabe ( 1954) seems h ighly i mprobable g iven t he s imple a nd s traightforward G reek of t he i nscription. Abgar i s a c ommon n ame a ttested i n G reek ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 7 ), i n Nabataean ( Cantineau [ 1932] 7 0) and i n P almyrene ( Stark [ 1971] 1 , 6 3). There i s no n eed to a ssociate i t with t he r oyal f amily of Edessa/Urfa. Maitland ( 1927). 19
1 8
p eriod a nd t here i s n o e vidence of r ebuilding ( Seeden [ 1983]). But t here i s a s yet no evidence f or major d estruction t hroughout t he region. I t may b e t hat a n atural c alamity coupled w ith t he i nability of a new r egime i n Baghdad t o c ope w ith t he p roblems of a d istant p rovince l ed to s ocial c haos a nd a r esurgence o f banditry. Security must have b een r e-established a t s ome point s ince t he l ater A rabic s ources t ake f or g ranted the f low o f c ommerical t raffic a long t he s ame a ncient r oute. K ing ( 1983) h as a lso d iscovered ecclesiastical c ontinuity i n t he a rea by demonstrating t hat Byzantine c hurches i n s ome v illages ( e.g. Umm a l-Surab) were e ither c onverted i nto mosques ( a s quare minaret i s t he most s triking e arly f eature), o r p erhaps, a s a t Hor ns i n n orthern S yria, c hurch a nd mosque " were s imply t wo *halves o f t he s ame building" ( H. K ennedy [ 1985] 1 5). All o f t his survey work has been s ummed up n icely by K ing i n a r etrospective p aper ( 1986) f irst g iven a t t he B iläd a l-Sham c onference i n c Ammän i n March, 1 985. The Umayyad p eriod i n Jordan i s only j ust b eginning t o b e i nvestigated b eyond t he obvious s pectacular s ites i n t he A zraq depression ( Hillenbrand [ 1982]). F r. P iccerillo ( 1984) has shown c learly t hat t he Byzantine t radition o f c hurch mosaics, and by a ssociation t he whole o f Byzantine c ulture, c ontinued t o f lourish well i nto t he e ighth c entury u nder b enevolent Umayyad p atronage.
3 .
The Road System and
the Peutinger Table
It h as l ong b een k nown t hat a major r oad-building p rogram i n t he border a rea b etween t he p rovinces o f Syria a nd Arabia was i nitiated e arly i n t he r eign o f Marcus Aurelius. One i mportant purpose o f t he road was t o f acilitate t he movement o f m ilitary p ersonnel a nd equipment b etween t he two p rovinces. One s ection of t he r oad f rom D amascus t o Bostra t raversed T rachonitis f rom n orthwest t o s outheast. This meant t hat t roops c ould b e moved i nto t hat t roublesome t erritory swiftly f rom e ither d irection. The s econdary benefit f rom a ny military road was t he s ecure p assage of c ivilian a nd c ommercial t raffic, a lthough even t hat could not b e guaranteed. Safe r oads maintained a nd monitored by t he p rovincial a uthorities r esulted i n t he r apid expansion of t he r egion's agricultural e conomy a nd t he consequent d evelopment o f u rbanisation. Both o f t hose i ssues a re t reated a t g reater l ength i n Chapter I I, where I d iscuss t he p articular i mpact o f t he t rans-Lejä r oad. 2° 2 ° I am e specially g rateful t o M . Thomas Bauzou, whose p aper presented a t t he Valbonne c olloquium ( Bauzou [ 1986a]) w as of g reat a ssistance i n p reparing t his s ection. He h as g enerously s hared, i n conversation and c orrespondence, h is t horough k nowledge o f t he r oad s ystem i n t he Hawrän, which i s t he s ubject o f a doctoral d issertation now i n p rogress.
1 9
Though i t i s t he Damascus-cAmmän r outes t hat a re of i nterest here, t here i s some l ess c ertain evidence t hat road-building ( or a t t he l east r enovation of e xisting l ocal roads) i n t he Golan a rea was u ndertaken a t t he very s ame t ime. Urman " has summarised p ast a nd r ecent r esearch on t he r oad s ystem i n t he Golan. While much r emains t o be done, i t i s b ecoming c lear t hat work on one o f t he main roads f rom t he Golan t o t he Hawrän, i .e. f rom Caesarea Paneas t o Bostra, t ook place a t p recisely t he same t ime t hat t he t rans-Lejä h ighway p roject b egan. Urman h as published f or t he f irst t ime t he t ext 2 2 o f a milestone f ound i n a v illage near t he r oad a nd which h e believes was t aken f rom t he roadside by t he l ocal i nhabitants. I t d ates t o 1 62 p recisely, a nd parallels a nother Latin t ext of s imilar date f rom t he G adara-Adraa-Bostra r oad published nearly s eventy y ears a go. " That t he major r oads i n t he a rea were l inked i s d iscussed b elow. I t i s necessary to note h ere only t hat t he d earth o f d ated milestones f rom t he Golan makes this d iscovery s o i mportant. Urman i s r ightly very r eluctant t o d raw c onclusions f rom t he scraps of evidence f or t he road-system s o f ar available, b ut i s f irmly i n agreement w ith o ther r ecent s tudies o n t he p robable routes and what s ettlements l ay a long t hem. What p rompted t he i mperial/provincial authorities t o undertake j ust then major modifications of t he existing road network remains t otally obscure. T here i s a s y et no evidence t hat t he new road c onstruction r esulted i n a buildup of m ilitary forces i n t he a rea o r t hat i t p layed any role i n Near Eastern military a ffairs a t a l1. 2 " B ut i t does s eem c lear that t he g ap i n t he e astern road s ystem between Bostra a nd Damascus, a nd p erhaps b etween Scythopolis a nd Damascus, p rompted t he massive program t hat e nsued. S ince Damascus was n ot a c entral g arrison f or t he Syrian military, i ts major b enefit i n being l inked more d irectly w ith Bostra a nd P alestine must have b een
2 1 ( 1985) 1 06-128. F igs. 4 6-50 ( pp.114-115) s how sections o f made roads i n various parts o f t he Golan. The i dentity o f a ll a s Roman i s y et t o b e e stablished, t hough remains. o f anepigraphic milestones h ave b een f ound o n t wo. U rman ( 1985) 1 33 note 5 4. The s tone was f ound i n 1 973. Only a f ew km away i s a " fort" a t K hirbet al-Sarbükh which i s n oted ( ibid. 1 10) but n either d escribed nor photographed. Thomsen ( 1917) 3 2 no.66. Contra I saac ( 1978) 5 0 who i nsisted t hat t he o utbreak o f war w ith Parthia i n 1 61/162 p rompted t he r oad-building p rogram, a nd s uggested t hat i ts c oordinator was Nicomedes, t he f oster-father o f Lucius Verus, who h ad b een praefectus vehicularum p rior t o t he war a nd c ame e ast w ith V erus on c ampaign. This i s making much o f c oincidence. S ee t he more subdued approach i n I saac a nd Roll ( 1982) 9 2 a nd n ote 1 4. 22
23
24
2 0
c ommercial. By t he end o f t he s econd c entury t he need t o l ink Bostra ( and Damascus) w ith a p rotected road t o Azraq ( and the Wadi S irhän) may h ave p rompted t he Severan r oad-building p rogram i n t hat a rea. But i n o rder t o u nderstand t he overall d evelopment o f t he r oad s ystem i n a nd near t he H awrän, 2 5 one must f irst n ote t he r oad-building work c ompleted i n t he a ftermath of t he a nnexation o f N abataea. Milestones f rom p rovincia Arabia d eclare t hat by 1 14 a p aved military r oad was c onstructed a f inibus Syriae- usque a d mare Rubrum. " " To t he Red Sea" c an mean only one t hing - t he road t erminated i n t he f ar s outh a t t he gulf o f c Aqabä, more s pecifically a t t he port o f Aela. But what i s meant by " from t he borders of Syria"? The border b etween t he p rovinces o f Arabia a nd Syria c annot b e p recisely f ixed a t t his e arly date, but s ome l ine of d emarcation was e stablished a cross t he Hawrän f rom t he G olan i n t he west t o t he Jebal a l-cArab i n t he e ast. The A rabian c apital Bostra has w ith good r eason been i dentified a s t he caput v iae o f t he n orthern Arabian road s ystem. But t he Via Nova Traiana o f t he milestone t exts i s a ttested o nly f rom Bostra south t hrough o r near t he known w ay-stations s uch a s Thantia, P hiladelphia, P etra a nd u ltimately to Aela. 2 7 Was t here a n orthern s egment o f t his r oad-system c onstructed a t t he s ame t ime which connected B ostra w ith Damascus? And i f s o, which route d id i t f ollow? Between Bostra a nd Damascus only t hree routes a re p ossible. One i s west o f t he Lejä, v ia Der c äa nd roughly p arallel t o t he modern H ijäz r ailway l ine b uilt e arly i n t his century. A nother i s e ast o f t he Lejä, v ia t he Jebal a l-cArab and t he Wadi Lusä, u nder o r n ear t he modern road t raversing t he s ame r egion. The t hird p ossible route i s t he most d irect, i .e. a cross t he l ava-fields o f t he Lejä. R emains o f a Roman road were a lleged t o exist on t he w estern r oute, b ut n o p hysical t races o f t his road h ave b een recorded. S chumacher 2 8 described t wo s egments o f
2 5 Apart f rom occasional r eferences i n t he early r eports, no s ystematic survey o f a ny Roman roads north o f B ostra was p ublished u ntil Poidebard ( 1928), l ater i ncorporated ( with some omissions) i nto Poidebard ( 1934). S ee a lso Dunand ( 1933), Kennedy ( 1982) 1 55-159 and B auzou ( 1986a). E .g. I LS I II ( 2) 5 834, 5 845a. F or a d iscussion o f t he military/commercial i mportance, s ee Raschke ( 1978) 6 48 a nd note 9 66. Butler ( 1911) v ii-xvi. For t he milestones t hen k nown, s ee Magie ( 1911) xvii-xxviii a nd Thomsen ( 1917) 3 4-57. More r ecently a nd w ith n ew milestones r ecorded, s ee K ennedy ( 1982) 1 42-159 a nd Bauzou ( 1986b). ( 1886) 1 8-19 and map i n f rontispiece. 26
27
28
2 1
" ancient Roman road" i n t he Golan: ( 1) a n e ast-west s tretch b etween t he Wadi Ruqqäd a nd t he Wadi Allän a nd ( 2) a north-south s tretch b etween T asil a nd N awä. Just e ast of c Ayn Daqqär t he e ast-west s egment f orked t o t he southeast, but i ts eventual destination was v ery u ncertain. T his i nformation was n oted i n Thomsen, 2 9 who a lso described other b ranch r oads i n t his r egion, a nd postulated a main Roman a rtery b etween Scythopolis i n P alestine v ia N eve, Aere ( al-Sanamayn) a nd north t o D amascus. Even s o, Thomsen's c areful s urvey noted n o c onnecting r oad b etween e ither Aere or Neve t o Adraa, a nd t hence on t o Bostra . It s eems l ikely t hat only a d irt t rack existed i n t he s econd c entury. I n s hort, t here i s s till n o evidence for a major road l ink between Bostra a nd Damascus v ia t he w estern Hawrän. I ndeed, i ts a bsence only u nderscores t he g rowing conviction, r ightly emphasised b y B owersock " t hat t he major t rade route north f rom Petra to D amascus was o riented t hrough t he e astern Hawrän. Butler n oted r emains o f a Roman road n orthwest f rom Bostra a s f ar a s K harabäh ( 5 km), which he guessed " passes a round t he s outhwest a ngle o f t he Ledjä a nd t hen t urned northward t oward Damascus". 9 1 No t race of t his road has s ince been s een, but t he R oman b ridge over t he Wadi Z aydi a t K harabäh " t estifies t o a road f rom Bostra passing i n t hat d irection. As f ar a s I k now, not a s ingle m ilestone h as e ver b een r ecorded i n s itu i n t he Hawrän p roper except t o t he s outh a nd s outheast of Bostra.. Thomsen's milestone n o.61, o f Tetrarchic date, was f ound j ust n orth o f S acne i n t he Jebal Drüz a nd i s obviously a ssociated w ith t he Strata D iocletiana. T he f our milestones ( two quite f ragmentary) now i n t he c itadel-museum a t Bostra ( IGLS X III 9 100-9103) are a ll of unknown p rovenance. Milestones f rom t he t rans-Lejä r oad a re d iscussed i n Chapter I I, Part 6 . By way of c ontrast, t races o f buildings c onnected w ith a Roman road h ave b een noted e ast o f t he L ejä. Unfortunately, no detailed description o r photograph was published by t he d iscoverer o f t his r oad. " The t hird possible route, t he t rans-Lejä h ighway t o Suwaydä and t hence due s outh t o Bostra h as now b een t raced i n i ts
( 1917) 3 3-34. ( 1983) 1 78. ( 1919) 4 40. Ibid. 3 04-305 and i llus.273. Poidebard ( 1934) I 3 3: " A l a l isiere o rientale du c hamp d e l ave, u ne r oute d e r ocade e tait e tablie l e l ong du Wadi Louwä. On e n v oit e ncore l es t races d e p avage e t l es t ours d e g arde e ntre Oumm a z-Zeytoün ... e t Bouräq. Les t ours d e g arde d e c ette v oie a nnexe Bosra-Sahba-BouräqDamas e taient e n l iaison a vec l es t ours d e l a vole d u Leja et a vec l es p ostes r omaines du G ebel Hawr än. n 29
30
31
32
33
2 2
e ntirety t hrough g round a nd a erial s urveys. " ' There i s no q uestion t hat i t constituted a major e ngineering p roject i n u nusual i f not u nique e nvironmental s urroundings. T he d ate o f construction a nd exact o rientation o f t his r oad a re now b oth well-established. Both c onsiderations a re e ssential i n understanding t he witness o f t he only Roman road-map d epicting t his a rea, t he f amous Tabula Peutingeriana. I n p urpose, design and date, i t d iffers remarkably f rom t he maps designed f or Ptolemy' s G eography, d iscussed i n P art 1 o f t his c hapter. A portion of t he Peutinger Table d epicts t he main r oute ( and the d istances s eparating major s tops) between A ela and Damascus ( see F igs. 3 and 4 ). 6 5 Twenty-four Roman m iles north o f Philadelphia t he main t runk r oad splits a t a p lace marked Hatita ( Khirbit Samra). One b ranch c ontinues n ortheast to Rhose ( unidentified), Chanata ( Canatha/ Q anawät), Aenos ( disputed i dentification) a nd u ltimately, D amascus. The o ther branch goes northward t o Thantia ( Thughrat a l-Jubb) a nd Bostris ( Bostra/Busrä a l-Shim). F rom Bostra another road proceeds westward ( not correctly i llustrated on t he l inear p attern o f t he map), p asses t hrough Adraha ( Dercä) and t hence c ontinues s outhwestward v ia Capitolias ( Bayt a l-Ras?) t hrough Gadara ( Umm-Qäys) a cross t he Jordan n ear t he mouth o f t he H ieromax ( Yarmük) R iver to Tiberias a nd eventually on t o i nterior a nd c oastal c ities o f Palestine. Some i nteresting f eatures become apparent a t once, e ither by t heir i nclusion o r absence f rom t his map. I t i s i mprobable t hat t he road t o Damascus on t he P eutinger Table a ctually c rossed t he Lejä, and i s t o b e i dentified w ith t he r oad investigated by Dunand a nd Poidebard. The epigraphic a nd associated a rchaeological evidence p ublished by t hese t wo scholars a rgues s trongly f or t he i nitial date o f c onstruction of t he t rans-Lejä h ighway at o r a bout 1 60. 5 6 T he map evidence supports t his i ndirectly. The r oad on t he m ap runs d irectly s outh f rom Aenos t o Chanata t o Rhose. B ut the most r ecent and t horough survey o f t he Roman road o n t he g round a sserts t hat t he t rans-Lejä r oad p assed q uite n ear Suwaydä ( ten km s outhwest o f Canatha) b efore t urning s outh to Bostra:
oü
La voie d e Soada ä Bostra p artait d e l ' endroit a boutissait l a voie du Leja. Les i ngenieurs
Bauzou ( 1986a) now s upersedes a ll e arlier s tudies. S ee note 2 0 above. The edition o f t his map by K onrad M iller i s n ow s uperseded by t he i mportant f acsimile e dition of Weber ( 1976), d iscussed by Bowersock ( 1983) 1 67 note 1 0. Dunand ( 1933) 5 52-553, Poidebard ( 1934) 3 2-33 f ollowing Dunand. Yet both a rgued t hat t he r oad was a l ogical Trajanic extension o f t he Via Nova f rom Bostra t o D amascus. There i s a s yet no evidence whatsoever o f t his. 35
36
2 3
romains l ' ont voulue r ectiligne e ntre l es deux v illes. Un coude de 4 ° ä l ' horizon de Bostra c orrespond ä u ne correction de v isee, afin que l a vole s e din ge exactement vers l ' emplacement d u t hegtre. Cette route n ' a pas l ivre de milliares, mais e ile a c ertainement d t re c onstruite ä l a f in du l ie s iecle au p lus t ard pour a ssurer l a l iaison entre l ' Arabie e t l a Syria. 3 7 I n a ddition, t he mileage s hown on t he map b etween Chanata and Aenos does not agree with t he a ctual m ileage ( in Roman measurement) between Qanawät a nd t he place-name l ong a go p roposed to b e t he correct f orm of Aenos, n amely Phaena ( Masmayah). David Kennedy h as a rgued persuasively t hat t his i dentification i s misleading, and has p roposed i nstead t hat t he v illage of Buräq ( perhaps t he Byzantine Constantia ), a s ite r ich i n epigraphy and extensive r uins, might b e a more l ikely candidate for t he mysterious Aenos of t he Peutiger Table. I ts l ocation s ome t en km northeast of Phaena brings i t closer t o t he 3 7 Roman miles which the map computes to be the d istance b etween Chanata and Aenos. " Even so, t he i dentification o f Aenos remains at p resent u ncertain, but t he c ircumstantial e vidence i ndicates t hat t he Canatha-Damascus r oad on t he Peutinger Table s kirted t he e astern e dge of t he Lejä, and m ay be i dentified with t he t races of " Roman" road noted b y Pere Poidebard. 3 9 I n a ddition t o t he Via Nova t o t he s outh, the Adraa road t o t he west, and t he road northwest to K harabäh a lready noted, t he Princeton expedition recorded t hree other a ncient roads f rom Bostra. Two r an north and northeast, to Suwaydä and K afer r espectively; t he t hird ran due e ast t o Salkhad. " The road t o Suwaydä was f ollowed only a s f ar a s t he v illage of Jimarin a nd t he Roman b ridge t here across t he Wadi Z aydi, just two km north of B ostra. This b ridge, and i ts counterpart a t K harabäh, are u ndated
3 7 Bauzou ( 1986a). Some h int o f t his i s f ound, perceptively, i n Rey ( 1860) 1 63: " Nous suivons les t races d ' une äncienne vole romaine, qui p robablement se d irigeait de Soueida sur Bosrah or sur Kureyeh; c ' est u n point q ue j e n ' ai malheureusement pu f ixer d ' une maniere positive." I t was not until t he Princeton surveys between 1 904-1909 that t he northern connection of Suwaydä w ith Phaena w as made ( albeit i ncorrectly by-passing Aerita/cAhire t oo far t o the east). S ee Butler ( 1919) 4 40 and t he map by F . A. N orris
f acing
p .403. Kennedy ( 1982) 1 57-158. Bauzou ( 1986a) concurs with t his by p roposing t hat t he d istance g iven on t he P T f rom Damascus t o Aenos ( xxiiii) could e asily be a corruption for xxuii, i .e. MP 2 7 which i s t he exact d istance on the g round 38
t o Buräc i. S ee note 3 3 above. Butler ( 1919) 3 00, 39
40
1 06.
2 4
F ig. 3 : A portion of Segmentum IX of t he Tabula P eutingeriana depicting roads and d istances i n t he Near East. The t op p anel s hows t he roads i n and near provincia Arabia; t he l ower panel s hows t he roads between Antioch and t he Euphrates. Reproduced f rom Butler ( 1920) 9 6 w ith p ermission of t he e ditors of The Geographical Review.
2 5
4 : From Butler ( 1920) 9 7 with permission o f the editors of The Geographical Review. Butler a ccepted w ith r eservations Miller's ( 1916) 8 18 belief t hat Bostra = Rhose, a nd t hat Aenos = Phaena. Fig.
2 6
b ut both a re c learly contemporary w ith t he b ridge of 1 64 a cross t he s ame w adi f arther west at Tayyiba ( see note 4 7 b elow). The road t o K afer was not i nvestigated at a ll, and t he Bostra-Salkhad road described only a s f ar a s t he ruins a t B urd, s ix . k m east of Bostra. As noted above, no m ilestones h ave yet been found a ssociated w ith any of t he r oads f rom Bostra except t o t he south. I n addition, none o f t he northern and eastern roads f rom Bostra i s depicted o n t he PT. Yet t he western road, f rom Bostra to Adraa, i s m arked c learly on t hat map, a s i s a road f rom Bostra d irectly to Philadelphia. All of t his u nderscores t he c omposite quality of t he P eutinger Table a s we now have i t. I t i s not a document d escribing t he r oad system o f t he Empire a t a ny one t ime, b ut at various t imes. Some of t he roads depicted antedate t he creation of Roman Arabia, but others particularly t he t rans-Lejä h ighway - built l ater t hat s ame century, a re not s hown. Still other roads l ogically i n u se prior t o 1 06, e .g. Bostra-Salkhad, a re a lso not s hown. One must t herefore proceed with caution regarding t he road-system on t he PT. The map' s i ntention was not t o s how every road, e specially not e very Roman-made road. I ts purpose was c learly to a id t he t raveller by i ndicating t he major routes a nd their respective distances, a s well a s noting t hose w ay-stations which offered sustenance a nd s ecure l odging. T hus t he names o f many well-known c ities a re missing, but t he names of numerous otherwise u nattested s ites a re i ncluded. What we might consider t o be important roads b etween c ities a re missing. Roman-built roads a re easily i dentifiable on t he g round, and most can be dated e ither by reference t o i nitial construction ( e.g. the Via Nova) o r by notices of r epair ( e.g. t he t rans-Lejä road) on milestones. The B ostra-Adraa road existed l ong before Roman Arabia, a s d id a road between Adraa and Philadelphia, and between Adraa a nd Damascus. But Adraa on the PT has connections only w ith Bostra t o t he east, and Capitolias-Tiberias t o t he w est. Since t here i s to date no evidence t hat a Roman r oad b etween Bostra-Adraa-Capitolias-Tiberias was constructed b efore the t ime of Marcus Aurelius, one must l ook t o Bostra a s the answer t o why t he east-west r oad connections f rom A draa a re emphasised on t he PT. This road r epresents t he s ole a rtery b etween t he Hawrän a nd Palestine, paralleling i n importance t he east-west roads between Damascus-Caesarea P aneas-Tyre f arther north, and t he two Trans-Negev roads. B ut the Bostra-Philadelphia road i s not t he s ole a rtery b etween t he Hawrän and c Ammän. The Canatha-Philadelphia r oad i s clearly shown v ia Rhose, a nd t he d istance f rom Bostra to Rhose would be minimal. The Bostra-Philadelphia r oad deserves s ome careful consideration, not l east o f a ll f or the date of t he PT's segmentum IX.
t he
Between Petra p re-existing
and Philadelphia t he Via Nova overlaps caravan route s till known t oday a s t he
2 7
K ing' s H ighway; i t p asses t hrough Negla ( near Shabak) and R ababatora ( Rabba). North of Philadelphia we cannot b e so s ure. T he l ine of t he K ing' s H ighway t here must have i ncluded Adraa a nd Damascus, but t he s tops i n between are u ncertain. The most d irect road between Philadelphia and A draa would b e v ia Jerash and Ramtha. But both o f t hose s ites l ie t o t he west of t he Via Nova, j ust a s t hey are west o f t he s ection of t he H ijgz r ailway connecting Damascus, Der c äand c Ammän. Both t he Via Nova and t he road on t he PT p roceed northeast f rom Philadelphia to B ostra t hrough t hree n amed way-stations ( Gadda, Hatita, T hantia) a t specified d istances f rom each other. All three s ites h ave b een successfully i dentified with named localities in modern Jordan: Hadid, Khirbet Samrg' a nd Thughrat a l-Jubb r espectively. • Thus the road i ndicated on t he PT a nd the k nown p ath of t he Via Nova coincide exactly. Bostra would not be a l ogical s top a long t he ancient road b etween Philadelphia a nd Damascus v ia Adraa ( the western r oute), a nd i s c learly by-passed by t he PT' s road to Damascus via Canatha ( the e astern route). Bostra' s appearance on t he PT c an only mean t hat segmentum IX of t hat map was r evised between t he completion of t he Via Nova ( 114) and t he maj or roadbuilding program i n the l ava-lands f ifty years l ater. That t his was a revision of an earlier map i s b eyond d ispute; O . A. W. D ilke 4 2 has pointed out t hat the appearance of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Oplontis on t he PT means t hat i ts a rchetype i s p rior t o 7 9. ''
The implications a re therefore clear. When the prototype of t he PT was c reated, Bostra was a n unimportant town w ithin t he Nabataean , Hawrän. There i s to d ate no s uggestion that i t achieved any distinction until its a ssociation with t he Nabataean monarchy l ate i n the r eign of Rabbel I I, probably ( as I a rgue i n Chapter I I) following t he death of Agrippa I I i n t he early 9 0's. Before its e levation to t he status of polis and p rovincial capital in 1 06, Bostra h ad only that momentary d istinction t o its c redit. The ancient c ity of Canatha, c harter member o f the Decapolis, held p ride of place i n t he l ava-lands and would have been the f ocus o f commercial t raffic i n the e astern Hawrän and an important s top on t he outer route to Damascus. There i s t he evidence of t he PT itself to support t his. The location and s tatus o f Adraa, a nother c ity of t he Decapolis, meant t hat i t f ulfilled a s imilar role i n t he western Hawrän and would h ave been a major stop for caravan t raffic on the i nner route between Philadelphia a nd Damascus. As striking a s i s t he appearance of Bostra on t he PT, t he t otal absence of Gerasa/Jerash i s j ust a s remarkable. Whether or not Gerasa l ay a long t he l ine of t he old K ing' s H ighway, t here were certainly roads connecting i t with
41 L e 2
Bowersock ( 1983) ( 1985) 1 14.
1 75-176.
2 8
A draa and Philadelphia b efore t he construction o f t he Via Nova. The absence o f G erasa f rom t he PT i s l ess u nderstandable t han t hat o f minor c ities o f t he D ecapolis, e .g. Hippos a nd D ium. P erhaps t he explanation l ies i n t he r evision o f t he PT p roposed above, i .e. t he s hift e astward o f t he major r oute l eft t he c ity r elatively i solated. But t here i s p lenty o f evidence " on t he g round" t hat G erasa was c onnected by Roman-built b ranch r oads t o Bostra, Adraa a nd P hiladelphia. At l east one b ranch r oad west o f t he Via Nova t o G erasa i s k nown. Butler described a j unction b etween t he Via Nova s outh o f Bostra " about t wo miles n orthwest" o f t he v illage o f Summäqiyät; t his i s marked c learly on h is map o f t he southern H awrän. " He d id not a ttempt t o f ollow t he r oad, or t o p roject where i t might u ltimately l ead, e xcept t o n ote t hat i t r an s outhwest. T homsen l ater p ublished a g roup of s even m ilestones f rom t he s ite o f Q alcat F edän, a bout two-thirds o f t he way b etween Bostra a nd G erasa a nd c learly a ssociated w ith Butler's road. " The e arliest m ilestone ( no. 1 88) i s dated t o 1 62. Thomsen a lso p ublished milestones f rom t he Roman r oad n orth a nd s outh o f G erasa. Of t he t hree f rom t he G erasa-Adraa r oad, o ne ( no. 1 96a) i s dated t o 1 94. O f t he t hirty-seven f rom t he G erasa-Philadelphia road, one ( no. 2 11a) i s dated t o 1 29. A H adrianic date f or t he e ntire r oad b etween Philadelphia a nd Adraa was l ater c onfirmed when S iegfried M ittmann d iscovered f our milestones o f 1 20 north o f G erasa. " M ilitary roadwork b etween 1 20-129 i s a lso a ttested n ear t he l egionary f ortress a t Capocartna i n Judaea. " C apocartna i s depicted on t he PT. The PT c learly t estifies t o a r oad b ranching n ortheastward f rom t he Philadelphia-Bostra v ia, but n o t race o f i t h as yet been s een on t he g round. This road, p assing t hrough Rhose, Chanatha and Aenos a nd on t o D amascus, obviously antedates t he Via Nova. T he BostraS uwaydä-Masmayah-Damascus r oad j ust a s obviously p ostdates t he PT, o r a t t he very l east i ndicates t hat when t he PT was r evised i n t he f ourth c entury o r l ater, t he t rans-Lejä r oad, among others, was n ot a ccounted f or. T his a lso r aises t he question of whether t he r oad l eading west f rom B ostra t hrough Adraa i s a n extension o f t he Via Nova o r a p re-existing r oad k nown t o t he map-maker. The l atter s eems l ikely, s ince t he e arliest d ateable Roman a ssociation w ith t he road i s t he Latin building i nscription f ound n ear t he b ridge over t he Wadi Z aydi a t T ayyiba a nd d ating t o 1 64. 4 7
Butler ( 1930) 3 4. Thomsen ( 1917) 5 9-60. Mittmann ( 1966) 7 4-76. I saac ( 1978) 4 9. Thomsen ( 1917) 3 2 n o.66 ( see n ote 2 3 a bove). P hotographs o f t he b ridge a re p ublished i n B rünnow a nd v on D omaszewski ( 1904-1909) I I 2 45-246 f igs. 8 54-857. Fecerunt 43
4 4 45
46
47
2 9
T here a re no r oads s hown e ast o f t he Via Nova other t han t he b ranch t o Rhose a nd Canatha. Rhose must mark a j unction, p resumably w ith t he Bostra-Salkhad r oad not d epicted, a nd i s n ot t o b e equated w ith Bostra. " E ast o f t hat l ine t he map i s blank, a nother i ndication t hat i ts d epiction o f t he road s ystem i n t he H awrän i s prior t o 1 60 o r e ven e arlier. But t races o f r oads l eading northwest t o Bostra f rom t he a rea e ast o f t he Via Nova h ave been r eported. I n February, 1 905 Butler n oted what he c alled " a Roman r oad" which h e f ollowed on h orseback i n m iserable weather b etween t he v illages o f S imj a nd Qasil o n h is r eturn j ourney t o Bostra. " He g ave n o d escription o f t he r oad, a nd d id not a ttempt t o photograph i t. His w itness, however, i s i mportant, s ince h e was b y t hen a n experienced observer of Roman roads. The e vidence f or a r oad network e ast o f t he V ia Nova c ontinues t o a ccumulate. 5° A b ranch road east t o Umm a l-Jimäl h as l ong b een k nown. T he d iscovery o f a Tetrarchic milestone a f ew k ilometres e ast o f Umm a l-Jimäl h as j ust b een a nnounced, a nd i s t o b e published b y S .T. P arker. 5 1 This must h ave c ome f rom a road c onnecting Umm a l-Jimäl a nd Umm a l-Quttayn. Milestones o f t he s ame date were n oted i n Umm a l-Q atayn a nd Salkhad. I n t he s ummer o f 1 985 D avid K ennedy a nd r found t races o f a made Roman road, and a Tetrarchic milestone a ssociated w ith i t, s lightly northwest o f Quttayn. 5 3 We c ould t race t he l ine o f t he r oad only a s ' tar a s t he Syrian border, but i t o bviously c ontinued t o Bostra. The r emaining r oads t o t he e ast a re l ess c ertain, but i t i s now evident t hat Severan military c onstruction i n t he a rea o f Azraq and a t H allabät 5 4 meant t hat r oad l inks ( perhaps u npaved) w ith t he Via Nova t hrough Umm a l-Quttayn
( continued) i n t he i nscription r efers t o t he bridge, but i t s eems p robable t hat t he r oad was re-surfaced at t his t ime. • " A rgued l ong a go by Miller ( 1916) 8 18 and more r ecently by Bauzou ( 1986b). K ennedy ( 1982) 1 58 t hought that a place- name Rhosos was " unattested i n Syria or Arabia". Rhosos i s i n f act t he name o f a well-attested s ite on t he Gulf o f Alexandretta i n n orth-western Syria. The P T' s Rhose n eed not b e a v illage o r t own, b ut s imply a c ross-roads pandocheion o r mansio o ffering water, f ood a nd s helter. T he r uins a t Burd ( Butler [ 1919] 1 06) f it s uch a d escription q uite well, b ut t he s ite i s t oo c lose t o Bostra. Butler ( 1930) 3 9. For a c onvenient s ummary, s ee K ennedy ( 1982) 1 59-168 a nd my c omments i n P art 2 o f t his c hapter. Z PE 6 2 ( 1986) f orthcoming. M ittmann ( 1970) 2 04-206 no.51. K ennedy and MacAdam ( 1986a; 1 986b). K ennedy ( 1980c); P arker ( 1980) 8 66. 47
49
50
51
52
53
54
3 0
or Dayr a l-Kahf were n ecessary. T he d etails o f t his a re better l eft t o a s tudy o f c entral Jordan. The Strata Diocletiana " c . 3 00 i ncorporated t he p re-existing road network north f rom Azraq and passed i nto p rovincia Syria v ia the Jebal Drüz. I t i s p ossible t hat Shaqqä/ Maximianopolis h ad s erved a s t he caput v iae f or t his r oad perhaps a s early a s t he Severan p eriod. This would help t o explain i ts e ventual r ise i n s tatus t o polis u nder a n imperial n ame. " The Strata t urned s harply n ortheast a fter Sacne, toward Jebal S ays i n t he S afa r egion. Though t he t rans-Lejä r oad i s n ot i ndicated on t he PT, a r oad o f s ome s ort i s s hown running f rom Aenos t o Damascus. No milestones h ave y et b een r ecorded b etween t he northern Lejä a nd Damascus, but Thomsen ( no.60) c atalogued two f ragmentary Latin t exts ( CIL I II 1 97 a & b ) f rom Najhä s outheast of Damascus; t hese date t o D iocletian a nd Constantine I r espectively. H is m ilestone map ( Tafel 1 ) places Najhä ( "Nedschhä") on t he Buräq-Damascus r oad depicted on t he PT, parallel t o t he Phaena-Damascus r oad which Dunand d id not explore. To Thomsen's e vidence f or a road of some s ort we may a dd t he Latin military i nscription f rom Ghuslaniyya d iscovered e arlier t his c entury b ut only recently published. " The p rovenance o f t he s tone, which dates to 1 86/187, i s j ust a f ew km e ast o f N ajhä a nd may b e a ssociated with t hat road. The road system t hroughout t he l ava-lands was extensive a nd i mportant ( see F igs. 5 a nd 6 ). I t was garrisoned, patrolled a nd r epaired r egularly. The g aps i n our knowledge o f i t a re s lowly b eing f illed, but i ts e ssential i mportance t o t he s ocial a nd e conomic h istory o f t he Hawrän c annot b e overestimated.
55 56 57
Dunand ( 1931); K ennedy a nd Kennedy a nd MacAdam ( 1985) AE ( 1978) 8 18.
3 1
G regory ( 1985) 2 39-294. 1 06 a nd n ote 2 1.
F ig . 1 . — C ar te e ch i emat ique d es
V Oli ,
d e l a S yr ie d u s ud ( c ar tograph ic C FA . 1 '
Fig. 5 : The Roman r oad-system between Damascus a nd c Ammän a ccording t o t he l atest knowledge. The s ection o f road l eading northwest f rom Umm a l-Quttayn marked a s " hypothethique" i s now c ertain. and n ear Umm a l-Jimäl a re permission f rom a map d rawn CNRS/CRA,
Valbonne,
France.
3 2
New m ilestones found there a dded. Reproduced with b y Mme. S intes-Aioutz for
o
V N u e .r2S
01
ZRAO SH ISHAN
4 )
V I a70 0 1 VI
G
o < I x . . a ( i )
z < 2 c 0
--
( 5-
w
7 :
r
> _ L i.
' '.,
, -
, „ „ . „ / % ye
J J
( ; Y
4 ' e . , ' 9 , e f l it2 ,. .
, i i„ „ . • •i i
/ ,
4 h 1 1 1 01 ' I II
-
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'
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„ ,, , , - /, o i , „ " \ \ \ s ', . N ) . , . ., , 1 „ ,. . \ \ * \ , , \ \ \ \ 1 , h; , -, , : , • : , : — . , . ., . , • \ ,, , 1 , , "
i ,„ P m\ \
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• -
Fig. 1 0b: Map s howing t he l ocation o f T ribes a nd C lans a ttested i n t he e pigraphy o f t he J ebal D rüz a nd t he Hawran. Numbers c orrespond t o t he R egister, 1 19-146. Map d rawn by Julie K ennedy f rom Butler ( 1919).
1 18
6 .
Register
of
the Tribes
and Clans
The c hart f orm g iven below was c hosen for c larity and easy reference. The register i s i n Greek a lphabetical o rder, with the e xception noted. Reference abbreviations a re a s follows: Wadd. = Waddington, IGLS; N IDH = Dunand ( 1932, 1933a) and t he numbering u sed there; Dev. = Devreese ( 1942); Sartre = S artre ( 1982c); PAES = L ittmann e t a l. ( 1921); Cultes = S ourdel ( 1952); Mission = Dussaud & Macler ( 1903); Unex. Syr. = Burton & Drake ( 1872); AAES = P rentice ( 1908); RAO = Clermont-Ganneau ( 1903); Wright = Wright & Souter ( 1895); S avignac = Savignac & Abel ( 1905); Musee = Dunand ( 1934); B IAL = Parr ( 1971). Under LOCATION i s t he modern p lace-name where the i nscription was f ound, and i n parentheses, an abbreviation o f t he g eographic region ( L= Lejä; J-D = Jebal Drüz; H = H awrän; N = N uqra) and the ancient name i f k nown. Unless otherwise noted, the t ranslation o f the inscription i s my own. In the c ase of a few honourific i nscriptions an excessively lengthy preamble has been omitted. Commentary follows t he t ranslation.
A .
( 1)
TRIBAL NAMES
NAME
Az[...] enoi... c pukt ic
' AZ ,[
REFERENCE N IDH 7 6; SEG VII 1 102; Dev. 2 63; Sartre 7 9.
TRANSLATION: A d edication " of t he t ribe Az...enoi t o Only this much o f the t ext i s extant.
LOCATION c Atil ( J-D) ( Athela)
t he
god
DATE
Lycurgus".
COMMENTARY: Dunand ( NIDH) s ays, "Le nom d e l a t ribu s erait i nteressante ä d eterminer. Malheureusement des l ettres e ssentielles ä s a restitution i l n e subsiste aucune t race". The editor o f SEG suggested ( implausibly) r eading p l At i ZaZ[... P r ivG iv. Oppenheim ( 1939) I 3 47 B 2 notes a t ribe a l-c Azamät ( "in d en älteren Listen Beni c Ezäm g enannt", i bid.. 3 48) i n the Jebal Drüz. Cf. Unex. Syr. 1 60. One p ossible restoration would be Azamenoi. Another p ossibility i s t he t ribe Azd referred to i n t he c ommentary t o Wadd. 2 393 ( see no.20 below): t he restoration then m ight be Azdeienoi o r Azdaenoi. On the Azd s ee now Shahid ( 1979) 3 6-37 a nd Beeston ( 1979) 3 -4.
1 19
( 2)
NAME
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 210; Sartre 7 9.
Aliphenoi 9 1 At i
L OCATION a l-cAjaylat ( J-D) ( Egla)
PA kter r iv0v
DATE
TRANSLATION: " (The ( son)
daughter) of Moarus,
of Entinus, wife of Masechus of t he t ribe Aliphenoi."
COMMENTARY: See the d iscussion above, Part 3 ( Analysis). the related personal names in Littmann ( 1921)
( 3)
NAME
Aou(a) rgnoi 9 1 )(X ) ( sic)
' Aou( a)pcl ev
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 220; Dev. 2 64; Sartre 7 9-80.
To 9 .
R abibelus
t hat
LOCATION Mushannaf ( J-D) ( Nela)
add
DATE
TRANSLATION: " By p rovision of t he syndikos Seus Drogenes, syndikos the t ribe Aou(a)renoi, the public room was built."
o f
COMMENTARY: Waddington commented: " Les l ettres d e l 'inscription sont s i mal faites qu' on ne sait s 'il f aut l ire' AoUöpevöv ou AouopcvMv; l a premiere l ecture m 'a s emble plus p robable". Sartre with good reason emends to Aouarenoi on the b asis o f t he v ariant personal names Aouaros and Auaros a ttested nearby. Cf. Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnika s .v. " Auara".
( 4)
NAME
Askhenoi euXe l
REFERENCE PAES 7 60; Sartre 8 0.
LOCATION Namre ( J-D) ( Namara)
' i tO r r ivev
TRANSLATION: " Aurelius Sabinus, ( this) tomb."
veteran,
of
t he
t ribe
Askhenoi,
DATE
built
COMMENTARY: The editors of PAES believed t he n ame may derive f rom Arabic Hasak. Stephanus ( Ethnika s .v.), quoting Uranius, notes an . " ethnos" known a s ' Axx l ivot, who dwell " on the i sthmus(?) of t he Red Sea". The g eographic l ocation i s not very helpful, but t he name may be a c orruption of Askhenoi. Sartre notes the s imilar personal n ame AGX6V7 1. C f. IGLS X III
9 276.
1 20
( 5)
NAME
Audenoi p uke )
' Avöl iv , 5 5v
TRANSLATION: " Aur(elius) A (oui)tus f rom t he m etrocömia o f Audenoi, built ( this)."
R EFERENCE
LOCATION
W add. 2 393 & 2 393b; D ev. 2 64; S artre 8 0.
Dayr ( L)
a l-Labän
DATE 3 20
( son) o f Atticus, t emple-treasurer, Borechath Sabaön, o f t he t ribe ( 2393b)
" (Another man) a nd P aulus Maximus, f rom t he v illage of M erdocha, o f t he t ribe Audenoi, e rected f rom t he f oundations ( this) magnificent edifice ( a t emple?) a nd ( its) r oof, h aving g enerously donated t heir own t ime, by p rovision of Aumas a nd Amelathus ( his) s on, p riests." ( 2393) COMMENTARY: The Audenoi i s o ne o f t wo t ribes mentioned i n t he s econd t ext, c f. n o.20 below. Ptolemy, G eography 6 ,6 notes a t ribe Oudenoi, but l ocates i t i n Arabia Felix. I t i s v ery p robable t hat this i s j ust a variant spelling o f a r ather c ommon n ame. I t may b e possible to i dentify t he Aouidenoi o f no.23 below w ith e ither o r both o f t hese, but t he t ribal p refix i s l acking. Oppenheim ( 1939) I 3 40 recorded a sub-tribe a l-cAude n ear Damascus. Harding ( 1969) no.87 notes t he S afaitic t ribe d 'l c Awidh a t I l-cIsawi i n t he Harrah. This e ntire t ribe ‘ 7 as apparently f ined by t he Roman authorities f or s ome t ransgression ( Littmann [ 1943] n o.644 and c ommentary). As t he two t exts i llustrate, a t some p oint t he Audenoi s plit, s ince two members l ive i n v illages some d istance apart. This u ndoubtedly h appened t o other t ribes, a nd was a normal p art o f t he s edentarisation p rocess. On t he role o f t hese t ribes ( and v illages) a t t he s anctuary o f Dayr a l-Labän, s ee MacAdam ( 1983) 1 09-111. These t exts a re not d iscussed, surprisingly, by Sourdel ( 1952) 5 4. On v arious r elated p ersonal n ames s ee Wuthnow ( 1930) 2 8-29. David G raf ( 1978) 1 6-17 h as noted t hat members of t he t ribe c Awidh h ave l eft g raffiti i n v illages northeast of P almyra ( in Safaitic) a nd a t Dura-Europus ( in Palmyrene - n ot r egistered i n Stark [ 1971] 1 14). Whether this r eflects a " transhumance pattern" ( cf. L ittmann [ 1943] no.717) i s n ot c ertain. Graf' s a ssertion ( ibid.) t hat t he Dura attestation " provides s upport f or t he military i nvolvement o f t he t ribe a s a g arrison f orce f or Rome" i s overstating t he c ase. But i t i s very l ikely t hat t he gravestone i nscription ( Wadd. 2 196 - OGIS I I 6 16) f rom t he v illage o f Mälikiyah ( in northeastern Auranitis) r ecording a oTpaTlyo‘ im agß awv -m i dgöwv r efers t o a l ocal shaykh ( not malik ) w ho may h ave b een a t ribal l eader o f t he cAwidh. I t i s more t han c oincidental t hat t he Odainathos ( Udaynat) o f no.23 b elow should a lso b e s tyled a strategos.
1 21
( 6)
NAME
Baen[oi] Basv[ f iv?]
c puke )
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 173b; Sartre 8 0.
LOCATION Namre ( J-D) ( Namara)
DATE
TRANSLATION: " (The f unds t ribe
son?) of Tanelus ( an altar or statue) Baenoi."
( ?) s et u p p iously from h is u nder the supervision o f
own the
COMMENTARY: The name i s r estored with f air c ertainty, s ince l ittle else could f it the space ( perhaps iota b efore omega?). This t ribe i s otherwise unknown. On personal names p erhaps r elated to the tribal name, s ee Wuthnow ( 1930) 3 2.
( 7)
NAME
Bitaienoi c puke l B t .Tat i m ev
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 309 ( = I GR I II & 2 310; Dev. 2 63; Sartre 8 0.
1 227)
LOCATION Suwaydä ( J.D) ( Dionysias)
DATE 1 84/ 1 85
TRANSLATION: " The c ity ( Dionysias) e rected t he building with t t le workshops and a ll the o rnamentation ( or equipment?) u nder the supervision of t he councillors o f t he t ribe Bitaienoi, by p rovision of our Lord ( and) founder, Dionysis." ( 2309) " The c ity, under the supervision ( built this)." ( 2310)
of
t he
t ribe
Bitaienoi
COMMENTARY: Ptolemy, Geography 5 ,19 notes a t ribe Batanaioi i n A rabia De 'serta, but this i s obviously t he t ribal derivative o f the g eographical t erm Batanaea, i n t he s ame way that P liny' s Nabataei ( N. H. 6 , 2 2) h ead h is l ist o f Arabian tribes. The t ribe i s otherwise unknown. I t has been a rgued t hat the Bitaienoi a nd t he Somaithenoi ( no.19 below), also f rom Suwaydä, were t ribes of e ither Bostra or Canatha. For r easons g iven elsewhere ( see Chapter I I, above) I c annot a ccept this. The name may s imply b e a t ransliteration of Bayt a l-c Ayn, but Bitaios i s a ttested a s a personal n ame at nearby Sulaym ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 3 6).
1 22
( 8)
NAME
REFERENCE PAES 7 86 ; Sartre 8 0.
Dabanenoi
LOCATION Smgd . ( L )
DATE ?
e uk t i ä a f iavr ivü 5v TRANSLATION: " The
t ribe
Dabanenoi
made
t he
p ublic
( speakers')
rostrum."
COMMENTARY : Harding ( 1969) no.51 notes a Safaitic t ribe a l-D' b. I t i s o therwise known only a s a personal name i n masculine and f eminine forms ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 4 2). I n t he g enealogies r ecorded by Ibn Habib ( 1850) 2 4 the Dabyän were part o f t he Q ays federation, the Dubyän of t he Azd and t he Dhubyän i n t he Bajila, Rabica a nd Hamdän federations. Cf. Littmann ( 1921) 1 3.
( 9)
REFERENCE N IDH 1 15; SEG VII 1 069; Cultes 9 5 note 5 ; Dev. 2 64; Sartre 8 0.
NAME
K aino(i
o t c i te . T uke i‘ K a t ,v5 S [v]
LOCATION Tarbä ( J-D) ( Tharba)
DATE
TRANSLATION: " Those of t he t ribe K ainoi built, f rom t he f unds o f t heir l ord ( and) god Amerus, the house ( for) the god u nder the d irection of Aianus ( son) of Saouadus a nd Ulpius Maior ( son) of Antiochus a nd Tanus ( son) of Aumus, temple t reasurers." COMMENTARY: T he inscription i s b roken so that t he t ribal name i s i ncomplete, but s ince the break i s near the end of the l ine, Dunand noted " il n ' y avait p lace que pour deux ou t rois l ettres" i ncluding, most p robably, the f irst two l etters of t he next word. This t ribe i s otherwise u nknown. On Kainos a s a p ersonal name, see Wuthnow ( 1930) 6 1 and Harding ( 1971) 5 00.
REFERENCE PAES 6 94; NIDH 1 82a; SEG VII 1 169; Dev. 2 63; Sartre 8 0.
( 10) NAME Konenoi euk(1 1) Kovnl , ev
TRANSLATION: " Zaidus, K ilmous r esponsibility for COMMENTARY : The f irst l etter PAES suggested
LOCATION c Ormän ( H)
DATE c .250?
( and) Hoheimus o f t he t ribe Konenoi t he cleansing ( of the t emple?)."
o f t he date i s u ncertain. The editors ( Y), but conceded that i t might b e ( M )
1 23
h ad
o f or
( P). Dunand p roposed reading IMBI o r INB', thus g iving a mid-third century date which " S' accorde parfaitement avec l es c aracteres p aleographiques . ... et l e detail de l ' encadrement". The editors of PAES a lso suggested that t he t ribal n ame " is p erhaps t he a ncient Arabic tribe K an n ( Qanän )." As Sartre notes, Kn i s a frequentlya ttested personal name i n Safaitic, c f. Harding ( 1971 ) 5 05.
( 11) NAME
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 427; I GR I II 1 172; Dev. 2 64; Sartre 8 0-81.
Manienoi o t me p liKt ig Mav o lvt ev
LOCATION Najrän ( L) ( Norerathe?)
DATE
TRANSLATION: " Those of magnificent Agrippa a nd
t he t ribe Manienoi s uccessfully completed a building by provision of Andronikus ( son) of Carus ( son) of Masamamus, pistol."
COMMENTARY: A v ariant spelling ( without t he evÄt i p refix) is f ound in Wadd. 2 428 f rom the same v illage: Mave m m ey . Waddington a lso n oted that a xotväv Mavrp /M4 ) ( no.2213) i s attested at Mushannaf i n the Jebal Dri az. He thus s ees a ll three names a s references to the s ame t ribe. PAES 5 53 from Bostra c ontains part o f a name ( May 1 /1 ) which t he editors took t o be t ribal and offered a s a possible i dentification with t he Manienoi. Sartre ( IGLS X III 9 318) would restore this a s Matdot It seems more l ikely that the name ( whatever i t i s) i s t he ethnic f orm o f s ome v illage. The t ribe i s otherwise u nknown. On variants o f t his as personal names, see Wuthnow ( 1930) 7 2.
( 12) NAME Migdalenoi c pu7 te i yöaÄr IvG 5 [v
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 438; Dev. 2 64; Sartre 8 1.
TRANSLATION: " (The son) of Moethus, door f rom h is own funds."
of
t he
LOCATION Ezrca ( L ) ( Zorava)
t ribe Migdalenoi,
DATE
made
the
COMMENTARY : The v illages o f Majdal a l-Shür ( in the Hawrän) and Majdal al-Naydat ( in t he Nuqra) a re no doubt a ssociated with t his t ribe. These v illages were u ndoubtedly k nown a s Migdala or Magdala i n antiquity ( cf. Wadd. nos.2029, 2 401 and commentary). Majdalani i s a c ommon p lace-name and f amily name i n Syria-Palestine. Cf. most recently Altman ( 1978) 9 9-100 on the toponym magdalim. To my k nowledge it o ccurs nowhere a s a personal name.
1 24
( 13)NAME Mozaiedenoi c pu(Xe l) Mo4cusel l ev
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 287; PAES 6 62; Dev. 2 63; Sartre 8 1.
TRANSLATION: " The t ribe of t he Mozaiedenoi, as t hankfulness, ( set up t he s tatue?) Aurelius Antonius Sabinus."
LOCATION Hebr ä -n . ( J-D)
a o f
t oken t heir
DATE 2 14
of
t heir patron,
COMMENTARY: The editors o f PAES t hought t he "Mo4atö... s eems r ather to be Mozaiyid o r Mozaiyad". At t he t ime Waddington copied t his inscription ( June, 1 861) t he " Beni Mezaoud" were e ncamped i n t his r egion. This t ribe was composed of t hree s ub-tribes t he Athamät ( no.22 below), t he Sherafät and t he Mesäcid. The l atter n ame i s of i nterest, e specially s ince t he pronunciation of t he name was c loser t o t he s pelling Mezäcid. Waddington' s comments a re worth r eproducing i n f ull: " Il n ' est guere douteux que les Mesäcid de nos j ours n e soient l es descendants de l ' Al-Mesäcidou o u cvXi MonatcölVWV des premiers s iecles de l ' ere chretienne, e t c e f ait e st fort i nteressant pour l ' histoire du Haour ä -n ; car i l explique comment l es noms a nciens des localites s e s ont maintenus presque partout, malgre l a ruine e t l ' abondon des v illes e t d es v illages; l es t ribus nomades sont r estees, parcourant c haque annee l e meme cercle des c ampements e t d e p asturages que l eurs peres a vaient parcouru avant eux, et c e sont eux qui ont conserve l es traditions e t l es denominations locales." Oppenheim ( 1939) I 3 47 B i n otes t hat t he t ribe al-Mesäcid was, at h is t ime ( 1930' s), l arge enough t o be i tself composed of three s maller t ribes. Cf. Unex. Syr. 1 60. Sartre notes a n u ndated Nabataean i nscription f rom Bostra attesting the v ery s ame t ribe, Mscydw . I have not found i t a ttested a s a p ersonal n ame, b ut s ee Littmann ( 1921) 1 5 s .v. Mucazzi for a . c lose parallel.
1 25
( 14) NAME
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 366; AAES 4 28a; Sartre 8 1.
eölgoc
Obaisenoi
ö faV O f iatolv e i
LOCATION Sic ( J-D) ( Seeia)
TRANSLATION: " The people who ( are) o f t he ( tribe) Obaisenoi Malecathus ( son) of Maoierus, who e nlarged ( ?) the f or h is v irtue and p iety." COMMENTARY: The e ditors
of
AAES
s uggested
no
i st
DATE cent. A .D.?
h onoured temple,
i dentification.
Waddington s aw a s imilarity between t his name and e ither t he ' Aßao l ivot or B aotvvot of the Ethnika ( ss.vv.). Just a s l ikely i s t he Safaitic t ribe d 'l c Ubaishat f rom i l-cIsawl ( AAES I V C no.164 = PAES I V —C n o.349 = Harding [ 1969] no.82), and t he Nabataean v ersion o f t his n ame i n C IS 1 60. Groushevoi ( 1985) has analysed a ll t hese a ttestations i n t he c ontext of t he s anctuary at Si ' and suggested t hat t he c Ubayshat became part of t he koinon or demos a ssociated with Sic and i ts n earby v illages. Sartre g ives v ariations of personal names obviously related t o t he t ribal name. Cf. Wuthnow ( 1930) 8 6.
( 15)NAME Osaielenoi(?)
o t O g
9
c p lAf ig ~y[ey]...
REFERENCE Mission 2 43 no.11; I GR I II 1 171; Sartre 8 1.
LOCATION Najran ( L) ( Norerathe?)
TRANSLATION: " In t he year t en of Aurelius Antoninus, t hose Osaielenoi . ..." ( Remainder o f t ext m issing.)
of
t he
DATE c .170?
t ribe
COMMENTARY: Dussaud and Macler were quite unsure of t his t ribal name, s ince t he lower edge o f t he block was broken. They s uggested v ariant r eadings of Oglielenoi or Ognedenoi, noting t he s imilarity o f t he r estoration Osaielenoi t o no.16 below. In s upport of t he l atter reading, Oppenheim ( 1939) I 3 40 no.2 notes a t ribe c Ogedät i n t he environs o f Damascus. The name i s otherwise unknown. Sartre admits t hat t he t races of l etters s hown i n Dussaud and Macler's f acsimile a llow variant r eadings, a nd he s upports this reading by r eference t o t he p roper n ame Osaielos. Cf. Wuthnow ( 1930) 9 0. It seems more l ikely t hat t he date would b e t he t enth year of M . Aurelius t han o f Caracalla.
1 26
( 16) NAME Osainenoi p (v)k(t 1)
'O c ratvlv
f t
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 439; I GR I II 1 180; Dev. 2 64.
LOCATION c Ahire ( L) ( Aerita)
DATE c .185
TRANSLATION: " In the year ? o f Emperor Commodus Antoninus ( our) Lord Caesar, Claudius Priscianus ( son) of . ..athus, of t he t ribe Osainenoi, f rom h is own funds ( and) a s a t oken of p iety, ( dedicated t his) t o t he god ( ?) . ..." COMMENTARY: There i s a s trong s imilarity of d ate and p lace between this t ribe and no.15 above, ( see the d iscussion i n Part 3 o f t his chapter) a nd i f t he r eading OCAIEAHNOI of no.14 i s c ompared with OCAINHNOI here, the d ifference of spelling i s v ery negligible i ndeed. This i s t he most l ikely solution, and Sartre' s c ontention t hat t he t ribal n ame Osainenoi i s r elated t o Arabic Husayn i s very attractive. Qalgashandi ( IV 2 09) notes t hat i n h is d ay a c lan Husayn of t he a l-Murg g roup of t he Rabica f ederation l ived in t he Hawrgn.
( 17) NAME Raseiaie[noi eukt ) 'PaostatT 00 5v
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 224: Dev. 2 64; Sartre 8 2.
LOCATION Mushannaf ( J-D) ( Nela)
TRANSLATION: " Gautus ( son) o f Natimathus, t . he Phösmaneian, Raseiaienoi, a nd ( his) wife, Thomsache, memorial."
of t he built
DATE
t ribe t he
COMMENTARY: The i nscription i s s lightly c hipped on t he r ight edge. Waddington believed that t he -1 1 /6 5 1, following the break was p art o f a d escriptive epithet d istinguishing t his t ribe f rom another o f t he same name i n this v illage. This e xplanation i s a b it s trained. I t s eems t o me more l ikely t hat the stone-cutter chipped the stone accidentally and c ontinued i nscribing a f ew spaces t o t he r ight, i nadvertently r epeating t he H . A s imilar problem was observed for o ther i nscriptions. Cf. PAES 7 28 f rom Sgleh a nd NIDH 3 57 f rom Namer. The restoration o f this name i s t hus r easonably c ertain. On t he v illage Phösmana f rom which t he deceased came, s ee Waddington's comments. The t ribal n ame, a s n oted i n Part 3 of t his c hapter, i s derived f rom Ras a l-cAyn.
1 27
( 18) NAME
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Soborenoi
Wadd. 2 431; Dev. 2 64; Sartre 8 2.
Najrän ( L) ( Norerathe?)
c p lAtc Z oßopT Iv6 3v
DATE 5 60
TRANSLATION: " Sergius ( son) of Samaathus, f rom t he v illage of Norerathe, of t he t ribe Soborenoi, f rom h is own f unds b uilt t he s anctuary ( for t he c hurch) of Saint Elias, i n the y ear 4 55 ( A.D.560), i ndiction e leven. Good f ortune . ..." COMMENTARY: Oppenheim ( 1939) I 3 44 no.2B l ists a s ub-tribe of t he Beni c Amr called al-Sawäbera i n t he Lejä. The t ribe i s otherwise unknown. Sartre s uggests ( from Harding [ 1971] 3 38) t hat t he Arabic proper name Shabar i s r elated. Sabour i s a lso attested ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 1 00), but l ike Shabar i t i s probably Persian i n o rigin ( i.e. Sha p ir ).
( 19) NAME Somaithenoi ( *W A l ogat f t ivWv
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 308; IGR I II 1 276; Cultes 7 0 note 8 ; Sartre 8 2.
LOCATION Suwaydg ( J-D) ( Dionysias)
DATE 1 82/ 1 83
TRANSLATION: " The c ity ( Suwaydä/Dionysias) h as b uilt and repaired t he aqueducts f rom t he springs a t Arra, K ainatha, Aphetathe and Orsoa, and set up s tatues i n t he s anctuary ( of the t emple) to Athena i n Arra, under t he s upervision of t he t ribe Somaithenoi." COMMENTARY: Waddington noted: " Le nom de l a t ribu des Z ogatOr ivot ressemble s ingulierement au nom d e l a t ribu a ppelee Behou-Samaydä par l es auteurs a rabes, t ribu fournit des princes aux Arabes de l a Syria . ... a insi c p uI t i Z ogaLelvWv e st b ien la t raduction de Benou-Samaydä". This i s o ne of two t ribes known f rom i nscriptions a t Suwaydä, c f. no.7 above. The h istorical and social s ignificance o f this i nscription i s d iscussed i n Chapter II, Part 6 . S artre notes masculine and feminine personal n ames related t o t he t ribal n ame. Cf. Wuthnow ( 1930) 1 11.
1 28
( 20)NAME Khasetenoi
c p uXt ) Xaasz l iv t ev
R EFERENCE Wadd. 2 393, 2 396a, 2 397 ( = PAES 7 65 "); Dev. 2 64; Sartre 8 2.
LOCATION DATE Dayr a l-Labän 3 20 ( L)
TRANSLATION: " Julius Maximus ( son) o f Oredanus, f rom t he v illage of R imea, of t he t ribe K hasetenoi, t emple-treasurer(?), built ( this)." ( 2396a) " Cassius Malichathos f rom t he v illage o f R imea, of t he t ribe Khasetenoi, a nd ( another man) e rected f rom t he f oundations ( this) magnificent e difice ( a t emple?), a nd ( its) roof, h aving g enerously donated t heir own t ime, by p rovision o f Aumas a nd Amelathus ( his) s on, p riests." ( 2393) " Aur(elius) G la(u) cus ( son) o f Bernicianus, f rom t he v illage o f I dnos ( ?), t emple-treasurer, built ( this). Aur(elius) Montanus ( son) o f Ausus, f rom t he v illage of R imea, t emple-treasurer(?), o f t he t ribe K hasetenoi, ( also ) b uilt ( it)." ( 2397) COMMENTARY: The date i s t aken f rom Wadd. 2 393% I t i s p robable t hat a ll o f this c onstruction i s r elated and we may t herefore c onsider t he f irst a nd l ast t exts o f t his s eries a s c ontemporary w ith t he d ated one. The " other man" mentioned i n 2 393 i s t he Paulus Maximus o f t he t ribe Audenoi ( no.5 a bove). This i s t he only j oint d edication by t wo t ribes so f ar known. The s ignificance o f t his whole g roup o f t exts f rom Dayr a l-Labän was n oted long a go b y Jones ( 1931) 2 72. Four communities a nd two t ribes were i nvolved i n t he b uilding a nd maintenance o f t his s acred a rea. Both Malichathus a nd P . Maximus a re a ttested a s pistoi o f t heir r espective v illages i n two o ther i nscriptions ( Wadd. 2 394, 2 395). The Aurelius Montanus o f t his t ext h as been i dentified w ith t he " Aurelius Montanus ( son) o f Theodorus" o f a Greek i nscription found a n a l-Kafer i n t he Hawrän ( Mission 2 50 n o.27). More r ecently t his f ound acceptance w ith Trimingham ( 1979) 7 9. The Princeton e xpedition r e-edited t his t ext ( PAES 6 69) and r ightly r ejected t he i dentification o n a number o f points. This d oes n ot mean t he two men were u nrelated; t he Montanus o f a l-Kafer i s d ated t o A .D. 3 50. X c tOg iroC i s a c ommon personal n ame. Cf. W uthnow ( 1930) 1 20. The t erm t epoTogsec a nd i ts v ariants, u sually t aken t o b e m isspellings o f L epozagea‘, m ay mean i nstead " sacred butcher", s ee MacAdam ( 1922) 1 09 n ote 3 7. For a p arallel s ee t he t erm c laTpoTogse‘ ( for X etpoyp ec = s urgeon) i n Littmann e t a l. ( 1921) n o.787 a nd t he discussion t here. Waddington' s p roposal t hat t he n ame
1 29
Khasetenoi i s r elated to t he l arge t ribal group Azd i s u nacceptable, c f. t he commentary t o n o.1 above. A S afaitic graffito f rom a l-cIsawl ( Harding [ 1969] no.47) yields t he t ribal n ame d cl Khusman, but t his i s a lso an u nlikely i dentification. The t ribe i s otherwise unknown.
( 21) NAME a . Khaukhab[enoi] p X C XaVX (4 3[T iv v]
b .(Khau) khabenoi eukt i ( X lm Oxaßl ivU 5v
REFERENCE LOCATION Unex. Syr. I I Namre 3 87 no.127; ( J-D) Voyage 9 6 no.263;(Namara) I GR I II 1 269; Cultes 7 4 note 7 ; Sartre 8 2. Wadd.
2 265.
TRANSLATION: a .Only t he t ribal n ame c an be t ext. b ."Azous ( the son) of Bordus, of t he t ribe ( Khau) khabenoi."
read f rom
DATE 2nd3 rd c ent?
Nemara ( Harra)
i n t he
t his v illage
fragmentary of Sodala,
COMMENTARY: The p roper n ame Xaux 40G appears i n Wadd. 2 218 f rom Mushannaf, and a s Khaukably in a Safaitic g raffito f rom a l-cIsawi ( PAES IV C no.484 = Harding [ 1969] no.103). The t ribal name i s restorable on t he b asis o f Kauxa hvot i n Ptolemy, Geography ( 5,19). The modern equivalent would doubtless be t he t ribe al-Kawäkbe known t o Musil ( 1908) I II 1 23. On the association of this name with t he worship of t he goddess a l-cUzzg at Bostra and e lsewhere, cf. Cultes, ibid. Waddington r ead t he t ribal name i n t he inscription he copied at Nemara a s Kabenoi. Dussaud and Macler saw t he s tone l ater and corrected t he reading to t hat g iven here. The v illage of Sodala h as not b een i dentified.
1 30
ADDENDUM NAME
R EFERENCE Syria 3 4 ( 1957) 2 59-261 no.1; SEG X IX 8 99; B IAL 1 0, 5 4-57.
Robathoi 9 1 M IG ( Poß6eou ( sic) TRANSLATION: " The Shaven Ones built this t emple."
( ?)
o f
t he
Thamüd,
LOCATION DATE Ruwwäfa 1 66-169 ( Saudi Arabia)
o f
t he
t ribe Rubata,
COMMENTARY: This n ame i s a dded h ere f or t he s ake o f c ompleteness a nd t o i ndicate, however s ketchily, t he e xtent o f t ribal o rganisation t hroughout t he p rovince. To my k nowledge t his i s t he only t ribe k nown f rom G reek epigraphy s outh o f t he Hawrän. The Robathoi ( Semitic Rubat i l ) u ndoubtedly g ave t heir name t o ( or derived i t f rom) Robatha, a community i n what b ecame Palestine Salutaris. Cf. Bowersock ( 1971) 2 31 a nd ( 1983). B eaucamp ( 1979) 1 472-1473 h as a rgued u nconvincingly t hat Rubatü/Robathos i s t o b e equated w ith Ruw ffa. The Robathoi were a llied o r a ffiliated w ith t he much l arger Thamad f ederation. No personal n ame r elated t o t he t ribal n ame i s a ttested i n p rovincia Arabia, but i s r ecorded at Dura-Europus ( P. Dura 4 4 = Wuthnow [ 1930] 9 8). A t ribe RBT ( Rubbat) i s n oted i n a g raffito published by M ilik ( 1959) no.7 f rom Khirbit a l-Madayin i n s outhern Jordan, a nd Milik b elieved t he name was c onnected w ith t he v illage of a l-Rabba ( ancient Rabathmoab ). The l ocation a nd s imilarity o f n ame t o Robatha i s s triking. The Thamad mentioned h ere a re d istinguished a s SRKT i n t he Nabataean t ext. This i s r endered a s ethnos i n t he c orresponding G reek t ranslation a nd i n one other Greek t ext f rom Ruwwafa. From what i s k nown o f e ither term i n i ts own l inguistic c ontext t his may n ot be a f ortuitous t ranslation. I n s pite o f Graf' s ( op. c it. 1 5) s tatement t hat " imperial e mbassies were dependent o n p recise i nformation a nd must h ave i ncluded l inguistic s pecialists who were f amiliar w ith t he n ative l anguage o f t he desert Arabs" t here i s no r eason t o b elieve t hat d iplomatic t ranslations were a ny more a ccurate t hen than t hey a re n ow. On t he possible o rigin o f t he e nigmatic word C ICE MIOI ( The Shaven Ones?), s ee t he d iscussion by Van Den Branden ( 1958) note 2 4 b is. On t he political s ignificance o f t hese i mportant t exts, s ee Bowersock ( 1975) a nd Sartre ( 1982a) 1 30-132. On t he l inguistic s ignificance of SRKT, s ee G raf a nd O ' Connor ( 1977) a nd t he a rgument against t heir conclusion i n Shahid ( 1984a) 1 38-141.
1 31
B .
TRIBAL OR CLAN NAMES
( 22)NAME
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Aathaoenoi
Wadd. 2 537d; Sartre 8 3.
a l-Hazm ( L)
p pe rpa
DATE
( sic )
' A c teaol iv6 5v TRANSLATION: " The c lan a t oken ( above)."
o f o f
t he Aathaoenoi made, f rom t heir p iety, t he substructure ( base)
c ommon f und a s w ith t he a ltar
COMMENTARY : Waddington felt t hat h is r eading of t his i nscription un ' en e st peut-etre pas t out a f ait sure". L ikewise, the u se of c p p epa i s unique. The normal spelling would be c ppdzpa or C ATP1 ( even Ionic pplTpT ) ) . This t erm implies a s ub-division o f a puWe l. In t he commentary t o Wadd. 2 287 ( see no.13 above) t here i s mention of a t ribe n amed Athamät which was one o f three small t ribes comprising what Waddington knew a s t he "Beni Mezaoud". I s i t possible t hat we have i n t he specific t erm p plTpa a n ancient e cho of s ub-tribal s tatus f or t he Aathaoenoi, and that the Athamät may be t he s ame t ribe? Sartre notes t he personal name Athauaos • attested at a nearby v illage. Cf. Wuthnow ( 1930) 1 4.
( 23) NAME Aouidenoi
' AoutölvWv
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 236; RAO 5 ( 1903) 1 47 -1 48; Sartre 8 2.
LOCATION Räma ( J-D)
DATE ?
TRANSLATION: " For Odainathus ( son) of Saouadus, who was strategos o f t he ( tribe?) Aouidenoi. Kephale ( and) K olae ( as well a s) Thomaleche ( his wife) and Saou(a) dus h is f ather, s et up ( this s tatue?)." COMMENTARY: Waddington considered this t o be a t ribal name, and i dentified i t w ith t he Aoueidenos of Wadd. 2 272 from Namre, but i t may well be a proper name and not an ethnicon i n that t ext. Wuthnow ( 1930) 2 4 was uncertain. However, i t i s very l ikely t hat we have here a variant spelling o f t he t ribal n ame Audenoi; c f. no.5 above. The l ack o f a ny qualifying prefix i s unfortunate. Cf. L ittmann ( 1921) 1 6. Odainathos ( Udaynat) i s a ttested i n t he Hawran ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 8 7) a s well a s at Palmyra.
1 32
( 24)NAME
R EFERENCE Wadd. 2 512; Wright n o.56; Sartre 8 3.
Arisenoi 9, 10 ,01Vot
LOCATION Z abira ( L)
DATE 2 13
TRANSLATION; " .... the ( tribe?) Arisenoi a nd t he ( tribe?) I achphirenoi - t hose ( leasing?) t he l and owned by t he ( village) o f Habiba a nd ( its p atron?) Bassus, built t he t emples t o Tyche in t he consulship o f Severus t he f ourth t ime a nd Balbinus t he s econd t ime." COMMENTARY: Waddington believed t hat i t w as " tres possible" t hat t he f eminine f orm o f t his n ame, Arisa, might h ave been t he a ncient n ame o f t he n earby v illage o f a l-Zubayr. Wright a nd Souter f elt t hat t he two c lans ( ?) mentioned here were " dependents" o f t he i nhabitants o f Habiba ( modern K hgbab, 4 km f rom Z abira). The wording o f t he i nscription a llows f or a n umber o f d ifferent i nterpretations, a nd t he t erm which I t ranslate " land o wned" ( epoikion ) may r efer t o t he v illage i tself. On t his s ee Bacon ( 1907) 3 15-320. Butler ( 1919) 4 07, described a n i nstance o f b edouin h ired ( ?) o r s uborned ( ?) t o look a fter Dr i az c attle i n t he Lejg during h is s urvey i n 1 909. See a lso t he comments i n MacAdam ( 1984) 5 3. Sartre s uggests t hat Arisenoi may r efer t o t he v illage o f Harisa n ear c Orman i n t he e astern Hawrgn, o r t hat i t may derive f rom Safaitic Hrs, attested . a s a p roper n ame ( Harding [ 1971] 6 13). '1 00 .01 o ccurs a s a f eminine name a t Umm a l-Jimgl ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 2 5). I bn Habib ( 1850) 3 3 a ttests Hars a nd Haras i n t he Tayyi' . f ederation, a nd Q alc iashanäi ( IV 2 09) _notes t he Haritha o f t he Rabica f ederation i n t he Hawran.
( 25) NAME
R EFERENCE PAES 7 87; Sartre 8 2-83.
Berthenoi B spel ivot
LOCATION Majedil ( L)
DATE 2 27
TRANSLATION: " In t he s ixth y ear o f ( the) Emperor, Caesar Marcus Aurelius S everus Alexander, Aurelius Marinus ( son) of Abchurus, a nd Ouabelus ( son) o f Abgarus, surgeons, built . ( it) f rom t he c ommon f unds o f t he v illage. The ( tribe?) Berthenoi." COMMENTARY: Berthenoi appears a t t he e nd o f a d edicatory i nscription, w ith no apparent c onnection t o t he t ext. The e ditors t ook i t to b e a n e thnicon, and s ince t he t ext i ncluded n o t erm t o go w ith x ( 1 5µm , i t was s uggested t hat t his adjectival f orm c ontained t he a ncient n ame f or t he c ommunity (Bepea o r Bgpeea ) . See my c omments on Birta n ear c Ammän a t t he e nd o f Part 3 above. p ersonal n ame.
I
h ave
n ot
1 33
f ound
i t
a ttested
a s
a
( 26) NAME
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 512; Wright 5 6; Sartre 8 3.
Iakhphirenoi 9I aX9LPT IVOt
LOCATION Zabira ( L )
DATE 2 13
TRANSLATION: See
t he
t ranslation
g iven
in
no.24
above.
COMMENTARY: Waddington believed t hat t he f eminine form of t his n ame, I achphire, might have been t he ancient name o f the v illage Zabira. Sartre suggests t hat t he Safaitc p roper n ame Kfr i n a t heophoric compound Ykfrel ( known f rom Thamudic t exts) i s t ransliterated here.
( 27) NAME Kreskenteinoi(?) t iv Kploxsv e rsivou
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 173; omitted by Sartre. ( sic)
LOCATION Namre ( J-D) ( Namara)
TRANSLATION: " By provision of Proclus and Pannonius ( his) syndikos of t he ( tribe? - l it. " sons o f") t he walls were built successfully."
DATE
brother, ( a) Kreskenteinoi,
COMMENTARY: Waddington apparently understood 4 u t rw t o be t he g enitive plural of 4 1 ) (oC . See no.32(b) below for a variation of t his. However, h is f acsimile drawing reads CYNAIKOY YWN which i ndicates that the i nscriber i nadvertently duplicated t he upsilon instead of making a tau. Ta f f followed b y t he genitive s ingular would conform to t he pattern of names i n t he t hird group below, but a syndic would normally be a ssociated with a t ribe and the t ermination o f this n ame i s evocative of -enön i n t he f irst g roup. See t he comments i n Part 3 o f this chapter. " The walls" built by p rovision of t he two brothers n eed not have been d efensive; see Chapter IV. The name i s unattested e lsewhere.
1 34
( 28)NAME Saamenoi
Z aagivot
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 481; IGR I II 1 156; Cultes 7 8; Sartre 8 3.
LOCATION Ezrca ( L) ( Zorava)
DATE ?
TRANSLATION: " To ( the god) Theandrites! ( our) Lords ( ?), t he ( tribe?) - built t he house."
For the s afety and Saamenoi - t hose
v ictory of of Zorava
COMMENTARY: This i s apparently part of an imperial dedication of some s ort. Waddington n oted t hat t he Ethnika of Stephanus l ists t wo Arabian t ribes w ith s imilar names: Salmenoi ( p.551) a nd Samenoi ( p.553). Unless t he lambda of t he former was o riginally an alpha, t he latter i s t he preferable i dentification. In addition, the Safaitic t ribe S 'm ( Sha im ) i s noted by Harding ( 1969) no.71. Sartre suggested t hat the double a of Saamenoi " supposer u n original s e ine, b ut c ites no attestation. Cagnat took t he reference t o OL ZopauT IVMV a s t ribus Zoravenorum. He f ailed to note t he s imilar phrase o f , b cb g i r cpwxw pa ic Zopat i e fbv in IGR I II 1 155; nothing more i s i mplied. There a re numerous personal n ames which may derive from Saamenoi; s ee Wuthnow ( 1930) passim . On t he god Theandrites ( or Theandrios) see Sourdel ( 1952) 7 8-81.
( 29) NAME Saoyarenoi
o t a i cb . ..
Z aouapivo[t
REFERENCE N IDH 1 36; SEG VII 1 089; Cultes 9 6; Sartre 8 2.
TRANSLATION: " The ( tribe?) Saourenoi of Bosana t heir god i n t hankful p iety."
LOCATION Busan ( J-D) ( Bosana)
dedicated
t he
DATE ?
a ltar
t o
COMMENTARY: Bosana i s a ttested as t he ancient v illage name i n Wadd. 2 242 and 2 251. The i mplication of Saouarenoi i s c lear i t i s a c lan o r t ribe named for ( or g iving i ts name t o) a n umber o f v illages i n t he region ( e.g. Sawarat a l-Saghira; S awarat al-Kabira). Z a i mp l iveg as an ethnicon appears i n W add. 2 203a, f rom which Waddington derived t he a ncient v illage-name Sauara. Sartre points out t hat a n entire q uarter of Damascus was named for the " Sawwaranians" ( SEG I I 8 39). The masculine name Saoaros i s a ttested in t he r egion ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 1 05). The dedication i s t o one o f many " dieux anonymes", cf. the following entry.
1 35
( 30) NAME Soadenoi ¶ 0 5v Zoaö mMv
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Porter ( 1855) I I 8 9; Wadd. 2 370; PAES 7 65'; Syria 5 ( 1924) 3 30 no.6; SEG VII 1 233;
a l-Mafcalah ( J-D)
Musee no.167; Cultes 1 10; Sartre TRANSLATION: " The f east o f on t he e leventh COMMENTARY: The r estoration
DATE
8 2.
t he Saodenoi i s h eld ( in honour of) t he ( day) of ( the month) Loös." ( July 3 0)
of
t he
date
t o
r ead
" 30
Loös"
god
by
Hausoullier and Ingholt ( Syria, ibid.) i s n ot convincing. Waddington copied t his i nscription a t Dayr al-Smgj, a nearby v illage, but t he s tone was moved by the t ime the Princeton expedition r e-copied i t. Waddington i dentified the Soadenoi w ith t he modern v illage-name Suwaydä, a nd on t he basis of a questionable restoration of [ Z] o e w r i[v] eT% i n a much-mutilated inscription f rom Suwaydg, insisted that Soada was t he ancient name of t he v illage. This was challenged by the editors of PAES, who maintained t hat the Soadenoi ( "in Arabic Su d") were f rom t he v illage i n which t he i nscription was f irst d iscovered. This was rejected by Sourdel. The i ssue of whether Soada = Suwaydä r emains conjectural. See above, Chapter I I, Part 6 . On Soados as a common personal name see Wuthnow ( 1930) 1 09.
( 31) NAME Sokarathoi loxapaef f iv
REFERENCE Musee no.198; Dev. 2 63; Cultes 3 6; Sartre 8 3.
LOCATION Kafr ( J-D)
DATE 1 34
TRANSLATION: " Ouabus . a nd Raouaus, t he sons of Mognius Ouabus, built f rom t heir own funds t he ( temple) f açade f or t he god K ronos of t he ( tribe?) Sokarathoi, ( who ) by means o f prayer are working t ogether, i n t he year 1 7 of Hadrianus Caesar." COMMENTARY: On t he worship of K ronos i n t he Hawrän s ee Sourdel ( 1952) 3 5-37. Dunand ( Musee, ibid.) believed t his t o be a t ribal name, but offered no i dentification. Devreese, apparently misreading t he t ext of t he i nscription, i nserted t he word phyla before Sokarathoi, as i f a l acuna existed. He t hen s uccumbed to s treptosymbolia and t ranscribed Sokarathoi as Sorakathoi. Sartre suggests a t ribal a ncestor Shqr, attested i n Safaitic and Arabic, f rom which this name derives. Ibn Habib ( 1850) 9 and Suwaydi ( 1911) 2 6 both
1 36
register t he sub-tribes Shaqira ( of t he Tamim ), t he Shaqra ( of t he c Adnän o r Rabica) and Shuqra of t he Abd a l-Qays). Related personal n ames a re a lso known ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 1 02 and Mouterde [ 1959] 8 3-84 no.20).
C .
CLAN OR SMALLER SUB-GROUP NAMES
( 32)NAME a .Akilanos
REFERENCE Wadd.2258; Sartre 8 4.
LOCATION DATE Sala ( J-D) ( Salamanestha?)
Wadd. 2 251; Sartre 8 4.
Busän ( J-D) ( Bosana)
¶a‘ T e i bv...'Ax O t ,av A b . Akhilanos Tev i nör ev n AX O taVo[t]
5 82
TRANSLATION: a . " The memorial belongs t o t hos .e of t he ( clan) Dammaia a nd o f the ( clan) Mauragga and of the ( clan ) Akilanos and of t he ( clan) Sados - ( these) four ( clans) having a common f ounder, but ( the memorial belongs) to no other!" b . " This apse was made ( by) . .?. ( and) it belongs t o Soedus ( son) o f Odebus of ( the clan l it. "grandsons") Akhilanos. It w as built f rom t he private ( funds) of t hose dwelling i n Bosana, i n the year 4 77 of the province, i ndiction f ifteen." COMMENTARY: These v illages a re within a f ew kms of each other i n t he Jebal Draz. Despite t he variant spellings t his i s c ertainly t he s ame t ribe. Waddington f avoured the spelling i n ( a) a s being t he correct one, s ince t he grammar a nd s yntax o f ( b) " sont barbares". However, I would s uggest t hat ( b) i s t he correct r endition in t he l ight of a p ossible i dentification w ith t he t ribe known to Burton and D rake ( Unex. Syr. I 1 60) a s cAjilät i n t he Jebal Draz. The G reek l ack of a correspondent to Semitic r might l ead t o c hi being substituted i n t ransliterations. Thus Akilanos/ A khilanos could p lausibly be cAjlän, which Ibn Habib ( 1850) 1 9 notes a s a t ribe i n t he Qays a nd Qudäca federations, o r c Ij1 i n Rabica a nd Yaman ( ibid. 2 9). The Umayyad governor o f Iraq ( 695-714 A .D.), a l-Hajjäj b . Yasuf, was a Syrian of Q ays f rom t he f amily of Aba c Aq11; c f. Crone ( 1980) 4 3. For an i nstructive parallel ( from Homer) i n t he u se o f • / u tboU‘ ( grandson), s ee L-S-J, Greek- English Lexicon, s .v. T here a re no personal names known to me related t o t his c lan n ame. On t he other t hree c lan names i n ( a), s ee n os.40, 4 6 and 4 9 below.
1 37
( 33) NAME
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 173a; PAES 7 58; Sartre 8 4.
Amtare
i G Sv
' AµTdp1G
LOCATION Namre ( J-D) ( Namara)
DATE
TRANSLATION: " Under t he management of ( clan) Amtare, t he dovecote t he editors of PAES.)
Priscus a nd Anatolius, of was built." ( Translation
t he by
COMMENTARY: Waddington
d id
not
comment
on
t his
name
a s
possibly b eing
a
c lan, but the editors of PAES remarked: " .... w e have apparently t he genitive of a feminine t ribal o r family name . ..." and suggested t hat t his name " be compared with Arabic Matar" ( cf. Wuthnow [ 1930] 2 1 a nd Littman [ 1921] 1 8). Oppenheim ( 1939) I 3 41, 3b notes a t ribe cAnätere b etween Dumer and Palmyra i n eastern Syria. The c An tere are attested i n t his very s ame r egion by Q alqashandi IV, 2 13 i n t he fourteenth century. See the d iscussion o f this i n Part 3 , above.
( 34) NAME
REFERENCE a . AAES 3 87 ( = N IDH 1 12)
Ari(ma) the
' Apt(µ 40 . 7 14
and
LOCATION
DATE
Tafh a -. . ( J15)
3 88.
b . AAES 3 89; Sartre 8 4. TRANSLATION: a . " By provision of Alexander, Kerzilanos, and Maximus o f t he Taurimus ( son) of Sammoulanus Souphanius a nd Aphphasus ( son) of Bachrus, the house was restored." b . " The of Anamus
eunuch of the ( clan) ( clan) Arimathe, and a nd Maximus ( son ) of Aumus o f the ( clan)
eunuch of t he ( clan) Kerzilanos of ( the c lan) Arimathe."
and Maximus
( son)
COMMENTARY: Arithe occurs i n 3 87 and Arimathe i n 3 89. The f ormer spelling was probably a mistake for t he l atter. According t o Prentice t he n ame Arimathe " is doubtless the G reek equivalent of ar-Rima(t)". He believed • t hat Arimathe w as a t ribal name, but o ffered no supporting evidence. Dunand ( NIDH commentary t o n o.112) t hought t he word Arithe i tself might be t ribal, and n ot j ust a v ariant o f Arimathe. I t i s equally possible t hat we h ave here the a ncient ethnicon for t he nearby v illage of Räma. Cf. a lso t he Safaitic t ribe a l-Harim ( Harding [ 1969] no.127). Translation ( a) i s a combination of t he i nscriptions AAES 3 87 and 3 88, which Prentice recognised h ad been a s ingle i nscription. Dunand' s t ext i s t he f irst h alf only ( 387). He d id not
1 38
n ote s eeing mentioned, n ames known
t he s econd p art. For t he other two c lans s ee below nos.36 and 4 3. There a re no personal t o me t hat a re c learly related t o t his n ame.
( 35) NAME
( ? ) t g Ake tou
Audelos
REFERENCE PAES 1 60; Sartre 8 7.
LOCATION Salkhad
DATE 4 19
. ( H )
( Salcha)
TRANSLATION: " This f ar-famed tomb, a t once a g reat boast for t he l iving place o f repose for t he departed, was completed by a nd a l eaders of t he people - Milk ( Milchus), a man excellent i n c ounsel and l aw-abiding, son o f . ... odios and h is dear b rothers. All of t hem a re sprung f rom c Audh-l el ( Audelus). I n t he year 3 14." ( Translation by t he editors o f PAES.) COMMENTARY: This i nscription was, according t he t he editors of PAES, " an attempt a t metrical compostion in Homeric s tyle". The person Audelus i s obviously a c lan a ncestor, and i f so t he collective designation g iven here a s 1E plus t he genitive s ingular would, following Sartre, correspond t o TMV plus genitive s ingular e lsewhere. Audelos s o f ar i s a u nique a ttestation o f t he name i n Greek; c f. Wuthnow ( 1930) 2 8. See my comments above, i n Part 4 of t his c hapter, n ote 3 9.
( 36) NAME Bakhros
t f i iv
REFERENCE AAES 3 88; Sartre 8 4.
LOCATION Tafha
DATE
BdXpOU
TRANSLATION: See t he t ranslation
g iven
i n
n o.34(a).
COMMENTARY: Aside f rom n oting t hat Bakhros would be derived f rom Arabic Bakr, Prentice d id not comment upon t his n ame. I t appears a s a personal name i n PAES 3 7 ( = Wuthnow [ 1930] 3 5). For the o ther two c lan n ames i n t his t ext, s ee no.34 above a nd no.43 below.
1 39
( 37) NAME
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 339; AAES 4 13a; Sartre 8 3.
Bennathe BeVVdel‘
LOCATION Qanawat ( J-D) ( Canatha)
DATE
T RANSLATION: " Puplius Aelius Germanus, councillor, son o f Puplius Aelius Philippus, of t he ( clan ) Bennathe, set up piously, at h is own expense, this ( column), g iving honour to M ightiest Zeus."
C OMMENTARY : This may be a t ribal or f amily name, a s Waddington noted. The editors of AAES s uggested that i t was t ribal a nd " is probably akin t o t he Safaitic Bnt", but Harding ( 1969) l ists no name ( out of more t han 1 00), t hat i s even r emotely s imilar. Bennathe may i nstead represent a place-name o r village. Germanus was a councillor o f the boule a t Canatha; h is f ather' s cognomen could mean t his i nscription i s l ate t hird c entury. Benathe and Banathos o ccur a s personal names i n v illages not f ar f rom Canatha. Cf. Wuthnow ( 1930) 3 5 and 3 2 respectively.
( 38) NAME
REFERENCE Savignac 5 97-598 no.4; Sartre 8 4.
Gomos ( ?) T e t i rogt ( sic)
LOCATION Jize ( H)
DATE Fourth c ent. o r l ater
T RANSLATION: " By
t he
guidance
( clan) Gomos Theodorus h ad
a nd
attention
t he sanctuary t he foundations
o f
( of t he l aid."
Elias
Onenus
church)
o f
of
t he
Saint
C OMMENTARY : The possibility of a t ribal n ame o r e thnicon rests on t he restoration/interpretation o f I n te l ) 'O vgvou T övyogt. Savighac and Abel s aid: " Le mot Tövyogt e st a ssez embarrassant. I l s erait preferable d e l ire: ¶06, y ogt, de l a t ribu des Gomi". Cf. Wuthnow ( 1930) 4 1 for t he p roper name Gomos attested n earby. Jones ( 1971) 2 86 note 8 2, i n r eferring t o another v illage nearby ( Neve = Nawa) quotes Eusebius, Onomastikon: xept ¶PY rWµCaV TIC Apaß(ac. I t may b e possible t hat t his Gomia i s a mistake for Gonia, and t hat v illage and c lan shared t he name.
1 40
.
( 39)NAME
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 436; PAES 7 91; Sartre 8 4.
[ D] aeios ' T OW
[A ]a cC am (si c )
LOCATION a l-Jäj ( L)
DATE Fourth cent. or l ater
TRANSLATION: " Elias ( son) o f K aiamus, martyrium o f Saint Elias."
of
t he
( clan)
Daeios,
built
t his
COMMENTARY: Waddington read t he badly-formed l etter at t he beginning of t his word a s " si l a l e9on t iagioU etait certain, on pourrait voir d ans c e mot le nom . ... qui a urait donne son nom ä la l ocalite". The e ditors of PAES read initial X ( Khaeios) and s uggested t hat t he n ame Kaiy or Ka' akhih be i nterpreted. Wuthnow ( 1930) 1 19 s uggests readings even l ess plausible. Waddington' s r eading s eems p referable, and i n s upport of i t I would c ite Unex. Syr. I 1 60, a reference t o a t ribe a l-Haddie i n t his s ame r egion. Cf. also t he l arge Safaitic t ribe d 'l Däif at a l-cIsawl ( PAES I V C nos.360,
6 69,
6 87
= HirdiAg
no.50).
REFERENCE Wadd, 2 258; Sartre 8 4.
( 40) NAME Dammaia Tot% s i ty
[ 1969]
A aggata‘
TRANSLATION: See the t ranslation
i n
n0 32(a)
LOCATION DATE Sgla ( J-D) ( Salamanestha?)
above.
COMMENTARY: Waddington t ranslated I 'd % TOV a s ' ceux de race de" and t hus ( apparently ) v iewed t he name a s a n , : _ l thnicon. This s ame inscription y ields t hree other n ames t ha ' : may be c lans ( nos.32, 4 6 and 4 9). Suwaydi 1 911) 2 0 notes t he t ribal n ame Dicmä. The name i s o therwise unknown.
1 41
( 41) NAME Doebos TOV 60 4 ,01 )
REFERENCE Voyage 2 00 no.84; Sartre 8 7.
ygV0C
LOCATION Karak ( H)
DATE 5 22/523
TRANSLATION: " (There i s) One God, He Who Helped Doe[bos] ( the s on ) Rassus ( or Raseos?) of the c lan Doebos..." ( The n ext l ines a re only partially legible and make no sense. l ast t hree l ines a re part of a p rayer, e nding w ith date.)
of two The t he
COMMENTARY: Dussaud and Macler offered no discussion o f the s ocial i mplications of this t ext. Sartre r ightly contends that t he formula T OW followed by a genitive s ingular a nd t hat followed b y t he t erm genos s hows c learly t hat there was a d istinction between t ribe and c lan i n t he epigraphy o f this region. See t he s ame formula u sed i n n o.48 below, a nd my d iscussion of genos a nd a ssociated t erms i n t he commentary t here, a s well a s t he comments in Part 4 of Chapter I II, above. Doebos i s a common personal n ame ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 4 3).
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 009; Sartre 8 4.
( 42) NAME Kauxitos ToTG TMV
LOCATION Salkhad . ( H) ( Salcha)
Ka ACTou
TRANSLATION: The i nscription t ranslation.
i s
t oo
f ragmentary
t o
r ender
DATE ?
a
c oherent
COMMENTARY: Waddington' s c omments summarise t he purpose: " Il s ' agit d ' un monument f uneraire dont differentes portions s ont affectees plusiers b ranches de l a meme f ami ne." On t he expression Tot‘ Tev see no.40 above. There a re no personal names known t o me r elated t o t his c lan n ame. Cf. Wuthnow ( 1930) 6 3.
1 42
( 43)NAME
REFERENCE a . AAES 3 87 ( = N IDH 1 12) and 3 88.
Kerzilanos e6v Ksp4Clavou
LOCATION Tafha
DATE
b . AAES 3 89; Sartre 8 4. TRANSLATION: See
the
t ranslation
g iven
i n
n o.34(a)
and
( b)
above.
COMMENTARY: Dunand ( NIDH c ommentary t o 1 12) believed t his was a c lan. Wuthnow ( 1930) 6 4 suggests Qrzl but c ites no examples of i ts use a s a p roper name. Qrzl does not appear i n Stark' s r egister o f names f rom Palmyra.
( 44) NAME Mazabana T a lv Ma4aßdva
TRANSLATION: " To the Sacred Alaphus of the
REFERENCE LOCATION Frezouls ( 1952) Volubilis 3 69-372; ( Mauretania AE ( 1953) 2 14; Tingitana) SEG X III 6 22 and the b ibliog. t here; Sartre 8 3.
DATE
Spirits of t he Underworld. For Magnus ( clan) Mazabana, ( who) l ies here, aged 3 0."
COMMENTARY: That t he deceased was a Syrian has n ever been i n doubt, a nd s upportive evidence was brought forward by Bardy ( 1953) 1 11-112 and t he Roberts BE ( 1953) 2 06-207 and REG 6 7 ( 1953) 1 88 ( cf. Wuthnow [ 1930] 1 6). Mazabana i s well-attested a s a ' personal name ( MZBN') at Palmyra ( Stark [ 1971] 3 0 and 9 5) a nd in t he Hawrgn a s Ma4aßdvo‘ and v ariants ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 6 8). I t i s yet t o be attested a s a clan or t ribal name i n Syria.
1 43
( 45) NAME
REFERENCE N IDH no.316; BE ( 1953) 2 18; IGLS X III 9 134; Sartre 8 3.
Mar.a TMV l tep.a4
LOCATION DATE Busra al-Sham 6th ( H) cent. Bostra
TRANSLATION: " By t he generosity of our Lord Justinian, made p ossible t hrough t he e fforts o f our holy Archbishop John, t he aqueduct was r epaired, by provision o f Anastasius, o f ( the c lan) Mar.a, s ilversmith..." ( the t ext i s t oo b roken t o r econstruct f rom t his point. COMMENTARY: Dunand r estored t he damaged name a s M ap(i)a4 , and at the suggestion of Pere Mouterde s tated t hat t his " serait u n nom de t ribu." The Roberts said nothing. Sartre r ightly sees t his a s t he f amiliar epigraphic designation of a c lan. The name i tself could be r estored M 6pea , M e Lp e ra or even just hap° . ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 7 2-73).
( 46)NAME
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 258; Sartre 8 4.
Mauragga
T ot‘ %v ....
DATE LOCATION Sala ( J-D) ( Salamanestha?)
M aupe t el e ya ( sic) TRANSLATION: See t he t ranslation
i n
n o.32(a)
above.
COMMENTARY: On t he p refixes s ee no.40. I would expect a s igma to follow t he alpha i f t he genitive s ingular i s i ntended, but i t i s not unusual to f ind it missing. Mauragga d oes not occur e lsewhere a s a proper n ame to t he best of my knowledge. Cf. Wuthnow ( 1930) 7 5.
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 348; AAES 4 21; Sartre 8 3.
( 47) NAME Monaikeidanos T b 5V M ovatxstödvou TRANSLATION: " Rufus Proclinus, s tatue?)
i n
of
t he
( clan)
DATE
LOCATION Qanawät ( J-D)
Monaikeidanos,
set
u p
( the
p iety."
COMMENTARY: o g uess t hat t his w as a Waddington made no comment except t name. Prentice ( AAES) t ranslated T6 51, f amily o r t ribal M ovatxsteAvou as "the family of Monaikeidanos" and went on " the name Monaikeidanos i s a d ouble t o explain t hat i t i s f rom Munaic lidh, the d iminutive of d iminutive . ... iminutive t ermination -an'. If s o we Munc lidh, w ith t he d
1 44
h ave here a clan n ame derived f rom more l ikely than n ot t he origin of t ribal n ames ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 7 8).
( 48)NAME
REFERENCE LOCATION Wadd. 2 271; Nemara IGR I II 1 257; ( 1j arra) Speidel ( 1977) 7 20; Bowersock ( 1983) 1 08; omitted by Sartre.
Naba
1 4vo[G]
t he name of an ancestor, the majority of c lan and
1 64 304
DATE 2 nd-3rd cent?
TRANSLATION: " Mesamaros, c lan Naba."
eques
of
t he
( legion)
I II
Cyrenaica,
of
t he
COMMENTARY: This inscription h as been consistently c ited a s a r eference t o Nabataean recruits i n the a rmy of provincia Arabia, most r ecently by Mann ( 1983) 1 46. There i s absolutely nothing t o sustain this a rgument. The wording o f the t ext, e xclusive of t he m ilitary designation, parallels c losely t hat of n o.41 ( see my comments above, Chapter I II, Part 4 ). Mesamaros i s c learly a Semitic name. Though i t may not be Arabic, t here a re close Arabic parallels a s nouns e .g. mismär ( a nail), mismariyg ( cuneiform writing) and musämir ( a l ively conversationalist). Samir a nd Samar a re r elated p ersonal n ames, a nd i t seems probable t hat Mesamaros i s a n omen agentis f rom t he verb sämara. Cf. . 7 , 4 0' .oepa . i n Wuthnow ( 1930) 1 11. Naba i s a ttested at Palmyra a s NcE0 ( Syriac Nacbä') meaning " Raven" i n Stark ( 1971) 3 9 and 9 9, s .v. T he Greek t ransliteration here would be perfectly p lausible. On t he v arious meanings of genos s ee Lacey ( 1969) 2 5 and 5 6, but note a lso h is s tatement, "Genos i s an elusive t erm; besides the wider groups o f nominal k insmen, t he genos a lso i ncluded a man' s a ctual k insmen, t hose within t he l egally acknowledged k inship group."(26) Two examples of i ts wide u sage a re P . Oxy. 3 053 1 .15-16 and S t. . Paul, Philippians 2 : 6 -7.
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 258; Sartre 8 4.
( 49) NAME Sados
T otG T em. - 2 66ov TRANSLATION: See the t ranslation
i n
no.32(a)
LOCATION DATE Sala ( J-D) ( Salamanestha?)
above.
COMMENTARY: This i s one o f four c lans noted i n t his n os.32, 4 0, 4 6 a bove. Sados i s an extremely t his region. See Wuthnow ( 1930) 1 01 v ariations, e .g. Littmann ( 1921) 1 1.
1 45
t ext; s ee . a lso common n ame i n and endless
( 50) NAME
REFERENCE LOCATION Syria 6 ( 1925) Derca 2 36 no.20; ( H) SEG V II 9 60; Adraa omitted by Sartre.
Saoudathe Zaouöaee‘
DATE
TRANSLATION: " Primus,
of
t he
( clan)
Saoudathe,
age
8 0."
COMMENTARY: It i s possible to i nterpret t his name as s imply a matronymic or, more p lausibly, a v illage-name. However, Mouterde ( Syria, ibid.) f elt t hat t here was a p robable i dentification w ith "un c lan medinois s e nommait l es Banoi l Sucida" o r, i n t he form Saco i adat, t he name " est ä r approcher des noms hauranites, bedouins e t druses . ..." This n ame i s common i n variant f orms i n t he a rea. Cf. Wuthnow ( 1930) 1 05.
( 51) NAME Pherminos Tev t i epµCvou
REFERENCE Voyage 1 45 no.4; AAES 3 77; Sartre 8 4.
LOCATION Shaqqä ( J-D) ( Saccaea)
DATE c .600
TRANSLATION: " Pherminus ( son) of Heraclius, head ( ?) o f the ( clan) Pherminos, built f rom h is own ( funds) the s table a nd the two r efectories, in t he year of t he c ity ( Shaqqa/ Maximianopolis) 3 00." ( c. A.D. 6 00) COMMENTARY: This i s a problematic i nscription i n a lmost every way. Prentice ( AAES, ibid.) states f latly, " I am n ot sure what t he words XpoT(sewV) Tgv ocpµtvou really mean ... it s eems a s i f a f amily o r c lan or f action of some sort were i nvolved". The dating i s l ikewise u ncertain - i t r eads " in t he year 3 00 of t he c ity". Prentice calculated ( implausibly) t hat t he c ity was f ounded i n A .D. 6 1/62; more l ikely . i s Jones' acceptance of a Diocletianic date ( [1971] 2 86 note 8 2). Oppenheim ( 1939) I 3 42 n o.2, notes a t ribe Furrä near Damascus. Cf. the Safaitic t ribal name F i(h) r i n PAES IV C n o.707 f rom a l-cIsawl. Equally plausible i s Harding ( 1969) no.56 ( Fru t ) or n o.93 ( Frt ). T o my knowledge t here a re no personal names derived — from this c lan n ame, but s ee Wuthnow ( 1930) 1 18.
1 46
CHAPTER IV
V ILLAGE ADMINISTRATION
1 .
I N TRACHONITIS AND AURANITIS
I ntroduction
Tribal o rganisation w as but o ne a spect o f t he s ocial and political s tructure o f v illages i n Roman Arabia. Though t ribal i dentification was a c ommon t rait t hroughout the Empire,' i dentification b y v illage a nd t ribe 2 o r b y village a lone 3 w as f ar more p revalent. Two f amous i nscriptions attest t hat e ven t hough t he g eographic l imits of t he Roman world m ight s eparate a p erson f rom h is province o f o rigin, t he n ative t own would b e r ecorded, fondly, on t he g rave-marker." Roman Arabia w as a l arge p rovince w ith f ew b ig c ities. The bulk o f t he population l ived i n rural communities. Most of t hese v illages n ever a chieved t he s tatus o f metrocamia, much l ess t he r ank of c ity, i n t he f ive c enturies t hey were w ithin t he i mperial system. Some t hat d id achieve c ity-status apparently d id s o w ithout t he c onsequent i ncrease o f t erritory a nd population t hat v illages m ight n ormally e xperience. 5 For v arious r easons t he u rbanisation p rocess i n t his p rovince a ppears t o h ave s tagnated by t he m id-fourth c entury 6 s o t hat Arabia r emained, i n t he words o f F .E. Peters, " a p rovince where e ven villages h ad b ishops". 7
Jones ( 1940) 1 71-172 a nd note 3 0. E .g. Wadd. 2 265, 2 396, 2 393, 2 431. 3 A s ampling o f Arabian e thnicons would i nclude: A t o loCwv ( IGR 1 11 1 128), Zetl iv U ( Littmann e t a l. [ 1921] 7 84 1 ) , 2 a(u) w r iv U ( Savignac [ 1905] 9 6 n o.13), ' Aep v urVäC ( Wright a nd Souter [ 1895] 1 55 no.104). Thaemus Julianus, a c ouncillor o f Canatha a nd n ative o f c Atil ( Athela) i n t he Jebal Dri az, was b uried a t Thevaux n ear Lyon c .200 ( IGR I 2 5). Stercoria Gallix, a l ady o f Rotomagus ( Rouen ) i n France ( and w ife o f a v eteran?) was b uried at Imtgn n ear Bostra i n 3 42 ( Wadd. 2 036). Jones ( 1931) 2 74 a nd s ee a bove, Chapter I I, P arts 6 a nd 7 . One v illage, i f t he i nterpretation o f t he d amaged i nscription found t here i s c orrect, s et o ut a d istance m arker on t he e dge o f i ts " territory" ( Littmann e t a l. [ 1921] 6 6). This does n ot a ppear t o b e o ne o f t he D iocletianic boundary-markers commonly f ound i n t his r egion. 6 The c ity-name Constantia i ndicates a d ate c .325 o r l ater f or t he b estowal o f a constitution on t he v illage o f B uräq. No other Arabian c ity w ith a n i mperial n ame l ater 2
4
5
t han
that date was f ounded. Peters ( 1977/1978) 1 03.
1 47
Surprisingly, t hough, t hese v illages d id n ot r emain s hadowy, u nsophisticated appendages o f t he poleis. I nstead t hey appear, f rom t he abundant evidence of t he e pigraphy, t o h ave t aken on t he f orm, i f n ot t he s ubstance, o f c ities. The d iversity a nd i ntensity o f r eligious and e specially political f reedom e njoyed by t hese v illages i s n ot only a stonishing t o record but refreshing t o r esearch. As will be s hown i n t he f ollowing p ages, t he v illages of Arabia a t l east t he northern s ector o f t he p rovince - h ad their own a ssemblies, e lected a nd/or a ppointed boards o f magistrates, managed a common f und, negotiated w ith t he b edouin i n t heir v icinity, r egulated t he u se of l and a nd undertook public works p rojects o f e very c onceivable type, among which we may n ote t he c onstruction of baths, b asilicas, boarding-houses, t emples, c isterns, t heatres, workshops a nd public meeting-places k nown b y a variety o f names. From t he f ourth c entury onwards the b uilding i nscriptions i nclude a s tructure which must h ave b ecome a common f eature on t he s kyline o f many v illages, e specially t hose f acing t he desert f rontier - t he watchtower. Villages t ook p ride i n posting t heir r egisters o f c urrent magistrates, 8 but t hey were n ot t oo p roud t o s olicit d ivine a ssistance f or t heir well-being o r p rotection. 8 Veterans a nd t he descendants o f v eterans seem t o have been a mainstay o f t he l ava-land v illages, " and w ith good r eason. Trachonitis a nd Auranitis h ad been d ifficult for t he v arious political a uthorities t o s ubjugate. Herod t he G reat h ad s ettled and re-settled para-military colonies i n t hese r egions i n a s ustained e ffort t o quench t he r ebellious n ature a nd l awless h abits o f t he " natives" by f orcefully i mposing a p astoral o r a grarian way of l ife. " As e vidence f or t he success o f t hese measures we c an c ite t he many i nscriptions " r eflecting v illagers' p ride i n
• Wadd. 2 457 = Littmann e t a l. ( 1921) 7 93". • Bole(L) 4 1 Av x o lg(r i)("Aid our v illage!") appears i n a f ifth-century Christian i nscription f rom S t ir in t he Leja ( Littmann e t a l. ( 1921) 7 97 3 ) . 1 ° "We may s ay w ithout e xaggeration t hat most o f t he p rominent members o f a v illage community a ll over Syria were f ormer s oldiers." Rostovtzeff ( 1957) 6 66 note 3 5. This i s e xaggeration. For a more balanced v iew, s ee MacMullen ( 1963) 1 03ff. 1 Jones ( 1971) 2 82-283 a nd Peters ( 1977) 2 69-270. 1 2 See MacAdam ( 1983) 1 12-114. For e vidence o f s poradic v iolence i n northern Syria, c f. Liebeschuetz ( 1972) 1 22. Oddly, t here i s no mention o f v illage p olice i n Arabia, i n s pite o f Wright and Souter's a ttempt t o r ead B Lox[ Oo ne lc] ( "armed policeman") i n a d amaged i nscription f rom D amit a l-cAliya i n t he Leja ( 1895 no.79). For a more p lausible r estoration o f t his t ext, s ee L ittmann e t a l. ( 1921) 8 00 a nd c ommentary. Harper ( 1928) 5 7 denied t he e xistence of v illage police a nywhere i n Syria, b ut s ee L iebeschuetz, op.cit. 1 22-124.
1 48
occupations o ther t han b rigandage. e specially i n c riminal cases, l ay w ith s taff. "
Judicial a uthority, t he governor a nd h is
There a re t hree more a spects t o t his e xamination o f v illage administration. Part 2 o f t his c hapter deals w ith t he t erminology u sed b y t he v arious v illages t o e xpress collective action o r executive authority v ested i n v illage magistrates. Part 3 e numerates a nd defines t he v arious t itles u sed by v illage officials, a nd c harts a s election o f e xamples f rom t he a vailable epigraphy t o d emonstrate t he e xtent o f v illage activities. Part 4 r eviews t he evidence f or local r ecruitment i nto t he Roman m ilitary f orces a ttested i n t he l ava-lands, and emphasises t he r ole o f r etired s oldiers i n rural communities b y p resenting a r egister ( with c ommentary ) o f a ll t he k nown veterani. The published i nscriptions a re t he p rimary s ource f or t his s tudy. Their a bundance, a nd t he r ecord t hey p reserve o f v illage a ffairs, i s unparalleled a nywhere e lse i n t he e mpire e xcept Anatolia. Unfortunately, Arabia h ad n o L ibanius t o g ive u s a connected, c oherent a ccount o f p olitical l ife a nd t o h elp b ridge t he g ap i n o ur k nowledge o f t he r elationship o f v illage t o c ity a nd o f v illage t o p rovincial g overnment. However, a s Liebeschuetz was c areful t o point out, Syria h ad a Libanius but f ew i nscriptions r elative t o t his a spect o f v illage l ife.'"
2 .
The Village Assembly
The p rovincial v illages r eferred t o t heir c orporate o r c ollective f unction by employing a r emarkably d iverse r am ie o f t erms. Most n otable o f t hese a re ( 1) xd w r i ( 2) o t x w ATat ( 3) ö t C te . r i x (4 11 1‘ ( 4) ö 6140‘ ( 5) To xoLväv a nd ( 6) A ö xxo‘ An e xample o f h ow e ach was u sed i n c ontext i s g iven below: ( 1) x o 5µ / 1 "The e rected s ome s tructure
N uqra
v illage" o f Harran i n t he y ear 2 09. "
i n
t he
Lej
( 2) ö t x w aTat " The v illagers" o f K afr-Liha i n c onstructed a b uilding f rom t he c ommon f und a nd
t he t he
" There i s n o d irect e vidence f or conventus i n Arabia o ther t han t he r eference i n t he Babatha a rchives t o t he g overnor holding a ssizes a t Petra. No doubt t he p rovince w as divided i nto j udiciary " districts" c orresponding t o i ts l arge c ities - i .e. Bostra, Jerash, c Amman, K arakmoab, Rabbathmoab a nd Petra. All o f t hese l ay a long t he v ia nova Traiana. ( 1972) 1 19ff. See Goodman ( 1983) Chapter c omparative s tudy o f v illage l ife i n Galilee. Wadd. 2 460 = I GR I II 1 149. 14
15
1 49
8
f or
a
generosity of sons o f a nother
t he v illage strategos, two v eterans v eteran i n t he year 2 36. "
a nd
( 3) ö t ( T mä e l% x t rw% " Those f rom t he village" c Ajaylat i n t he Jebal Drüz dedicated a p ublic building t he god Ethaos ( cAthi o r c Ithac) i n a n u nknown year. "
i n
t he
o f t o
( 4) 6 61µ0‘ "The people" of Caesarea Eitha ( al-Hit ) t he Jebal Druz built a s hrine ( ?) i n a n u nknown y ear. "
( 5) v illage)" " the god" d ate. "
T o x o tvov (T1‘ xo5µ11C) " The community ( of t he o f Umm a l-Zayt i an i n t he Lej a " , i n c onjunction w ith ( Kronos?) built a kalybe ( shrine) a t an u ncertain
( 6) Ö C' X .0G "The assembly" of the village of Shaqqa i n t he Jebal Drüz met i n t he t heatre to d iscuss ( presumably) r epairing a n a rchitrave o r e ntablature o f s ome building which h ad collapsed. 2° Of t hese s ix t erms, t he f irst a nd f ifth appear most o ften i n t he i nscriptions. The f ourth i s p robably a v ariant o f t he f irst, a nd t he t hird a v ariant o f t he s econd. To my k nowledge, t he t erm ö ök1 .0‘ i s u nique i n t he i nscriptions f rom t he l ava-lands. " I t was c haracteristically unnoticed by Harper, and Jones " misleadingly i mplied t hat i ts u sage was common throughout t he r egion. I ts connection ( in t he t ext c ited) w ith a t heatre i s quite i nteresting, s ince i t i s i n j ust s uch a s etting t hat Libanius u ses t he t erm ö k kog to describe a f action o r c laque which s tarted a d emonstration i n t he t heatre a t Antioch. " I t obviously h ere does n ot h ave t he pejorative s ense o f " mob", but o f a n o rganised meeting. I t i s a lso worthwhile t o note t he existence o f a t heatre i n other v illages. 2 4
Wadd. 2 399 = I GR I II 1 213. Wadd. 2 209. Cf. Sourdel ( 1952) 8 5. Wadd. 2 113. Wadd. 2 546 = L ittmann e t a l. ( 1921) 7 65' Wadd. 2 136 = I GR I II 1 192. For a p arallel u se o f t he t erm e lsewhere,
16
17
18
19
3
20
21
cf.
I GR
I V
8 92. The more c lassical t erm ecclesia was o ccasionally u sed by v illages ( OGIS 4 88, JHS 4 7 [ 1937] 4 ). Although i t i s not certain, nos.1-3 above appear t o be l ess f ormal t erms a nd n os.4-6, a nd e specially 4 and 6 may c orrespond t o 7 c 6x 1 ,‘ and 1 Bolikt i r espectively. The p hrase Tb x o tvov may s imply c ombine t he t wo. 22 ( 1971) 2 84. 23 Liebeschuetz ( 1972) 2 14. 2 See Littmann e t a l. ( 1921) 1 80, f rom K afr i n t he 4
k lawrän. The Princeton e xpedition o f 1 909 d iscovered a well-preserved, t hough t iny, t heatre a t S er i n t he northeast c orner o f t he Lej . The s ite was u ndoubtedly a ( Nabataean?) s hrine, s ince n o r emains o f a v illage e xist
1 50
Nowhere i n t he v illage i nscriptions i s t he t erm boule u nambiguously attested i n context, not even f rom t hose c ommunities known to be m etroc5miai . Bouleutai, however, a re attested i n the v illages. Some a re readily i dentifiable a s members of t he council i n a k nown c ity, e .g. a bouleutes o f Canatha attested at Mushannaf, 2 5 and bouleutai of Philippopolis attested at Shaqra 2 5 and c Orman. 2 7 Members o f t he council at Bostra, a s one would e xpect, are t he most f requently a ttested i n v illage e pigraphy. Many a re i dentified only by an abbreviation a ppended to t heir n ames. " Bouleutai f rom other c ities ( Adraa, Dionysias and even I rbid) have been noted by H -G P flaum. 2 9 But t he t erm bouleutes appears most f requently i n village i nscriptions unqualified by c ity-name o r a bbreviation. Rostovtzeff 3° and Harper 3 1 t herefore a dduced t he existence o f a v illage boule. This was doubted by Jones, n ot only on t he basis of the conspicuous absence of boulai i n t he rural i nscriptions, but by analogy w ith v illage s tatus i n t he rest of t he Empire: The persons who a re styled councillors i n t he village i nscriptions do not seem t o h ave had a ny official s tatus i n t he v illages a s such. The qualification of "councillor" i s appended t o a man' s name i n t he s ame way as t hat of " veteran", that i s, i t r epresents a personal d istinction a nd not an official position i n t he v illage. 3 2 This seems by f ar the most l ikely i nterpretation, but i t did n ot resolve t he i ssue. The existence i n Syria of a v illage boule h as been claimed. A damaged i nscription f ound i n t he v illage of a l-Husn i n t he Orontes v alley h as b een r estored t o read [ K6 . ) c ]e(? )B[o lu[keuT ]at T oepou i .e. " five bouleutai of Touros", perhaps t he a ncient n ame o f this v illage. 3 3 The editors' restoration of t he k ey word bouleutai, to s ay nothing of t he word t hat p receeds i t, i s extremely speculative. They t hen compounded t he u ncertainty b y c iting Harper i n s upport of v illage c ouncils. In s pite of t his, t heir restoration was accepted
( continued) ( Butler [ 1919] 4 45-446). Remains o f a t heatre a re k nown a t Suwayda/Dionysias ( Miller [ 1984] 1 20 a nd note 1 21). Wadd. 2 216. For other bouleutai o f Canatha s ee I GR I II 1 225, IGR I 2 5, SEG V II 1 094 and 1 104, and Wadd. 2 339. I GR I II 1 152. 27 Wadd. 2 019. For o ther bouleutai f rom Philippopolis s ee IGR I II 1 196 and 1 201. See Appendix 1 of t his c hapter. ( 1952) 3 19. Cf. Jones ( 1931) 2 73 note 1 . 3 0 ( 1957) 6 66 note 3 5. 2 4
25
26
28
29
31 32 3 3
( 1928) 4 7-49. ( 1971) 2 86. I GLS 6 52 ( A.D.
3 67).
1 51
by Liebeschuetz " who was aware o f Jones' a rgument a gainst t he existence o f v illage councils. T hus t he i ssue h as gone f ull c ircle. I n a ddition, t here a re a number o f e nigmatic b uilding t erms i n t he i nscriptions which s uggest p ublic m eetingp laces o f s ome s ort. In an i nscription a lready n oted 3 5 a ölgooCav dv OL X060 0 1V was dedicated. Another v illage commemorated t he c onstruction o f ö öng6oto‘ a xoc. 3 6 The exact f unction of t hese buildings i s u nknown. Jones " c onsidered t hem " to h ave s erved a s public o ffices", b ut i t i s l ikely t hat t hey a re s ynonymous w ith t he ubiquitous Tb ön a mov I tavöoxtov " o r Tb xo r obv / cavöoxtov, " b oth of which mean " rest-house" o r " inn". Even more obscure i n meaning i s t he xagdpa Tot ölgov built b y t he v illagers o f Bosana " and 1 xmgdpa c onstructed i n nearby Nela 4 ( Mushannaf). It s eems t o me t hat t hese t erms m ight be t ranslated " assembly-hall", and may h ave been built s pecifically t o house whatever mass-meetings m ight be s cheduled by t he v illage ( although a t heatre would b e a more l ikely place for t his). More s pecifically, t hese s tructures might be t he equivalent o f t he bouleuterion i n t he c ities. The f act t hat a v illage o fficial, or t he l ocal board of magistrates, u sually oversaw t he c onstruction of t hese buildings, i s i ndica - i ve t hat t he community r egarded t hem a s e specially s ignificant. 4: 1
There i s only one i nccri .p ticn k nown t G me which m ight a llude t o a c ouncil-building i n a v i lage. This i s a b roken t wo-line ( ?) c pie2 , b y Uaddington i n the v illage o f Umm a l-Rümman ( ancient Renmona?). 4 3 His f acsimile d rawing and restorazicn o f t his a re g iven h ere. The s tone was b roken only cn t he l eft: BA A ArI C V KAI M O XEC C V . 1 0 B O Y AA N: T H ' I/
' Ex w p o v o ( e c j i xt icen
34
35
36
37
38
39
4 0
41
42
43
( 1972) 1 19 and W add. 2 209 a nd Wadd. 2 029. ( 1931) 2 70. Wadd. 2 462. Wadd. 2 463. Wadd. 2 239a. Wadd. 2 220. MacAdam ( 1983) Wadd. 2 056.
lMexieou
T Ö X0 1 1 /10
n ote 7 . s ee n ote
, 0 Gli(t
1 7
1 08-109.
1 52
.
a. zove.
l ef,
The i nscription was copied f rom a b roken p iece of a rchitrave, and Waddington was unsure t o what i t had originally been attached. There i s no way of knowing how long or short t he original i nscription was, o r even what i ts purpose was. Waddington' s suggested restoration must be r egarded as quite suspect, and the most t hat might be s aid i s t hat t he l ast l ine contains t he e nd of a p roper name ( a month?) i n the genitive s ingular, possibly followed by a n alpha or d elta, then an abbreviation for i ndiction, and lastly t he year: IOBOY A I N(äIKTIWNOC) ET(E)I TEZ. Alternatively, one might . read a n abbreviation for bouleutes, followed by the year: I0? BOYA (EYTOY?) ( E) N ET(E)I TEZ. 4 4 In e ither c ase, the sole attestation of a v illage possessing a bouleion or koino-bouleion evaporates. A v illage t hat c ertainly l ay within t he territorium of Bostra, only twenty km to the northwest, would hardly e rect s uch a s tructure, much l ess h ave a c ouncil of i ts own. I have a lready noted the f requent appearance o f the t itle bouleutes i n v illage i nscriptions. " This c an only i ndicate t hat t he councillors attested t here were e ither r esidents of t hose v illages, or h ad some d irect i nterest i n t hem. Certainly t hey took an active part i n t he a ffairs of t hese communities, and when i t i s c lear t hat t he v illage c oncerned could n ot possibly be owned by a c ity, the p resence of bouleutai ( active or former) i s a ll t he more i nteresting. Some no doubt had f inancial i nterests i n a v illage, " but t his was probably not t he only motivation. I t i s just as l ikely t hat smaller c ities s uch as Canatha, Philippopolis, Maximianopolis, Adraa o r Dionysias c onferred c itizenship upon the wealthier v illagers who i n turn welcomed t his h onour a nd could afford t he expensive a nd t ime-consuming l iturgies requisite t o such a position. We d o h ave a record t hat a c ertain Iolopherus s on of Azizus " performed a ll l iturgies a t h is own expense." 4 7 This c an only mean that he was a councillor. In r eturn, t he v illage c ould benefit f rom a r esident c ouncillor' s l argesse. A councillor of t he boule a t Canatha a nd other v illagers built " from t heir own f unds" t he propylaea o f a t emple t o Athena, a gain a t Mushannaf. " The v illage of Shaqra i n t he Lej ä was t he r ecipient of a n u nspecified t ype of monument donated by a councillor o f
See a lso Wadd. 2 055 f rom t his s ame v illage, a d edication by a veteranus which d isplays quite s imilar o rthographical v ariations. See Appendix 2 o f t his c hapter. There i s no i nstance i n t he l ava-lands o f a v illage b eing owned by a n i ndividual. Such a case i s r ecorded i n t he Phoenician c ity o f Baetocaece ( IGR I ll 1 020 = OGIS 2 62) o f t he mid-third century. See Harper ( 1928) 6 4-65. SEG VII 1 082, f rom Mushannaf. 4 8 Wadd. 2 216. 4 4
46
46
47
1 53
Philippopolis. " I n e ach c ase, i t i s p robable t hat t he donor was a native o f t hat v illage. I am inclined t o b elieve t hat t he wealth, p restige a nd political e xperience o f t hese resident councillors h ad s ome i nfluence o n t he e ventual r ise i n s tatus o f a v illage t o t he r ank o f metrocömia o r c ity, a lthough I c an c ite n o d irect e vidence f or t his. Certainly t heir s ophistication i n matters o f f inance a nd a dministration was o f e normous h elp t o t hose v illages i n t he f ormative s tages o f political a ctivity - i .e. i naugurating a n a ssembly a nd e nrolling members for t he l ocal board o f magistrates. I t may be n o coincidence t hat t hese v illages t ook t o emulating t he p olitical f eatures o f t he c ities. I f t he eventual " urbanisation" o f a r egion b e j udged only by t he n umber o f i ts duly c onstituted c ities, t han Arabia was n ever extensively " urban". But i f t he c riterion was i nstead t he ability t o p lan, o rganise a nd maintain a f air d egree o f polity w ithin a g iven c ommunity, t hen u rbanisation i n n orthern Arabia was a r esounding s uccess. "
3 .
Village Officials
Village o fficials were known by a v ariety of t itles. To s ome extent t hese appear t o be s tandardised - i .e. the s ame t erminology appears i n t he i nscriptions o f many v illages. There i s a lso s ome e vidence that this bureaucratic t erminology u nderwent modification i n the f ourth c entury. Some o f t he t itles common t o t he l aval ands a re n ot well-attested e lsewhere. By t he s ame t oken, we k now o f a number o f t erms which a re f amiliar t o o ther a reas o f t he empire t hat a re r arely, i f e ver, found i n Arabia. For t his r eason I w ill n ot b e d iscussing such officials a s t he komarchos, t he komogrammateus a nd the pragmateutes. The t erm agoranomos o ccurs o nly o nce ( in Auranitis), but we may e liminate t his a s well s ince i t r elates t o t he a ffairs o f a c ity. 5 1 For t he s ame r eason t he t erms archön a nd dekaprötos, i nter a lia, w ill n ot be d iscussed. 5 2 For a v ery d ifferent r eason t he t itles phylarchos a nd ethnarches w ill n ot b e c onsidered. These
Wadd. 2 506. Contrast t his w ith t he r ole o f v illages i n n orthern Syria a s noted i n Liebeschuetz ( 1972) 1 19-121. Wadd. 2 330 = I GR I II 1 224 o f Canatha ( Qanawat) d ated 1 24/125. Wright a nd Souter ( 1895) n o.133 dated i t i ncorrectly t o 1 04/105. Normally t hese t wo o fficials a re a ssociated w ith c ities, but L iebeschuetz ( 1972) 1 19-120 maintains ( implausibly ) t hat t hey were Syrian v illage o fficials. The term dekaprotoi i s a ttested a t Namre i n t he Jebal .D r i az ( Dussaud a nd Macler [ 1901] 1 48-149 n o.12), but i t i s c learly a n h onourific t itle ( as i s bouleutes e lsewhere ) for t wo pistoi from that village who were ( or h ad b een) members of a c ity c ouncil. 49
50
51
52
1 54
t erms were u sed t o t ranslate shaykh o r t herefore r elate t o bedouin l ife on t he s teppe a nd n ot t o t he v illages. "
t ribal c hief f ringe o f
a nd t he
There a re t en t erms l eft t o c onsider: ( A) pratokametes, ( B) strategos, ( C) pistos, ( D) pronoetes, ( E) d ioiketes, ( F) epimeletes, ( G) episkopos, ( H) o ikonomos, ( I) ekdikos a nd ( J) syndikos. For e ach o f t hese I g ive b elow a b rief d efinition s " a nd, i n c hart f orm, t he p rovenance " o f t he i nscription, t he r eference, t he d ate s 6 i f k nown, a nd t he activity o r p roject described. For t he most part t he e xamples g iven a re r epresentational a nd n ot e xhaustive. Material overlooked by o r u nknown t o e arlier s tudies h as b een a dded wherever appropriate a nd u seful. Magistrates' t itles a re g iven i n t he p robable o rder o f t heir r ank o r s tatus, a lthough i t i s n ot a lways c lear which o f two o r more o fficials i n a g iven v illage would h ave p riority.
A . prE ctok5metes " Head of t he v illage." This t erm i s c hangeable w ith komarchos and strategos. n oted that none o f t he t hree r eferences c ertain r eading.
p robably i nterI t s hould b e below y ields a
( 1) LOCATION
R EFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
U mtaciyeh ( H)
PAES 3 8; M ission 1 44.
4 th c . o r l ater
Supervision o f c hurch c onstruction.
Ethnarches: Wadd. 2 196 = I GR I II 1 249 ( from Malakiyya i n t he Jebal Drüz). Phylarchos i s a much more c ommon t erm, e specially i n t he Byzantine period. There i s a f ull d iscussion i n Sartre ( 1982a) 1 22-128, a nd Shahid ( i984a) 3 1-32 a nd ( 1984b) 5 14-521. 5 4 There i s n o d iscussion o f p istol, pronoetai o r p rötok5metai i n Liebenam. Dioiketai per s e a re n ot d iscussed, but t here i s mention o f t he r elated t erm d ioikeseis ( s.v.). Bowman ( 1971) d iscusses t he r oles o f s ome o f t hese o fficials a s t hey apply t o Egypt ( s.v. p assim ). s s When known, t he a ncient n ame o f t he c ommunity i s g iven i n p arentheses. Abbreviations o f r egions a nd r eferences f ollow t hose i n Chapter I II, Part 6 . 5 6 On t he c hronology of t he f irst a ppearance o f a n o fficial t itle, a nd t he s ubsequent d isappearance o f s ome t itles a nd appearance o f n ew o nes, s ee t he c omments b y Jones ( 1931) 2 70-272. 53
1 55
( 2) LOCATION Lubben ( Agraena) ( L)
REFERENCE PAES
7 93
9
DATE .
?
( 3) LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
Raifa ( H)
Fossey ( 1897) 3 4 no.54b.
ACTIVITY Dedication o f a ltar.
an
ACTIVITY Dedication ( funerary ).
B . strategos " Head o f o r spokesman for t he v illage." This t itle i s f ound i n both s ingular and plural form, and a s a participle. The p lural form has b een attested only once, apparently a s a collegiate board i n t he v illage. It i s unusually fortuitous t hat most of t he i nscriptions i n which t he t erm appears a re dated. A v illage strategos i s a ttested only once i n Syria ( Prentice [ 1908] 1 50, A .D. 2 50). The t itle of strategos for a v illage official i s not a ttested beyond t he mid-third century. In Arabia t he strategos i s n owhere attested i n t he c ities. Contrast t he u se o f t his t erm at Palmyra ( Wadd. 2 601 a nd commentary ). Alan ( 1977) 4 64-465 saw t he board of strategoi i n Waddington 2 520 - B (1) below - a s i ndicative t hat "some s ort o f municipal administration, modelled on the strategoi o f t he c ities" was i n existence. On t he u sage of t his term i n Egypt see Bowman ( 1971) index s .v., and elsewhere see Liebenam ( 1900) 2 82 and especially 2 86-287. The Nabataean k ings h ad g iven t he t itle strategos t o t he commanders o f what were probably military/political d istricts of the k ingdom, and t his connotation of t he t erm s hould b e k ept i n mind.
( 1) LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Shacara ( L ) .
Wadd. 2 520; PAES 8 03.
1 611 69
Imperial dedication by strategoi.
( 2) LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Shuhba ( J-D)
Wadd. 2 071; IGR 1 195.
c .1751 80
Imperial dedication epi a strategos.
COMMENTARY: Harper ( 1928) 2 4 believed t he u se of epi here and 2 114 i ndicated that this official was " the magistrate of t he community".
1 56
i n Wadd. eponymous
( 3)LOCATION Hit ( Eitha) ( J-D) COMMENTARY: On t he u se of
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Wadd. 2 114; I GR 1 137.
2 32
Construction o f a sanctuary epi a strategos.
epi
h ere,
see Prentice
( 1912)
1 15.
( 4)LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Kafr-Liha ( N)
Wadd. 2 399; I GR 1 213.
2 36
Construction o f a building strategeias Ulp. Scaurianus.
C . pistoi Literally "those entrusted", i .e. with t he executive powers o f the community. The t erm i s u sually ( though not e xclusively ) employed i n t he collective, collegiate s ense o f "board of magistrates" or "trustees". This t itle does n ot appear i n l ava-land epigraphy until t he early fourth c entury. Jones ( 1931) 2 17 s aw l ittle d ifference i n t he duties and/or responsibilities of pistoi and pronoetai, but i t s eems clear f rom t he study made by Prentice ( 1912) 1 18-121 that t he pistoi were permanent f ixtures i n t he bureaucratic apparatus of local government. Prentice d rew a p arallel between the role of pistoi i n t he v illages a nd t he proedroi i n some c ities, and i t may be possible t o make t his same analogy for other o fficials ( e.g. Waddington' s e quation of strategos = duumvir at Palmyra ). More often t han not, pistoi were responsible only for t he planning ( ex 7 tP0V01 .04) of public activities and not the s upervision ( ex 0 / zo l A ii %) of t he project. In one i nstance we f ind pistoi a dministering a sanctuary owned jointly by f our v illages, b ut this i s an exceptional c ircumstance. See Waddington 2 394 and 2 395 ( from Dayr a l-Labän i n t he Leja) and MacAdam ( 1983)
1 09-111.
( 1)LOCATION Wakam ( L )
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
PAES
3 16
Construction o f house dia t hree pistoi.
7 88.
a
COMMENTARY: Two other i nscriptions f rom t his v illage ( PAES 7 88' and 7 88 2 ) a lso mention pistci ( seven and s ix, respectively). Both inscriptions are fourth century.
1 57
( 2)LOCATION Dayr al-Labgn
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Wadd. 2 394 and 2 395.
c .320
Construction of a wall around court-
( N)
yard
of
a s hrine,
and an altar, dia one pistos f rom each of two villages. COMMENTARY: Neither
inscription
i s
dated,
contains
( presumably)
t he
names
commentary
s ee
Harper
( 3)LOCATION
( 1928)
but Wadd. of
2 7-28
t hese and
2 393
o f A . D.320
two
men.
Jones
( 1931)
For
2 72.
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Wadd. 2 070a; PAES 611.
3 36
Construction of "a common house" by provision o f two pistoi.
( 4)LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Imtgn ( Mothana) ( H)
Wadd.
3 43/ 3 44
Urban renewal " f or the good of t he polis," epi t he governor and " by provision of" t hree
Mucarriba ( H)
2 034.
pistoi
in
a ssoc.
with a bouleut 'gs who i s also a n ekdikos. COMMENTARY: Both o t xoöoglen
UT C00 1 1
and
i n
t his
i nscription
r efer
t o
some sort of work done on t he plat(eia) hieratike i n t he village. Since t he verbs mean essentially t he same t hing, i t i s difficult to know what sort of work was done. Prentice ( 1912) 1 17 t ranslated " levelled" and "paved". On t he i dentification of t he governor i n t his i nscription, see t he excellent discussion i n Sartre ( 1982a) 1 02 no.64.
( 5)LOCATION Busgn
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
PAES
3 58?
Completion o f a "public house" in
i nter
( Bosana) ( J-D)
a lia.
association syndikos.
COMMENTARY: Cf. also Wadd.
2 238
2 240
all
and
7 32
2 243,
( dated of
which
3 22),
2 239
mention
1 58
( dated
pistoi
of
w ith
3 65), Busan.
a
2 239a, Their
activities i nclude t he i nstallation of a f ountain ( 2239), the b uilding of an apse ( 2239a) and t he construction of a public h all? ( 2240). I n t he commentary t o I GLS X III 9 439 Sartre notes two pistoi i n an unpublished i nscription f rom Busgn dated 3 7 8 /3 7 9. I n t he other f ive i nscriptions, two pistoi are associated w ith a syndikos, a ccepting t he restoration of Wadd. 2 239 by Jones ( 1931) 2 72 note 2 . This cannot be mere coincidence but w as t he s tandard p attern of supervision for public works i n t his village.
( 6)LOCATION
R EFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
cOrmgn ( H)
N IDH 1 83; SEG VII 1 170.
3 59
Rebuilding watchtower vised by?) pistoi.
R EFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Wadd.
3 62
Construction public house
( 7)LOCATION Migdol ( H)
2 029.
o f a ( supert wo
o f
a
A x / z povota‘ x a t c / cou M ig
p istoi .
t hree
COMMENTARY: "By provision o f a nd under t he direction of" has been t he accepted t ranslation of t his phrase. See t he d iscussion i n Prentice ( 1912) 1 13 f f.
( 8)LOCATION
R EFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
cAuwas ( Bosoa?) ( H)
Wadd. 2 046; PAES 6 93.
3 87
Construction o f a t emple " by provision and under t he d irect ion o f" f our pistoi.
COMMENTARY: Wadd. 2 045, also f rom c Auwas, r ecords t he construction of a house i n 3 54. Although t he i nscription i s damaged, at least t hree pistoi were mentioned s ince t he r ecoverable t ext begins w ith kai and i s f ollowed by t wo n ames.
( 9)LOCATION Dibin ( H)
R EFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
N IDH 1 82; SEG VII 1 168.
3 88
Dedication o f t omb it i cpoTgel a l G -( sic) " under t he a dminist ration o f" t hree pistoi.
1 59
( 10)LOCATION Khirbit ( N)
c Awad
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
N IDH
4 26
Unknown epi two
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
PAES
4 45
Preparation o f building site
SEG
( 11)LOCATION Burgq
2 42; VII
1 229.
1 74.
( H)
activity pistol.
a
i x p [wlst]a
t hree
pistol.
( 12)LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Khurayab ( H)
PAES
4 69?
Unknown
COMMENTARY: I tC0Te‘ i s
5 9.
of
on
t he
the mangled date as Jones ( 1931) 2 71.
stone.
The
editors
5 69, but this seems This inscription
of
activity
two pistoi.
PAES
much was
interpreted
too late. overlooked
Cf. by
Harper.
( 13)LOCATION Dam n al-cAlyg
REFERENCE PAES
800
5
DATE .
4th or
Tell
Ghariya
( N)
c .
Completion of two apses ( under t he
l ater
s upervision o f?) t hree pistoi.
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Mission 2 73 no.93.
4th or
( Damatha) ( L)
( 14)LOCATION
ACTIVITY
c .
l ater
Completion of ?ublic work
cA
two
( 15)LOCATION Buthayn ( J-D)
( 16)LOCATION Majadal ( L)
REFERENCE Wadd. ( also
DATE
2 127 2 129).
?
REFERENCE PAES ( also
7 87
DATE ?
7
7 87
8
) .
some
l z povoCav
pistoi.
ACTIVITY Construction o f t emple by f ive pistoi.
a
ACTIVITY Construction
o f
house on a s ite privately donated, epi
1 60
two
pistoi.
( 17)LOCATION
REFERENCE
Melat.1
PAES
DATE
ACTIVITY
709.
Unknown by f ive
a l-Sarrar ( H) '
( 18) LOCATION
REFERENCE
c Ayoun
Wadd.
DATE
a ctivity pistoi.
ACTIVITY
1 984.
Unknown
( H)
a ctivity
t hree pistoi, whom was t he
by
one
of
b txoöögo‘
( builder).
COMMENTARY: Accepting
t he
1 77 note 5 , ( 1928) 3 0.
( 19) LOCATION Najrän
correction
which
was
Waddington
REFERENCE Wadd.
not
DATE
I GR
( 20) LOCATION
REFERENCE
Prentice by
Construction
1 172.
Wadd.
by
noticed
( 1912) Harper
ACTIVITY
2 427;
( Norerathe?) ( H)
Mushannaf ( Nela) ( J-D)
of
apparently
of
a
"magnificent building" by t he t ribe Manienoi i tpove c i , ( sic) two pistoi.
DATE
ACTIVITY
2 219.
Construction of an apse by two pistoi i n conjunction with a syndikos.
COMMENTARY: Cf. Wadd. 2 240 f rom Busän -- s ee entry ( 5) and commentary, above i n which two of t hese men are mentioned. The proximity of t he villages makes i t quite probable t hat t his s tone
has
( 1928)
3 0.
( 21) LOCATION Murdjk ( Mardocha) ( L)
been moved
to Mushannaf
REFERENCE
DATE
N IDH 6 7; . SEG VII 1 117.
COMMENTARY: This i nscription
was
f irst
f rom
?
published
1 61
Busan.
Cf.
Harper
ACTIVITY Restoration/ rebuilding of somet hing dia t hree or more pistoi.
( without
r estoration
o r w as
commentary) i n Revue Biblique ( 1905) 9 6 no.12, b ut not noted by Harper, Dunand or t he editors of S EG.
( 22)LOCATION Sahwat a l-Blat
REFERENCE
DATE
N IDH 1 60; SEG V II 1 146.
?
( J-D)
t his
ACTIVITY " Those from t he v illage" built somet hing "by provision of" f ive pistoi.
COMMENTARY: According t o Dunand ( commentary o f N IDH i nscription " proviendrait de K afer", s lightly Sahwat a l-Blat.
( 23)LOCATION Namre ( Namara) ( J-D)
REFERENCE Voyage no.12.
DATE
1 48
?
1 60) this northeast o f
ACTIVITY Rebuilding o f "part of a public w all" epi two men s tyled as pistoi and dekapr aoi.
D . pronoetes Literally "planner", i .e. s upervisor or a dministrator. This office appears t o have been predominantly collegiate, but a s ingle pronoetes i s known. Prentice ( 1912) 1 20-121 believed t hat t he pronoetai "were s pecial committees, which might o r might not be associated with a regular board such as t he pistoi . ... for t he maragement of certain public works". Even t hough pronoetai were o riginally appointed ad hoc f or t he duration of a project, t hey may have e njoyed authority at least equal t o t hat of t he pistoi o r dioiketai. _ al. Pronoet u ltimately may have a chieved permanent status i n t he village bureaucracy. As Jones ( 1931) 2 71 noted, t he office of pronoetes was t he f irst t o appear ( late t hird century) and t he f irst t o d isappear ( late f ourth century). I t i s probable t hat t he pistoi u ltimately absorbed t he f unctions of both pronoetai and dioiketai, and t hat certain members of a village' s board of pistoi would be delegated t o s upervise a particular public works p roject.
( 1)LOCATION Umm ( L)
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Wadd. 2 546; I GR 1 187.
2 82
Erection of a kalybg dia t hree pronc tai.
COMMENTARY: Of t hese t hree, two a re veterans, and t he t hird
s tyled " sons" ( or i s a bouleutes of
1 62
descendants) s ome city.
of
( 2)LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
cAyoun
Wadd.
309
Unspecified
1 984d.
( H)
construction by two _ . pronoeta i. Name of builder given s eparately.
( 3)LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
cAuwas ( H)
Wadd.
310
( Building) dedication epi four pronoetai.
2 042.
COMMENTARY: This is my interpretation of t he t ext. The fact t hat kai appears between t he f irst two n ames following epi may i ndicate t hat only two pronoetai are i ntended. Cf. 1928) 3 2. Prentice ( 1912) 1 16 and Harper (
( 4)LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
c Auwas ( H)
Wadd. 2043; PAES 6 85.
3 24
Construction of a wall and apses epi three pronoetai. Builder' s name separated.
COMMENTARY: Pronoetai i s " commissioners
of
i s
here ( and elsewhere) t ranslated construction" by t he editors of PAES.
as
( 5)LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
c Auwas
Wadd. 2 044; PAES 701.
3 30
Dedication of a basilica and door " by provision and under t he direction of" four pronoetai.
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Wadd. 2 070a; PAES 611.
3 36
Erection of a public building " by provision of" two pistoi and t wo
( 1-1 )
( 6)LOCATION M7 larriba ( H)
prono tai. l isting of C(3).
1 63
Cf. . the pistoi,
( 7)LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Mission 2 65 no.74.
3 46
Construction of
( 8)LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
cOrmgn ( H)
NIDH 1 83a; SEG VII 1 171.
3 67
Something
( 9)LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
cOrmän ( H)
PAES
Roushayda ( H)
house "by of" t hree
6 96.
built
by at least pronoetai.
3 72
a
provision pronoetai.
t wo
ACTIVITY Construction of refectory and stable; demolition and rebuilding of two t owers epinoia four pronoetai.
( 10) LOCATION Junayn
N IDH
( Orela) ( J-D)
SEG
COMMENTARY: "Marinus ( son) D(11),
REFERENCE
of
DATE
50; VII
ACTIVITY Dedication
1 052.
Cassanus,
o f
"the
door-lintel o f the naos by provision of" a centur _ ion and a pronoetes.
« > povo u roe.
Cf.
commentary
t o
below.
( 11)LOCATION
REFERENCE
cA c graba ( Akraba) ( H)
Wadd.
DATE
2 413c.
?
ACTIVITY Dedication of a building by an epimeletes and ( one or) two pronoetai.
COMMENTARY: Only t he abbreviation i c povo l l appears. Waddington r estored t he genitive plural, and t his was followed by Prentice ( 1912) 1 19 note 5 , who, however, recognised t he possibility of
other
readings,
i ncluding
t he
1 64
genitive
s ingular.
E. dioiketes "Administrator", u sually of f inances, although t his particular duty i s nowhere d irectly attested i n Arabia. For e xamples of t his official i n Egypt, s ee Bowman ( 1971) index s .v. This o ffice i s s hown t o be elective and annual by t he inscriptions i n Arabia, and f rom t his we may a ssume that most, i f not all, of t he other offices f ollowed s uit. There i s l ikewise n o proof t hat t his office was anything but collegiate. D ated i nscriptions which mention dioiketai are all f ourth century, but t he undated r eferences may be l ater t han t hat. The duties and r esponsibilities o f t his official i n A rab ia c losely p arallel t hose o f t he p isto i and . pronoetal. Dioiketai are attested at Bostra for t he f irst t ime i n a Greek i nscription of 3 52/353. They are s pecifically charged w ith overseeing t he s ale of f igs, t hat commodity for w hich Bostra was f amous ( see above, Chapter I I, note 1 50). Cf. Sartre ( 1982b) 3 61 ( commentary t o I GLS X III 9 439).
( 1)LOCATION S t ir ( L)
REFERENCE PAES
7 97
2
.
DATE
ACTIVITY
3 26
Construction of house dia a syndikos and t hree dioiketai "of t he m etroc3mian.
COMMENTARY: Wright and Souter, who f irst published t his t ext ( 1895 no.60), i ncorrectly t ranslated dioiketes a s " governor". It i s n ot clear i f Sur i tself i s t he m gtroc5mia , or i f t hese men had been s ent t o Sur. The s tone i s in s itu. See Chapter I I, Part 8 , above.
( 2)LOCATION Umm a l-Zaytt in ( L)
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Wadd.
3 31
Unknown a ctivity " by provision o f" t hirteen ( or more) dioiketai.
2 547.
1 65
( 3)LOCATION Harrjn ( L)
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Wadd. 2 462 ( & 2 463; PAES 7 94').
3 96/397 3 97/398
Completion o f i nn " by provision of" four dioiketai, t he n ames of which differ in e ach i nscription.
COMMENTARY: The l ists of magistrates are f or t wo s uccessive y ears, t he i ndividuals on t his " board" obviously held the p ost j ust one year because no n ame i s found on both l ists.
( 4)LOCATION Namre ( Namara) ( J-D)
REFERENCE Wadd.
DATE
2 184.
but f or
ACTIVITY Construction o f a gate " by provision of" at least f our dioiketai.
COMMENTARY: The phrase i x l z povoCac T MV ( 5 1 , 01 , XrTMV ' rah, I t ( itu wA t p recedes t he l ist of n ames. Waddington capitalised txd irMv a s t hough he t hought i t a proper noun, but s aid " je n e s aurais e xpliquer l e mot...." Prentice ( 1912) 1 23 t hought t he term " suggests t hat t he dioiketai had charge of t he revenues of s ome of t hese t owns", but he cited n o parallels and I have not f ound t he word attested elsewhere i n t his s ense. Dussaud and Macler ( 1903) 1 48-149 commentary t o no.12, t hought t hat t he t erm [ ö]cxa(l cro V could be r estored, but t he emendation would be drastic. I t m ay be t hat w e have here an abbreviated f orm of t he s tandard phrase tx T Mv ö l ig6Ttxwv = "from t he public t reasury". Harper ( 1928) 5 0-56 h as discussed t he l ittle a vailable evidence for v illage revenue, almost none of which r elates to v illages i n t he l ava-lands.
( 5)LOCATION Junayn ( Orela) ( J-D)
REFERENCE
DATE
Wetzstein ( 1863) 3 08 no.151; Wadd. 2 188.
ACTIVITY A propylon(?) was s et i n place b y the i nhabitants(?) "of t he whole village, by provision a nd under t he direction of" t hree "most esteemed dioiketai" whom " the demos of t he v illage s elected."
1 66
COMMENTARY: Propylon was Wetzstein' s s uggested r estoration, not a cknowledged ( uncharacteristically) by Waddington. What t he collective designation of t he v illagers was i s uncertain. It must contrast w ith demos i n t he l ast l ine, a nd comply with t he l etters l eft on t he s tone ( neuter s ingular a rticle followed, most probably, by s igma and a bout t en l etters). Wetzstein' s r estoration of Tä [ xotvbV T 1g ] does not fit well with the last letter before the b reak, nor with t he t races of l etters j ust before KWMHC a s s hown i n Waddington' s f acsimile. Tb ovvgöptov i s one s uggestion, and Tb ouvsc r up c k i s another. Perhaps most p lausible of all would be iä a pi tav 7al leo‘, a common e xpression i n hellenistic t imes. I owe t his l ast s uggestion t o Francis Piejko of Utica, New York. Cf. also Wadd. 2 220 i n w hich s ix men ( in association w ith t he s yndikos of a t ribe) a re s tyled x c .Xôç ö totxlc re ivTwv. I n s pite o f t his clear evidence, Abbott and Johnson ( 1926) 2 5 c ould s till s ay: " We c annot t ell w hether t he officials i n t he villages [ of Arabia] were elected locally or appointed b y t he municipal government."
F . epimeletai " Managers" or " commissioners". This office appears t o have b een regular ( annual or longer) or s pecial ( temporary) and i ts duties ( like t hose of pistoi) both s ecular and s acred. Cf. SEG I 5 45 f rom t he Biqac Valley i n Lebanon. Prentice ( 1912) 1 22 defined r egular epimeletai ( in Syria) a s " sometimes, perhaps always, s uperintendents of buildings or p roperties belonging t o p agan cults". The o ffice w as not r estricted t o t he v illages, f or c ity magistrates could be c harged w ith t he duties of an epimeletes. Wadd. 2 077 = I GR 1 201 f rom Philippopolis ( c.250). At Palmyra ( Wadd. 2 571c) a n epimeletes " of t he s pring Afqa" erected an a ltar. The e arliest dated attestation of t his official i n Arabia i s t he late fourth century, but i n Syria epimeletai appear a s e arly a s t he f irst century. This t erm, l ike pistos, t ook o n a Christian connotation i n t he Byzantine e ra. Cf. L iebenam ( 1900) 2 95 note 4 and 3 85 and Bowman ( 1971) i ndex s .v. Not discussed by Jones. I n a chapter on v illage a dministration i n Roman Galilee ( see note 1 4 above), Martin Goodman ( 1983: 1 25) has called attention t o t he s triking i nstance of t he t erm apamalatos i n t he Hebrew Tosephta, c learly i n t he context o f village a dministration. This i s • c 7 c4 L Oc r IT1‘ i n t ransliteration.
( 1)LOCATION B usän ( Bosana) ( J-D) COMMENTARY: T he editors
o f
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Wadd. 2 241; PAES 7 34.
3 86
Workshops b uilt A g c ludleXCa‘ xal o l tol2f f i‘ t wo men.
PAES
equated
ex epimelias w ith
1 67
ek
pronoias.
Harper
( 1928)
epimeletai.
Cf.
( 2)LOCATION Salah ( Salamanestha)
3 5 Wadd.
believed 2 037
and
t hat
t hese
Prentice
two
( 1908)
men
were
no.395.
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Wadd.
5 665 74
Restoration o f church "by p rovision of" t he community " and under t he
2 261.
direction o f" epimeljtai.
two
COMMENTARY: They were asked to swear " by t he money changed hands as a result of
( 3)LOCATION
REFERENCE
Lubben ( Agraena)
Holy t his
DATE
no
" The community of t he village" made something epimelia two men.
REFERENCE
Hit ( Eitha) ( J-D)
t hat
ACTIVITY
Wadd. 2 457a; PAES 7 93.
( 4)LOCATION
Trinity" endeavour.
DATE
ACTIVITY
Wadd. 2 115; I GR 1 138.
The praefectus ( of a cohort) built s omet hing " for h is native village" dia a private citizen and dia two epimeletai.
COMMENTARY: Cf. Waddington' s
commentary
on
t his
interesting
i nscription.
( 5)LOCATION
REFERENCE
Hit
Wadd.
DATE
2 117.
An
( Eitha) ( J-D)
COMMENTARY: See t he l ist
ACTIVITY epimeletes
contributed " from h is own funds" f or t he restoration of a t emple door.
of
pronoetai
i n
D (11)
1 68
above.
G.
episkopoi
" Overseers" or " supervisors". Prentice ( 1912) 1 23 believed t hese officials were " appointed [ only] t o d irect s pecial undertakings", and asserted t hat t he e ditors of PAES had reached " this s ame conclusion". However, t he l atter, i n t heir commentary t o PAES 3 7, were not quite s o categorical, and i mplied t hat episkopoi ( like epimeletai) may h ave been permanent magistrates or ad hoc appointees depending upon t he bureaucratic s tructure and particular needs o f t he community. Harper ( 1928) 3 8 r eviewed t he f unction of episkopoi and concluded t hat i n Syria ( i.e. i ncluding northern provincia Arabia) t heir duties appear t o be exclusively connected w ith building construction of v arious s orts. Cf. Fossey BCH 1 9 ( 1895) 3 05-306. The n umber of episkopoi delegated t o s upervise a project could v ary f rom j ust one ( Wadd. 2 412e) t o as many as t en or more ( Wadd. 2 298). The examples s hown here are only t hose i n which t his t itle i s u sed i n i ts non-Christian s ense. Cf. Liebenam ( 1900) 3 70 note 2 .
( 1)LOCATION Salkhad . ( Salcha) ( H)
COMMENTARY: gx 'ay Tob
R EFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Wadd.
2 52
Dedication ( of a t emple?) constructed " from t he s acred f unds" by f our episkopoi.
e lsob here
1 990.
i s
equivalent
t o Ix
TM 1 )
PAES 1 55, also f rom Salkhad. Cf. Wadd. 2 286. ( 1928) 3 7 on t he " religious" f unctions o fficials.
L epcu rLx t ev i n See of
Harper s ecular
( 2)LOCATION
R EFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
K arak ( N)
Wadd.
2 53
House constructed " through t he generosity of t he v illage" &KLOX0 7 C01 3TWV t hree men.
2 412f.
COMMENTARY: The participle f orm i s used i n a number o f city i nscriptions, e .g. Wadd. 2 308, 2 309, 2 310 ( from Suwaydä/ D ionysias) and Prentice ( 1908) no.432c f rom t he s ame c ity.
1 69
( 3)LOCATION Umtäciyeh ( H)
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
PAES
3 30
Something
3 7.
was
built
" from t he funds of t he lord ( Zeus?) by two? episkopoi.
( 4)LOCATION
REFERENCE
Salkhad . ( Salcha)
Wadd.
DATE
ACTIVITY
1 989.
( Dedication) t o four episkopoi, all of whom are veterans and one a bouleutes.
( H)
H . oikonomoi "Managers" or
" administrators".
There
clear attestation of t his t itle references leave i t uncertain, but claim that magistrates by t his
i s
as by name
to
date
only
one
a noun. The other inference w e may were known t o some
communities. Unfortunately, not a s ingle reference is dated. From the available information, i t s eems t hat the oikonomoi were closely associated with t emple administration; cf. Jones ( 1931) 2 72 note 4 . If so, t heir status may have ranked below t hat of t he hierotamiai ( = t emple-treasurers. Cf. PAES 659, 7 93). Whatever t heir specific duties i t s eems l ikely t hat t hese officials were permanent. Cf. Liebenam ( 1900) 2 95 note 6 and Bowman ( 1971) index s . v.
( 1)LOCATION
REFERENCE
Shacarah ( L)
PAES
803
2
DATE
ACTIVITY Dedication by t hree oikonomoi ( who
.
administer the t emple enclosure?).
( 2)LOCATION
REFERENCE
Shacarah
PAES
( L)
803'
DATE
ACTIVITY Dedications dated ( eponymously) " in t he administration
&
803".
of"
m en COMMENTARY: The editors from
t his
of
PAES
village
believed
were
from
t hat t he
1 70
all
s ame
( otxovo gag)two
i n
t hree
temenos.
each
case.
i nscriptions
( 3)LOCATION Namre ( Namara) ( J-D)
REFERENCE PAES
DATE
7 58.
ACTIVITY Construction o f a dovecote Ixt T1 o txovogta l , t hree men of t he ( clan?) Amtare- .
COMMENTARY: That t he building of a dovecote would be dedicated i mplies t hat it was part o f t he accoutrements of a t emple. To my knowledge, t his i nscription i s not paralleled e lsewhere i n provincia Arabia. On t he clan Amtare s ee Chapter I II, Part 6 , R egister no.33.
I . ekdikoi and J . syndikoi " Advocates" or " legal r epresentatives". Harper ( 1928) 3 9-44 adequately reviewed t he quite s imilar f unction of t hese t wo officials. A more precise definition and d iscussion can b e found i n t he commentary t o Wadd. 6 28 ( ekdikos ) and 1 176 ( syndikos ). The office of ekdikos i s poorly attested i n Arabia. There i s a s ingle i nstance i n w hich a v illage appears t o h ave h ad a " board" of edkikoi, but its context i n t he i nscription i ndicates t hat i t was t emporary. The one clear case i n which an ekdikos f ulfilled a delegated f unction i s r elated t o t he political activities of a city, not a village. Twice t he t itle of ekdikos i s appended t o a man's name, but t he designations are honourific r ather t han official. Where a ny activity i s mentioned i t i s, without exception, a building programme of some sort. In contrast, syndikoi are well-attested i n Arabia. With one possible exception, a s ingle syndikos normally heads a given l ist o f village magistrates. The a ctivity i s i nvariably construction, a gain w ith one exception. There i s clearly f ar more e vidence t hat t he syndikos was an i ntegral part of t he political apparatus of some v illages, p articularly Busan. Neither ekdikoi nor syndikoi are attested l ater t han t he fourth century. Prentice, who did n ot include t hese officials i n h is s tudy,, assumed ( 1912: 1 18 note 5 ) i ncorrectly t hat t heir duties corresponded t o t hose of syndikoi and ekdikoi e lsewhere i n t he Empire. On t his difference, cf. Liebenam ( 1900) 3 03 note 5 and 3 04. On t he duties o f both, but p articularly ,syndikoi, i n Egypt s ee the e xcellent discussion i n Bowman ( 1971) 4 7ff.
1 71
( 1)LOCATION Habrgn ( J-D)
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Wadd. 2 286; I GR 1 293; PAES 6 59.
1 55
Construction o f a t emple " from t he s acred f unds" l zpovor iaaggVwV t hree gyö(ü)%0V ( sic) and t hree hierotamiai.
COMMENTARY: Jones ( 1931: 2 71 note 1 4) maintained t hat " the difference i n f unction and number" and t he "wide divergence i n date" precluded drawing any analogy between t he ekdikoi o f t his t ext and t hose of t he fourth century. I am inclined t o a gree w ith t his. Prentice ( 1912) 1 19-120 believed t hese ekdikoi were " special o fficers, representing t he community i n a matter which concerned t he central government".
( 2)LOCATION Busgn ( Bosana) ( J-D)
( 3)LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Wadd.
3 22
Completion o f a b uilding epi a s yndikos in assoc. with t wo pistoi ( brothers?).
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
PAES
3 26
Completion o f a house dia a s yndikos and t hree "dioiketai of t he metroci imia". Cf. E(1) above.
2 238.
7 97
2
COMMENTARY: The e ditors of PAES t hought t hat syndikos as used h ere was more a kin t o t he normal duties of an ekdikos, and d rew a p arallel w ith t he mention of syndikoi, r ather t han e kdikoi, among t he prominent city officials i n t he well-known Palmyra t ariff ( OGIS 6 29 = I GR I II 1 056). Harper ( 1928) 4 3 observed t hat t he plural of syndikos i s not attested i n any other i nscription f rom Syria-Arabia.
( 4)LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Imtän ( Mothana) ( H)
Wadd.
3 43/ 3 44
Clearing and construction work " by provision o f" an ekdikos ( who i s a bouleutes) assoc. w ith t hree pistoi. Cf. C(4) above.
2 034
1 72
COMMENTARY: The a ppearance of a bouleutes with pistoi i n an i nscription which ends w ith t he phrase " for t he good of t he polis" led Waddington t o m istakenly assume t hat Mothana was t he c ity i n q uestion. Jones ( 1931) 2 74 correctly observed t hat "the city" was Bostra. In t hat case t he ekdikos i n charge of t he work carried out t hrough t he pistoi was doubtless a Bostran councillor f rom Mothana who would n aturally s ee t o i t t hat t he project was done correctly. I t would be i nteresting t o know exactly what was T o xAla t hat was c leaned up or c leared away. Prentice ( 1912) 1 17 guessed t hat it was " a heap of ruins". The work noted here, and i n a c ontemporary i nscription f rom Mothana ( Wadd. 2 035), could be t he sort of r epair t hat follows a moderate earthquake. An e arthquake o f 3 44 precisely i s noted i n t he catalogue prepared by Kallner-Amiran ( 1950/1951) 2 25: " an e arthquake at Antiochia, extended t o t he greater part of t he n ear e ast." I f t his i s a case of cause and e ffect t he two i nscriptions could help date t he e arthquake more precisely, s ince the " year 2 38" of Bostra ended on 2 1 March 3 44. For more specific e arthquake damage i n t he province not long a fter this see Russell ( 1980). For particular damage at Petra i n t he s ame earthquake of 1 9 May 3 63 s ee Hammond ( 1980).
( 5)LOCATION Busän ( Bosana) ( J-D)
( 6)LOCATION Busän ( Bosana) ( J-D)
R EFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
PAES
7 32.
3 58?
Public house built " by provision and under t he direction of" a syndikos i n association with two pistoi. See C(5) above.
R EFERENCE
DATE
ACTIVITY
Wadd.
3 65
Laying of f oundations and i nstallation of a ( public) f ountain " by provision and under t he d irection of" a syndikos and t wo ( ?) pistoi.
2 239.
1 73
( 7)LOCATION Busgn ( Bosana)
REFERENCE
DATE
Commentary to I GLS X III 9439.
ACTIVITY
3 78/ 3 79
Construction o f a "public workshop"
( J-D)
( TO epyaoT ecov ö r ig6atov) epi a syndikos in conjunction w ith two pistoi.
( 8)LOCATION Tafha .
REFERENCE Wadd.
DATE
ACTIVITY
2 169.
House
( J-D)
built dia
t hree ( ?) men, one of whom was a n ekdikos.
( 9)LOCATION Umtäciyah
REFERENCE PAES
DATE
4 4.
ACTIVITY
?
Funeral
( H)
stele
recording ekdikos".
( 10)LOCATION Busgn ( Bosana) ( J-D)
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 240.
DATE
"Germanos,
ACTIVITY
2 239a,
An apse ( 2239a) and an assembly hall ( ? 2 240) were b uilt 1 7 ct ouvöt xCa‘ two brothers ( ?) d ia ( 2239a) but kai ( 2240) two pistoi.
COMMENTARY: The name of t he syndikos attested i n each of t hese inscriptions appears as t he name o f a syndikos i n Wadd. 2 219 at nearby Mushannaf. This prompted Harper ( 1928) 30 and 42 " to s uggest ( a) t hat t he stone at Mushannaf h ad been moved t here from Busgn -- see commentary to C(20) above -or ( b) that t he stones are i n their original positions and t hat t his i ndicates t he s ubordination of one village t o t he other or ( c) that both villages were dependent on a " higher [ political] the
t hree
unit"
and
i nscriptions
that Mushannaf i tself all t hree i nscriptions
t herefore was
not
t he
was a polls. are . undated.
unsettled.
1 74
syndikos
a village He
attested
official
o r
in ( d)
f ailed t o note t hat The matter r emains
( 11)LOCATION Mushannaf ( Nela) ( J-D)
( 12)LOCATION Mushannaf ( Nela) ( J-D)
REFERENCE Wadd.
DATE
2 220.
A kamara was built epi a man who w as a "syndikos of t he t ribe Aoudrenoi" i n association with s ix s ix other officials, all ( ?) dioiketai.
R EFERENCE AAES
ACTIVITY
DATE
3 83.
ACTIVITY Dedication by " Theodorus, syndikos of ( the) nomads".
COMMENTARY: It s eems t o me t hat Harper ( 1928) 4 3 was r ight i n r ejecting Prentice' s conclusion t hat syndikos here means shaykh ( cf. t he commentary t o Wadd. 2 196). Theodorus i s not t he syndikos of a n amed t ribe, as i n Wadd. 2 220 -- s ee entry ( 11) above. It s eems l ikely t hat he e ither r epresented his village i n negotiations w ith i ts bedouin neighbours during t heir seasonal migrations, or t hat he acted i n an official capacity f or a city or perhaps even t he provincial authorities. Wadd. 2 203, undated but prior to 2 61, i s a dedication at nearby Tarbg to a l egate of Arabia by ö t C u ld 5 Z evoug v ogdöwv and Sartre ( 1982a 1 24) r ightly s uggests t hat t hese are local recruits i nto t he auxiliary units of t he provincial army. A "syndikos of t he nomads" s uch a s Theodorus might well be charged with t he t ask of overseeing t he enlistment o f s uch t roops. See t he discussion by Peters ( 1978) 3 23 and note 5 8. ( 13)LOCATION Namre ( Namara) ( J-D)
R EFERENCE Wadd.
DATE
2 173.
ACTIVITY Walls built " successfully" pronoia two brothers one of whom was a syndikos. Both were of t he ( clan?) K reskentenoi.
COMMENTARY: Harper ( 1928) 4 2 a ssumed t hat t he walls were s urrounding t he village and Jones ( 1931) 2 70 t hought t hey were " fortification w alls". The wording of t his i nscription does not s upport e ither conjecture. Jones did note, as H arper did not, t hat another u ndated i nscription f rom N amre ( Voyage 1 48 no.12) states t hat " the part Tot f TrAxou T ot ' t y n aocou . ... was rebuilt" epi two men s tyled pistoi and dekaprStoi -- s ee above, note 5 2 and entry ( 23) i n t he r egister o f pistoi. This i s possibly a r eference t o a v illage w all, but t he i ncompleteness of t he i nscription makes i t u ncertain.
1 75
4 .
The Veterani of Village Life
the Lava-lands and Their Role
i n
I n a l ittle-known article p ublished nearly n inety y ears a go, Simeon Vailhe unabashedly i gnored t he f irst t hree centuries of provincia Arabia's history and b egan h is s tudy of i ts military w ith t he disposition of f orces s et out i n t he Notitia D ignitatum t oward t he end of t he fourth century. " This deliberate omission was t o s ome degree r epeated by Cheesman i n his s urvey of auxiliary forces u nder t he Principate, The Auxilia o f t he Roman I mperial Army, " published i n 1 914. Under t he heading "Arabia" i n t hat s tudy i s t he l aconic comment: "Auxilia a s y et unknown." " This was an i nexcusable o versight. The well-known Qasr al-Hallabät military building inscription, w hich attest; two ( perhaps t hree) units of Arabian auxilia i n t he e arly t hird century was published, i n f ascicle form, i n 1 910. 6° Other units h ad been noted earlier t han t his. " Happily, t he s ituation has i mproved greatly s ince t hen. The most comprehensive r ecent s tudy i s t hat b y Michael Speide1. 62 This has l aid t he groundwork f or all f uture s erious studies of matters military i n Roman Arabia. But a s t horough as t hat s tudy was f or t he h istory of t he Roman army i n Arabia, and i n particular f or t he component units of t he garrison l egion I II Cyrenaica, i t s topped s hort of i nvestigating t he r oll of veterani i n t he romanisation o f t hat province. The s tudy of m ilitary r ecruitment and veteran s ettlement b y J .C. Mann i ncludes
" ( 1898/99). Vailhe was primarily concerned with i dentifying t he place-names noted by t he Notitia f or t he auxilia encampments, but even i n t hat respect the a rticle contributed very l ittle. One may hope t hat t he long-awaited revision of Cheesman will be available soon. The various sections are under s eparate editorship: D .L. Kennedy ( Eastern provinces); M . Roxan ( Spain and t he Danubian provinces); P .A. Holder ( Britain and Thrace); V . Maxfield ( Gaul a nd t he Rhineland provinces); and M . Speidel ( all other areas). Cheesman ( 1914) 1 63. Littmann et a l. ( 1921) 1 7 published a s a c omplete volume i n t he PAES series. One might f orgive Cheesman for overlooking t he preliminary publication of t he t ext ( from a hasty copy made by Littmann i n 1 905) i n Brünnow a nd von Domaszewski ( 1909) 2 91. E .g. t he cohors I Augusta Thracum Equitata or a unit with a s imilar n ame was t hought t o be i n Arabia prior to t he fourth century. See t he discussion i n CIL I II 1 09 and 1 10, published i n 1 873. Speidel ( 1977). See t he b ibliography given t here ( 728-730) and i n footnotes t hroughout t hat article. A brief discussion of t he exercitus Arabicus i s given i n Bowersock ( 1983) 1 06-109. 5 8
59
60
61
62
1 76
Arabia among t he eastern provinces. " I n s uch a comprehensive s urvey t he t reatment of veterani i n one province can hardly do more t han s cratch t he s urface, but i t d oes provide a base on which t o build and, more importantly, a f ramework within which t o eventually study t he p atterns t hat s hould emerge when one a rea of t he empire i s c ompared with another. I t i s especially fortuituous t hat t he s ame author' s s hort essay 64 questioning t he l ack of e pigraphic r eferences to n ative Britons i n t he Roman army s hould follow t he empire-wide s tudy. The point of t hat essay i s p articularly relevant t o t his study: I nscriptions on s tone are plentiful only w here s tone i s t he most commonly used medium of i nscribing. The local s tone s outh of Hadrian' s Wall i s unsuitable for e asy i nscribing, and i t i s no coincidence t hat t he Vindolanda Tablets have demonstrated t he use of wood f or w riting i n Britain. " By contrast, t he veterans of t he l ava-lands are known a lmost exclusively t hrough t heir durable basalt t estimonials. But Roman Arabia has yet t o yield a s ingle military diploma. By t he t ime t he exercitus Arabicus was formed, t he minimum l ength o f s ervice was twenty-five years. Thus we f ind veterani who enlisted c .136 making a j oint declaration t o Verus c .162: ( a)
I mp(eratori) Caes(ari) / L(ucio) Aurelio Vero / [ ...] Aug(usto) [ ...] /ueter(ani) l eg(ionis) I II Cyr(enaicae) / q (ui) m (ilitare) c (oeprerunt) Commo/do etPomaeiano et L (ucio ) Aelio Caes(are) / I I cos(ulibus) . 66
A s imilar dedication ( b)
i s dated
t o A .D.
1 88:
. ..q(ui) m (ilitare) c (oeperunt ) L [aelia] n(o ) / et Pasto[r] e cos(ulibus) /m(issi) hon(esta) m(issione) Fusciano I I / et Silano I I cos(ulibus) / b (ene) m (erenti). 67
Just f ulfilling s uch a t erm of s ervice w as no mean f eat, s ince i t i s estimated t hat only about half of a ll l egion r ecruits completed t he q uarter-century of f ull-time
" Mann ( 1983) 4 1-44 and 1 44-146. Cf. 2 02-204, 2 19-237. Mann ( 1985). Bowman and Thomas ( 1983). Sartre ( 1982b) 1 21-122 ( no.9050). Sartre ( 1982b) 1 39-140 ( no.9067).
a lso Forni
( 1953)
The
i s
64 65
66
67
l egion
not
n amed, but Sartre has r estored i t a s I II Cyrenaica.These dedicants entered s ervice i n 1 63, i .e. at t he t ime t hose i n ( a) were being d ischarged. For other group dedications by veterani of I II Cyrenaica, s ee Sartre ( ibid.) 9085 ( honouring a s ub-procurator) and 9098 ( a f ragmentary t ext w ith part of t he discharge f ormula). Both a re f rom Bostra.
1 77
duty. 6 8 The s uccessful veteran t hus e arned, i n a ddition t o h is honourable discharge ( the missus honesta missione o f t ext ( b) above), a l and-grant ( missio agraria ) a nd/or a cash bonus ( missio nummaria ). 69 Upon discharge a veteran might r eturn t o h is native l and ( had he been recruited f rom abroad) o r remain i n t he province of his f inal s ervice. Although i n-service marriages were not r ecogised until t he Severan r eform o f 1 97, many t roopers nevertheless found w ives i n t he v icinity of t heir duty-station and t his was o ften reason e nough t o s ettle t here upon r etirement. The canabae or e mporia o f l ocal merchants and f armers became t he nucleus of c ivilian s ettlements i n t he v icinity of a fortress. 7 ° Many veterani, especially t hose w ith a s on i n t he s ame unit, chose t o s ettle i n s uch communities. While there appears t o be no direct e vidence for t his i n Arabia, t he high proportion of military-funerary i nscriptions f rom t he fortc ity of Umm al-Jemjl, f or i nstance, i s i ndicative t hat i n t he post-Nabataean period t he military population became predominant. There i s a s yet no evidence whatsoever t hat a planned military s ettlement ( deductio ) was undertaken i n Arabia - i n spite of t he f act t hat t he province h ad f ew l arge cities t o attract t hose veterans who might c hoose t o t ake a l arger cash bonus and forego t he l and award. This v ery s ituation may have worked i n f avour of encouraging veterans t o s ettle on t he " fringes" o f t he province where t heir presence would be most beneficial. Arabia' s i nitial garrison " was, as Speidel n oted, 72 foreign by necessity. Native soliers f rom t he now-defunct Nabataean army were out-stationed i n other e astern provinces s uch as Syria, as low-ranking auxilia. 73 I t i s d ifficult t o know when local r ecruitment i n Arabia was i nitiated. The origo of s oldiers attested i n t he e pigraphy
b e Gilliam ( 1956) 3 59-360 note 3 . S ickness, d eath i n action, desertion, disciplinary discharge or natural death a Ccounted for t he other f ifty per cent. See a lso R E Supplement IX ( 1962) cols. 1 597-1609. On t he details o f t he " mustering o ut" process i n general s ee Parker ( 1928) 2 38-244 and Wilkes ( 1969) 1 07ff, and on a s pecific i nstance s ee Lewis ( 1959). 7 ° See t he chapter " Castrum et canabae" i n Fitz ( 1972) 1 7-44 and a lso MacMullen ( 1963) 1 03-111. The most r ecent and comprehensive r eview o f t his vexed question i s t hat by K ennedy ( 1980). He argues t hat t he Legip VI Ferrata and Legio I II Cyrenaica a lternated a s garrison l egion between 1 06 and approximately 1 25, w hen t he I II Cyrenaica became t he permanent g arrison. In f airness i t s hould be noted t hat Speidel(1977) 6 93 and 6 97 o utlined a very s imilar s cenario. K ennedy's a rticle was a lready s ubmitted f or publication when Speidel' s s tudy appeared. 72 ( 1977) 6 68 and 7 19. 73 Ibid. 7 19-720. 69
71
1 78
i s s eldom given, and t he great majority of veterans' n ames, as m ight be expected, are t he homogenous and ethnically neuter combination of Latin forms so attractive t o n ew recruits. Even when t he n ame i s recognisably Arab and t he origo i s i ncluded, t he date i s often uncertain. Among t he graffiti l eft by a detachment of t he ala dromadariorum i n t he H ejgz t hree ( of t en) a re i n Nabataean: 7 " ( a) ( b) ( c)
c Usem, horseman. Saf pru, s on of Awsu, f rom Salkhgd, h ail! The son of Ashadu and his companions, horsemen t he guard.
of
None i s dated, but one i n Greek y ields t he n ame Ulpi(u) s Magnus. Speidel may be r ight i n t hinking t his could i ndicate a s econd-century date for all t he t exts :" No doubt a ll t hese men were Arabs, even t hough t he n ames i n t he other t exts a re not r ecognisably Semitic. The approximately 2 00 military i nscriptions . " f rom Arabia y ield only twenty names immediately i dentifiable as Arab. This i ncludes t hree s oldiers who r ecorded both t heir GraecoRoman and Arab n ames. Filiation or t ribal association i n f ifteen other t exts i ndicated t hat t he s oldier was Arab by birth. " This y ields a grand t otal of t hirty-five n ames which we may consider " local". D isappointingly, only s even of t hese i nscriptions are dated. One i s s econd century,
7" I bid. 7 03-704. Six are Greek and one Latin. The t ranslations are t hose given by Speidel. Although t he half-dozen other Ulpii known locally f rom military i nscriptions are t hird century ( see Appendix 3 b elow). The graffiti may not be contemporary, and most have no s pecific r eference t o a Roman army. Most are f rom northern Arabia. The r eason for t his becomes clear when a comparison i s made with i nscriptions collected i n other p arts of t he province. The Yale University expedition t o Jerash published ( Welles i n K raeling [ 1938] 3 50) i nscriptions f rom t hat city. Only t wenty were military of t he Roman era. Not a s ingle t ext y ielded a Semitic n ame. The only veteranus r ecorded a s s uch appears i n a n i nscription dated A .D.86. The corpus of Jordanian i nscriptions ( see above Chapter I I note 2 9) s hould i mprove on t his. This pattern of n ative p atronymic for s oldiers w ith purely Graeco-Latin n ames i s f amiliar, and paralleled i n o ther provinces by t he f ather' s entry t o military duty t hrough t he auxilia and t he s on being recruited i nto t he l egion. On t his s ee Speidel ( 1970) 1 43. Sartre ( 1982b) 3 16-317 no.9358 has r e-published t he t ombstone o f a s ixteen-year-old whom t he original e ditors ( Littmann et a l. [ 1921] 5 72 2 ) t hought t o be enrolled i n I II Cyrenaica. This 75
76
77
i s doubted by Sartre, who believes t he f ather t o be t he s oldier. Cf. Forni ( 1953) 2 02-204; 2 19-237 f or s oldiers of l ocal origin r ecruited i nto l egions based or attested i n t he East.
1 79
t hree a re t hird, and t hree a re f ourth. Unfortunately, none of t hese i ncludes either a unit or l egion n ame. I n t he s ix where t here i s no doubt concerning t he i dentity of t he l egion t he date i s l acking. All of t hese will be d iscussed s eparately below. Thus t here i s no s pecific attestation f rom t he known i nscriptions of e arly l ocal r ecruitment i nto t he a rmy of Arabia other t han t he s oldier of VI Ferrata buried at Bostra, T . Flavius Marcianus, w hose origo i s a ssumed t o be Philadelphia/cAmmgn. Sartre prefers t o date t his t hat
i nscription " entre l egion encamped i n
1 06 t he
et 1 30", which i s when h e provincial capital.' "
sees
Even l ess certain evidence f or e arly local recruitment i s Valerius Serenus, a veteran of I II Cyrenaica, a ttested i n Palestine in 1 52. The s ource for t his i s a fragmentary Graeco-Latin 2apyrus which gives h is origo a s " the village of Meason i n Perea". The e ditor of t his document has equated Perea with Peraia on t he east bank o f t he Jordan. " Serenus would t herefore be a " local" r ecruit. This i s unlikely. Serenus i s a common Egyptian n ame " and i t i s much more probable t hat he joined t he l egion i n Egypt c .125, or about t he t ime Kennedy believes i t w as r eturning t o Arabia f rom Egypt. 7
9
Solid proof i s t herefore l acking for early local r ecruitment within t he province. But t here are two f actors which weigh heavily i n f avour of local r ecruitment at an e arly period. The f irst i s t he absence o f evidence for s ustained r esistance t o Roman r ule following t he annexation. " The s econd i s t he r epeated t hreats t o t he s tability of t he region by i nternal and external f orces. One n eed only r ecall t nat between A .D. 6 6-140 t here were t hree s erious wars ( two i n Judaea and one a gainst P arthia) and civil disturbances i n Judaea, Egypt and Cyrenaica, plus t he Parthian " scare" of A .D.123. Against s uch a background of endemic v iolence t he n eed f or a l ocalised military levy becomes apparent. The benefits of t his were both i mmediate
Sartre ( 1974) r e-published w ith commentary i n S artre ( 1982b) 2 34-236 no.9179. Speidel ( 1977) 6 98 s uggests t hat VI Fertata may h ave been t ransferred t o Palestine a s e arly as 1 17. P . Berol. 2 1652. 8 ° Maehler ( 1974). Cavenaille ( 1970) h as collected and t abulated t he 78
79
81
e vidence concerning t he Roman garrison of Egypt. For Serenus s ee h is nos.1930-1952 and especially no.2177 -- a Lucius Valerius Serenus o f t he Legio I I Traiana. I c annot i dentify Meas5n i n Pe/ea w ith any place-name i n Egypt, but neither can I locate Meas5n i n t he Jordanian Peraia. I owe t his
r eference t o David K ennedy. Contrast t he Roman attitude t o l ocal r ecruitment i n Upper Moesia f ollowing i ts annexation c .44: . ... even r egular r ecruitment . ... i nto auxiliary units did not begin until t he r eign of Marcus Aurelius" ( MoCsy [ 1974] 1 54). 82
1 80
( recruitment was r apid, and t he enlistees n eeded no acclimatising t o t he geographic conditions of t he r egion) and long-lasting ( a military career w as a c atalyst i n t he process of romanisation). As i ndirect s upport for t his we may c ite t wo b its of e vidence which, t aken t ogether, point t o a s erious manpower s hortage i n t he Legio I II Cyrenaica as a r esult of disturbances i n t he provinces contiguous t o Arabia. The f irst i s a papyrus document purported t o be a l ist of l egionary c asualties t entatively dated t o c .116. 85 O f n ine deaths recorded ( out of twenty-eight men l isted) s even were i n I II Cyrenaica and t wo i n XXII Deioteriana. The e ditor's conjecture i s t hat t he deaths are t o be attributed t o t he Jewish r evolts i n Judaea, Alexandria and Cyrenaica i n 1 15-117. I f so, t his may be an a dditional piece of e vidence s upporting t he r eturn o f I II Cyrenaica t o Egypt by 1 19 at t he l atest. I t has long been known t hat a detachment of t he l egion was i n Jerusalem i n 1 16. 8 " I f t his was connected with t he l egion' s r eturn t o Egypt, t hen t he casualties noted i n our document may have o ccurred e ither i n Judaea o r Egypt. The s econd i ndication t hat t his l egion' s t roops trength w as down i s t he s peech by Hadrian t o t he Legio I II Augusta i n July 1 28. 8 5 Speide1 8 8 and Kennedy " have noted t he s ignificance of t he r emark quod ante annum t ertium ( i.e.126) cohortem et quaternos ex centruis in s upplementum comparum t ertianorum ( i.e. legio I II) dedistis. The I II Augusta h ad been a sked t o undertake a t ranslatio of i ts own t roops t o f ill t he r anks o f another legio I II. The n umber o f t roops t ransferred i s l arge: one cohort ( 480) plus f our men f rom e ach century ( 240) t otals 7 20. K ennedy r eckons t his f igure may r epresent t he normal attrition i n a l egion during a period o f t wo years. " Since t he losses cannot be attributed to any war or other military a ction c .126, t his a ssumption s eems r easonable. The e vidence t hat t he legio I II in question w as I II Cyrenaica i s f ar more persuasive ( though not conclusive) t han t hat for i t being I II Gallica. 8 9 This s till l eaves t he q uestion of w hy t he t ransfer t ook place. K ennedy maintains t hat Arabia l acked
83
84 85
86
87
88
P . Vinob. L 2 = F ink CIL I II 1 3587. I LS 2 487. ( 1977) 7 20 note 1 34. ( 1980) 3 05-306. Ibid. 3 06.
( 1971)
1 60-163
no.34.
Speidel ( ibid.) makes t he i nteresting observation t hat the Latin a ltar dedication at Bostra ( AE [ 1947] 1 38 = I GLS X III 9 016) b y Thusdritani may be connected w ith t his t ransfer o f north African t roops i nto I II Cyrenaica. T he only other s crap of e vidence i s t he undated attestation o f a s oldier i n t he I II Cyrenaica at Bostra w hose origo i s C arthage ( IGLS X III 9203). 89
1 81
" suitable citizen r ecruits" and t hat uncertainty r egarding i ts i nternal s ecurity e ngendered a r eluctance t o use i t as a base f or r ecruiting. 9 ° While I would t ake i ssue with t he l atter point, t he l ack o f clear evidence f or e arly r ecruiting i nto t he l egion i tself c an only r einforce t he f ormer. It would certainly help t o know more a bout t he auxilia of Arabia' s army at t his t ime, for i t i s t here t hat we s hould look f or t he bulk o f local r ecruitment f or a t l east t he duration of t he s econd c entury. " I f, a s seems probable, I II Cyrenaica by 1 25 had f inally and d ecisively become Arabia's garrison l egion, w e might expect that w ithin t hree generations -- perhaps c .200 -- t hat t he combination of l egionary veterans and ex-auxiliaries s ettled i n t he province had produced a s olid b ase o f c itizen-families f rom which t he f uture manpower n eeds o f t he military could be met. Thus i t would be worthwhile t o e xamine briefly t he l ittle evidence t here i s f or local r ecruitment i nto t he Roman army i n t he l ava-lands, e ven i f t he dates are not a lways certain. S ince t he veterani will be t reated as a s eparate group, I will i nclude here only ( A) s oldiers of local origin w hose s ervice w ith I II Cyrenaica i s certain and ( B) s oldiers of local origin who s aw s ervice with an unspecified l egion. A ll t he i nscriptions a re i n Greek. Military t itles a re given t heir Latin equivalents under "Rank/Duty".
A .
ARABS ATTESTED
( 1)NAME Mesamarus
IN LEGIO
I II CYRENAICA
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
LOCATION
eques
Wadd. 2 271; I GR I II 1 257.
Nemgra ( l jarra)
DATE
COMMENTARY: This w as one of many military g raffiti ( 2nd o r 3rd century?) found at t he s ite of w hat must have b een an a uxiliary o utpost. On t he n ame and c lan designation, see Chapter I II, Part 6 , no. 4 8. Mesamarus i s one o f only t hree known equites of t his l egion. See I GR I II 1 141 and K ennedy. ( 1978) f or t he other two.
90
9 1
Ibid. AE
( 1966)
4 93
attests
an Arab
( ?)
centurio i n
t he
army o f Agrippa I I who became a strategos ( nomadön?) " under Trajan". There i s no evidence before t he N otitia D ignitatum ( Or.37, 3 4) of an entire unit raised and s tationed w ithin t he province, i .e. t he cohors I II felix Arabum.
1 82
( 2)NAME
RANK/DUTY
M.Cocce[ius miles Ge ] rmanus ( a.k. a.) Aoueidus
REFERENCE
LOCATION
I GR I II 1 282; Forni ( 1953) 2 03.
Suwaydg ( J-D)
DATE ?
COMMENTARY: Aoueidus
here
i s
Arabic
cAwidh
( Wuthnow
[ 1930]
2 4),
as
Cagnat noted, and not an attempt to render Latin " Avidius". Aoueidus credits himself with t he construction of "three grooved arches, f rom his own f unds". The nomen Cocceius could indicate a date as early as t he f irst quarter of t he second century.
( 3)NAME Solemus
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
centurio
PAES
7 95
5
LOCATION .
DATE
Masakah ( L)
COMMENTARY: Solemus spelling memorial
i s Arabic Sulaym. Cf. Wuthnow ( 1930) 1 10 for t his and variations. As the dedicant, he " built t he for Arabianus, his son, aged 2 4, a member of t he
governor' s officium." equivalence for t he
The Greek
last word i s t he editor' s abbreviation op , which t hey
expanded to ö c p( txt d?0 ,0V). On other occurances of this s ee Mason ( 1974) 7 3 and I GLS X III 9046, 9083, 9 088. I t i s i nteresting to note that in what may have been his native village Solemus chose to be represented only by h is native name.
( 4)NAME
RANK/DUTY
Cae(cilius?) Comodus A
milites?
and
REFERENCE PAES Forni
(. 7 )
7 95
6
LOCATION ;
Masakah
( 1953)
DATE ?
( L)
203.
COMMENTARY: The names of t he two soldiers are uncertain, but Comodus i s certainly on t he stone. Following t hat t he editors i nexplicably r estored Ma(ximus), but t heir t ranscription of t he Greek l etters s hows no M. The l egion i s clearly named, a s is the f ather of the two: Sados ( the son) of Sameithos. The patronymic i s Arabic Sacd ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 1 01) and t he grandfather' s n ame i s i s Shgmit ( ibid. 1 04). The t wo s ons built some unspecified structure, perhaps a tomb-memorial. Comodus
would
i ndicate
a date
no
1 83
earlier
t han
c .175.
( 5)NAME Ne6n
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
miles
PAES
LOCATION
3 49;
Forni 2 03.
Umm
( 1953)
DATE
al-Jemal ( H)
COMMENTARY: Ne5n' s
f ather
i s
named
as
Chamius,
( Littmann' s s uggestion) or l ikely). The feminine form
i . e.
Sarinus?
K acammihi
cAmis ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 1 19, l ess of t his i s attested at Suwaydä
( CIG 4 620). The patronymic occurs again from Umm al-Jem31. Neon' s age i s given gravestone.
( 6)NAME
Arabic
i n PAES as 3 0
3 95, in
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE Fossey ( 1897)
LOCATION Tell
miles
4 4 no.20; I GR I II 1 169.
al-Shehäb ( H)
a lso t his
DATE
COMMENTARY: Fossey' s
f acsimile
shows
t his
man' s
name
a s
CAPINE
( vocative), which he then emended and Latinised as SABINUS. Cagnat emended ( for no apparent reason) to CACIN(OC). Sarinus i s a perfectly acceptable variant of Soranus, Sare 'nos or even Sarimos or Soraimos, t he f irst t wo corresponding t o Arabic Sharih and t he latter two t o Sharim ( cf. Wuthnow [ 1930] s .v. passim ). Harding ( 1971) 3 61 includes both Shahrän and Shahräm as personal names attested i n Safaitic. This soldier' s age i s given as 2 5.
B.
ARABS
ATTESTED
( 1)NAME Mne 'sitheos
IN UNSPECIFIED LEGIONS
OR UNITS
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
LOCATION
selectus
I GR I II 1 220; Wadd. 2 380.
Sulaym ( J-D)
DATE c .180
UNIT
COMMENTARY: Dedication
of
a
statue.
Mnjsitheos
epilektos and priest of t he certainly s uits h is n ame. Waddington w ith delectus, i . e.
describes
was followed i n this somewhat hesitantly now Mason ( 1974) 4 6 s .v. where selectus i s t ranslation.
The
patronymic
h imself
a s
i mperial cult; t he latter Epilektos was equated b y " un s oldat d ' elite", and h e
attested
by Cagnat. See t he preferred
here
is Thaimos,
Arabic Taym, one of t he most popular personal names i n t he lava-lands. Wuthnow ( 1930) 52-53 registers about fifty occurrances of t his n ame i n t he masculine form alone. Since both Marcus and Commodus are honourands, t he date
1 84
m ust be prior t o 1 81. On r oyal and i mperial c ults i n t he Hawrän s ee Sourdel ( 1952) 1 13-115. I t i s probable t hat . _ Mnesitheos entered t he military about t he middle o f t he century.
( 2)NAME
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
LOCATION
DATE
Z enön
centurio ( ordinario) princeps
N IDH
c Anz ( H)
3 45/ 3 46
2 71.
UNIT
COMMENTARY: Grave s tele. Z enon died a ged f ifty. The patronymic i s " Alexander ( a.k.a) K atius". K atius i s Arabic Q at i is ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 6 3), or Safaitic QTY or QTS ( Harding [ 19 ' 71] 4 76 and 4 83). "Kattius" appears i n .Wadd. 1 999 f rom Salkhäd, an i nscription of exactly t he s ame date i n w hich i en3n and h is brother Ambrilis ( who also apparently a chieved a centurionate ordinarius ) are attested. On Ambrilis, probably a variant of Amrilis i n D (21) below, s ee Wuthnow ( 1930) 1 9.
( 3)NAME Gaddus
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Wadd. 2 267; Voyage 2 64; I GR I II 1 259.
Nemära ( Harra)
DATE
UNIT ( ala) ? dromedariorum
COMMENTARY: A graffito f rom t he s ame auxiliary o utpost w here t he eques o f A(1) above i s attested. Gaddus ( Arabic Gadd) i s w ell-attested t hroughout t he r egion ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 3 8), e specially i n Safaitic a s t he t heophoric n ame Ghadd ( Harding [ 1971] 9 20). Two other men with Semitic n ames are part o t he s ame graffito. But note t he caution e xpressed by Sartre regarding t his graffito i n h is commentary t o I GLS X III
9 071.
1 85
( 4)NAME Gautus
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
LOCATION
optio leg(ionis)
Wadd.
Khulkhula
I GR
2 537;
I II
1 131.
DATE ?
( L)
UNIT
COMMENTARY: Gautus ( 1971)
i s Arabic Ghauth; cf. Wuthnow ( 1930) 4 59. He and his brother Theomnestus
3 9 and Harding ( a.k.a. Taym)
built a Heröon. Theomnestus was a bouleutes of an unidentified city. See Appendix 2 to t his chapter, no.10.
( 5)NAME Maximus
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
LOCATION
ex frumen(tario)
Wadd. 1 978; I GR I II 1 300.
Sahwat al-Khudr ( H)
DATE
UNIT
COMMENTARY: A tomb t ext.
Maximus'
patronymic
i s
Molemus,
Arabic
Muhlim. See Wuthnow ( 1930) 7 8 for t he various spellings i n Greek, and Harding ( 1971) 5 31 ( also Muhallim). Speidel ( 1977) 7 19 noted t hat apo ( = ex) in military i nscriptions s uch as this " is commonly used to i ndicate t he rank of veterans..." While I agree with t his i n principle, I do not i nclude s uch attestations i n t he register of veterani below;
see Part C and
( 6)NAME Gosamus
note
no.95.
RANK/DUTY
REVERENCE
LOCATION
selectus
N IDH 2 25; SEG VII 1 212.
Ghariyyah ( H)
DATE ?
UNIT
COMMENTARY: A grave t ext.
Gosamus
was
noted
as
a " nom
arabo-nabateen"
( Ghshm = Gshmw, respectively) i n a parallel example published i n Mission 9 5 no.91. See also Wuthnow ( 1930) 4 2 and Harding ( 1971) 4 55. Gosamus' f ather i s I asus ( Iys), also B(1)
well-attested i n above for t he
died
aged
t he r egion ( Wuthnow [ 1930] 5 7). See t itle epilektos = selectus. Gosamus
8 0.
1 86
( 7)NAME Malechus
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
LOCATION
DATE
centurio
N IDH 5 0; SEG V II 1 052.
Umm a l-Dubayb ( J-D)
?
UNIT
COMMENTARY: Malechus i s o ne of numerous Greek variations o f Arabic Malik. The r egister i n Wuthnow ( 1930) 7 0 under t his s pelling alone h as a dozen r eferences. The f ather' s n ame, Sogmos ( Arabic SuEam or Sucam ) i s a lso well-attested i n Greek epigraphy; s ee Wuthnow ( 1930) 1 10 and passim . The Greek abbreviation for centurio i s not clear, but i t i s h ard t o know what e lse i t could mean i n t his context. The l intel-piece of a s anctuary w as s et i n place " by provision o f" Malechus i n accord with another v illager designated a pronoetes. Some uncertainty r emains about w hich a rmy Malechus r epresents. Roman military t erms were t ransliterated a nd adopted by t he Nabataean and Aari ppan a rmies; centurio was rendered as qntwryn' and x syTypCwv r espectively. But t he use of an abbreviation here i s i ndicative t hat t he Roman army i s meant; contrast t he appearance of centurio s pelled o ut i n AE ( 1966) 4 93 s ee note no.91 above. The village administrative t erminology i n t his i nscription also argues for a post-Agrippan, post-Nabataean date. All epigraphic r eferences which c annot be clearly a ssociated w ith t he Roman e ra i n t he l ava-lands have been omitted f rom t he various r egisters.
C .
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
ON THE VETERANI
Twenty years ago J .F. Gilliam estimated t hat a s many a s 6 00,000 men r eceived Roman c itizenship t hrough m ilitary s ervice during t he Principate. 9 2 Though he did n ot go i nto details, t he f igure r easonably r eflects t he t otal n umber of veterani produced by t he Roman m ilitary t hroughout t he empire during a period of t wo and a h alf centuries. " As noted above, t he r ecent s urvey by J .C. Mann, Legionary Recruitment and Veteran Settlement during t he Principate ( 1983) attempts t o catalogue j ust where and w hen a r epresentative s ample o f t hose veterani actually s ettled once discharged f rom active s ervice. For t he more l imited purposes here i t m ight be best t o r educe • that n umber of 6 00,000 t o a f igure more i n proportion t o a o ne-legion province s uch as Arabia. The overall t ime p eriod would be about t he s ame given t he p rovince' s l ate creation t wo and a h alf centuries i s
9 2 9 3
Gilliam ( 1965) 6 6. The calculation must
veterans
per
year
per
legion
h ave x 2 40
1 87
been
2 5
years.
l egions
x
1 00
r oughly t he t ime between t he e arliest and l atest attestations of veterani i n t he l ava-lands ( i.e. 1 56-391). A l egion under t he Principate numbered 5 ,000. This was r educed t o a much s maller n umber i n t he l ate Roman period, but Arabia t hen gained a s econd l egion ( IV Martia at Lejji in). 9 4 It i s possible t hat a l egion produced 1 00 v eterans per year, i .e. one-fiftieth o f t he total f orce, g iven t he attrition r ate noted above d uring a twenty-five year s pan o f s ervice. I n two and a half centuries t hat s ame l egion could generate s ome 2 5,000 veterani. The s eventy
epigraphy definite
of t he l ava-lands h as yielded attestations of veterani. For
s o f ar r easons
noted i n Chapter I above, t he epigraphy f rom other areas of provincia Arabia w as not i ncluded. Even w hen t he f ull corpus o f Jordanian i nscriptions i s e ventually published t he n umber of veterani w ill not be s ignificantly i ncreased. The r egister does not i nclude i nscriptions i n which only apo or ex are prefixed t o military t itles. 9 5 I t a lso e xcludes t he t wo certain references t o men who style t hemselves as agTpavtxb‘ . 9 6 The meaning of t hat t erm r emains uncertain. Waddington t hought i t " peut-etre f ils ou descendant de veteran ou b ien i l e st s implement s ynonyme de o ucTpaw%." 9 7 The s ame i nscription was l ater r e-published i n t he Princeton collection with t he comment: The word may r ather be analogous t o s uch a djectives as o oyxX l iTtx6c and t x /dxo‘, which were f requently a dded t o t he n ames of persons t o i ndicate membership i n t he s enatorial o r equestrian o rder. Accordingly, i t would denote membership i n t he order of t he veterani, a nd would differ f rom acTpavdc only i n s o f ar as i t described t he person a s a member of a class r ather t han a s an i ndividual. " A .H.M. Jones understood i t t o mean descendant, " but Mason r egards i t a s equivalent t o veteranus. 10 0 I t s eems obvious t hat s omeone i n t he f amily was a veteran, but I see
Ongoing e xcavations of t he castrum at Lejjun, Jordan have at l ast produced a clear date f or t he construction of t he c amp: 2 95. A coin f ound i n t he l ast s eason ( 1985), built i nto t he w all, yields t his date. I owe this 94
i nformation t o S .T. Parker. E .g. ex-frumentario ( IGR I II 1 300; s ee B(5) a bove); ex-beneficiario ( IGR I II 1 202); ex-legionis ( Wadd. 2 017; I GR I II 1 311); ex-quaestionario ( PAES 7 97) e tc. I GR I II 1 187 and 1 266. Mus e n o.222 may be a t hird 95
96
e xample. Commentary t o Wadd. 2 546. PAES 7 65 ". ( 1930) 2 70 and ( 1971) 2 86. 1 00 ( 1974) 7 2, c iting I GR I II 97
98
99
1 88
1 187
w ith
no parallels.
n o r eason t o b elieve t hat a veteranus would r efer t o h imself by using a modified t itle, and t here i s no p recedent for t he Princeton e ditors' explanation. I t could w ell be t hat t he f ather was t he veteran. The patronymic i s c lear i n one c ase ( IGR I II 1 266 = Wadd. 2 227) b ut uncertain i n t he other ( IGR I II 1 187 = Wadd. 2 546 = PAES 7 65 "). My understanding i s t hat t he t itle was honourary, but not i n t he s ame s ense a s bouleutikos i n other i nscriptions. 1 01 A f ew s tatistics may be gleaned f rom t he f igures r epresented by t he r egister. There i s only one Arab among t he eight attested veterani of I II Cyrenaica. I II Gallica and I Parthica a re t he only other l egions f rom w hich a veteran i s known ( one each). I n t he l atter case t he veteran i n question had t ransferred f rom I II Cyrenaica. Thirty percent o f t he known veterans are i dentifiably Arab. They were probably r ecruited f rom t he s ame a rea, or e ven t he same v illage, where t hey are attested. The ethnic i dentity of t he other s eventy percent i s i mpossible t o determine. Some, perhaps many, of t he colourless m ilitary n ames disguise l ocal r ecruits. Only t hree veterans are n amed i n t h3 epigraphy of t he provincial capital and l egion headquarters at Bostra. Two veterans a re attested at Canatha. The r emainder a re known f rom i nscriptions t hroughout t he villages, and t he distribution i s r emarkably equal. Thirty-eight different villages r ecord at least one veteranus. Obviously not a ll t he s tones were f ound in s itu, but t he distribution p attern s eems r easonable. Two o f t he t exts are i n Latin, and a t hird i s a mixture of Latin and Greek. Thirteen i nscriptions are dated, r anging f rom mid-second century t o t he end o f t he f ourth. For s uch a s mall r egister as t his s uch s tatistics may s eem unimposing a nd perhaps e ven unbalanced. But t hey bear s ome comparison w ith t he s tatistics generated b y a much l arger r egister of veterani i n Egypt. Cavenaile' s " Prosopographien, augmenting and improving upon e arlier s tudies, contains a s ubstantial r egister o f 3 48 veterani among t he t housands of known s oldiers. 1 ° But i f one r emembers t hat Egypt was a two-legion province f rom Augustus t o Hadrian, and •a one-legion province f rom H adrian t o D iocletian, a nd i ncludes t he f leet among t he m ilitary, t he n umber of veterans generated i n t hree centuries must have been l arge, perhaps 5 0,000. The veterans attested r epresent only . 7 percent of t he possible t otal. For Arabia t he f igure i s . 28 percent. Only f orty o f t he veterani i n Egypt a re local. This i s j ust e leven percent o f t he t otal but e ven t hat f igure would h ave t o b e r educed s ince not a ll r ecruits f rom Egypt were actually Egyptians. 2
re r 10 2
s ix and
See Appendix 2 of t his c hapter, Cavenaile ( 1970) 3 17. Criniti added
forty-three
others.
189
Her
commentary t o no.3. ( 1979) 2 60 de:eted total:
3 85,
I t i s known t hat n ative r ecruitment was officially f orbidden. Mann has also pointed out t hat t he veterans attested i n Egypt are f rom only t wo o r t hree areas o f t he province w here t he e vidence i s abundant.' " Thus t he f igures f or Arabia, or e ven t he portion of i t dealt w ith here, a re l ess disproportionate t han t hey might at f irst s eem. 1 0 4 The r egister i s a s complete a s I could make i t. The s earch f or references t o veterans was g reatly a ided b y t he i ndices i n Waddington, I GR and t he Princeton corpus. But even t here some caution must be exercised. The i ndex to Waddington does not i nclude no.2487, and t he i ndex t o I GR i s missing nos.1173, 1 193 and 1 294. The PAES index i s complete, but no.212 s hould r ead 2 11. Cross-referencing i s a lso not completely t horough. The I GR collection i s m issing t hree veterani f rom Waddington ( 2053, 2 055 and 2 546a) and two f rom t he collection published in Mission ( nos.9 a nd 6 4). The other s ources, except Dunand' s Mus e, are n ot i ndexed for veterani. I f Sartre's volume of Bostran i nscriptions i s any i ndication, t he forthcoming I GLS and I GLJ s eries w ill be a major i mprovement o n t he s cattered and sometimes poorly-edited collections now a vailable. Abbreviations used here are t hose noted in Chapter I II, Part 6 . All i nscriptions are i n Greek u nless otherwise noted. Dated i nscriptions i n any of t he t hree s ub-categories appear i n chronological order. I have made no attempt t o alphabetise t he l ists. Certain n ames - e .g. Bassus, Avidius, Vales, Marrinus present some d ifficulties i n determining t he ethnic b ackground of a veteran. These n ames may be either Semitic or Latin and have been attested a s both. I n e ach c ase I have s tudied carefully t he context of t he i nscription t o determine which i s t he more l ikely i nterpretation. Military t itles i n Greek ( as i n r egisters A and B above) are given their Latin equivalents under " Rank/Duty". D iscussion i s given i n t he commentary when appropriate.
Mann ( 1983) 4 5. See t he valuable discussion of m ilitary colonisation and veteran s ettlement i n Lassere ( 1977) 2 74-280 a nd t he r egister o f North African veterani ( ibid.) 2 85-289. 1 6 3
• 10
4
1 90
D.
THE
REGISTER OF VETERANI
ARAB VETERANI
IN UNSPECIFIED LEGIONS
( 1)NAME
RANK/DUTY
Alexander
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Wadd.
cAyun
1 984b;
IGR I II Sourdel 111.
UNIT
OR UNITS
1 305; ( 1952)
DATE Sept/
( H)
Oct. 2 72
COMMENTARY: Alexander
and
a certain
sanctuary. Alexander
as
Waddington 1 09-110 Mission of the
no
both
This
comment from
i s
about
BcTTR and
graffito
were
in
restored
B[ath] ourus. made
notes
Safaitic
Germanus
Waddington
charge
the probably
the
Bc TRT.
Ishbi lZke
a
name. See
in
of
name
paving
patronymic.
Harding
also the
a
following ( 1971)
Bat a
eastern
in
a
Hawrän,
1 93 no.797. Wuthnow ( 1930) 32 implies acceptance restoration B[az] ourus ( i. e. Arabic Bajj ir), a name
attested
in
emendation
PAES for
700
t he
and
name
suggested in
RANK/DUTY
( 2)NAME Malchus
t his
there
as
an
alternative
inscription.
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Wadd.
cAuwas
2 95/
( H)
2 96
2 041;
IGR
I II
1 313.
and
another
DATE
UNIT
COMMENTARY: Some activity --
see
three
D(39) other
commentary
epi Malchus
below
--
was
villagers. to B(7)
( 3-4) NAMES
undertaken
On
and
named
Magnus
conjunction
its
variants
with
see
t he
above.
RANK/DUTY
Aneichus; Marrinus
Malchus
veteran in
?
REFERENCE
LOCATION
DATE
Mission no.64.
Hoyyet Hibikke
3 20/ 321
2 61
UNIT
. ( L)
? COMMENTARY: " The sanctuary association
w as
with
two
t emple-treasurers. Wuthnow ( 1971) Greek
Marion,
see MRN Marw5n. but
( 1930) 206.
see
Marinus,
and This
other
and
as
s uch
i n
Harding
and
father
1 200 of
i s
all
Arabic
of
and
was was of
omitted ( 1971)
Hanik.
not that
On
for
( ?) t his
see
Wuthnow.in
in
were
i n Harding variants of
variants
reproduced corpus
Philippus Arabs.
1 91
from
5 42,
Marrinus
whom
HNQM and HNK are noted Could be one of many
MRWN
inscription
epi Aneichus
villagers,
Aneichus
2 2. Both Marrinus
nos.1199 t he
completed"
of
But
Arabic
I GR
I II,
dedications
to
( 5)NAME
RANK/DUTY
Fla(vius) Zoedathus
? UNIT ?
REFERENCE
LOCATION
DATE
Wadd. 2 055; PAES 1 83; Musee no.212.
Umm alRummgn ( H)
3 66/ 3 67
COMMENTARY: The grave stele of Zoedathus and his w ife. OY(TP)A(N) 0C was Waddington' s restoration, followed by t he editors of PAES. Zoedathus was s een by Wuthnow ( 1930) 5 0 as a variation of ZYD, but i t occurs more exactly a s ZYDT ( Arabic Mauelos
Zuyaydat?) in Harding i s certainly Macgwil i n
( 1971) 3 04. The patronymic Harding ( 1971) 5 58 and not
Mal in Wuthnow ( 1930) 7 5. The wife' s name, Oaelath J , is Arabic Wg' ilat corresponding to W ILT i n Harding ( 1971) 91. The same feminine name occurs i n Voyage 2 05, no.95. This inscription was not reproduced i n I GR I II.
RANK/DUTY
( 6) NAME Aur(elius) Sabinus
REFERENCE
LOCATI ON
PAES 7 60; AE ( 1915)
Namre 1 06 .
DATE
( J-D)
UNIT
COMMENTARY: Sabinus, who i dentified Askhjnoi ( see Chapter own
himself as I II above,
belonging t o Part 6 , no.4)
the t ribe built his
tomb.
RANK/DUTY
( 7) NAME Rhoeus
UNIT
COMMENTARY: The gravestone variation of Harding ( 1971) Harding
2 82.
forthcoming
gives h is Rhouaios 2 90 -- or The
history
REFERENCE
LOCATION
AAS ( 1965) 8 2 no.23; I GLS X III 9 246.
Bostra ( H)
a ge as s eventy. Rhoeus must be a ( RWH) -- s ee Wuthnow ( 1930) 9 8 and R aaios ( ReY) Wuthnow 9 6 and
onomastic o f
DATE
Bostra
study s hould
1 92
promised i nclude
in
t his
Sartre' s n ame.
( 8)NAME Annius
RANK/DUTY Anamus
REFERENCE
LOCATION
NIDH
Mashqjq
2 66.
DATE
( H) UNIT
COMMENTARY: The
gravestone
gives
t he
age
as
5 7.
Both
names
are
quite
common i n the area. On t his spelling of Annius see Wuthnow ( 1930) 2 3 who i dentified i t w ith HNY; Harding ( 1971) 2 07 a lso lists HNY ( Arabic HanI). The variant s pellings i nclude Aniu; ( PAES 2 91); 7 41). Anamus i s Arabic dozens of references.
Aneos ( PAES Ancam. Cf.
RANK/DUTY
( 9) NAME Severus
UNIT
COMMENTARY: The gravestone Solemus
( 10) NAME
gives
( Arabic
his
LOCATION cOrman ( H)
a ge --
RANK/DUTY
Rufus UNIT
COMMENTARY: The gravestone
REFERENCE Wright 3 49 no.171; I GR I II 1 309; PAES
Sulaym )
g ives
as
see
62.
The
patronymic
LOCATION
Wadd. 2 039; I GR I II 1 336;
Sammat Al-Burdjn
age
1 81.
as
DATE
( H)
7 5.
The
Athus, which i s probably an error for Authus. i s quite common, see Wuthnow ( 1930) 1 4 and This is more likely than Ghauth s uggested by PAES. See also Harding ( 1971) 4 47 ( cAWT) or and Mission 2 84 no.133. The editors of PAES Athos could be " compared w ith t he n ame
1 93
i s
above A(3).
REFERENCE
c Athe."
DATE
6 87.
PAES
h is
7 97 9 ) and Aneos ( PAES Wuthnow ( 1930) 2 1 for
patronymic The 2 9 ( =
i s
l atter cAWTH).
t he editors of 4 48 ( cAWTM ), s uggested -. 1 1 , at of t he goddess
( 11) NAME
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
Agrippa
PAES
7 90
3
LOCATION .
DATE
Kharsah ( L)
UNIT
COMMENTARY: The
inscription
i s
on
a pier
cap,
editors restored So ] ummou as t he
Ag] rippas patronymic
( sic) on t he
Somus
and
( PAES
( PAES
2 18)
Soumus
broken
210).
s aw t his as either SHM or S L IM -( 1971) 312. Other restorations possible,
but
dedicated
is
t he not
( 12) NAME
name
i s
at
as t he occurance
Wuthnow
both of
certainly
t he
left.
The
dedicator and of the n ame as ( 1930)
111
occur in H arding the patronymic are Semitic.
What
was
stated.
RANK/DUTY
Malchus
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Mission
S r
2 42
no.9, UNIT legi(o
PAES
DATE
( L) 797
4
.
COMMENTARY: Dussaud and Macler recorded only two fragments o f this broken dedicatory inscription; t he Princeton t eam f ound a t hird. Malchus ( and perhaps another person) apparently dedicated something to a deity "as a mark of p iety." Malchus i s yet another rendition of Arabic Malik -- see above
B(7)
( 13) NAME Fl(avius)
and
D (2).
RANK/DUTY ?
Maximus
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Mission
Qaysama
no.45; IGR I II
UNIT
2 56
DATE ?
( H) 1 310.
? COMMENTARY: A tomb inscription.
Maximus
( the
aged 5 5. "Aur(elia) Antonia w ife, built ( the memorial)
( the f rom
of
her
children,
costing
son)
of
Samethus
died
daughter) o f Maximus, his her own f unds and ( those) d (rachmae?)."
The
patronymic Samethus had t o be r estored, but i s certain. Wuthnow ( 1930) 1 04 s aw i t a s SHMT, and i t in Harding ( 1971) 3 12 as SeMT and 3 59 a s SHMeT.
1 0,000
f airly occurs
1 94
( 14)NAME
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Auseios?
Mission
2 60
Melah
Maximus ( ipse Achilles)
no.59; I GR I II
1 312.
Serrar ( H)
UNIT
DATE
COMMENTARY: The reading of Auseius i s very uncertain, and does not occur in Wuthnow' s register under that spelling. I t i s probably a variation of Ausus ( AWS) in Wuthnow ( 1930) 3 0 and
Harding
( 1971)
8 4,
but
one
cannot
dismiss
completely
the possibility t hat t he name i s something Latin. Follo/inq t he abbreviation for veteranus t he expression c or rä Axt1 . 00 0 )4 can be clearly read. This may have been a family joke. The n ame of t he person who built t he tomb follows, and Dussaud and Macler read it as "Romana", they thought "serait la f emme de ce nouvel Achille".
( 15)NAME
RANK/DUTY
Taurinus
legionar(i) us
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Wadd. 1 974; I GR I II 1 301;
Sahwat al-Khudar
Forni UNIT
COMMENTARY: Taurinus ( the
son)
of
i s
the
t ext
( 1953)
whom
DATE
( H)
2 03.
of
Aubathanus
missing.
The
built
s omething,
patronymic
i s
but
something
part of
a
mystery. It occurs with exactly t he s ame spelling i n PAES 203 ( also as a patronymic) on a gravestone f rom another Hawrani village. The editors of PAES s uggested t here t hat it might be Aubathgn or Aubatan " but h as not been identified i n Arabic". It also does not occur i n t he Palmyrene ( Stark [ 1971]) or Nabataean ( Cantineau [ 1932]) lexica.
Wuthnow
Harding
( 1971)
( 16)NAME
( 1930)
8 3
( ' WBT)
RANK/DUTY
. ...nus
?
2 8 i s
s uggested
' BT
or ABTH,
but
closer.
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Wadd. 2 346; I GR I II 1 234.
Qanawgt ( J-D)
DATE ?
UNIT
COMMENTARY: A damaged i nscription set up " from private
perhaps f unds".
dedicating s omething built or The veteran' s name cannot be
restored, but t he patronymic i s associated forms). See Wuthnow ( 1971)
5 68
( MNc)
and
5 56
( McN).
1 95
Manus ( 1930)
( Arabic 7 2 ( McN)
Macan and and Harding
( 17)NAME
RANK/DUTY
A ] nius? 0[1. 1 a] les
? UNIT ?
REFERENCE
LOCATI ON
N IDH 2 23; SEG VII 1 210; AE ( 1933) 1 88.
Shanira
DATE
( H)
COMMENTARY: I f
t he
Arabic
r estoration Hani
--
age as . 8 5. patronymic. t hroughout here i t i s
see
It
t he more
of
t he
f irst
above C(8).
The second name may be Latin, area ( e.g. l ikely to
name
The
i s
correct,
gravestone
i s probably Vales, and a s s uch is
IGR I II 1 170, represent a
Anius
gives
i s his
and not a attested
1 207, 1208). But Semitic p ersonal
name. Wuthnow ( 1930) 91 notes Ouaelus which he sees as W' L ( = Harding [ 1971] 6 32). WcL i s also r egistered in Harding ( 1971) 6 45. Both are related t o Arabic Wadl or Waclg.
( 18) NAME An(ius) Maximus
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
LOCATION
eques
Wadd. 2 228; IGR I II 1 265.
Mushannaf ( J-D)
DATE ?
UNIT le(gio)
I II
COMMENTARY: A tomb i nscription. Cagnat read Ail(ius), but Waddington' s facsimile drawing clearly s hows AN. For Anius or Annius ( Arabic s uggested
Hani) t hat
X ey(tc ov c ipto )
s ee the
o r
above D (8) t ext could
t 7 c 7 cgt )
k g(
and D(17). Waddington be read either ' vx / tet .‘ , 04 1 )0 0 y . The f acsimile
sketch s hows clearly a horizontal l ine above t he gamma, and I am i nclined ( as he and Cagnat were) t o read legio III, either Gallica or C yrenaica. The t ext goes on t o state t hat " Aur(elia) Gaie ( the memorial for herself, her
daughter) of Arabianus, built t he husband and her children". Gale
could be Latin Gaia, and must have been understood a s such by Wuthnow s ince he excluded i t. But i t could just a s well be Arabic Ghiy which o ccurs as GHW or GHY in Harding ( 1971) 4 59-460. Wuthnow ( 1930) 40 clearly s aw that Geos i n CIG 4 657
could
possible
represent
f eminine
( 19) NAME
GHWY,
but
made
no
connection
with
a
counterpart.
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
LOCATION
A ] bdareta[s?
RB
2
c Irg
Ch] ei[1] -( 3n?
9 5
no.7.
( 1905)
DATE
( H)
UNIT
COMMENTARY: Something was
built
restorations.
The
by
t he
veteran
editors
gave
1 96
whose t he
name
entails
provenance
some of
t he
i nscription a s " cAireh". There i s no place-name w ith t hat s pelling l isted i n t he topographical i ndex o f Dussaud ( 1927). It must e ither be Acre ( Sannamayn) o r c Ire ( C I ra) The latter s eems preferable. Abäaretas i s t he r estoration offered by t he e ditors, but I have not found i t attested e lsewhere and t hey c ite no parallels. However, Aretas i s t he normal t ransliteration of Nabataean Harith, and o ccurs i n variants as Aratas, Aretus and Aretu; i n Wuthnow ( 1930) 2 5. It i s well-attested i n Safaitic -- s ee Harding ( 1971) 1 82-183 as HRTH and variants. The prefix abd ( "servant") i s common t o a ll Semitic dialects and i s f ound as an element i n n umerous t heophoric n ames. See t he l ists i n Stark ( 1971) 1 02 and Cantineau ( 1932) 1 24-126. Thus t he name as i t i s r estored i s not i mplausible. Che n 6 -n i s a common Greek n ame, and well-attested i n t his r egion, e .g. PAES 3 00, 4 13, 5 47. But i t may a lso correspond t o Semitic KHL, normally t ransliterated as Cheeilus ( cf. Wuthnow [ 1930] 1 20), or t o Arabic-Nabataean K ahil ( see Cantineau [ 1932] 1 06).
( 20)NAME
RANK/DUTY
Azizus
REFERENCE
LOCATION
PAES
Umm a lQuttayn
2 11.
DATE
( 1 7 1
UNIT
COMMENTARY: Something was built epi Azizus ( the son) o f Gearus? Azizus i s f urther i dentified as a veteran, and t his i s f ollowed by an uncertain word ending i n t he masculine s ingular genitive. Azizus i s Arabic c AzIz, commonly attested; cf. Wuthnow ( 1930) 1 3 and Harding ( 1971) 4 18. The r estoration of t he p atronymic, i f i ndeed i t i s s uch, i s q uite conjectural. The editors t hen read t he word f ollowing veteranus as A(re) thus, i .e. a r eference t o one of t he Nabataean kings o f t hat n ame. Azizus t hen became " a veteran ( of t he a rmies) of Arethas". This won' t do. There i s no indication t hat t he Nabataean army u sed t he t erm veteranus and no certainty i n t he r estoration o f " Arethus". One might more easily restore A(u) thus - s ee D (10) above -- o r A(b) thos, a p lausible variant of Abthios ( see Wuthnow [ 1930] 9 ). Both names are well-attested, and e ither could be t he patronymic i f t he n ame following Azizus i s a s econd n ame for him. For an example of t he patronymic f ollowing t he t erm veteranus, s ee I GR I II 1 159 = D (31) below.
1 97
( 21)NAME
RANK/DUTY
Amrilus
? UNIT legio
REFERENCE
LOCATION
PAES 7 04; N IDH 1 85; SEG VII 1 173.
c Orman ( H)
DATE ?
I II?
COMMENTARY: The
grave
bottom
of
s tele t he
records
stele
was
Amrilus
missing.
and
his
Amrilus
w ife,
i s
Audj;
known
by
t he this
spelling only here; more commonly it i s Amrilios o r Amreilios. For all t hree forms see Wuthnow ( 1930) 2 0. I t i s t he usual t ransliteration of t he compound name IMR ILH, i .e.
Arabic
' Amr-allgh,
perhaps
a lso
t o
Am(r) allas i n PAES 5 54' from Bostra, suggested there and followed by re-publication of t hat stele ( IGLS X III frequently as 1MR' L in Harding ( 1971) 7 5. Audg
is
2 8-29. Harding
also
very
common
It i s t he feminine ( 1971) 408-409.
i n form
t he
area,
be
r ead
a s
as the e ditors Sartre i n t he 9 207). I t occurs The wife' s name s ee Wuthnow
of Audus,
Arabic
( 1930)
c Audh;
cf.
At t he t ime Dunand re-copied t he i nscription t he stone was broken at the top, and he found two additional marks (X I ' ) between l ines two and t hree not r ecorded by t he Princeton t eam. He then speculated t hat t his might have been t he legion designation ( i. e. legio I II). The e ditors of SEG thought that either t he man' s age or his legion might be i ntended by t he marks. But t he fact t hat t hey were completely missed by t he Princeton team is unusual, and I am i nclined to believe t hey were added by v illage children between t he t ime of t he Princeton expedition' s visit
and
VETERANI
Dunand' s
OF THE
( 22)NAME M(arcus) Aurelius
re-discovery
LEGIO
I II
RANK/DUTY ? Tiberius
of
t he
s tone.
CYRENAICA REFERENCE
LOCATION
Mus e no.164; AE ( 1936) 1 49.
Shaqra ( L)
DATE 212217
Sabinus COMMENTARY: The i nscription
r ecords
t he
dedication
own f unds." The legion designation, as appended as an afterthought. The year specified.
1 98
of
" from
his
Dunand notes, of Caracalla i s
a Nike
i s not
( 23) NAME
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
LOCATION
DATE
Bleckmann ( 1915) 2 232 27 no.2; AE ( 1915) 1 34.
Salkhad ( Salcha) ( H)
3 90/ 3 91
COMMENTARY: A badly s ervice f unds".
broken are The
( 24) NAME
tabula
given. year i s
ansata.
No
details
of
The memorial was built 2 85 of t he province.
RANK/DUTY
Q . Popi(lius) Felix
t he
" from
REFERENCE
LOCATION
I GLS X III 9033.
Bostra
COMMENTARY: Popi(dius) could also be t he l egion name are visible.
man' s his
own
DATE
( H)
nomen. Only t races Cyrenaica i s t he
of t he probable
r estoration.
( 25) NAME
RANK/DUTY
I ul?] Germanus
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 433;
?
COMMENTARY: Wright and
Wright 1 57 no.110; I GR I II 1 173.
Souter
didn' t
realise
r ecorded this i nscription preservation. Germanus built h is
own
f unds".
( 26) NAME
Not
indexed
RANK/DUTY
Maximus
i n D (29)
and
s omething. D(70)
t hat
DATE ?
( L)
Waddington
had
in a better state of t he memorial ( a t omb?) " from in
I GR
I II.
REFERENCE
LOCATION
NIDH
Namre
SEG COMMENTARY: Maximus built
LOCATION Najran
This
below.
1 99
9 7; VII
s ame
1 030.
veteran
DATE
( J-D)
may
be
attested
( 27)NAME
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
LOCATION
M(arcus) Aur(elius)
Un. 3 88
Syr. I I no.165;
Shaqqa ( J-D)
Sentius Maior Zenodorus
I GR
I II
DATE
1 193.
COMMENTARY: A tomb i nscription. I f I have i nterpreted it correctly, t he polyonymous veteran' s f ather and grandfather were didaskaloi. The tomb indexed in I GR I II.
( 28) NAME
was
RANK/DUTY
Aur(elius) Maior COMMENTARY: Maior built
built
f or
another
man.
REFERENCE
LOCATI ON
Wadd. 2 539; I GR I II 1 135.
Qusayfa ( L)
REFERENCE
LOCATION
N IDH
Shaqqa
Not
DATE
s omething.
( 29) NAME
RANK/DUTY
Cl(audius)
7
Maximus
SEG
2 6; VII
1 025.
DATE
( J-D)
COMMENTARY: Cl. Maximus ( the son) of Thaimus " built ( something) as a mark of remembrance". The patronymic i s Arabic Taym, for which s ee B(1) above. This may be t he s ame man honoured i n D(26) above and D (70) below, although Maximus is a common name and t he other i nscriptions are a lso undated. This i s the
only Arab
VETERANI
veteran
of
I II
Cyrenaica
so
f ar
attested.
OF OTHER SPECIFIED LEGIONS
( 30) NAME Ulpius Alexander
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
LOCATION
ex-optio
Wadd. 2 445; Wright 1 53 no.98; I GR I II 1 183.
c Ahira ( L)
UNIT Legio
DATE
I II
[ Gallica ] COMMENTARY: Probably a Phasaielj, Fasai' jl) commentary
and
t omb built i ts
t o PAES
dedication. Alexander' s wife , _ i t. On t he n ame Phasaiele variants 2 10.
s ee
The
Wuthnow
legion
2 00
( 1930)
n ame
was
1 17
Ulpia ( Arabic a nd
erased.
t he
( 31)NAME
RANK/DUTY
Cl(audius) Claudianus
REFERENCE
LOCATION
CIL I II 1 25; Wadd. 2 487;
Ezrca ( L)
UNIT I Parthica
I GR
( ex
K [yren.])
leg.
I II
COMMENTARY: The legion
designations
Theophan e -s.
Claudianus
are
had
OF
i n
t he
UNSPECIFIED LEGIONS
( 32)NAME
RANK/DUTY ex
[ leg.?[
UNIT
COMMENTARY: A dedication "to token of piety".
1 159.
Latin.
t ransfered
to I Parthica. He " built Not indexed i n Waddington.
VETERANI
I II
stele
The f rom
at
his
Magnus
OR UNITS
REFERENCE
LOCATION
DATE
Habran ( J-D)
1 56
Musee no.174; Sourdel ( 1952)
8 2.
?
The date i s in I GR I II.
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Wadd. 2 438; I GR I II 1 179.
c Ahira ( L)
DATE 1 69
UNIT ?
describes
himself
as
" from t he foundations until and ephest3tos a centurion I I above, Appendix I , no.3.
" Aeritinos",
village Aerita ( cAhira). This be a native of t he village. He Syrian
expense".
Wadd. 2 286a; Wright 2 77 no.154; I GR I II 1 294;
COMMENTARY: Dedication of a gate built completion" epi Avidius Cassius of I II Gallica. See Chapter Magnus
own
i s
Cyrenaica
t he god Lycurgus, at his own expense, as a Cf. Sourdel ( 1952) 81-83 for a discussion
RANK/DUTY
T(iberius) C(laudius)
patronymic I II
of t he worship o f t his deity i n t he Hawrgn. " the year 1 9" of Antoninus Pius. Not indexed
( 33)NAME
DATE
legion.
2 01
may was
i . e.
f rom
t he
be honourary, or he may probably a veteran of a
( 34) NAME
RANK/DUTY
Rufus UNIT
COMMENTARY: A dedication
to
Rufus, all of t he province.
( 35)NAME
Wadd. 1 969; I GR I II 1 299;
Sahwat al-Khudr
Kyrios were
dia
Aur(elius) UNIT
DATE 1 71/ 1 72
( 1952)
two
other
v illagers
t emple-treasurers.
RANK/DUTY
Antonius Sabinus
LOCATION
Sourdel 2 5.
Zeus whom
REFERENCE
The
year
and 6 6
of
REFERENCE
LOCATION
DATE
CIG 4 624; Wadd. 2 287; I GR I II 1 298; PAES 6 64.
Habran ( J-D)
214/ 215
COMMENTARY: Sabinus i s honoured as patronus, e ither of t he t ribe Mozaiedjnoi, or t he village i n which t he t ribe i s attested. This does not necessarily mean he was a member of t he t ribe, or from t he village. This t ribe i s t aken t o be Bostran by Mann ( 1983) 4 3 and note 4 80, which i s very unlikely. On t he t ribal n ame, s ee Chapter I II above, Part 6 , no.13. The year i s given as 1 09 of t he province.
( 36-38) NAMES
RANK/DUTY
I un(ius) Bassus; Ulp(ius) Rufinus; Flavius Ulpius
REFERENCE
LOCATION
CIG 4 548; Wadd. 2 399; I GR I II 1 213.
Kafr Laha ( N)
2 36
UNIT
COMMENTARY: The village
( unnamed)
built
something
f unds" and by contributions of of t he strategos ( shaykh). correct, denarii
DATE
Bassus and his r espectively,
contributed
400
named I f
" from
i ts
own
common
donors, by p rovision my i nterpretation i s
brother Rufinus donated 300 and 3 0 and t heir f ather, Flavius Ulpius
denarii.
It
i s
not
s tated
how
m uch
t he
village contributed, nor what was built. The preamble t o t he i nscription honours t he emperors, t he consuls, a nd t he governor i ndicated of t he
( Pomponius I ulianus). t he uncertainty of whether
Arabia other
Independent
or Syria, province studies
Cagnat' s commentary I ulianus was governor
s ince Kafr Laha' s i nclusion i n was problematical at this of
t he
2 02
provincial
one o r date.
borders
by
Kettenhofen ( 1981) and Sartre ( 1982a) agree t hat Kafr Laha was incorporated into Arabia c .200. Sartre ( 1982a) 9 0 a ccordingly l ists Iulianus among t he governors of Arabia, and is followed i n the by Bowersock ( 1983) 1 61.
( 39) NAME
RANK/DUTY
Magnus
REFERENCE
LOCATION
DATE
Wadd. 2 041; IGR I II 1 313.
cAwas ( H)
2 95/ 2 96
UNIT
COMMENTARY: S ee above, D (2). r ecruited
Magnus
may
well
have
been
a
veteran
locally.
( 40) NAME
RANK/DUTY
P riscus UNIT
COMMENTARY: P riscus built
something.
f rom
the
nearby
village
year
218
of
province.
the
( 41-42) NAMES
RANK/DUTY
Saturninus; Heraclitus
?
of
REFERENCE
LOCATION
DATE
Voyage 1 64 no.32; PAES 6 87.
c Ormän ( H)
3 23/ 3 24
The
i nscription
c Uy i in.
The
date
came
originally
given
REFERENCE
LOCATION
CIG 4 395; Wadd. 2 546a.
Umm al-Zaytün ( L)
UNIT
i s
the
DATE 3 31
? COM M ENTARY: Something was with four other i nscription
i s
built by these v illagers. The not
registered
i n
2 03
two veterans in conjunction date i s consular. This IGR
I II.
( 43) NAME
RANK/DUTY
Bassus
ex-ordinario
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Wadd.
Mashqüq
2 053;
PAES 1 77; Speidel ( 1977) 7 22.
UNIT
DATE 3 50/
( H)
3 51
COMMENTARY: Construction
of
a
tower.
The
PAES
reading
i s
a maj or
improvement on earlier publications. Bassus served as a soldier i n Mesopotamia. The builder' s name, U ranius, agrees with the date, which i s t he year of the p rovince 2 45. The PAES commentary i s e specially i nteresting. This inscription
i s
( 44) NAME
not
registered
RANK/DUTY
Iulius Sabinus
?
in
IGR
I II.
REFERENCE
LOCATION
PAES
Tell al-Mujeddac ( H)
7 21.
UNIT ? COMMENTARY: A grave stele; exactly
the
t he
same
( 45) NAME
age
name
i s i s
missing. recorded
RANK/DUTY
Philippus
? UNIT ?
Another in
D (53)
?
veteran
with
below.
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Wadd. 2 200; IGR I II 1 249;
Düma ( L)
PAES
DATE
DATE ?
7 55.
COMMENTARY: Philippus " held commands" and built h is own tomb, which his wife, "Agar e( the daughter) of Achchus" f inished b uilding with t he help " of her brother, Onaius". Agar ei s Hagar, the patronymic i s cAkk, and t he brother' s n ame i s Hunay'. On
t hese
see
Wuthnow
( 46) NAME
( 1930)
RANK/DUTY
1 1,
3 1
and
8 9
respectively.
REFERENCE
LOCATION
N IDH 1 10; SEG VII 1 064.
Radaym ( J-D)
DATE
UNIT
COMMENTARY: A greve stele,
broken
i s
i n
spelled
out
at
t he
top.
Greek.
2 04
The
age
r ecorded,
fifty,
( 47) NAME
RANK/DUTY
Ulpius
REFERENCE
LOCATION
PAES
Umtäciyeh ( H)
4 5.
Severus
DATE
UNIT
COMMENTARY: A grave stele,
( 48) NAME G (aius?) f ul(ius) [ Max] imus
broken
RANK/DUTY
UNIT
COMMENTARY: A Latin dedication Jupiter. apparently and 1 873. might be made I GLS name
at
to
the
bottom.
REFERENCE
LOCATION
C IL I II 1 08; Wadd. 2 291; Wright no.157; PAES 6 48; Sourdel ( 1952)
Habran . ( J-D)
former
DATE
2 2.
commanders
Wright and Souter re-published unaware that i t had been published The editors of PAES suggested t hat i dentified with a soldier of I II
( ?) this
invoking i n
1 895
i n 1 863, 1 870 t his veteran Cyrenaica who an altar dedication i n Greek at Bostra ( Wadd. 1 922 XIII 9 002). This i s very speculative given t he common and the absence of date for e ither i nscription.
( 49) NAME
RANK/DUTY
Severus Maximus
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Wadd. 2 253b; IGR I II 1 271.
Sacne ( J-D)
DATE
UNIT
COMMENTARY: A t omb i nscription. Maximus " soldiered well" his wife, whose name i s not quite certain.
( 50) NAME Iulius
RANK/DUTY ex-dupl(icario)
Candidus UNIT
REFERENCE Wadd. 2 424; C IL I II 1 23; ILS 2 541; Speidel 7 04.
( 1977)
and
LOCATION
honours
DATE
Rimet al-Luhf ( L) •
?V al(ae?) dr(o) m(edariorum)
COMMENTARY: A L atin text of unknown purpose. Waddington understood what followed ex dupl. as Val(eriae), i . e. a r eference to the ala prima Valeria dromedariorum attested i n t he Notitia Dignitatum ( Or. 2 8). This i nterpretation was accepted by
2 05
both Mommsen and Dessau. The alternate reading Speidel' s suggestion, who believes the i nscription
h ere was i s much
earlier than the Notitia, perhaps a s early as the s econd century. In that case the unit i s entirely unknown, and the numeral before the unit designation i s unusual. For a concise discussion of related inscriptions f rom t he East attesting dromedarii, see Sartre ( 1982b) 1 44-145.
( 51) NAME
RANK/DUTY
Silvanus
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Wadd. 2 085; I GR I II 1 188.
cAmra ( J-D)
DATE
UNIT
COMMENTARY]: A tomb i nscription. ( the
tomb?)
for
( 52) NAME
Silvanus,
himself
and
RANK/DUTY
Fl(avius) Alexander
" having
his
l ived
happily,
built
children."
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Wadd. 2 192; I GR I II 1 246.
Radaym ( J-D)
DATE
UNIT
COMMENTARY: Alexander "built
( 53) NAME
the
memorial
RANK/DUTY
Iulius Sabinus
? UNIT ?
COMMENTARY: Sabinus, his something.
For
( 1930)
On
8 6.
own
funds."
REFERENCE Mission 2 64
LOCATION
no.72; IGR I II
Rama ( J-D)
1 267;
DATE ?
N IDH 1 32; SEG VII 1 085.
s ister the
f rom his
Obbe
name
Phasaiele
and
Obbe see
his
( Arabic D (30)
2 06
wife
Phasaiele
Hubb)
above:
see
built
Wuthnow
( 54)NAME
RANK/DUTY
Coccaius S errenus
REFERENCE
LOCATION
N IDH 2 09; SEG VII 1 196.
Melah Sarrar
DATE
UNIT
COMMENTARY: " The sons with t heir mother built ( this) memorial t o death f or Coccaius Serrenus, veteranus, ( who) l ived well." Serrenus i s probably an Egyptian name. See Cavanaile ( 1970) 2 95-296.
( 55)NAME Herennius Sabinianus
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
LOCATION
ex-armorum ( custode) UNIT
N IDH 2 37; SEG V II 1 224; AE ( 1933) 1 90; Speidel ( 1977)
Ghäriyyah ( H)
DATE
7 19.
COMMENTARY: Speidel a rgues c onvincingly t hat t he expansion of t he abbreviated t itle s hould not be apo hoploph(orön) but apo hoploph(ulakön), i .e. ex armorum custode. Herennius died a ge 6 0.
( 56)NAME
RANK/DUTY
Maximus
REFERENCE
LOCATION
N IDH
K afer
2 56.
DATE
( H) UNIT
COMMENTARY: Maximus built h is own t omb. For an i mproved r eading of portions o f t his i nscription, s ee t he comments by t he Roberts i n BE ( 1940) 3 5. After a brief discussion of t he a rchitecture f rom K afer, Butler ( 1919) 3 26 made t he following observation: " The t own now called i l-Kefr was a f avourite place o f retirement f or retired s oldiers i f we may judge by t he number of veterans' tombstones d iscovered here." Butler must have become confused when he consulted his t ravel notes. The only i nscription attesting a veteranus f rom t his v illage i s t he one noted here, f irst published by Dunand s eventeen years after Butler's death. The P rinceton expedition d id publish a number o f military i nscriptions f rom K afer, one of which ( PAES 6 69) mentions an ex-praeposito. S ince t he n earby s ite of Habran has produced f our i nscriptions attesting veterans, t hree of which were s een a nd published by t he Princeton t eam, i t s eems l ikely t hat Butler's comment should refer t o t hat s ite
i nstead.
2 07
( 57) NAME
RANK/DUTY
Eunomus
REFERENCE
LOCATION
N IDH
GhäriyyahSharc jiyyah ( H)
3 01.
UNIT
DATE ?
COMMENTARY: A grave stele missing.
( 58) NAME
broken
at
the
RANK/DUTY
Iul(ius) Maximus
top
and
bottom.
The
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Wright no.131; IGR I II 1 218.
Murduk ( L)
a ge
i s
DATE
UNIT
COMMENTARY: Maximus death i s
built given
something, perhaps h is tomb. as forty, which i s i nteresting
the normal length of of veteranus. He must between
f ifteen
( 59) NAME
and
service before one earned t he status have joined t he army when he was
twenty.
RANK/DUTY
Valerius Maximus
?
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Wadd. 1 975; IGR I II 1 302.
Sahwat al-Khudur ( H) •
something
his
UNIT ? COMMENTARY: Maximus built
( 60-62) NAMES Alexander;
or
dedicated
RANK/DUTY ?
Severus; Bassus
H is age a t considering
" from
own
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Wadd.
Salkhad
IGR
1 989;
I II
1 316.
DATE ?
f unds".
DATE ?
. (H)
UNIT ?
COMMENTARY: The i nscription involving four men, unspecified city The t hree veterans i . e. overseers of
commemorates a building project one of whom i s a bouleutes of ( see are the
( ?) a n
Appendix 2 of t his chapter, no.14). further i dentified as episkopoi, project. I t i s possible t hat t he
2 08
bouleutes i s a lso t o be numbered among t he veterani, but h is Semitic name and patronymic ( Pharekus t he son o f S oleus), h is specific i dentification a s a councillor, a nd h is separation i n the l ist f rom t he others make t his u nlikely. On Pharekus ( Arabic Färiq) and Soleus ( Arabic S ulaye) s ee Wuthnow ( 1930) 1 17 and 1 11 respectively.
( 63) NAME
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
Antonius
ex-has[tatl o? UNIT . ..le]gio[n] is
LOCATION
DATE
Musee no.28: MUSJ 1 8 ( 1934) 1 82; Sourdel ( 1952) 73.
COMMENTARY: T he inscription i s c arved below t he r elief on an altar o f u ncertain provenance. Dunand unfortunately did not publish a photograph. Ex-hastato i s Mouterde's r estoration, ..legionis i s Dunand' s.
( 64) NAME
RANK/DUTY
I ] uli(u)s V ales UNIT
COMMENTARY: A g rave s tele, b roken C agnat's r estoration, " lived well".
( 65) NAME
at but
RANK/DUTY
Aur(elius) S abinus
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Fossey ( 1897) 4 6 no.25; I GR I II 1 170.
Yadi idah ( H)
t op i t
DATE
and bottom. I ulius was i s f ar f rom certain. Vales
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Wadd. 2 404; I GR I II 1 216.
Majadal ( N)
DATE
UNIT
COMMENTARY: S abinus " built t he Z abdos and Maximus, Z abdos
( Arabic
memorial f or h is f rom his own f unds,
Z abed)
s ee
Wuthnow
2 09
( 1930)
s ons Bernicianus, i n t his place". On 4 8.
( 66) NAME
RANK/DUTY
Gaius Pr[is] cius Rufus ?
? ? UNIT ?
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Mission no.16; IGR I II
Qanawät ( J-D)
AAES
2 45
DATE ?
1 233;
420.
COMMENTARY: Probably a was Cagnat' s
tomb i nscription, broken on the r ight. restoration, Priscius that of Prentice.
( 67) NAME
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
Fl(avius) Clemens
LOCATI ON
AE ( 1965) BE ( 1966) IGLS XIII
UNIT
Rufus
2 2; 4 74; 9 422.
DATE
Bostra ( H)
COMMENTARY: Probably a t omb i nscription, t he l ast portion of which missing. Clemens was a bouleutes, probably of Bostra.
( 68) NAME
RANK/DUTY
Au(relius) Fl(avius) Severus
? UNIT ?
COMMENTARY: A grave stele. in
AE
Cagnat' s
showed
clearly
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Rohrer, Mitt. Paläst. ( 1901) 1 9; AE ( 1903) 3 28; IGR I II 1 340.
Madwar al-Nül ( H)
re-publication
t hat
only
t he
of
gamma
t his of
i s
DATE ?
inscription
the
man' s
age
remained on the stone. The text he s ubsequently published in IGR s imply notes this veteran' s age at death as t hree!
( 69) NAME
RANK/DUTY
REFERENCE
Sabinus
Mittmann 2 04
LOCATION ( 1970)
no.48.
been this
a common village.
Sabinus
age at The
died
death water
aged
1 00.
This
for a number of source n eeds
carefully.
2 10
Umm al-Quttayn ( H)
UNIT
COMMENTARY: A grave s tele.
DATE
seems
t o
have
i nhabitants from t o be a nalysed
( 70) NAME
RANK/DUTY
Maximus
REFERENCE
LOCATION
N IDH 8 9; SEG VII 1 033.
Sulaym ( J-D)
DATE
UNIT
COMMENTARY: " Fl(avius)
Antoninus
and
Sabinus
and
Moschiön
and
Antoninus
Fla(v) ius?, the sons of Maximus the veteran, have built t his memorial f rom their own funds." It i s possible that Maximus can be i dentified with the veterans i n D (26) and D (29) above.
( 71) NAME
RANK/DUTY
I ulius Vale(s)
? UNIT ?
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Un. Syr. I I 3 86 no.119; Sourdel ( 1952) 2 5.
Mushannaf ( J-D)
DATE ?
COMMENTARY: A b roken dedication to Zeus Keraunius. The attestation of t his man as a veteranus appears only i n the facsimile drawing, s ince the text given by Burton and Drake omitted one line and part of another. Sourdel correctly gives provenance as Mushannaf; the editors wrongly grouped t ext with inscriptions f rom Sulaym. Not reproduced in
( 72) NAME
RANK/DUTY
Rufus Alexander?
REFERENCE
LOCATION
Un. 3 85
Sulaym ( J-D)
Syr. I I no.65.
the the IGR
DATE
UNIT
COMMENTARY: A damaged dedicatory i nscription. The second name i s t he guess of the editors; whatever name i t i s ends in t he nominative s ingular masculine. OYAITRH follows, and t hey emended OYAITR(A )(NOC), on the mispellings. See i n particular Not
reproduced
i n
IGR
I II.
2 11
analogy IGR I II
of many s imilar 1 301: OITPANOC.
APPENDIX
1
BOULEUTES BOSTRENÖN
The constitution a nd t he f unction of t he c ity a dministration of Bostra will b e dealt w ith i n detail i n a f orthcoming volume by Maurice S artre.' The p urpose o f t his appendix i s t o c larify t he meaning o f t he abbreviation BB i n t he epigraphy o f t he l ava-lands, a nd t o r ecord w here t he i ndividuals using t his i dentification a re a ttested. The only Bostran councillor unquestionably attested i n a v illage i nscription i s Aurelius Alexander, r ecorded a t Rah äi n t he Jebal D rüz. 2 The i nscription i s u ndated. Alexander i s careful t o note h is n ative n ame: " Hani ( the s on) of Abräq, bouleutes Bostrenos, built ( it)." Waddington noted only t hat t he s tone h ad b een brought t o Rah äf rom a v illage f arther u p t he mountain. Whether this man had built something i n h is native v illage i s u nknown, but t he duality o f n ames u nderscores t he duality o f his i dentity a s c ity councillor and v illage b enefactor. From Bostra i tself a d amaged G reek i nscription ( also undated) records t he construction o f s omething f or a " former councillor o f Bostra" b y h is b rother o r son. Sartre's r estoration a nd i nterpretion o f t he l ast t hree l ines i s s omewhat problematic, 3 but t here i s no q uestion regarding t he council on which t he man s erved. There a re, however, e ighteen i nstances i n w hich t he enigmatic i nitials BB appear f ollowing s omeone's name. With one exception t hese i nscriptions a re f rom t he Hawrän and Jebal D rüz. The meaning o f t he a bbreviation h as c aused some discussion, and t he i ssue has not y et b een resolved t o everyone's s atisfaction. Waddington offered no explanation f or BB except t o s ay t hat i t was not r elated t o G reek B 1 o r L atin b is." D ussaud and Macler guessed t hat i t might b e a n abbreviation f or B (ookel nat). 5 Wright and Sauter c onfessed t hey were baffled. 6 Clermont-Ganneau s uggested B (s) B (ouXcuxo %) ,
' Sartre ( 1986) Chapter I II u nder t he headings " Le s tatut de Bostra" and " Les magistrats municipaux." An outline h istory of t he c ity i s g iven i n M iller ( 1983). Wadd. 2 302. S EG V II 1 153, 1 077 may be p arallel 2
examples. Sartre ( 1982b) 3 52 no.9430. S ee a lso Wadd. 1 984a. Wadd. 2 293 a nd c ommentary. ( 1903) 2 50 n o.17. I t o ccurs i n a s ingular c ontext, and t hey were aware o f t his. ( 1895) no.151. 3
5
6
2 12
ex-decurio. 7 However, t he abbreviation occurs n ot only i n f unerary dedications but i n contexts s howing t hat t he p erson designated BB i s s till a live. The i nitials h ave n ever been a ttested f ollowing a woman's n ame. To c omplicate matters, i n a f ew i nstances t he expression -My i t p c kwv follows BB. The most l ikely explanation o f both i s s till t hat o ffered by t he e ditors o f t he P rinceton Expedition's c ollection o f i nscriptions. 8 After r eviewing a nd r ejecting t he other possible explanations, t hey proposed t o r ead B (olikeuT ' N B (o0Tp mMv)or B (oaTpnvbg) . T heir a rgument i s s trengthened by t he f act t hat BB i s appended t o t he name of s even i ndividuals attested a t Bostra i tself, and t hat with o ne exception t he abbreviation i s not f ound i n i nscriptions f rom any other c ity. I t i s t herefore a very l ocalised and p articular abbreviation, and i ts p rovenances l ed t he P rinceton e ditors t o " suppose t hat t he decurions o f t he p rovincial c apital, which was a lso a Roman c olony, e njoyed s uch prestige t hat t he t itle was r ecognised t hroughout t he p rovince, and t hat even i ts abbreviation was r eadily u nderstood i n t his r egion...." 8 By t he s ame t oken, t hey u nderstood TMv np cf twv t o mean " one of t he councillors who h eaded the album, i n other words, qui primis honoribus f uncti sunt. 1 ° T his a ssertion was b ased on t he a nalogy of t he same e xpression being used i n c ity-inscriptions f rom t he eastern p rovinces. More r ecently t his was exemplified by t he exact u sage of t hat t erm i n a Jerash i nscription. " This explanation o f BB h as f ound general a cceptance, 1 2 b ut quite r ecently s ome doubt was i mplied by Rey-Coquais. 1 8 N o s uch doubt was expressed by Sartre i n h is corpus of Bostran i nscriptions.'"
( 1906) 3 88. O n t he a ttested i n papyri, s ee Worp Commentary t o L ittmann 9 Ibid. l o Ibid. 8
i ssue of f ormer c ouncillors ( 1978). e t a l. ( 1921) 2 84.
a s
K raeling ( 1938) 3 38 no.26. I t was a ccepted by Dunand i n h is d iscussion o f i ts a ppearance i n t hree o f t he i nscriptions e dited by h im ( see t he r egister b elow ), a nd t he e ditors o f S EG ( e.g. S EG V II 1 223). Further acceptance c ame f rom Avi-Yonah ( 1940) s .v."BB". ( 1965) 8 4, c ommentary t o n o.27. H e o ffered n o 12
13
a lternative explanation. Sartre ( 1982b) 2 73 14
no.9252
2 13
a nd
passim.
Abbreviations used i n t he following r egister f ollow t hose used i n Chapter I II Part 6 . A b rief note i s a dded to i ndicate t he purpose of t he i nscription. "Tombstone" i ndicates that only the man' s name and t itle are given.
( 1) NAMES a . Aurelius Philippus b .Philippus ( son) of Phaletathus COMMENTARY: Something built Philippus.
by Aur.
( 2) NAME Aurelius ( son) of
Montanus Theodorus
T ITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
BB
K afr ( J-D)
Wadd.
DATE
2 293.
3 21
BB
Philippus,
h is
t hree
brothers,
T ITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
BB
K afr ( J-D)
PAES
6 69.
and
DATE 3 50
COMMENTARY: Montanus described h imself as an ex-praepositus; he b uilt a memorial at his own expense. The abbreviated expression &Kb IMTWV follows BB. As t he editors of PAES suggested, t his i s undoubtedly t o be expanded a s C ie / t (pat .)/ z(oot)T n, = ex-praeposito. This would t hen be y et another example of a veteran who entered politics and r emained active i n the affairs of h is v illage.
( 3) NAME Aurelius Miale(ch) us ( son) of Bourdus
T ITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
BB
K afr ( J-D)
Wright 1 51.
DATE 3 50
COMMENTARY: A memorial was built " by provision of" t his man' s w ife and children. Wright and Souter's reading o f this name as M iale(lo )s i s suspect. T he l etter i n q uestion they r ead as A , but t he d rawing of t his i nscription i ndicated t hat X could also be read. Mialelus i s nowhere attested i n t his region, but Mialechus h as affinities w ith Molaichus ( PAES 6 00) and Meilichus ( PAES 7 85'). All a re forms of A rabic Mälik.
2 14
( 4) NAME Nairaius Natarus
( son)
of
T ITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
BB
Bur g
Wadd. 2 537b.
mid4th cent?
Kapounus
( L)
COMMENTARY: A memorial
built
by
Nairaius
and
another
man.
This
text
appears to be dated by a local era. I f the i dentification of Bur g with t he Constantia of the conciliar l ists i s correct, then i t was a city at this t ime.
( 5) NAME Maiör ( son) Bassus
of
TITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
BB
Umm alJimäl ( H)
PAES
TITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
BB
Umm alJimäl ( H)
PAES
T ITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
al-Ghariya ( H)
N IDH 2 36; SEG VII 1 223.
T ITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
BB
Umm alJimäl ( H)
PAES
DATE
3 43.
COMMENTARY: A tombstone.
( 6) NAME Bassus Maiör
( son)
of
DATE
3 44.
COMMENTARY: A tombstone.
( 7) NAME Theodorus Rufus
( son)
o f
BB
DATE
COMMENTARY: A tombstone.
( 8) NAME Ausus ( son) I alodus
of
COMMENTARY: Ausus i s said
to
The
constructed
memorial
was
have
served by
2 15
in his
a war,
and
brother.
DATE
2 84.
died
age
3 5.
( 9) NAME Neikias ( son) Neikeratus
of
T ITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
BB
Bostra
PAES
DATE
5 94;
IGLS XIII 9 349.
COMMENTARY: A tombstone.
( 10) NAME Molaichus Molaichus
( son)
of
TITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
BB
Bostra
PAES IGLS
DATE
5 99; X III
9 346. COMMENTARY: A tombstone.
He
i s
probably
( 11) NAME Hieronymus ( son) of Molaichus
the
brother
of
no.11
T ITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
B[B]
Bostra
PAES IGLS
below.
DATE
6 00; XIII
9 334. COMMENTARY: A tombstone. Both
He
i s
grave-markers
probably were
( 12) NAME Obebus
COMMENTARY: A memorial Obebus and of s ilver,
built
found
brother
just
of
outside
( son)
of
no. 10
T ITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
BB
Qaisama ( H)
Mission, 2 46, no. 46.
provision
and
under
above.
Bostra.
the
another man, the structure " costing 5 00 denarii of oil, and 9 00 denarii
( 13) NAME Aineias Manus
" by
the
DATE
direction
T ITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
BB
Bostra
Rey-Coquais ( 1965) 8 4 no. 2 7; IGLS X III 9 269.
COMMENTARY: A tombstone.
2 16
of"
8 71 denarii of wine."
DATE
( 14) NAME [ Sou] rianus of Arius
( son)
TITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
DATE
BB
Bostra
NIDH 3 18; IGLS XIII
?
9 252. COMMENTARY: A tombstone.
( 15) NAME Soaidus Maximus
( son)
of
T ITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
BB
Smaj ( H)
NIDH
T ITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
BB
Bostra
DATE
3 32.
COMMENTARY: A t ombstone.
( 16) NAME Alexander ( son) of Eunomus
IGLS
DATE
X III
9 271.
COMMENTARY: A tombstone.
( 17) NAME Hadrian?
COMMENTARY: A badly damaged
T ITLE
LOCATION
REFERENCE
BB
Bostra
IGLS X III 9 371.
t ombstone.
2 17
DATE
APPENDIX
2
BOULEUTAI OF UNIDENTIFIED C ITIES ATTESTED IN VILLAGE INSCRIPTIONS
Mention was made i n Chapter IV, P art 2 of inscriptions f rom t he v illages of t he l ava-lands i n which t he t erm bouleutes appears with no qualifying c ity-name. W hile I cannot accept t hat t hese a re r eferences to v illage councillors, neither can I believe t hat a ll were members o f t he boule at Bostra. T here i s i n f act good r eason t o suppose that t hey were councillors o f c ities other t han Bostra, s ince Appendix 1 demonstrated t hat bouleutai o f t he p rovincial capital i dentified t hemselves a s such w ith a distinguishing abbreviation. S ince magistrates o f c ity governments were s econd only t o veterani i n t heir social and economic impact on t he v illages, I have set out below i n r egister form the attestations of t hese i ndividuals. Abbreviations Chapter I II, Part
i n 6 .
the register a re t hose u sed All i ndividuals a re i dentified
i n a s
bouleutes i n full or abbreviated f orm with t he o ne exception noted. A brief commentary i ndicates the t ype o f i nscription and details of t he t ext i f k nown. "Tombstone" i ndicates t hat only the man's name and t itle a re given.
( 1) NAME Pamphilus of
( son)
Herenius
VILLAGE
REFERENCE
Tell
I GR I II Sourdel 4 2.
al-Ashari
( H)
COMMENTARY: An altar i nscription with an i nvocation of The altar was built " for the Lady Artemis" " from ' his own f unds according to a v ow." Artemis/Atargatis
( 2) NAME I nus I nus
( son)
of
i n
t he
Hawrän
s ee
1 163; ( 1952)
Sourdel's
comments.
REFERENCE
Abu-Zurayq ( H)
N IDH 1 51; SEG V II 1 137.
2 18
1 381 61
Antoninus Pius. by Pamphilius, On the c ult o f
VILLAGE
COMMENTARY: A memorial b uilt.
DATE
DATE 2 53/ 2 54
( 3)NAME G adouos S aourus
( son)
of
VILLAGE
REFERENCE
DATE
Umm al-Zaytün ( J-D)
C IG 4 591; PAES 7 65 "; I GR I II 1 187.
2 82
COMMENTARY: T he koinon of t he village and of an unnamed god ( Kronos?) b uilt a kalybe " by provision of" G adouos and two ouetranikoi; all t hree had been appointed as pronoetai f or t he project. O n t he shrines designated a s kalybe i n this a rea, see Butler ( 1919) 3 61-362. The t erm ouetranikos i s d iscussed by me i n Chapter IV, Part 4 ( C) above and t he t erm pronoetes i n t he s ame chapter, Part 3 ( D).
( 4)NAME Aurelius V (e) rus ( son) of Avidus
VILLAGE
REFERENCE
Khäbab ( L)
Wadd.
2 514.
COMMENTARY: T his councillor b uilt a Tycheion " from h is own t he consulship o f Diocletian ( 8) and Maximianus
( 5) NAME A usus ( son ) Monemus
of
DATE 3 03
f unds" ( 7).
V ILLAGE
REFERENCE
Hoyyet ( H) Hibikke
Mission no.63.
2 61
i n
DATE 3 22
COMMENTARY: T he term used i s bouleutikos. The original editors of t he i nscription did not discuss t his term. I t was t aken to mean " descendant of a bouleutes" by Jones ( 1971) 4 66 note 8 2, by analogy w ith ouetranikos designating a descendant of a veteranus. This i s demonstrably i ncorrect. Sartre ( IGLS X III 9 028) has p ublished another attestation of zouleutikos i n an i nscription f rom Bostra, and has t aken t his t o mean honoratus decurionalibus ornamentis. He has k indly brought t o my attention a parallel i nstance of t his t erm i n I GLS V I 2 935 ( Bacalbek/Heliopolis), where a bouleutikos of t he c olonia i s attested. See also Mason ( 1974) 3 1 s .v. for o ther examples o f i ts usage. Something was built.
( 6)NAME L ichnus
( ?)
COMMENTARY: S ee the d iscussion P art
3 ,
( C)4
and
of
V ILLAGE
REFERENCE
I mtän ( H)
Wadd.
t his
i nscription
( I/J)4.
2 19
i n
2 034.
Chapter
DATE 3 43/ 3 44
IV above,
( 7) NAME Authus
VILLAGE
REFERENCE
al-Kusayb ( J-D)
Wadd.
DATE
2 204.
COMMENTARY: A memorial sons.
was
built
( 8) NAME Monimus
Flavius
"by
provision
of"
Authus
and
VILLAGE
REFERENCE
Karak ( N)
Wadd.
h is
t hree
DATE
2 412e.
COMMENTARY: Something
was
done
or
built
episkopountos
this
councillor.
( 9) NAME
VILLAGE
REFERENCE
Del metrius
Masmayah ( L)
Wadd.
DATE
2 535.
COMMENTARY: Probably survives.
a
building
( 10) NAME Theomnestus ( son) of Ailamus ( a. k. a Thaemus)
inscription
of which
only
VILLAGE
REFERENCE
Khulkhula ( L)
Wadd.
a f ragment
2 537e.
DATE ?
COMMENTARY: Theomnestus and his brother ( an Heröon. Cf. Chapter IV, Part 4 ,
( 11) NAME Banius Gaddus
( son)
optio legionis) bailt section B (4), above.
VILLAGE of
Umm ( H)
REFERENCE
al-Qu
ayn
a
DATE
Wadd. 2 053c; PAES 2 09.
COMMENTARY: Banius and his wife built a triclinium. The inscription was found in situ. Butler ( 1919) 1 41-142 designated the building " the House of the Councillor." The upper p arts of this building ( see his I llus. 1 24), i ncluding the inscription, have disappeared. For a discussion o f the term triclinium in Syrian architecture 1 21 and the commentary of PAES 1 69.
2 20
see
Butler
( 1919)
( 12)NAME Adbelus ( son) of Soemus
VILLAGE
REFERENCE
Taiyiba ( H)
PAES
VILLAGE
REFERENCE
Majadal ( L)
PAES
DATE
624.
COMMENTARY: A t ombstone.
( 13)NAME Cassianus
COMMENTARY: A memorial
( ?)
built
for
Cassianus
There is a reference in the text as p art of the ornamentation.
( 14)NAME Pharekus ( son) of Soleus COMMENTARY: See the discussion 6 ,
register
of
Marrinus
Arabianus
by
his
7 87'.
wife
sculpture
REFERENCE
Salkhgd Z H)
Wadd.
of
this
i nscription
i n
?
and
and
VILLAGE
veterani,
( 15) NAME
to
DATE
s ister. painting
DATE
1 989
Chapter
?
IV,
Part
nos.60-62.
VILLAGE
REFERENCE
DATE
Hit . ( J-D)
SEG VII
VILLAGE
REFERENCE
al-Mazerib ( L)
Fossey ( 1897) no. 2 5; IGR I II 1 167.
9 94.
COMMENTARY: A t ombstone.
( 16) NAME Saturninus o f Eunomus
( son)
COMMENTARY: A t ombstone. i n
t he
legio
Saturninus ( III)
had
served
Cyrenaica.
2 21
at
one
t ime
DATE
as
a miles
( 17) NAME Theotimus ( son) of Usnus
VILLAGE
REFERENCE
Hout . ( H) .
N IDH
DATE
2 92.
COMMENTARY: A t ombstone. something.
Theotimus
( 18)NAME Maior ( son) Alexander
of
i s
c redited
w ith making
or
b uilding
VILLAGE
REFERENCE
c Atil ( J-D)
N IDH 7 7; SEG VII 1 104.
DATE
COMMENTARY: Something built " from t he generosity" of Maior. It i s possible t hat he i s related to t he Alexander noted i n no.19 below. On t he possibility t hat Maior might b e a c ouncillor of Adraa s ee Clermont-Ganneau ( 1901) 1 18-119.
( 19) NAME Alexander ( son) o f Maximus
VILLAGE
REFERENCE
cAtil
N IDH 7 8; SEG VII 1 105.
DATE
COMMENTARY: An ergastgrion was constructed " from t he generosity" of Alexander, who may have been related t o t he councillor i n no.18 above. We may assume t hat t his was a g enuine " sweatshop" and not a bordello, See t he commentary t o NIDH 7 8 f or a f ull d iscussion of t his t ext.
2 22
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND PROSPECTS
FOR FURTHER STUDY
Below I offer s ome b rief r eflections on t he s ocial a nd e conomic l ife o f v illages i n t he l ava-lands during t he p eriod b etween l ate Roman a nd e arly I slamic r ule. F ollowing t hat a re notes on v arious t opics r elating t o t he a ffairs o f Roman Arabia i n t he l arger s ense which w ill b e, o r should b e, g iven particular attention i n t he f uture. T he t opics s elected a re r epresentational o nly a nd h ardly e xhaust t he p otential f or f urther s tudy i n many r elated f ields.
1 .
Political Allegiance
i n
t he Lava-Lands
From t he f ifth c entury u ntil t he I slamic c onquest t here a re f ew r eferences t o v illage a ffairs i n t he G reek e pigraphy, a lthough one-third of t he dated t ribal o r c lan i nscriptions f all within t he s ame period. There i s t o date n o certain e vidence t hat s outhern Syria experienced a g eneral d ecline i n s ocial o r e conomic s tandards,' a nd t herefore one must l ook t o other f actors t o e xplain t he a bsence o f c ivic dedications. I f t he v illages were n ot a bandoned b ecause o f plague o r f amine, nor overrun by o utsiders, n or t axed out o f e xistence b y t he i mperial a uthorities, how t hen account f or t he f act t hat even t he quantity of i nscriptions decreases? The building i nscriptions g ive u s a c lue, s ince s everal note t he e rection of a s tructure which i s n ew t o t he s kyline of many c ommunities - t he watch-tower. 2 This was e specially t rue o f villages which f aced t he desert f rontier t o t he e ast. T his defensive a spect o f t he i nscriptions i s p aralleled b y t he emphasis on s trengthening t he m ilitary f rontier i n t he N ear East, e specially during t he l ong r eign of Justinian. T his s how o f s trength may have s aved t he c ities a nd v illages o f t he l ess e xposed r egions - t hose c loser t o t he M editerranean - f rom i ntrusion by nomadic groups, but t he
The l iterary a nd a rchaeological e vidence f or s outhern S yria i s very s carce i ndeed. One may note t he comments by J ones ( [19641 I I 8 20 and n ote 1 14) r egarding t he c ontrast b etween agri deserti i n A frica a nd Syria; t hese a re b ased p rimarily o n t he s ituation obtaining i n north Syria ( ibid. 8 23). Twenty years l ater we k now l ittle more a bout c onditions i n t he Hawrän, a lthough a r ecent e ssay by S artre ( 1986) s uggests t hat v illages a nd c ities o f t hat a rea e njoyed g reat p rosperity, n ot l east b ecause o f t rade w ith t he Hijä z . 2.
W add.
E .G. 2 145,
P AES
1 77
( =Wadd.
2 053);
2 474.
2 23
PAES
2 24,
6 36,
6 89,
6 96;
f rontier c ommunities were much more exposed a nd were, consequently, much e arlier t o a cknowledge t he de f acto i f not de jure r ule o f l arge t ribal c onfederations such a s t he Lakhmids a nd G hassänids. One example of h ow t he b alance o f political a nd military power s hifted i s t he f ortress/palace c omplex f acing t he e astern desert i n t he S afä r egion northeast o f t he Jebal a l-cArab. Dussaud a nd MaCler, who v isited t he s ite i n 1 900, r eferred t o i t a s " la p lus v aste construction romaine de l a r egion."' I t was n ot u ntil t he c areful s urvey o f t he s ite conducted by P rof. Heinz G aube i n t he e arly 1 970's t hat Q asr al-Abyad ( Khirbit a l-Bayda) was correctly i dentified a s .a 5 th o r. 6 th c entury G hAssänid palace s tructure," a nd t hus i ndicative o f t he r elative s trength o f t hat confederation i n a reas quite c lose t o t he easternmost Byzantine s ettlements i n Syria. Hence i t i s a rguable t hat t here was no " decline" i n t he u rbanisation of l ava-land communities, t here was i nstead a s hifting o f allegiance. This s hadowy but i mportant t ransitional p eriod has happily r eceived s ome r ecent a nd c ompetent s cholarly attention. S ince t he Byzantine e ra a s s uch properly l ies outside t he s cope of t his book, I s hall do n o more t han d raw t he r eader's a ttention t o t wo i mportant s tudies. The f irst i s Maurice S artre's e ssay entitled "Les Nomades e t l ' Empire e n Arabie" 5 w hich s urveys t he h istorical development of Roman contact with nomadic Arab g roups f rom t he s econd c entury A .D. t hrough t he I slamic conquest. The s econd i s F . M. Donner's The Early I slamic Conquests, t he e arly c hapters o f w hich t angentially d iscuss central Arabian r elations with t he Arab c lient-federations of t he R oman Near East i n t he l ate p re-Islamic p eriod. 5 The two s tudies f ortuitously overlap i n t heir d iscussion of a ffairs i n t he s ixth a nd e arly s eventh c enturies, a nd t hey a re mutually complementary i n t heir emphasis o n s ource material: S artre u tilises epigraphy a nd t he c lassical sources, Donner r elies a lmost e xclusively on A rab and I slamic material. What
emerges
f rom both
i s
a c lear
i ndication
t hat
t he
most important o f t he Byzantine c lient-confederacies, t he Ghassänids, was a lso t he most l oyal. While t he t erritory under nominal c ontrol o f t he G hassänids extended f rom Damascus t o t he H ijäz, i ts c ore was t he Hawrän and n earby r egions, e specially t he G olan i n t he west and t he Jebal a l-cArab t o t he e ast. For n early a c entury and a half before t he I slamic conquest t hey dominated t he affairs of
3 4 5 6
Dussaud a nd M acler ( 1901) 4 3-44. G aube ( 1974) 1 29-136. S artre ( 1982a) 1 21-203. Donner ( 1981) 3 -37; 9 1-148.
2 24
s outhern Syria, s erving a s " tribal police"' f or t he Byzantine authorities. And i t i s precisely during t hat p eriod ( c. 5 00-640) t hat t he c ivic a ffairs o f t he v illages a re almost completely unknown. I t could b e a rgued t hat t he machinery of s elf-government w ithin t he i ndividual c ommunities had b ecome obsolete. This would mean t hat s uch s tandard c ivic i nstitutions a s a ssemblies, boards o f magistrates, communal f und collection f or t he s ubsidisation o f b uilding p rojects a nd t he l ike s imply outlived t heir u sefulness. But i f s uch i nstitutions had b een g rafted a rtificially o nto t he s ocial s tructure o f t he v illages i n t he initial s tages o f Roman r ule, t hey would h ardly have f lourished i n t he way t he epigraphic e vidence c onsistantly t estifies. The f irst i ndication o f c hange i s t he f ifth c entury. T he number of d ated i nscriptions a ttesting c ivic activities d eclines s harply c ompared w ith t he previous c entury. T his c an be s een most conveniently by r eference t o t he r egister of v illage officials a nd t heir d ateable a ctivities s et out i n Chapter I V, Part 3 . T his decline i s even more p ronounced i n t he s ixth c entury a nd t here a re n o d ated i nscriptions f rom t he s eventh c entury which attest v illage magistrates f unctioning i n s ome r ecognisable c apacity. T he r eason f or t his l ies not i n t he r ealm of p olitical i nstability o r e conomic decline. I t i s t he g rowth and i nfluence o f t he Christian c hurch within t hose s ame c ommunities. Apart f rom t he watch-towers noted above, c hurches a nd c hapels a re t he most f requently attested s tructures i n v illage b uilding i nscriptions. T here i s n o n eed t o d etail a ny of t his a ctivity h ere. Butler's Early C hurches i n Syria ( 1929) documents t he g rowth a nd development o f c hurch a rchitecture i n t he a reas of t he Near East t hat h e knew b est. A l arge p ortion o f t his work, e ffectively c ompleted b efore h is premature death a t f ifty, concerns t he c hurches of t he l ava-lands. I t i s evident t hat t he koinon o f a n e arlier a ge h ad n ow become t he ekkiesia, a nd t hat t he t itles and r esponsibilities of t he old magistracies were s ubsumed by c hurch o fficials. Pistos, epimeletes a nd episkopos now h ave d istinctly Christian overtones. All o f t his c an b e documented b efore t he G hassänid e ra i n t he Hawrän. B ut t he " golden a ge" o f t he Church i n t he l ava-lands i s c ontemporary w ith t he passing o f p olitical power f rom t he p rovincial a dministration of Byzantine A rabia t o t he C hristian Arab p hylarchs of Jäbiya a nd Q asr a l-Abyad. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he t wo c ommunities o f t he l ava-lands which manifest t he dominance o f t he Church i n t he n umber a nd v ariety o f e cclesiastical c onstructions a re Umm a l-Jimäl a nd i ts e astern n eighbour Umm al-Quttayn. These a re t he t wo l argest c ommunities o f
7
Ibid.
4 2.
2 25
t he Jordanian H awrän a nd t he t wo which steadfastly maintained t heii. Arab i dentity f rom t he Nabataean p eriod t hrough t he e nd o f t he Umayyad dynasty. I f t hey s erve a s a ny e xample, i t i s t o r emind u s o f t he s elf-sufficiency a nd v igour o f t hese communities, a nd t o r emind u s a lso t hat t he s tudy o f t heir i ndividual and collective h istory i s j ust b eginning.
2 .
New Governors of Roman Arabia
The most c omplete r egister o f Arabian governors ( Roman and Byzantine) s ince B rünnow a nd v on Domaszewski 9 was published by Maurice S artre i n h is Trois Etudes s ur l ' Arabie Romaine e t Byzantine ( 1982a, C hapter I I). T his l isting i ncluded f orty-nine s enatorial legati, t hirteen equestrian praesides a nd one governor ( Aelius F lavianus, S artre's no.63) whose r ank and date a re s till unknown. T he r egister o f governors f or Byzantine Arabia l ists t wenty-three a s c ertain a nd another n ine a s possible o r probable. Anonymi were i ncluded t hroughout t he r egister. The t otal t hen s tood a s s ixty-three f or Roman Arabia a nd t hirty-two f or Byzantine Arabia. I n b oth c ases the f igure i s n early double t he known t otal when t he f inal volume o f D ie P rovincia Arabia was published i n 1 909. S artre's l ist i ncluded t he names o f two governors s ince r e-identified. T iberius C laudius Alpinus ( Sartre's no.2) i s now known t o b e C . Claudius Severus ( no.1). Am(m )ius F [laccus] ( no.45) was s hown t o b e C . A llius Fuscianus ( no.9). T his i nformation a nd more was conveniently s et out by G . W. Bowersock i n Appendix I I o f Roman A rabia ( 1983). S ince t hen t he n ames o f t hree n ew governors, a nd praenomen of a known governor, h ave c ome t o l ight epigraphic d iscoveries i n t he north a nd s outh o f p rovince: 9
t he i n t he
81) Q . Flavius Iulius Fronto ( A.D. 1 Quintus i s p reviously S artre n o.14. T he praenomen a m ilestone f ound a t t he u nättested. I t a ppears o n t he v ia nova s outh of t wenty-second m ilestation o n Bostra.
a .
( 1904-1909) I II 2 87-299. T he i nformation r egarding ( a), ( b) a nd ( c) w as generously g iven by Thomas Bauzou. Full publication w ill b e i n t he c hapter " La v oie r omaine d e T rajan de Bostra a Philadelphie" i n t he r eport o f t he K hirbet a l-Samra excavations e dited b y J .B. Humbert a nd A . Desremaux, f orthcoming. The i nformation r egarding ( d) I owe t o t he k indness o f Benjamin I saac. I nitial p ublication will b e by I . R oll i n t he f orthcoming v olume o f E retz I srael dedicated t o M ichael Avi-Yonah. 8
9
2 26
b . Trebonius Fortunatus ( A.D. 2 22) P reviously u nknown. He i s a ttested a s on milestones at t he f ifteenth a nd milestations o n t he via nova.
l eg. Aug. p .p. t wenty-sixth
c .
. ... Felix ( A.D. 2 46?) This was a t f irst t hought t o b e t he known governor Caecilius F elix attested i n t he reign o f Severus Alexander ( Sartre no.30). But t he i mperial s uperscript begins with a n e rased name, t races o f which a re l ikely to b e a r eference t o M . I ulius Philippus ( Arabs). Felix i s l eg. Aug. p .p.
d .
Priscus ( A.D. 1 95-305) The a ttestation i s on a T etrarchic b uilding s tone i n the s outheastern Negev. P riscus i s praeses but t he name o f t he p rovince has been c hise: Led out. This suggests t hat t he partition o f A rabia a nd t he subsequent r enaming o f t he s outhern portion was t he cause o f t he e rasure. But t he d ate o f t he i nscription cannot be a dduced a s evidence f or t he division o f t he province b efore 3 14, s ince t he e rasure could h ave b een done a t a ny t ime after i t w as c arved. "
3 .
The Babatha Archive
Nearly a q uarter o f a c entury h as e lapsed s ince t he d iscovery o f t he h orde o f t hirty-five documents n ow k nown c ollectively a s t he " Babatha A rchive" i n d eference t o t he r emarkable l ady who owned, guarded and h id t hem away i n a c ave just west o f t he Dead S ea. T hese documents r ange i n d ate f rom t he l ast years o f Domitian's r eign u ntil t he o utbreak o f t he Bar K okhba R evolt. T hey c oncern t he p roperty a nd other l egal affairs o f a t wice-widowed Jewess. T he earliest r eports o f t his a rchive h inted a t i ts i mportance, n ot only f or l egal a ffairs o f t he p eriod but f or the b ackground t o t he t ransition f rom N abataean t o R oman r ule i n t he r egion of Edom where Babatha l ived a nd f rom where s he u ltimately f led a t t he outbreak o f w ar. " Within t he f irst decade o f d iscovery t hree o f t he d ocuments were published i n f ull, t wice w ith e xtensive c ommentary. The n ext decade s aw a dditional s tudies o f t he s ame three documents, b ut t he other t hirty-two p apyri of
1° T he A rabia a re
date a nd other conveniently
i ssues r egarding t he p artition o f s ummarised i n Bowersock ( 1983)
1 42-146. 1 Bowersock ( 1983) 7 7-89 h as managed t o weave t ogether a n arrative a ccount o f Babatha a nd h er f amily f rom t he a vailable published documents a nd t he s nippets of i nformation f rom t he i nitial r eports i n Y adin ( 1962), P olotsky ( 1962) a nd Yadin ( 1963).
2 27
t he a rchive r emained i n t he c are o f P rof. Y igael Y adin. " Repeated promises of f ull publication were periodically a nnounced u ntil t he death o f Yadin i n t he s ummer o f 1 984. The executors o f h is e state s ubsequently decided t hat t he entire a rchive would be e ntrusted t o t wo s cholars o f i nternational r eputation who would s ee t o i ts speedy publication. Photographs of t he s eventeen e ntirely Greek p apyri ( and n ine G reek with N abataean or Aramaic s ignatures ) have been e ntrusted t o N aphtali Lewis i n Connecticutt, U .S.A. The s ix Nabataean and t hree Aramaic d ocuments are i n t he c are o f Jonas G reenfield a t t he Hebrew University, Jerusalem, i n collaboration with Joseph Naveh. The t ranslation a nd c ommentary o f t he G reek documents i s now n early complete, and work on t he r emainder h as p roceeded t hroughout 1 985. I am e specially g rateful t o Profs. Lewis and G reenfield f or t heir k indness i n k eeping me i nformed of t heir work i n p rogress. L inguistic d ifficulties s pecific t o t he Nabataean documents were outlined v ividly b y P rof. G reenfield i n a public l ecture and p rivate c onversation a t t he Department o f O riental S tudies, Cambridge University. G . W. Bowersock i s p resently p reparing a h istorical i ntroduction f or t he editio princeps of t he B abatha a rchive, t he publication o f which i s now s cheduled f or 1 987.
4 .
Linguistics
Jean Cantineau's t wo-volume s tudy o f t he N abataean l anguage h as s erved a s t he s tandard r eference w ork f or s lightly more t han h alf a c entury. L e Nabateen ( 1930-32) may r etain i ts p ride o f place f or a nother f ifty y ears. I n s pite o f a nnouncements t hat a f orthcoming fascicle of Corpus I nscriptionum Semiticarum I I ( nominally i n preparation by Starcky and Milik) will s upersede C antineau, t he p roject i s a t present defunct a nd t here a re no p lans t o r esuscitate i t. This i s particularly i ronic i n r egard t o t he N abataean documents f rom t he Babatha a rchive. Lancaster Harding's I ndex a nd Concordance o f P re-Islamic N ames a nd I nscriptions ( 1978) i s l ikely t o b e consulted well i nto t he n ext century, t hough i t met with very mixed r eviews. Jorgen Stark's Personal N ames i n Palmyrene I nscriptions ( 1971) h as a lready d emonstrated i ts u sefulness t o s cholars who normally o perate i n a reas b eyond i ts apparent l inguistic horizons. H arding a nd S tark now r epresent e ssential s upplements t o H einz Wuthnow's l ong-outdated D ie S emitischen Menschennamen ( 1930), a f lawed but u seful work which curiously h as attracted no r evisor. "
The
h istory o f
i n Bowersock
( 1983)
p ublication 7 6
note
5 5;
2 28
i s 7 7
c onveniently n ote
1 .
o utlined
5 .
Archaeology and History
i n Roman Arabia
Regional a rchaeological s urveys and excavations o f s elected s ites i n Roman Arabia have e normously e nhanced our knowledge o f t hat p rovince. T hose t hat concern t he H awrän region were d iscussed above i n C hapter I , Part 2 : For r emaining a reas o f t he province t hat l ie i n t he modern countries of Jordan, S audi Arabia and I srael t he i nterested r eader may consult t he r elevant volumes o f ADAJ, Atlal a nd I EJ. Within t he p ast decade a lone dozens o f preliminary reports and t opical s tudies h ave a ppeared i n t hose j ournals, i n various Festchriften, a nd t he P roceedings o f conferences and colloquia. There w ill be no a ttempt here t o t ake a ccount o f s uch a l arge and t imely c ontribution, " much o f which has been s kilfully u tilised by G . W. Bowersock i n h is r ecent n arrative h istory ( Roman A rabia, 1 983). S ince t hen t he p romised s econd volume of Studies i n t he H istory a nd A rchaeology o f Jordan h as appeared i n p rint, t hough i t i s u navailable t o me a t t he t ime o f w riting. David Kennedy a nd S helagh G regory h ave e dited t he c omplete typescript of S ir Aurel S tein's L imes Report. I t h as j ust been published ( 1985) with a companion v olume of commentary. We a re p romised s oon t wo s tudies of d isparate parts of Arabia. S .T. P arker's Romans a nd S aracens: A H istory o f t he Arabian F rontier s hould c onsolidate t hat author's s urvey and excavation work f ocused o n t he l egionary c amp at Lejjün i n c entral Jordan. S teven S idebotham's Roman Economic Policy i n t he E rythra T halasssa w ill discuss i n d etail c ommerce a nd t rade r elations b etween I ndia and t he Roman East. I rfan Shahid's l ong-awaited s tudy of Byzantium a nd t he Arabs i n t he Fourth C entury appeared s imultaneously w ith an i ntroductory volume entitled Rome a nd t he A rabs i n 1 984. F orthcoming volumes will deal with t he f ifth and s ixth c enturies. The s eries s hould g ive a f ull l iterary h istory o f t he Byzantine East which i ncorporates b oth t he c lassical and Semitic s ources. Avraham Negev h as f or t he f irst t ime b rought t ogether i n one volume T he G reek I nscriptions o f t he Negev ( 1991), a nd f ollowed t his with a r ather emotional a ccount o f f orty years of a rchaeological r esearch a t N abataean s ites i n s outhern I srael i n Tempel, K irchen u nd Z isternen: Ausgrabungen i n d er Wüste Negev ( 1983). The impact o f Christianity i n provincia Arabia has now been t reated a s a s eparate s tudy by J . Spencer T rimingham i n C hristianity Among t he A rabs i n P re-Islamic T imes ( 1979), e specially C hapters 3 and 5 . T here i s a n eed n ow f or a revised e dition o f Dominique S ourdel's Les Cultes d u H auran A r epoque Romaine ( 1952), e xpanded t o i nclude t he e ntire province i n t he pre-Christian p eriod. " A " retrospective" of t he past d ecade of r esearch o n t he Limes Arabicus i s t o b e o i ffered by S .T. P arker a t t he c olloquium on " The Defence o f t he Roman a nd Byzantine East" a t t he University o f S heffield i n April, 1 986.
2 29
PART
CATALOGUES
OF
OF
II
PHOTOGRAPH
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXPEDITIONS
ON AND
FILE
AT
PRINCETON
( INCLUDING
The
PRINCETON
TO
A CATALOGUE
prepared Carol
and
for L .
THE
SEMINARY
OF
the
CASTS)
Catalogues
publication MacAdam
2 31
NEAR EAST
UNI VERSTIY
THEOLOGICAL
Introduction
were
COLLECTIONS
by
Prefatory Note
The f ollowing
photograph catalogues which a re r eproduced s ections a re done so with p ermission:
i n
the
1 .
Catalogue o f t he American Palestine - permission g ranted by t he James P rinceton Theological Seminary.
2 .
T he c atalogues p roduced f ollowing t he Brünnow a nd von Domaszewski Expeditions, t he American Archaeological Expedition t o Syria ( photographs and c asts), a nd the P rinceton University Archaeological Expeditions to Syria - a ll t hrough permission g ranted by t he C urator o f Research Photographs, Department of Art and Archaeology, P rinceton University.
Photographs reproduced a re i ndividually c redited i n c redit i s g iven here:
Exploration S ociety Lennox Librarian,
t o i llustrate t he abbreviated form.
catalogues The f ull
1 .
P lates 4 -6: American Palestine Exploration S ociety. Dumbarton Oaks copy negative o f photographic p rints owned by P rinceton Theological Seminary, Speer L ibrary.
2 .
P lates 7 -16: The B rünnow a nd von Domaszewski Photograph Collection, The American Archaeological Expedition t o Syria Photograph Collection a nd the P rinceton University Archaeological Expeditions to Syria. Permission granted by t he Curator of Research Photographs, Department o f Art and Archaeology, McCormack Hall, Princeton University.
2 32
CATALOGUES OF PHOTOGRAPH COLLECTIONS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXPEDITIONS TO THE NEAR EAST ON F ILE I N PRINCETON UNIVERSITY AND PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY ( including
1 .
General
a catalogue of
casts)
Introduction
The a ccidental d iscovery of 2 8,000 photographic p rints i n t he attic o f t he Harvard Semitic Museum i n 1 970 was i n l arge part responsible f or t he r ecent and r enewed i nterest i n e arly photography o f t he Near East. The r esurrection o f t he Harvard h oard was r eported w ith c haracteristic e xuberance by C arney Gavin, Curator o f t he H SM, who d escribed i t a s . ... t he world's l argest c oherent c ollection of t he early photo-documentation o f t he Levant H i • Such a s tatement c ompletely overlooked t he f act t hat other photographic a rchives s uch a s t hat i n t he Middle E ast Centre, St. Antony's College, Oxford, a re substantial a nd valuable. 2 Photograph exhibitions, publications ( articles and books) and printed catalogues o f v arious c ollections h ave p roliferated. 3 A r ecent b ibliography d evoted t o early photography o f t he Middle East r uns t o n early n ine p rinted p ages l isting about 2 00 i tems." While p hotographs
t here i s represent
now a g reater awareness t hat t hese a precious w itness t o t he p hysical
r emains t hemselves, t heir f ull potential i s e ither u nrecognised, 5 u nderestimated, o r distorted. Examples of t he l atter are o nly now becoming clear. Paul Chevedden h as o ffered a n acute d iagnosis of what he t erms " photomania" t he exclusive emphasis on t he aesthetic value of a p hotograph. 5 I ngeborg O ' Reilly h as demonstrated c learly t hat entitling a n a rticle " Near Eastern Archaeology i n H istoric Photographs" c an a ctually mean presenting a s uperficial discussion of early photographs pertaining t o e xcavations
1
G avin G rant
i n
t he
( 1978) ( 1984)
" Holy
Land".
4 42. 5 8.
G illian
7
G rant
i s
now
a complete catalogue of t his collection, which " about 1 00,000 s eparate i mages i n t otal". Many r ecent t han t he HSM collection. See Part 6 c hapter. Chevedden ( 1984) 4 Ibid. 1 66-174. 5 Ibid. 1 52-153. 6 Ibid. 1 57. O ' Reilly ( 1983).
1 54
and
2 33
passim.
preparing n umbers a re more o f t his
I n S eptember, 1 981, a nd a gain i n July and A ugust, 1 982, I was able t o undertake p reliminary s earches i n the a rchives o f P rinceton University a nd t he n earby P rinceton Theological Seminary f or material remains o f f ive a rchaeological s urveys c onducted i n p arts of what a re now Syria, Lebanon, I srael a nd Jordan between 1 875 and 1 909. Of p articular i nterest were t he p hotograph c ollections of e ach. I knew i n a dvance t hat P rinceton University h ad i n i ts Research Photographic Collections t he bulk o f t he photos t aken during t hree a rchaeological surveys d irected by members o f t hat u niversity. What c ame a s a surprise was t he d iscovery t hat t he entire c ollection o f photos ( and n egatives) p roduced by t he Brünnow - v on Domaszewski s urvey had b een placed i n t he P rinceton f iles. Equally s urprising was t he d iscovery o f t he c omplete p hotograph c ollection ( no n egatives), produced by t he l ittle-known American Palestine Exploration S ociety, which now r esides i n t he basement of Speer L ibrary a t P rinceton Theological S eminary. Below I offer a brief h istorical o utline of t hese f ive e xpeditions, and a p ersonal description o f the p resent c ondition of t he p hotograph c ollections. This i s f ollowed by s ome i ntroductory r emarks c oncerning t he photograph c atalogues, which I t hen r eproduce i n t heir e ntirety w ith t he p ermission o f t he two i nstitutions. A s ampling of p hotographs ( many u ntil now u npublished) f rom e ach c ollection f ollows each c atalogue. Lastly, I r eproduce w ith permission t he c atalogue o f c asts f irst p rinted f ollowing t he American Archaeological Expedition, with s ome i ntroductory r emarks o f my own.
2 .
The American Palestine Ex2loration Society Surveys ( 1875-1877)
This Society, which s ponsored a s eries o f f our expeditions, was f ounded i n 1 870, j ust f ive y ears after i ts British c ounterpart, t he P alestine Exploration Fund. The t wo o rganisations were t o conduct f ull a rchaeological s urveys ( including a ccurate mapping) o f Palestine, the British concentrating on t he t erritory west o f t he J ordan R iver and t he Americans r esponsible f or t he e astern s ector. T he PEF s ucceeded a dmirably, and i ts f ieldwork and publications h ave r endered a c onstant s ervice t o N ear Eastern a rchaeology f or 1 20 years. The APES ( its a cronym was u nfortunate) f ailed miserably, e ven t hough i t h ad t he s upport o f s uch s cholarly l uminaries a s J . Henry Thayer of Harvard a nd W illiam H . Ward o f t he American O riental Society. I n l arge p art t he f ailure o f APES must be a ttributed t o i ts a vowed purpose o f d edication t o " the i llustration a nd defense o f t he B ible". 8 The S ociety
P .J.
K ing
( 1983)
8 .
1 15-119.
2 34
S ee
a lso
S ilberman
( 1982)
l asted f ourteen years b efore d isintegrating u nder t he centrifugal f orces generated by i ts f actious a nd j ealous s enior members. I t d id, however, p roduce a n a nnual Statement and i t did u ndertake i ts i nitial goal o f s urvey work i n e astern Palestine. The f irst attempt t o l aunch a s urvey i n t he e arly 1 870' s ended with mixed r esults due t o s taffing a nd f inancial s hortcomings. But i n l ate 1 874 t he Society a ppointed Selah Merrill, a Congregational minister a nd f ormer American c onsul i n Jerusalem, t o h ead a s econd s urvey. Merrill was a s elf-styled a rchaeologist a nd f ervent b eliever i n t he r eligious r edemption o f t he non-Christian Levant, but he had o rganisational ability a nd a s ense o f mission. In August, 1 875, headquarters i n Beirut:
Merrill
a rrived
a t
t he
Society's
Our party, c onsisting o f f our Americans, h as arrived o n t he Syrian coast a t a n unfortunate t ime, s o f ar a s u ndertaking a ny i mportant work i s concerned. The country i s v isited now by t he dread disease of c holera ... f orty t housand people have f led f rom t his c ity alone, a nd I h ave walked about t hese s treets f or t wo miles w ithout seeing man, woman o r child, a n open door, o r a ny s ign o f l ife except a f ew s tarving dogs ... 9 With t hese f our a s t he core of t he e xpedition, Merrill p ersuaded t wo members f rom t he f aculty o f t he f ledgling Syrian P rotestant College i n Beirut t o j oin t hem. I t was a greed t hat t he e xpedition photographer would b e Tancrede R . Dumas, a F rench national who h ad come t o Beirut a bout 1 860, established a photography s tudio a nd built a s olid r eputation i n t he i ntervening years. Dumas was t ri-lingual, but English was not o ne o f t he l anguages h e k new, communication with Merrill was unfortunately very l imited. Merrill, however, d id r ecognise t he i mportance of Dumas' r ole i n t he success o f t he expedition, but i t i s doubtful t hat Dumas h imself was e ver made aware o f t his. 1 0 T he expedition of 1 875 was t he only one i n which Dumas p articipated, a nd only o ne of t wo which Merrill wrote about a t l ength. H is f irst r eport o f i t t o a British a udience
Merrill ( 1881) 1 . 1 0 Of one o ccasion Merrill wrote: " Just now [ Oct. 1 875] our photographer, Mr. Dumas, i s s ick i n t his c onvent [ in S alt, Jordan] where I v isit h im o nce o r t wice a d ay. He i s a C atholic, a nd p refers t he c onvent t o h is [ Protestant ] t ent. Yet he s ends t o me t o f urnish h im w ith c hickens a nd s uch other l uxuries a s t he t own a ffords." Merrill ( 1881) 8 9. 9
2 35
appeared November, t he P EF's
i n t he Athenaeum ( London) 1 875. This was r eprinted Quarterly S tatement:
i n t he
a l etter of f ollowing y ear
5 i n
The f riends o f Palestine Exploration i n England may b e i nterested i n s ome a ccount of o ur r econnoissance [ sic] s urvey o f t he Hauran, which we have j ust completed. I t will b e i mpossible, h owever, i n a s ingle l etter, t o g ive more t han a n outline o f our operations. We had with u s t wenty-three b aggage a nimals a nd n ine horses. Then we h ad e ight muleteers, s ix s ervants, i ncluding t wo c ooks a nd a t able b oy, a nd t wo a ssistants and i nterpreters f rom t he college i n Beirut. Besides t he f our gentlemen who c omprised t he exploring party proper, t here were with u s t hree others, t wo gentlemen f rom Beirut, one a n e xcellent botanist, and t he other a n e xcellent marksman, a nd our photographer. No person unacquainted with t he f acts c an r ealise t he d ifficulties t o be overcome i n o rder t o s ecure good photographs i n t he Syrian deserts, e specially i n t he s ummer. A ll g reen t hings a re burned up, t he a ir i s f ull of f ine dust, t he s un i s i ntensely h ot, and t he s ky, o f c ourse, i s a ffected a ccordingly. Both i nstrument a nd c hemicals a re o ften i njured o r r uined. Ordinary r ules and l aws c annot be f ollowed; a nd t he skill a nd patience o f t he a rtist a re c onstantly t axed t o t heir u tmost even t o produce a ny work a t all. Then t he d ifficulty of obtaining pure w ater i s a nother s erious d rawback. We often c arried water e ight a nd t en a nd even s ixteen m iles f or our photographer t o use. But notwithstanding t he obstacles t o be o vercome, we h ave b een r emarkably s uccessful. We have brought away a s t rophies f rom t he desert c onsiderably o ver one hundred photographs o f t emples, c hurches, t heatres, t owers, c astles, a nd other r uins, which, f or t he most part, have n ever before been v isited by a photographer. Our s mall plates a re n ine and a half by t welve i nches [ 24 X 3 0 cm.], a nd our l arger o nes a re t welve by s ixteen i nches [ 30 X 4 0 cm.]. The collection, we hope, w ill prove t o b e one of g reat i nterest a nd v alue. "
" Merrill ( 1876) 4 7. T he e ditor of t he PEFQS i nserted t his comment b efore t he t ext o f Merrill's r eport: " It w ill be r emembered t hat C aptain Warren h as a nticipated much of t heir [ APES] work at T hellthatha [ Nebi S afa ], Rukleh, and other p laces i n t he Lebanon." I t a ppears t hen, a s n ow, t hat t he border between Palestine and L ebanon was flexible. The s ize o f t he p hotographic p lates g iven h ere by Merrill
2 36
Dumas h ad c ompleted h is work f or t he APES by 2 5 October, 1 875, while t he expedition was on i ts r eturn t rip to Jerusalem. H e r eturned t o Beirut w ith t he c ollection o f " considerably over one hundred" photos noted by Merrill. Prints were e ventually made of 1 01 o f t hese, a nd a catalogue published i n Beirut i n 1 876. That s ame c atalogue was r eproduced i n t he Palestine Exploration S ociety's Statement t he f ollowing y ear. 1 2 T he n egatives were k ept i n Dumas' s tudio i n Beirut, and t heir f ate u nfortunately paralleled t hat o f t he APES i tself. According t o a n unsubstantiated r eport, t hey " were l ater washed c lean a nd used a s p anes f or a g reenhouse." 1 3 According t o Lucien Dumas, t he photographer's s on, " they were destroyed by Turkish s oldiers during t he F irst World W ar."'" T he n umber o f negatives i n t he possession o f t he M aison Dumas i s a t present u nknown, but i t i s s afe t o s ay t hat t he work done by Tancrede f or t he APES was but a s mall f raction of h is collection. Dumas d ied i n 1 905 a t about t he a ge o f s eventy-five. The s election o f Beirut f or t he i nitial p ublication of t he catalogue i s l ogical, g iven t he f act o f Dumas' r esidence t here. T his may a lso a ccount f or t he r ather l arge number o f s pelling e rrors, which t he e ditor o f t he APES Statement perpetuated when t he c atalogue w as atalogue was donated t o r eprinted. A copy o f t he Beirut c eminary by t he Speer L ibrary a t t he P rinceton Theological S i n 1 876, and i t i s t hat a certain " R.L. K ennedy, Esq." q uite l ikely t hat t he which i s r eproduced b elow. I t i s donated a t t hat t ime, photograph collection was also ts a cquisition. a lthough I could f ind no r ecord o f i Dr. L . C harles Willard g raciously offered h is a ssistance when I v iewed t he p hotograph c ollection a t Speer L ibrary. There a re 1 01 prints, which agrees exactly w ith t he c atalogue l isting. They r ange i n s ize f rom a lmost a s quare meter t o smaller prints half t hat s ize. Some o f t he p rints a re c redited t o " G.R. Rockwood, 8 39 B roadway, N ew York City". This may have b een a photography s tudio, but I h ave not b een a ble t o t race i t. I f t he g lass p late n egatives made by Dumas were ever brought t o t he U .S. t here i s no r ecord o f i t. A f ew o f t he prints a re mis-labelled, a s I -f ound when I checked t hem a gainst t he c atalogue
( continued) d iffers s lightly f rom t he d imensions h e n otes elsewhere ( cf. Merrill [ 1881] 9 2), and he omits a ny r eference t o a s nowball f ight among expedition members o n Mt. Hermon ( Ibid. 9 1). For a dditional documentation, i ncluding references t o Merrill's c orrespondence w ith t he P EF, s ee K aufman a nd Levine ( 1984) IV 1 25-127. I owe t his r eference t o D r. V .D. Lipman. Merrill ( 1877). 11
12
1 3 . 14
G avin ( 1978) 4 62. Thomas ( 1979) 1 61.
Cf.
C hevedden
2 37
( 1981)
2 6.
e ntries. 1 5 All a re noted t o b e c onnected w ith t he " American Exploration Party" and t he g reat majority a re o f outstanding t echnical quality. None o f t hem, i nexplicably, was r eproduced i n Merrill's book, but e ngravings were made f rom a f ew. " T ransliterations o f a ll A rabic p lace-names i n t he c atalogue a re l eft a s p rinted t here. Seventy-six of t he photos a re o f s ites w ithin p rovincia A rabia a nd i t i s f rom t hose t hat I h ave s elected t he t en which a re r eproduced b elow. T he o riginal c atalogue f ailed t o mention T ancrede Dumas. Whether t his was a n e rror o f i ntent i s not known, but I am h appy t o s ay t hat i t c an now b e r ectified.
3 .
The Brünnow and von Domaszewski Expeditions
( 1897-1898)
The b est s hort s ummary o f t he work done b y these s cholars during t wo extended s easons o f f ieldwork i s that by S artre. Not only i s i t concise, but i t emphasises ( with obvious a dmiration) t he o ne a spect o f t heir p ublished r esults t hat s ets t heir c ontribution t o t he s tudy o f Roman Arabia f ar a bove t hat o f a ny o f t heir c ontemporaries, i .e. h istorical synthesis: En 1 897 et 1 898, R .E. B rünnow e t A . v on Domaszewski parcourent ensemble l 'ancienne Arabie r omaine afin d e r assembler t outes l es i nformations d isponibles sur c ette province quelque peu oubliee p ar l es s ources c lassiques. I ls consacrent l a plus grande part de l eur temps ä l a r egion c omprise e ntre Madaba e t Petra, decouvrant plusieurs c amps r omains, f ixant l e t race de l a voie r omaine de c Ammän ä Petra, a vec s es v ariantes. I ls n e n egligent p as pour autant l e Hawrän oa u s passent l a dernier partie d e l eur s ejour, e n a vril e t mai 1 898. A l a d ifference d e W addington e t, p lus t ard, d es membres de l ' expedition americaine de P rinceton, l es deux s avants n e t entent p as de v isiter l e p lus g rand n ombre p ossible de v illages. I ls s Jattachent ä quelques s ites i mportant: Busrä, c Atil, Q anawgt, Shahbä, pour l esquels i ls donnent d 'excellentes descriptions des monuments. Mais i l f aut r econnaitre q ue l a p artie h auranaise d u voyage n ie st p as l a plus nouvelle e t l a plus o riginale. L es t extes nouveaux s ont a ssez p eu nombreux e t p ublies part p ar B rünnow.
1 A f ew dates h ad t o b e c orrected, e . g. no.24. Merrill's opening s tatement on t he l ocation of t he t heatre a t Bostra ( no.45) s peaks f or i tself r egarding his " archaeological" perception. E .g. Merrill ( 1881) 1 7,24,32,47, e tc. 16
2 28
L ' ouvrage r ealise conjointement p ar l es d eux savants apporte u ne contribution e ssentielle ä l ' histoire, ä l ' archeologie e t ä l ' epigraphie d e l ' Arabie r omaine. Non contents de publier l e recit de l eur voyage e t l a masse c onsiderable d es observations f aites s ur c haque s ite v isite, l es auteurs a ccompagnent l eurs r emarques de l arges citations d es voyageurs qui l es ont p recedes . ... Si l ' on pouvait e crire plus h aut que Waddington a ecrit l a p remiere s omme epigraphique h auranaise, i l f aut d ire maintenant que Brünnow e t Domaszewski ont, l es p remiers, t ente d ' ecrire l ' histoire d e l a p rovince d ' Arabie. 1 7 Rudolph Brünnow was r esident at P rinceton w hen t he t hird a nd f inal v olume o f Die Provincia Arabia appeared i n 1 909. That v olume contained a l engthy concluding c hapter w hich, while n ot i ntended t o be a n arrative h istory, s erved w ell i ts designation a s a n " Uberblick ü ber d ie G eschichte d er Provinz Arabia". 1 8 I t would be s eventy-four years b efore a nother attempt would be made. 1 9 On 2 6 May, 1 909 B rünnow w rote t o Louis Jalabert r egarding t he n ascent I GLS c orpus on which t hey were collaborating. Word h ad r eached B rünnow t hat t he f inal Princeton e xpedition h ad e nded j ust o ne month before, a nd h e e agerly awaited t he r eturn o f i ts members: I i y a i ci a u musee u ne masse d ' estampages e t d e moulages e n p lätre que l e Princeton Expedition a f aites des i nscriptions l es plus i mportantes. Malheureusement j e n e peux m ' en s ervir qu'apres le r etour d es membres d e l ' expedition: cars t ous ces messieurs - M . Prentice aussi - s e t rouvent encore e n S yrie ou e n G rece. 2 ° Brünnow 's p resence a t Princeton a lso t estifies t o h is i nvolvement i n t he ongoing publications of t he 1 904/05 e xpedition, f or which h is c olleagues r endered t heir a ppreciation. The e xtent of Brünnow's s imultaneous c ommittment t o t hree enormous a nd i mportant projects over a p eriod of t hree a nd a h alf y ears i s only n ow becoming e vident. 2 1
Sartre ( 1982b ) 2 3. An a bbreviated i tinerary o f t heir t wo s easons i n t he f ield ( February - April, 1 897 a nd F ebruary - May, 1 898) i s g iven i n Brünnow a nd von Domaszewski ( 1909) 2 16-219. 1 9 Ibid. 2 49-360. The c hapter w as w ritten b y Brünnow . Bowersock ( 1983). Professor Bowersock k indly s upplied a p hotocopy o f t his l etter w hich he had made i n France. He h as placed a n additional copy i n t he " Expedition Room" f iles i n M cCormick Hall, P rinceton University. Sartre ( 1982b) 2 5 a nd Bowersock ( 1985) 1 40. 17
19
20
21
2 39
Brünnow d ied i n 1 917 while s till r esident i n t he United States. The f iles he h ad kept o f h is contribution t o t he s till-unpublished I GLS " entraient en b loc a l a b ibliotheque de l ' Universite de P rinceton." 22 I t i s p robable t hat t he photograph c ollection f rom t he e xpeditions of 1 898/99 a lso became t he property of P rinceton at t he s ame t ime, t hough I h ave not been a ble t o a scertain t his. Jalabert h ad moved t o Beirut i n 1 913, where he t ook u p r esidence a t t he Bibliotheque Orientale o f t he Jesuit-founded Universite St.Joseph. He r emained there t hroughout t he war and consequently h is correspondence with Brünnow l apsed. The I GLS project appeared t o be s tillborn. Just a fter t he war Rene Mouterde n egotiated w ith t he Princeton University l ibrarian t hrough W illiam K elly Prentice, and managed t o s ecure the e ntire Brünnow f ichier. 2 3 The photographs a pparently remained at Princeton. The condition of t he negatives a t t hat t ime i s u nknown. They may h ave deteriorated t o s ome d egree b etween World War I and t he preparation of t he t ypescript c atalogue i n 1 950. This i s most noticeable on t he negatives of unpublished photographs and engenders t he s uspicion that d amage o ccured before t he collection c ame i nto the c are of Princeton University. The Brünnow a nd von Domaszewski collection today r esides i n two rooms i n McCormick Hall, under the s upervision of t he Curator of t he R esearch Photographic Archive, Ms. Shari Taylor. There a re t wo f ull f ile d rawers o f l abelled positives i n t he Curator's office ( Room 2 05) a nd f our l arge f ile d rawers of l abelled negatives i n the n earby " Vault". The t ypescript c atalogue i s kept i n the f ile d rawer with t he positives. I t was prepared i n 1 950 but n ever published. Both t he c atalogue and t he n umbered prints a gree that t he collection t otal i s 9 59. Every photograph h as a s eparate n umber a s well a s a c lear l abel, and t hey are a rranged i n a lphabetical o rder a ccording t o t he name o f the s ite. No i ndex was p repared i n 1 950, b ut I h ave s upplied t hat here. I n a ddition t o a s imple, s traightforward f ormat ( in contrast t o t he complex c atalogues prepared f or the Princeton Expeditions s ee below ), t he a nonymous c ataloguer r endered t he a dditional s ervice of d istinguishing published f rom u npublished photographs. Each volume of D ie P rovincia Arabia s tates how many photographs were published; t he t otal i s 5 52. According to t he c atalogue, t he t otal o f p ublished p hotos i s 6 48. I do n ot know how t o a ccount f or t he d ifference. However that may be, t here a re 3 11 u npublished photos now a vailable at Princeton. Of t hese, I noted 1 23 w hich a re n either duplicates o f p ublished photos, n or o f poor photographic quality. A c ertain n umber a re o f s ites i n Palestine,
22
23
Sartre ( 1982b ) 2 8. Ibid. See a lso Mouterde
2 40
( 1926).
Lebanon and North Syria, but f or t he s tudent o f Roman Arabia I note t he f ollowing unpublished: c Amman ( 6), Bostra ( 7), F ityän ( 1), I rbid ( 1), K erak ( 15), 2 " Jerash ( 3), Lejjün ( 1), Wadi a l-Hess ( 10), Macan ( 2), Madaba ( 4), W adi al-Mi ijib ( 2), UdhruA . ( 3), Petra ( 37), S alt ( 3) and Sanamayn ( 2). I t i s gratifying t o know t hat Allistair K illick h as a lready made good u se o f t he Udhruh photographs, both t hose a lready published a nd t he t hree unpublished noted a bove. The quality o f t he p hotographs r eproduced i n D ie P rovincia Arabia, a s t hose i n t he Princeton University publications, varied c onsiderably a nd many appear t oday quite f aded. K illick h as f ound t hat a c areful s tudy o f t he o riginal prints i s o ften o f great a ssistance i n h is e xcavation o f t he castrum , and h e prepared a n a ttractive d isplay o f many f or t he Bil d a l-Sham c onference a t t he University of Jordan i n March, 1 985. Philip F reeman has r ecently o btained n ew c opies of t he Dacjaniya photographs t o u tilise during h is p resent s urvey of t hat s ite. These g round-level photographs, t aken a t a t ime when s uch a s ite was r elatively i solated a nd not u ndergoing a p rocess o f t ransformation, a nd when t he quality of t he p hotographs t hemselves i s o ften s uperior t o w hat can be produced t oday, a re proving i nvaluable. When t hey a re e xamined c arefully i n conjunction w ith a erial photographs of t he s ame s ite t aken by t he R .A.F. o r t he Jordanian Air Force, t he r esults c an be s tartling.
4 .
The American Archaeological Expedition to Syria ( 1899-1900)
Although t his e xpedition w as n ot s ponsored o r f unded by Princeton University, s ome o f t he e xpedition members w ere f aculty o r s taff f rom Princeton, a nd t he r esults o f t he survey were published by t he University Press. ' The e arliest a ccount o f t he e xpedition was g iven b y i ts t wenty-seven y ear-old o rganiser, Howard Crosby Butler: I n t he s ummer of 1 899 a n e xpedition was organised, u nder t he p atronage o f f our New York gentlemen: Mr. V . Even t Macy, Mr. I . Newton Stokes, Messrs. Clarence a nd B .T.B. Hyde, t o explore t he portions of central Syria v isited by M . de Vogüe i n 1 861-1862 ... The p resent expedition was o rganised i n o rder, f irst, t o follow u p t he r esearches o f M . de Vogüe w ith more thorough s urveys o f t he v arious d istricts, w ith careful photographic s tudy of t he monuments
2" T his r epresents all t he photos t aken. The s ite was v isited twice, but n ot i ncluded i n t heir f inal p ublications. The p hotographs s hould b e o f i nterest t o medieval s cholars. In f our v olumes between 1 903-1908. 25
2 41
published by h im i n d rawings, w ith e xtensive measurements of t hose monuments, a nd t he copying o f a ll i nscriptions. Secondly, t o e xtend t he r esearch i n t he s ame r egions, a s s uggested by M . d e Vogüe, and t o determine, i f possible, t he geographical l imits of t he a rchitecture c haracteristic o f t his r egion. The work o f t he e xpedition w as d ivided i nto t hree g eneral s ections: one f or t opography a nd t he s tudy of general n atural phenomena; one f or e pigraphy a nd h istorical r esearch; t he t hird f or a rchitecture, s culpture a nd matters purely a rchaeological. The f irst o f t hese was i n c harge o f Mr. Robert Garrett; t he s econd s ection w as d ivided i nto t wo p arts, c lassical a nd Semitic, t he f ormer i n c harge o f Dr. W illiam K elly Prentice a nd t he l atter of D r. Enno L ittmann o f Oldenburg, Germany. The t hird was d irected b y t he w riter. I n October, 1 899, t he e xpedition e ntered S yria a t Alexandretta . ... by t he f irst o f March ... t he n umber of t he p arty h ad b een i ncreased b y one, o n t he a rrival o f Mr. Henry M . Huxley, w ho h ad come out f rom t he United States t o become t he a nthropologist o f t he e xpedition a nd t o s tudy t he v arious r aces between t he Lebanon mountains a nd t he Euphrates. A f ew weeks l ater, a t Aleppo, t he e xpedition was augmented by t he d istinguished a ddition t o i ts number of Dr. G eorge E . Post o f t he Syrian Protestant College i n Beirut. D r. Post s pent s ix weeks with t he e xpedition, gathering material f or t he e xtension of h is well-known work, The F lora o f Syria, Palestine and S inai ... The members o f t he e xpedition, w ith t he exception o f Mr. Huxley, l eft Syria a bout t he m iddle of June [ 1900]. Mr. Huxley r emained t o continue h is a nthropological studies i n t he i nterior. " The American Expedition e ventually produced a c atalogue o f t he photographs t aken. There i s no d ate given on t he c opy a vailable t o me, but i t p robably a ppeared s hortly a fter t he f inal v olume o f t heir publications ( 1908). The c atalogue o f c asts, a lso u ndated, was n o doubt printed a t t he s ame t ime. Both c atalogues appear t o have been d esigned by Butler, a s a rchitectural details f igure p rominently a nd a re p resented f irst. "
2 6 Butler ( 1900) 4 15, 4 17-418, 4 24, 4 39. The photographs were t aken by various members o f t he e xpedition, n otably Butler. There a re o ther f eatures o f t he c atalogues which point t o Butler a s t he " architect". S ee Part 5 , below. 27
2 42
The original photograph catalogue was s ubdivided roughly according t o t he geographic regions v isited by t he e xpedition, and i t may be u seful here t o l ist t he d ivisions and their corresponding photograph numbers s ince t he headings ( but not t he numbers) were abandoned when t he photograph f iles were l ater consolidated:
Division Titles
Photograph Numbers
ARCHITECTURE: I I t o V II Century A .D., Northern Central Syria.
1 -382
ARCHITECTURE: I t o IV Century A .D. or Earlier, Bacalbek, Apamea, Antioch, Isriyeh, Palmyra, etc.
3 83-449
ARCHITECTURE: I Century B .C. to V I Century A .D., Plain Southeast o f Damascus, and D jebel 1 : l aurän.
4 50-528
MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE, A NCIENT AND MODERN
5 29-550
SCULPTURE: Syria and
5 51-577
MOSAICS:
Northern Central f . l aurgn.
D jebel Riti ä
5 78-581
GENERAL V IEWS I N SYRIA: D jebel i l-Acla; D jebel Bärisha; D jebel Halakah; D jebel Rieä.; D jebel Aaurän.
5 82-602
The f inal page of t he AAES catalogue i s a l isting of photographs ( eleven of Jerash, seventeen of Petra) a ttributed t o the H . M. Huxley mentioned above by Butler. I t i s evident t hat t hese photographs were considered part o f the collection. There i s no way of knowing i f t he n egatives were a lso i ncluded. At some t ime t hereafter t he Huxley photographs disappeared. An undated, h andwritten n ote i n the copy of t he AAES catalogue on f ile i n t he a rchives office at McCormick Hall r eads " no photos or n egs" a bove t he Huxley l isting. I n t he t ypescript of t he c ombined photograph c atalogue prepared i n 1 937 a note i n t he same handwriting reads " Huxley photos ( no negs.)" a s i f t hey
a ny
were
s till
Huxley of h is
t here
h imself accounts
at
t hat
does of
t ime.
not mention t hese photographs i n t he a dditional year he s pent
2 43
collecting anthropological data, t hough he f requently mentions photographing i ndividuals. 2 8 The Petra a nd Jerash photos were t aken i n April a nd May, 1 901 during a f ield t rip on both s ides o f t he Jordan. " I have not b een a ble t o d iscover why, o r by whom, t he Huxley photos were removed f rom t he P rinceton collection. The c hance t o confirm t heir d isappearance, a nd t he opportunity t o i nvestigate a ll a spects o f t he P rinceton University collections, i s e ntirely due t o t he g enerosity a nd a ssistance of t he Curator of Research Photographs, Ms. Shari Taylor.
5 .
The Princeton University Archaeological Expeditions Syria ( 1904/05 and 1 909)
t o
The s uccess o f t he American Archaeological s urvey a nd t he need t o conduct a more detailed s urvey of certain a reas of Syria l ed t o t he u ndertaking o f a s econd e xpedition. This t ime t he s upport c ame d irectly f rom P rinceton University. The work done i s c oncisely described by E .R. Stoever f rom t he n otes o f F .A. Norris: The American Expedition t o Syria i n 1 899-1900 h ad e xplored c ertain portions o f t he a rea between Aleppo on t he n orth a nd t he Arabian Desert o n t he south; but many d istricts had n ecessarily b een n eglected, a nd a more t horough e xamination of c ertain places previously v isited appeared desirable. I t was t he opinion, t herefore, of t hose who h ad s hared i n t hat e xpedition t hat a nother s imilar mission t o t his c ountry s hould be undertaken. All t he members o f t he American Expedition were connected w ith Princeton University, and t he work of t he e xpedition was prepared f or publication i n P rinceton. Therefore i t was possible f or Professor Howard C rosby Butler, t he o rganiser of t he f ormer e xpedition, t o a rouse t he i nterest of c ertain f riends o f t he University i n t he plan, a nd t heir g enerosity m ade i t possible t o s end o ut f or r enewed e xploration t he Princeton Expedition o f 1 904-5.
Forty-eight portrait photos a re r eproduced i n Seltzer ( 1940) passim . H is c omment o n t heir quality i s worth noting: " These photographs, w hich a re unusually clear, s hould be of e special i nterest c onsidering t heir a ge a nd t he conditions u nder which t hey were t aken." Ibid. I n ote 1 . One may hope t hat t he o ther photographs w ere of t he s ame quality. I wish t o t hank Lawrence Conrad f or helping me t o obtain t his i nformation. 2 8 Huxley ( 1902) 4 9 a nd Seltzer ( 1940) v i. Huxley 's v isit t o Petra i s n ot n oted by Brünnow a nd von D omaszewski because Huxley h imself n ever published a n account of i t. See Part 4 , below, f or a dditional c omments o n t his collection, and s ee Part 6 D f or other Huxley material. 28
2 44
The members o f t he f ormer e xpedition, i n s o far a s t hey were i n a position t o be a bsent f rom t his country, were t o r esume t heir f ormer work. H .C. Butler, i n c harge o f t he o rganisation a nd execution o f t he project, was t o s tudy t he architecture. Enno L ittmann was t o be responsible f or a ll t he epigraphical work, both classical a nd Semitic, during t he f irst h alf of t he j ourney, a nd W . K. Prentice w as t o t ake c harge of t he G reek and Latin i nscriptions i n t he s econd half. Robert G arrett was u nable t o j oin t he second e xpedition, and h is place a s c artographer was t aken b y t he w riter o f t he j ournal, F .A. Norris. The p lans of t he e xpedition, when perfected, i nvolved t he e xploration o f t wo l arge a nd w idely separated r egions, which i n g eneral t erms were styled Southern Syria a nd Northern Syria. Both regions h ad been v isited by t he American Expedition. 3 ° The e xpedition of 1 909 r eason f or i ts r elative s ummary:
l asted brevity
o nly i s
s ix n oted
weeks. The i n Butler' s
This t rip c ame a bout r ather u nexpectedly a nd was t he d irect r esult of s everal observations a nd discoveries made f our y ears before, which a t t hat t ime could not be f ollowed u p t o s atisfactory conclusions. During t he w inter 1 904-5 a h asty journey h ad been made f ar t o t he s outh of t he Haurän, a nd a l arge f ortress a nd f ragments of a n imperial e dict h ad been f ound a t K oser i l-Halläbät; but work o n t he buildings a nd . t he i nscriptions h ad t o b e a bandoned because o f a heavy s now-storm. Work o n t he f ragments of t he edict, a s well a s upon t he hastily made plans o f the f ortress a nd t he mosque at t his p lace, while i n p rogress a t home, h ad s hown t he unusual importance of t hese d iscoveries, a nd t his afforded o ne r eason f or a r eturn t o t he f ield. In t he s econd place, my j ourney u p t he p lain o f the Haurän and a cross t he Ledjä, a t t he e nd o f the f irst h alf o f t he Expedition of 1 904-5, h ad s hown t he g reat e xtent a nd t he u nusual i mportance of t he r uins i n both l ocalities; but I had been unable t o make more t han t he most s uperficial report of t hem. I n o rder, t hen, t o complete our archaeological s urvey o f Southern Syria o r, perhaps better, t o make i t more n early complete, t he t hird e xpedition w as o rganised t o s pend t he spring months of 1 90q . t here. "
3 ° 31
Butler ( 1930) Ibid. 8 3.
1 .
2 45
The e xpedition e nded on 3 0 April, 1 909. 3 2 It w as t o be t he l ast t o t hat a rea by any f oreign s cholars u ntil t he 1 920' s. 3 3 Photographs o f both Princeton e xpeditions, taken by various members of t he s urveys, were e ventually p ut o n f ile and c atalogued. These photos, what Butler t ermed " full collections o f s everal hundred p hotographs", 3 4 i ncluded s ome of s ites o riginally s urveyed and photographed by t he American Expedition. Thus t he c atalogue p ublished a t Princeton ( undated, but not e arlier t han 1 909) c ontained a s ection e ntitled " Supplement t o Catalogue of A merican Expedition" i n which a dditional photos ( numbering s ixty-three) n ow a ugmented t he o riginal c ollection o f 6 30 o n f ile f rom t he AAES e xpedition. These p robably a ccount f or t he " missing" photos noted i n t he combined c atalogue t ypescript prepared i n 1 937 ( see below ). Not a ll t he photos t aken by t he P rinceton expeditions made i t i nto t he collection. One e xample o f such misfortune i s r ecorded by Butler. I n e arly April, 1 909 t he Princeton t eam e xplored t he r uined v illage of Sulaym ( ancient Selaema) o n t he s outheastern e dge o f t he Lejg. Butler's t ravel notes record t hat h e " recognised the o riginal o f a photograph t hat I h ad s een among t hose t aken by a n e nterprising photographer i n Beirut". " R ealising t hat t he building i n question ( a t emple ) h ad n ot been f ormally s tudied, h e r eturned t he f ollowing d ay . His s ubsequent publication i ncludes t he f ollowing r emarks: The r emainder of t he t emple-plan i s t o b e t raced only i n f oundation walls t hat a re a lmost hidden i n f allen building s tones. A photograph of t his building i s t o be o btained f rom Dumas o f Beirut; unfortunately my own f ilms were damaged after t hey h ad been e xposed, and only t he upper half o f one of t hem c ould be printed. " The p artial photograph t hat Butler d id publish w as not catalogued, a nd I was n ot a ble t o l ocate i t among t he f iles at Princeton. The t emple d rawn by Butler, a nd described by h im a nd Merrill, " no l onger e xists. The photo by D umas i s t herefore a ll t he more precious ( see Plate 4 a). The c atalogue prepared f or t he P rinceton Expedition photograph collection f ollowed t he s ame g eneral p lan a s t hat of i ts predecessor. Part 1 ( the " Supplement") l isted t he a dditional photos corresponding t o t he appropriate c ategories i n t he AAES c atalogue a nd pertaining o nly t o s ites v isited i n 1 899/1900 i n northern Syria and L ebanon.
32 33 34 35 36 37
Ibid. 1 08. Sartre ( 1982b ) 2 5-26. Butler ( 1905) 3 99. Butler ( 1930) 9 5. Butler ( 1919) 3 56. See Merrill ( 1881) 3 2-34.
t he APES
2 46
c a ' =a1:cle
no.26.
Each new p hoto w as g iven t he n umber appearing before t hat s ite i n t he AAES c atalogue, but designated now a ,b,c, e tc. Unfortunately, t he i nherent i mpractical d ivisions o f t he e arlier c atalogue were p erpetuated i n Part 2 o f t he n ew u nder the h eading " Architecture: I I Century B .C. t o V II Century A .D." w ith t he s ubdivisions " Southern Syria" ( Photos no.701-950) and " Northern Central Syria" ( nos.951-1103). Since t he n umber of photographs on f ile h ad g rown s ubstantially, i t would h ave been more s ensible t o combine t he two c atalogues a lphabetically by s ite i nstead o f preparing a s upplemental version. A major e rror r esulted f rom t his. The AAES c atalogue l isting e nded at n o.630 ( the l ast o f t he Huxley photos). The n ew PUAES l isting began a t 7 01 w ith n o clear i ndication of why t here s hould be a g ap b etween 6 30 and 7 01. When t he c atalogues w ere eventually consolidated some t hirty years l ater, t he g ap i n n umbering w as noted a s " no l ist", i .e. a s i f t he s eventy numbers r epresented missing photos. I t s eems f ar more l ikely t hat t he " Supplemental" p hotos of t he PUAES c atalogue were t o be a ssigned t hese numbers, u nless t he Huxley collection i tself was e xpected t o be a ugmented. The unnecessarily complex a rrangement o f t he c atalogues i s p aralleled by t he method i n w hich t he p ublications of t he PUAES were presented. The f ormat a dopted f or t he l atter was designated " divisions", " sections" and "parts". This r esulted i n a bewildering t angle of Roman n umerals, Arabic numerals a nd a lphabetic ( capital and l ower case) r eferences which have plagued t he s cholarly world f rom t he f irst f ascicle printed i n 1 907 t hrough and beyond t he f inal publication i n 1 949. One s uspects t hat Howard Crosby Butler was r esponsible f or t his u nhappy s ituation, s ince h is t wo v olumes o n a rchitecture w ere among t he f irst publications t o appear. Butler's own methodology i s t he c lue. Even t hough h is f inal d rawings u tilised t he metric s ystem, Butler i nsisted o n u sing English measurements i n t he f ield. This r esulted i n n eedless hours of l ong-hand conversion at Princeton, w ithout t he u se o f a c alculator t o c heck h is f igures. " Worse y et, t he d rawings were made t o a s tandard s cale, but h e " usually omitted s cales f rom p lans, which put h im a t t he mercy öf h is blockmakers". " Such a mind could e asily d evise complicated s chemes f or publication f ormat a nd c ataloguing purposes. " The photograph collection r esides t oday i n t he r oom l abelled "Vault" near t he office o f t he Curator o f Research P hotographs. The c ollection i s f iled n umerically a ccording
Wilkinson ( 1984) 1 15. Ibid. 1 16. He a lso a gonised a bout t he g ender of t he i nhabitants o f c ertain e cclesiastical s tructures. One building a t Umm a l-Quttayn i s r eferred t o a s a " convent" and a " monastery" i n t he s ame paragraph. See Butler ( 1921) 1 39. 38
39
40
2 47
t o t he c atalogue e ntry. Each p rint i s mounted o n c ardboard, with a ccompanying c aption. With i t i s a n e nvelope c ontaining t he modern Leica n egative; the o riginal glass plate n egatives a re s tored s eparately f or s afekeeping. The c atalogue t otal o f 1 103 i s misleading, s ince a s ubstantial n umber of photographs ( as i ndicated a bove a nd below ) i s g iven a dditional d esignations. I have counted 1 528 photographs i n t he collection. I n addition, I f ound d irectly f ollowing t he l ast l abelled i ndividual photographs a small collection of n ine manila e nvelopes. The l abels a re: 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 .
9 .
Photographs o t i nscriptions. Miscellaneous and u nidentified photographs ( I). M iscellaneous a nd u nidentified p hotographs ( II). Syria: D istant Views. D istant Views. [ unspecified] Small photos duplicating photos i n l arger s eries. Euphrates Trip. Personal Photos. [ These a ppear t o be o f t he Princeton-sponsored e xcavation o f Sardis, a nd were probably t aken by Butler.] Miscellaneous a nd Duplicate a nd Unidentified F ilms.
A hesitant a ttempt h ad been made e arly o n t o i dentify published and unpublished photographs. The photograph c atalogue k ept i n t he Vault ( preceeding photograph n o.1 i n t he f irst f ile-drawer) notes t hat photographs f rom t he AAES not utilised i n Vol.II ( Butler, Architecture) o f t hose publications a re marked " unpublished", but i t does not s pecify which photographs f rom t he s ame c ollection were u sed i n any of t he other t hree volumes t hat a ppeared. None of t he t hree c atalogues o f photographs subsequently produced at Princeton s pecifies w hich photographs a re unpublished. This i s a n i ncredible o versight u ntil one r ealises t he enormity o f t he j ob f acing a cataloguer i n 1 937, t he d ate t he combined photograph c atalogue was prepared i n t ypescript. Not only were t here t he 1 103 photographs ( Huxley's t hirty a nd a nother unspecified s eventy could not b e a ccounted f or) o rginally catalogued, but a n a dditional 4 25 f rom a ll t hree P rinceton expeditions h ad t o be s lotted i n. W ithout a c lear r ecord f rom t he e arlier c atalogues a s t o w hich o f t hese h ad a ctually been published, i t would have meant t aking t he t ime a nd e ffort t o l ook s ystematically a t e very page of publication and match printed photos w ith t hose i n t he collection until only u npublished r emained. This would h ave b een a d aunting t ask, and a f utile one i n 1 937 s ince t he publications were not yet complete."'
41
Littmann's
appear until u ntil 1 949.
1 943
volume and
t he
o f Safaitic
i nscriptions d id
v olume
Arabic
2 48
o f
not
i nscriptions
Nevertheless s ome attempt was made t o d istinguish b etween photograhs l isted i n t he f irst two c atalogues, a nd t hose a dded t o t he consolidated e dition. This was done by a ttaching a lphabetical prefixes and n umerical s uffixes t o t he number of e ach n ew entry. For t he most p art t hese were a dditional v iews of s ites a lready c atalogued, b ut i n a f ew i nstances photographs of a dditional s ites appear. One e xample o f t his i s t he entries d 944-1 and d 944-2, t wo v iews o f a carved b asalt a ltar photographed by Butler a t D jisreh i n t he Lejä. The s ite was d escribed a s " a v ery u nimportant l ittle g roup o f r uins" when Butler s aw i t i n April 1 909. 4 2 H e published o nly one o f t he t wo photos, w ith a nother d erogatory c omment a bout t he s ite. " Neither photo was r egistered i n t he c atalogue f or t he 1 909 e xpedition. I t i s t o t he c redit o f t he l ater c ataloguer t hat both photographs w ere added, a nd i n precisely t he correct place. This p rocess was r epeated f or a f ew s ites r egarding t he AAES c atalogue, and more t han a dozen f or t he PUAES c atalogue. One may s ay c haritably t hat t he best was made o f a b ad s ituation. The o pportunity e xisted a t l east t o a lphabetise t he entire PUAES c atalogue, a s would be done w ith t he B rünnow a nd von Domaszewski collection s ome t hirteen years l ater. The f act t hat n either c atalogue was printed i mplies t hat the e ditorial work was i ncomplete. I t i s i ronic t hat w hen t he f inal PUAES publication d id appear, a definitive r evision o f t he c atalogue was not u ndertaken. Not until s uch a r evision i s done c an i t be known what photographs t hose w ill r emain u npublished, a nd whether t he quality o f a gency t o w arrant e ventual publication. The obvious Archive a t u ndertake t his i s t he Research Photographic P rinceton University.
6 .
Additional Notes on Photograph Collections
A .
Princeton University The G raphic Arts Room ( second f loor, F irestone L ibrary) h as a t wo-volume c ollection of F ran9ois [ sic ] F ricke photographs t aken i n Egypt and Palestine i n 1 857, p ublished i n London by Virtue, Ltd. i n 1 858-59. Those i n Volume . I a re, f or t he most p art, of better quality. The Rare Books and Manuscripts Room ( ground f loor, F irestone Library) has a n a lbum o f t wenty mounted photos t aken by John C . Eccleston c . 1 865 i n Palestine. Reference N umber: EX 5 307 3 18e. In t he b asement of t he Marquand L ibrary ( McCormick H all) t here i s a collection o f t wenty-four mounted p hotographs ( approx. 1 0 X 1 0 cm.) o f Palestine t aken b y F ederico Amato c . 1 860. The collection i s l abelled Views
4 3
Butler Butler
( 1930) ( 1919)
1 00. 4 36-437.
2 49
of Palestine and Persia, but i t s election i s missing. The album's
appears t hat the P ersian f ragility among l arge
and a ggressive-looking volumes i nspired me to a sk l ibrarian t o place i t i n a more protected environment. a greed. Reference Number: SA 1 793 1 21.
B .
The Dumas Library "
Collection
in
the
I stanbul
t he She
University
An album of f ifty Dumas photos ( Library No.90778), entitled Süriye Manzarasi ( Vues de Syrie) offers v iews of t he f ollowing s ites: Damascus ( 11); Jerash ( 7); Q anawat ( 5); Palmyra ( 4); Bostra ( 4); Bacalbek ( 2); Mount Hermon ( 2); Petra ( 2); Mismlya ( 1); Suwayda ( 1); c Atil ( 1); Mount Nebo ( 1); " Amman ( 1); Hebron ( 1); Jerusalem ( 1); M ashattg ( 1); Mount Sinai ( 1); Red Sea, Jazirat F ircawn ( 1); Source of t he Jordan ( 1); Sulaym ( 1); Sädam ( 1). I have n ot yet s een any of t hese photographs. A comparison w ith t he Dumas c atalogue r eproduced below s hows clearly t hat a t l east twenty-two of t hese photographs a re not i n t he collection published by t he APES. That n umber might be l arger i f t he i ndividual photos of t he same s ite could be compared. I cannot i dentify t he s ite t ransliterated a s Sädüm i n t he s eries of Official S tandard Names Gazetteers f or Jordan, I srael, Egypt and Saudi Arabia. " Perhaps i t i s a r endering o f Biblical Sodom or a variant spelling of t he s ite catalogued a s Sedom i n the Gazetteer f or I srael ( p.99). The Dumas photographs a re only a t iny portion o f the entire collection i nherited i n 1 923 by t he I stanbul University Library f rom t he Y ildiz Palace L ibrary. I am i nformed by Dr. Nurhan Atasoy, Professor of Art H istory, t hat under her s upervision a t eam i s p resently preparing a catalogue of t he University Library collection which will run t o s eventeen volumes. The l ibrary c annot f or t he present supply prints of t hese photos.
C .
The Dumbarton Oaks Byzantine Center Collection I n 1 973 t he Dumbarton Oaks Center f or Byzantine Studies i n Washington, D .C. was g iven permission t o photograph t he Dumas album at t he Speer Library, Princeton Theological Seminary. This was added t o t heir e xtensive collection of copy negatives which now number about 4 5,000 i tems. The Photograph Collection at t he Byzantine C enter maintains all f ield work negatives o f t he Byzantine Institute and Dumbarton Oaks a s well a s other collections. The collection s till awaits cataloguing. I owe t his
my
I wish t o attention i n 4 5 Published
t hank Paul Chevedden f or b ringing t his to a personal communication. by t he United States Board on Geographic
Names.
2 50
i nformation, a nd t he Dumas photos r eproduced f ollowing t he A PES catalogue, t o t he k indness of Charlotte K roll Burk, P hoto-archivist at t he Byzantine Studies Center.
D .
The Huxley Collection formerly i n the American Museum of Natural History, New York City The f ollowing l etter i s now i n t he f iles of t he American Museum of Natural H istory. It was written t o Dr. F rank Boas, t hen head of t he Department of Anthropology. Syrian Protestant College Beirut, Syria 1 9 March 1 901 My dear
Dr.
Boas:
Four days a go I sent a s hipment of 2 5 Samaritan s kulls t o America. I have written my f ather to get t hem t hrough the Customs House i n New York, and i f Mr. Hyde t hinks f avorably, t hey will be s ent i mmediately t o t he American Museum, i n your care. Would you be kind enough t o s imply have t he case put i n s ome s afe place, a nd on my r eturn we can open t he box, and attend t o t heir cataloguing e tc. After about two weeks, I am going on a two months t rip through Palestine, t he people of which a re t hought t o present different t ypes f rom t hose of Syria. I hope t o arrive i n America about t he middle of July. With Very
k ind r egards, I am s incerely yours,
Henry Minor Huxley
It was during t his t rip that Huxley v isited Jerash and Petra and made t he photographs noted i n Part 4 above. Huxley' s entire photograph collection, some twenty-nine d ozen negatives, was eventually s ent t o t he Museum. The b ulk of these must have been of anthropological s pecimens, l iving or dead, s uch as t he f orty-eight published i n S eltzer ( 1940). But at some t ime during his f irst year b ack i n t he U .S., Huxley changed h is mind a bout t he photos. On 8 June 1 902 he wrote and s igned a receipt on Museum s tationary reclaiming all 3 60 negatives f rom t he Department o f Anthropology a s his " individual property". I n a p ersonal communication t o me, Evelyn Feld, Curatorial A ssistant at t he American Museum of Natural History, stated t hat t here i s n o f urther i nformation " as t o where t hese n egatives were stored or t o whom t hey were given a fter he t ook t hem back." The t wo dozen Samaritan s kulls continue t o reside at t he museum.
2 51
Huxley h ad connections w ith t he Peabody M useum a t Harvard University, but a l etter t o t he Curator r egarding t he photograph collection p roduced a n egative r eply. A t some t ime between 1 902 and 1 908 Huxley t urned o ver h is n egatives o f Jerash a nd Petra t o H .C. Butler o r a nother member o f t he AAES, s ince t he photos w ere i ncluded i n their c atalogue u nder Huxley's n ame. As n oted a bove, t he Huxley photos were r emoved sometime l ater. The Curator o f Research Photographs a t Princeton U niversity, M s. Shari Taylor, has s uggested t hat t he Huxley photographs m ight b e among t he 1 96 published b y Brünnow a nd v on Domaszewski ( nine o f Jerash a nd 1 87 o f Petra), o r even a mong t he t hirty-seven s till u npublished o f Petra. I f so, t here w as n o a cknowledgement o f t his. There i s n o i ndication t hat photographs i n D ie Provincia Arabia were t aken b y anyone other t han t he a uthors. The w hereabouts of t he Huxley collection t hus r emains a mystery. I t may b e t hat s omeone i n h is f amily has possession o f t hem.
E .
The Palestine Exploration Fund Collection in London During t he e diting o f t he photograph c atalogues r epublished h ere, I contacted t he Palestine Exploration Fund office i n London r egarding t heir collection. D r. Rupert Chapman, t he Executive Secretary, k indly s ent me t he 1 985 r eprint o f t he c atalogue compiled i n 1 975, which i tself was t he " correlation of t wo e xisting c atalogues which were published i n 1 894 a nd 1 920 a nd w hich c onsisted of a s election of photographs o ffered for s ale a s r eprints."
The r eprint c atalogue e ditors c arefully noted t hat i t i s not complete, and promised t hat i t w ill e ventually i nclude t he e ntire photograph c ollection a t t he P EF. The p resent c atalogue l ists 1 375 p hotographs. T he vast majority o f t hese a re o f western Palestine a nd t he Jordan Valley, but f or t he s tudent o f Roman Arabia I n ote t he f ollowing: Bostra ( 7), Der c g( 2), Suwaydg ( 1), Q anawgt ( 2), Shuhba ( 5). These a re u nder n o s pecific heading, b ut a re o bviously g rouped a s s ites i n modern Syria. U nder t he heading " East of t he Jordan a nd t he Dead S ea" 1 17 photographs a re c atalogued, mostly o f c Amman, Arak a l-Amir, Jerash a nd K erak. Under t he h eading " Petra District a nd S inai" t here a re f ifty-six photographs r egistered. When I v isited t he P EF o ffice, D r. Chapman g raciously a llowed me t o v iew w hat I could o f t he c ollection i n o ne a fternoon. The card c atalogue o f photos produced a n u nexpect r esult: s eventy-seven o f t he 1 01 Dumas photographs f rom t he 1 875 a lbum i ssued t o members of t he APES a re k ept i n f ile d rawers i n t he b asement of t he PEF. These a re mounted prints, a ll 3 8 cm by 2 8 c m, and i n generally good c ondition. I a lso d iscovered i n n earby f ile drawers t hree more Dumas photos n ot p art of t he album collection. I n ote t hese h ere f or t hose w ho may b e i nterested:
2 52
( 1)
No.534 - " Palestine: The date 1 889 and corner. Unmounted.
Tombeau d e Rachel" t he n ame " Dumas P "
( 2)
Un-numbered - " Jerusalem: s ize). Undated, w ith t he Beyrouth". Mounted.
- " Bethlehem" ( same (3 ) No.517 P " i n one c orner. Mounted.
( 20 X 2 7 cm ). a ppears i n one
Porte de Jaffa" ( same l egend " Dumas Photographie ä
s ize ).
Dated
1 889,
" Dumas
These t hree a re now f iled s eparately, b ut were o nce p art of t he F inn Collection. There may be others i n f ile d rawers n ot s een by me. The t wenty-four p hotos missing f rom t he PEF Dumas a lbum a re t o be o rdered f rom t he D umbarton Oaks collection n oted a bove. The s eventy-seven n ow on f ile a re on copy negatives a nd may b e o rdered f rom t he PEF office.
F .
The Middle East Centre Collection, St. Antony's College, Oxford I a m i ndebted t o Ms. G illian G rant, Archivist o f p hotographic a rchive a t t he Middle East Centre, p roviding t he i nformation g iven h ere:
t he f or
" The a rchive n ow contains some f orty-five photoprahpic c ollections made u p o f a lbums, l oose p rints, l antern s lides a nd n egative - a bout 1 00,000 s eparate i mages i n t otal - dating f rom t he 1 860's t o t he 1 960's, and covering most a reas o f t he m iddle e ast. n 4 6 The Centre's a rchive i ncludes t he c omplete photograph c ollection o f t he Jerusalem a nd East Mission, among t hem s ome o f t he e arliest o n f ile. There a re a lso private collections o f s uch d istinguished p ersonages a s Dame Freya S tark, S ir Harold MacMichael a nd H . St.-John Philby. Ms. G rant i s n ow i n t he process of preparing a complete c atalogue of t he Middle East Centre c ollection. Some 1 7,000 i tems a re a lready a vailable i n microfiche f ile, a nd c an be o btained f rom t he I nter Documentation Company, BV t he Netherlands upon r equest.
7 .
The Catalogue of Casts made by
t he AAES
i n 1 899-1900
Butler p repared preliminary r eports f or t he t wo major e xpeditions h e h eaded i n 1 899 a nd 1 904, a nd i n e ach he noted i n p assing, but n ot i n d etail, t he material r emains brought back f rom Syria t o t he United States. For t he e arlier s urvey h e w rote:
46
G rant
( 1984)
5 8.
2 53
The t angible r esults, c onsisting o f material f or t he making of n ew maps, photographs, measurements a nd notes of t he a rchitecture, copies a nd s queezes o f t he i nscriptions, t ogether with a n umber o f s queezes o f a rchitectural d etails, w ere s ent at once t o t he United States . ... Princeton University h as v ery k indly o ffered u s t he u se o f commodious quarters, i n t he n ew l ibrary building [ i. e. t he F irestone L ibrary ] f or t he work o f making casts and p reparing t he o ther material f or publication."' For
t he
l ater
e xpedition
h e
h ad
t his
t o
s ay:
A great number o f s queezes o f i nscriptions and o f a rchitectural details were made ... t hese a re now i n Princeton, where t he work o f making plaster c asts f rom t he s queezes i s u nder w ay. Full collections of s everal h undred p hotographs 48 w ill s oon be a vailable . ... . ... we collected many coins, d ating f rom t he 3 rd c entury B .C. t o t he 7th A .D., making a s eries a lmost complete t hat covers a period of a t housand years . ... [ there a re a lso ] smaller collections of glass and t erra c otta, a nd a f ew s pecimens o f o rnaments i n g old, s ilver a nd b ronze, t ogether w ith beads a nd s eals . ..." 9 The f inal e xpedition was t oo brief f rom Butler, a nd h is t ravel notes s queezes a nd photographs were t aken. 5 °
t o e licit i ndicate
a r eport o nly t hat
The material r emains mentioned ( including t hose noted by Brünnow, Part 3 above ) a re a lready p roving t o b e valuable t o t he i nterested s cholar. John W ilkinson has demonstrated h ow t he c areful s tudy o f Butler's own notes and d rawings c an i lluminate a comparative analysis o f early churches i n Syria beyond what Butler h imself w rote. 5 1 Generous a ssistance by f aculty a nd s taff members a t Princeton University e nabled me t o c onduct a preliminary s earch of t he a rchives i n t he Department of A rt and Archaeology' s " Expedition Room". This r evealed a s mall number of photos a nd a l arge n umber o f n egatives ( duplicates of t hose i n t he " Vault") r elating t o t he e xpeditions i n Syria. Most a re i n n eed o f sorting a nd f iling. A p rofessor i n t he C lassics Department k indly s howed me t he contents o f a l arge d rawer i n t he departmental l ibrary c ontaining t wo d ozen o r more s queezes
47
48
49
5 ° 5 1
note
Butlpr ( 1900) 4 39. Butler ( 1905) 3 99. Butler ( 1907) 1 85-186. Butler ( 1930) 8 3-108 passim. W ilkinson ( 1984). S ee e specially 1 1.
2 54
1 13
n ote
1 a nd
1 16
o f Greek i nscriptions, a nd a l arge box o f f ifty o r more s queezes of i nscriptions i n v arious l anguages i n t he F irestone L ibrary. These appear f or t he most p art u nlabelled a nd uncatalogued. The Curator o f Collections a nd Classical A rt k indly s howed me t he Museum's c ollection o f statuary, S afaitic i nscriptions a nd s mall f inds f rom t he v arious e xpeditions. I d id n ot s ee a ny c asts, but a t t he t ime my main concern was t he photographs. The o nly c ast c atalogue which e xists i s t he o ne p ublished a fter t he AAES s urvey. I t i s e vident f rom B utler's r eferences t hat c asts o f i nscriptions a nd a rchitectural f eatures were made i n Princeton f rom s queezes t aken i n t he f ield during t he P UAES s urveys. To my k nowledge t his material was never c atalogued s eparately, n or a dded t o t he o riginal c atalogue a s a s upplement. The c asts r egistered i n t he AAES c atalogue t otal e ighty-two. F ourteen o f t hese a re of a rchitectural f eatures, t hirty-one o f "ornamental d iscs" a nd t he r emaining t hirty-seven of s elected e pigraphy ( predominantly G reek). The c atalogue i tself i s s ubdivided i nto t hose t hree c ategories, and t he n umbering s cheme i s s equential f or t he f irst t wo. For r easons k nown o nly t o t he c ataloguer t he n umbering s equence o f the i nscriptions was a ltered, s o t hat t he t otal s hown i s s eventy-four r ather t han e ighty-two. This i ntentional c onfusion w as i ntroduced when i t b ecame apparent t hat e ight o f t he i nscriptions appear o n c asts of a rchitectural f eatures a lready l isted. For i nstance, t he o nly Latin i nscription a mong t he t hirty-seven was c arved i nto t he s tele r egistered a s n o.11 i n t he s equence u nder " Greek a nd L atin I nscriptions". The l ack o f l ogic and common s ense d isplayed h ere i s i n k eeping w ith o ther a spects o f t he P rinceton publications noted a bove. I f t his c atalogue h ad b een a ugmented, o r s ubsumed i n a l arger e dition, i t i s u nlikely t hat a ny corrective a lterations would h ave been m ade. S ince t he c asts t hemselves w ere u ndoubtedly g iven t he numbers i n t he c atalogue, I h ave n ot a ttempted t o r e-arrange t he s equence o r t he n umbers.
2 55
CATALOGUE OF PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN
EXPRESSLY FOR THE
AMERICAN PALESTINE EXPLORATION SOCIETY
DURING A RECONNAISSANCE
EAST OF
THE
JORDAN
IN THE
1875
NEW YORK. PUBLISHED
AT BEIRUT FOR THE
SOCIETY.
1876
[ PHOTOGRAPHS
BY TANCREDE
1830
- 1905]
2 57
R.
DUMAS
AUTUMN OF
L ISTS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC VIEWS
Taken e xpressly f or t he American Palestine Exploration S ociety, during a reconnaissance east of t he Jordan i n t he Autumn of 1 875.
1 .
BARUK CEDARS,
ABOVE MAASIR,
FROM THE
SOUTH-WEST.
Baruk i s s ituated near t he source of t he ancient Bostrenus which f lows i nto t he s ea not f ar f rom S idon. The g roup of cedars here represented i s two hours above and s outh-east of t he v illage. It i s probably a r emnant of t he g rove f rom which Hiram obtained beams f or Solomon's t emple. 2 . f ine
THE GREAT CEDAR AT BARUK. This t ree, one of t he group described under No.1, i s representative of t he cedars a s t hey a re at present.
a
3 .
TEMPLE AT THELTHATHA, OR " NEBY SUFA" AS I T I S SOMETIMES CALLED, FROM THE SOUTH-WEST. Thelthatha i s two hours and a h alf, a l ittle s outh of w est, f rom Rasheiya, on a r idge between t he Litany and t he H asbany. This i s one of t he numerous t emples a round and u pon Hermon, a ll of which f aced t he east. The west end and t he i nside of t he north wall, which a lone r emains s tanding, a ppear i n t he picture. The order i s Ionic, and a portion o f the pediment remains. There a re no bevelled stones h ere, but all a re n icely s quared. See No.4. 4 .
TEMPLE AT THELTHATHA. THE NORTH WALL, FROM THE NORTHWEST. There a re n ine courses of s tone between t he s tylobate a nd the entablature. At t he extreme l eft of t he picture a m an i s standing, whose head and s houlders r each t he s tylobate. Between t hat point and t he west f ace of t he t emple much debris h as a ccumulated. The t emple was s eventy-two f eet and s ix i nches i n l ength by t hirty-five f eet i n extreme width. I ts s ituation was r etired but b eautiful, and t he v iew of Mount Hermon f rom t his point i s m agnificent. See No.5. 5 .
MOUNT HERMON, OR JEBEL ESH SHEIKH, LOOKING SOUTH-EAST FROM THELTHATHA. This p icture was t aken on t he 4th of September 1 875, a nd shows patches of snow s till remaining on t he summit. On a scending t he mountain, t hree days l ater, some of t hese p atches were f ound t o be several hundred yards l ong, and f ifteen t o t wenty f eet deep. The v iew of Jebel Esh Sheikh f rom t his point i s very i mposing. I f t he picture i s c losely e xamined t he s eparate r idges of t he mountain w ill b e seen, a s well a s t he strange conformation of t he rocks a nd
gorges.
2 59
6 .
TEMPLE AT
RUKHLEH,
FROM THE
SOUTH-EAST.
This place i s about t hree hours f rom Rasheiya i n a north-easterly d irection. It contains two t emples, a nd t he photograph i s a general v iew of t he o ne a l ittle t o t he north-east of t he v illage. This building, originally a heathen t emple, was afterwards converted i nto a c hurch. I ts entrance was t o t he e ast but, when i t became a c hurch, t hat entrance was closed up and an apse constructed there, s ome of t he s hell-shaped s tones o f which a re s till found among t he l arge blocks i n t he f oreground. I n t he south wall i s t he s ingular f igure s upposed by some to r epresent t he head of Baal, a further description of which w ill be f ound under No.7. Following t he south wall f rom t his head, t o t he extreme l eft of t he picture, will be s een o n one o f t he s tones a portion of a w ing, which r esembles t hat of t he Assyrian eagle. See further under No.8. Within t he ruins appear s ome of t he f allen columns, of which t here w ere t wo rows running up t he i nterior. In the d istance a re r idges of r ock, w ith here and t here a s mall f ield cleared f or cultivation. 7 .
MEDALLION HEAD AT RUKHLEH. This s ingular object, built i nto t he south wall of t he t emple which appears i n No.6, has been t hought by s ome t o represent t he head of Baal; but t his question has n ot yet been determined. The s tone, where i t i s now f ound, i s not i n i ts original position. The s ize of t he f ace i s three f eet f our i nches by two f eet four i nches. An effort has been made at s ome t ime t o s plit off t he f ace f rom t he body of t he s tone, but t he attempt has r esulted i n nearly ruining a very r emarkable r elic of a ntiquity. 8 .
W ING AT RUKHLEH. This wing i s on a s tone on t he south s ide of t he t emple near t he western end, and i s j ust perceptible i n t he general v iew No.6. The part of t he s tone which c ontains t he remainder of t his s culpture i s l ying f ace down, b ut t he other w ing w ith t he head can be t raced. One other w ing o f t his description was found at Sia, l ess t hat half a n hour South-east of Kunawat. A f ew more of t hese s trange but i nteresting objects have been f ound i n connection w ith some of t he most ancient ruins of t he country; for instance a t Amrit, one hour south of Tortosa, t here are two. Also one at Um e l Auamid, a nd t wo at Jebeil which i s i n s ight north f rom Beirut. However t hey may have come t o be s cattered t hus i n western Syria t hey a re u ndoubtedly Assyrian i n t heir o rigin. 9 .
I NTERIOR OF THE TEMPLE AT RUKHLEH, FROM THE WEST. The l ower portion of t he Apse a t t he eastern end i s s een, a nd also s ome of t he f allen columns, of which t wo
rows r an up t he i nterior. This picture gives of t he w ild a nd rocky character of Hermon.
2 60
a g ood
i dea
1 0.
ANCIENT BRIDGE AND ENTRANCE TO BANIAS, FROM THE SOUTH. Large bevelled stones appear i n t he lower portion of the wall, and they exist also i n t he bridge. Numerous f ragments of ancient columns have been built i nto t he wall.
Over the gateway i s an Arabic i nscription s tating when the works were repaired. On the tops of the houses are seen t he booths where people s leep i n summer to avoid s corpions with which the place abounds. 1 1A.
THE
CAVE,
OR
GROTTO
AT
BANIAS.
In front of this cave are many f allen rocks, and the ruins of t he ancient t emple of Pan, f rom under which i ssues t he water of one of the sources of t he Jordan. The f ountain bursts forth i n a l arge s tream, which however i s h idden by the t hicket of oleanders and poplars. The white building i s t he Wely el Khudr, or St. George. The hill above t he grotto i s supposed by some to be the Mount of Transfiguration, Matthew XVII.1 to 1 3. Banias, c alled i n Christ' s t ime Cesarea Philippi, was t he most northern l imit of the journeyings of our Savior. 1 1B. Another f ountain and 1 2.
view of the grotto t he stream i tself.
at See
Banias, No. 1 1A.
THE
R IGHT
NICHE, W ITH INSCRIPTION, THE FOUNTAIN OF BANIAS.
ON
The
shell-shaped,
top
of
the
niche
i s
a small artificial cave of several f eet i n upper part of the picture, to the l eft, mouth of the grotto appears. 1 3.
MOUTH
OF
THE
GROTTO
AT
BANIAS,
W ITH
showing
OF
THE
and
the
GROTTO
below
i t
depth. I n a portion of
TWO
N ICHES
AT
AT i s the t he
THE
RIGHT There are here three niches, i n the picture. This grotto, and once a sanctuary of Pan, and the
only two of which appear the adjoining t emple, was words " the priest of Pan"
occur i n one of the i nscriptions found t he grotto i s c hoked by immense f allen
here. rocks,
The mouth of some of which
a re
seen.
1 4.
_ CASTLE OF BANIAS, SOMETI MES CALLED SUBEIBEH, FROM THE GROVE OF HAZURY, LOOKING WEST. This wonderful castle i s s ituated on t he summit of a
very sharp eminence, about one h undred or more feet above
hour i t.
f rom Banias and twelve The view f rom i ts walls
over the Huleh plain, and the country f ar t o the north-west a nd south, i s very f ine. This fortress consists of a c itadel and a castle. The citadel i s at the eastern end, a nd i s one hundred and f ifty feet higher t han the castle p roper at the west end. Many different styles of masonry appear
i n
Phoenicians t he fortress c an
be
seen
prominently
t he t o i s
ruins,
representing
the Crusaders and on t he south s ide
a l ittle
t o
f rom
wall.
the
the
l eft
2 61
races
Moslems. near t he of
a tower
f rom
the
The entrance to western end, and which
projects
1 5.
GATE WHAT
OF THE FORTRESS AT BANIAS, SHOWING A PORTION WAS MENTIONED UNDER NO.14 AS THE CASTLE.
OF
This v iew i s t aken f rom t he round tower, seen i n No.14, a l ittle to t he r ight of t he gate and projecting prominently f rom t he wall. The door, at t he extreme l eft i n the picture, l eads i nto l arge galleries which r un round the south-west angle of t he castle, the outer walls o f which are pierced at i ntervals with loopholes. To t he r ight of this opening c istern of immense s ize. with underground passages 1 6.
VIEW FROM OVER LOOKING EAST. In
No.14 really
the
THE
foreground
a s being a part of
i s The and
a l arger one which l eads t o a whole fortress i s honeycombed chambers.
GATEWAY i s
the
round
1 7.
many
CASTLE
t ower,
OF
BANIAS,
mentioned
the arched form of the i n the wall extending
t iers of stone. The bevelled l argest kind, although i n some are
THE
under
to the right of the entrance, and which i s the wall. A portion of the roof h as
f allen i n, showing loophole also appears
t here
OF
of
immense
interior. One through three
stones seen here a re not t he portions of this fortress
s ize.
THE C ITADEL OF THE CASTLE AT BANIAS, OF THE FORTRESS, AT A POINT NEAR THE LOOKING EAST.
FROM THE I NTERIOR NORTH S IDE
A portion of the almost perpendicular slope and deep ravine, which bound the fortress on the north, i s here seen. In f ront of t he west wall of the c itadel i s a deep fosse cut i n the solid rock, which does not appear in t he picture, by which i t was entirely cut off f rom t he rest of the fortress. 1 8.
OAK GROVE AT HAZURY, FROM THE EAST. This, the most beautiful oak grove i n Syria, covering the t op and upper s lopes of a gently rounded hill, i s about one hour f rom Banias and east of the castle. The trees number one hundred or more. It i s d ifficult to c ount t hem accurately
for
the
reason
that
they
grow
i n
clusters,
as
each separate group of four or s ix o r more, as the case be, were from one original root. Some of these oaks quite. l arge; one of them measuring f ifteen f eet
i f may a re i n
circumference at breast height, and s ixteen and a h alf f eet where the t runk divides into branches. Within the grove i s the tomb of a celebrated Moslem named Sheikh Othman e l Hazury. 1 9.
FOUNTAIN
Dan,
Tell i s
fountain
OF
THE
JORDAN
el Kadi, the about forty of
the
AT
TELL
EL
KADI.
ancient Laish and still later minutes west from Banias.
Jordan
Banias described under fountain i s t he site of
i s
much
l arger
than
t he
called This one
at
No.11A. The r ise beyond t he the ancient c ity. What appears t o
be the l argest t ree, i n the centre of the background, i s really two of immense s ize: one an oak and t he other a terebinth. Their branches t ouch each other, and f rom a
2 62
d istance t hey appear t o be one t ree. This picture w ill g ive a good i dea of the wealth of vegetation with which t he b anks of t he u pper Jordan, and t he Huleh plain, a re c overed. 2 0
TO
2 3.
PANORAMA OF
LAKE
PHIALA.
This l ake, about one hour south-east of t he castle of Banias, i s almost perfectly round and hence i s called " Phiala," or t he bowl. I ts c ircumference i s about one mile a nd a h alf i n extent. The s urrounding h ills a re one h undred and f ifty t o two hundred f eet higher t hat t he l ake. I t occupies t he mouth of a n e xtinct crater, and i s a place o f special i nterest t o t he geologist. 2 4.
TEMPLE
AT
M USMEIH.
Musmeih, t he Phaeno of t he Greeks and Romans, about t en hours south of Damascus, i s i n t he north end of t he L ejah. In t he Roman t imes i t was a place of g reat i mportance. This t emple i s one of t he best preserved i n t he Hauran. During t he Christian period i t was u sed a s a c hurch, and subsequently a s a mosque. It will be observed t hat t he entrance was walled up and remodelled, when t he e difice ceased t o s erve i ts original purpose. At t he r ight o f the entrance t here were originally t hree columns c orresponding t o t hose that s till remain on t he l eft. The w alls have been much i njured by e arthquakes, and t here a re m any capitals a nd broken columns s cattered among t he ruins. M any Greek i nscriptions a re f ound here. There i s a l ong o ne on t he architrave, j ust above t he t hree columns, of w hich only t he f irst l etter appears. On t he upper portion o f the base of each column i nscriptions a re a lso s een. T here i s one of f orty l ines at t he r ight of t he entrance t o t he original t emple, and a rother of considerable l ength on t he l intel a bove t he s ame. From t he l ast we l earn t hat t he t emple was erected by a commander of t he t hird Gallic l egion t hen s tationed i n t he c ity, during t he r eigns of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Verus, A .D.161 t o 1 [69]. The l ong i nscription of f orty l ies s peaks of Phaeno a s t he capital of Trachon, t hus e stablishing t he i dentity of t he Lejah with t he Trachonitis o ver which Philip t he Tetrarch r uled, Luke 1 11.1. 2 5.
V IEW OF A SECTION OF THE I NTERIOR OF THE TEMPLE AT MUSMEIH. The columns are Corinthian although t hose on t he o utside are Doric. The wreathes, two o r more f eet below t he capitals, will be noticed a s peculiar. The apse o f t he c hurch, with s hell-shaped roof, appears to good advantage. The roof i s f ormed of s tone s labs, which i n t wo places h ave s pread apart s howing t he l ight. 2 6.
TEMPLE AT SULEIM, FROM THE NORTH-EAST. Suleim i s about one hour north-west f rom K unawat. The roof a nd upper portion of t he walls have f allen i nto t he building and nearly f ill t he i nterior. A s ection o f t he pediment remains, and both a bove and below i t s ome v ery
2 63
beautiful work appears. This e difice when perfect must have been exceedingly beautiful. From Greek inscriptions f ound h ere i t has been t hought by s ome t hat t his p lace was t he Neapolis of ecclesiastical history, whose bishop was p resent at t he councils of Chalcedon a nd Constantinople. 2 7.
TEMPLE AT
K UNAWAT,
FROM THE
NORTH-EAST.
Kunawat i s t he K enath of t he Old Testament, a nd abounds i n s plendid ruins. This building i s a f ine s pecimen of t he Roman " prostyle," i . e. a t emple w ith four columns; i n f ront i ts " pronaos", t he p art of a t emple i n f ront o f t he n aos, and " cella" or " naos," t he chamber of a t emple s upposed t o be t he peculiar habitation of t he diety, whose s tatue i t u sually contained. The b eautiful Corinthian columns i n f ront are well preserved. A f ine antique head was f ound here, a nd placed i n position to be photographed with t he t emple, and a ppears on the r ight o f t he p icture. 2 8
TO
2 9, PANORAMA OF K UNAWAT, FROM THE
THE " SERAI" NORTH-EAST.
OR
" CONVENT OF
JOB"
AT
At t he north or f ront of t hese buildings t here i s a l arge paved area which was vaulted underneath. Of some of t his i mmense group of buildings i t i s i mpossible t o t ell t he original purpose, s ince only two o r t hree remain even i n a t olerable s tate of p reservation. Two of t hem have been u sed a s churches. 3 0.
T HEATRE AT KUNAWAT, FROM THE WEST. This t heatre i s s ituated on t he east s ide, a t t he very bottom of t he deep wady which bounds t he city on t he east and north-east. There a re at p resent n ine r ows of s eats, which a re not distinctly s een i n t he picture o n a ccount of some small s hade t rees i n f ront of the a rena, which i s now u sed a s a garden. The l argest t ree, at t he r ight of t he picture, i s an oak, whose roots have grown under t he s tones of t he benches at t hat point and d isplaced t hem. An i nscription runs t he entire l ength of t he wall back of t he a rena, which s tates t hat t he t heatre was built f or t he c itizens by a magistrate n amed M . Oulpius S usius. The s pectators here e njoyed a most r emarkable p rospect t owards t he west, t here being spread out before them a l arge portion of t he Hauran plain, beyond which was v isible a lso t he snowy summit of Mount Hermon. 3 1.
NYMPHAEUM AT KUNAWAT, FROM THE WEST. This i s on t he east of t he wady, a f ew rods above t he t heatre described u nder No.30. I t was probably a public bath, and behind i t t here i s a small s tream f lowing under g round which s upplied i t with w ater. 3 2.
ANCIENT CASTLE OR TOWER AT KUNAWAT, FROM THE W EST. This i s on t he e ast of t he w ady, about ninety feet f rom t he nymphaeum described under No.31, and d irectly a bove i t, t he bank between t he t wo points being n early perpendicular. The great bevelled s tones of the c astle,
2 64
w hich h ave t he r ods t o t he t hirty f eet i n o rigin.
f ull r ough f ace, a re distinctly s een. A f ew e ast of t his castle i s a round t ower about d iameter, which i s apparently o f Roman
3 3.
ANTIQUE HEAD AT KUNAWAT. This h as been s upposed t o represent t he h ead of A starte, but t here i s no means of deciding s uch a question w ith certainty. The object i s bottom upwards, and t he p icture must be reversed t o be examined. On the head i s a c rown a nd t he upright portions under t he man's h and a re r ays, which have been s adly borken. Some object s eems t o b e wound about t he head, j ust below and t o t he l eft of t he c rown. It i s i mpossible t o do l ittle more t owards an e xplanation of t his curious and i nteresting relic t han t o d escribe and s uggest. 3 4.
PERIPTERAL TEMPLE AT K UNAWAT, FROM THE SOUTH-WEST. This t emple, called peripteral because surrounded by columns, i s a bout a quarter of a mile west of Kunawat, a nd i s one of t he most beautiful and s triking objects i n t he East, a s s een when approached e ither f rom t he west or n orth. The portico f aced t he east and consisted of a double row of Corinthian columns, s ix i n e ach row. The t emple stands o n a platform about twelve f eet high, beneath which a re vaults. The bases of t he columns had i nscriptions, most of which are now mutilated and nearly or quite i llegible. 3 5.
T EMPLE AT ATIL, FROM THE EAST. Atil i s forty-five minutes west of K unawat. There are here two s mall t emples, t he photograph being of the one t o the south-east of t he t own. The f ront consists of two columns between antae, on all of which e xisted brackets f or s tatues, i n a s tyle s imilar t o t hose at Palmyra. The s tyle i s Corinthian, a nd some v ery beautiful work appears on t he portions t hat yet remain perfect. The building i s now u sed a s a dwelling house. On t he bases of t he antae t here were i nscriptions, one of which remains and s tates t hat t he t emple was e rected i n t he fourteenth year of Antoninus Pius, or i n A .D.151. 3 6.
T EMPLE AT SUWEIDEH W ITH SHEIKH'S HOUSE. I n t he Roman period t his was one of t he l argest and most i mportant c ities of t he Hauran, and contained many s plendid edifices which a re now i n s hapeless r uins. The modern building s een i n t he picture i s t he s heikh's house, about which are t he r emains of a t emple which was s urrounded by a colonnade of a very peculiar s tyle of architecture. 3 7. and
CASTLE AT SALCHAD, FROM THE WEST. This i s one of t he most i mposing f ortresses commanded a v iew of t he s urrounding country
miles
t o
t he
n orth,
south,
east
2 65
and
west.
I t
i n Syria, f or many
s tands
on
t he
s ummit of a conical h ill composed of volcanic r ock and c inders, which i s about t hree hundred f eet high a nd i s e vidently an extinct c rater. The castle i s s urrounded by a deep t rench, and i ts i nterior i s a l abyrinth o f halls, galleries, chambers and v aults, which a re now i n a very confused and ruined state. This place i s t he Salcha of the Old Testament, under t he dominion of Og k ing of Bashan, and was t he easternmost point reached by t he Hebrews. T he town i tself, consisting of s everal hundred ruined stone h ouses, does not appear i n t he picture. 3 8
TO
4 1. PANORAMA OF THE SOUTH-EAST S ECTION OF FROM THE CASTLE, LOOKING NORTH-EAST.
BOZRAH
The building on t he e xtreme l eft i s c alled t he " Church of t he Monk Baheria". A Greek i nscription o ver the e ntrance s tates t hat i t was e rected b y Julianus, Archbishop o f Bozrah i n A .D.513, i n honor o f t he blessed martyrs, Sergius, Bachus, and Leontius. The building with a tower near t he reservoir, i s a mosque. The reservoir t o the r ight i s about f our hundred and t wenty by f ive hundred and t hirty f eet i n s ize, and twenty f eet deep. The conical s ummit of e l K leib, which i s an extinct c rater and t he most r emarkable peak of t he Hauran mountains, appears i n the background, and i n t he distance f ar t o t he r ight S alchad castle can be s een. Bozrah i s a mass o f ruins which l ie f or t he most part a s t hey were l eft b y t he earthquake which destroyed t he c ity i n t he middle o f t he twelfth c entury, and t his picture gives a good i dea of t he confused and desolate appearance of t he ruined c ities of t he Hauran. 4 2
4 3. TEMPLE AND COLUMNS AT BOZRAH, FROM THE S OUTHWEST. There are two main s treets running t hrough t he c entre of t he c ity, one f rom east t o west, and t he other from north t o south, which c ross e ach o ther at r ight a ngles. The f our columns at t he l eft occupy t he north-west corner of t his i ntersection, a nd s tand d iagonally to the s treet i nstead of parallel t o i t. Behind t hem are t he remains of an e difice, but without e xcavations t he n ature of i t c annot be determined. These Corinthian columns are of great s ize, and about f orty-five f eet i n height. On t he opposite or north east corner of t he s treet are t he r emains of a nother building of which only a s mall portion of t he wall a nd two columns, one of which i s f ar i n t he r ear of t he other, are yet
TO
s tanding.
4 4.
CASTLE AT BOZRAH, FROM THE SOUTH-EAST. This castle, s ituated south o f t he city a nd just beyond t he walls, i s one o f t he l argest a nd s trongest i n Syria. About i t i s a deep t rench which can be f illed with water f rom t he i mmense r eservoir near i t, s een i n No.38, and w ith which i t i s connected by an a queduct. In i ts base a re many l arge bevelled s tones, s ome of which a re over t wenty f eet i n l ength. The castle contains many Greek
2 66
i nscriptions, and the t owers command an extensive v iew t he surrounding plain, which i s dotted with ruins. In f oreground of t his picture are two Bedowin t ents. 4 5.
THEATRE
I N
THE
CASTLE
AT
of t he
BOZRAH.
It i s not known why this t heatre was built within the c astle. The s ix upper t iers of benches are s een, a s are a lso the arched vomitories underneath. Round t he t op bench r an a Doric colonnade; some of t he columns are still s tanding, two only appearing i n t he picture. 4 6.
CHAMBERS
W ITH
P ILASTERS
I N
THE
THEATRE
AT
BOZRAH.
On each s ide of the s tage, belonging t o t he t heatre described i n No.45, was a l arge chamber whose exterior, i n e ach case, was adorned with Doric pilasters corresponding t o the colonnade on the upper t ier of benches. 4 7.
CHURCH AND CONVENT AT CORNER OF THE TOWN.
UM EL
JEMAL,
IN
THE
SOUTH-WEST
These ruins are s ituated, about s ixteen miles s outh-east of Bozrah, i n the desert. The s ite i s s upposed by some to be that of Beth-gamul, Jeremiah XLVIII.23. Owing to the dangers attending a visit t o t his place i t has s eldom been reached by Europeans. These are among t he most i nteresting ruins i n t he Hauran. Some of t he houses are t hree, and three and a half stories s tairs and rooms are, i n many deserted but yesterday. 4 8.
A SERIES OF ARCHES CENTRE OF THE WEST
high. cases,
The doors, and a s perfect a s i f
AT UM EL JEMAL, NEARLY S IDE OF THE TOWN.
I N
THE
This place appears t o have been an important Roman, and Christian c ity, but details of i ts history are unknown. There are many i nscriptions here i n Greek, Latin and Aramaic, of which only a portion have been copied. It may be mentioned, a s a matter of i nterest, that t he ruins of all the cities of the Lejah, and t he Hauran, f rom Musmeih t o Bozrah and um el Jemal, are composed of hard
basaltic
4 9
5 5. PANORAMA Of this city
TO
h istory.
Its
rock.
ruins
OF JERASH. of columns however
but
indicate
l ittle that
i t
great wealth a nd splendor. A street nearly t hrough the c ity f rom north to south, which both s ides w ith columns. This street panorama i s l ess at
the
south
o r
r ight
hand
see
Nos.67,
covered with blocks At Jerash t he in building, while
6 8,
we
have
a temple,
s ee
to 5 8, and t he f orum, i s at t he extreme and
6 9.
The
ground
known
i n
a place
of
a mile l ong was l ined appears i n
only as f ar north a s the Temple of t he than two thirds of i ts entire l ength.
l arge theatre, see Nos.57 The Temple of the Sun picture,
i s was
i s
Sun, which Commencing No.56; see l eft
the
No.59. of t he
l iterally
of stone and broken columns. l imestone begins t o be extensively eastward, throughout t he Hauran
2 67
ran on t he
used and
Lejah, the almost basaltic rock. 5 6.
A TEMPLE
AT
universal
JERASH,
building material
FROM THE
i s
t he
hard
NORTH-WEST.
This t emple, which stands on high ground facing north-east, i s very near the south g ate, and overlooks
t he t he
l ong
was
street
and
a
l arge
portion
of
the
city.
I t
surrounded by columns, and had a portico consisting of a double row of Corinthian columns with e ight i n each row. The s ide walls of t he building remain i n which were r ows of niches, those on t he west wall alone appearing in t he picture. The capitals and entablature here s how some beautiful work. 5 7
TO
5 8. This
THE GREAT theatre,
THEATRE AT JERASH, FROM THE EAST. s ituated at the south end of t he
near the t emple described under t he spectator, f rom t he upper overlook a l arge portion of the about f ive was a broad 5 9.
thousand people. Above t he tenth passage running round the t heatre.
FORUM AT
city
No.56, f aced the north, and benches at least, could town. It would accommodate row o f
seats
JERASH.
This c ircle of columns i s at the s outh end of t he long street, and i n f ront of the theatre described under Nos.57 to 5 8. It consisted originally of about one hundred columns, of which upwards of f ifty are yet standing. The entablature r an round t he whole unbroken, except, p erhaps, at the north where the main street l eads into the city. The columns had Ionic capitals, while most of those which l ine t he long street had Corinthian c apitals. The s urface of this enclosure was paved, upwards of three hundred feet. 6 0.
EXTERIOR OF
THE
JERASH. The bevelled
THEATRE
stones
and
AT
will
i ts
THE
be
greatest
NORTH
noticed,
OF but
diameter
THE
C ITY
they
i s
IN
a re
not
remarkable for s ize. Two main entrances t o the s eats are seen, and another and smaller one which was more p rivate. Some of the Corinthian columns with t heir entablature, with which
t he
standing. described accommodate
front
of
This theatre under Nos.47
whole
i s to
so
many
t he
arena
was
l ined,
really l arger 5 8, but i s not
a re
still
than t he one constructed t o
spectators.
6 1.
SECTION OF THE LONG STREET AT JERASH LOOKING FROM NEAR THE THEATRE DESCRIBED UNDER NO.60.
6 2.
SECTION OF THE LONG STREET AT JERASH LOOKING SOUTH, FROM A POINT NORTH OF THE MAIN STREET RUNNING T HROUGH THE
C ITY
The
temple
appear i n the covered with
FROM EAST No.56,
distance. columns
TO and
NORTH,
WEST. t he
The and
south
ground blocks
impassable.
2 68
t heatre here, as s o as
Nos. 57
a nd
58,
elsewhere, i s to be a lmost
6 3.
RUINS
OF
A BATH
AT
JERASH.
This building s ituated c ity, between the long street i nto numerous c hambers with walls. The f ront appears to of columns. 6 4.
FRONT
OF
A TEMPLE
AT
i n and high have
the northern part of t he the wady, was divided vaulted roofs and massive been adorned with a range
JERASH,
ON
THE
WEST
LONG STREET, A SHORT D ISTANCE SOUTH OF OR ENTRANCE TO THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN.
The view i s f rom the north-west. I n the remains are s everal n iches, above which i s most elegant work. See Nos.65 and 6 6. 6 5.
NICHE
IN
THE
BUILDING
SEEN
6 6.
NICHE RIGHT
IN OF
THE THE
BUILDING ONE SEEN
SEEN IN NO.64, I N NO.65.
6 7.
TEMPLE
and
This west
OF
THE
SUN
AT
I N
JERASH,
S IDE
THE
OF
THE
PROPYLAEUM wall which a cornice of
NO.64. AND
FROM THE
t emple, s ituated north of of t he long street, was
AT
THE
SOUTH-EAST.
the centre of the c ity undoubtedly t he l argest
and most magnificent structure i n Jerash. It occupied t he highest part of a l arge t errace and commanded a view of the whole town. Both the temple i tself, and the l arge area i n t he centre of which it stood, were surrounded with columns. Only eleven columns of the portico remain standing, two of which are without capitals. Inscriptions t hat this t emple was dedicated t o the sun.
found
here
state
6 8.
TEMPLE TO THE
OF THE SUN AT JERASH, FROM A POINT A L ITTLE SOUTH OF EAST, SHOWING ONLY TEN COLUMNS.
6 9.
TEMPLE
OF
The columns
THE
SUN
AT JERASH,
temple i s described i n are f orty-five feet
FROM THE
d iameter. This view shows the s ections t heir s ize, t he beautiful Corinthian s trange worn appearance of the top of one a re
without
NORTH.
part under No.67. i n height and f ive
These f eet in
of the columns, capitals, and the of t he two t hat
capitals.
7 0.
TRIUMPHAL ARCH AT JERASH, FROM THE SOUTH. This well preserved structure i s some distance f rom t he walls of t he city i n a southerly direction. The c entral arch i s about thirty f eet i n height, of which t he s ide arches are smaller patterns. Over each of t he l atter w ill be noticed rectangular niches resting on corbels. The s ingular vase-shaped s ections of the columns ornamented with acanthus l eaves are very unusual. It i s supposed that t his work i s not older than t he t ime of Trajan, but whatever i ts age i t i s a beautiful relic of antiquity and t he 7 1 Old
effect TO
7 3.
of
t he
whole
PANORAMA
This place Testament.
i s
OF
i s ES
striking. SALT,
supposed to The present
2 69
FROM THE
NORTH-WEST.
be t he Ramoth town occupies
Gilead of t he bottom
the and
t he two very s teep s ides of a deep w ady. The c astle i s s een on t he h ill t o t he l eft. There a re here some remains of t he Roman t imes, a nd a f ew which date f rom a much e arlier period. Es Salt i s now an i mportant c entre o f i nfluence i n t hat part of t he country e ast of the Jordan. 7 4,
THE CASTLE AT ES SALT, FROM THE WEST. This c astle, which i s o ccupied by a Turkish g arrison, s tands on t he s ummit of a h ill and i s a very conspicuous object. It i s s urrounded by a f osse which i s cut i n t he s olid rock. I n t he base are some l arge stones, but t he s tructure i tself i s of l ate origin. 7 5.
CAMP
OF
THE
EXPLORING EXPEDITION.
[ near
es-Salt]
7 6.
CASTLE AT HESBAN. The r uins of Hesban a re not of special i nterest, a lthough t he place i s i mportant i n connection w ith Old Testament h istory. The space occupied by t he ruins i s a l ittle over a mile i n c ircuit. From t he s ummit of t he h ill a commanding v iew i s obtained of t he plain of Moab to t he east and south, a lso of t he h ill country west of t he Dead Sea, a nd s ome portion of t he Jordan v alley. 7 7.
A RUIN NEAR THE FOUNTAIN OF HESBAN. About one hour north of t he c astle, and d escribed under No.76. It i s at present used a s a store-house o r corn magazine of Sheikh All Diab. GENERAL VIEW OF ARAK EL EMIR. This place i s about t hree hours a nd a h alf n orth f rom he d irection of e s Salt. Some t he f ountain of Hesban i n t i n Syria o utside of Baalbeck a re of t he l argest s tones n other r espects. f ound here, and the r uins are remarkable i 7 8.
7 9.
CASTLE AT ARAK EL EMIR, FROM THE EAST. This castle which f aces t he east, was b uilt by Hyrcanus about 1 80 B .C, and Josephus' account o f i t i s i nteresting and a ccurate, Antiquities 1 2.4.11. I t measures one hundred and twenty-four f eet f rom north t o s outh, a nd s ixty-four f eet f rom e ast t o west. S tones are f ound here f rom twenty t o twenty-five f eet i n l ength, and eight to t en f eet i n width. The upper course of t he walls was adorned with s culptures. The f igures of l ions, which appear i n t he picture, a re badly mutilated and others a re l ying among t he ruins i n t he s ame condition. They appear to h ave been bruised by battering r ams. About t wenty f eet f rom t he basement r uns a beading of Doric o rnaments, and a bove t he course of s culptures was a Doric e ntablature a nd frieze which has been t hrown down. 8 0.
CASTLE AT ARAK EL EMIR, FROM THE EAST, SHOWING THE SOUTH-EAST CORNER OF THE FRONT WALL. SEE NO.79.
2 70
8 1
TO
8 3. FACE OF THE ROCK IN WHICH ARE THE FAMOUS CHAMBERS AND STABLES AT ARAK EL EMIR, FROM THE SOUTH. These chambers consist of reservoirs, apartments f or dwellings, store-houses, halls and stables for horses. In one stable there are at l east one hundred mangers well preserved, with the holes i n the rock beside them where t he animals were t ied. Perhaps Josephus' account of these caverns which were excavated by Hyrcanus, i s t he best that has been written. See No.79. 8 4.
VIEW OF LOOKING
THE DEAD SEA, SOUTH-WEST.
8 5.
GENERAL
VIEW OF
Mashita
i s
THE
about
FROM A H ILL
RUIN
f ive
AT
NEAR
ARAK EL
EMIR,
MASHITA.
hours
f rom Hesban,
and
a l ittle
t o the east of t he Haj or Pilgrim' s road f rom Damascus to Mecca. A detailed account of this wonderful ruin i s given by Dr. Tristram i n his "Land of Moab," Chapters X I and X II, and in the appendix to the same volume Mr. Fergusson has attempted to f ix i ts date. Still t he origin and design of t his building do not appear a s yet to have been s atisfactorily 8 6.
VIEW OF
explained.
THE
DESCRIBED
I NTERIOR OF
UNDER
THE
ENTRANCE NO.85.
8 8.
ONE OF THE TOWERS OF THE DESCRIBED UNDER NO.85. There this
THE
were ruin.
Nos.86, RUIN
8 7 AT
and
8 8.
MASHITA,
NO.85.
8 7.
about
TO
See
RUIN
AT
MASHITA,
RUIN
twenty-five of It appears that
DESCRIBED
AT
UNDER
MASHITA,
these t owers the structure
or bastions was never
completed. Some animals are plainly s een i n t he ornamentation, and close examination will bring out many more. There a re Bedowin marks on t he s tones, and the names of some of t he Mecca pilgrims, but no i nscription of i mportance t his
has
building
yet may
been be
found
the
work
here. on
i t
Whatever i s
t he
age
of
exceedingly
r ich
and
beautiful. 8 9
TO
9 2. PANORAMA OF SOUTH-EAST. This i s Rabbath
Deuteronomy I II.11, i ron bedstead of Og
AMMAN,
FROM THE
Ammon
of
the
i t i s mentioned as king of Bashan was
CASTLE, Old
LOOKING
Testament.
In
t he place where kept a s a relic.
t he In
David' s t ime i t was besieged by Joab, and here Uriah was s lain. Commencing at the extreme l eft we have a building called the " Odeon" or small theatre, only a f ew paces distant from t he l arge one. The l arge t heatre, of which f orty-six t iers of s eats still remain, and which was partly excavated i n t he solid rock, would accommodate s ix thousand to eight t housand persons. In f ront of t he t heatre was a colonnade, of which eight columns remain stream, t he bed of which i s paved with north-westerly direction through the town,
2 71
standing. The stone, runs i n a and i s crossed
a t p resent by only one bridge, Roman, which i s o f a s ingle a rch. In t he f oreground a re t he ruins of a t emple. On t he bank of t he s tream, j ust a bove t he b ridge, t here i s a l arge g roup of buildings one of which was a l arge c hurch o r basilica. See Nos.93 and 9 4. Further up t he s tream i s a l arge ancient building with a t ower which has been used a s a mosque. In t he d istance, f ar up t he v alley, a re seen t he r uins of a t emple. The l arge s tones at t he right are t he r emains of a s ection of t he wall which s urrounded t he castle. 9 3
TO
9 4. GROUP OF BUILDINGS AT AMMAN. Above t he bridge, i ncluding t he basilica under Nos.89 t o 9 2.
r eferred
t o
9 6.
V IEW AT AMMAN. Showing t he r emains of a t emple w ith a portion of t he c astle i n t he b ackground. The t emple i s t he same as t hat s een i n Nos.89 t o 9 2, i n t he f oreground, on the r ight o f t he r iver. 9 7.
S PECIMEN OF THE FRIEZE, FROM THE MOSQUE OF OMAR IN BOZRAH. This mosque i s constructed out of ancient m aterials and t he capitals of t he columns a re of different styles, some of which a re I onic. One column bears t he date of 3 83 of t he Bostran e ra, which would be A .D.48[8]. This frieze runs round t he entire wall on t he i nterior of t he mosque and i s very beautiful. 9 8.
CUFIC I NSCRIPTION FOUND AT BOZRAH. This was noticed by Burkhardt who s ays courtyard of a mosque n ear D ir Boheiry i s with a l ong and beautiful Cufic i nscription worth t ransporting t o Europe."
of it, " In t he a stone covered which i s well
9 9.
SPECIMENS OF NABOTHEAN, CUFIC AND BEDOWIN I NSCRIPTIONS. Copied by t he American Exploring Expedition, t he Jordan.
2 72
east
o f
Plate 4a: The Temple at Sulaym i n t he Jebal Drüz photographed by Tancr L ie Dumas i n 1 875. See APES Catalogue No.26. Reproduced with permission o f t he Photograph Collection, Dumbarton Oaks.
Plate 4b: Castle at Arak a l-cEmir f rom the east, photographed by Tancr de Dumas i n 1 875. See APES Catalogue No.29. Reproduced with permission of t he Photograph Collection, Dumbarton Oaks. 2 73
Plate 5 a: Castle a t Salkhad f rom t he west, p hotographed b y Tancr de Dumas i n 1 875. S ee APES Catalogue No.37. Reproduced with permission o f t he Photograph Collection, Dumbarton Oaks.
Plate 5 1 3: Camp o f t he American Palestine Exploration Society n ear Salt, Jordan, p hotographed by Tancr de Dumas i n 1 875. See . APES Catalogue No.75. Reproduced with permission of t he Photograph Collection, Dumbarton O aks. 2 74
P late 6a: A Church and Convent at Umm a l-Jimäl i n t he s outhwest corner of t he t own. Photographed by Tancr & le D umas i n 1 875. See APES Catalogue No.47. Reproduced w ith p ermission of t he Photograph Collection, Dumbarton Oaks.
P late 6b: Panoramic View of t he southeastern sector o B ostra l ooking northeast f rom t he top of t he Citadel. P hotographed by Tancr de Dumas i n 1 875. See APES Catalogue No.38a. Reproduced with permission of t he Photograph Collection, Dumbarton Oaks. 2 75
CATALOGUE OF
PHOTOGRAPHS
taken R . E.
by
BRUNNOW AND A. in preparing
DIE
based
This
von DOMASZEWSKI their
book
PROVINCIA ARABIA
on
two
expeditions
in
1897-1898
catalogue prepared
at Princeton University 1950
2 77
CONTENTS
I ndex o f Catalogue
Sites of
Photographs
EXPLANATORY
pp.
2 79
- 2 82
pp.
2 83
- 3 06
NOTES
The p hotographs h ere c atalogued a re t he originals o f t hose t aken t o p rovide i llustrative material for Rudolf Ernst Brünnow a nd Alfred von Domaszewski, Die P rovincia Arabia ( Strassburg, 1 904-1909, 3 vols). Not a ll o f t hem were u sed i n the book. The t itles i n this catalogue a re t hose u sed i n Die Provincia Arabia o r, photographs not r eproduced i n t he book, envelopes o f t he original negatives. accents a re t aken f rom the book.
i n a re The
the c ase t aken f rom spelling
o f t he and
The p hotographs a re f iled a lphabetically by t he names o f towns. Within e ach town, they a re a rranged in t he order i n which t hey appear i n Die Provincia Arabia. ( Figure numbers f rom the book a re lettered i n i nk on the p hotograph mounts d irectly b elow t he r ight-hand c orner o f t he p rint.) The photographs not r eproduced i n t he book a re filed w ith t he others according to t he following g eneral principles: general v iews of a town come f irst; exterior v iews o f b uildings come before i nteriors; d etails, architectural f ragments, etc. a re placed l ast. The p hotographs omitted f rom Die Provincia Arabia have been copied on Leica f ilm for our f iles because of t he poor condition of t he original g lass n egatives. These prints have a sterisks on t heir l abels followed by numbers which refer t o t he Leica f ilms: f or example, ( a-1) r efers t o f ilm a , exposure 1 . In this catalogue t hese numbers appear i n p arentheses a fter t he t itle of t he p hotograph. The numbers on t he b acks o f t he photograph mounts ( for example, VII-4, 5 00) refer t o t he o riginal negatives, which a re f iled i n numbered boxes. The n egatives a re l isted i n t he manuscript n otebook e ntitled Arabian _ Slides C atalogue which i s k ept i n t he t op f ile drawer l abelled " Arabian Slides ( Brünnow)". * Denotes t hat t he p hotograph has n ot b een in D ie Provincia Arabia, and t hat t herefore copied on Leica f ilm for our f iles.
2 78
reproduced i t h as been
INDEX
S lte
omt .( 7 ,rS
AbG Rukbe c AcGze c Aglün c Ain Ala i ( c Ain F it c Ain G idi c Ain Hesbän c Ain Aegel c Ain e s-Sultän c Ain e t-Tarik c Ain Y ägüz c Ammän c Atil Ayyil
1 t o 3 4 t o 5 6 7 t o 8 9 1 0 t o 1 4 1 5 t o 1 7 1 8 t o 2 0 2 1 t o 2 2 2 3 t o 2 4 2 5 t o 2 6 2 7 t o 3 9 4 0 t o 4 2 4 3 t o 4 4
Bäniyäs Balcat — Bosra
4 5 4 7 4 8
Dacgäniya Damascus Dat Ras Dr e l-cAsäyir Dercat Dim s Dösak Dräca Dumer
8 8 t o 9 3 9 4 t o 9 5 9 6 t o 1 16 1 17 t o 1 18 1 19 t o 1 21 1 22 1 23 t o 1 25 1 26 t o 1 29 1 30 t o 1 39
Feife
1 40
A
G ariye Gebel c Aglün Gebel U sdum Geras G ibäl G isr Umm e1-Wal d G ize e s-Säfiye r efe Gurf e d-Deräwis
Hafret K acdän I hn e z-2eb b Hau Hermon
t o 4 6 t o 8 7
1 41 1 52 1 55 1 56 1 66 .1 69 1 70 1 74 1 78 1 80
t o 1 51 t o 1 54
1 83 1 86 1 90 1 92
t o 1 85 t o 1 89 t o 1 91
2 79
t o 1 65 t o 1 68 t o t o t o t o
1 73 1 77 1 79 1 82
Hesä, Wädi-1 Ae;bän Aibbäriye Higäne Hirbet e l-Fityän Hirbet e l- urab Hirbet s e-SGe
1 93 2 05 2 06 2 07 2 08 2 12 2 14
t o 2 11 t o 2 13 t o 2 15
I rbid I rmenin
2 16 2 17
t o 2 18
Jericho Jerusalem Jordan
2 19 2 20-226 2 27
K afr Härib k ahf K alcat e d-Dabaca k alcat e i-Aesä k alcat e r-kai Dad k alcat e s-Subebe k alcat e z-Zerkä k allirrhoe K anawät k asr Abä-l-Harag k Ar e l-cAbd k Ar e l-Abya k a;r Bser k Ar a l-Herri k Ar Rabba k Ar e s-Sgfiye k Ar e ;- ahl k • Ar • Sohar K asr e l-Yäbis k a;tal f 5 airäne K ei-a k K erak, Kuwesime
2 28-233 2 34 t o 2 41 2 42 t o 2 44 2 45 t o 2 53 2 54 t o 2 63 2 64 t o 2 65 2 66 2 67 t o 2 68 2 69 t o 2 94 2 95 2 96-299 3 00-301 3 02-315 3 16 3 17-330 3 31-332 3 33-334 3 35 3 36 3 37-350 3 51 3 52-363 3 64-366 3 67-369
Libb Leggün
Ma n Mgdebä Mähri Manghir Mär S b Mär S b gund Jericho Masada Me;että
t o 2 04
3 70 ' 371-383
3 84-386 3 87-399 4 00-401 4 02-403 ä4 04-408 4 09-410 4 11-429 4 30-526
2 80
Mhayy M ighaz, Wädi-1 Moab: K arte Mögib, Wädi-1 Muh tet e l-Hagg Mukes Murüg Muträb MuWaeear
5 27-532 5 33 5 34 5 35-543 5 44-550 5 51-552 5 53-554 5 55-559 5 60-566
Nahr e l-Kelb Nuhbär, Wädi Nu r l iera, Wadi
5 67-579 5 80-594 5 95
Odruh — •
5 96-632
P etra
6 33-857
R abba Rahle R amadän Ras e l-Muserife E t seya R aseya u nd H ibbariye R igm e l-cAl Rugum R isän Rumel
8 58-861 8 62 8 63-866 8 67 8 68 8 69 8 70-871 8 72-873 8 74
S alt S anamen
8 75-877 8 78-879 8 80-882 8 83-891 8 92-895 8 96-899 9 00-910 9 11-916
A ir, w ädi Aöbak Söbak u nd Sf Auhba Suweeä
Petra
Tafile i l ' awäne Tell e l- ariye Tell e s-Sehae Trayyä
Umm e lGen s Umm e r-Rasäs Umm e r-RuMmän Umm e l-Walid c Utwi, W ädi-1
(abiye )
9 17 9 18-923 9 24-927 9 28 9 29
9 30 9 31-940 9 41-942 9 43-947 9 48
2 81
Yarmük
e l-Hammi
Z acfarän Zerkä Zer ä Macin, Z izA
Wädi
9 49
9 50-951 9 52 9 53 9 54-959
2 82
Number 1 . 2 . 3 .
Abi Rukbe: Abü Rukbe: Abü Rukbe:
4 . 5 .
c Acuze: Nordabhang des Wädi-l-Hesa . . unterhalb el-cAcüze. c Acüze: Blick i n den Wädi-l-Hesä . ..*
6 .
c Aglün:
7 . 8 .
c Ain Alük.* c Ain Alük.*
9 .
c Ain
F it:
1 0. 1 1. 1 2. 1 3. 1 4.
c Ain c Ain c Ain c Ain c Ain
G idi: Blick von Norden; i m Hintergrund Masada. G idi: Blick von Norden.* ( a-5) G idi.* ( a-6) G idi.* ( a-7) G idi.* ( a-8)
1 5. 1 6. 1 7.
c Ain Hesbän c Ain Aesbän Hintergrund c Ain Hesbän
1 8. 1 9. 2 0.
c Ain Negel von Osten. c Ain Negel.* ( a-12) c Ain Negel.* ( a-13)
2 1. 2 2.
c Ain e s-Sultän: c Ain e s-Sul än:
2 3. 2 4.
c Ain c Ain
et-Tarik e. -i 'arik .
2 5. 2 6.
c Ain c Ain
Yägüz: Yägüz:
2 7. 2 8. 2 9. 3 0. 3 1. 3 2. 3 3.
c Ammän: Felsnischen 2 5 m südlich von c Ammän. c Ammän v on Süden.* ( a-20) c Ammän: v . d. Citadelle - Ostliche Hälfte.* ( a-21) c Amman: v . d. Citadelle - Westliche Hälfte.* ( a-22) c Amman: C itadelle.* ( a-23) c Ammän: Thermen von Nordwesten. c Amman: Viereckiger Bau i n der Citadelle: Nordöstliche Apsis von Südwesten. c Ammän: Viereckiger Bau i n der Citadelle: Inneres
3 4. 3 5. 3 6. •3 7. 3 8. 3 9.
von der c Amman: c Amman: c Amman: c Amman: c Amman:
von Nordwesten. von Südosten. I nnere Nordostecke.
Moschee
von SW.*
von ( a-1)
( a-2)
( a-3) ( a-4)
Laubhütten.
nach Süden.* ( a-9) i m Schnee; Nach Südwesten. das Schloss Sünet ed-Dicäb. i m Schnee.* ( a-11)
Aufstellen d . Zelte.* Zelte.* ( a-15)
von Dösak.* ( a-16) von Dösak: zwischen.*
Eiche.* ( a-18) G rab des Nimr c Adwän.*
Nordwestwand aus. Theater von Norden. Basilika von Süden.* ( a-24) Basilika - Gruppe.* ( a-25) Theater.* ( a-26) Altar.* ( a-28)
2 83
Rechts
i m
( a-14)
( a-17)
( a-19)
4 0. 4 1. 4 2.
c Atil: c Atil: c Atil:
4 3. 4 4.
Ayyil Ayyil
4 5. 4 6.
Baniyas.* Baniyas.*
4 7.
Belcat.*
4 8.
Bosrä : Grabturm v . NO0.* ( a-32) • , Bosra: Grabturm v . Nordosten. Bo rg: Westtor: v . Aussen ( Westen ). Bosra: Westtor: v . Innen ( Osten ). Bosra: Westtor: Ansicht von I nnen ( Osten ). Bosra: Moschee e l-Hidr v . Südwesten. L inks d as Haus mit dem Heiligtum. Bosra l-Hidr v . Osten. . A: Moschee e Bosra: Grosses Bogentor von Norden. Bosra: G rosses Bogentor von Norden. Bosra : G rosses Bogentor: Nische.* ( a-33) . „ Bosra: Grosses Bogentor: Pfeiler A und B v . Westen. Bosra: Grosses Bogentor: Pfeiler A , B und C v . Südwesten. Bosrä: Korinthische Säulen v . Westen. Bo;rä: Korinthische Säulen ( No. 9 ) von Westen; i m Hintergrund der grosse Tempel ( No.10). Bosra: Korinthische Säulen v . Südost.* ( b-29) Bosra: Kleines Bogentor: Ansicht v . Westen.* ( b-28) Bosra: Omar -Moschee: I nneres v . Westen. Bosra: Omar -Moschee: Ostseite. Bosra: Blick von der K athedrale nordwärts auf das Minaret der Moschee Der e l -Muslim ( No.18, l inks) und die K irche Der Bahirg ( No.20, r echts). Bosra athedrale v . Westen. . A: K Bosra: K athedrale: Ansicht von der Mitte aus, gegen Südosten. Bosra: Kathedrale: Ansichte der Südseite von Südwesten. Sosrä: K irche Der Bahirä: Westfassade. Bosra: K irche Der Bah r : Die Apsis von Westen. Bosra: K irche Der BaAirg: Die Apsis von Westen.* ( b-27) Bosrg: Moschee el-Mabrak v . I nnen.* ( c-1) Bo;rä: Bau i n der Nähe des Osttores von Norden ( NC ..25). Bosrg: Südost-Reservoir u nd k leine Moschee v . Südwesten. Bosra: Citadelle v . Südwesten.* ( b-26) Bosra: Citadelle v . Südwesten.* ( b-25) Bosra: Die Citadelle v . Südosten. Bosra: Theater: Bühnengebaüdes v . Südosten. Bosra: Theater: Ansicht des r echten Paraskenions v .
4 9. 5 0. 5 1. 5 2. 5 3. 5 4. 5 5. 5 6. 5 7. 5 8. 5 9. 6 0. 6 1. 6 2. 6 3. 6 4. 6 5. 6 6.
6 7. 6 8. 6 9. 7 0. 7 1. 7 2. 7 3. 7 4. 7 5. 7 6. 7 7. 7 8. 7 9. 8 0.
Südtempel v on Osten.* ( a-27) Südtempel von Südosten. Nordtempel von Süden. von Osten. v on Süden. ( a-29) ( a-30) ( a-31)
Westen.
2 84
8 1.
Bosra: Osten.
8 2. 8 3.
Boer : Theater: Linker Bühnenflügel v . Süden. Bosrä : T he ater : L inke r B ühnenflügel v . Südost. • , Bosra: Theater: Ecke des rechten Paraskenions v . W A. Bosrä: Theater: Ansicht der mittleren Nische des östlichen Bühnenflügels. Bosrä: Theater: Südwestlicher Teil der obersten Sitzreihe v . Norden. Bosrä: Theater: Sitzplätze.
8 4. 8 5. 8 6. 8 7. 8 8. 8 9. 9 0. 9 1.
Theater:
Ansicht
des
l iken Paraskenions
v .
9 3.
Dacgäniya von Osten. Dacganiya von Südosten. Dacgäniya von Süden. Dacgäniya: Fahnenheiligtum und Principia ( A) von Süden. Dacgäniya: Porta Principalis dextra und der Aufgang von i nnen. Im Hintergrund d ie Berge von e l-Gibäl. Dacganiya: Wassertor 2 von i nnen.
9 4. 9 5.
Damascus: Damascus:
9 2.
Blick von Hötel Garten.
n ach Westen.
9 6. 9 7. 9 8. 9 9. 1 00. 1 01. 1 02. 1 03. 1 04. 1 05. 1 06. 1 07. 1 08. 1 09. 1 10. 1 11. 1 12. 1 13.. 1 14. 1 15. 1 16.
Dät Uät Uät Eät 7 1,ät -„ Dat 1 5 -ä t Uät 1 5 ät Dat Dat -„ Dat 1 5ät E iät -„ Dat -„ Dat D t Dat Uät f iät Dat
R s von Nordwesten.* ( b-24) R s von Norden.* ( b-23) R s: G b-22) rosser Tempel.* ( on Süden. Ras: G rosser Tempel v R s: G rosser Tempel: Westmauer von Südosten. R s: K leiner Tempel von Südwesten. R s: Grosser Tempel: Westmauer von Nordwesten. Ras: Kleiner Tempel von Westen. Ras: Grosser Tempel: Südportal. Ras: Grosser Tempel: Südportal. Ras: K leiner Tempel von Südosten. Ras: K leiner Tempel von Südosten. b-21) R s: Kleiner Tempel von Süden.* ( b-19) R s: K leiner Tempel von SW Ecke.* ( nneres von Süden.* R s: K leiner Tempel: I nneres vom Tore aus Ras: K leiner Tempel: I nneres vom Tore aus Ras: Kleiner Tempel: I Ras: Kleiner Tempel von Nordwesten. R s: Kleiner Temepl von Nordwesten. b-18) R s: Kleiner Tempel von Norden.* ( leinen Tempel.* ( b-17) Ras: Birkeh beim K
1 17. 1 18.
Der Der
e l-cAsäyir.* ( b-16) e l-cAsäyir: Tempel.*
1 19. 1 20. 1 21.
Dercat: Dercat: Dercat:
1 22.
D im s.*
( b-13)
Birkeh.* ( b-12) K anäbir Fircaun.* ( b-11) von Norden.* ( b-10) ( b-9)
2 85
1 23. 1 24. 1 25.
Dösak: Römerstrasse nördlich von Dösak. Dösak: Römerstrasse nördlich v on Dösak.* ( b-8) Dösak: l inks: Nischenbau von Süden; rechts: D as Wachtzimmer C .
1 26. 1 27. 1 28. 1 29.
Dräca: Blick gegen Südosten.* Dräca.* ( b-6) Dräca.* ( b-5) DrAca: Lager.* ( b-4)
1 30. 1 31. 1 32. 1 33. 1 34.
1 38. 1 39.
Dumer: Tempel v on Westen. bur ner: Tempel v on Westen.* ( b-3) Dumer: K astell: Armamentarium von Südwesten. bur ner: K astell: Armamentarium von Südosten. Dumer: K astell: Ansicht der s üdlichen Quermauer an der Via Principalis von Süden. Dumer: K astell: Porta Principalis s inistra ( Südtor ) von aussen. Dumer: K astell: Torbau der Porta Principalis s inistra ( Südtor), westlicher Seitenflugel v on Nordwesten. Dumer: K astell: Porta Principalis dextra ( Nordtor): Türsturz der i n den Raum b f ührenden Türe d es östlichen Torbaues. Dumer: K astell: Pfeiler des Aquädukts. Dumer: K astell: Pfeiler des Aquädukts.* ( b-2)
1 40.
Feife.*
1 41. 1 42. 1 43. 1 44. 1 45. 1 46. 1 47. 1 48. 1 49. 1 50. 1 51.
Gariye von W . Hügel.* ( c-3) Gariye: Blick n ach Osten.* ( c-4) Gariye: Blick auf den Hermon.* ( c-5) Gariye: Mauer am westlichen Hügel.* ( c-6) Gariye: Mauer am westlichen Hügel.* ( c-7) Gariye: Blick n ach Westen.* ( c-8) Gariye: Blick n ach Norden.* ( c-9) Gariye: Fries ( untere Seite ).* ( c-10) Gariye: Fries ( untere Seite ).* ( c-11) Gariye: Schildkröte.* ( c-12) Gariye: Birkeh.* ( c-13)
1 52. 1 53. 1 54.
Gebel c Aglün.* ( c-14) Gebel c Aglün.* ( c-15) Gebel c Aglün von Norden ( c-16)
] 55.
Gebel
1 56. 1 57. 1 58. 1 59. 1 60. 1 61.
Geras von Norden.* ( c-18) Geras von Nordwesten.* ( c-19) Geras von Nordwesten.* ( c-20) Geras: Grosser Tempel von Südosten. Geras: Grosser Tempel von Osten. Geras: Torweg an der Westseite der Säulenstrasse von Osten. Geras: Bau an der Westseite Säulenstrasse von Osten.
1 35. 1 36.
1 37.
1 62.
( b-7)
( c-2)
Usdum.*
( südlich
von Mukes).*
( c-17)
2 86
1 63. 1 64. 1 65.
Geras: P eribolus Geras: S üdtempel Geras: B lick auf photo published. 2 34.]
von Süden. von Südosten. ?- von Süden. Should f ollow
1 66. 1 67. 1 68.
G ibäl: G ibäl: G ibäl:
Süden. Westen.* Westen.*
1 69.
G isr
1 70. 1 71. 1 72.
G ize: Wädi-Zedi-Brücke von Südwesten. G ize: W ädi-Zedi-Brücke von Südwesten. G ize: Wädi-Zedi-Brücke: Die darüberführende RS von Westen. G ize: Wädi-Zedi-Brücke von Nordwesten.
1 73. 1 74. 1 75.
Berge Berge Berge
Umm
v on von von
el-Wal d
von
[ Unidentified. No f igure 8 53 i n PA I I
( c-21) ( c-22)
Süden.*
( c-23)
1 76. 1 77.
nr e s-Säfiye.* ( c-29) n re •• , s Safiye : B erge i m Osten.* ( c-24) • • , Mr e s-Safiye: Steinfuss.* ( c-25) n r A. -Aäfiye : Steinfuss v .d. Seite.* ( c-26) •
1 78. 1 79.
Or fe v on Südwesten.* ( c-30) 1 .e fe: Antilibanos.* ( c-31)
1 80. 1 81. 1 82.
Gurf Gurf Gurf
1 83. 1 84. 1 85.
Hafret Aafret i jafret
1 86. 1 87. 1 88. 1 89.
Hän Hän Han Han
1 90. 1 91.
Hau: Hau:
1 92.
Hermon.
1 93. 1 94. 1 95. 196.
H esa • . ,, Hesa, A e;ä • . ,, Hesa,
1 97. 1 98. 1 99.
Hesa, Wädi-l- . * ( d-8) f le;ä, W ädi-l- : Brückenruine. A Aä, W ädi-l- : von unterhalb Hintergrund Wädi-l-Gäciz.
2 00.
ä/ W ädi-lH es . . Hesä / W ädi-l• •
2 01.
e d-Deräwis: e d-Deräwis: e d-Deräwis: K acdän.* k acdän.* k acdän.*
K astell von Osten.* ( c-32) K astell: i nnere Wand.* ( c-33) Aufbruch d . Lagers.* ( c-34) ( d-1) ( d-2) ( d-3)
e z-Zebib: Inneres von Südosten. e z-Zebib von Südosten.* ( d-4) e z-Zebib: Inneres von Westen. e z-Zebib: Zweites Gebäude: Tor von Mauerwerk.* Mauerwerk.
W ädi-lWädi-lW ädi-lW ädi-l-
. *
Süden.
( d-5)
( d-6)
. * ( d-7) : Im Wädi-l-Hesä • •
: Grosser
unterhalb
e lcAcaze.
Basaltfelsen
: Basaltberg.*
2 87
( d-9)
4h
Im 4 2m
2 02. 2 03. 2 04.
Hess, Ae;ä, f l e;ä • •,
2 05.
Hesbän: Bau von Osten.
2 06.
Hibbäriye.
2 07.
Higäne:
2 08. 2 09. 2 10. 2 11.
Hirbet e l-Fityän von Osten.* ( d-13) Hirbet el-Fityän: Das Centrale Gebaüde Hirbet el-Fityän: Das Centrale Gebaüde Südosten. Hirbet el-Fityän: Tor von i nnen.
2 12. 2 13.
Hirbet Hirbet
el- uräb: Norwestecke d er el- uräb.* ( d-14)
2 14. 2 15.
Hirbet Hirbet
e s-Sük: e s-SG :
2 16.
I rbid.*
2 17. 2 18.
I rmenin: Irmenin:
2 19.
Jericho:
2 20. 2 21. 2 22. 2 23. 2 24. 2 25. 2 26.
Jerusalem: Jerusalem: Jerusalem: Jerusalem: Jerusalem: Jerusalem: Jerusalem:
2 27.
Jordan:
2 28.
2 33.
Kafr Härib nach Norden.* ( d-23) (See query o n of photo.)) Kafr Härib nach Westen.* ( d-24) Kafr Härib nach Nordwesten.* ( d-25) Kafr Härib n ach Norden.* ( d-26) ( See query o n of photo.)) K afr Härib n ach Südwesten.* ( d-27) (See query l abel of photo.)) K afr Härib: Zelte.* ( d-28)
2 34. 2 35. 2 36.
el-kahf: el-kahf: el-kahf:
Ostliches Ostliches Ostliches
2 37.
el-Rahf:
Westliches
Grab:
Fassade.*
2 38.
el-kahf:
Westliches
Grab:
Fassade.
2 29. 2 30. 2 31. 2 32.
Wädi-lWädi-lWädi-l-
: Basaltberg. * ( d-10) : Basaltberg.* ( d-11) : Basaltberg.* ( d-12)
( Tempel?)
am
s üdlichen Ende
der Stadt
Turm.
von S üden. von
Mauer.
Mausoleum von Norden.* ( d-15) Mausoleum von Südwesten.
( d-16) ( Unterhalb).* ( Unterhalb).* Turm.*
( d-17) ( d-18)
( d-19)
Austrian Consulate.* Deutsches Konsulat.* Jüd.Spital.* Jüd.Spital.* ( d-21) Jüd.Spital.* ( d-22) Russische K irche.* Russische K irche.*
Mergelbildungen.*
G rab: G rab: G rab:
2 88
( d-20)
Fassade. I nneres. I nneres.*
( d-29) ( e-1)
l abel
l abel on
2 39.
e l-kahf:
Westliches
2 40. 2 41.
e l-kahf: e l-kahf: Süden.
Westliches G rab: i nnere Vorderwand.* ( e-3) K leines G rab A : Ansicht des I nneren von
2 42. 2 43. 2 44.
K alcat e d-Dabaca von Westen. K alc a t e ä-5abaca: I nneres. K alcat e ä- Labaca: I nneres.
2 45. 2 46. 2 47. 2 48. 2 49. 2 50. 2 51. 2 52. 2 53.
K alcat K alcat K alcat K alcat K alcat K alcat K alcat K alcat K alcat
Kalcat 2 54. 2 55. 2 56. 2 57. 2 58. 2 59. 2 60. 2 61. 2 62. 2 63.
K alcat Kalcat Kalcat Kalcat Kalcat Kalcat K alcat
Kalcat ( e-16) K alcat Kalcat
G rab:
Fassade.
e l-Hesä: Römerstrasse. e l-Ae;ä.* ( e-4) e l-Ae;ä von Norden.* ( e-5) e 1-He; : I nneres. e 1-He; : I nneres.* ( e-6) e 1-He; : I nneres.* ( e-7) e l-Ae;ä: Brücke von Westen. e 1-He; : Brücke von Osten. e 1-He; : Aufgemauerte Strasse e l-f le;g und Gadir e s-Sultän. e r-Rabad e r-Rabad e r-Rabad e r-Rabad e r-Rabad e r-Rabad e r-Rabad: e r-Rabad: e r-Rabad: e r-Rabad:
zwischen
von Osten.* ( e-8) von Osten.* ( e-9) von Osten.* ( e-10) von Norden.* ( e-11) von Norden.* ( e-13) von Norden.* ( e-14) Thurm mit I nschrift.* ( e-15) Thurm mit I nschrift: Südseite. Blick Blick
n ach Osten.* ( e-17) n ach Südosten.* ( e-18)
2 64. 2 65.
Kalcat
2 66.
K alcat e z-Zerkä von Süden . ( (double exposure ))
2 67. 2 68.
Kallirrhoe. Kallirrhoe.
2 6g. 2 70.
el-Kanawät: Peripteros von Südwesten. el-kanawät: Peripteros: Viereckiges P iedestal der äusseren Säulenreihe. el-Kanawät: Peripteros: Achteckiges P iedestal der i nneren Säulenreihe vor dem Eingang. el-Kanawät: Peripteros: Säulen. el-kanawät: el-Medrese: Fassade von Norden. el-kanawät: Bau s üdlich gegenüber vom Serai von Süden. el-Kanawät: es-Serai von Nordwesten. el-kanawät: es-Serai von Nordosten. el-kanawät: es-Serai: Westfassade der K irche D . el-kanawät: es-Serai: das Bogenfenster d i n der Ostwand der K irche D , n ach dem Atrium Ahineinschauend.
2 71. 2 72. 2 73. 2 74. 2 75. 2 76. 2 77. 2 78.
Kalcat
e s-Subebe von Südwesten. es-Subebe: I nschrift.
2 89
u nd
Geras
von Nordosten.
2 79.
e l-Kanawät: es-Serai: das Bogenfester d i n d er Westwand des Atriums A , nach der K irche D h ineinschauend.
2 80.
e l-Kanawät: es-Serai: Atrium A nach Norden.
2 81.
e l-Kanawat: es-Serai: D ie Nordwand der Basilika B von der Südostecke aus; rechts i m Hintergrund die östliche Säulenreihe des Atriums A .
2 82.
e l-Kanawät: es-Serai: Türsturz über der Basilica B westlich an d en Chor kleinen K ammei.
2 83.
el-Kanawät: es-Serai: Türe a i n der Südwand des Atriums A , nach der Basilic-a - B h ineinschauend. e l-KanaWät: Serai-Terrasse: Gewölbe nördlich vom Prostylos ( no.9).
2 84. 2 85. 2 86. 2 87. 2 88. 2 89.
Blick
von
der
Türe
a i m
der Türe der i n c anstossenden
2 93. 2 94.
e l-Kanawät: Prostylos: Ansicht von Nordosten. e l-kanawät: Prostylos von Norden. e l-kanawät: Prostylos von Norden. el-kanawät: Südwesttor von Westen. el-kanawät: Grabturm i m Westen des Südwesttores: Ansicht von Norden. e l-Kanawät: Blick auf d ie Ostseite des Wadis. Lin s unten das Nymphaeum ( No.18), oben der v iereckige Turm ( No.19) und noch weiter r echts der runde Turm ( No.20). e l-Kanawät: Nymphaeum. el-kanawät: Statue s üdwestliche vom Peripteros ( No:1). e l-Kanawät: von Lager aus.* ( e-19) el-kanawät: von den Zelten a us.* ( e-21)
2 95.
K asr • • Abg-l-Harag
2 96. 2 97. 2 98. 2 99.
Ka r K asr • • K asr • • K asr • •
3 00.
Kasr el-Abyad ( Hirbet e l-Bedä): Ansicht von Südosten. K asr el-Abyad ( Hirbet e l-Bedä ): Ansicht der Eingangspforte und des davo;-l iegenden Türsturzes.
2 90.
2 91. 2 92.
3 01.
3 02. 3 03. 3 04. 3 05. 3 06. 3 07. 3 08. 3 09. 3 10.
von Nordwesten.
el-cAbd.* ( e-23) el-cAbd.* ( e-24) el-cAbd: [ Inscription.]* el-cAbd: [ Inscription.]*
( e-25) ( e-26)
K asr Bser: Ansicht von Südwesten. Links i m Hintergrund das Heiligengrab ( Welt Bser) K asr Bser: Ansicht von Osten. K asr • • Bser: Ansicht von Westen. K asr e-27) • • Bser von NO0.* ( K asr B ser n ach S ü dw esten .* ( e-28) • • K asr B ser : T or v on a ussen . • • K asr nnen.* ( e-29) • • Bser von I K asr B se r : S üdw estliche I nnenwand vom Tor b is • • Turm I . K asr Bser: Nordwestliche I nnenwand von Turm I bis • • Turm I I.
2 90
3 11.
K asr • • Bser: z um Z immer
Nordöstliche k .
I nnenwand
von Turm I I
3 12.
Nordöstliche
Innenwand
vom Z immer
3 15.
K asr Bser: Turm I II. K asr B ser: • • Turm I V. K asr B se r: • • z um Tor. K asr . . Bser:
3 16.
K asr • •
a l-Herri
3 17. 3 18. 3 19. 3 20. 3 21. 3 22. 3 23. 3 24. 3 25. 3 26. 3 27. 3 28. 3 29. 3 30.
K asr . . K asr • • K asr • • K asr . . K asr • • K asr • • K asr • • K asr • • K asr • • K asr • • K asr • • K asr • • Kasr K asr • •
Rabba Rabba Rabba Rabba Rabba Rabba Rabba: Rabba: Rabba: Rabba: Rabba: Rabba: Rabba: Rabba:
3 31. 3 32.
K asr • • K asr • •
e s-Säfiye.* e s• -Safiye . •
3 33. 334.
Kasr K asr • •
e s-Sahl: Ansicht von Südwesten. e s-Sahl v on Norden.* ( f-2)
335.
Kasr Söhar
336.
Kasr
337. 338.
3 42. 3 43. 3 44. 3 45. 3 46. 3 47. 3 48. 3 49. 3 50.
el-Kastal: Die Südwestecke von Süden. el-ka;tal: Das Z immer r2 von Westen. Links vorn die Ostwand des Ganges d ', rechts i m Hintergrund d ie moderne Decke des Z immers r '. el-Kastal: Wand F -F von Westen. Das Z immer 2 ' von Norden. T orweg : S üdw and von b , mit der Türe vom el-ka;tal: Zimmer e '. el-Kastal: Südwand des Nebenhofes c . el-ka;tal: Gang.* ( f-3) el-ka;tal.* ( f-4) el-ka;tal: Praetorium von Südwesten. el-ka;tal: Turm des Praetoriums von Südwesten. el-ka tal: Turm des Praetoriums v on Norden. el-ka;tal: Turm des Praetoriums von Norden. el-f tal: K apitäl der Principia. el-Ka r• v . d. Zelten aus.* ( f-5) • sta •
3 51.
el-Katräne
3 13. 3 14.
339. 3 40. 3 41.
Südöstliche
I nnenwand
Südwestliche Birkeh.* von
Innenwand
von
b is k bis
der Mitte
von Turm
b is
IV bis
( e-31)
Südosten.
von Osten. von Südosten.* ( e-32) von Nordwesten. von Nordwesten. von Nordosten.* ( e-33) von Nordosten.* ( e-34) Thor.* ( e-35) K apitäl. Friesstück. Skulpturrest: ( Helioskopf). Friesstück ( Teil e ines Panthers? Gebälke mit Wasserspeier. Skulptur: Wasserspeiender Löwe. Fries.* ( e-36)
von
e l-Yäbis
von
( e-37)
Südosten. von
S SO.
Südosten.
2 91
3 52. 3 53. 3 54. 3 55. 3 56. 3 57. 3 58.
e l-Kerak e l-Kerak e l-Kerak e l-Kerak e l-Kerak e l-Kerak: e l-Kerak:
3 59. 3 60. 3 61. 3 62. 3 63.
e l-Kerak: e l-Kerak: e l-Kerak: e l-Kerak: e l-Kerak:
3 64. 3 65. 3 66.
K erak, K erak, K erak,
3 67. 3 68. 3 69.
e l-Kuwesime von Osten. e l-kuwesime von Süden. e l-kuwesime: Inneres von
3 70.
Libb: Blich n ach Wädi-l-Wäle.
3 71. 3 72.
e l-Leggun vom Altar aus ( nach Nordosten). e 1 -Leggin: Blick von den Principia aus gegen Südwesten. Im Hintergrund Türme I und I I und d er Altar. e l-Leggun: Turm I I von i nnen. e l-Leggun: Turm XXIII von aussen. e l-Leggün: Mauerstück ( Innenseite ) östlich von der Porta Principalis s inistra. e l-Leggün: Porta Principalis s inistra von aussen. e l-Legg i an: Porta Principalis s inistra von aussen. e 1Leggin: Porta Principalis s inistra von innen. e 1Leggin: Porta Principalis s inistra von i nnen. e l-Leggun: Soldatenzimmer. e l-Leggün: Altar von Nordosten. e l-Leggün: Altar von Westen. e l-Leggün: Kochzelte.* ( f-21)
3 73. 3 74. 3 75. 3 76. 3 77. 3 78. 3 79. 3 80. 3 81. 3 82. 3 83.
von Westen.* ( f-23) von Westen.* ( f-6) v on Westen.* ( f-7) v on Westen.* ( f-22) von Westen.* ( f-8) Hügel i m Nordwesten Moschee.* ( f-11)
Westen).*
( f-9)
Thurm des Bibars von Südosten.* ( f-12) Citadelle: Westseite.* f -13) C itadelle: I nneres.* ( f-14) Citadelle: SO Ecke.* ( f-15) Citadelle: Skulptur i n Mauer.* ( f-20)
Wädi-l-.*(f-16) Wädi-l-: Felsen.* ( f-17) Wädi-l-: Erdformationen.*
Süden.
der
Türe
( f-18)
aus.
Im Hintergrund
3 84. 3 85. 3 86.
e l-Macgn.*
3 87. 3 88. 3 89. 3 90. 3 91. 3 92. 3 93. 3 94. 3 95. 3 96. 3 97.
Mädebä von Westen.* ( f-26) Mädebä: Basilika von Westen.* Mgdebg: K irche i m -NO.* ( f-28) Mgdebä: Mosaik. Mädebä: Mosaik. Mädebä: Mosaik. Mgdebä: Mosaik. Mgdebä: Mosaik. Mädebä: Mosaik. Mädebg: Mosaik. Mädebä: Mosaik.
e l -Ma e 1-Ma
( von
( f-24) n: G ruppe.* . ( f-25) n e s-Sagir von Südwesten.
2 92
( f-27)
das
3 98. 3 99.
Mädebä: Mädebä:
4 00. 4 01.
el -Mähr : el-MäAri:
4 02. 4 03.
Manähir: Manähir:
4 04. 4 05. 4 06. 4 07. 4 08.
Mar Mär Mar Mar Mar
4 09. 4 10.
Mar Mar
4 11. 4 12. 4 13. 4 14.
Masada: Ansicht der Bergkegels von Osten. Masada: Ansicht der Bergkegels von Norden. Masada: Turm i m Ostwall der Circumvallation. Masada: d ie beiden westlichen Lager e , f , vom Westrande des Bergkegels aus gesehen. Masada: d ie beiden westlichen Lager e , f , vom Westrande des Bergkegels aus gesehen. Masada: Westliche Lager von oben. Masada: d er von den Römern aufgeworfene Damm B von Süden. Masada: Das Hauptlager b : I nneres von Osten. Im Vordergrund die p rincipTa , im Hintergrund das Vorwerk a und das Wädi-l-Haf f. Masada: Wädi-l-Hafäf.* ( g-24) Masada: D as Hauptlager b : die principia von Südwest. In der M itte das t ribunal a . Masada: d ie drei östlichen Lager c , b , a vom Ostrande des Bergkegels aus gesenen, - i m- Hintergrund das Tote Meer. Masada: Das Cohortenlager c : Bettstelle. Masada: Das Cohortenlager -6 : Feuerstelle von Westen. Masada: Das Cohortenlager -5 : Triclinium. Masada: Das Vorwerk a : Acc-ensus i m nördlichen Walle. Masada: Das Vorwerk Westtor. Masada: Das Vorwerk -ä : I nneres gegen Osten s chauend. Masada: Das Vorwerk I nneres gegen Norden s chauend. Masada: oberes Lager . : Südtürme.* ( g-4)
4 15. 4 16. 4 17. 4 18.
4 19. 4 20. 4 21.
4 22. 4 23. 4 24. 4 25. 4 26. 4 27. 4 28. 4 29. 4 30. 4 31. 4 32. 4 33. 4 34. 4 35. 4 36. 4 37.
Mosaik. Zelte.*
( f-29)
G rosser Wartturm. I nneres. I nneres Moschee
S b .* S b .* S b .* S b .* S b .*
von Südosten. von Norden.
( f-30) ( f-31) ( f-32) ( f-33) ( f-34)
S b äu nd Jericho, S b äu nd Jericho,
zwischen.* zwischen.*
( f-35) ( f-36)
el-Mesettä: Die Fassade von Süden. el-Mesettä: Die Fassade von Süden. el-Mesettä: Die Fassade von Süden.* ( g-5) e l-Mesettä: Fassade A ' - K '.* ( g-6) e l-Mesettä: Südwestecke von aussen, mit den Türmen G ,F,E,D,C und B ( Fassade ). e l-Mesettä: Türmen G ,F,E von Aussen.* ( g-8) el-Mesettä: Aussenseite der Westmauer mit den Türmen G ,F, und E . el-Mesettä: Aussenseite der Ostmauer mit den Türmen T ,S
und R .
2 93
4 38. 4 39. 4 40. 4 41. 4 42. 4 43. 4 44. 4 45. 4 46. 4 47. 4 48. 4 49. 4 50. 4 51. 4 52. 4 53. 4 54. 4 55. 4 56. 4 57. 4 58. 4 59. 4 60. 4 61. 4 62. 4 63. 4 64. 4 65. 4 66. 4 67. 4 68. 4 69.
e l-Mesettä: Torweg mit den Türmen B und A . e l-Mesettä: Torweg: Westseite v on i nnen. e l-Mesettä: Torweg von i nnen. e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau von Süden. Im Vordergrund nördliche Tor des Saales 2 im Torbau. e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau von Süden.* ( g-9) e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau von Süden. Im Vordergrund nördliche Tor des Saales 2 im Torbau. e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau: Ansicht v on Südwesten. e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau: Ansicht v on Südosten. e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau: Das äussere und i nnere Tor der K uppelsaal b von Süden. e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau: Das äussere und i nnere Tor der K uppelsaal b von Süden.* ( g-10)
das
das
und und
e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau: Das äussere und i nnere Tor und der Kuppelsaal b von Süden.* ( g-25) e l-Mesettä: Apsis.* ( g-27) e l-Mesettä: Inneres Palast: Kuppelbau.* ( g-11) e l-Mesettä: Blick von K uppelbau N .S.* ( g-12) e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau: Die beiden Mittelpfeiler des äusseren Tores von Westen. e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau: Der östliche Mittel- und Seitenpfeiler des äusseren Tores von Westen. e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau: Abgestürzter Fries ( oder Bogen?) im Saale a . el-Mesettä: Hauptbau: Abgestürzter Bogen des äusseren Tores. e l-Mesettä: Abgestürzten Bogen.* ( g-13) e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau: Teil des abgestürzten Bogens des i nneren Tores. e l-Mesettä: Pfeiler des i nneren K uppelbaues.* ( g-28) e l-Mesettä: Westlicher Pfeiler des i nneren Tores von Süden. e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau: Westlicher Pfeiler des i nneren Tores von Osten. e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau: Ostlicher Pfeiler des i nneren Tores von Südwesten. e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau: Ostlicher Pfeiler des i nneren Tores von Südwesten. el-Mesettä: Hauptbau: nordwestecke des Kuppelsaales b mit der Türe des Z immers d ,. e l-Mesetta: Hauptbau: Türe C des Z immers o ,.* ( g-14) e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau: Türe des Z immers Z 2 . * ( g-15) e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau: Türe des Z immers 2 ,. e l-Mesettä: Hauptbau: Türe des Z immers 2 2 . * ( g-16) el-Mesettä: I nnenseite der Westmauer mit den Türmen G und H . e l-Mesettä: I nnenseite der Westmauer mit den Türmen
F , G und H und den Offnungen c ,d,e el-Mesettä: Ansicht der Offnung 1 i nnen. 4 71. e l-Mesettä: Ansicht des Beckens m Türmen X und Y von aussen.472. von Südwesten ( Fassade E ',F', G',H'). 4 73. e l-Mesettä: Turm B . 4 70.
2 94
und f . beim Turme
X von
zwischen den el-Mesettä: Turm B
4 74. 4 75. 4 76. 4 77. 4 78. 4 79. 4 80. 4 81. 4 82. 4 83. 4 84. 4 85. 4 86. 4 87. 4 88. 4 89. 4 90. 4 91. 4 92. 4 93. 4 94. 4 95. 4 96. 4 97. 4 98. 4 99. 5 00. 5 01. 5 02. 5 03. 5 04. 5 05. 5 06. 5 07. 5 08. 5 09. 5 10. 5 11. 5 12. 5 13. 5 14. 5 15. 5 16. 5 17. 5 18. 5 19. 5 20. 5 21. 5 22. 5 23. 5 24. 5 25. 5 26.
el-Mesettä: Turm B : Fassade G ',H'.* ( g-2) e l-Mesettä: Turm A von Südwesten ( Fassade L ', M',N ' , 0'; i m Hintergrund rechts: T ',U',V'). e 1-Mesettä: Turm A : Fassade M ' ‚ N . t. e l-Mesettä: Fassade A t. e 1-Mesettä: Fassade A e 1-Mesettä: Fassade A ',B'.* ( g-3) e l-Mesettä: Fassade A-K.* ( g-17) e l-Mesettä: Fassade B ',C',D'.* ( g-1) e l-Me s ett : Fassade B '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade B '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade C '. '. e 1-Mesettä: Fassade C '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade D e l-Mesettä: Fassade D '. '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade E '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade E '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade F '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade F '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade F e l-Mesettä: Fassade G I. e l-Mesettä: Fassade G '. '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade H '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade H e l-Mesettä: Fassade e l-Mesettä: Fassade '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade J '. e 1-Mesettä: Fassade J e l-Mesettä: Fassade J '.* ( g-29) '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade K '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade L '. e 1-Mesettä: Fassade L -V.* ( g-18) e l-Me s ett : Fassade L '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade M '. e l-Me sett : Fassade M e l-Mesettä: Fassade N '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade N '. '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade 0 g-23) e l-Mesettä: Fassade 0-P.* ( e 1-Mesettä: Fassade Q . e l-Mesettä: Fassade Q . e l-Me s ett : Fassade Q . e l-Me s ett : Fassade Q . '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade R '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade R ',S' ( g-19) e l-Mesettä: Fassade R '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade S '. e 1-Mesettä: Fassade S '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade T '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade T '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade U ' ‚ U'. e l-Mesettä: Fassade T '. e 1-Mesettä: Fassade V '. e l-Mesettä: Fassade V
2 95
5 27. 5 28. 5 29. 5 30. 5 31. 5 32.
Mhayy: Gebaüde auf dem höchsten Punkt, Mhayy von Westen. Mhayy: Bogen von Westen. Mhayy: Tempel von Westen. Mhayy: Tempel: Tor von Osten. Mhayy: Tempel: P iedestal v or d em Tor.
5 33.
Mighaz,
5 34.
Moab:
5 35. 5 36. 5 37. 5 38.
Mögib, Wädi-lMögib, Wädi-lMögib, Wädi-lMögib, Wädi-ln ach Osten.
5 39.
Mögib, Wädi-l- : Blick von der römischen Brücke nach Westen. Mögib, Wädi-l- , von unterhalb der römischen Brücke n ach Osten; l inks der n ördliche, rechts d er s üdliche Pfeiler. Mögib, Wädi-l- : Südlicher Pfeiler der römischen Brücke von Norden. Mögib, Wädi-l- : Südlicher Pfeiler der römischen Brücke von Westen. Mögib, Wädi-l- : Brücke.* ( g-7)
5 40.
5 41. 5 42. 5 43. 5 44.
Wädi-l-
K arte
: Wartturm:
Ansicht
von
von
Westen.
Westen.
von Moab.
. * ( g-26) : Blick von
der
r ömischen Brücke
5 49. 5 50.
Muh tet e l-Hagg ( Unteres): von Südosten. Im Hintergrund der Nordabhang des Wädi-l-Mögib. Muh tet el-Hagg ( Unteres): Südmauer mit den b eiden Ecktürmen von Osten. Muh tet el-Hagg ( Unteres) von Südosten.* ( g-20) Muh tet el-Hagg ( Oberes): I nnenansicht der Mauer von Turm I -A, vom Turme H aus gesehen. Muh tet e l-Hagg ( Oberes): I nnenansicht der Mauer von Turm I -C, vom Turme D aus gesehen. Muh tet e l-Hagg ( Oberes): Accensus bei Turm H . Muh tet e l-Hagg ( Oberes): Accensus bei Turm H .
5 51. 5 52.
Mukes: Mukes:
5 53. 5 54.
e l-Murüg: e l-Murüg:
5 55.
e l-Muträb: el-Mu räb. e l-Mui :räb: el-Mu räb. e l-Mu E räb: e l-Mu räb: e l-Mu räb:
5 45. 5 46. 5 47. 5 48.
5 56. 5 57. 5 58. 5 59. 5 60. 5 61.
Blick Blick
auf den Tiberiassee.* ( g-22) nach dem Gölän.* ( g-21)
Gebel Gebel
Sannan.* Sannün.
( g-30)
Wall zwischen e l-Hammäm und Ansicht von Oben. Wall zwischen e l-Hammäm und Ansicht von Süden. Z immer i m Innern. Umfassungsmauer von aussen. Umfassungsmauer von i nnen.
e l-Muwakkar: Hauptgebäude: der Tür . A von Südwesten. e l-Muwakkar: Kapitäl.
2 96
Stück
der
Nordmauer
b ei
5 62. 5 63. 5 64. 5 65. 5 66. 5 67.
e l-Muwakkar: K apitäl. e l-Muwa Uar: P ilasterkapitäl. e l-Muwa Uar: F riesstück. e l-Muwa Uar v om k leinen Bau a us. L inks d as Reservoir. e l-Muwakkar: K leiner Bau von Nordwesten.
5 79.
Nahr e l-Kelb: Aussicht n ach NO u nd westlichen I nschriften a us.* ( k-1) Nahr e l-Kelb v on Westen.* ( h-11) Nahr e l-Kelb v on Nordwesten.* ( h-10) Nahr e l-Kelb v on Norden.* ( h-12) Nahr e l-Kelb.* ( h-2) Nahr e l-Kelb.* ( h-13) Nahr e l-Kelb: Aussicht v on d en Z elten n ach N O.* ( h-3) Nahr e l-Kelb.* ( h-14) Nahr e l-Kelb: Brücke.* ( h-15) Nahr e l-Kelb: Obere griechische I nschrift.* ( h-4) Nahr e l-Kelb: Aegyptische u nd Assyrien I nschriften ( östliche ).* ( h-5) Nahr e l-Kelb: Aegyptische u nd Assyrien I nschriften ( westliche).* ( h-6) Nahr e l-Kelb: Westliche Assyrien I nschriften.* ( h-7)
5 80. 5 81. 5 82. 5 83. 5 84. 5 85. 5 86. 5 87. 5 88. 5 89. 5 90. 5 91, 5 92. 5 93. 5 94.
Nuhbär, Nuhbär, Nuhbär, Nuhbär, Nuhbär, Nuhbär, Nuhbär, Nuhbär, Nuhbär, Nuhbär, Nuhbär, Nuhbär, Nuhbär, Nuhbär, Nuhbär,
W ädi.* W ädi.* W ädi.* W ädi.* W ädi.* W ädi.* Wädi.* W ädi.* W ädi.* W ädi.* Wädi.* W ädi.* W ädi.* Wädi.* Wädi.*
5 95. .
Numera,
W ädi-n-
5 96. 5 97. 5 98. 5 99. 6 00. 6 01. 6 02. 6 03. 6 04.
Odruh: von Tell Odruh aus.* ( h-8) Odruh: d ie Q uelle; r echts der Tell Odruh. Odruh: K alkofen. Odruh: Eckturm I : Ansicht des Z immers b von Süden. Odruh: Eckturm I : Ansicht d es Z immers E . von Süden. Odruh: Allgemeiner Blick von der Porta- P raetoria a us n ach Westen. Odruh: Turm V I von a ussen ( Westen ). Odruh: I nnere Ecke d er Mauer bei Turm V l. Odruh: Turm I V von i nnen.
6 05.
Odruh:
5 68. 5 69. 5 70. 5 71. 5 72. 5 73. 5 74. 5 75. 5 76. 5 77. 5 78.
Turm V II
( h-16) ( h-17) ( h-18) ( h-19) ( h-20) ( h-21) ( h-22) ( h-23) ( h-24) ( h-25) ( h-26) ( h-27) ( h-28) ( h-29) ( h-30) . *
von
( h-31)
i nnen.
2 97
6 06. 6 07. 6 08. 6 09. 6 10. 6 11. 6 12. 6 13. 6 14. 6 15. 6 16. 6 17. 6 18. 6 19. 6 20. 6 21. 6 22. 6 23. 6 24. 6 25. 6 26.
6 27.
6 28. 6 29. 6 30. 6 31. 6 32.
6 , 33. 6 34.
6 35. 6 36. 6 37. 6 38. 6 39. 6 40. 6 41. 6 42. 6 43. 6 44. 6 45. 6 46.
Odruh: Turm I II von i nnen. Odruh: Turm I II von i nnen. Odruh: Turm I II von i nnen.* ( i-36) Odruh: Turm V III von i nnen. Odruh: Blick i n d ie äussere Rundung von Turm V , von Norden a us. Odru : Blick i n d ie ä ussere Rundung von Turm V , - h . v on Norden a us. Odruh: I nneres v on Turm V , vom E ingange aus. Odruh: I nneres v on Turm V , vom Eingange aus. Odruh: Aufgang von Turm X II von i nnen. Odruh: Aufgang von Turm XXII v on i nnen. Odruh: Decumana von i nnen. Odruh: Turm I I von i nnen m it Aufgang. Odruh: Turm V von i nnen m it Aufgang. Odruh: Turm I I von a ussen. Odruh: Turm I V von a ussen. Odruh: T ürme V III IX von a ussen. Odruh: Turm I X u nd X von a ussen. Odruh: Mauer z wischen Turm V I u nd V und nördlicher Sporn von Turm V . Odruh: Nördlcher Sporn d es Turmes X VIII von N orden. Odruh: Porta Decumana von a ussen. Odruh: Aussenmauer d es Fahnenheiligtums von N orden. Rechts i st d as Z immer A des Fahnenheiligtums s ichtbar. Odruh: Aussenmauer d es Fahnenheiligtums von N orden Rechts i st das Z immer A des Fahnenheiligtums s ichtbar. Odru : K apitäl der Principia. - h . Odruh und Bosta ( zwischen ): Nordwestliche Ecke. Odruh und Bosta ( zwischen): Odruh und Bosta ( zwischen ): Odruh u nd Bosta ( zwischen ):
( 1 7 -11 )
Zwischenkastell
No .l:
Zwischenkastell Römerstrasse. Zwischenkastell
No.l. No.2.*
Petra: Blick v . Lager n ach S . Petra: Blick von No.425 n ach Südosten. L inks e l-Hubze, mit der g rossen G räberreihe, r echts d er Obeliskenberg. Im H intergrund d as Randgebirge v on Edom. G anz i m Vordergrund der ö stliche Rand d es Wädi-t-Turkmäniye. Petra: Blick v . Lager n ach SW.* ( i-30) Petra: Blick v . Lager n ach W .* ( i-29) Petra: No.62: Figur E . Petra: No.62: F igur E . Petra: No.62: F igur C . Petra: No.62: F igur .G. Petra: No.62: F igur I . Petra: No.62: F igur D . Petra: No.62: Figur H . Petra: No.62: F igur F . Petra: No.4 v on Südosten. Petra: Noo. 7 -9.* ( i-16)
2 98
6 47. 6 48. 6 49. 6 50. 6 51. 6 52. 6 53. 6 54. 6 55. 6 56. 6 57. 6 58. 6 59. 6 60. 6 61. 6 62. 6 63. 6 64. 6 65. 6 66. 6 67. 6 68. 6 69. 6 70. 6 71. 6 72. 6 73. 6 74. 6 75. 6 76. 6 77. 6 78. 6 79. 6 80. 6 81. 6 82. 6 83. 6 84. 6 85. 6 86. 6 87. 6 88. 6 89. 6 90. 6 91. 6 92. 6 93. 6 94. 6 95.
Petra: Noo. 7 -12 von unterhalb No.34 a us. Petra: Bäb e s-Sik: Blick vom Lagerplatz n ach Osten. Noo.7,8,9,12 und 1 7. Petra: B b e s-Sik: Blick vom Lagerplatz n ach Norden. Noo.22,28-31. Petra: B b e s-Sik.* ( i-15) Petra: B b e s-Sik.* ( i-14) Petra: Noo.19-21. Petra: Noo.17, 2 2, 2 7, 2 8. Petra: Noo.28-29. Petra: No.31. Südende. Petra: No.32 v on S ikeingang. Petra: E ingang d es S ik. Petra: E ingang d es S ik.* ( i-28) Petra: S ik.* ( i-13) Petra: S ik.* ( i-12) Petra: S ik.* ( i-11) Petra: S ik.* ( i-10) Petra: Noo.34, 3 5. Vom Nordufer d es Baches. Petra: Noo.34, 3 5. Vom Nordufer des Baches. Petra: Noo.34, 3 5. Petra: No.35. Petra: Bäb e s-Sik. Petra: B b e s-Sik.* ( i-9) Petra: B b e s-Sik.* ( i-8) Petra: B b e s-Sik.* ( i-7) Petra: B b e s-Sik. S ikentgang n ach N .* ( i-6) Petra: I nneres von No.40. Petra: Noo.40-44. Petra: Noo.40-44. Petra: No.45. Petra: No.62 ( el-Hazne). Petra: No.62 ( el-Hazne ). Petra: No.62 ( el-Hazne). Petra: No.62 ( el-Hazne). Petra: No.70 von Osten. Petra: N o.70 von Norden. Petra: Noo.67-133. Petra. * ( i-5) Petra: Blick v .c. 8 1 n ach Norden.* ( i-4) Petra: No.85 - Blick a uf d . G ebel Härün.* ( i-3) Petra: No.85.* ( i-2) Petra: No.85 - Mauerwerk. Petra: Obeliskenberg: Citadelle ( No.85) und Obelisk No.89 v on Süden. Petra: No.86 ( v.85 aus).* ( i-1) Petra: N oo.86 u nd 8 9 von No.85 aus. Petra: No.87 v . Süden. Petra: D ie beiden Obelisken Noo.89 und 9 0, von Südwesten. Petra: S üdlicher Teil der Theaterwand: Noo.100-108, 1 11-123, 1 31-134, 1 38. Petra: T heaterwand i m Süden d es Theaters: Noo.106, 1 11-120, 1 23, 1 32-134, 1 38-148, 1 50-155. Petra: T heaterwand i m Süden d es Theaters: Noo.106, 1 11-120, 1 23, 1 32-134, 1 38-148, 1 50-155.
2 99
6 96. 6 97‘ 6 98. 6 99. 7 00. 7 01. 7 02. 7 03. 7 04. 7 05. 7 06.
7 07. 7 08. 7 09. 7 10. 7 11. 7 12. 7 13.
7 14. 7 15. 7 16. 7 17. 7 18. 7 19. 7 20. 7 21. 7 22. 7 23. 7 24. 7 25. 7 26. 7 27. 7 28. 7 29. 7 30. 7 31. 7 32. 7 33. 7 34. 7 35. 7 36.
Petra: Noo.107-120, 1 38. Petra Untere Reihe: l inks Noo.99, 1 00, rechts Noo.101, 1 02; obere Reihe: N oo.132-135. Petra: No.124. Petra: No.126. Petra: Noo.140-143, 1 62; oben l inks No.153. Petra: Noo.140-166.* ( i-27) Petra: G räber l inks v . Theater: Bogengrab u nd G iebelgrab.* ( i-35) Petra: Noo.142-173.* ( 1-26) Petra: No.161 von Lager a us. Petra: No.161 von Lager aus.* ( i-25) Petra: Blick v on etwa No.790 n ach dem Theater: Noo.159-166, 1 69, 1 76, 1 78. I m H intergrund e l-Habis. g ioo.142-166. Petra: Noo.164-166. Petra: W estwand des Obeliskenberges: Noo.189-191, 2 02-210, 2 22-224. Petra: W estwand des Obeliskenberges: Noo.189-191, 2 02-210, 2 22-224. Petra: Westwand des Obeliskenberges: Noo.193-198, 2 13-216, 2 19-221, 2 26-227. Petra: Westwand des Obeliskenberges: Noo.193-198, 2 13-216, 2 19-221, 2 26-227. Petra: Westwand des Obeliskenberges: Noo.192-196, 1 98, 2 00, 2 01, 2 12-221, 2 26-227, 2 28. Etwas w eiter r echts a ls No.228 der Eingang i n d ie e rste Seitenschlucht v on e l-Farasa ( 260-261), rechts am Rande d er Eingang i n d ie zweite Schlucht. Petra: Noo.212-228. Petra: No.228. Petra: No.228. Petra: No.229. Petra: No.235: I nneres v on der Türe a us. Petra: No.239. Rechts No.246, l inks d er Absturz Petra: No.244. No.243. Petra: No.244. Petra: No.258. Petra: No.258. -P etra: No.269. Rechts d ie Eck v on No.270. Petra: No.269. Petra: No.270. Petra: No.290. Rückwand v om Eingang aus. Oben der Steinbalken, a uf dem s ich d ie I nschrift befindet. 03 von Nordwesten aus. Petra: Noo.302, 3 on Norden: Noo.303, 3 04, 3 07-309. Petra: Südgräber v on Norden: Noo.303, 3 04, 3 07-309. Petra: Südgräber v 07. I m H intergrund e lHabt . Petra: Noo.306, 3 Petra: No.313.* ( i-34) Petra: No.313. Petra: Südwestwand: Noo.307, 3 09, 3 16-319, 3 21-326, 3 30-332. Petra: Südwestwand: Noo.338-347. Petra: Noo.364-369, 3 72.
3 00
7 37. 7 38.
Petra: Petra:
7 39. 7 40. 7 41. 7 42. 7 43. 7 44. 7 45. 7 46. 7 47. 7 48. 7 49. 7 50. 7 51.
Petra: Noo.360-368, 3 72, 3 73, 3 78-394. Petra: No.395 - Vorhalle. Petra: No.396. Petra: No.396. Petra: No.403 von Nordosten. Dahinter Noo.397, 3 98. Petra: No.403 ( von Lager a us).* ( i-24) Petra: No.403 von Norden. Rechts Noo.395, 3 96. Petra: No.403 von Norden. Rechts Noo.395, 3 96. Petra: No.403. I nneres v on Norden. Petra: No.403. I nneres v on NW.* ( i-23) Petra: No.403. I nneres v on Norden. Petra: No.403 von Südwesten. Petra: No.403: M itte d er ä usseren Rückwand m it Stuckornamenten v on Süden. Petra: N abatäische I nschrift No.405. Petra: No.406: nordöstliche Ecke. Petra: No.406 v on Nordosten. I m Hintergrund Noo.396-398, 4 03 u nd der Akropolisberg, l inks e l-Habis. Petra: No.406. Mittelpilaster des Torwegs, Ansicht von Südosten. Petra: No.412. Petra: No.422, Petra: Thonkopf. Petra: No.452. Petra: Erstes Nordwestwadi: unterer Teil v on Süden. Im Hintergrund No.449. Petra: Erstes Nordwestwadi: oberer Teil v on Südosten. Noo.449-452, r echts unten d ie Treppe No.442. Petra: No.452. Petra: No.462. Petra: No.462. Petra: No.466. Relief r echts vom Eingang. Petra: Blick von No.467 n ach Südosten. I n d er M itte' l inks No.462. Petra: Blick von No.467 n ach Süden, gegen Wadi S abra. Petra: B lick von No.467 n ach Südwesten. I n d er Mitte der Gebel Härün. Petra: No.462. Blick n ach d . G ebel H ärün.* ( j-1) Petra: B lick von der Terrasse u nterhalb No.549 g egen Nordwesten. L inks das e rste Nordwestwadi mit Noo.449-452; r echts das z weite Nordwestwadi; z wischen beiden a uf der o beren Felsterrasse No.472. Petra: Z weites Nordwestwadi: Ostseite: Noo.475-478. Petra: Zweites Nordwestwadi: Ostseite: Noo.475-478. Petra: O stseite des zweiten Nordwestwadis. I n h alber Höhe: Noo.479-482. Unten r echts No.483. Oben r echts Noo.522, 5 24. Petra: G räben i m NW wadi I I. Petra: No.520. Petra: e l-Macaitere: Noo.522-523. Petra: e l-Macaitere u nd d ie Ostseite des z weiten Nordwestwadis: Noo.504-509, 5 26, 5 27.
7 52. 7 53. 7 54.
7 55. 7 56. 7 57. 7 58. 7 59. 7 60. 7 61. 7 62. 7 63. 7 64. 7 65. 7 66. 7 67. 7 68. 7 69. 7 70.
7 71. 7 72. 7 73.
7 74. 7 75. 7 76. 7 77.
Noo.364-369, No.371.
3 72.
3 01
7 78. 7 79. 7 80_
7 81. 7 82. 7 83.
7 84.
7 85.
7 86 7 87. 7 8. 7 89. 7 90.
7 91. 7 92. 7 93. 7 94. 7 95. 7 96. 7 97. 7 98. 7 99. 8 00. 8 01.
8 02. 8 03. 8 04. 8 05. 8 06. 8 07. 8 08. 8 09. 8 10. 8 11.
Petra: e l-Macaitere Nordwestwadis. Petra: el-Macaitere 5 38, 5 39.
u nd
d ie O stseite
v on Westen:
des
z weiten
Noo.522-527,
5 30-535,
Petra: e l-Macaitere u nd d ie O stseite des z weiten Nordwestwadis: Noo.487, 4 88, 5 10-514, 5 25-527, 5 30, 5 31. Petra: e l-Macaitere: Noo.526, 5 27, 5 30-532. Petra: e l-Macaitere: Noo.533-537. Petra: Ostlicher Abhang von e l-Macaitere, u nterster Teil des dritten Nordwestwadis: Noo.534, 5 51, 5 53-561. Petra: Ostlicher Abhang von e l-Macaitere, u nterster Teil des dritten Nordwestwadis: Noo.533-534, 5 36-537, 5 51, 5 52, 5 57, 5 59-561, 5 63, 5 75. Petra: Drittes Nordwestwadi, W estseite, untere Hälfte: Noo.553-556, 5 58, 5 63, 5 65-576. Links der Berg e l-Hab 4. Petra: Drittes Nordwestwadi, W estseite, obere Hälfte: Noo.572-582, 5 84-589. Petra: Drittes Nordwestwadi: O stseite: Noo.598-604. Petra: Drittes Nordwestwadi: O stseite: Noo.598-604. Petra: Noo.590-591.* ( i-22) Petra: Blick von der unteren Terrasse v on e l-Macaitere n ach d er Ostseite des d ritten Nordwestwadis: Noo.608-611, 6 14-615. I m Hintergrund d ie Berge Umm e s-Sahan und e l-Hubze. Petra: Westseite des Wädi-t-Turkmäniye: Noo.616, 6 24, 6 25. Petra: No.633. Petra: No.633.*(i-21) Petra: No.633. D ie n abetäische I nschrift: r echte Petra: No.633. Hälfte. D ie n abatäische I nschrift: r echte Petra: No.633. Hälfte. D ie n abatäische I nschrift: l inke Petra: No.633. Hälfte. D ie n abatäische I nschrift: l inke Petra: No.633. Hälfte. Petra: Blick von No.625 n ach den Nordostgräbern. Petra: Noo.649-656.* ( i-20) Petra: Nordostgräber v on Süden: Noo.649-656, w eiter u nten r echts: 6 58-659. I m Hintergrund r echts U mm e s-Sahün, l inks d ie Ebene von e l-Bedg. Petra: No.649.* ( i-33) Petra: No.649. Petra: Noo.649-654 [ or 6 56.] Petra: No.657. Petra: No.657. Petra: No.676. Petra: D ie Felskuppe v on Noo.675-677 von Norden; l inks No.677.* ( i-32) Petra: Noo.678-680.* ( i-19) Petra: Noo.678-681. Petra: Noo.678-681.
3 02
8 12. 8 13. 8 14. 8 15. 8 16. 8 17. 8 18. 8 19. 8 20. 8 21. 8 22. 8 23. 8 24. 8 25. 8 26. 8 27. 8 28. 8 29. 8 30. 8 31. 8 32. 8 33. 8 34. 8 35. 8 36. 8 37. 8 38. 8 39. 8 40.
8 53. 8 54. 8 55. 8 56. 8 57.
Petra: Noo.676-686. Petra: Noo.676-687.* ( i-18) Petra: Noo.686-693. Petra: No.731. Petra: No.763. Petra: No.763. Petra: No.763. Petra: No.765. Petra: No.765. Petra: No.765. Petra: No.766. Petra: No.766. Rechts No.767.* ( i-31) Petra: Noo.766-771. Petra: Noo.766-771. Petra: Noo.765-775. Petra: Noo.765-808.* ( j-21) Petra: No.770. Petra: No.771. Petra: Noo.770, 7 71, 7 72 u nd 7 74. Petra: No.772. Petra: No.772. Petra: No.772.* ( j-22) Petra: Noo.779-805. Petra: No.808 von Westen. Petra: No.808 von Südwesten. Petra: Noo.808-813. Petra: Noo.803-826. Petra: No.813. Petra: Ansicht der Wand gegenüber v om Theater von dem Talboden vor dem Theater aus. Noo.778-786, 7 88, 7 89, 8 00, 8 01, 8 03-808. Petra: Ansicht der W and gegenüber v om Theater v on d em Talboden vor dem Theater a us. Noo.778-786, 7 88, 7 89, 8 00, 8 01, 8 03-808. Petra: Noo.778-808.*(j-2). Petra: Noo.780-784, 7 86, 8 00-808, 8 11-831. Rechts Noo.70, 7 2-74, 7 6. Petra: Noo.806-831. Petra: Noo.824-825. Petra: Noo.824-829. Petra: No.832 ( e1-Feg ). Petra: e l-Bedä.* ( j-3) Petra: e 1B ä : G rabmal v on Opferplatz. Petra: G ebel .Härr in von Osten. Petra: Umm e lTeig v on Nordwesten v on d em Punkte 5 9m. Petra: Blick von dem Punkte 5 9m i n d as W adi S abra h inab. Petra: Wadi Sabra von Osten. Petra: W adi Sabra: Theater ( Naumachie?). Petra: W adi Sabra: oberhalb d er Naumachie.* ( j-4) Petra: W ädi Sabra: Bau am Ostabhang d er Akropolis. Petra: v . Oberhalb Elgi.
8 58. 8 59.
Rabba: Rabba:
8 41.
8 42. 8 43. 8 44. 8 45. • 846. 8 47. 8 48. 8 49. 8 50. 8 51. 8 52.
S äulen S äulen
u nd u nd
k leiner Tempel k leiner Tempel
3 03
v on Südosten. v on Südosten.
8 60. 8 61.
Rabba: K leiner Tempel: Nische. Rabba: K leiner Tempel:
8 62.
Rahle:
8 63. 8 64. 8 65. 8 66.
e r-Ramadän von Osten.* ( j-23) e r-Ramadän v on Südosten. e r-Ramadän: I nneres v om Tore a us. e r-Ramadän: F riesstück v or d em Tore l iegend, v ielleicht a us e l-Mesettä verschleppt.
8 67.
Ras
8 68. 8 69.
Raseya. Raseya u nd H ibbariye,
8 70. 8 71.
Rigm e l-cAl von Süden. R igm e l-cAl: Turm von Südosten.
8 72. 8 73.
Rugum Risan: Rugam Risän:
8 74.
e r-Rumel:
8 75. 8 76. 8 77.
e s-Salt von Südwesten.* e s-Salt.* ( j-7) e s-Salt.* ( j-8)
8 78. 8 79.
e s-Sanamen.* e s-Aanamen.*
8 80. 8 82. 8 82.
Sir, A ir, S ir,
8 83. 8 84. 8 85.
e s-Söbak v on Osten. e s-Söbak von Osten. e s-Söbak: Blick n ach Norden i n d as Wädi-s-Söbak; i m H intergrund d as W ädi-l- uwer. e s-Söbak: Blick n ach Norden i n d as Wädi-l- L iwer. es-Söbak: Teil der Mauer m it Bruchstück der a rabischen I nschrift. e s-Söbak: I nschrift a uf d . Nordturm von Süden. e s-Söbak: a lter Bogen. e s-Söbak: Türsturz der K irche. e s-Söbak v on Norden.
8 86. 8 87. 8 88. 8 89. 8 90. 8 91. 8 92. 8 93. 8 94. 8 95.
Tempel:
A
s üdlichen
Ostfassade.
K opf.
e l-Muserife:
A
Rückseite der
Wartturm.
z wischen.
Wartturm von Osten.* Wartturm von Süden.
( j-5)
d ie Plattform von Norden.
Wädi.* Wädi.* Wädi.*
( j-6)
( j-9) ( j-10) ( j-24) ( j-25) ( j-26)
e s-Söbak u nd Petra, e s-Söbak u nd Petra, ( j-11) e s-Söbak u nd Petra, Nordwesten.* ( j-12) e s-Söbak u nd Petra, d as Tal von e 1-B d .
z wischen: z wischen:
B lick Blick
n ach Nordwesten. n ach Südwesten.*
z wischen:
Blick
n ach
z wischen:
Vor
3 04
d em E intritt
i n
8 96. 8 97. 8 98. 8 99,
SGf: Tal n ach Westen.* ( j-27) AGf von Norden.* ( j-28) AGf: Kochzelt.* ( j-29) Sif, bei.* ( j-13)
9 00. 9 01.
e s-Suhba: Südtor von Süden. e s-Suhba: Aquädukt von Südosten. Im H intergrund d ie Thermen. e s-Suhba: Thermen von Norden. Rechts davon e in Teil des Aquäduktes ( ein weiterer Teil l inks i n der Ebene); n ach weiter r echts das Südtor: i m Hintergrund der Berg Abi Tumes. e s-Suhba: Thermen: Saal a , Ostwand von Westen. e s-Suhba: Thermen: Saal 7 1 ; , Westwand von Osten. e s-Suhba: Tetrapylon: Piedestal von Nordosten. Im Hintergrund der v iereckige Tempel No.14. e s-Suhba: G rosser Tempel: Säulen, v on Osten. e s-Suhba: e s-Serai vom Osten. Rechts der Strassenbogen ( No.11) und das Haus des Seh ( No.12). e s-Suhba: Viereckiger Tempel von Nordwesten. e s-Suhba: Theater: Bühnengebäude von Norden. e s-Suhba: Theater: Ansicht der Sitzreihen, gegen Nordwesten s chauend.
9 02.
9 03. 9 04. 9 05. 9 06. 9 07. 9 08. 9 09. 9 10.
9 11. 9 12. 9 13. 9 14. 9 15. 9 16.
e s-Suwedä: e s-Suwedä: es-Suwedä: e s-Suwedä: e s-Suwedä: e s-Suwedä:
9 17.
e t-Tafile
9 18.
Tawane von dem westlich davon l iegenden Hügel. der Mitte der Tempel. Tawane: Ansicht des Tempels von Norden. Tawane: Tempel: Blick nach Norden. Tawane: Umfassungsmauer des äusseren Hofes. T 'awäne: Tempel: Türsturz ü ber e iner der i nneren Türen. Tawäne: Sattel zwischen Tawäne und c Ain et -Tarik . B l ick n ach O sten .* ( j-14 ) . .
9 19. 9 20. 9 21. 9 22. 9 23.
Stein i n der Mauer beim Bogentor el-Masnaka von Tempel von Norden. Tempel v on Norden. G rabmal der Hamrath von G rabmal der Hamrath von
Bogentore Süden.
( No.1).
Osten. Südost.
von Osten.
9 24. 9 25. 9 26. 9 27.
Tell Tell Tell Tell
e le le le l-
ariye ariye ariye ariye
928.
Tell
e s-Seha .*
929.
Trayyä
930.
Umm
( von
(abiye) v on Südwesten.* ( abiye) von Nordosten.* ( abiye): Mühle.* ( j-17) (abiye): Thür.* ( j-18) ( j-19)
Südosten?).
e l-Geris.*
( j-20)
3 05
( j-15) ( j-16)
In
9 31. 9 32. 9 33. 9 34.
Umm er-Rasas j-30) . „. von Norden.* ( Umm e r-Rasas: Hauptruine, Ostseite, südliches Ende von Nordosten. Im Hintergrund d er Sihän. Umm e r-Rasäs von 0 ( S).* ( j-31)
9 35.
Umm e r-Ras ;: Hauptruine, Südosten. • • Umm e r-Rasäs: Hauptruine: mittleren'Hintergunde der e d-Darra.
9 36. 9 37. 9 38. 9 39. 9 40.
Umm Umm Umm Umm Umm
9 41. 9 42.
Umm e r-Rummän.* ( j-32) Umm e r-Rummän: Aussicht.*
9 43. 9 44. 9 45. 9 46. 9 57.
Umm Umm Umm Umm Umm
9 48.
c Utwi, •
Wädi-l-
9 49.
Yarmük
el-Hammi.
9 50. 9 51.
e z-Zacfarän: Ansicht e z-Zacfaräne* ( k-5)
9 52.
Zerkä.
9 53.
Zerkä Macin,
9 54. 9 55. 9 56. 9 47. 9 58. 9 59.
Z iza: Z izä: Z iza: Z izä: Z i •z a: Z izä: K aste
[ 960.
Photo
•
e r-Rasas: e r-Rasas: e r-Ras ;: e r-Ras.A;. : e r-Rasas : . .
Nordöstlicher Blick Turm ,
Teil
von
n ach Norden. r echts Gebel
Im
Hauptruine: Blick n ach Nordosten. Hauptruine: Nischen i n der Ostmauer. Hauptruine: Nordwestecke von a ussen. Turm und K irche von Westen. K irche von Westen.
( j-33)
e l -Wal d: Karawanserei von Südosten. el-Walid: Hän von Süden.* ( j-34) e l-Walid: Karawanserei: I nneres vom Tore a us. e l-Walid: Hän: Inneres vom Tore aus.* ( k-2) e l-Walid von Süden.* ( k-3)
# ,
: ( südlich
Wadi:
von
K erak).*
( k-4)
von Südosten.
B lick
von
K allirrhoe
nach O sten.
Teil des südlichen Baues, v on Norden. Teil des südlichen Baues, von Norden. Gebetsnische i n der Moschee. Gebetsnische i n der Moschee. Cisterne von Westen. Cisterne von Nordwesten Rechts das arabische n. of
f acsimile
page
f rom Waddington,
IGLS
( 1870)] [ 961.
Unidentified house Domaszewski?)]
( belonging
3 06
t o Brünnow or
von
Plate 7a: " cAin Hesbän i m Schnee". The c amp o t t he Brünnow a nd von Domaszewski expedition i n February, 1 898. Prototype of PortaLoo on l eft. Previously unpublished. See Brünnow a nd von Domaszewski Catalogue No.17. Photograph r eproduced by permission o f t he Department of Art a nd Archaeology, Princeton University.
P late 7b: Mgr S bg near Jerusalem. The camp of t he B rünnow a nd von Domaszewski e xpedition i n February, 1 898. P rototype o f PortaLoo on r ight. Previously unpublished. S ee Brünnow a nd von Domaszewski Catalogue No.404. This p hotograph and t he one i n Plate 7a above were t aken w ithin a week o f e ach other. Reproduced by permission of t he D epartment of Art and Archaeology, Princeton University. 3 07
Plate 8a: " L . ) r el-cAsgyir: Tempel". The photograph, previously unpublished, was t aken during a t rip f rom Damascus t o Jerusalem i n May, 1 897. See Brünnow a nd von Domaszewski Catalogue No.118. Reproduced w ith permission of t he Department of Art and Archaeology, P rinceton University.
Plate 8b: Reservoir o r " Birkeh" a t Derg. Previously unpublished photograph t aken i n April, 1 898. See Brünnow and von Domaszewski Catalogue No.119. Reproduced with permission of t he Department of A rt and Archaeology, P rinceton University.
3 08
Plate 9a: Corinthian capitals, columns and walls of a n ancient building at Sanamayn r ebuilt i n modern t imes. Previously unpublished photograph t aken i n May, 1 897. See Brünnow a nd von Domaszewski Catalogue with permission of t he Department of
No.118. Art and
Reproduced Archaeology,
Princeton University.
Plate 9b: Damaged a ltar-base n ear c Ammän. The Latin d edication i s t o Jupiter Optimus Maximus. Photograph t aken i n April, 1 897. See Brünnow and von Domaszewski Catalogue No.39. Reproduced with permission of t he Department of Art a nd
Archaeology,
Princeton University. 3 09
xp e ' '
Plate 1 0: " Bosrä: G rabturm v . NOO". The tower-tomb, photographed i* 1 April, 1 898, has l ong s ince disappeared. Previously unpublished. See Brünnow a nd von Domaszewski Catalogue No.48. Reproduced with permission o f t he Department of Art a nd Archaeology, Princeton University.
3 10
CATALOGUE
OF
taken
AMERICAN
PHOTOGRAPHS by
the
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXPEDITION in
1899-1900
and
the
PRINCETON
UNIVERSITY
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXPEDITIONS in
TO
1904-5
and
Finally Revised June,
and 1937
3 11
TO
SYRIA
1909
Enlarged
SYRIA
CONTENTS
I ndex
of
Sites
Catalogue
of
Photographs
pp.
3 13
- 3 17
pp.
3 19
- 3 64
EXPLANATORY NOTES Explanation of t he collection will be c atalogue.
t he u se o f found o n
t he Leica F ilm r ecords of t he f irst page of t he
The s pelling a nd accents, with t he e xception of t he breathings, u sed i n t his catalogue a re t aken f rom t he Syria publications of t he Princeton University Archaeological Expeditions. The photographs here catalogued a re t he originals of, and greatly supplement, t he i llustrative material i n t he f ollowing publications. Inscription n umbers and f ragment designations refer t o those f ound i n t hem. I .
I I.
Publications of an American Archaeological Expedition t o Syria i n 1 899-1900. Part Part
I . I I.
Part
I II.
Part
IV.
Topography and I tinerary, Robert G arrett. Architecture and Other Arts, Howard Crosby Butler. Greek and Latin I nscriptions, William Kelly Prentice. Semitic Inscriptions, Enno L ittmann.
Syria, Publications of t he Princeton University. Archaeological Expeditions t o Syria in 1 904-5 and 1 909. D ivision
I .
D ivision
I I.
D ivision
I II.
Division
IV.
N .B. ()) l ogue. H
denotes denotes
Geography a nd I tinerary, H . C. Butler, F .A. Norris and E .R. Stoever. Architecture, Sections A ( Southern Syria) and B ( Northern Syria), Howard Crosby Butler. Greek and Latin I nscriptions, Sections A ( Southern Syria), Enno L ittmann, David Magie Jr. a nd Duane Reed Stuart; and B ( Northern Syria) William K elly Prentice. S emitic I nscriptions, Sections A ( Nabataean I nscriptions), B ( Syriac Inscriptions), [ C ( Safaitic I nscript ions) and D ( Arabic I nscriptions), Enno Littmann.]
a handwritten a ddition t o t he t yped cataan e ditorial c omment o r addition b y me.
3 12
INDEX OF S ITES
c Ammän i l-Andarin A ntioch c Anz i l-cAnz Apamea c Arak i l-Emir c ArsAin c Atamän c Atil
Bacalbek Bb i 1-Haw Bäbiskä Bäbut ä
7 16 t o a 732-7 9 76 t o a 982-1 4 21 t o 4 23 a 831-1 9 58 4 13 t o 4 20; 5 67 7 01 t o a 713-19 5 0 t o 5 2 8 66 t o 8 68 5 21 t o 5 23
t o
5 68
Bänakfür Bän Atür Bänki i;ä i 1rah Barrish K alb Lauzeh Bäshaküh Bashmishli Bäsüfän Bä U lta Bäcüdeh Bäzihir Behyö Benäbil Bettir Bosrä Bräd Bshindeläyä Bshindelinteh Btirsä B cada Bur k Burd3 Bäkirha Burdj Heäar . Burdj l s-Sebc Burdjkeh Büsän
3 83 t o b 409-7; 5 47 t o 5 49 ä1 98 t o 2 00 1 73 t o b 186-4; 5 87 1 41 1 47 t o 1 54 1 33 t o 1 36; 5 91 9 7 t o 1 01; 5 90 1 046 5 9 t o 6 4a 2 71 t o 2 84f 5 82 t o 5 83 1 25 t o 1 29; 5 92 1 37 t o 1 40 1 067 t o 1 068 1 085 t o 1 087 1 87 t o 1 90a; 5 86 b 1045-1 4 0 t o 4 5; 5 85 1 t o 6 7 t o 9 7 58 t o b 794-17 1 056 t o b 1065-8 3 7 t o 3 9 3 0 t o 3 1 2 85 t o 2 86 2 97 t o 3 01; 3 01c t o 3 01e 8 27 t o 8 28 1 42 t o 1 46 1 047 t o b 1051-4 b 1007-1 t o b 1007-2 1 081 t o b 1082-3 8 15 t o b 817-1
i d-Dabbäghin Dallözä Dämit i l-cAlyä Dänä Dänä(south) D r Kt Dauwär
d 975-1 3 12a t o 3 12g 9 48 t o 9 49 2 04 3 24 t o d 326-1 ä1 62 t o d 172-12; 6 5 t o 6 8a; 5 94
B ak ii f la
3 13
5 87a
t o
5 87b
Dehes i d-Der Deracmän Der i dj-Djüwäni Der i l-Kahf Der i l-Meshkük Den t c Azzef i • Der Sambil Der S t Der S imcän Der TellcAdeh Der Termänin D jedil D jeräbis D jerädeh D jerash D jisreh D jisr i l-Hadid D jisr i l-Madjdal D jmerrin D jren i dj-Djubaiyeh D jüwäniyeh Dmer
( (Ezra ))
1 13 t o 1 24; 5 56 t o 5 58 8 64 to 8 65 1 003 to 1 006 9 46 8 39 t o d 840-1 8 30 to d 831-2; ( inscriptions )) 5 55 3 13 t o 3 22; 3 22d; 5 66; 6 00a ä5 3 to 5 8c 2 20 to 2 20a; 1 033 to d 1043-7 1 007 to d 1007-2 2 16 to 2 18 9 47 5 51 to 5 54 3 27 t o 3 34 7 33 t o d 757-13 [ missing 6 03 t o 6 09, 6 27 t o 6 30] d 944-1 t o d 944-2 5 34 4 11 to 4 12 8 02 t o 8 05 9 45 d 842-1 7 0 t o 8 2 4 50 to 4 51
( 1098))
Fäfirtin Faclül Fidreh Frikyä
1 083 9 99 1 C30 3 23;
i l-Ghadfeh i l-Ghäriyeh Ghasm
9 97 to 9 98 g 848-1 g 794-1 t o g 794-3
i 1-Haiyät Halbän Aammäm i s-Sarakh • • Hamm s Harim Harrän i l-cAwamid Hiss Aebiän ' ( (il-Hifneh)) Ho r ns
4 54; 5 73; 8 84 t o 8 85 h 958-1 t o h 958-2 9 34 t o 9 38a
I cdjäz I cnät Inkhil
9 89 8 41 8 70
to 1 032 5 60 t o 5 64
8 56 5 29 t o 5 33 4 52 t o 4 53 2 39 t o 2 49 h 807-1 t o h 807-2 (1099 t o h 1099-8)) 3 68 t o 3 69
3 14
t o t o t o
9 92 i 842-1 i 874-2
I shruk I sh-Shacaf I sriyeh
1 02 8 14 4 24
K alcat i l-Mudik k alcat K alötg k alcat Sedjar
5 36 t o 5 37b 1 069 t o k 1071-1 5 38 t o k 539-1
k a1cat S imcän K alb Lauzeh K alötä K gma c el-Hürmül K anawät k aracah i 1-K ris K asr I blisü k a;r I bn Wardän k Ar i 1-Bäcik k Ar i 1-Ben t k Ar i l-Gharbi k Ar i lHer k g U ira k beshin K eferinneh i l-Kefr K efr Ambil K efr Antin K efr Binneh K efr F insheh K efr Hauwär K efr k ermin K efr L b K efr Mires K efr Nabö K efr Rama. K errätin K fellusin K fer K habeb K hanäsir K hän Aebil K hän Zhekhr in K haräb i s-Sakhl K haräb S f ie r. r t s K häzimeh K hirbit Hasan K hirbit Hiss K hirbit 1 1-Bardhön K hirbit e l-Khatib K hirbit S r • K hirbit ( P ezin K hurebät K irk B z ä Kökaba K ökanäyg K oser i l-Hallabät • •
2 20b t o 2 30; 5 97 t o 5 97a 2 3 t o 2 9-1 1 072 t o 1 077 4 10 5 00 t o 5 13a; 5 75 8 57 8 23 t o 8 24 1 59 t o 1 61a 9 59 t o k 975-1 8 86 t o 8 89 1 94 t o 1 97 3 5 t o 3 6 4 49 2 19; 1 019 t o k 1021-3 k 1051-1 3 66 t o 3 67 k 807-1 t o k 807-4 2 50 t o 2 52 1 084 5 95 8 3 t o 8 7 2 15 2 03 1 066 4 6 t o 4 7 1 052 t o k 1055-5 3 01a t o 3 01b 9 83 t o k 986-1 1 008 t o 1 011 1 8 t o 2 2; k 831-1 t o k 831-2 k 949-1 3 72 t o 3 75; 5 69 2 36 t o 2 37; 5 40 5 42 8 55 1 078 t o k 1080-6 8 36 t o k 838-1 1 10 t o 1 12 2 53 t o 2 67; 5 78 t o 5 79; 5 99 k 713-1 t o k 713-6 1 55 t o 1 55a; 5 88 7 15 1 56 t o 1 58 6 9 1 0 t o 1 7;584 3 22a t o 3 22c 8 8 t o 9 6b 9 31 t o 9 33
3 15
t o 4 27
K sedjbeh K tellata
1 91 t o 1 93 3 61b t o 3 61c
Lubben
9 42
Macaishurin Macarrit Matir Maiyamgs i l-Malikiyeh Marcamgyä Macrgtä Ma cs arteh Mdjedil ( Mektebeh)) e l-Meshkük e l-MghalaA Midjleyyg Mircgyeh e l-Mishrifeh Msekeh Mshabbak Mucallakah e l-Mucarbeh Mucarribeh i l-Mushennef
1 000 2 38 8 07 t o m 807-1 4 68 t o 4 69 1 06 t o 1 08; 5 89 9 93 t o 9 96 3 2 t o 3 4 m 949-1 [ 1100 t o m 1100-2] 8 29 3 62 t o 3 65 2 87 t o 2 96; 6 00 9 87 5 71 t o 5 72 9 40 t o 9 41 2 31 t o 2 35 7 14 7 98 t o 8 01 m 794-1 4 70 t o 4 75
Nahr-el-Kelb Nawg Nimreh Nuriyeh
5 35 9 55 8 08 1 03
Palmyra [ Petra]
4 28 t o p 448-4; 5 50 [ 610 t o 6 26 missing]
Rbeca Refädeh Rimet e l-Luhf i r-Rubbeh i r-Ruhaiyeh RuwehA
2 68 t o 2 70 1 024 t o 1 029 9 39 9 51 r 958-1 3 35 t o 3 61a;
Sacgdeh Sabbgc Sabhah I s -Agfiyeh . . Sahr SaAwit i l-Khidr Salkhad Aameh Sammeh i s-Sanamen
8 69 s 954-1 8 60 t o 8 25 t o s 949-1 8 06 8 18 t o 8 54 8 32 t o 8 75 t o
3 16
t o 9 44
t o t o
8 09 1 05
r 361-1;
8 63 8 26 t o s 949-6 8 19 8 35 8 83
5 65
(Sardis)) S ebsebeh i s-Sekecah S elemlyeh S eräc S erdjibleh S erdjillg S ermeda S hakkg S heAi Dg S hekh Ahmed S hekh c Ali K äsün S hekh Slemän S hnan S ic S ilfäyg S imdj S imkhär S itt i r-Ram S rir Atabl c Antar Aubhiyeh Aurk .anyg Suwedg
( (see s eparate f ile d rawers)) 8 58 t o s 858-1 9 88 3 70 t o 3 71; 5 43 t o 5 46 s 986-1 to s 986-2 2 08 t o 2 14; 5 96 3 02 t o 3 12; 3 12h; 5 80 t o 5 81d; 5 98 t o 5 98b 2 01 t o 2 02 4 55 t o 4 67; 5 74 4 84 t o 4 99; 6 01 5 41 9 52 t o s 952-2 1 092 t o 1 097 5 59 8 10 t o s 813-32 1 30 t o 1 32; 5 93 8 59 1 088 t o 1 091 1 022 t o 1 023 2 05 t o 2 07 s 982-1 to s 982-2 s 863-1 t o s 863-2 1 044 t o s 1045-7 5 14 t o 5 20; 5 76 t o 5 77
T;l f ltg ( Tedif)) Tell c Akibrin Tell i d:Deheb ( Tell Nebi I s)) Temek i t-T bg T i lriaha
4 76 t o 4 83; 6 02 7 95 t o t 795-2 4 8 t o 4 9 ( (1101)) 1 001 to 1 002 ) 57 t o t 957-1 ( (1102)) 9 53 t o t 954-2 9 56 t o t 956-3 1 09
Umm i dj-Djimäl Umm i l-Kutten Umm Roser • Umm i s-Surab Umm i z-Zetün i l-Umtaciyeh c Uyün
8 90 t o 8 43 t o u 842-1 8 53 9 50 t o 8 49 t o 8 20 t o
u 950-1 u 852-3 8 22
Wädi Wädi
9 29 7 96
9 30 7 97
Tafhg
Butm Zeäi
Zebed Zerzitg Zorcg
t o t o
u 928-30 u 848-4
3 76 t o 3 82; 5 70 1 012 t o 1 018 5 24 t o 5 28
3 17
N .B. * Denotes t hat t he original, f ull s ize n egative i s not available. For r eproductions of s uch, use Leica F ilms i dentified by n umber. ( Thus; * (A-1) r efers t o Leica Film A , Exposure number 1 .) F ilm numbers ( AA- ) , ( BB) etc. r efer t o r eserve Leica n egatives, t aken o f pictures f or which t he original negatives a re preserved and f iled.
Number
1 . 2 . 3 .
Benäbil, Benäbil, Benäbil, ( AA-24)
4 .
Benäbil, House No.I, r ear wall f rom southeast. ( AA-23) Benäbil, House No.II f rom southeast. ( AA-22) Benäbil, Ruin of b icolumnar monument f rom s outhwest. * (A-16)
5 . 6 .
7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0. 1 1. 1 2. 1 3. 1 4. 1 5. 1 6. 1 7.
1 8. 1 9. 2 0. 2 1. 2 2. 2 3. 2 4. 2 5. 2 6. 2 7.
Bettir, Bettir, Bettir,
Doorway o f courtyard, House No.I. House No.I, west f ront. ( AA-25) House No.I, west end upper s tory
* (A-17) portico.
Church, s outh portal. ( AA-21) Church, ruins o f west f açade. * (A-15) Church and baptistry f rom southwest. * (A-14)
K irk Baza, Houses No.I and I I, courtyard walls f rom s outheast. * (A-13) K irk Beza, House No.I, f ront wall on courtyard. * (A-12) K irk Beza, House No.II, f ront wall on courtyard. * (A-11) K irk Beza, House No.III, doorway of courtyard. * (A-10) K irk Beza, House No.III, f ront ( east) wall. ( AA-20) K irk Beza, House No.IV. * (A-9) K irk Bezä, House and press i n s outheast angle of t own. * (A-8) K irk Bezä, Ruins of a building i n megalithic s tyle. * (A-7) K fer, Church f rom t he s outh. * (A-6) K fer, Church, e xterior of apse. ( AA-19) K fer, Church, i nterior o f apse. ( AA-18) K fer, Church, i nterior, doorway i n s outh ( AA-17) K fer, Oil press. * (A-5) K alb Lauzeh, K alb Lauzeh, ( AA-16) K alb Lauzeh, K alb Lauzeh, K alb Lauzeh,
Church, Church,
wall.
west f açade. * (A-4) s outh s ide f rom southwest
Church, e xterior of apse. ( AA-15) Church f rom southeast. * (A-3) Church, i nterior, north s ide. * (A-2)
3 19
2 8. K alb Lauzeh, Church, i nterior, s outh s ide. ( AA-14) 2 9. K alb Lauzeh, Church, i nterior, east end. ( AA-13) (29-1. K alb Lauzeh, Wall w ith f ragment of Syriac i nscription.)) [ No negative n umber.] 3 0. 3 1.
Bshindelinteh, ( AA-12) Bshindelinteh,
3 2. 3 3. 3 4.
Macsarteh, Macsarteh, Macsarteh,
3 5. 3 6.
K asr i l-Gharbl, k Ar i l-Gharbi, * ( AA-8)
3 7.
Bshindeläyg, * (A-44) Bshindeläyg, Bshindeläyg, A .D. * (A-42)
3 8. 3 9.
K efr K efr
4 8.
Taltitä, Tomb * (A-39) Taltitä, Tomb t own. * (A-38)
colonnade
of
of
town.
house.
( AA-11)
Tomb f rom southwest. * (A-45) I nterior of t omb, northeast a ngle.
with
rock-hewn
courtyard.
1 34
Basilica f rom southeast. ( AA-7) Basilica, west f açade. * (A-41) Basilica, e ast end. ( AA-6) Basilica, i nterior, l ooking east. * (A-40) Houses north of basilica. ( AA-5) Houses a t west e nd of t own. ( AA-4)
Mires, Mires,
5 0. 5 1. 5 2.
Arshin, Arshin, Arshin,
5 3.
Der Setä, * (A-34) Der Setg, Der Setg, Der Setg, Der Setg, Der Seta, Der Setg, * (A-32) Der Setg, * (0-16) Der Seta, f rom west.
• 56.
north part
Villa f rom southeast. * (A-43) Tomb of T . Cl. Sosander, date
4 6. 4 7.
5 5a.
I nterior
Villa
Behyö, Behyö, Behyö, Behyö, Behy 6 , Behyö,
5 3a. 5 3b. 5 3c. 5 3d. 5 4. 5 5.
i n
Doorways near ruins of c hurch. * (A-1) Doorway a djoining c hurch. ( AA-10) Doorway. ( AA-9)
4 0. 4 1. 4 2. 4 3. 4 4. 4 5.
4 9.
Doorway
Tomb. Tomb.
( AA-3) ( AA-2)
w ith pyramidal w ith
elevated
r oof,
north
s arcophagus,
of
t own.
south
of
Church, i nterior of apse. * (A-37) Church, e xterior of apse. * (A-36) Three-story house. * (A-35) Hexagonal
baptistry
f rom
s outheast.
General v iew. * (0-20) General v iew. * (0-19) Baptistry f rom southeast. * (0-18) Baptistry f rom t he e ast. * (0-17) Hexagonal baptistry f rom e ast. * (A-33) Hexagonal baptistry f rom southeast. North
c hurch,
North c hurch, ( AA-1)
3 20
north w all,
e xterior.
north
i nterior
w all,
5 7.
Der Setä, ( AA-45)
North
c hurch,
s outh portal
5 8.
Der Setä, ( AA-44)
North
church,
baptistry
5 8a.
Der Setä, House o n western s lope, d ate May, 4 12 A .D. * ( Q-8) Der Setä, Large house w ith s table o n g round f loor, f ront. * (Q-7) Der Setä, Ancient ornamental d etails built i nto Arabic c astle. * (Q-6)
5 8b. 5 8c.
5 9. 6 0. 6 1. 6 2. 6 3. 6 3a. 6 3b. 6 4. 6 4a. 6 5.
Bänküsä, ( AA:43) Bänkt asä, ( AA-42) Bänkasä, Bänr