Strength Training: Practical Programming and Science of Barbell Training

Table of contents :
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1: TRAINING FREQUENCY AND WORK CAPACITY
THE NOVICE LIFTER
THE INTERMEDIATE LIFTER
THE ADVANCED LIFTER
STRENGTH AND EXERCISE CORRELATION.
SET AND REPETITIONS.
VOLUME OF TRAINING AND MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY.
TRAINING UNDER FATIGUE.
REPETITIONS RECOMMENDATION FOR NOVICES.
REST INTERVALS IN WORKOUT
TRAINING TO FAILURE.
LIMITATIONS TO FAILURE TRAINING.
CHAPTER 2: BUILD UP TO PROPER WORKOUT AND TRAINING.
WARM-UP
ECCENTRIC TRAINING
WHY IS ECCENTRIC TRAINING EFFECTIVE?
BENEFITS OF ECCENTRIC TRAINING
ISOMETRIC ACTION TRAINING
● Isometric action training as an important muscle activator
● Isometric training as a stimulus for strength gains
● Isometric action training as a stimulus for muscle growth
BENEFITS OF ISOMETRIC TRAINING
APPLICATIONS OF ISOMETRIC ACTION TRAINING
CHAPTER 3: APPLICATION OF VARIOUS TRAINING METHODSTO BASIC STRENGTH EXERCISES
Eccentric training methods
Concentric training methods
Repetitive effort method
Dynamic effort method
Isometric training methods
Maximal eccentrics
Contrast training
Overshoot training
CHAPTER 4: RESISTANCE TRAINING, MAXIMUM
ACCELERATION TRAINING, VARIABLE RESISTANCE
TRAINING
Problems with regular lifting exercises
CHAPTER 5: BASIC CONCEPTS OF BIOMECHANICS AND
TECHNIQUE IN POWERLIFTING
TECHNICAL STRUCTURE OF COMPETITIVE EXERCISES
PERIOD AND PHASE STRUCTURE OF BARBELL EXERCISES
TECHNIQUE FOR TYPICAL BARBELL EXERCISES
Squat Technique
Bench Press Technique
CHAPTER 6: PRINCIPLES AND CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICAL
EXERCISE
CHAPTER 7: THE ROLE OF STRENGTH IN LIFTING
ENDURANCELifting technique
NUTRIENT AND MICRO NUTRIENT FOR GAINS
Anabolism and Catabolism
Proteins
Protein Supplementation
Carbohydrates
Types of Carbohydrates
Fats
Essential Fatty Acids
References.

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Disclaimer: You must get your physician’s approval before beginning this exercise program. These recommendations are not medical guidelines but are for educational purposes only. You must consult your physician before starting this program or if you have any medical condition or injury that prohibits physical activity. The information in this report is meant to integrate, not replace, proper exercise training. All forms of exercise pose some inherent risks. The editors and publishers advise all readers to take full responsibility for their safety and know their limits. Before practicing the exercises in this book, be sure not to take risks beyond the level of your experience, aptitude, training and fitness. The exercises and dietary programs in this book are not intended as a substitute for any exercise routine or treatment or dietary regimen that may have been prescribed by your physician. Don’t lift heavy weights if you are alone, inexperienced, injured, or fatigued. Don’t perform any exercise unless you have been shown the proper technique by a certified personal trainer or a certified strength and conditioning specialist. Always ask for instruction and assistance when lifting. Don’t perform any exercise without proper instruction. Always do a warm-up prior to strength training and interval training. See your physician before starting any exercise or nutrition program. If you are taking any medications,

you must talk to your physician before starting any exercise program, including Bodyweight Sports Training. If you experience any lightheadedness, dizziness, or shortness of breath while exercising, stop the movement and consult a physician. You must have a complete physical examination if you have a sedentary lifestyle, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, diabetes, overweight, or if you are over 30 years old. Please discuss all nutritional changes with your physician or a registered dietician. If your physician recommends you not to this guide, please follow your doctor’s orders.

Strength Training:

Practical Programming and Science of Barbell Training By Health Class

INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1: TRAINING FREQUENCY AND WORK CAPACITY THE NOVICE LIFTER THE INTERMEDIATE LIFTER THE ADVANCED LIFTER STRENGTH AND EXERCISE CORRELATION. SET AND REPETITIONS. VOLUME OF TRAINING AND MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY. TRAINING UNDER FATIGUE. REPETITIONS RECOMMENDATION FOR NOVICES. REST INTERVALS IN WORKOUT TRAINING TO FAILURE. LIMITATIONS TO FAILURE TRAINING. CHAPTER 2: BUILD UP TO PROPER WORKOUT AND TRAINING. WARM-UP ECCENTRIC TRAINING WHY IS ECCENTRIC TRAINING EFFECTIVE? BENEFITS OF ECCENTRIC TRAINING ISOMETRIC ACTION TRAINING ● Isometric action training as an important muscle activator ● Isometric training as a stimulus for strength gains ● Isometric action training as a stimulus for muscle growth BENEFITS OF ISOMETRIC TRAINING APPLICATIONS OF ISOMETRIC ACTION TRAINING

CHAPTER 3: APPLICATION OF VARIOUS TRAINING METHODS

TO BASIC STRENGTH EXERCISES Eccentric training methods Concentric training methods Repetitive effort method Dynamic effort method Isometric training methods Maximal eccentrics Contrast training Overshoot training CHAPTER 4: RESISTANCE TRAINING, MAXIMUM ACCELERATION TRAINING, VARIABLE RESISTANCE TRAINING Problems with regular lifting exercises

CHAPTER 5: BASIC CONCEPTS OF BIOMECHANICS AND TECHNIQUE IN POWERLIFTING TECHNICAL STRUCTURE OF COMPETITIVE EXERCISES PERIOD AND PHASE STRUCTURE OF BARBELL EXERCISES TECHNIQUE FOR TYPICAL BARBELL EXERCISES Squat Technique Bench Press Technique CHAPTER 6: PRINCIPLES AND CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE CHAPTER 7: THE ROLE OF STRENGTH IN LIFTING ENDURANCE

Lifting technique NUTRIENT AND MICRO NUTRIENT FOR GAINS Anabolism and Catabolism Proteins Protein Supplementation Carbohydrates Types of Carbohydrates Fats Essential Fatty Acids References.

TRAINING FREQUENCY AND WORK CAPACITY Managing training intensity, volume and frequency are the key for an optimal loading and training adaptation, avoiding setback and overtraining. Training frequency is a hard term to define like intensity and volume. Some authors consider training frequency as the number of training session in a micro cycle, some of them define it as the number of training sessions per muscle group per micro cycle, or as the number of training sessions per training goal. Basically, you need to take into consideration both definitions, since you need to take into account muscle loading, central nervous system loading, endocrine system loading and the joints loading. Training frequency depends on a lot of factors like training goal, training phase, level of the athlete and work capacity. Numerous training systems are different variations of intensity, volume and frequency combos. Work capacity is also hard to define, it usually is context-dependent and has also a huge number of subtypes. Basically, work capacity is the ability to sustain training load and recover from it efficiently. You cannot develop work capacity by doing bunch of sled work and intervals. This will develop a form of aerobic power that could be used to speed up recovery between sets, but this also depends on sets type (what repetition continuum zone). Work capacity is usually something that must be looked at larger time-frame (like micro cycle), and it is something that develops over the years. Basically, you can manage to survive a given training session, but you may not actually recover from it in matter of days even weeks due to a poor work capacity. Factors that affect training frequency also affect work capacity, like muscle loading and ability to recover from it, central nervous system loading and toleration for such a work, endocrine system loading and ability to recover from it and joint loading and ability to sustain it. The optimal training frequency depends thus on the training goals, intensity, training volume and fatigue type they develop (muscular, CNS, endocrine, joint), level of the athlete and work capacity. THE NOVICE LIFTER No matter what sport an athlete comes from, if he starts doing serious (not counting wellness experience here) strength training for the first time, he is novice. Be it experienced soccer player, Olympic weightlifting beginner, powerlifting beginner or beginner bodybuilder.

The main characteristics of novice lifter is that he needs very simple planning and his strength grows up rapidly. Mark Rippetotoe provides excellent explanation of all phases of the lifter in Practical Programming book, and his work will be used here as a template. Here is a short overview of novice characteristics: ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Novices progress from training session to training session (Linear progression in weight - PBs) Novices need small number of lifts Novice will not develop overtraining that easily and on the other hand, if they do, the signs will be hard visible (which is ’bad’). The more advanced is the athlete, the longer is the off-period and the drastically the reduction in weight and volume is needed. If novice start to ’stuck’, simple an off day (with reduced weight) is enough to recover them. If the unload is in use, the weight should be reduced for 10% and the cycle should begin once again. If the novice shows constant need of an off day, then he should progress toward intermediate level. The end of novice phase is marked by performance plateau occurring sometime between the third and ninth month of training, with variations due to individual differences.

The goal of novice phase is to learn to lift (develop technique) and develop strength. Rippetoe suggests using 5 repetitions per set, because this allows both increase in strength and mass gain (depending on the nutrition and other training) without the disruption of the technique due to much repetitions per set. This also allows easier progressions in weight (e.g. you can use greater weight jump if you use 5 repetitions per set, then 10 repetitions per set). Once again, the design of strength training program for novice lifter depends on the goals of that program, other training components (for non-strength athletes), and training phase. Bodybuilders may start to argue that there is a need to do 8-12 repetitions per set. However, I guess with proper nutrition, both 5 repetitions athletes and 812 repetitions ones will have similar if not the same results over time (if the

resulting weight on the bar is the same). Anyway, the first phase of strength increase is achieved via inter- and intra-muscular coordination and there is very little muscle mass increase, so there is no real need for bodybuilding methods. Stick to 5 repetitions per set until you develop a minimum amount of strength (intermediate phase) and then start doing bodybuilding methods. Increased strength will later allow you to lift greater weights for repetitions and thus stimulate growth more easily. Before we move on, let’s define the term Personal Best (PB) or Personal Record (PR) in strength training. Theoretically, PB is an increase in strength. Practically, this means achieving something you haven’t achieved before and demonstrating it, by lifting more weight, lifting the same weight for more repetitions or lifting it for more sets. For example, if your 1RM moves from 100kg to 102,5kg its PB. If your 5RM moves from 85kg to 87.2kg its PB. If you do multiple sets, for example 5x5 and manage to do 80kg, but you suddenly do 5x6 or 5x5 with 82,5kg, it’s PBs. Thus PB is having more weight on the bar than ’before’ for a given repetitions and sets. What about you make PB and don’t train for a year and then restart training? Are all lifts below your old PB considered as non-PB lifts until you surpass your old PB? In reality – yes they are, but when it comes to planning they are all new PBs, because your strength level is lower now. Therefore, PB is an all-time record, but it is also based on your current strength level and previous strength cycles. Another interesting point is RPE. What if you managed to do 3x5 with 100kg at 7 RPE that couple of weeks ago seemed like 10? Yes, your strength has improved, but this is NOT PB! This can happen in unloading micro cycles and in adjustment micro cycles and its great (this shows you are stronger), but PB means surpassing previous cycle weight/repetitions/sets or showing that new level of strength not ’perceiving it’. There could be couple of phases of novices IMO (depending on the sport). The following examples are just hypothetical for average lifter, but can be used for power lifter, Olympic lifter and bodybuilder. Let’s review them.

Phase 1. Athletes start to learn technique of the basic compound lifts for 5 repetitions for 3 sets. RPE is around 6-7, although he doesn’t know that yet.

In every training session you increase weight on the bar and achieve PB, until load becomes 9-10 RPE. Take small step forward to avoid stalling too soon. If the athlete is unable to finish 3 sets with 5 repetitions on a given weight, repeat the weights for 3 times. Focus hard on technique; go as fast as you can on a way up, take more rest between sets, up to 5 min. If this doesn’t help then deload – take 10-15% for that exercise and start over by adding progressively the weight.

Phase 2. During this phase you should include new a exercise, but do it slowly over time. This will provide easier days and provide new training stimulus to increase strength. After this time the athlete is very proficient with basic moves, learns RPE system, knows when and how to deload and how this affect his performance. I would start learning deadlift by now (if RDL is more than 60kg for example, and if they show good form on bottom of the deadlift) and replace one squat workout for it. You can also include front squat variations and start learning clean/snatch using top-down progression (learn catch, learn shrug & jump from power position, learn jump and catch), and as deadlift moves up, start doing clean/snatch from the floor. Also, you can start moving repetitions to higher or lower zone for a given goals (relative strength/ muscular hypertrophy). Training volume (number of sets) can increase over time slightly. Phase 3. When the introduction of new exercises doesn’t seem to prevent staleness, then playing with loading parameters will (sometimes) do it. This involves playing with volume and intensity within loading micro cycles. Variations in repetitions and sets will provide new training stimuli and prevent boredom. All exercises during a training session have equal importance and deserve the same training emphasis.

THE INTERMEDIATE LIFTER The main characteristics of the intermediate lifter are the following: ✔

Intermediates cannot put an equal emphasis on all exercises in terms of volume, intensity and effort during a single training session, and/or during all training sessions within micro cycle.

✔

Intermediates need more directed loading to develop given motor ability

✔

Intermediates need greater stress (load - more sets and volume and greater intensity) to cause improvements, but they need more rest (thus the need for week variety) and improvements are smaller and slower to come

✔

Work capacity (the ability of the body to recover) improves over time, but in absolute terms. For example, when a novice squats 100kg for 3 sets of 5 he is challenged in terms of recovery ability, but once he is able to squat 150kg for 5 sets of 5 months after, doing 100kg for 3 sets of 5 is not challenging in terms of recovery ability, nor it provides great training effect. However, will the athlete recover the same time from 150kg for 5 sets of 5, as he recovered months before with 100kg for 3 sets of 5? Maybe yes, maybe no. This is why absolute work capacity (100kg) certainly goes up, and I guess relative work capacity (as percentage of 1RM) goes down, stays the same, or raises slowly and requests greater recovery time

✔

Intermediates can hit PBs from week to week in general

✔

Intermediates need regular easier days within micro cycle, and this comes together with number one characteristic

✔

Intermediates need regular and more longer unload period compared to novices

Compared to novices where every training effects ’spills-over’ to numerous motor abilities, intermediates need more directed training load to develop a given motor ability/quality.

Basically, intermediates are ready for a true complex-parallel (concurrent) approach, if the goal of strength training is the development of numerous motor abilities/tasks simultaneously. Again, we must differ between strength training as a training system’s component for non-strength sports, and strength training for strength sports. For non-strength sports you can use a complex-parallel approach for strength training (development of explosive strength, strength and muscle mass), or you can arrange strength training in a different faction to fill your athletic needs. Anyway, the similarities in the planning of the strength training are still large, and that is why non-strength athletes can learn great informations from intermediate strength planning. Basically, since intermediates cannot put equal emphasis (in terms of volume, intensity and effort) on all exercises during single training sessions, priorities must be set. They need exercise emphasis. In addition, since they cannot hit PBs during every training session for a given movement, you simply cannot expect doing 3 sets of squats per week and hitting PBs every time. THE ADVANCED LIFTER Basic characteristics of the advanced athlete are the following: ✔

They cannot develop everything at once. They need to prioritize the training goals or they will suffer from overtraining and limited progress

✔

The cumulative/delayed training effects of series of workouts becomes more and more important. PBs are achieved every couple of weeks or months.

✔

Training must be organized into longer periods of time, and those periods progress from higher volume and lower intensity toward lower volume and higher intensity

✔

Sometimes the characteristic number three doesn’t always apply, especially if the aim of training block is to produce acute overreaching and later usage of delayed training effects

Compared to intermediate athletes, advanced athletes need greater training load to further improve a given motor ability/characteristic, but cannot

improve more than couple of them can do at a given moment, because total training load would be too much for their work capacity. This is why complex-parallel approach is very difficult to successfully use, except eventually at the first phase of advanced level.

In the mentioned concurrent examples for intermediate level, athletes try to improve everything at once: Olympic lifts, squat, deadlifts, benches, chins, presses and rows, while also performing secondary and auxiliary movements for muscle mass. This will work for a decent amount of time (if the week structure is optimally organized based on athletes adaptability and work capacity, along with other factors), but after some time you will soon find out that you simply cannot do everything at once. Trying to increase clean performance will leave you fatigued for squats. Squats will leave you fatigued for presses, etc., etc. This is the time when you need to prioritize your training; you need to focus on couple of things while maintaining others (unless you utilize block approach where you are using training residuals instead of maintenance loads). The usage of block approach or emphasis approach is now a necessity. In my opinion there are three things that may direct ’prioritization’ in strength training: ✔

Movement pattern. One may decide to pursuit Olympic lifts (or Clean, or Snatch, or Jerk), one may decide to concentrate on improving his bench press, or one may decide to concentrate on his deltoids development. In bodybuilding world this is called ’muscle specialization’.

✔

Motor ability/quality. One may decide to pursuit relative strength and maintain his hypertrophy, or one may maintain fat levels and strength while aiming for maximal muscular hypertrophy, etc.

✔

A combination. One may decide to pursuit his speed in his bench press and work on his sticking point, while also maintaining strength and hypertrophy in his pecs and the rest of his body.

STRENGTH AND EXERCISE CORRELATION. Strength is developed by exercises that use lots of joints and lots of muscles moving lots of weight over a long range of motion. Fundamental strength exercises like the squat, the press, the deadlift, and the bench press, along with power exercises like the clean and the snatch, always form the basis of any strength and conditioning that is actually useful for an athlete, irrespective of the level of training advancement. In the beginning, you'll want to limit the amount of exercises you perform to just the basic barbell lifts, and bodyweight and dumbbell "assistance work". By focusing all your efforts into mastering these select few lifts instead of performing 137 different exercises in the span of four weeks, you'll not only be able to clearly track the efficacy of what you're doing but also master proper form much faster. Training the same lifts with a higher frequency reinforces neuromuscular patterns, thus enhancing both intra- and inter-muscular coordination. Because strength gains highly depend on neuromuscular efficiency, strength is best maximized by performing the same basic movements on a regular basis. As a result, this will allow you to make the fastest strength gains you'll ever make in your entire life. A person that goes from squatting 60 kg for 10 repetitions will be a bigger and stronger version of himself when he can squat 120 kg x10. In addition, the only way to do that as quickly as possible is to SQUAT OFTEN. Any amount of leg presses, leg extensions or leg curls will provide the same type of training stimulus (remember that training adaptations are specific to the type of the exercise you perform). For all intents and purposes, there are three essential scientific aspects you need to understand about training for strength. Everything else is secondary and beyond the scope of this book. If you're interested in learning about scientific reasons and applications behind strength training that run much deeper than what we cover here, check out the resources section at the end of this book. ●

Strength is proportional to the cross-sectional area of a muscle, so that larger muscles have the potential to develop greater strength

than smaller muscles. ● Muscular strength is determined not only by the quantity of involved muscle mass but also by the extention to which individual fibers in a muscle are activated (by intramuscular coordination). ● Training adaptations are highly specific. This principle dictates that the results you get from training are specific to the type of exercise you perform and only those muscles exposed to a training stimulus will increase in strength. The specific movement pattern used in training is where most strength improvement will occur, even when different exercises involve identical muscle groups. Consequently, if you want to improve your 1RM on barbell squats, your time would be better spent on doing a lot of barbell squats to proper depth rather than nonspecific exercises such as leg extensions, leg presses or half-squats.

Below there is a short list of main and assistance exercises for illustration purposes. Main Exercises ● ● ● ●

Squat Deadlift Bench Press Overhead Press (and their variations)

Assistance Exercises ● ● ● ● ● ●

Chin-Up Dip Push-Up DB Split Squat Hip Thrust DB Bench Press

● Ab Wheel etc. Assistance work is designed to: ● Prevent strength imbalances ● Build muscle ● Strengthen weak areas and ● Assist the basic lifts (squat, bench press, overhead press, and deadlift; or whatever lifts you deem important in your training)

What about isolation exercises? While many people these days in the strength & conditioning realm of fitness shun training body parts as "non-functional", the truth remains that there is also a place for isolation movements in a properly designed strength training program. Isolation exercises "fill in the gaps", so to say. The fact of the matter remains that you need direct isolation work for smaller muscle groups if you want to maximize your muscular potential. Yes, there are people who can get insanely big and strong with merely the basic lifts but exceptions don't make the rule. Typically, what you do first in a workout is the exercise that has the highest rank in importance. While for many people bench pressing and curls fit that description and are performed before any other exercises, there's a better way to organize resistance exercises for optimal results. The most demanding neural work should be done first, meaning that high velocity work and/or low rep work should be done first in the workout. Because power exercises - such as the snatch, hang clean, power clean, and push jerk - require the highest level of skill and concentration of all the exercises and are most affected by fatigue, they should be performed first in a training session, followed by other non-power main exercises, and then assistance exercises. Some people also refer to this arrangement as "multijoint exercises and then single-joint exercises", or "large muscle areas and then small muscle areas". In other words, power cleans would be done before squats, since acceleration

is critical in the performance of the first ones, and the nervous system has to be more fresh to perform a heavy set of power cleans than a heavy set of squats. Another thing to keep in mind is that executing exercises involving large muscle groups before smaller muscle groups in a training session will maximize the total amount of weight lifted and repetitions completed during that session. Performing an upper body assistance exercise - such as triceps extensions - prior to a barbell bench press will negatively affect your performance on the main lift since the triceps are already in a fatigued state from the triceps extension exercise. Interestingly, switching the exercises around and performing the bench press exercise prior to the isolation exercise for the triceps will not have any adverse effects on your ability to perform the latter due to the fact that smaller muscles will be well challenged and overloaded during a heavy resistance training session whether it will be done first or last. When it comes to specific skill work, such as pistol squat or handstand progressions, that should be scheduled at the beginning of a workout while you're still fresh. You can implement those movements either as a part of your warm-up, as the first or second exercise right before or after a power exercise (depending on which training aspect you consider most important), or in a completely separate training session on off days.

SET AND REPETITIONS. Common sense would dictate us that to get better at something you'd need to practice it more. Whether it's playing the guitar, learning a new language or collecting rare stamps, the more time and effort you invest into mastering a task, the greater your ability to perform that specific task will become over

time. Nobody ever got better at something by doing less of it. Remember that. As we've already discussed, training volume, intensity and frequency are all interdependent factors. Generally speaking, the lower your training intensity is, the more volume you need in order to reach rewards and vice versa. Likewise, when frequency is high (i.e. daily training or multiple training sessions per day), intensity and volume can't remain high for long periods of time, as this will compromise the body's ability to recover, leading to plateaued or even diminished strength levels and the possibility of overtraining. Following the previously established guidelines of training each muscle group twice or three times a week (beginners and intermediates, respectively), then the question that arises is the following: "How many sets should I perform for a combination of strength and size?" Single and multiple sets Regarding training for strength and size, some people audaciously claim that one single set (often taken to the point of failure) is all that is needed for producing maximum strength and muscle gains. The vast body of evidence in the scientific literature does not support this notion. In fact, in the light of current research on the whole single versus multiple set discussion, multiple-set protocols are clearly in the lead. Kramer and colleagues noticed that multiple sets not performed to failure yield superior gains in 1RM squat strength compared to one set to failure in moderately trained subjects. Rhea and others demonstrated that when intensity is kept equal, multiple sets produce greater strength gains in both the upper and lower body than one set in a periodized training program. Their researches indicate that single-set programs result in similar strength gains as multiple-set programs for an initial short training period in untrained individuals. However, as progression occurs and higher gains are desired, multiple-set programs are more effective for trained individuals. So, for programs with an extended duration, multiple sets are superior than single sets for gaining strength.

Moreover, Krieger and colleagues found that 2 to 3 sets per exercise are associated with 46% greater strength gains than 1 set in both trained and untrained subjects. For muscle hypertrophy, 2-3 sets per exercise are more effective than 1 set (40% greater size gains with multiple compared to single set) in both trained and untrained subjects. Now here's where things get really interesting and I apologize in advance if your eyes are glazing over already. Feel free to come back to this part at a later time (or never). According to the research papers by Krieger quoted above, there seems to be no significant difference between 2-3 sets per exercise and 4-6 sets per exercise in terms of strength gains, although there may be a corresponding increase in hypertrophy in relation to a higher number of sets performed. However, as the author also noticed, the fact that whether 2-3 sets and 4-6 sets per exercise actually produce different rates of hypertrophy was still inconclusive at the time the research papers were published. A more recent study found indeed a difference. Researchers from Down Under compared the effect of 1, 4 and 8 sets of squats performed at 80% of 1RM twice a week on strength and hypertrophy on trained individuals. What they found is that the high-volume protocol (8 sets) was superior than 1 and 4 sets in terms of both squatting strength and lean mass increases. After all of this massive, it's evident that multiple sets are more effective than single sets as clearly stated by research. Number of Repetitions. Undoubtedly you have heard the old maxim that low repetitions only build strength, high repetitions are great for losing fat and enhancing muscle tone (which is BS), and that the growth zone is 8-12 repetitions (that's why you always see 3x10 as the most usual set and rep combination in training programs in the magazines). An estimated ~ 25% of the hypertrophic response in human skeletal muscle following resistance training is determined by the loading. As such, loading is one of the most (if not the most) important factors when designing strength training programs, both if the prime goal is increased

muscle mass or if it's gaining strength with as little increase in muscle mass as possible, the latter being a viable training objective for many athletes competing in sports involving weight classes, such as boxers, wrestlers or weightlifters.

As far as the number of repetitions per set for optimal hypertrophy is concerned, biggest gains will typically occur when performing 6-12 repetitions on a given exercise (yellow area in the picture above). Scientific evidence appears to support this notion. While still far from 100% conclusive, a current research indicates that training with loads at 70-85% of 1RM (approximately 6-12 repetitions per set) is best for maximizing muscle growth. Furthermore, when observing the repetition continuum, it becomes evident that performing lower repetitions (1-5) emphasizes more strength than hypertrophy gains. And before you wonder how Olympic weightlifters only perform low repetitions and still get jacked, you should realize that their training frequency and volume far exceeds those of the typical gym rat... not

to mention the pharmaceutical assistance that many pro level athletes receive nowadays. If you're a person with no regular working hours, don't experience much stress in life, have the time and energy to devote hours every day to lifting weights, and spend several months or years working out and getting accustomed to a high-volume and high-frequency training stimulus, that type of training can be very effective for adding weight to the bar and size to your frame. However, I understand that lots of people have lives outside of the gym and have no inclination to train like a full-time weightlifter. On the other hand, higher repetitions (12+) focus more on muscular endurance, somewhat on hypertrophy and less on strength, although there's a time and place for them as well (which I will address in a minute). All in all, 5-12 repetitions per set seems to hit the sweet spot for both strength and size gain. And I would even go a step further, claiming that 5-8 repetitions is where the magic happens for the drug- free, genetically average person (at least at the beginning). More or less repetitions? A beginner needs a large amount of repetitions to learn the correct technique and timing with the big barbell lifts. The rule of 10 000 states that in order to achieve a high level of proficiency, you need to get 10 000 repetitions with a given lift under your belt. Good repetitions, that is. Bad ones don't count. However, the real caveat lies in the fact that those 10 000 repetitions need to be in the correct repetition range (for the most part). There's a difference between doing sets of 5 and sets of 15. While performing sets of 15 repetitions will undoubtedly allow you to reach 10 000 repetitions faster than sets of 5, I don't recommend going above 10-12 repetitions when you're first starting out. With lower body lifts such as squats and deadlifts, I never suggest my clients going above 8 repetitions in the beginning. It's a good thing you brought it up because it's yet another myth which we better dispose of right now. Look, what many of these so-called experts have failed to comprehend is that doing a set of 5 repetitions (or any low rep set) does NOT mean it's by default a slow, grinding maximum effort set that

snaps your spine in half. According to Siff, loads as small as 40% of 1RM can significantly enhance the strength of a beginner (but have no strengthening effect on an elite athlete). Furthermore, according to Rhea et al., 60% of 1RM is the optimum amount to be used to spur strength gains in a novice (those with less than 1 year of consistent training).57 Even though I don't completely agree with that notion (in my opinion, slightly higher intensities work better for most people I design and have designed programs for past the raw newbie stage), these findings demonstrate that a beginner doesn't need to use extremely heavy weights to elicit a training response and gain strength. While the idea of higher repetitions for beginners appears good in theory, what really happens when a novice performs, so to say, 12 or more repetitions (even with light weights) on a compound barbell exercise like the squat, is that their smaller and weaker stabilizer muscles (abs, lower back) give out before the stronger muscles of the legs (quads, gluts, hamstrings). His form starts crumbling due to big relative strength imbalances between muscle groups so that he’ll try to complete the lifts by overcompensating with the aid of stronger muscle groups when the weaker muscles are too tired to maintain solid technique any longer. This is why you often see a newbie turn a set of proper back squats into good mornings when fatigue sets in towards the end of a higher rep set. Alternatively, in the case of deadlifts, the lower back starts rounding a bit more on every subsequent repetition. Or they start bouncing the bar off the chest on the bench press. Everything this behaviour does is teach the trainee bad habits and increase the risk of injury. According to Berger, practicing while fatigued not only reduces the quality of performance but also negatively affects the learning of relatively complex total body movements. So not only we compromise the form in the short term but also ingrain false movement patterns that we'll need to fix in the future. VOLUME OF TRAINING AND MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY. Volume is a highly individual thing. Some people grow on high volume, whereas others can see great gains with only one or two work sets. How someone responds to a high-volume training plan depends on multiple factors such as age, training age, injury history, ability to recover, external life stressors, etc. Another thing we need to take into account is that you

can't increase volume forever. If 8 sets of squats is better than 4 sets, then surely 16 would be even better. In addition, when 16 sets cease to produce further gains (as all training protocols at some point will do) why not going up to 32 sets? Or 100? Once again, we can merely establish guidelines and go from there... Peterson and colleagues summarized their findings in the following manner: ●

For untrained individuals, maximal strength gains are elicited at an average training intensity of 60% of 1RM, 3 days per week, and with an average training volume of 4 sets per muscle group.

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Recreationally trained non-athletes exhibit maximal strength gains with an average training intensity of 80% of 1RM, 2 days per week, and an average volume of 4 sets per muscle group.

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For advanced athletic populations, maximal strength gains are seen at an average training intensity of 85% of 1RM, 2 days per week, and with an average training volume of 8 sets per muscle group (16 total sets per week per muscle group).

A study done by Wernbom et al. established similar specifications, suggesting that hypertrophy in novice to intermediate lifters can be maximized with up to 3-6 sets per muscle group, performed 2-3 times per week (6-18 total sets per week per muscle group). The researchers also noted that advanced lifters probably need even higher volumes to elicit further gains in size.

TRAINING UNDER FATIGUE. Eventually, when good form has become second nature, we can and should utilize higher-repetition sets in our training, for example 20RM squats. However, in the beginning we want to lay a foundation for proper learning and solid execution of the basic exercises. In addition, we do that by keeping the loads fairly low and repetitions low to moderate. Starting light allows us to master technique quickly while being able to continuously add weight to the bar without fear of injury or hitting a wall in three weeks. It's not uncommon for clients - especially if they're female or otherwise on the weaker side - to begin with just the barbell weighing 20 kilograms, perfecting their technique with low to moderate repetitions while simultaneously adding 2,5-5 kg per session to the bar, and continuously getting stronger. Eventually, in the next three to six months down the line, they will overtake in strength levels many gym rats who still perform strictly high repetitions. As we have already established, progressive overloading is the name of the game. You will be hard-pressed to find a person who looks strong but trains with puny weights (barring an injury). You need to surpass the numbers written in your training journal if you ever expect to get anywhere with your training. It's much easier to beat your previous records from week to week with low to moderate repetitions (5-8) than it is with 10, 15 or 20 repetitions per set. As an anecdote (yes, this is purely anecdotal, believe me), it's also how I added over 100 kg to my deadlift within the first 12 months of practicing the lift. I simply pulled in the 5-8 repetitions range with different stances (conventional, sumo) and at a different height (off the floor, off pins/blocks), and tried to beat my training journal every time I stepped inside the gym.

REPETITIONS RECOMMENDATION FOR NOVICES. First of all, you need to master a perfect technique so that you don't crumble under the tremendous fatigue you'll be experiencing with high repetitions. Second, with a 1RM of 60 kg on the squat, your wheels won't be growing too much with 20 repetition squats performed with just the bar in comparison to have added 100 kg to your squat 1RM a year or two down the line. So save

the high repetitions for the time in your training career when you actually do get something out of them. When you're first starting out, drop the ego, start light and keep the volume and intensity moderate. Beginners don't need to perform annoying training sessions with high volume and intensity to testify strength increases. Focus on learning proper lifting form and try to add weight to the bar as often as possible. Past the novice stage (~ 1-2 years of progressive strength training), the following guidelines apply: ●

Lower volumes (1–3 sets) and intensities (50–70% 1RM) cause minimal strength improvements among experienced athletes. ● For athletes with more than one year of strength training experience, the intensity of 80% of 1RM is close to optimal. ● Generally, if gaining strength is your main objective in the gym, most of your work sets should be done in the 70-85% of 1RM range, which amounts to approximately 6-12 repetitions per set.

Combine that with lifting loads above 85% of 1RM (1-5 repetitions per set) from time to time, and you've got your bases covered. Occasionally performing low repetitions is great for producing additional strength gains primarily via neural adaptations, and should not be completely neglected as a training tool. ●

If you're more after hypertrophy, the traditional "bodybuilding" approach of higher volume, moderate intensity at 60-80% with multiple sets and multiple exercises per body part is very effective.

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Regarding total repetitions per muscle group per workout, greater gains in muscle mass are noted initially with increasing volume (or duration) of work, but with diminishing returns as the volume increases further. Overall, moderate volumes (~ 30–60 repetitions per muscle group per session) appear to yield the largest responses.

REST INTERVALS IN WORKOUT The amount of rest between sets is strongly related to the intensity (% of 1RM) of the exercise. The higher the intensity is and the heavier the loads lifted are, the longer the rest periods between sets needs to be to allow for a sufficient recovery. Furthermore, the more muscle groups in a given exercise is simultaneously targeting, the longer will be the rest interval required. Your rest periods depend entirely on your training related goals. Hence, a heavy squat for a triple is much more demanding than a 12-rep set of dumbbell curls, and requires a longer rest interval to recover from it. When training for maximum strength, longer rest periods (≥ 3 minutes) are generally more effective than shorter ones (30-120 seconds), since it takes the body about three minutes to fully regain your strength on a given exercise. Then again, anyone who has ever performed a brutal 20RM set of breathing squats will tell you that after three minutes you're slowly beginning to scrape yourself off the floor and maybe, just maybe you are capable of standing up without your legs turning into cooked noodles. According to the previous point about strength being regained after approximately three minutes, longer rest periods also allow a lifter to perform a higher volume of training with a given load than do 1- or 2-minute rest intervals, which appears to be important in stimulating greater strength and hypertrophy adaptations. The practical aspects of longer rest intervals (> 5 minutes) must also be considered, since you don't want to drag your workouts for too long. Besides, there is definitely a point of diminishing returns when it comes to extending rest periods, where a longer rest interval doesn't yield additional volume or strength gain. Although that specific point has to be exactly determined yet, it is enough to say that you will rarely - if ever - need to rest longer than 5 minutes between sets. Regarding hypertrophy, metabolic stress and achieving a huge pump seem to be pretty important. In contrast to exercises that involve larger muscle groups, which are generally suited for hoisting big weights and require relatively long rest periods, isolation movements are usually intended for moving lighter weights for higher repetitions, keeping rest periods relatively short, and getting the biggest pump possible in the intended muscle(s). This seems to be in line with scientific research as well, which indicates that moderate rest periods of 30-120 seconds produce the best results regarding

hypertrophy. When constructing a productive strength training program, it makes sense to rest longer on basic multi-joint exercises that hit the biggest muscle groups and are physiologically the most demanding to perform and recover from. For submaximal lifts (less than 90% of 1RM), 3–5 minutes rest should be prescribed between sets to allow a consistency in repetitions without large reductions in training intensity, whereas 0.5 to 2 minutes are optimal for accessory work from a muscle-building standpoint.

TRAINING TO FAILURE. Izquierdo and colleagues demonstrated that not training to failure was more beneficial for power production, whereas both training and not training to failure resulted in similar improvements in maximal strength. However, training leading to repetition failure seemed more beneficial for enhancing upper body local muscular endurance. This notion supports anecdotal bodybuilder evidence that taking a set to failure is advantageous for maximal hypertrophy, since more repetitions performed at a given % of 1RM in a hypertrophy repetition range lead to better muscle gains. As stated by a review of current research by Peterson and co-workers, training to failure does not elicit greater strength gains than not training to failure. This is true even when comparing protocols that utilize multiple sets taken to failure versus multiple sets not to failure. According to another study led on advanced athletes, it appears that training to failure on a constant basis (i.e. frequently taking all or a majority of working sets to failure) is not as

favourable for building strength and power as cutting the set before failure is reached. In essence, if your main goal is strength and power, training to failure is not necessary or even recommended on heavy compound movements. Especially for power production it's even damaging, since practicing an explosive lift such as a power clean or dumbbell snatch in a fatigued state will lead to breakdowns in technique and decreased power production. If you want to focus your training efforts more on muscle growth, training to failure can be an effective training technique to spur more hypertrophy. Because of muscular hypertrophy is a major contributor to long-term increases in maximal strength, advanced lifters should consider training to failure occasionally. For this purpose, it is suggested that reaching failure might be prescribed only on the last set of a given exercise or series of exercises that address similar muscle groups or movement patterns. LIMITATIONS TO FAILURE TRAINING. One thing we need to stress over and over again regarding training to failure is that it places a heavier weight on the nervous system and is harder to recover from. Constantly grinding out repetitions at near-maximal intensities really takes a toll on the body by overtaxing your neuromuscular system and overstressing your joints. Therefore, when utilizing heavy, multi-joint barbell lifts that target large muscle groups (squats, bench presses, and so on), and training for maximal strength, failure training should be avoided for the most part, since it's very exhausting for the nervous and hormonal system, so that recovery from it takes longer and overreaching/overtraining is more likely to occur. Furthermore, training to failure should not be practiced repeatedly over long periods due to the potential for decreases in growth-promoting hormones and increases in overuse injuries. The over-prescription of failure sets may result in decreased resting levels of testosterone and increased resting levels of cortisol, which are counterproductive to hypertrophy. Another thing we need to keep in mind is the effect of failure training on your athletic capabilities if you actively participate in a sport (i.e. play basketball, flag football or soccer few times every week). When you regularly tax the muscles and nervous system via training to failure, your performance on the field may lack in quality due to your body's limited capacity to recover from strenuous exercise.

Lifting weights 3-4 times a week while training to failure and playing your sport other 3 or more times per week cause a tremendous amount of stress on the entire nervous system. As a result, this could potentially lead to a plateau or even decrease in strength levels, and rarely feeling "fresh" in the gym or on the field. Finally, training to failure is not recommended when training skill-based exercises or exercises that could potentially put you in a dangerous position, such as handstand push-ups.

Figure 5. Inclusion to muscular failure at the various stages of training status according to the ACSM.

What about forced repetitions? Drinkwater and colleagues discovered that for moderately trained athletes, there is no additional benefit to strength or power development when training repeated sets of forced repetitions compared with ceasing training sets once the point of repetition failure has been reached, even when higher volumes of both successful and failed repetitions are completed.

This means that once concentric failure has been reached, forced or partnerassisted repetitions don't produce any additional strength or power gain. CHAPTER TWO BUILD UP TO PROPER WORKOUT AND TRAINING. WARM-UP Before every training session whether it is strength training, conditioning, or agilities session, a complete warm-up and flexibility session must be done. A proper warm-up will: ✔ ✔

Increase the body temperature prior to training Prepare the major joints for strenuous activity through all ranges of motion ✔ Increase flexibility of specific joints for increased range of motion ✔ Mentally prepare an athlete for the training that is about to be done General Warm-Up The following activities can be done prior to any workout: Light Jog - 5-10 minutes of continuous jogging at a moderate pace Jump Rope - 3- 5 minutes of continuous jumping or See Agility/Footwork Section for specific jump rope programs Bike/Stairmaster/Cross Trainer - 5-10 minutes at a moderate intensity and pace An indication of a good warm-up is a light sweat. Follow the general warmup with a brief stretch and then move onto the specific warm-up. A longer, more complete flexibility session should be done after the specific warm-up Flexibility Flexibility is an important variable in athletic development. Flexibility can help the increase of speed, power, agility, quickness, and strength. Flexibility is also a key component in the prevention of injuries. A greater range of motion in joint can reduce the chance of muscle tears, ligament strain, and injury to connective tissue. Also a greater range of motion that a joint has, the

more efficient the muscles, tendons, ligaments and the joint itself will be when they are put through strenuous activity. Flexibility is joint specific so every major joint structure must be stretched regularly in order to maximize the effects of a program. In addition to static and dynamic stretching programs, proper strength training may increase flexibility. A current research demonstrates that strength training through a full and safe range of motion can lead to increases in joint flexibility, Points of emphasis: ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Always perform a general warm-up prior to stretching. Be relaxed while stretching Begin all stretches slowly; ease into position, hold, ease out of stretch Hold all stretches for 10-15 seconds Do not bounce. This could cause injury and prevent flexibility development by not allowing the muscle being stretched to relax. Do not stretch so far that you experience joint pain. Always stretch before and after workouts. Stretching post-exercise will prevent soreness and accelerate recovery.

Feet Together (Standing) Feet together, reach hands toward toes. Relax low back. Do not bounce. Legs Spread Spread feet as wide as possible, while maintaining balance. Reach with both hands to ankle. Complete a repetition to the left, right and middle. Hip Flexor – Twist Over Same as Hip Flexor stretch.

Put opposite elbow on knee and twist. Try to get shoulders parallel to thigh of front leg. Squat Stretch Take a position with your feet slightly wider than shoulder width. Keep your heels on the ground and chest up. Back should be flat. Push out on knees. Quad Stretch Remain on side. Slowly pull back on foot. Keep hips in extension to stretch hip flexor. Calf Stretch Keep legs straight. Keep heel on the ground. Keep hips high. Feet Together (Seated) Feet together, reach Hands toward toes Relax low back Do not bounce Groin Stretch Pull the heels as close to the body as possible Push out on the knees with the elbows Legs Over Head

Relax the low back Try to extend legs until straight with toes pointed down Do not bounce Knees to Chest Pull the knee to the chest Opposite leg should be straight

Extend the Leg Grab high on the calf Extend the leg by pushing the heel to the sky Leg Over Keep the shoulders and hips flat on the ground The leg across should be perpendicular to the torso Modified Hurdler Bring heel to leg Keep leg straight and flat on ground Reach with both hands

Spinal Twist Apply pressure to leg with elbow Turn shoulders to 90 degrees Foot of bent leg must be flat

ECCENTRIC TRAINING The eccentric action of a muscle refers to a resisted lengthening of that muscle; a muscle exerting force while it’s being lengthened. This type of action has also been called the yielding action (as opposed to the overcoming action which refers to the actual lifting of the resistance) as well as the negative action. Eccentric action is present in most free-weight and machine exercises. However, since concentric strength potential is lower than the eccentric strength potential the yielding portion of a movement is rarely fully stimulated. In other words, the relative weakness of the overcoming portion prevents a complete overload during the yielding portion of the exercise. Individual seeking maximum results should plan training methods emphasizing eccentric overload. Eccentric stress as a superior stimulus for strength improvements It’s been a while since we’ve known that the yielding (eccentric/negative) portion of an exercise is responsible for more strength gains than the overcoming (concentric/biometric/positive) portion. For example, a study by Hortobagyi and coworkers found that the total maximal strength improvement from eccentric-only training brought more strength gain than a concentric-only program followed for 6 weeks. By total maximal strength I mean the sum of maximum concentric, isometric, and eccentric strength. In that parameter, eccentric training gave an average of improvement of 85%, while concentric training led to an improvement of 78%. Furthermore, this study used submaximal yielding actions and maximal overcoming actions. Surely this tells us a lot about the potential of yielding strength training, at least when maximum strength gains are the concern. In addition, it is to be noted that these results are in accordance with the body of scientific literature on the subject. For example, a study by Higbie et al. (1996) found a combined strength increase (concentric strength improvement plus eccentric strength improvement) of 43% with an eccentric-only regime compared to one of 31.2% with a concentric only scheme. We should also note a study by Hilliard-Robertson and coworkers which concluded, “A resistance training protocol which includes eccentric as well as concentric exercise, particularly when the eccentric is emphasized, appears to result in greater strength gain than concentric exercise alone”. This is in accordance with an early study by Komi and Buskirk (1972) who recorded greater

strength increases after an eccentric training procedure than after a concentric-only regimen. It was also found that omitting eccentric stress in a training program severely compromised the potential strength gain (Dudley et al. 1991). Eccentric stress as a superior stimulus for muscle growth The last above-mentioned study (Higbieet al. 1996) found that eccentriconly training led to an average muscle size gain of 6.6% over 10 weeks while a concentric-only program led to gains of 5%. While the difference may not seem to be huge, any bodybuilder who knows his gear understands that 2% more muscle over a 10 week period can be visually important, especially in the long run. These results are backed by another recent study (Farthing and Chilibeck 2003), which concluded that “Eccentric training resulted in greater hypertrophy than concentric training.” One recent study even found accentuated eccentric training to cause 19% more muscle growth than traditional strength training over 11 weeks. Another research concluded, “Eccentric muscle actions are a necessary stimulus for muscle hypertrophy” WHY IS ECCENTRIC TRAINING EFFECTIVE? Eccentric training allows one to stimulate greater strength and size gains than pure concentric training. Why is that? There are five major reasons: ●

There is a greater neural adaptation to eccentric training than to concentric training (Hortobagyi et al. 1996).

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There is a more important force output produced during a maximal eccentric action (greater overload) because you can use a higher external load (Colliander and Tesch 1990).

● There is a higher level of stress per motor unit during eccentric work. Less motor units are recruited during the eccentric portion of a movement, thus each of the recruited motor units receives much more stimulation (Grabiner and Owings 2002; Linnamo et al. 2002). Furthermore, since the nervous systems seems to recruit less motor units during a maximal eccentric action, the potential for improvement could be greater than with maximal concentric action.

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There is some evidence that maximal eccentric actions will preferably recruit fast- twitch muscle fibers, which are more responsive to muscle growth and strengthening (Nardone et al. 1989, Howell et al. 1995, Hortobagyi et al. 1996). In fact, eccentric training may stimulate an evolution towards a faster contractile profile (Martin et al. 1995).

● Most of the micro-trauma to the muscle cells incurred during training is a result of the eccentric action (Brown et al. 1997, Gibala et al. 2000). It has been established that this micro-trauma acts as the signal to start the muscle adaptation process (Clarke and Feedback, 1996). BENEFITS OF ECCENTRIC TRAINING For most of us, strength and size gains are the name of the game. However the positive effects of negative training don’t stop there. We could also note the following “fringe” benefits: ●

Greater cross-education (Hortobagyi and Lambert 1997). Crosseducation refers to the transfer of strength gain from one limb/side to the other. In practical terms it means that if you train only your right arm using eccentric actions, some of the strength gained would transfer to the left arm. This can be very beneficial to prevent excessive strength loss if one limb is immobilized.

● Eccentric training is also a superior method to treat tendinosis when compared with concentric exercise (Mafi et al. 2001). So it could be stated that this form of training is adequate to be used by injured athletes and that it is relatively safer than concentric training even if the loads used are greater. ●

A last point of interest is that strength gain from eccentric training are kept longer during a period of detraining than the increase from concentric-only training (Collinder and Tesch 1992, Housh et al. 1996), which may be very important for athletes who cannot train as much during the season as they can in the off-season.

ISOMETRIC ACTION TRAINING An isometric muscle action refers to exerting muscle strength/muscle tension without producing an actual movement or a change in muscle length. Isometric muscle action can also be called static training. Examples of isometric action training can include: ● Holding a weight at a certain position in the range of motion ● Pushing/pulling against an immovable external resistance Historically it’s been believed that we can produce more strength in a maximum isometric action than in a concentric contraction. While some studies find a slight difference, Soviet literature concludes that: “it is necessary to point out that there is not a statistically significant difference between the maximum strength, as measured in a static regime, and the maximum weight that can be lifted in the same movement” (A.S. Medvedyev 1986). While probably not as effective as yielding or overcoming training, isometric training can still be significantly advantageous to most athletes. Isometric action training as an important muscle activator One of the most important benefits of isometric action training is that it’s the contraction regime that leads to the greatest activation level. Activation refers to the use of the motor-units of a muscle. A recent study comparing the level of muscle activation during isometric, concentric, and eccentric muscle actions found that one can recruit over 5% more motor-units/muscle fibers during a maximal isometric muscle action than during either a maximal eccentric or maximal concentric action; 95.2% for isometric compared to 88.3% for the eccentric and 89.7% for the concentric (Babault et al. 2001). These finding are in accordance with the body of literature which finds that one can recruit almost all motor-units during a maximal isometric action (Allen et al. 1995, Allen et al. 1998, Belanger and McComas 1981, De Serres and Enoka 1998, Gandevia et al. 1998, Gandevia and McKenzie 1988, Merton 1954, Newham et al. 1991, Yue et al. 2000). So this means that isometric action training can improve our capacity to recruit motor-units during a maximal contraction. This way including this type of training in our program can improve our capacity to activate motor-units, even in dynamic

actions. In the long run, this improved neural drive could greatly increase one’s strength production potential. In the past, isometric exercises have been described as a technique that should only be used by advanced lifters. I respectfully disagree. One of the biggest shortcomings of low-class lifters is the incapacity to produce maximum intramuscular tension during a concentric contraction. Isometric exercise can thus be used to learn how to produce this high level of tension, as it requires less motor skills than the corresponding dynamic action. For this reason I see isometric exercises as very beneficial for all classes of athletes. Isometric training as a stimulus for strength gains It has long been known that isometric action training (IAT) can lead to significant strength increase. In a recent experimentation, strength gains of 14-40% were found over a 10-week period using isometric action training. However, it is important to understand that the strength gains from an isometric scheme occur especially to train the joint angles (Roman 1986, Kurz 2001), although there is a positive transfer of 20 to 50% of the strength gained in a 20-degree range (working angle less or more of 20 degrees). Some people might see this limitation as a negative aspect of isometric action training. Nevertheless, some authors prefer to see this as a benefit because it enables you to exert a greater level of strength at a certain point in the motion, allowing the athlete to stimulate more strength raise at a point where he needs it the most (sticking point). Isometric action training as a stimulus for muscle growth While initial reports on isometric action training hypothesized that this type of workout would not lead to significant muscle gain due to the absence of work, recent findings actually conclude that an isometric training scheme can lead to gain in muscle size. A study by Kanchisa et al. (2002) found an average muscle cross-sectional area (size) improvement of 12.4% for maximal isometric contraction training and of 5.3% for isometric training at 60% of maximum contraction after a training period of 10 weeks. The authors attributed the increase in muscle size to metabolic demands and endocrine activities rather than mechanical stress and neuromuscular control. BENEFITS OF ISOMETRIC TRAINING

1. Maximum intramuscular tension is attained for only a brief period in dynamic exercises (mostly due to the fact that the resistance has velocity and acceleration components), while in isometric exercises you can sustain that maximal tension for a longer period of time. For example, instead of maintaining maximum intramuscular tension for 0.25 to 0.5 second in the concentric portion of a dynamic movement, you may support it for around 3-6 seconds during an isometric exercise. Strength is greatly influenced by the total time under maximal tension. If you can add 10-20 seconds of maximal intramuscular tension per session, then you increase your potential for strength growth. 2. Isometric trainings can help you improve strength at a precise point in the range of motion of an exercise. This can prove to be very valuable to get past plateaus due to a chronic sticking point. 3. Isometric exercise is not “energy cunsumption”, meaning that you do not spend much energy by doing isometric training. Therefore, you can get the benefits of IAT without interfering with the rest of your planned workout.

Bottom line It is important to note that isometric action training has still limited applications for an athlete or bodybuilder. Yes, it can help increasing strength and size, but without a concurrent dynamic (yielding and overcoming) program the gain will be slow. In fact, some coaches noted that increases from isometric exercises stop after 6-8 weeks of use (Medvedyev 1986). So while isometric action training can be very helpful to work on a weak point or improve an athlete’s capacity to activate motor-units, it should only be used for short periods of time when progress has slowed down or when a rapid strength improvement is needed. Isometric action training can also be useful during periods of lowered training volumes, i.e. when someone has to decrease his training load either due to fatigue symptoms or time constraints, isometric work can help prevent muscle and strength losses.

APPLICATIONS OF ISOMETRIC ACTION TRAINING Here are few recommendations based on the work of Y.I. Ivanov of the old Soviet Union, John Ziegler of the U.S., and my own personal experience: 1. You must contract your muscles as hard as you can; to be effective you must reach and maintain a level of maximum intramuscular tension. 2. The duration of an action (or “set”) should be 1-10 seconds, 3-6 being best in most cases. 3. Use at least 3 positions per movement, but as many as 6 positions can be used for maximum results (if time and equipment permit). Choose key positions of the equivalent dynamic exercise if you want a positive transfer of the strength gain. 4. Take enough rest between actions (sets) to allow the maximum tension to be produced each time. I personally find that you need 10 times more rest than you spend contracting. For example, if you use 3-second actions, you rest 30 seconds. If you use 6- second actions you rest 60 seconds, etc. 5. Isometric exercises should be used concurrently (in the same workout) with a similar dynamic exercise, preferably of a highspeed nature. 6. For optimal results, isometric training should be around 10% of the total strength training volume (calculated as the number of seconds under tension).

Many coaches agree that isometric exercises should be used at the end of a workout (Brunner and Tabachnik 1990, Vorobiev 1988). However, Siff and Verkhoshansky (1999) state that isometric action training can be used first in a workout to potentiate/facilitate subsequent strength and speed-strength exercises. I agree with the latter.

CHAPTER THREE APPLICATION OF VARIOUS TRAINING METHODS TO BASIC STRENGTH EXERCISES ● Eccentric training methods There are several different eccentric training methods. Firstly understand that by eccentric training methods I mean those in which the eccentric portion of the exercise is emphasized, not necessarily exercises in which there is only an eccentric action taking place. There are three main types of eccentric training, each with its own subtypes and applications. These three types of training are: ● Submaximal eccentric training ● Near-maximal and maximal eccentric training ● Supramaximal eccentric training The following graph can help you understand the various types of eccentric action methods:

Submaximal eccentric training

With submaximal eccentric training you find yourself using a load that is lower than your maximum concentric (or isometric) strength. Since your maximum eccentric strength is significantly higher, the intensity of work will thus be submaximal. Therefore, to create a significant training effect we must use certain training techniques that will create an important stimulus, despite the relatively low intensity. I will show three of these techniques (although there are many more possibilities): eccentric/isometric contrast, eccentric/concentric contrast, and slow eccentrics. Eccentric/isometric contrast - Version 1 In this type of exercise you find yourself slowly lowering a load equivalent to 60-80% of your maximum concentric strength in a movement, adding several isometric (static) pauses during the yielding (lowering) portion; the longer the range of motion of an exercise is, the more pauses you’ll take. Each of these pauses should last 3 to 6 seconds. Once the bar has been fully lowered (eccentric portion of the movement is completed) you lift the bar or have a partner that lift it for you. For big ROM compound movements (squats, deadlifts, etc.) you should use 3-4 pauses, for medium ROM compound movements (bench press, barbell rowing, military press, etc.) you should use 2-3 pauses, and for short ROM exercises you should use 2 pauses. Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method: Perceived effort/difficulty: Very high Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Very high effect on functional elements (strength, power): Low Load: 60-80% of maximum concentric effort Number of repetitions per set: 3-6 Number of sets per exercise: 3-6 Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-3 Rest between sets: 90-120 seconds

- Version 2 In this second version you will use a load equivalent to 70-90% of your concentric maximum on an exercise. You lower the bar slightly (usually to the strongest point in the range of motion) and you hold it there for as long as you can (maximum duration isometric effort). When you can no longer hold the weight statically you lower it as slowly as you can until you reach the end of the full range of motion. Then you have a partner that assist you in lifting the bar.

Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method: Perceived effort/difficulty: Very high Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Very high effect on functional elements (strength, power): Moderate load: 70-90% of maximum concentric effort Number of repetitions per set: 1 Number of sets per exercise: 5-7 Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-3 Rest between sets: 90-120 seconds Eccentric/concentric contrast This method is fairly basic and in many ways similar to the slow eccentric method. It consists of dissociating the eccentric and concentric portions of a lift. In this way it becomes both a pure concentric and pure eccentric method (thus it can be included in both categories). You lower the bar slowly, under control. Once you reach the end of the yielding portion of the movement you pause for 3-5 seconds. This is not an isometric pause; you must relax your muscles! Then you execute the concentric portion as fast as you can. You use a relatively light load for this exercise (50-70% of your concentric maximum) and lower the load in 5-10 seconds while lifting it explosively. Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method: Perceived effort/difficulty: Moderate

Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Moderate Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Low (strength) to moderate (power) Load: 50-70% of maximum concentric effort Number of repetitions per set: 5-10 Number of sets per exercise: 3-6 Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-3 Rest between sets: 60-90 seconds

Near-maximal and maximal eccentric training This method basically refers to lowering, under control, a load near (or at) the point of maximum eccentric strength. Since it is hard (and somewhat risky) to evaluate the exact maximum eccentric strength level, I suggest using a load that is between 100-150% of the maximum concentric strength in a given movement. I have included three basic techniques in the NM/M eccentric class of methodic: 1. The 2/1 technique: Using a load that is 100-150% of the concentric strength of a single-limb exercise, do the eccentric/yielding portion with just that one limb (e.g. with only the right arm) and the concentric/overcoming portion with both limbs. 2. The 2 movement’s technique: Using a load that is 100-150% of the concentric strength of any isolation exercise, execute the concentric portion as a compound movement (as it was explained earlier in this text). 3. Maximal pure eccentrics: In this variation, commonly known as

“negatives,” you only perform the eccentric portion of an exercise and have a spotter to lift the bar back to the starting position for you. Weight releasers can also be used for this purpose (to lighten the load to lift during the concentric phase to an insignificant level). In all three cases the purpose is always to lower a load close to your maximum capacity. The methods only vary in the way that you bring the weight back, up to the starting position for another repetition (or to conclude the set). Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method: Perceived effort/difficulty: Moderate Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): High Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Very high/strength, low/ power Load: 100-150% of maximum concentric effort Number of repetitions per set: 1-6 Number of sets per exercise: 4-8 Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-2 Rest between sets: 120-180 seconds These methods can have a deep effect on both strength and muscle size. However, for the technique to have an important impact on muscle size, the total volume must be relatively high. If hypertrophy is your main objective, then you should use 6-8 sets of 4-6 repetitions using 100-110% of your concentric maximum. If relative strength (strength relative to your bodyweight) is your goal, then a lower volume of work is best; 4-6 sets of 1-3 repetitions at 120-150% of your concentric maximum. Super-maximal eccentric training The objective of this form of training is to place a very important mechanical and neural stress on the organism to increase its force production and to stimulate qualitative (as opposed to quantitative for hypertrophy methods)

structural changes. Understand that by super-maximal I am referring to a mechanical stress at, or higher than, the maximum eccentric strength in a movement. There are two ways of doing this: 1. By using kinetic energy accumulation training (KEAT) methods in which the fall of the body or an object leads to an important accumulation of kinetic energy. This accumulation of kinetic energy leads to a reflexive and voluntary (mixed action) muscular contraction during which the amount of force produced is higher than the maximum possible voluntary force output. Force production of up to 200% of the isometric maximum (thus 200-210% of the concentric and 120-150% of the eccentric maximum) has been reported during high intensity depth jumping. Shock training and over speed eccentrics are included in this category. 2. By using loads that are over one’s voluntary eccentric maximum (we are thus talking about loads of around 150-200% of one’s concentric maximum). Since the load cannot be lowered under control (as it’s over one’s maximum eccentric strength) I strongly advise against this type of training; the risk potential is too high, even for extremely well trained athletes. The only two super-maximal eccentric methods that should be considered are shock training and over speed eccentrics. Shock training refers mostly to depth jumps, but it can also include any exercise in which you are catching an external load and doing an explosive concentric action immediately afterward. Another form of shock training, which could be termed “reactive eccentrics/isometrics,” includes depth landings from various heights and different positions. Depth landing basically refer to dropping from a certain height into a catch position while “sticking” the landing (shortest possible absorption) and then holding this position for a few seconds. In most cases the landing position should mimic an important posture used in the athlete’s sport of choice. The main advantage of these shock exercises is to develop the capacity to

absorb an external force, which is an often-overlooked quality in sports. Before being able to move an external force (e.g. an opponent, your own body as it hits the ground, etc.) you must be able to absorb its force, stop its movement, and then overcome it. The better you are at absorbing force, the more effective you can be at overcoming a source of resistance. Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method: Perceived effort/difficulty: Low (although the actual impact is very high) Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Low to moderate Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Very high Load: Above the eccentric maximum from an accumulation of kinetic energy Number of repetitions per set: 3-10 Number of sets per exercise: 3-5 (do not exceed 40 total ground contacts) Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-2 Rest between sets: 120-180 seconds

● Concentric training methods Concentric methods refer to training techniques in which the concentric/overcoming portion of the movement is emphasized; this does not mean that there is no eccentric or isometric action involved. Note that to be effective, a concentric method must maximize motor unit recruitment. When we talk about concentric training methods we can use Zatsiorsky’s classification: ● ●

The repetitive effort method The maximum effort method

●

The dynamic effort method

These methods can be further divided into various techniques. The following figure shows some possible applications of these three basic methods.

● Repetitive effort method Here we are basically talking about bodybuilding methods, which involve doing a lot of work in a series with a moderate load. The objective is to recruit as many motor units as possible within a muscle by what’s known as cumulative fatigue. As some motor units/muscle fibers become too tired to handle the load, more and more are recruited. When using a high volume of work more motor units are recruited due to the large amount of muscle fatigue. These methods are thus very effective at increasing the quantitative aspect of the training adaptations. However, because the level of intramuscular tension (proportional to the force output) produced during the set is relatively low; these methods don’t lead to maximum improvement in the muscle’s functions. However, to increase muscle size these methods are

optimal. Sets to failure This is your basic bodybuilding scheme. You select a load that is 60-80% of your maximum in a lift and you perform repetitions until failure (the point where completing another repetition is impossible). Ideally: ●

Novice lifters will want to use a load permitting 12-15 repetitions and perform 2-4 sets per exercise. ● Intermediate lifters will want to use a load permitting 8-12 repetitions and perform 3-5 sets per exercise. ● Advanced lifters will want to use a load permitting 6-8 repetitions and perform 4-6 sets per exercise.

The most effective way of performing this type of training is to yield (eccentric portion) slowly (3-5 seconds) and to overcome (concentric portion) as fast as you can. This will maximize muscle tension. The rest intervals should be very short to prevent full muscle recovery, thus forcing the body to recruit more and more motor units for each set. Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method: Perceived effort/difficulty: High Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): High to very high Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Low to moderate Load: 60-80% of the concentric maximum Number of repetitions per set: 6-15 Number of sets per exercise: 2-6 Number of exercises per muscle group: 2-4 Rest between sets: 45-90 seconds

Post-fatigue, pre-fatigue, post- and pre-fatigue The objective of all three of these techniques is to further fatigue a certain muscle group by using an isolation exercise (for the target muscle) either before (pre), after (post), or before and after (pre and post) a multi-joint exercise. The logic is that in a compound exercise the load is distributed over several muscles at the same time, so each muscle is not necessarily being fully stimulated. By using an isolation exercise in conjunction with the multijoint exercise you are making sure to fully fatigue (thus to recruit and stimulate as many motor units as possible) the target muscle group. Post-fatigue In short, the post-fatigue method consists of adding a less complex movement after your main movement to fully stimulate and fatigue the target muscle group. These two exercises are done with no pause in between them. The logic behind this method is that in complex (multi-joint) movements the weaker muscle groups will always fail first, leaving the prime movers understimulated. For example, in the bench press the triceps or deltoids are likely to fail before the stronger pectorals, leaving this way the pectorals understimulated. By adding an isolation exercise for the pectorals (e.g. flies) right after your set of bench presses you will be able to fully fatigue and stimulate your pectorals. The more stimulation you put on your muscles, the more protein degradation occurs, the higher the anabolic response.

Example of the post-fatigue method for the pectorals Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method: Perceived effort/difficulty: Very high Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Very high Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Moderate Load: 60-80% of the concentric maximum (multi-joint exercise) Number of repetitions per set: 6-15 (MJ exercise) and 10-20 (ISO exercise) Number of sets per exercise: 2-6 Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-3 Rest between sets: No rest between exercises, 60-120 seconds between sets Pre-fatigue The objective of this method is somewhat similar to the post-fatigue method

in which the goal is to fatigue a specific muscle group that might not get fully stimulated from a complex exercise. As I have mentioned before, the strongest muscle involved in a movement will rarely be fully stimulated from this movement because the weaker muscles will fail first. However, if you fatigue this muscle before you perform the main exercise, then you will be able to fully stimulate it when you do the main exercise. This technique is very effective at stimulating hypertrophy in a specific body part (the body part for which you do the isolation exercise). However, it is not as good for developing overall hypertrophy as the post-fatigue method because it is possible that you will not be able to use as much weight on the main exercise due to the pre-fatigue set. Because of this characteristic, the main use of this method is to improve a weak body part. If you have an underdeveloped chest compared to your shoulders and arms use a pre-fatigue set for the chest. If your back is lacking behind your arms and shoulders, use a pre-fatigue set for the back. In addition, it isn't even obligatory to do a pre-fatigue set for the strongest muscle group in the main exercise. For example, if you feel like your triceps are proportionally weaker compared to your chest, and then you can pre-fatigue them before doing the bench press.

Example of the pre-fatigue method for the triceps Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method: Perceived effort/difficulty: Very high Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Very high Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Low Load: 60-80% of the concentric maximum (multi-joint exercise) Number of repetitions per set: 6-15 (MJ exercise) and 10-20 (ISO exercise) Number of sets per exercise: 2-6

Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-3 Rest between sets: No rest between exercises, 60-120 seconds between sets Pre- and post-fatigue This is certainly the most difficult hypertrophy method of all, and probably the most effective as well. It is simply a mix of the pre-fatigue method and post-fatigue method. It leads to the greatest possible hypertrophy response of all the methods that you can use in the gym. Because this method is so intense it should not be used for more than 2-3 weeks straight. You can do two types of pre-/post-fatigue training: 1. Targeting the same muscle group during the pre-fatigue exercise and the post- fatigue exercise; this will place a large hypertrophy stimulus on the targeted muscle group. 2.

Targeting one muscle group during the pre-fatigue exercise and another one during the post-fatigue exercise. This allows you to correct two different weaknesses at the same time.

Example of the pre- and post-fatigue method for the triceps and chest

Example of the pre- and post-fatigue method for the triceps Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method: Perceived effort/difficulty: Extremely high Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Extremely high Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Low Load: 60-80% of the concentric maximum (multi-joint exercise) Number of repetitions per set: 6-15 (MJ exercise) and 10-20 (ISO exercises) Number of sets per exercise: 2-3 Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-2 Rest between sets: No rest between the three exercises, 60-120 seconds

between sets Drop sets The drop set method, if pushed to the extreme, can be even harder than the pre- and post- fatigue method. The drop set method is an extension of the post-fatigue method where you use the same exercise with a lighter load after your main set. Only in the drop set method you add 2-6 additional postfatigue sets of the same exercise with gradually decreasing loads. This method is probably the best to fully stimulate a muscle group, but it can be truly excruciating and hard. Like the pre- and post-fatigue method it should never be used for more than 2-3 weeks straight. Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method: Perceived effort/difficulty: Extremely high Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Extremely high Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Low Load: Variable during the set, start at around 70-90% of your maximum Number of repetitions per set: Highly variable, depends on the number of drops Number of sets per exercise: 2-3 Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-2 Rest between sets: No rest between drops, 60-120 seconds between sets Maximum effort method Maximum effort refers to overcoming an external resistance close to, or at, your maximum capacity for a certain exercise. It is characterized by a very large amount of intramuscular tension producing a maximal amount of force. In Layman’s terms, maximum effort refers to straining hard to lift a certain load. I will present two methods (the two most effective ones): maximal lifting and heavy lifting coupled with manual isometrics.

Maximal lifting This is the most straightforward maximum effort method. It consists of lifting a barbell weighing 90-100% of your maximum on a certain lift. Because of the maximal level of intensity, the number of repetitions per set is kept low (1-3 repetitions per set). This type of lifting doesn’t have a significant impact on muscle mass, unless a very large number of sets are used. However, it is very effective at increasing strength, mostly through neural processes (especially intramuscular coordination) and qualitative changes to the muscle structures. Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method: Perceived effort/difficulty: High Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Low to moderate Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Very high Load: 90-100% of the concentric maximum Number of repetitions per set: 1-3 Number of sets per exercise: 4-8 Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-2 Rest between sets: 150-180 seconds between sets Heavy loads combined with manual isometrics This method is one of my favorite. It consists of doing repetitions with a relatively heavy load (70-80%) while during certain repetitions (or during all of them) a partner applies a manual overload to the bar (he pushes against the bar), preventing you from continuing the concentric portion of the lift (the combined barbell load and manual load is therefore above the concentric maximum, but not above the isometric maximum). The manual overload is placed for 2-3 seconds and then released, allowing the lifter to complete the repetition. This type of training can also be classified as functional isometrics. One of the biggest benefits of this method is to integrate the benefits of maximal isometric work into a dynamic perspective. It also allows you to place an emphasis on the weakest part of a lift. Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method:

Perceived effort/difficulty: Very high Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Moderate to high Effect on functional elements (strength, power): High Load: 70-80% of the concentric maximum plus a manual overload Number of repetitions per set: 2-6 (with 1-3 manual overloads per set) Number of sets per exercise: 3-5 Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-2 Rest between sets: 150--180 seconds between sets

● Dynamic effort method This method relies on lifting sub-maximal loads with a high degree of acceleration. The dynamic effort method allows for maximal motor unit recruitment through an increase in intramuscular coordination and increased motor unit activation via a potentiation of the central nervous system. There is also an evidence showing that an explosive (high acceleration) exercise increases the rate of fast-twitch fiber innervation, leading to an inverted motor recruitment pattern. Normal motor recruitment pattern: The slow-twitch fibers are recruited first and as the intensity of the movement and the demand on the muscle increases, the fast twitch fibers enter into the action. This is known as the “size principle.” According to it, the smallest, most oxidative (ST) fibers are recruited first and the most powerful fibers (FT) are recruited last. Inverted recruitment pattern: During explosive exercises (especially those of a ballistic nature) the activation threshold of all the motor units is brought to the same level. This means that the signal to activate the motor units occurs at the same time for all types of fibers. However, since the nerve impulse takes less time to innervate the fast-twitch fibers than the slow-twitch fibers (60ms vs. 140ms), these FT fibers enter into action first, hence the reverse order of activation/recruitment. This form of recruitment is also found in maximal/supra-maximal eccentric training and EMS training.

Dynamic effort methods offer a lot to most athletes who need explosive strength and speed. Isometric training methods Isometric methods refer to producing muscle tension without moving. With this method you are basically fighting a source of resistance without altering its position We will discuss three applications of this method: ●

Maximal duration isometrics (equivalent to the repetitive effort method) ● Maximal intensity isometrics (equivalent to the maximal effort method) ● Ballistic isometrics (equivalent to the dynamic effort method) There are also mixed isometric regimes (also known as functional isometrics), but these applications have already been discussed.

You’ll notice that I mentioned two types of isometric exercises: overcomingisometric and yielding-isometric. You need to understand that this doesn’t

mean that you are combining a concentric (or eccentric) action along with the isometric action. The actual external outcome of the exercise is the same; there is no movement at all. However, the intent during the exercise changes. Overcoming-isometric: You are pushing or pulling against an immovable resistance. There is no external movement, but your intent is to move the resistance (even if it’s impossible). Yielding-isometric: You are holding a weight and your objective is to prevent it from going down. So once again, there is no external movement. However, your intent is no longer to move the resistance, but to stop its movement. It is important to understand that both techniques won't have the same effect. For one thing, the neural patterns used in both cases will be different. Overcoming-isometrics may have a bigger impact on concentric strength than yielding-isometrics. Maximal duration isometric (repetitive effort) With maximal duration isometric exercises you are pushing/pulling or holding a sub-maximal load for as long as possible, heading for muscle failure. For maximum effect we want to use sets ranging from 20 to 60 seconds in length. The effect of this type of training on muscle mass can be great as there is a very significant growth stimulus placed on all muscle fibers. *Note: A lot of studies don’t report a lot of muscle growth from isometric training. This is only because the old German model of 6-second actions (or something similar) was used in the experiments. This duration of effort, albeit adequate for strength gain, is not sufficient to cause hypertrophic changes in the muscles. However, when using sets lasting 20-60 seconds, the growth stimulus is significant. With this method you can use both overcoming-isometrics and yieldingisometrics (which were explained earlier). However, I think that yielding isometrics (holding a weight) are much superior when it comes to maximal duration isometric training. In this case, a load of 50 to 80% for a duration of 20 to 60 seconds is best. As it was mentioned earlier in the text, with isometric training you will have to use at least three positions per exercise to get improvement throughout the

entire range of motion. Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method: Perceived effort/difficulty: Very high Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): High to very high Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Low Load: 50-80% of the concentric maximum if using yielding-isometrics Number of repetitions per set: 20-60 seconds per set Number of sets per exercise: 2-4 per position / 3 positions per exercise Number of exercises: 1 Rest between sets: 60-90 seconds between sets Maximal intensity isometric (maximum effort) The maximal intensity isometric method is related to the concentric maximum effort method. You will try to maintain a maximum isometric action for 3-6 seconds. You can, once again, use either overcomingisometrics or yielding-isometrics, but in this case overcoming isometrics (pushing/pulling against pins or an immovable resistance) give the best results and are much safer.

This type of isometric training doesn’t have a significant impact on muscle mass, however it can increase muscle density and myogenic tone (also called “tonus,” or the firmness/hardness of your muscles). Its main effect is on maximum strength development, which occurs specifically the joint angle to be trained. So once again, you’ll have to use multiple positions. There is also some evidence that maximum isometric training can improve the capacity to recruit and synchronize motor-units (intramuscular coordination) even in dynamic movements. Even though overcoming-isometrics are best for this method, you can still use yielding- isometrics. In this case you would use a load of 100 to 110% of your maximum. Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method: Perceived effort/difficulty: Moderate

Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Low Effect on functional elements (strength, power): High Load: 100-110% of the concentric maximum if using yielding-isometrics Number of repetitions per set: 3-6 seconds per set Number of sets per exercise: 3-6 per position / 3+ positions per exercise Number of exercises: 1 Rest between sets: 30-90 seconds between sets

Ballistic isometric (dynamic effort method) Be careful not to mix up iso-ballistic (or stato-ballistic) training with the ballistic isometric method. Iso-ballistic is a mixed regime method in which an explosive dynamic action is preceded by an isometric pause. The ballistic isometric method refers to pushing against an immovable resistance for a very brief period of time (1-2 seconds) while trying to reach peak force output as fast as possible (basically trying to go from 0% force to 100% force in 1 or 2 seconds). You cannot use the yielding-isometric method here, as it doesn’t suit the nature of the exercise. The nature is to produce maximum isometric tension in as little time as possible. This type of exercise is especially good to develop starting-strength and is very useful for any athlete involved in a sport where explosive starts from a static position are involved. Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method: Perceived effort/difficulty: Low Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Very low Effect on functional elements (strength, power): High Load: N/A Number of repetitions per set: 1-2 seconds per set Number of sets per exercise: 5-10 per position / 3+ positions per exercise Number of exercises: 1 Rest between sets: 10-30 seconds between sets Weight releasers are one of the most important tools that a coach can buy.

Furthermore they’re cheap, which make it a most for the least deal (best result with the minimum effort)! I personally use this tool in the training of almost all of my athletes, and it constitute a significant part of their yearly program. Releasers are quite simple to understand. Basically we’re talking about hooks which are attached to the bar and loaded with weight. The hooks hang down lower than the bar, so as you lower the rod, the releasers will contact the ground, making them “unhook” the bar, thus releasing some weight from the bar. They thus allow an athlete to lower more weight than he lifts. As it was mentioned in the first chapter of this book, the eccentric portion of a movement is responsible for a lot of strength and size gain. However since you are always stronger during the eccentric portion of the lift, the stimulation you can place on your body during that part of a lift will always be limited by your concentric (overcoming) strength. So basically it becomes very hard to increase the tension magnitude during the eccentric portion of regular exercises. All you can really do is increase the duration of the lowering phase. This indeed increase the stimulation placed on the muscles during the eccentric action, but it is somewhat limited for athletes wanting to increase their maximal strength level. An alternative is to have a partner pushing down on the bar during the eccentric portion of the lift. I’ve tried this technique on myself and it does work even if it becomes very hard to quantify the training processes. How much resistance did you add during the eccentric portion? 45lbs, 35lbs, 100lbs? You really can’t tell. Therefore, this method can be useful, but it’s also limitative. Releasers on the other hand allow you to add resistance during the eccentric portion of a lift and you will know exactly how much resistance you added.

Maximal eccentrics For this training technique an athlete should work up to the maximum weight he can lower under control. For safety purposes my athletes must lower the bar in 5 seconds during a maximal eccentric exercise. If they can’t lower it in 5 seconds, it’s too heavy. Someone will argue that it’s not a true maximum. I agree, but the overload is more than enough to stimulate positive gains in strength. You start the exercise with 50-100lbs less than your maximum set on the bar (e.g. if your bench press maximum is 400lbs, the bar weight would be 300-350lbs). This won’t change during the workout. I choose that load because I don’t like to add too much weight to the releasers (it could damage them) but I don’t want to use a bar weight that turns the exercise into a maximal concentric exercise. There is a place and time for a combination of maximal eccentric and maximal concentric but this method focuses only on the eccentric part. Since we are doing only single repetitions, the load during the concentric portion will be easy and not stressful at all on the body. The starting weight for the combination of releasers plus the bar weight should be equal to your concentric maximum. For example, if your maximum is 400lbs and that the bar weight is 330lbs you should use 70lbs in releaser (35lbs per side). You add weight to the releasers with each set until you can no longer lower the load under control in 5 seconds. Most individuals will be able to use 110-130% of their concentric maximum. However, if you do less than that don’t be sad, in fact feel happy! This means that this form of training will increase your strength limit at a faster rate than any other method (since it’s a weak point). On the other hand, if you can lower 150% of your maximum or more, this type of training won’t be very effective because it’s not a limiting factor in your performance level. This training method has several positive impacts on performance. First it can increase eccentric, isometric and concentric strength to a large extent. This is mostly due to neural adaptations, but also to some structural changes. It also increases the athlete’s capacity to control an important external force, which can be useful on the playing field. Psychologically it helps getting used to holding heavy weights, so when you attempt a concentric maximum, it will feel lighter by comparison, giving you a psychological boost. There is also some evidence that lowering big weights offer more than a psychological benefit: it’s possible to desensitize the Golgi Tendon Organs and Muscle

Spindles by using a technique. This will allow you to use a greater proportion of your strength potential due to a lowered neural inhibition. Lastly, since this is a form of accentuated eccentric training, it will lead to significant structural changes. Since the duration of a set is relatively low, it will take many sets to build up a cumulative stimulation sufficient to lead to muscle gain. However, in the long run this method can have a very positive effect on functional hypertrophy. I never use this technique more than once per week with my athletes, and never use it for more than 6 weeks straight, more often it’s used in a 3-weeks block.

Contrast training Contrast training refers to the use of a load that is equally challenging during both the eccentric and concentric portion of a lift. Since we’re stronger during the eccentric portion, the only way this method can be applied is to add resistance during the eccentric part of the exercise. To properly select the training load it is important to know both your concentric and eccentric maximum on the lift you intend to use. For example, your bench press 1RM could be 400lbs and your maximal eccentric bench press (lowered in 5 seconds) could be 475lbs. Since we want to use the same relative load during both phases of the movement, both the bar weight and releaser weight must be carefully selected. For example, if you want to train at 80% the loads should be: a. Bar weight (concentric portion)= 400lbs x 80% = 320lbs b. Releasers weight + bar weight (eccentric portion) = 475lbs x 80% = 380lbs

c. Releasers weight = 380lbs – 320lbs = 60lbs (30lbs each side) So to recap our athlete choosing to train at 80% would use a bar weight of 320lbs and add 30lbs to each releaser. This way he lowers 80% of his eccentric maximum and lift 80% of his concentric maximum. This training method should be performed for multi-repetitions sets. Since the releasers must be replaced on each repetition I suggest two approaches: 1.

Cluster training: perform 5-8 single repetitions with around 5-10 seconds of rest between them. After each repetition you rack the bar and replace the releasers (or have a partner that replace them). 2. Paused training: you also perform 5-8 repetitions but after each repetition you hold the bar at arm’s length while two partners simultaneously replace the releasers. I prefer option number one. Option number two is a big risk, for example the spotters could replace the releasers at with a slight delay between them; this could lead to an injury. However the second option has the advantage of keeping the muscles under load for a longer period of time, which may be slightly better for hypertrophy purposes. Since the fatigue factor might be more important (because of the added eccentric loading) you might be able to complete 1-2 repetitions less than during a concentric emphasis set for the same relative load. The following table indicates good repetitions target to shoot for at given loads. Load 95% 90% 85% 80% 75% 70%

Minimum reps

Maximum reps 1 1 3 5 6 8

Average 2 4 6 8 11 13

1 2 4 6 8 10

This method is especially effective at stimulating maximum hypertrophy in a very short period of time because the stimulation is equivalent during both

phases of the movement. Remember to always perform the eccentric portion in 5 seconds (since your eccentric maximum is based on a 5 seconds effort). It’s also an effective method at increasing eccentric and concentric strength at the same rate, at the same time. Which can be useful for some athletes who already have a proper eccentric strength/concentric strength ratio. Overshoot training Overshoot refers to a sur-activation of fast-twitch motor units during the eccentric portion of the lift allowing the athlete to be more explosive during the concentric portion. In many regards this works the same as depth jumps and other high impact plyometric drills. We will accomplish this overshoot by lowering a heavy load during the eccentric portion and lifting a light load as fast as possible. The eccentric portion doesn’t have to be as controlled as during the preceding two methods. Lowering the load in 2 seconds is adequate. The bar weight should be around 50-60% of your concentric maximum and you add another 30-40% on the releasers. For example, an athlete who can bench press 400lbs would use the following: a. Bar weight = 400lbs x 50% = 200lbs b. Releasers weight = 400lbs x 40% = 160lbs (80lbs per side) We want to perform sets of 2-4 repetitions using this method. However the releasers are only used on the first one. The overshoot phenomenon being maintained for the whole sets provides that acceleration is maintained at the maximum possible. Tip and recommendations ✔

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Before each utilization make sure that the releasers are in working order. If the steel rod becomes slightly bent, I suggest buying new ones as they may become hazardous. Make sure that both releasers release in the same direction. Find out the perfect rod length (which is adjustable) for you. Not all people are built the same way. We want the releasers to drop when the bar is 1-2” from the chest (bench press) or at parallel (squat).

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Make sure to lower the bar under control. A good way to see if you’re doing this is if the releasers unhook at the same time.

CHAPTER FOUR RESISTANCE TRAINING, MAXIMUM ACCELERATION TRAINING, VARIABLE RESISTANCE TRAINING ● Problems with regular lifting exercises Before we start talking about the problems inherent to regular lifting exercises, I must first say that it is not my intention to say that regular strength exercises are not effective and that they should be removed from a training program. On the contrary! Free-weight lifting is still one of the best way to increase limit strength, strength-endurance and muscle mass. For most people, this type of exercise will be more than sufficient. However for the elite athletes who need that extra edge or those who are perfectionists and want to get the absolute best out of their training, additional methods should be used to compensate for the small shortcoming of regular free-weight lifting.

Time spent decelerating the bar In most sports an athlete’s success is directly dependent on his capacity to accelerate. Strength coaches have long realized this, which has led to explosive free-weight lifting that is using moderate weights in classical strength exercises, performing the concentric portion as fast as possible (trying to accelerate as much as possible). The problem that exists with explosive lifting using normal exercises is that

the preventive deceleration phase can be as long, if not longer, as the voluntary acceleration phase. How can this happen if we’re trying to lift the weight as fast as possible? Well the body wants to protect itself. So near the end of the concentric action, it will instinctively decelerate to avoid any ballistic shock in the joints and muscles. For the body, it’s more natural to slowly decrease speed until velocity is zero than to make a sudden stop from max velocity to zero velocity. Blame it on your dear protective mechanisms! Let’s take the back squat for example. You accelerate when you first start to lift the bar, but acceleration quickly diminishes and deceleration starts as you stand above parallel. Moreover, the faster you attempt to lift the bar, the shorter the acceleration phase will be and the longer the deceleration phase will be. Therefore, by trying to go faster you actually are increasing deceleration! This can have a negative impact on your nervous system, which becomes better as decelerating than at accelerating. Furthermore, the deceleration period occurs in the sport-specific joint angles where acceleration is the most important! The sport-scientist D.G. Sale has demonstrated that it is the intent to accelerate the bar that is important rather than the actual speed of the bar that causes neural adaptations. Now, if you spend more time decelerating the bar than accelerating it, even if bar speed is fast, you learn bad motor habits. This is where jump stretch bands come in. These bands provide a lot of resistance. By attaching those to the bar when lifting you can significantly increase the load during the last portion of a lift. The benefit when acceleration is concerned is that the bands will actually decelerate the bar (because of the increase in resistance). So you won't have that preventive deceleration phase: the bar speed will slow down, but you will be able to try to accelerate it as much as possible because of the increased resistance. Basically even if bar speed becomes slower than during regular explosive lifting, the intent to accelerate is more important when using bands. This will lead to more sport-efficient motor patterns: basically learning to keep on accelerating rather than decelerating as you reach the strongest positions of the range of motion. Problem 2: Loading not adapted to mechanical advantage Another problem with regular lifting is that the load doesn’t change during the movement. This is because you are lifting an object (in this case a free-

weight) of a constant mass. The problem with this is that this constant load will not place a maximal stimulation throughout the whole range of motion. Let me explain it: we all know that we’re stronger in a quarter squat than in a half squat, and we’re stronger in a half squat than in a full squat. This is nothing groundbreaking so far. However, this means that the constant load will not provide the same impact during the whole range of motion. The problem is that this sort of lifting places the greatest overload in the initial portion of the lift because that’s where the relative importance of the load compared to the strength at the specific joint angle is the greatest. However in a vast majority of sport actions the most important portion of the range of motion of a joint is that last ½ or last ¼ part. This part of the range of motion must be overloaded, but instead it is under loaded! A possible solution would be to use partial movements in training, quarter squats, half squats, half bench, half deadlift, etc. However this also poses several problems, not being the least the development of strength imbalances.

CHAPTER FIVE BASIC CONCEPTS OF BIOMECHANICS AND TECHNIQUE IN POWERLIFTING The biomechanics of motor actions studies the properties and functions of the musculoskeletal system and human motor actions on the basis of concepts, principles, and laws of classical mechanics. A sports technique (as in the technique used in a particular sport) is a set of methods and actions that provide the most effective solution to motor tasks arising from a specific sport, its discipline and the type of competition. The best choice of methods and actions is the one when an athlete lifting the barbell at maximum weight (without breaking the rules of the competition) uses his physical and mental capabilities in the most effective way. Formation and improvement of motor actions is a multi-step process, inseparable from the training process. This can be defined as the technical preparation of an athlete. The technical proficiency of an athlete is the degree of mastering the movements performed by himself, i.e. sports technique. This corresponds to the characteristics of an athletic discipline and is aimed at achieving success in competition. Technical training is aimed at teaching the movements technique as well as bringing them to perfection by an athlete (L.P. Matveev, 1982: N.G.Ozolin, 2002; V.N.Platonov, 2004). Technical skills holds a special place among other components of sports preparedness. In the execution of any physical exercise an athlete demonstrates the results of their physical, tactical, and theoretical training. Currently, many experts consider technical preparation as the strategic direction of modern sports training.

Due to the fact that any activity related to the demonstration of physical qualities (specifically in the barbell exercises with strength, speed, and flexibility) the movement control, which is carried out on the basis of the firmly engrained skills, must evolve along the development of these qualities. Motor skills in strength sports, where sports achievements are associated with

heavy lifting, can be described as an ability to perform the movements of a physical exercise automatically. The level of the development of strength, speed, and flexibility affects the form of an exercise and its techniques. Consequently, performing barbell exercises in powerlifting occurs under specific conditions, and is characterized by a number of athlete’s actions: ● During an exercise with small and medium-sized weights as well as maximum and supra maximum weights, the muscular system of an athlete undergoes varying degrees of dynamic and static stresses. The heavier the weight is, the more muscles are involved in the movement. ●

The body of an athlete is an open kinematic chain with a large number of links where almost all the links have three degrees of freedom, ultimately providing subtle and varied movement coordination. With this in mind, for a successful exercise with great power output, it is necessary to put the joints and links in the body in an optimal position in order to provide the maximum synchronization of the muscle groups involved and allow for each muscle’s strength to be manifested.

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In the course of an exercise with weights, one can observe an alternation of superior, relatively calm, inferior, and static forces. There are short-term movements by inertia, as well as a manifestation of varied simultaneous efforts in different body parts. When one muscle group is actively moving and performing dynamic work, others maintain a certain position in the joints, thus performing static work. There are continuous changes and different alternations of dynamic and static operation modes of the body as a whole as well as its separate parts.

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Unusual balance conditions occur in the performance of exercises with a barbell. The general center of mass of the «athlete-barbell unit» changes continuously until the very end of the exercise by moving upwards and downwards, e.g. squat, over a limited area of support. Therefore, when studying the powerlifting exercises

technique, an athlete and a barbell must be considered as a single complete mechanical unit with a common fulcrum. An athlete must learn to move bars of different weights with the same technique. Only under this condition during trainings there is an increase in the level of development of physical qualities as well as technological improvement that are made automatically. A number of studies in this area have shown that first of all, the characteristics of the trained sportsmen’s kinematic, dynamic and rhythmic movements vary with increasing the barbell weight during exercise. When the barbell weight increases along with the changes in the spatial and temporal characteristics of the motion, you can also observe changes in the nature of muscle tension and effort. These changes are determined by a kind of «muscular sense». This feeling must be formed in order to work with different weights successfully. Secondly, the consideration of what occurs in competition must be made. When an athlete lifts a weight significantly exceeding what has been lifted in training, there is an extrapolation of motion control in the new structure, that is the ability of the nervous system to adequately address emerging motor tasks based on prior experience. The athlete’s body, which is learning different skills when lifting barbells of different weights, gains the ability to correctly perform exercises with a greater bar weight. The stability of the technique is related to its interference immunity, that is to say that the technique remains consistent and stable regardless of the competition conditions or the functional state of an athlete.

TECHNICAL STRUCTURE OF COMPETITIVE EXERCISES The technical structure of competitive exercises can be divided into three categories: the basis of the movements’ technique, their sequence, and details. The basis of the technique can be defined as a combination of parts and features of the dynamic, kinematic and rhythmic structures of the movement, which are necessary to execute a motor task in a certain way, i.e. a particular sequence in the demonstration of muscular strength; the right combination of movements coordinated in space and time, etc. Loss or violation of at least one or part of the elements makes the completion of a motor task impossible. The following requirements should be considered as the basis of the powerlifting movements’ technique: ●

● ● ● ●

Establishment of optimal joint angle, particularly in the most difficult sections of the path (e.g. in «sticking points»), when it is not possible to use inertia for the upward movement. Consistent activation of certain muscle groups, starting from the strongest and moving on to the weakest ones. Providing the most efficient direction of barbell movement with the optimal speed at every step of the process. Creation of the necessary conditions to ensure the effectiveness of the implementation of the final path of the bar. Creating the necessary conditions for supporting an athlete’s body (especially for their constituent body parts) to allow longer and more efficient transmission of muscular effort to the barbell throughout the execution of a competitive exercise.

The motor action technique as many other system has its own structure with a defining element. The execution of the main element usually occurs in a relatively short period of time and requires a lot of muscular effort. The main element of the technique is the most important and crucial part of a particular method of motor task performance. For example, in the high jump the main element is propulsion, coupled with fast and high gait; in throwing sports - the final effort; arching over the gymnastics apparatus - timely and rapid extension in the hip joints, followed by stopping. Performing basic movements in the execution usually occurs in a relatively short period of time and requires a lot of muscular effort.

Technique’s details are secondary movement features that do not disrupt its underlying mechanism. They depend on the morphological and functional characteristics of an athlete. An individual technique, which appears to be the most appropriate one for a particular person, is characterized by the proper use of the so-called technique’s details. In the theory and practice of physical education, the structure of a movement, which is a relatively stable element of a motor activity, is considered as a whole. The motor structure is the connection between movements in space and time (defined as kinematic structure) as well as the power and energy of interaction (defined as dynamic structure). When learning an exercise (e.g. lifting the bar), the kinematic structure is determined as the first step. Video shooting followed by its biomechanical analysis is used to study the structure. This makes it possible to determine the trajectory of the barbell, the center of mass of the athlete, the center of mass of the bar, a common center of mass of the athlete in relation to the barbell, and the location of the individual units of the athlete’s body. Additionally, the duration of the exercise and the various phases of motion, velocity and acceleration of the body in space, the rate of rising of the bar, etc. can be determined through biomechanical analysis. The dynamic structure is a natural interaction force (dynamic) of human body parts between each other and external bodies (surroundings, support, equipment, partners, and opponents). An analysis of the dynamic structure is carried out through various dynamic and strain gauge devices, which allows one to obtain objective data regarding efforts when lifting the equipment. For example, you can see parts of the body interact with each other and external bodies (suspension, partners, and opponents). This defines the application of force in an athlete lifting weights, inertial resistance, and the reasons for a particular motion. The anatomical structure determines the interaction of the osseousligament and muscular apparatus, the mode of operation of the muscles and the coordination of muscle contractions. Rhythmic structure is a pattern of the interconnection between movements over time, the ratio of movement duration, all motor act or its single actions.

The speed and duration of subsequent movements depend on how the effort is emphasized in a particular time. Parts of the movement differ in direction, speed, acceleration, and force. The rhythmic ratio is measured exclusively by time indicators. The rhythmic structure is used as a particularly distinct indicator of an exercise mastery, reflects a peculiar combination of temporal and spatial characteristics of the motion and shows the execution order of the individual phases.

PERIOD AND PHASE STRUCTURE OF BARBELL EXERCISES A Period is a time frame during which something occurs (starts and ends). In powerlifting, a period can be defined as a quite independent part of an exercise, during which rational conditions for the effectiveness of the subsequent movements are formed. In each period there are significant changes in the spatial, temporal, kinematic, rhythmic movement characteristics. A relative completion of some actions can be observed as well. Period consists of phases with common features. A motor task can be defined as generalized requirements for motor actions, which are determined by the nature of the impending action and the overall consistency of its stages. Each motor action of an individual carries out certain motor tasks. The task can be for example to achieve a particular end goal (such as a squat), or in the performance of a given movement. The completion of a motor task is the goal of motion control. A motor task appears to be a model of something that has not yet occurred («model of a future», according to Bernstein). Phase (in Greek - manifestation) is a smaller constituent part of an exercise that provides a solution to a motor task. A phase is a change in the muscle contraction form in major muscle groups that participate in a motor action. Previous phases create optimal conditions for the solution of the subsequent phase. According to NA Bernstein «... the end of any movement is the beginning of the subsequent one». Phase characteristics have a certain timing;

their duration depends on an athlete’s sports qualification, his height, and the barbell weight. If a period is divided into two phases, it solves a more general problem, the result of which extends to the subsequent, more significant part of a motor task and even to the whole exercise. The analysis of every single movement phase of the competition exercises technique allows for a better understanding of the kinematic and dynamic characteristics of movements, and helps to determine variability and stability for each particular phase. Someone can better understand and assess the quality of performance to determine the role of each phase of the whole exercise by knowing the requirements for each phase, establishing how they fit together, and how they have to be used as a part of movements for the general results of the exercise. Phase structure, considering the uniqueness of the individual elements and the sequence of motion, is also imperative for proper analysis. Elements are the phase components. If periods and phases are a general integral part of an exercise, accompanied by the technique of any skilled individual, the elements indicate an individual technique. The elements of the technique can be attributed to its detail. The process of implementation of all three competitive powerlifting exercises is conventionally divided into the preparatory, primary and final parts. The preparatory part is the starting position. It creates the optimal conditions for the implementation of the main part (the squat, bench press or deadlift), aimed at addressing the main motor task of an exercise. The final part (in all three cases) is the final position. It provides the necessary conditions for the effective completion of the main motor task. Biomechanical analysis is a process that analyzes the biomechanics of sports training. This form of analysis is needed to address the issues of movement formation as well as to determine the biomechanical patterns of motor actions. This analysis will look into the causes and consequences of technical mistakes in performing sports exercises, it will also find ways to help overcome them, and choose options for effective individual interpretation of the form of exercise and at the same time maintain the integrity of the technique. Basic techniques are required and objectively necessary for any athlete.

A good knowledge of the basic components of a sports exercise present an exceptional value in mastering the technique, which will solve its main tasks. Therefore, it is important to develop the basic requirements to be followed by all elite athletes and used on the basis of biomechanical structural phases. Detailed knowledge of the characteristics of competitive movements greatly helps in the development of the recommendations on how to improve the technique of power lifters, as well as in the construction of a modern training program. Efficiency in obtaining and visualizing information is easily achievable with the use of modern technologies, in particular, video analysis. The effect of video analysis is largely determined by the method of analysis and the way in which this information is relayed to the athlete or coach. The study of the kinematics in the movements of humans and animals using single- frame analysis of the images obtained through photo and film has been done since the end of the 19th century. One of the first studies of the kinematics of locomotion in humans and animals was conducted by J. Marey (1830-1904). The application of motion capturing allowed the analysis of the kinematics of human locomotion performed at high speed. The greatest development of this method, known as kymocyclography, was seen through the work of NA Bernstein. Its focus is the registration of moving joints of the human body with a fixed camera. Electric bulbs were attached to the joints of a test subject. The test subject then moved with the bulbs perpendicular to the optical axis of the camera. An obturator with a cut out window rotated in front of the open camera lens. The window of the obturator, occasionally appearing in front of the camera, made the trajectory of the joints movement intermittent. TECHNIQUE FOR TYPICAL BARBELL EXERCISES ● Squat Technique The Squat is one of the most efficient exercises in strength training in terms of gaining muscle mass. The movement is polyarticular and involves a great number of large and small muscles. Practically all the muscles of the lower body are engaged during this exercise. Different movement types shift the load on different muscle groups. The effectiveness of squats is indisputable, and the best proof of this is the

huge role that this exercise plays in training athletes in different sports. Squats are used in the training of a number of athletes. These include skiers, throwers in track and field (shot put, hammer, etc.), sprinters, jumpers, wrestlers, boxers, football players (both international and North American variants), as well as various other sports. The squat, which is the first competitive exercise in powerlifting, sets a proper mental attitude of an athlete toward the rest of the competition. It is impossible to achieve high results in the squat without effective completion of motor tasks. This concerns the need for proper technique, which mainly depends on the technical rules and requirements.

Rules and regulations for the squat Technical rules and order of the powerlifting squat are approved by the Presidium of the Russian Federation, which comply with the rules of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF): 1. The athlete shall face the front of the platform with the bar held horizontally across the shoulders. Hands shall hold the bar in any position in the bar inside or in contact with the inner collars. After removing the bar from the rack, the athlete must move backward to establish starting position. The spotter on the platform can assist the athlete in the removal of the bar. 2. Once the athlete has taken a fixed position with a vertical torso and the knees locked, the Chief Referee will give the signal to begin. The signal is a movement of the hand down along with the audible command «squat». Prior to receiving the signal, the lifter is allowed to make any movement which does not involve

a breach of the rules in assuming the starting position. 3. After receiving the Chief Referee’s signal to begin, the lifter must bend the knees and lower the body so that the upper part of the legs at the hip joint (proximal) are lower than the top of the knee (distal*). An attempt is considered as performed if the athlete’s legs were bent at the knees. The athlete is allowed only one decent attempt.

4. After the athlete completes the movement by recovering to an upright position, the Chief Referee gives the signal to place the bar back to the rack by the wrist movement backward and audible command “rack”. After this signal, the athlete returns the bar to the rack. 5. After the “rack” command, any motion of the feet is permitted. When returning the bar to the racks (for safety reasons), the athlete can be aided by the spotters. 6. During the time of the exercise on the platform shall be not more than five and not less than two spotters. First period - starting position (consists of two phases and five elements) Phase 1. Preparatory position Elements: grip the bar, step under the bar, place the bar on the shoulders and remove the bar from the racks Phase 2. Starting Position Elements: Step back from the rack, feet placement, adjustment of the barbell Second period - squat (2 phases and 2 elements) Phase 3. Lowering to the squat Elements: Lowering into a squat, achieving depth Phase 4. Rising back up in the squat Elements: rising back up in the squat, overcome the «sticking points» Third

period - the end of the exercise (2 phases and 3 elements) Phase 5. Recovering to the final position Elements: Complete straightening of the legs in the knee joints, recovering to the final position Phase 6. Return of the bar to the rack Elements: the return of the bar It should be noticed that the phases have certain time frames; their duration depends on an athlete’s skills, his height and the weight of the bar. The elements of the technique in most cases depend on the individual, morphological and functional characteristics, the proper use of which forms an individual technique for an athlete, making the technique (subject to all the general rules of good movement) ideal for this particular person. Omission or violation of at least one phase or component makes a motor task completion impossible. The analysis has shown that the application of the above kinematic structure of the squats technique in the training process increases its effectiveness and mastery.

Technique and structure of squats The ability to perform a particular motor action is based not only on the general physical fitness but also on the knowledge of the technique. The formation of motor action is subject to certain laws, the knowledge of which makes it possible to effectively build the training process. For example, in order to perform the motor structure of squats, a person needs to precisely

reproduce the technique phases of the studied action. In order to teach the basics of squats, it is necessary to teach an athlete to perform the squat in the correct order, taking into account the periods, phases and elements, including all the single tasks on the way to the goal. Therefore, the squat consists of three periods, six phases and ten elements. Squats consist of three periods of six phases and ten elements. In this section, each period will be described in more details together with visual examples. First period - starting position (2 phases and 5 elements) Phase 1. Preparatory position The first phase lasts from the beginning of the grip to the removal of the bar from the rack. Its motor task is to create the optimal conditions for the starting position.

Preparatory actions: 1. Grip the barbell Currently, the technical rules of the competition allow two grips of the barbell: with all the fingers facing one direction (false grip) with four fingers on one side of the barbell and the thumb on the other. Grip width of each athlete is individual and depends on his anatomy, the flexibility in the elbow and shoulder joints as well as muscle mass. Some experts believe that the bar should be kept wider than shoulder width nearly 7-10 cm on each side. 2. Step under the bar Stepping under the bar should be done in a quite narrow position, close to the standard position (standing), so that later, when backing up, the athlete will not lose his balance.

3. Placement of the barbell on the shoulders In powerlifting, the barbell is placed on the back of the rear deltoids and the middle part of the trapezius muscles, while slightly tilting forward. In order to retain the bar on this part of the back, it is rigidly fixed by the hands, increasing the weight on the wrist joints. This technique obviously shortens the vertebral lever arm and reduces the load on the back muscles. The greater the forward the back tilt, the less is the strain on the legs, and more on the back. Low bar placement on the back provokes an increase in the forward tilt. With this back position, the judge will not give the command to perform the exercise. 4. Removing the bar from the rack Removing the bar from the rack is performed by tensing the legs and back muscles. When placing the bar on the shoulders, the trunk muscles are tense and the shoulder blades are retracted. Phase 2. The phase begins with the athlete moving backwards from the racks and securing of the position. The motor task of the second phase is to adopt a good position for the firm (?) and effective interaction between the components of the kinematic chain of the athlete’s body. Elements: the athlete’s backwards movement from the rack, foot placement, fixing the barbell from moving from the racks and assuming the starting position. 1. The backwards movement This element consists of one or two small steps depending on the design of the racks. Then the athlete assumes a stable position so that the overall mass center is evenly distributed between the heels and toes of both feet, i.e. in the middle of the foot. 2. Foot placement The wider the position of the feet is, the larger the angle of separation in the feet will be, which will keep the thighs more parallel to the feet. In the narrow position with toes pointing more forward, the knees will move further forward, compared with having the knees wide apart. This is due to the fact that in the narrow position there will be a greater distance from the front of

the knee to the back of the thigh. And the greater is the distance, the more the knees have to move forward to adapt. With a very wide position in a powerlifting squat one can observe that the knees go forward slightly and the shins usually remain almost vertical. But the wide position of the knees will not work if the toes are pointing forward, because it causes the knee joint to be inverted, which is anatomically incorrect. 3. Adjustment of the barbell. The preparing for the squat is performed by tensing the arm muscles, «activating» the knee joints, a few quick breaths to lift the chest, as well as the final breath for about three-quarters of the maximum lungs capacity, and tensing the chest muscles. In order to create a hard muscular frame around the spine, the person should also slightly activate the rectus abdominis. Phase 3. Lowering into the squat This phase lasts from the beginning of bending of the knees and ends at the moment of achieving the proper depth (“breaking the angle”). The motor task of the phase is breaking a 90-degree angle, according to the rules. Mark Rippetoe suggests that the squat should be performed in balance, that is when the bar is right over the middle third of the foot. It does not matter where the barbell is located (on the back or shoulders), if the bar is moving along a straight path up or down, when performing squats with heavy weights, the barbell barely deviates from this position. If this happens, the bar is out of balance and slows down to the point where it will return to the balance position otherwise the balance position will be lost. Rippetoe also encourages the athlete to pay attention to the fact that at the beginning of the squat: ● all skeletal components that support the bar - knees, hips, and spine should be locked in extension so that the muscles have sufficient strength to maintain this position of rest; ● The bar should be directly over the middle third of the foot.

Phase 4. Rising back up in the squat The phase starts from the beginning of the leg extension in the knee and lasts until the passage of the «sticking point». The motor task of the fourth phase is the successful passage of «sticking points». The rise from the bottom of the squat starts with the extension of the knee joint with an average angular velocity relative to the thigh and shin of 2.0 2.2 rad\s. With the beginning of the knee joint extension, we can observe the reduction of the angle between the thigh and torso for 0,2-0,24s. N. Kichaykina and G. Samsonov (2010) suggest that this occurs as a result of the changes in the dual angles of lower extremities as well as the torso bent in order to maintain the necessary degree of stability in the balance. All athletes, regardless of their skill and experience, reach the same point («sticking point») when lifting with a barbell from the bottom of the squat. Usually, it occurs at a 30-degree angle between the thigh and the line parallel to the floor, passing through the center of the knee joint. At this point, the muscles of the lower limbs have to perform work in extremely unfavorable mechanical conditions, because, for instance, the activation of the gluteal muscles is reduced to a minimum, and the extensor muscles of the legs experience the greatest load.

Phase 6. Return of the bar to the rack The sixth phase starts with the beginning of the movement of the lifter to the rack and ends with the return of the bar on the rack. ● Bench Press Technique One of the main conditions to fulfill in order to improve achievements in the bench press, as in other competition exercises, is to master the technique.

This is associated with the improvement of an athlete’s ability not only to coordinate, but also to form precise movements. The technique of an exercise must be regarded as the unity of form and content. The powerlifting bench press (the second competitive exercise) is performed lying on a flat bench with a barbell in the hands. The barbell is first held with locked arms. Then it is lowered until it touches the chest and pressed up until full extension of the arms is reached and the final position is stabilized. When performing the bench press, the pectoral muscles are developed, as well as arm and upper body muscles. This is why it is used in the training of not only power lifters, but also bodybuilders, weightlifters, and representatives of many other sports. Bench press rules and regulations The technical rules and the order of the bench press are approved by the Presidium of the Russian Federation, which comply with the rules of the International Powerlifting Federation: The lifter must lie on his back with shoulders and glutes in contact with the surface of the bench. The movement of the feet is allowed, but they must be fully in contact with the surface of the platform or blocks (as far as the shape of the shoes allows it), but in any case they do not have to be lifted from their placement during the exercise. The bar should be taken so that the thumbs are wrapped around (not a false grip). This position is maintained throughout the exercise. The distance of the hands does not exceed 81 cm measured between the forefingers. Both forefingers must be within the 81 cm marks and the whole of the forefingers must be in contact with the 81 cm marks if maximum grip is used. Reverse grip is prohibited. To ensure a strong basis an athlete may use flat plates or blocks not exceeding 30 cm from the surface of the platform. For all international competitions, blocks of different heights: 5, 10, 20 and 30 cm, must be provided for leg support. The phase structure of the bench press One of the common problems of any competitive exercise training that needs to be addressed is the increase of technical mastery. In recent years, as already mentioned in the previous chapters, the kinematic structure of

techniques has received a wider popularity. The structural approach, when analyzing competitive exercises technique, allows to identify its phases in a new way, to have a fresh look at methods and technique mastery. In the structure of the bench press, specialists distinguish between preparatory, main and final periods. In the bench press, the preparatory period is the starting position. The main period is the actual bench press. The final period is the stabilization of the final position and the return of the bar to the rack. First period - starting position (2 phases and 3 elements) Phase 1. Preparatory position Elements: positioning of an athlete on the bench; grip of the barbell, lifting the bar off the rack. Phase 2. Starting position (1 element) Elements: fixing of the barbell with straight arms. Second period – press (3 phases and 7 elements) Phase 3. Lowering the bar to the chest Elements: lowering the bar until maximum speed point; from the point of maximum speed until it touches the chest Phase 4. Placing of the barbell on the chest Elements: stabilizing of the barbell in a fixed position Phase 5. Bench press of the bar Elements: the rise to the point of maximum speed, from the maximum speed point up to the sticking point, passage of the «sticking point», and press from the «sticking point» to the full extension of the arms. Third period- the final part of the exercise (2 phases and 2 elements) Phase 6. Bar stabilization Elements: stabilizing of the bar in the final position Phase 7. Return of the bar to the rack Elements: returning the bar on the rack

Technique and motor structure of the bench press The motor structure can be described as interaction patterns of movements in space and time (kinematic structure), as well as power and energy interactions (dynamic structure) in the movement system (D. Don, V. Zatsiorsky, 1979). Every athlete’s move should be consciously directed towards achieving a specific goal. The competitive exercise - the bench press on a flat bench - consists of three periods, seven phases and twelve elements. Each phase has its beginning and end, and includes elements with specific motor tasks. First period - Starting position (2 phases and 3 elements) Elements: positioning of an athlete on the bench; gripping the barbell, lifting the bar from the racks. Phase 1. Preparatory position The phase starts from the positioning of the athlete on the bench, gripping the barbell and removing the bar from the racks. The motor task of this phase is to assume the optimal body position on the horizontal bench before the starting position. Elements: 1. Positioning of the athlete on the bench: foot placement, barbell grip, arching of the back: a. Foot placement: an athlete can place his feet at any width, from the widest to the narrowest, under the condition that your feet do not touch the bench. b) Gripping of the bar: it is necessary to grab at the knurling. In the bench press the athlete can use two grips: wide (81 cm), i.e. the maximum under competition rules, under which the main weight falls on the pectoral muscles, and the medium grip (60-65 cm), which actively engages the triceps muscles and the deltoid muscles. The choice of the grip depends on the length of the arms and the power of the chest muscles of an athlete. The width of the grip is specific for each athlete. However, there is a common axiom: the wider is the grip, the shorter the path of the barbell from the chest will be with the consequence of doing less work and vice versa, the narrower the grip is, the longer the path of the bar will be requesting the athlete more work.

The starting position is taken with the shoulder blades pulled back (this greatly reduces the range of motion) and straight elbows. The athlete should try to arch the back as much as possible, keeping the shoulders and glutes in contact with the bench. The more arched the back is, the shorter the path of the bar will be and less physical effort will be required. The height of the arch is not limited under competition rules and depends largely on the flexibility of the athlete in the lumbar and thoracic spine sections. 2. Removing the bar from the racks with a spotter’s assistance Now, the athlete remove the bar from the rack with the central spotter’s assistance. The athlete lies down on the bench further away from the rack and the spotter hands the bar to the athlete who has extended arms. In order to execute this element, the bar should be on the rack at the height at which the athlete will be able to take the handover from the spotter without compromising the arch. If the bar is located too high, the athlete will have to reach for it, which will decrease the arch, increasing the length of the torso. When the bar is too low, the athlete will not be able to make a good arch, and will experience difficulties removing the bar from the racks. Taking the handover from a spotter, the athlete, slightly lifting the hips, moves the bar forward and takes it down as low as possible on the extended hands, pulling his shoulders blades and shoulders down. Then he lowers the hips on the bench. The front deltoids should be lower than the pectoral muscles.

Phase 2. Starting position (1 element) The second phase begins after receiving the barbell from the spotter and ends with the athlete in a stationary position. The motor task of this phase is to gain an optimal position for the effective realization of the motor potential during the exercise. Elements: Fixation of the barbell with extended arms The head, shoulders and hips (glutes) are in contact with the surface of the bench. The athlete’s soles and heels of the shoes touch the surface of the

platform or blocks. The first point of support in this position is the neck and trapezius muscles. The athlete has retracted his shoulder blades and they do not touch the bench, the shoulders are pulled down as much as possible. The leg and back muscles are activated, the hips lie on the bench. The command is given by the Chief referee immediately after the athlete is motionless and the bar is in the correct position. Second period - the bench press. This period is divided into three phases and seven elements.

Phase 3. Lowering the bar to the chest This phase begins with the bending of the elbows and ends when the barbell touches the athlete’s chest. In this phase, the athlete must make a counter movement of the chest to the bar without lifting his support points off the bench. The angle between the arm and the body should be approximately 45 degrees in the downward movement of the barbell as well as the press. Both moves are performed while holding one’s breathe. The speed of lowering the bar on the chest depends on the athlete’s anthropometric features (his arm length), the width of the grip, the height of the arch, the lowering speed and weight of the bar, as well as the quality of the bench shirt. After analyzing over 250 charts of vertical movement of the barbell, we have observed that the lowering phase duration varies from 0.6 to 3.0 seconds, which points the average at 1.28 seconds. The motor task of this phase is to select the most favorable biomechanical trajectory of the barbell movement towards the chest. Elements:

1. Start lowering the bar until it reaches the point of maximum lowering speed of the bar. 2. From the point of maximum lowering speed until the bar touches the chest. The lowering speed decreases to zero in this segment. The athlete meets the barbell with his body muscles, his legs and shoulder blades provide the biggest support. Many athletes press the barbell deep into their chest.

Phase 4. Pausing the barbell in a fixed position This phase starts when the barbell touches the chest and the athlete stabilizes it on his chest and ends with the moment of separation of the barbell from the chest. The motor task of the phase is to keep the bar on the chest in accordance with the rules of the competition and to switch the muscle work from the eccentric to the concentric type. Elements: 1. Keep a pause with a barbell on the chest After lowering the bar to the chest, the athlete must hold it in a fixed position on the chest, which means full stop. When analyzing the vertical movement graphics, we have observed that athletes’ pauses are different not only in their manner but also in duration. The minimum fixed pause duration was 0.3 seconds and the maximum was 1.5 seconds. The average duration was 0.70 seconds. According to the athletes, some of them begin the lift of the barbell from the same point where it was lowered, whereas other shift the barbell during the pause on the chest. The barbell can be moved forward (from the head) or backward (to the head).

Phase 5. Press The phase begins with the separation of the barbell from the chest (since the extension of the arms at the elbows) and ends with a maximum straightening of the arms at the elbows. The motor task of the phase is to be constantly engaged without losing power from the lowest point to the top of the bar movement. Elements: 1.

Raising the barbell to the point of maximum velocity

After the “Press” command, the athlete makes an explosive move, developing the maximum speed of movement upward of the barbell. 2.

From the point at which the barbell reaches the maximum speed of motion to the sticking point. The athlete’s task is to keep the maximum speed of the bar for as long as possible

3.

Passing of the «sticking point»

Correlation analysis has shown that the height and the time of the «sticking point» for each individual athlete depend on the qualifications, gender, the weight of the bar and individual maximum results in the bench press. It has been observed that with increasing skills, athletes in competitive conditions show a more pronounced «sticking point.» Probably, this phenomenon is connected with the fact that the weight of the barbell is close to the record result of the athlete himself. The «sticking point» is expressed through 0.4 - 1.2 seconds after passing the boundary position (BP) between the fourth and fifth phases. Depending on the anthropometric features of the athlete, the distance from the chest at this time is 11-18 cm. The task of the athlete is to keep the movement of the bar with the greatest speed. The successful passage of the sticking point depends on the ability of the athlete to maintain the speed of the press: the higher is the speed, the easier it will be to pass the «sticking point» and vice versa. 4.

Raising

the bar after passing the «sticking point» to the full extension of the arms at the elbows: the locked position. Lifting the bar after passing the «sticking point» to the full extension of the arms: the locked position. In the final part of the lift (approximately in the upper third) we recommend to make an abrupt breath. A number of highclass athletes reduce the arch at the end of the movement, so to say, «leave» the bar because it helps to activate your elbows at the end of the movement. The arms and the elbows extensions must occur simultaneously. The third period of the powerlifting bench press is called the final part. It consists of two phases and two elements: Phase 6. Stabilizing the barbell at the end position The bar stabilization begins after the complete and simultaneous extension of the arms at the elbows and lasts in a fixed position until the Chief Referee’s signal “rack”. The motor task of the phase is keep the fixed posture in accordance with the rules of the competition. Elements: 1.

Stabilizing the barbell in the final position: fully straightening the arms and the elbows, the athlete stabilizes the barbell in a fixed position.

Phase 7. Return of the barbell to the rack The motor task of this phase is to return the bar to the rack. Elements: 1. Return of the bar on the rack After the command “rack” the athlete returns the barbell to the rack by himself or with the spotters’ assistance, by shifting the center of mass of the barbell to the back behind the vertical projection of the athlete’s eyes.

CHAPTER SIX PRINCIPLES AND CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE In order to perform an exercise, the athlet should first visualize it in a rational sequence. In a training system there are specific principles of exercise classification. Classification is a system of grouping of similar objects into classes, groups, etc.; they are grouped based on common features and attributes. The classified categories are first separated into the largest groups (classes) based on their common features. Sub-categories are then separated into smaller groups based on more specific features they have in common. This grouping system is usually presented as a scheme (classification) and is used as visual mean of establishing a connection between the classified items. Matveev L. (1977) notes that one of the main features of exercises classification used in sports training is their similarities (or differences) with the sports chosen as a specialization. It is assumed that each physical exercise has more or less some constant principles; this is why according to the physical education theory there are three categories of physical exercises in all sports: Group 1 – competitive exercises; Group 2 – exercises for specific purposes; Group 3 – general exercises.

Competitive exercises are holistic physical activities (including complex set of activities) that serve as means for specific training and are performed in the same way as during competition conditions in a chosen sport. The term “competitive exercises” in this case is identical to the concept of “sport”. From a methodological point of view, a person should distinguish between the actual competition exercises and their training form. The first ones are done during actual competitions, in full compliance with the competition

rules planned for this type of sport. The latter would be more general in nature, but still similar to competition exercises. Specific and often subtle alterations to technique in these exercises are intended to emphasize particular training adaptations. Exercises for specific purposes belong to the second group of physical exercises. The latter would be more general in nature, but still similar to competition exercises. Specific and often subtle alterations to technique in these exercises are intended to emphasize particular training adaptations. The structure of these exercises is mainly determined by the character of a selected sport, indeed they are performed with heavy weights, which allow trainings with heavier loads. In this way, this exercise group appears to be the most important when preparing athletes. These exercises help to develop specific physical qualities, as well as athletes’ technical mastery of competitive exercises. General exercises are used to increase the level of general physical preparation of an athlete and to involve specific muscle groups (exercises with weights, gymnastic and acrobatic exercises, swimming, sports games, etc.). Therefore, group 1 and 2 provide basic load for an athlete, while group 3 provides additional load.

Depending on the primary focus of the exercises, they can be divided into introductory and developmental. Introductory exercises help master the technique as well as movement qualities, whereas developmental exercises are mainly aimed at developing physical qualities (strength, speed, endurance, etc.) and most of them have a localized impact. Within a training process, lead-in exercises are divided into three exercise groups: squats, bench press, and deadlift. Lead-in exercises for barbell squats include: ●

Squat to boxes of various heights or from platforms or pins of various heights ● Front squat ● Squats with one or two pauses

● Slow eccentric squat with rapid upward movement ● Barbell squat against a wall ● Squat negatives (slow control of a heavy squat on the way down, help up by training partners) ● Squat with chains ● Pyramid power rack squat ● Barbell partial squat ● Narrow position squat

Lead-in exercises for bench press on a horizontal bench: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Wide grip bench press Medium grip bench press Narrow grip bench press Bench press with a foam roller under the lower back Bench press with an extended pause Explosive bench press Speed bench press Bench press with pauses Slow negatives Arched bar press Bench press from a board on the chest (5-25 cm) Bench press with chains

Lead-in exercises for deadlift: ● ● ● ● ●

Deadlift to the knees Deadlift with one pause, bar above the knee joints Deadlift with two pauses, bar below and above the knee joints Deadlift on a stand (deficit deadlifts) Deficit deadlift with one or two pauses

● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Deadlift with chains Deadlift from blocks, e.g. bar below the knees Deadlift from blocks, e.g. bar above the knees Deadlift from below the knees to lockout Deadlift from pins (starting at lockout and lowering down slowly) Deadlift with slow return of the bar to the platform Competitive deadlift + deadlift from below the knees to lockout

General developmental exercises are performed with a bar, kettle bells, dumbbells, bands or gym equipment. They also include gymnastic exercises, swimming and sports games. The abovementioned exercises promote the versatile physical development of an athlete. In powerlifting, the exercises from this group are used to increase the level of an athlete’s general physical preparation as well as to develop individual muscle groups. These particular exercises affect individual muscles; their technical parameters differ from those of competitive exercises. They are performed with relatively small weights and serve as an additional mean for an athlete’s training. Therefore, they should be taken into account and analyzed separately (i.e. squats, bench press and deadlift). Developmental squat exercises: ● Cross-legged barbell squat ● Deep squats, standing on blocks, with weights (kettle bell, etc.) kept in the hands ● Leg press on a leg press machine, seated ● Hack squat machine ● Leg extensions machine, seated ● Hamstrings curl machine, lying face down ● Barbell jump squat ● Deep squat jumps

Developmental bench press exercises: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Incline and decline bench press Overhead barbell press (seated or standing) Overhead barbell press, wide grip (seated or standing) Dumbbell flyes (lying on a horizontal bench) Parallel bar dips (with leg or waist weights) Pushups with weight on the upper back (chest pushup style) Pushups with weight on the upper back (triceps pushup style) Pec deck (seated) Dumbbell bench press (lying on a horizontal bench) French press (bending the arms lying down, also known as Skull Crushers) ● Bench dips (seated) ● Barbell overhead extensions (standing) ● Pull-ups (wide grip) Developmental exercises for deadlift: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Deficit deadlifts Bent-over barbell rows Shoulder shrugs Hyperextensions Reverse hyperextensions Barbell good mornings (seated, standing) Barbell good mornings + squat (standing) Deep good mornings

● Barbell squats exercises Some experts consider the barbell squat a primary exercise, as it is one of the most important exercise for your leg muscles, moreover, it affects the back and upper body muscles. Competition barbell squat is indicated in the scheme as “S1”. The first level shows that there are 4 types of weights used in squat exercises: a barbell on the shoulders, on the chest, or overhead, and with weights held in the hands.

The second level presents 4 position types during squats: regular, heels together with toes turned out, wide, cross-legged (lunge position). The third level describes weight types (plates, chains, Smith machine, hack machine), the type of downward and upward movement (slow, fast), as well as squat depth (partial squat, to a box, regular, deep). Barbell squat exercises are divided into three groups. Group 1 – competitive exercise – barbell squat. The exercise is carried out in accordance with the standards and requirements of the competition rules of the Russian Powerlifting Federation (RPF) and the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF). Depending on the foot placement in the starting position, athletes compete in various styles such as “sumo” (wide foot placement), “conventional” (narrow foot placement), as well as many other foot placement styles.

Group 2 – exercises for specific purposes This group includes the following introductory as well as developmental exercises: ● Squats to boxes of various height SP: Standing with a barbell on your shoulders. Squat until you touch the box with your hips. The box is placed at 15-20 cm behind the athlete. Once you touch the box, immediately return to the starting position. The exercise facilitates fast mastery of the squat technique; it also helps control hip and knee movements. ● Front barbell squat to a box SP: standing with a barbell on the chest. Squat until you touch the box with your hips. The box is placed at 15-20 cm behind the athlete. Once you touch the box, immediately return to the starting position. It is recommended to use these exercises when learning squat technique. It helps keeping the

back straight (upright) and not rounded. ● Barbell squat with one or two pauses SP: standing with a barbell on your shoulders. While squatting, you should make one or two pauses for 2-3 seconds. This exercise helps master the technique of downward movement. ● Slow downward and upward squat SP: standing with a barbell on your shoulders, feet to shoulder width. Perform a competitive squat style in a slow manner. This exercises helps master the competitive squat technique. It is recommended to perform the exercises with 60-70% of maximum weight.

● Barbell squat against the wall SP: standing against the wall with a bar on the shoulders. Your toes should be touching the wall. ● Front barbell squat SP: standing, feet to shoulder width, the bar should be placed on the deltoid muscles. Squat and return to the starting position. This weight-lifting exercise develops the front thigh muscles (quadriceps) and helps improve the back arch (staying upright). ● Squat negatives SP: standing with a barbell on your shoulders, feet to shoulder width. Squat slowly with maximum weight (80-90% of personal record) for 6-10 seconds, then return to the starting position with an assistants’ help. ● Barbell squat with narrow position SP: standing with a barbell on your shoulders, distance between the heels – foot-width, toes to the sides. The recommended weight is 30-40% of maximum weight. ● Barbell squat with chains

SP: standing with a barbell on your shoulders, feet to shoulder width. The chain is attached to the bar. As the athlete is ascending the chains are rising gradually increasing the load that reaches its maximum at the top. ● Barbell squat in “pyramid” power rack from the sticking point

This particular machine gives an athlete the opportunity to learn and practice all the phases of squat technique. It allows to change the starting position of the bar: the higher it is, the bigger the weight the athlete trains with should be. This exercise is aimed at the improvement of the upward movement and increase of leg muscles strength when passing the sticking point. ● Barbell half squats This exercise is performed with maximum load (100-120% of the maximum squat results) and has a good effect on the athletes who “shake” during squats at competitions. Group 3 – general developmental exercises 1. Barbell squat with slow downward and fast upward movement SP: standing with a barbell on your shoulders, feet to shoulder width. Squat slowly and get up fast. The recommended weight for the exercises is 50-60% of the maximum. Engaged muscles: ● Primary muscle group - quadriceps, gluteal muscles ● Secondary muscle group - hamstrings, adductors, sacrum and lumbar muscles, abdominal muscles.

2. Split squat SP: Standing with a barbell on your shoulders, right foot forward, shoulders

back, and torso upright. Bend the knee of the right leg, and slightly bend the left one. Return to the starting position. The depth of a squat depends on the degree of mobility in the hip, knee and ankle joints of the right leg. The main idea of the exercise is not the weight but stretching of the quadriceps. The leg that is in front works the most. The exercise improves the flexibility of the hip and ankle joints. Engaged muscles: ● Primary muscle group - quadriceps, gluteal muscles ● Secondary muscle group - posterior group of thigh muscles, adductors. 3. Deep squat, standing on boxes with weights (kettle bells, plates, etc.,) in the hands or hung on a belt SP: standing on a box with your feet wide apart, toes to the sides, back is straight, slightly lean forward, hold the weights (dumbbells, kettle bell, etc.) in your hands positioned between your legs perpendicular to the ground. Bend your knees until your hips are below the knee joints level. Return to the starting position. Engaged muscles: ● Primary muscle group – quadriceps, gluteal muscles ● Secondary muscle group - hamstrings, adductor muscles, erector spine muscles, abdominal muscles

4. Barbell jump squats SP: stand with a barbell on your shoulders with your legs to hip width. Squat deeply by bending your knees. Jump up by straightening your legs. We recommend you to perform this exercise with light weight (10-20% of the maximum weight). The exercise develops explosive speed and trains calf muscles, mobility in the hip, knee and ankle joints. When jumping you need to ensure that the barbell is not separated from the trapezius muscles (bar doesn’t float off of your neck). Performing this exercise with heavy weight

may lead to injuries, as it can cause damage to the intervertebral discs. 5. Barbell calf raises SP: standing with a barbell on your shoulders, place your toes on a block, lower the heels to the maximum and raise on the bottom of your feet as high as possible. Pause at the very top and return to the starting position. Engaged muscles: triceps surae.

Bench Press exercises. Bench press is the second competitive exercise. It’s important for an athlete to develop the bench press along with their squat. Pressing exercises are considered to be the most effective movements when it comes to developing upper body muscles. They also lead to an increase of strength indicators, muscle mass and they strengthen connective tissues. Competitive bench press is indicated by “B1” code on the scheme. The first specification level indicates the type of weight used: barbell, weights. The second level describes the initial position of the press: from the chest or behind the head. The third level shows the body position while performing the bench press: lying down, sitting down, standing, or push press. The fourth level describes the following: grip type (straight wrist, reversed), torso angle, space-rhythm parameter (simultaneous, alternate, French press). The fifth level refers exclusively to bench press and describes grip width (wide, mid, narrow); mode (with pause, explosive, negative), range (with a roller, lockout), details in torso position (no arch), type of weight (arched bar, chains, bands), and bench inclination (head up or down). Exercises are performed with a bar from the starting position (SP): lying down on a horizontal bench. 1. Wide grip bench press SP: grip width is 85-95 cm. With this particular grip width the biggest load

goes on the pectoral muscles. The lifter must lower the bar slowly and closer to his throat.

Wide grip bench. 2. Medium grip SP: grip width is 50-60 cm. In this exercise, all the upper body muscles are engaged on the same level.

Medium grip press 3. Narrow grip SP: grip width is 30-40 cm. While performing this exercise, two fingers should be placed on the smooth part of the bar. This exercise brings a strong focus to the triceps.

Narrow grip press. 4. Bench press with a roller under the back SP: with a roller placed under the lower back. The roller helps assume the

proper torso position while performing this particular exercise, which allows for a rapid mastering of the arch technique. The height of the roller is from eight up to fifteen cm.

Bench press with roller

5. Bench press with an extended pause This exercise is performed in a competitive style with a three-five seconds pause on the chest. Due to this delay, the stress on the pectoral and deltoid muscles is increased. 6. Explosive bench press The exercise is performed with a slow lowering of the bar to the chest (on the count of one-two-three) and a quick press (on the count of one). The exercise helps increase the speed of bench press. 7. Bench press with a pause While lowering the bar to the chest or pressing it off the chest, the athlete should make a one to three seconds pause in the sticking point. If an athlete experiences difficulties while performing this exercise in other points of his range of motion, he should make additional pauses.

8. Reverse grip bench press SP: grip with the palms placed towards the athlete’s face. In this exercise, the weight used is not big, triceps and deltoids are more engaged than pecs. 9. Negative bench press SP: the grip width is the same as in the competitive bench press technique. The bar should be lowered to the chest very slowly (from five to ten seconds). As soon as the bar touches the chest, two spotters return the bar to the initial position. The exercise is performed with 90-100% weight. Not only the athlete strengthens his connective tissues, he also gets mentally used to bigger weights. However, this exercise heavily taxes the nervous system, thus it should be used with caution. 10.

Bench press with chains

SP: chain locks are put on the barbell sleeves. As the bar is being pressed, the chains gradually come off the floor; the weight becomes heavier, which increases the load. The chains allow for a steady, gradual press. The exercise helps strengthen the lockout of the bench press. 11.

Bench press with bands

SP: lying down on the bench. When lifting the bar, the bands are stretched to increase the load. Load reaches its peak at the top. The bands are used to create dynamic resistance, and allow for a steady press in which resistance is added smoothly as the weight moves up. 12.

Bench press with elevated legs

In this exercise, the legs are not placed on the floor but held in the air, there is no arch in the back. All this allows to disengage the leg and back muscles, thereby giving the upper body muscles a bigger proportion of the load. The weights used in this exercise are generally 10% - 20% lighter than during competition pressing with feet down and back arched.

Group 3 – general exercises for bench press. This group includes exercises for the development of the upper body and arm muscles, as well as leg, back muscles and abdominals. The exercises used are not only from gymnastics, but also from track and field, gymnastics, swimming, and others. Basic exercises for the chest muscles 1. Incline press SP: laying on the incline bench at 30-45 degrees angle with the head up, the back is pressed to the bench, the feet on the floor. Grip should be outside shoulder width. Lower the bar to the top of the pectoral muscles. When performing the exercise, the athlete must ensure that the elbows are turned outwards, away from the body. The bigger is the angle of the bench, the more the deltoid muscles will be engaged. By changing the angle of the movement, the athlete additionally engages the upper pectoral muscles, and activates the deltoid muscles. The optimal variant of the angle is 30 degrees. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group - upper fibers of the pectorals major muscle. Secondary muscle group – front of the deltoid, triceps.

Inclined press 2. Decline bench press SP: laying on the bench head down, the slope is 30-40 degrees, the back is

pressed to the bench, and the feet are pressed to the stand. Overhand grip, the arms are wider than the shoulders. The bar touches the body three-five centimeters below the pectoral muscles. Due to the shortened range of motion and mechanical advantage provided by the position of the elbows close to the body, it is possible to lift more weight than in the horizontal position.

Declined bench press Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group - medium fibers of the pectorals major muscle. Secondary muscle group - triceps, anterior fibers of the deltoid muscle. 3. Dumbbell bench press SP: laying down on a horizontal bench, the feet are on the floor. When performing this exercise with especially heavy loads, two spotters should pass the dumbbells while the athlete is laying on the bench. He takes the dumbbells at the chest level, the palms are positioned inward (the wrists should be placed so that the palms assume the bench press position). Then, the lifter presses the dumbbells in a straight line from the shoulders not allowing them to touch at the top. The main advantage of the exercise is that it provides a greater range of motion and, consequently, a greater impact on the muscles. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group - the pectoralis major muscle. Secondary muscle group - anterior fibers of the deltoid, triceps.

Dumbbell bench press

4. Incline dumbbell flyes SP: laying down on a horizontal bench, the feet are on the floor, the dumbbells are above the head on the extended arms with palms facing each other. Move the arms away from each other until the chest level or below. Return to the starting position. Throughout the whole exercise the arms should be slightly bent. In order to avoid injuries, the weight should not be too heavy as the exercise is aimed at stretching the chest muscles. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group - the pectoralis major muscle. Secondary muscle group - anterior fibers of the deltoid

5. Flat dumbbell flyes SP: laying down on a horizontal bench, the feet are on the floor, dumbbells are on extended arms above the upper part of the chest touching, the palms are facing each other. The arms movement is the same as in the exercise above. The arms should be slightly bent in the elbows throughout the whole exercise.

Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group - the pectoralis major muscle. Secondary muscle group - anterior fibers of the deltoid

Basic exercises for the development of the shoulder girdle 1. Overhead barbell press behind the neck (seated or standing) SP: sitting on the bench with a barbell behind the neck. Press the barbell from the overhead position. The abdominal and back muscles are stable, which means that they maintain the torso in the upright position Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – front and side fibers of the pectoralis major muscle. Secondary muscle group – rear fibers of the deltoid muscle, triceps. 2. Overhead barbell press from the chest (seated position) SP: seated on a bench, the barbell is on the chest. Press the barbell up by fully extending the arms, return the bar to the starting position by bending the arms. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – front and side fibers of the pectoralis major

muscle Secondary muscle group – triceps, trapezius muscle, upper fibers of the pectoralis major muscle 3. Alternating dumbbell press (standing or seated) Starting Position: seated on the bench, arms with the dumbbells are at the shoulders level. Lift the right arm with the dumbbell until it is fully extended. Then bend it and return to the starting position. Lift the left arm. When performing this exercise, it is crucial to lower the dumbbells as slowly as possible. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – front and side fibers of the pectoralis major muscle. Secondary muscle group – side fibers of the pectoralis major muscle, triceps. 4. Side dumbbell raises (standing or seated) SP: standing, the arms with the dumbbells are down, the legs are to shoulder width. Lift the dumbbell up to the sides, and then slowly lower them to the starting position by creating resistance. Do not swing the dumbbells; lift them only with the strength of the deltoid muscles. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group –side fibers of the pectoralis major muscle. Secondary muscle group – front and rear fibers of the pectoralis major muscle, triceps 5. Rear lateral raise (standing) Starting position: standing, the legs are slightly bent, lean forward by bending the body in the hip joints until the torso is almost parallel to the floor. The arms with the dumbbells are down. Raise the dumbbells out to your sides, and then lower them down to the starting position creating resistance throughout the whole exercise. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group –rear fibers of the pectoralis major muscle.

Secondary muscle group – side fibers of the pectoralis major muscle, trapezius and infraspinatus muscles, rhomboid muscle, teres minor and teres major muscle.

6. Front dumbbell raise (standing or seated) Starting Position: standing with the dumbbells in the arms. With the arm fully extended, alternate the lift to the front and lift each dumbbell up until its parallel to the floor. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group –anterior fibers of the pectoralis major muscle. Secondary muscle group –pectoralis major muscle, trapezius and serratus muscles.

Basic exercises for the development of the triceps muscles 1. French press (bending the arms lying down) Starting Position: lying down on the horizontal bench, the hands hold the bar with the narrow grip, the palms are on top. The legs are to the sides pressed to the floor. By bending the arms in the elbows lower the bar to your forehead or overhead. By extending the arms return the bar to the starting position. Do not widen the elbows. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – triceps. Secondary muscle group –chest muscles, deltoid muscle, forearm muscle.

2. Barbell triceps extension (standing or seated) Starting Position: seated on the bench, the barbell is on extended arms,

overhead narrow grip. Lower the bar behind your head; raise the bar in a semicircular arc motion to the initial position. A dumbbell can be used instead of a barbell. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – triceps. Secondary muscle group – deltoid muscle, forearm muscle. 3. Bench dips (seated) SP: hold on to the edge of a box or platform behind you; put your legs on another bench. Bending the arms, slowly lower the torso to the maximum. Then, by extending the arms return to the starting position. It is recommended to increase the load by putting a plate on your lap. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – triceps. Secondary muscle group – rear fibers of the pectoralis major muscle. 4. Dumbbell kickbacks Starting Position: standing bent forward on your right leg, put your left arm and leg on the bench, hold the dumbbell in your right hand with the elbow bent, the elbow should be directed upwards. Fully extend the arm. Hold the final position for one-two seconds and return the dumbbell to the initial position. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – triceps. Secondary muscle group –rear deltoids, latissimus. 5. Dumbbell triceps extension Starting Position: seated on the bench, the dumbbell is in the extended arm above the head, the elbow is close to the head. Lower the dumbbell behind the head until the forearm is parallel to the floor. Return the arm to the starting position. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – triceps.

Secondary muscle group – deltoid muscles, forearm muscles. 6. Triceps pushdowns (standing) Starting position: facing the pulley machine, legs to shoulder width, back straight. Grip the bar at the chest level, overhand grip, the arms are bent and pressed to the torso. By extending the forearms, slowly pull the bar until the arms are fully extended. Hold the position for one-two seconds in the lowest point of the movement, then, by bending the arms return to the starting position. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – triceps. Secondary muscle group – deltoid muscles, forearm muscles. The wide grip mostly engages the long head of the triceps muscle, while the narrow grip engages the lateral head.

Basic exercises for the development of the biceps muscles 1. Barbell curls (standing) Starting Position: standing, legs to shoulder width, bar on extended arms, underhand grip. Raise the bar as high as possible along an arc (the elbows are stationary and pressed to the torso). Pause at the top. Lower the bar along the same path until the arms are fully extended. If the fingers are spread throughout the whole move, all of the biceps is equally engaged. If the thumb is placed upwards, the lower part of the biceps is engaged. This exercise can be performed with dumbbells by bending both arms at the same time or alternating. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – biceps. Secondary muscle group – shoulder muscles, brachioradialis muscle, anterior fibers of the deltoid muscle, forearm muscles

2. Barbell curl seated over incline bench Starting position: the exercise is performed seated on Scott curl machine with elbows on the incline pad. The grip is to shoulder width, palms down. The arms are fully extended while the triceps muscle is pressed to the surface of the pad. Bend the arms in the elbows. Lower the barbell to the starting position. The triceps muscle remains on the pad surface throughout the whole exercise. It is recommended to perform the exercise with an EZ curl bar to avoid the excessive load on the forearms (photo 1.184-1.186). Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – biceps. Secondary muscle group – shoulder muscles, brachioradialis muscle, anterior fibers of the deltoid muscle, forearm muscles.

3. Dumbbell alternate bicep curl (standing). Starting position: standing, arms with dumbbells fully extended and placed alongside the torso. The back is straight; the feet are to shoulder width. Palms on the bottom. Bend the right arm at the elbow and raise the dumbbell to the shoulder. Slowly lower the dumbbell to the starting position. Repeat the exercise with the other arm. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – biceps. Secondary muscle group – shoulder muscles, brachioradialis muscle, anterior fibers of the deltoid muscle, forearm muscles.

Basic exercises for the latissimusdorsi muscle 1. Pull-ups (wide grip) Starting position: Hanging from the bar, wide grip, palms on top. Bend the arms; pull up the torso so that the chin is above the crossbar. Engaged muscles:

Primary muscle group – medium and lower part of the latissimusdorsi. Secondary muscle group – biceps, forearm muscles, serratus anterior muscle. 2.

Crossbar pull-ups with the back of the head touching the crossbar (wide grip)

Starting position: hanging on the bar, wide grip. Bend the arms; pull your torso up until the back of your head touches the crossbar. The movements are slow with one-two seconds pause at the top.

Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – upper part of the latissimusdorsi. Secondary muscle group – biceps, shoulder blade adductor muscles. The wider is the grip, the more the upper lats are engaged. 3. Lat pulldown (seated) Starting position: seated on the machine’s bench, arms up to the sides. The grip is wider than the shoulders, overhand grip, torso upright. The lat bar should be above the head. By bending the arms at the elbows, pull the bar down over the head until it touches the lower neck. Hold the bar in this position. By extending the arms, return the bar to the starting position (photo 1.196-1.198). Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – latissimusdorsi muscle. Secondary muscle group – rear fibers of the deltoid muscle, lower fibers of the trapezius muscle, rhomboid muscles. 4. Seated cable row Starting Position: seated, feet pressed to the machine’s platform, legs slightly bent in the knees. Torso upright, arms straight in front of you, the grip is to shoulder width, overhand grip. By bending the arms, pull the bar down to

your abdominals. Hold the position for one-two seconds and return to the starting position. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – middle and lower fibers of the trapezius muscle, latissimusdorsi muscle. Secondary muscle group – rhomboid muscles, rear fibers of the deltoid muscle, biceps muscle, forearm muscles. 5. Bent over barbell row Starting Position: standing, legs slightly bent in the knees, to shoulder width, torso bent forward. The grip is wide, the head is slightly raised, focus your gaze in front of you, the back is straight. Lift the bar until it touches the torso and return to the starting position. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group –, latissimusdorsi muscle. Secondary muscle group – trapezius muscle, rhomboid muscles, rear fibers of the deltoid muscle.

Deadlift exercises Deadlift is the final exercise in the power triathlon. The exercise has its own peculiarities: all the large leg and back muscles are engaged when the legs and back are straightened. The first specification level describes the starting position (standing, from blocks, on a stand, with Smith machine from the knees, seated), and the

movement (full, just shrug). The second level describes the starting position of the bar (below, lower, or at the knees level), and the final bar position (competitive, to the knees), grip width (regular, wide), weight type (plates, chains, springs), work rate (with pauses, slow return to the platform). The third specification level refers to the knee level deadlift, and indicates additional parameters of lifting the weight (regular lift, with a pause, to the knees plus competitive). Group 1- of the deadlift exercises includes a competitive exercise, similar to squats and bench press. It should follow all the norms and requirements of the international competitions rules. It is performed in “sumo” style as well as “conventional” style, and in a combination of both. Group 2 -of the deadlift exercises includes exercises for specific purposes, divided into introductory and developmental exercises.

Types of deadlift exercises. 1. Deadlift to the knees Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or “conventional” style. Lift the bar to the knee joints level, pause for two-three seconds. After the pause, return the bar to the platform. 2. Deadlift with one pause below the knees This exercise is a more complicated version of the previous one. Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or “conventional” style. Lift the bar until it is five-eight centimeters below the knee joints, pause for two-three seconds, then lift the bar to the lockout position.

3. Deadlift with one pause above the knees Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or “conventional” style. Lift the bar until it is five-eight centimeters above the knee joints, pause for two-three seconds, then lift the bar to the lockout position. 4. Deadlift with two pauses below and above the knees Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or “conventional” style. Lift the bar until it is five-eight centimeters below the knee joints; make the first pause for one- two seconds. Then, lift the bar until it is five-eight centimeters above the knee joints; make the second pause for one-two seconds. After the second pause, lift the bar to the lockout position.

5. Competitive deadlift plus deadlift from below the knees Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or “conventional” style. Do the competitive deadlift, then, without returning the bar to the platform, do the hang clean lift below the knee joints. The number of the lifts depends on the bar’s weight. This particular exercise helps improve the deadlift technique, develop the strength of the leg and torso extensor muscles, as well as the speed in the lockout stage. 6. Competitive deadlift plus deadlift from above the knees Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or “conventional” style. Do the competitive deadlift, then, without returning the bar to the platform, do the hang clean lift above the knee joints. The number of the lifts depends on the bar’s weight. This particular exercise helps improve the deadlift technique, develop the strength of the leg and torso extensor muscles as well as the speed in the lockout stage. 7. Deadlift to the knees plus competitive deadlift Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or “conventional” style. From the starting position, an athlete first performs the lift to the knee joints

level (once or twice), followed by the competitive deadlift. The exercise is aimed at the improvement of the competitive deadlift technique. It helps the development of the leg strength and torso extensor muscles.

8. Deficit deadlift Starting position: standing on a seven-ten centimeters tall stand. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or “conventional” style. It is recommended to spread the feet, as it would be done at competitions: “sumo” style, “conventional” style. When performing the deadlift from a stand, the bar’s path is longer, which increases the load on the leg and torso extensor muscles. The exercise helps in increasing strength when lifting the bar off the platform. It is not recommended to use this exercise when training beginners, as the starting position of this exercise is different from the regular one and can lead to the acquisition of the wrong technique. 9. Deficit deadlift with one pause below the knees Starting position: standing on a seven-ten centimeters tall stand. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or “conventional” style. Lift the bar to five-eight centimeters below the knee joints and pause for two-three seconds, and then lift the bar to the final position. 10.

Deficit deadlift with one pause above the knees

Starting position: standing on a seven-ten centimeters tall stand. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or “conventional” style. Lift the bar to five-eight centimeters above the knee joints and pause for two-three seconds, and then lift the bar to the final position. 11.

Deadlift with chains

Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or “conventional” style. Attach the chains to the sleeves of the bar, which will increase the bar weight when lifted. Consequently, the load on leg and back muscle will also increase. The load will reach its maximum at the lockout.

The exercise helps increase leg and back muscle strength at the lockout. 12.

Deadlift with chains with one pause below the knees

Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or “conventional” style. Perform the exercise in the same way as exercise 3. 13.

Deadlift with chains with one pause above the knees

The starting position and the exercise are the same as in exercise 4. 14.

Deadlift with chains with two pauses below and above the knees

The starting position and the exercise are the same as in exercise 5. General and developmental exercises General and developmental exercises for powerlifting deadlift consist of the exercises for back, leg, and abdominal muscle development. Exercises for back muscle development 1. Deadlift from the edge of the block (from a “rib”) Starting position: put the center of the bar on a narrow block. The grip is wide. You should straighten the body as fast as possible while lowering the bar as slow as possible. When lowering the bar, the legs should be slightly bent.

Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group - posterior group of thigh muscles, gluteal muscles. Secondary muscle group - extensor muscles of the spine (m. erector spinae), which is divided into three parts: a) bristlecone muscle; b) longissimus muscle; c) the iliac rib muscle.

2. Shoulder shrugs Starting position: standing, legs to hip width, dumbbells in extended arms. Raise the shoulders as high as possible, return to the starting position. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – front and medium of the trapezius muscles. Secondary muscle group - levator scapulae muscles, deltoid muscles.

3. Hyperextensions Starting position: lay down on the machine (face down) and stabilize the feet. Arms behind the head. Raise the torso until it is parallel to the floor. After lowering the torso, slowly raise it up until fully extended. The exercise can be performed with and without additional weight (barbell, plates, etc.) behind the head or in lowered arms. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group - extensor muscles of the spine, bristlecone muscle, longissimus muscle, iliac rib muscle Secondary muscle group - longissimusdorsi, gluteal muscles, biceps femoris. 4. Reverse hyperextensions Start Position: lay with your face down on the machine and grip the handles. Keeping your back straight lift your legs up, slowly return to the position in which the body will be in a straight line (the torso line is the extension of the legs line), hold this position for one-two seconds. You must avoid arching your back. 5. Barbell good morning

Start position: standing, feet apart, with the bar on your shoulders. Slightly bending your legs and keeping your back straight, lean forward until parallel to the floor, return to the starting position. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group - extensor muscles of the spine, bristlecone muscle, longissimus muscle, iliac rib muscle Secondary muscle group – latissimusdorsi, gluteal muscles, rear thigh muscles. 6. Seated barbell good morning Start position: seated on the bench, feet apart, with a barbell on your shoulders. Keeping your back straight, lean forward and return to the starting position. The angle of the movement depends on the athlete’s hip flexibility. The lower the lean is, the bigger the load on the extensor muscles will be. It is crucial to remember that leaning forward rapidly is dangerous as the athlete can injure the intervertebral ligaments. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group - extensor muscles of the spine, longissimus muscle, iliac rib muscle Secondary muscle group – latissimusdorsi, gluteal muscles, rear thigh muscles. 7. Deep good mornings (standing) Starting position: feet to shoulders width, weight (kettle bell, plates, etc.) in extended arms. Lean forward. The exercise is performed with your back straight and legs slightly bent in the knees. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group - extensor muscles of the spine, bristlecone muscle, longissimus muscle, iliac rib muscle Secondary muscle group – gluteal muscles, rear thigh muscles.

8. Barbell good morning plus squat (standing) The barbell and foot position are the same as in squats. On count “one” lean forward until the body is parallel to the floor. On count “two” squat from this position. The shoulders and barbell are stabilized and the hips are lowered. On count “three” lean forward from the squat. On count “four” straighten the back to the starting position. Exercises for abdominal muscle development 1. Hanging pike Start position: hanging from a crossbar or wall bar. Raise the slightly bent legs until your shins touch the bar. The movement is primarily done by the hip flexors. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – rectus abdominis. Secondary muscle group – obliques, iliac rib muscle, rectus femoris, adductor longus muscle. 2. Hanging leg raise Start position: torso hanging upright from the machine, arms bent. Raise the legs up until they are parallel to the floor. To make the exercise easier if needed, the legs can be slightly bent in the knees. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – rectus abdominis. Secondary muscle group – obliques, iliac rib muscle, rectus femoris, adductor longus muscle. 3. Flat bench sit-ups Starting position: laying on a flat abdominal bench. Arms behind your head. Legs bent in the knees (it will decrease the load on the lumbar spine region). Raise the torso. Engaged muscles:

Primary muscle group – rectus abdominis, especially the upper part. Secondary muscle group – obliques, serratus anterior muscle, iliac rib muscle, rectus femoris. 4. Incline sit-ups Starting position: laying with your head down on an incline abdominal bench. The exercise is performed as the previous one. The load can be increased by adding weight to the arms. Engaged muscles: Primary muscle group – rectus abdominis and obliques. Secondary muscle group – serratus anterior muscle, iliac rib muscle, hip flexors.

CHAPTER SEVEN THE ROLE OF STRENGTH IN LIFTING Strength is measured at different speeds. Explosive strength is fast velocity; speed strength is intermediate velocity; and strength speed is slow velocity. Consequently, isometrics are trained at zero velocity. Strength is a term that is mostly related to how strong an individual is, but what does that mean? Simply, strength is the ability to overcome or counteract external resistance of different loads with various rates of speed. In most sports explosive strength is essential. What is explosive strength?It is the ability to rapidly increase the force. The faster it’s increased, measured in time, the greater will be the explosive strength (Tidow, 1990). How is it developed?Because the resistance must be minimal, the simplest method in developing explosive strength is jumping

rope, which can start at any age. Young boxers and wrestlers use it for conditioning and coordination, plus timing. For example, bounding over hurdles of varying heights, one-leg and two-legged multi jumps are tried and proved methods. In 1957, Dr. Y.V. Verkhoshansky was watching a triple jumper and was amazed by the rebounding ability exhibited on the takeoff after each landing. This was perhaps the beginning of his vast study for shock training. Another means for explosive strength is depth jumps with or without a rebound because they play a very large role in concentric and eccentric strength development. Jumping upward onto a predetermined box height increases explosive strength. Jumping resistance of some form can be incorporated that may include hand and leg weights, weight vest, or dumbbells. Jumping upward from off the knees is excellent, and a barbell can add resistance. Remember the speed from which an individual moves depends on external resistance. All of these trainings are designed to increase the stretch shortening cycle or commonly known as reversible strength, refer to the jumping chapter. A strength coach should not duplicate the actions that occur on the playing field in the weight room. This is Special Physical Preparedness (SPP), and only General Physical Preparedness (GPP) force should take place. Many of the players I have worked with say that they practice too much and have too much contact in practice, reducing their abilities on game day. If a football coach’s mentality is to train more and more, an over exertion of physical and mental ability can occur. Strength coaches can learn to train smarter, not harder. Repeating the same activities leads to accommodation, which causes a decrease in response of a biological object to a continued stimulus. In training, the stimulus is physical exercise (Zatsiorsky, 1995). By doing the same speed exercises, an individual develops staleness in the Central Nervous System (CNS). (Kurz, 2001). To avoid this stagnation, the Conjugate System should be implemented because it changes exercises, training intensities and volume. This system includes changing the rhythm and frequency of sports tasks. Because of the short duration of most exercises and drills for explosive strength, maximal force cannot be attained, which is fully explained by the Hill equation for muscle contraction in Mel Siff’s Super training (2003).

Concentric Strength Raising weight concentrically without an eccentric phase first, builds a powerful start. This develops starting strength where maximal force can be generated in the first 300 milliseconds. This works for a powerful start after a long snap count, for instance by sitting on a box up to eight seconds, has the same concentric speed as normal box squatting that lasts roughly one second. Apparently, while on a box, some muscles are lengthening whereas others are becoming shorter, but never the whole muscles are held statically. This concept is very important and not to be overlooked. Eccentric Strength Eccentric strength is the ability to lower a weight. Certain authorities proclaim that an individual can lower as much as 50 percent more than he can raise. Static Strength Static strength or isometric strength is used when the exertion of a muscle increases but its length remains the same. Merely staying in a motionless position requires static strength; for example, belt squatting in the skater’s pose.

Speed Strength Speed strength is the ability to exert maximal force during high speed movement. (Allerheiligen, 1994). It is developed with low resistance, as these exercises must be very quick. For the development of sprinters, the weight should be 30 percent to 50 percent of one repetition at most for starting strength. Concerning sports where resistance is great, the weights should range from 30 percent to 50 percent of one repetition at most. This would include throwing events such as the shot and hammer throw or team sports

such as wrestling or football; the barbell should move at least 0.8 m per second up to 1.2 m per second. Weights for repetitions in this intensity zones should not be less than two and no more than six. After six, the bar slows down, thus force development is decreased. The rest between sets is based around an individual’s GPP level at that time. It is much better to do low repetitions and high sets. Why? A second repetition is more explosive than a sixth repetition and low ones are easier to recover from. While jumping is very important to increase speed strength to a great degree by adding resistance to the body, legs, or holding weights in the hands, a greater box height can be employed when the resistance is deleted. As an individual implements the Westside weight program, top strength as well as speed go up. Consequently, this system uses speed work and strength work while simultaneously increases muscle mass. When an individual is training and focusing on one type of strength for a period of three weeks, the other strength elements suffer. No one can lift a heavy weight slowly; therefore an individual must accelerate through the complete range of motion. Depending on the amount of resistance, determines how fast the object moves. External resistance is the key element that dictates how quickly a person overcomes that resistance. This is due to the force-velocity relation. Reactive Strength Reactive strength is the training ability used for jumping up and going from eccentric to concentric actions. Starting Strength Starting strength is measured by the maximal force that an individual exerts at the beginning of a contraction.

Eccentric Strength Eccentric strength has been the focus of many studies, but there is a little valuable feedback to increase the concentric phase. Eccentric strength can exceed concentric strength by 50 percent and isometric strength by 50 percent to 100 percent. However, I am concerned with raising a load, not lowering it. Many of the studies were done while lowering a load slowly, but if drop

jumps work, despite they are dangerous (and we know they are), the human body approaches 9.8 m/s, which is the force of gravity near earth. Why do coaches insist on lowering a weight slowly? Lowering a weight slowly accomplishes two things: it can make muscles larger, which is great for a body builder, but not for other types of athletes and it causes the most muscular soreness. Both are unnecessary occurrences for increasing athletic performance. A research proves that the hardest part of the squat is taking the barbell out of the rack and standing still. Once the eccentric phase begins, this enormous amount of eccentric muscle strength takes over. Most injuries occur on the eccentric phase because of the lengthening of the muscle in an eccentric contraction. Moreover, the series elastic component (SEC) is exposed under concentric work. The muscular pain from eccentrics is due to the damage inflicted upon the myofibrils and connective tissue elements such as the Z bands, which is a part of the SEC. Friden (1983) and Siff (2003) found that extreme soreness disappeared and the ability to perform eccentric work increased by 375 percent by continuing eccentric work, lasting eight weeks with three workouts per week. Eccentric work causes more hypertrophy than concentric work because of greater tissue damage. Static and dynamic are two forms of muscle work, which are similar to the timed relaxation of a runner’s leg while not touching the track. One would think sitting on a box motionless would affect reversal strength.

ENDURANCE Endurance is the Ability to Counter Fatigue Much has been written about endurance. We know there is more than one type of it. A person who is good at endurance is very effective at doing very little. I believe that sports provide anaerobic activity suitable for the person taking part. Endurance is only improved when someone is worked into a very fatigued state. General endurance is the ability to perform at low intensity or high intensity at any non-sport specific workouts for prolonged time. Methods of endurance training include the following: 1.

Continuous with variable intensity

2.

Constant intensity

3.

Circuit training

4.

Interval training

5.

Repetitive training.

Explosive Muscular Endurance Aerobic endurance is the amount of oxygen an individual can take in and use, if it is endurance that is sought after. Endurance has little use if muscular endurance or the ability to produce power for a certain time is insufficient. Muscular endurance is mostly tested with squatting or benching for high repetitions. The athletes with the highest absolute strength should also have

the greatest muscular strength with sub-maximal weights just by the fact that 300 pounds may be 50 percent of his one rep maximum while it would be 75 percent for a person that could squat 600 pounds at most. This is simple mathematics. For lower body endurance, we never use squatting of any kind, except belt squatting. It’s simply too dangerous because the back may fatigue before the legs, leading to injuries. Therefore, how do we work on muscular endurance? By power walking with pulling sleds, striding out as long as possible and landing on the heel and pulling through simultaneously; the first step and the last step are actually a start. By doing this, a person can develop a powerful start off the line of the initial step and build the ability to accelerate and delete deceleration at the end of the race. This works for a 40-yard dash, indoor sprinting, 100 meter, 200 meter, 400 meter or any distance including the marathon.

The truth about Endurance There are fundamental principles for training general endurance. The first principle is the length of the workouts, which depends on the sport or sport activities on which an athlete is concentrating. The second principle is the pace of movement. The desired rhythm must be maintained for a predetermined time or work interval such as 100 meters or 10,000 meters. Close attention must be paid to the rest interval for adequate recovery, depending on the level of preparedness of the athlete. In turn, the athlete should be able to perform at least 60 repetitions per minute with 25 percent to 50 percent of one repetition at most with light barbell exercises, belt squat walking or squatting with a lightened method. Know the goal being achieved. If strength endurance is the goal, heavy training will be useless if someone tries to do several repetitions with 75 percent to 80 percent weights. The end result will be a gain in absolute

strength. I prefer the low intensity approach with resistance. This builds general strength, general endurance, and thickens ligaments and tendons, containing kinetic energy to increase the athlete’s ability because that is where it is stored. Moreover, soft tissue injuries are reduced greatly. Low intensity workouts like walking with resistance and resistance sled work for pre-season training by reducing the load or the time of the actual work becomes a method of restoration. The goals are to raise work capacity and learn the best rotation of special workouts for general endurance for not only a single sport activity, but more importantly, each and every athlete has his particular needs that must be recognized. A last note is to do not use machines; they train only muscles not motion.

Lifting technique When striving for proper technique, our intentions are to lift the most weight in contest situations. Proper technique isn’t intended to produce a championship physique, but rather a world record performance. Technique is a tool for a lifter to build the best leverages possible. With good form, a lifter can stress his strong points and eliminate weaknesses. To analyze and build technical skills, the lifts can be divided into smaller segments: ● ● ● ● ● ●

Setting up Unracking the bar Ascent Reversing direction Descent Replacing the bar

For the deadlift, items 2 through 4 are unnecessary. Squat Most people think of the squat as a multi-joint movement. I see it as flexion of the spinal erectors and hip flexors with a slight extension of the knees. When watching a good squat technician, nothing moves but the hip joint. He bends only at the hips. His back doesn’t move, and his knees don’t go

forward. Other muscles push gradually throughout the lift, just enough to accommodate the external force that is being applied. The feet should point straight out and forward, forcing the hip muscles into play. It is hard to break parallel because the hip flexors and extensors are put into a very strong position for lesion. Turn the feet slightly outward if you are not flexible enough or if you have a thick waistline or have thick upper thighs. If someone walks with his feet turned outward, he has weak hamstrings. When squatting, think about pushing the feet out, not down. This ensures that the hip muscles are working correctly. Push the knees out the entire time, starting from the moment the bar is un-racked. This should be felt in the hips. Next, start pushing the gluteus to the rear as though searching for a chair that is too far behind to sit down. Arch the lower back hard, keep the chest and head up, and lean as much as possible, ensuring the bar stays as the center of gravity. To ensure correct bar placement, raise the chest and pull the shoulder blades together, which creates better leverages by placing the bar as back as possible. However, if the bar is carried too low, it causes a lifter to bend forward while destroying leverages. The hands should be wide enough to avoid bicep tendonitis, and pull the elbows forward again by contracting the shoulder blades together. Which position should be implemented? Everyone should box squat with a wide position. This builds important hip muscles. More than 30 years ago, the great Jim Williams said to train as wide as possible and for a lifter to pull his position in so that he can break parallel in a meet. While descending, the lifter should always squat back, not down. When pushing the gluteus back, the knees won’t go forward. By forcing the knees apart, the lifter is significantly increasing his leverages. After breaking parallel, he must first push against the bar. After all, the bar is what we are trying to raise. Pushing with the feet first is a mistake. This causes the lifter to bend over and most likely the lift, too. Breathing is important. First, take air into the abdominal section and chest. Hold the air until passing the hardest part of the lift, and exhale when nearing the top position.

Bench Press For training the bench press, use three to four different grips. Alternate from the index finger just touching the smooth part of the bar to a grip that is two inches wider than the grip where the little finger is in contact with the power ring. A lifter should take the bar out of the rack by himself, pulling the shoulder blades together and gripping the bar as tightly as possible. Next, pull the bar out of the rack as if you were doing a pullover. This activates the lats properly. Pull the bar straight above the point on the chest where you want to lower it. Lower the bar quickly in a straight line. Press the bar straight up and slightly toward the feet. This is the shortest distance to press and eliminates shoulder rotation. Rotating the bar back over the face can cause rotator and pec injuries. Never intentionally push the bar over the face. Hold your breath for up to five repetitions because holding the breath denies heavy training. Take in as much air as possible before lifting the bar from the rack, and lower the bar as fast as possible. Stop the bar as quick as you can and reverse to the concentric phase as fast as possible. When training, raise the head as the bar is lowered and keep the eyes on the bar throughout the movement. Use either a thumb less grip or a thumb grip. Technique during competition should be the same as in training with one exception. Use a maximum wide grip with a thumb grip and use a lift-off. As the bar is lowered, raise the head first and then the shoulders as if you were doing a sit-up. This enables you to bring the bar lower on the body without rolling it out of the hands.

Once the press command is given, slam the head and shoulders back down on the bench for stability. Keep the feet out in front of the knees and press down on the heels to ensure that the bottom stays on the bench. A longer torso is more advantageous for bench pressing. Therefore, avoid shortening the torso by arching the lower back. In addition, an extreme arch can cause an injury.

Deadlift When using the conventional style, center the bar over the joint of the big toe or a little closer. A good distance to start pulling is usually when the bar is three to four inches from the shins. If a lifter is too close to the bar, it may swing forward when pulling upward, which causes difficulties at the lockout. The shoulder joints must be behind or over the bar when starting the pull. Pull slightly toward the center of the body to keep the bar close to the legs and always push the feet out to the sides. For most lifters, pointing the feet out provides a stronger start because of the greater leg drive. This position enables a strong finish because of increased hip rotation. The back position can change because of the wide variety of body structures. Most lifters arch their lower back while rounding the upper back at the same time. However, don’t round the back too much because it will be difficult to lockout. A lifter may get stuck in the knees. It is an advantage as long as the bar stays close to the shins. The head position can vary anywhere from looking straight ahead to looking downward about six feet in front of the body. The most common grip is the standard reverse one. Some lifters use an overhand hook grip with the arms hanging in a straight line. As a lifter gets bigger, he may have to use a wider grip. When using sumo style in deadlifting, the width of the position depends on flexibility. The longer a person’s legs are, the wider his position has to be. Keep the hips as high as possible, ensure that the back is in the proper position pulling himself slightly lower than his optimal starting position. Push the hips against the bar and pull out the bottom. For breathing, keep the air out of the lungs—use abdominal breathing. This keeps the torso short for better leverages and builds stability.

NUTRIENT AND MICRO NUTRIENT FOR GAINS ● Anabolism and Catabolism Proper nitrogen retention is necessary for anabolism. Assuming in frequent meals the right amount of protein is optimal for proper nitrogen retention. Nitrogen balance occurs when the dietary nitrogen intake is equal to the amount of nitrogen ejected. An athlete trying to maintain bodyweight wants to keep nitrogen coming in at the same speed it is being excreted. Athletes who are looking for muscle mass gain, however, need to maintain a positive nitrogen balance. Lack of protein produces a negative nitrogen balance and leads to a catabolic state. Catabolism is controlled by glucocorticoid hormones: cortisol, cortisone corticosterone, and deoxycorticosterone (cortisol is the main hormone in this group). These hormones send signals to release stored proteins. This process is catabolism, which is the breaking down of muscle tissue. The aminoacid glutamine mitigates the catabolic effects of cortisol. When the cortisol is allowed to remain elevated after exercise, the protein breakdown continues. Optimal muscle growth and repair is achieved when the body stays anabolic. With optimal training and nutrition, more time will elapse being anabolic than catabolic. This is the reason why some athletes implement anabolic steroids. Anabolic steroids raise androgen levels, meaning that fewer cells will get the message to release protein. In turn, the body is in an anabolic state even if more often the diet is not optimal.

Therefore, it is important for athletes or coaches to fully understand what their bodies need in terms of nutrition before any start of hormone supplementation. After an anabolic steroids regime is started, I recommend tracking all changes in nutrition and performance, ensuring optimal gains if an individual chooses to take anabolic steroids. If someone’s diet is slightly off, performance gains can still be achieved while taking anabolic steroids, but they will not be optimal. Think about working hard on a body part. That body part is going to need amino acids to repair, and if a sufficient amount of

protein is not ingested, the body will pull amino acids from stores in healthy body parts, which is counterproductive. ● Protein Protein is the building block of the human body. It always bothers me how many athletes choose to slack off on their protein intake because protein is essential for gaining or maintaining muscle mass. It is impossible to recover from training or an injury optimally without adequate amounts of protein. The next time you are feeling over trained or your body is aching and you don’t feel like you are recovering optimally, take an honest look at your protein intake. When I was a young athlete, I did not understand the importance of protein intake. Unfortunately, I did not take enough in, but I trained and competed intensely. From the lack of protein, I suffered injuries that slowed down my progress and ultimately led to injuries that I have had to deal with since ever. This is what led me to study everything I could about nutrition and to run experiments on my athletes and myself. I wanted to help others avoid the problems I had incurred because of lack of knowledge in this area. Coaches make sure athletes understand the importance of protein intake, and athletes understand it is their responsibility to follow nutrition plans. Protein molecules have multiple functions in the body, including the building of muscle mass. They make up certain enzymes and hormones and serve as important regulators in the body. The body uses protein for building and repairing bones, blood, teeth, skin, hair, nails, and internal organs. Proteins help regulate blood pressure, blood sugar level, and metabolism. Looking at all the benefits, it is obvious why optimal protein intake is essential. The building blocks of proteins are amino acids, and adequate amounts must be available in an athlete’s rest periods after training for optimal recovery. Essential amino acids (EAAs) cannot be produced by the body and must be provided by food or supplementation. This is one place an athlete can take advantage. Since the body does not produce it, an athlete must take it in through diet. Because some athletes do not follow their diet perfectly, this is where someone can take an advantage in recovery that will help boost training and performance on a competition day. Non-essential amino acids are produced by our body and are not a priority to have in the diet. The body does not perceive a difference between mental and physical stress; therefore,

optimally training and eating is imperative, so the production of non-essential amino acids efficiently proceeds for recovery. Complete proteins are foods that contain all the nine essential amino acids. All dietary proteins are converted into amino acids by enzymatic actions in the digestive track. The chemical structure of protein is carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen atoms. take the nitrogen atom off the protein and one has the atomic formula for a carbohydrate, which can readily be used for energy. Proteins are our major source of nitrogen. Nitrogen is not found in carbohydrates and fats. Proteins can be used as an energy source: one gram of protein yields four calories of energy.

Protein Sources The bulk of an athlete’s protein intake should come from food. A supplement is just that, a supplement. In food sources proteins are found in animals and plants. Meat sources and protein from nuts also contain fat. Supplemented protein does play an important role: supplemented protein is digested faster and is easier to prepare and consume. It is also an optimal choice for post workout due to its faster absorption rate. Beef: Beef tenderloin, Filet Mignon, Sirloin, Flank Steak, Round Steak, Top Round, Roast Beef, Ground Round, Ground Sirloin, Ground Beef (93% fat free or leaner). Poultry: Chicken breasts (no skin), canned Chicken Breast, Turkey Breast, Turkey Breast Cutlets, Ground Turkey Breast (95% fat free or leaner), Canned Turkey Breast. Fish: Just about all kinds, the best are: Tuna (canned in water or fresh), Cod, Flounder, Halibut, Haddock, Orange Rough, Salmon (canned in water or fish, but limit to twice weekly), Red Snapper, Scallops, Shrimp, Whitefish, and Swordfish. Other Meats: Buffalo, Ostrich, duck, horse and venison. Worldwide there are many varieties of meat that are great choices of protein. Dairy: Eggs, Milk, Cottage Cheese, Yogurt Most animal proteins, such as meat, poultry, fish, eggs, cheese, and milk,

contain all of the essential amino acids and are therefore called complete proteins.

Protein Supplementation The following are popular sources of protein used to supplement protein intake. Egg protein:Egg white (egg albumin) contains a number of different types of protein: Ovalbumin, Ovotransferrin, Ovomucoid, Globulins, Lysozyme, Ovomucin, Avidin and some others. This different protein makeup enables the body to easily digest and absorb this protein. It contains all the essential amino acids required for optimal recovery after intense anaerobic workouts. Today athletes are taking egg white protein supplements to build lean body mass. Egg protein is also called a ‘perfect protein’ because it contains all the building blocks of life, such as proteins, minerals, vitamins and good cholesterol. It is also a rich source of BCAAs and arginine. Egg protein is a good choice for post workout. Fortunately, there are egg white protein products available, and of course, separate the yolks and cook the whites. It is the most affordable and complete protein available, making it one of the best choices for building or repairing muscle. Whey protein:It comes from milk. During the process of turning milk into cheese, whey protein is separated out. Whey has the highest amount of Lucien of all protein powders, which helps stimulate protein synthesis. Whey protein has the highest value in providing BCAAs: Whey Protein Isolate: Max BV of 157 is the highest yield of protein currently available. Its short chains and peptides make it available for absorption as quickly as ten minutes after ingestion. Do not exceed 30 grams of whey at one time. Because of its quick digestion rate, the body will not utilize all of it. Whey is more readily used as an alternate source of energy (That’s the reason why you have to use enough carbohydrates when supplementing with whey for bulking.). When on low carbohydrate diets, whey can be used as an alternate source of energy, sparing muscle protein and glutamine stores within the body. This makes it a great choice of protein when trying to lean up. Drinking milk

with whey, the casein slows the absorption of whey. Casein: This is the other protein that is isolated from milk. The benefit is that the protein synthesized from casein is used more directly in muscle-building than that synthesized from whey. Casein is the perfect complement to whey so combining the two is a great choice for athletes: The whey protein gets in a person’s system quickly, while the casein is long acting, so there is a quick and continuous influx of amino acids and both stimulate protein synthesis in the muscle. Casein is extremely slow digesting and continues to feed the muscles long after other protein supplements have been digested. This makes it ideal for the last meal before bed, or if it is going to be a while before the next meal. Soy protein:This protein is derived from soy beans. Soy protein can be used by athletes who are lactose intolerant, and it is utilized as a meat substitute for vegetarians. Soy protein can also be used for cooking instead of flour, producing high protein foods that are low in fat. Soy also helps lower your low-density lipoprotein (bad cholesterol) levels. Hemp protein:Hemp protein is a good choice for a vegan; it is basically just a milled hemp seed. Hemp protein is not an isolate, so it is hard to get a high amount of protein in a shake because of the high amounts of fat and fiber inside. Not ideal for an athlete with a high protein requirement. However, it does make a good additive to shakes because of the healthy fats and fiber.

● Carbohydrates Growing up as an athlete, it was common practice for our coaches to get us carbohydrate load the night before a competition. While this was a start, we did not talk about this optimally. This caused us to give up on a possible advantage to the other competitors or team that did not need to be given. Anyone who knows me knows that one thing that irritates me is giving up on a controllable advantage. This section on carbohydrates illustrates how to gain the advantage.

When carbohydrates are ingested, they are broken down into glucose, stored in the muscles and liver as glycogen. Glucose circulates in the blood, also known as blood sugar. Carbohydrates are an athlete’s main energy source; one gram of carbohydrates is four calories. Carbohydrates are not necessary for energy. The body can obtain all its energy from protein and fats, but it is essential for training and competing and is the favourite fuel. They provide energy more rapidly to working muscles than protein or fat. Carbohydrates can provide up to five times as much energy as fats during anaerobic training. Unlike fat and protein, carbohydrates can be broken down very quickly without oxygen to provide large amounts of extra adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through a process known as glycolysis during (an- aerobic) training. ATP is formed a lot faster from carbohydrates compared to fat. The average person contains only 250 grams (8.8 oz.) of ATP, and turns over his own bodyweight in ATP each day. This additional way of energy is important for maximal performance. The higher the intensity is, the more carbohydrates are used for energy. This makes carbohydrates extremely important for strength athletes and anaerobic training.

Carbohydrates are responsible for fueling the central nervous system (CNS) and brain. The brain uses 70 percent of the available blood glucose. Earlier in the book, the importance of the CNS was discussed, so don’t just employ the training methods to keep CNS peaked, but implement the nutrition methods as well. The brain and neurons generally cannot burn fat or protein for energy. This is why bodybuilders who are going through carbohydrate depletion phases during contest preparation have a hard time making decisions and concentrating. Their thought processes are impaired. If brain cells are deprived of glucose, an athlete will not have the mental edge needed to compete. Performance will suffer because muscles are controlled by the brain. If glucose levels are depleted enough, this will leave a weak and shaky feeling. If the nervous system does not have optimal levels of glucose, it can leave an athlete with impaired reaction time and leave him lethargic, which affects an athlete’s motor skills and ability to recover. Athletes need their CNS optimally fueled or he cannot perform optimally, another reason why athletes should not be on low carbohydrate diets.

Types of Carbohydrates Simple carbohydrates are made up of a single basic sugar. Table sugar or corn ones are all types of simple sugars. On consumption, these sugars are directly absorbed in the blood as glucose. Glucose enters the bloodstream at a rate of roughly 30 calories per minute. Glucose provides instant energy as it reaches different parts of the body through the blood. Cells absorb glucose and convert it into energy to drive the cell. A set of chemical reactions on glucose creates adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and creatine phosphate bond in ATP (ATP-CP). This is what powers the first eight to 15 seconds of activity. These are the fast acting carbohydrates found high on the glycemic index. Simple sugars are in fruits, vegetables, milk and milk products. In addition to these, honey, molasses brown sugar, corn syrup and maple syrup are rich sources of simple sugars. Some fruits like blackberries, blueberries and raspberries are low on the glycemic index. A sweet taste is not always an indicator of how fast a carbohydrate enters someone’s system. Types of Simple Sugars: Monosaccharaides ● Fructose: This is a monosaccharide found in fruit. ● Glucose: This is a monosaccharide found in fruit, vegetables and grains ● Galactose: This is a monosaccharide found in milk and milk products. Disaccharides ● Sucrose: This is a disaccharide (fructose and glucose) found in sugar cane and table sugar. ● Lactose: This is a disaccharide (glucose and galactose) found in dairy products. ● Maltose, dextrose: This is a disaccharide (glucose and glucose) found in commercial foods and germinating seeds. ● Malodextrin: This is dextrin (glucose polymer)

Complex carbohydrates, also known as polysaccharides, are digested slower than simple carbohydrates, so glucose enters the bloodstream at a rate of roughly only two calories per minute, depending on exactly what complex carbohydrate one is ingesting. Examples of complex carbohydrates are breads, rice and pasta. Starch and fiber are also considered complex carbohydrates, but fiber cannot be digested or used for energy. There are two kinds of fiber: soluble and insoluble. Soluble fiber lowers cholesterol and has many other health benefits. Insoluble fiber helps remove carcinogens and absorbs water as it moves through the digestive system, easing defecation. Woman should take in 20 to 30 grams of fiber and men should take in 30 to 40 grams of fiber per day. Starch is a very important energy source in an athlete’s diet because it is broken down and stored as glycogen. Foods high in starch include whole grain breads, cereals, pasta, and grains. How the starch is processed before we eat makes a difference in how fast we absorb it. The more processed it is, the faster it is absorbed. Processing is essentially doing some of the work of our digestive system. These foods are turned into sugar within minutes of being in our bodies. Flour (including whole grain flour) and most breakfast cereals are the most rapidly digested starches. If grains or legumes, such as beans, brown rice or whole barley, are not processed, the starch is broken down into sugars much more slowly. Some will never be turned into sugar and will reach the large intestine intact. These are called resistant starches. Carbohydrate Oxidation and Intake Endurance athletes need to keep in mind when setting up a nutrition plan that exogenous carbohydrate oxidation rates do not exceed 1.0 to 1.1 g/min (Jeukendrup&Jentjens, 2000). (The metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats into energy is referred to as oxidation). Highest rates of exogenous glucose oxidation and the greatest endogenous carbohydrate sparing were observed when carbohydrate was ingested at moderate rates (60 g/h) during exercise (Wallis et al., 2007). This knowledge implies that athletes who ingest a single type of carbohydrate should Consume about 60 g/h to 70 g/h for optimal carbohydrate delivery. A carbohydrate intake from a single source not greater than this does not increase carbohydrate oxidation rates

additionally, rather than the carbohydrates accumulate in the intestine, causing gastrointestinal discomfort. When multiple carbohydrates are ingested at high rates, greater maximal rates of exogenous carbohydrate oxidation can be achieved. In studies involving multiple carbohydrate sources (Jentjens et al., 2004abc, 2005ab, 2006; Wallis et al., 2007) very high oxidation rates were observed with combinations of glucose plus fructose, with maltodextrins plus fructose, and with glucose plus sucrose plus fructose. The highest rates were observed with a mixture of glucose and fructose ingested at a rate of 144 g/h. With this feeding regimen, exogenous carbohydrate oxidation peaked at 105 g/h. This is 75 percent greater than what was previously thought to be the absolute maximum. ● Fats There are many views on nutrition out there. Someone promote high fat and low carb diets while others endorse high carb low fat. I view nutrition the same way I perceive training: every component is necessary. Choosing the proper ratios is imperative for optimal nutrition. Using the Westside system of training, we execute maximal effort, dynamic effort, repetition method and recuperation methods every week. All components are important. It’s the same with food. Athletes need the proper ratios of everything: proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals. Remember, Westside does not train minimally, and they do not train maximally. They train optimally! We follow the same principal with our nutrition. Ingesting too much or not enough of any particular macro nutrient just leads to poor performance. Fat is essential for the optimal functioning of the body and brain. Fats provide essential fatty acids, which are not made by the body and must be obtained from food. Because of this, it is necessary to have an optimal fat intake. Fats are also important to control inflammation, blood clotting, and for building cells, cell membranes and nerves. All athletes need to keep inflammation under control; fats can provide a way to help with that. Healthy fats play an important role in keeping an individual on top of his mental game, and they help fight fatigue. As athletes, we want to be mentally peaked for training and competition. This is a controllable advantage we do not want to give up. Fats are calories dense: they provide nine calories per gram, more than twice the number provided by carbohydrates or protein. One pound of

stored fat provides approximately 3,600 calories of energy. All the energy from stored carbohydrates would supply, at most, the energy for a 19.8 mile run, but the fat that an average person has stored would provide energy for about an 800 mile run (McArdle, Katch&Katch, 1991). Keep in mind that an athlete’s aerobic system depends on fat for fuel. The more energy a person derives from fat, the more energy will be available. The less fat stored helps stabilize a person’s blood sugar levels (Maffetone 1990). When carbohydrates are not used for energy, fats become the primary source. Animal and human studies have consistently demonstrated that low carbohydrate, high fat diets consumed for more than seven days decrease muscle glycogen content and carbohydrate oxidation, which is balanced with markedly increased rates of fat oxidation, even in well trained endurance athletes. Endurance athletes might not notice a loss in performance, but strength athletes will. They will not get the intense muscle contractions needed for their sport.

Comparing athletes with untrained people exercising at the same intensity, the first ones with extensive endurance training have greater fat oxidation during exercise without increased lipolysis. The breakdown of lipids is known as lipolysis. It involves the hydrolysis of triglycerides into free fatty acids followed by further degradation into acetyl units by beta oxidation. The process produces Ketones, which are found in large quantities in ketosis, a metabolic state that occurs when the liver converts fat into fatty acids, and ketone bodies, which can be used by the body for energy. Lipolysis during stress occurs in the fat cells, increasing cholesterol during chronic stress. It also promotes water loss and curbs appetite, which may be good for a bodybuilder getting ready for a show, but not for an endurance athlete. For every gram of glycogen the body stores, the body will store up to three grams of water. This is how depleting glycogen stores and going into ketosis can cause dehydration. Ketosis also causes dizziness, light-headedness, and fainting, which will not help performance and can be very dangerous.

Essential Fatty Acids Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are where an athlete will get his biggest gain in performance and health when it comes to fats. Essential fatty acids must be taken in from the diet. Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids. Alphalinolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid, and linoleic acid (LA), an omega-6 fatty acid, are considered essential fatty acids because they cannot be synthesized by humans, and they are essential to be healthy. Nutrition plans should include omega-3 fats every day. Over the years of training and competing in different sports, I have found EFAs necessary to keep my inflammation down, so I can keep training. There are three essential fatty acids: Linoleic, Linolenic, and arachidonic acid. They are very important for cholesterol transport, blood clotting, and serum cholesterol and membrane structure. Omega-3 fatty acids are highly concentrated in the brain. There are Several Different Types of Omega-3 Fatty Acids: ● EPA and DHA—Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA): have a vast amount of research to back up their health and performance benefits. EPA and DHA are found in cold-water fatty fish. ●

ALA—Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) comes from plants. The performance and health gains are less pronounced from this form of omega-3 than EPA and DHA. The best vegetarian sources include flaxseed, walnuts, and canola oil. The best meat sources are fatty fish such as salmon, herring, mackerel, anchovies, or sardines, or high-quality cold-water fish oil supplements.

Omega-3 fatty acids benefit the brain in the following ways: ● Prevent and reduce the symptoms of depression ● Protect against memory loss and dementia ● Improved cognitive function (memory, problem-solving abilities, etc.) ● For the treatment of mental health issues and helps elevate and stabilize mood

Optimal omega-3 fatty acid intake can help you fight fatigue and can be helpful in the treatment of depression, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and bipolar disorder. Omega-3 fatty acids have also been shown to have the following benefits on the body. ● Reduced risk of heart disease, stroke, and cancer ● Reduced joint pain, and inflammation ● Supports a healthy pregnancy When supplementing with omega 3 fish oil, it is the total amount of EPA and DHA on the label that is most important to look for. Some bottles will say 1,000 milligrams of fish oil, but the EPA and DHA might only total 200 mg. I prefer using fish oil in liquid form. It is usually cheaper for the amount of EPA and DHA you get, and it keeps an individual from belching it up such as with capsules. I have all my athletes take fish oil supplements. The proper omega 3 fatty acid intake is not a choice; it is mandatory for performance and longevity in sport. Choose fish oil that is mercury-free, pharmaceutical grade, molecularly distilled, and contains both DHA and EPA. Higher concentrations of EPA are better. I also like using cod liver oil due to the high vitamin D intake along with high levels of EPA and DHA. For athletes I recommend three to five grams of EPA and DHA when healthy, but if injured I have my athletes go up from five to seven grams per day because of the anti-inflammatory properties. Good Fats Monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats are unsaturated fats known as “good fats” because they are good for the heart, cholesterol, and overall health. Be aware because just like with fats, there are good and bad types of cholesterol. HDL cholesterol is the “good” kind of cholesterol found in blood. LDL cholesterol is the “bad” kind. Ideally, keep HDL levels high and LDL levels low. High levels of HDL cholesterol help protect against heart disease and stroke while high levels of LDL cholesterol can clog arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease. This is important for everyone, but especially if an individual chooses to take anabolic steroids for performance enhancement. In turn, minimize the risk by eating optimally. If not disciplined enough to do this, then don’t take performance enhancing drugs. Polyunsaturated fats lower triglycerides and fight inflammation, but unsaturated fats have a lot of calories, so they need to be limited.

Most, but not all, liquid vegetable oils are unsaturated. (The exceptions include coconut, palm, and palm kernel oils.) There are two types of unsaturated fats: ●

Monounsaturated fats: Examples include the following: avocados, almonds, peanuts, macadamia nuts, hazelnuts, pecans, cashews olive and canola oils. ● Polyunsaturated fats: Examples include fish, safflower, sunflower, corn, and soybean oils.

Unhealthy Fats Saturated fats are the biggest dietary cause of high LDL (“bad cholesterol”) levels. The biggest influence on the total and LDL cholesterol is the type of fats eaten — not dietary cholesterol. Focus on replacing saturated fats with unsaturated fats. Saturated fats have no place in an athlete’s diet. We train our whole lives to be able to do few things that anyone else can do. Why not set yourself apart when it comes to the diet, especially with the performance and health gains you get out of it. Saturated fats are found in animal products such as butter, cheese, whole milk, ice cream, cream, and high-fat cuts of meat such as beef, lamb, pork, and chicken with the skin. They are also found in some vegetable oils palm, and palm kernel oils. These are all foods an athlete has not to eat. Trans fatty acids (trans fats) are the least healthy of all fats since they not only raise bad LDL cholesterol, but also lower the good HDL cholesterol. Trans fatty acids are found in fried foods, commercial baked goods (donuts, cookies, crackers), processed foods, and margarines, packed snack foods (microwave popcorn, chips), and candy bars.

Fat Intake A dietary fat intake between 20 and 25 percent in men is optimal while in women 20 to 30 percent is what we have found to be ideal depending on the type of training, the type of competition, and the athlete’s individual physiological formation. Fat is slow digesting and can be converted into a usable form of energy, but may take up to six hours depending on the type of fat ingested. I do not recommend consuming fat immediately before or during intense exercise. Fats have a high oxygen requirement. This is one of the reasons why they are best for slow pace aerobic activity. While these calories are less accessible to athletes performing quick and intense efforts like sprinting or weight lifting, fat is essential for longer, slower, lower intensity and endurance exercises such as easy cycling and distance running. Fat provides the main fuel source for long duration, low to moderate intensity exercises (endurance sports such as marathons, and ultra-marathons). Even during an high intensity exercise, where carbohydrate is the main fuel source, fat is needed to help access the stored carbohydrate (glycogen). It is in this way that protein, carbohydrates and fats are all necessary in the proper ratio for optimal performance.

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