Structural Health Monitoring System for Synthetic, Hybrid and Natural Fiber Composites [1st ed.] 9789811588396, 9789811588402

Table of contents :
Front Matter ....Pages i-x
Structural Health Monitoring: Sensing Device Technology in Recent Industrial Applications (Muhammad Imran Najeeb, Mohamed Thariq Hameed Sultan)....Pages 1-8
Modeling and Analysis of Functionally Graded Biocomposite Plate Structure Using Higher-Order Kinematics (V. R. Kar, A. Karakoti, S. Jena, P. Tripathy, K. Jayakrishna, M. Rajesh et al.)....Pages 9-21
Natural Fiber Composite for Structural Applications (Jayakrishna Kandasamy, A. Soundhar, M. Rajesh, D. Mallikarjuna Reddy, Vishesh Ranjan Kar)....Pages 23-35
Damage Characterization of Composite Stiffened Panel Subjected to Low Velocity Impact (Sai Indira, D. Mallikarjuna Reddy, Jayakrishna Kandasamy, M. Rajesh, Vishesh Ranjan Kar, M. T. H. Sultan)....Pages 37-50
Natural Fibre for Prosthetic and Orthotic Applications—A Review (Farah Syazwani Shahar, Mohamed Thariq Hameed Sultan, Ain Umaira Md Shah, Syafiqah Nur Azrie Safri)....Pages 51-70
Experimental Characterization for Natural Fiber and Hybrid Composites (M. Rajesh, Jayakrishna Kandasamy, D. Mallikarjuna Reddy, V. Mugeshkannan, Vishesh Ranjan Kar)....Pages 71-83
Numerical Simulation Techniques for Damage Response Analysis of Composite Structures (Shirsendu Sikdar, Wim Van Paepegem, Wiesław Ostachowiczc, Mathias Kersemans)....Pages 85-100
Modeling of Damage Evaluation and Failure of Laminated Composite Materials (Fatima-Zahra Semlali Aouragh Hassani, Rachid Bouhfid, Abouelkacem Qaiss)....Pages 101-125
Review of Fatigue Responses of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composite (M. K. R. Hashim, M. S. Abdul Majid, M. J. M. Ridzuan)....Pages 127-141
Predictive Engineering in Structural Application (K. Balasubramanian, K. Sunitha, N. Rajeswari)....Pages 143-156
Preliminary Design of a Low-Resolution Thermography Camera System for Subsurface Defect Detection of a Thin Composite Plate; A Case Study for Composite Electric Bus Structure (M. I. Hassim, F. Mustapha, M. Anwar, M. T. H. Sultan, N. Yidris, A. Hamdan)....Pages 157-176
Mechanical Properties of Flax/Kenaf Hybrid Composites (Noorshazlin Razali, Mohamed Thariq Hameed Sultan, Mohammad Jawaid, Ain Umaira Md Shah, Syafiqah Nur Azrie Safri)....Pages 177-194
Effect of Stacking Sequences on the Energy Absorption Performances of the Rectangular-Shaped Crash Boxes Reinforced Hybrid Composites (Al Emran Ismail, Justin Anak Empaling)....Pages 195-205
Energy Absorption of Tilted Rectangular Composite Crash Boxes (Al Emran Ismail, Muhammad Syafiq Abdul Rahman)....Pages 207-216
Numerical and Experimental Assessment Of Water Absorption of Red Mud-An Industrial Waste Reinforced Sisal/Polyester Hybrid Polymer Composite (S. Vigneshwaran, M. Uthayakumar, V. Arumugaprabu, R. Sundarakannan)....Pages 217-229

Citation preview

Composites Science and Technology

Mohammad Jawaid  Ahmad Hamdan  Mohamed Thariq Hameed Sultan Editors

Structural Health Monitoring System for Synthetic, Hybrid and Natural Fiber Composites

Composites Science and Technology Series Editor Mohammad Jawaid, Lab of Biocomposite Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, INTROP, Serdang, Malaysia

Composites Science and Technology (CST) book series publishes the latest developments in the field of composite science and technology. It aims to publish cutting edge research monographs (both edited and authored volumes) comprehensively covering topics shown below: • Composites from agricultural biomass/natural fibres include conventional composites-Plywood/MDF/Fiberboard • Fabrication of Composites/conventional composites from biomass and natural fibers • Utilization of biomass in polymer composites • Wood, and Wood based materials • Chemistry and biology of Composites and Biocomposites • Modelling of damage of Composites and Biocomposites • Failure Analysis of Composites and Biocomposites • Structural Health Monitoring of Composites and Biocomposites • Durability of Composites and Biocomposites • Biodegradability of Composites and Biocomposites • Thermal properties of Composites and Biocomposites • Flammability of Composites and Biocomposites • Tribology of Composites and Biocomposites • Bionanocomposites and Nanocomposites • Applications of Composites, and Biocomposites To submit a proposal for a research monograph or have further inquries, please contact springer editor, Ramesh Premnath ([email protected]).

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/16333

Mohammad Jawaid Ahmad Hamdan Mohamed Thariq Hameed Sultan •

•

Editors

Structural Health Monitoring System for Synthetic, Hybrid and Natural Fiber Composites

123

Editors Mohammad Jawaid Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, INTROP Universiti Putra Malaysia Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Ahmad Hamdan Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia Parit Raja, Johor, Malaysia

Mohamed Thariq Hameed Sultan Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Universiti Putra Malaysia Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Composites Science and Technology ISBN 978-981-15-8839-6 ISBN 978-981-15-8840-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8840-2

(eBook)

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

Structural analysis is a crucial element in engineering. The analysis is employed in many fields such as building, marine, automotive, and aerospace. Composite material is one of the materials applied to those applications. Most of the time, synthetic fiber such as glass fiber, kevlar, and carbon fiber are consumed as fiber-reinforced in composite. Interestingly, natural fiber-reinforced composite gains serious attention due to the ‘green’ concept. It starts to substitute the synthetic fiber in a hybrid approach or replace the existing synthetic fiber. However, the knowledge in the structural analysis needs further discussion and exploration. Therefore, the discussion will be focussing on analysis methods like simulation, predictive analysis, experimental data, and structural health monitoring system. Besides that, the structural analysis is crucial as well during the usage or on running application condition. However, how are we going to monitor the structural condition? Therefore, the maintenance scheduling needs to be conducted to the engineering structure. Interestingly, Structural Health Monitoring has gained popularity in evaluating the performance of a structural application in recent trends. The Structural Health Monitoring system occurs in real-time or in an online situation. Hence, it also has advantages for damage detection, damage localization, damage assessment, and life prediction compared to the Non-Destructive Test which is conducted offline. The simulation and modeling analysis gain new exciting especially to predict and identify the material properties. It involved a combination of several materials and need a special definition and assumption. Experimental data is very important to investigate the feasibility and the properties of composite, especially, in natural fiber and synthetic fiber-based hybrid composites. The analysis of the prototype will give better information on the material properties of ready to commercialize products. The book contains recent works on Sensing device technology in recent industrial applications, Modeling and Analysis of Functionally Graded Biocomposite Plate Structure using Higher Order Kinematics, Natural fiber and hybrid composite for structural application, Damage Characterization of Composite Stiffened Panel Subjected to Low-Velocity Impact, Numerical Simulation Techniques for Damage Response Analysis in Composites, Modeling of damage v

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Preface

evaluation and failure of laminated composite materials, Fatigue responses of Fiber-reinforced polymer composite, Predictive engineering in structural Application, design of a Low-Resolution Thermography Camera system for Subsurface defect detection of a thin composite plate, The Energy Absorption Performances of the Rectangular Composite Crash Boxes, and Numerical and experimental assessment of water absorption of red mud—an industrial waste reinforced sisal/polyester hybrid polymer composite. We are thankful to all authors who share their knowledge and expertise on Structural health monitoring for natural fiber and hybrid composite and make editors thoughts into reality. Besides that we are also thankful to Springer-Nature team for continuous support during the whole project without that it is difficult to complete the Project. Serdang, Malaysia Batu Pahat, Malaysia Serdang, Malaysia

Mohammad Jawaid Ahmad Hamdan Mohamed Thariq Hameed Sultan

Contents

Structural Health Monitoring: Sensing Device Technology in Recent Industrial Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Muhammad Imran Najeeb and Mohamed Thariq Hameed Sultan Modeling and Analysis of Functionally Graded Biocomposite Plate Structure Using Higher-Order Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. R. Kar, A. Karakoti, S. Jena, P. Tripathy, K. Jayakrishna, M. Rajesh, D. Mallikarjuna Reddy, and M. T. H. Sultan Natural Fiber Composite for Structural Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jayakrishna Kandasamy, A. Soundhar, M. Rajesh, D. Mallikarjuna Reddy, and Vishesh Ranjan Kar Damage Characterization of Composite Stiffened Panel Subjected to Low Velocity Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sai Indira, D. Mallikarjuna Reddy, Jayakrishna Kandasamy, M. Rajesh, Vishesh Ranjan Kar, and M. T. H. Sultan Natural Fibre for Prosthetic and Orthotic Applications—A Review . . . . Farah Syazwani Shahar, Mohamed Thariq Hameed Sultan, Ain Umaira Md Shah, and Syafiqah Nur Azrie Safri Experimental Characterization for Natural Fiber and Hybrid Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Rajesh, Jayakrishna Kandasamy, D. Mallikarjuna Reddy, V. Mugeshkannan, and Vishesh Ranjan Kar Numerical Simulation Techniques for Damage Response Analysis of Composite Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shirsendu Sikdar, Wim Van Paepegem, Wiesław Ostachowiczc, and Mathias Kersemans

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Contents

Modeling of Damage Evaluation and Failure of Laminated Composite Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Fatima-Zahra Semlali Aouragh Hassani, Rachid Bouhfid, and Abouelkacem Qaiss Review of Fatigue Responses of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 M. K. R. Hashim, M. S. Abdul Majid, and M. J. M. Ridzuan Predictive Engineering in Structural Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 K. Balasubramanian, K. Sunitha, and N. Rajeswari Preliminary Design of a Low-Resolution Thermography Camera System for Subsurface Defect Detection of a Thin Composite Plate; A Case Study for Composite Electric Bus Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 M. I. Hassim, F. Mustapha, M. Anwar, M. T. H. Sultan, N. Yidris, and A. Hamdan Mechanical Properties of Flax/Kenaf Hybrid Composites . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Noorshazlin Razali, Mohamed Thariq Hameed Sultan, Mohammad Jawaid, Ain Umaira Md Shah, and Syafiqah Nur Azrie Safri Effect of Stacking Sequences on the Energy Absorption Performances of the Rectangular-Shaped Crash Boxes Reinforced Hybrid Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Al Emran Ismail and Justin Anak Empaling Energy Absorption of Tilted Rectangular Composite Crash Boxes . . . . 207 Al Emran Ismail and Muhammad Syafiq Abdul Rahman Numerical and Experimental Assessment Of Water Absorption of Red Mud-An Industrial Waste Reinforced Sisal/Polyester Hybrid Polymer Composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 S. Vigneshwaran, M. Uthayakumar, V. Arumugaprabu, and R. Sundarakannan

About the Editors

Dr. Mohammad Jawaid is currently working as Senior Research Fellow (Professor) at Biocomposite Technology Laboratory, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. He has more than 10 years of experience in teaching, research and industries. His area of research interests includes hybrid reinforced/filled polymer composites and advance materials. So far, he has published 40 books, 65 book chapters, more than 350 peer-reviewed international journal papers and several published review papers under top 25 hot articles in science direct during 2013–2018. He also obtained 2 Patents and 6 Copyrights. H-index and citation in Scopus are 51 and 12100, and in Google scholar, H-index and citation are 61 and 16736. He is founding Springer Series Editor of Composite Science and Technology Book and Series Editor of Springer Proceedings in Materials. He is also International Advisory Board member of Springer Series on Polymer and Composite Materials. His several published review papers under top 25 hot articles in science direct during 2013–2020. He is reviewer of several high impact ISI journals (84 journals). Recently Dr. Mohammad Jawaid received Excellent Academic Award in Category of International Grant-Universiti Putra Malaysia-2018 and also Excellent Academic Staff Award in industry High Impact Network (ICAN 2019) Award. Beside that Gold Medal-Community and Industry Network (JINM Showcase) at Universiti Putra Malaysia. He also Received Publons Peer Review Awards 2017, and 2018 (Materials Science), Certified Sentinel of science Award Receipient-2016 (Materials Science) and 2019 (Materials Science and Cross field). He is also Winner of Newton-Ungku Omar Coordination Fund: UK-Malaysia Research and Innovation Bridges Competition 2015. He is Fellow and Charted Scientist of Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining, UK. He is also life member of Asian Polymer Association, and Malaysian Society for Engineering and Technology. He has professional membership of American Chemical Society (ACS), and Society for polymers Engineers (SPE), USA.

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About the Editors

Dr. Ahmad Hamdan obtained his Ph.D. in Aerospace Engineering from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2015. Presently, he is working as a Senior Lecturer at Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia. His research focuses mainly on turbine blade aerodynamics, structural health monitoring system, biocomposites fabrication, structure vibration, cutting tool technology and cooling system. He was awarded with Gold Medal for his project, Automatic Thermocyclic Dipping Machine (ATDM) at ITEX 2011. He already published 1 book, 5 book chapters, 14 proceeding papers and more than 12 international journal papers. Prof. Ir. Ts. Dr. Mohamed Thariq Hameed Sultan is a Professor at Aerospace Department, Universiti Putra Malaysia. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Sheffield, UK. He has about 15 years of experience in teaching as well as in research. His area of research interests includes hybrid composites, advanced materials, structural health monitoring and impact studies. So far, he has published more than 300 international journal papers and received many awards locally and internationally. Currently, he is also attached to the Institution of Engineers Malaysia (IEM) as the Chairman in the Engineering Education Technical Division (E2TD).

Structural Health Monitoring: Sensing Device Technology in Recent Industrial Applications Muhammad Imran Najeeb and Mohamed Thariq Hameed Sultan

Abstract With continuous rapid development of sensor technology, structural health monitoring system (SHMS) managed to be developed and employed in various kind of structures or component. The aim of this chapter is to give a brief review on recent sensing technology that had been used in structural health monitoring system towards industrial application. There are various field of engineering that utilize different kind of sensor to measure and evaluate in real-time assessment on the structural behaviour/performance under such loads for further maintenance actions or in optimizing a design. Even though SHMS showed many advantages in take care of the structure, it also shows several drawback that causing it not been used widely. However, it is believe that in the next 15 years, the SHMS will become a needs in multi-industry and sub industry level in their structures or components, as the world are now moving towards industrial 4.0. Keywords SHMS · NDT · Structural health monitoring sensor · Structural integrity · Strain gauge · Bridge · Flyover · Transportation

M. I. Najeeb Faculty of Engineering, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia M. T. H. Sultan (B) Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), UPM, 43400 Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] Faculty of Engineering, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia Aerospace Malaysia Innovation Centre (944751-A), Prime Minister’s Department, MIGHT Partnership Hub, Jalan Impact, 63000 Cyberjaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Structural Health Monitoring System for Synthetic, Hybrid and Natural Fiber Composites, Composites Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8840-2_1

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1 An Overview Safety of buildings and other structures is of paramount importance, as structural integrity may be compromised with the passage of time due to internal and external load pressure. Among factors attributing to defects include environmental stress. Apart from periodic maintenance, early identification of structural defect is crucial to ensure safety of a structure or component. However, identifying and assessing the extent of internal damage, and its precise location can be very challenging. Therefore application of structural health monitoring system (SHMS) is crucial for long-term assessment of safety and security. Structural health monitoring involve continuous observation of structural integrity over a period of time by using an array of connected sensors during the duration of service life of the structure [1]. Routine structural monitoring is important to secure the safety of a structure or component for daily use. Through the monitoring process, potential problems could be detected early, even in normally occluded areas, prior to structural damage. Structural monitoring can also be applied to understand how best to maintain a structure to extend its design life, or to gauge if the construction or maintenance works were progressing as planned. SHMS offers a more proactive maintenance approach compared to conventional maintenance routine where repair works are carried out only after the occurrence of any form of damage [1]. Usually damages are detected upon visual inspection or when a machinery breaks down. Such structural or machinery failure have farreaching implication on life-cyclecost, apart from draining resources. For example, Taiwan’s Nanfang’ao bridge suddenly collapsed in 2019, without any early warning sign indicating structural defect and subsequent failure. It was a tragedy that killed six people. It was reported that the possible causes of failure were due to rust, as well as wear and tear [2]. The same year, a significant structural failing of the Hammersmith bridge in London was visually detected, as cracks appeared at the pedestal. Access to the bridge was closed to facilitate repair works that cost an estimated e120 million [3]. To overcome such unforeseen circumstances, it is better to adopt the SHMS to help identify and quantify potential structural defects at early stages locally and globally. Early detection and the right maintenance measures taken could help prevent major damage that could lead to eventual structural failure. Over the decades the SHMS has evolved, thanks to advances in sensing, power, communication, storage, signal processing algorithm and health evaluation algorithm technologies. Together with such technologies, SHMS had been applied in various civil industry as well as the transportation sector, including bridge, dams, building and railways. Sensing technology is the pulse of SHMS. Various types of sensing technologies are available, and it continues to evolve to further improve monitoring of structural conditions based on real data collection [4]. With the availability of various types of sensors with different functions, engineers should identify and set up the proper array of sensors according to the designed sensing system so that it can properly capture the targeted data during the real-time monitoring process.

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2 Sensing Technology by Application 2.1 Civil Civil structures constantly bear the load pressure from multiple directions. Therefore it is vital to systematically assess structural behaviour for early detection of damage, to ensure the structures continue to function well. Traditionally, scheduled visual inspection are carried out to detect damages on the surface of a structure. However, this does not provide the best solution because internal signs of damages could not be seen with the naked eyes. Early detection is vital so that corrective measures could be taken in order to extend the life span of a structure. Therefore it is important to periodically monitor the structural health of a structure to detect anomalies in time. This will help optimise maintenance and reduce the overall operating cost. The latest SHMS applications in several sub-sectors of civil architecture are discussed below. SHMS had been used to monitor various kind of infrastructure such as bridge. Manhattan bridge in New York City state had applied SHMS to monitor the bridge in real-time because the bridge floor beams had developed distortion-induced cracks due to repeated train loads. In the first stage, the engineers conducting visual inspection along the bridge from the sidewalk. They observed a clearly joints misalignment and the sound of train wheels impacting the rails end. To gain understanding the nature of coupled dynamic system between the train and bridge, over twenty accelerometers (PCB 393A03 accelerometer) were installed along the selected location of the floor beams. Then they monitor the data of 30 train crossing over the bridge to quantify the impact of this amplification on the strain responses of the transit stringers and floor beams. The results obtain seems agreed the visual inspection results where there are misalignment and the impact sound from the wheels and the rail. In 2nd stage, the objective was to estimate the impact of the distortion on the long-term bridge performances. They had installed 14 strain gages to anaylze flexural stress, 16 strain gages to capture shear stress, 6 temperature sensor and 4 crack gages. The crack gages was employed at locations that are suspected to have fatigue cracking. With these sensors, they can identify if there were presence of opening of the distortion-induced cracks and to provide a baseline data that could be used to quantify the efficacy of mitigation strategies [5]. By having the SHSM, the structural integrity of the bridge can be preserve in long-run and the life-cycle maintenance cost can be reduced. The SHMS technology is also applied to ensure longterm safety of the Hammersmith flyover in London. The four-lane flyover stretching 622 m long was built in 1961. Reinforced concrete piers support the flyover bridge [6]. And roller bearings at the base of each pier allow thermal expansion and accommodate both rotation and translation movement in longitudinal direction so that the stress acting on the structure is reduced [7]. Findings during decades of maintenance services reflect cause for concern over structural integrity, as corrosion was observed at the prestressing tendons. The rapid corrosion is believed to have occurred because of deicing salts application during winter, apart from failure of the water-proofing system. Further visual inspection also showed deterioration of roller bearing, and this posed a grave

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concern as the bearing serve a critical function to reduce stress in a structure. Therefore it is important to fix sensors to enable monitoring, interpretation and analysis of relevant data so that remedial action can be taken to address defect at the specific area. An acoustic emission sensor is used to detect wire breaks, while linear potentiometric displacement transducers (LPDT) are used to measure pier-bearing horizontal displacement and temperature readings [6]. It is not feasible to use longitudinal strain measurements to detect changes caused by even a large number of wire breaks in the bridge deck because it is impossible to ascertain if prestress losses have occurred in view of noise in data due to live load effects [6]. Besides bridge and flyover, the SHMS can also be used on offshore structures like an example in Bremerhaven, Germany offshore wind power plant that located in open sea. There power plant consist of two component which were the carrying structure (jacket + tower) and the nacelle with the rotor blades [8]. The structures were subjected to rough sea stress such as wind, waves and saltwater. There were 70 strain gage installed on the jacket to analyse the static and dynamic behaviour of the newly developed cast-iron nodes. Two type of sensor that had employed at the stressed points of the jacket namely electrical strain gages and fiber-optical strain gages. The electrical resistance working principle is simple where it depending on the changes of electrical resistance experience by the strain gages when it compressed and strectched. The changes in the electrical resistance gives value of strain. Fiber optical strain gages is used to also measure strain and temperature. However, this sensor had advantages as it can allocate many sensing point along a single fiber optic making it can provide local and global strain of a structure [9]. The SHMS application can also be used to enhance productivity and efficiency of machine performance, apart from monitoring damages and evaluating structural behavior under loading pressure. In Europe, SHMS is applied to enhance efficiency of turbine blades in hydropower plants. Two types of strain gauges are installed directly onto the turbine blade at input stage. Strain gauges are used because they are durable, thus providing long-term stability. The first type of strain gauge, HBM XY41-3/700, is used to measure torque movement. And the second type of strain gauge, XY313/350, is used to measure the axial force and speed at the turbine input stage. The installed strain gauges are enveloped in a special cover for electrical protection as well as to prevent electromagnetic interferences. All the information based on real-time calculation, measurements, and diagnosis are analysed using PMX data acquisition system. With such setting, the efficiency of the hydro powerplant is increased up to 10% [10]. The SHMS application is also used in underground construction works to monitor changes in soil characteristics. Uncertainties over soil characteristics pose a major challenge in the underground construction sector [11]. For example, Avenue2, a consortium of Strukton and Ballast Nedam, carried out tunneling works right below Maastricht in a move to re-route A2 motorway. Soil characteristics and excavation works at a depth of 22 m below ground posed various challenges. To ensure stability during the excavation process, various types of sensors were installed in the surrounding areas to enable real-time monitoring, and raise alert if signs of subsidence emerge. Three types of sensors were installed to monitor the conditions of

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external walls of buildings near the excavation site. Sensors installed are automatic clinometers to measure elevation angles above horizontal, pressure sensor to measure water tension in vertical tubes, and strain gauges to measure the load on horizontal props [12]. Using these sensors, site engineers can carry out real-time monitoring and keep contractors informed on forces at play during construction works so that remedial action can be taken immediately to keep the surrounding structures strong and safe, while enabling work to progress rapidly as planned and save cost.

2.2 Air Transportation Damages to a structure do not necessarily result in visible dents and cracks. Therefore SHMS application is needed to detect possible structural flaws although the surface may appear smooth and undamaged. For example, sensors are positioned in the aircraft landing gear shock strut to continuously monitor tyre pressure, brake temperature and hydraulic pressure [13]. Safran, one of the leading high-technology industry players, have developed a an extremely light miniaturised micro-electromechanical system (MEMS), weighing a mere two grams. This system enables a wide range of parameter measurements including acceleration, pressure, and magnetic field. Compared to conventional MEMS, the newly invented tiny and extremely light sensor can be applied to monitor performance of engines, brakes, landing gear, and many other critical components [14]. Apart from MEMS, comparative vacuum monitoring (CVM) sensors and piezoelectric sensor arrays (PZT) are also applied in SHMS programmes to automatically and remotely assess an aircraft’s structural condition in real time, and raise an alert when the need for maintenance arise [15]. The CVM sensor is used to detect crack. It is mounted on aircraft parts that are prone to experience fatigue. It is bonded to the surface of the structure with an adhesive, sealing off the atmosphere, thus creating a vacuum inside the gallery. When a tiny crack intersects with the gallery, the sensor records the changes in pressure, and alerts the operator before the cracks pose safety issues. Besides that, for PZT, the sensors are strategically located throughout smart layers, adhered to the aircraft structure. The sensors function by transmitting and receiving ultrasonic surface waves (Lamb waves) to one another, where its creates a mini network system. When a damage occur, it will disrupt the signal pattern (compared with baseline signal pattern) and the measurement and analysis are made using software [15]. Hence the SHM system showcases the real-time condition of an aircraft, and raise maintenance alert accordingly. It promotes condition-based maintenance rather than the conventional time-based maintenance. Apart from MEMS, CVM and PZT applications, strain gauge sensors are also used in monitoring structural integrity of aircraft. A French aircraft manufacturing company firm, LISA Airplanes, utilise SHMS in their latest light-weight aircraft AKOYA. AKOYA is built using hybrid with composite materials that offers good flexibility and stability. As this is a newly developed aircraft, the manufacturer carried out comprehensive structural and component tests especially on various stress acting

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on the structure at various stages of flight [16]. Therefore, it is important to ascertain the desired parameters for measurements. Strain gauge were installed in quater-, half- and full-bridge configurations on the aircraft wings. Generally, a simple quater bridge is used to measure strain on a tension/compression bar or on a bending beam. Half-bridge strain gauge can measure axial/bending strain or bending strain only, while full-bridge strain gauge can measure bending or axial strain only. Besides measuring the various parameters, the choice of strain gauge configuration is also important, as changing the bridge configuration can improve strain sensitivity [17]. On top of that, aircraft airframe are vulnerable to corrosion, potentially leading to material degradation, and eventually causing fatigue crack. Generally, aircraft structures are well coated. However, the aircraft are exposed to various type of impact and damage during daily services. Three methods are available to monitor and measure corrosion. The first method involve direct measurement of corrosion effects using electrochemical sensors such as Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) sensor. The second method involve measurement of corrosivity environment, where corrosive condition of underlying structures are evaluated. For example, galvanic sensors are used to monitor the corrosion of metallic elements through the changes in electrical resistance of the sensor. The third method involve measurement of corrosion using chemical sensors [18]. This sensor can detect the presence of specific ion from a corroded component/structure. However, this sensor is not very reliable because to date it could not demonstrate long-term stability or resistance to poisoning caused by contaminants. Table 1 summarize application of structural health monitoring ‘s sensor in industries.

3 Challenges in Implementing SHMS SHMS application in various industries, showcasing a positive impact in the long run both in safety and maintenance cost. However, the technology has its limitations due to several factors including SHMS cost. The technology and installation of this system is costly, and beyond the affordability of many small and medium industries [1]. Therefore, the engineers must verify specific parameters that are highly likely to affect structural integrity so that only necessary sensors are used instead of using multiple sensors to measure all sorts of parameters. A study concluded that corrosion sensor is not cost-effective, and that the current ground inspection of aircraft is already sufficient, for now, to detect corrosion [18]. However, application of corrosion sensor is much more cost effective in hard to access areas such as undersea/subterranean pipelines and offshore structures. Next was on the interperation of the test result. Since the SHMS enable real-time monitoring, the size of data collected can be very big. It can prove challenging for engineers to analyse and interpret the big data. A special set of skills is needed to utilise the data to facilitate decision-making [1].

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Table 1 Structural health monitoring ‘s sensor application Type of sensor

Application

References

Accelerometer

Bridge-floor beams

[5]

Strain gauges

Bridge, power plant, Subterranean, aircraft

[5, 10, 11, 16]

Crack gauges

Bridge

[5

Acoustic emission

Flyover

[7]

Power plant

[8]

Subterranean

[11]

Aircraft

[14]

Linear potentiometric displacement transducers (LPDT) Electrical strain gauges Optical strain gauges Automatic clinometers Pressure sensor Micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) Comparative vacuum monitoring (CVM)

[15]

Piezoelectric sensor arrays (PZT)

[15]

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) sensor

[18]

Galvanic sensors

[18]

Chemical sensors

[18]

4 Conclusion This paper discuses advances in the use of various sensors complementing the SHMS applications in both civil and aviation industries. A variety of sensors, and integrated sensor networks are available to evaluate the performance of a desired system including structural elements, electronics, hydraulics, avionics and others. Smaller size matters in the advent of sensor technology, as innovators continue to minimise the size of sensors to enable embedding in various structures and remote locations. It is important for the engineers to determine crucial parameters, and analyse the big date to gauge structural integrity and performance. It is important to verify where to measures, and translate the data obtained into useful information in decision-making process in order to optimise the maintenance process. It is also crucial to select the desired sensor based on its usage, and ascertain if it is practical and effective in obtaining reliable data that are free from noise disturbance. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Universiti Putra Malaysia for the financial support through the Geran Putra Berimpak, GPB 9668200. The authors would like to thank the Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia and Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Product (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia (HICOE) for the close collaboration in this research.

8

M. I. Najeeb and M. T. H. Sultan

References 1. Why We Need Structural Health Monitoring? (2019, March 12) https://www.fprimec.com/ why-we-need-structural-health-monitoring/. Accessed 18 May 2020 2. Greenwood M (2019) What caused Taiwan’S Nanfang’Ao bridge to collapse? https://www.eng ineering.com/BIM/ArticleID/19645/What-Caused-Taiwans-Nanfangao-Bridge-to-Collapse. aspx. Accessed 18 May 2020 3. BBC News (2019) Hammersmith bridge repairs ‘Could Cost £120M’. https://www.bbc.com/ news/uk-england-london-49564267. Accessed 18 May 2020 4. FPrimeC Solutions Inc. (2020) Sensors for structural health monitoring|Fprimec Solutions Inc. https://www.fprimec.com/sensors-for-structural-health-monitoring/. Accessed 18 May 2020 5. McAnulty K (2020) Structural health monitoring of representative cracks in the Manhattan bridge. Doctoral dissertation, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey 6. Webb GT, Vardanega PJ, Fidler PRA, Middleton CR (2014) Analysis of structural health monitoring data from Hammersmith flyover. J Bridge Eng 19(6):05014003 7. The Constructor (n.d.) Bridge bearings -types of bearings for bridge structures and details. https://theconstructor.org/structures/bridge-bearings-types-details/18062/. Accessed 18 May 2020 8. HBM (n.d.) HBM technology and service for building up the first germ. https://www.hbm. com/en/3316/hbm-technology-and-service-for-building-up-the-first-german-offshore-windfarm/. Accessed 18 May 2020 9. Berrocal CG, Fernandez I, Rempling R (2020) Crack monitoring in reinforced concrete beams by distributed optical fiber sensors. Struct Infrastruct Eng 1–16 10. HBM (n.d.) Iron gate dam: measuring the efficiency of turbine blades. https://www.hbm.com/ en/6833/dam-monitoring-with-pmx/. Accessed 18 May 2020 11. HBM (n.d.) Strukton: monitoring changes in the soil characteristics. https://www.hbm.com/ en/4583/strukton-monitoring-changes-in-the-soil-characteristics/. Accessed 18 May 2020 12. Calvert JB (2003) The clinometer. https://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/astro/abney.htm. Accessed 18 May 2020 13. Safran (n.d.) Monitoring system. Safran Landing Systems. https://www.safran-landing-sys tems.com/monitoring-system. Accessed 18 May 2020 14. Safran (2015) Revolutionary micro-sensors. https://www.safran-group.com/media/20151020_ revolutionary-micro-sensors. Accessed 18 May 2020 15. Aerospace Manufacturing and Design (2014) Structural health monitoring. https://www.aer ospacemanufacturinganddesign.com/article/structural-health-monitoring-maintenance-122 914/. Accessed 18 May 2020 16. HBM (n.d.) LISA airplanes: many technological innovations. https://www.hbm.com/en/3246/ lisa-airplanes-many-technological-innovations/. Accessed 18 May 2020 17. Ni.com (2019) Measuring strain with strain gages—National instruments. https://www.ni. com/en-my/innovations/white-papers/07/measuring-strain-with-strain-gages.html. Accessed 18 May 2020 18. Harris SJ, Mishon M, Hebbron M (2006) Corrosion sensors to reduce aircraft maintenance. In: Rto avt-144 workshop on enhanced aircraft platform availability through advanced maintenance concepts and technologies, Vilnius, Lithuania

Modeling and Analysis of Functionally Graded Biocomposite Plate Structure Using Higher-Order Kinematics V. R. Kar, A. Karakoti, S. Jena, P. Tripathy, K. Jayakrishna, M. Rajesh, D. Mallikarjuna Reddy, and M. T. H. Sultan

Abstract In this study, finite element modeling and analysis of functionally graded biocomposite structures are performed. Here, biocompatible materials are utilized throughout in the analysis to model biocomposite structures. Three types of material models, i.e., titanium, zirconia and titanium-zirconia biocomposites are considered. The material properties of titanium-zirconia biocomposites are evaluated Voigt’s rule-of-mixture homogenization via power-law function. The strain field of the present model is based on higher-order equivalent single-layer kinematics. However, the motion equations are governed by minimizing total potential energy of the system. The final equilibrium equations are obtained using 2D Lagrangian finite element formulation. To confirm the correctness of the proposed finite element model, the present results are compared with the reported results. In addition, various numerical illustrations are demonstrated to exhibit the significance of different geometrical and material parameters on the deformation behavior of biocomposite structures under uniform pressure, and discussed in detail. Keywords Biocomposites · FGM · Micromechanics · Deformation · Higher-order · FEM

V. R. Kar (B) · A. Karakoti Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Jamshedpur 831014, Jharkhand, India e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] S. Jena · K. Jayakrishna · M. Rajesh · D. Mallikarjuna Reddy School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India P. Tripathy Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769008, Odisha, India M. T. H. Sultan Faculty of Engineering, Department of Aerospace Engineering, University Putra Malaysia (UPM), 43400 Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, India © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Structural Health Monitoring System for Synthetic, Hybrid and Natural Fiber Composites, Composites Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8840-2_2

9

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V. R. Kar et al.

1 Introduction The capabilities of the advanced composite materials always attracted the researchers for design implementation in various structures/components of weight-sensitive areas. In past few years, replacement of conventional biomaterials with biocomposites is being the prime concern due to durability and performance. Typical functionally graded materials (FGMs) are known as advanced materials with smooth material gradation which replicate skin, bone, etc. like materials, and can be utilized effectively in bio-medical sectors [1]. The modeling and analysis of these types of advanced material structures always attract scientists and researchers. Many studies have been reported in past to examine various mechanical behavior of FGM type structures using various material, kinematic and solution schemes. Thai and Vo [2] analyzed the bending, vibration and buckling behavior of FGM plates by employing a new sinusoidal shear deformation theory with four unknowns only. Governing equations and material properties were obtained using Hamilton’s principle and power-law formulation, respectively. Reddy et al. [3] employed first order shear deformation theory (FSDT) to analyze the bending and stretching of FGM solid and annular plates. Brischetto and Carrera [4] proposed a model based on Reissner’s mixed variation theorem (RMVT). FGM plates were transversely loaded and properties were graded according to Legendre’s polynomial. Compelling results of RMVT shows the improvement when compared with the models based on principle of virtual displacement (PVD). Zidi et al. [5] used a four variable refined plate theory without shear correction factor for bending analyses of FGM plates experiencing hygro-thermo-mechanical load. Governing equations were obtained using principle of virtual displacement and material properties varied according to the simple rule of mixture. Della Croce and Venini [6] developed an extended model employing Reissner-Mindlin plate theory to manipulate the shear-locking phenomenon. Material properties were determined using power law formulation and variational principle derived the governing equations. Kar and Panda [7] obtained non-linear bending responses for FGM spherical panels using higher-order finite element approach. The present study focuses the finite element modeling of different functionally graded biocomposite (FGB) structures, followed by their analysis to examine the deformation behavior under different sets of conditions. Here, zirconia and titanium materials are considered individually and also in combined form with smooth gradation. The smooth gradation is achieved using power-law function whereas the overall spatial elastic properties are obtained using Voigt’s rule-of-mixture scheme. The kinematic model is developed using higher-order equivalent single-layer theory and the equation of motions are obtained using principle of total minimum potential energy. The final solutions are obtained using 2D finite element formulation. In later section, numerical examples are presented to demonstrate the impact of various geometrical parameters on the deformation behavior of different biocomposite structures under uniform pressure.

Modeling and Analysis of Functionally Graded Biocomposite …

11

2 Mathematical Modeling of FGB Structure 2.1 Micromechanics of FGB Material In the present work, three different material profiles, namely pure zirconia (ZrO2 ), FGB (ZrO2 /Ti) and pure titanium (Ti) are considered as shown in Fig. 1. The moduli of elasticity of zirconia and titanium are E Zr and E Ti , respectively. However the elastic modulus of FGB material (E FGB ) is evaluated using Voigt’s rule-of-mixture

z

x

t

ZrO2

l (a) z

x

t

FGB (ZrO2/Ti)

l (b) z

t

x

Ti

l (c) Fig. 1 Description of different biocomposite structures a zirconia, b FGB (zirconia/titanium) and c titanium plate

12

V. R. Kar et al.

micromechanical scheme [8, 11], as E F G B = (E Zr − E Ti )VZr + E Ti

(1)

where, VZr is the volume fraction of zirconia and this can be evaluated micromechanically using power-law function [8, 11], as follows  VZr =

2z + t 2t

n (2)

where, volume fraction coefficient (n) controls the material distribution along the thickness direction of the structure and it can be any real value.

2.2 Kinematic and Constitutive Models  T   of FGB plate can be written as, The strain tensor {ε} = εx x ε yy ε yz εzx εx y εx x ε yy ε yz εzx εx y

⎫ ⎪ = ε¯ 1 + zα1 + z 2 β1 + z 3 γ1 ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ 2 3 ⎪ = ε¯ 2 + zα2 + z β2 + z γ2 ⎬ 1 2 = 2 ε¯ 4 + zα4 + z α4 ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ = 21 ε¯ 5 + zα5 + z 2 α5 ⎪ ⎪ 1 2 3 = 2 ε¯ 6 + zα6 + z α6 + z γ6 ⎭ {ε} = []{¯ε }

(3)

(4)

 T where, {¯ε } = ε¯ 1 ε¯ 2 ε¯ 4 ε¯ 5 ε¯ 6 α¯ 1 α¯ 2 α¯ 4 α¯ 5 α¯ 6 β¯1 β¯2 β¯4 β¯5 β¯6 γ¯1 γ¯2 γ¯6 is midplane strain matrix and [] is the spatial z-matrix. Here, the mid-plane strain terms contain three translation (u 1 , v1 , w1 ), two rotation (u 2 , v2 ) and two higher-order (u 3 , v3 , u 4 , v4 ) terms at any arbitrary point within the mid-plane (z = 0) of FGB plate which are based on the higher-order equivalent single-layer [12].  theory T   at any point within FGB plate The stress field {σ } = σx x σ yy σ yz σzx σx y structure is written, as ⎫ ⎡ ⎫ ⎧ ⎤⎧ ⎪ εx x ⎪ R11 R12 0 0 0 ⎪ σx x ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ε ⎪ ⎪ ⎢R R ⎪ ⎪ ⎥⎪ ⎪ ⎨ yy ⎪ ⎬ ⎢ 21 22 0 0 0 ⎥⎪ ⎬ ⎨ σ yy ⎪ ⎢ ⎥ (5) σ yz = ⎢ 0 0 R44 0 0 ⎥ ε yz = [R]{ε} ⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ σzx ⎪ ⎣ 0 0 0 R55 0 ⎦⎪ εzx ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎭ ⎩σ ⎪ 0 0 0 0 R66 ⎩ εx y ⎭ xy

Modeling and Analysis of Functionally Graded Biocomposite …

13

where, [R] represents elastic material matrix and the individual terms are given as EFGB ; R11 = R22 =  1 − υ2

υ EFGB ; R12 = R21 =  1 − υ2

R55 = R44 = R66 =

EFGB . 2(1 + υ)

In this study, the equations of equilibrium of FGB plate structure under uniform pressure (q) are obtained using principle of total minimum potential energy in finite element form, as [K ]e {λ}e = {F}e

where, [K ]e = {F}e =

1 1

−1 −1 1 1 T

−1 −1

(6)

[B]T [D][B]J dξ dη is the elemental stiffness matrix

[S] {q}J dξ dη is the elemental force matrix.

Here, [B], [D] and [S] are the strain-displacement, rigidity and interpolation function matrices, respectively.

3 Results and Discussion A customized computer code is prepared from the developed finite element formulations to compute the desired responses of FGB structure. In the entire study, titanium and zirconia materials are utilized to model the said structure and the elastic properties are mentioned in Table 1. Here, different support conditions are considered on the edges of the FGB plate structure, such as fully clamped (CCCC), fully simply supported (SSSS), clamped-simply supported (CSCS), and clamped-free (CFCF). The unconstrained and constrained degrees-of-freedom (d.o.f.) for these support cases are mentioned in Table 2. Through the analysis, centerline deflections are computed and presented in non-dimensional form. Table 1 Elastic properties of bio-compatible materials [10]

Materials

Properties Young’s modulus E (GPa)

Poisson’s ratio (ν)

Zirconia (ZrO2 )

200

0.3

Titanium (Ti)

110

0.3

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V. R. Kar et al.

Table 2 Different support conditions on the edges of FGB plate structure Support conditions Edges

Unconstrained d.o.f.

Fully constrained d.o.f.

u1 , u2 , u3 , u4

v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , w1

SSSS

x = 0, l

y = 0, b v1 , v2 , v3 , v4

u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , w 1

CSCS

x = 0, l

u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , v 1 , v 2 , v 3 , v 4 , w 1

CFCF

–

y = 0, b v1 , v2 , v3 , v4

u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , w 1

x = 0, l

u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , v 1 , v 2 , v 3 , v 4 , w 1

–

y = 0, b u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , w1 – x = 0, l

CCCC

–

u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , v 1 , v 2 , v 3 , v 4 , w 1

y = 0, b –

u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , v 1 , v 2 , v 3 , v 4 , w 1

3.1 Mesh Refinement Firstly, the convergence rate of discretized finite element model of FGB structure is confirmed through appropriate mesh refinement process. For this purpose, nondimensional central deflection (w/t) of a fully clamped FGB plates (a/h = 100, a/b = 1) under uniform pressure (q = 0.1 MPa) are analyzed at various mesh densities, i.e., from 3 × 3 to 7 × 7 using uniform h-refinement scheme (see Fig. 2). Here, zirconia (n = 0), FGB-I (n = 0.5), FGB-II (n = 2) and titanium (n = ∞) plates are utilized. This mesh refinement of the FGB plate confirms that the desired responses can be computed efficiently at 5 × 5 mesh. Therefore, in the upcoming computational works, 5 × 5 mesh is adopted to discretize the FGB plate structures, if not mentioned otherwise.

Non-dimensional central deflection

1.2

Zirconia 1.0

FGB-I 0.8

FGB-II Titanium

0.6

0.4

3x3

4x4

5x5

6x6

7x7

Mesh density

Fig. 2 Mesh refinement of fully clamped FGB plate (a/h = 100, a/b = 1) structures under uniform pressure

Modeling and Analysis of Functionally Graded Biocomposite …

15

Fig. 3 Deflection responses of a typical FGM plate under uniform pressure

3.2 Verification Study The correctness of the present work has been verified by comparing present results with the earlier reported work. Due to unavailability of the bending results of FGB plate structure in previous work, a simply supported FGM (aluminium and alumina) plate with a/h = 10 is analyzed under uniform load (see Fig. 3). The geometry and material properties are identical with reference [9]. Figure 3 confirms the accurateness of the present model and also demonstrates that the present model is flexible than the reference results because the compared results were evaluated using first-order kinematic theory.

3.3 Parametric Study In this section, the computational examples are established to demonstrate the deformation responses of FGB plate structure at various parametric values and conditions. Here, non-dimensional centerline deflections w/t (x, b/2) of FGB plate structures are computed under uniform pressure (q = 0.1 MPa). However, computations are executed for different volume fraction coefficients (n = 0, 0.5. 2 and ∞), side-tothickness ratios (l/t = 10, 25, 50, 100), aspect ratios (l/b = 1, 1.4, 1.8, 2.2) and edge constraints (CCCC, CSCS, SSSS, CFCF) to reveal their individual and combined impact on the deformation behavior of FGB plate structures. Table 3 exhibits the impact of side-to-thickness ratios (l/t = 10, 25, 50, 100) on the non-dimensional centerline deflections of different FGB plates (l/b = 1,

100

50

25

0

0

0

0

FGB-II

Ti

0

Ti

FGB-I

0

FGB-II

ZrO2

0

FGB-I

0

Ti

0

0

FGB-II

ZrO2

0

FGB-I

0

Ti

0

0

FGB-II

ZrO2

0

0

FGB-I

10

0

x/a

ZrO2

Material

l/t

0.0582

0.0726

0.083

0.1059

0.004

0.005

0.0057

0.0073

0.0003

0.0004

0.0005

0.0006

0.140e-4

0.171e-4

0.020e-3

0.025e-3

0.10

0.2282

0.2849

0.3252

0.415

0.015

0.0186

0.0213

0.0272

0.0011

0.0013

0.0015

0.0019

0.376e-4

0.461e-4

0.053e-3

0.068e-3

0.2

0.4209

0.5258

0.5999

0.7654

0.0271

0.0338

0.0386

0.0492

0.0018

0.0023

0.0026

0.0033

0.594e-4

0.732e-4

0.084e-3

0.108e-3

0.30

0.5501

0.6871

0.7839

1.0001

0.0352

0.0439

0.0502

0.0641

0.0024

0.0029

0.0034

0.0043

0.743e-4

0.916e-4

0.106e-3

0.135e-3

0.4

0.5986

0.7478

0.8532

1.0884

0.0383

0.0477

0.0545

0.0696

0.0025

0.0032

0.0036

0.0046

0.795e-4

0.981e-4

0.113e-3

0.144e-3

0.50

0.5506

0.6879

0.7848

1.0012

0.0353

0.044

0.0503

0.0641

0.0024

0.0029

0.0034

0.0043

0.744e-4

0.918e-4

0.106e-3

0.135e-3

0.6

Table 3 Effect of side-to-thickness ratio on the centerline deflection parameters of different FGB structures

0.4218

0.5269

0.6012

0.767

0.0271

0.0338

0.0387

0.0494

0.0018

0.0023

0.0026

0.0033

0.596e-4

0.734e-4

0.085e-3

0.108e-3

0.70

0.2288

0.2857

0.3261

0.416

0.015

0.0187

0.0214

0.0273

0.0011

0.0013

0.0015

0.0019

0.377e-4

0.377e-4

0.053e-3

0.068e-3

0.8

0.0584

0.0728

0.0832

0.1062

0.004

0.005

0.0057

0.0073

0.0003

0.0004

0.0005

0.0006

0.140e-4

0.171e-4

0.020e-3

0.025e-3

0.90

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

16 V. R. Kar et al.

Modeling and Analysis of Functionally Graded Biocomposite …

17

Table 4 Effect of aspect ratio on the centerline deflection parameters of different FGB structures a/b Material x/a 0 0.10 1

0.2

0.30

0.4

0.50

0.6

0.70

0.90

0.416

0.1062 0

1

0 0.1059 0.415

FGB-I

0 0.083

FGB-II

0 0.0726 0.2849 0.5258 0.6871 0.7478 0.6879 0.5269 0.2857 0.0728 0

Ti

0 0.0582 0.2282 0.4209 0.5501 0.5986 0.5506 0.4218 0.2288 0.0584 0

1.4 ZrO2

0.7654 1.0001 1.0884 1.0012 0.767

0.8

ZrO2

0.3252 0.5999 0.7839 0.8532 0.7848 0.6012 0.3261 0.0832 0

0 0.0486 0.1888 0.3422 0.4349 0.4663 0.4359 0.3437 0.1897 0.0489 0

FGB-I

0 0.0381 0.148

FGB-II

0 0.0333 0.1296 0.2351 0.2988 0.3203 0.2995 0.2361 0.1302 0.0335 0

Ti

0 0.0268 0.1038 0.1882 0.2392 0.2565 0.2398 0.189

1.8 ZrO2 FGB-I

0.2683 0.341

0.3655 0.3417 0.2694 0.1488 0.0383 0

0 0.0236 0.0903 0.1596 0.1947 0.204

0.1044 0.0269 0

0.1954 0.1606 0.091

0.0238 0

0 0.0185 0.0708 0.1251 0.1526 0.1599 0.1532 0.1259 0.0713 0.0187 0

FGB-II

0 0.0162 0.0619 0.1096 0.1337 0.1401 0.1342 0.1103 0.0624 0.0163 0

Ti

0 0.013

2.2 ZrO2

0.0496 0.0878 0.1071 0.1122 0.1075 0.0883 0.05

0 0.0128 0.0479 0.0822 0.0956 0.0972 0.096

0.0131 0

0.0829 0.0484 0.013

0

FGB-I

0 0.0101 0.0376 0.0644 0.0749 0.0762 0.0753 0.065

0.0379 0.0102 0

FGB-II

0 0.0088 0.0328 0.0564 0.0656 0.0667 0.0659 0.0569 0.0331 0.0088 0

Ti

0 0.0071 0.0263 0.0452 0.0526 0.0535 0.0528 0.0456 0.0266 0.0071 0

CCCC) under uniform pressure. The computed results reveal the increasing trend of deflection values along the thickness ratios which is due to decrease in structural stiffness with increment in the side-to-thickness ratios. It is also confirmed through the computed results that pure zirconia plates exhibit maximum deflections whereas minimum is found in case of pure titanium plates. Table 4 reveals the impact of aspect ratios (l/b = 1, 1.4, 1.8, 2.2) on the nondimensional centerline deflections of different FGB plates (l/t = 100, CCCC) under uniform pressure. Here, a falling trend of deflections is observed with the increment of aspect ratios, which indicates that the stiffness of the structures is increasing with the increase in aspect ratios. Figure 4 shows the deformation behavior of different FGB plates under uniform pressure. Table 5 exhibits the impact of support conditions (CCCC, CSCS, SSSS, CFCF) on the non-dimensional centerline deflections of different FGB plates (l/b = 1, l/t = 100) under uniform pressure. The results depict the significant of edge constraints on the deformation behavior of FGB plats. Here, decreasing trend of deflection parameters is found with the increase in number of constrained d.o.f., i.e., structure with SSSS support demonstrate the maximum deflections whereas minimum in case of structure with CCCC conditions.

18

V. R. Kar et al.

Fig. 4 Deformation behaviour of clamed FGB plate structures under uniform pressure

4 Concluding Remarks In this computational study, the deformation behavior of different FGB plate structures is analyzed under uniform pressure. Here, titanium and zirconia biocompatible materials are adopted to model the structure, whereas elastic properties of FGB

Modeling and Analysis of Functionally Graded Biocomposite …

Fig. 4 (continued)

19

CCCC

CFCF

CSCS

0

0

0

0

FGB-II

Ti

0

Ti

FGB-I

0

FGB-II

ZrO2

0

FGB-I

0

Ti

0

0

FGB-II

ZrO2

0

FGB-I

0

Ti

0

0

FGB-II

ZrO2

0

0

FGB-I

SSSS

0

x/a

ZrO2

Material

a/b

0.0582

0.0726

0.083

0.1059

0.1123

0.1401

0.16

0.2042

0.3132

0.3913

0.4464

0.5695

0.7013

0.8765

0.9995

1.2752

0.10

0.2282

0.2849

0.3252

0.415

0.4439

0.5543

0.6326

0.8071

0.576

0.7197

0.821

1.0474

1.3131

1.641

1.8713

2.3875

0.2

0.4209

0.5258

0.5999

0.7654

0.8301

1.0369

1.1829

1.5092

0.7733

0.9661

1.1021

1.406

1.7889

2.2356

2.5494

3.2527

0.30

0.5501

0.6871

0.7839

1.0001

1.108

1.3841

1.579

2.0145

0.8908

1.1129

1.2695

1.6196

2.0837

2.604

2.9694

3.7886

0.4

0.5986

0.7478

0.8532

1.0884

1.2196

1.5235

1.7381

2.2174

0.9299

1.1618

1.3253

1.6908

2.1865

2.7324

3.116

3.9755

0.50

0.5506

0.6879

0.7848

1.0012

1.1092

1.3856

1.5807

2.0167

0.8921

1.1145

1.2713

1.6219

2.0871

2.6082

2.9743

3.7948

0.6

Table 5 Effect of edge constraints on the centerline deflection parameters of different FGB structures

0.4218

0.5269

0.6012

0.767

0.8318

1.0391

1.1854

1.5125

0.7754

0.9687

1.105

1.4098

1.7946

2.2427

2.5575

3.263

0.70

0.2288

0.2857

0.3261

0.416

0.4451

0.5558

0.6342

0.8092

0.5781

0.7222

0.8238

1.051

1.3186

1.6479

1.8792

2.3975

0.8

0.0584

0.0728

0.0832

0.1062

0.1126

0.1405

0.1604

0.2047

0.3145

0.3929

0.4482

0.5718

0.7048

0.8808

1.0044

1.2815

0.90

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

20 V. R. Kar et al.

Modeling and Analysis of Functionally Graded Biocomposite …

21

structure are computed using Voigt’s micromechanical model via power-law function. The kinematics of the present model is developed using higher-order equivalent single layer theory. However, the equilibrium equations are obtained using principle of total minimum potential energy in conjunction with 2D finite element approach via Q9 Lagrangian elements. The computational tests are performed by developing the homemade computer algorithm. Through the h-type uniform mesh refinement process, a (5 × 5) mesh is confirmed to utilize further in the present study, whereas verification test reveals the correctness of the proposed finite element model. In addition, centerline deflections of different FGB plate structures under various sets of conditions are demonstrated through numerical examples. The exhaustive parametric study confirms that impact of side-to-thickness and aspect ratios, volume fraction coefficients and support conditions on the centerline deflections of FGB plate structures are noteworthy.

References 1. Jha DK, Kant T, Singh RK (2013) A critical review of recent research on functionally graded plates. Compos Struct 96:833–849 2. Thai HT, Vo TP (2013) A new sinusoidal shear deformation theory for bending, buckling, and vibration of functionally graded plates. Appl Math Model 37:3269–3281 3. Reddy JN, Wang CM, Kitipornchap S (1999) Axisymmetric bending of functionally graded circular and annular plates. Eur J Mech A Solids 18:185–199 4. Brischetto S, Carrera E (2010) Advanced mixed theories for bending analysis of functionally graded plates. Comput Struct 88:1474–1483 5. Zidi M, Tounsi A, Houari MSA, Adda Bedia EA, Anwar Bég O (2014) Bending analysis of FGM plates under hygro-thermo-mechanical loading using a four variable refined plate theory. Aerosp Sci Technol 34:24–34 6. Della Croce L, Venini P (2004) Finite elements for functionally graded Reissner-Mindlin plates. Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng 193:705–725 7. Kar VR, Panda SK (2015) Large deformation bending analysis of functionally graded spherical shell using FEM. Struct Eng Mech 53:661–679 8. Shen H (2009) Nonlinear bending of functionally graded carbon nanotube-reinforced composite plates in thermal environments. Compos Struct 91:9–19 9. Singha MK, Prakash T, Ganapathi M (2011) Finite element analysis of functionally graded plates under transverse load. Finite Elem Anal Des 47:453–460 10. Bin Kadri NA, Osman NAA, Shirazi FS, Metselaar HSC, Mehrali M, Mehrali M (2013) Dental implants from functionally graded materials. J. Biomed. Mater Res Part A 101:3046–3057 11. Shen HS (2009) Functionally graded materials: nonlinear analysis of plates and shells. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton 12. Reddy JN (2004) Mechanics of laminated composite plates and shells. CRC Press

Natural Fiber Composite for Structural Applications Jayakrishna Kandasamy, A. Soundhar, M. Rajesh, D. Mallikarjuna Reddy, and Vishesh Ranjan Kar

Abstract With emerging focus on sustainable product development researchers are now focusing on consumption of Natural Fibres (NF) directly or as reinforcement materials in polymer based materials. Natural fibers are being used since ages but in recent decades there exist a need to explore the properties of these fibres for varied applications subject to the requirement. Natural Fibre Reinforced Polymers (NFRP) are utilized in manufacturing several automotive, marine and aerospace low level structural applications. In order to use natural fibres in high level structural applications, it is necessary to understand the structural, mechanical and thermal properties of the fibre. But as the natural fibre are obtained in irregular size and shapes in their longitudinal direction and cross section its quite difficult to study their properties unlike advanced composites. Hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties of Natural Fibres (NF) distress the bonding interaction between the fibre and matrix. This chapter tries to analyse the different characteristics with respect to the application of Natural Fibers (NF) for real time applications and attempts to provide an insight for researchers and design engineers to understand the requirements of utilizing Natural Fibres Composites (NFC) for construction applications in future. This chapter also summarize the advantages of natural fibres on their bio degradability aspects. Keywords Natural fibres · Fibre matrix bonding · Fibre reinforced composites · Mechanical properties · Structural applications

J. Kandasamy (B) · A. Soundhar · M. Rajesh · D. Mallikarjuna Reddy Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India e-mail: [email protected] V. R. Kar National Institute of Technology, Jamshedpur 831014, Jharkhand, India © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Structural Health Monitoring System for Synthetic, Hybrid and Natural Fiber Composites, Composites Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8840-2_3

23

24

J. Kandasamy et al.

1 Introduction Researchers now focus upon NFC due to the potential environmental, health and end-of-life disposal benefits when compared with man-made composite materials. Man-made composite materials are also quite costly and high in density compared with NFC [1]. NFC are easily available, easy to process and easy to dispose. They are often produced using agricultural waste [2]. In the latter decades, the increased benefits of NF have found them wide applications in structural, naval and aerospace fields [3, 4]. As proof, NF such as flax, sisal, banana, jute, and hemp have replaced fibres like carbon, glass, boron and Kevlar in applications requiring low load carrying capacity [5]. NF can be characterized based on their resources such as plant, mineral and animal as presented in Table 1. Generally, the plant based fibers are the utmost frequently recognized fibers by the commerce, which is owing to the short progress period, availability and renewability. Sen and Reddy [6] demonstrated the usage of natural fibres in several engineering applications, like bamboo fibre reinforced columns and pillars, special joints made of bamboo fibre composites, and packaging material based on jute fibre composites. Table 2 shows various natural fiber characteristics. However, the major disadvantage related with NF is their inconsistent strength depending on the type of reinforcement, such as short fibre, fibre bundles and woven fibres [13]. Most of the researchers developed natural fibre composites by reinforcing the natural fibre of random orientation in short form within a polymer matrix, which leads to non-uniform stress distribution in composites because of fibre discontinuity [14]. To improve the mechanical properties, like the stiffness and load bearing capacity of the natural fibre composites, technical developments from the field of textiles were adopted, such as weaving, braiding and knitting [15, 16]. Sapuan and Maleque [7] explained the use of fabric woven from bananas in an epoxy matrix for the manufacture of telephone stands at low cost. Table 3 shows the chemical composition of various fibers. Alves et al. [8] also demonstrated the benefits of NFC in manufacturing car front bonnets by replacing fibreglass with jute fibre composites. Table 1 Natural fibre classsifation [2–5] Lignocellulose/Cellulose

Leaf

Pineapple, Banana, Abaca, Sisal

Bast

Flax, Hemp, Jute, Ramie, Kenaf

Fruit

Coir

Wood

Softwood, Hardwood

Seed

Cotton, Kapok

Grass/Reed

Bamboo, corn

Stalk

Wheat, Maize, Oat, Rice

Mineral

–

Asbestos, Metal fibres, Ceramic fibres

Animal

Hair silk/Wool

Cashmere, Horse hair, Lamb wool, Goat hair

Natural Fiber Composite for Structural Applications

25

Table 2 Summary of Natural fiber characteristics [4–6] Fibre

Description

Coir

Among the various natural fibres, coir has more attraction, since it has strong resistant to salt water, durable, availability, free of chemical treatment

Cotton

Cotton Fibre (CF) has an outstanding permeability. Cotton signifies 46% world manufacture of chemical and natural fibres

Flax

On comparison with flax fibre, glass fibre has enhanced specific tensile, high strength, low density and stiffness

Jute

Jute fibre demonstrations high strength to weight ratio, high aspect ratio and better protection properties

Pineapple

Pineapple Fibre (PF) has outstanding physical, mechanical, and thermal properties

Sisal

Sisal cultivation takes short cultivation times. Fibre has great tensile intensity and tenacity, salt water resistance, abrasion resistance, alkali and acid resistance

Hemp

Hemp fibre has exceptional modulus of elasticity, insulation properties and mechanical strength

Ramie

Ramie fibre has enhanced specific strength and specific modulus compared to glass fibre. Because of its expensive pre-treatments, it is not extensively used

Eucalyptus Eucalyptus fibre is extensively obtainable, but has less resistance towards fire. Thus, this fibres are suitable for protection purposes

Table 3 Chemical composition of common NF [7–10] Fibre

Cellulose (wt%)

Hemicellulose (wt%)

Flax

72

19–21

Lignin (wt%)

Sisal

62–65

12

10

2

Coir

31–42

0.15–0.25

41–46

–

Pineapple

81

–

12.7

–

Ramie

68.6–76.2

13–16

0.6–0.7

0.3

Jute

60–72

13–19

10–13

0.5

Kenaf

72

21.3

Bamboo

25–44

30

20–31

–

Hemp

67

16

10

0.8

Oil palm

65

–

29

–

Abaca

56–63

20–25

7–9

3

2.2

8

Waxes (wt%) 1.5

–

Recently, researchers have been working on identifying potential plant fibres for use in low and medium load applications by characterising their mechanical properties [11]. The favourable properties of natural composites made up of woven fabric has increased their usage in aircraft, bio-medical, automotive and other applications [12]. Woven fabric NFC have extensive variety of applications because of properties inherently associated with them. Compared to unidirectional and randomly orientated fibres in natural composites, woven fabric natural fibres provide better properties, in

26

J. Kandasamy et al.

terms of strength and stiffness for the same quantity of fibres used. The use of woven fabric improves the fracture toughness of NFC [17, 18]. Riedel et al. reviewed the use of woven NFCs in different applications and reported that a stiff woven fabric will enhance the stiffness of the composites [19]. The goal of this chapter is to enlighten prevailing progress of NFC in structural applications.

2 Natural Fibre Composite 2.1 Mechanical Properties of NFCs In composite materials, especially in NFC, the mechanical properties such as impact strength, flexural and tensile depend on the fibre strength, fibre percentage in the matrix, orientation of the fibres, adhesion between fibre-matrix and type of treatment, and concentration [20, 21]. Decades ago, conventional materials such as aluminium, titanium and steel were utilized for engineering, automotive, aerospace, and civil applications. Favourable bulk strength and weight properties associated with woven natural fibre reinforced composites make them suitable replacement materials for conventional materials, and they exhibit superior strength and stiffness [22–24]. Khalil et al. [25] experimentally compared the flexural and tensile behaviour of tri-layer palm oil and woven jute fibre-epoxy composites with palm oil-epoxy and woven jute epoxy composites. Results indicated that hybrid tri-layer palm oil and woven jute fibre-epoxy composites possessed higher mechanical strength compared with similar composites made with individual fibre reinforcement. Mwaikambo et al. [26] used kapok and cotton fabric as a reinforcing material in a polypropylene matrix to investigate their mechanical properties. They found that the inclusion of the fabric improved the rigidity of the composite material. Sapuan et al. [27] examined the mechanical properties of banana composite/woven epoxy and consolidate that the woven banana composite yielded maximum strength and modulus. Bennet et al. [28] studied the outcome of the piling order of sansevieria cylindrical-coconut sheath polyester composites on their mechanical properties. They reported that due to hybridisation effects, the maximum modulus was observed when the mat fibre was kept as a skin layer and short fibre mat used as the core material. Table 4 shows the mechanical properties of various NF. Carmisciano et al. [29] analyzed the basalt woven fibre reinforced vinyl ester composite flexural properties with a glass fibre composite, and concluded that the basalt woven fibre composites yielded higher values than the glass fibre composite. Venkateshwaran et al. [30] associated the mechanical properties of woven bananaepoxy-jute composites with different stacking sequence. They found that when jute fibres were placed as a core layer, the composite exhibited good tensile and flexural properties than the banana and jute composites individually. Mariatti et al. [31] reported the woven banana fabric composites flexural properties with composites

Natural Fiber Composite for Structural Applications

27

Table 4 Mechanical properties of different NF used in composites [13, 15, 18, 25] Sl. no

Fibre

Density (g/cm3 )

1

Banana

–

3

529–914

27–32

2

Bamboo

0.6–1.1

–

140–230

11–17

3

Coir

1.2

30

175

4.0–6.02

4

Cotton

1.4–1.6

6.0–8.0

287–597

5.5–12.6

5

Hemp

1.48

1.6

690

70

6

Flax

1.5

2.7–3.2

345–1035

27.6

7

Jute

1.3

1.5–1.8

393–773

26.5

8

Oil palm

0.7–1.55

3.2

248

25

9

Sisal

1.5

2.0–2.5

511–635

9.4–22.0

10

Kenaf

1.4

1.5

930

53

Elongation (%)

Tensile strength (MPa)

Young’s modulus (GPa)

containing the same volume percentage of short fibres and found that the woven fabric composite exhibited the maximum strength and modulus at same volume percentage. Khan et al. [32] reported the mechanical properties of a plain-woven jute with a non-woven jute composite along the warp direction and concluded that the woven mat composite enhanced the mechanical properties in the warp direction better than the non-woven composite.

2.2 Dynamic Mechanical Properties of NFCs Dynamic mechanical properties such as loss modulus, damping factors and storage modulus of newly developed materials with respect to thermal and dynamic loading are important parameters to be analysed for structural applications [33]. In structural materials made of conventional materials, the interactions between molecules will be higher at higher temperatures, which increases the energy dissipation and reduces their stiffness. Dynamic properties of composite materials are reliant on the quantity of fibre present in the fibre, matrix or yarn arrangement, the gap between two fibres or yarn and adhesion between the reinforcement and matrix [34]. Rajesh and Pitchaimani [35] compared the dynamic mechanical properties of composite materials based on their weaving patterns and fibre strengths. They investigated that irrespective of the intertwining pattern, in glassy region the composite showed very little variation in storage modulus. After the glassy region, the basket style jute composite enhanced the storage modulus drastically when compared to the satin, plain weave, twill and huckaback woven composites. Results revealed that basket style composite enhanced the structural stiffness at higher temperatures and provided higher resistance against free molecule movement. It was also observed that the fibre

28

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and yarn arrangement in the basket woven fabric carried more load and reduced the stress concentration between two successive yarns in the weft and warp directions. Venkateshwaran and Elayaperumal [30] analysed the effect of weaving pattern on the dynamic mechanical behaviour of epoxy-banana composites. They found that the plain woven composite improved the storage modulus of the composite laminate associated with the twill and satin weaves, and did not affect the composite material glass transition temperature. From their results, they determined that the orientation of the fibres in the yarn in the warp and weft directions prejudiced the storage modulus of the plain woven composite. In the instance of plain weave, yarns alternate in the weft and warp directions, which provides better stability and considerable porosity [36]. The main problem associated with plain weave is the high crimp in both the warp and weft directions. However, compared to satin and twill, plain weave provides better stiffness and strength. Song et al. [37] analysed the viscoelastic behaviour of twill and plain woven hemp fibre reinforced polylactic acid composites and reported that twill weave improved the viscoelastic and mechanical properties of the composites, increased loss modulus and storage modulus. Results also revealed that woven fabric performed better as a reinforcement compared to randomly oriented short fibres in the composites. Gupta and Raghavan [38] investigated that plain weave composite improved the dynamic mechanical properties of the composite material more than short fibres. Jawaid et al. [39] reported dynamic mechanical analysis of oil palm empty fruit bunch/woven jute fibre epoxy hybrid composites and concluded that the storage modulus of the woven jute composite was more than the hybrid composites. Jawaid et al. [40] analysed the influence of jute fibre stacking on the dynamic mechanical behaviour of oil palm epoxy composites. Results revealed that the inclusion of jute fibre in the oil palm epoxy composites improved the storage modulus. It indicated that the inclusion of high strength jute fibre in the matrix enhanced the stiffness of the composite material at higher temperatures due to resistance against free molecule movement. Boccarusso et al. [41] studied the dynamic mechanical behaviour of biocomposites made of PLA-hemp. They found that higher fibre content in the PLA matrix enhanced glass transition temperature and storage modulus of the composite material. Huang and Netravali [42] analysed the dynamic behaviour of green composites made of woven flax fabric and an aliphatic-aromatic co-polyester matrix. Results proved that inclusion of woven fabric enhanced storage modulus of green composite drastically.

2.3 Braided and Knitted NFCs Progresses in the field of textiles greatly impact the field of composites to increase the stiffness and strength of composite materials, especially natural fibre composites. Braiding and knitting techniques have been employed to develop the performance of composite materials. The advantage of braiding over conventional weaving is that the modulus of elasticity of braided yarn is more than that of conventional yarn, this enhances the stiffness of braided fabrics [43]. Braided woven fabric reinforcement

Natural Fiber Composite for Structural Applications

29

are utilized in numerous engineering uses like rocket launch tubes, aircraft structural parts and air ducts. Similarly, the arrangement of fibres in the yarn of knitted fabrics contributes to energy dissipating behaviour [44]. Rajesh and Pitchaimani [45] analyzed the mechanical properties of braided, woven fabric and knitted reinforced composites. They discovered that braided woven jute fabric composites displayed enhanced mechanical properties compared with knitted and conventional woven fabric reinforcement. This was because the braided woven fabric enhanced the Young’s modulus of the fabric, which therefore provided better resistance against loading. For confirmation, they experimentally computed the tensile strength of braided yarn, traditional yarn, braided and traditional woven fabrics, and knitted jute fabric. From the experimental results they found that braided woven fabric and its yarn had more modulus of elasticity compared to the other types, aided to increase the total enactment of the composite laminate. In addition, they compared jutebanana intra-ply composite with individual jute and banana woven fabrics. In case of the braided composite, the individual jute braided fabric enhanced the composite mechanical properties associated to the banana-jute intra-ply composite, while in the traditional woven fabric, intra-ply banana-jute woven fabric comparatively enhanced the composite material mechanical properties. From these outcomes, they determined that the type of yarn influenced the composite mechanical properties further than the fibre strength. The amount of fibre and the angle of twist defines the strength of the braided yarn [46–48]. Ayranci and Carey [49] studied the importance of braided composites and reported that braided composites can be employed in various fields without compromising strength, stiffness or stability behaviours, and represent good alternative materials to substitute conventional materials in components like shafts, structural columns, rods, pressure plates and vessels.

2.4 NFCs for Structural Application NFC have been employed in load-bearing applications in construction, automotive and electronics fields (Table 5). Table 5 Ten year challenge for natural fiber composites

Bio-composites

Production (ton) 2010

2020

Construction [50]

190,000

450,000

Automotive [50]

90,000

350,000

Aerospace and marine [51]

60,000

300,000

30

J. Kandasamy et al.

2.5 Construction Applications Natural fibers extant sustainable and cheap alternative to the synthetic and metallic fibers utilized as building materials [52]. Lower ecological damage, light weight and bio-degradability are significant benefits of natural fibers. There are mainly two strategies achieved for the utilization of natural fibers in construction applications. In the main method, natural fiber reinforced polymeric composites was established for the diverse parts of building [53], conversely the subsequent method shows the usage of NF for concrete reinforcement. Polymeric composites like as jute, sisal, hemp, kenaf, flax, ramie, coir, banana, straw, etc. have been advanced to construct various components of buildings such as roofs, beams, balcony, fire doors, floors, etc. Many composites have sandwich structures, to decrease weight and to attain improved flexural properties [54]. Mechanical evaluation of these composite structures have been categorised and the outcomes discovered their prospective for building construction [55]. Due to the steel corrosion difficulty, there is an accumulative necessity for concrete reinforcing resources which can interchange steel bars. Concrete has been reinforced with numerous natural fibers like coconut, bamboo, sisal, etc. for rising sustainable and economical constructions [56]. Inclusion of these natural fibers to concrete was observed to be supportive to increase various mechanical evaluations including impact resistance, flexural properties and fracture toughness [57]. Beams are made of reinforced concrete, timber, laminated veneer lumber or glulam, steel profiles. Latest advances have revealed the possible weight, installation, cost and time advantages of utilizing fiber composites beams [58]. Thus, a prospect occurs for the applications of NFC in the progress of pedestrian bridge girders and structural beams which needs moderate design loads. The awareness of utilizing natural fiber in beam improvement is incited by low density of NF, environmental benefits and lower cost [59]. NEC has established the leading mobile phone with an exterior casing produced from a biocomposite. The casing is prepared from a kenaf fibre reinforced PLA bio composite that comprises around 90% natural fibre. The extreme fibre content decreases the level of PLA used, develops heat deflection and doubles the impact resistance of the casing in contrast to unfilled PLA casing [60]. This is an inspiring creativity by the electronics segment, because millions of mobile phones are made every year with a lifetime of only 1 ± 2 years.

2.6 Automotive Applications Nowadays, the improved significance of raw resources from recyclability and renewable sources of products is producing the conversion from petroleum to natural

Natural Fiber Composite for Structural Applications Table 6 Applications of natural fibers in automotive industry [66, 67]

Natural fibres

31

Component description

Coir

Car seat covers, door mats, rugs, mattresses

Cotton

Sound proofing, insulation, trunk panel

Flax

Rear panel shelves, seatbacks, covers, floor trays, floor panels

Flax/Sisal

Door linings and panels

Wool

Seat coverings

Kenaf/flax

Door panel inserts and package trays

Hemp

Covered door panels carrier

Kenaf

Door inner panel

Kenaf/hemp

Covered door panels, carrier for armrest

Coconut

Seat bottoms, seat cushioning, interior trim and seat surfaces

fibres in self-propelled applications [61]. NFCs hold important possible for motorized industry because the ultimatum for environmentally friendly and light-weight materials is advanced [4]. Studies show that NFCs can subsidise to a rate decrease of 20% and weight drop of 30% of motorized part. Light weight of machineries results in recycling opportunities, poor fuel consumption, greenhouse emissions and constricting in waste removal which are foremost reasons for usage of NF [62]. NFC are frequently utilized for internal portions such as dashboards, seat cushions, door panels, parcel shelves, cabin linings and backrests, however the usage of NFCs components for external applications is inadequate [63]. Various parts across the globe practise diverse types of NF and they export or import to further areas as well. For example, European motorized manufacturing mostly use hemp and flax, whereas kenaf and jute and are mostly imported from India and Bangladesh, sisal from United States, Brazil and South Africa and banana from Philippines [64]. Flax fibre has been the utmost appropriate NF for the German motorized industry. German motorized industry is the major significant shopper of NF components in the European automotive sector, where each car generated in Germany comprises 3.6 kg of natural fibers [65]. Table 6 indicates the applications of NFCs in automotive sector.

2.7 Future Market Trends In present market developments, NFCs are undergoing complete evolution with good potential in construction and automotive sector. Bast fiber such as hemp, kenaf, flax, etc., are ideal for automotive uses. In the case of wood plastic composite is the substantial of optimal for structure. Considering progresses of present scenario

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J. Kandasamy et al.

Europe is projected to continue as major market for NFCs because of the large recognition of ecologically approachable composite materials by government agencies, automotive sectors and development in minor scale ecologically friendly industries. The development in materials enactment will motive the development of NFCs in new possible areas.

2.8 Conclusion NFRPC have useful properties such as reduced solidity, less expensive and low density when associated to synthetic products, providing benefits for use in viable applications (buildings, automotive industry and constructions). Utilizing NF as reinforcement for polymeric composites presents optimistic impact on the polymer mechanical behaviour. Textile technologies have now been absorbed into the development of fibre reinforced composites to enhance their strength and stiffness. From the literature, it was noted that NF in woven form enhanced the tensile strength, flexural strength and corresponding modulus, the fundamental natural frequency and storage modulus of composite materials. It was also noted that the alignment of fibres in the yarn in the weft and warp directions influenced the properties of the composites. In addition, the inclusion of more advanced weaving technology such as braiding and knitting have been summarised, and it was established that braided composites enhanced the composite properties material drastically, while knitted composites increased the energy dissipating properties of the composite materials, suggesting that braided fabric composites are appropriate for structural applications.

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Damage Characterization of Composite Stiffened Panel Subjected to Low Velocity Impact Sai Indira, D. Mallikarjuna Reddy, Jayakrishna Kandasamy, M. Rajesh, Vishesh Ranjan Kar, and M. T. H. Sultan

Abstract Composite materials have become popular due to their properties like high specific strength and high stiffness to weight ratio. Composites are found extensive applications in automobile, aerospace, defense equipments and other critical components. Composite plates are predominantly used as alternative materials to regular material because of its properties. In order to provide even better strength and resistance to deformation, stiffeners are attached to the composite plates thereby increasing the bending stiffness to a large extent. These stiffened panels have found principle application in aircraft wings, ship hulls and bridge decks. In this particular work, the low velocity impact on composite panel has been studied. Numerical models of composite plates and stiffened panels are analyzed by finite element analysis using ABAQUS/Explicit. Further study has made with different oblique impact angles like 90°, 60°, 45° and 30° are simulated and analyzed. Different parameters such as displacement, contact force, energy absorbed were compared for composite panel with and without stiffeners. It was noted that stiffened panels offer more resistance to deformation and absorb more energy due to high stiffness. Keywords Low velocity impact · Abaqus/explicit · Stiffened panel · Composite

S. Indira · D. Mallikarjuna Reddy (B) · J. Kandasamy · M. Rajesh Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India e-mail: [email protected] V. R. Kar National Institute of Technology Jamshedpur, Jamshedpur 831014, Jharkhand, India M. T. H. Sultan Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Structural Health Monitoring System for Synthetic, Hybrid and Natural Fiber Composites, Composites Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8840-2_4

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1 Introduction The composite structures are being widely used in many manufacturing industries such as aircraft, wind mills, ships, automotive, sports, health care, bridges etc. The impact due to low velocity can generate a noteworthy damage and minimize the stiffness by over fifty percent [1–3]. It becomes very difficult to inspect damage in composite material. Composites are produced using various materials whose properties might or might not be homogeneous or isotropic [4]. Therefore, the utilization of composite material includes a wide selection of available materials such as fibers, reinforced concrete, metals, and fibers. However, it is primarily fiber reinforced composites that have been increasingly used for aerospace applications [5]. These composites generally consist of layers of unidirectional or bidirectional fibers of high specific modules for the high structural applications required, particularly in military aircraft, which are fortified together by matrix type of material [6]. Laminated composites have multiple benefits over other conventional materials like metals as high specific rigidity and strength, excellent corrosion resistance and anisotropic properties that can be tailored to strengthen the necessary requirements [7]. Certainly, the coupling between stretching, twisting and bending made available by selecting appropriate stacking sequence in composite laminate permits aero elastic tailored structures. Damage characterization is very important to achieve the safety of the structure [8, 9]. The stiffened panel is one of the most primary parts of airframe systems with low and higher intensity of loadings. These panels contain mainly two basic parts: Longitudinal as reinforcing members and skin. Stiffened panels with bonded stiffeners are widely used in aerospace and other eminent engineering applications [10] where the structural weight of the material and strength is the major concern. Stiffeners in a stiffened panel enable highly directional loads to be sustained and introduce multiple load paths that can protect against crack growth under tensile loads, compressive loads and damage. The major perk of the stiffeners is the improved bending stiffness of the structure loads and destabilizing of compressive loads. Besides the advantage of using them, the stiffened panels are designed using various techniques brings various advantages like reduction in usage of materials, improved performance and reduction in cost etc. Stiffened panel with application of composite material in particular due to its characteristics of both material and structural forms [11] has the tensile strength five to six times higher when compared with steel or aluminum, specific modulus about four times greater when compared with steel and aluminum. Stiffened panels are widely classified as open type, box type or closed type [12]. Box type of stiffeners is more torsionally stiffer than open type. The stiffeners or stringers in the stiffened panel are attached perpendicularly to the composite panel [13]. The usage of these panels is increasing in structural applications due to high specific stiffness and good specific strength. The stiffeners in stiffened panels represent a small portion of the overall weight of a structure but have significant impact on structural stability and stiffness [14]. In order to understand stiffness and strength of the stiffened panel structure; different studies are done [15–17].

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39

Impact damage is a major consideration of aircraft composite structure design and maintenance. Damage to airframe structure caused by low velocity impact is because of both operational as well as maintenance activities. There are usually few incidents of low velocity impact (LVI) damage in the operating environment and most can be attributed to birds hitting on aircraft and hailstone strikes. The major causes of LVI damage is due to improper handling and maintenance issues which include airframe part handling, transportation, storage and also accidental instrument drops [18]. LVI is a major safety concern as widespread damage may occur in the composite panel although visual inspection cannot identify it [19, 20]. In general panel without stiffeners tend to delaminate because of the flexibility to bending for low velocity impact loads. Charpy test, Izod test and drop weights are the three standard methods of tests for low velocity impact. Drop weight test unit simulate different real world impact conditions and gathers point by point performance data. The benefit of this test with regard to other tests is that it is possible to examine a wide range of test geometries so that complex components can be tested [21, 22].

2 Composite Damage Model 2.1 Failure Criteria In the composite laminates, the dynamic behavior is so complex, as there are many phenomena happen under impact loading during the failure of composite laminates. Some of the adverse effects are fiber breakage, large displacements and plastic deformations, delamination, and matrix cracking, when laminate is subject to impact load [23]. The popular Hashin’s damage criterion is considered for the composite Laminate models to predict the damages. Johnson has also used the Hashin’s damage criteria to predict the damage in composite plates/shell under impact. Some authors are worked on detection and localization of damages. The damage on composite plate is predicted by following Equations; Fiber tension: 

σ11 XT

2

 +r

σ12 SL

2 = 1, 0 < r > 1

(1)

Matrix tension: 

σ21 YT

2

 +

σ22 SL

2 =1

(2)

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Fiber compression: 

σ11 XC

2 =1

(3)

Matrix compression: 

σ22 2ST



2 +

YC 2ST



2 −1

σ22 YC

2

 +

σ11 SL

2 =1

(4)

where, X T is the tensile strength and X c is compressive strength in fiber direction, YT and Yc tensile and compressive in matrix direction ST and Sc are longitudinal and transverse shear strength and r is the coefficient of contribution shear stress to tensile between the layer. When composite laminate subjected to impact load, it undergoes fiber damage at the interface as well as bending moment of the panel. In case of pure-bending, tensile and compressive stresses exist. Actually bending phenomena also includes shear stress. In bending tensile and compressive stresses exist within the layer or fiber and shear stress exist between the two laminas. Tensile and compressive stress acts along the length of the fiber. But shear stress acts tangent to the surface of the layers. Composite materials are strong in tension and compression but weak in shear. Because epoxy holds the bond between two layers whose bonding strength is low for shear stress [24].

2.2 Intra Ply Damage Intra ply damage is because of tensile failure of fibers when they are subjected to axial loading or breakage of fibers when they get ruptured between impactor and composite panel surface. When tensile stress in the fiber exceeds the tensile strength of the composite fiber, it breaks into pieces. The intra ply damage is results in fiber rupture. Micro buckling in fiber is caused due to compression forces however rupture of fibers is due to tensile forces. Fiber pull out happens when the bond between matrix and fiber is feeble. This causes the fiber to be drawn out of the matrix subsequently debonding mechanism occurs. If in case the bonding between matrix and fiber is firm then, there wouldn’t be fiber debonding or fiber pull out [24] (Fig. 1).

2.3 Inter Ply Damage The separation of two adjacent plies at the plies interface due to matrix weakening is called delamination. The inter ply damage in composite panel is called delamination,

Damage Characterization of Composite Stiffened Panel …

41

Fig. 1 Fiber failure in panel

occurs where shear stress acts at the interface between two plies during bending. Delamination occurs in three modes as shown in Fig. 2. Opening mode, Shearing mode and tearing mode. When the impact load is applied on the composite panel, it undergoes bending. During bending top layers which are above the neutral layer are subjected to compression and bottom layers which are below the neutral layer are subjected to tensile. Due to strain differences in layers, shear stress is generated at the interface between the layers as shown in Fig. 2. If the shear stress at the interface exceeds the shear bonding strength of the matrix, crack is initiated at the interface. The regions damaged at the ply, crack is generated and propagates which results in creating two new surfaces. This is inter ply failure and in the regions damaged at the ply, a crack is generated and grows as the load is increased. As the stiffness of the composite panels reduces, the delamination increases. This type of failure ceases when the impact energy is insufficient to trigger any further failure mechanism [25]. The energy used to create a unit amount of new surface by either deboning or by fiber pull out can be estimated theoretically are followed by, Fig. 2 Modes of delamination and delamination mechanism

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For pull out γ =

σb2 L 2c φ2 (L > L c ) 12L

γ =

σb2 L 2c φ2 (L > L c ) 12L c

(5)

For deboning γ =

σb2 L 2D φ2 4E 2

(6)

where, γ = Fracture surface energy σb2 = Tensile strength of fibers L = Length of the fibers L c = critical length of fibers L D = deboned length of the fibers φ2 = volume fraction of the fiber

3 Methodology Composite panel is modeled by Abaqus software. The nominal length and width of plate are 100 and 150 mm. The each layer nominal thickness of the plate is 0.3 mm. The mechanical properties of the material are defined inn Table 1. The stiffened composite is composed with five stiffeners. The orientation of fibers is [+45°/0°/−45°/90]2S , the skin and stiffeners have layup of [+45°/0°/−45°/90]2S consists of 8 layers. Table 1 Glass fiber material properties

Properties

Glass/epoxy

Density (kg/m3 )

1000

Elastic constants (GPa) Poison’s ratio

E1 = 152, E2 = E3 = 8.71 G12 = G13 = G23 = 3.35 ν12 = ν13 = ν23 = 0.3

Strengths (MPa)

Xt = 1930, Xc = 962 Yt = 41.4,Yc = 276 S12 = S13 = S23 = 82.1

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3.1 Modeling Strategy Modeling composite panel and stiffened panel are carried in ABAQUS software. The composite panel is modeled using 3D shell elements in ABAQUS. A total of 30,000 shell elements are used for composite panel and 31,800 shell elements are used for composite panel with stiffeners as shown in Fig. 3. Instead of brick elements, continuum elements are preferred as they allow three dimensional models and are also much better from computational point of view [26]. Composite stiffened panel consists with five I section stiffeners are placed at the bottom of the composite panel. Tie constraints is used for bottom surface of skin and stiffeners. All sides clamped boundary condition is used for analysis of both composite panels with and without stiffeners as shown in Fig. 4. The impactor is modeled as a 3D rigid body which consists mass of two kg. Fig. 3 Meshed model for stiffened panel

Fig. 4 All sides clamped boundary condition for composite stiffened panel

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Fig. 5 Different oblique impact views as a 30° impact angle b 45° impact angle c 60° impact angle and d 90° impact angle

Localized stiffener reductions will occur because of failure of elements individually in investigation and would cause intense distortions in some elements. To eliminate this, the damage parameters are confined to measure a maximum of 0.98 to make sure that the stiffness prevents the excessive distortion of elements [27]. The deletion of element technique is used in such a way that if any element fails due to tensile fiber failure, they are removed from the mesh [28] and 2200 rigid elements are used for discretization of impactor in the model. Hashin’s fiber failure damage criteria is used for damage detection.

3.2 Oblique Low Velocity Impact Most of the cases in real life situations we observe oblique velocity impact. In Oblique impact, the impactor hits the target composite panel with different orientations. Normal velocity impact as discussed so far is one of the cases of oblique velocity impact, when the impactor makes a 90° angle with target surface [29]. Simulation of different impact angles including 90°, 60°, 45° and 30° with velocity 4 m/s is carried out to assess the influence of impact angles, damage behavior of composite panel and composite stiffened panel as shown in Fig. 5.

3.3 Material Properties Glass fiber material properties are assigned to the elements of composite panel with and without stiffeners. For intralaminar damage model, the fiber compressive and tensile failure mode values are taken as mentioned in following in Table 1.

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4 Results and Discussion In this paper, Simulations are performed using FE model in ABAQUS software for different velocities on composite panel. In this study particularly concentrated on maximum contact force, internal energy and deflection for panel with and without stiffeners, this study is more significance in damage initiation. The results of displacement versus time in the presence of consecutive plies of panels are plotted with fixed boundary condition for different velocities are presented in Fig. 6. Figure 6 represents the deflection of the panel undergoes impact with different velocities for with and without stiffeners. It was observed that the deflection of composite panel without stiffeners is undergoes more deflection when compared with composite panel with stiffeners because composite panel with stiffeners has more resistance to deflect when compared with composite panel without stiffeners. It is also observed that the impact with 4 m/s has more deflection when compared with other velocities. It can be seen from Fig. 6 that deflections increase with increasing velocity of impactor for both panels respectively. Figure 7 represents the internal energy absorbed by the panel undergoes impact with different velocities for with and without stiffeners. It is observed that the amount of internal absorbed by the panel is more with stiffeners compare to without stiffeners because stiffeners has the more toughness property. It can be seen from Fig. 7 that amount of internal energy absorbed by panels are increases with increasing velocity of impactor for both panels respectively. Figure 8 presents the maximum contact force at the centre of the composite panel under impact with different velocities. The dynamic behavior of contact forces in low velocity impact loading is nonlinear. In Fig. 8, the contact forces histories are compared between composite panel with and without stiffeners for different velocities of impactor. It is seen that composite stiffened panel is offering more contact force Displacement vs Time 0.005

Displacement(m)

0

0

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

-0.005 -0.01 -0.015 -0.02

Time(s) 2m/s without stiffener 3m/s without stiffener 4m/s without stiffener

2m/s with stiffener 3m/s with stiffener 4m/s with stiffener

Fig. 6 Displacement versus time graph for low velocity impact under different velocity

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S. Indira et al. Internal energy vs Time

Internal energy(J)

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

0

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

Time(s) 2m/s without stiffener 3m/s without stiffener 4m/s without stiffener

2m/s with stiffener 3m/s with stiffener 4m/s with stiffener

Fig. 7 Internal energy versus time graph for low velocity impact under different velocity Contact force Vs Time

Contsact force (N)

0

0

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

-500 -1000 -1500 -2000 -2500

Time (s) 2m/s without stiffener 3m/s without stiffener 4m/s without stiffener

2m/s with stiffener 3m/s with stiffener 4m/s with stiffener

Fig. 8 Contact force versus time graph for low velocity impact under different velocity

when compared with panel having without stiffeners. This is because of composite panel with stiffeners has more stiffness and it can give more resistance to contact forces. It is also observed that the impact with 4 m/s has more contact force when compared with other velocities.

4.1 Oblique Velocity Impact Simulation of different impact angles including 90°, 60°, 45° and 30° with same impact energy was carried out to assess the influence of impact angles, damage

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Displacement Vs Time

Displacement (m)

0.005 0

0

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

-0.005 -0.01 -0.015 -0.02

Time(S) 30° panel without stiffener 45° panel without stiffener 60° panel without stiffener 90° panel without stiffener

30° panel with stiffener 45° panel with stiffener 60° panel with stiffener 90° panel with stiffener

Fig. 9 Displacement versus time graph for low velocity impact under different impact angles

behavior of composite panel and composite stiffened panel as shown in Fig. 6. The impactor hits the composite panel with an angle; velocity can be resolved into two components. One is normal to the composite panel surface and another component is tangent to the composite surface. Normal velocity component results into deflection and tangential component results into shear force. Shear force causes delamination in the composite panel. In Fig. 9 the deflection is compared between composite panel and composite stiffened panel for different orientations of 30°, 45° and 60°. As it is observed in Fig. 9, the deflection of composite panel without stiffener is more when compared with composite panel with stiffener in oblique low velocity impact also. As the impact angle changes from 30° to 90° the deflection of the composite panel is increasing. As the impact angle increases normal component of the velocity increases which results in more deflection. In Fig. 10, the Internal Energy is compared between composite panel and composite stiffened panel for different orientations of 30°, 45° and 60°. As it is observed in Fig. 7, Internal Energy Versus Time graph for normal velocity impact, the internal energy of composite panel is more when compared with composite stiffened panel in oblique velocity impact also. As the impact angle increases from 30° to 90° the internal energy of the composite panel is increasing. In Fig. 11, the contact forces are compared between composite panel with and without stiffeners for different orientations of 30°, 45° and 60°. As it was observed in Fig. 8 Contact force Versus Time graph for normal velocity impact, the contact force of composite panel is more when compared with composite stiffened panel in oblique low velocity impact also. As the impact angle increases from 30° to 90°, the contact force of the composite panel is increasing. As the impact angle increases, normal component of the velocity increases which results in more contact force. Since the tangential velocity component results in delamination, as the impact angle

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S. Indira et al. Internal Energy vs Time

Internal Energy (J)

80 60 40 20 0

0

0.001

-20

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

Time (s) 30° panel without stiffener 45° panel without stiffener 60° panel without stiffener 90° panel without stiffener

30° panel with stiffener 45° panel with stiffener 60° panel with stiffener 90° panel with stiffener

Fig. 10 Internal energy versus time graph for different impact angles Contact force Vs Time

500

Contact Force(N)

0

0

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

-500 -1000 -1500 -2000 -2500

Time(s) 30° panel without stiffener 45° panel without stiffener 60° panel without stiffener 90° panel without stiffener

30° panel with stiffener 45° panel with stiffener 60° panel with stiffener 90° panel with stiffener

Fig. 11 Contact force versus time graph for low velocity impact under different Impact angles

increases the delamination effect decreases. For low impact angles the shear velocity is more, delamination effect is also more when compared to high impact angles. When impact angle becomes 90°, shear velocity component becomes zero and it becomes normal velocity impact. So when impact angles are low then the delamination effect is predominant.

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5 Conclusions Comparative results are plotted for displacement, energy and contact force of panel with stiffener and without stiffener. Deflection in composite panel without stiffener is more when compared with composite panel with stiffener. Composite panel without stiffener can easily delaminate when compared with composite panel with stiffener. Composite panel with stiffener offers more stiffness during bending than composite panel without stiffener. So contact force in composite panel with stiffeners is more than composite panel without stiffeners. That energy absorption in composite panel with stiffeners is more than the composite panel without stiffeners. Finite element analysis is also done for oblique impact with 30°, 45°, 60°, and 90° angles. It is observed that as the angle of obliquity increase, the parameters like contact force, energy absorbed, deflection increases for both composite panel and composite stiffened panel and 90° impact is dangerous condition Acknowledgements The project presented in this article is supported by and Engineering Research Board and Department of Science and Technology, Government of India (File Number: ECR/2017/000512).

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13. Ahmadi H, Rahimi G (2018) Analytical and experimental investigation of transverse loading on grid stiffened composite panels. Compos Part B Eng 159:184 14. Zhu D (2004) Stiffened plates subjected to in-plane load and lateral pressure. Master’s Thesis, ScholarBank@NUS Repository 15. Gal E, Levy R, Abramovich H, Pavsner P (2006) Buckling analysis of composite panels. Compos Struct J E 73:179–185 16. Lanzi L, Giavotto V (2006) Post-buckling optimization of composite stiffened panels: computations and experiments. Compos Struct J E 73:208–220 17. Zimmermann R, Klein H, Kling A (2006) Buckling and postbuckling of stringer stiffened fibre composite curved panels—tests and computations. Compos Struct J E 73:150–161 18. Mubarak Ali, Joshi SC, Sultan MTH (2017) Palliatives for low velocity impact damage in composite laminates. Adv Mater Sci Eng 2017 (Article ID 8761479) 19. Sun W, Guan Z, Li Z, Ouyang T, Jiang Y (2017) Modelling and simulating of the compressive behavior of T-stiffened composite panel subjected to stiffener impact. Compos Struct 168:47 20. Safri SNA, Sultan MTH, Yidris N, Mustapha F (2014) Low velocity and high velocity impact test on composite materials. ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 21. Akula VMK (2015) Low velocity impact analysis of a stiffened composite panel. In: ASME 2015 pressure vessels and piping conference, PVP 22. Greenhalgh E, Bishop SM (1996) Characterisation of impact damage in skin-stringer composite structures. Compos Struct 36:187–207 (Elsevier Science Ltd.) 23. Hamamousse K, Serier Z, Poilane C (2019) Experimental and numerical studies on the lowvelocity impact response of orthogrid epoxy panels reinforced with short plant fibers. Compos Struct 211:469–480 24. Richardson MOW, Wisheart MJ (1996) Review of low-velocity impact properties of composite materials. Compos Part A 27A:1123–1131 25. Nielsen LE, Landel RF. Mechanical properties of polymers and composites, second edition. CRC Press, New York (1993) 26. Kumar P (2009) Elements of fracture mechanics. Tata McGraw hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi 27. Sung N, Suh N (1979) Effect of fiber orientation on friction and wear of fiber reinforced polymeric composites. Wear 53(1):129–141 28. ABAQUS 6.7 Documentation (2007) Dessault systems 29. Li L, Sun L, Wang T, Kang N, Cao W (2019) Repeated low-velocity impact response and damage mechanism of glass fiber aluminium laminates. Aerosp Sci Technol 84:995–1010

Natural Fibre for Prosthetic and Orthotic Applications—A Review Farah Syazwani Shahar, Mohamed Thariq Hameed Sultan, Ain Umaira Md Shah, and Syafiqah Nur Azrie Safri

Abstract Prosthetics and Orthotics had significantly evolved since it was first used during the Egyptian Era around 5000 years ago. The materials used had advanced little by little with the increase of comfortability, cosmesis, and lighter in weight. The aim of this chapter is to review the natural fibres that has been used in the past decade for applications in Prosthetics and Orthotics. This chapter will consist of Introduction to Prosthetics and Orthotics devices, followed by the Ideal Specification for Materials used in Prosthetics and Orthotics, Types of Existing Natural Fibres used in Prosthetics and Orthotics, and finally Prosthetics and Orthotics Applications using Natural Fibres. The last section of this chapter will conclude the findings of this review chapter. Keywords Applications · Natural fibre · Orthosis · Prosthesis

1 Introduction This section was divided into two sub-sections where the first sub-section will be a brief introduction on prosthetics whereas the second sub-section will be on orthotics.

F. S. Shahar · M. T. H. Sultan (B) · A. U. Md Shah Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] M. T. H. Sultan · A. U. Md Shah · S. N. A. Safri Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia M. T. H. Sultan Aerospace Malaysia Innovation Centre (944751-A), Prime Minister’s Department, MIGHT Partnership Hub, Jalan Impact, Cyberjaya 63000, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Structural Health Monitoring System for Synthetic, Hybrid and Natural Fiber Composites, Composites Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8840-2_5

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1.1 Prosthetics Devices (Prosthesis) Prosthetics can be defined as an artificial replacement device which could help in regaining the function and appearance of the missing limb [1, 2]. Its main function was to provide the users the ability to perform daily tasks smoothly which previously may not be possible due to the missing limb. The amputations of a limb were usually caused by severe trauma, cancers, or diseases related to vascular complications [3]. The type of prosthesis indicated for a prosthetics user were mainly depended on the extent of the amputated limb and also which part was amputated [4]. Prosthesis and limb extremity amputations can be divided into two major parts which were the upper limbs and the lower limbs. Tables 1 and 2 shows the level amputation of upper extremity and lower extremity respectively whereas Figs. 1 and 2 shows an example of the upper limb prosthesis and the lower limb prosthesis respectively. The upper limb prosthesis system can be divided into three categories which were the passive system [9], body-powered system [10], and externally powered system [11]. The passive prosthesis system which were also known as cosmetic prosthesis were usually used for as stabilizer. It was fabricated to look more natural but with the least functional abilities. This type of prosthesis were usually extremely lightweight but extremely expensive. Figure 3 shows an example of passive system prosthesis. The body powered prosthesis system was a prosthesis which was controlled using cables. The generation of forces during body movements were transmitted into the cables which in return affect the joint operation. When compared to a passive prosthesis system, body powered prosthesis system were less expensive, a little heavier, Table 1 Level of upper extremity amputations [5]

Table 2 Level of lower extremity amputations [6]

Amputation level

Body parts

Transcarpal

Fingers or partial area of the hand

Wrist disarticulation

From wrist joint to fingers

Transradial

From below the elbow to fingers

Elbow disarticulation

From elbow joint to fingers

Transhumeral

From above the elbow to fingers

Shoulder disarticulation

From shoulder joint to fingers

Interscapulothoracic

From above the shoulder to fingers

Amputation level

Body parts

Foot

Toes or any part of the foot

Transtibial

From below the knee to the foot

Knee disarticulation

From knee joints to the foot

Transfemoral

From above the knee to the foot

Hip disarticulation

From hip joint to the foot

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Fig. 1 Upper limb prosthesis [7]

Fig. 2 Lower limb prosthesis [8]

and had highest durability. However, body powered prosthesis needed the most body movement for operation compared to other systems and had the least satisfactory of cosmetic appearance. Figure 4 shows an example of body powered prosthesis system.

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Fig. 3 Passive prosthesis system [12]

Fig. 4 Body powered prosthesis system [13]

External powered prosthesis system worked by controlling electrical activity from the residual muscle at the amputated area via surface electrodes to enable the movement of the motorized prosthesis. This type of system can be further divided into three types which were myoelectrically controlled (uses muscle contractions signals to operate the prosthesis), switch controlled (uses small switch to activate the motors), and hybrid (uses both muscle strength and external power supply). External powered prosthesis system provides the most functional abilities, along better grip strength and cosmesis. However, the downside of this prosthesis was the weight and cost of

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this prosthesis were the heaviest and the most expensive among all of the prosthesis system. Figure 5 shows an example of an external powered prosthesis system. All prosthesis except passive prosthesis had several significant components which made a complete functional prosthesis. Table 3 shows the components available in complete prosthesis and their respective functions.

1.2 Orthotics Devices (Orthosis) Orthosis can be defined as an assist device which helps in controlling, correcting, or compensating the muscle strength due to deformity or trauma [2]. Unlike prosthesis which completely replaces the limbs, orthosis will only provide support or movement to the existing limbs. The function of an orthosis was similar to a prosthesis where it helps the users to do daily activities without any limitations or obstructions. The main difference between orthosis and prosthesis was that an orthosis supports the limbs whereas a prosthesis replaces the limbs. Orthosis can be divided into three types of categorization which was regional [18], control system [19], and functional [18]. Figure 6 shows the categorization of orthosis. Similar to prosthesis, regional orthosis were also divided into upper limb orthosis and lower limb orthosis with the addition of spinal orthosis. Figure 7 shows the regional types of orthosis available in the market. The upper limb orthosis encases the region of the upper extremity of the limbs and can be categorized into four types which were Hand Orthosis, Wrist Orthosis, Elbow Orthosis, and Shoulder Orthosis. Hand orthosis’s main objective was restoring the thumb’s function for gripping and fingers’ function for proper positioning during hand movements. Next, the Wrist orthosis designs were aimed to help in achieving an optimal Range of Motion (ROM). Meanwhile, Elbow orthosis focussed on the flexion of user’s arm. Finally, the key component of Shoulder orthosis was its ability to positioned the limbs properly and provide critical support for shoulder stability. The lower limb orthosis encases the region of the lower extremity of the limbs and were consist of Ankle-Foot Orthosis (AFO), Knee Orthosis (KO), Knee-AnkleFoot Orthosis (KAFO), Hip-Knee-Ankle-Foot Orthosis (HKAFO), and Hip Orthosis (HO). AFO controls the joint movement around the ankle region and supports the foot during gait movement. It was mostly used to fix the problems which were related to the foot to ground placement and provide foot clearance and heel contact. It was also used to restore the stability during the stance and swing phase of the gait movement, as well as compensating the weakness of the thigh muscle to avoid knee buckling due to weakness. As for KO, it was beneficial to users who needs control of their knee only, not including the region around ankle and foot. It helps in controlling knee flexion due

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Fig. 5 External powered prosthesis system; a myoelectrically controlled prosthesis [14]; b switch controlled prosthesis [15]; c hybrid prosthesis [16]

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Table 3 Components of prosthesis and their functions [17] Components

Functions

Sockets

The socket was designed with two layers where the inner layer acts as a cushion which contoured to the residual limb whereas the external layer gave length and shape for the device

Suspension system

The suspension system worked by securing the prosthesis to the residual limb. There were three types of harnesses: – Figure of 8 – Chest strap – Shoulder saddle

Control-cable system

The control system worked by helping in the operation of the limb movement. Usually used in external powered prosthesis system

Terminal device

This device was connected to the forearm socket which replaces the hand and enables hand movements such as grasp, flexing, and gripping

Components for interposing joints This component provides angle orientation for the joints movement. There were three types of components which were needed based on the level of amputation: – Wrist units – Elbow units – Shoulder units

to muscle weakness, rotary instability, as well as anything that relates to angulation and instability of the knee. The design of KAFO extends from the foot up to the thigh. This device was used to control motion and alignment of knee and ankle for stability or provide support for tibia, femur, or both. It also helps in relieving weight from the hip as well as stress in the leg. HO encases the region around the hip area and supported with one thigh band to remain upright. It was commonly used to support hip and resist adduction as well as excessive flexion. The structure of the hip joint was made with features that could easily adjust flexion and extension stopper. Finally, HKAFO was an extension from KAFO where, instead of only from foot to the thigh, HKAFO extends towards the hip. It helps in controlling the flexion or extension instability, abduction weakness, and rotational instability. The spinal orthosis encases the region along the length of spine starting from the neck and ends at the lumbar region. It was mainly used to align skeletal structure, restrict motion, and prevent deformity progression. The spinal orthosis can be further divided into several categories which was Cervical Orthosis (CO), Cervicothoracic Orthosis (CTO), Halo Orthosis, Lumbosacral Orthosis (LSO), and Thoracolumbosacral Orthosis (TLSO). CO encases the region around the head to the neck. It was used to restrict any movements of the head and neck, as well as limiting flexion, extension, rotation of the head and the cervical spine. It was basically a collar which wraps around the

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Upper Extremity Orthosis Regional

Lower Extremity Orthosis Spinal Orthosis Static Orthosis

Control system

Dynamic Orthosis Hybrid Orthosis

Orthosis

Supportive Functional Corrective Functional

Protective Prevent substitution of function Muscle specific strengthening orthosis Pain reliever Prevent weight bearing

Fig. 6 Orthosis categorization

neck and could be circumferentially adjustable. Depending on the type of CO used, the height adjustment may be included within the CO, could be made into single or multiple layered, as well as the variability in its firmness (soft or hard). CTO encompassed the region from the upper cervical spine to the lower cervical spine. It had low restriction of motion on the upper cervical spine but the restriction becomes greater starting from the middle to the lower cervical spine. It was usually used to stabilise minimal fractures most suitable for bed patients due to the missing of posterior rods at the back of the patients. Halo Orthosis, just like its name, appears like a halo which connected to the vest via the lateral bars. It provides flexion, extension, and rotational control of the cervical region. This orthosis had the greatest restriction of motions and stability compared to all cervical orthoses. LSO extends from the sacrum to the inferior scapular angle of the spine. This orthosis limits flexion and extension of the body, as well as some rotation and side bending.

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Hand Orthosis Wrist Orthosis Upper limb orthosis Elbow Orthosis (EWHO) Shoulder/Arm Orthosis (SWHO) Ankle-Foot Orthosis (AFO) Knee Orthosis (KO)

Orthosis

Lower limb orthosis

Knee-Ankle-Foot Orthosis (KAFO) Hip Orthosis (HO) Hip-Knee-Ankle-Foot Orthosis (HKAFO) Cervical Orthosis (CO) Cervicothoracic Orthosis (CTO)

Spinal orthosis

Halo Orthosis Lumbosacral Orthosis (LSO) Thoracolumbosacral Orthosis (TLSO)

Fig. 7 Types of orthosis based on anatomical region

Finally, the TLSO extends from the sacrum to above the inferior angle of scapula which was used for trunk’s support and stability. It also helps in reducing weight on vertebral body. The classification of orthosis could also be divided based on the type of control system. The three main type of control systems were static, dynamic, and hybrid. A static orthosis does not allow any movement, prevent deformity, and support the affected limbs. Meanwhile, a dynamic orthosis allows a certain range of motion and becomes a substitute for the loss of motor function. It helps in correcting an existing deformity by providing a controlled directional movement. It also helps in wound healing and fracture alignment. As for functional orthosis, the design of the orthosis will be changing depending on the type of deformity or severity suffered by the users. Usually a functional orthosis will be combined with the regional orthosis and type of orthotic control system in order to achieve a specific or several criteria of a functional orthosis. As an example,

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a user which suffered a fracture from the ankle-foot region will need a supportive orthosis. Thus, a static ankle-foot orthosis will be provided for the user.

2 Prosthetics and Orthotics Ideal Specification and Design Principles This section will discuss on the ideal specification of prosthetics and orthotics devices and the underlying design principles for both type of devices.

2.1 Ideal Specification There were several ideal specifications that were needed to be fulfilled in order to create a prosthesis or orthosis. There were five main factors that could make an ideal prosthesis or orthosis which were function, comfort, cosmesis, fabrication, and economics [20]. The function factor was one of the main factor which affects the complete design of a prosthesis and orthosis. The design must fulfil the requirements needed by the users, whether they needed a hand prosthesis, hand orthosis, dynamic leg prosthesis or hybrid orthosis. Depending on the problems suffered by the users, different types of prosthesis or orthosis will be customized for them. The device must also be simple and could be easily learnt by the users, since a complicated device may need an unnecessary longer period of training which could become tedious. The comfort factor also plays an important role to design an ideal prosthesis and orthosis. This is because, most users may stopped using their device completely which could hinder their healing time and obstructions in completing daily activities due to discomfort. The device must fit well on the users as well as able to easily put on and take off so that it would not unintentionally harm the users. In addition, a prosthesis and orthosis with low weight would not cause the users to expend too much energy to operate them and the users would feel as if the device were part of their bodies. Another factor that should be taken into consideration was cosmesis. The prosthesis and orthosis must look like the original limb to help the users to blend in well within a society. Thus, it was important that both prosthesis and orthosis can be easily cleaned and maintained. Furthermore, in order to ensure a good hygiene, it was best for the device to be stain resistant. The next factor was the fabrication aspects of an ideal prosthesis and orthosis. A good prosthesis and orthosis should have a fast fabrication method. In addition, the devices’ parts and materials must be readily and widely available to ensure a continuous supply for repair and maintenance.

Natural Fibre for Prosthetic and Orthotic Applications—A Review Fig. 8 Design and structure consideration when choosing material for prosthetics and orthotics devices

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Material variables

Thermoset vs thermoplasc

Durometer scale or Mohs scale

Lastly, the economics factor in designing a prosthesis and orthosis must also be considered. The more affordable the device were available in the market, the higher the chances for the users to obtain the devices easily especially for users with poor income. However, in order to achieve the specifications that were needed to make an ideal prosthesis and orthosis, researchers as well as P&O professionals usually considers the material aspects of the prosthesis and orthosis design. When choosing a material for prosthetics and orthotics devices, researchers and P&O professionals usually took into consideration of several factors as shown in Fig. 8. The first factor, material variables affects the characteristics that were need in a certain type of prosthesis and orthosis. These variables will determine the characteristics of the end product such as flexibility, durability, corrosiveness, and much more. Table 4 show some of the material variables that were needed to be included into consideration before choosing a suitable material. As mentioned in Hardness of the material variables previously, durometer was an instrument which was used to identify the hardness of materials such as polymers, elastomers and polymers [22]. It helps in determining the resistance of the materials towards permanent indentation. The most common measurement that has been used for prosthesis and orthosis were Shore D. Just like durometer, Mohs scale was also used to measure hardness of the materials. However, it is specifically used for minerals, gemstones, and metals [23]. Most prosthesis and orthosis were made from plastics. There were two type of plastics that can be used which was thermosets and thermoplastics [24]. Thermoset polymers were polymers that could not be reverse hardened and thus shaped permanently by curing from a liquid resin. Meanwhile, thermoplastic polymers were materials that could be hardened when it was heated and softened when it was cooled. This type of material enables the shaping of prosthesis and orthosis becomes much easier, thus resulting in its high demand in the market. Thermoset were generally cheaper compared to a thermoplastic, but it could not be remolded, reshaped, or recycled like thermoplastics.

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Table 4 Material variables affecting the decision in choosing a suitable material for prosthesis and orthosis [21] Material variables

Description

Strength

The material must be able to resist breaking under tension and compression, good yield strength, as well as the ability to sustain an applied load under impact

Durability

Prosthesis and Orthosis could withstand factors such as wear, pressure, or damage under any type of condition and time constraints

Stiffness

The loaded material must be able to resist deformation, bending, or compression. A stiff material means that it will be less flexible, thus causing the possibility of deformation becomes less likely to occur

Density

The device must be as light as possible while still retaining the strength, stiffness, and durability of the material

Hardness

This factor emphasised on the resistance towards permanent indentation of the material and determined by durometer (for rubbers, elastomers, and polymers) or Mohs scale (for metal)

Thickness

The thickness of the material were usually related to the weight and bulkiness of the device. The thicker the material, the heavier the device will be. It is especially important when dealing with leather. The thermoplastics used for prosthesis and orthosis also being sold in sheets with varying thickness

Corrosion resistance

The material must be able to resist chemical degradation especially when the device may have a direct contact with body fluids

Malleability

The material must be able to shaped easily without breaking especially materials such as metal which needs to be hammered, bent, pressed, or rolled into sheets

Lamination

When the different materials were glued together to form a single sheet, the characteristics of these materials could be blend together to produce a better functioning materials, namely composites

2.2 Design Principles The design of a prosthesis and orthosis followed several biomechanical principles, which were [25]: i.

The three point pressure concept (Jordan’s Principle)—This principle states that the sum of forces created is equal to zero, F1 + F2 = F3

(1)

where, F1 + F2 = counter forces in opposing direction F3 = primary force acting on joints or stump A single primary force will be located at the joint or stump area which reacted against two additional counter forces which were in opposing direction as shown

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Fig. 9 The three point pressure system

in Fig. 9. This principle could ensure stability during any types of movement control. ii. Total contact—The greatest comfort could be achieved when the pressure distribution between device’s interface and skin decreases as shown in Fig. 10. The higher the amount of surface area is in contact with the tissue, the lower the pressure distribution will be, P=

F A

(2)

where, P = pressure distribution F = applied force A = surface area

Fig. 10 The total contact of an prosthesis and orthosis determines the comfortability of the device; a small surface area; b large surface area

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Fig. 11 The principle of torque acting on an orthosis to help in partial weight relieving

iii. The biomechanics of levers and forces for partial weight relieving—The stability of the limbs movement highly depended on the rotational effect of the torque system, τ = F ×d

(3)

where, τ = torque F = force applied d = moment arm distance from axis of rotation The farther the point of force from the joint, the greater the moment of the arm, the smaller the magnitude of force required to produce a given torque at the joint. This principle could help in partial weight relieving during any type of movement control. Figure 11 shows an example of torque system acting on a prosthesis and orthosis.

3 Natural Fibres Used in Prosthetics and Orthotics and Its Applications Currently, a lot of researchers were focussing on using natural fibers in several different fields in order to replace materials such as plastics and metals. The benefits of using natural materials were the renewability of the raw materials, the lightweight of the materials itself, and their ability to retain strength, stiffness, malleability, and durability while retaining its low weight [2, 26]. In addition, natural material were corrosive resistant and would not completely degrade if it was properly treated chemically.

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The uses of natural materials has existed since the ancient Egyptian era where originally, instead of the fibers itself, they used the bark of a tree and shaped them into a prosthesis or orthosis [2]. The first material that has ever been discovered was cork, which was harvested from an oak tree. The cork main component was the waxy waterproof substance known as suberin which ensure its buoyancy, elasticity, and resistance towards fire [27]. The cork also has a honeycomb like structure which ensures its high strength and low weight properties. The honeycomb structure of the cork also ensures that it has high impact strength due to the cushioning effect formed from the structure as well as highly resilient and flexible. Thus ancient Egyptians made prosthesis or orthosis purely from corks and then wrapped with cartonnage to keep the limbs in place [2]. In the current era, Corks were usually combined with other types of material for better material properties. Another type of natural material that was used was Kenaf blends [28]. Kenaf were one of the highest yield crop available around the Asian country. This raw material could yield around 6–10 tonnes of dry fiber within 6–8 months [26]. Kenaf materials were biodegradable and recyclable. The characteristics of Kenaf provides comfort and good shock absorption. Cotton fiber was also one of the most famous material when it comes to absorbent materials [22]. This fiber was extracted from the capsules of the cotton plant and it was also resistant to tear. Table 5 shows current natural fiber materials and applications that has been researched. It was obvious that there were a lot of wood and natural fiber materials that has been developed for prosthetics and orthotics applications. However, there were still limited numbers of prosthetics and orthotics applications that had applied natural fibers into the manufacturing of prosthesis and orthosis. In prosthesis manufacturing and fabrication, natural fibers were mainly used in designing a socket, terminal devices, feet or the exoskeletal body. The socket is the part where the stump is inserted. The main concern for the design of a socket is that it has to be in total contact with the skin tissue. Usually, the socket of both upper extremity and lower extremity has a double wall framework where the inner wall were made from soft materials such as cotton whereas the outer wall was made from stronger but light materials such as Kenaf, or Cork. Figure 12 shows an example of natural fiber socket made from Kenaf fiber. As for the prosthesis’s body, the socket was connected to it either by exoskeletal construction or endoskeletal construction. Natural fibres were usually used to construct an exoskeletal body of the prosthesis. The exoskeletal body gains its structural strength from the outer laminated shell through the weight of the body was transmitted. The shell was made of resin or polymers over a filler material made from wood or natural fibres and the whole prosthesis was shaped into the appearance of the amputated limb. Figure 13 below shows the exoskeletal body of a prosthesis which was made from willow wood fiber. Next, the feet were designed to have a high degree of cosmesis so that it will resemble completely like the original amputated limbs. It was usually made from

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Table 5 Current natural fiber materials and applications that has been researched Authors

Applications

Type of materials

JMS Plastics Supply Inc. [31]

Orthosis

Cork granules and nylon blend Shredded cork and rubber blend Cork granules and rubber blend Shredded cork and Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA) blend

JLFPro [32]

Orthotic insole

Wood and kenaf blend Wool and kenaf blend Cotton fiber Wool

Becker [33]

Hip orthosis

Maple leaf

Campbell et al. [34]

Prosthetic sockets

Bamboo Banana Corn Flax Ramie Seacell Soya

Odusote et al. [35]

Prosthetic socket

Banana pseudo stem fiber reinforced epoxy composite

Kramer et al. [36]

Prosthesis and Orthosis

Bamboo reinforced composites

Irawan et al. [37]

Prosthetic socket

Ramie fiber reinforced epoxy composites

Irawan et al. [38]

Prosthetic shank

Rattan reinforced fiberglass and epoxy composites

Irawan et al. [39]

Prosthetic socket

banana fiber reinforced epoxy composites

Odusote and Kumar [40]

Prosthetic socket

Pineapple leaf fiber and epoxy composite

Widhata et al. [41]

Prosthetic socket

Water hyacinth composite

Fig. 12 Natural fiber socket [29]

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Fig. 13 Natural fiber exoskeletal body [30]

wood or natural fibers. Some examples of the applications were Solid Ankle Cushion Heel (SACH). Figure 14 shows an example of feet made from natural fiber. In orthosis manufacturing and fabrication, depending on the requirement needed by the users, there were some orthosis were made completely from natural fibers. An example of application which could use natural fibers for fabrication was orthoplasty, orthopaedic insoles, and corset.

Fig. 14 Solid ankle cushion heel (SACH) where the wooden keel provide mid-stance stability

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4 Conclusions At present, the orthotics and prosthetics field still keep on changing and evolving without any obstructions. With more and more advance technologies that comes out over the past several years, there are various design possibilities that can be explored and research especially when it comes to prosthesis and orthosis materials. From this review, it can be seen that there are still a limited research conducted on natural fibers in the orthotic and prosthetic field. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Universiti Putra Malaysia for the financial support through the Geran Putra Berimpak, GPB 9668200. The authors would like to thank the Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia and Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Product (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia (HICOE) for the close collaboration in this research.

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Experimental Characterization for Natural Fiber and Hybrid Composites M. Rajesh, Jayakrishna Kandasamy, D. Mallikarjuna Reddy, V. Mugeshkannan, and Vishesh Ranjan Kar

Abstract Composite materials are more predominant in weight-sensitive applications in a different field such as Engineering, Medicine, Military applications due to its high impact strength, easy to manufacture the intricate part, high resistance against corrosion, deformation and high thermal stability. Thus, it makes them a good alternative for weight-sensitive applications compared to the traditionally used material. Though synthetic fiber-reinforced composite offers many advantages over conventional materials, it provides weak resistance for fire, more vulnerable to rays and oxidization, uncomfortable to human health. Thus, overcomes by replacing them with natural fiber for structural applications. The low elastic modulus of the natural fiber composite makes them not suitable for many practical applications. Researchers hybridized natural fiber with a smaller amount of synthetic fiber, and filler materials such as rice husk, wood powder, clay, CNT, etc. and enhanced the elastic modulus. Also, the addition of natural fiber in the matrix enhances the energy dissipating capability along with strength. In all mechanical design, strength and modulus of the material is the most important one which influences on material selection. A property of natural fiber composites always depending on a percentage of constitutes (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin), fiber distribution, fiber surface roughness, etc. The present study focuses on various characterization studies such as mechanical analysis, dynamic mechanical analysis, free vibration analysis, and stability analysis of natural fiber composites. Thus, it helps better understanding of factors affecting the strength, stiffness, and stability of natural fiber composite. Keywords Fiber · Composite · Tensile strength · Filler · Stability · Dynamic mechanical analysis M. Rajesh (B) · J. Kandasamy · D. Mallikarjuna Reddy Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India e-mail: [email protected] V. Mugeshkannan PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore 641004, Tamil Nadu, India V. R. Kar National Institute of Technology Jamshedpur, Jamshedpur 831014, Jharkhand, India © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Structural Health Monitoring System for Synthetic, Hybrid and Natural Fiber Composites, Composites Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8840-2_6

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1 Introduction Any applications enhance the performance without affecting its basics function is an important criterion. Material selection plays a vital role in that [1]. The primary purpose of the material selection is to reduce the bulk mass of the final weight of any structure or component without affecting its function and not to compensate for the strength, stiffness, stability, durability, carrion resistance, etc. [2]. In aerospace, marine, space, and automobile minimize the fuel consumption and enhance the operational performance, safety, reliability, and durability influenced by the type of material used for various parts [3]. During material selection for any practical applications, minor mistakes cause savior effects, and it makes questionable for safety. A century ago, a large amount of conventional material had been used in engineering, aviation, marine, etc. Steel, Aluminum, and copper materials are commonly used in different engineering applications. The main advantages of conventional materials are easy availability, known processing techniques, high strength, elasticity, corrosion resistance, and low cost [4]. Though traditional materials offered considerable advantages, the main drawback is the production of conventional material on a massive level affects the environment seriously and directly impact human life and other specious. Hence, it is a compulsion to find good alternation to save a healthier environment [5]. Tremendous developments in the field of polymers make them into a good alternative for conventional material in the entire field due to easy preparation, manufacture [6]. However, polymer alone not enhancing strength, stability, and stiffness of the component or structure. To utilize the advantages of various polymers (thermo, thermoplastic, geo polymer and high temperature polymer), researchers are developing different types of filler, and reinforced materials which helps to enhances the safety, durability, stability, resistance to various chemical agents, resilience, low weight, dimensional stability, nonconductive, Nonmagnetic, Radar Transparent, impact Strength, Design Flexibility thermal properties, adhesive and coating compatibility and make them serve in the different environment (temperature, moisture, etc.) [7]. Glass, carbon, kevlar, and boron fibers are commonly used in a different matrix to enrich the strength, stiffness. Thus, it makes them a good alternative for diverse engineering applications over conventional materials [8]. Properties of composites are depended by the type of reinforcement, and its effect (distribution and orientation), amount of void, quality of the reinforcements. Other than reinforcement, interfacial bonding and load transfer at the interphase affects the properties of the composite seriously [9]. Thus can enhance by altering the adhesion properties of reinforcement by chemical or physical treatments [10]. Though synthetic fiber-reinforced composite offers many advantages over conventional materials, it offers weak resistance for fire, more sensitive to rays and oxidization, uncomfortable to human health. To overcome the problem associated with synthetic fiber, researchers used natural fiber for structural applications. The advantage of natural fiber composites over synthetic fiber composite is, the addition of natural fiber in the matrix enhances the energy dissipating capability along with strength.

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Advantages associated with natural fibers such as excellent thermal properties, availability, and easy to fabricate them suitable replacement in the polymer matrix with comparable property for low and medium load structural applications [11]. Joshi et al. [12] found that the incorporation of natural fiber-enhanced fuel efficiency and reduced the final weight of the structure. Researchers have proven from their work, and natural fibers are more appropriate in the matrix. In general, structural application (door), home-based and packing applications, natural fiber composites are suitable. Almost all mechanical design, elastic properties (Ultimate and yield strength) of materials influence their selection. A wealth of natural fiber composites always depending on a percentage of constitutes (cellulose, hemi-cellulose, and lignin), fiber distribution, fiber surface roughness, etc. Any structural applications, strength, stiffness, and stability, along with higher energy dissipation, is an important one. To analyze the energy storing and dissipation behavior of the material dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) will be employed. It helps to describe the storage modulus and loss factor of the composite materials under the dynamic load and thermal environment. It also reveals the factors affecting the modulus of the composite materials. Similarly, dynamic properties of the material play a vital role in structural applications, which measured by vibration analysis. Though natural fiber having its advantages over synthetic composites, the disadvantage of natural fiber is its hydrophilic behavior which allows absorbing the moisture. Thus, it makes them mismatched in the matrix. Overcome the hydrophilic problem associated with natural fibers, and it is dipped in the chemical solution. Therefore, it helps to minimize the hydrophilic nature of fiber by removing more amount of hemicellulose from the fiber cell wall. However, the concentration of a chemical solution affects the fiber structural cell wall. Hence, it is essential to analyze the fiber surface before reinforcement in the polymer matrix. For that, scanning electron microscopic is used to examine the microstructure of natural fiber.

2 Factors Affecting Properties of Natural Fiber Composite 1. Types of Reinforcement and Matrix Mechanical tests, DMA, and free vibration analysis are commonly used to analyze the properties of composites. Strength of the natural fibers calculated based on the percentage of cellulose and protein existing in the cell wall [13]. Harvesting time and extraction seriously affect on properties of natural fibers. It is observed that compared to fiber harvested by mechanically, manually harvested flax fiber has 20% higher strength [14, 15]. In general, higher moisture content affects the modulus of the composite. Other than moisture, the strength of natural fiber composites affects by fiber cross-section and interfacial strength [16]. Once achieve the reasonable interfacial bonding, fiber weight percentage influence on properties of composites.

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Irrespective of reinforcement type, the stiffness of the composite is higher when fiber percentage falls between 40 and 55 wt%. The fiber aspect ratio affects the properties of composite reinforced with natural fiber seriously [17]. Short natural fiber with random distribution, the load can be transferred through the matrix to fiber due to shear at fiber/matrix [18]. Usually, under tensile load, tensile stress at the end of natural fiber becomes zero, whereas increasing along the length. Therefore, continuous natural fiber carries a more tensile load. Other than the selection of natural fiber, matrix selection contributes to properties of the natural fiber composites (NFC). Matrix fights against the hazard environment, transfer the load to fiber and fiber degradable. 2. Fiber distribution and its orientation In the NFC, mechanical properties are depending alignment of fiber in the matrix to the loading direction [19–21]. Compared to synthetic fiber, it is difficult to achieve proper alignment in the high density resin [22, 23]. In the case of short fiber reinforcement, fiber weight percentage influence on mechanical properties of NFC. The mechanical property of short coir fiber-reinforced composite was analyzed by Monteiro et al. [24]. The weight percentage of coir fiber influenced much on the properties of composites. It revealed that 50 wt% of coir fiber makes composite rigid, whereas the addition of a higher amount of coir fiber in the matrix changes the rigidity of composite into flexible. Coir-polyester composite was used to fabricated by loading the fiber up to 15wt% and found that strength of the composite fall to 38 MPa [25]. Considerable availability of banana fiber forced the researcher to analyze the benefits of engineering applications. Many researchers tried the banana/epoxy composite for lightweight applications such as Helmet, car door, interior parts in automobiles, etc. [26, 27]. The research found that other than the fiber weight percentage of natural fiber, and its length influences the strength of the composites. Venkateshwaran et al. [28] found that 15 mm fiber length with 50 wt% improved the properties of banana/epoxy composites. Similarly, jute fiber addition enriched the tensile, flexural, and dynamic properties of the epoxy composite [29]. Arenga pinnata fibers were reinforced with a different orientation, such as long fiber, short fiber is woven rowing in the epoxy by Sastra et al. [30]. Results revealed that woven rowing enriched the strength of the composites compared to long and short fiber orientation. Similar results have been observed for synthetic fiber composites. The study conducted by Brahim and Cheikh [31] revealed that Alfa fibre orientation influenced on the strength of the composite. 3. Effect of weaving pattern To overcome the problem associated with fiber length and its orientation and distribution on properties of NFC, researchers used the advantages of the textile field. John and Thomas [32] propose weaving patterns, such as twill, basket, plain, and stain. Results revealed that the nature of yarn twist influences on the enhancement

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of properties of the NFC. Higher fiber yarn twist helps to transfer the stress effectively under loading [33]. Banana fiber reinforcement enhanced the storage and loss modulus of banana/epoxy composite [34]. Results revealed that uniform stress distribution associated with plain weaving increased the storage modulus. Similarly, the storage modulus of epoxy composite enhanced by reinforcing hemp fiber with twill and plain form [35, 36]. Fiber orientation with 60° increased the damping behavior of composites. Rajesh and Pitchaimani [37] examined the DMA and dynamic behavior of NFC. They used a basket weaving style to prepare the conventional weaving, braided weaving, and knitting. Braiding composite enhanced the storage modulus of composite, whereas knitting increased the damping factor. Similarly, braided form reinforcement improved the tensile strength compared to composite prepared by the same wt% with random orientation. Maleque et al. [38] reinforced pseudo stem banana fiber into the epoxy matrix in woven form and found that the woven style enhanced the tensile strength. The reinforcement of banana fiber in the woven form minimizes the plastic deformation under static load, which is confirmed by SEM. Sapuan et al. [39] explained the advantage of woven banana fiber composite for householding applications. They developed the design detail of the telephone stand using epoxy composite and enhanced the properties of the telephone stand by reinforcing banana fiber in woven banana fiber. Features of NFC depends on resin viscosity, applied pressure, weave style, and surface modification. It is confirmed by Pothan et al. [40]. They found that type of fiber, and microvoid content influenced the mechanical properties of the composite. From the mechanical study, they found that higher fiber content enhanced the shear and impact properties of the composites. At the same time, increasing microvoid content decreasing the shear modulus of the composites. Other than weaving style, fiber alignment to loading and type of matrix, adhesion between fiber and matrix affects the properties of composite severely. For that, researchers alter the fiber surface with a chemical solution that removes the sufficient amount of the hemicellulose from the cell wall. Thus, it reduces the hydrophilic nature of the composites and enhancing the bonding. 4. Effect of Surface treatment In general, the bonding strength of natural fiber and binder enhances by removing hemicellulose and lignin using chemical treatment [41]. Alkali surface modification removes hemicellulose and lignin from the cell wall of natural fiber effectively. Thus, it helps to increase the bonding strength. It is confirmed by Kabir et al. [42]. They carried out various chemical treatments to enhance the mechanical properties and observed that the concentration of NaOH influences on the removal of hemicellulose. Thus, it increased the bonding between hemp fiber and matrix. A similar study has been carried out on napier grass fiber by Reddy et al. [43] and found that 5% of NaOH surface modification enhanced the properties of composites. Brgida et al. [44] improved the properties of composite by reinforcing chemically modified green coconut fiber in the matrix. They used NaOCl, NaOCl/NaOH, and H2 O2 chemical solution and altered the properties of green coconut fiber and found that chemical treatments enhanced the features of the coconut composite. However, other than NaOCl solution, NaOCl/NaOH and H2 O2 removed an only waxy layer of

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fiber. In contrast, NaOCl removed the sufficient amount of hemicellulose and exposed more cellulose in the fiber cell wall. SEM and FT-IT analysis confirm it. SEM analysis revealed that fiber treated with NaOCl has no crack, whereas other solutions have more crack. However, compared to untreated composite surface-treated composite has minimum damage near the fiber and matrix. FT-IR analysis revealed a higher amount of cellulose present in the fiber cell wall for NaOCl treatment. Similarly, Cao et al. [45] and Gassan and Bledzki [46] improved the strength and modulus of NFC using NaOH surface treatment. They found that treatment makes fiber surface rougher, which acts as a mechanical interlock in the matrix. Other than Alkali surface treatment, permanganate, benzoylation, and silane treatments alter the properties of NFC effectively. Sreenivasan et al. [47] found that a lower concentration of potassium permanganate enhanced the properties of composites. Henequen fiber was modified with a silane solution by Herrera-Franco and Valadez-Gonzlez [48]. Silane surface treatment increases fiber-matrix adhesion. Thus, enhanced the properties of composites. Rajesh and Jeyaraj Pitchaimani [49] found that surface treatment alters the features such as mechanical, dynamic mechanical, and vibration characteristics of composites. Benzoyl treatment enriched the impact and storage modulus of the composite, whereas untreated composite enhanced the damping factor of the composites. Thus, it is shown that surface treatment increased the fiber-matrix adhesion, which allows carrying more load and transfer stress effectively under loading. However, the surface treatment enhances the bonding strength between fiber-matrix and load carry behavior; single fiber alone cannot improve the properties of NFC. For that researcher used the hybridization of natural fiber with synthetic fiber, and different filler material to enhance the strength, stiffness, and stability of NFC for various applications. 5. Hybridization of natural fiber The properties of the natural composite can be upgraded by the orientation of natural fiber in the matrix, surface treatment, hybridization, etc. Hybridization is the most effective method to improve the properties of NFC. Aji et al. [50] developed the resilience of pineapple leaf fibre/polyethylene (HDPE) composites. Hybridization of kenaf fiber with pineapple leaf fiber-enhanced properties of the composite. Similarly, hybridization of banana fiber with sisal-fiber enhanced the properties of polyester composite [51]. Properties of NFC can be improved by keeping woven natural fiber in layer form. Higher-strength natural fiber in the skin layer enhances the strength and modulus of the NFC. Venkateshwaran and ElayaPerumal [33] confirmed it. They compared the mechanical properties of hybrid composite by keeping banana as a skin layer (banana/jute/banana) and jute as a skin layer (jute/banana/jute). Mechanical investigation results revealed that banana woven fabric placed in the out layer enriched the mechanical strength and modulus of the composites. Jawaid et al. [29] increased the mechanical properties of oil palm composite by hybridizing jute woven fabric in the polymer composite. In another study, the effect of jute fiber addition in oil palm matrix on dynamic properties of a composite. They found that the hybridization of jute woven fabric improved the storage modulus of jute-oil palm composite and reduced the loss factor [52]. Kumar et al. [53] enhanced the dynamic properties

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of woven coconut sheath-polyester composites by adding short banana fiber. Impact property of woven natural fiber composite has been increased by keeping two knitted natural fiber fabric as core layer [54]. Similarly, Muralidhar et al. [55] found that the flexural strength of the composite enhanced by placing knitted fabric as a skin layer. Bennet et al. [56] found that coconut sheath/sansevieria cylindrica/coconut sheath arrangement improved the properties of the polyester composite. Santulli et al. [57] used the intercalated and sandwich method to prepare the jute cloth/wool felts composite. They found that the manufacturing process of composite affects the properties of the composite seriously. Vani et al. [58] has used NaOH surface treatment and enhanced the natural frequency of the hybrid sisal and jute epoxy composite. Chemical treatment improved the bonding strength of the composite and natural frequency. 6. Hybridization of natural fiber with Synthetic fiber In general, hybridization of natural fiber along with synthetic fiber enhances the properties of the NFC, hybridization of synthetic fiber enriches the modulus and strength drastically. Considerable variation in elastic modulus of synthetic fiber compared to natural fiber. Ahmed and Vijayarangan [59] carried out an experimental investigation and found that the addition of jute fiber enhanced the mechanical properties compared to neat polyester resin. In continuation, the hybridization of fiber with glass fiber mat improved the load carry behavior of the composite. Harish et al. [60] enhanced the tensile and flexural strength of the epoxy composite by hybridization of coir fiber with glass fiber. They improved the mechanical properties compared to coirepoxy composite. Similarly, Ramesh et al. [61] found that hybridization of glass fiber with sisal and jute fiber-enriched the features of the composite. Thwe and Liao [62] compared the strength of bamboo—polypropylene composite enhanced by adding a small amount of glass fiber in the polypropylene matrix and found that 20 wt% glass fiber addition increased the tensile and flexural strength of the composites. Velmurugan and Manikandan [63] developed a sandwich composite by reinforcing palmyra fiber with glass fiber. Results revealed that when woven glass fabric act as a skin layer improved the properties of the sandwich composite. Idicula et al. [64] increased the free molecular movement of banana/epoxy composite by adding glass fiber in the epoxy matrix. Thus, it enhances the storage and loss modulus of the composite. It revealed that the hybridization of glass fiber in the NFC makes them rigid at higher temperature [65]. Similarly, Devi et al. [66] confirmed that the volume percentage of glass fiber in the NFC alters the dynamic properties. The addition of 0.2% glass fiber in the pineapple leaf fiber/polyester composite enhanced the dynamic properties of the NFC and reduced the free molecular movement under the thermal environment. Also, curing temperature affects the properties of the composite, which is confirmed by Goertzen et al. [67]. Khalili et al. [68] investigated the factors affecting the dynamic behavior of the composites. It is found that the parameter of the core material affects the dynamic properties of the sandwich NFC. Through NFC enhances the properties of the composite, stability is one of the critical factors in the engineering application.

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High buckling load helps to them to carry more loads under axial compression. Buckling strength of NFC depends on a number of layers, weaving pattern, and bonding strength [69]. 7. Hybridization of natural fiber with filler Recently, researchers focused more on particle reinforcement to develop the biocomposites. Chandramohan and Kumar [70] developed the biocomposite by reinforcing coconut shell, walnut shells, and rice husk as powder form and carried out the mechanical study. Results revealed that the hybridization of the particle in the polymer enriched the properties of the composite compared to particle reinforced alone. To replace the traditional materials used for orthopedic applications Chandramohan and Marimuthu [71] developed bio natural fiber reinforced epoxy composite. Prakash and Viswanthan [72] analyzed the mechanical and thermal behavior of silane surfacetreated kenaf fiber reinforced epoxy composite and enriched the properties of kenaf fiber composite by hybridization with sea-urchin spike fillers Similarly, clay particle and glass spheres are commonly used to improve the strength and modulus of the NFC. Tensile and flexural properties of coir fiber composite was enhanced by hybridization of clay and glass sphere in the matrix and found that the addition of 4% and 8% clay and glass sphere enhanced the mechanical properties [73]. The addition of particles in the matrix increased the load transfer capacity for composites. Lignocellulose filler is used to improve the mechanical and thermal properties of the NFC. It helps to improve the strength, stiffness [74]. Fundamental natural frequency of the chopped strand mat- vinyl ester composite by adding montmorillonite clay [75]. Rajini et al. [76] hybridized coconut sheath/nanoclay. They found that hybridization enhanced the natural frequency of the NFC. Redmud is used as filler material to increase the natural frequency of the bananapolyester composite. They observed that the addition of redmud enhanced dynamic properties [77]. It is due to the addition of filler enhanced the load carry behavior and modulus of the composite. Similarly, the natural frequency of the jute-polyester composite increased by adding nanoclay [78]. CNT and sepiolite nanoclay has been used to improve the flame retardancy of bio-based polylactic acid [79]. Flammability performance has been performed using a microcalorimeter. 8. Effect of Moisture The main drawback of the NFC is moisture absorbing behavior of the natural fiber weakens the bonding strength between fiber and matrix, which affects the load carry behavior of the NFC. Though the hydrophilic nature of natural fibers is reinforced in the hydrophobic matrixes such as polyester, epoxy, polypropylene, etc., strength and modulus of NFC composites reduced due to the experience of moisture in the environment and submersion of those NFCs in the aquatic environment over a considerable time [80, 81]. To improve the resistance against water absorption, coupling agents have been employed. Thus, it helps to enhance the strength of NFCs. Natural fiber distribution in the matrix also influences on moisture observation. When natural fibers are used as short form and random distribution, than natural fiber aligned parallel to

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loading increases the moisture intake. Non-alignment of natural fiber in the matrix increases the porosity. Thus, it increases moisture observation. Also, the porosity of the NFCs depending on the amount of natural fiber present in the matrix.

3 Conclusion Replacement of natural fiber composite for traditional material for structural applications brings in weight saving. Thus, it helps to save the environment and mineral sources. Type of fiber, and its orientation, weaving pattern, porosity, chemical treatment, type of filler affecting the strength and modulus of the NFCs. It has been debated seriously in this chapter. Experimental characterization such as mechanical analysis, dynamic mechanical analysis, free vibration analysis, stability analysis, and scanning electron microscopic analysis employed to studies the strength, stiffness of the natural fiber reinforced composites (NFC) has been reviewed. Investigation revealed that the addition of natural fiber enhances strength and elastic modulus and increases the energy dissipating properties of the NFCs. It is not found in conventional material such as steel, Aluminum, etc.

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Numerical Simulation Techniques for Damage Response Analysis of Composite Structures Shirsendu Sikdar, Wim Van Paepegem, Wiesław Ostachowiczc, and Mathias Kersemans

Abstract Structural health monitoring (SHM) of composite structures plays an important role in nondestructive evaluation of safety-critical engineering applications. Elastic wave propagation based SHM techniques have proven their potential in effective assessment of structural discontinuities and damages. Numerical simulations play a significant role in development of robust SHM strategies for such composite structures. These simulations are experimentally validated for selected baseline cases and then applied to solve a panoptic range of plausible study cases, such as—variable operating conditions, increasing structural complexities, damage size and damage shapes. Thus, the numerical simulations can significantly help in reducing rigorous laboratory experimentations, saving time and cost. This chapter is mainly focused on the guided wave propagation and acoustic emission-based damage response analysis in fiber (graphite/glass/natural) reinforced composite structures used in the automotive, marine, wind-energy and aerospace industries. Based on the problem-solving efficiency and popularity, the spectral element and finite element method based numerical simulation technics are explicitly selected to be discussed here. Keywords Composite structure · Damage · Guided wave propagation · Numerical simulation, acoustic emission · Acoustic emission · Structural health monitoring (SHM) · Piezoelectric transducer (PZT)

S. Sikdar (B) · W. Van Paepegem · M. Kersemans Mechanics of Materials and Structures (UGent-MMS), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering (MaTCh), Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 46, 9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium e-mail: [email protected] W. Ostachowiczc Institute of Fluid-Flow Machinery, Polish Academy of Sciences, 14, Fiszera Street, 80-231 Gdansk, Poland © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Structural Health Monitoring System for Synthetic, Hybrid and Natural Fiber Composites, Composites Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8840-2_7

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1 Introduction Lightweight fiber-reinforced composite structures (laminates and sandwiches) are of huge demand in automotive, aviation, marine and wind energy industries, due to their construction flexibilities, high in-plane strengths, high stiffness/weight ratios and damping capacities [1–5]. But, variable loading conditions (such as—abrasion, impact, fatigue) and hazardous ambient conditions (such as—moisture-content variation, temperature fluctuations) can eventually generates various types of damage (debond, delamination, fibre-cracking, localized inhomogeneity, breathing-cracks, amongst others) in these structures, and may grow further leading to a sudden failure of the structure while in service [6–11]. Therefore, development of nondestructive robust structural health monitoring (SHM) strategies are needed to identify the damage symptoms in advance. Some nondestructive evaluation techniques are proposed that uses the acoustic emission (AE), guided wave (GW) propagation, infrared-thermography, laser-vibrometry, X-ray computed tomography, ultrasonic goniometric-immersion methods for the inspection of composite structures [12–14]. The ultrasonic GW propagation and AE based SHM methods are popularly used for damage identification in composite structures [15–21]. Ultrasonic GW are elastic waves (e.g., Rayleigh wave, Lamb wave) that generate various wave modes while propagating in the structure. These SHM methods have the potential to detect minor structural defects in composite structures [6, 22–25]. The major advantages of these SHM methods are the capacity of GWs to penetrate hidden layers in the structures and the potential of large area inspection [26, 27]. AE is a sudden release of strain energy in the form of elastic waves that emitted due to the extension and initiation of damages in structures. These SHM techniques offer large-area inspection with limited instrumentation and give a clear idea about structural damage propagation and/or initiation events [21]. In these SHM techniques, the AE sensors register the wave motion owing to the damage in the materials and converts them to waveforms. Analysis of these waveforms can help to understand the intensity and the nature of damage. This technique has in-service monitoring potential without any external supplied excitations [28]. Numerical simulation of AE and GW propagation and their interaction with different types of damages in composite structures plays a vital role for the development of SHM strategies by giving the scope of exploring several possible case-studies without conducting physical experiments that significantly saves time and cost. The finite element simulations of GW propagation and AE in composites have established their capability to replicate the physical experiments for a wide range of study cases. In Patera [29], the spectral element simulation technique has introduced that flexibility and coalesces of finite element method with fast-convergences. Willberg [30] presented a study on the vantages of higher-order finite element method-based simulation techniques for the solution of elastodynamic problems. In these finite element simulations, a relatively finer discretization (min. 15 nodes per wavelength) is recommended. Whereas, the spectral element simulations can handle a relatively coarse discretization (min. 8 nodes per wavelength). The spectral element simulation

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also offers the capacity to efficiently simulate the GW propagation in composites [27, 31–33]. This chapter presents some experimentally validated numerical simulations of AE and GW propagation in damaged composite structures.

2 Numerical Simulation Using Finite Element Method Finite element simulations of damage induced AE and GW propagation and their interaction with damages in composite structures are presented by many researchers [3, 5, 7, 9]. These numerical simulations are usually carried out using popular finite element software, such as—Abaqus, ANSYS, COMSOL Multiphysics, LSDYNA, Nastran, amongst others. Some experimentally validated simulation cases using Abaqus are described here.

2.1 Numerical Simulation of AE in Composites Numerical simulation of damage-induced acoustic emission in a stiffened composite panel (SCP) can be carried out using the in Abaqus explicit analysis code. The SCP (500 mm × 500 mm × 2 mm) is made of carbon fibre composite laminate (CFCL) and it consists of 4-nos. of 500 mm long L-shaped (30 mm × 30 mm) stiffeners those bonded to the baseplate with epoxy adhesive, as presented in Fig. 1. The three-dimensional (3D) SCP was modelled using 8-noded linear brick C3D8R elements of size (1 × 1 × 0.25) mm for the CFCL and (1 × 1 × 0.01) mm for the adhesive. Fixed boundary conditions (zero displacements and rotations) are assigned to the edges of the SCP. The assumed material properties of the CFCL and epoxy adhesive are given in Table 1.

Fig. 1 Numerical model of the stiffened composite panel

E11 (GPa)

76.02

4.052

Material

CFCL

Adhesive

4.052

76.02

E22 (GPa) 4.052

9.85

E33 (GPa)

Table 1 Material properties of stiffened composite panel

1.447

3.77

G12 (GPa) 1.447

3.35

G23 (GPa) 1.447

3.35

G13 (GPa)

0.40

0.03

ν12

0.40

0.36

ν13

0.40

0.36

ν23

1100

1560

ρ (kg/m3 )

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Numerical Simulation Techniques for Damage Response … Fig. 2 Artificial AE-source for the simulation of acoustic emission in SCP

89

Load amplitude (N)

1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 0.00 -0.25 0

1

2

3

4

5

Time (µs)

Selection of a proper loading-source is a vital component for simulation of AE in composite structures [34–36]. The cosine bell-function can be used for the simulation of artificial AE source that resembles a crack-like damage initiation in the structure [35]. The AE-source located at a point is described as P(x1 , x2 , t) = p(t)δ(x1 ), δ(x2 ) p(t) =

 t (t−τ ) τ2

,

0