Strategic Inventions of the Revolutionary War [1 ed.] 9781502610294, 9781502610287

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Tech In the Trenches

Strategic Inventions of the Revolutionary War Strategic Inventions of the Vietnam War Strategic Inventions of World War I Strategic Inventions of World War II

Strategic Inventions of the Revolutionary War

Strategic Inventions of the Cold War

Paley

Strategic Inventions of the Civil War

Tech In the Trenches

Strategic Inventions of the Revolutionary War

JOCK Ewing Caitlyn Paley

Tech In the Trenches

Strategic Inventions of the Revolutionary War Caitlyn Paley

Published in 2016 by Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC 243 5th Avenue, Suite 136, New York, NY 10016 Copyright © 2016 by Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC First Edition No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Request for permission should be addressed to Permissions, Cavendish Square Publishing, 243 5th Avenue, Suite 136, New York, NY 10016. Tel (877) 980-4450; fax (877) 980-4454. Website: cavendishsq.com This publication represents the opinions and views of the author based on his or her personal experience, knowledge, and research. The information in this book serves as a general guide only. The author and publisher have used their best efforts in preparing this book and disclaim liability rising directly or indirectly from the use and application of this book. CPSIA Compliance Information: Batch #CW16CSQ

All websites were available and accurate when this book was sent to press. Cataloging-in-Publication Data Paley, Caitlyn. Strategic inventions of the Revolutionary War / by Caitlyn Paley. p. cm. — (Tech in the trenches) Includes index. ISBN 978-1-5026-1028-7 (hardcover) ISBN 978-1-5026-1029-4 (ebook) 1. United States — History — Revolution, 1775 - 1783 — Juvenile literature. 2. United States — History — Revolution, 1775 - 1783 — Equipment and supplies — Juvenile literature. 3. United States. Continental Army — Equipment — Juvenile literature. 4. Military weapons — History — 18th century — Juvenile literature. I. Paley, Caitlyn. II. Title. E230.P35 2016 973.3'8—d23 Editorial Director: David McNamara Editor: Kristen Susienka Copy Editor: Nathan Heidelberger Art Director: Jeffrey Talbot Designer: Alan Sliwinski/Amy Greenan Senior Production Manager: Jennifer Ryder-Talbot Production Editor: Renni Johnson Photo Research: J8 Media The photographs in this book are used by permission and through the courtesy of: Jeff Rotman/Getty Images, spread on front, back covers and 1; Hulton Archive/Getty Images, 4; File:13 states - Guffefeld.jpeg/ F. L. Guffefeld/Wikimedia Commons, 7; File: Lexington Concord Siege of Boston crop.jpg/J. DeCosta/From the Library of Congress American Memory/Wikimedia Commons, 12-13; File: George Washington by Peale 1776.jpg/Charles Willson Peale (1741-1827)/Wikimedia Commons, 16; File: Portrait of George III, 1783, by Benjamin West - Cleveland Museum of Art - DSC08905.JPG/Wikimedia Commons, File: Thomas Gage.jpg/(National Archives Identifier) 531002 (https://catalog.archives.gov/id/531002)/Wikimedia Commons, 20; File: Us unabhaengigkeitskrieg.jpg/C. Ziegler After Conrad Gessner/Wikimedia Commons, 22; Ullstein Bild via Getty Images, 28, 48; Nancy Carter/North Wind Picture Archives, 30; Tracy A. Woodward/The Washington Post/Getty Images, 34; The Print Collector/Getty Images, 36-37; Georgios Kollidas/Shutterstock.com, 39; Brown University Library, Providence, Rhode Island, USA/Bridgeman Images, 41, 69; © North Wind Picture Archives, 54, 84-85; English School/Private Collection/Peter Newark Military Pictures/Bridgeman Images, 62; File: Battle of Virginia Capes.jpg/V. Zveg (US Navy employee)/US Navy Naval History and Heritage Command: Photo #: NH 73927-KN URL: http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/images/h73000/h73927kc.htm/Wikimedia Commons, 72; Fotosearch/Getty Images, 76; File: Benjamin Tallmadge by Ralph Earl.jpeg/Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 79; File: Culper Ring code.jpg/Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 80; Tupungato/Shutterstock.com, 88; Paul Paladin/Shutterstock.com, 92; Mashurov/Shutterstock.com, 95; Militarist/Shutterstock.com, 96; U.S. Navy photo by Chief Journalist/age fotostock/Alamy, 98-99; SSPL/Getty Images, 101.

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Contents Introduction 5 The Spark of Revolution One 17 From Civil War to World War Two 31 Obstacles and Creative Solutions Three 47 David Bushnell’s Submarine Four 55 James Jay’s Invisible Ink Five 63 Patrick Ferguson’s Rifle Six 73 The Inventions in Action Seven 89 A Lasting Impact Glossary 104 Bibliography 106 Further Information

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Index 109 About the Author

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The battle of Lexington and Concord sparked the beginning of the American Revolution.

Introduction

The Spark of Revolution

A

t the start of the American Revolution, the British Army was the strongest army in the world. The Royal Navy

was unmatched, too. The colonists, who lived in thirteen separate colonies, were scrappy and largely disorganized. They were making things up as they went along, including important rules, such as how America would be governed. Early Americans knew that in order to win the war they would have to adapt existing technology and develop brand new inventions. Meanwhile, British innovators were determined to keep pace with forward-thinking Americans. British soldiers, scientists, and intellectuals used their skills to contribute to the war effort. Technology developed by both sides determined the outcome of battles, the transmission of intelligence, and the confidence of generals.

The Spark of Revolution

5

Yet there was more than technology at play. The story of the colonists’ success in the face of stacked odds to establish the United States is a remarkable one. To understand it, we must look back to the roots of the conflict that intensified and ultimately became the American Revolution. The Gathering Storm In 1763, Britain won the French and Indian War after seven years of official combat. In fact, the battles fought overseas in Europe go by the name of the Seven Years’ War. The British squared off against the French in America—with the help of colonists fighting with local militias. Ultimately, the French lost and were forced to give up their land in North America. The war was a big victory for the British Army, but it was also costly. Soon, Britain began to understand that the defense and administration of the colonies was a considerable drain on its resources. The British government decided to offset some of these costs by introducing new taxes in the colonies. The colonists were already subject to British taxes in the form of customs duties, but these existing taxes on imported items were low. Many times these low taxes were not even paid because importers smuggled their wares into America instead. Britain’s new taxes were levied in quick succession. Parliament also decided to crack down on smuggling at the same time. The first new taxes ushered in were collected through the Sugar Act and the Currency Act in 1764. The Stamp Act followed shortly

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Strategic Inventions of the Revolutionary War

This map depicts the thirteen original colonies, which spanned the East Coast.

The Spark of Revolution

7

after in 1765. The Sugar Act was a tax that primarily affected rum makers in New England, while the Currency Act outlawed paper money and affected all businesses. The Stamp Act was an even bigger blow. It was a wide-ranging tax on various printed documents. These new taxes greatly affected business owners’ profits. Businesses were making less money and doing the same amount of work. In 1765, each of the thirteen colonies saw to its own affairs. Sometimes the colonies traded with each other, and sometimes they had no contact whatsoever. Yet the colonies were united in their contempt for the new taxes. They began to pull together to protest. They formed groups like the Sons of Liberty to organize their resistance efforts. Business leaders and citizens came together to boycott the tax. Delegates, or selected representatives, from nine colonies met at the Stamp Act Congress in October 1765 to make plans. The word congress was used back then to describe a meeting. The efforts of the Stamp Act Congress paid off. Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in 1766—but the worst was yet to come. When Parliament passed the Townshend Acts in 1767, the colonists were furious. They thought that the repeal of the Stamp Act signified the end of their taxation struggles. The Townshend Acts taxed household goods, including tea. No one could have guessed that tea would be an icon of the colonists’ taxation fight. Beginning of the Breakup British troops soon landed in Boston, where tensions mounted. On March 5, 1770, what started as a small mob jeering at British

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soldiers turned deadly when a soldier fired his gun. This was an instance of escalation that left five colonists dead at the hands of the British Army. Now the colonists were not about to back down. The first blood of the war had spilled, and it was getting to be time for a real fight. The colonists called the events of March 5 the Boston Massacre. It’s important to notice the language the colonists used to describe what happened in Boston. The British never referred to this event as a “massacre.” “Massacre” generally describes an event that kills hundreds or thousands of people. The colonists called it the Boston Massacre as propaganda. The British called it the Incident on King Street instead. In the aftermath of this “incident,” Parliament repealed all of the taxes on goods named in the Townshend Acts, except for the tea tax. This decision, along with a deal the British struck with the East India Tea Company, led to the infamous Boston Tea Party in 1773. The deal was designed to prevent smuggling. Smuggling was how many importers made their money. They brought goods to America secretly to avoid paying taxes. When three shiploads of tea arrived in Boston Harbor, colonists disguised as Native Americans destroyed the chests of tea and dumped them into the harbor. Parliament retaliated by taking over the governance of Massachusetts. Additionally, they closed the port. Parliament referred to this set of legislation as the Coercive Acts, which were passed in 1774. These laws went by a different name to

The Spark of Revolution

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the colonists: the Intolerable Acts. The colonists’ name for this legislation signifies exactly how they were feeling at the time. They decided they would no longer tolerate laws they felt were unjust. The Coercive Acts sparked a meeting called the First Continental Congress, which was held in 1774. Delegates from twelve of the colonies decided on more boycotts and wrote a declaration of rights. The Continental Congress would meet two more times to make important plans as the war progressed. Meanwhile, the Massachusetts colony formed the minutemen, an armed militia that prided itself on its readiness for battle—in fact, that’s how they got their name. The minutemen said they could be ready for battle in a minute. The British proved they, too, were ready for violence in 1775. This is when they arrived by ship in Concord, Massachusetts. Their plan was two-fold: they were to take control of weapons stored in Concord. They were also looking to arrest Patriots Samuel Adams and John Hancock in Lexington. Three couriers—Paul Revere, Samuel Prescott, and William Dawes—rode valiantly from town to town to bring news of the British Army’s impending arrival. The minutemen mobilized in response to this news. The war had begun, but this was not a war for independence. This conflict was considered a civil war at its outset. The men fighting did not intend to establish a sovereign nation. In 1775, colonists involved in the conflict were still hoping to secure more rights, especially the right to vote for representation in all taxation matters.

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Eight years of bloody battles followed between the British and the revolutionaries, called the Patriots. The Patriots had fewer supplies, less training, and no formal procedures, but the Patriots’ greatest resource was their people. Figures like Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and Samuel Adams played a big part in the war. More importantly, the Patriots were led in battle by General George Washington, who developed brilliant strategies and used the resources he had to the best of his ability. Innovation played a part in Washington’s success. However, the Revolutionary War was not a war decided by technological innovation alone. The role of technology was actually quite small. The colonial era was not a time of comfort or advanced technology. It would be over one hundred years before the light bulb was invented. There was no air conditioning or sophisticated medical care. However, against all odds, the Patriots succeeded. Farmers’ Tools Most colonists were farmers who used hand tools to raise crops. The majority of Americans rose at sunrise and went to bed around sunset. Their meals were usually simple. They ate boiled meats and vegetables. Importing goods was a lengthy and dangerous process by boat. Still, there was little manufacturing in the colonies. Most goods were imported. It took over a month to reach America from England by sea, a fact that played a role in the overall length of the war. These were simple times, but the Revolutionary War was a war of big ideas.

The Spark of Revolution

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Strategic Inventions of the Revolutionary War

A 1775 map shows the locations of the Revolutionary War’s earliest battles.

The Spark of Revolution

13

This doesn’t mean that other technology didn’t have a role to play in the war. We can view the Revolutionary War era as a time of great experimentation. Three experiments of the age— David Bushnell’s submarine, James Jay’s invisible ink, and Patrick Ferguson’s breech-loading rifle—had a tangible effect on the outcome of the war. Sometimes the invention’s impact was reflected by the invention’s success. Other times the impact related to what the invention failed to do. Either way, as statesmen debated political ideas that would shape our nation, inventors tinkered. Bushnell, Jay, and Ferguson developed ideas for new weapons and more sophisticated methods of espionage. Their innovations clearly shaped key battles of the war, and much more. They also played a part in conflicts that followed: Bushnell’s submarine led to technology we still use in modern warfare; Ferguson’s invention is an important part of the rifle’s lineage; and Jay’s ideas about secret messages can still be seen in contemporary ideas like computer encryption. In the end, Bushnell, Jay, and Ferguson represent the spirit of the conflict. They were individuals who put exciting ideas into action, much like those who charted the course of our nation. As each man experimented with physical inventions, others invented the idea of America. Each of these three men faced challenges and setbacks just as General Washington did as he developed the strategy that would determine the war’s outcome. In short, the stories of Bushnell, Jay, and Ferguson capture the very spirit of the American Revolution.

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The following chapter explores key aspects of the war itself. We’ll take a closer look at world powers, tactical figures, and the lives of soldiers. Next we’ll look at each invention in detail. How did these innovations work? What did they look like? Finally, chapters six and seven place the inventions in time. How did these three men shape the world with their ideas? How were their inventions used in the 1700s? How did their inventions shape the world? Ultimately, this book seeks to create a better understanding of the American Revolution, its key inventions, and the effects of the war on the fate of the United States.

The Spark of Revolution

15

George Washington started out as a surveyor. The American Revolution transformed him into the head of the Continental Army.

Chapter

One

From Civil War to World War

E

ven at the outset, the Revolutionary War was more than a conflict between Great Britain and her colonists in North

America. Much more was at stake for Britain than the loss of the colonies. King George III and his top advisors worried that the very status of Britain as a superpower was on the line. Key British strategists recognized that the conflict could leave the nation vulnerable to attacks from France and Spain, nations that were actively seeking retribution for the outcome of the Seven Years’ War. It was this spirit of revenge that the colonists capitalized on to achieve success. The decision to solicit help from European nations was just one of many tactical strategies that helped the Continental Army win the war.

From Civil War to World War

17

Strategic Figures Behind each strategic decision stood men on both sides of the conflict who had to make tough calls with dwindling resources.

George Washington The commander in chief of the Continental Army was a man whose name became synonymous with the birth of America. George Washington was a surveyor from Virginia. John Adams nominated him for the role of commander in chief at the Second Continental Congress. Washington was unanimously chosen for the position, and he accepted the post on June 16, 1775. Though he would serve as the head of the Continental Army for the duration of the war, Washington had some reservations about accepting the job. He wrote the following letter to his wife, Martha, which captures his mixed feelings:

I assure you in the most solemn manner that so far from seeking this appointment, I have used every endeavor in my power to avoid it, not only from my unwillingness to part from you and the family, but from a consciousness of its trust being too great for my capacity and that I should enjoy more real happiness and felicity in one month with you, at home, than I have the most distant prospect of reaping abroad, if my stay were to be seven times seven years. But, as it has been a kind of destiny that has thrown me upon this service, I shall hope that my undertaking of it is designed to answer some good purpose.

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Strategic Inventions of the Revolutionary War

George Washington was aware of his lack of experience as a leader, although he had proven his value when he climbed the ranks during the French and Indian War. What he lacked in experience he made up for in dedication to the cause. Interestingly enough, even Washington did not begin his service as the commander of the army believing that the colonists were fighting for emancipation from Great Britain. It is widely known that at the beginning of the war, Washington made a toast to King George III every night before starting his dinner. Washington’s nomination was more than the recognition of his potential and his dedication. John Adams had nominated Washington for a number of strategic reasons. First, it was clear that Washington had the respect of those involved in the Continental Congress and was unlikely to be challenged. More importantly, Washington lived in Virginia. His involvement indicated the unity of the thirteen colonies. If Adams had nominated anyone from the northern colonies, it might have appeared that the conflict was solely between colonists in the Massachusetts area and the British Crown. Today scholars look at Washington’s strategic decisions with a critical eye. It’s easy to find flaws in many of his campaigns. However, nearly all experts agree that Washington himself reflected on his mistakes and learned from his failures. During the Revolutionary War, he was responsible for some of the most daring attacks on British forces. More importantly, Washington was a commander who knew the value of morale. He worked hard to motivate his troops, even when that meant bending the

From Civil War to World War

19

truth for the greater good. Washington’s creativity and flexibility were critical to the success of the Continental Army. It’s difficult to name another individual who had a greater impact on the outcome of the war.

British Commanders in Chief Thomas Gage stands in sharp contrast to the legacy of George Washington. Gage was named the commander in chief of British forces stationed in America in 1774. He resigned just one year later in 1775 and was widely criticized for his failures. Thomas Gage arrived in Boston in 1774 to assume not one but two key roles serving the Crown. Gage was both the commander in chief and the governor of Massachusetts. King George III trusted that Gage would defuse the tension mounting in Massachusetts.

King George III (left) named Thomas Gage (right) as his commander in chief in 1774.

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Strategic Inventions of the Revolutionary War

Gage was given permission to do whatever it took to prevent the situation from worsening, but he was uncertain how to proceed. He hesitated to act and when he ultimately did, the consequences were overwhelming. By ordering troops to seize gunpowder and weapons at Concord, Gage sparked the American Revolution. Gage was not the only man to lose the position of British commander in chief. He was succeeded by Sir William Howe, who served from 1775 to 1778. General Howe was responsible for capturing Long Island, one of Britain’s biggest victories in the war. His other victories were achieved narrowly. General Howe faced criticism that he was indecisive. He also believed that that Continental Army was not as capable as it actually was, which led to staggering defeats. Sir Henry Clinton was Howe’s replacement. Clinton was commander in chief from 1778 to 1782 as the war began to turn in favor of the Continental Army. This turning tide led to Clinton being replaced by Sir Guy Carleton, who was the final man in the chain of British commanders in chief. Carleton served for just one year (1782–1783). He is remembered for ceasing action during peace negotiations, thus limiting the number of casualties at the end of the war. Mercenaries Regardless of strategy, a commander is only as good as his troops. In the case of the Revolutionary War, neither the Continental nor British forces ever had enough manpower. Constant shortages resulted in the use of mercenary soldiers. The British realized

From Civil War to World War

21

early on that they simply did not have enough soldiers. As a result, the British Army paid German states to send over troops. These soldiers came to be known as Hessians because a number of them hailed from the German state of Hesse-Cassel. Although thirty thousand Hessians participated in the war, Britain never had a political alliance with any of the Germany states. The arrangement was solely financial. The Continental Army also relied on mercenaries to boost their numbers. Professional soldiers around the world were enticed by offers to join the Continental Army. Secret agents like Silas Deane traveled to European nations, spinning tales of money and positions of high rank in the colonists’ Continental Army. These pledges were largely overblown, but that was a fact that many men did not discover until they arrived to fight.

About thirty thousand Hessians (seen here on horseback) fought in the American Revolution alongside British troops.

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Primary Troops Similar overblown promises were made at home to colonists to encourage enlistment in the Continental Army. However, manipulation was not one-sided. Many men took advantage of enlistment bonuses—so many, in fact, that it’s impossible to know how large the Continental side really was. This uncertainty stems from men who would enlist for the signing bonus, desert, and then sign up again for yet another bonus. Desertion was a big problem for Washington. Still, it’s estimated that the Continental Army was about 230,000 men strong at its peak. When Washington took command, each colony still had its own militia. The militias stayed separate from the Continental Army, and Washington did not place a lot of faith in their abilities. The Continental Congress appointed four major generals and eight brigadier generals under Washington, which helped him to organize his men. Washington took a divide-and-conquer approach. He put a lot of faith in his major generals, who had a good deal of autonomy. On the British side, about 3,500 men were already stationed in America before the war started. Once the war began, this number jumped to 12,000. The colonists had a clear advantage in that they could more easily recruit men, who could then start fighting immediately. Alternatively, Britain had to focus their recruitment efforts in Europe. Freshly enlisted soldiers then had to make the long journey to America. Britain also faced another obstacle: persuading potential recruits of the cause. Not all citizens living in Great Britain supported the war—many believed that the conflict was a mistake.

From Civil War to World War

23

The Life of a Soldier The life of a Continental soldier was a difficult one. Often times, they were very young. Some were as young as twelve or thirteen years old, although the majority were between the ages of eighteen and twenty-four. These young men heard tall tales about glory on the battlefield and wanted to be part of it. Besides the promise of excitement there was another big draw: soldiers were offered bounties of money and land due to be paid when the war was over. As the war progressed, the bounties were raised higher to attract new recruits. Sometimes bounties of up to $750 (about $20,000 in 2015) and hundreds of acres of land were offered. Not surprisingly, few soldiers actually received these bounties when the war concluded. At the beginning of the war, soldiers enlisted for a period of one year. Soldiers were entitled to a monthly salary, and this was another area where the Continental Congress struggled to keep their word. Soldiers slept in crowded tents through cold winters and often went without food and pay. They lacked supplies and faced many diseases. The money they did receive was issued by the Continental Congress and did not have any established value. In short, soldiers fought on the basis of trust and a belief in the cause. Navies The Revolution was not fought by armies alone, though. Navies of both countries had an important role to play. The British Navy was often referred to as the British Royal Navy. It’s not unusual to see ships’ names preceded by the letters HMS, which stands

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for His (or Her) Majesty’s Ship. These initials were a quick way to differentiate British ships from those of the Continental Navy. The British Royal Navy had been the most powerful and feared navy in the world during the Seven Years’ War. However, in the time after that conflict, Britain’s navy had lost some of its strength. Britain was running low on funds, which meant that they were not building new ships nor maintaining old ones. Still, the power of the British Navy was feared by members of the Continental Congress. The Second Continental Congress took steps to establish their own navy; however, before the Continental Navy officially formed on October 13, 1775, Washington found ways to fight by sea. Colonists may not have had warships, but many were merchants with trading ships. Washington encouraged merchants to add cannons to their vessels. He also saw piracy as a more effective way to reconcile the difference in the number of ships between the Continental and British forces. Continental Congress approved privateering, the name for stealing enemy ships. Unfortunately, most privateers did not join the Continental Navy when it was established. Instead they continued working independently to enjoy the financial gain. Most original members of the Continental Navy were soldiers, and many of them were displeased to be stationed on a boat. It should be noted that the primary purpose of the Continental Navy was not to stage attacks but rather to steal supplies from the British that the Americans sorely needed.

From Civil War to World War

25

The Battle of Long Island New York was an important strategic location for both the British and the Continental armies thanks to New York City’s port. The port was key for moving supplies, and the surrounding waterways allowed for efficient troop movement. Furthermore, it served as the midpoint between the colonies dotting the East Coast. Whoever controlled the colony of New York could position themselves to attack any location, which made it a prime target for the British. George Washington anticipated that the British might attack in the summer of 1776, and he was right. However, this advance knowledge couldn’t help him with two important facts about the attack. First, it was clear that it would take place by land and by sea. Second, it would ultimately involve ten thousand members of the British Navy and over thirty-two thousand soldiers against Washington’s twenty thousand men in New York. Yet the Continental Congress was determined to hold on to New York against the odds. Washington decided to station men throughout New York under the leadership of three trusted generals: Israel Putnam, John Sullivan, and Lord Stirling. However, he did not position men around the Jamaica Pass. The British moved ten thousand soldiers through the pass on August 26 to attack Brooklyn Heights from behind. On August 27, when the battle began, it became clear that the Continental Army would have to retreat or risk losing the entire war. At noon, they retreated into their fortifications. Washington instructed his men to take rowboats to safety under the cover of night and in complete silence, telling the soldiers that fresh troops were on their way to finish the battle. Their rowboats left at 4 a.m., with the last boat leaving at 7 a.m., just as the British watched them sail out of reach. Washington may have lost the battle, but he didn’t lose the war. Furthermore, the Battle of Long Island indicated to inventor David Bushnell that it was time to launch his newly completed submarine.

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The Declaration of Independence The signing of the Declaration of Independence signaled a major shift in the war effort. The document put forth the idea that reconciliation with Great Britain was no longer a possibility. Instead the war was now between two separate nations. As the name of their document suggests, the colonists considered themselves independent from Britain. The document was signed on July 4, 1776, after fifteen months of fighting. One important event led to the adoption of the declaration, which was approved by the Continental Congress two days prior to its signing. Britain passed the Prohibitory Act in December 1775. This legislation said that no one was allowed to trade with the colonists. More importantly, it said that the colonists were officially at war with Britain. With this act, the British treated the colonists as foreigners. Many revolutionaries saw the Prohibitory Acts as an opening. If Great Britain already considered the colonies to be foreigners, what stood in the way of the colonists calling themselves a new nation? Surprisingly, Britain’s use of mercenaries was another reason that convinced the colonies that it was time to declare independence. Colonists understood that mercenaries often used brutal tactics. Many people believed that the use of mercenaries indicated that Britain was not afraid to play dirty. They saw this decision as dishonorable, and it made it easier to accept their own drastic political choice.

From Civil War to World War

27

The Declaration of Independence was used to unify the Continental Army by showing soldiers what they were fighting for.

The Declaration of Independence was drafted almost entirely by Thomas Jefferson. It was signed by fifty-six Patriots, including men who would continue to shape the nation for years to come. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson both signed the document. They would later serve as the second and third presidents of the United States. Yet the declaration was not aimed solely at the intellectuals deciding the course of the war. George Washington

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gathered thousands of soldiers on July 9, 1776, to hear a reading of the document. Washington knew it was important for the men to know what they were fighting for. The Declaration of Independence was a big morale booster. It helped the troops understand that their actions in battle would secure a nation of their own. International Involvement France, Spain, and the Netherlands did not participate in the war until the late 1770s, when each nation saw the advantages of aiding the Continental forces. Their support, however, was initially lent in secret. France and Spain set up fake trading companies in order to send supplies to America. These two nations were motivated by revenge against Britain and by the substantial financial gain. Seeing that there was a lot of money to be made, the Netherlands later joined in on running supplies. Eventually secret support gave way to an open allegiance. Many historians believe that the Continental Army would not have won the war without the help of France. One very important man made sure that the French contributed to the cause: Benjamin Franklin. He successfully brokered a deal between the Continental Army and the European nation. Arriving in Paris in 1776, he lived there until 1785, becoming a well-respected member of French high society. His opinions were valued and his success as a diplomat secured public support from the French in the form of the Treaty of Alliance in 1778.

From Civil War to World War

29

Brown Bess muskets were one of the many inaccurate weapons used in the war.

Chapter

Two

Obstacles and Creative Solutions

A

fter years of fighting and major battles like those at Bunker’s Hill, Trenton, Princeton, Ticonderoga, and

Valley Forge, the war came to a close at Yorktown, Virginia. The battle for Yorktown was a long one, spanning nearly a month in the fall of 1781. It followed on the heels of a naval battle that proved to be a decisive victory for the Continental Navy. This battle, too, was a victory—but this time for the entire Continental Army. The Continental Army hadn’t had a clear path to triumph. George Washington’s men faced obstacles at nearly every turn. These obstacles inspired new ways of thinking and led to the greatest technological advances of the war. Before we look at each innovation in detail, we will examine the circumstances that necessitated their development.

Obstacles and Creative Solutions

31

Weapons of the American Revolution The weapons of the Revolutionary War era were inaccurate and brutal. American soldiers sometimes provided their own weapons, food, and other supplies. This meant carrying old, bulky guns. Muskets were the weapons most commonly carried by soldiers on both sides. Because the accuracy of these weapons was low, combat was usually fought at close range. Pistols were another close-range weapon favored by Continental soldiers and officers. American soldiers wielded tomahawks, sabers, and knives. Hand grenades also played a part in the conflict. British soldiers were better equipped. A common weapon for British infantrymen was a flintlock musket nicknamed Brown Bess. There are many different theories about the origin of the name Brown Bess. The strongest theory states that the weapon got its name from the way the metal on the gun was dyed brown so that it wouldn’t glint in the sunlight. This was the most famous kind of flintlock musket, though it did have its downsides. For instance, Brown Bess could not be fired if the powder got wet. On a dry day, a Brown Bess musket could be fired only three times per minute. The weapons described above had major flaws. Their primary flaw was that many weapons of the era were intended to be used when facing an enemy head-on. Close-range combat has many drawbacks and leads to bloody hand-to-hand combat, thus the use of tomahawks and the presence of bayonets on the ends of rifles. The other significant downside to the available weaponry

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Strategic Inventions of the Revolutionary War

was that muskets like the Brown Bess depended heavily on good weather conditions. However, aside from more guns, the British Army had another major advantage: cannons. Cannons did a lot of damage, and the Continentals had few. Washington made strategic decisions with his cannons in mind. Washington tried to protect the cannons in his possession and leverage battles to capture British cannons. Since the Continental Army had so few resources, they sometimes relied on captured British weapons to supply the army. Aside from cannons, mortars and howitzers were other important artillery used in the American Revolution. Unlike cannon fire, which was aimed at a target, mortar bombs exploded in midair. The resulting shrapnel could do serious damage to the enemy below the explosion. Howitzers were a cross between cannons and mortars in that they could fire bombs or cannon balls depending on the needs of the situation. Fighting Style and Terrain Many people believe that the Continental Army used guerrilla tactics throughout the American Revolution. Yet, for the most part, both the Continental and British armies fought in a rigid, traditional style. The myth of guerrilla warfare’s prevalence in the war stems from the way that the colonists fought at Lexington and Concord. During that battle, colonists gained an advantage by attacking from behind trees and other hiding places. However, as the war progressed, American forces used the common fighting style of the era. This fighting style involved linear tactics and seems

Obstacles and Creative Solutions

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Linear tactics involve troops facing off head-to-head in neat lines.

peculiar today because it was extremely formal. Generally, there were at least three rows of men facing off during a battle. The front line would fire, then fall back. There was not much space between each front line, which is why soldiers relied on their bayonets. Linear tactics were used by both sides for two reasons. Generals on both the British and Continental sides had been trained to use them. American generals had learned to fight under British generals during the French and Indian War. This training perpetuated the use of linear tactics. However, the limited range

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of muskets was the more pressing reason that linear tactics were used. Troops squared off head to head by necessity. If the enemy had been farther back, it would have been nearly impossible to strike them. Scholars point out that beyond Lexington and Concord some guerrilla tactics were used by both sides at the end of battles. As lines of men were depleted through casualties or when one side began to retreat, the other side sometimes took the opportunity to hide and strike in a less organized fashion. However, George Washington encouraged the use of linear tactics because he was eager to prove that he was a skilled and respectable general. While the use of guerrilla warfare is often overstated, it did have a part to play in the Revolution and put the British at a disadvantage. Another British disadvantage was the mere fact that the war took place on the colonists’ home turf. The Continental Army was more familiar with the landscape because Continental soldiers were fighting where they lived. Detailed knowledge of the terrain was a big advantage for the Americans. Many men had honed this knowledge when fighting in the French and Indian War. Additionally, the colonists may have had to move troops from battle site to battle site, but they did not have to travel overseas, like many of the British forces did. The “home court advantage” saved the Continental Army time. It also ensured that there would always be a limit on the number of British troops present in America. The British could not move all of their men to fight in the war. They were too worried about opening themselves up to an attack from other European nations to do so.

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This 1880 print portrays the British naval attack on Sullivan’s Island, South Carolina, in 1776.

On the Open Seas Despite the decline of the British Navy following the Seven Years’ War, the Continentals had much to fear on the high seas. The British had hundreds of vessels, elite training, and the capability to blockade ports. Blockades are a strategic maneuver that prevent

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enemy ships from entering or exiting a port. They eliminate an enemy’s ability to deliver supplies by boat and are often an effective way of “starving out” a city. The Continentals had to overcome the blockades of Boston, New York, and much of the East Coast throughout the war. This is why David Bushnell’s idea for a submarine was a stroke of genius. Bushnell believed his invention could eliminate the threat of a blockade. His submarine would move under British vessels and implant bombs to destroy them. Bushnell thought outside the box. He knew the colonials lacked resources to build enough ships for full-scale naval battles. Instead he thought of a way to attack secretly from below. Espionage Both Britain and America had intelligence networks. These groups of spies worked to collect important information about their opponents’ strategies. Keeping spies safe was literally a matter of life and death. Captured spies were tried and if they were found guilty, they were executed. This was the fate of a famous Patriot named Nathan Hale. Hale was captured and hanged by the British in 1776 after successfully infiltrating the British. When Hale attempted to bring his secrets

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Benjamin Franklin and the Turtle Much of what historians know about David Bushnell’s submarine, the Turtle, comes from a unique source. The construction timeline, difficulties Bushnell faced, and descriptions of the vessel are all found in letters exchanged between Bushnell’s mentor and Benjamin Franklin. Indeed, Benjamin Franklin was a big supporter of the Turtle project. He even described Bushnell as a “mechanical genius.” This was high praise from a man who was an inventor himself and one of the greatest minds of the Revolutionary War era. Franklin’s achievements are impressive. Before the war broke out, Franklin made huge contributions to the colonies. He served as joint postmaster general and was able to cut mail delivery times in half. The mail network he set up would prove handy for the Patriots, who garnered support by distributing letters and pamphlets throughout the colonies. Franklin had a scientific mind and was well known for his experiments, including his key and kite experiment of 1752. Franklin’s contributions during the war are similarly well known. In fact, it was Franklin who helped negotiate peace at the war’s conclusion. Benjamin Franklin was also one of the first members of the Continental Congress to press for a Continental Navy. He knew that the Patriots needed innovative ways to contend with the British, who had the strongest navy in the world. Franklin was intrigued after receiving letters from Benjamin Gale, Bushnell’s close friend who championed his invention. Gale even asked Franklin’s advice about overcoming problems in Bushnell’s design.

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A friend of David Bushnell’s turned to renowned inventor Benjamin Franklin for advice about the Turtle.

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back to the Continental forces, he was caught. General William Howe, the commander of the British Army, found proof of Hale’s espionage in the documents Hale was carrying. Hale is famous for his last words, which were, “I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country.” Prior to Hale’s capture, there was no secure way for spies to transmit information. Information was communicated in person or through letters. Letters were delivered by mail or by courier. No matter the method of delivery, there was a good chance that letters containing critical information might be intercepted. There was a great need for a new method of communicating enemy secrets. The threat of traitors contributed to this need. Spy rings were sometimes susceptible to double agents, who were working for the enemy. Other times, the colonies’ Continental soldiers turned against them. The Revolutionary War brought us the most infamous example of one such traitor: Benedict Arnold. Arnold was an American general whose traitorous acts were motivated by money and disagreements with his superior officers. Arnold had been a successful general, proving his worth in battles like the Battle of Ticonderoga. Then, in 1780, he made plans to let the British take West Point, the fort that he commanded. Luckily for the Americans, Arnold’s plan was discovered before it was too late. Benedict Arnold narrowly escaped capture and joined the British Army. He served the British for the remainder of the war and moved to England after the conclusion of the American Revolution. Arnold served as a warning for American spies. He demonstrated

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Benedict Arnold’s name is now synonymous with “traitor.”

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George Washington’s “Medicine” George Washington had a number of important responsibilities during the American Revolution. He was the commander in chief of Continental forces, the head of intelligence operations, and a member of the Continental Congress. Surprisingly, Washington also played a big part in the development of Bushnell’s submarine and James Jay’s invisible ink. Washington supported Bushnell’s efforts as soon as he learned of them. Yet Washington’s involvement in Jay’s ink was even greater. It was Washington who first suggested that his spy rings use invisible ink to conceal messages. George Washington used James Jay’s invisible ink throughout the war to communicate with his spies. Washington sometimes discussed the ink in letters to other Patriots, but he never called it invisible ink. He used the code word “medicine” instead. Many of Washington’s letters refer to this medicine, and through these letters historians can trace Washington’s frustration as his supply ran low. Washington was often concerned about having enough invisible ink on hand, so he gave James Jay permission to take anything he needed from hospitals in order to make more. This permission shows just how much Washington valued Jay’s invention. He realized that access to British secrets could give the Continental Army a big advantage and prioritized Jay’s access to chemicals used in medicines. Abraham Woodhull was another reason that Washington had to worry about the supply of invisible ink. Woodhull, alias Samuel Culper, was a member of the Culper spy ring and therefore used invisible ink for his correspondences. According to many accounts, Woodhull was frugal with his invisible ink and developed a stockpile, a fact that displeased Washington.

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that it was impossible to know who was trustworthy and who was not. Lack of trust, even between tight-knit spy networks, reinforced a need to conceal information. How could information be transmitted from spy to spy until it reached Washington and other leaders unless spies knew the information they were spreading? James Jay’s invisible ink was one great solution to this sizable problem. Medical Care and the State of Technology The medical care available to colonists is also a good reference point for the available technology in the 1770s. Doctors in the colonies did not always have medical licenses. In fact, in 1775 only 400 out of 3,500 doctors had medical degrees. Doctors did not understand germs and usually attributed illness to changes in the weather, bad smells, or wearing wet clothing. In reality, poor hygiene contributed to the spread of disease. During the war, diseases like smallpox, malaria, scabies, and venereal disease spread rapidly. Soldiers were from different parts of the country and had been exposed to different illnesses. As they fought together, they also infected one another. One estimate says that disease caused up to 90 percent of the lowest ranking soldiers’ deaths during the war. Many historians point out that the Revolutionary War was not characterized by major technological developments; however, this is not to say there weren’t some advances at the time. George Washington insisted that all troops be inoculated against smallpox,

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for example. In fact, many scholars say that Washington’s use of inoculations was the most important technological achievement of the war. There were many reasons for the lack of high-profile advancements during the American Revolution. A big reason was that neither Britain nor the Patriots had many resources at the beginning of the conflict. Of course, a closer look yields the inventions of Bushnell, Jay, and Ferguson. These three men show that a lot can be accomplished with few resources, and that necessity is indeed “the mother of invention.” The Inventions of Bushnell, Jay, and Ferguson David Bushnell, James Jay, and Patrick Ferguson were all inventors of the late 1770s motivated by their patriotism. Bushnell and Jay were patriotic to the American cause. Alternatively, Ferguson was patriotic to his native Great Britain. The men might have had differing allegiances, but their processes were much the same. Each man experimented widely before perfecting his invention, and each man innovated with practical applications in mind. The men knew that their inventions would be of great use during war. David Bushnell invented the first-ever fully operational submarine. Bushnell was aware that the war would have to be fought well on both land and sea for the Americans to achieve victory. He conducted extensive research, overcame many obstacles, and was in charge of training the world’s first submarine pilots.

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After much experimentation, James Jay developed the most sophisticated version of invisible ink that the world had ever seen. Jay’s ink was used as a means of secret communication. It proved invaluable to the infamous Culper spy ring. Jay had completed his recipe before the war broke out, but he was happy to see the ink used for the American cause. Patrick Ferguson improved upon an earlier rifle design to produce a breech-loading rifle all his own. He refined his rifle until it successfully addressed the drawbacks of the era’s frontloading rifles. His weapon was fast, accurate, and weatherproof. None of these inventions were wholly new, but they addressed the shortcomings of existing weaponry, spy tactics, and naval warfare. Their influence on the war might be subtle, but it was far reaching. Their influence on warfare today is indisputable.

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David Bushnell’s submarine looks quite different from today’s submersibles, as this illustration shows.

Chapter

Three

David Bushnell’s Submarine

D

avid Bushnell was a Patriot from Connecticut who believed that he could launch a significant attack on the

British navy—underwater. Bushnell began developing his “submarine vessel” a few years before the Revolutionary War started. Yet the idea for a submarine was not a new one. Innovators had been sketching plans for and writing descriptions of submarines since the sixteenth century. No one had actually made their plans a reality until Bushnell. His submarine, which others called the Turtle, was very different from the designs of earlier inventors. It was designed not only as a mode of transportation but also as a weapon. Much later, it would change the way the world looked at naval warfare.

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Experimentation In the 1770s, Bushnell lived in Saybrook, Connecticut. He was a farmer, a voracious reader, and a man defined by his curiosity. Bushnell got the chance to study at Yale University in 1771. There he had access to a library filled with books on every topic imaginable. This was a rare resource at the time; books were so expensive in colonial times that most families owned only one, if they owned any at all. Bushnell made the most of his time at Yale. In fact, his time at Yale is characterized by the experiments he conducted. Bushnell was curious about new uses for gunpowder. He had a theory that gunpowder could be detonated underwater. To many people, this was a far-fetched idea. Throughout the ages and especially during the Revolutionary War, one of the biggest limitations to gunpowder was that it was useless when it was wet. Bushnell knew that he could design explosives that would keep the gunpowder dry. When he had a working model, he proved the validity of his idea. In a letter written years later, Bushnell says:

The first experiment I made, was with about two ounces of gun powder, which I exploded 4 feet underwater, to prove to some of the first personages in Connecticut, that powder would take fire under water … I afterwards made many experiments of a similar nature, some of them with large quantities of powder; they all produced very violent explosions, much more than sufficient for any purpose I had in view.

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David Bushnell David Bushnell spent his childhood on his family’s farm in Connecticut. When David was in his twenties, his father died, leaving David and his brother Ezra in charge of the farm. Ezra eventually took over so that David could complete his education. David started studying at Yale for an undergraduate degree in 1771; however, due to the war closing the school, he could not finish at Yale until 1788, when he graduated with a master’s degree. Bushnell and his brother invented the Turtle in 1776. He continued to innovate, and around 1779, Bushnell joined the military as a captainlieutenant in the Army Corps of Engineers. After Ezra died in 1786, David moved to Georgia to teach at a college and practice medicine. He was wary of being associated with the Turtle, which had gained him a reputation—in fact, when he moved to Georgia, he went by the name David Bush. Historians wonder if this had anything to do with an incident in 1779, when British soldiers took Bushnell into custody during a raid. The soldiers never learned that Bushnell was the man who invented the Turtle, but he lived in fear that they would learn about his work on behalf of the Patriots. The governor of Connecticut facilitated a prisoner exchange in order to secure his freedom. In the 1780s, Bushnell corresponded with Thomas Jefferson, who had developed an interest in Bushnell and his Turtle, and wrote asking for details about the design. These letters include key information about the mechanisms in the first submarine. Scholars have extrapolated much about how the Turtle functioned from Bushnell’s letters. David Bushnell died in Warrenton, Georgia, in 1826.

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Some of these experiments involved detonating the explosive in order to destroy barrels. Bushnell knew that if he could destroy a barrel, he could sink a boat. These early experiments helped Bushnell as he began to sketch plans for his submarine in 1774. Forming a Team The Turtle would prove to be a much larger undertaking than a basic explosive. Bushnell would have to create every piece of technology from scratch. He had to design a propulsion system to move the vessel forward underwater. He also had to develop pumps, gauges, a way to move the submarine up and down, and a timing device so that the explosive wouldn’t blow up the submarine. Bushnell’s invention is really hundreds of innovations put together. Due to the complexity of his design, Bushnell encountered many obstacles along the way, including operating the vessel in complete darkness, propelling the vessel forward, and delivering the bomb with enough time for the pilot to escape capture. Bushnell wouldn’t have to face these obstacles alone. Even though he worked independently to develop his explosive devices, he put together a group of people he trusted to help build and operate the Turtle. Bushnell had to be careful whom he included in the project, as espionage was a major concern. He knew that he was inventing a dangerous weapon. He didn’t want the British to learn about his plan, and he definitely didn’t want to be known as the inventor of a weapon used against them. Bushnell understood that if he were identified and captured by the British he could be imprisoned or executed. For these reasons, David Bushnell relied

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heavily on his brother, Ezra. While David was physically weak, Ezra was strong. He facilitated the construction of the submarine’s hull. Bushnell decided that his brother would be the perfect pilot for his submarine. He also corresponded with his mentor, Benjamin Gale, about his plans. Gale gave him a lot of advice. Much of what we know about the Turtle’s development comes from letters Gale wrote. Two clockmakers, Isaac Doolittle and Phineas Pratt, rounded out the team by helping design the explosive timer. It’s not surprising that Bushnell included not one but two clockmakers in his project. Clockmakers were some of the most technologically minded people in the colonies. Their job was to manufacture clocks that ran reliably out of a giant collection of parts. As careful as Bushnell was in choosing his confidants and helpers, the British learned about his invention before he ever got it into the water. It turns out that the postmaster in Killingsworth, Connecticut (where Benjamin Gale lived), was a member of William Tryon’s spy ring. Tryon was a Loyalist and the governor of New York. The postmaster opened letters about Bushnell’s submarine and passed the information on to Tryon. Yet the British did not think that Bushnell’s invention would amount to much. They did nothing to act on this intelligence. This was one stroke of luck in what would turn out to be an otherwise unlucky project. The Turtle Described The end result of Bushnell’s hard work and evolving designs was a sophisticated vessel. The Turtle was small, measuring around 4 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 6 feet tall (1.2 by 0.9 by 1.8 meters),

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and circular in shape. Although Bushnell himself never called the submarine the Turtle, it got its name from the shape of the hull, which resembled two turtle shells. Bushnell described the entrance of the Turtle like this:

The entrance into the vessel was elliptical, and so small as barely to admit a person. This entrance was surrounded with a broad elliptical iron band, the lower edge of which was let into the wood of which the body of the vessel was made, in such a manner, as to give its utmost support to the body of the vessel against the pressure of the water.

On top there was a series of windows so that the pilot could navigate by sight before submerging. One of Bushnell’s most notable innovations was the screw propeller that moved the vessel—it was turned by a treadle and a hand crank. To submerge the Turtle, the pilot stepped on the treadle, which let a bit of water into the submarine at a time. He had to be careful to submerge slowly; otherwise, the submarine would sink. When the pilot wanted to surface, he pumped the water out of the vessel and moved the propeller on the top of the Turtle to ascend. Bushnell had made every effort to limit the complexity of the Turtle. For instance, the pilot sat stationary in the submarine and did not have to turn around to reach any of the mechanisms. Another significant element was bioluminescence. There was no

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glow-in-the-dark paint or tape during the 1700s, so Bushnell had to be creative to ensure his pilot could see the gauge and compass when submerged in the dark ocean. Bushnell decided to use foxfire, a kind of fungus that glows. An Unlucky Endeavor Bushnell spent years perfecting his vessel with creative ideas like the use of foxfire. As he got close to finishing, however, he noticed a problem with a pump that set him back. It was an easy fix, but it cost him time—and time was running short. The British Navy’s presence loomed large. When news arrived that the British had taken possession of Long Island, Bushnell knew that he would have to use the Turtle as it was. It was 1776, and, sadly, David’s brother Ezra had typhoid fever. He was not well enough to pilot the Turtle on its first mission against the HMS Eagle, so David asked for help finding a replacement pilot. In the end, he selected a soldier named Ezra Lee. Lee got a two-week crash course in the operation of the submarine because there was no time for extensive practice. He would pilot the Turtle for two missions. Phineas Pratt would pilot the Turtle for one. Neither man successfully destroyed his target, but they did manage to escape with their lives. In the end, David Bushnell abandoned the submarine project altogether. It was simply too expensive and required too many people. However, the Turtle did make an impact. It struck fear into the hearts of the British and led them to alter their naval strategy. More importantly, Bushnell laid the groundwork for a weapon we still use today.

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Invisible ink, codes, and ciphers, like the one pictured here, were all part of spies’ tool kits during the Revolutionary War.

Chapter

Four

James Jay’s Invisible Ink

U

nlike Bushnell’s submarine, James Jay’s contribution to the war effort was a seemingly simple concoction. Jay

developed a new kind of invisible ink that was used by Patriot spies to write letters containing secret information, or intelligence. Jay’s invention differs from the inventions of Bushnell and Ferguson in another important way, too. Jay’s contribution to the Continental Army’s spy network proves that not all weapons shoot bullets or implant bombs. Sometimes information is a weapon. Indeed, Jay’s invisible ink let spies communicate with one another without fear of being caught. These spies passed along news of troop movements, troop size, and possible attacks. Invisible ink helped ensure that this kind of information stayed secure, so that the colonists could remain one step ahead of the British. It would take this kind of advantage for the Patriots to win the war.

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Codes and Ciphers Both British and American spy networks relied on the mail. When the British arrived to set up a central command in New York City, they began to establish contact with Loyalists who would intercept mail. Usually, they encouraged these Loyalists to open letters and communicate anything that was of strategic value. However, the British did not think highly of the colonists at first. Their underestimation cost them time and valuable information in the beginning. The British believed that all of the colonists were unsophisticated and unintelligent. They thought that by intercepting letters they would gain all of the intelligence they needed. It never occurred to them that, like the British, the colonists might write in code. At first, the British had no code breakers at their central command. They had no code writers, either. They simply did not believe they would need them. The first intercepted letters written in code had to be shipped to England by boat, decoded, and shipped back. It was a major oversight and just one of the ways the colonists proved that luck favors the well prepared. George Washington had laid the groundwork for espionage even before Lexington and Concord. He made sure that members of the Continental Army understood codes. The Patriots wrote letters using many methods of disguise. A common method was by using ciphers. A cipher was when a number or symbol took the place of a letter of the alphabet. Sometimes even another letter of the alphabet stood in for that letter. Codes, on the other hand, relied on using full words or

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phrases as substitutes for other words and phrases. The British used code words and phrases. The Continental Army, however, had a highly developed code system; they sent and received letters that were completely encoded. The British Army would only encode key words. George Washington thought beyond codes and ciphers. He understood that these systems had limitations. A letter written in cipher was obvious. If it were to be intercepted, British code breakers would begin trying to learn its meaning right away. Washington wondered if there was a way to conceal information without drawing attention to its presence. He thought he had a great way to accomplish this goal. In 1779, he included his idea in a letter to a Patriot named Elias Boudinot:

It is a matter of great importance to have early & good intelligence of the enemys strength & motions—and as far as possible, designs. & to obtain them through different channels … It is in my power, I believe, to procure a liquid which nothing but a counter liquor [rubbed over the paper afterwards] can make legible—Fire which will bring lime juice, milk & other things of this kind to light, has no effect on it. A letter upon trivial matters of business, written in common Ink, may be filled with important intelligence which cannot be discovered without the counter part, or liquid here mention’d …

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Washington was referring to an existing technology: invisible ink. Invisible ink had been in use for hundreds of years. Someone would write a letter using regular ink. Then they would write their secret message between the lines in invisible ink. However, existing ink-making recipes had a very dangerous flaw. Most invisible ink could be revealed by holding it over a candle or by swabbing it with an acidic liquid, like lemon juice. The British used these kinds of invisible ink recipes later on in the Revolution. They often marked an F or an A at the top of each letter written in invisible ink. The F was for fire and the A was for acid. These markings told the recipient how to reveal the hidden message. Washington wanted something new and better. Washington’s desire for a new formula of invisible ink made its way to John Jay, a noted Patriot. He knew just the person to help. His brother James had developed an invisible ink that matched the general’s description. John Jay wrote to Washington to share the news:

Sir This will be delivered by my Brother, who will communicate & explain to your Excellency a mode of Correspondence, which may be of use, provided proper agents can be obtained. I have experienced its Efficacy by a three Years Trial. We shall remain absolutely silent on the Subject. I have the Honor to be with the highest Esteem & Respect Your Excellencys most obedient Servant John Jay

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James Jay James Jay spent much of his life bouncing between the United States and Britain. Though he developed an important innovation for the Continental Army, there were questions at the end of his life about his loyalty to America. Jay was born in New York in 1732 into a large family. As a young man, he traveled to Scotland to attend medical school at the University of Edinburgh. Following graduation, he became a doctor in London. King George III knighted Jay in 1763 for his help raising money to establish what would later become Columbia University. James and his brother John had a turbulent relationship. John counted on James to develop his sympathetic stain, but they stopped speaking after the war concluded. James had returned to the United States in 1778 but was captured by the British in 1782. The British brought him back to England. While in England, James tried to negotiate a peace deal between Britain and the United States. He may have also invented some military technology for the British. After this final stint in England, John believed his brother to be a traitor. The two never spoke again. Practicing medicine and conducting experiments filled Jay’s later years. He never married and had no children. He spent his final years in New Jersey, where he died in 1815. Today James is not the Jay brother that history remembers. John Jay’s activities in the Revolutionary War and his career overshadowed his brother’s legacy. However, James Jay, too, was an important figure in the success of the United States.

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John points out that he has already been using the ink for three years in his personal correspondence. Washington was a great commander in chief for many reasons, but his ability to connect with innovators set him apart. Washington had fostered a community of people with creative ideas who helped him win the war. Sympathetic Stain John Jay also wrote to his brother James. Interestingly enough, James was living in London at the time and worked as a medical doctor. He had studied chemistry and had experimented with his own version of invisible ink. James called his ink sympathetic stain. James Jay’s invisible ink had two parts. There was an agent, or ink, that the letter writer used to communicate his message. Then there was a reagent, which the letter’s recipient used to reveal the hidden text. Once demonstrated, Washington was thrilled with Jay’s invisible ink, but there were some downsides. The chemicals that Jay used were not widely available. He made the ink in small batches, so there was never enough. The other problem had to do with the reagent. If the letter’s recipient wasn’t careful with his application of the reagent, the hidden text smeared and became unreadable. Nevertheless, the invisible ink was a huge success. Washington is said to have jealously guarded his supply of medicine, as he called it. In a 1780 letter, Washington wrote the following to James Jay:

Dear Sir, I have had the pleasure of receiving your favours of the 13th & 20th of April. The Box of Medicine mentioned in the

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former came safe to hand, and was the more acceptable, as I had entirely expended the first parcel with which you had been kind enough to furnish me. I have directed Colo. Hay to assist you in erecting a small Elaboratory, from which I hope you will derive improvement and amusement, and the public some advantages.

Washington is referring to his plan to build a factory, or “elaboratory,” where Jay can make larger batches of the ink. This factory was ultimately constructed in Peekskill, New York, and seems to have eased concerns about the supply of ink, though very little information about its operation remains. Other letters from Washington talk about the most obvious downside of invisible ink—spies sometimes spilled the valuable bottle! Thankfully, the ink’s benefits outweighed its downsides. James Jay’s invention may have only had two parts, but it had a major impact on transmitting intelligence. It was used extensively by the Culper spy ring to carry important details of key attacks. Jay’s background in chemistry had given the Continental Army the upper hand in spy technology. Additionally, his invisible ink worked well with other tools in the spy arsenal, like codes, giving the Continental Army a much more successful espionage program than the British. All of this was thanks to the innovations of great minds like that of James Jay.

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Patrick Ferguson’s rifle employed a screw mechanism for reloading.

Chapter

Five

Patrick Ferguson’s Rifle

P

atrick Ferguson’s innovation was also a new spin on an old invention. Ferguson saw an opportunity to modify a

kind of rifle called a breech-loader, a style of rifle loaded through the back, or breech. While breech-loading rifles date back to the sixteenth century, they were rarely used in Ferguson’s day. The vast majority of guns used in the Revolutionary War were called muzzle-loaders and were loaded through the front, or muzzle, of the rifle instead. Ferguson’s success modifying an existing invention is undoubtedly similar to Jay’s successful formulation of a new kind of invisible ink—with one key difference: the country for whom each man was working. Patrick Ferguson was a member of the British Army. Unlike the other two innovators we’ve explored,

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Ferguson used his talents in the hope of securing a victory for the British. His work serves as an important reminder that the colonists were not alone in their inventive spirit. The British also utilized existing technology to their benefit and worked toward solving problems by experimenting with new ideas. Patrick Ferguson’s weapon is also unlike the inventions of Jay and Bushnell because of its measurable advantages. Records dictate precisely how and where Ferguson’s rifle was used. Original Ferguson rifles have been passed down over generations, too, allowing researchers hands-on experience with the weapon. Through these primary sources, it’s clear that Ferguson’s invention could have changed the outcome of the entire war. However, that was not to be. Sadly, Ferguson’s contribution is well known for its potential rather than its realized uses during the war. He died in battle before his rifle design had really proven itself. His untimely death has left a lot of questions about what could have been if he’d lived to champion his design. A Look at Breech-Loading Rifles Patrick Ferguson was one of the only contemporary advocates of breech-loading rifles when he began experimenting in the 1770s. The original design of the breech-loading rifle was deeply flawed. The biggest problem was the way the pieces fit together when soldiers loaded and re-loaded the gun. Gaps could cause powder charges, or explosions of gunpowder. However, another

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believer in breech-loaders, Isaac de la Chaumette, had solved this problem in 1704. He invented the screw breech, which meant that marksmen could unscrew a part of the rifle called the trigger guard to reload before screwing the pieces back together for a tight fit. Despite Chaumette’s progress, the breech-loader was still imperfect due to issues like jamming, and many had decided it was more trouble than it was worth. Patrick Ferguson was undeterred by the rifle’s imperfections. He became obsessed with breech-loaders. Where others saw obstacles, he saw possibilities. The biggest advantage of the breechloader was that a soldier could reload the gun during battle while lying down. Rifles and muskets of all styles have long barrels, so muzzle-loaders had to be stood straight up in order for a soldier to use a ramrod, or a stick that packed the gunpowder and the musket ball into the gun. Therefore, soldiers were exposed to enemy fire while reloading their muskets. Since breech-loaders are loaded at the back of the barrel, a soldier could lie on his stomach while reloading without using a ramrod. Furthermore, the process of reloading a breech-loader was considerably faster than the process of reloading a muzzle-loader, giving breech-loaders another major advantage. The speed of reloading translated into more return fire. Another unique feature of the rifle was that Ferguson’s developments weatherproofed the weapon. Other guns of the age were vulnerable to the elements. If it rained or snowed and the powder got wet, most guns were useless. Ferguson’s breech-loader, on the other hand, could be fired regardless of the weather.

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Ferguson knew that once he worked out the disadvantages of the breech-loader, he would be able to present the British Army with an unparalleled firearm. Ferguson fine-tuned the barrel to improve accuracy. He improved the screw breech so that it only took one turn to open and close. He also worked to prevent jamming, which was the biggest drawback of Chaumette’s breechloader. The Annual Register, a newspaper at the time, described Ferguson’s invention like this:

Length 50 in. [127 centimeters]; weight 7½ lbs. [3.4 kilograms]; bayonet 25 in. [63.5 cm] long and 1½ in. [3.8 cm] wide, and being of fine temper and razor edge was called a sword bayonet; folding rear sight with leaves of 100 to 500 yds. [91 to 457 m] The rotating breechblock has 12 threads to the inch, and opens or closes with one complete whirl of the guard. When open, the top of the screw is level with the breech bottom, a ball dropped in slides forward into a chamber slightly larger than the rifled diameter, the muzzle is tipped downward, powder put in to fill the chamber back of the ball, the guard is turned and the screw rises to the top and removes any surplus powder, while making the breech gas tight. When fired, the ball takes the rifling.

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Patrick Ferguson received a patent for his innovation on December 2, 1776. Ferguson acknowledged the debt he owed to previous innovators, writing: “the invention is not entirely my own, yet its application to the only Arm where it can be of use is mine, & moreover there are several original improvements (without which it will not Answer) which are entirely mine.” His rifle was lightweight, worked regardless of weather conditions, and could fire at a pace that put muzzle-loaders to shame. It also had a range of up to five times that of a muzzle-loader! Field Trials Patrick Ferguson was eager to prove the success of his invention. After years of work, he conducted the first public demonstration of his rifle in April 1776 in Woolwich for members of the British Army. The Master-General of the Ordnance and two generals attended. The demonstration was a huge success and was followed by a second demonstration in June for the previous attendees and two additional generals. Of this demonstration, Ferguson said, “1st it put 15 balls into a target at 200 yards in 5 minutes.” He also noted, “after pouring a bottle of water into the barrel & Pan when loaded in half a Minute she fired as well as ever.” Both the firing speed and the water resistance of the Ferguson rifle were astonishing. More trials were held, including a demonstration for the king and queen in October 1776. Everyone who witnessed Ferguson’s rifle and its unparalleled capabilities was impressed. In fact, Ferguson’s efforts were rewarded with the formation of his own rifle corps. Ferguson was slated to train two hundred members of

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Patrick Ferguson Patrick Ferguson was born in 1744 in Edinburgh, Scotland. His parents were well educated, and Ferguson’s upbringing was filled with visits from notable intellectuals of the time, including philosopher David Hume. Patrick was one of six children. He was a small man often described as slender and frail. Yet Ferguson’s ambition was apparent even at a young age. When Ferguson was just fifteen years old, he began his military career by enlisting as a cornet, a low-ranking role in the cavalry. His uncle, General James Murray, had encouraged the young Ferguson’s desire to serve his country. Ferguson spent two years at the Royal Military Academy before seeing combat during the Seven Years’ War. He fought in the European theater, bringing his talents as a marksman to Germany. Prior to the American Revolution, Ferguson traveled with the military to different parts of Britain, France, and the Caribbean. As was the custom in the 1700s, Ferguson bought his rank of captain in 1768. Patrick Ferguson arrived in America in 1777 to fight in the American Revolution. He saw combat in New Jersey and North Carolina, most notably during the Battle of Brandywine. Ferguson had begun experimenting with his breech-loading rifle in the early 1770s. He spent the rest of his life improving his innovation. The rifle bears his name and is the lasting legacy of his lifelong military service. Patrick Ferguson died on October 7, 1780. Ferguson left his estate to his brother George, whose descendants passed down an original Ferguson rifle.

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Patrick Ferguson was killed in the Battle of Kings Mountain in 1780. .

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this corps. The soldiers in the corps would each receive a Ferguson rifle. Patrick Ferguson himself would make sure that these soldiers could load, reload, and fire them accurately. It was a big break for Ferguson, who had been working on his invention alone for some time. Sadly, the outcomes of two battles changed the plan. Ferguson would end up with a rifle corps, but it would not be as big as the one he was promised. Ferguson’s Rifle Corps In light of the British defeats at Trenton and Princeton, a new plan was formed. Ferguson would work with a little under one hundred recruits. The British military was eager to learn the results of Ferguson’s training process. They believed that if they assigned him fewer men, the experiment could get underway sooner. Unfortunately, Ferguson’s experiment barely got off the ground. The first obstacle was that the British Army was unable to manufacture the rifles quickly enough to provide them to everyone in Ferguson’s corps. Then came a bigger blow. Ferguson sustained injuries at the Battle of Brandywine, which cost him the use of his right arm. He could no longer shoot the rifle he invented. He eventually returned to active duty. When he was killed in the Battle of Kings Mountain in 1780, his dream of the widespread use of his rifle died with him. Scholars aren’t entirely sure why the British Army let the Ferguson rifle slip through their fingers. Many suggest that the British would have won the war if they’d outfitted their troops with such an advanced weapon for the age. The discontinuation of the

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Ferguson’s rifle corps has even bred some theories about British generals’ true motivations. Some historians believe the decision proves that General Howe was not as loyal to his country’s cause as he should have been. Though Howe’s intentions are debated by scholars, the capabilities of the Ferguson rifle are undeniable. Ferguson succeeded in creating a weapon ahead of its time, a weapon that had the potential to change the course of history.

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David Bushnell hoped to prove that his Turtle was a worthy adversary for full-sized British warships.

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avid Bushnell, James Jay, and Patrick Ferguson each created new innovations with the express purpose of

helping their country win the war. These inventions played important parts in the progression of the conflict. Examining each invention reveals a great deal about the strategic decisions of both the British and the Continental forces. The Turtle The Battle of Long Island demonstrated clearly that Bushnell’s Turtle was needed more than ever. Bushnell and his team had been training and refining the submarine for some time, but soon those close to Washington were asking after Bushnell’s progress, hoping he was ready. On August 30, Bushnell began transporting the

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Turtle to New York Harbor. Ezra Lee would man the submarine, and their target would be the HMS Eagle. The Eagle was a massive warship with sixty-four guns, while the Turtle was big enough for just one man. Scholars believe Lee made his first attack on September 6, 1776. That day, he boarded the submarine and relied on whale ships to tow him as close to the Eagle as they could without being spotted. He then rowed the rest of the way, attempting to sidle up next to the warship before submerging. It was 11 p.m. and Lee had the benefit of darkness. However, he did not have the benefit of a low tide. He needed the water to be at a certain level or he would not be able to position himself correctly. As soon as the whale ships pulled away, he realized his miscalculation and decided to improvise. Instead of approaching the Eagle, Lee maneuvered the submarine to a spot where he could wait for better conditions. At around 4 a.m., those conditions finally came. However, Lee had a new obstacle: time. He would have to complete his mission before daylight or else face being spotted and captured. He would have only thirty minutes of air once he submerged to attach the bomb to the Eagle’s hull. As Lee used his foot pedal to submerge, it became clear that the submarine would function exactly as Bushnell intended. Each element of the vessel worked as it should. Lee was able to completely submerge, steer, and see his gauges. Unfortunately, he was unable to affix the bomb. The screw designed to attach the explosive would not pierce the Eagle’s hull. Lee tried for as long as he could until he was nearly out of air.

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After surfacing for a short period of time, Lee submerged yet again, but his second attempt was even worse than his first. Lee knew he had to admit defeat. It was getting close to sunrise, and he decided to make a hasty retreat. While he was not spotted by the Eagle, another vessel saw him as he attempted to make his way to safety. Fearing capture, Lee released the bomb. He later wrote in his letters that he believed he was to be captured and was willing to die on board whichever ship picked him up when the bomb he deployed detonated. However, this was not to be. The bomb’s detonation frightened the pursuing vessel, and Lee safely made his way back to Manhattan. The Turtle attempted two more attacks, but neither Bushnell nor Lee described them in as much detail. Historians think that Lee’s second attempt was a matter of days after his first attempt. During this attack, a sailor saw Lee and he had to retreat right away. Bushnell wondered if the mission would have more success with another pilot. Though it is difficult to know for sure, experts believe that Phineas Pratt manned the submarine during its final mission. However, Pratt was also spotted. The Turtle had had three chances to get its mark, and it had failed on all counts. Things went from bad to worse for Bushnell’s Turtle. When the Turtle was being transported, the boat carrying it was sunk by the British. Bushnell recovered his submarine, but he made no further attempts to prove the usefulness of his innovation. Bushnell’s submarine performed exactly as he’d hoped, but circumstances beyond his control prevented it from making a real impact on the course of the war.

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George Washington and the Turtle

This illustration shows the Turtle (foreground) advancing on the HMS Eagle (background).

From the beginning, George Washington believed that Bushnell’s submarine had the power to change the outcome of the war. He showed his support in letters, through financial backing of the project, and when he authorized the submarine’s attacks—or so it seemed. Years after the war, he wrote a letter to Thomas Jefferson outlining mixed feelings about the project:

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Bushnel [sic] is a Man of great Mechanical powers—fertile of invention—and a master in execution—He came to me in 1776 recommended by Governor Trumbull (now dead) and other respectable characters who were proselites to his plan. Although I wanted faith myself, I furnished him with money, and other aids to carry it into execution. He laboured for sometime ineffectually, & though the advocates for his scheme continued sanguine he never did succeed. One accident or another was always intervening. I then thought, and still think, that it was an effort of genius; but that a combination of too many things were requisite, to expect much Success from the enterprise against an enemy, who are always upon guard. That he had a Machine which was so contrived as to carry a man under water at any depth he chose, and for a considerable time & distance, with an apparatus charged with Powder which he could fasten to a Ships bottom or side & give fire to in any given time (Sufft for him to retire) by means whereof a ship could be blown up, or Sunk, are facts which I believe admit of little doubt—but then, where it was to operate against an enemy, it is no easy matter to get a person hardy enough to encounter the variety of dangers to which he must be exposed.

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Bushnell knew that perfecting the vessel would require resources he did not have—money and good health. Instead, he turned his energy to a similar invention: water mines that could be floated to enemy ships. Here, too, Bushnell did not succeed. The failures of his water mines had tragic results. As Bushnell was testing his new innovation, curious sailors—including children on a civilian vessel—picked up his mines, killing them instantly. Likewise, these water mines were also said to have led to the Battle of the Kegs, which saw British forces shooting the mines from their ships, destroying them before they could reach their boats. While Bushnell’s mines destroyed only one British ship before he abandoned the project, his innovations were not complete failures. Word spread that the Continental forces had mastered the use of water mines. As a result, the British were more careful about where they anchored their ships, usually opting to do so farther from Patriot ports. The Culper Spy Ring The Culper spy ring formed in 1778 under Major Benjamin Tallmadge, Washington’s intelligence chief. While Washington took a hands-off approach with other spy rings positioned around the country, he took a special interest in Tallmadge’s group. The Culper ring had one mission: to keep tabs on the British headquarters in New York City. This was of critical importance, and the spies in the Culper ring were arguably the best. While George Washington generally let his spy network work independently, the Culper ring reported to him directly through Tallmadge.

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Benjamin Tallmadge served as George Washington’s intelligence chief.

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A page from the Culper ring’s code book

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Tallmadge’s spies included Robert Townsend, Abraham Woodhull, Austin Roe, Anna Strong, and Caleb Brewster—many were friends of Tallmadge. Yet not even George Washington knew the members’ true identities. The spies in the Culper ring went by code names, most notably Samuel Culper Sr. (Woodhull), Samuel Culper Jr. (Townsend), and the infamous female spy “355.” The members of the Culper ring were carefully trained. Part of their training included using James Jay’s sympathetic stain to write letters. Perhaps the most interesting fact about Tallmadge’s spy ring is that only one member was ever identified as a spy. Caleb Brewster was at times reckless, and the British learned his identity. However, none of the spies in the Culper ring faced the terrible consequences of being tried for espionage. More importantly, it seems unlikely that the British ever identified letters written in Jay’s invisible ink, let alone revealed the hidden text. Jay’s invention was an immensely successful one. It helped the Culper ring transmit important intelligence securely and ultimately aided in the success of Continental forces over the British. The Culper spy ring had a complicated system of correspondence. It involved Robert Townsend, a merchant, placing orders at the store Austin Roe owned and receiving packaged goods with a letter inside. That letter would then be delivered over 100 miles (161 kilometers) away to a secret place on Abraham Woodhull’s property. Woodhull’s neighbor Anna Strong hung different items on her clothesline as a code indicating

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where Caleb Brewster was waiting with his whaleboats. Woodhull would give Brewster the letter, who would then deliver it to Benjamin Tallmadge. Some of the Culper ring’s biggest achievements had a dramatic impact on the war. For instance, in 1780, it warned Washington of an impending attack on newly arrived French forces at Rhode Island. The French had allied themselves with the Continentals and were largely outnumbered. British troops led by General Henry Clinton planned to ambush them. However, Washington got there first, leading Clinton to back down. The group also helped catch the British spy chief John André, who was tried and found guilty of espionage. He was hanged for his crimes on Washington’s orders. Ferguson’s Rifle Much like the first use of Bushnell’s submarine, the first use of Ferguson’s rifle in war was because of the outcome of a battle. Bushnell’s submarine entered combat after the Battle of Long Island. Ferguson’s rifle was initially used after Britain’s devastating losses at Trenton and Princeton. Ferguson and his rifle corps traveled for nine weeks to reach America, where they would see just how effective Ferguson’s new weapon was. The Battle of Short Hills, which occurred in June 1777, was Ferguson’s first chance to use his rifle against the Continental Army; however, this is not the battle most historians talk about when discussing the breech-loading rifle. Ferguson made his mark in the Battle of Brandywine, which would also prove to be

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Ferguson’s undoing. The Battle of Brandywine is one of the most famous battles of the Revolutionary War. It began on September 11, 1777, in Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania, and involved nearly thirty thousand troops: eighteen thousand British soldiers and eleven thousand Continental soldiers. The British had a strategic advantage from the start. General Howe had decided to divide his troops in order to attack Washington’s men from both sides, taking Washington by surprise. After hours of fighting, it was a decisive victory for the British. Washington and his forces retreated, having lost many cannons and over 1,100 men. However, the defeat had larger consequences; it meant that the British took control of Philadelphia. Historical evidence shows that, despite this defeat, the morale of the Continental Army remained high after Brandywine. The men felt that they had fought well and had proven their worthiness on the battlefield. A Casualty Looking back, perhaps the most significant casualty of the battle was Patrick Ferguson. As previously mentioned, Ferguson was shot in the arm during this fight, severely damaging his firing arm. Moreover, his rifle corps had proven effective but also had sustained many losses. The Battle of Brandywine would be the only major battle where Ferguson’s rifle was used. Ferguson believed that he would have another opportunity to encourage widespread use of his invention, but he never did. After recovering from his wounds and participating in a number

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The British won the Battle of Brandywine (pictured here), but Patrick Ferguson sustained a devastating injury.

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of campaigns, he was killed in battle in 1780. It seems odd that Ferguson’s weapon did not become standard issue. There are two explanations for this, and one is rather controversial. The first explanation is that the British simply could not manufacture Ferguson’s rifle quickly enough. The Revolutionary War was in an era before factories began mass-producing products. Each weapon had to be produced by hand. The second explanation is difficult to prove. General Howe witnessed first hand the accuracy and speed of Ferguson’s rifle. He knew that it was a powerful weapon, yet he did not make sure that Ferguson’s legacy lived on. Some historians say that the reason for this is that Howe did not actually want to win the American Revolution. They believe that General Howe was secretly loyal to the Patriot cause. Whether or not this is true, nearly all historians agree that if Ferguson’s rifle had been readily available to the British, the war would have gone in their favor. There’s one more story associated with Ferguson’s rifle that is difficult to prove but interesting nonetheless. In his letters, Ferguson refers to a general that he had in his rifle sights whom he did not shoot. Ferguson was a man of honor who believed that ambushing an enemy was disgraceful. Yet if Ferguson had taken the shot, it’s difficult to say how the rest of the war would have played out. It seems likely that the man whom Ferguson did not shoot was none other than George Washington.

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Understanding Bushnell, Jay, and Ferguson’s Influence The submarine, invisible ink, and Ferguson rifle experienced varying levels of success during the American Revolution. Jay’s formulation of invisible ink was arguably the most successful because it protected Patriot spies from capture and helped them spread intelligence. However, it was used only by the Culper ring, a small group of spies. Ferguson’s rifle faced a similar fate. No one could deny the effectiveness of his weapon, but manufacturing problems and the inventor’s untimely death prevented widespread use. Bushnell’s submarine is the one invention out of the three that did not prove itself during the war. Yet it seems likely that this was due to a variety of factors out of Bushnell’s control, not the design and construction of his vessel. Despite the failures of Bushnell’s Turtle during the American Revolution, his contribution to military technology is undoubtedly the most impressive. It is easy to trace the use of modern-day submarines back to Bushnell’s ingenious creation.

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It might seem unbelievable that inventions from the eighteenth century shaped our world, but it’s true!

Chapter

Seven

A Lasting Impact

J

ames Jay, David Bushnell, and Patrick Ferguson each invented new technology that shaped the outcome of the

American Revolution, but what happened to their inventions after the war? How has their creativity and innovation shaped our world today? Jay, Bushnell, and Ferguson all have one sad fact in common: each man’s specific design or formulation died with him. However, their legacies certainly outlived their creators. The achievements of Jay, Bushnell, and Ferguson have shaped the modern-day era of espionage, naval warfare, and weapons development. Today, submarines have become a standard weapon in many nations’ arsenals; declassified documents show that invisible ink was used at least until World War II by operatives in the United States and Europe; and breech-loading rifles saw

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action in wars like the American Civil War (1861–1865). Since then, these inventions have been further adapted and modernized, shaping key areas of our country’s security and weaponry departments today. Following the Trail of Invisible Ink James Jay’s version of invisible ink ensured the success of the Culper spy ring, yet there is no documentation of his formula following the war. For years contemporary scholars have debated the composition of Jay’s ink. In the 1930s, a scientist named Lodewyk Bendikson and a chemical engineer named George D. Van Arsdale examined some of the letters written in Jay’s ink. They determined it was likely that tannic acid—a naturally occurring acid derived from oak trees—was used to write the letters and ferrous sulfate—a kind of iron sometimes taken medicinally for iron deficiency—was the reagent. It seems that George Washington wasn’t too far off in his use of the term “medicine.” The structure of the Patriots’ spy organization changed dramatically as the war concluded. In 1777, the Committee of Secret Correspondence was renamed the Committee of Foreign Affairs. The Committee of Foreign Affairs was responsible for diplomatic actions as well as intelligence gathering. Historians consider this committee to be the precursor to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). In 2011, the CIA declassified documents about the use of invisible ink during World War I. These documents are now

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available on the Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room website. They describe recipes for “German secret ink,” other formulas of invisible ink, and instructions for taking invisible photographs. Some of the instructions recommend dipping a handkerchief in invisible ink and then letting it dry. A spy could then moisten the handkerchief and wring out the ink. This process allowed a spy to store invisible ink for later use. Experts think that the declassified documents were the only remaining classified documents from World War I. They provide fascinating insight into the prevalence of the technology during the war. Also during World War I, Allied countries raced to develop a reagent that would work on any invisible ink, regardless of its chemical compound. It was discovered that iodine vapor highlights which paper fibers had been wetted by ink. German spies outsmarted the Allies, though. They simply wet a piece of paper and let it dry before writing their secret messages. During World War II, the Germans developed formulas of invisible ink that were more difficult to detect. They classified the inks on five different tiers based on how difficult it was to detect them. Then they let spies use the inks from those tiers depending on how much they were trusted. Their inks were complex and often required a multi-step process for writing and revealing secret messages. The Americans set up a mail screening process in response to intelligence indicating the use of invisible ink. This screen process allowed agents to intercept at least four hundred pieces of mail that included writing in invisible ink. The process

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Today’s Ciphers If you asked most people, they might say that codes and ciphers are used only by members of the intelligence community. However, ciphers are an integral part of our daily lives in ways we cannot see. Ciphers are used every time we send encrypted data over the Internet.

Your personal data is secured by many websites using encryption, which is a modern form of cipher.

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Each time you check out online and enter your credit card information, that data is secured. Just as individuals worried about the interception of their private correspondence in the 1700s, people now worry that their data could fall into the hands of hackers. To protect customers’ data, many companies’ websites encrypt, or encode, sensitive information. Sensitive data is more than just credit card numbers. It includes addresses, dates of birth, social security numbers, and passwords. Encryption works exactly like ciphers did back in the Revolutionary War era but with a high-tech twist. A common way of encrypting data sent over the web is the use of an encryption key. An encryption key can take the form of a symmetric key or a public key. Both employ the same general idea: when a user types in sensitive data, an algorithm encodes that data. These codes are so long that the sheer number of possible combinations makes it nearly impossible for a hacker’s computer to cycle through all of the possibilities and crack the code. The intended recipient has the key that “unlocks” the data on the other side. Thus, encryption ensures that data is accessible only to the person who entered it and the intended recipient. Encryption is found beyond the Internet. The technology is also used to send information over other networks, which includes data sent through ATMs and wireless devices, such as Bluetooth headsets. Ciphers have come a long way since their first use thousands of years ago!

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became even more involved during the Cold War. Innovators during the Cold War developed ways of transferring writing from one piece of paper to the next in a process called “dry transfer.” It’s unclear if these methods are still used today by the CIA and other intelligence agencies throughout the world; however, there is no doubt invisible ink has proven a useful tool in decades past. From Breech-Loaders to Assault Rifles While breech-loading rifles are not used in modern warfare, they played a role in the Civil War and led to the invention of newer, improved guns. Many soldiers fighting in the Civil War sustained injuries when they incorrectly loaded their muzzle-loading rifles, which could cause an explosion or leave their weapons inoperable, exposing them to enemy fire. This was such a pressing problem that the US government facilitated an effort to convert muzzleloaders into breech-loaders at the end of the war. Several people submitted modified designs, but in the end, one developed by inventor Erskine S. Allin proved to be the superior option. This modification was known as the trap door and proved successful. It was even used in conflicts in Europe as well as in the FrancoPrussian War. Due to how far technology has advanced, breechloading rifles may not be used in combat or by the military today, but they are still used by hunters. Historical re-enactors also collect antique breech-loaders, and many YouTube videos feature demonstrations of loading and firing these historical rifles.

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As for Ferguson’s breech-loader, a few original rifles have been acquired by museums and collectors. The Kings Mountain National Military Park in South Carolina has one such Ferguson rifle. The gun is part of their permanent collection and is always on display. Reproductions of the Ferguson rifle are also available to collectors. These reproductions are modeled from the specifications of originals. The breech-loader has given way to the modern-day assault rifle, which is also loaded in the back. Assault rifles were first used in World War II and continue to be used widely by troops in combat today. Historians dispute the origins of the word “assault rifle.” Some attribute it to Adolf Hitler, while others are not so sure. Either way, German inventors under Hitler were certainly responsible for the development of the technology. Assault rifles use magazines that hold many rounds of ammunition in the form of cartridges. These rifles are lightweight and favored for their quick volleys of fire. Some of the most popular assault rifles today include AK-47 rifles and M16 rifles.

The AK-47

AK-47 rifles are a kind of assault rifle invented in 1946.

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The AK-47 originates from the Soviet Union and can hold up to thirty rounds of ammunition. Its inventor, Mikhail Kalashnikov, designed the rifle as part of a contest held by the nation in 1946. Historians estimate that over seventy-five million AK-47s have been produced since Kalashnikov perfected his design. The weapons have been used in clashes around the globe. AK-47s even played a prominent role in the Vietnam War. American soldiers faced heavy fire from the Viet Cong, who had a stockpile of AK-47s.

The M16

While the American military no longer issues M16 rifles, they are still used in conflicts around the world.

The M16 is the American answer to the Soviets’ AK-47. M16s have been used in wars like the Vietnam War, the Gulf War, the Iraq War, and the war in Afghanistan. With over eight million produced, these assault rifles had been standard issue for American forces since 1969. In 2010, the American military decided to transition from the use of M16s to a variation called the M4 carbine.

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The Evolution of the Submarine Like both James Jay and Patrick Ferguson’s inventions, David Bushnell’s Turtle was forgotten soon after the conclusion of the Revolutionary War, yet it’s easier to trace the evolution of the submarine than the other two innovations. Submarines have become prominent in warfare. Unlike invisible ink and breechloading rifles, submarines have had a sustained effect in war. It seems unlikely that the submarine will ever disappear from modern warfare tactics. There will always be a need to break blockades, infiltrate enemy lines underwater, and launch covert attacks—all of which the submarine is capable of doing well. Bushnell’s Turtle might have never been recovered, but it wasn’t long before the next model of submarine was launched. Less than twenty-five years after Lee and Pratt’s attacks in Bushnell’s vessel, an inventor named Robert Fulton created his own submarine. In 1800, Fulton’s Nautilus successfully launched for Napoleon, who sponsored the project. It was a fast-moving submarine, but it was not subtle like the Turtle. Because of this the Nautilus, like the Turtle, was deemed a failure. The Nautilus attempted attacks on the British but was easy to see and easy to outmaneuver. Napoleon fired Fulton, who ultimately went on to invent a wildly successful steamboat. Submarines were next seen during the Civil War. Here, they finally began to prove their utility in war—in fact, the Civil War saw

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Nuclear submarines have been used by the US Navy since 1955.

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the first successful submarine attack. Though the attack destroyed both the target and the submarine, it signaled a turning point for submarines. Over the course of the war, the technology was refined to inflict serious damage, and it was clear that submarines would become an integral part of a strong navy’s arsenal. Since those early days, new technology has been consistently integrated into the design of submarines. Just like David Bushnell, engineers have realized that submarines are extraordinarily complex inventions that are more aptly described as hundreds of inventions in one. Today submarines use developments like sonar for navigation. The advent of electricity allowed for lighting aboard submarines. Moreover, modern-day missiles fired from submarines are capable of striking targets from a great distance. These developments are a long way from Bushnell’s rudimentary bomb and his answers to the problems of navigation and onboard lighting. However, there is no doubting Bushnell creatively used the tools available to him at the time. Submarines demonstrated their full power during World War II, when those belonging to the Allies and the Axis powers were responsible for sinking thousands of ships. The latest development in submarine technology is the use of nuclear power to fuel them. The US Navy launched the world’s first nuclear submarine in 1955. This vessel was, like Fulton’s invention, called the Nautilus. The Nautilus weighed in at over 3,000 tons (2,722 metric tons). Today, submarines of this size are staffed by nearly 150 men and carry enough food to feed them all for ninety days. Again, this is a major

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Reproductions of the Turtle show just how far submarine technology has come.

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point of contrast with Bushnell’s first submarine, which could barely accommodate one man and needed to surface after thirty minutes. Submarines have come a long way from Bushnell’s vision. However, scholars and historians remember Bushnell’s contributions well. Some enthusiasts even craft reproductions of Bushnell’s Turtle. In Bushnell’s town of Saybrook, Connecticut, citizens are particularly proud of Bushnell’s achievements. Over two hundred students at Old Saybrook High School helped to build a working reproduction of the Turtle from 2003 to 2007. Their reproduction was crafted according to specifications found in primary sources. The students helped make educated guesses to overcome gaps in our knowledge about Bushnell’s design. The students’ version of the Turtle underwent rigorous testing. Today their project is part of the permanent collection of the Connecticut River Museum. Museum visitors can walk through the replica and get a better sense of how the Turtle looked and worked. Revolutionary Genius It’s difficult to imagine the outcomes of the American Revolution and later wars without the contributions of Bushnell, Jay, and Ferguson. Their big ideas were a product of dedicated research, experimentation, and a dose of genius. Each man refused to let obstacles stand in his way. Each man was determined to help the war effort. Today it’s impossible to conceive of a world without submarines or computer encryption. It is only with the help of these inventors that such modern adaptations of their

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creations exist. However, these inventors were largely forgotten after the war, and their inventions are now only celebrated by a small number of history enthusiasts. For these three inventors, life without advanced technology was a day-to-day reality. Their successes and failures paint a true picture of what it means to be an innovator. Equipped with limited resources and often limited support, these men brought their visions to life. When considering future inventions, it is important to look to the past for inspiration. Bushnell, Jay, and Ferguson teach us to put our own stamp on the world and that a great idea persists in different forms for centuries to come.

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Glossary blockade To strategically block an enemy’s port or coastline by sea. breech-loading rifle A design of rifle that is loaded through the back, or breech, of the gun. Brown Bess A model of flintlock musket used by British soldiers. cipher A number or letter that stands in for a letter of the alphabet. code A full word or phrase that stands in for another word or phrase. congress A meeting of delegates. Continental Army The army formed by American colonists and led by General George Washington. Culper spy ring A spy group tasked with gathering intelligence related to the British headquarters in New York City. double agent An agent who spies for both sides and relays intelligence to the side he or she is actually loyal to. enlistment bonuses Monetary incentives for joining the army. foxfire A kind of fungus that glows in the dark. It was used by David Bushnell to illuminate the gauges in his submarine. guerrilla tactics An informal fighting style reliant on the element of surprise. howitzer A cross between a cannon and a mortar capable of firing bombs or cannon balls.

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linear tactics A style of fighting in which troops face off in rigid lines at close range. Loyalists Men or women loyal to the British Crown during the American Revolution. mercenary A soldier from an uninvolved country who is paid to fight. militia Citizens who train to perform military service and are expected to serve full-time in the event of war. minutemen Militia who prided themselves on their ability to assemble quickly. morale The mood of a group of people. powder charge An explosion of gunpowder caused by incorrect loading of a gun or a gun’s design flaws. privateer A ship that has permission to steal from and attack enemy ships during a time of war, or a crew member of that ship. propulsion system The mechanism that moves a vessel forward. sovereign nation A nation that rules itself without outside interference. superpower A country that has the power to influence other nations. sympathetic stain Another name for invisible ink. treadle A pedal that looked like a spinning wheel.

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Bibliography Colby, C. B. Two Centuries of Weapons, 1776–1976. New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, 1975. Dupuy, R. Ernest, and Trevor N. Dupuy. The Compact History of the Revolutionary War: The Story of the American Revolution. New York: Hawthorn Books, 1963. —   . An Outline History of the American Revolution. New York: Harper & Row, 1975. Founders Online. “From George Washington to Thomas Jefferson, 26 September 1785.” Retrieved June 12, 2015. founders.archives.gov. Geist, Christopher. “A Common American Soldier.” The Colonial Williamsburg Official History & Citizenship Site. Retrieved June 12, 2015. http://www.history.org/Foundation/journal/ Autumn04/soldier.cfm. Griffith, Samuel B. The War for American Independence: From 1760 to the Surrender at Yorktown in 1781. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2002. History.com Staff. “The Battle of Brandywine Begins.” Retrieved June 12, 2015. http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/thebattle-of-brandywine-begins. Manstan, Roy R., and Frederic J. Frese. Turtle: David Bushnell’s Revolutionary Vessel. Yardley, PA: Westholme Publishing, 2010.

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McDowell, Bart. The Revolutionary War: America’s Fight for Freedom. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 1967. NRA Museums. “Ferguson Breechloading Flintlock Rifle Repro.” Retrieved June 12, 2015. http://www.nramuseum.org/guns/thegalleries/road-to-american-liberty-1700-to-1780/case-4-shotheard-round-the-world/ferguson-breechloading-flintlock-riflerepro.aspx. Ruppert, Bob. “The First Fight of Ferguson’s Rifle.” Journal of the American Revolution. November 2, 2014. Retrieved June 12, 2015. http://allthingsliberty.com/2014/11/fergusons-rifle-first-fight. Swanson, June. David Bushnell and His Turtle: The Story of America’s First Submarine. New York: Atheneum, 1991. Williams, Victoria. “Culper Spy Ring.” George Washington’s Mount Vernon. Retrieved June 12, 2015. http://www.mountvernon.org/ research-collections/digital-encyclopedia/article/culper-spy-ring.

Bibliography

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Further Information Websites George Washington’s Mount Vernon: Spy Techniques of the Revolutionary War www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/the-revolutionary-war/ spying-and-espionage/spy-techniques-of-the-revolutionary-war Access detailed articles about Washington’s role in espionage. View primary sources through Mount Vernon’s easy-to-search database. NavSource Online: Submarine Photo Archive: Turtle www.navsource.org/archives/08/08441.htm View the earliest drawings of David Bushnell’s Turtle, as well as modern-day replicas and historian’s renderings.

Videos Ferguson Breechloading Flintlock www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ODhQmE2OqY The “Ferguson Breechloading Flintlock” episode from Forgottenweapons.com includes a demonstration of loading and firing a reproduction Ferguson rifle. First Combat Submarine The “Turtle” Used During Revolutionary War www.youtube.com/watch?v=yXS2FawZYbc This video provides a quick overview of the Turtle’s history. It includes visuals that give viewers a better sense of the size and operation of the craft.

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Index Page numbers in boldface are

Boston Tea Party, 9

illustrations. Entries in boldface

breech-loading rifle

are glossary terms.

advantages of, 45, 64–65, 67 development of, 14, 45,

Adams, John, 18–19, 28

63–64, 67–68

Adams, Samuel, 10–11

legacy of, 14, 64, 71, 87,

André, John, 82

89–90, 94–95

Arnold, Benedict, 40, 41, 43

mechanism of, 62, 64–66

assault rifles, 95–96, 95, 96

use of, 64, 67, 70, 82–83, 86 British Royal Navy, 5, 24–26,

battles Brandywine, 68, 70, 82–83, 84–85 Kings Mountain, 69, 70, 86, 95 Lexington and Concord, 4, 10, 12–13, 33, 35, 56 Long Island, 21, 26, 53, 73, 82 Princeton, 31, 70, 82

Brown Bess, 30, 32–33 Bushnell, David, 14, 26, 37–38, 39, 42, 44, 46, 47–53, 55, 64, 72, 73–78, 82, 87, 89, 97, 100, 102–103 Bushnell, Ezra, 49, 51, 53

Short Hills, 82

Chaumette, Isaac de la, 65–66

Ticonderoga, 31, 40

CIA, 90, 94

Trenton, 31, 70, 82

cipher, 54, 56–57, 92–93, 92

Yorktown, 31

Clinton, Henry, 21, 82

blockade, 36–37, 97 Boston Massacre, 8–9

Index

36–38, 36, 47, 53, 72

code, 42, 54, 56–57, 61, 80, 81, 92–93

109

Gage, Thomas, 20–21, 20

congress Continental Congress, 10, 18–19, 23–27, 38, 42 Stamp Act Congress, 8

Gale, Benjamin, 38, 51 George III, 17, 19, 20, 20, 89 guerrilla tactics, 33, 35

Continental Army, 17–18, 20–24, 26, 28, 29, 31–35, 40, 42,

Hale, Nathan, 37, 40

55–57, 59, 61, 73, 76, 81–83

Hessians, 22, 22

Continental Navy, 25, 31, 36–38

Howe, William, 21, 40, 71, 83, 86

Culper spy ring, 42, 45, 61, 78,

howitzer, 33

80, 81–82, 87, 90 Currency Act, 6, 8

inoculations, 43–44 Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts),

Declaration of Independence,

9–10 invisible ink

27–29, 28

agent and reagent, 57, 60,

disease, 24, 43–44

90

Doolittle, Isaac, 51

composition of, 90

double agent, 40

development of, 14, 42–43, Eagle, 53, 74–75, 76

45, 55, 57–60, 63

enlistment bonuses, 23

earlier versions of, 58 legacy of, 14, 89–91, 94

Ferguson, Patrick, 14, 44–45, 55, 62, 63–68, 69, 70–71, 73, 82–83, 84, 86–87, 89, 95, 97, 102–103

“medicine,” 42, 60, 90 use of, 42, 45, 54, 55, 61, 81, 87, 90

foxfire, 53 Franklin, Benjamin, 11, 29, 38, 39 French and Indian War, 6, 19, 34–35

63–64, 73, 81, 87, 89–90, 97, 102–103

See also Seven Years’ War Fulton, Robert, 97, 100

110

Jay, James, 14, 42–45, 55, 58–61,

Jay, John, 58–60 Jefferson, Thomas, 11, 28, 49, 76

Strategic Inventions of the Revolutionary War

Lee, Ezra, 53, 74–75, 97 linear tactics, 33–35, 34 Loyalists, 51, 56

legacy of, 14, 47, 87, 89, 97, 98–99, 100, 102 strategic significance of, 26, 37, 44, 53, 73, 76

mercenary, 21–22, 27

use of, 53, 74–75, 77, 82, 87

militia, 6, 10, 23

Sugar Act, 6, 8

minutemen, 10

superpower, 17

morale, 19, 29, 83

sympathetic stain, 59–60, 81

Nautilus, 97, 100 powder charge, 64 Pratt, Phineas, 51, 53, 75, 97 privateer, 25 Prohibitory Act, 27 propulsion system, 50 Seven Years’ War, 6, 17, 25, 36, 68 See also French and Indian War smuggling, 6, 9 sovereign nation, 10 Stamp Act, 6, 8 submarines design of, 46, 47, 49–53, 100 invention of, 14, 37–38, 42, 44, 47, 49–51

Index Glossary

See also invisible ink Tallmadge, Benjamin, 78, 79, 81–82 taxes, 6, 8–10 Townshend Act, 8–9 treadle, 52 Tryon, Wiliam, 51 Turtle, 38, 39, 46, 47, 49–53, 72, 73–75, 76, 87, 97, 101, 102 See also submarines Washington, George, 11, 14, 16, 18–20, 23, 25–26, 28–29, 31, 33, 35, 42–44, 56–58, 60–61, 73, 76–78, 79, 81–83, 86, 90 water mines, 78

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About The Author Caitlyn Paley lives in Maryland, where she works in classrooms and writes books for students. She is the author of two books for middle school students, Slave Narratives and the Writings of Freedmen and The Pros and Cons of Nuclear Power (both from Cavendish Square Publishing). For high school audiences, she wrote introductions to Reading Shakespeare Today: King Lear and Reading Shakespeare Today: The Merchant of Venice (Cavendish Square Publishing). Paley enjoys doing research, hiking, and exploring the world. She is eager to experiment with writing in invisible ink. 

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Strategic Inventions of the Revolutionary War

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