State Formation in Egypt: Chronology and society 9780860548386, 9781407349602

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Figures
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Part 1: Background
Part 2: Techniques
Part 3: The seriations
Part 4: The effects of state formation
Part 5: State formation and the Delta
References
APPENDICES

Citation preview

·cambridge Mo no graphs in African Archaeology 40 Series editor: John Alexander

State Formation in Egypt Chronology and society

Toby A. H. Wilkinson

BAR International Series 651 1996

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 651 Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 40 State Formation in Egypt © Toby A. H. Wilkinson and the Publisher 1996 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860548386 paperback ISBN 9781407349602 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860548386 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1996. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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F or m y mo ther

T ab le o fC on ten t s T ab le o fC on ten t s

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L is to fF i gu re s

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A ck now ledgemen t s

1

I n t roduc t ion

1

P ar t1 B ackground

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S TATE F ORMAT ION : R ECENT ADVANCES I N UNDERSTAND ING C u l tu ra ld eve lopmen t P o l i t ica ld eve lopmen t CHRONOLOGY R e la t ive c h rono logy R e la t ive c h rono log ie so ft h eP redyna s t ic t oE a r ly D yna s t ic t r an s i t ion -ab r ie fh i s to ry C u l tu r a lv e r sus p o l i t ica lc h rono logy A b so lu t ec h rono logy H is t o r ica ld a t ing R ad ioca rbon d a t ing

5 5 7 9 9 9 1 1 3 1 3 1 4

P ar t2 T echn ique s

1 7

S ER IAT ION ANALYS IS S e r ia t ion t h eo ry a nd a pp l ica t ions S e r ia t ion a nd E gyp t ian a r chaeo logy U se s o fs e r ia t ion TYPOLOGY T ypo log ie so fP redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dy na s t ic p o t te ry P e t r ie 's c orpora a nd t h e i rl im i ta t ions O th e rt y po log ie so fP redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly D yna s t ic p o t te ry D if f e ren tp u rpose s ,d i f f e ren tt y po log ie s T y po logy a nd t h ed emand so fs e r ia t ion T h et y po log ica l g r oup ing su sed i nt h ep r e sen ts t udy S o r t ing c r i te r ia T he s o r t ing p rocedu re S TAT IST ICAL ANALYS IS Mo r tua ry d a ta a sa ni n dex o fs o c io -econom ic c hange G r ave s i ze G r ave w ea l th P r ev ious a na ly se so fe a r ly E gyp t ia n m o r tua ry d a ta

1 9 1 9 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 4 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 7

P ar t3 T he s er ia t ions

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THE CHOSEN CE METER IES L ow e rE gyp t T u ra E a r ly Dyna s t ic C eme te ry T a r l chan H i l l C eme te r ie s M idd le E gyp t M a tma rC eme te r ie s2 00 ,3 000 a nd 5 100 M o s tagedda C eme te ry 1 600 -1800 U ppe rE gyp t M aha sna ' P re -Dyna s t ic ' C eme t e ry A rman tC eme te ry 1 400 1500 H ie rakonpo l is F o r tC eme te r y C on t ro l s e r ia t io ns T he s o u r ce m a te r ia l S ER IAT ION RESULTS T u r a T a rkha n Ma tma r Mo s tagedda Ma ha sna A rman t H i e rakonpo l i s

3 1 3 1 3 1 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 4 3 5 3 5 3 6 3 6 3 8 3 8 4 3 4 7 4 9 5 1 5 3 5 6

1 1

C on t ro l s e r ia t ion s T u ra S e r ia t ion u s ing J unke r 's o r ig ina lt y po logy S e r ia t ion u s ing P e t r ie 's t y pe e qu iva len t s E lkab S e r ia t ion u s ing t h et y po log ica lg roup ing so ft h ep r e sen ts t udy S e r ia t ion u s ing H endr ickx 's o wn t y po logy CHRONOLOG ICAL I MPL ICAT IONS S ugge s ted m od if ica t ions t oK a ise r 's s c heme R e cen tw o rk b y o t he rs cho la r s T he r e su l t so ft h ep r e sen ts t udy T he d a t ing o fT u ra

5 9 5 9 5 9 5 9 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 4

P ar t4

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T he e f ec t so fs t a te f orma t ion

S OC IO -ECONOM IC CHANGE S t a t is t ica l a na ly s is o fm o r tua ry d a ta T u ra T a rkhan Ma tma r Mos tagedda Maha sna A rman t H ie rakonpo l is S umma ry P OL IT ICAL AND DEMOGRAPH IC CHANGE T he i mpo s i t ion o fn a t iona l a u tho r i ty a tt h el o ca ll e ve l C eme te ry p a t te rn ing a nd e a r ly u r ban ism D iscon t inu i ty i nm o r tua ry a r chaeo logy T he r i se o fu rban i sm CONCLUD ING REMARKS T he i mpo r tance o fl o ca l f a c to r s S t a t ef o rma t ion : am u l t i -cau sa lp r oce s s

6 9 6 9 6 9 7 2 7 5 7 7 7 9 8 1 8 3 8 5 8 6 8 6 8 6 8 7 8 7 8 9 8 9 9 0

P ar t5 S ta te f orma t ion a nd t he D e l ta

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I n t roduc t ion T he n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen ta nd h uman s e t t lemen t T he i n t eg ra t ion o fh i s to r ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l e v idence T he u se o fl a te rt r ad i t ion st oe s tab l ish t h ep r ima cy o fe a r ly D e l ta s i te s P r edyna s t ic e l i te c u l tu ra l m a te r ia l f r om t h ee a s te rn D e l ta S t a te f o rma t ion C u l tu ra ld eve lopmen t -e v idence f o r as i gn if i can tc hange t h roughou tt h eD e l ta a tt h eb eg inn ing o fN aqada I S oc io -po l i t ica ld eve lopmen t -a r ch i te c tu re a sa ne xp re s s ion o fs o c ia ld i f f e ren t ia t ion T he n a tu re o fp o l i t ica lu n if ica t ion T he a dm in i st ra t ion o ft h eD e l ta i nt h eE a r ly D yna s t ic p e r iod C onc lu s ion

9 3 9 3 9 3 9 3 9 4 9 4 9 4 9 5 9 5 9 6 9 6

R ef erence s

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Append ice s

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P o t te ry g r oup s S e r ia t ion d a ta P o t te ry c ha r t s

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F igure s F igu re 1 F igu re 2 F igu re 3 F igu re 4 F igu re 5 F igu re 6 F igu re 7 F igu re 8 F igu re 9 F igu re 1 0 F igu re 1 F igu re 1 2 F igu re 1 3 F igu re 1 4 F igu re 1 5 F igu re 1 6 F igu re 1 7 F igu re 1 8

Map o fE gyp ta nd L owe rN ub ia , s how ing s i te sm en t ioned i nt h et e x t S e r ia t ion m a t r ix f o rT u ra ,u s ing t h et y po log ica lg roup ing so ft h ep r e sen ts t udy S e r ia t ion m a t r ix f o rT u ra ,u s ing J unke r 's o r ig ina l t y po logy S e r ia t ion m a t r ix f o rT u ra ,u s ing P e t r ie 's t y pe e qu iva len t s T u ra h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy S e r ia t ion m a t r ix f o rT a rkhan H i l lC eme t e r ie s T a rkhan C eme te ry A h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig r aphy T a rkhan C eme te r ie sF ,G , Ha nd Jh o r izon ta ls t ra t ig raphy S e r ia t ion m a t r ix f o r Ma tma rC eme te r ie s2 00 ,3 000 -3 100 a nd 5 100 S e r ia t ion m a t r ix f o r Mo s tagedda C eme te ry 1 600 -1800 S e r ia t ion m a t r ix f o r Mah a sna S e r ia t ion m a t r ix f o rA rman tC eme te ry 1 400 1500 A rman tC eme te ry 1 400 1500 h o r izon ta ls t ra t ig raphy S e r ia t ion m a t r ix f o rH ie rakonpo l is F o r tC eme te ry H ie rakonpo l i sF o r tC eme te ry h o r izon ta ls t ra t ig raphy S e r ia t ion m a t r ix f o rE lka b ,u s ing t h et y po log ica lg roup ing s o ft h ep r e sen ts t udy S e r ia t ion m a t r ix f o rE lkab ,u s ing H end r ickx 's t y po logy Map o ft h eN i le D e l ta , s h ow ing s i te sm en t ioned i nP a r t5

4 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 8 5 0 5 2 _ 5 4 5 . 5 7 5 8 6 1 6 1 9 2

Acknow ledgemen t s T h is b ook i s as ubs tan t ia l ly r ev ised a nd u pda ted v e r s ion o f my d oc to ra l t h es is , s ubm i t ted t o t h e B oa rd o f G radua te S tud ie s o ft h eU n ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge i nA ugus t 1 993 . T he t h e s is w a s e xam ined i n F ebrua ry 1 994 b y Mrs . B a rba ra A dams a nd D r .S tephan S e id lmaye r , a nd s ubsequen t ly p a s sed b y t h e D eg ree C omm i t tee o ft h e F acu l ty B oa rd o fO r ien ta l S tud ie s a nd b yt h eB oa rd o fG radua te S tud ie s , U n ive r s i ty o f C amb r idge . T he c o mp le t ion o ft h i s w o rk w ou ld n o t h ave b een p oss ib le w i thou t t h e h e lp a nd s uppo r t o f many p eop le . F i rs t a nd f o remos t , Iw ou ld l i ke t o t h ank B a r ry K emp , u nde r w hose s upe rv is ion a nd g u idance t h e t h e s is w a s r e sea rched a nd w r i t ten . H i sc on t inu ing e ncou ragemen tw a si nva luab le d u r ing t h e p roces s o f r ev is ing t h e t h es is a nd p repa r ing i tf o r p ub l ica t ion . Ia m mos t g ra tefu l t oD r . P ame la R ose o f t h e McDona ld I n s t i tu te f o r A rchaeo log ica l R esearch i n C ambr idge , b o th f o r h e r i n s t ruc t ion i n a r chaeo log ica l s e r ia t ion a ta n e a r ly s t age i n my r e sea rch , a nd e spec ia l ly f o r p u t t ing m ei nc on tac t w i th D r . J ohn A lexande r , t h e e d i to r o f t h e C ambr idge Monographs i nA f r ican A rchaeo logy s e r ie si n w h ich t h e p re sen t wo rk a ppea rs . My t hank s a r e d ue t oD r . A lexande rf o ra c cep t ing t h ew o rk f o rp ub l ica t ion , a nd f o rh i s h e lpfu l s ugge s t ions . Mr s . B a rba ra Adams , D r . S tephan S e id lmaye r a nd a t h i rd , a nonymous r ev iewe r f o r t h e EES m ade many c ons truc t ive c r i t ic ism s a nd s ugge s t ions w i th r ega rd t o t h e o r ig ina l t he s is , wh ich I h ave s ough t t o i n co rpo ra te i nt h is r ev ised v e r s ion .I na dd i t ion ,t h ank s a r ed ue t ot h e f o l low ing p eop le f o r t h e i rt ime , e xpe r t ise , s ugge s t ions a nd i n te re s ti n my w o rk : K a te S pence , f o rd raw ing t h e m aps w h ich a ccompany t h e t e x t ; D r . C o l in S he l l a nd t h e s t af fo f t h e F acu l ty o f A rchaeo logy a nd A n th ropo logy C ompu t ing F ac i l i ty ,U n ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge ; J an ine B ou r r iau a nd P e te r

F rench ; D r . C h r is t iana K öh le r ; C h r is E l l is ; D r . S tan H end r ic i cx ; D r . D ina F a l t ings ; S teven R ob inson ; P rof e s so r J ohn B a ines ;D r . P au l C a l low o ft h eU n ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge C ompu t ing S e rv ice ; D r . G ün te r D reye r , D i rec to r , a nd t h e o the r membe rs o f t h e G e rman A rchaeo log ica l I ns t i tu te E xped i t ion t oA bydos ; D r . E len i V a s s i l ika ; t h e s t af f o f t h e F acu l ty o f O r ien ta l S tud ies L ibra ry , Un ive rs i ty o f C amb r idge ; D r . S a l ly Swa in ; D r . T homa s v on d e r Way ; D r . K a r la K roepe r ; D r . E dw in v an d en B r ink ; G raham C unn ingham ; D r . P ene lope Wi lson ; S tephen S avage . T he f on t ` S ippa r ' , u sed f o r t r ans l i te ra t ions o f a nc ien t E gyp t ian w o rds , w a s c rea ted b y D r . W i lf red v an S o ld t o f t he U n ive r s i ty o fL e iden . S ix y ea r s o fr e sea rch o n t h e P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iods o f E gyp t h ave b een c a r r ied o u t a s a membe r o f C h r i s t 's C o l lege , C amb r idge . B o th a s ag radua te s t uden t a nd a s aJ un io rR e sea rch F e l low Ih ave r e ce ived g ene rou s s uppo r t f r om t h e C o l lege 's L ady Wa l l i s B udge F und , t h e Manage r s o fw h ich d e se rve my s pec ia l t h ank s . I na dd i t ion , C h r i s t 's h a s p rov ided a w onde rfu l e nv ironmen t i n wh ich t o p u r sue a cadem ic r e sea rch . My d eepe s t g ra t i tude mus t g o t o a l l m embe r s o ft h eC o l lege -t h e Ma s te r , f o rme r Ma s te rS i rH an s K o rnbe rg ,F e l lows , g radua te a nd u nde rg radua te s t uden t s , a nd s t a f f -f o r mak ing m yt ime s oe n joyab le a nd p roduc t ive . F ina l ly , Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank my f r iends a nd f am i ly -h e re n o t m en t ioned i n d iv idua l ly , b u tr emembe red , e ach a nd e ve ry o ne -f o r t h e i r u ns t in t ing s uppo r t a nd e ncou ragemen t , w h ich h ave b een t r u ly i n va luab le . C h r is t 's C o l lege ,C amb r idge May 1 996

I n troduc t ion T he p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion i n E gyp t -o r , i n mo re c onven t iona l E gyp to log ica l t e rm ino logy , t h e t r ans i t ion f r om t h el a te P redyna s t ic t ot h e E a r ly Dynas t ic p e r iod -w i tne s sed t h e t r ansfo rma t ion o f s oc ie ty i nt h e N i le v a l ley . I nc rea s ing c r a f t s pec ia l i sa t ion a nd t he c oncom i tan t t e chno log ica l d eve lopmen t s h ad ma jo r e f f ec t s , n o t o n ly o n t h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re o f E gyp t , b u t a l so o n p a t te rns o f p roduc t ion , d i s t r ibu t ion a nd e xchange . T he s oc io -econom ic c hanges w h ich o ccu r red i nt h e s econd h a lf o ft h e f ou r th m i l lenn ium BC w e re i n t ima te ly c onne c ted w i th t h er i se o fl o ca l e l i te sa nd t h e i r e conom ic p a t ronage . T he g row th o f c onsp icuous c on sump t ion , p a r t icu la r ly i n Uppe r E gyp t , s t imu la ted t r ade , b o th i n te rna l a nd e x te rna l . T he t r end t owa rd s i n c rea s ing s o c ia l s t ra t if ica t ion , w h ich h ad b egun i n t he e a r ly f ou r th m i l lenn ium , r e a ched i t s c l imax a tt h e e nd o ft h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod , a nd t h ee n t i re c oun t ry w a su n if ied u nde r as i ng le r u le r c l a im ing d iv ine a u tho r i ty . Mos t o f o u r e v idence f o r t h e p roces s o f s t a te f o rma t ion -a p roce s s a t te s ted b y i n c rea s ing s oc ia l c omp lex i ty , c hange s i n m a te r ia l c u l tu re , t he i n tens if ica t ion o f t r ade , a nd p o l i t ica l u n if ica t ion -d e r ives f r om c eme te r ies . A c ha rac te r is t ic o f E gyp t ian a r chaeo logy i st h e i mba lance b e tween s e t t lemen t a nd mo r tua ry m a te r ia l . U n t i l r e cen t ly , e xcava t ion i nE gyp t h a s t y p ica l ly c oncen t ra ted o n t h e n ume rous a nd o f ten w e l l p r e se rved c eme te r ie s w h ich l i ne t h e e dge o ft h e c u l t iva t ion t h roughou t m uch o f t h e N i le v a l ley . N ew e xcava t ions a r e b eg inn ing t or e d res s t h e b a lance , b u t t he f a c t r ema ins t h a t

mos t o f t h e a va i lab le e v idence f o r t he p rocess o f s t a te f o rma t ion d e r ive s f r om c eme te r ie s e xcava ted i n t h e e a r ly y ea r s o ft h e Twen t ie th C en tu ry . D esp i te t h e i n adequa c ie s o f much o f t h e d ocumen ta t ion , t he ma te r ia l f r om t h ese e xcava t ions i s as ou rce o fg r ea tp o ten t ia l f o ri n ve s t iga t ing t h e c hange sw h ich a c compan ied t h er i se o ft h eE gyp t ian s t a te . I no rde r t od o j u s t t h is , t h e p re sen t s t udy s eek s t oa pp ly n ew t e chn ique s o fa na ly s i s t o ar ep re sen ta t ive s amp le o fc eme t e ry d a ta . S even s i te s , f r om t h e a pex o ft h eD e l ta t os ou the rnmo s t U ppe r E gyp t , h ave b een c hosen f o r s t udy . T he a ims o ft h e p re sen t w o rk a r e t wo -fo ld : t h e r ef inemen t o ft h e c h rono logy o ft h e l a te P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly Dynas t ic t r ans i t ion ; a nd t h e i nves t iga t ion o f s oc io -econom ic c hange w i th in E gyp t ian s oc ie ty d u r ing t h ep e r iod o fs t a te f o rma t ion . T he f i r s t g oa l i s ap re requ is i te f o rt h e s e cond . F o r o n ly w hen t h e c h rono logy o ft h ep e r iod h a sb een r ef ined a nd p l a ced o n as ound f oo t ing c an t h e e f f ec t s o fs t a te f o rma t ion b e c ha r ted a nd a na ly sed i n t h e i r p rope r c on tex t . T he c h rono log ica l s y s tem mos t o f ten u sed f o r t h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod i st h e s cheme d eve loped b y K a ise r . A sw es ha l l s e e , t h is w a sb a sed u pon t h e a na ly s is o fa s i ng le s i te i n U ppe r E gyp t , a nd m ay n o t b e a ccu ra te ly a pp l icab le t o o t he r s i te s a nd r eg ions o f t h e c oun t ry . B y s e lec t ing s i te s t h roughou t t h e N i le v a l ley , t h e p re sen t s t udy s e ek s t oe s tab l ish m o re s ens i t ive , l o ca l c h rono log ie s f o r t h e l a te P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly Dyna s t ic t r ans i t ion . T hese c an t h en b eu sed a st h e f r amewo rk f o r i n ve s t iga t ing t h ee f fe c t s o fs t a te f o rma t ion o n i n d iv idua l c ommun i t ie sa nd w ide rr eg ions .

T he s t udy i s p resen ted i n f i ve p a r t s . P a r t 1g ive s t h e b ackg round t o t he p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion i n E gyp t . A s u mma ry o fr e cen ta dvance si no u ru nde r s tand ing i sf o l lowed b y ad i scu ss ion o ft h e c h rono log ica l i s sue s . T he t e chn ique s u sed i nt h e s t udy a r e e xp la ined i nP a r t 2 .S e r ia t ion , p o t te ry t y po logy a nd t h es t a t is t ica l a na ly s is o f mo r tua ry d a ta a r ee ach d i scus sed w i th s pec ia lr e f e rence t op rev ious w o rk . A sw i l l b e a ppa ren t f r om t h e p rev iou s p a rag raph , t h e ma in b ody o ft h e s t udy f a l l s i n to t wo s ec t ions . F i rs t , i n P a r t 3 , t h e s even s e lec ted c eme te r ies h ave b een a na lysed b y c ompu te r s e r ia t ion , t o h igh l igh t t he p r inc ipa l c e ram ic ( and , b y i n fe rence , c h rono log ica l ) p ha se s a t tes ted a te ach s i te . T he s e r ia t ion r e su l ts a re c ompa red w i th t he e s tab l ished P redyna s t ic c h rono logy , a nd t h e i mp l ica t ions f o r t h is a nd o t he rc h rono log ica l i s sue s a r ed i scus sed . Two f u r the r , c on t ro l s e r ia t ions a r e p re sen ted , t o e s tab l ish t h e a ccu racy o f t h e me thod se mp loyed . S econd , i nP a r t4 ,t h e l o ca l c h rono log ie s d e r ived f r om s e r ia t ion a r e u sed t o c ha r t s oc io -econom ic c hange a te a ch o ft h e s i te s d ur ing t h e P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly Dynas t ic t r ans i t ion . T he re i s a l so a d i scuss ion o f o the r p henomena w h ich a r ea s soc ia ted w i th s t a te f o rma t ion a nd a r e r e f lec ted i n mo r tua ry d a ta -i np a r t icu la r t h e n uc lea t ion o f p opu la t ion w h ich ma rk s t h e b eg inn ing o f u rban ism i n t h e N i le v a l ley . T he c onc lud ing r ema rk s o f P a r t 4s t ress t h e i mpo r tance o fl o ca l f a c to r s i nt h e e f f ec t s o fs t a te f o rma t ion o n i n d iv idua lc ommun i t ie s . As t udy o fe a r ly E gyp t mu s tt a ke i n to a ccoun t t h e D e l ta a s w e l l a s t h e N i le v a l ley . R ecen t e xcava t ions h ave b egun t oh igh l igh t t h e i mpo r tance o f t h e D e l ta i nt h ep roce ss o fs t a te f o rma t ion , b u t , t od a te , o n ly o ne ma jo r c eme te ry s pann ing t h e P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly Dyna s t ic t r ans i t ion h a s b een e xcava ted -M insha t A bu Oma r i n t h e n o r th -ea s te rn De l ta ( K roepe r & W i ldung 1 985 , 1 994 ; K roepe r 1 988 ) . A l l t h es i te s a na lysed i nt h ep re sen ts t udy a r e l o ca ted i nt h e N i le v a l ley . T he e x tended e s say w h ich f o rm s P a r t 5s eek s , t h e refo re , t oc omp le te t h e p i c tu re o fE gyp t ian s t a te f o rma t ion b yd i scus s ing t h er o le o ft h eD e l ta i nt h el i gh t o f r e cen t d i scove r ies . F ina l ly , a f te r f u l l b ib l iog raph ica l r e f e rence s , t h ea ppend ices p re sen t t h ep o t te ry g roups u sed i n t h es e r ia t ions , a sw e l la sc omp le te s e r ia t ion d a ta f o re ach s i te .

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F igu re 1 . Map o fE gyp ta nd L owe rN ub ia , s how ing s i te s men t ioned i nt h et e x t ( f o rs i te s i nt h eC a i ro r e g ion a nd N i le D e l ta ,p l ea se r e f e rt oF igu re 1 8 ) 4

S TATE FOR MAT ION : RECENT ADVANCES I N UNDERSTAND ING I n r e cen t y ea rs , aw ea l th o f n ew e v idence h a s eme rged t o s hed l i gh t o n t he l a te P redyna s t ic t o E a r ly Dynas t ic t r an s i t ion . T h is , i nt u rn , h a s g iven r i se t oi n tense i n te res t i n t h ew ho le q ue s t ion o fs t a te f o rma t ion i nE gyp t( e .g . L a rgacha 1 993 ; B a rd 1 994 ) . Much o f t he n ew ma te r ia l p romp t ing d i scus s ion d e r ive sf r om e xcava t ion si nt h eD e l ta ,p a r t icu la r ly t h es i te so fB u to , i nt h en or th -we s t( von d e r Way 1 986 , 1 987 , 1 988 , 1 989 , 1 991 , 1 992 ) , a nd M insha t A bu Oma r , i n t h e n o r th -ea s t( Kroepe r & Wi ldung 1 985 , 1 994 ; K roepe r 1 988 ) . T he o ngo ing e xcava t ions a t A bydos c on t inue t o p roduce i mpo r tan t , o f ten s t a r t l ing , n ew e v idence ( Ka ise r & D reye r 1 982 ;D reye r 1 987 , 1 993 , 1 995 ;D r eye re ta l . 1 990 ) . T oge the r w i th r e cen t p ub l ica t ions o f e a r l ie r e xcava t ions , t he n ew ly e xcava ted ma te r ia l h as d rama t ica l ly i mproved o ur u nde r s tand ing o f t h e c u l tu ra l a nd p o l i t ica l p roce sse s wh ich l a yb eh ind s t a te f o rma t ion .

j us t ap a r t icu la rs t y le o fc e ram ic s , i th a s a lway sb een i nt e rm s o ft h e i r c e ram ics t h a t t h eN aqada a nd Maad i ' Cu l tu re s ' h ave b een d ef ined a nd i d en t if ied . I ti sf a rf r om c l ea rt ow ha t e x ten t o the r c u l tu ra l a spec t s d i s t ingu ish U ppe r a nd L owe rE gyp ti n t he P redyna s t ic p e r iod . I ndeed , a s t h ey a r e c ommon ly u sed b y E gyp to log is t s , t he t e rms N aqada C u l tu re a nd Maad i C u l tu re a r e r a the r i n app rop r ia te . I tw ou ld b e b e t te r t ot a lk o f s ou the rn /Naqada a nd n o r the rn / Maad i c e ram ic t r ad i t ions o r a ssemb lage s . T h is i s p rec ise ly w ha t K öh le r ( 1993 ) h a s s ugges ted . Nea r ly f o r ty y ea rs a go K a ise r ( 1956 ) f o rmu la ted t h e t h eo ry t ha t t h e m a te r ia l c u l tu re c ha rac te r i s t ic o fP redyna s t ic U ppe r E gyp t , o r mo re s pec if ica l ly t h e p o t te ry c omponen t o f t h a t c u l tu re , h ad s p read n o r thwa rds f r om i t sh ea r t land d u r ing m id t o l a te N aqada I , r each ing n o r the rnmos t U ppe r E gyp t b y S tuf e I c i nh i s c h rono log ica l s cheme a nd L owe r E gyp t b y S tuf e I I . T he c eme te r ie s a tG e rza a nd H a raga , w hose b u r ia l s a re c ha rac te r ised b y p o t te ry i n t h e N aqada t r ad i t ion , w e re b e l ieved t o r ep resen t t he f i r s t s t age i n t h is n or thwa rd e xpans ion , ap roce ss w h ich w a s u l t ima te ly t o l e ad t o t h e ' c u l tu ra l u n if ica t ion ' o ft h ew ho le o fE gyp t .

I nt h eE gyp t ian c on tex t , t h e t e rm ' s ta te f o rma t ion ' r e f e r s t o t he p roce ss b y w h ich E gyp t e me rged a s ap o l i t ica l a nd c u l tu ra l e n t i ty d u r ing t h el a s tq ua r te r o ft h ef ou r th m i l lenn ium BC . T he p o l i t ica l a spec t o f t h is p roces s i so f ten t e rmed b y E gyp to log is ts ' t he Un if ica t ion ' . T he o ld n o t ion h e ld t h a t a s ou th e rn k i ngdom c onque red a nd t h en a s s im i la ted an o r the rn o ne b y m i l i ta ry m eans , a ccomp l ish ing t h e U n if ica t ion i na s i ng le a nd r e la t ive ly s w if t o pe ra t ion ( e .g . Eme ry 1 961 : 4 2 ) . We n ow k now t ha t t he p roce s s o f s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l d eve lopmen t wh ich u l t ima te ly l e d t o au n if ied s t a te w a s a g ood d ea l more c omp lex a nd p ro t rac ted , b eg inn ing a s f a r b a ck a st h em idd le o re ven e a r ly P redyna s t ic . Two s t rand sa r e i nvo lved i n t he p roce ss o f s t a te f o rma t ion . O ne i sc u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t : c hange s i nt h e m a te r ia l c u l tu re -a s r ef lec ted p r inc ipa l ly i n t he c e ram ic a s semb lage - l e ad ing t o t h e p resence o f a more -or less u n if ied ma te r ia l c u l ture t h roughou t E gyp t i nt h e E a r ly D yna s t ic p e r iod ( c f . Guk sch 1 99 1 : 4 1 ) . T he s econd s t rand i s t ha t o f s oc io -po l i t ica l d eve lopmen t : c hanges i n s oc ie ty c u lm ina t ing i n t he e s tab l ishmen t o f an a t iona l a dm in is t ra t ion p r e s ided o ve rb y a s i ng le r u le rc l a im ing d iv ine a u tho r i ty .

T he e xcava t ion o f al a rge c eme te ry s pann ing t h eP redyna s t ic E a r ly D yna s t ic t r ans i t ion a tM insha tA bu Oma r i nt h e n o r th e a s te rn D e l ta s eemed t o a dd w e igh t t o t h is h ypo the s is , i n a dd i t ion s ugges t ing a p oss ib le mo t ive f o r t h e n o r thwa rd e xpans ion . T he p re l im ina ry r epo r t a nd s eve ra l s ubsequen t a r t ic le s o n t h e e a r ly g rave s a tM insha t ( K roepe r &W i ldung 1 985 ; K roepe r 1 988 ) s howed t h a t t h e p o t te ry w a s a lmos t e n t i re ly i nt h eU ppe rE gyp t ian t r ad i t ion . ( No te ,h oweve r , t h a t s o me o f t he e a r l ie s t -a nd a s y e t u npub l ished -g raves a t M insha t , wh ich w e re p oo r i n g rave g oods , a ppa ren t ly c on ta ined v e sse ls o f t h e n o r the rn /Maad i r epe r to i re . T he se v es se ls a r e n ow i nt h em agaz ine i n Mun ich ( Köh le r ,p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion . )T he e a r l ie s tb u r ia ls h ave b een d a ted t oS t uf e I c o rI dl ( i . e . e a r ly -m idd le N aqada I ) , mak ing M insha t t h e e a r l ie s t s i te o f t h e N aqada C u l tu re y e t d i scove red i n t h e De l ta . I t s l o ca t ion , o n t h ea nc ien t P e lu s iac b ranch o ft h eN i le , c l ose t ot h e Med i te r ranean c oa s t a nd a tt h e E gyp t ian e nd o f o ne o f t he p r inc ipa l t r ade r ou te s t o s ou the rn P a les t ine , s t rong ly s ugge s t s t h a t t r ade w a s o ne o f t h e p r ime f a c tor s b eh ind t h ee s tab l ishmen to ft h eM insha tc ommun i ty , a nd t h us o ne o f t h e ma jo r s pu r s o f t h e moo ted s ou the rn e xpan s ion ( Kroepe r & W i ldung 1 985 : 9 8 ) . ( Th is e xpans ion w a s e nv isaged , b ys ome s cho la r s a tl e a s t , i nt e rms o f ap opu la t ion movemen t , t h e p eop le f r om Uppe r E gyp t c a r ry ing t h e ir p o t te ry t r ad i t ion s w i th t h em a st h ey moved i n to L owe rE gyp t ( von d e r Way 1 991 : 4 22 -3 ; c f . Mor tensen 1 991 : 1 6 ) . ) T he f a c t t h a t P a le s t in ian w avy -hand led j a r s a nd t h e E gyp t ian v esse ls t hey i n sp i red f i rs t a ppea r i n Uppe r E gyp t ian c eme te r ie s a ta r ound t h e s ame t ime a st h e e a r l ie s t b u r ia ls a t M in sha ts eemed t oc onf i rm t h el i nk .

Cu l tura l d eve lopmen t F rom t h e e a r ly f ou r th m i l lenn ium BC , s i te s i n Uppe r E gyp t , f r om t h e B ada r i r e g ion i nt h e n o r th t oH ie rakonpo l is i nt h e s ou th , s how c e r ta in s im i la r i t ie s i n t he ir p o t te ry a nd h ave t h e ref o re b een a s s igned t o as i ng le ' c u l tu re ' , t e rmed t h e N aqada C u l ture a f te r t h et y pe s i te o f Naqada n o r th o fL uxo r . I n c on t ra s t , s i te s i n L owe r E gyp t , f r om t h e mou th o f t h e F ayum t ot he D e l ta , e xh ib i t , a tl e a s t f o r t h e f i r s t h a lf o ft h e f ou r th m i l lenn ium , a d i s t inc t ive ly d i f f e ren t c e ram ic a s semb lage , a nd h ave t hus b een a ss igned t o as epa ra te ' c u l tu r e ' , n amed t h e Maad i C u l tu re , o r mo re r e cen t ly t h e B u to -Maad i C u l tu re ( R izkana & S eehe r 1 987 , 1 988 , 1 989 , 1 990 ; s umma r ised i nM idan t -Reynes 1 992 : 1 98 -206 ) . I ti s u pon t h er e spec t ive d eve lopmen to ft h ese t wo ' c u l tu re s ' -o r , m o re p a r t icu la r ly ,u pon t h e a ppa ren tn o r thwa rd e xpans ion o f t h e N aqada C u l tu re a nd i t s d i sp lacemen t o f Maad i C u l tu re t h roughou t L owe r E gyp t b y t h e b eg inn ing o f t he E a r ly D yna s t ic p er iod - t ha t t he i n te res t a nd a t ten t ion o f P redyna s t ic s cho la r s h a s b een c oncen t ra ted i nr e cen t y ea rs ( e .g . K a ise r 1 985b , 1 990 ; v on d e r Way 1 991) . I ti sw o r th a dd ing t h a t , a l though a n a r chaeo log ica l ' c u l tu re ' i s mo re t han

T he l ong -awa i ted f i na l p ub l ica t ion o f t he i mpo r tan t e xcava t ions a t Maad i a nd Wad i D ig la ( R izkana & S eehe r 1 987 , 1 988 , 1 989 , 1 990 ) made a who le n ew s e t o f P redyna s t ic ma te r ia l a va i lab le t o s cho la r s , a nd a wakened c ons ide rab le i n te re s t i nt h e P redyna s t ic m a te r ia l c u l tu re o f L owe r E gyp t . T he p o t te ry f r om Maad i a nd Wad i D ig la i s i ndeed v e ry d i f f e ren t f r om t h a t f ound i n t h e c on tempo ra ry c eme te r ies o fU ppe rE gyp t . F u r the rmo re , o t he ra spec t s o ft h e l o ca l w ay o f l i f e , s uch a s b u r ia l t r ad i t ions a nd d ome s t ic 5

q ue s t ion t h e v i ew t ha t c e ram ic d i f f e rences b e tween Uppe r a nd L owe r E gyp t a r e n ecessa r i ly r e f lec t ions o f c u l tu ra l d i s t inc t ion s( Adams & F r iedman 1 992 : 3 27 ) . P e rhap si ti sn o t s u rp r is ing t h a t s e t t lemen t p o t te ry s hou ld s how u p t h e l o ca l a nd r eg iona l c ha rac te r o fP redyna s t ic m a te r ia l c u l tu re wh ich t he c oncen t ra t ion u pon c e me te r ie s h as masked . F une ra ry p o t te ry s e ems t or ep re sen t as pec if i c s e lec t ion o ft y pe s f r om t he c on tempo ra ry c e ram ic r epe r to i re , as e lec t ion i n f luenced b y f a c to r s o f wh ich w e a r e l a rge ly i g no ran t . I n f une ra ry r i tua l , t r ad i t ion i sl i ke ly t oh ave p layed as i gn if ican tr o le , a nd t he g rea te r u n ifo rm i ty o f f une ra ry p o t te ry t h roughou t P redyna s t ic U ppe r E gyp t i s p e rhaps a r ef lec t ion o f s uch c onse rva t ive i n f luence s . A s h as a l ready b een m en t ioned , r eg iona l v a r ia t ion i n s e t t lemen t p o t te ry i sa l so af e a tu re o f L owe r E gyp t i nt he P redynas t ic p e r iod . T he a s semb lage a t B u to s how sd i s t inc td i f f e rences , b o th f r om t he t ype s i te o ft h e n o r the rn t r ad i t ion ( Maad i )a nd f r om c on tempo ra ry s i t e si nt h e e a s te rn D e l ta . T he d i s t inc t ive l o ca l c ha rac te r o f p o t te ry p roduc t ion a tB u to c on t inue s i n to t h eE a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod , p e rhap s p o in t ing t o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i n ma te r ia l c u l tu re e ven a f te rt h eu n if ica t ion o fE gyp t .

a r ch i tec tu re , a r e d i f f e ren t f r om c on tempora ry U ppe r E gyp t . T he p ub l ica t ion a nd s t udy o f o the r s i te s a t w h ich s im i la r p o t te ry h a s b een d i scove red h a s s hown t ha t t h e c e ram ic t r ad i t ions o f Maad i a r e p a ra l le led t h roughou t L owe r E gyp t (W i l l iam s 1 982 ; D ebono & Mo r tensen 1 988 ; Wunde r l ich e t a l . 1 989 ; F r iedman 1 992 ) . P a r t icu lar ly s i gn if ican t f o r t h e t h eo ry o fc u l tu ra l e xpans ion i st h e s i te o f e s -Saf f , s ome 4 0 km s ou th o f C a i ro ( Habach i & K a ise r 1 985 ) . T he b u r ia ls f r om t h is s ma l lc eme te ry a r ec ha rac te r ised b yp o t te ry e n t i re ly i nt h e Maad i t r ad i t ion , b u t t h ey s e em t ob e s l igh t ly l a te r i n d a te t h an t h o se a tt h et y pe s i te o f Maad i / Wad iD ig la . I tw ou ld a ppea r t ob e n o c o inc idence t ha t t h e c eme te ry c ea sed t ob e u sed a tp rec ise ly t h e s ame t ime t h a tb u r ia ls b egan a tG e rza , o n ly 1 5 km a way . I n o t he r w o rds , t h e a r r iva l i nt h e a r ea o f t h e N aqada C u l tu re s eem s t oh ave l e d s w if t ly t ot h e d em ise o ft h el o ca l c e ram ic t r ad i t ions . A s t h e Memph i te a r ea -w h ich w ou ld h ave b een t h ep r inc ipa l r eg ion o f ' c onf ron ta t ion ' b e tween t wo c ompe t ing c u l tu re s ( Ka ise r 1 985b : 7 1) -h a sn o ty i e lded a ny s i te sd a t ing f r om t h e P redyna s t ic t o E a r ly Dynas t ic t r ans i t ion , a t ten t ion h as i n c rea s ing ly f o cu sed o n t h eD e l ta t op rov ide e v idence f o r t h e h ypo the s is o f' c u l tu ra l s upe rpos i t ion ' ( von d e r Way 1 991 ) . A h i a tus i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a tT e l l I b rah im Awad i n t h e e as te rn D e l ta , c or respond ing t o t h e l a te P redyna s t ic , s eemed t op rov ide a dded s uppo r t f o r s uch ah ypo the s is ( van d en B r ink 1 989 : 7 8 ) . Wha t w a s n eeded a bove a l l w a s a s t ra t if ied s equence d emons t ra t ing t h e r ep lacemen t o f o ne c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion b y a no the r . T he G e rman e xcava t ions a tT e l l e l -Fa ra ` in /Bu to i n t he n o r th -wes te rn De l ta h ave i ndeed u ncove red a u nb roken s t ra t if ied s equence o f s e t t lemen t r ema ins , s t re tch ing f r om t h e E a r ly Dynas t ic p e r iod b ack t o e a r ly N aqada I ( von d e r Way 1 992 ; Köh le r 1 992 ) . G rea t e xc i temen t h a s b een g ene ra ted b y t he d i scove ry a nd p re l im ina ry p ub l ica t ion o f a n a ppa ren t ' t rans i t ion l a ye r ' i n w h ich t h e p o t te ry c ha ra c te r is t ic o f t h e P redyna s t ic l e ve ls i s r e p laced b y t h a t c ha rac te r is t ic o ft h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic l e ve ls . T he E a r ly Dyna s t ic p o t te ry s hows g rea t s im i la r i t ies , b o th i n f a b r ic a nd f o rms , t ot h a t f r om c on tempo ra ry s i te s i n Uppe r E gyp t . O nt h e o t he rh and , t h e e a r l ie r P redyna s t ic p o t te ry h a s a f f in i t ie s w i th t h e Maad i ma te r ia l , b u t a l so s ome l o ca l p ecu l ia r i t ie s , f o r e xamp le s ma l l r ough j a rs , a nd b ag shaped j a r s w i th o ne o rt wo h o le s ( Köh le r 1 993 : 19 ) . ( I t i sf o r t h is r e ason t h a t v on d e r Way r enamed t h e P redyna s t ic L owe r E gyp t ian t r ad i t ion ` Bu to - Maad i C u l tu re ' . ) T he B u to f i nd ings s eemed t op rove t h a t t h e re h ad b een an o r thwa rd e xpans ion o ft h eN aqada C u l tu re w h ich d i sp laced t h ei n d igenou sc u l tu re o f L owe r E gyp t . F u r thermo re , b y means o f af ew Uppe r E gyp t ian i mpo r t s a nd i m i ta ted U ppe r E gyp t ian f o rms , t h e d a te o ft h is d i sp la cemen t o rs upe rpos i t ion a tB u to w a s f i xed a tK a ise r 's S tuf eI dl ( von d e r Way 1 991 : 4 21-2 ) . I n t he l a s t t wo o r t h ree y ea rs , s eve ra l s t ud ie s a na lys ing e v idence b o th o l d a nd n ew h ave b egun t o c ha l lenge t h is p i c tu re o f P redyna s t ic c u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t . F i r s t , i th a s b ecome i n c rea s ing ly a ppa ren t t h a t t h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re o f P redyna s t ic E gyp t , b o th i n t he D e l ta a nd i n U ppe r E gyp t , e xh ib i ted f a r g rea te r r eg iona l a nd l o ca l d ive rs i ty t h an w a s p rev ious ly a pp rec ia ted ( K roepe r 1 989 : 2 72 ) . T he N aqada C u l tu re , e spec ia l ly , h a s u n t i l v e ry r e cen t ly b een t r ea ted a sa r a the r u n ifo rm e n t i ty . K emp 's ( 1982 ) a na lys is o f t he P redyna s t ic c eme te r ie s o f Maha sna a nd e l -Am ra bs ugge s ted t h e e x is tence o f l o ca l v a r ia t ions i n t he f une ra ry p o t te ry r epe r to i re . O f g rea t i mpo r tance f o r P redyna s t ic s t ud ie s h a s b een t h e i n creas ing emphas is o n s e t t lemen t s a nd t he ir p o t te ry . F r iedman 's ( 1994 ) a na ly s is a nd c ompa r ison o f s e t t lemen tp o t te ry f r om t h ree Uppe rE gyp t ian s i te sh a s a ga in d emons t ra ted s i gn if ican tr e g iona l v a r ia t ion , a nd h a sl e dh e rt o

O ne r eg ion o f Uppe r E gyp t wh ich h a s b egun t oe me rge a s q u i te d i s t inc ti nt e rm s o fm a te r ia l c u l tu re i st h e B ada r ir e g ion . Ho lme s 's ( 1 988 , 1 989 ) s t udy o fl i th ic s w a s o ne o ft h ef i r s tt o h igh l igh t t h e d i f fe rence s b e tween t h e B ada r i r eg ion a nd t h e r e s t o f U ppe r E gyp t . F u r the rmo re , i ts howed s ome c l ose s im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h e s t one t oo l -p roduc t ion o f M idd le E gyp t a nd t h a t o f L owe r E gyp t , c on t rad ic t ing R izkana & S eehe r 's ( 1987 : 6 7 ) a s se r t ion t ha t t h e re was v e ry l i t t le c u l tu ra l c on tac t b e tween t h e n or the rn ( Maad i ) a nd s ou the rn ( Naqada ) t r ad i t ions i n e a r ly P redyna s t ic t ime s . F u r the r e v idence f o r c on tac t b e tween Midd le a nd L owe r E gyp t h a s b een b rough t t o l i gh t i n K öh le r 's ( 1 993 ) c omp rehens ive s t udy o f t h e s e t t lemen t p o t te ry f r om B u to . H e r r e e xam ina t ion o f m a te r ia l f r om B run ton 's e xcava t ions i nt h e B ada r i r eg ion h a s s hown t h ec l ose c o r re spondence o fs eve ra l f o rm sw i th p o t te ry f r om L owe rE gyp t( Köh le r 1 993 : f i g s . 2 8 3 4 ) . T he a ppa ren t l a ck o f e v idence f o r c on tac t b e tween L owe r a nd U ppe r E gyp td u r ing t he e a r ly P redyna s t ic c an b e e xp la ined , t o al a rge e x ten t , b y al a ck o f r ecogn i t ion o f g enu ine L owe r E gyp t ian p o t te ry i n e a r l ie r e xcava t ions , a nd b y t h e f u ne ra ry b i a s o ft h ee v idence f r om U ppe rE gyp t . V on d e r Way ( 1993 : 8 2 ) s ugge s t s t ha t L owe r E gyp t ian i mpo r t s w ou ld p e rhaps b e e xpec ted t o o ccu r m o re f r equen t ly i n s e t t lemen tc on tex t s s i nce t h ey w e re n o tp r e s t ig iou se nough t o h ave b een i n c luded i nU ppe r E gyp t ian b u r ia ls . R ecen t ly , t h e g rea te r a wa rene ss a nd f am i l ia r i ty o f P redynas t ic s cho la r s w i th L owe r E gyp t ian p o t te ry h as l e d t o i t s r e cogn i t ion a mongs t m a te r ia l f r om U ppe r E gyp t s i te s ( Ba rba ra A dam s , p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion ) . T hus , ap i c tu re s eem s t o b e e me rg ing i nw h ich t h e re w a s ag rea te rd eg ree o fc on ta c tt h an p rev ious ly s upposed b e tween t he r eg ions o f E gyp t , e ven d u r ing N aqada I .

6

I n ar a d ica l r e -a s ses smen t o fP redyna s t ic E gyp t -w h ich h a s b een s t rong ly r ebu t ted b y K a ise r ( 1995 ) -Köh le r ( 1 993 , 1 995 ) r e cogn ise s b o th t h is i n te rac t ion a nd t he d i s t inc t ive c ha rac te r d i sp layed b y t h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re o f t h e B ada r i r eg ion . I n s tead o ft h e u sua l t wo -fo ld d i v i s ion o fP redyna s t ic c u l tu re -i n to a n o r the rn Maad i t r ad i t ion a nd a s ou the rn N aqada t r ad i t ion -s he p os tu la tes t h ree r e g iona l v a r ian t s o fa s i ng le o ve r -a r ch ing c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion : o ne i nL owe r , o ne i n M idd le a nd o ne i n Uppe r E gyp t . T he c l ose s im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h e d omes t ic p o t te ry a t B u to a nd s i te s i nU ppe r E gyp t s e em t oi n d ica te t h a t b o th a rea s , a l though e xh ib i t ing c e r ta in r eg iona l c ha rac te r is t ics , b e longed e s sen t ia l ly t ot h e s ame b a s ic c u l tu re . T he a t ten t ion b e ing p a id t o s e t t lemen t

F rom m id -Naqada I t he re a r e v e ry c l ea r i nd ica t ions o f eme rg ing p o l i t ie s c en t red o n b o th t he se s i tes a s w e l l a s N aqada ( Kemp 1 989 : 3 4 -43) . A l l t h ree l o ca t ions p os se s sed a n o p t imum c omb ina t ion o ft r ade r ou tes , r aw m a te r ia ls a nd c u l t ivab le l a nd a s a n e conom ic b a s is , a nd a n e s tab l ished s oc ia l h i e ra rchy . T he i n te rp lay o ft h e se e conom ic a nd s oc ia l f a c to r s a l lowed l o ca l e l i te s t o o rgan ise a nd c en t ra l ise t h e s ou rce s o f e conom ic -a nd h ence p o l i t ica l -p owe r . T he se t h ree ` p ro to -k ingdom s ' s eem t oh ave u nde rgone s ome s o r t o f c oa lescence d u r ing e a r ly Naqada I I , l e ad ing t o t he e me rgence o fT h is a nd H ie rakonpo l is a st h ed om inan tc en t re s d u r ing t h e p e r iod o fs t a te f o rma t ion . S pec ia l a t ten t ion s eem s t oh ave b een p a id t oH ie rakonpo l is b y e a r ly k i ngs : w i tne s s t h e g rea t v o t ive p a le t te a nd m acehead o fN a rme r , d epos i ted i n t h e t emp le o f H or n s a tH ie rakonpo l is . B ecause o f t h is a t ten t ion , H ie rakonpo l is i st hough t t oh ave b een t he p r ime move rb eh ind t h ep roces s o fp o l i t ica l u n if ica t ion ( e .g . K emp 1 989 : 4 4 ) . S ome s uppo r t i sg iven t ot h is h ypo thes is b y t h e l a te P redyna s t ic e l i te t ombs , e spe c ia l ly T omb 1 ,i nL oca l i ty 6 ( Hof fman 1 982 : 4 3 -5 ) . Howeve r , t o j udge f r om t h e u npa ra l le led s i ze o fA bydos T omb U j , wh ich d a te s t oe a r ly N aqada I I , t h et e r r i to ry c en t red o nT h is ( t he r e g iona l c ap i ta l , s e rved b y t h e c eme te r ies a t A bydos ) may a l ready h ave b ecome p re -em inen t . C e r ta in ly i tw a s t h e r u le r s o fT h is w ho u l t ima te ly t r iumphed i nt h e c on te s t f o r p o l i t ica l p owe r o ve r t h e w ho le c oun t ry : t hu s , Mane tho r e co rds t h e T h in i te o r ig in o ft h eF i rs ta nd S econd Dyna s t ie s .

c e ram ic s -a nd t he i n c rea s ing n umbe r o f s e t t lemen t s u nde r e xcava t ion -p rom ises t o c l a r ify t h is p ic tu re o f r eg iona l v a r ia t ion w i th in P redynas t ic a nd E a r ly Dynas t ic ma te r ia l c u l tu re . K öh le r ( 1 995 : 8 9 ) a l so p ropose s ad i f f e ren t e xp lana t ion f o r t h e c en t ra l p henomenon a t tes ted a t B u to , n ame ly t he r e p lacemen t o f o ne p o t te ry t r ad i t ion b y a no the r i n t h e s o c a l led ' t r ans i t ion l a ye r ' . A cco rd ing t oh e rh ypo the s is , p o t te ry p roduc t ion d u r ing N aqada Ia nd e a r ly N aqada I r ema ined a t ab a s ic h ou seho ld l e ve l i n L owe r E gyp t , wh i ls t i n U ppe r E gyp t s pec ia l ised p roduc t ion h ad a l ready b egun a t s ome c en t re s . H ence , t wo d i f f e ren t t r ad i t ions o fp o t te ry p roduc t ion e x is ted s imu l taneou s ly , as t a te o f a f f a ir s wh ich h a s b een i n te rpre ted a s t wo ' c u l tu re s ' ( Köh le r 1 993 : 2 53 ) . I n m id N aqada I c hanges i n p o t te ry p roduc t ion t ook p lace t h roughou tE gyp t . T he d eve lopmen t o f amo re s oph is t ica ted c e ram ic t e chno logy a l lowed t h e p roduc t ion o f ma r l -c lay v es se ls f o r t h e f i r s t t ime ( ma r l c l ay s r equ i re ah ighe r f i r ing t empe ra tu re a nd mo re c on t ro l led f i r ing c ond i t ions t han a l luv ia l c l ays ) . T he n a tu re o f p o t te ry p roduc t ion a l so c hanged ,a si tb ecame i n c rea s ing ly t h ep rese rve o fs pec ia l is t s . T he s ea rch f o r n ew ma rke t s f o r s pec ia l ised p o t te ry p roduc t ion l e d t oU ppe r E gyp t ian c e ram ics r e ach ing L owe r E gyp t . T he a dvances i n p o t te ry t e chno logy wh ich w e re d eve loped f i r s t i nU ppe r E gyp t s p read t h roughou t t h e N i le V a l ley a nd i n to t h eD e l ta . K öh le r s ugge s t st h a tt h e i mpo r t o f o t he r t y pe s o fa r te f ac t ( e .g . s t one v es se ls ) i n to L owe r E gyp t i n m id la te Naqada I a nd Naqada I I s hou ld a l so b e u nde rs tood i nt he s ame t e rms : t h e e conom ic c ond i t ions f o r t he p roduc t ion a nd e xchange o f s uch o b jec ts w e re mo re d eve loped i n Uppe r E gyp t t han i n L owe r E gyp t . T he a ppea rance o f p o t te ry i n t h e Uppe r E gyp t ian t r ad i t ion i n L owe r E gyp t i st h us t o b e i n te rp re ted n o t a s e v idence f o r ' c u l tu ra l e xpans ion ' i n i t s c rude s t s ense , b u t r a the r a s t h e r e su l t o f c hang ing c i rcums tance s i n t he manuf ac tu re a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f c e ram ics . T he ' t rans i t ion l a ye r ' a t B u to r e p re sen t se xac t ly s uch ad eve lopmen ti nc e ram ic t e chno logy ( Köh le r 1 995 : 8 4 ) . T he p o t te ry p rev ious ly d e sc r ibed a s ' Lowe r E gyp t ian ' i si n f a c t mos t ly r ough , h eav i ly c haf f t empe red w a re , c ha rac te r is t ic o f t he e a r l ie r P redyna s t ic a s semb lage . T he ' Uppe r E gyp t ian ' p o t te ry w h ich s t ead i ly i n crea ses i n f r equency i s s imp ly f i ne r , h a rde r ( bu t s t i l l a l luv ia l )w a re w i th l e s s o rgan ic t empe r , af ab r ic w h ich w a st o r ema in t h es t anda rd o ne t h roughou tt h eE a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod a tB u to . T he re i sl i t t le d oub t t h a t t h e n ew p o t te ry w a s m ade l o ca l ly , a l be i t i n c rea s ing ly b y s pec ia l is tp o t te r s . I n s ho r t , t h e c u l tu ra lp henomenon a t te s ted a tB u to m ay b e t te rb ed e sc r ibed a s t h e e xpans ion o f Uppe r E gyp t ian c e ram ic t e chno logy r a the r t h an t he e xpans ion o ft h e N aqada C u l tu re ( cf . K öh le r 1 993 : 2 54 ) . T he r oo t s o f t h e c hange a r e t ob e f ound i nt h e mo re f undamen ta l s oc io -econom ic d eve lopmen ts t a k ing p l ace w i th in P redyna s t ic E gyp t ian s oc ie ty ( Ba rd 1 994 ) .

P o l i t ica ld eve lop men t T he s o c io -po l i t ica l c hange s w h ich e nab led t h e d eve lopmen t o f c r af t s pec ia l isa t ion , n ame ly t he r i se o f e l i te s a nd t h e i n c rea s ing c en t ra l isa t ion a nd r e d is t r ibu t ion o fr e sou rce s , m ay b e t r aced b ack t o B ada r ian t imes , w i th B ada r ian b u r ia ls s how ing c onv inc ing e v idence f o r s oc ia l i n equa l i ty ( Ande r son 1 992 ) . C e r ta in ly t h e re a r e s i gns o fp owe rfu l l o ca l e l i tes a nd i ndeed o f eme rg ing k ingsh ip f r om b o th A bydos a nd H ie rakonpo l is i nl a te N aqada I( D reye r 1 995 ;H of fman 1 982 : 3 8 -60 ) .

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A l though t h e p roce s s o fs t a te f o rma t ion s eem s t oh ave b een mo s t d ynam ic i nU ppe r E gyp t , t h e c oncen t ra t ion o fp o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic p owe r i nt h e h ands o fe l i te s c an b e t r aced i n o t he r a r ea s a sw e l l . Du r ing e a r ly N aqada I I ap owe r fu l e l i te a r ose a tQ u s tu l i nL owe r N ub ia (W i l l iams 1 986 ) . T he r u le r s b u r ied i n C eme te ry L p robab ly e xe rc ised p o l i t ica l c on t ro l o ve r much i f n o t a l l o f L owe r Nub ia . T hey a l so u sed ' p ha raon ic ' i c onog raphy -i n o t he r w o rds , s ymbo ls c l ose ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e e me rgen t i d eo logy o f d iv ine k i ngsh ip a nd c l ea r ly ma in ta ined c l ose r e la t ions w i th U ppe r E gyp t , p a r t icu la r ly H ie rakonpo l is : many o ft h et ombs i nC eme te ry L c on ta ined i mpo r ted Uppe r E gyp t ian p o t te ry ( cf . T akam iya 1 994 ) , w h i ls t t h e c a t t le b u r ia ls a s soc ia ted w i th t omb L 23 (W i l l iams 1 986 : 1 76 ) f i nd ap a ra l le l a tH ie rakonpo l is T omb 2 ( Hof fman 1 982 : 5 5 -6 ) , p e rhap s s ugge s t ing a d eg ree o f c u l tu ra l e xchange b e tween t h e t wo r eg ions . W i l l iams ( 1986 , 1 987 ) h a s g one s o f a r a s t o s ugge s t t h a t much o f t h e l a te r r oya l i c onog raphy a nd i d eo logy w a si nf a c td eve loped b ya nd f o r t h e L owe r N ub ian r u le r s , w ho a r e t hus t o b e s een a s s t and ing a tt h eh ead o ft h ep ha raon ic t r ad i t ion . H oweve r , t h is v i ew w ou ld s eem t oo ve r s ta te t h e c a se a nd h a s n o t r e ce ived g ene ra l a ccep tance ( Adams 1 985 ; B a rd 1 994 : 2 6 ) . I ndeed , e l emen t s o fr oya l i c onog raphy a r e a t tes ted a tH ie rakonpo l is i nt h eN aqada I p e r iod ( t he P a in ted T omb ) a nd a tA bydo si n l a te N aqada I( D reye r 1 995 ) . I n sc r ip t ions f r om C eme te ry L h ave b een i n te rp re ted a s r e co rd ing m i l i ta ry c ampa igns a ga ins tU ppe rE gyp t( W i l l iam s 1 986 : 1 71) . A l though s uch a n i n te rp re ta t ion i sb y n o means c e r ta in , i ti sp robab le t h a t t h e d em ise o ft h eL owe r N ub ian k i ngdom i nl a te N aqada I I w a s b rough t a bou t b y t h e e xpans ion is t a ims o fU ppe r E gyp t ian r u le r s . T he e a r ly r ock -cu t i n sc r ip t ion f r om G ebe l S he ikh S u le iman i n L owe r Nub ia s eems t o r e co rd j us t s uch a m i l i ta ry e xped i t ion c onduc ted b y al a te P redyna s t ic U ppe r E gyp t ian r u le r a ga ins t L owe r N ub ia ( Mu rnane 1 987 ) . A s i n t h e c a se o fE gyp t ian a c t iv i ty i ns ou the rn P a le s t ine i nt h el a te f ou r th m i l lenn ium , s o E gyp t 's e a r ly i n te res t i nL owe r N ub ia i sl i ke ly t o h ave s t emmed f r om a d es i re t o c on t ro l t r ade r ou tes -i n t h is c ase , t r ade r ou te s t o s ub -Saha ran A f r ica , p rov id ing p re s t ige g oods s uch a si v o ry , e bony a nd o s t r ich e ggs .

I ti sn o tc l ea rh ow p o l i t ica l ly a dvanced t h eD e l ta w a s i nl a te P redyna s t ic t ime s . Von d e r Way ( 1993 : 9 6 ) h as s ugges ted t h a t p o l i t ica l s t ruc tu re s m ay h ave d eve loped r ap id ly i nt h e D e l ta a f te r t h e a dven t o f Uppe r E gyp t ian t e chno logy a nd p roduc t ion me thods i n m id la te Naqada I . T he re w e re p robab ly p owe rfu l l o ca l e l i tes a ts eve ra l s i te s , n o tab ly B u to a nd S a i s . B o th s i te s s eem t o h ave b een i mpor tan t a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod . H ence , al a be l o f k i ng D je rm ay r e co rd ar oya l v i s i t t oB u to ( Eme ry 1 961 : 5 9 f i g . 2 0 ) , w h i ls t t h e S a i te g oddess N e i th w a s ac ommon e l emen t i nE a r ly Dyna s t ic t h eopho rous r oya l n ames , a nd a l a be l o fk i ng A ha m ay r e co rd av i s i tb yt h ek i ng t ot h e s h r ine o fN e i th ( Eme ry 1 961 : 5 2 f i g . 1 2 ) . S ince many o ft h e e a r ly s erekh sh ave aL owe rE gyp t ian p rovenance ,i ti sp os s ib le t h a t t h e re m ay h ave b een L owe r E gyp t ian r u le r s w ho u sed t h is e l emen t o fr oya l i c onog raphy . T he s o -ca l led ' monumen t s o f U n if ica t ion ' -t h ed eco ra ted p a le t tes a nd maceheads , m any o f t h em f r om t he t emp le o f H orus a t H ie rakonpo l is - a r e n o to r ious ly d i ff icu l t t oi n te rp re t . T he s cene s o fc onf l ic t t h ey p o r t ray m ay j u s t a se a s i ly b e s ymbo l ic a s ar e co rd o fa c tua l e ven t si nt h ep roce ss o fs t a te f o rma t ion . N one the le s s , a tl e a s t o ne s cho la r( von d e r Way 1 993 )i n te rp re t st h eN a rme rP a le t te a s r e co rd ing a v ic to ry a ga ins t aL owe r E gyp t ian k ing , p e rhaps b a sed a tB u to , w ho se t e r r i to ry m ay h ave i n c luded Memph is a nd T a rkhan . T he a c tua l p roces s b y w h ich t he T h in i te r u le rs u l t ima te ly g a ined c on t ro l o ve rt he w ho le c oun t ry i su nknown a nd l i ke ly t or ema in s o . T he p os s ib i l i ty o fm i l i ta ry a c t ion s hou ld n o tb e r u led o u t ( Wenke 1 991 : 3 0 1 ; Guk sch 1 991 : 4 1 ; B a rd 1 994 : 2 6 ) . I ti sr ea sonab ly c l ea r t ha t t h e p rocess o f t e r r i tor ia l e xpans ion w a s w e l l u nde r w ay , i fn o t c omp le te , b y N aqada I I . T he e s tab l ishmen t o f Memph is a st h e c en t re o ft h e n ew n a t iona l a dm in is t ra t ion w a s ad ec is ive momen t . T he e a r l ie s t b u r ia l y e td i scove red o f ah i gh o ff ic ia la tN o r th S aqqa ra d a te s t ot h er e ign o fA ha , t h e s e cond k ing o ft h eF i r s t Dyna s ty , b u t b u r ia ls a c ross t h e r i ve r a tH e lwan b egan a tl e a s t a se a r ly a s t h e r e ign o f ' k ing K a ' ( Saad 1 947 : 11 , f i g s . 1-12 ) . F u tu re e xcava t ion b y t h e E gyp t E xp lo ra t ion S oc ie ty o f t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic l e ve ls a t Memph is may h e lp t od e t e rm ine t h e e a r ly h i s to ry o ft h e s i te , a nd m ay , p e rhaps , s hed n ew l i gh t o n t h e p roce s so fs t a te f o rma t ion i t se lf .

8

CHRONOLOGY R e la t ive c hrono logy R e lat ive c hrono log ies o f t he l a te P redynas t ic t o E ar ly Dynast ic t rans i t ion - a b r ief h is tory P e t r ie :S equenc e -Da t ing a nd t h eS ema in ean P e t r ie w as t h e f i rs t s cho la r t o f o rmu la te a c h rono log ica l s y s tem f o rp reh is to r ic E gyp t . F rom h i su n r iva l led e xpe r ience o fe xcava t ing P r edyna s t ic s i te s , P e t r ie r ecogn ised t h a t , o ve r t h ec ou rse o ft h eP redyna s t ic p e r iod , t h ec e ram ic a s semb lage u nde rwen t s eve ra l ma jor c hange s . C lose s c ru t iny o f t h is P redyna s t ic c u l t u ra l s equence l e dP e t r ie ( 1899 , 1 90 1 ;s ee a l so K emp 1 982 : 5 ) t o d eve lop h i s e normous ly i mpo r tan t S equence -Da t ing S y s tem .T h i ss y s tem d iv ided t h eP redyna s t ic c u l tu ra l s equence , a s f a r a s i tw a s k nown a tt h e t ime , i n to f i f ty s t age s , w h ich w e re n umbe red c onsecu t ive ly f r om 3 0 t o 8 0 . Numbe rs f r om 1 t o 2 9 w e re l e f t i n c ase s ubsequen t d i scove r ie sr evea led e a r l ie r ma te r ia l .E ach s t age /numbe rw a s r e f e r red t oa s a' Sequence -Da te ' ( a bb rev ia ted t oS .D . ) . T he s y s tem w a s d e s igned t o s how o n ly r e la t ive c h rono logy , i n o t he r w o rds w he the r ag iven a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t w a s r e la t ive ly e a r l ie r o rl a te rt h an a no the rc on tex t . T he i n d iv idua l S equence -Da te s w e re n o t i n tended t o r ep re sen t au n ifo rm p e r iod o f t ime , n o r w a s a ny a t temp t made , a t f i r s t , t o i n teg ra te t h e S equence -Da t ing S y s tem w i th t h e h i s to r ica l c h rono logy o f Dyna s t ic E gyp t . O n ly l a te r , i n t h e l i gh t o f f r e sh d i scove r ie s , w a st h ee nd o ft h eS equence -Da t ing s y s tem c o r re la ted w i th t h e r e igns o f t h e F i rs t t o T h i rd Dyna s t ies , a l be i tr a the ri mp rec i se ly ( Pe t r ie e ta l . 1 913 : 3 ) .

s ubsequen t d eve lopmen t o f E gyp t ian c iv i l isa t ion , a nd t h e p rob lem s i nhe ren t i n t r y ing t o d ema rca te a nd a na lyse t h e p e r iod . K an to rl o oked a ga in i nd e ta i l a tt he many m onumen t s d a ted t ot h e f i na l p ha se o fP redyna s t ic c u l tu re , i n c lud ing t h e H ie rakonpo l is P a in ted T omb , t h e d eco ra ted k n ife -hand le s , p a le t te s a nd o the r o b jec t s . S he p o in ted o u t t h e e s sen t ia l c u l tu ra l u n i ty o f t h is g roup o f o b jec t s , a nd t h e i r c l ose l i nks w i th a r te f ac t s d a ted t o t h e p reced ing G e rzean ( Naqada I ) p e r iod . I ndeed , h e r s t udy a s s igned t h e S ema inean o b jec t s t o t h e G e rzean ( Naqada I ) p e r iod . I n d o ing s o , K an to r ( 1944 : 1 35 -136 ) a dvoca ted t h e a bo l i t ion o f t h e S ema inean p e r iod a l toge the r , a rgu ing t h a t " t he F i r s t Dyna s ty d id n o t a r ise a f te r al ong p repa ra to ry p e r iod o f i n cuba t ion b u t t h a t t h e t r ends l e ad ing t o i t mus t h ave d eve loped r a the r s w if t ly i n t h e G e rzean c u l tu re" . A cco rd ing t o K an tor 's c h rono logy , t h e refo re , t he G e rzean ( Naqada I ) p e r iod w a s f o l lowed i mmed ia te ly b y t he E a r ly Dynas t ic p e r iod , w i thou t a n i n te rven ing t r ans i t ion ( Mo r tensen 1 991 : 1 7 a dds w e igh t t o K an to r 's a r gumen t s ) . K a i ser :S t uf en ,H o r izon ten a nd N aqada I I A ma jo r a dvance i n P redyna s t ic s t ud ie s , a nd a f a r b e t te r u nde r s tand ing o ft h e U ppe rE gyp t ian c u l tu ra l s equence , w a s a ch ieved b y We rne r K a ise r . H e c ha l lenged t h e r e l iab i l i ty o f P e t r ie 's S equence -Da t ing S y s tem o n an umbe ro fg rounds . I n p a r t icu la r , P e t r ie 's r e l iance o n t he morpho log ica l d eve lopmen to fw avy -hand led j a r sw a sc r i t ic ised a nd s hown t o b e i naccu ra te i n c e r ta in r espec ts ( Ka ise r 1 956 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion s t ud ie sc a r r ied o u tb yK a ise r ( 1957 ) o n C eme te ry 1 400 -1500 a t A rman t l e d h im t o f o rmu la te a n ew c h rono log ica l s cheme f o r t h e Uppe r E gyp t ian P redyna s t ic . T he n ew s cheme d i spensed w i th t h e p rev ious P redyna s t ic t e rm ino logy a nd e s tab l ished t he t e rm ` Naqada C u l tu re ' t o d e sc r ibe t h e P redyna s t ic t r ad i t ion o f Uppe r E gyp t . K a ise r d iv ided t h eN aqada C u l tu re i n to t h ree b road p ha se s , w h ich h e n amed N aqada I ,I a nd I I .E ach o ft h e se p ha se sw a s , i nt u rn , s ubd iv ided , t o g ive a t o ta l o f e l even s t age s , o r S tuf en . A s w i th P e t r ie 's s ys tem , K a ise r 's c u l tu ra l s equence wa s c ha rac te r ised b y t h e a ppea rance o fn ew p o t te ry t y pe s a nd t h e d i sappea rance o fo l d o ne s ,b yt h e mo rpho log ica ld eve lopmen t o f w avy -hand led j a rs , a nd b y t h e g ene ra l p rog re ss ion f r om mo re o pen t o mo re c l osed f o rms . Whe re K a ise r 's s y s tem d i f f e red f r om P e t r ie 's w a s i nt h e d ema rca t ion o ft h e c u l tu ra l p ha se s ( Need le r 1 984 : 4 4 ) . T hu s ,N aqada I e x tended b eyond t h e G e rzean , c omp r is ing S equence -Da te s 3 8 t o6 3 . K a ise r 's N aqada I Ic o r re sponded a pp rox ima te ly t oP e t r ie 's S ema inean -S .D .63 t o8 0 .

P e t r ie d i v ided t h eo ve r a l l s equence i n to t h ree b roade rp ha se so r ' c u l tu re s ' . T he se h e n amed a f te r t y pe s i te s . T he f i r s t p ha se , c o mp r is ing S equence -Da te s 3 0 t o 3 7 ( o r 3 1 t o 3 7 ( Pe t r ie 1 939 : 1 5 ) ) , w a s c a l led t h e Am ra t ian , a f te r e l -Am ra , al a rge c eme te ry j u s t s ou th o fA bydos . T he s econd p ha se , S .D . 3 8 6 0 , w a s c a l led t he G e rzean , a f te r G e rza , ac eme te ry n ea r T a r I chan i nt h e n o r the rn N i le V aley . T he t h i rd p ha se , S .D . 6 0 -75 ( o r6 3 -78 ( Pe t r ie 1 939 : 6 5 ) ) , w a sc a l led t h eS ema inean , a f te r S ema ina , as i te s ou th o fA bydo si n Uppe rE gyp t . T he f i r s t t wo t e rm s , Am ra t ian a nd G e rzean , g a ined w ide a ccep tance ; a l though i nr ecen t y ea r s t h ey h ave l o s t f a vou r t o t h et e rm sN aqada Ia nd N aqada I w h ich empha s i se t h ec u l tu ra l c on t inu i ty o ft he P redyna s t ic p e r iod . P e t r ie 's t h i rd d iv is ion , t h e S ema inean , w a s n eve r a dop ted f o r g ene ra l u se , p e rhaps b e cau se t h e S ema inean c u l tu re ' a ppea red t ob ec ha ra c t e r ised b y ar a the r d i spa ra te a ssemb lage , l a ck ing t h e o bv ious h omogene i ty o f t h e t wo p reced ing p hase s ; t h is w a s a cknow ledged b y P e t r ie ( 1939 : 5) h imse lf . T he p rec ise d ema rca t ion o ft h eS ema inean i sa l so c onfused : P e t r ie ( 1939 : 5 5) g ive s t h e p e r iod t h e S equence -Da te s 6 0 -75 ; t e n p ages l a te r , t h e S ema inean i se qua ted w i th S .D . 6 3 -78 . N eed le r ( 1984 : 4 4 ) s t a tes t h a tP e t r ie 's S ema inean c omp r ise s S .D . 5 4 7 9 . I tw a s t h e t h i rd p ha se , r ep re sen t ing t h e c r uc ia l t r ans i t ion f r om t h eP redyna s t ic t ot h e Dyna s t ic p e r iod , w h ich h a sc ome i nf o r t h e m os t d amag ing c r i t ic ism , a nd w h ich h a sp roved t o b et h ef o cu so ft h em os ti n tense d eba t e .

O nce a ga in , t h e b igge s t p rob lems h ave b een w i th t h e f i na l p ha se o ft h e s equence , N aqada I I . T he d ema rca t ion o f t h is p ha se a nd t he i d en t if ica t ion o f ad i s t inc t ive , p os t -Naqada I c u l tu ra l a ssemb lage u ndoub ted ly r ep resen ted g rea t i mp rovemen t s o n P e t r ie 's f l awed S ema inean . H oweve r , t h e m e thodo logy b y w h ich N aqada I I w a s f o rmu la ted h a s c ome i n f o r c r i t ic ism ( Mo r tensen 1 991 : 1 5 ; H end r ic i cx 1 993 ) . C eme te ry 1 400 -1500 a tA rman t , u pon w h ich K a i se rb a sed h i s c h rono log ica l s cheme , c on ta ins a r ep resen ta t ive s e r ie s o f g rave s f r om t h e N aqada Ia nd N aqada I p e r iods ; b u t , i n c ommon w i th o t he r c eme te r ie s i nt h e N i le v a l ley , s eem s t o h ave b een l a rge ly a bandoned d u r ing t he p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion . T hu s , o n ly ah andfu l o fg r ave sd a t ing t oN aqada I I w e re e xcava ted a tA rman t . T he c r uc ia l , f i na l s t age o f t h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod -t h e t r ans i t ion t o t he E a r ly Dynas t ic

K an tor 's r e v is ions O ve r f i f ty y ea r s a go , H e lene K an to r ( 1944 ) r e -exam ined t h e e v idence f o r P e t r ie 's S ema inean ' c u l tu re ' . S he r e a l ised b o th t h e f u ndamen ta l i mpo r tance o ft h is t r ans i t iona l p ha se f o r t h e

9

p e r iod -i sn o tr e p re sen ted a ta l l . T he ma te r ia lc ha rac te r is t ic o f N aqada I I w h ich K a ise r p re sen ted i nt h e p ub l ica t ion o fh i s r e la t ive c h rono logy w a s d e r ived f r om o the r s i te s -w he re t h e t r ans i t ion i sr ep re sen ted - a nd a ppended t ot h eA rman t -ba sed r e su l t s .T he e f f ec t ive l i f es pan o fC eme te ry 1 400 -1500 f o rt h e p u rpose so fc ha r t ing c u l tu ra l c hange f i n ishe sb e fo re t h ee nd o f t h eP redyna s t ic .

2 6 ) i nd ica ted t h a tt h ec e ram ic e v idence -o nce a ga in ,c y l inde r v esse ls a nd ' w ine ja r s ' -h ad b een p aramoun t . T he d ema rca t ion o f t h ese p hases - w h ich s pan t h e c ruc ia l t r ans i t ion t ot h eE a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod -h a s b een c a l led i n to q ue s t ion ( Hend r ickx 1 993 ) . Once a ga in , t he p e r iod o fs t a te f o rma t ion i s t he f ocus o f c h rono log ica l a rgumen t a nd u nce r ta in ty .

K a ise r 's s y s tem p laced t h e c h rono logy o f t h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod o n as ounde r f oo t ing , a nd w a sw ide ly a dop ted , a lmos t t o ta l ly s upp lan t ing P e t r ie 's S equence -Da t ing S ys tem a nd t e rm ino logy ( Need le r 1 984 : 4 4 ) . N one the le ss , s ubsequen t s t ud ies h ave s ugges ted t h a t s o me r ev is ions a r e n ece ssa ry , p a r t icu la r ly t ot h e e nd o ft h e s equence , w he re i te n te r s t h e E a r ly D yna s t ic p e r iod . A p o ten t ia l w eakne s s o f K a ise r 's s y s tem i st h a t i ti sc l ea r ly d e r ived f r om as i ng le s i te , b u th a s b een a pp l ied w i thou t h e s i ta t ion t o a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s t h roughou t E gyp t , f r om H ie rakonpo l is i n t he f a r s ou th ( Adams 1 987 ) t oB u to i nt h e n o r th -wes te rn D e l ta ( von d e r Way 1 991) . T he A rman t -based s equence w a s t e s ted , i n a l im i ted w ay , a ga ins t t he d a ta f r om o the r c on tempora ry c eme te r ie s . F rom e a ch c eme te ry a ga ins t w h ich t h e s equence w as t e s ted , g rave s w e re i den t if ied wh ich f i t ted t he a r chaeo log ica ld e sc r ip t ion o fe ach S tuf e ( Ka ise r 1 957 : 7 3 -74 ) . H oweve r , t h e o ve ra l l c u l tu ra l s equence a t e ach o f t he c eme te r ie s w a s n o t a na ly sed a s h ad b een d one f o r A rman t 1 400 -1500 .N oc heck sw e re c a r r ied o u tt oa s ce r ta in w he the ra g r ave f r om a no the rs i te w h ich s ha red t h e s ame a s semb lage a s o ne f r om A rman t i nf a c t a l so s ha red t h e s ame r e la t ive d a te . T h is r ema ins a p rob lem , a s much o f e v idence a s o f m e thodo logy ( Hend r ickx 1 993 : 1 9 -20 ) . I nd iv idua l ,s i te -ba sed s equence s w ou ld s eem t o o f f e r a mo re s ens i t ive b a s is f o r d e ta i led s t udy o fs t a te f o rma t ion i nE gyp t ( Mo r tensen 1 991 : 1 6 ) .

K emp 's s er ia t ion s

B a sed u pon h i s a na ly s is o ft h eT u ra c eme te ry , K a ise r ( 1964 ) i d en t if ied t h ree p e r iods s pann ing t h el a te P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly D yna s t ic t r ans i t ion . T he se h e t e rmed Hor izon ten , a nd t h ey w e re d i s t ingu ished b y i n scr ip t iona l , a r ch i tec tu ra l a nd a r chaeo log ica l ( c e ram ic ) e v idence ( Ka ise r a nd D reye r 1 982 : 2 60 -269 ) . Mo re r e cen t ly , t h e t h i rd p e r iod , H or i zon tC , s eems t o h ave b een a bandoned ( Ka ise r 1 990 : 2 89 f i g . 1 ) . A s H end r ickx ( 1993 : 2 5 ) h a s p o in ted o u t , t h e a r chaeo log ica l d i s t inc t ion b e tween H or izon ten B a nd C w a sn eve r c l ea r , b u t w a s " on ly m ade t h rough t h e f r equency o ft h e s ame t ypes" c y l inde r v e sse ls a nd ' w ine ja r s ' . T he Hor izon ten h ave b een u sed , a bove a l l , t o c o r re la te t h e s equence o f c e ram ic d eve lopmen t w i th t h ep o l i t ica l c h rono logy o ft h e P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly D yna s t ic t r ans i t ion ( Ka i se r 1 990 : 2 89 f i g . 1 ) . E ach e a r ly r oya l i n sc r ip t ion a t te s ted f r om t h is p e r iod h a s b een a s s igned t oo ne o ft h e Hor izon ten ( Ka ise r &D reye r 1 982 : 2 63 f i g . 1 4 ) . Mo re r e cen t ly , K a ise r ( 1990 ) p ub l ished ar ev ised v e r s ion o f h i s c h rono log ica l s cheme f o r t he N aqada C u l tu re . T h is e x tended t h es equence f r om e l even t of i f teen s t ages , c a r ry ing i ta s f a r a st h e e nd o ft h e F i r s t D yna s ty . H e s ubd iv ided t h e f i na l s t age o ft h e o r ig ina l s equence ,S tuf e I Ib , i n to t wo , Uhl a nd I Ib2 . A f te r t h e se w e re a dded t h ree n ew s t ages , S tuf en I Icl ,I Ic2 a nd I Ic3 . S tuf e Mc r e p re sen t s ac u l tu ra l p ha se c oeva l w i th t he F i rs t Dynas ty , t hough t he re i s l i t t le d i sce rn ib le d i f f e rence b e tween t h e p o t te ry o ft h is S tuf e a nd t h a t o ft h e p reced ing S tuf e TM . Wha t K a ise r 's t e rm ino logy r i gh t ly empha s ise s i st h e c u l tu ra l c on t inu i ty b e tween t h e F i r s t Dyna s ty a nd t h e p reced ing p e r iod . K a ise r d i d n o t s t a te e xp l ic i t ly w h ich c r i te r ia h e h ad u sed t o i d en t ify t h e n ew p ha ses , b u t ap e r sona l c ommun ica t ion t oH end r ickx ( 1993 :

1 0

K emp ( 1982 ) p ub l ished c ompu te r s e r ia t ions o f t wo c eme te r ie s s pann ing t h eP redyna s t ic a nd t h eb eg inn ing o ft h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod , Maha sna a nd e l -Am ra b .U s ing t h e HORSHU p rog ram , d eve loped b y K enda l l a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o f C amb r idge , K emp w a s a b le t o s o r t t he g rave s i n to a n i n fe r red c h rono log ica l o rde r , u s ing t h e s o -ca l led ' P e t r ie c oncen t ra t ion p r inc ip le ' . T he r esu l t s a ppea red t os how t h a t t h e re w e re o n ly t wo m a jo rd iv is ions o fP redyna s t ic c u l tu re , t o b ee qua ted b road ly w i th P e t r ie 's Am ra t ian a nd G e r zean . T he p o t te ry t ype s a s s igned b y P e t r ie t ot h e S ema inean -a nd b y K a ise rt oN aqada I I -w e re p l aced b yK emp ( 1982 : 1 5 )w i th in t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic a s semb lage , " p re sumab ly t h e F irs t D yna s ty" . T he r e la t ive c h rono logy o ft h eP r edyna s t ic t oE a r ly Dynas t ic t r ans i t ion , a nd t he p rec ise p o in t a t w h ich t h e c u l tu ra l a nd p o l i t ica l s equences o ve r lapped , w a s o nce a ga in t h rown i n to s ome c onfus ion . K emp 's c onc lus ion s d i d n o t l e ad t o a ma jo r r e -a sse ssmen t o f P redyna s t ic c h rono logy , p e rhaps b ecause i t w as e xp l ic i t ly n o t h i s i n ten t ion t o " deve lop ac r i t ique o fs cheme s f o rs ubd iv id ing a nd d a t ing t h e p redy na s t ic s equence i n Uppe rE gyp t "( K emp 1 982 : 1 2 ) . H end r ic e 's d i s t r ibu t ion s t ud ies F o r h i s d oc to ra l d i sse r ta t ion , H end r ickx ( 1 989 ) u nde r took a m a jo r a na ly s is o f Uppe r E gyp t ian P redynas t ic c eme te r ie s . U s ing a me thod s im i la r t o Ka ise r 's , h e p lo t ted t he d i s t r ibu t ion o fp o t te ry t ype s w i th in e a ch c eme te ry , u s ing t h e p ub l ished p lans . T he h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raph ies c onf i rmed t h e d eve lopmen t o ft h e c e ram ic a s semb lage i d en t if ied b y P e t r ie a nd K a ise r . T he l a rge n umbe r o f c eme te r ie s a na lysed p e rm i t ted c e r ta in r ef inemen ts o f K a ise r 's s cheme . I n a g reemen t w i th K emp -a nd w i th t h e r e su l t s o f H a s san 's ( 1988 ) s e r ia t ion o fP redyna s t ic p o tshe rds -H end r ickx ( 1 993 : 4 -5 ) c onc luded t h a t t h e f i r s t p r inc ipa l c hange i nt h e c e ram ic a s semb lage o ccu r red r a the r l a te r t han K a ise r h ad i d en t if ied . F u r the rmo re , H end r ickx f ound n o e v idence t o s uppo r t t h e e x is tence o f as epa ra te p ha se ( S tuf e I d2 ) a tt he e nd o ft h e N aqada I p e r iod . I ndeed , K a ise r h im se lf h a s a cknow ledged t h a t" S tuf eI d2 w as s omehow u se les st h ew ay i tw a sd ef ined" ( Hend r ickx 1 993 : 1 8 , q uo t ing ap e rsona l c ommun ica t ion b y K a ise r ) .Of g rea te s t s i gn if icance f o r o u rp u rpose s , H end r ickx w a s a b le t o r e f ine t h e d ema rca t ion o f p ha se s d u r ing t h e t r ans i t iona l p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion . I n p a r t icu la r , h i s a na lys i so ft h el a te P redyna s t ic ( Naqada I I )c eme te ry a tE lkab r e vea led t h e c u l tu ra l s equence o ft h is p e r iod i ng rea te rd e ta i l t h an K a ise r h ad b een a b le t o a ch ieve . H end r ickx ( 1 993 ) d i s t ingu ished s i xp ha se sw i th in t h eN aqada I Ip e r iod ,n ame ly : N aqada I IA 1 a nd I IA2 , e qu iva len t t oe a r l ie r a nd l a te rS t uf e I Ia2 i nK a ise r 's s cheme ; Naqada I l IB , e qu iva len tt oK a ise r 's S tuf en I Ibl , I Ib2 a nd p a r t o f S tuf e I nc l . ; Naqada I IC1 , e qu iva len t t o t h e r ema inde r o f S tuf e I Ic l a nd S tuf e I Ic2 ; N aqada I IC2 , c o r re spond ing t ot h ee a r l ie rp a r to fS t uf eI Ic3 ; a nd N aqada I 1D ,t h el a s tp ha se i nt h e s e quence , c ha ra c te r i sed b ya n a bsence o fc y l inde rv es se ls , e qu iva len tt ot h el a t te rp a r t o fS tuf e I Ic3 a nd e x tend ing b eyond t h e s cope o f K a ise r 's s cheme . T hese c or respondences a r e s hown i n t he c h rono log ica l t a b le b e low . H end r ic i c .x 's l a s t p hase ( Naqada

I UD ) t a ke st h es e quence t ot h ee nd o ft h eF i r s t o rb eg inn ing o ft h e S econd D yna s ty . H oweve r , a n e xac t c o r re spondence b e tween c u l tu ra lp hases a nd r e igns d u r ing Dyna s t ie s 0a nd I w a s n o t p o ss ib le , s i nce r oya l n ame s a r e n o t a t te s ted i nt h e E lkab Naqada I I c eme te ry . None the less , Hend r ickx 's c h rono logy r e p resen ts t h e b es t a t temp t y e t t o c ha r t t he t r ans i t ion b e tween t he P redynas t ic a nd E a r ly Dynas t ic p e r iod s . R eade r sa r er e f e r red t o Mo r ten sen ( 1991 : 1-18 ) f o ra g ood c r i t ica l s umma ry o ft h e v a r iou s c h rono log ica l s y s tems a nd t h e i ra s soc ia ted p rob lem s .

Cu l tura l v er sus p o l it ica l c hrono logy F o r ap rope ru nde r s tand ing o ft h ep roces s o fs t a te f o rma t ion , ar e a sonab ly s e cu re c h rono logy o f t h e l a te P redyna s t ic t o E a r ly Dyna s t ic t r ans i t ion i se s sen t ia l . A s w eh ave s een , t h is h a sp roved p r ob lema t ic . T he c rux o ft h ep rob lem c once rns t h e d i ff icu l t ie s i nr e conc i l ing a nd c or re la t ing t he t wo d i f f e ren t t y pe s o fc h rono log ica l e v idence a va i lab le t os cho la r s .F o rt h e l o ng p e r iod o fh uman a c t iv i ty i n t h e N i le v a l ley b efo re t h e a dven t o fw r i t ten r e co rds , e s tab l ish ing ar e la t ive c h rono logy d epends u pon a n e xam ina t ion o ft h e m a te r ia l c u l tu re . S ince p o t te ry i st h e m os t a bundan t c a tegory o f ma te r ia l f ound a t P r edyna s t ic s i t e s , i th a s b een t h rough c hange s i nt h e p o t te ry a s semb lage t h a tt he c ou r se o ft h eP redyna s t ic p e r iod h a sb een c ha r ted ; a nd i ti sb y mean s o fc ha rac te r is t ic g roups o fp o t te ry t h a t P redyna s t ic ' c u l tu re s ' h ave b een i den t if ied . H ence , s e quence s o fc e ram ic d eve lopmen t f o rm t h eb ackbone o fa l c h rono log ica l s chemes f o r t he P redyna s t ic p e r iod . F rom s ho r t ly b efo re t he F i r s t Dyna s ty , t h e a ppea rance o f r oya l n ame s a nd o t he r w r i t ten s ou rces l e nd t hemse lve s t o a n h i s to r ica la pp roach . T he c h rono logy o ft h e Dyna s t ic p e r iod i s t h us b a sed u pon r e igns a nd d yna s t ies . T he d if f icu l ty h a s a lways b een w i th t he t r ans i t iona l p e r iod b e tween t he P r edyna s t ic a nd ( Ea r ly ) Dyna s t ic p e r iods , when t h e p o t te ry b a sed r e la t ive c h rono logy g ives w ay t o ap o l i t ica l , a bso lu te c h rono logy .T he a t temp t sb y v a r ious s cho la r s t oi n teg ra te t h e t wo h ave g i ven r i se t o s ome c onf us ion ( Mo r tensen 1 991 : 1 3 ) .

c onco rdance g iven f o rK a i se r 's s t age sw i th P e t r ie 's S equence D a te s ( Need ie r 1 984 : 4 4 ) a ppea red t o c onf irm t h is i n te rp re ta t ion . N eve r the le s s , a s K a ise r 's s t udy w a s e xp l ic i t ly c once rned w i th t h ed eve lopmen t o ft h e ( P redyna s t ic )N aqada C u l tu re , d oub t s h ave p e r s is ted a s t o t h e e xac t c o r re la t ion b e tween t h e c u l tu ra l a nd p o l i t ica l s equence s ( Need ie r 1 984 : 4 4 ) . K a ise r 's ( 1990 ) r ev ised c h rono logy s ough t t oa dd re s s t h e se d oub t s , a nd a t temp ted t oi n teg ra te t h e c u l tu ra l , p o l i t ica l a nd a bso lu te c h rono log ie s f o r t he l a te P redyna s t ic t o E a r ly D yna s t ic t r ans i t ion . Howeve r , c e r ta in p rob lem s p e r s is t . T he e v idence f o r t h e c a lend r ica l d a te s B C i sn o t m ade e xp l ic i t . I t h a s t ob e a cknow ledged t h a t t h e a bso lu te c h rono logy o ft h e P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod s i ss t i l l n o t t o ta l ly s ecu re ( s ee b e low ) . T he r ev ised c h rono logy a ppa ren t ly c omb ine s av a r ie ty o f me thodo log ica l a pp roache s : t h e o r ig ina l d i s t r ibu t ion s t udy o f A rman t C eme te ry 1 400 -1500 f o rt h ep ha se s o fN aqada Ia nd N aqada ma te r ia l f r om o t he r s i te sf o rt h ee a r ly p a r to fN aqada I I ; i n dependen tc e ram ic a nd e p ig raph ic d a ta f o rt h el a te rp ha se s o fN aqada I I . A sw eh ave a l ready s e en , H end r ic i cx 's s t udy o f as i ng le c eme te ry ( E lkab ) c l a r if ie s t h e s equence o f c u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t d u r ing t h e p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion , a nd h a s t he a dvan tage o f m e thodo log ica l i n teg r i ty . T he n ea t c o r re la t ion b e tween t h e l a t te r p ha se s o fK a ise r 's r ev ised s equence ( Naqada I Ib2 t o I Ic3 ) a nd t h e p o l i t ica l c h rono logy o ft h e p e r iod -i n d iv idua l k i ngs ' r e igns -m ay b em is lead ing , s i nce c u l tu ra l a nd p o l i t ica l c hange s r a re ly h appen s imu l taneous ly . P e t r ie 's b a s ic i d ea w ou ld s eem t o o f fe r al e ss p rob lema t ic a pp roach : t h e r e cogn i t ion t h a tt h ep o l i t ica l c h rono logy r uns i np a ra l le l w i th t h e c u l tu ra l s equence , w i thou t e i the r d i rec t ly a f fec t ing t h e o t he r . T he p o l i t ica l c hrono logy o f t he t o E ar ly Dynas t ic t rans i t ion

P e t r ie 's s o lu t ion w as t oc on t inue h i s S equence -Da te si n to t h e D ynas t ic p e r iod , u p t ot h e b eg inn ing o f t h e T h i rd D yna s ty ( Pe t r ie e ta l . 1 913 : 3 ) .T h is d emons t ra ted , q u i te c o r rec t ly , t h a t t h e c u l tu ra l s equence w as n o t d i s rup ted b y t he p o l i t ica l d eve lopmen t s wh ich l e d t o t he u n if ica t ion o f t he c oun t ry . R a the r , k i ng 's r e igns w e re s hown a s ap a ra l le l s ca le t ot h e S equence -Da te s . Howeve r , t h e a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l u pon w h ich t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic S equence -Da tes w e re b a sed w a s b o th m ixed a nd p a r t ia l . T he S econd Dyna s ty , i np a r t icu la r , i s s eve re ly u nde r represen ted i n mo r tua ry c on tex ts . T he S equence -Da tes f o r t h is p e r iod a r e , t he refore , " a lmos t c omp le te ly t h eo re t ica l" ( Hend r ickx 1 993 : 2 ) . I n t h e o r ig ina l p resen ta t ion o fh i s s equence , K a ise r d i d n o t s t a te a t w h ich p o in t t he e s tab l ished l i ne o f d ynas t ic s ucce ss ion s hou ld s t a r t . C lose e xam ina t ion o f t he c ha rac te r is t ic p o t te ry t y pe sf o rt h ef i na l s t age si nh i ss e quence s ugge s ted t h a tN aqada I Ib c o r responded t o ' Dyna s ty 0 'a nd p e rhap s t h ev e ry b eg inn ing o ft h e F i r s t Dyna s ty ( t he r e ign o f N a rme r ) : S tuf e I lb i sc ha rac te r ised b y t r ue c y l inde r j a r s , i n c lud ing t h e f o rm W85 ( 49 1 i n P e t r ie 's P ro todynas t ic C orpus ) , c ommon i nE a r ly Dyna s t ic g rave s a tT a rkhan , a nd f ound i n g raves d a ted t o t he r e ign o f N a rme r a nd t he u ndeco ra ted f o rm W90 ( 50 i n t h e P ro todynas t ic C orpus ) , d ef in i te ly a n E a r ly D yna s t ic f o rm . D reye r ( 1993a : 1 0 ) , h a s s t a ted t h a t" Naqada I lb r uns s moo th ly i n to Dyna s ty 0 " . T he

l a te

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P o l i t ica l d eve lopmen ts b ecome i den t if iab le i n t he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o n ly a tt h e v e ry e nd o ft h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod , e ven t h ough t h e t r end t owa rds t h e c oncen t ra t ion o f p o l i t ica l p owe rb egan l o ng b e fo re . N a rme r s t ands a st h e f i r s t k i ng o f t h e F i rs t Dyna s ty ( Qu i rke 1 990 : 4 4 ) . B ef o re h im s eve ra l r u le rs a r e a t tes ted whose n ames a r e r e co rded i n i n sc r ip t ions , a l though t h e re i ss ome d i spu te a bou tt h er e ad ing o f t h ese n ames . B efo re t h em , t h e re i s aw ho le s e r ies o f a nonymous P redyna s t ic r u le r s , k nown o n ly f r om t h e i r l a v i sh b u r ia ls . T he se v a r ious p redece sso r s o f N a rme r a r e o f ten k nown c o l le c t ive ly a s ' Dyna s ty 0 ' , a l though t h e re h a s a lway s b een c onfus ion s u r round ing t h e u se o ft h e t e rm . I ti s ar a the r u nhe lpfu l t e rm , a s t h e w o rd ' Dyna s ty ' s ugge s t s as i ng le r u l ing l i ne , mo reove r o ne wh ich e xe rc ised c on t ro l o ve r t h e w ho le o fE gyp t i nt h e s ame w ay a sD yna s t ie s I ,I a nd I I . T he k i ngs a s s igned t o ' Dyna s ty 0 'c e r ta in ly d i d n o tb e long t o as i ng le r u l ing l i ne : t he v a r ious ' n ames ' a nd t ombs u ndoub ted ly r e p resen tr u le r s o fv a r ious p o l i t ie s . A s f a r a st h e s e cond a spec t i sc once rned , i ti sp rac t ica l ly i mpos s ib le t o e s tab l ish w h ich k i ng w a s t h e f i r s t t or u le o ve r t h e w ho le o f E gyp t . I ti sl i ke ly t h a t many o fN a rme r 's p redece sso r s w e re n o mo re t h an r eg iona l r u le r s . H oweve r m is lead ing i tm ay b e , t h e t e rm Dynas ty 0 h a s n eve r the le s sc ome i n to g ene ra l u se a nd w i l l p robab ly r ema in . H e re , t h e re fo re , i ti su sed r e luc tan t ly a s ac o l le c t ive t e rm f o r t h e r u le r s a t te s ted b y i n sc r ip t ion b efo re N a rme r , t h ough w i thou t s ugge s t ing t h a tt h ey r u led t h e w ho le o fE gyp t o rt h a t t h ey b e longed t o as i ng le r u l ing f am i ly . T he a nonymous r u le r s -w hose t ombs t e s t ify t o t h e i r p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic

1

T he f o l low ing c h rono log ica l t a b le a ims t o p re sen t t h is c omp lex m a s s o fi n f o rma t ion i n as imp l if ied , d i ag ramma t ic f o rm .T he r i gh t -hand s i de s how st h ec o r re spondence b e twe en K a ise r 's S t uf en ,H end r ickx 's p ha se sa nd t h et e rm ino logy u sed i nt h ep r e sen ts t udy . T he l e f t -hand s i de o ft h e t a b le n o te s t h e p r inc ipa l p o l i t ica l d eve lopmen t s o ft h e l a te P redyna s t ic t o E a r ly D yna s t ic t r ans i t ion , t h e s equence o f k i ng s , a nd t h e d i v is ion i n to p e r iod s -a ga in , a su sed i nt h ep re sen ts t udy .

p owe r -w i l lb er e f e r red t os imp ly a s' l a te P redyna s t ic r u le r s ' . A s u sed h e re , t h e t e rm ' E a r ly Dyna s t ic ' r e f e r s t ot h e p e r iod b eg inn ing w i th t h er e ign o fN a rme r , t h a t i st h eb eg inn ing o f t h eF i r s tD yna s ty ( c f . Mo r tensen 1 991 : 1 8 ) . T o c o r re la te t h e c u l tu ra l a nd p o l i t ica l s equence s , S t uf e I lb /Naqada N aqada I I ' c o r re sponds r ough ly t o ' Dyna s ty 0 ' . S tuf e I Ic /Naqada I IC 1I ILDPEa r ly D yna s t ic ' , a sa l ready s t a ted , i s t h e c u l tu ra l e qu iva len t o ft h eF i r s tD yna s ty .

S imp l i f ied c hrono logy o ft h el a t eP r edynas t ic t oE ar ly D ynas t ic t r an s i t ion

d esc r ip t ive n ame o f c u l tu ra l p e r iod u sed i np resen t s t udy

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H end r ickx p hase ( 1993 )

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T he re a r e m any d i f f icu l t ie s i nhe ren t i n a n a t temp t t o r e cons truc tt h ep o l i t ica l c h rono logy o ft h el a t e P r edyna s t ic t o E a r ly D yna s t ic t r ans i t ion . Two ma in i s sues mus t b e a dd re s sed : t h e o r de r o f s ucces s ion o ft h e k i ng s a t te s ted b y n ame ; a nd t h ed u ra t ion a nd t im ing o ft h ep roce s s o fp o l i t ica l u n if ica t ion i t se lf . R ec rea t ing t h e o r de r o f s u cce s s ion o fl a te P redyna s t ic k i ngs i s f a r f r om e a sy . O ne o f t h e m a jo r p rob lem s f a ced b y s cho la r s i st h e r e ad ing o fr oya l n ame s . F rom t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e F i r s t D yna s ty , t h e i d en t if ica t ion o fr oya l n ame s a nd t h e o rde r o fs ucce s s ion i sf a i r ly s e cu re , t h ough n o t w i thou t i t s o wn d eba te s . ( Fo r e xamp le , D reye r ( 1 987 ) p ropose s e n la rg ing t h e F i r s t Dyna s ty b y t wo m o re r e igns . ) T he g ene ra l ly a ccep ted s equence o f k i ngs f r om N a rme r o nwa rd s w ou ld s e em t ob e c onf i rmed b y t wo s e a l i mp re s s ions f o und r e cen t ly b y t h e G e rman E xped i t ion t o A bydo s ( D reye r 1 987 ; K a ise r 1 987 p rov ide s a n a l te rna t ive i n te rp re ta t ion ) . I nc on t ra s t , t h er e ad ing o ft h ev a r iou ss e r ekh s a nd o t he r s uppo sed ly r oya l i n sc r ip t ions f r om t h e p r eced ing p e r iod ( t he l a te P redyna s t ic o r D yna s ty 0 ) i sf r augh t w i th d i ff icu l t ie s . H ence , o ne a nd t h es ame i n sc r ip t ion m ay b er e ad a nd i n te rp re ted i n d i f f e ren t w ays b y d i f f e ren t s cho la r s . I n sc r ip t ion s w h ich m ay b e n o mo re t h an c u r s ive o r s l oppy r e nde r ing so fe s tab l ished n ame s , o rw h ich m ay n o tb en ame s a ta l , h ave s ome t ime s b e en i d en t if ied a se n t i re ly n ew k i ng s . F o r e xamp le , t h e f a lcon -and -mou th d ev ice f r om T omb B 1 a t A bydo sh a sb een r e ad b yK a i se r &D reye r( 1 982 )a st h en ame o f ak i ng * I ry -Ho r . T h i si n te rp re ta t ion h a sb een q ue s t ioned b y an umbe r o f a u tho r s ( Qu i rke 1 990 : 2 1 ; W i lk inson 1 993b ;

D yn . 2k i ngs

A dam s 1 995 : 4 9 ) . We c anno te ven b ec e r t a in t h a tt h es e r ekh s o ft h ep e r iod g ave r oya l n ame s , a st h ey d i di nl a te rt i me s . N a rme r w a s p robab ly p receded b y ak i ng whose s erekh c on ta in s t h e k a s i gn - c onven t iona l ly n amed ' k ing K a ' ( Kap lony 1 958 : 5 4 -7 p re fe rs t h e r e ad ing Sechen ' ) . T he e v idence i nf a vou r o ft h is s equence i n c lude s t h e h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy o fC eme te ry B a tA bydo s a nd c e ram ic e v idence f r om T a rkhan a nd H e lwan ( Ka ise r &D reye r 1 982 : 2 63 f i g . 1 4 ) . P rob lem s a r ise w hen w e c ome t o c ons ide r t h e p r edece s so r so f' Ka ' ,t h e re b e ing n og ene ra la g reemen to nt h e n umbe r , s equence , n ame s o r t e r r i to r ie s o f t h e se r u le rs . P e rhap st h eb e s t -known o ft h el a te P redyna s t ic r oya ln ame si s ' S co rp ion ' , ak i ng w hose t omb h a s n o t y e t b een i d en t if ied . T he c l ea re s t o ccu r rence o ft h is n ame i so n t h e f amou sm ace h ead i nt h e A shmo lean Mu seum ( Qu ibe l l 1 900 : p l . XXV IC ; C ia low icz 1 987 : 3 2 -38 ) . S ome s cho la r s ( e .g . Mä lek 1 986 : 2 9 ) h ave o b jec ted t ot h e r e ad ing o ft h e s c o rp ion s i gn a st h e k ing 's n ame . H oweve r , t h is r ema ins a p l aus ib le i n te rp re ta t ion , s i nce i th a s b een c onv inc ing ly d emon s t ra ted t h a t t h e r o se t te /pa lme t te s i gn -a s ymbo l ' b o r rowed ' f r om c on tempo r ary Me sopo tam ian i c onog raphy -s i gn if ied t h er u le r ( Sm i th 1 992 ) . I n v i ew o f t h e c l ose s t y l is t ic s im i la r i t ies b e tween t h e S co rp ion m acehead a nd t h e monumen t s o f N a rme r , K a ise r ( 1990 : 2 89 f i g . 1 ) p l aces ' S co rp ion ' i mmed ia te ly b e f o re N a rme r , a f te r ` Ka ' . H oweve r , s i nce ' S corp ion ' i su n l ike ly t oh ave b e en b u r ie da tA bydo s ,h em ay n o tf i ti n to t h eT h in i te d yna s t ic s e quence a ta l . H is m a cehead 1 2

a no the r a spec t o f a ny p roposed c h rono logy . T he b es t a pp roach mus t s u re ly b ea r i nm ind t he l i ke ly d u ra t ion o ft h e p e r iod o fU n if ica t ion . I f , a ss eems p robab le , t h ep e r iod w a s a c ompa ra t ive ly s ho r t o ne , t h en i ti su nneces sa ry t o l o ok f o r n ew k ings wheneve r a d if f icu l t i n scr ip t ion a ppea rs . F u r the rmo re ,b ea r ing i nm ind t h er ud imen ta ry s t a te o fc u r ren t k now ledge a bou te p ig raphy a tt h e d awn o fE gyp t ian w r i t ing , t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fi n sc r ip t ions s hou ld b e a pp roached w i th c ons ide rab le c au t ion . O nce a l i s t o f r oya l n ame s h a s b een a g reed u pon , p l ac ing t h em i nt h e c o r rec t o rde r p ose s f u r the r p rob lem s . I nt h ea bsence o fs i gn if ican ts t ra t ig raph ic e v idence , o t he r s ou rce s mu s t b e e mp loyed . I n sc r ip t ions f r om t h er oya l t ombs t h em se lve s ( s uch a s c an b e s ecu re ly a t t r ibu ted ) , t h e s t y l is t ic a t tr ibu te s o f t h e r oya l a r t o f t h e p e r iod , a nd t he mo rpho log ica l d eve lopmen t o f p o t te ry a s soc ia ted w i th t h e v a r ious k i ngs ' n ame sc an a l p lay ap a r ti nr e cons truc t ing t h e s e quence o fr u le r s .

d oe s i ndeed s ugges t ac l ose c h rono log ica l p rox im i ty t o N a rme r , a nd i ti sp oss ib le t h a t ' S co rp ion ' w a s a tl e a s tp a r t ly c on tempo ra ry w i th t h is k ing . T he n ame o f ' S co rp ion ' may a l so o ccu r o n aw ine ja r f r om M insha t A bu Oma r ( W i ldung 1 981 : 3 7 f i g . 3) , a l though t h is r oya l n ame h a s a l so b een r e ad a s ' Aha ' ( W i ldung 1 981 : 3 5 ) . F ina l ly t h e re a r e t h e t wo i n k i n sc r ip t ions f r om T a rkhan , r ead b y K ap lony ( 1963 ) a s ' S co rp ion ' , b u t wh ich D reye r ( 1992 ) h a s r ead a s ' Hor n s K rokod i l ' ,p e rhaps ac on tempo ra ry o fN a rme r . As er ekh f r om t h e e a s te rn D e l ta s u rmoun ted b y af a lcon a nd w i th t h ree h d s i gns i nt h eu ppe rp a r t o ft h e d ev ice ( F i sche r 1 963 : 4 4 f i g . 1 , p l . V Ia ,c )m ay w e l lb et h en ame o f as pec if ic , p e rhap sL owe r E gyp t ian , k i ng ( von d e r Way 1 993 : 1 01) . Two s im i la r s e rekh s , t h ough w i thou t t h e f a lcon a nd w i th t h e l i d -s igns i n t h e l owe r p a r t o ft he d ev ice , a r e a t te s ted f r om T u ra ( J unke r 1 912 : 4 7 f i g . 5 7 .1-2 ) . Two e xamp le s o ft h e s ame r oya l n ame -s of a ru ndec iphe red -w e re f ound b yW ink le r 's e xped i t ion t o t h e w e s te rn d e se r t (W i lk inson 1 995 ) . T he e p ig raphy o f t he r ock -cu t i n sc r ip t ions d a te s t hem t o t he p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion , b u t t h e p os i t ion o f t he r u le r i n t h e s equence o f s u cce s s ion i se n t ire ly u nknown . N o t i n cons ide rab le p rob lems s u r round t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e c omb ina t ion o f s i gns r ead a s * I ry -Ho r . T h is ' n ame ' i s o n ly a t te s ted f r om a s i ng le f une ra ry i n s ta l la t ion ( Tombs B 0 / 1 /2 a tA bydos ) a nd i sn eve rf ound i n as er ekh d e sp i te t h e f a c t t ha tt h i s d ev ice wa s a l ready i nu se f o rr oya l n ame s . T he s i gns may n o tr e p resen t an ame a ta l , b u tt h ose s cho la r sw ho s uppo r t t h e e x is tence o f s uch a r u le r ( e .g . K a ise r 1 990 ) g ene ra l ly p l ace h im i nt h e e a r ly p a r t o f Dyna s ty 0 ,s eve ra l g ene ra t ions b efo re ' Sco rp ion ' , ' Ka ' a nd N a rme r . A n i n c ised i n scr ip t ion f r om Qus tu l C eme te ry L h a s b een r ead b y W i l l iam s ( 1 986 : 1 49 ) a st h en ame o fa n o the rw ise u na t te s ted L owe rN ub ian k i ng , * Pe -Ho r . A si nt h ec a se o f* I ry -Ho r , t h e Q us tu l i n sc r ip t ion may n o t b e an ame a ta l l . Two f u r the r e a r ly r oya l n ame s h ave b een r ead a s* Ny -Ho r a nd * Ha t -Ho r ( Ka ise r &D reye r 1 982 : 2 64 -268 ) . T he f o rme r i sa t tes ted a t t h e E a r ly D ynas t ic c eme te ry a tT u ra ( J unke r 1 912 : 4 7 f i g . 5 7 .3 -4 ) , t h el a t te ri n c ised o n aw ine j a r f r om T a rkhan ( Pe t r ie 1 914 : p l s . V I , XX .1) . H oweve r , t h ese i n sc r ip t ions may s imp ly b e c u r s ive w r i t ings o ft h e n ame o f Na rme r ( F ische r 1 963 : 4 4 , 4 5 f i g . 2 ,4 6 f i g . 3 ,4 7 ) . S uppo r t f o r r ead ing * Ny H o r a s ac u r s ive r ende r ing o fN a r (me r )m ay b ep rov ided b ya n i n c ised s er ekh f r om M insha t A bu Oma r ( Ka ise r &D reye r 1 982 : f i g . 1 4 .38 ) ; t h e h o r izon ta l s t roke i nt h e u ppe r p a r t o f t h es er ekh m ay b ea n a bb rev ia ted n ar s ign . T he n ame w r i t ten i n i nk o n av esse l f r om T a rkhan T omb 4 12 ( Pe t r ie e t a l . 1 913 : p l . XXX I .71) i su n l ike ly t ob e r oya l ( con tra v on d e r Way 1 993 ) , a s i ti sn o t w r i t ten w i th in as erekh . T he n ame may i n s tead r efe r t o t h e o wne r o f T omb 4 12 , p oss ib ly a membe r o f t h e l oca l o r r eg iona l g ove rn ing e l i te . S eve ra l p o t te ry v e s se ls f ound i n A bydos T omb U j b ea r s ho r t i nk i n sc r ip t ion s . S ome h ave b een i n te rp re ted a s n ame s o fr oya l e s ta te s , i n co rpo ra t ing t h e n ames o f l a te P redyna s t ic r u le rs ( D reye r 1 993b : 3 5 ) . H oweve r , t he e x is tence o f l a te P redyna s t ic k i ngs c a l led ' F ish ' a nd ' Red S ea s he l l ' m ay b e c ons ide red u n l ike ly . F ina l ly , t h e re a r e s eve ra l e xamp le s o f u n readab le o ra nonymous s e rekh s , s ome s u rmoun ted b y t wo f a lcon ss u ch a st hose i n c ised o np o t te ry j a r s f r om e l -Beda o n t he f a r n o r th -ea s te rn e dge o f t h e D e l ta ( C leda t 1 914 ) . A s im i la r m a rk o ccu r s o n av esse l f r om T u ra ( J unke r 1 912 : 4 7 f i g . 5 7 .5 ) . S uch i n sc r ip t ions may h ave b een ma rk s o fr oya l o wne r sh ip , w i thou t n ece ssa r i ly c onvey ing t h e n ame o f t he r e ign ing k i ng . Deba te s a bou t t he i n te rp re ta t ion o f e a r ly r oya l i n sc r ip t ions w i l l , n o d oub t , a lway s c on t inue , t h row ing i n to d oub t o ne o r

1 3

T he s e cond i s sue -t h e d a te a nd d u ra t ion o f t h e p roce ss o f p o l i t ica l u n if ica t ion -i s , i fa ny th ing , e ven mo re c omp lex . E no rmou s s t r ide s h ave b een made i n r e cen t y ea r s i n o u r u nde rs tand ing o f t he p rocess o f s t a te f o rma t ion . T he c onsen su s o fo p in ion n ow p o in ts t ot h e p roce s s h av ing b een ag radua l o ne , w i th i n c rea s ing s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion a nd t h er i se o f l o ca l e l i te s b eg inn ing a s f a r b ack a s e a r ly N aqada I . I n c on t ra s t , t h e f i na l s t age s , l e ad ing t o t h e e s tab l ishmen t o f a s i ng le r oya l a u tho r i ty o ve r t h e who le c oun t ry , e xe rc ised b y t he h ead o f t he T h in i te r oya l h ouse , may h ave b een a ccomp l ished q u i te q u ick ly , w i th in t wo o rt h ree g ene ra t ions . I ti si mpos s ib le t oe s tab l ish wh ich k i ng w as t h e f i r s t t or u le o ve r t h e w ho le o fE gyp t . T omb s i ze may g ive a n i n d ica t ion o ft h e s cope o f ar u le r 's p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic a u tho r i ty , b u t i su n l ike ly t o b e i n f a l l ib le . I ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t h e f i na l s t age s o f p o l i t ica l u n if ica t ion w e re a ccomp l ished a ts ome p o in t b e tween t h e l i f e t ime o f t he o wne r o f T omb U j a t A bydos a nd t h eb eg inn ing o ft h er e ign o fN a rme r .

Abso lute c hrono logy T he re a r e t wo b a s ic m e thod s f o r e s tab l ish ing t h e a bso lu te c h rono logy -t h a ti s ,c a lend r ica l d a te sB C -o ft h e P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iods . T he f i r s t i nvo lve s r e ckon ing b ackwa rds f r om d a te s s e cu re ly e s tab l ished f o r t h e h i s tor ic p e r iod . T he s e cond i nvo lve s t h e d i rec t d a t ing o fP redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic r ema ins u s ing s c ien t if ic a r chaeo log ica l d a t ing t e chn ique s ,p a r t icu la r ly r ad ioca rbon d a t ing . H is tor ica l d a t ing U n t i l t h e d eve lopmen t o f s c ien t if ic d a t ing t e chn iques , t h e o n ly m e thod f o r d a t ing t he e a r ly p e r iods o f E gyp t ian c i v i l isa t ion w a s a n h i s to r ica l o ne . T he l e ng th o f t ime t ha t e l apsed b e tween t h e f ounda t ion o ft h e F i r s t Dyna s ty a nd t h e O ld K ingdom m ay b e c a lcu la ted b y r e f e rence t o a nc ien t E gyp t ian k i ng l is t s , t h e h i s tor ica l i n fo rma t ion g a the red b y Mane tho , a nd o t he rh i s to r ica l s ou rce s . Wi th t h e d a te s f o r t h e O ld K ingdom a s as t a r t ing p o in t , i ti st h en p os s ib le t or e ckon b ackwa rds t oa r r ive a t al i ke ly d a te f o r t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e E a r ly D yna s t ic p e r iod . T h is m e thod h a s an umbe r o fo bv iou s d rawback s .T he a b so lu te d a te s f o rt h eO ld K ingdom a r eb yn o m eans t o ta l ly s e cu re . Mane tho c anno t b e r e l ied u pon f o r a ccura te i n fo rma t ion a bou t i nd iv idua l r e ign leng ths . Mo reove r , t h e re i ss t i l l s ome u nce r ta in ty a bou t t h e e xac t n umbe r o f r e igns i n t h e F i rs t a nd S econd Dyna s t ies . N eve r the le ss , b y means o f h i s to r ica l r e ckon ing , v a r ious a u tho r s ( Hassan 1 980 : 2 03 ; S haw 1 985 : 3 00 -302 ) h ave

o r t h e t wo p r inc ipa l d iv is ions o f t h e a bso lu te d a tes f P r edyna s t ic : 3 840 -3680 BC N aqa da I : 3 600 -3300 B C . N aqa da

p ropo sed e s t ima te s f o r t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e F i r s t D yna s ty , r a ng ing f r om a bou t 2 900 B C t o3 100 B C . A l though t h e re i s a n i n c rea s ing a moun t o fh i s to r ica l d a t ing e v idence f o r t h e E a r ly D yna s t ic p e r iod -f o r i n s tance , i n d ica t ion s o f r e ign l e ng th s f r om l a be ls a nd o t he r r oya l i n sc r ip t ions - t h e h i s to r ica l m e thod c anno t , i nt h e n ea r f u tu re , b e e xpec ted t o y i e ld m o re p r ec i se r e su l t st h an t h o se a l ready o b ta ined .F o rt h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod , t h e h i s to r ica l m e thod i si n app l icab le . E s t ima t e s h ave b een p ropo sed f o r t h e l e ng th o ft h e v a r iou s P redyna s t ic c u l tu ra l p ha se s , b u t t h ey mu s t b e t r ea ted v e ry l a rge ly a s g ues swo rk . K a ise r ( 1990 : 2 89 f i g . 1 ) i n c luded a bso lu te d a te s a l ongs ide h i s r ev ised s equence o f P redyna s t ic /Ea r ly D yna s t ic c u l tu ra l p ha se s . T he f o l low ing a b so lu te d a te s( BC ) a r ei mp l ic i tf o rt h ev a r iou sp ha se s : N aqa da I c 3 400 -3300 N aqada f i lb l 3 120 -3080 N aqa da 300 -3250 N aqadai l lb2 3 080 -3050 N aqa da l I d2 3 250 -3200 N aq a f l aI na 3 050 -3000 N aqa da Ma l 3 200 -3170 N aqad aI l I c2 3 000 -2920 N aqa da I l a2 3 170 -3120 N aqada I l I c3 2 920 -2845 . N one the le s s ,t h ed u ra t ion o fN aqada Ia nd /o rN aqada I c anno t b e e s t ima t ed w i th a ny a c cu racy w i thou t d a t ing t h e r ema ins d i rec t ly ( c f .H a s san 1 984a : 6 81 ) .

H of fman ( 1 982 : 1 39 ) p ub l ished as u i te o fr ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om H ie rakonpo l is , a l though n one a pp l ie s t ot h eN aqada I p e r iod .T he d a te sf o rt h eN aqada Ip e r iod r a nge f r om 3 792±65 B C a tt h e e a r l ie s t t o3 403±80 BC a tt h e l a tes t . Mo s t c l us te r i nt h er a nge 3 700 -3500 B CF rom c on s ide ra t ion o ft h e se d a te s , H of fman o f f e r s t h e f o l low ing e s t ima te s f o r t h e P r edyna s t ic p e r iod s : N aq ada I : 3 800 -3500 B C N a qa da 3 500 -3200 BC . N o te , h oweve r , t h a tt h e c a l ib ra t ion s y s tem u sed b yH of fman i sc ons ide red t o p rov ide " ve ry g ro s s e s t ima te s" ( Ha ssan 1 984b : 1 3 ) . U s ing mo re s e n s i t ive c a l ib ra t ion t a b le s , a nd b y c ompa r ing t h e H ie rakonpo l i s ma te r ia l w i th t h er e su l t s o fh i s o wn i n ve s t iga t ions a tN aqada , H a s san ( 1 984b : 1 4 ) r e -da te s H of fman 's N aqada Ic on tex t s ( Loca l i t ie s IC , 2 9 a nd 5 4 ) t o t h eb eg inn ing o ft h es u cce ed ing N aqada L ip e r iod . Two f r e shwa te r s he l ls f r om t h e P a in ted T omb ( T 100 ) a t H ie rakonpo l is -d a ted a r chaeo log ica l ly t om id -Naqada I y i e lded ar a d ioca rbon d a t eo f3 685 BC ( Bu r le igh 1 983 ,q uo ted i nH a ssan 1 984b : 1 4 ) . H oweve r , t h is s e em sr a the r t o o e a r ly . As i ng le r a d ioca rbon d a te f r om S ema ineh , S i te S H ,h a sb een p ub l ished ( Ba rd 1 992 : 1 0 ) . D e sp i te e v idence t h a t t h is s i te b e long st ot h el a te P redyna s t ic , t h er a d ioca rbon d a te i s3 780 3 530 B C , w h ich w ou ld t e nd t o i n d ica te N aqada Io re a r ly N aqada I a tt h e l a te s t . A n i mpor tan t p o in t t ob ea r i nm ind w i th a l lr a d io ca rbon d e te rm ina t ions i st h ed eg ree o fv a r ia t ion b e twe en d i f f e ren tl a bo ra to r ie sw h ich u se d i f f e ren tm e thod s o f a s se s s ing e r ro ri nd a te s ( Shaw 1 985 : 2 99 ) . Mo reove r ,t h e re i s t h ep roven p henomenon o fi n te r labo r a to ry b i a s( Sh aw 1 985 : 2 98 , 3 0 1 n . 4 1) . O the r t h an t hose f r om N aqada a nd H ie rakonpo l is , t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t s e t o fr a d ioca rbon d a te s f o rt h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod i sd e r ived f r om t h es e t t lemen t a nd c eme te ry a t Maad i a nd Wad i D ig la . T he d a te s f o r Maad i s e t t lemen t d i f f e r w ide ly . T hose p ub l ished b y R izkana & S e ehe rr a nge ( 1 990 ) f r om 4 349±66 B C( o r3 857±79 BC i ft h e f o rme r d a te , s o o bv ious ly a noma lou s , i sd i scoun ted ) a tt h e e a r l ie s t t o 3 515±89 B C a tt h e l a te s t . T he se w ou ld s e em t o c onf i rm t h e p roposed c on tempo rane i ty o f Maad i a nd t h e N aqada Ip e r iod i nU ppe r E gyp t . Howeve r , t h e m o re r e cen t r a d ioca rbon d a te s f r om Maad i s e t t lemen t , c o l lec ted b y t h e I t a l ian E xped i t ion ( Caneva e ta l . 1 989 ) a nd p e rhap s m o re r e l iab le , s how as l igh t ly l a te r r a nge , f r om 3 760 -3655 B C t o 3 580 -3380 B C . S i nce t h e se a ppa ren t ly d e r iv ef r om t h ee a r l ie s t l e ve l o ft h e s e t t lemen t , ap a r t ia l o ve r lap b e twe en Maad i a nd t h e N aqada I p e r iod i nU ppe r E gyp t c anno t b e d i s coun ted . T he d a te s f r om t h e c eme te r ie s o f Maad i a nd Wad i D ig la d o n o th ing t o c l a r ify t h e p rob lem . T he r ad ioca rbon d e te rm ina t ion s f r om Wad i D ig la c eme t e ry w ou ld i n d ica te a n e a r ly ( Naqada Y ea r ly N aqada I ) d a te : 3 622±138 B C a nd 3 587± 165 B C ;w h i le t h o se f r om Maad i c eme te ry w ou ld s e em t os ugge s t al a te r ( l a te N aqada I ) d a te : 3 255±206 B C a nd 3 028±172 B C . Ar e cen t s e t o fr ad ioca rbon d a te s h a s b een p ub l ished f o r t h e N aqada Is e t t lemen t s i nt h e v i c in i ty o f A rman t( G in te r &K oz low sk i 1 994 : 1 09 -23 ) .T hese s u gge s ta d a te o f3 800 c a l .B Cf o rt h eN aqada Ic on t ex t s , ad a t ew h ich i s i na g reemen tw i th t h eo t he rd e t e rm ina t ion sm en t ioned a bove . A t t h e t ime o fg o ing t op r e s s , t we lve r a d ioca rbon d a te s f r om t h e P redyna s t ic C eme te ry N 7000 a t Nag e d -De i r a r es oon t o b ep ub l ished . O b ta ined f r om g r ave sd a t ing f r om l a te N aqada I t oN aqada I l ,t h er a d ioca rbon d e te rm ina t ion ss u ppo r tt h ed a t e s f o rt h eP r edyna s t ic p e r iod s ugge s ted h e re ,a nd i n d ica t et h a tt h e

R ad iocarbon d a t ing T he re h a s b een a n i n c rea s ing i n te re s t i nr e cen t y ea r s i nt h e a pp l ica t ion o fs c ien t if ic d a t ing t e chn ique s , r ou t ine ly u sed i n o t he r b ranches o f a r chaeo logy , t o E gyp t ian P redyna s t ic a r chaeo log ica lr ema in s .T he rmo lum ine scence ( TL )d a t ing h a s b e en a pp l ied t oB ada r ian c e ram ic s ,p r inc ipa l ly t oc onf i rm " t he p r io r i ty o fB ada r ian c u l tu re r e la t ive t o Am ra t ian a nd G e rzean" ( Ca ton -Thomp son & Wh i t t le 1 975 : 8 9 ) . As i ng le T Ld a te , o f 3 775±330 B C , w a so b ta ined f o rt h eN aqada I p e r iod ( Ca ton T hompson & Wh i t t le 1 975 : 9 3 ) . H oweve r , i ti sr a d ioca rbon d a t ing t h a t h as mos t c augh t t he i mag ina t ion o f E gyp to log is t s . T he l a s t f i ve y ea r s h ave s e en t h e p ub l ica t ion o f al a rge n umbe r o fn ew r a d ioca rbon d a t e s f o r P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly D yna s t ic c on tex t s ( Ha s san 1 980 , 1 984a ; H a s san & R ob inson 1 987 ; H of fman 1 982 ; S haw 1 985 ; R izkana & S eehe r 1 990 ; G in te r &K oz low sk i 1 994 ; C lo se 1 980 , 1 984 , 1 988 g i ve s s umma r ie s o f r e cen t r ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om E gyp t ) . A s t h e m a in f o cus o f t h is w o rk i s t h e l a te P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly D yna s t ic t r ans i t ion , t h e f o u r e x is t ing r a d ioca rbon d a te sf o rt h eB ada r ian p e r iod ( Ho lme s 1 992a : 3 0 1 2 )a r en o ti n c luded i nt h ef o l low ing d i scu s s ion . D a t e sf o rN aq ad a Ia n c lN aq ada I I ti sp e rhap sf i t t ing t h a t m o s t o ft h e r a d ioca rbon d a te s f o rt h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod d e r ive f r om t h e t wo m a jo r P redyna s t ic c en t re s , N aqada a nd H ie rakonpo l is . S ince b o th t h e se s i te s s how c on t inuou s o ccupa t ion f r om N aqada Id own t o t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e E a r ly D yna s t ic p e r iod , t h ey p rov ide g ood p os s ib i l i t ie sf o rd a t ing t h ep r inc ipa lp ha se so ft h eP redyna s t ic t o E a r ly D yna s t ic c u l tu ra l s equence . O ve r s eve ra l y ea r s , H a s san ( 1 984a ) c o l lec ted at o ta l o f1 8r a d ioca rbon d a te s f r om N aqada , t h e l a rge s t n umbe r f o r a ny P redyna s t ic s i te . T he se d a te sw e re d e r ived f r om t h ree a r ea so fl a te N aqada Id a te , a nd f r om t h eN aqada I o ccupa t ion l e ve l s a tN aqada S ou th T own . T he r e su l t s f r om t h et h ree e a r l ie rs i te s -d a t ing m o re p r ec ise ly t oK a ise r 's S t uf e I a -g ave am idpo in te s t ima te o f3 760±40 BC w i th ar a nge o f 3 840 -3680 BC a t a9 5% c onf idence i n te rva l . T he r e su l t s f r om t h e S ou th T own g ave am idpo in t e s t ima te f o rt h eN aqada I p e r iod o f3 440±70 B C w i th ar a nge o f3 600 -3300 a t a9 5% c onf idence i n te rva l . I n o t he r w o rd s , H a s san 's r a d ioca rbon d a te sf r om N aqada p r ov ide t h ef o l low ing

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c eme te ry w a s p r obab ly i n u se b e tween a bou t 3 800 a nd 3 090 BC ( S tephen S avage , Un ive rs i ty o f W iscons in , p e r sona lc ommun ica t ion ) .

c e r ta in o the r c ons ide ra t ions , t h e f o l low ing a bso lu te c h rono logy m ay b e p roposed f o r t h e P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly D yna s t ic p e r iod s .

D a t e sf or N aqad aI Ia nd t h eF i r s tD yna s ty

C u l tura ls e quence N aqa da I N aqada I N a q ada i f i ( u n if ied c e ram ic t r ad i t ion t h roughou tE gyp t )

T he s u i te o fr a d ioca rbon d a te s f o rt h eF i r s tD yna s ty , d e r ived f r om t h e t omb s a tN o r th S aqqa ra e xcava ted b y Eme ry , a r e w e l l -known a n dh ave b een t h ef o cu so fm uch o ft h ea r gumen t s u r round ing t h e d a te o f t h e U n if ica t ion . T hey h ave b een s u b jec ted t o e a ch n ew s ys tem o f c a l ib ra t ion , p roduc ing d i f f e ren t -b u t n o t n ece s sa r i ly m o re a c cu ra te -r e su l t s e ach t i me . H a s san 's ( 1 980 ) o r ig ina l c a l ib ra t ion u s ing MASCA g ave t h e F i r s t D yna s ty ( mo re s pec if ica l ly , t h e r e igns o f N a rme r t o Q aa ) d a te s o f 3 125± 120 t o 2 925±120 BC . I n c on t ra s t , S haw 's ( 1985 : 3 01) I r i sh o ak c a l ib ra t ion p roduced d a te s o f 3 055±90 t o 2 805± 105 B C . T he w e igh ted a ve rage d a te s f o r A ha s u gge s ted ad a te o f3 005±90 B C ( Shaw 1 985 : 3 07 t a b le 2 A ) . T he h igh -p rec is ion c a l ib ra t ion o fH a s san & R ob inson p r oduced a n e s t ima te f o r A ha o f 3 023± 102 B C . T hey w e re " f a i r ly c onf iden tt h a ta ne s t ima te o f3 050 -2950 B C f o r A ha i sv e ry l i ke ly" ( Ha s san & R ob in son 1 987 : 1 25 ) . H ence , t h e se m os t r e cen t s t ud ie s a r ea pp roa ch ing s ome th ing o f ac ons ensu s .I fN a rm e r 's r e ign i sa dded b e f o re t h a to fA ha , t h e r e su l t ing d a te f o r t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e F i r s t D yna s ty s e ems l i ke ly t ob ea r ound 3 050 B C .

P o l i t i ca ls equenc e P r edyna s t ic p e r iod P e r iod o fs t a te f o rma t ion ' Dyna s ty 0 ' E a r ly Dy na s t ic p er iod

T he s i ng le ` P ro todyna s t ic ' r ad ioca rbon d e te rm ina t ion f r om H ie rakonpo l i sw ou ld s uppo r tt h is d a t ing .T omb 1a tL oca l i ty 6-al a rge b u r ia l o f ' Dyna s ty 0 ' , o rt h ev e ry b eg inn ing o ft h e F i r s t D yna s ty -y i e lded a c a l ib ra ted r a d ioca rbon d a te o f 3 025±80 B C .O nce a ga in ,t h i sr a d ioca rbon d e te rm ina t ion w a s r e -ca l ib ra ted b y H a s san ( 1984b ) , g i v ing ar ev ised d a te o f b e tween 3 120 a nd 2 740 B C . Mos t r e cen t ly , as e r ie s o f r ad ioca rbon d a te s h a s b een p ub l ished f o r t h e l a te P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic r oya l c eme te ry a tA bydos ( Boehme r e ta l . 1 993 ) . S amp le s w e re c o l lec ted f r om g rave s U j ( da ted a r chaeo log ica l ly t oS tuf e I Ia2 , c .3 150 B C ) , B 19 , B 40 ( b o th d a ted a r chaeo log ica l ly t o t h e e a r ly F i r s t Dyna s ty , c .2 950 B C ) a nd t h e t omb o fD en ( t omb T ,c .2 870 B C ) . T hey w e re p r oce s sed b yt h eH e ide lbe rg U n ive r s i ty l a bo ra to ry -w i th a dd i t iona ld e te rm ina t ion sc a r r ied o u t i nZ ü r ich f o r s ome s amp le s -a nd c a l ib ra ted u s ing t h e P ea r son e ta l . c a l ib ra t ion c u rve . T omb U j y i e lded d a te s o f 310 -3045 a n d 375 -3335 c a l B C ; B 19 g ave 350 -3110 a nd 335 -3105 c a l B C ; B 40 g ave 3 265 -3035 a nd 300 -2925 c a l B C ; a nd t omb T y i e lded as i ng le d a te o f 335 -3100 c a lB C . I n a l c a se s , t h er a d ioca rbon d a te s a r e 1 00 t o1 50 y ea r s e a r l ie r t h an t h ee xpe c ted a r cha eo log ica ld a t e s . T h is w a sa l so t h ec a se f o r as amp le d a ted a r chaeo log ica l ly t o t h e r e ign o f R ame s se sI . S u mmary T he d u ra t ion o f t h e p e r iod i mmed ia te ly p reced ing t h e b eg inn ing o ft h eF i r s tD yna s ty -t h ep e r iod o fs t a t e f o rma t ion -c anno tb ea s se s sed w i th a ny d eg ree o fa c cu ra cy .H oweve r ,i t s eems u n l ike ly t h a t i t l a s ted m ore t h an f i ve o r s i x g ene ra t ion s , i n c lud ing t wo o r t h ree g ene ra t ions o f k i ngs c omp r i s ing ' Dyna s ty 0 ' . T he 1 00 y ea r sa lo t ted t ot h is p e r iod b y H of fman m ay b e al i t t le t o o s ho r t . A rke l l ( 1975 : 4 6 ) e xp re s sed t h e v i ew t h a t" t h is p e r iod . .p r obab ly a moun ted t o ag ene ra t ion o r s o a tt h e m os t" . K a ise r 's ( 1 990 : 2 89 f i g . 1 ) p ropo sed d a te o f 3 150 B C f o r T omb U j a tA bydo s , w h ich d a te st ot h ep e r iod o fs t a te f o rma t ion , a ppea r sq u i te p l au s ib le . F rom t h e a va i lab le r a d ioca rbon d a te s , a nd b ea r ing i nm ind

1 5

c .3 800 -c .3 500 B C c .3 500 -c .3 200 B C

c .3 200 B C -

c .4 000 c .3 200 c .3 100 c .3 050

-c .3 050 B C -c .3 050 B C -c .3 050 B C B C -

P ar t2 : T echn ique s

S ERIATION ANALYSIS S eda t ion t heory a nd a pp l ica t ions

r oya l n ame s -f r om T a rkhan , s t reng thens t h ec r ed ib i l i ty o ft h e s e r ia t ions wh ich f o rm t he c ore o f t he p resen t s t udy . Mo reove r , t h ep roce s s o fs e r ia t ion i t se lf a nd t h e g roup ing o f p o t te ry t ype s , b o th o fw h ich a r e f undamen ta l t ot h e p re sen t m e thodo logy , h ave b een t e s ted b y c on t ro l s e r ia t ions o fT u ra a nd E lkab .

T he f u ndamen ta l s o fs e r ia t ion t h eo ry a r ee ncapsu la ted i nt wo c onnec ted i dea s , f i rs t ly " t he a s sump t ion t ha t c hanges i n m a te r ia l c u l tu re h ave a lway s t a ken p l ace a nd i n a manne r w h ich i s , more t han a ny th ing e l se , c h rono log ica l ly s i gn if ican t" ( Kemp 1 975 : 2 62 ) , a nd s econd ly , t ha t i n a c eme te ry c on ta in ing g rave g oods , " each g rave r ep re sen t s a s amp le o f a nc ien t f a sh ions w hose d eve lopmen t s c an . . .be f o l lowed i ft h eo r ig ina l o rde ro fb u r ia ls c an b er e cons truc ted , a nd t h a tt h is r e cons t ruc t ion c an i t se lf p roceed o n t h eb a s is o f t h e c omb ina t ions o f t h e g rave g oods t hemse lves" ( Kemp 1 975 : 2 59 ) . S e r ia t ion i st he p rocess b y wh ich a g roup o f g rave s i ss o r ted i n to ar e la t ive o rde r w h ich , i ti sa s sumed , a pp roa che st h eo r ig ina l o rde ro ft h eb u r ia ls ( Se id lmaye r 1 990 : 2 2 , 2 8 -36 ) . T h is i sd one b y means o f t h e s o -ca l led ' Pe t r ie C oncen t ra t ion P r inc ip le ' , whe reby " t he o ccu r rences o f [ a r tef a c t ] t y pe s s hou ld , b y mov ing t h e r e la t ive p os i t ions o f t h e g r ave s , b e b rough t a s c l ose ly a s p os s ib le t oge the r , t h e f i na l r e su l t b e ing i n p rac t ice a c omprom ise b e tween t h e c ompe t ing c l a ims t o c l ose r p rox im i ty b y a l l t h e d i f f e ren t t y pe s" ( Kemp 1 975 : 2 64 ) .

A l l t h es e r ia t ions h ave b een b a sed u pon p re sence /ab sence d a ta o n ly ( c f S e id lmaye r 1 990 : 2 8 ) . T h is h a sb een n ece s s i ta ted b y t h ei n adequacy o fc e r ta in e xcava t ion r epo r t sw h ich r e co rd o n ly t h e o ccu r rence o f ap a r t icu la rp o t te ry t ype i n ag r ave , n o t t h e f r equency o ft h a tt y pe . E ven t h e mos t c o mmon p o t te ry t ypes h ave b een r e ta ined i nt h e s e r ia t ions . C ommon ly o ccu r r ing t ype s may b ej u s t a si mpo r tan t i n ma rk ing t h e b eg inn ing o r e nd o f c u l tura l p hases - i n o the r wo rds , j us t a s c h rono log ica l ly s i gn if ican t -a s r a re r t ypes . F u r the rmo re , w hen b a s ing a n a na ly s i s o f as i te 's c u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t o n g rave g oods , i ti s i mpo r tan t t o i n c lude a s much o f t h e a va i lab le i n fo rma t ion a sp oss ib le ( Se id lmaye r 1 990 : 3 1) . A l l t ype s h ave b een g iven e qua l w e igh t ing , s o t h a t t h e p rog ram w i l l t r ea t t h em a sb e ing o fe qua l c h rono log ica l s i gn if icance . A l though c e r ta in t y pe s -p a r t icu la r ly w avy -hand led j a r s a nd c y l inde rv e s se ls , ' w ine ja r s ' a nd s ome t y pe so fD e co ra ted -wa re -a r e c ommon ly a cknow ledged t ob e d i agnos t ic o fp a r t icu la r c h rono log ica l p e r iods , t he w e igh t ing o f s uch t ypes i s c ons ide red " r ep rehens ib le" b ys t a t is t ic ians ( Sco l la r 1 993 : 6 5 ) . I tw a s f e l t t h a t a' n eu t ra l ' t r ea tmen t o f t h e p o t te ry t ypes w ou ld p roduce amo re v a l id r e su l t . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t o n ly g raves c on ta in ing a tl e a s tt wo t ype sc ou ld b ei n c luded i n t h e s e r ia t ions . Ag rave c on ta in ing o n ly o ne t y pe w i l l n o t l i nk t oa ny o t he r g rave i nt h es e r ia t ion , a nd w i l l t h us b ee xc luded b y t h e p rog ram i t se lf . S im i la r ly , t ype s o ccu r r ing o n ly o nce h ad t ob ee xc luded f r om t h e s e r ia t ions ( c f S e id lmaye r 1 990 : 3 5 ) . F ina l ly , t o e nsu re o p t imum r e l iab i l i ty o f t h e r e su l t s , e ach c eme te ry w a s s e r ia ted a tl e a s t t w ice . T he r e su l t s o ft h e s epa ra te r uns w e re c ompa red s t a t is t ica l ly , a nd i n a l l c a se s w e re f ound t o g ive a c o r re la t ion c oeff ic ien t o f 1 . 0 . T h is i nd ica te s t h a t t h e r e su l t s o f t h e s epa ra te s e r ia t ions w e re i d en t ica l .

I nt h ep re sen t s t udy , t h e t ypes u pon w h ich t h e s e r ia t ions a r e b a sed c ons is t e n t i re ly o fp o t te ry . T h is a pp roach w a s c hosen f o r s eve ra l r ea sons . F i r s t ly , p o t te ry i s t h e mos t c ommon a r tef a c tt y pe i nP redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic b u r ia ls . F o r a s e r ia t ion t ob ee f f ec t ive , t h e o ccu r rence so ft h e s e lec ted t y pes mu s t b e r e la t ive ly f r equen t , o t he rw ise c onnec t ions b e twe en u n i t s -t h a ti s , g rave s -w i l l b eh a rd t o make . T he a bundance o fp o t te ry make s i tt h e mos t s u i tab le c ho ice f o r c ons t ruc t ing t h e s e r ia t ion t ype s . S econd ly , p o t te ry i st h e c l a ss o f o b jec t l e a s t l i ke ly t o h ave s uf f e red f r om g rave robb ing , s o t he p o t te ry v es se ls f ound i n ag rave a r e l i ke ly t ob e a n a ccu ra te r e f lec t ion o f t h e o r ig ina l g rave c on ten t s . F ina l ly , s i nce p o t te ry w a s t h e l e a s t v a luab le c l a s s o f o b jec t w i th w h ich g r ave s w e re e qu ipped , i ti s mo re l i ke ly t ob e c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e b u r ia l i t se lf t h an mo re p res t ig iou s o b jec t s s uch a s j ewe l le ry o rs t one v e sse ls . T he p o t te ry v e s se ls f r om ag rave a r e t h u s mo re r e l iab le a s ac h rono log ica l ly r ep re sen ta t ive g r oup t h an o t he ra r te f ac tt y pe s( Kemp 1 975 : 2 67 ) .

S er ia t ion a nd E gypt ian a rchaeo logy

T he s e r ia t ions i nt h ep re sen t s t udy h ave b een p roduced u s ing t h e B onn S e r ia t ion a nd A rchaeo log ica l S ta t is t ics P ackage ( Sco l la r 1 993 ) . D eve loped o ve r an umbe r o f y ea rs a t t h e R he in ische s L andesmuseum B onn , t h is s of twa re u ses a m od if i ca t ion o ft h e K amme re rGo ldmann a l gor i thm , c ho sen f o r i t s " s tab i l i ty , r ap id i ty , a nd b ecause i tr eache s as i ng le s t ab le s o lu t ion" ( Sco l la r 1 993 : 2 09 ) . C ompu te r s e r ia t ion e nab le sf a rl a rge rg roups o fg rave st ob ea na ly sed t h an w ou ld b e p o s s ib le manua l ly . F u r the rmo re , t he c ompu te r p rog ram f o l low s as t r ic t a l go r i thm , r emov ing s ome o ft h e s ub jec t ive e l emen t w h ich c ha rac te r ises m anua l s o r t ing ( Se id lmaye r 1 990 : 3 1 ) . S e r ia t ion , i n c lud ing c ompu te r s e r ia t ion , i sb y n o m eans ap rob lem -f ree t e chn ique . C a re mus tb et a ken , b o th i n t h ei n i t ia l c o l la t ion o ft h ed a ta a nd i nt h ei n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e r e su l t s . Mo reove r , t h e r e su l ts o f c ompu te r s e r ia t ion s hou ld n o t b e r ega rded a s i n fa l l ib le . T he c o r rec tness - i . e . c h rono log ica l v a l id i ty -o f t h e s e r ia t ions mus t b e j udged " e i the r i n t h e c on tex t o f e x te rna l e v idence , o r c ompa red w i th . . .d iscove r ie s c on ta in ing s im i la r a s soc ia t ions" ( Sco l la r 1 993 : 2 07 ; c f . S e id lmaye r 1 990 : 2 9 ) . T he h igh d eg ree o f c o r respondence b e tween t h e r e su l t s f r om d i f f e ren t s i tes , c oup led w i th t h e a dd i t iona l d a t ing e v idence -i nt h e f o rm o f

1 9

P e t r ie ( 1899 , 1 901) w a s t h e f i r s t a r chaeo log is t t or e cogn ise t h e f undamen ta l p r inc ip le s o fs e r ia t ion , w h ich h e f o rmu la t ed a nd e mp loyed f o r h i s S equence -Da t ing m e thod . C ons ide r ing t h a t t h e o rde r ing w a s d one manua l ly , P e t r ie 's r e su l t s a r e r ema rkab le e ven t o day , a nd h ave s t ood t h e t e s t o ft ime v e ry w e l l ( Kemp 1 982 : 1 0 ) . K a ise r 's ( 1957 ) a na lys is o fA rman t C eme te ry 1 400 -1500 u sed h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy a s as ho r t c u t t o s e r ia t ion ( cf . K emp 1 975 : 2 65 ; P a tch 1 991 : 1 60 ) . A l though h i s d iv is ion o f t h e Uppe r E gyp t ian P redyna s t ic c u l tu ra l s equence w a s r e la ted t o t h e r e la t ive f r equency o f d i f f e ren tp o t te ry t y pes , d i s t r ibu t ion m aps s e rved a st h e k ey t o h i s c h rono log ica l s cheme . K a ise r 's r e su l t s w e re s ub sequen t ly u sed b y W i lk inson ( 1974 ) a s ab a s is a ga ins t w h ich t o t e s t v a r ious ma thema t ica l s e r ia t ion p rocedu re s . C hapman & R andsbo rg ( 1981 : 3 ) n o ted t ha t , " whe the r o r n o t s t ra t if ied s i te s a nd a bso lu te c h rono log ie s a r e a va i lab le , t y po log ie s a nd s e r ia t ions o fm a te r ia l f r om mo r tua ry c on tex t s c on t inue i nu se i na n a t temp t t oa na ly se b o th s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l v a r ia t ions i nc u l tu re" . I np a r t icu la r , i t wa s t h e wo rk o fK enda l l ( 1963 , 1 969 ; c f C owg i l l 1 972 ; Ma rqua rd t 1 978 ) , a nd i t s a pp l ica t ion b y K emp , w h ich r ev ived s e r ia t ion a s at oo l o fr e levance t o

E gyp t ian a r chaeo logy . K emp ( 1975 ) a pp l ied t he t e chn ique manua l ly t oc eme te r ie s o ft h e h i s to r ic p e r iod a tQ au . Mo re r e cen t ly , u s ing ac ompu te r -ba sed mu l t i -d imens iona l s ca l ing r ou t ine d eve loped b y K enda l l , h e s e r ia ted f ou r P redyna s t ic c eme te r ie s( Kemp 1 982 ) . S e id lmaye r 's ( 1990 )e x ten s ive s t udy o ft h e a r cha eo logy o ft h eF i r s tI n te rmed ia te P e r iod e mp loyed t h e t e chn ique o f s e r ia t ion t o a na lyse a nd c ompa re a l a rge n umbe ro fc eme te r ie st h roughou tE gyp t .T he i d en t if ica t ion o f c u l tu ra l p ha se s a te ach i n d iv idua l s i te , a nd t h e c o r re la t ion o f t h e se r e su l t s , p rov ided ad e ta i led p ic tu re o fc u l tu ra l c hange d u r ing t h e t r ans i t ion f r om t h e O ld K ingdom t o t h e M idd le K ingdom . T he p re sen t s t udy d e r ives much i n sp i ra t ion f r om t h e w o rk o fK emp a nd S e id lmaye r , a nd s e ek s t o a pp ly t h e p owe rfu lt e chn ique o fs e r ia t ion t oa no the r ,e qua l ly i mpo r tan t , t r ans i t iona l p e r iod , t ha t ma rk ing t h e r i se o f t he E gyp t ian s t a te . Mos tr e cen t ly , S avage ( 1995 )h a s u sed c o r re spondence a na lys is t os e na t e 1 43 g rave s f r om C eme te ry N 7000 a tN aga e d -De i r ,t op rov ide ab a s is f o ra na ly s ing t h em o r tua ry d a ta .

U se s o f s er ia t ion T he p r ima ry r e su l t o ft h e s e r ia t ion p roce s s i st h e s equen t ia l o rde r ing o f ag roup o f g rave s , a pp rox ima t ing t o ar e la t ive c h rono logy . H oweve r , m uch mo re u sefu l i st h e i d en t if ica t ion o f p ha se s w i th in t he o ve ra l l s equence . T hus , t h e s e r ia t ion m a t r ix -t h e r e su l t o f t h e s e r ia t ion p roces s -w i l l u sua l ly s how s ome i n te rna l s t ruc tu re , d iv id ing i n to g roups o fg rave s , e a ch g roup c ha rac te r ised b y as im i la r a s semb lage o fp o t te ry t ype s ( Se id lmaye r 1 990 : 3 4 ) . I ft he o rde r o f t h e g raves i s a ccep ted a sc h rono log ica l , t h en t h e se g roup so fg rave s may b e i d en t if ied a sr e p re sen t ing c u l tu ra lp ha se sw i th in t h el i f eo ft h e c eme te ry . A na ly s is o ft h es e r ia t ion ma t r ix a nd i t sc ons t i tuen t p ha se s r evea ls s ome th ing o ft h e c u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t o ft h e s i te i nq ue s t ion : w h ich p o t te ry t ypes w e re c o mmon a tw h ich p e r iod , t h e r e la t ive d u ra t ion o f p o t te ry t ype s , p ar t icu la r ly c ommon a ssoc ia t ions o f p o t te ry t ypes , a nd s o f o r th . Moreove r , b y h igh l igh t ing g roups o f g rave s w h ich s ha re a s im i la r a s semb lage o ft y pe s , s e r ia t ion h a s a n a dvan tage o ve r d i s t r ibu t ion s t ud ies . S e r ia t ion f a c i l i ta te s t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f d i s t inc t s ec t ions o f a p opu la t ion , whe re t hese a re d i s t ingu ished b y mo r tua ry t r ad i t ions (W i lk inson 1 993a : 7 5 , 1 68 ) . F o r e ach s i te , t h e s e r ia ted s equence o f g raves , w i th i t s c ons t i tuen t c h rono log ica l /cu l tu ra l p ha se s , may a l so b e u sed f o r s e conda ry a na ly s is . T hus , b y c a lcu la t ing i nd ice s s uch a s g rave s i ze a nd g rave w ea l th f o r e ach i d en t if ied p ha se w i th in t h e s e r ia ted s equence , t h e c hang ing s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c ond i t ion s w i th in t h e p a r t icu la r c ommun i ty m ay b e c ha r ted . O nce t h e s oc io -econom ic d eve lopmen t o fe ach s i te h a s b een a na lysed i nt h is w ay , t h e r e su l t s f r om a l t h e s i te s may b e c ompa red t os e e h ow d i f f e ren t r eg ions o ft h e c oun t ry -a nd d i f f e ren ts i ze so fs e t t lemen t -r e sponded t ot h eg r ea te rc hange s t a k ing p la ce w i th in E gyp t ian s oc ie ty d ur ing t h e p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion .

2 0

TYPOLOGY s how t h el a rge n umbe ro fd i f f e ren tf o rm s i n c luded w i th in t h is s i ng le t ype ( Pe t r ie 1 914 : p l . XXV I I I ) . A l l t h e se f a c to r s p ose s e r ious c ha l lenge sf o ra nyone w ish ing t ou se P e t r ie 's d a ta -o r d a ta f r om o t he re xcava to r s , c l a s s if ied b yr e f e rence t oP e t r ie 's P r edyna s t ic c o rpu s -f o rs e conda ry a na ly s i s .

T he f i r s t s t ep i na ny s e r ia t ion i st o c on s t ruc t at ypo logy . A t ypo logy i s d ef ined a s " a c oncep tua l s ys tem made b y p a r t i t ion ing as pe c if ied f i e ld o fe n t i t ie si n to ac omp rehens ive s e t o fm u tua l ly e xc lus ive t ype s , a cco rd ing t o ac ommon s e t o fc r i te r ia d i c ta ted b y t h ep u rpo se o ft h et y po log i s t" ( Adam s &A dam s 1 991 : 9 1 ) . I nr ecen t y e ar st h e s ub jec t o ft ypo logy , e spec ia l ly a r chaeo log ica l t ypo logy , h as r ece ived much s cho la r ly a t ten t ion ( Adams & A dam s 1 991 ; B ou r r iau 1 985 ; S e id lmaye r 1 990 ; R enf rew & B ahn 1 991 : 9 8 , 1 04 -6 ) a nd h a s b een t h e s ub jec t o f c ons ide rab le d eba te . Howeve r , a s o ne r ecen t w o rk h a s a cknow ledged , " a g ood d ea l o f t he T ypo log ica l D eba te a ppea r s t o h ave a r isen b e tween i n d iv idua ls w o rk ing w i th d i f f e ren tk i nd s o f ma te r ia l" ( Adams & A dam s 1 991 : 2 28 ; c f S e id lmaye r 1 990 : 5 -7 ) . T h is l a s t p o in t i sa n i mpo r tan t o ne , a nd o ne w h ich h as ad i rec tb ea r ing u pon t h e ma in t y po log ies o fP redyna s t ic p o t te ry d ev ised t o d a te . T he p u rpo se h e re i sn o t , h oweve r , t od e ta i l t h e c omp lex p h i losoph ica l a nd p rocedu ra l i s sue s l y ing b eh ind t h ep roce ss o ft ypo logy . R a the r , i ti st op re sen t a nd e xp la in t h e g roup ing o fP redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic p o t te ry u sed i nt h ep re sen t s t udy , s e t t ing i ti n t he g ene ra l c on tex t o f P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly D yna s t ic E gyp t ian p o t te ry s t ud ie s .

T ypo log ies o f P redynast ic Dyna st ic p o t tery

a nd

T he l a te s tp o t te ry t y pe si nt h eP redyna s t ic c o rpu ss panned t h e t r ans i t ion t ot h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod . None the le ss , P e t r ie f e l t i tn ece s sa ry t o d ev ise a n ew t ypo logy f o r t h e h uge a moun t o fe xc lu s ive ly E a r ly D yna s t ic ma te r ia l h e e xcava ted a tT a rkhan . T h is w a so n ly p ub l ished i nf u l l a f te rh i sd ea th , a s t h e P ro todynas t ic c orpus ( Pe t r ie 1 953 ) . I n c on t ra s t t o t h e P redyna s t ic c o rpus , t h e P ro todyna s t ic c orpus d id n o t d iv ide t h e ma te r ia l i n to c l a s se s . R a the r , t he c l a s s if ica t ion p re sen t s t h ew ho le b ody o fm a te r ia l t o ge the r .T he t y po logy , n umbe red f r om 1 t o 9 9 , s imp ly f o l lows a p rog re ss ion f r om o pen t o c l o sed f o rms . A s ar e su l t , u s ing o n ly t he P ro todyna s t ic c o rpus i n i t s p ub l ished f o rm - a nd w i thou t r e fe rence t o s u rv iv ing e xcava ted ma te r ia l -i t i s d if f icu l t , i f n o t i mposs ib le , t od i s t ingu ish b e tween p o t te ry made f r om ma r l c l ay a nd c oa r se r , N i le s i l t p o t te ry ( Hend r ickx 1 993 : 2 ) . T h is m ake s P e t r ie 's P ro todyna s t ic c o rpus t o ta l ly i n adequa te f o r c l a ss ify ing p o t te ry f r om m ode rn e xcava t ions . Mo reove r , a ccu ra te c ompa r i son o fn ew m a te r ia l w i th P e t r ie 's c o rpu s i s a l so v e ry d i ff icu l t .

Ear ly

Af u r the rd i ff icu l ty a s soc ia ted w i th P e t r ie 's t y po log ie s i st h a t t h e t wo c orpo ra p a r t ly o ve r lap . E xcava t ions h ave s hown , q u i te c l ea r ly , t h a t t h e re i sn o a brup t b reak i n t h e p o t te ry a ssemb lage c orrespond ing t o t he e nd o f t he P redynas t ic /beg inn ing o f t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod . T he c on t inu i ty b e twe en t h ep o t te ry o ft h el a te P redyna s t ic a nd t h a t o ft h e E a r ly D yna s t ic , t h e f a c tt h a t " many t y pe s l e ad o n f r om o ne a ge t ot h eo t he r" , w a s a cknow ledged b yP e t r ie ( 1901 : 1 7 ) w hen h e f i r s t i d en t if ied t h e c l a ss o fL -wa re . H is p ub l ica t ion o f as epa ra te , P ro todyna s t ic c orpus f o r t r ans i t iona l ( l a te P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly Dyna s t ic ) a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic p o t te ry c r ea ted a n a r t if i c ia l s epa ra t ion b e tween P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly D yna s t ic p o t te ry . Many o f t h e t ype s i n t h e P ro todynas t ic c orpus a r e s imp ly r e -c las s if ied t ypes f r om t h e e a r l ie r P r eh is tor ic c orpus . P e t r ie d i d p ub l ish ac ha r t s how ing s ome o ft h e c or re spondence s b e tween t h e t wo s y s tems . H oweve r , t h e e x is tence o f t wo s epa ra te t ypo log ie s , a nd o f d i f f e ren t c l a ss if ica t ion n umbe r s f o rm any o ft h ep o t te ry t ype s f r om t h e P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly Dyna s t ic t r ans i t ion , h a s d one n o th ing t o a s s is tt h e a na ly s is o fm a te r ia l f r om t h is i mpo r tan tp e r iod .

P e tr ie 's c orpora a nd t he ir l im i ta t ion s T he f i rs t , a nd s t i l l t he mos t i nf luen t ia l , t ypo logy o f P redyna s t ic p o t te ry w as P e t r ie 's ( 1921) d iv is ion o f t h e m a te r ia l i n to ' wa re s ' , p ub l ished a sh i sP r eh i s tor ic c orpus . A s m any c ommen ta tor s h ave p o in ted o u t ( e .g . P ee t 1 914 : 1 0 1 ) , P e t r ie 's c l a ss if ica t ion ,b a sed u pon c omp le te v e s se ls f r om many d i f fe ren t c eme te r ie s a nd d e s igned p r ima r i ly f o r d e sc r ip t ive p u rpo ses ,d iv ide st h em a te r ia l a cco rd ing t os eve ra l v e ry d i f fe ren t c r i te r ia . One c l a ss o f p o t te ry w a s d ef ined a cco rd ing t of a b r ic ( `Rough ' o rR -wa re ) . O the r sw e re d ef ined b ys u rf a ce t r ea tmen t( ` B lack topped r e d ' o rB -wa re , ' Po l ished r e d ' o rP -wa re , ' B lack i n c ised ' o rN -wa re ) .P a in ted d eco ra t ion w a s t h ed ef in ing c ha rac te r is t ic o ft wo c l a s se s ( 'Wh i te c r os s l i ned ' o r C -wa re a nd ' Deco ra ted ' o r D -wa re ) , ap a r t icu la r mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te o f a no the r (Wavy -hand led ' o r Ww a re ) , a nd g ene ra l s hape o f a no the r (' Fancy f o rms ' o r F w a re ) . ' La te ' o r L -wa re w a s d ef ined b y i t s r e la t ive c h rono log ica l p os i t ion i n c eme te r ie s , r a the r t h an b y a ny i n t r ins ic a t t r ibu te . P e t r ie 's c l a s s i f ica t ion t h e ref o re l a ck s t h e c ohe s ion a nd i n teg r i ty o f t y po log ie s b ased u pon a s i ng le p r ima ry c r i te r ion . A pp roach ing P e t r ie 's t ypo logy f r om t h e p os i t ion o f a mode rn c e ram ic is t , f am i l ia r w i th E gyp t ian P redyna s t ic p o t te ry , i ti s c l ea r t h a t many o f t h e f o rms a s s igned b y P e t r ie t o h is c l a ss o f L -wa re b e long mo re a pp rop r ia te ly i nt h ec l a s s o fR -wa re , s i nce t h ey a r e a l so m ade f r om c oa rse f a b r ic w i th l i t t le s u rf ace f i n ish ing . W i th in e a ch m a jo rc l a s s , t h e mo re d e ta i led d ef in i t ion o ft ype s a l so l a cked m e thodo log ica l u n ifo rm i ty ( c f .P e t r ie 1 921 : 5 ) . S eve ra l t y pe s w e re i d en t if ied o n t h e b as is o f as i ng le e xcava ted v e s se l . O f t h e 1 718 d i f f e ren t t y pe s i nt h e P redyna s t ic c orpu s , o ve r4 0% o ccu r red o n ly o nce a mongs tt h em a s s o fP redyna s t ic ma te r ia l a va i lab le t o P e t r ie ( i nforma t ion c ou r te sy o f a n a nonymous r ev iewe r ) . B y c on t ras t , o the r t ype s w e re r a the r b road , c omp r is ing as i gn if ican t a moun t o fv a r ia t ion . O ne e xamp le , f r om t h el a te rP ro todynas t ic c orpus i st y pe 4 6d , ac a tego ry o f c y l inde r v e s se ls ; T he p ub l ished p o t te ry c ha r t s t h emse lve s

E qua l ly p rob lema t ic f o r m ode rn a na lyse s o f m a te r ia l e xcava ted e a r l ie r t h is c en tu ry i st h e w ay i n w h ich P e t r ie 's c o rpo ra -a nd ,i np a r t icu la r ,h i sP r eh i s tor ic c orpus -w e re u sed b y s ubsequen t e xcava to rs . G iven t he me thodo log ica l i n cons is tenc ies i nhe ren t i n P e t r ie 's c l a ss if ica t ion , i ti s , p e rhaps , h a rd ly s u rp r is ing t h a t l a te r a r chaeo log is t s u sed i t w i th v a ry ing d eg ree s o fr i gou r . F o r e xamp le , t h e r e la t ive ly f ew t ype s a t te s ted f r om t h e e x tens ive P redyna s t ic c eme te r ie s a te l -Am ra p robab ly s ay s m o re a bou tt h e me thodo logy o ft h e e xcava to r s t h an a bou tt h eb r ead th o ft h eP redyna s t ic c e ram ic a s semb lage r e p re sen ted a tt h es i te . R anda l l - Mac Ive ra nd Ma ce s e em t oh ave t r ea ted P e t r ie 's t y pe s a sr a the rb road c a tego r ie s . T h is f a c t , c omb ined w i th t h e v e ry c l a s s if ica t ion o f t h e e l Am ra p o t te ry b y r e fe rence t o P e t r ie 's P reh i s tor ic c orpu s , p robab ly m a sk s t h e t r ue v a r ie ty o fp o t te ry f r om t h e s i te . T he s ame m ay b e t r ue , t h ough p e rhaps t o al e sse r e x ten t , o ft h e p o t te ry f r om t h e P redyna s t ic c eme te ry a t Maha sna -o ne o f

2 1

r ema ins . I ti sd esc r ibed a s " t axonom ic a nd d es igned t o f a c i l i ta te t h es y s tema t ic s o r t ing a nd a na ly s is o fl a rge n umbe r s o f s he rds i nt h e f i e ld" . T hese f undamen ta l d i f f e rence s i n b a ckg round n e ce s sa r i ly p roduce at y po logy v e ry d i f f e ren tf r om P e t r ie 's . A r ev ised v e r s ion o f H of fman 's t ypo logy h a s r ecen t ly b een p resen ted ( F r iedman 1 990 : 1 8 ) . A no the r t ypo logy o fP redyna s t ic -Ea r ly Dyna s t ic E gyp t ian p o t te ry i s t ha t u sed b y K roepe r & Wi ldung ( 1985 : 3 7 -73 ) i n t h e ir p re l im ina ry p ub l ica t ion o f t he c eme te ry a t M insha t A bu Oma r i nt h e n o r th -ea s te rn D e l ta . T he a u tho r s d e sc r ibe t h e i r t ypo logy a s " a p rov is iona l , s imp l if ied w a re a nd t ype c l a ss if ica t ion b ased u pon f abr ic , me thod o f manuf ac tu re , s u rf ace t r ea tmen t , s i ze a nd f o rm" . T h is t y po logy , l i ke t h a t o f Hof fman , i s b a sed u pon ma te r ia l f r om a s i ng le s i te , a c eme te ry i n t h e c ase o f M insha t Abu Oma r ( hence t h e t y po logy i sb a sed l a rge ly u pon c omp le te v es se ls ) . I ta ppea r s t ob e af l ex ib le a nd p rac t icab le t ypo logy , a l though i t s u se f o r c h rono logy i su nce r ta in : f o r d a t ing p u rposes , t h e M insha t e xcava t ion r e po r t s t i l l r e l ie s u pon c ompa r ison o ft h ep o t te ry w i th K a ise r 's s ys tem o fS tuf en ( K roepe r &W i ldung 1 985 : 9 2 -6 ) , i t se lf d e r ived f r om P e t r ie 's w a re c l a s s if ica t ion . F o rt h e r e co rd ing a nd s t a t is t ica l a na lys is o f P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic p o t te ry a tB u to , K öh le r ( pe r sona l c o mmun ica t ion ) h a sd ev ised an ume r ica lt ypo logy w h ich a s s ign st oe ach s he rd o r v e sse l a5 f igu re c ode , i nco rpo ra t ing i n fo rma t ion o n f i nenes s , f a b r ic , s u rface t r ea tmen t a nd t empe r . A l though d ev ised p r inc ipa l ly f o ru se w i th s he rd s , K öh le r 's s y s tem h a s a l so b een s ucce ssfu l ly a pp l ied t oc omp le te v e s se ls , n o tab ly a t A bydos . H end r ickx 's ( 1994 ) p ub l ica t ion o f t h e N aqada I I c eme te ry a tE lkab u ses y e t a no the r , s i te -spec if ic p o t te ry t y po logy .L ike t h eo ne d eve loped f o rM insha tA bu Oma r , t h e E lkab t y po logy i sb a sed u pon b o th f a b r ic a nd m o rpho logy .

t h e c eme te r ie s a na lysed i n t h e p re sen t s t udy . I n c omp le te c on t ra s t , t he l a rge n umbe r o f n ew t ypes a nd s ub types i den t if ied b y B run ton i n t h e P redynas t ic ma te r ia l f r om Ma tma r a nd Mos tagedda s ugge s t s t h a th i sa na ly s is o fp o t te ry w a s much mo re d e ta i led t han P e t r ie 's . H e s eem s t o h ave r e cogn i sed n ew t y pe s much m o re r e ad i ly ( Hend r ickx 1 993 : 8 ) . A s i ng le t ype f r om P e t r ie 's P redynas t ic c o rpus may , t h e re fo re , i n co rpo ra te s eve ra l s ub t ly d i f f e ren t f o rms -wh ich B run ton w ou ld h ave i d en t if ied a nd c l a s s if ied s epa ra te ly . I n s umma ry , P e t r ie 's c o rpo ra -a l though t h ey r ep re sen t t h e f i r s tc l a s s if ica t ion o fP redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic p o t te ry , a nd h ence a n i mpor tan t c on t r ibu t ion t o t h e s t udy o f e a r ly E gyp t -a r e b e se t w i th p rob lem s . T he se p rob lems mus t b e o ve rcome -o r , a tl e a s t ,r e cogn ised -i ft h ew ea l th o fd a ta f r om e a r l ie re xcava t ions i st ob ee xp lo i ted f o rm ode rn a na ly s is . T he me thodo logy wh ich u nde r l ies t h e p resen t s t udy w i l l b e d i scu s sed s ho r t ly . F i r s t , i tw i l l b e u sefu l b r ief ly t oo u t l ine t he v a r ied a pproache s o f o the r a u tho r s t o t h e p rob lem o f c l a s s if y ing P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic p o t te ry . O ther t ypo log ies Dyna st ic p ot tery

o f

P redynast ic

a nd

Ear ly

C lose e xam ina t ion o f t h e p o t te ry f r om t h e P redyna s t ic s e t t lemen t a nd f r om C eme te r ies U a nd E a t A bydos h igh l igh ted t h ed ef ic ienc ie s o fP e t r ie 's t ypo logy a nd l e d P ee t ( 1914 : 1 0 -13 ) t op ropose an ew c l a s s if ica t ion o fP redyna s t ic p o t te ry , b a sed p r ima r i ly u pon f a b r ic . N eve r the less , m any o f F ee t 's n ew c l a sse s c o r re sponded mo re o r l e s s p rec ise ly t o P e t r ie 's d iv is ions . F ee t 's t y po logy n eve r g a ined w ide r a ccep tance ; n eve r the le s s , i t sp r inc ip le s , a nd F ee t 's c r i t ic ism s o f P e t r ie 's s ys tem , f ound e xp ress ion i n F ede rn 's l a te r r ev is ions . T he se w e re m ade t of a c i l i ta te t h e d e sc r ip t ion a nd c a ta logu ing o f f i nds i n t h e B rook lyn Museum f r om D e Morgan 's e xcava t ions i n s ou the rn Uppe r E gyp t . F ede rn " dev ised a r ev is ion o f P e t r ie 's P redynas t ic p o t te ry c l a s s if ica t ion , w i th t h e i n ten t ion o fe l im ina t ing u naccep tab le a noma l ie sa nd c on t rad ic t ions a nd a tt h e s ame t ime p re se rv ing a s much a s p os s ib le o f P e t r ie 's f am i l ia r C o rpus" ( Need le r 1 981 : 7 0 ) . I n t h e i r r epo r t o n t h e e xcava t ions o ft h e A rman t c eme te r ie s , Mond & Mye r s ( 1937a : 4 9 -53 ) p roposed an ew c l a ss if ica t ion o f P redyna s t ic p o t te ry , b a sed p r ima r i ly u pon wa re , w i th d eco ra t ion , f i n ish a nd s hape a s t h e s e conda ry , t e r t ia ry a nd f i na l t ypo log ica l c r i te r ia . T he Mond & Mye r s p ropo sa ls w e re n eve ra dop ted .I ndeed ,t h eA rman te xcava t ion r epo r t i t se lf u sed P e t r ie 's c o rpus n umbe r s , f o r t h e s ake o f c onven ience ( Mond & Mye r s 1 937a :4 9 ) .

D if feren t p urposes ,

O the r e xcava to rs h ave d i spensed w i th P e t r ie 's s ys tem a l toge the ra nd d eve loped t h e i ro wn t y po log ies f o rP redyna s t ic a nd /o r E a r ly D yna s t ic p o t te ry , u sua l ly b a sed u pon ma te r ia l f r om a s i ng le s i te . T hus , J unke r ( 1912 : 3 0 -44 ) d ev ised h i s o wn t y po logy f o r t h e E a r ly D yna s t ic c eme te ry a tT u ra . L ike P e t r ie 's P ro todyna s t ic C o rpus , i tw a s b a sed s o le ly u pon v esse l morpho logy . T he p o t te ry f r om t h e E a r ly D yna s t ic n ec ropo l is a t Nor th S aqqa ra f o rmed t h e b as is o f an ew t ypo logy o f E a r ly Dyna s t ic p o t te ry , d eve loped b y Eme ry ( 1949 , 1 954 , 1 958 ) . T he c l a ss if ica t ion w a s , l i ke J unke r 's T u ra t y po logy ,b ased u pon t h es hape a t t r ibu te s o ft h ep o t te ry . Eme ry 's t ypo logy h a s b een e n la rged b y ma te r ia l f r om s ubsequen t e xcava t ions , p a r t icu la r ly t h e w o rk o f K la sens ( 1957 , 1 958 , 1 959a , 1 959b , 1 960 ) a t A bu R awash . A t ypo logy o f P redynas t ic p o t te ry w a s d ev ised b y H of fman ( 1982 : 6 7 -8 ) f o r t he m a te r ia l f r om h i s e xcava t ions a t H ie rakonpo l is . I ti sb a sed u pon m a te r ia l , l a rge ly s he rd s , f r om as i ng le s i te w h ich i n c lude s b o th s e t t lemen t a nd c eme te ry

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d if feren t t ypo log ies

I ti sc l ea r f r om t he a bove d i scus s ion t h a t t h e t y po log ie s o f P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic p o t te ry d eve loped s i nce P e t r ie v a ry g rea t ly . A s A dams a nd A dams ( 1991 : 1 4 ) s t re s s i nt h e i n t roduc t ion t o t he ir b ook , at ypo logy i s e s sen t ia l ly a n i n s t rumen t c ons truc ted f o r as pe c if ic p u rpose ( o r p u rpose s ) , a nd t h e n a tu re o f t h a t p u rpose w i l l a f f ec t , t o ac ons ide rab le d eg ree , t h e n a tu re o f t he t ypo logy d e s igned t o mee t i t . A s ys tem d e s igned f o r t h e c l a s s if ica t ion o fs he rd s m ay b e v e ry d i f f e ren t f r om o ne b a sed u pon c omp le te v e s se ls . I ns ho r t , t h e n a tu re a nd a moun t o fi n fo rma t ion a va i lab le t ot h e t ypo log is t w i l l d i c ta te t h e p a rame te r s u pon wh ich t h e t y po logy i sb a sed ( c f . B ou r r iau 1 985 : 2 7 ) . T h is i s ac ruc ia l ly i mpo r tan t p o in t . T he c l a ss if ica t ion u sed i nt h ep resen ts t udy h a sb een d e s igned e xp re ss ly a nd s o le ly t op rov ide ab a s is f o rt h es e r ia t ion o ft h e c hosen c eme te r ies . I td oe s n o t a t temp t t o r ep lace P e t r ie 's s y s tem w i th o ne b e t te r s u i ted t o t he d emands o f mode rn p o t te ry s t ud ie s . N o r c an i tt a ke i n to a ccoun t t h e d e ta i led c e ram ic i n f o rma t ion w h ich n ew t e chn ique so fo bse rva t ion a nd r e co rd ing m ake a va i lab le t o mode rn c e ram ic i s t s .I ti si n tended s imp ly t o s o r t t h e r aw d a ta -e xp ressed i nt e rms o fP e t r ie 's c o rpo ra -i n to af o rm i n wh ich i tc an b ea na ly sed b yc ompu te r s e r ia t ion . T h is r equ iremen t n a tu ra l ly i mposes i t s o wn d emands , a nd t h e se mu s t b e e xp la ined b e fo re t h e p re sen t t y po log ica l s y s tem c an b ep rope r ly u nde r s tood .

T ypo logy a nd t he d e mands o f s er ia t ion A sR enf rew a nd B ahn ( 1991 : 1 04 )h ave s t a ted ,u nde r ly ing t h e n o t ion o f r e la t ive d a t ing t h rough t ypo logy a r e t wo i d ea s : " The f i r s ti st h a tt h ep roduc t so f ag iven p e r iod a nd p l ace h ave ar e cogn izab le s t y le : t h rough t he ir d i s t inc t ive s hape a nd

d e co ra t ion t h ey a r ei ns ome s ense c ha ra c te r is t ic o ft h es oc ie ty t h a t p roduced t h em . T he s econd i d ea i st ha t t h e c hange i n s t y le ( s hape a nd d eco ra t ion ) o fa r t if a c t si so f ten q u i te g radua l , o r e vo lu t iona ry" . T he c h rono log ica l s i gn if icance o f s hape a t t r ibu tes i st h e p r ima ry f ounda t ion u pon wh ich s e r ia t ion i n c lud ing P e t r ie 's S equence -Da t ing S ys tem -i sb a sed . A s K emp ( 1975 : 2 67 ) h a s n o ted , " i t i so n ly b y . .h av ing f a i th i nt h e a s sump t ion t ha t mos t o ft h e i t em s wh ich s u rv ive i na g rave a r e r e p re sen ta t ive o f o ne p o in t i nt ime , t h a t o ne c an p roce ed w i th s eda t ion" . We h ave a l ready s een t ha t al a rge p ropor t ion o f P e t r ie 's P redynas t ic t y pe s a re u n ique , o ccu r r ing o n ly o nce . Many o t he r s a r ec ompa ra t ive ly r a re . T he s ame i st r ue f o r t h e t y pe s o fh i sP ro tod ynas t ic c orpus , i nw h ich as im i la rp e r cen tage o f t y pe s ( 40% ) o ccu r red o n ly o nce ( i nfo rma t ion c ou r te sy o fa n a nonymous r e v iewe r ) . T h is f a c t m ake s s e r ia t ion o f' r aw d a ta ' f r om e a r ly e xcava t ions we l l -n igh i mposs ib le . I n o rde r f o r l i nkages t ob em ade b e tween a r chaeo log ica lc on tex t s -g rave s i nt h e p re sen t s e r ia t ions -e ach p o t te ry t ype mu s t o ccu r a t l e a s t t w ice w i th in ag iven c eme te ry . A ny t y pe wh ich o ccu r s j u s t o nce w i l l n o t s e rve t ol i nk i t s c on tex t w i th a no the r , a nd s o w i l l b e a u toma t ica l ly d i sca rded b y t h e s e r ia t ion p roce s s . Mos ta t temp t st os eda te ' r aw d a ta ' -w he re e a ch P e t r ie t ype i s c ons ide red a s as epa ra te t ype f o r s e r ia t ion -w i l l f ounde r o n t h i s v e ry p o in t , a sE l l i s 's i nve s t iga t ion o ft h eT a rkhan V a l ley C eme te ry d emons t ra ted : " i td oe s n o ts eem p os s ib le t os eda te P e t r ie 's " r aw" m a te r ia l w i thou tc ons tr uc t ing an ew t y po logy" ( Hend r ickx 1 993 : 9n . 1 3 , q uo t ing E l l is ) . T h is l e ave s t wo p os s ib le a pp roaches i fs e r ia t ion i st o s ucceed : " g roup ing t y pe s o ru s ing o n ly al im i ted n umbe r o ff r equen t ly o ccu r r ing t y pe s" ( Hend r ickx 1 993 : 8 ) . L im i t ing t h e n umbe r o ft y pe s t o t h ose wh ich o ccu r f r equen t ly h a s t h e b enef i t o f u s ing t h e o r ig ina l d a ta i na n u na l te red s t a te , b u t w i l l c l ea r ly p roduce a much l e ss s ens i t ive r e su l t . T he re i s t h e d ange r t ha t a l l c h rono log ica l s t ruc tu re w i l l b e l o s t f r om t h e s e r ia t ion , r e nde r ing t h ep roces s p o in t le s s . T he o n ly f e as ib le s o lu t ion i s t h e refo re t h e g roup ing o ft ype s , t op roduce c a tego r ie s w h ich o ccu r f r equen t ly e nough t o p lay a p a r t i n t h e s e r ia t ion ( Se id lmaye r 1 990 : 8 -9 ) . T he re i sn o d oub t t ha t g roup ing c a r r ies i t s o wn d ange rs ( Hend r ickx 1 993 : 8 ) . T he i n cons is tency w i th w h ich P e t r ie 's t ypes w e re o r ig ina l ly i d en t if ied , a nd w i th w h ich t h ey w e re u sed b yl a te re xcava to r s , h a s b een d e sc r ibed e a r l ie r . G roup ing t h e se t y pe sr un st h er i sk o f mu l t ip ly ing t he i n cons is tenc ies . C onve r se ly , g roup ing m ay ma sk v a r ia t ions w i th in as i ng le t y pe -a l ready ap rob lem w i th s ome o fP e t r ie 's t ypes -a nd s uch v a r ia t ions m ay t u rn o u t t o b e c h rono log ica l ly s i gn if ican t . None the le s s , i ft h e e x tens ive d a ta f r om e a r ly e xcava t ions a r e t ob eu sed -a nd i t w ou ld s e em ag rea t w a s te t oi gno re s uch av a luab le r e sou rce f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e p roce ss o fs t a te f o rma t ion i nE gyp t s ome g roup ing o ft y pe s i si n e scapab le . T h is w a s r e cogn ised b y K a ise r ( 1 957 ) i nh i ss t udy o fA rman t a nd h a s a l so p roved i nd ispensab le i n H end r ickx 's ( 1989 , 1 993 ) d i s t r ibu t ion s t ud ie s . H end r ickx 's ( 1993 : 8 -9 ) g loomy a ssessmen t o f t he p ra c t ica l i ty o fc ompu te r s e r ia t ion i sn o t s ha red h e re . S ince g roup ing o ft y pe s i sn ece ssa ry e ven f o r d i s t r ibu t ion s t ud ie s , t h e re w ou ld s e em t ob e l i t t le f o rce i nt h e a rgumen t t h a t s uch g roup ing i si n defens ib le w hen c a r r ied o u t f o r t h ep u rpose o f s e r ia t ion . Mo reove r , d i s t r ibu t ion s t ud ie s a r e t h emse lves p red ica ted u pon t h e s e r ia t ion p r inc ip le , w i th t h e a dded w eakne s s t h a tt h e m e thod d epends " t o ac ons ide rab le e x ten t o n t h e p e r sona l i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e r e sea rche r" ( Hend r ickx 1 993 : 9 ) . A s c once rns d eve lop ing a n ew t ypo logy f o r s e r ia t ion , i ti st r ue t h a t " t he o r ig ina l o b jec t s a r e n o l onge r

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a va i lab le , n e i the r a r e t h ey p ub l ished i n a manne r a l low ing r e newed t y po log ica l w o rk" ( Hend r ickx 1 993 : 9 ) . H oweve r , a s h a s a l ready b een m ade c l ea r , t h e p u rpose o f t h e p resen t t y po logy i sn o t t os eek t or ep lace P e t r ie 's c l as s if ica t ion w i th a mo re c ons is ten t , a ccu ra te a nd u p to -da te o ne . T he o n ly r e qu i remen ti st og roup P e t r ie 's t ype si n amanne rw h ich w i l l a low s eda t ion t op roceed .

The t ypo log ica l p resen t s tudy

g roup ings

u sed

i n

t he

A dams a nd A dam s ( 1991 : 8 ) o bse rve t h a t " typo log ies a r e t oo ls made f o r ap u rpose , a nd a sl o ng a st h ey c an b e s hown t o w o rk f o r t ha t p u rpose t h ey r equ i re n o mo re a bs t rac t j u s t if ica t ion t h an d oe s ac rowba r" H ence , t h e r e su l t s o f t h e s e r ia t ions , i ft h ey c an b e s hown t oh ave s i gn if icance , s hou ld j u s t ify t h et y po log ica l g roup ing emp loyed . I tf o l low s f r om t h e s t a temen t o f A dam s a nd A dams t ha t a c l ea rp u rpose i se s sen t ia l f o r a ny t y po logy , s i nce , a sw e h ave s een , t he p u rpose w i l l a f fec t t he v e ry n a tu re o f t he c l as s if ica t ion . T he t ypo logy u sed i n t h e p resen t s t udy c omp r ise sp o t te ry f r om t h eE a r ly D yna s t ic c eme te ry a tT u ra , t h e T a rkhan H i l l C eme te r ie s , Ma tma r C eme te r ie s 2 00 , 3 000 3 100 a nd 5 100 , Mos tagedda C eme te ry 1 600 -1800 , t he P redyna s t ic c eme te ry a t Maha sna , A rman t C eme te ry 1 400 1 500 a nd t h e F o r t C eme te ry a tH ie rakonpo l is . ( The r ea sons f o rc hoos ing t h ese c eme te r ie s f o rs e r ia t ion a r eg iven i n al a te r s e c t ion . ) T he p u rpose o f t h e t y po logy i st op rov ide ab a s is f o r t h e s e r ia t ion o f t he i nd iv idua l c eme te r ies a nd f o r c ompar isons b e tween t h em . At ypo logy c ove r ing t h e p o t te ry o fa l t h e c eme te r ie s i sn ece ssa ry t oa l low d i rec tc ompa r ison . O nce a ga in , t oa vo id m isunde r s tand ing , i t may b e u sefu l t o e xp re s s wha t w a s n o t t h e p u rpose o ft h e p resen t t y po logy . I t i sn o t at y po logy d eve loped f o r t h e a na ly s is a nd p ub l ica t ion o fP redyna s t ic a nd /o r E a r ly Dyna s t ic m a te r ia l f r om s pec if ic s i te s . A s ar e su l t , t h e g roup ings d o n o t a lways f o l low wha t a c e ram ic is t m igh t c ons ide r s t r ic t p r inc ip les . F o r e xamp le , s eve ra l o ft h e g roup s o fb ow l s -s uch a s P 00 1 , P 004 , P 033 , P 034 , P 086 , P 097 a nd P 103 -b r ing t oge the r t ype s w i th b road s im i la r i t ies b u t s ome s i gn if ican t d i f fe rences . T he l im i ta t ions i mposed b y s uch g roup ings mus t b e a cknow ledged . N one the le ss , t h e r e su l t s o f t h e s e r ia t ions , wh i ls t , p e rhaps , n o t a s s ens i t ive a s t hose o f s ome d i s t r ibu t ion s t ud ies w h ich emp loy l e s s g roup ing o f t ypes ( e .g . K a ise r 1 957 ; H end r ickx 1 989 , 1 993) , v ind ica te t he g roup ings u sed i n t h e p re sen t s t udy . T he s e r ia t ions s how c ons is tency b e tween s i te s , c ompa re f a vou rab ly w i th t he h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy , a nd c o r respond c l ose ly t ot h e r e su l t s o fK emp 's ( 1982 ) a na lys i s -wh ich , a l though u s ing as im i la r m e t hodo logy ,e mp loyed d i f f e ren tg roup ings o fp o t te ry . B efo re p roceed ing t o ad e sc r ip t ion o ft h et y po log ica l p roces s , a nd o ft h e t y pe s c r ea ted , t h e u se o fc e r ta in t e rms s hou ld b e e xp la ined . T he w o rd t ype w i l l b e r e ta ined t o d es igna te a s i ng le p o t te ry f o rm a s p ub l ished i nP e t r ie 's P reh is tor ic o r P ro todynas t ic C orpus a nd c e r ta in o the r p ub l ica t ions . E xamp les o f s uch t ypes wou ld i n c lude R 86F , at ype o f P e t r ie 's R -wa re ; P 40c3 , at y pe o fP e t r ie 's P -wa re o ccu r r ing a t Ma tma r a nd Mos tagedda ; a nd 1 2v , at ype i n P e t r ie 's P ro todyna s t ic c orpus . I nc on t ra s tt h ew o rd g roup w i l lh e re b e u sed t od e s igna te as o r t ing c a tego ry , c omp r is ing an umbe r o f i n d iv idua l v e s se lt y pes . T he b a s ic p rocedu re a dop ted w a s t og roup t oge the r P e t r ie 's t y pe s i n to b roade r c a tego r ies f o r s e r ia t ion . I nt h e a bsence o f

d i s t inc t s i ze s -a s w i th t h e ' bo t t le -shaped j a r s ' , t y pe s P 129 a nd P 130 -o ri n ar ange o fs i ze s , whe re t h ee nd s o ft h er ange d i f f e red c ons ide rab ly o ne f r om t h e o the r , f o r e xamp le t h e ' b eake r s ' o fB -wa re . H oweve r , i nc a se sw he re t h ec r i te r ion o f s i ze w ou ld h ave s epa ra ted as i ng le t ype f r om o t he r s o f t h e s ame s hape , s i ze w a s i gno red a s as o r t ing c r i te r ion . I tw a s t h ough tp re f e rab le t oi n c lude a n ' o u t s ize ' t y pe w i th in ag roup t h an t o e xc lude t ha t p a r t icu la r t ype f r om t he t ypo logy a l toge the r . I ns ho r t , p rac t ica l , p ragma t ic c ons ide ra t ions w e re a lway s f o remos t i n t he t ypo log ica l p roces s . T he i n ten t ion w a s t o i nc lude w i th in t he t ypo logy a s many o f t h e v es se l t y pe s a sp os s ib le . T he n umbe ro ft y pe se xc luded b e cau se t h ey c ou ld n o tb eg rouped w a s k ep t t o am in imum . T hose p o t te ry t y pes wh ich d i d n o t r ead i ly f i t a ny g roup , a nd w h ich w e re c o r re spond ing ly e xc luded f o rm t h e t y po logy , a r e l i s ted a s ' u ng rouped t ypes ' . I n a dd i t ion , s eve ra l p o t te ry t ypes , a l though c l ea r ly l i s ted i ng rave r eg is te r s , a r e n o t i lu s t ra ted . T he se t ype s c ou ld n o t b e i n c luded i nt h e t ypo logy , a nd a r e l i kew ise l i s ted a s ' u ng rouped t ypes ' .

t h e o r ig ina l m a te r ia l , o ro fd e ta i led i n fo rma t ion w h ich m igh t a l low f u r the r t y po log ica l wo rk , t he s t a r t ing -po in t h ad t ob e P e t r ie 's o r ig ina l c l as s if ica t ion s ys tem . H is d iv is ion o f P redyna s t ic p o t te ry i n to ' wa re s ' , w i th a l l i t s i n cons is tenc ie s , h ad t or ema in a st h e b a s is f o r t h e g roup ing o ft y pes . T hu s , s eve ra l o ft h et y pes g rouped w i th L -wa re -t o wh ich t h ey w e re o r ig ina l ly a s s igned b y P e t r ie -b e long mo re a pp rop r ia te ly t o R -wa re ( f o re x amp le , t y pe s3 d 1 , 8 dfg j l , 1 3a -d ) .W i thou tf i r s t h and e xam ina t ion o ft h e o r ig ina l v es se ls , mos t o fw h ich d o n o t s u rv ive , s uch r e f inemen ts t o P e t r ie 's s ys tem a re i mposs ib le . A n e xcep t ion t oP e t r ie 's c l a s s if ica t ion w a s made i nt h e t r ea tmen t o fE a r ly Dyna s t ic p o t te ry . S ince t h e p re sen t t ypo logy c omp r ise s b o th P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic ma te r ia l , P e t r ie 's r a the ra r t if ic ia l d iv is ion o ft h e p o t te ry i n to t wo s epa ra te c o rpo ra h a s b een d i sca rded . Mos t o ft h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p o t te ry h a sb een c ons ide red i nc on junc t ion w i th t h e P redyna s t ic L -wa re , s i nce many o ft h et y pe s a r e c o mmon t o b o th c orpo ra . A f ew t ype s o f ' P ro todyna s t ic ' p o t te ry a r e d eco ra ted , a nd s e em t or ep re sen t t h e l a s t s t age s o fD -wa re . T he se t y pe s w e re , t h e re f o re , a s s igned t ot h ec l a s s o fD -wa re a nd g rouped t o ge the rw i th t h eo t he rt ype si nt h is c l a s s .

T he s t y le o fd eco ra t ion w a s a l so c ons ide red w hen g roup ing d e co ra ted p o t te ry . T he s t y le o fd eco ra t ion may b e d e sc r ibed e i the r a s ' a b s t rac t ' , w h ich h e re i su sed t o mean d eco ra t ion c ons is t ing o f g eome t r ic o r o the r p a t te rns , o r a s ' r ep resen ta t iona l ' , t h a t i s d ecora t ion c ons is t ing o f s h ips , b i rds , a n ima l s , h uman f i gu re s a nd o the r i d en t if iab le mo t if s . Much o ft h e ' a bs t rac t ' d eco ra t ion w a s o fc ou r se d e s igned t o i m i ta te c e r ta in f e a tu res ; f o r e xamp le , mo t t led o r s p ira l d eco ra t ion i st hough t t o b e i n i m i ta t ion o f s t one v esse ls , w h i le w avy l i nes m ay w e l l r ep re sen t , o r may a tl e a s t b e i n sp i red b y , ac onnec t ion w i th wa te r . N eve r the le s s , i ti sn o t t r u ly f i gu ra t ive i n t he w ay t ha t t h e ' r ep resen ta t iona l ' d eco ra t ion i s . T he d i f f e rence b e tween t h e t wo m a in s o r t s o f d eco ra t ion m ay s imp ly h ave b een o ne o f s ymbo l ism , o r i t m ay r ep resen t t h e o u tpu t o f more t h an o ne c on tempo ra ry w o rk shop . H oweve r , i ti sa l so p o ss ib le t ha t t h e d i f fe ren t s t y les o f d eco ra t ion h ave ac h rono log ica l s i gn if icance : " By a nd l a rge , w i th p o t te ry , s u r face d eco ra t ion c hange s mo re r a p id ly t h an s hape a nd i st h e refo re t h e m o s t c h rono log ica l ly s e ns i t ive a t t r ibu te t ou se f o r at y po log ica l s e quence" ( Renf rew &B ahn 1 991 : 1 06 ) . F o r t h is r e a son , t h e s t y le o fd eco ra t ion , a sw e l l a s t h e s hape a nd s i ze o f t h e v e sse l , w a s t a ken i n to a c coun tw hen g roup ing d eco ra ted v e s se l s .

S ort ing c r i ter ia I ts hou ld b e p o in ted o u t t ha t , a s t he p resen t t y po logy i s d e s igned f o r s e r ia t ion p u rpose s , t h e b road c l a sses o f t h e p o t te ry a r e l e s s i mpo r tan t t han t he i nd iv idua l g roups . T he g roup s i na ny s y s tem " mus tb e f o rmu la ted o n t h eb a s is o ft h e s ame s e t o fc r i te r ia ( v a r iab le s ) , t oe l im ina te a ny p os s ib i l i ty o f o ve r lapp ing d ef in i t ions" ( Adam s & A dams 1 991 : 7 8 ) . T he c r i te r ia u sed f o r t he p resen t t ypo logy a re p r i ma r i ly mo rpho log ica l s i nce a cqua in tance w i th much o ft h e p o t te ry h a s b een r e s t r ic ted t o t h e i lus t ra t ions i n t h e e xcava t ion r epo r t s , p ub l ished i n t h e f i r s t h a lf o f t h is c en tu ry . F o r t h e mos tp a r t ,t h ep o t te ry i sp ub l ished a sl i ne -d raw ings , a t as ca le o f 1 : 6 . S ome o ft h ep o t te ry f r om T u ra a nd Maha sna i ss hown i np ho tog raph s ,b u tt h e se a r eo fr a the rp oo rq ua l i ty a nd d o n o t a dd much t ot h el i ne -d raw ing s . T he s o r t ing o fw avy -hand led j a r s a nd c y l inde r v e s se ls i n to j u s t n ine g roups m igh t a ppea r t o i mpa i r t h e p o ten t ia l o f t he s e r ia t ions f o r h igh l igh t ing c h rono log ica l g r oups o fg rave s . W-wa re a nd c y l inde r v e s se ls a r ew ide ly r e ga rded a sb e ing a ccu ra te c h rono log ica li n d ica to r s , p a r t icu la r ly d ur ing t he P redynas t ic t o E a r ly Dynas t ic t r ans i t ion . H oweve r , o nce a ga in , t he d i sappea rance o r i n acce ss ib i l i ty o ft h e o r ig ina l v e s se ls l im i t s t h e p os s ib i l i t ie s o ft ypo logy f o r t h is c l a ss o fp o t te ry . Many o fP e t r ie 's l i ne d raw ings a r e r a the r c rude , a nd i tw ou ld b e d ange rous t o i mpose f i ne d iv is ions o n t h e m a te r ia l o n t h e b a s is o f t h is i n fo rma t ion a l one . B roade r g roup ings w e re t he refo re c ons ide red p re f e rab le , e ven i ft h ey l im i t , t o ac e r ta in e x ten t , t h ec h rono log ica lp o ten t ia l o ft h es e r ia t ions .

T he s or t ing p rocedure I n s o me c ases , d i s t inc t ive v esse l s hapes w e re r ead i ly i d en t if iab le a nd p re sen ted t h emse lve s a sc onven ien t g roups . T he se i n c lude m os to ft h et y pe s o fd eco ra ted p o t te ry ,m any o f t h e t ype s o f W-wa re / cy l inde rv es se ls , t h et a l l t a pe r ing j a r s o f L -wa re , a nd m any o the r s . O the r t ype s , i nc on t ra s t , w e re n o t e a s i ly g rouped t o ge the r . T h is w as p a r t icu la r ly t h e c a se w i th c a tego r ies o fv e sse l w h ich s howed n o c l ea r b reak s i ns hape o rs i ze b u t i n s tead p resen ted ac on t inuum o f mo rpho log ica l v a r ia t ion . I n s uch c ases , d iv id ing l i ne s h ad t o b e d rawn b e tween g roup s , i no rde rt od i f f e ren t ia te b e tween t h et y pe s a t o ppos i te e nds o f t h e c on t inuum ; b u t i ti sc l ea r t ha t s uch d i v is ions a r e e n t i re ly s ub je c t ive . A dams a nd A dam s ( 1991 : 7 7 ) s t re ss t ha t " a l l t ypes mus t , f o r s o r t ing p u rpose s , h ave c l ea r ly s pec if ied b ounda r ie s ,w ha teve rt h er e a l i t ie so fn a tu re o r o fc u l tu re m ay h ave b een" A p a r t icu la r v e s se l t y pe m ay w e l l h ave b een p laced i n an e ighbou r ing g roup b y a no the r t y po log is t . H oweve r , i ti sc ons is tency o f a pp roach t h a t i s m os t i mpo r tan t , s o t ha t a l l t h e g roups a r e d ef ined b y t h e s ame p e r son a cco rd ing t ot h e s ame s e t o fc ons ide ra t ions . T he g roups i nt h e p r esen tt ypo logy a r e d ef ined " by u n ique n o rm s r a the r t h an b y a bso lu te b ounda r ies" ( Adam s &A dam s 1 991 :

T he s hape a t t r ibu tes t h a t w e re c ons ide red when g roup ing t y pe sm ay b ed i v ided i n to f i ve c a tego r ie s . 1 )T he s i ze o ft h e v e sse l , r e la t ive t oo t he r v e sse ls i n t h es ame w a re c l a ss : l a rge , med ium , s ma l l , m in ia tu re . 2 ) T he r e la t ive d imens ions o ft h e v e sse l : t a l l , s qua t , b road , s l ende r ,d eep , s ha l low . 3 )T he v e s se l p rof i le : c oncave , c onvex , ac omb ina t ion o f t h e t wo , o r s t ra igh t . A lso w he the r t h e v e s se l t a pe r s , a nd i fs o , f r om w h ich p o in t o n t h ep rof i le . 4 ) T he s hape a nd s i ze o f t he b a se : f l a t , p o in ted o r r ounded ; w ide o rn a r row . 5 )T he s hape a nd s i ze o ft h e n eck a nd r im : e l onga ted , f l a r ing ; w ide o rn a r row . O ve ra l l v e sse l s i ze w a s u sed a s as o r t ing c r i te r ion i nc a se s w he re a p a r t icu lar v e sse l s hape o ccu r red i n t wo o r mo re

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1 87 ) . T he n umbe r o ft y pe s i na ny g r oup w h ich c onf o rm t o t h en o rm i sg r ea t e rf o rs ome g roups t h an f o ro t he r s . T he t o ta l p o t te ry a s semb lage f r om t h es e ven P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly D yna s t ic c eme te r ie s w a s s o r ted i n to 1 41 g roup s , c ompr is ing 1 420 p o t te ry t y pe s -9 2% o f t h e 1 542 t y pe s r e p re sen ted .T he g r oups w e re n umbe r ed s e quen t ia l ly f r om 0 0 1 t o1 50 , e a ch n umbe rp ref ixed b yt h e l e t te r ' P ' f o rp o t te ry . A d e ta i led l i s t a nd c ha r t s o fa l t h e g r oup s a r e p re sen t ed i nt h e A ppend ix . G roup s c o r re spond t oP e t r ie 's w a re d i v is ions a s f o l low s : P 00 1 t oP 0 19 : B -w a r e P 020 t oP 036 : P -w a r e P 037 t oP 043 : F -w a r e P 044 : C -w a r e P 045 t oP 053 : W -w a re P 054 t oP 066 : D -w a r e P 067 t oP 093 : R -w a r e P 094 t oP 140 , p l u s P 150 : L -w a r ea n d ` P ro todyna s t ic ' p o t te ry .

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STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Mortuary d ata a s e cono m ic c hange

a n

i ndex

o f

s oc io -

t a k ing a ccoun t o fb o th a r ea a nd d ep th ( e .g . G r iswo ld 1 992 ) . H oweve r , t h e l im i ta t ions o f t he p ub l ished d a ta make c a lcu la t ions o f g rave v o lume i mposs ib le f o r many c eme te r ies . F u r the rmo re , f o r d a ta o n g rave d ep th t o b e r e l iab le , t h er e la t ionsh ip o ft h e a nc ien ta nd t h e mode rn g round s u r f ace mu s tb ec l ea r ly e s tab l ished . T he c omp rom i se o fg rave a r ea i st h ei n dex u sed b ys eve ra l a u tho r s( e .g . B a rd 1 988 ) , a nd i su sed i nt h e p re sen t s t udy , whe re i th a s b een c a lcu la ted i n s qua re m e t re s .

T he u se o fm or tua ry d a ta f o rc ha r t ing s oc io -econom ic c hange , mo re p a r t icu la r ly d eve lopmen t s i n s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion , i sa n e s tab l ished p r inc ip le i n a r chaeo logy ( Ta in te r 1 978 ; B a rd 1 994 : 2 9 -37 ) . L ike mos t a r chaeo log ica l p r inc ip le s , i th a s b een d eba ted a nd c r i t ic ised ( Ucko 1 969 ) , b u ti t s a pp l icab i l i ty t os t ud ie s o fa nc ien t E gyp t , e spec ia l ly P redyna s t ic E gyp t , i s n ow g ene ra l ly a ccep ted ( Ande rson 1 992 : 5 1-3 ; B a rd 1 988 , 1 994 ; S e id lmaye r 1 988 ) . A na ly se s o f mo r tua ry d a ta f r om P redyna s t ic E gyp t ian c eme te r ie sh ave f i gu red i n c rea s ing ly i n t he E gyp to log ica l l i te ra tu re i n r ecen t y ea rs , a dd ing c on t inua l ly t o o u r u nde rs tand ing o f t h e r i se o f c omp lex s oc ie ty a nd s t a te f o rma t ion i nE gyp t ( t he w o rk s c i ted a bove , p lus E l l i s 1 992 ; G r iswo ld 1 992 ) .

G rave w ea l th

T he i n te rp re ta t ion o f mo r tua ry d a ta r e s t s u pon a f ew b a s ic p r inc ip le s . T he mos t f undamen ta l o ft h e se i st h a t " t he b u r ia l s t a tu s o f ap a r t icu la r i nd iv idua l w i l l c o r re spond t ot h e s oc ia l p os i t ion o ccup ied b yt h e d ecea sed d u r ing h i s o rh e rl i f e t ime" ( Ande rson 1 992 : 6 2 . c f . T a in te r 1 975 : 1 ) . As e cond , e qua l ly i mpo r tan tp r inc ip le i sB inf o rd 's ( 1972 : 2 35 ) h ypo thes is t h a t " t he f o rm a nd s t ruc tu re wh ich c ha rac te r ize t h e mo r tua ry p rac t ice s o f a ny s oc ie ty a r e c ond i t ioned b y t h e f o rm a nd c omp lex i ty o ft h eo rgan iza t iona l c ha rac te r is t ic s o ft h e s oc ie ty i t se lf " . Work ing f r om t h is p rem ise , o the r s oc ia l a r chaeo log is t s a nd a n th ropo log is t s h ave p roposed mo re p rec ise w ays o f a na lys ing s oc ia l c ond i t ions b y means o f m o r tua ry d a ta . T hu s ,T a in te r ( 1978 : 1 24 ) l i nk se l abo ra t ion o f b u r ia lp rac t ice w i th r ank , a nd a s se r t st ha tt h ei d en t if ica t ion o f s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing -i . e . t h ec l us te r ing o fl a rge o rr i ch g rave s w i th in a c eme te ry w i l l s t rong ly i nd ica te t h e e x is tence o f i n d iv idua l " corpo ra te g roups" . B rown ( 1981 : 3 0 ) c ame t oa s im i la rc onc lu s ion , a nd f u r the rmo re s ugge s ted t h ei mpo r tance o fe l abo ra te c h i ld b u r ia ls i ni d en t ify ing s oc ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion w i th in a s oc ie ty . B rown 's ( 1981 : 2 9 ) mos t f undamen ta l p r inc ip le i st h a t " a s a u tho r i ty i n c rea se s t h e a moun t o fw ea l th a nd e f fo r te xpended o nb ur ia l w i l li nc rea se" . T he c omb ina t ion o f t h e se v a r ious p r inc ip le s p rov ides a p owe rfu l t oo l f o r i n te rp re t ing mo r tua ry d a ta , a lways b ea r ing i n m ind t h e a s sump t ions u pon wh ich t he p r inc ip le s d epend , a nd t h e l im i ta t ions o ft h ed a ta t h em se lve s . Grave s i ze I n o rde r t om ake d educ t ions a bou t s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion f r om mo r tua ry d a ta , t h e b as ic f a c to r t ha t mus t b e m ea su red i s mo r tua ry e l abo ra t ion . Mor tua ry e l abo ra t ion , o r t h e e ne rgy e xpend i tu re i n ve s ted i n ap a r t icu la rb u r ia l ,c an b em ea su red b y t wo i n d ice s : g rave s i ze a nd g rave w ea l th . G rave s i ze m ay b e r e ga rded a s ab road i nd ica to r o f s t a tus i n a smuch a s b u r ia ls s how ing g r ea te r e ne rgy e xpend i tu re -i no t he r w o rds , l a rge , t ime -consum ing c ons truc t ions -may b e a s sumed t o h ave b e longed t oh ighe r s t a tus i nd iv idua ls , w i th g rea te r a cce ss t o l a bou r a nd o t he rr e source s , t h an s ma l le rb u r ia ls s how ing l e s s e ne rgy e xpend i tu re ( c f . G r iswo ld 1 992 : 1 94 ) . G rave s i ze m ay b e e xp ressed a nd c ompa red i n s eve ra l d i f f e ren t w ays . I n A dams 's ( 1987 ) a na lys is o f t he F o r t C eme tery a t H ie rakonpo l is , s he u ses g rave l e ng th a s a n i ndex o f o ve ra l l g r ave s i ze . T h is m e thod h a s i nhe ren t d ange r s , s i nce ab road g r ave a nd an a r row g rave o ft h e s ame l e ng th , b u t c l ea r ly n o t r e p re sen t ing t h e s ame e ne rgy e xpend i tu re , w i l l b e a s s igned t h e s ame ' s ize ' . T he i dea l i ndex o f g rave s i ze i sv o lume ,

P e rhaps a m o re r e l iab le i ndex o f s oc ia l s t a tus , t h ough n o t w i thou ti t s o wn p a r t icu la r d i ff icu l t ie s , i sg rave w ea l th . G rave w ea l th r e f e r s t o t h e q uan t i ty ( a nd , s ome t imes , q ua l i ty ) o f o b jec t s ( g rave g oods ) d epos i ted i n ag rave a t t h e t ime o f b u r ia l . A s a n i n d ica t ion o ft h e s t a tus o ft h e d ecea sed , g r ave w ea l th i su se fu l , b ecause i ti sa s sumed t h a t t h e q uan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty o fg r ave g oods w i l l h ave b een d i re c t ly r e la ted t ot h e s oc ia l p os i t ion o ft h eg rave o wne r . H oweve r , d a ta b a sed u pon t h e t o ta l n umbe r o fo b jec t s i ne ach g rave w i l l b e u n re l iab le , f o r av e ry s imp le r e a son : al a rge p ropo r t ion o f E gyp t ian g rave sw e re p l unde red b ef o re e xcava t ion . T h is p lunde r ing w a s e i the r c a r r ied o u t i n a n t iqu i ty o r mo re r ecen t ly b y l o ca l v i l lage r s . S cho la r sh ave t h e re fo re s ough t a n a l te rna t ive i n dex o f g rave w ea l th w h ich , i ti sh oped , w i l l h ave b een l e ss a f f ec ted b y t h e a c t iv i t ies o fg rave r obbe rs ( c f t h e d i f f e ren t a pp roache s o fA tz le r 1 981 : 6 5 -109 ; C a s t i l los 1 982* ) . O ne s uch i ndex i st h e n umbe r o fp o t te ry v e sse ls i n ag rave . P o t s s eem , i n g ene ra l , t o h ave b een i gno red b y a nc ien t g rave r obbe rs ( a l though t h ey h ave b een r emoved b y g rave r obbe r s i n mode rn t ime s ) , b e ing o f l i t t le i n t r ins ic v a lue a nd p a r t icu la r ly l i ab le t ob reakage ( Ba rd 1 988 : 4 9 ; E nde sf e lde r 1 990 : 9 8 ) . We c an a s sume t h a t aw ea l thy b u r ia l w i l l h ave c on ta ined m o re u t i l i ta r ian g oods , a s w e l l a s mo re p re s t ige o b jec t s , t h an ap oo r b u r ia l . H ence , t h e n umbe r o f p o t s p e r g rave r ema ins a r e la t ive ly r e l iab le i ndex o f o r ig ina l g r ave w ea l th . ( Howeve r , t owa rds t h ee nd o ft h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod , a nd i n to t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod , s t one v esse ls b ecome much mo re f r equen t i n g raves . I t i s p oss ib le t h a t t h e p rov is ion o f al a rge n umbe r o f s t one v e sse ls may h ave r e duced t h e a moun t o fp o t te ry i n c luded i n aw ea l thy b u r ia l . ) ' P o t s p e r g rave ' h a s b een u sed a s t h e g ene ra l i n dex o fg r ave w ea l th i n p rev ious a na lyse s o f P redyna s t ic c eme te r ies ( Se id lmaye r 1 988 ; E ndesf e lde r 1 990 ) , a nd w i l l b eu sed a ga in i nt h ep re sen ts t udy . Men t ion s hou ld b e m ade o f o t he r me thod s f o r c a lcu la t ing g rave w ea l th w h ich h ave b een u sed r e cen t ly f o r p a r t icu la r ly w e l l -pub l ished c eme te r ie s . I n h e r a na lys is o f A rman t C eme te ry 1 400 -1500 , B a rd ( 1 988 : 4 6 -51 ) e xpe r imen ted w i th s eve ra l w ay s o fe va lua t ing mo r tua ry e l abo ra t ion .O ne o ft h e se w a s a n i n dex c a l led ' New Ma te r ia ls ' . B a rd c a lcu la ted t h e f r equency w i th w h ich 6 5 d i f f e ren t ma te r ia ls o ccu r red i nt h e P redyna s t ic g rave s a tA rman t . F rom t h is i n fo rma t ion , f i ve g roups o f ' New Ma te r ia ls ' w e re e s tab l ished ( Ba rd 1 988 : t a b le 5 ) . T he f i r s t g roup c omp r ised r a re m a te r ia ls wh ich o ccu r red j u s t o nce o r t w ice . T he s e cond g roup c omp r ised m a te r ia ls w h ich o ccu r red t h ree t of i ve t ime s , g roup 3ma te r ia ls w h ich o ccu r red s i x t ot e n t ime s , g roup 4 ma te r ia ls wh ich o ccu r red e l even t o t wen ty t imes , a nd g roup 5 t h e mos t c ommon m a te r ia ls w h ich o ccu r red t wen ty -one o r m ore t ime s i nt h e g rave s a tA rman t . H oweve r , d ue t o t h e u neven e f f ec t s o f g rave r obb ing , t h e i n dex o f ' New Ma te r ia ls ' d id n o t p rove

2 6

p a r t icu lar ly u se fu l . " The d i s t r ibu t ion o fr a re m a te r ia ls . .d i d n o tn ece ss a r i ly c o r re spond w i th w ha tc ou ld b ec on s ide red t h e r i che s t g rave s" ( Ba rd 1 988 : 4 6 ) , n o r d id c a lcu la t ions b a sed u pon t he i ndex r evea l c lea r p a t te rns o f mor tua ry d i f f e ren t ia t ion .B a rd t h e refo re t u rned t oc l us te ra na lys is ,u s ing f i ve v a r iab le s o fg rave w ea l th . T hese w e re : " 1 .T o ta l n umbe r o fu ndeco ra ted p o t s . 2 .T o ta l n umbe r o fd eco ra ted p o t s . 3 . T o ta l n umbe r o f W-wa re . 4 . G rave s i ze . 5 .N ew Ma te r ia ls" ( Ba rd 1 988 : 4 8 ) . T he l a s t v a r iab le w a s a pp l ied o n ly t o l a te N aqada Ig r ave s , a st h e se s eem t oh ave e scaped p lunde r ing . C lu s te ra na ly s i ss ucceeded i nr evea l ing as imp le s t ra t if ica t ion o f t h e g rave s . N one the le ss , i ts hou ld b e c l ea r t h a t s uch a n a pp roach c an o n ly b e a pp l ied t o c e me te r ie s wh ich a r e p ub l ished i ns uf f ic ien t d e ta i l . A s H end r ickx ( 1994 : 2 17 ) h a s n o ted , B a rd 's me thod " requ ire s i n forma t ion t ha t i s n o t a va i lab le f o r mos t o f t h e p redyna s t ic c eme te r ie s t ha t h ave b een p rev ious ly e xcava ted" . T hu s , e ven f o r t h e N aqada I I c eme te ry a t E lkab , w h ich i s p ub l ished i n s ome d e ta i l , H end r ickx ( 1994 ) c hose ad i f fe ren t m e thod f o r c a lcu la t ing g r ave w ea l th . T h is t a ke s i n to a ccoun t b o th t h e q uan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty o f t h e g rave g oods . T he s y s tem a pp l ie s p o in t s t o c a tego r ie s o f a r tefac t , b ased u pon t he a moun t o f l abou r i n vo lved i nt h e i r manuf ac tu re a nd u pon t he f r equency o ft h e i r o ccur rence .E xp l ic i t ' b adge so fs t a tus ' ,b one a nd i v o ry o b je c t s a nd b ead s w e re e xc luded . V es se ls o fR -wa re , t y pe s L 7 a nd L 28 -31 w e re a s s igned o ne p o in t . Two p o in t s w e re g iven f o r v e sse ls o fB , P , W-wa re a nd t h er ema in ing t y pe so fL -wa re . ' F ancy f o rm s ' ( F -w a re )a nd D -wa re v es se ls w i thou tf i gu ra t ive d eco ra t ion w e re g iven t h ree p o in t s . F ou r p o in t s w e re g iven f o r v esse ls o f C -wa re , D -wa re w i th f i gu ra t ive d eco ra t ion ( t ypes D 37 -38 , D40 -55 a nd D78 ) , s l a te p a le t tes a nd e l abo ra te ly -wo rked f l in t a r tef ac t s . A l l s t one v e sse ls w e re a s s igned f i ve p o in t s . O n t h eb a s i s o ft h ep o in t st h us o b ta ined f o r e ach g rave , " s ix c lasses o f i mpor tance w e re d i s t ingu i shed" . T he c l a sse s w e re " def ined e xponen t ia l ly t o e mphas ize t h e d i f fe rences a mong t h e l e ss w ea l thy g rave s" ( Hend r ickx 1 994 : 2 18 ) . T he s ys tem y ie lded s ome u se fu l r e su l t s , b u ti t s e f fe c t ivene ss w a sl im i ted b y t h es ma l l n umbe r o fg r ave s f r om s o me p e r iods . F u r the rmo re , p lunde red g rave s c ou ld n o t b e u sed i n t h e c a lcu la t ions . I ti sr e g re t tab le t h a t H end r ic i cx 's s y s tem -w h ich c l ea r ly p rov ide s am o re s ens i t ive m ea su re o fg rave w ea l th t han s imp le ' p o t sp e rg r ave ' -c anno t b e a pp l ied t o t he e x tens ive ly p lundered a nd o f ten i n comp le te ly p ub l ished c eme te r ie s e xcava ted e a r l ie r t h is c en tu ry , a nd w h ich f o rm t h eb a s i s o ft h ep re sen ts t udy .

c ons ide rab le i n te re s t a nd i mpo r tance , w e re i tn o t f o r t he q ue s t ionab le r e l iab i l i ty o f t h e o r ig ina l s ex d e te rm ina t ions ( Mann 1 989 ) . A t ten t ion w a s a l so p a id t o i nd ice s s uch a s g rave s hape ( e sp . C a s i l los 1 977 ) a nd o r ien ta t ion w h ich d on o t r ead i ly l e nd t h emse lve s t oi nves t iga t ions o fs oc io -econom ic c hange . G rave w ea l th i sc a lcu la ted a s t he t o ta l n umbe r o f o b jec t s r e cove red f r om ab u r ia l ( Ca s t i l los 1 976 : i ) , d e sp i te t h e l i ke ly d i s to r t ing e f f ec t s o fg rave r obb ing . F ina l ly , f ew o f t h e g rave s a na lysed a r e d a ted , mak ing t r ends d i ff icu l t t o e s tab l ish . N one the le s s , t h e w o rk o f C a s t i l los u ndoub ted ly s e rved t ob r ing P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic m o r tua ry d a ta t o t h e a t ten t ion o f aw ide r a ud ience , p av ing t h e w ay f o r s ub sequen ts t ud ie s .

Whe re g r ave s h ave e scaped t h e a t ten t ions o f r obbe r s , t h e s u rv iva l o f n on -u t i l i ta r ian , h igh -va lue o b jec t s p rov ides i mpo r tan ti n f o rma t ion a bou td i f f e ren t ia l a cces s t or e sou rce s . C e r ta in , s pec if ic t ype s o fp res t ige o b jec t may b e i n te rp re ted a s ' s ymbo ls o f a u tho r i ty ' , d eno t ing t he s pec ia l s t a tus p os ses sed b yt he t omb o wne r i nh i s o rh e r l i f e t ime .T h is t y pe o fe v idence w i l l a l so b ec ons ide red i nt h ep resen ts t udy .

Q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i s o f mo r tua ry d a ta h a s a l so b een a pp l ied t ot h e e a r ly P redyna s t ic . S ta t is t ica l a na ly s is o ft h e B ada r ian g raves i n s even c eme te r ie s a t B ada r i h a s c onv inc ing ly d emons t ra ted t he e x is tence o f s oc ia l i nequa l i ty w i th in B ada r ian s o c ie ty ( Ande r son 1 992 ) .

P rev ious d a ta

a na lyses

o f

e ar ly

Egypt ian

mortuary

T he f i r s t s cho la r t o c o l la te a nd p ub l ish e x tens ive r aw d a ta a bou t P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dynas t ic c eme te r ies w a s C a s t i l los ( 1976 , 1 977 , 1 978 , 1 979 , 1 981 , 1 982a , 1 982b , 1 983 ) . I n as e r ie s o fa r t ic les a nd m onog raphs h ep re sen ted t h e m o r tua ry d a ta f o r f i ve ma jo r P redynas t ic a nd /o r E a r ly D yna s t ic s i te s . H is t r ea tmen t o ft h e d a ta c onf ined i t se lf , f o r t h e mos t p a r t , t o b a s ic p re sen ta t ion . T he p o ten t ia l o f t h e w o rk f o r f u r the r a na ly s is i sl im i ted b y an umbe r o f f a c to r s . Mu ch s pace w a sd evo ted t ot h ec ompa r ison o fg r ave a t tr ibu te s w i th t h e s ex o f t h e g rave o wne r . S uch d a ta w ou ld b e o f

2 7

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f f une ra ry w ea l th i n t he c eme te r ie s o f A rman t , T a r l chan a nd T u ra , a nd c hange s i nt h is d i s t r ibu t ion o ve r t ime , w e re a na lysed b y S e id lmaye r ( 1988 ) , u s ing a na ly t ica l t e chn ique s d e r ived f r om t h e f i e ld o f e conom ics . T he p r inc ipa l r e su l t s d emons t ra ted t h a t " wh i le h ie r a rch ica l d i f f e ren t ia t ion a tt h e s i te o fA rman t s e ems t or ema in s t ab le t h roughou tt h eN aqada -pe r iod , t h ep ro todyna s t ic c eme te ry o f T a rchan [ s ic ] s how si n c rea s ing s oc ia li n equa l i ty" ( Se id lmaye r 1 988 : 4 9 ) . T he b u r ia ls i nt h eV a l ley C eme te ry a tT a rkhan w e re a na ly sed b y E l l is ( 1992 ) u s ing a v a r ie ty o f u n iva r ia te a nd b iva r ia te s t a t is t ica l m e thods . T he ma in e mpha s is o ft h e s t udy w a s t h e d i f f e r ing s oc ia l s t a tu s o fm a le s , f ema le s a nd c h i ld ren w i th in T a r l chan s oc ie ty , a sr ef lec ted i nt h ee ne rgy e xpended o n t h e i r b u r ia l . T he r e su l t s o f E l l is 's q uan t i ta t ive a na ly se s s howed t h a t a du l t f ema le b u r ia ls " we re t h e " r iche s t" i n a r tefac tua l t e rm s" , b u tt h a ta du l tm a le b u r ia ls w e re c ha rac te r ised b o th b y t h e g rea te s tg rave s i ze a nd t h e m o s t ma rked d i f f e ren t ia t ion i n g rave s i ze . E l l is ( 1 992 : 2 53 ) a cco rd ing ly s ugge s t s t h a t ma le s t a tu s m ay h ave b een e xp re s sed p r ima r i ly b y m eans wh ich l e f t n o a r chaeo log ica l t r ace s . H oweve r , g iven t h e p roven i n accu racy o f m any o f t he s ex d e te rm ina t ions i n e ar ly e xcava t ion r epo r t s , E l l is 's r e su l t s s hou ld p e rhap s b e t r ea ted w i th s ome c au t ion . T he mos t s i gn if ican t r e su l t o ft h e s pa t ia l a na ly s is w a s t h ei d en t if ica t ion o fr e pea ted c l u s te r ing o fc e r ta in a r te fac t t ype s -s t one v es se ls , b eads , i vo ry p ins a nd i n c ised r e c tangu la r s l a te p a le t tes -a tt h e w es te rn e nd o ft h e V a l ley C eme te ry . E l l is ( 1992 : 2 54 ) p os tu la tes t ha t t h is a rea r e p re sen ted t h eb u r ia l -g round o f a" s pec if ic c o rpo ra te g roup" , l i nked p e rhaps t ot h en ea rby p re sence o fs i x s ma l l m a s taba s .

I nh i sd oc to ra l t h e s is ,H end r ickx ( 1 989 )a na ly sed t h ee v idence f o r s oc io -econom ic d i f f e ren t ia t ion i n av a r ie ty o f Uppe r E gyp t ian P redyna s t ic c eme te r ie s . H is m o re r e cen tp ub l ica t ion o ft h eN aqada I I c eme te ry a tE lkab u se s as ens i t ive i n dex o f g rave w ea l th ( de sc r ibed a bove ) t oc ha r t o ve ra l l c hanges i n mo r tua ry e l abo ra t ion o ve r t h e l i f e t ime o f t he c eme te ry . H end r ickx ( 1994 : 2 21) c onc lude s t h a t t h e l a te P redyna s t ic c eme te ry a tE lkab w a sr i che rt h an c on tempo ra ry c eme te r ie s i n o t he r p a r t s o fE gyp t , a nd t h a t t h is m ay h ave b een c onnec ted w i th t h e c en t ra l r o le p l ayed b y t h e H ie rakonpo l is r eg ion i n t h ep roce s s o fs t a te f o rma t ion . T o d a te , t h e mos t e x tens ive u se o f mo r tua ry d a ta f o r a na lys ing t h e r i se o f c omp lex s oc ie ty i n E gyp t h a s b een B a rd 's ( 1988 , 1 989 , 1 994 ) a na lyses o f A rman t C eme te ry

1 400 -1500 a nd t h eN aqada c eme te r ie s . T he w o rk r ep re sen t sa b enchma rk f o r t h e s t udy o fP redyna s t ic mo r tua ry d a ta . T he v a r ious t y pe so fe v idence f o rs oc io -econom ic c ond i t ions , a nd t h ev a r iou s a na ly t ica lt e chn ique sf o ri n te rp re t ing t h em , a r es e t o u t i nw ha t i se s sen t ia l ly ac a se s t udy f o r t h e a pp l ica t ion o f q uan t i ta t ive a na lys is t o E gyp t ian P redynas t ic d a ta . B a rd ( 1988 ) make s p a r t icu la r u se o fc l us te r a na lys is t od e te rm ine t h e e x ten t a nd d eve lopmen t o fs oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion -i . e . t h e n umbe r o fi n te rna l h ie ra rch ie s -w i th in t h e l o ca l c ommun i ty r e p re sen ted b yt h eb u r ia ls i nC eme te ry 1 400 -1500 . E ndesfe lde r ( 1990 ) a l so c a r r ied o u t c l u s te r a na ly s is o f t he A rman t mo r tua ry d a ta . H e r s t udy s ough t t o i nve s t iga te v a r iab i l i ty i nt h e p o t te ry c on ten t s o fP redyna s t ic g rave s , a nd t h e p os s ib le u nde r ly ing f a c to rs . S he c onc luded t ha t t he n umbe r o f p o t s p e r g rave w as n o t a lways d i c ta ted b y c h rono logy o rb yt h es t a tus o ft h ed e cea sed ,b u tw a sp robab ly o f ten i n f luenced b y o the r , u nknown f a c to rs . T he c l us te r a na lys is t ook p a r t icu la r a ccoun t o f v esse l f unc t ion , c onc lud ing t h a t s t o rage v e sse ls w e re p refe r red a s f une ra ry p o t te ry a t a l l p e r iods r ep re sen ted i n t h e c eme te ry . T he p re sence o f g raves t o ta l ly d evo id o fp o t te ry s ugges ted t h a t p o t s w e re n o t c ons ide red a n e s sen t ia l c omponen t o ff une ra ry p rov is ion . A f u r the r a na lys is o f A rman t C eme te ry 1 400 -1500 w as u nde r taken b y G r iswo ld ( 1992 ) . T h is s t udy l a id p a r t icu la r empha s is o n t h eu se o f" s ca le i n va r ian t m easu re st oa s se s s i f t h ei n c rea se i na ve rage a nd v a r ia t ion i st r u ly m ean ingfu l o ri f t he i n crea se i s d ue t o g row th a nd /o r " i nf la t ion" o f t h e v a r iab le s" . G r iswo ld ( 1992 : 1 94 ) c or rec t ly o bse rved t h a t i n c rea se s i ng rave s i ze a nd w ea l th o ve r t ime " may b e m o re r ef lec t ive o fa n i n c rea sed e mpha s is i n [ s ic ] p rov is ion ing f o r t h e d ead . . . than a n a c tua l i n c rea se i ni n equa l i ty" . H is r e su l t s l a rge ly s uppo r t t h e c onc lus ion s o fB a rd 's s t udy , c onduc ted w i thou t s c a le i nva r ian t measu re s . T h is a dds w e igh t t o t h e r e l iab i l i ty o fq uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i si ng ene ra l . G r iswo ld ( 1992 : 1 97 ) s ugge s t s t h a t h i s m e thod o f a na ly s is , a pp l ied t oo t he r s i tes , m ay b e u sed " t o a s se s s t h e b ounda r ies o fi nf luence o f i mpor tan t c en te r s l i ke N aqada . . . th rough t ime" , a nd t h a t " va r ia t ions a nd f l uc tua t ions m ay a l so m ake i tp os s ib le t o d i s t ingu ish c ompe t ing r eg ions" . Wh i ls t t h is may b e a n o p t im is t ic a s ses smen t , i tn eve r the le s su nde r l ine st h ep o ten t ia l o f q uan t i ta t ive a na lys is o f P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic mo r tua ry d a ta f o ru nde r s tand ing t h ep roce s so fs t a te f o rma t ion i nE gyp t . P os t sc r ip t : a tt h e t ime o f f i na l p roof read ing , t h e a u tho r 's a t ten t ion w a s d rawn t o S avage 's ( 1995 ) s t udy o f mo r tua ry d a ta f r om t h e P redyna s t ic C eme te ry N 7000 a tN aga e d -De i r . T he w o rk f o cu se s o n e xam in ing t h e s epa ra te d e scen t g roup s w h ich a ppea r t oh ave u sed t h e c eme te ry , a nd a na ly se s t h e r e la t ive s ucce s s o ft h e se g roups o ve r t ime . S avage ( pe r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) c onc ludes " t ha t t he p owe r e xp ressed ( econom ica l ly , p o l i t ica l ly , a nd i deo log ica l ly ) v a r ies c ons ide rab ly f r om g roup t og roup t h rough t ime" .

2 8

P ar t3 : T he s er ia t ion s

THE CHOSEN CE METER IES T he c eme te r ie s s e lec ted f o r s e r ia t ion h ave b een c hosen t o f u lf i l an umbe r o fc ond i t ions .F i r s t , t og a in a sb road ap i c tu re a sp os s ib le o ft h e c hange s a f f ec t ing E gyp t d u r ing t h e p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion , i tw a s c l ea r ly d e s i rab le t o a na ly se s i te s f r om d i f f e ren tr e g ions o ft h e c oun t ry . A t t h e t ime o fw r i t ing , n o e x tens ive P redyna s t ic a nd /o r E a r ly Dyna s t ic c eme te ry i n t h e De l ta h a s b een p ub l ished i n s uff ic ien t d e ta i l t o p e rm i t s e r ia t ion o rs e conda ry a na lys is . ( A t t h e t ime o fw r i t ing , t h e f i r s t v o lume i n t he s e r ies o f f i na l r epo r t s o n t he l a te P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly Dyna s t ic c eme te ry a tM insha tA bu Oma r ( i nt h en o r th -ea s te rn D e l ta )h a sa ppea red ( K roepe r & Wi ldung 1 994 ) . ) F o r t h is r e ason , a n e ssay o n s t a te f o rma t ion a nd t h e D e l ta -P a r t 5o f t he p re sen t w o rk -h a s b een i n c luded , t o p rov ide as yn the s is o ft h e a va i lab le e v idence f o rt h is r eg ion o f E gyp t d ur ing t he l a te f our th m i l lenn ium BC . T he c eme te r ie s c ho sen f o r a na lys is a r e s i tua ted i nt h e r ema in ing t h ree r eg ion s o fE gyp t : t h ep a r t o fL owe r E gyp t l y ing i nt h e N i le v a l ley , M idd le E gyp t a nd Uppe rE gyp t . T he p roce ss o f s t a te f o rma t ion i sl i ke ly t oh ave a f f ec ted e ach o ft h ese r eg ion s s omewha td i f f e ren t ly ,b yv i r tue o ft h e i rd i f f e r ing g eog raph ica l l o ca t ions a nd r e sou rce b ases . W i th in e ach b road r eg ion , t wo -o r , i n t h e c a se o f U ppe r E gyp t , t h ree -c eme te r ie sh ave b een s e lec ted f o ra na ly s is . A l l t h e c eme te r ie s c hosen b e long t o , o rs pan , t h e p e r iod o fs t a te f o rma t ion , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f A rman t C eme te ry 1 400 1 500 . T he i mpo r tance o ft h is l a s t s i te l i e s i nt h e f a c t t h a t i t s e rved a st h eb a s is o fK a ise r 's c h rono log ica l s cheme f o r t h e U ppe r E gyp t ian P redynas t ic s equence . Many o ft h e s e lec ted c eme te r ie sh ave b een t h e f o cus o fs t ud ie sb yo t he ra u tho r s . I n e ach c a se ,t h er e asons f o rc hoos ing t h ep a r t icu la rc eme te ry f o r t h e c u r ren ts t udy a r ee xp la ined , t o ge the rw i th t h er e a sons f o r r e jec t ing c e r ta in o the r w e l l -pub l ished c eme te r ie s f r om t h e s ame r eg ion . F o r e ach c eme te ry , d e ta i ls a r e g iven o f i t s p rec ise l o ca t ion , e xcava t ion , p ub l ica t ion , a nd a ny a na ly se s p rev iou st ot h ep re sen ts t udy . F ina l ly , t oc heck t he v a l id i ty o ft h e s e r ia t ion p roces s i t se lf , c on t ro l s e r ia t ions w e re c onduc ted o nt wo c eme te r ie s .

L ower E gypt T he Memph i te a rea s eems t o h ave p layed a p a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan tp a r ti nt he p rocess o fs t a te f o rma t ion i nE gyp t . T o j udge f r om e xcava ted s i tes , t he a r ea w a s ah ea r t land o ft h e L owe rE gyp t ian o r Maad i c e ram ic t r ad i t ion , w h ich c ove red a l o f L owe r E gyp t d u r ing t he e a r l ie r p a r t o f t h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod . T he g rea te r Memph i te a r ea mus t h ave s e en t h e f i r s t c hange st ot h is i nd igenous t r ad i t ion c aused b y t h e n o r thwa rd e xpans ion o ft he mo re a dvanced t e chno log ie s f r om U ppe r E gyp t . O ne o f t he f i rs t s i te s o f Maad i C u l tu re t o b e a bandoned m ay h ave b een e s -Saf f ; i t i s p robab ly n o c o inc idence t h a t t h e c eme te ry a tG e rza , t h e e a r l ie s t s i te w i th p o t te ry o f t h e Naqada t r ad i t ion s o f a r d i scove red o u t s ide M idd le /Uppe rE gyp t , i so n ly 1 5 km a way . T h is d i sp la cemen t o fo ne c e ram ic t r ad i t ion b y a no the r w a s u l t ima te ly t ol e ad t o t h e c u l tu ra l u n if ica t ion o f t he w ho le c oun t ry , f o l lowed s ho r t ly a f te rwa rds b y p o l i t ica l u n if ica t ion . F u r the rmo re , i t w a sh e re a tt h ej unc t ion o ft h e D e l ta a nd t h eN i le v a l ley t h a t t h e f i r s t k i ng s o f au n i ted E gyp t d e c ided t ob u i ld t h e i r n ew n a t iona l c ap i ta l , Memph is . T he l o ca t ion w a s i d ea l ly s u i ted f o r e xe rc is ing a dm in is t ra t ive c on t ro l o ve r b o th p a r t s o f t h e c oun t ry , a nd p e rhaps s ymbo l ised t h e i mpos i t ion o f r oya l

3 1

c on t ro l ( a nd h ence c ou r t c u l tu re ) i na n a r ea w h ich h ad s een t wo d i f f e ren t t r ad i t ions . W i th p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic p owe r , b o th r eg iona l a nd n a t iona l , n ow c oncen t ra ted i n as i ng le c en t re ,t h ef o undat ion a nd g row th o f Memph is mu s th ave h ad c ons ide rab le e f f ec t su pon t h ed emog raphy o ft h es u r round ing a r ea , a sw e l l a st h es oc io -econom ic a nd p o l i t ica l c ond i t ions i n t h e n ea rby c ommun i t ie s . T he p re sen ts t udy a im st or e vea l t h e e x ten t o ft h e se c hange s b y m eans o fd e ta i led a na ly s is o ft wo o ft h er e g ion 's m a jo rc eme te ry s i te s . T he E a r ly D yna s t ic c eme te r ie so fT u ra a nd T a rkhan a r et wo o f t he b es t p ub l ished a nd mos t e x tens ive i n t h e g rea te r Memph i te a r ea . D e ta i led g rave r eg is te r s a nd c eme te ry p l ans e x is t f o r b o th s i te s , mak ing p os s ib le a n a na lys is b o th o ft h e g rave s a nd o ft h e h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy . T he v a lue o fb o th s i te sh a sb een r e cogn ised i ns ome p rev iou s s t ud ie s , i n c lud ing ac h rono log ica l a na ly s is o ft h eT u ra c eme te ry ( Ka ise r 1 964 ) , a nd s oc io -econom ic a na ly s is o f t h e V a l ley C eme te ry a t T a rkhan ( E l l is 1 992 ) . T he t wo s i tes o f fe r i n te re s t ing s im i la r i t ie s a nd c on t ra s t s . B o th c eme te r ie s c ove r r ough ly t h e s ame p e r iod o f t ime , f r om e a r ly Dyna s ty 0 t ot h e l a te F i rs t Dyna s ty . ( The p o t te ry f r om b o th c eme te r ie s i se n t i re ly E a r ly Dyna s t ic i nc ha rac te r ; n o p a r t o ft h e d i s t inc t ive P redyna s t ic ( Naqada I )r e pe r to i re w a sf o und a te i the rs i te . )H oweve r ,e ach s i te r ep re sen t s av e ry d i f f e ren t s ca le o f c ommun i ty . T he c eme te ry a tT u ra a ppea r s t oh ave s e rved ar e la t ive ly s ma l l s e t t lemen t , w h i le t h ev a s t n umbe r o fb u r ia ls a tT a rkhan w e re mos t p robab ly a s soc ia ted w i th ac en t re o fs ome i mpo r tance . T he c ho ice o ft h e se t wo s i te s t h u sp e rm i t s a n i n ve s t iga t ion o f h ow t wo v e ry d i f f e ren t s i ze s o fc ommun i ty r e sponded t ot h e s ame p roce s s o fs t a te f o rma t ion . F u r the rmo re , t h ec on t ra s t ing l o ca t ion o f t h e t wo s i tes , T u ra a t t h e v e ry h ea r t o f t he Memph i te r e g ion , a nd Ta rkhan o n t h e r e g ion 's s ou the rnmos t f r inge , a l low s f o ra ni n te re s t ing c ompa r ison . S ome e xp lana t ion s hou ld p e rhaps b e g iven f o r n o t s e le c t ing o the r w e l l -known c eme te r ies i n t h e r eg ion . T he E a r ly Dynas t ic c eme te r ies a t A bu R awa sh a r e p a r t icu la r ly w e l l d ocumen ted , a nd b enef i t f r om c eme te ry p lans a s w e l l a s r eg is te r s o f g rave c on ten t s ( K lasens 1 957 , 1 958 , 1 959a , 1 960 ) . H oweve r , a l l t h e c eme te r ie s b e long t o t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod . T he e a r l ie s t o f t h e f ou r , C eme te ry 3 00 , i s d a ted t o D yna s ty 0 a nd t h e v e ry b eg inn ing o f t h e F i rs t Dyna s ty : p o t te ry f r om t h e c eme te ry i n c lude s c y l inde r j a rs w i th p a in ted n e t d eco ra t ion , a nd l a rge s t o rage j a r s ( K la sens 1 958 : 3 7 , f i g . 1 3 ) w h ich h ave c l ose p a ra l le ls f r om t omb s B 1 a nd M1 a tA bydos ( Pe t r ie 1 900 : p l s . XL .8 , XL I I .55 ) . T he o the r t h ree c eme te r ie s s pan t h e F i r s t a nd S econd D yna s t ie s . H ence , t h e s i te d oe s n o t c omp r ise many b u r ia ls f r om t h e p e r iod o fs t a te f o rma t ion . T he s ame i se ven mo re t r ue o ft h e c eme te ry a tS aqqa ra e xcava ted b y Ma c rama l lah ( 1 940 ) . Mos t o ft h eb u r ia ls s eem t od a te t ot h em idd le o ft h eF i r s tD yna s ty , a nd i ti sp oss ib le t h a t t h e s i te r ep re sen t s ad e s t royed c u l t ic e nc losu re f r om t h er e ign o fD en ( Ka ise r 1 985a ) . Tura E ar ly D ynast ic c e me tery T he E a r ly D yna s t ic c eme te ry o fT u ra w a s s i tua ted o n t h ee a s t b ank o ft h e N i le , u nde r t h e m ode rn s ubu rb o f Maad i , 9km s ou th o fc en t ra l C a i ro .T he s i te w a sn amed a f te rt h ev i l lage o f T ura wh ich l a y 1 . 5 km t o t h e s ou th . T he i mpo r tan t P redyna s t ic s e t t lemen t a nd c eme te ry s i te o f Maad i l i e sj u s t 2 km a way , t h e P redyna s t ic c eme te ry o f Wad i D ig la o n ly 1km a way , w h i le t h e E a r ly D yna s t ic c eme te r ie s o f H e lwan a r e s ome 7 . 5 km t o t h e s ou th . T he N i le i st oday o n ly 5 00m

a way , b u tt h e d i s tance t ot h e r i ve r b ank may w e l l h ave b een g rea te ri nt h eE a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod ( G iddy e ta l . 1 990 : 2f i g . 1 ) . When t h e s i te w a s e xcava ted b y J unke r , i tw a s s i tua ted b e tween t wo r a i lway l i ne s , a nd b ounded b yc u l t iva ted l a nd t o t h en or th a nd s ou th a nd b y al a rge c ana l t ot h ew e s t . Ac ana l a l so b i sec ted t h e s i te ( J unke r 1 912 : 1f i g . 1 ;K a ise r 1 964 : 1 07 f i g . 5 ) . I n t h e f o l low ing a na lys is t h e a r ea t ot h e s ou th e a s t o f t h i s c ana l w i l l b e r e f e r red t o a s t h e c eme tery 's s ou the rn s e c t ion . T he a r ea t ot h e n o r th -we s t o ft h e b i sec t ing c ana l w i l l b e r e f e r red t oa s t h e c eme te ry 's n o r the rn s e c t ion . T he e xcava t ed a r ea t o ta l led 8 40m 2,c omp r i s ing e i gh ty -f ou r 1 0 x1 0m s qua res w i th in a n o ve ra l l s i te mea su r ing 2 30m x 2 10m ( J unke r 1 912 ) .

T he c eme te r ie s w e re e xcava ted b y t h e B r i t ish S choo l o f A rchaeo logy i nE gyp t a nd E gyp t ian R e sea rch A ccoun tu nde r t h e d i rec t ion o f P e t r ie ( e t a l . 1 913 ; P e t r ie 1 914 ) i n t wo s e a sons d u r ing t h ew in te r s o f1 911-1912 a nd 1 912 -1913 . T he f i r s ts ea son 's e xcava t ion w a s c onf ined t ot h e h i l l c eme te r ie s , wh i le t he v a l ley c eme te ry was t h e f ocus o f t he s e cond s ea son 's w o rk . T he r e su l t s o f e ach s ea son we re p ub l ished s epa ra te ly . I n a dd i t ion t o t h ese t wo v o lumes , t h e o r ig ina l t omb -ca rds f r om t h e e xcava t ions , a nd P e t r ie 's e xcava t ion n o te -book s ,b o th o f wh ich a r eh e ld b yt h eP e t r ie Mu seum a nd a r e a va i lab le o n m ic ro -f iche , p rov ide av a luab le r e sou rce f o r s t udy ing a nd a na ly s ing t h eT a rkhan d a ta . H end r ickx 's ( 1989 , 1 993 ) i n ves t iga t ion o fP redyna s t ic -Ea r ly Dyna s t ic c h rono logy i n c luded a n a na lys is o f t h e h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy o ft h e T a rkhan c eme te r ie s . Two f u r the r s t ud ie s h ave a na lysed t h e mo r tua ry d a ta f r om T a rkhan . S e id lmaye r ( 1 988 ) c onduc ted s t a t is t ica l a na lyse s o fg rave w ea l th i no r de r t o r e cons t ruc t t h e c hang ing p a t te rn o f s oc ia l i n equa l i ty a t T a rkhan . T he m os t s ubs tan t ia l s t udy t od a te o ft h e Ta rkhan m a te r ia l i st h e s t a t is t ica l a na lys is o ft h e g r aves i nt h e V a l ley C eme te ry b y E l l is ( 1992 ) , i n tended " t o a s se ss t h e p os s ib le n a tu re a nd d eg ree o f a ny s oc ia l d i f fe rences r e f le c ted i n c on tempo raneou sm o r tua ry p rac t ice s" . T h is a na ly s i sh a sb een d e sc r ibed e a r l ie ri nt h ep res en t wo rk .

T he c eme te ry w a se xcava ted b y a n Au s t r ian e xped i t ion u nde r t h ed i rec t ion o fJ unke ri n as i ng le s ea son d u r ing t h ew in te ro f 1 909 -1910 .T he e xcava t ion r e po r tw a sp ub l ished i n1 912 a nd h a sb een t h ep r inc ipa l s ou rce f o ra l s ubsequen ts t ud ie s o ft h e c eme te ry , i n c lud ing t h e p re sen to ne . I no rde r t oc ompa re t h e m a te r ia l f r om T u ra w i th t h a t f r om h i s o wn e xcava t ions a t T a rkhan , P e t r ie ( e t a l . 1 913 : p l s . LX I I , LX I I I , LXV , LXV I I ) i n c luded i nt h ep ub l ica t ion o ft h el a t te rg r ave r eg is te r s f o rt h e T u ra c eme te ry i n w h ich J unke r 's p o t te ry t ypes h ad b een c onve r ted t o P e t r ie 's own P ro todynas t ic c orpus n umbe r s . P e t r ie ( e ta l . 1 913 : p l . LXV I I I ) a l so a s s igned r e la t ive d a te s t o t h e T u ra g rave s b y h i s S equence -Da t ing m e thod . P e t r ie a ccompan ied t h e g rave r eg i s te r w i th a c onve rs ion t a b le , s how ing t h e c onco rdance b e tween J unke r 's c o rpus a nd h i s o wn . N o a na ly s is o ft h e T u ra d a ta w a s a t temp ted b y P e t r ie , b u t h is p resen ta t ion o f i t i n af o rm a l low ing d i rec t c ompa r ison w i th m a te r ia l f r om o t he rc on tempo ra ry s i te s w a s a n i mpo r tan t c on t r ibu t ion t of u tu re s t ud ie s b o th o fT u ra i n p a r t icu la ra nd o fE a r ly Dyna s t ic c eme te r ie si ng ene ra l .

M idd le E gypt ` M idd le E gyp t ' r ema ins ar a the r i l -de f ined t e rm . B a ine s & Mä lek ( 1980 : 1 20 ) , d ef ine i ta st he s t re t ch o ft h eN i le V a l ley b e tween Memph is a nd A syu t , i nc lud ing t he F ayum . H oweve r ,B run ton 's e xcava t ions i nt h e Ma tma r -Qau a r ea w e re u nde r taken a s p a r t o f t he B r i t ish Museum 's e xped i t ion t o M idd le E gyp t , a nd t he l o ca t ion o f s i te s s uch a s B ada r i , Ma tma r a nd Mos tagedda i su sua l ly r e f e r red t o a s M idd le E gyp t( e .g . A nde r son 1 992 ) .

T he p a t te rn o f g rave w ea l th a t T u ra w a s s t ud ied b y S e id lmaye r ( 1988 ) u s ing v a r iou s s t a t is t ica l m e thod s , t h ough w i thou t s i gn if ica n tr e su l t s . H end r ic i cx ( 1989 , 1 993 ) a na ly sed t h e h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy o f t h e c eme te ry a s p a r t o f h i s i nve s t iga t ion i n to P redyna s t ic -Ea r ly Dyna s t ic c h rono logy . T he mos t i n f luen t ia l a na lys is o f t he T u ra m a te r ia l w as K a ise r 's ( 1964 ) b r ief s t udy , i nw h ich h e p os tu la ted t h e l i f e s pan o ft h ec eme te ry ,b a sed u pon s t udy o ft h ec y l inde rv e s se ls f ound i n t h e g rave s . H is m e thod a nd c onc lu s ions w i l l b e d e sc r ibed a nd d i scus sed i nd e ta i l l a te r , when a na ly s ing t h e r e su l t s o ft h ep re sen ts t udy .

M idd le E gyp t i sp e rhaps t h e l e as t k nown s t re tch o ft h e N i le V a l ley a ta l p e r iod s o fE gyp t ian h i s to ry . T h is i sp a r t icu la r ly t r ue f o r t h e E a r ly Dynas t ic P e r iod , w hen t h e n umbe r o f e xcava ted s i tes i ss ma l l c ompa red t o U ppe r E gyp t o r t h e Memph i te a r ea . T he mos t i n tens ive ly e xcava ted r eg ion o f M idd le E gyp ti st h e Ma tma r -Qau a rea , i n co rpo ra t ing t h es i te s o f Ma tma r , Mos tagedda , H emam ia a nd B ada r i ( f o r r e cen t s u rveys o f t h e a r ea , Ho lmes & F r iedman 1 989 ; H o lmes 1 992b , 1 993 ) . A l though t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h e E a r ly P redyna s t ic ( Bada r ian a nd p os s ib ly T a s ian )i sa bundan t i nt h is a r ea , t h a tf o rt h el a te rP redyna s t ic , p a r t icu la r ly N aqada I ,i s much s ca rce r .T he e v idence i se ven m o re meag re f o rt h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic P e r iod , l im i ted t o af ew s ma l l c eme te r ies . T hus , d u r ing m os t o f t he P redynas t ic , a nd p a r t icu la r ly t h e p e r iod o fs t a te f o rma t ion , M idd le E gyp ta ppea r s t oh ave b een s ome th ing o f ac u l tu ra l b a ckwa te r , r emo t e f r om t h ec en t re s o f n a scen t p o l i t ica l p owe r a tT h is , Naqada a nd H ie rakonpo l is . M idd le E gyp t s e em s t oh ave b een w i thou t s uch ad om inan t p opu la t ion /po l i t ica l c en t re , c ha rac te r ised i n s tead b y a c o l lec t ion o fs ma l l f a rm ing c ommun i t ies . I ti sq u i te p o s s ib le , h oweve r , t ha t c hanges i n t he c ou r se o f t he N i le h ave d e s t royed much o f t he e v idence f o r a nc ien t s e t t lemen t i n M idd le E gyp t , t h us d i s to r t ing o u r v i ew o ft he c u l tu ra l a nd p o l i t ica l d eve lopmen t o f t h is s t re tch o ft h e N i le v a l ley . T he s t udy o f t h e Ma tma r -Qau a r ea , a nd t h e d e ta i led a na ly s is o f t wo s i tes i n t h is r e g ion , w i l l p rov ide au sefu l c ompa r ison w i th t h e o t he r a r ea s u nde r s t udy , a r ea s w h ich w e re m ore d i rec t ly i nvo lved w i th t h e p rocess o f s t a te f o rma t ion . T he

T arkhan H i l l C e meter ies T he a r chaeo log ica l s i te o fT a rkhan l i e s o n t h e w e s t b ank o f t h e N i le , s ome 6 0 km s ou th o f C a i ro . T he E a r ly Dyna s t ic c eme te r ie sw e re l o ca ted o nt h ee dge o ft h el ow d e se r tb e tween t h e s e t t lemen t s o fK a f r Amma rt ot h en o r th a nd K a f rT u rk i t o t h e s ou th ( Pe t r ie e ta l . 1 913 : p l . LX IX ) . T he s i te i t se lf w a s n amed a f te rt h en ea re s tv i l lage , K a f rT a rkhan . G e rza , w i th i t s a s soc ia ted a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins , i ss i tua ted 6 km t o t h e s ou th o fT a rkhan , w h i le A t f ih l i e s o n t h e o ppos i te b ank o f t h e N i le , s ome 1 0 km s ou th o fT a rkhan . T he N i le i s 2 km f r om t he s i te o f t he E a r ly Dyna s t ic c eme te r ie s . T he c eme te r ie s m ay b ed iv ided t o pog raph ica l ly i n to t wo g roups : t h eH i l l C eme te r ie s , wh ich w e re l o ca ted o n an umbe r o fl ow h i l ls t h roughou t t h e s i te , a nd t h e V a l ley C eme te ry , w h ich o ccup ied aw ide v a l ley r unn ing e a s t -we s t t h rough t h em idd le o ft h e s i te .Be tween t h el ow d e se r t a nd t h er i ve r , a nd r unn ing p a ra l le l t o t h e l a t te r , l i e ac ana l a nd a r a i lway l i ne . T he e x tens ive E a r ly D yna s t ic c eme te r ie sw e re s ca t te red a l ong t h e e dge o ft h e l ow d e se r t , o ccupy ing a n a r ea j u s t u nde r 1 . 5 km f r om n o r th t os ou th a nd 6 00m f r om e a s tt ow e s t .

3 2

e f fec t s o f t h is p roce ss i nM idd le E gyp t w i l l c on t r ibu te a n e s sen t ia lp a r to ft h eo ve ra l lp i c tu re o fE gyp t ian s oc ie ty d u r ing t h e P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly Dynas t ic t r ans i t ion . T he t wo s i te s i nt h is r eg ion s e lec ted f o r a na ly s is a r e Ma tma r a nd Mos tagedda . B o th s i te s a r e r e la t ive ly w e l l p ub l ished w i th d e ta i led g r ave r eg is te r s -a nd h ave t h eg r ea ta dvan tage o f c ompr i s ing b u r ia ls f r om t h e P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod s .B o th c eme te r ie s , a l though q u i te c l o se g eog raph ica l ly , s how c e r ta in c on t ra s t s w h ich make t h em a n i n te re s t ing p a i r t oa na lyse a nd c ompa re . F rom t h e e x ten t o f i t s c eme te r ie s , t h e c o mmun i ty a t Ma tma r a ppea r s t o h ave b een q u i te s ubs tan t ia l . Mos tagedda , o n t h e o t he rh and , mu s th ave b een a s ma l l v i l lage , j u s t a s i ti s t oday . T he s ca le o f t h e t wo c ommun i t ie s( a sr e f lec ted i nt h e i rc eme te r ie s )m ay h ave b een , a t l e a s t p a r t ia l ly , t he r e su l t o f t he ir v e ry d i f fe ren t t o pog raph ica l s e t t ings . Ma tma r i sl o ca ted c l ose t ot h e r i ve r , w he re o ppo r tun i t ie s f o r t r ade -a nd p oss ib ly f o r c on t ro l o f r i ve rt r an spor t -w ou ld h ave p re sen ted t h em se lve s .I nc on t ra s t , Mo s tagedda i ss i tua ted s ome 6km f r om t h eN i le , s epa ra ted f r om t h e r i ve r b ank b y aw ide f l oodp la in ; t he v i l lage e conomy w ou ld , v e ry l i ke ly , h ave b een r e s t r ic ted t o s ma l l s ca le f a rm ing .T he l o ng s equence o fa r chaeo log ica lr ema ins a t b o th s i te si n d ica te st ha tb o th c ommun i t ie sw e re c on t inuous ly i n hab i ted t h roughou tt h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod a nd t h ep e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion . T hey a r e , t hus , i d ea l s i te s f o r a na ly s is t o g a in a n u nde r s tand ing o fh ow t h e w ide r c h ange s i nE gyp t ian s oc ie ty d u r ing t h e P redynas t ic t oE a r ly Dyna s t ic t r ans i t ion a f f ec ted c ommun i t ies d i s tan t f r om t h e c en t re s o f Uppe r E gyp t ian p o l i t ica l p owe r . T he re a r e c eme te r ies i nt h e B ada r i r e g ion o fM idd le E gyp t w h ich a r e b e t te r p ub l ished t h an t h ose s e lec ted , a nd w h ich m igh tt h e re f o re h ave b een c hosen f o r a na ly s is . T he se i n c lude Ma tma r C eme te ry 2 600 -2700 , B ada r i C eme te ry 3 700 -3800 , a nd H emam ia C eme te ry 1 500 -1800 ( Hend r ickx 1 989 , 1 993 ) . P lans a r ep ub l ished f o r a l o ft h e se c eme te r ie s , w h ich w ou ld a l low s e r ia t ion r e su l t s t ob e c hecked a ga ins t t h e h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy . H oweve r , n e i the r Ma tma r C eme te ry 2 600 -2700 n o rB ada r iC eme te ry 3 700 -3800 s pans t h ec r uc ia lP redyna s t ic t oE a r ly D yna s t ic t r ans i t ion . T hey c ou ld n o t s hed l i gh t o n t h e p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion , wh ich i st h e f o cu s o f t h e c u r ren t w o rk . T hey d o ,h oweve r , p rov ide t h eb a s i s f o rp os s ib le f u tu re s e r ia t ion , p e rhaps t o r ef ine t h e r e la t ive c h rono logy o f t h is r eg ion o f E gyp t d u r ing t h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod . H emam ia C eme te ry 1 500 -1800 d oe s a ppea rt oi n c lude b u r ia ls f r om l a te N aqada I t ot h ee a r ly F i r s tD yna s ty .H oweve r ,t h en umbe ro f g raves w h ich c on ta ined t wo o rm o re d i f f e ren tp o t te ry g roups i ss ma l l . H end r ickx 's ( 1993 : p l . 4 ) s t udy , w h ich e mp loyed o n ly l im i ted g roup ing o fp o t te ry t y pe s , y i e lded r e la t ive d a te s f o r o n ly 6 6 g rave si nt h e c eme te ry . H ence , t h ec eme te ry w a s n o t s e lec ted f o r a na lys is , a s i tw a s f e l t u n l ike ly t ha t a s e r ia t ion b ased u pon s uch a s ma l l d a ta s e t w ou ld y ie ld c onv inc ing c h rono log ica l i n f o rma t ion . Ma tmar C e me ter ies 2 00 , 3 000 a nd 5 100 T he a r chaeo log ica ls i te o f Ma tma ri sl o ca ted o nt h ee a s tb ank o ft h e N i le , i nt h en o r the rnmo s tp a r t o ft h e B ada r i d i s t r ic t o f M idd le E gyp t . I ti sc l ea r t h a t as e r ie s o fd i f f e ren t c eme te r ie s w a s u sed o ve r t h e c ou r se o f t h e P redynas t ic a nd E a r ly Dynas t ic p e r iods . T hu s , i n o rde r t oi n c lude i n t h e a na ly s is g raves s pann ing t h e P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly D yna s t ic t r ans i t ion , i tw a s n eces sa ry t ob r ing t o ge the r t h ree s epa ra te c eme te r ie s . C eme te r ies 2 00 a nd 3 000 -3100 a re l o ca ted i n c lose p rox im i ty , a nd a r e v e ry l i ke ly t o h ave s e rved t he s ame c o mmun i ty . C eme te ry 5 100 , o n t h e o t he rh and , l o ca ted s ome d i s tance t o t h e n or th o f Ma tma r , m ay h ave b e longed t o a

3

s epa ra te s e t t lemen t . N eve r the less , t h e g rave s f r om C eme te ry 5 100 w e re i nc luded b y t he e xcava to rs i n t he Ma tma r p ub l ica t ion , a nd i tw a s c ons ide red d es i rab le i nt h e c on tex t o f t h e p re sen t s t udy t oi n c lude t h e se b u r ia ls i nt h e a na ly s is f o r t he s ake o f c h rono log ica l c omp le teness . Mos t o f t he P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic c eme te r ie sw e re l o ca ted a l ong t he e dge o f t he l ow d ese r t t o t h e e as t o f t h e v i l lage o f e l - Ma tma r , f r om wh ich t h e s i te t a ke s i t s n ame ( Brun ton 1 948 : p l s . I I I ) . C eme te ry 5 100 , b y c on t ra s t , w a s l o ca ted o ppos i te t h e v i l lage o fG ho ra ieb , s ome d i s tance t ot h e n o r th . T he c u l t iva ted p la in b ecome s w ide r a s o ne p roceeds s ou thwa rds f r om e l - Ma tma r , s o t h a t t he b ounda ry b e tween l ow d e se r t a nd c u l t iva t ion c u rves r ound i na n a r c , r e ced ing a way f r om t h e r i ve r b ank . T he v i l lage o f e l - Ma tma r i s s i tua ted a tt h e n o r the rn a nd w e s te rn e nd o ft h e s t r ip o f l ow d e se r t , a tt h e p o in t a tw h ich i tr uns c l ose s t t ot h e N i le . T he t own o fe l -Bada r i l i e s s ome 1 5 km t o t h e s ou th -ea s t , w h i le t h e c i ty o f A syu t i s1 5 km a way t o t h e n o r th -we s t , o n t h e o ppos i te b ank o f t he N i le . T he N i le , w h ich h a s ab road , d iv ided c hanne l i nt h is r e g ion , f o rm ing s eve ra l l a rge i s lands , i sl e s s t h an 1km a way f r om t h e mos t w e s te r ly o f Ma tma r 's c eme te r ie s . T he P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic c eme te r ie s w e re d i s t r ibu ted a l ong t h ee dge o ft h el ow d e se r tf o r ad i s tance o f a bou t 2 km . A s n o p ub l ished maps o r p lans e x is t o f C eme te r ie s 2 00 a nd 3 000 -3100 , i ti si mpos s ib le t ok now t h e o r ig ina l e x ten t o f t h ese t wo a r ea s . N e i the r i s t h e re a ny p ub l ished map s how ing t h e p rec ise l o ca t ion o f C eme te ry 5 100 . I ti st h e ref o re i mposs ib le t oa sce r ta in w he the r t h e s i te h as b een p rese rved d own t o t h e p resen t d ay . A v i s i t t o Ma tma rb yt h e a u tho r i n Ma rch 1 992 r evea led t h a t t h e s i te o f C eme te r ie s 2 00 a nd 3 000 -3100 h a s b een g r ea t ly a f f ec ted b y r e cen t d eve lopmen t s . T he a r ea o f c u l t iva t ion a round t h e v i l lage o f e l - Ma tma r h as e xpanded s i nce t he t ime o f B run ton 's e xcava t ions , a nd c on t inue s t od o s o . T he p rec ise l o ca t ion o f t h ese t wo c eme te r ie s h a s b een d e s t royed b y q ua r ry ing , wh ich i s s t i l l t ak ing p lace i n t he i mmed ia te v i c in i ty . T he e a r ly c eme te r ie s a t Ma tma rw e re e xcava ted b yt h eB r i t ish Museum E xped i t ion t oM idd le E gyp t u nde r t h e d i rec t ion o f B run ton ( 1948 ) i nt wo s ea son s d u r ing t h e w in te rs o f 1 929 1 930 a nd 1 930 -1931 . T he e xcava t ion r epo r tr ema ins t h eo n ly s ou rce f o rs t udy ing t h ea r chaeo log ica l r ema in s f r om Ma tma r , a sn one o fB run ton 's o r ig ina l e xcava t ion r e co rd sh a s s u rv ived . Wh i ls tt h ee xcava t ion r epo r ti n c ludes much d e ta i l a bou tt y pe s o fi n te rmen t a nd p a r t icu la rc a tego r ie s o fa r te f ac t , t h e re h ave , t ot h e k now ledge o f t h e a u tho r , b een o n ly t wo s ubsequen t a na lyse s o ft h e d a ta f r om t h e P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic c eme te r ie so f Ma tma r .T he se a r et h eb road d emog raph ic s t udy b y O 'Conno r ( 1972a , 1 972b ) a nd t h e d i s t r ibu t ion s t ud ie s o f H end r ickx ( 1989 ) . Mos tagedda

C e me tery

1 600 -1800

T he a r chaeo log ica l s i te o f Mos tagedda i sl o ca ted o n t h e e a s t b ank o ft h e N i le i nt h e B ada r i d i s t r ic t o fM idd le E gyp t . T he t own o fe l -Bada r i l i es a t ad i s tance o f 1 km t ot h e s ou th e a s t , w h i le t h e t own o fA bu T ig l i e s d i re c t ly a c ros s t h e N i le , s ome 8km a way . T he N i le i s 6km d i s tan t . B e tween t h er i ve r a nd t h es i te t h e a l luv ia l f l oodp la in i s ma rked b y ab road b and o fc u l t iva t ion . T he P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly D yna s t ic c eme te r ie s w e re s i tua ted i mmed ia te ly a d jacen tt ot h ev i l lage o fe l -Naz le t e l -Mos tagedda ( f rom wh ich t h e s i te t a ke s i t s n ame ) o n t h e n ar row s t r ip o fl ow d ese r ts epa rat ing t h e c u l t iva t ion f r om t h e h i gh c l if f s o ft h ee a s te rn e s ca rpmen t ( Brun ton 1 937 : p l s . I I I ) . C eme te ry 1 600 -1800 w a s s i tua ted o n al ow k no l l t o t h e s ou th -ea s t o f t h e v i l lage , a d jacen t t o t h e m ode rn c eme te ry .

b e e xpec ted t oh ave w i tne s sed p rof ound c hange s d u r ing t h e p e r iod o fs t a te f o rma t ion . Mo reove r ,t h ec eme te ry a t Maha sna s how s ac on t inu i ty o fb u r ia l f r om N aqada It ot h e b eg inn ing o f t he E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod . T he mo r tua ry d a ta f r om Maha sna , i ti sh oped , w i l l r ef lec t s ome o ft h e d eve lopmen t s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly Dyna s t ic t r ans i t ion . H ie rakonpo l is w a s a no the ri mpo r tan tP redyna s t ic c en t re , a nd may i ndeed h ave b een t h e c ap i ta l o f a n Uppe r E gyp t ian k ingdom e a r ly i n Naqada I I . T he t own a nd r u le rs o f H ie rakonpo l is u ndoub ted ly p layed a ma jo r r o le i n t h e u n if ica t ion o f E gyp t . Mo reove r , t h e F o r t C eme te ry -t h e l a rge s t f u l ly -pub l ished c eme te ry a tH ie rakonpo l is -s pans t h e c r uc ia l t r ans i t ion b e tween t h e l a te P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iods . T hu s ,H ie rakonpo l is c on ta ins r ep re sen ta t ive b u r ia ls f r om t he e n t ire p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion . T he s e r ia t ion o f t h is c eme te ry w i l l p rov ide a n e ssen t ia l c ompa r ison w i th t hose o f t he o the r s i te s w he re t he P redynas t ic t o E a r ly Dynas t ic t r ans i t ion i s l e ss w e l l r epresen ted . F ina l ly , A rman t i s a k ey s i te f o r a ny i nves t iga t ion o f E gyp t ian p reh is tory . A l though t he P redyna s t ic c ommun i ty w a s p robab ly a s imp le , f a rm ing v i l lage , w i th c ompa ra t ive ly l i t t le i n te rna l s t ra t if ica t ion -v e ry d i f f e ren t f r om a s i te l i ke H ie rakonpo l is -i t s a s soc ia ted c eme te ry , C eme te ry 1 400 -1500 , h a s s e rved a s t h e b a s is f o r t h e mo s tp ene t ra t ing s t ud ie so ft h eP redyna s t ic p e r iod ( Ka ise r 1 957 ; B a rd 1 994 ) . K a ise rb a sed h i s s ubd iv is ion o ft h eU ppe r E gyp t ian P redyna s t ic c u l tu ra l s equence o n a n a na ly s is o ft h e A rman tc eme te ry . I tw a s t h e refo re c r uc ia lt ot h ep re sen ts t udy t o s e na te t h is c eme te ry , s o t ha t K a ise r 's r e su l t s c ou ld b e t e s ted a nd t h er e su l t s f r om A rman tc ompa red w i th t h o se f r om t h eo the rc eme te r ie s .

T he m ax imum d imens ions o f t he k no l l a r e : 3 00m ( e a s t t o w e s t ) a nd 2 50m ( no r th t os ou th ) . A s f a r a s c ou ld b ej udged f r om a b r ief v i s i t t o t h e s i te i n Ma rch 1 992 , Mos tagedda a ppe a r s t oh ave c hanged l i t t le s i nce B run ton 's e xcava t ions . A l though t h ea r ea i mmed ia te ly t ot h en o r th -ea s to ft h ev i l lage ( t he l o ca t ion o fC eme te ry 4 00 )h a s s een s ome r e cen tb u i ld ing a nd l i e sp a r t ly u nde rnea th am ode rn r e fu se d ump ,t h ek no l l o n w h ich t h e o t he r c eme te r ie s , i n c lud ing C eme te ry 1 600 -1800 , w e re l o ca ted s eems t o h ave b een u n touched . S he rds o f P redyna s t ic p o t te ry a re s t i l l t o b e f ound s ca t te red o n t h e s u rf a ce o ft h ek no l l . T he P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic c eme te r ie sa t Mos tagedda w e re e xcava ted b yt h e B r i t ish Museum E xped i t ion t oM idd le E gyp t u nde r t h e d i rec t ion o fB run ton ( 1937 ) i nt wo s ea sons d u r ing t h ew in te r s o f 1 927 -1928 a nd 1 928 -1929 . O nce a ga in , t h ee xcava t ion r e po r tr ema ins t h eo n ly s ou rce f o rs t udy ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins f r om Mos tagedda , a s n one o f B run ton 's o r ig ina le xcava t ion r e co rd sh a ss urv ived . T he p ub l i shed e xcava t ion r epo r t , a s i nt he c a se o f Ma tma r , c on ta ins ad e ta i led p resen ta t ion o ft h ee xcava ted ma te r ia l , b u t l i t t le i nt h ew ay o fd i scus s ion o ra na ly s is o ft h is ma te r ia l . A s w i th Ma tma r , t h e re h ave , t o t h e a u tho r 's k now ledge , b een o n ly t wo s ub sequen t a na lyse s o ft h e d a ta f r om Mos tagedda , t h e s t ud ie s o f O 'Connor ( 1972a , 1 972b ) a nd H end r ickx ( 1 989 ) .

Upper E gypt U ppe r E gyp t w as t h e h ea r t land o f c u l tu ra l a nd p o l i t ica l d eve lopmen t sd u r ing t h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod . I tw as h e re t h a t c hange s w i th in P redyna s t ic s oc ie ty s eem t oh ave a dvanced mos tr a p id ly , l e ad ing t ot h e a ppea rance o fi mpo r tan t c en t re s w i th r e g iona l i n f luence d u r ing m id t o l a te N aqada I . T he c oa le s cence o ft h e se t e r r i to r ies d u r ing t h e Naqada I I p e r iod p robab ly r e su l ted i n as i ng le Uppe r E gyp t ian p o l i ty , w h ich t h en e x tended i t s i nf luence n o r thwa rds t o f o rm a u n if ied E gyp t ian s t a te b y t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e F i rs t Dyna s ty a tt h e l a tes t . U ppe r E gyp t w as a l so t he c en t re o f c u l tu ra l a nd t e chno log ica l c hange . T he e a r l ies t e v idence f o r c raf t s pec ia l isa t ion c omes f r om H ie rakonpo l is , w he re f une ra ry p o t te ry w a sm anuf ac tu red o n al a rge s c a le a se a r ly a sN aqada I ( Hof fman 1 982 ) . T echno log ica l a dvances i n p o t te ry m anuf a c tu re d eve loped i nU ppe r E gyp t s ubsequen t ly s p read t h roughou t t h e N i le v a l ley . T h is i st h e p roce ss o f ' c u l tu ra l u n if ica t ion ' w h ich i sa t tes ted a tB u to a nd wh ich l e d t ob o th h a lve s o f t h e c oun t ry s har ing a s i ng le ma te r ia l c u l tu re b y N aqada I I .U ppe rE gyp tw a st h e refo re a tt h eh ea r to ft h es t a te f o rma t ion p rocess . T he e f f ec t s o f t h is p roce ss s hou ld b e r ef lec ted i nt h e mor tua ry s phe re , i nt h eP redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly D yna s t ic c eme te r ie so f Uppe rE gyp t .

T he P redyna s t ic c eme te ry ( N7000 ) a tN aga e d -De i r( Ly thgoe a nd Dunham 1 965 ) m igh t h ave b een amo re o bv ious c ho ice f o r s e r ia t ion t h an Maha sna . T he re i s ap l an o ft h e s i te , a nd t h ec eme te ry h a sb een s t ud ied b yF r iedman ( 1981) . H oweve r , u n l ike Maha sna , t h ec eme te ry a tN aga e d -De i r d oe s n o t s pan t he P redynas t ic t o E a r ly Dynas t ic t r ans i t ion . T he l a te s t b u r ia ls i n C eme te ry N7000 d a te t o t h e e nd o f N aqada H ence , d e sp i te i t s l i ke ly p rox im i ty t o t h e r eg iona l c ap i ta l T h is , N aga e d -De i r w a s n o t s e le c ted f o r a na lys is . T he m any c eme te r ie s a tA bydo sp ose t h er eve r se p rob lem : m os td a te t o t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod , w i th c ompa ra t ive ly f ew b u r ia ls o f N aqada I d a te . F u r the rmo re , t h e c eme te r ies a r e mos t ly v e ry s ma l l a nd s ca t te red , mak ing t h e i ra s soc ia t ion w i th ap a r t icu la r c o mmun i ty d i f f icu l t t oe s tab l ish . T he c eme te ry a tS a lmany , j u s t n o r th o f A bydos , w a s n o t a pp rop r ia te f o r t he p re sen t s t udy , d esp i te t h e f a c t t h a t i ti sw e l l p ub l ished ( e l -Sayed 1 979 ; a na lysed b y H end r ickx 1 989 , 1 993 ) . I tw a s a bandoned t owa rd st h ee nd o ft h eP redyna s t ic p e r iod ( t he l a te s tg r ave sa r e o f Naqada I I d a te ) a nd d oe s n o t , t he refore , s pan t h e P redynas t ic t o E a r ly Dyna s t ic t r ans i t ion ( e l -Sayed 1 979 : 2 59 ) . Mahasna ' Pre -dynas t ic ' c e metery

T he t h ree s i te sc hosen f o r a na lys i s a r e Maha sna , A rman t a nd H ie rakonpo l is . O ne o f t h e t h ree c en t res o f e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l a u tho r i ty t o eme rge i n N aqada I t imes w a s T h is . T he s e t t lemen t i t se lf h a s n o t b een l o ca ted , b u t p robab ly l a y i nt h e v i c in i ty o f t h e mode rn t own o f G i rga . T he r u le r s o f T h is s eem t o h ave t r iumphed i n t h e f i na l s t age s o f s t a te f o rma t ion , c l a im ing t he k ingsh ip o f au n i ted E gyp t ( c f . T r igge r 1 983 : 5 2 ) . T he T h in i te a r ea p l ayed au n ique p a r t i n t h e p roce ss o fs t a te f o rma t ion , l e s s a c t ive i ni t s e a r ly s t age s b u t d om inan t a t i t s c u lm ina t ion . T he e f fec t s o f t h is i n vo lvemen t a r e l i ke ly t oh ave b een f e l tb y t h e c ommun i t ie s o f t h e r e g ion . T he P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dynas t ic s i te o f Maha sna l i e sc l ose t ot h ep re sumed l o ca t ion o fT h is , a nd m ay

T he a r chaeo log ica l s i te o f Maha sna l i e s o n t h e w es tb ank o f t h e N i le , i nt h e A bydos o r T h in i te r eg ion o f Uppe r E gyp t . T he a r chaeo log ica l s i te o f A bydos i ss i tua ted 9 km t o t h e s ou th -ea s t , w h i le t h et own o fG i rga l i es a c ros s t h e f l oodp la in , 1 0 km t ot h e n o r th -ea s t . T he N i le i s1 2 km f r om Maha sna b e tween t h e t wo l i es a b road b and o f c u l t iva t ion . T he P redyna s t ic c eme te ry l a y o n t h e l ow d e se r t , t ot h e s ou th -we s t o f t h e v i l lage o fe l - Maha sna , a pp rox ima te ly 1km f r om t h e c u l t iva t ion a nd o n t h e n o r th b ank o f ab road w ad i . T he c l if f s f o rm ing t h e w e s te rn e s ca rpmen t l i e a t ad i s tance o fa bou t 2 km t o t h e s ou th -wes t o f t h e c eme te ry . T he c eme te ry " occup ied a n o va l s t re tch o fg round a bou t 1 80 x 1 50 y a rd s

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[ 1 65 x 1 37m ] i na r ea" ( Ay r ton & L oa t 1 911 : 1 ) . Av i s i t t o t h e s i te i n Ma rch 1 992 r evea led t h a t t h e a r ea o f l ow d e se r t b eh ind t h ev i l lage o fe l - Maha sna h a sc hanged much i nr e cen t y ea r s . A s a tm any o the r s i te s t h roughou t t h eN i le v a l ley , t h e a r ea o fc u l t iva t ion i sb e ing c on t inua l ly e x tended b y means o f i r r iga t ion , c l a im ing mo re a nd mo re o f t h e l ow d ese r t f o r a g r icu l tu re . T he s i te o f A y r ton a nd L oa t 's P redynas t ic c eme te ry , a sm uch a s i tc ou ld s t i l l b e p inpo in ted , a ppea r s t o l i eu nde r ar e cen t ly i r r iga ted a r ea .T he l ow d e se r tf u r the rt ot h e s ou th -we s th a sn o te scaped e i the r . I ti sc u r ren t ly t h e f o cus o f m uch e a r th -mov ing a c t iv i ty . T he ma in c eme te ry a t Maha sna w a s e xcava ted b y aB r i t ish e xped i t ion u nde rt h ed i rec t ion o fA y r ton a nd L oa t( 1911) , a nd u nde r t h ea u sp ice so ft h eE gyp tE xp lo ra t ion F und , i n as i ng le s e ason d u r ing e a r ly 1 909 . T he e xcava t ion r epo r tr ema ins t h e o n ly s ou r ce f o rs t udy ing t h es i te . T he p ub l ished e xcava t ion r e po r t e xp l ic i t ly c onf ined i t se lf t o " a b a re s t a temen t o f t h e f a c ts" ( Ay r ton & L oa t 1 911 : 2 ) . A na ly s is o f t h e d a ta f r om t h e c eme te ry h ad t o w a i t u n t i l K emp 's ( 1982 ) s t udy . U s ing t he HORSHU c ompu te r p rog ram d eve loped a tC amb r idge U n ive r s i ty K emp p roduced a s e r ia t ion o f 9 8 g rave s b y means o f a mu l t i -d imens iona l s ca l ing r ou t ine ,b a sed u pon t h ep o t te ry .K emp i d en t if ied t h ree g roups o f g rave s , c o r respond ing t o t h ree c u l tu ra l p ha se s d u r ing t h e l i f e o f t he c eme te ry . T he f i r s t t wo p ha se s w e re p l aced i nt h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod , t h e t h i rd p ha se w i th in t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod . K emp 's s t udy w a si n tended " me re ly t o d emons t ra te ap a r t icu la r m e thod o f a na ly s is" ( Kemp 1 982 : 1 2 ) a nd d id n o t , t he refo re , u se r e su l t s o f t h e Mahasna s e r ia t ion a s ab a s is f o r f u r the r i nves t iga t ion . H oweve r , t h e s t udy d id n o te e xp l ic i t ly s ome s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence s i nt h e p o t te ry a s semb lages o ft wo d i f f e ren t s i te s f o r c on tempo ra ry p e r iod s . A r man t C emetery

1 400 -1500

T he s i te o fA rman t l i e s o n t he w e s t b ank o ft h e N i le , t ot h e s ou th o fa nc ien t T hebe s , i n Uppe r E gyp t . L uxo r i ss i tua ted s ome 1 5 k m t ot h e e a s t -no r th -ea s t , o n t h e o ppos i te b ank o f t h e N i le . T he N i le l i es a t ad i s tance o f6 . 5 km f r om t h e s i te . B e tween t h es i te a nd t h eN i le t h e re e x tends ab road c u l t iva ted f l oodp la in . T he P redyna s t ic c eme te r ie s w e re l o ca ted o n t h e e dge o ft h el ow d ese r t , 7km t ot h en o r th -we s t o ft h e mode rn v i l lage o f A rman t , n ea r t he r u ined mona s te ry o f D e ir e n -Namu s ( Mond & Mye r s 1 937b : p l s . I -I ) . C eme te ry 1 400 1 500 o ccup ied a n a r ea 1 70m ( N t oS )b y 8 4m ( E t o W) . T he a r ea w a sv i s i ted b yt he a u tho r i nA p r i l 1 992 , a nd h a sc hanged c ons ide rab ly s i nce Mond a nd Mye r s 's e xcava t ions . S ome p lace -names h ave c hanged , wh i le o the r v i l lages a nd mona s te r ie s s hown o n t h e e xcava t ion m ap n o l o nge r e x is t ; t h is m ake s p i npo in t ing t h e e xac t s i te o f t h e c eme te ry v e ry d i ff icu l t . T he c u l t iva ted a r ea h a sb een e xpanded b y m ean s o f i r r iga t ion , e nc roa ch ing o n a r ea s w h ich w e re p rev ious ly l ow d e se r t . A l though i tp roved i mpos s ib le t ol o ca te t h e s i te o ft h e c eme te ry p rec ise ly , i ti s c l ea r f r om t he g rea t ly -a l te red a ppea rance o ft h ea r ea t h a tt h eg round i nt h ev i c in i ty h a sb een much d i s tu rbed i nr e cen ty ea r s . T he P redyna s t ic c eme te r ies w e re e xcava ted b y aB r i t ish e xped i t ion u nde r t h e d i rec t ion o f Mye r s , a nd u nde r t h e a usp ice s o ft h eE gyp tE xp lo ra t ion S oc ie ty , d u r ing t h e 1 930 s . T he e xcava t ion r epo r t( Mond & Mye r s 1 937a , 1 937b ) , w h ich c omp r ise st wo v o lume s -at e x tv o lume a nd a n a ccompany ing v o lume o fp l a te s -i sj u s t ly n o ted f o r i t s h i gh s t anda rd ( Ba rd 1 988 : 4 0 ) .

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A s ar e su l to fi t sb e ing t h eb e s t re co rded P redyna s t ic c eme te ry i nE gyp t , C eme te ry 1 400 -1500 a tA rman th a sb een t h eb a s i s o fs eve ra l s t ud ie s s i nce i t so r ig ina l p ub l ica t ion . K a ise r( 1957 ) u sed t h e c eme te ry a s t h e b a s is o f h i s i nve s t iga t ion o f t h e P redyna s t ic U ppe r E gyp t ian c u l tu ra l s equence . B y c a re fu l s t udy o ft h e c on ten t s o fe ach g rave ( p r inc ipa l ly t h e p o t te ry , b u t a l so t ak ing i n to a ccoun t t h e o t he rt ype s o fa r tef a c t -s t one v e s se ls , f l in tk n ive sa nd i v o ry o b jec t s ) K a ise r i d en t if ied e i gh t c u l tu ra l /ch rono log ica l p hase s i n t he d eve lopmen t o f t h e c eme te ry ; t h e se h e g rouped i n to t h ree b roade r p ha se s , wh ich h en amed N aqada I ,F La nd I I . K a ise r 's p ha ses o rS tuf en , a nd t h e a s semb lage o f p o t te ry t ype s wh ich h e a s soc ia ted w i th e ach o f t h em , h ave b een u sed t od a te P redyna s t ic ma te r ia l t h roughou t E gyp t e ve r s i nce . I n a n e a r ly e xam ina t ion o f s er ia t ion t heory , W i lk inson ( 1974 ) t e s ted s eve ra l ma thema t ica l s e r ia t ion p rocedu re s a ga in s t t h e d a ta f r om A rman t . H e c ompa red t h e r e su l t s w i th t h e i n c idence ma t r ix p ub l ished b yK a ise r .K emp ( 1982 : 7 )c onduc ted as e r ia t ion o f t h e s ame c eme te ry , u s ing t h e HORSHU c ompu te rp rog ram 's mu l t i -d imens iona l s ca l ing r ou t ine . T he r e su l t s o f t h is w ork w e re n eve rp ub l ished , b u t s how s ome s i gn if ican t d i f fe rence s f r om K a ise r 's A rman t s equence . F o r e xamp le , K emp 's a na ly s is r evea ls o n ly f ou r p ha se s a s o pposed t o K a ise r 's e i gh t . K emp 's r e su l t s d o n o t d i s t ingu ish b e tween g rave s o f S tuf en I c a nd I dl , o r b e tween g rave s o fS tuf en I d2 a nd I Ia l . T he se p o in t s a r eb orne o u tb y t h er e su l t s o ft h ep re sen t s t udy . S e id lmaye r ( 1988 ) a pp l ied s t a t is t ica l me thods o f a na lys is t o t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f g rave w ea l th a t A rman t C eme te ry 1 400 -1500 , c onc lud ing t h a t t h e c eme te ry s howed a l l t h e h a l lma rk s o f h av ing s e rved a s ma l l , s t ab le f a rm ing c ommun i ty w h ich a ppa ren t ly s aw l i t t le c hange i ni t s i n te rna l s oc ia l s t ruc tu re . B a rd ( 1988 ) u nde r took aq uan t i ta t ive a na ly s is o f t h e b u r ia ls i nC eme te ry 1 400 -1500 i no rde r t o" deve lop g ene ra l iza t ion s c once rn ing p a t ter n s i nc eme te ry e vo lu t ion f o r t h eE gyp t ian P redyna s t ic , a nd t od e te rm ine t h e l e ve l o fs oc ia l o rgan iza t ion a tA rman t a nd c hange s i nt h is t h rough t ime" . T he r e su l t s o ft h is s t udy h ave b een d i scu ssed e a r l ie r i nt h e p re sen tw o rk .F u r the ra na ly se s o fm o r tua ry d a ta f r om A rman t w e re c a r r ied o u tb yE nde sf e lde r ( 1 990 ) a nd G r iswo ld ( 1992 ) . H end r ickx 's ( 1989 , 1 993 ) i nves t iga t ion o f P redyna s t ic c h rono logy b y m eans o fh o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy i n c luded a n a na ly s is o fA rman tC eme te ry 1 400 1500 . H ierakonpo l i s F or t C e metery T he a r chaeo log ica l s i te o f H ie rakonpo l is l i es o n t h e w e s t b ank o f t h e N i le , i ns ou the rn Uppe r E gyp t , j u s t o ve r 1km s ou th -we s t o f t h e v i l lage o f e l - Mu issa t ( Ba ine s & Mä . lek 1 980 : 7 1 , 7 8 ) . T he t own o f E dfu l i e s a bou t 1 5 km t o t h e s ou th -sou th -ea s t o f t he s i te . T he N i le i s 2 km f r om H ie rakonpo l is , a c ros s t h e f l oodp la in . T he s i te c omp r ise s e x tens ive r ema ins ,p a r t icu la r ly f r om t h eP redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod s . T he s e t t lemen t r ema in s a r ep a r t ly c ove red b yr e cen t c u l t iva t ion , b u t t h e a nc ien tc eme te r ie s h ave l a rge ly e scaped t h e r avage s o f t ime . T hey a r e l o ca ted o n t h e l ow d e se r tt ot h ew e s to ft h ec u l t iva t ion . O n t h en o r the rn s i de o fa l a rge w ad i l e ad ing f r om t h e t own s i te i n to t h e d e se r t l i e s a l a rge m udb r ick s t ruc tu re , p robab ly d a t ing t ot h e l a te S econd Dyna s ty , wh ich i sk nown a s ' t he F o r t ' ( C la rke 1 902 ) . I ti s w i th in t h e w a l ls o f t h is s t ruc tu re t h a t t h e P redyna s t ic -Ea r ly Dyna s t ic c eme te ry k nown a s t h e F o r t C eme te ry i ss i tua ted . T he e xcava ted g r ave si nt h eF or tC eme te ry a r es p read o ve ra n a r ea -w i th in t h e w a l ls o ft h e F o r t -o f5 3m ( no r th t os ou th ) b y 8 8m ( e a s t t ow e s t ) . " Su rf ace s u rveys o f t h e a r ea n o r th , e a s t a nd w e s t ( beh ind ) t h e F o r t . .h ave i n d ica ted t h a t t h e c eme te ry e x tended w e l l b eyond t h e w a l ls" ( Adams 1 987 : 1 77 ) . T he F o r t C eme te ry h as e scaped t h e f a te o f o the r P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly D yna s t ic c eme te ry s i te s i n t h e N i le

e xcava t ion s ; as e cond t ime u s ing P e t r ie 's e qu iva len tt y pe s , a s p ub l ished s ho r t ly a f te rt h ea ppea rance o fJ unke r 's e xcava t ion r epo r t . T he r e su l t s o f t h ese t wo s e r ia t ions a re p re sen ted i n ma t r ix f o rm , s i de -by -s ide w i th t he r e su l t f r om t h e s e r ia t ion me thod u sed t h roughou tt h ep re sen ts t udy .

v a l ley , r ema in ing u nd is tu rbed s i nce i t s o r ig ina l e xcava t ion , e xcep t f o r s ome s ma l l -sca le a r chaeo log ica l a c t iv i ty i nr e cen t y ea r s ( Fa i rse rv is 's t e s t e xcava t ions o f 1 978 a nd 1 981) . H ie rakonpo l is i st h e o n ly s i te i nt h e p re sen t s t udy w h ich i s t he f ocus o f c u r ren t a r chaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion . A n Ame r ican e xped i t ion h a s b een e xcava t ing a tH ie rakonpo l is s i nce 1 969 ( Fa i r se rv is 1 983 , 1 986 ; F a i r se rv is & H of fman 1 971-1972 ; H of fman 1 974 , 1 980 , 1 982 , 1 986 , 1 989 ; H of fman e t a l . 1 986 ) . E ach n ew s eason r evea ls mo re i n fo rma t ion a bou tt h es e t t lemen t sa nd c eme te r ie sa tt h es i te . T he F o r tC eme te ry w a s f i r s te xcava ted b yG a r s tang , o nb eha lf o f t h e L ive rpoo l U n ive r s i ty E xcava t ions C omm i t tee , i n a s i ng le s ea son d u r ing e a r ly 1 905 . An e xcava t ion b y t h e Me t ropo l i tan Museum o f A r t i n 1 934 c l ea red o ne h und red g rave s o u t s ide t h ee n t rance o ft h eF o r ta nd i nt h eG rea t Wad i t o t h e s ou th -ea s t . Two f u r the r t e s t e xcava t ion s w i th in t h e F or t w e re u nde r taken b y t he Ame r ican H ie rakonpo l is e xped i t ion u nde rt h ed i re c t ion o fF a i r se rv is i n1 978 a nd 1 981 . Ga rs tang n eve r p ub l ished h i s 1 905 e xcava t ion , b u t h i s e xcava t ion n o tebook sa nd p ho tog raph s s u rv ived a nd a r eh e ld b y L ive rpoo l U n ive rs i ty . T hese d ocumen t s a l lowed K emp ( 1963 ) t op ub l ish ap re l im ina ry e xcava t ion r e po r t , w h ich w a s f o l lowed b y A dams 's ( 1987 ) d e ta i led p ub l ica t ion o fa l t h e r e co rded g r ave s . T he r e su l t s o f t h e Me t ropo l i tan Museum e xcava t ions w e re p ub l ished i n ap re l im ina ry f o rm b yL ans ing ( 1935 ) . T he r e su l t s f r om F a i rse rv is 's t wo t e s t e xcava t ions h ave n o tb een p ub l ished . A dam s 's ( 1987 )p ub l ica t ion i n c lude s ad e ta i led a na ly s is o ft h e i n te rmen t s i n t h e F o r t C eme te ry , w i th s t a t is t ica l d a ta o n f r equency o f p o t te ry t ype s , g rave s hape , s i ze , w ea l th a nd o r ien ta t ion . A dams d a ted e ach i nd iv idua l g rave , o n t h e b a s is o f i t s p o t te ry , u s ing Ka ise r 's s ys tem o fS tuf en , H end r ickx ( 1990 ) s ugge s ted r ev ised d a te s f o r 2 9 g raves . A ss ign ing g rave se i the rt oN aqada I o rt oN aqada I I a lowed A dams t o c a lcu la te c hange so ve rt ime -i . e . d i f f e rence sb e tween t h et wo b road c h rono log ica l p hase s -i n t he d i f f e ren t mo r tua ry v a r iab le s ( f requency o f p o t te ry t ypes , g rave s hape , e t c . ) . A dam s 's p ub l ica t ion i n c lude s as t udy b y H of fman , u t i l is ing t hese r e su l t s , o f a l l t h e H ie rakonpo l is c eme te r ies f r om a r eg iona l p e r spec t ive ( Adams 1 987 : 1 76 -186 ) . H e f o cuse s o n " th ree t heore t ica l a spec ts o f t h e mor tua ry e v idence" , p opu la t ion s i ze , c eme te ry p a t te rn ing a nd s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion . Hof fman 's s t udy p rov ide s av a luab le i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e mo r tua ry e v idence f r om H ie rakonpo l is , a nd a l so c ompa re st h e H ie rakonpo l is c eme te r ie sw i th c on tempo ra ry e l i te c eme te r ie s a to the rs i te s .H end r ickx ( 1989 , 1 993 ) a na ly sed t h eh o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy o ft h eF o r tC eme tery a sp a r to fh i sw ide rang ing s t udy o fP redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic c h rono logy .

Con tro l s er ia t ions A ss t a ted e a r l ie r ,i tw a sd ec ided t oc onduc t an umbe ro fc heck s o n t h e m e thods u sed i nt h ep re sen ts t udy . I np a r t icu la r , i tw a s f e l t i mpo r tan t t o e s tab l ish t h e a ccu racy a nd v a l id i ty o f t h e s e r ia t ion p roce ss a nd t h e t ypo log ica l g roup ings o f p o t te ry . Two s i te sw e re , t h e refo re , s e lec ted f o rc on t ro l s e r ia t ion s . T he c eme te r ie sc hosen a r eb o th c ha rac te r ised b y al im i ted r ange o f c e ram ic t y pe s . T h is makes i tp oss ib le t os e na te t h em u s ing t he e xcava to r 's o r ig ina l p o t te ry t ypo logy , w i thou t f u r the r g roup ing o ft y pe s . I nt h is w ay , t h ee f f ec t o fg roup ing c an b e g auged . T he E a r ly D yna s t ic c eme te ry a tT u ra -a na ly sed a sp a r t o ft h e c u r ren tw o rk -w a ss e r ia ted t w ice f u r the r : o nce u s ing J unke r 's ( 1912 : 3 0 -44 ) o r ig ina l t ypo logy , d ev ised f o r a nd d u r ing h i s

3 6

T he s e cond c eme te ry c hosen f o r c on t ro l s e r ia t ions i st h e N aqada I I c eme te ry a tE lkab ( Hend r ickx 1 994 ) . T h is h a s a g rea t a dvan tage o ve r mos t o f t he o the r s i te s i n t h e p re sen t s t udy , i nt h a t i th a s b een e xcava ted a nd p ub l ished i nm ode rn t ime s . T he e xcava t ion r epo r ti s , t he ref o re , o f ah igh s t anda rd . T he c eme te ry w a s s e r ia ted t w ice : o nce u s ing t h e p o t te ry t ypo logy d ev ised s pec if ica l ly f o r t h e s i te ( Hend r ickx 1 994 : 1 5 -107 ) ; as econd t ime u s ing t he t ypo log ica l g roup ings d eve loped f o r t h is s t udy . T h is i st h e mos t e f f ec t ive w ay o f c heck ing t h e v a l id i ty o f t he p resen t t ypo log ica l g roup ings a ga ins t t h e c l as s if ica t ion s ys tem d ev ised b y a n e xpe r ienced P redyna s t ic c e ram ic is t . O nce a ga in , t h er e su l t s , a r ep re sen ted s i de -by s ide , f o re a se o fc ompa r ison .

The s ource ma ter ia l T he ma in s ou rce s f o rt h ep re sen ts t udy h ave b een t h e o r ig ina l e xcava t ion r e po r t so ft h es i te sc once rned .T he e xcep t ion i st h e H ie rakonpo l is F or t C eme tery , f o r wh ich t he r ecen t p ub l ica t ion b y A dam s h a s b een u sed . U nfo r tuna te ly , o n ly i n t h e c a se o f T a r l chan h a s i tp roved p oss ib le t o s upp lemen t t h e se e xcava t ion r epo r t s b y o the r r e co rds , n ame ly P e t r ie 's e xcava t ion n o tebooks a nd t omb c a rds , n ow p roduced i n m ic rof iche f o rm b y t h e P e t r ie Museum . I na dd i t ion , m uch o f t h e ma te r ia l f r om t h e T a r l chan e xcava t ions i sh e ld b y B r i t ish museum s . A l a rge a moun t o f p o t te ry f r om t he s i te c ou ld t h e ref o re b e e xam ined a tf i r s th and . B y c on t ra s t , t h er e co rds a nd a r tef ac t s f r om J unke r 's e xcava t ion a tT u ra a r e k ep t i n V ienna , a nd , r eg re t tab ly , a ccess t o t hem was r e fused . B run ton 's r e co rds o f h i s s ea sons i n M idd le E gyp t h ave a ppa ren t ly b een l o s t t o E gyp to logy ; n e i the r t h e G r if f i th I n s t i tu te n o r t h e EES h a s b een a b le t ol o ca te a ny m a te r ia l f r om t h e se i mpo r tan t e xcava t ions . T he s ame i s t r ue f o r A y r ton & L oa t 's e xcava t ion a t Maha sna . T he e xcava t ion r epor t o f Mond & Mye r s ' wo rk a t A rman t i s , f o r tuna te ly , p ub l ished i ns uff ic ien t d e ta i l t o make s upp lemen ta ry m a te r ia l u nnece s sa ry . T he s ame d oe s n o t , h oweve r , a pp ly t os ome o f t he a fo remen t ioned r epo r ts , wh ich a r e c ha rac te r ised b y n ume rou sd ef ic ienc ie s ; t h e se n ece ssa r i ly l im i t t h eu se o fs u ch s ou rce sa nd p re sen ts ome i n su rmoun tab le o b s tac le st of u r the r r e sea r ch a nd a na ly s is ( Se id lmaye r 1 990 : 2 -4 ) . F o r i t s t ime , J unke r 's p ub l ica t ion o ft h e T u ra e xcava t ion s i s o f ah igh s t anda rd ; n eve r the les s , t h e g rave r eg is te rd oe sh ave c e r ta in f a i l ings . T hus , t h eg rave d imens ions a r e n o tg i ven f o r a l l t h eb u r ia ls ; t h es ex o ft h e g rave o wne r i sn o ts hown i nt h e r eg is te r , b u ti sg i ven f o r af ew g rave s i n as e pa ra te s e c t ion o f t h e r epor t d ea l ing w i th t h e h uman r ema ins . An a na ly s is o f t he r e la t ive s oc io -econom ic s t a tus o f m en , women a nd c h i ld ren a tT u ra i st h e re fo re i mpos s ib le . P e t r ie 's e xcava t ion r epo r ts f o r T a r l chan p ose d i f fe ren t p rob lems . T he g rave r e g is te r f o rt h e H i l l C eme te r ie sd oe sn o t d i s t ingu ish b e tween s i ng le a nd mu l t ip le o ccur rence s o f a p a r t icu la rp o t te ry t y pe i n ap a r t icu la rg rave . T he p re sence o fa t y pe i sn o ted , b u tn o tt h en umbe r o fi nd iv idua l v e sse ls o ft h a t t ype . T h is d ef ic iency m akes c a lcu la t ions o f g rave w ea l th d i ff icu l t , a nd p roh ib i t st h ed i rec tc ompa r i son o fg rave w ea l th d a ta f r om t h e H i l l C eme te r ies w i th t ha t f r om o the r s i te s . T he s ex o fg r ave o wne r s i sl i s ted f o r o n ly ah andfu l o fg r ave s i n t h e H i l l C eme te r ie s ; t h ed a ta a r e much m o re c omp le te f o rt h e

V a l ley C eme t e ry . T he mo s ts e r ious d rawback o ft h eT a rkhan p ub l ica t ion s i st h e i nadequacy o ft h ec eme te ry p lans . O n t h e p lans o ft h e H i l l C eme te r ies , o n ly as ma l l p ropo r t ion o f t h e g rave s a r en umbe red . T he re fo re , m any o ft h e g rave sl i s ted i n t h er eg is te rc anno tb el o ca ted o n t h ep l ans , m ak ing t h o rough i nve s t iga t ion s o ft he h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy i mpo ss ib le . T he p rob lem , r e cogn ised b y P e t r ie , w a s c aused b y t h e me thod u sed f o r n umbe r ing t he g raves d u r ing t h e c ou rse o f t h e e xcava t ion . A s ar e su l t , o n ly o ne th i rd o ft h e p i t s e xcava ted b y P e t r ie h im se lf we re i d en t if ied b y n umbe r o n t he p lans . Mo re a l a rm ing ly , o ft h e6 56 g r ave se n te red o nt he r eg is te r f o r t h e H i l l C eme te r ies , o n ly 1 67 a r e i d en t if ied o n t h e p lans . T h is i sc l ea r ly a s e r ious d ef ic iency i n t h e p ub l ica t ion . T he s i tua t ion i sb e t te r f o r t h e V a l ley C eme te ry : a l t h e g rave s o n t h ep l an a r en umbe red , a l though t h eu nsys tema t ic n umbe r ing s ys tem m ake si tv e ry d i ff icu l tt ol o ca te ag iven g rave . T he e xcava t ion r epo r t s f o r Ma tma r a nd Mos tagedda i n c lude v e ry d e t a i led g rave r eg is te r s b u t am e re h andfu l o fc eme te ry p lans . I n deed , t he re a r e n o p l ans f o r a ny o f t h e c eme te r ie s a na lysed i nt h ep re sen t s t udy , mak ing h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy i mpos s ib le f o rt h ese t wo s i te s . T he a b sence o fa ny c eme te ry p l an a l so c ha ra c te r ise sA y r ton & L oa t 's ( 1 911) p ub l ica t ion o f t h e e xcava t ions a t Maha sna . F u r the rmo re , i n c ommon w i th m any e xcava t ion r epo r t s o f t he p e r iod , t h e re i sn o c omp le te g rave r eg is te r ; o n ly t h e g rave s" wo r th n o t ing i nf u l l" a r ei n c luded i nt h ec a ta logue .O f t hese , t h e s ex /age o f t h e g rave o wne r i sg iven f o r o n ly a p ropo r t ion o f b u r ia ls , a nd t h e se d e te rm ina t ions a r e o f ten u n re l iab le ( Mann 1 989 ) . Wha t i sl e f t i st he ref ore a v e ry i n comp le te r e co rd o f t h e o r ig ina l e xcava t ions ; t h e g rave s d e scr ibed i n t he p ub l ica t ion h ave b een s e lec ted b y t he e xcava to r . G iven t h e i nadequacy o f s uch r epo r ts , i ti s e ncou rag ing t ha t n ew me thods o f s t a t is t ica l a na lys is c an e x t rac tm ean ingfu lr e su l t s f r om i n comp le te d a ta . Mond & Mye rs ' e xcava t ion r e po r to fA rman ti so f ten c i ted a s e xemp la ry ; t he c omp le tenes s o f t h e g rave r eg is te r s , t h e d e ta i led c eme te ry p l an a nd t h ef u l l a ccompany ing t e x tj u s t ify s uch ad e sc r ip t ion . F ina l ly , A dams 's p ub l ica t ion o f G a rs tang 's e xcava t ion r eco rds f r om t he F o r t C eme te ry a tH ie rakonpo l is i sl im i ted b y t h e q ua l i ty o f o r ig ina l r e co rds . V e ry f ew s ex o r a ge d e te rm ina t ions a r e g iven , a nd t h e re a r e p rob lems w i th t h e c o r rec ti d en t if ica t ion o fp o t te ry t y pe s ( Hend r ickx 1 990 : 6 44 5 ) . I np a r t icu la r , t h ec opy ing o fG a r s tang 's o r ig ina l d raw ing s a ppea r s s omewha t r ud imen ta ry . C on tra Hendr ickx ( 1990 : 6 44 ) , i ti sc l ea r t h a t A dam s 's p o t te ry s ke tche s a r e c op ied d i rec t ly f r om Ga r s tang 's o wn d raw ings , a nd n o t t a ken f r om P e t r ie 's c o rpo ra . A dams ( 1987 : 2 ) h e r se lf s t a te s t ha t t h e p ub l ica t ion p re sen t s" af a c s im i le o ft h ed raw ings a nd n o te si n t h e n o tebook s" . N one the less , t h e p ho tog raph s o ft wo p age s f r om G a r s tang 's n o tebook ( Adam s 1 987 : p l s . 2 5 , 2 6 ) s how t h a th i sp o t te ry d raw ing s " we re m ade s k i lfu l ly a nd w e re f a i r ly d e ta i led" ( Hend r ickx 1 990 : 6 44 ) . S ome o f t he p o t te ry w a s t yped b y p e r sona l i n spec t ion o fv e sse ls h e ld i n mu seums o r b y t h ee xam ina t ion o fg ood p ho tog raph s . H oweve r , t h is w a s n o t p o ss ib le f o r a l l t he p o t te ry . A s A dams ( 1987 : 1 76 ) a dm i t s , " whe re n oe xcava t ion p ho tog raph s e x is t , t y p ing f r om t he i n adequa te u nsca led s ke t che si se x t reme ly r i sky" . S eve ra l q ue s t ion -ma rk s r ema in o ve r t h e a ccu racy o ft h e p ub l ica t ion . T he d a ta f r om t h e H ie rakonpo l is F o r t C eme te ry s hou ld , p e rhap s , n o t b e r e ga rded o n t h e s ame l e ve l a s t h a t f r om t h e o the r c eme te r ie s a na lysed i n t h e p resen t s t udy . ( Th is i s c e r ta in ly t h e o p in ion o f a n a nonymous r ev iewe r o f t he p re sen tw o rk . )

3 7

S ERIATION RESULTS Af ew g ene ra l c ommen t s o n t he i n te rp re ta t ion o f as e r ia t ion ma t r ix w ou ld s eem a pp rop r ia te . T he n umbe r sr epea ted o n t h e l e f t a nd r i gh t -hand s i de s o f t h e ma t r ix r e f e r t o t h e g rave s . T hese h ave b een s o r ted b y s e r ia t ion i n to a n i n fe r red c h rono log ica l o rde r , w i th t h e e a r l ie r g rave s t owa rd s t h e t op , t h e l a te r g rave s t owa rd s t h e b o t tom . T he n umbe r s a tt h e t o p a nd b o t tom o f t he ma t r ix r efe r t o t he p o t te ry g roups , s im i la r ly s o r ted i n to a n a pprox ima te c h rono log ica l o rde r , w i th e a r l ie r g roups f u r the r t ot h e l e f t , l a te r g roups f u r the r t o t h e r i gh t . I ti si mpo r tan t t o n o te t ha t t h e o rde r o f p o t te ry g roups w i l l v a ry , t o ac e r ta in e x ten t , f r om s i te t os i te , s i nce t h e l i f e s pan o fs ome t ype s i sn o t u n ifo rm t h roughou tE gyp t . T he r e la t ive p os i t ion o f ap a r t icu la r g roup l a rge ly d epends u pon t h e o the r g roups w i th wh ich i ti sa s soc ia ted i n t h e c eme te ry a s aw ho le . E ach c ross o n t h e ma t r ix r epresen ts t h e o ccu r rence o f a p a r t icu la r p o t te ry g roup i n ap a r t icu la r g rave . Wh i ls t t h e h or izon ta lr ow s o fc r os se ss how t h eo ve ra l l p o t te ry c on ten to f e ach g rave , i ti st h e v e r t ica l l i ne s o f c r osse s t h a t a r e mo re i mpo r tan t f o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e ma t r ix a s aw ho le . E ach o ft h e se v e r t ica l l i ne s s how st h el i f es pan o f ap a r t icu la r p o t te ry g roup , f r om i t s e a r l ie s t a ppea rance n ea re r t h e t op o f t h e m a t r ix t oi t sf i na l a ppea rance t owa rds t h eb o t tom . C e r ta in p o in ts i n t h e ma t r ix a re h igh l igh ted b y t he s imu l taneous a ppea rance a nd /o r d i sappea rance o f s eve ra l p o t te ry g r oups . T hese p o in t sc ons t i tu te s i gn if ican t c hange s i n t h e o ve ra l lc e ram ic a s semb lage . T hey m ay t h us b ei n te rp re ted a sm a rk ing t h ed iv is ions b e tween d i f f e ren t c u l tu ra l p ha se s i n t h el i f e o ft h ec eme te ry . I nt h es e r ia t ion m a t r ice sp re sen ted i n t h is s t udy ,h o r izon ta l l i ne sh ave b een d rawn a ts uch p o in ts t o d e l inea te t h e p ha ses i d en t if ied . L e ss m a rked c hange s i n t h e a s semb lage h ave b een t a ken t oi nd ica te s ubd iv is ions w i th in a p ha se . Ap ha se , o rs ubpha se , may b ed ef ined a sc omp r is ing a s i gn if ican t n umbe r o fg rave s wh ich s ha re t h e s ame , o rv e ry s im i la r , c omb ina t ion o fp o t te ry g roups .

Tura I n t o ta l , 5 82 g raves w e re e xcava ted b y J unke r i n t h e T u ra E a r ly Dynas t ic c eme te ry . O f t hese , 15 f u lf i l led t he c ond i t ions f o r s e r ia t ion -i . e . c on ta ined a tl e a s t t wo n on u n ique p o t te ry g roup s . T he p o t te ry f r om t h e se 15 g rave s c omp r ised 3 3d i f f e ren tp o t te ry g roups , f ou ro fw h ich o ccu r red o n ly o nce . H ence , t h e f i na l s e r ia t ion ma t r ix c omp r ise s 15 g rave s a nd 2 8p o t te ry g roups . F u l l s e r ia t ion d a ta a r eg iven i n t h eA ppend ix . T he r e su l t o f t h e s e r ia t ion i ss hown i nF igu re 2 ( F igu res 3 a nd 4 s how t h e r e su l ts o f t he c on t ro l s e r ia t ions o f T u ra , d esc r ibed i nd e ta i l t owa rd s t h e e nd o f P a r t 3 ) . T he r e la t ive p os i t ion o f c e r ta in k ey p o t te ry g roups i nd ica tes t he c h rono log ica l o rde r ing a ch ieved b y t h e s e r ia t ion a s aw ho le . I np a r t icu la r , t h et h ree g roup s o fc y l inde rv e s se l -P 050 , P 052 a nd P 053 -a ppea r i n t h e e xpec ted o rde r , r ef lec t ing t he d eve lopmen t f r om t a pe r ing c y l inde r s w i th aw avy d eco ra t ive b and , t h rough p la in c y l inde rs , t o s ma l l a nd s ho r tened c y l ind r ica l v es se ls . L ikew ise , t h e a ppea rance o f b road s hou lde red w ine ja r s -g r oup P 107 -b ef o re n a r row shou lde red o nes - P 108 - i n t h e s e r ia t ion ma t r ix a g rees w i th t he g ene ra l ly a ccep ted v i ew c once rn ing t h ed eve lopmen t o fs uch v e s se l s .

3 8

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fg rave s a nd g roups i nt h e s e r ia t ion m a t r ix s ugge s t s ad iv is ion i n to t h ree p hases : T u ra 1 : g rave sT O44 t oT 177 T u ra 2 : g rave sT 113 t oT 335 T u ra 3 : g rave sT 539 t oT 573 . O n c l ose r i n spec t ion o ft h e ma t r ix , p ha se s 1a nd 3e me rge a s t h e mo re d i s t inc t ive , w h i ls tp ha se 2may b ec ha rac te r ised a sa t r ans i t iona l p ha se , c omp r is ing p o t te ry g roups c ommon i n p hase s 1a nd 3 . Ac ompa r ison o ft h ep ha se si d en t if ied w i th P e t r ie 's S equence D a te s may b ei n s t ruc t ive . T he f i gu res i nt h et a b le r e f e rt ot h e n umbe r o fg rave s o fe ach S equence -Da t ei ne ach o ft h et h re e s e r ia t ion p ha se s .

Phase T u ra 1 T u ra 2 T u ra 3

S . D. 78 3 2 1 7

S . D. 79 4 9 1

S . D. 80 1 1 5 3 1

S . D. 8 1

Total

5

3 7 4 1 3 7

T he S equence -Da te s f o re a ch p ha se s how t h ep rog re s s ion t h a t w ou ld b e e xpec ted . T he b road c or respondence b e tween t h e p ha se s a nd P e t r ie 's S equence -Da tes m ay b e s umma r ised a s f o l low s : T u ra 1 : S. D .78 T u ra 2 : S .D .78 -80 T u ra 3 : S .D .80 -81 . A ga in , t h e t r ans i t iona l n a tu re o fp ha se 2a tT u ra s e ems t ob e c onf irmed . Hor izon ta l

s t ra t igraphy

T he r e su l t so ft h es e r ia t ion m ay a l so b ec he cked b yh o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy , u s ing t h ep ub l ished p lan o ft h ec eme te ry ( J unke r 1 912 ) . When t h eg rave s a r ep lo t ted a cco rd ing t ot h e i rp ha se i n t h e s e r ia t ion , t h e p i c tu re t h a t eme rges i so f an o r thwa rd a nd e as twa rd s p read o f t he c eme te ry o ve r t ime ( F igu re 5 ) . Mo reove r , t h eh o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy a ppea r s t os uppo r t t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft wo c l ea r p ha se s s epa ra ted b y at r ans i t iona l p ha se . T hus , g rave s b e long ing t o t he f i r s t a nd l a s t p ha se s , T u ra 1 a nd T u ra 3 , s how t he c l ea re s t g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion . T he p lo t ted g raves o f T u ra 1a r e a l l l o ca ted i n t h e c eme te ry 's s ou the rn s e c t ion , t he ma jo r i ty o ft h em t ot h e s ou th a nd w e s t . T he p lo t ted g raves o fT u ra 3a r e a l l l o ca ted e i the r i n t h e c eme te ry 's n o r the rn s ec t ion o ri n t h e e x t reme n o r th -eas t c o rne r o f t h e s ou the rn s ec t ion . T he d iv is ion b e tween t h e se t wo g roup s o fg raves / two p ha ses i sv e ry c l ea r c u t . B y c on t ra s t , t h e p lo t ted g raves o f T u ra 2 s how l e s s c oncen t ra t ion : t h ey a r ed i s t r ibu ted t h roughou tt h ec eme te ry .

PP P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1 1 10 1

1 1 10 1

0 125 0 5 20

1 10 0 1

1 1 1 10 1

1 1 10 1

7 044

X

4 5 7 9

1

7 044

X

1 017

XX

1 22 3

X

1 109

XX

1 246

X

1 0 36

X

10

3 10 9 9 0 0 3 2 15 1 2 2 0 9 1 19

5 1 5 0 7 0 6 4 2 4 2 17 5 6 3 5 7 9 3 4 0 2

7 017 1 223

X

T 109 1 246

X

1 036

XX

1 027

7 027 T 110

1 110

XX

1 047

X

X

7 047

1 049

X

X

7 049

1 095

X

X

7 095

T OGO

X

X

T CGO

1 090

X

X

7 090

1 172

X

X

7 172

1 179

X

X

1 0 34

X

/ 122

X

X

1034

X

1 112

X

X

1 293

1 293

X

X

1 131

7 179

X

X

X

1 13 1

T O25

X

X

X

7 025

T IO I

X

X

X

1 10 1

T 057

X

X

1 057

T O89

X

X

T OS9

1 054

X

X

1 038

X

X

1 164

1

1 06 4

X

X

1 197

X

X

X

XX

X

X

7 048

X X

1 042

X

1 01$

X

X

X

1 222

X

X

10 82

X XX X

X

1 015 12 56

X

1 058 7 17 7

X X

1 113

X

X

2

1 204

XX X

X

1 044

X

X

1 043

X

XX

1 336

1 120

X

X

1 0 84

X

1 139

XX

7 40 3

X

1 336

X

T1 19

X X

7 403

X X

X

1 10 1

1 111 T 169

12

T 169 X

1 2 73 X

X X

X

7 311

X

X

1 2 16

XX

1 117

X

1 158

X X

X X X

1 191 X

T 1S6

X

1 311 1 216

X X

1 117

x

1 158 X

X X

1 241

1 273

XXX X

1 186

1 551

TO P9

X

T 204

1 193

1 053

X X X

X

1 058 1 177

X

X

12 56

1 043

7 197

X

XX

1 222

1 120

1 164 T O6 t

X

X

1 099

T 113

TOSS XX

1 048 1 053

1 054

X

X

1 091

X

X

7 496

X

X

1 230

X

XX

1 241 T O91

XX

7 496 11 30

X

1 2 15

1 351

X

X

X

1 215

x

1 159

1 159 1 019

1 019

1 54 3

X

1 343

1 427

x X

1 487 X

7 174

T I74

X

1 435

X

1 162

X

1 435

XX

XX

1 494

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T arkhan At o ta l o f2 34 g r ave s f r om t he H i l l C eme te r ie s s a t isf ied t h e c r i te r ia f o r s e r ia t ion . T he se c on ta ined 4 4 p o t te ry g roups , o f w h ich f i ve o ccu r red o n ly o nce . T he s eda t ion m a t r ix t h e refo re c omp r ise s 2 34 g rave s a nd 3 9 p o t te ry g roups . F u l l s e r ia t ion d a ta a r eg i ven i nt h eA ppend ix . T he r e su l to ft h e s eda t ion i ss hown i nF igu re 6 .O nce a ga in , c e r ta in k ey p o t te ry g roups a ppea r i n t h e e xpec ted o rde r , c onf i rm ing t h eg ene ra l c h rono log ica l v a l id i ty o ft h es e r ia t ion r e su l t . Ap a r t icu la r a dvan tage o ft h eT a rkhan H i l lC eme te r ie s f o r s e r ia t ion i st h e o ccu r rence o fs eve ra l r oya l n ames , i n c i sed o r p a in ted o n p o t te ry v e sse ls . T he o rde r ing o f t h e g rave s w h ich c on ta ined t h e se r oya l n ame s i sp a r t icu la r ly i n te re s t ing f o r o u r u nde r s tand ing o f E gyp t 's l a te P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly Dyna s t ic p o l i t ica l c h rono logy . T he g raves c on ta in ing r oya l i n sc r ip t ions w h ich w e re i nc luded i n t h e s e r ia t ion a re a s f o l low s : TK0261 -' Ka ' -s er ekh i ni n k o n ap o t te ry v e sse l ( Pe t r ie e ta l . 1 913 : p l . XXX I .67 ) T I C0414 -N a rme r -s erekh i ni nk o n ap o t te ry v e s se l a nd s e a l ings ( Pe t r ie e ta l . 1 913 : p l s . 1 . 1-4 , XXX I .68 ) TK0 300 -u n iden t if ied k ing -s er ekh i ni n ko n ap o t te ry v e s se l ( Pe t r ie e ta l . 1 913 : p l . XXX I .70 ) . T he n ame f ound i n g rave TK0300 h as b een r e ad a s A ha ( Ka ise r 1 964 : 9 5 n . 2 ) . Howeve r , t he s erekh i sv e ry i nd is t inc t , a nd o the r r ead ings ( mos t p laus ib ly D je r ) a r e p os s ib le : t h e l e gs o ft h e H or n s -f a lcon d o n o t e x tend i n to t h e u ppe rp a r to ft h es erekh , mak ing t h e r ead ing ' Aha ' u n l ike ly . T he i n d is t inc t b l o tches w i th in t h e s erekh d o n o tl o ok l i ke a s e rpen t ( D je t ) . T he r e ad ing ` D je r ' i st hus t h e mo s t l i ke ly , b y ap roce ss o f e l im ina t ion . A ccord ing t o t h e p ub l ished e xcava t ion r e po r t , t omb TK0315 a l so y i e lded av e s se lb ea r ing ar oya l n ame . Wr i t ten i ni nk , t h e s er ekh h a s b een v a r ious ly

Phase T a rkhan 1 T a rkhan 2 T a rkhan 3

S . D.77 2 8 2

S . D.78 4 5 3 1

S . D.79

i n te rp re ted ( Kap lony 1 963 ; D reye r 1 992a ) . H oweve r , i n su rmoun tab le p rob lems mean t ha t t he n ame c anno t b e r e l iab ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e g rave f r om wh ich i ts upposed ly d e r ive s . I n t h e g rave r eg is te r , t h e v es se ls l i s ted f o r TK0315 i n c lude t h ree c y l inde rv e sse ls , o ft ypes 4 6b ,4 6 fa nd 4 6k . T he r oya l n ame i si lus t ra ted a l one , w i thou t i t s a ccompany ing v e s se l ( Pe t r ie e ta l . 1 913 : p l . XXX I .66 ) . Ap ho tog raph o ft h e i n sc r ibed v e sse l , p ub l ished b y K ap lony ( 1963 , V o l . I I : p l . 1 ) , c l ea r ly s how s i tt ob e ac y l inde r v es se l o f f o rm 5 0 . N o s uch v e sse l i sl i s ted f o r TK0315 i n t he p ub l ished g rave r eg is te r . A n e r ro r i n t h e p ub l ica t ion s eems l i ke ly , a nd TK0315 c anno t t he refo re b e d a ted b y means o f t h e r oya l n ame . T he p o t te ry f r om t h e g rave w ou ld i nd ica te ad a te o f Dyna s ty 0 .T h is i sa to dds w i th t h e i n sc r ibed c y l inde r v e s se l w h ich i s mo re c ha rac te r is t ic o ft h ee a r ly F i r s tD yna s ty . E ncou rag ing ly ,t h et h re eg rave sd a ted b yi n sc r ip t ion a ppea ri n t h es e r ia t ion i nt h ee xpec ted o rde r ,n ame ly TK026 1 -TK0414 -TK0300 . T h is a g ree s w i th t h e e s tab l ished o rde r f o r t h e r e igns o f ' Ka ' a nd N a rme r . T he p os i t ion o fg rave TK0300 i n t h e s e r ia t ion w ou ld s ugge s t ad a te r a the r l a te r t h an t h e r e ign o fA ha , a sw ou ld t h e p o t te ry f r om t h e g rave . O n t h eb a s i s o f i t s p o t te ry , P e t r ie a s s igned TK0300 aS equence -Da te o f 8 0 . H ence ,t h er e ad ing o ft h en ame a s` D je r ' i sq u i te p l au s ib le . A s w i th t h e T u ra s e r ia t ion , t h e Ta rkhan m a t r ix may b e d i v ided i n to t h ree b road p ha se s : T a rkhan 1 : g r ave s TK0315 t o' TK0062 T a rkhan 2 : g r ave s TK 1000 t o TK0 136 T a rkhan 3 : g r ave s TK0176 t o TK1039 . O nce a ga in , p ha se 2 e me rge s a s at r ans i t iona l p ha se , w i th a l e s sd i s t inc t ive c e ram ic a s semb lage t han p hase s 1a nd 3 .T h is i n te rp re ta t ion i sb road ly s uppo r ted b y ac ompa r ison w i th P e t r ie 's S equence -Da te s f o r Ta rkhan . T he f i gu re si nt h e t a b le r e f e r t ot h en umbe r o fg r ave s o fe ach S equence -Da te i ne a ch o ft h et h ree s e r ia t ion p ha se s .

S . D.80

2 1 6 1 2

2 1 1 2 2 2

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S . D.81 1 2 6 2 2

S . D.82

2

Total 1 26 4 9 5 9

m a rk , f o r e a ch c eme te ry , f ou rg raves w h ich w e re i n c luded i n t h e s e r ia t ion . J u s t t h ree s e r ia ted g rave s a r e s hown o n t h e p lans o fC eme te r ie s La nd Q , t wo o n t h e p lan o fC eme te ry M , a nd o n ly a s i ng le s e r ia ted g rave o n t h e p lans o f C eme te r ie s Na nd 0 . I ns eve ra l c a se s , a l l t h e s eda ted g rave s i n ac eme te ry a r e o f Ta rkhan 1 . Wh i ls t i ti sp os s ib le t h a t b u r ia l a c t iv i ty i n many H i l l C eme te r ie s w a s c oncen t ra ted d u r ing t h is e a r ly p e r iod , m ean ingfu l a na lys is i si mpos s ib le w i th s of ew g rave s .

Hor izon ta l s t rat igraphy T he t wo v o lume s o ft h e p ub l ished e xcava t ion r e po r t i n c lude d e ta i led p lans o f a l l t h e e xcava ted c eme te r ie s , s how ing t h e p os i t ion o fe ach g rave ( Pe t r ie e ta l . 1 913 : p l s . LXX -LXXV I ; P e t r ie 1 9 14 : p l s . XLV I -XLVI I ) .H oweve r ,w he rea se ach g rave i nt h e V a l ley C eme te ry i si d en t if ied b y n umbe r , t h e s ame i s t r ue f o r o n ly a s ma l l p ropo r t ion o f t h e g rave s i n t h e H i l l C eme te r ies . H ence , a ny a na lys is o f t he h or izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy o ft h eH i l l C eme te r ie sc an b eo n ly p a r t ia l . F o r s ome o f t h e H i l l C eme te r ie s , h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy i s i mpos s ib le . T he p lans o fC eme te r ie s Ra nd S d o n o t i d en t if y a ny g r ave s b y n umbe r . T he p l ans o fC eme te r ie sC , D , Ka nd Ps how n o s e r ia ted g raves . T he p l ans o fC eme te r ie s Ba nd E

4 3

F o rt h er ema in ing c eme te r ie s , h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy m ay b e a t temp ted . I nC eme te ry A t h e re i sn o ma rked c h rono log ica l z on ing ( F igu re 7 ) . T he s even teen s e r ia ted g raves w h ich a r e m a rked o n P e t r ie 's c eme te ry p l an c omp r i se e l even o f Ta rkhan 1 ,a nd t h ree e ach o f T a rkhan 2 a nd T a rkhan 3 .I ti sq u i te p oss ib le t h a t C eme te ry A s e rved a s epa ra te e l i te , s i nce t h e c eme te ry i ss ome d i s tance f r om t h e o t he r b u r ia l a r ea s a nd i s g eog raph ica l ly v e ry d i s t inc tf r om t h er e s t o ft h es i te . T he mos t e ncou rag ing r e su l ts d e r ive f r om a s t udy o f C eme te r ies F , G , H a nd J( F igu re 8 ) . S even g raves i n t h e s e r ia t ion a r e m a rked o n t h e p l an o f C eme te ry F . A l l s even b e long t oT a rkhan 1 ;f i ve o ccu r v e ry e a r ly i nt h e s e r ia t ion . T he c l ose p rox im i ty o fg rave s TK0007 , TK0009 a nd ' TK0039

PP P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 0 1 1 10 0 10 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 0 1 1 1 10 1 1 1 0 5 2 1 2 5 5 0 9 9 2 1 10 1 2 10 3 9 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 1 2 9 9 1 0 0 3 5 2 2 2 9 13,5 6 20 5 8 5 5 1 2 7 3 4 93 5 4 6 1 5 4 28 28 0 6 7 7 4 0 1 3 7 1 1 9 X

110315 x

X

180276

X

X XX X

T80030 110327

XX

180007

XX

X X

XX

110019

X

X

X

780039

X

XX

X

XX

X

XX

180312

XX

11 1047 1100 36

X

180802

X

1 '80 170

7E0061

TE0420

X

T10020

110160

110019

180306

110 339

180120

11 0 312

* mo m

181047

110163 180204 710131

X

110802

TH0134

XX

X

110196

710110

X

181023

110005

TX0038

XX

TH0008

110144

TH0027

780120

m oo

T10113

711061

= 0117

1100 28

1810 79

Tu f t s

110112

X

' 110313

180105

11 1041

x

XXX x

11 161 'mo m

x

x

1800 86

X

X

1 1 C0313

XX

X

110 :07

XX

x

X X

110327

11 1023

X

X X

X

180196

110027

2

1 10 2 13 1 10 40 2

180 103

X

X

X

111000

110 2 76

110 0 36

X

X

180103

710315 110009 11003 1 1

X

X

X

1100 3 0

1

X

110009

X X

XX X X

X

XX X

X x

XX X x

X

X x

= 0213 710402 X

1104 3 0

XX

X

= 0160

x

X

X

X X

X

X XX X

X

X

1803C6

X

780120 T80165

X

X XX

X

X

18016 3

XX

180204

X

X x X X

XX X X

X

X

X

X

X

x

X

X

X

X

XX

X

X

X

110 131

X

18013 1 1 110110

X

T80 144

M OOS X

= 012 0

x X X

x X

1E0113

x

780117

X

X X

71006 1 110170

X

x X X

TEICCO

X

1110 29 X

X

X

X X

110112

X X

X

780105

X

X

110090

X

110268

X

X

78026 8

= 0090

110337

X

X

180337

110 132

T I CO262 11047 7

X

X

181002

XX

X

X

780262 180477

1802$0

XX

T10401

X

X

11 (0401

= 0 169

180267

X

X

11026 7

181046

110 2 92

X

X

180792

110141

180274

X

X

180274

110159

X

11 0 542

111056

X

X

X

111062

710300

X

X

X

110 322

110115

X

1104 1 14

781035

X

118 0 55

= 0091

XX

110091

110266

X

= 0542

X

111062 110322

XX

X

X

110484

X

XX X

11 1053 T80266

X

11 ( 1054

X

T I C1026

X

X

X

18 8006 T10324

X

110325

XX

X X

1 '80132 111002 780210

X X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X X X

XX

X

X

x

X

11016 9

X

X

X

X

111046 11014 1 110159

X

x

11 1056

X

110300 X

110115

XX

111 0 55

110 143

XX

T10145

711054

180175

X X

110175

711026

110278

XX

( x ,

111006

110101

XX X

180324

180142

180325 180037

X

X

180278 11010 1

110001

XX xX

x x

T80162

xx

x

X

780142 18000 1 110162

X

X

180016

X

XX

X

X

1800 16

110172

110006

X

XX

X

X

1100 36

T10059

X

x X

X

180211

180410

X

x

X

11 0 317

= 0129

X

x

111037 180073

111027 110136

X X

x

= 0071

110176

T80314

180254

111053

180156

180544

710150

111013

181060

X

110261

180421

XX

110197

780154

T10414

710149

XX X

X

X

780 1a9

180250

110177

XX

X

X

110 17 7

110158

X X

X

11 0 317

X

XX

X

780037

110211

X

XX

X X X

X

XX X XX

TK I037 110 373

X X

X X

180071

X

X

T10314

X

XX

= 1053

X

XX

110344

X

X

X X

X

11026 1 X

X

X

X

XX X

XX X

X

XX

1101 1 18 X

X

X

X X X

XX X

X

X

XX X X

X

180156

X

XX X

X

X X

X

X

X

= 0158

X

TH0191

TH0201

180336

110291

X

180074

110125

X

T11052

1110 20

X

780527

180190

X

110412

110179

X

X

7 110 179

T10342

180100

X

X

180100

110319

780049

X

X

1100 89

110304

T81020

X X

111020

X XX X X

X

X X

X

X

XX X

X

X

X

XX

X

X

X

X X

71020 1

X

1102 )1 X

X

71 1010

T10054

X

X

X

110 04

110203

11 10 45

X

X

X

711043

780143

X

X

= 0052

X

X

180052

8 1 (0171

X

X

110422

X

X

X

T8042 2

1810 14

X

T I CO241

X

X

X

110201

180055

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

XX X

X X

T10230

x

1 110057

X

110040

X

110 307 110296

X X

710264

X

110121

X

X X

X

110244

XX

TX0 104

T ICI024

780053

= 1025

X

X

XX

111025

110230

181021

X

X

XX

7E1021

780057

1810 16

X

XX

181016

1800 40

T11057

X

XX

111057

710307

181011

T80796

711009

XX XX

1810 21

X

X X

X

110264

Turn

XX X

X

7E012 1

110 793

XX

X

110055

110123

X

= 0041

T10097

XX

11 (0419

180153

X

11 1048

111005

X

710107

110107

180260

'MO M

X

X

180900

110101

XX

X

110411

180 302

X

X

1104 2 3

1800 10

X

T I CO231

110257

X

1101C9

180207

X

X X X

X

X

X

X X X

11 0 505

X

XX

1 1 C0107

X

X

X

111041

710133

XX

X

18006 5

110015

X X

x X X

X

X

X

X

110900

X X

X

= 0411 11042 3

X

X

780731

X X

X

X X

180 174

180200

X

= 0290

X

X

TH0290

181070

X

=0 149

11 1034

X X

110 118

X

110118

110212

X

710212

18 10 13

110308

1 1(0094

110403

110242

11018 3

1102 38

T10130

111039

T I C0308

X

X

110403 110183

X

X

110130

XX

110058 110232

X

X

XX

1 1 10085

X

180127

X

X

X

X X

T I C0417 T I CO297

110 370

X

110064

X

T I C0168 780119 = 0167 T I C0062

X

X XX

11012 3

X

X

180153 111005 T I C0187 X

X

X

180 161

X

110 302

X

= O M 110257

X

1802X 7

X X

110200

XX

X

X

712070

X

X

X

X

1110 34

X

X

X

X

710012

X

X

X

n uo u

X

X

X

X

X

710238 X

710252

13. 5 6 2 0 5 4 5 5 1 2 7 3 4 9 3 5 46 1 5 4 2

X

1 '80297 X

XX

X

110 144 71048i

X X

X

= 015 7 X

X X

X

X

X X

110 1 104 = 0295

X XX

21 1 0 6 7 7 40 13 7 is 9

110417

X

X

180070 T10064 = 016 1

X

T10 119 110 167 X

= 0098 = 02 82

X

5 2 1 2 5 5 0 9 9 2 1 10 1 2 10 3 9 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 I 2 9 9 10 0 3 5 2 2 2 9

X

T10213

X

T I C012 7

XX

X

11 0 593 11 097

X

11 1031

XX X

X

X

TH00 1 15

X

110137

=0 178 X

X

110804 110295

X X

X

X

XX X

110481

X X

X XX

XX

T I C0 144

111009

XX

X

= 1031

T8 1071

X

PP P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 0 1 1 10 0 10 0 1 1 1 I 1 11 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

T80058

X

710284

X

X

110902

180012

110155

X

x

X X

110063

XX

X

X

X

110 174

X

X XX

110902

XX

X XX X

X

X

XX

X X

780109

T I C0149

781038 110194

X

X X

x

7X0 171 11 1014

X

T I C006 3

X

X

110 143 X

780195 180474

XX X

=0 108 180053

X

180203

110055

X

X

110474

110198

m aw 1 10 1 9 4

X

1 1 10195

780263

X

11012 . 5

X

X

110304

X

X

X

X X

710419

1101 54

= 00 43

X

X

X

1 1 10041

XX

Txo191

XX

110305

X 181060 = 0 421

110275

X

X X

110130 X

X

X

T I C0319

1100 15

= 025d

X X

X

110176

X

X

XX X

18 10 17 110136

XX

X

710527 = 0542

XX X

X

X

X

X

3

X

1101 2 9

X

XX

110074 X

X

X

T IC0410

X X

110336

X

X

x

780172 110059

110 1$8

X

180 343

T I C0412 .

X X

110750

111052

X X

XX

110 414

= 0275

X

X

111015 710197

X

X

1100 6 2

F i gu re 6 .S e r ia t ion m a t r ix f o rT a rkhan H i l lC eme te r ie s

711039

0 r -- 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ F-

20 L _ _ 4 met res

•

G rave o f T arkhan 1

A

G rave o f T arkhan 2

•

G rave o f T arkhan 3

R TK0275

.

T K0261

• TK0267 •

•

TK0411

TK0287

• TK0401

TK0414 •

I l

TK0419 TK0422

T K0412

•

•

A TK0410

T K0423

F igu re 7 .T a rkhan C eme t e ry A h or izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy 4 5

0

T K0421

T K0019

A

T K0015

T K0016

TK0039

▪

T K0038

T K0020

• T K0002

20

•

G rave o f T arkhan 1

A

G rave o f T arkhan 2

•

G rave o f T arkhan 3

F igu re 8 .T a rkhan C eme te r ie s F ,G , Ha nd Jh o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy 4 6

m etres

b o th g eog raph ica l ly a nd i n t h e s e r ia t ion s ugge s t s t ha t t h ey f o rm a c on tempo ra ry g roup . S uch a c l o se c or re spondence b e tween t h e s e r ia t ion r e su l ta nd t h eh o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy i s e ncou rag ing . C eme te ry G i s av e ry s ma l l c eme te ry , b u t o ne o f t he b e t te r p ub l ished .O fi t s t wen ty g rave s , t e n a r ei d en t if ied b yn umbe r o n t h e p ub l ished p lan , a nd n i ne o ft h e se a r e i n c luded i nt h e s e r ia t ion . S even o f t h e s e r ia ted g rave s o ccu r i nT a rkhan 1 , f ou r o f t h ese a t t he v e ry b eg inn ing o f t h e s e r ia t ion . O ne s e r ia ted g r ave o ccu r si ne a ch o fT a rkh an 2a nd T a rkhan 3 .T he h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy o ft h is s ma l l c eme te ry i ss u rp r i s ing ly c l ea r . T he f ou r g raves f r om t he v e ry b eg inn ing o f t he s e r ia t ion a r e l oca ted o n t he n or th -we s te rn e dge o f t h e c eme te ry , a nd p robab ly r ep re sen t ac on tempo ra ry g roup . I ndeed , t h ree o f t hese g rave s o ccu r c onsecu t ive ly i n t h e s e r ia t ion , e mpha s is ing t he i r t empo ra l a s w e l l a s s pa t ia l p rox im i ty . T he g raves f r om l a te r i nT a rkhan 1a r e s i tua ted i n t h ee a s te rn h a lf , wh i le t h et wo g rave sd a ted t oT a rkh a n 2a nd 3a r e l o ca ted o n t he e a s te rnmos t e dge o ft h e c eme te ry . T he w e s te rn h a lf o f t he c eme te ry mos t p robab ly r e p re sen t s t h e h i ghe rg r ound ,s o t h ee a r l ie rg raves l o ca ted h e re s eem t oh ave e xp lo i ted t h e mo re p rom inen tp os i t ions . C eme te ry H i sa no the r s ma l l c eme te ry . J us t s i x o fi t s g rave s a r ei n c luded i nt h es e r ia t ion a nd i d en t if ied o nt h ep l an . Two o f t h e se g rave s o ccu r i nT a rkhan 1 ,t h ree i nT a rkhan 2 a nd o ne i nT a rkhan 3 .B o th g raves o fT a rkhan 1a r e l o ca ted i nt h e w e s te rn p a r to ft h ec eme te ry , o nce a ga in t h eh i ghe rg round . C eme te ry Ji so ne o ft h e l a rge s t o ft h e H i l l C eme te r ie s , a nd c e r ta in ly o ne o f t h e b e t te r p ub l ished . T h i r ty o f t h e g rave s m a rked o nt h ec eme te ry p lan w e re s e r ia ted . S ix o ft h e se o ccu r i nT a rkhan 1 ,t h i r teen i nT a rkhan 2a nd t h er ema in ing e l even i n T a rkhan 3 .T he e a r l ies t g raves a r e c oncen t ra ted i n t h e w e s te rn h a lf o ft h ec eme te ry , w h i le t h e e a s te rn h a lf c on ta ins g rave s m os t ly o f T a rkhan 2 a nd 3 . O nce a ga in , t he refo re , t h e re s e em s t oh ave b een a n e a s twa rd s h if t i nb u r ia l l o ca t ion o ve r t ime . I n s umm ary , t h e p o ten t ia l f o r h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy i nt h e H i l l C eme te r ie s i sl im i ted , b u t t h e r e su l t s g ene ra l ly c onf i rm t h e c h rono log ica l v a l id i ty o ft h e s e r ia t ion r e su l t a nd o f t h e t h ree p ha se s i den t if ied . T he c l us te r ing o f s ma l l g roups o f g raves b o th g eog raph ica l ly a nd i n t h e s e r ia t ion ma t r ix i s p a r t icu la r ly n o tewo r thy . C e r ta in c eme te r ie s a ppea r t oh ave b een i n g r ea te r u se i n a n e a r l ie r p e r iod ( t ha t i s , d u r ing T a rkhan 1 ) , o t he r s l a te r( du r ing T a rkhan 2a nd 3 ) . I r on ica l ly , i ti st h e s ma l le s t c eme te ry , C eme te ry G , wh ich p rov ide s t h e b e s te v idence f o rc l ea rh o r izon ta ls t ra t ig raphy .

Ma tmar C eme te r ie s2 00 , 3 000 -3100 a nd 5 100 a t Ma tma rc omp r ised a t o ta l o f 1 36 g rave s ( Brun ton 1 948 : p l s . V I I I -X , XX ) , o f w h ich 1 03 f u lf i l led t h e c ond i t ions f o r s e r ia t ion . T he p o t te ry f r om t h e se g rave s c omp r ised 9 3 d i f f e ren t p o t te ry g roups . Twen ty -e igh tg roup s o ccu r red o n ly o nce , a nd w e re e xc luded f r om t h es e r ia t ion .T he m a t r ix t h e re fo re c omp r ises 1 03 g r ave s a nd 6 5 p o t te ry g roups . F u l l s e r ia t ion d a ta a r e g iven i nt h e A ppend ix . T he s e r ia t ion ma t r ix i s s hown i n F igu re 9 . K ey p o t te ry g roup s a ppea r i nt h e e xpec ted o rde r : t r ue w avy -hand led j a r s ( g roup P 046 )a r ef o l lowed b yt a pe r ing j a r sw i th w avy -hand le s ( P048 ) , t a pe r ing c y l inde r j a rs w i th w avy d eco ra t ive b and

4 7

a r ound t h es hou lde r ( P049 /P050 ) a nd f i na l ly b yt r ue c y l inde r v e s se ls ( P052 ) . P e t r ie 's L -wa re a nd ` P ro todyna s t ie p o t te ry i s c onf ined t oo ne e nd o ft h e s e r ia t ion , wh i le t h e o pen f o rms o f B -wa re a nd P -wa re ( p a r t icu la r ly t h eb ow l s )a r ec l us te red a tt h e o ppos i te e nd . T he f o l low ing p ha ses m ay b ed i sce rned w i th in t h es e r ia t ion : Ma tma r 1 : g r ave s MT3092 t o MT3120 Ma tma r2 : g rave s MT3063 t o MT5135 , c omp r is ing Ma tma r2 a : g rave s MT3063 t o MT3124 Ma tma r2 b : g rave s MT3132 t o MT5112 Ma tma r2 c : g rave s MT5130 t o MT5116 Ma tma r2 d : g rave s MT3109 t o MT5135 Ma tma r3 : g raves MT0206 t o MT0217 i n c lus ive . Wha t t he m a t r ix r evea ls p a r t icu la r ly c l ea r ly i s ah ia tus b e tween p ha se s 2a nd 3 ,c o r re spond ing t o ac hange o fb u r ia l g round -f r om C eme te r ie s 3 000 -3100 a nd 5 100 t oC eme te ry 2 00 . A l though o ne g rave f r om C eme te ry 3 000 -3100 a nd t wo f r om C eme te ry 5 100 a ppea r i np ha se 3 ,t h e p ha se i sa lmo s t e n t i re ly c omposed o f g rave s f r om C eme te ry 2 00 . No g rave f r om t h is l a s tc eme te ry a ppea r s i na ny o ft h e e a r l ie r s e r ia t ion p ha se s . T he s e r ia t ion d oe sn o t ,t h e re fo re ,r ep re sen ta n e n t i re ly c on t inuou s s equence o f b u r ia ls i n t h e v i c in i ty o f Ma tma r . O ne w ou ld e xpec t t h e re t oh ave b een ac eme te ry t o f i l l t h e g ap , i no t he rw o rd s ag roup o fb u r ia ls s pann ing t h e t r ans i t ion b e tween Ma tma r 2a nd Ma tma r3 .S uch ac eme te ry e i the rd i d n o t s u rv ive t h e p a s sage o f t ime o r w a s n o t r e co rded b y t h e e a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu ry e xcava to r s . T he Ma tma r s e r ia t ion i s s i gn if ican t i np rov id ing c l ea r e v idence f o r ac hange i nb u r ia l l o ca t ion t owa rds t h e e nd o f t he P redyna s t ic p e r iod , a p henomenon w h ich -a sw e s ha l l s ee i nP a r t 4o ft h is w o rk i sa t te s ted a ts i te st h roughou tE gyp t . T o c heck t h e a ccu racy o ft h e s e r ia t ion r e su l t , ac ompa r ison m ay b e m ade b e tween t h e p ha se s i d en t if ied a nd Ka ise r 's S t uf en . T h is m ay b e d one b yr e -conve r t ing t h ep o t te ry g roups m os tc ha rac te r is t ic o fe a ch p ha se i n to t h ei nd iv idua l t y pe s i n w h ich t h ey o ccu r , a nd a s s ign ing S tuf en t ot h e se t ypes -o rt o v e ry s im i la r t ype s when t he p a r t icu la r t ypes a re n o t r ep resen ted -u s ing K a ise r 's ( 1957 : p l s . 2 1-4 ) t a b les o f L e i t typen . T h is s hou ld i nd ica te t o w h ich s t age (s ) o f t h e N aqada c u l tu ra ls equence e a ch s e r ia ted p ha se b e s tc o r re spond s . O f c our se , t h e t a b le s o fL e i t typen w e re n eve r i n tended t o p rov ide ah a rd -and -f a s t d a t ing s cheme f o r p a r t icu la r p o t te ry t y pe s . R a the r , t h ey w e re i n tended t od emons t ra te t h e g radu a l c hanges i n t h e c e ram ic a s semb lage ( a nd i n o the r a r tef ac t t y pe s , p a r t icu la r ly s t one v e sse l s a nd s l a te p a le t te s ) d u r ing t h e c ou r se o ft h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod i n Uppe r E gyp t . T he t y pe s i lus t ra ted f o r e ach s t age o rS tuf e g ive a n i mp re ss ion o ft h e o ve ra l l a s semb lage l i ke ly t ob e e ncoun te red i n ac on tex t o f t h a tp a r t icu la rd a te . N one the le s s , s cho la r sh ave r e l ied h eav i ly u pon t h e L e i t typen t a b les when d a t ing a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s( e .g . K roepe r &W i ldung 1 985 ) . I nt h ef o l low ing t a b le ,u nde r l ined g roup sa r er e s t r ic ted t o , a nd t h e ref o re p a r t icu la r ly c ha rac te r is t ic o f , t h e p hase /subpha se u nde r w h ich t h ey a r e l i s ted . Sma l l a r rowheads ( < o r› ) i nd ica te t h a t ag roup o ccu r s p r inc ipa l ly a tt h e b eg inn ing ( < ) o ra tt h ee nd ( > ) o f ap ha se / subpha se . T h ree d o t s ( . . )i nd ica te t h a t t h e g roup i n q ues t ion e x tends o ve r s eve ra l S tuf en , s t a r t ing w i th t h e S tuf e s hown . I n t h is a nd t he o the r c ompa ra t ive t a b les l abe r e f e r s t o S tuf en I a , I b a nd I c i n d is t ingu ishab ly , i no t he rw o rds t h eg roup i nq ues t ion s pan s a l t h ree S t uf en ( s im i la r ly f o r ` l bc T Ia ' , ' lcd1 ' , e t c . ) .

PP P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 10 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 9 0 023 09 0 25 1 1 17 7 5 7 8 63 5 8 2 8 0 2 67 4 8 7 7 977 83 7 6 4 84 19 13 9 2 194 103 2 1 10 05 0 05 2 7 0 8 4 8 8 1 3 9 6 8 3 2 9 7 0 5 5 8 0 7 9 9 9 0 5 5 1 9 6 6 4 8 1 6 17 4 3 9 I 18 8 4 5 6 7 1 2 5 9 0 3 I5 14 9 5 0 1 6 2 7 MT3092 X X MT312 1

X X

M73078

4

X

X

I

X

M13121

X

M13098 X M13123 X

X

MT3122

X

XX

X

X

X

X

T 39 77 MT313I

XX

X

X X

MT 3112

X X

MT3095

XX X

M13131

X

X

M73089

XX XX X

M13007

X

X X

MT3082

X

X X

MT309 1

M1309 1

X

XX

X

M13071

X

013116

X

0 1130 79

X

0 4 130 71

X X

0 4 13116

X

MT 5134 M730 74

XX

MT 5134 MT3074 MT3120

X X

X X

MT 3063

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

175131

X X

X X

MT 3080

X

X

X

X X

X

14 13064 M75117 113129

X

XX

X

XX

X X

MT 3076

X

X

X

X

X

X

XX

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

XX

M73067 113093

x x

m T s i i i

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M13 10 1 113118

X

X X

XX

X XX

XX

X

X

XX

X

X

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XX

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MT5I33 X

X

0 11 3128

X

MT 3117

X

X

X

X

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M13036

X

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) 473134

X

XX

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X

X

XX

1 4 13109

X

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XX X X X X

X

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MT 30 72

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M13065

XX X X

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M13034

X X

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1 413109

dmnno

M13002 0 415104

X

X X

0 475120

X X

1 41302 1

X

X

0 4 15108

X

M11039

X

11 3033 MT5135

X

MT0206 17 3090

2

X X

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11302 1 0 11 5108

X

X

MT 5120

MT 5116

X

MT 3002

1 473065

1 413117

X

X

X

0 17 3128

X

X

XX

X

1 473069

X

173110 MT5104 173072

0 415113

X

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1 ' 4 13034

MT 5115

1 413006

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MT 5116

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0 115109

X

MT 5133

X

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1 415130

X

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XX

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MT5112 X

X X

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MT3069

113126

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MT 5113

173049

X

XX X X X

X

M73006

1 475111 X

M73008

X

X

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175109 M13036 173134

M13093

MT 3067

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MT 5114

XX

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1 413130

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xx

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MT 3I32

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MT3126 173008

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17 5118

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MT30 49

MT5112 175130 MT3005

MT 5I17 1 413129

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MT5105

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mr so i

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M13124

MT3 I20 ) 413063

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X

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MT 5118

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M15114

M73077

XX

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M13089 M73007

MI3111

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M13075

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M13095

M1310 1 173118

MT5102

XX

M 'T3112

0 1730 79

M73123 MT308 1

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MT 30 75

1 413082

X

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MT3122

M13111

MT 5107

X X

M13081 MT5IO2

M13098

X XX

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MT3092 M73078

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X X XX

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X X

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MT 5132

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0 17 3209

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m T s i i9

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MT0230 MT0228

x x

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0 11022 1

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0 470230

p t r on s

170229

XX X

MT022 1

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MT02 14

MT 02 14

XX

110202

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MT02 18

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MT0205

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0 110207

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MT0202

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X

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MT0235

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MT0224

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MT 02 11

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MT0226

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MT 0208 XXX

Neo n( )

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1 4702 13

X

X

MT0235

X

X

XX

MT0224

X

XX

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MT02 11

X

110222

X XX

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MT 0222

010 2 36

XX

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MT02 13

XX XX

M10237 X

MT02 10 MT0234

X

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1702 17

MT0237

X x x MT02 10 XX X X MT0234

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17 X X MT02

PP P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 01 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 9 0 0 2 3 0 9 0 2 5 1 1 17 7 5 7 8 6 3 5 8 2 8 0 2 6 7 4 8 7 7 9 7 7 8 3 7 6 4 8 4 19 1 3 9 2 I9 4 10 3 2 1 I 0 0 5 0 0 5 2 7 0 8 4 8 8 13 9 6 8 3 2 9 7 0 5 5 8 0 7 9 9 9 0 5 5 1 9 6 6 4 8 1 6 17 4 3 9 1 18 8 4 5 6 7 I 2 5 9 0 3 1 5 14 9 5 0 I6 2 7

F igu r e9 .S e r ia t ion m a t r ix f o r Manna rC eme te r ie s2 00 , 3 000 -3100 a nd 5 100

4 8

0 410231 MT0223

X X

X

XX X

X

0 110220

MT0207 X

XXX

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r ero2o5

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0 4702 18

X

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MT0231

) 473090

0 415119

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0 470206 0 17 5 132 1 410209

X

XXX X

MT0229

M73039 M130 33 MT5135

Mos tagedda Ma tmar 1 G roup S tuf en

Ma tmar 2 a G roup S tuf en

P 007


B ib D ib

P ROTODYNAST IC

Wh i l s tt h eS t uf en a r ei ng ene ra l a g reemen tf o r Ma tma r 1 ,2 a a nd 2 b ,t h e re i sl e ss c onco rdance f o rt h ee nd o ft h es e quence , n ame ly Ma tma r 2 c , 2 d a nd 3 . I n p a r t icu la r , t h e g roups c ha rac te r i s t ic o f Ma tma r 2 c b e long t o aw ide v a r ie ty o f S t uf en . T he o n ly g r oup r e s t r ic ted t ot h is s ubpha se , P 074 , h a s t o o w ide ar a nge t ob e o f much h e lp . S im i la r ly , t h e Ma tma r 2 d a s s emb lage i sn o t d i s t inc t ive e nough t op e rm i t a ccu ra te c ompa r ison w i th t h e L e i t typen t a b le s . T he c ha rac te r is t ic g r oup sf o r Ma tma r 3a r e a l i n d ica t ive o fS t uf en I Ia2 o rI lb , w i th t h e e x cep t ion o f g roup P 125 . T h is g roup c omp r ise s e xc lus ive ly ` P ro todyna s t ic ' t y pe s -i . e . t y pe s i n c luded i n P e t r ie 's P ro todynas t ic c orpus b u t n o t i nh i s P reh is tor ic c orpu s -n one o fw h ich a ppea r si nt h eL e i t typen t a b le s , w h ich r e s t r ic tt h em se lve st ot h eP r edyna süc a s semb lage .

Mos tagedda 1 G roup S tuf en

Mos tagedda 2 G roup S tuf en

p o 0 7
) i nd ica te s t ha t at ype o ccu rs p r inc ipa l ly a tt h ee nd o f ap ha se / subpha se .

A rman t 1 T ype S tuf en

A rman t2 a T ype S tuf en

P 007 P 00 1

I a I abc

PAU

r i bc d 1d2

P 0 18

I b

P 005 P 035 P 0 13 P 0 19 P 070> P 076>

I bc -Ua I bc I c -f lab I c -Babc I b

P 075 P 0 12 P 034 P 031> P 025>

l I abcd 1d2 l bcd1d2 l I abcd 1d2 I a l I cd 1d2

A rman t2 b T ype S tuf en

A rman t3 T ype S tuf en

P 029

I c -I l Ia l

F Ilt P 110

I l aa2

P 046 P 048

I cd 1 1 d2 -DIa l

L I M; P 116

f f la la2b D ia la 2

P 086 P 0 14>

I l b -E lla2 I l cd 1

P 020>

H d2 -Dia l

P 069

t h e L e i t typen t a b le s f o r S tuf e I Ia l , t h e p resence o f t ypes P 111 a nd P 110 r i gh t f r om t he b eg inn ing o f A rman t 3 s t rong ly s ugge s t s t h a t t h is p hase b ee qua ted w i th S t uf eI Ia2 . T he r e su l t s o fp r e l im ina ry c ompa r ison s e em t ob ec onf i rmed , n ame ly : A rman t 1 = S tuf en I -Ha A rman t2 a = S tuf en I 1 b I Ic A rman t2 b = S tuf en ( Hc )Hd 1-Hd2 I l Ia 1 A rman t3 = S tuf eI Ia2 . O nce a ga in , t h e re i sn o s epa ra te s ubpha se w i th in A rman t 2 b w h ich c ou ld c o r re spond t oS tuf e Ma l . K a ise r d ef ined S t uf e 1 I d2 a s t h e p ha se wh ich s aw t he l a s t o ccu r rence s o fB -wa re a nd R 81 ( t ype P 070 ) ( c f . Mo r tensen 1 991 : 1 3 ; B a rd 1 988 : 4 1 t a b le 1 ) . T he l a t te r p a r t o f A rman t 1 1 b mee t s b o th t h e se c r i te r ia . T o s umma r ise , t he f i r s t ma jor c hange i n t h e c e ram ic a s semb lage s e em s t oo ccu r b e tween S t uf en H a a nd H b . T he f i rs t p ha se o ft h eU ppe rE gyp t ian c u l tu ra l s equence , N aqada I ,s hou ld t h e re f o re b er ega rded a sc omp r is ing S tuf en I a , I b , I c a nd H a . T he s e cond b reak i nt h e a s semb lage o ccu r sb e tween S tuf en I 1d2 a nd I Ia2 , wh i ls t t he i ndependen t e x is tence o fa S tuf e I Ial i sn o t s uppo r ted . T hus , N aqada I c omp r ise s S t uf en H b , H c , I dl a nd 1 d2 . T he p ha se wh ich s ucceeds N aqada I , N aqada I I , r ep resen t s au n if ied c e ram ic a s semb lage t h roughou t E gyp t . I tr uns o n i n to t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod . I no t he r w o rds , t h e l a t te rp a r t o fN aqada I I i sc oeva l w i th -a nd i st h e c u l tu ra l e qu iva len t o f -t h e F i rs t Dyna s ty . I nK a ise r 's s equence , t h is i sc a l led S tuf e I Ic . T he e a r l ie rp a r t o fN aqada I I , w h ich c o r re sponds t ot h ep e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion ,c omp r ise sS tuf en I Ia2 a nd I Ib .

T he d a t ing o fT ura A f te r a na ly s ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e d i f fe ren t f o rms o f c y l inde rj a rw i th in t h ec eme te ry a tT u ra , K a ise rp ropo sed t h a t t h ree g roups o fg rave s c ou ld b e i den t if ied . H e p roceeded t o d a te t h ese t h ree g roups , a rgu ing t h a t e ach r ep re sen ted r ough ly t he s ame p e r iod o f t ime . H ence , h e d a ted h i s n örd l icher A b schn i t t t ot h e p e r iod b e tween t h e r e ign o fD je t a nd t h ee nd o ft h eF i r s t /beg inn ing o ft h eS econd D yna s ty ,h i s m i t t ler er A bschn i t t t o t h e p e r iod c omp r is ing t h e r e ign s o f ' Ka ' t o D je r , a nd h i s s üd l ichs ter A bschn i t t t o ap e r iod o f s im i la r l e ng th ( 1 50 y ea r s )b ef o re t he r e ign o f ' Ka ' . I tw a s o n t h e b a s is o f t h is d a t ing o f T u ra t ha t K a ise r p ropo sed t h e f o l low ing h ypo thes is : t ha t t he re w e re a t l e a s t e i gh t g ene ra t ions o f k i ngs o f au n i ted E gyp t b efo re t h e r e ign o f ' Ka ' . T h is h ypo the s is a ppea red t os uppo r t t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o fN aqada I I a s al o ng p ha se s epa ra t ing N aqada I f r om t h e F i r s t Dyna s ty . T he s e r ia t ion o fT u ra a nd t h e h or izon ta l s t ra t igraphy o ft h e c eme te ry r evea l t h ree p hase s i n t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e c eme te ry , b u t i ti sd oub tfu l whe the r t h e se r ep re sen t e qua l p e r iods o f t ime . A s w e h ave s een , T u ra 2 s eem s t ob e a t r ans i t iona l p ha se . T he d a te a tw h ich t h eT u ra c eme te ry c ame i n to u se i si mpo r tan t : b e cause o fK a ise r 's h ypo thes i s , t h ed a te o f t h e e a r l ie s t b u r ia ls a tT u ra h a s ad i rec t b ea r ing o n t h e l e ng th o ft h e p e r iod o fs t a te f o rma t ion a nd o n t he l i ke ly d a te f o r t h e p o l i t ica l u n if ica t ion o fE gyp t . A s w e h ave s e en , t h e s e r ia t ion o f T a rkhan -a c eme te ry w h ich i nc ludes g rave s d a ted b y r oya l i n scr ip t ion - g ives a n i nd ica t ion o f t h e c o r re la t ion b e tween t h ec u l tu ra l a nd p o l i t ica l s equence sa tt h e e nd o f t h e P redynas t ic /beg inn ing o f t h e E a r ly D yna s t ic p e r iod . W i th c a re , t h is i n fo rma t ion may b e u sed t os upp ly a l i ke ly d a te f o rt h ee a r l ie s tb u r ia ls a tT u ra .

A rman t 1c e r ta in ly a ppea r s t oe x tend b eyond t h e e nd o fS tuf e I .T h is i ss ugge s ted i np a r t icu la r b y t h e a ppea rance o ft ype s P 070 a nd P 076 a tt h ee nd o fA rman t 1 .A rman t2 a m ay b eg in d u r ing S t uf e H a , b u t mos t o ft h e c ha rac te r is t ic t ype s o f t h is p ha se w ou ld s ugge s t as t ar t ing p o in t o fS tuf eJ i b i n s tead . T he c ha ra c te r is t ic t y pe s o f A rman t 3w ou ld i d en t ify t h is p ha se w i th S tuf e I Ia2 . A l though t y pe s P 102 a nd P 116 d o a ppea r i n

6 4

s im i la r , a nd b e long w i th in as i ng le a s semb lage c ha rac te r i s t ic o fT a rkhan p ha se 1 .I n o t he r w o rds , t h e d i s t inc t ion b e tween r e igns -w h ich i sv i s ib le i n t he i n sc r ip t ions f r om t h e t wo g rave s -i sn o t m i r ro red i n as i gn if ican t c e ram ic d i f f e rence . O nce a ga in , i ti sc l ea r t ha t t h e r e ign o f N a rme r a nd t h e b eg inn ing o ft h eF i r s t Dyna s ty a r en o tm a rked b y s ubs tan t ive c hange si nt h ec e ram ic a s semb lage .

A n i mpo r tan tc h rono log ica l i nd ica to r i st h e e a r l ie s t f o rm o f c y l inde rj a ra t te s ted a tT u ra ,J unke r 's T ype LX I ,P e t r ie 's 4 6h . T h is o ccu rs i nj u s t t wo g rave s , T 036 a nd T 222 , b o th s o r ted b y s e r ia t ion i n to T u ra p ha se 1 .I n o rde r t oa r r ive a t ar ough d a te f o r t h is v e sse l f o rm , w i th r e spec t t o t he p o l i t ica l c h rono logy o f t he l a te P redyna s t ic t o E a r ly Dyna s t ic t r ans i t ion , i t so ccur rence s a tt h ec eme te ry a tT a rkhan may b e a na lysed . A s w e h ave s een , t h ree g rave s a t T a rkhan a r e s e cu re ly d a ted b y r oya l i n sc r ip t ion , h e lp ing t oc o r re la te t h e c u l tu ra l a nd p o l i t ica l s equence s d u r ing t h e p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion . A t T a rkhan , c y l inde r v es se ls o f t he f o rm 4 6h o ccu r i n t h i r teen g raves . T he se a r e , i n n ume r ica l o rde r , TK0015 , TK0020 , TK0038 , TK0053 , TK0071 , TK0319 , TK0484 , TK0527 , TK0804 , TK 1006 , TK 1037 , TK1061 a nd TK 1062 . A l l w e re a s s igned b y t h e s e r ia t ion p roce s s t ot h e f i r s tp ha se ,T a rkhan 1 .I ti st h ee xac tp os i t ion o ft h e se t h i r teen g rave s w i th in T a rkhan 1wh ich i so fi n te re s t , i np a r t icu la r whe the r t h ey o ccu r b efo re o r a f te r t he g rave d a ted b y i n sc r ip t ion t ot h e r e ign o f ' Ka ' ( TK0261) . O f t he t h i r teen , e i gh t g raves o ccu r b efore TK0261 . Two , TK0038 a nd TK0020 , a r ep l aced v e ry e a r ly i nt h es e r ia t ion ,i no the rw o rd s t owa rds t h e b eg inn ing o f T a rkhan 1 .T he r ema in ing f i ve g rave s c on ta in ing f o rm 4 6h o ccu r i n t he s e r ia t ion a f te r TK0261 , a nd a l so a f te rg rave T IC0414 ,d a ted b yi n sc r ip t ion t o t h er e ign o fN a rme r( Pe t r ie e ta l . 1 913 : p l . LX I ) . I ns ho r t , t h e e v idence f r om T a rkhan s ugges t s t h a t t h e f o rm o f c y l inde r v e s se l 4 6h w a s i nu se i nL owe r E gyp t ian mo r tua ry c on tex t s f r om b efo re t h e r e ign o f ' Ka ' t o t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e F i r s t Dyna s ty . T he t wo o ccu r rence s o f t h is v esse l f o rm a tT u ra c anno t , t h e re fo re , b e u sed t od a te t h e e a r l ie s t g rave s i nt h is c eme te ry w i th a bso lu te c e r ta in ty t ot h e p e r iod b efo re ' Ka ' , a l though s uch ad a te i sn o ti mposs ib le .

T he e a r l ie s tg rave s i nt h eT u ra c eme te ry c on ta in e xamp le s o f t h e ' w ine ja r s ' a t te s ted a te l -Beda a nd H e lwan ( b ea r ing t h e s e re l ch o f' Ka ' a tt h el a t te r s i te ) . T he f o rm s o fc y l inde rv e s se l mos t c ha rac te r is t ic o fT u ra 1g rave s -4 7p a nd 4 8 -a r e n o t d i rec t ly a t te s ted a t o the r s i te s , b u t a r e c l ose t o v e sse ls a s soc ia ted w i th i n sc r ip t ions o f ' Ka ' a nd N a rme r a tT a rkhan . I n o the r w o rds , t h e c e ram ic a s semb lage a s aw ho le s ugge s t s t h a tt h e e a r l ie s t g rave s a tT u ra m ay d a te t ot h er e ign o f ' Ka ' , o rp e rhap s s ho r t ly b efo re . T he s ugges t ion ( Ka ise r 1 964 : 17 ) t h a t t h ec eme te ry a tT u ra w a s e s tab l ished s ome 1 50 y ea r s o r e igh t g ene ra t ions b efo re t h e r e ign o f ' Ka ' c anno t b e s ubs tan t ia ted f r om t h ec e ram ic e v idence . I nt h is c on tex t , i ti s i n te re s t ing t o n o te t h a t t he a bso lu te c h rono logy o f t h e P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly D yna s t ic t r ans i t ion r e cen t ly p roposed b y K a ise r ( 1 990 : 2 89 f i g . 1 )s ugge s t s t ha tS t uf e I Ibl -t ow h ich t h e e a r l ie s t p o t te ry a tT u ra i sa s s igned -i st o b e p l aced 7 0 y ea r s( max imum )b e fo re t h er e ign o f' Ka ' .

Am o re f r u i t fu l a pp roach t od a t ing t h e e a r l ie s t i n te rmen t s a t T u ra m igh t b e t oe xam ine t h e o ve ra l l c e ram ic a s semb lage c ha rac te r is t ic o f t hese g raves . Ka ise r 's ( 1964 : 9 4 ) e xam ina t ion o f t h e p o t te ry d i rec t ly a ssoc ia ted w i th e a r ly k i ng s ' n ame s s ugge s ted t h a t c e r ta in c e ram ic f o rm s c ou ld b e c ons ide red r ep re sen ta t ive o f p a r t icu la r r e igns . H oweve r , f u r the r s t udy h a s d emons t ra ted t h a t t h e d i s t inc t ion b e tween r e igns i sn o t a sc l ea rc u t a sp rev iou s ly p resen ted . T h is i sn o t e n t i re ly s urp r is ing s i nce , a s w e h ave a l ready n o ted , t h e c u l tu ra l a nd p o l i t ica l s equence s d u r ing t h e p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion d o n o t r un i np a ra l le l . F o r e xamp le , t h e a dven t o f t h eF i r s t Dyna s ty i sn o t ma rked b y a ny s i gn if ican t c hange i n t h em o r tua ry c e ram ic a s semb lage . A n i n c ised ` w ine ja r ' f r om t omb B 1 a tA bydos ( da ted b y s ome a u tho r s t ot h e r e ign o fa k ing * I ry -Ho r ) i s o f e xac t ly t he s ame t ype a s o ne f r om T a rkhan i n c ised w i th t h e s e rekh o fN a rme r ( van d en B r ink 1 992 ; c f . A dam s 1 995 : 4 9 n .2 0 ) . T he ' w ine ja r s ' f r om e l B eda b ea r ing r ud imen ta ry s e re l chs s u rmoun ted b y t w in f a lcon sl o ok v e ry s im i la r , i fn o t i d en t ica l , t ot h ev e sse ls f r om H e lwan i n c ised w i th t h e s e re l ch o f ' Ka ' ( compa re C l6da t 1 914 : 19 f i g . 3a nd p l . X I I I , w i th S aad 1 947 : p l . LX ) . E ven t h e a c cep ted s equence o f ' w ine ja rs ' -w h ich h e ld t h a t t h ose w hose r im s s howed a n a ngu la r p rof i le p reda ted t hose w i th r ounded r im s -h a s b een c ha l lenged b y r e cen t f i nds f r om s e t t lemen t c on tex ts a t B u to ( Köh le r , p ersona l c ommun ica t ion ) . H ence , g rea t c au t ion mus t b e e xe rc ised w hen a temp t ing t od a te ag rave b y i t sp o t te ry t ot h e r e ign o f ap a r t icu la rl a te P redyna s t ic o rE a r ly Dyna s t ic k i ng . T he s e r ia t ion o ft h e T a rkhan H i l l C eme te r ie s i lus t ra te s t h is p o in ti n ad i f f e ren tw ay . T he g rave d a ted b yi n sc r ip t ion t ot h e r e ign o f' k ing K a ' ( TK0261) a nd t h eo ne d a ted t ot h er e ign o f N a rme r ( TK0414 ) o ccu r v e ry c l ose t oge the r i nt h e s e r ia t ion . I n f a c t , t hey a r e s epa ra ted b y j us t as i ng le g rave . T h is i nd ica te s t h a t t h e p o t te ry c on ten t s o f t h e t wo g rave s a r e

6 5

A pp rox ima te e qu iva lence s b e tween T u ra p ha se s 2a nd 3a nd t h e r e igns o f E a r ly Dyna s t ic k i ngs m ay b e o b ta ined b y a s im i la r m e thod . C ompa r isons w i th t h e p o t te ry f r om Ta rkhan a nd f r om t he r oya l t ombs a t A bydos i nd ica te t h a t t h e t r ans i t iona l p ha se , T u ra 2 , mos t p robab ly s pans t h e e a r ly t o m idd le F i rs t D yna s ty ( t he r e igns o f N a rme r t o D en ) : t he d iagno s t ic f o rm s a r e t h e c y l inde r v e s se ls 5 0d a nd 5 0n , a nd t h e ' w ine ja r s ' 7 5s a nd 7 6c . T u ra 3m ay b e e qua ted w i th t h e l a t te r p a r t o f t h e F i r s t Dyna s ty ( t he r e ign s o fD en , A ned j ib a nd S eme rkhe t ) : h e re , t he d iagnos t ic f o rms a re t he ' d egene ra te ' c y l inde r v esse l 5 0 t a nd t h e ' w ine ja r ' 7 6 1 . T o s u mma r ise , t h ec u l tu ra l p ha se s i d en t if ied a tT u ra b y s e r ia t ion may b ed a ted , a pp rox ima te ly , a sf o l low s : T u ra 1 :( ? ) `Ka '-Na rme r T u ra 2 :N a rme r -Aha -D je r -D je t -Den T u ra 3 :D en -Aned j ib ( -Seme rkhe t ) .

P ar t4 : T he e f f ec t so fs t a te f orma t ion

SOCIO -ECONO M IC CHANGE S ta t i s t ica l a na ly s i so f mor tuary d a ta

G rave w ea l th

A s w e s ha l l s ee , t h e p roces se s wh ich a ccompan ied s t a te f o rma t ion h ad ma jo r e f fec t s u pon l o ca l h ie ra rch ie s a nd a r e r e f lec ted i ns e t t lemen t a nd c eme te ry p a t te rns . We may a l so e xpec t i mpo r tan t s oc ia l a nd e conom ic d eve lopmen t s t of i nd s ome e xp re ss ion w i th in t h e c eme te r ie s o f t h e p e r iod . T he mos t a c ce ss ib le e v idence p rov ided b y c eme te r ies f o r s oc io e conom ic c hange l i e s i nt he s o -ca l led ' i nd ice s o f mo r tua ry e labo ra t ion ' , n ame ly g rave s i ze a nd g rave w ea l th . B y e xam in ing c hange si nt h e se i nd ice sd u r ing t h et r ans i t ion f r om t he P redynas t ic t ot h e E a r ly D yna s t ic p e r iod , t h e e f fec t s o f s t a te f o rma t ion may b e i nves t iga ted . F o r e ach s i te , t h e s equence o f c u l tu ra l /ch rono log ica l p hases i d en t if ied b y s e r ia t ion w i l l b e u sed a st h e b a s is f o r a na lys is . T he u se o fa s i te -spe c if ic c h rono logy f o r e ach c eme te ry s hou ld make t h e r esu l t s o ft h e a na ly s is mo re s ens i t ive , b e t te r r ef lec t ing t h e l oca l c ou r se o f d eve lopmen t a t e ach p lace . C omp lex s t a t is t ica l a na lys is , emp loy ing t he many s oph is t ica ted t echn ique s n ow a va i lab le t o a r chaeo log is t s , h as b een c onduc ted f o r E gyp t ian P redyna s t ic -Ea r ly Dyna s t ic s i te s b y s eve ra l a u thor s . Howeve r , t ot h e n on -s ta t is t ic ian , t h e r e su l t s o f s uch w o rk c an o f ten a ppea r i n access ib le . T h is c hap te r t he ref o re l im i t s i t se lf t os imp le s t a t is t ics wh ich , i ti sh oped , w i l l f u lf i l t h e d ua l r equ i remen t s o f a ccu ra te a na lys is a nd a cce s s ib i l i ty .

A l l 15 s e r ia ted g rave s may b e a na lysed f o r g rave w ea l th . I t s hou ld b e r emembe red t ha t o n ly g rave s w i th t wo o r mo re p o t te ry t ype sc ou ld b ei n c luded i nt h es e r ia t ion . G rave w ea l th i se xp res sed a sn umbe ro fp o t sp e rg rave . Mean g rave w ea l th i n c rea se s d rama t ica l ly i nT u ra 3 ,b u t t h is f i gu re s hou ld b e v i ewed w i th c au t ion a st h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion f o r t h is p ha se i sh igh . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion f a l ls i nT u ra 2b e fo re r i s ing s ha rp ly i nt h e f i na l p ha se .

S oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion m ay b e e xam ined b y t wo m eans . F i r s t , t h ep re sence o fh igh -s ta tus b u r ia ls a nd b u r ia ls f u rn ished w i th ' b adge s o fs t a tus ' i s as u re i n d ica t ion o f ar anked s oc ie ty . S econd , s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion i s r ef lec ted i n mo r tua ry i nequa l i ty . T h is may b e mea su red b y t ak ing t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion o ft h e t wo i n d ice s o f mo r tua ry e l abo ra t ion -g r ave s i ze ( i n m2)a nd g rave w ea l th ( numbe r o fp o t s ) . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion o f as e t o fd a ta i sr e cogn ised a s ar e l iab le mea su re o ft he s p read w i th in t h a t s e t , a nd h a s t h e a dvan tage o fu s ing a l l t h e v a lue s . L ong te rm t r ends i n mo r tua ry e l abo ra t ion wh ich i n d ica te t he s oc io -econom ic d eve lopmen t s t ak ing p l ace w i th in ac ommun i ty -m ay b e m ea su red b y e xam in ing t h e mean o ft h e t wo i n d ices , a nd c hanges i nt h is f i gu re o ve r t ime . S uch a na lys is f o l lows B rown 's ( 1981 : 2 9 ) h ypo the s is , t h a t " a s a u tho r i ty i n c rea se s t h e a moun t o fw ea l th a nd e f f o r t e xpended o n t h e b u r ia l w i l l i n c rea se " . F o r e ach o ft h e s i te s s t ud ied , g r aphs s how t he d a ta f o r g rave s i ze a nd g rave w ea l th . T he d a ta s e ts f o r s o me s ubphases , f o r e xamp le Mahasna l a a nd l b , a r e t oo s ma l l f o r a ny mean ingfu l s t a t is t ica l a na lys is . I n s uch c ase s , s ubphases h ave b een g rouped t o ge the r i n al o g ica l w ay t op rov ide l a rge rd a t a s e t s , n ame ly : Ma tma r2 aw i th 2 b , 2 c w i th 2 d ; Maha sna l aw i th l b , 2 aw i th 2 b ,3 aw i th 3 b .

H igh -s ta tu sb ur ia l s B e ing e n t i re ly E a r ly D yna s t ic i nd a te , t h e c eme te ry a tT u ra w ou ld b e e xpec ted t o s how a d i f f e ren t p a t te rn o f s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion f r om P redyna s t ic c eme te r ie s . T he c eme te ry a t T u ra w a s i n u se d u r ing a p e r iod w hen a n ew ly -eme rged c en t ra l a u tho r i ty e xe rc ised p o l i t ica l c on t ro l , i fn o t o ve r t h e e n t i re c oun t ry t h en c e r ta in ly o ve r t h e Memph i te a r ea w he re T u ra i ss i tua ted . I ti sv e ry u n l ike ly t h a t t he t ype s o f s oc ia l o r gan isa t ion c ha rac te r is t ic o fP redyna s t ic c ommun i t ie sw ou ld h ave c on t inued t oo pe ra te a tT u ra , s o c l ose t ot h e c en t re o f t h e n ew n a t iona l a dm in is t ra t ion . We s hou ld n o t , t h e re fo re , e xpec tt of i nd e v idence f o r aP redyna s t ic -s ty le r a nked s oc ie ty -s uch a s s ymbo ls o f a u tho r i ty o r e l abo ra te c h i ld b u r ia ls . H oweve r , s eve ra l g rave s a tT u ra c on ta ined p o t te ry v e sse ls b ea r ing r oya l i n sc r ip t ions , a nd t he se may w e l l h ave b een s i gns o f s t a tus . T he p rov is ion o f g rave g oods b y t h e r oya l t r ea su ry w ou ld h ave i n d ica ted t h a t t h e g rave o wne r e n joyed t h e p a t ronage o f t h e c ou r t . T h ree g rave s i n T u ra p ha se 1 y i e lded v e sse ls i n sc r ibed w i th ar oya l s erekh . G rave s T OM a nd T 089 e a ch c on ta ined av e s se l b ea r ing t h e i n c ised s erekh o f a n u n iden t if ied k i ng ( J unke r 1 912 , 4 7 f i g . 5 7 .3 -4 ) . T he n ame h a sb een r e ad a s* Ny -Ho r( Ka ise r &D reye r 1 982 : 2 64 8 ) , b u t i tm ay s imp ly b e ac ur s ive r e nde r ing o ft h e n ame o f N a rme r ( F ische r 1 963 : 4 4 , 4 5 f i g . 2 ,4 6 f i g . 3 ,4 7 ) . ( Suppo r t f o rs uch ar e ad ing m ay b ep rov ided b ya n i n c ised s er ekh f r om M insha t A bu Oma r ( Ka ise r &D reye r 1 982 , f i g . 1 4 .38 ) . T he h o r izon ta l s t roke i nt h e u ppe r p a r t o ft h e s erekh may b e a n a bb rev ia ted n ar -s ign . ) G rave T 054 c on ta ined aw ine j a r o f J unke r 's T ype I i n c ised w i th t h e s erekh o f a no the r , u n iden t if ied e a r ly r u le r ( J unke r 1 912 : 4 6 , 4 7 f i g . 5 7 .1-2 ) . T h ree h4-signs a ppea ri nt h e l owe rp a r t o ft h e f r ame , b u ti ti s u nc lea r w he the r t h e se f o rm p a r t o f an ame . A n i d en t ica l s e rekh a ppea r s o n av e s se l f r om g rave T 313 , n o t i n c luded i n t h ep re sen ts e r ia t ion . Av e s se l f r om g rave T 235 -a l so a bsen t f r om t h e s e r ia t ion -b o re a n i nk i n sc r ip t ion w h ich w a s o r ig ina l ly r e ad a st h e n ame o fk i ng ' S co rp ion ' b u t h a s s i nce b een s hown ( Ka ise r 1 964 : 1 03 , f i g . 3 )t ob e long t ok i ng D je r o ft h eF i r s t Dyna s ty . T rend si n mor tuary i n equal i ty a nd e l abora t ion

T ura G rave s i ze T he d imens ion s a r e p ub l ished f o r 9 1 o ft h e s e r ia ted g rave s f r om T u ra . I nt h e g raph b e low , g rave T 573 f r om T u ra p ha se 3h a s b een e xc luded , s i nce i t s v a s t ly g rea te r s i ze ( 152m 2) w ou ld d i s to r t t he f i gu res f o r t h is p ha se . G rave s i ze i s c a lcu la ted a s g rave a r ea i n m2.Mean g rave s i ze d ec l ine s s i gn if ican t ly i nT u ra 2 b efo re r i s ing a ga in i n T u ra 3 .T he d ec rease i nt h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i se ven mo re m a rked i n p ha se 2 .

6 9

B o th s e t s o fd a ta s ugge s t ar educ t ion i n mo r tua ry i n equa l i ty i nT u ra 2a nd as ubs tan t ia l i n c rea se i nt h e l a s tp ha se , T u ra 3 . T he a moun to fw ea l th a nd e f fo r t e xpended a tT u ra o n b u r ia l s r ema ins l a rge ly s t eady t h roughou t T u ra 1a nd 2 ,b u t a ve rage g r ave w ea l th ,i np a r t icu la r , i n c rease s i nT u ra 3 . A s w e h ave s een , T u ra 1a nd T u ra 3s t and o u t a st h e p ha se s o f g rea te s t m o r tua ry d i f fe ren t ia t ion . T u ra 1 c o r re sponds t o t h e c u lm ina t ion o f t h e s t a te f o rma t ion p roce ss , p re sumab ly t h e p e r iod i mmed ia te ly p reced ing t h e f ounda t ion a nd r i se o f Memph is . T he c oncen t ra t ion o f p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic

a u tho r i ty i n t h e Memph i te a rea s eem t o h ave p rov ided o ppo r tun i t ies f o r l oca l e l i tes t op rospe r . T he mo r tua ry d a ta f r om T u ra s ugge s t t ha t t he re w a s ag rea te r d i f f e ren t ia l i n a ccess t o r e sou rces a t t h is t ime t han i n t he e a r ly F i rs t Dyna s ty . B y t h e l a t te r p e r iod , r ep re sen ted b y T u ra 2 , t h e c en t ra l a dm in is t ra t ion h ad e f f ec t ive ly g a the red t o i t se lf u l t ima te c on t ro l o fb o th r eg iona l a nd n a t iona l r e sou rce s . T he a ppa ren t r e su rgence o f mo r tua ry d i f f e ren t ia t ion i nt h e l a t te r p a r to ft h eF i r s t Dyna s ty ( Tu ra p ha se 3 ) may b ea ccoun ted f o r b y ah andfu l o fv e ry l av ish i n te rmen t s . G rave T 573 , t h e l a s t i nt h e s e r ia ted s equence , i se xcep t iona l f o r i t s s i ze . F o r t h is r ea son i tw a s e xc luded f r om t h e g raph o n g rave s i ze . G rave T 344 a l so s t and so u tf r om t h er e s to ft h eb u r ia l si nt h is p ha se . A f te r T 573 , t h eg rave i sb y f a r t h e l a rge s ti nT u ra 3 ,w i th a n a r ea o f o ve r 6m 2.I ti sa l so t h e r i che s t g rave i nt h is p ha se , c on ta in ing s ome t h i r ty p o t te ry v esse ls . W i thou t t h is b u r ia l , t h e t r end i ng rave s i ze r ema ins t h e s ame a sb efo re , b u t l e s s ma rked . Mean g rave w ea l th a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s t i l l i n c rease i n T u ra 3 , b u t much l e s s d rama t ica l ly . T he d a ta i nd ica te t ha t af ew t ombs o fu np receden ted s i ze a nd w ea l th w e re c ons t ruc ted a t T u ra i n p hase 3 . T h is s i tua t ion i s c ompa rab le w i th t h a t o b ta in ing a tT a r l chan d u r ing t h e s ame p e r iod . T he m idd le o ft h e F i r s t Dyna s ty s eems t oh ave b een c ha rac te r ised a tb o th s i tes b y ag rea t i n c rea se i n m o r tua ry e xpend i tu re f o r ar e s t r ic ted e l i te -i n o the r w o rd s , ma rked s oc ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion .

7 0

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p ha se ( Ca se s : T u ra 1-3 1 ,T u ra 2-3 3 ,T u ra 3-2 6 , a l lp ha se s -9 0 )

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p ha se ( Ca se s : T u ra 1-3 7 ,T u ra 2-4 1 ,T u ra 3-3 7 , a l lp ha se s -15 )

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T arkhan G rave s i ze I n t he g raph b e low t h e l a rge ma s taba TK1060 h a s b een e xc luded f r om t h e d a ta f o r T a rkhan 3 ,t o a vo id d i s to r t ion . B o th mean g rave s i ze a nd t he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion r ema in s t eady t h roughou t t h e f i r s t t wo p hase s , t h en d ec l ine s h arp ly i nT a rkhan 3 . G rave w ea l th D ef ic ienc ie s i n t h e e xcava t ion r e co rds make g rave w ea l th mo re d i ff i cu l tt oa na lyse a tT a rkhan t h an a tt he o t he r s i te s i n t h e p resen t s t udy . T he p ub l ica t ion o f t h e H i l l C eme te r ie s g ive s t h e v a r ie ty o fp o t te ry t ype s p re sen t i ne ach g rave , b u t d oe s n o t i n d ica te t h e f r equency o fe ach t y pe . T he n umbe r o f p o t te ry t y pe s i n ag rave p rov ide s av e ry r ough i nd ica t ion o f t h e o r ig ina l n umbe r o fv e sse ls , i n asmuch a s ag rave w i th a l a rge n umbe r o f t y pes i sl i ke ly t oh ave c on ta ined ag rea te r n umbe r o f v e sse ls t han a g rave w i th a s ma l le r n umbe r o f t ypes . N one the le ss , t h e l a ck o f f r equency d a ta make s a n a ccu ra te e s t ima t ion o ft h e o r ig ina lg rave c on ten t si mpos s ib le . I nt h e f o l low ing a na ly s is , a l l t h ed a ta f o rt h eH i l l C eme te r ie s r e f e r t ot h e n umbe r o fp o t te ry t y pe s , r a the r t h an t h e n umbe r o fv e s se ls . O nce a ga in ,i ti si mpo r tan tt or emembe rt h a t o n ly g r ave sw i th t wo o rm o re p o t te ry t y pe s c ou ld b ei n c luded i nt h es e r ia t ion . I n t h e g raph b e low t h e l a rge m as taba TK1060 - w h ich c on ta ined a n e xcep t iona l v a r ie ty o fp o t te ry t ype s -h a s a ga in b een e xc luded f r om t h ed a ta f o rT a rkhan 3 . Mean g rave s i ze i n c rea se s i nT a rkhan 2 a nd d ec l ine s i n p ha se 3 .T he s ame t r end i sa ppa ren tf o rt h es t anda rd d ev ia t ion . H igh s ta tu sb ur ia l s A si nt h ec a se o fT u ra , t he H i l lC eme te r ie sa t Ta rkhan d o n o t s how t h e p a t te rns o f s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion c ha rac te r is t ic o f P redynas t ic c ommun i t ies . T he s ex a nd a ge o f g rave o ccupan t s w e re n o t g ene ra l ly r e co rded f o r t h e T a rkhan c eme te r ie s , s o i ti si mposs ib le t o d e te rm ine w he the r t h e re w e re a ny e l abo ra te c h i ld b u r ia ls . I n a ny c a se , w e s hou ld n o t e xpe c t t of i nd s uch af e a tu re o fP redyna s t ic r anked s oc ie t ie s a tT a rkhan . O n ly o ne g rave , TK0007 , c on ta ined w ha t m igh t b e r ega rded a s a n o b jec t o fs t a tu s , i nt h is c a se ac oppe r a xe ( Pe t r ie e ta l . 1 913 : p l . LX I ) . T he g rave w a s al a rge o ne a nd a l so c on ta ined al a rge n umbe r o fp o t te ry t ype s -e l even i n t o ta l . T ak ing a l t h e se i nd ica t ions i n to a ccoun t , i ts e em sl i ke ly t h a t TK0007 b e longed t o ap e r son o fh igh s t a tus .H oweve r , i n g ene ra l , i mpo r tan tl o ca l f i gu re ss e em t oh ave c ho sen d i f f e ren t m e thods f o r e xp re ss ing t h e i r s t a tus i nt h e mo r tua ry s phe re . T he mos t d rama t ic e xamp le s o fe l i te b u r ia ls a tT a rkhan a r e t he l a rge , n i ched mas tabas o f t he F i rs t Dynas ty . B y e mp loy ing as t y le o fa r ch i tec tu re i n t ima te ly c onnec ted w i th t h e r oya l c ou r t , t h e t omb o wne r s e xp re s sed t h e i r o wn s t a tus b y r e fe rence t o t h e s ou rce o f u l t ima te a u tho r i ty : t h e k ing . F une ra ry p r ov is ions f r om t h e r oya l t r ea su ry m igh t s e rve a s im i la r p u rpose . S uch i n d ica t ion s o fr oya l f avou r d o i n deed o ccu ri ns eve ra lg rave sa tT a rkhan . G rave TK0315 c on ta ined av e s se l i n sc r ibed i ni n k w i th t h e s erekh o f a n e a r ly k i ng ( Pe t r ie e t a l . 1 913 : p l . XXX I .66 ; K ap lony 1 963 , V o l . I I : p l . 1i lus t ra te s t h e w ho le v e sse l ) . T he g rave i sa l so n o tewo r thy f o r b e ing t h e s e cond l a rges t i n T a rkhan p ha se 1 .G rave TK0261 , wh ich c on ta ined av e sse l

7 2

i n sc r ibed w i th t h e s erekh o f ' k ing K a ' , i so t he rw ise r a the r u nexcep t iona l : i tc on ta ined s even p o t te ry t ype s a nd h ad a n a r ea o fo n ly 1 . 533m 2.B y c on t ra s t , TK0414 , as ma l l mas taba f r om T a rkhan p ha se 1 ,i sd i s t ingu ished b y i t s s i ze a nd b yt h e l a rge n umbe r o f p o t te ry v e sse ls i tc on ta ined . A l though t h e g rave r eg is te r l i s ts j u s t t e n d i f f e ren t p o t te ry t ypes , t h e p ub l ished p ho tog raph s ( Pe t r ie e ta l . 1 913 : p l . XX I ) c l ea r ly s how t h a tt h e n umbe r o fi nd iv idua l v esse ls w a sc ons ide rab ly g rea te r . S eve ra l s ea l ing s o f Na rme r we re f ound i nt h e g rave , t oge the r w i th a no the r s ea l ing b ea r ing s ymbo ls wh ich a r e p robab ly c onnec ted w i th t h e F ayum ( Pe t r ie e ta l . 1 913 : p l . 1 . 1-3 , a nd p l . 1 .4 , r e spec t ive ly ) . T h is may w e l li n d ica te t h a t t he owne r o f g rave TK0414 , c er ta in ly a p erson o f c ons ide rab le a u tho r i ty a nd c onnec ted w i th t h e r oya l c ou r t , w a s ap rov inc ia l a dm in is t ra to r , g ove rn ing t h eF ayum -v e ry c l ose t ot h e s i te o fT a rkhan . A n a d jacen t a nd c on tempo ra ry m a s taba , TK0412 , a l so c on ta ined a n i n sc r ip t ion ( Pe t r ie e ta l . 1 913 : p l . XXX I .7 1) , a l though t h e p rec ise i n te rp re ta t ion i s p rob lema t ic . L ike i t s n e ighbou r , TK0412 c on ta ined al a rge n umbe r o fp o t te ry v e sse ls . T he g rave g oods i n c luded af i ne c oppe r b ow l ( Pe t r ie e t a l . 1 913 : p l . V I I .15 ) , af u r the r i n d ica t ion o ft h et omb o wne r 's h igh s t a tus . T he t h ree l a rge , n i ched ma s taba s d a t ing t o t h e e a r ly F i r s t Dyna s ty w e re e r ec ted o n h i l ls we l l t o t h e s ou th o f t h e p r inc ipa l c eme te ry a r ea s ( Pe t r ie 1 914 : p l . XL V I I I ) . B y t h e t ime t h ey w e re e xcava ted , a l l t h ree t ombs h ad b een p lunde red a nd t h e i r r e cove red c on ten t s g ive o n ly a n i n d ica t ion o ft h e i r o r ig ina l w ea l th . P a r t icu la r ly n o tewor thy a r et h e f r agmen t s o f f o re ign p o t te ry , a ppa ren t ly s he rds f r om aS yro -Pa le s t in ian j ug le t , f ound i n t h e c en t ra l c hambe r o f m a s taba TK 1060 ( Pe t r ie e t a l . 1 913 : p l . XV I .4 , p l . X IX .24 ) . A f te r t h e u n if ica t ion o f E gyp t , f o re ign t r ade may h ave b een ar oya l monopo ly . H ence , o wne rsh ip o f a n i mpo r ted v e sse l -o r , r a the r , o fi t s c on ten t s ,p robab ly o i l o fs ome k i nd -w ou ld h ave b een ac l ea r i nd ica t ion o f h igh s t a tus a nd o f a cces s t ot h e r oya l c ou r t . S pa t ia lp a t tern ing T he T a rkhan b u r ia l g round a s awho le s hows m a rked s p a t ia l p a t te rn ing . T he l a rge r , r i che r g rave s w e re l o ca ted a lmos t e xc lus ive ly i n t h e H i l l C eme te r ies , w h i ls t s ma l le r , p oo re r g rave s w e re l a rge ly c onf ined t o t he V a l ley C eme te ry . T h is p a t te rn s ugge s t s t h e e x is tence o f ad i s t inc t e l i te c l a s s w i th in t he s oc ie ty a t Ta rkhan , ac l ass w h ich empha s ised i t s d i s t inc t ivene s s f r om t h e g ene ra l p opu la t ion b y m eans o f a s epa ra te c eme te ry . A s w e h ave s een , H i l l C eme te ry A may h ave s e rved ay e t mo re r a ref ied e l i te . W i th in t h is c eme te ry t h e t wo mos te l abo ra te b ur ia ls a re t h en e ighbou r ing m a s taba s TK0412 a nd TK0414 . T hese may h ave b e longed t o p rov inc ia l g ove rno r s . F rom t he s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing o f t he T a rkhan c eme te r ie s , i ti s p o s s ib le t op os tu la te af ou r -fo ld d iv is ion o fT a rkha n s o c ie ty . T he b u lk o f t he p opu la t ion was b u r ied i n t h e V a l ley C eme te ry . T he e l i te c l a s s w a s b u r ied i nt h e H i l l C eme te r ie s , e xcep t f o r as ma l le r , d i s t inc t g roup w h ich w as b u r ied s ome d i s tance a way i nC eme te ry A . Wi th in t h is l a t te r g roup , af ew i n d iv idua ls h e ld e ven g rea te r s t a tu s a nd w e re a cco rd ing ly b u r ied i nl a rge t omb si n ad i sc re te a r ea o fC eme te ry A . T rends i n mor tuary i n equa l i ty a nd e l abora t ion T he g raph s s how m o r tua ry d i f fe ren t ia t ion t oh ave b een mos t p ronounced a mongs t e l i te g rave s d u r ing T a rkhan 1 t o 2 . H oweve r , t h e l a rge m a s taba t omb s o fT a rkhan p ha se 3 a r e a bsen t f r om t h e se g raph s . I ft hey h ad b een i n c luded , t h ed a ta

w ou ld h ave s hown ama rked i n c rea se i n mo r tua ry i n equa l i ty d u r ing T a rkhan 3 . T he s ame i st r ue o f o ve ra l l mor tua ry e l abo ra t ion . Wh i ls t m ean g rave s i ze a nd w ea l th d ec rea se i n t h eH i l lC eme te r ie si nT a rkhan p ha se 3 ,t h ep re sence o fh uge mudb r ick ma s taba t ombs a tt h is p e r iod i n d ica te s ag rea te r e xpend i tu re o n mo r tua ry p rov is ion , b u t o ne c onf ined t o a much s ma l le r s ec t ion o f t he p opu la t ion . T hus , t he d a ta i n d ica te ag rea te ri n equa l i ty w i th in Ta rkhan s oc ie ty a f te r t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e F i rs t Dyna s ty . T hey a l so i lus t ra te t h a t t h e w ay i nw h ich s t a tus w a s e xp re ssed i nt h e mo r tua ry s phe re c hanged d rama t ica l ly a f te r t h e f ounda t ion o f t h e E gyp t ian s t a te . T he ' s ump tua ry ' b u r ia ls o fP redyna s t ic l e ade r s -l a rge t ombs , e qu ipped w i th g rave g oods o f b o th q uan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty , i n c lud ing p re s t ige m a te r ia ls a nd o ve r t s ymbo ls o f a u tho r i ty -w e re r ep laced b y t omb s wh ich i nd ica ted r oya l f a vou r . T h is wa s a ch ieved e i the r b y c ommod i t ie s f r om t h e r oya l t r ea su ry , b ea r ing t h e m a rk o ft h e k i ng , o rb yt h eu se o f a n a r ch i tec tu ra l s t y le w i th p owe rfu l r oya l a s soc ia t ions : s o c a l led ' pa lace -façade ' n i ch ing . I tm ay b e t h a t t h ep ub l ic u se o ft h is a r ch i tec tu ra l mo t if b y ap r iva te i n d iv idua l h ad t ob e s anc t ioned b y t he r oya l c ou r t . T he mo r tua ry d a ta f r om t h e Ta rkhan H i l l C eme te r ie s h igh l igh t t h e r ep lacemen t o f l o ca l h i e ra rch ie s b y an a t iona l a u tho r i ty , a nd i lu s t ra te t h e w ay i n w h ich t h i sw a sr e f le c ted i nm o r tua ry p rov is ion . T a rkhan 1 r epresen t s t he l a s t s t age o f s t a te f o rma t ion , c u lm ina t ing i nt he e s tab l ishmen t o f an ew n a t iona l c ap i ta l a t Memph is . T he c ommun i ty a t T a rkhan w as e v iden t ly a p rospe rou s o ne , a s y e t u na f f ec ted b y t h e d emog raph ic a nd p o l i t ica l c hange s w h ich w e re t oh ave d rama t ic i mp l ica t ions f o r t h e Memph i te r e g ion . T a rkhan 1s eem s h ave b een t h e f loru i t o f t h e b u r ia l g round a s aw ho le : t h e m a jo r i ty o f i n te rmen t s i n t he e x tens ive V a l ley C eme te ry d a te t o t h is p hase . T a rkhan 2 c o r respond s t o t h e e a r ly F i r s t Dyna s ty , p robab ly t h e r e igns o fA ha a nd D je r . N a t iona l p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic a u thor i ty w a s n ow v e s ted i nt h e r oya l c ou r t , a nd t h e c i ty o f Memph is h ad b een e s tab l i shed a st h ec en t re f o rt h e n ew a dm in is t ra t ion . A s Memph is g rew i n i mpor tance , T a rkhan 's f o r tunes f e l l i n to d ec l ine . T he l o ca l p opu la t ion m ay h ave b een a t t rac ted a way t ot h e c ap i ta l , n o t f a r d i s tan t . C e r ta in ly , t h e n umbe r o f b u r ia ls i n t h e V a l ley C eme te ry d ec rea se sd rama t ica l ly a f te rT a rkhan 1 .T he b u r ia ls i np ha se 3d emon s t ra te i n c rea s ing d i f f e ren t ia t ion , a nd t h e d om inance o f t h e c ou r t o ve r t he l o ca l h ie ra rchy . T h is d eve lopmen t c u lm ina ted t owa rds t h e m idd le o ft h eF i r s tD yna s ty w i th t h e e r ec t ion o ft h ree h uge ma s taba s i nt h e s ou the rnmos t p a r t o f t h e s i te . T he se ma s taba s n eve r the le s s r ep resen t t he s wan s ong o fT a rkhan a s a n i mpo r tan t E a r ly Dyna s t ic s i te . A f te r t h em id F i r s t Dynas ty , t h ec eme te r ie s a tT a rkhan w e re a l l b u t a bandoned i nf a vou r o f ab u r ia l g round f u r the rn o r th a tK a f r Amma r( Pe t r ie & Mackay 1 915 ) . Af ew b u r ia ls w e re l o ca ted i n t h e H i l l C eme te r ie s ( D , E , Fa nd 0 ) d u r ing t h e T h i rd D yna s ty , O ld K ingdom a nd F i r s t I n te rmed ia te P e r iod , t h en t h e s i te o f T a rkhan w a s a bandoned a l toge the r u n t i l t h e G raeco -Roman P e r iod -w hen af ew g r ave s w e re d ug i nH i l l C eme te ry L .

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p ha se ( Ca se s : T a rkhan 1-1 26 ,T a rkhan 2-4 9 ,T a rkhan 3-5 8 , a l lp ha se s -2 33 )

Mean S td D ev

Ma tmar G rave s i ze T he d imens ions a r e p ub l ished f o r 8 3 o f t h e s e r ia ted g rave s f r om Ma tma r . Mean g rave a r ea i sh ighes t i n Ma tma r 1a nd d ec rea se s s t ead i ly t h roughou t t he s equence . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i sh i ghe s ti n Ma tma r 2 c -d a nd d e c rea se s ma rked ly i n Ma tma r3 . G rave w ea l th A l l 1 03 s e r ia ted g r ave s may b e a na lysed f o r g rave w ea l th . Mean g r ave w ea l th i n c rea se s s t ead i ly f r om Ma tma r 1t oa p eak i n Ma tma r 2 c -d , b efo re f a l l ing a way i n Ma tma r 3 .T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion r ema ins f a i r ly c ons tan t . H igh s ta tu sb ur ia l s ' Badge s o fs t a tus ' a r e f ound i nt h ree g rave s a t Ma tma r , a l f r om t h e e a r l ie r P redynas t ic p e r iod . G rave MT3131 c on ta ined t h e c e leb ra ted ` Ma tma r a xe ' , o ne o f t h e e a r l ie s t e xamp le s o fa dvanced m e ta lwo rk ing f r om E gyp t . S uch ar a re -a nd , f o r t h e t ime , t e chno log ica l ly a dvanced -o b jec t w ou ld u ndoub ted ly h ave c onfe r red g rea t p res t ige w i th in t h e P redyna s t ic s oc ie ty a t Ma tma r , r e f lec t ing t h e s t a tus o f t h e g rave o wne r .T he g r ave i t se lf w a st h et h i rd l a rge s ti n Ma tma r p ha se 1 .G rave MT3075 i st h e mos t ' s ump tua ry ' b u r ia l i ni t s p ha se a nd c on ta ined a n i v ory t a g , a s w e l l a s o t he r p re s t ige o b jec t s , n o tab ly b race le t s a nd a n o s t r ich e gg -she l l i mpo r ted f r om N ub ia . T he g rave y i e lded e i gh teen p o t s , t h e l a rges t n umbe r o f v esse ls f r om a ny b ur ia l o f Ma tma r 1 . G rave MT3129 f r om Ma tma r p ha se 2 a c on ta ined a n a l aba s te r macehead w h ich -a sw e l l a sb e ing a n e f fec t ive w eapon -i s l i ke ly t oh ave s e rved a s ab adge o fs t a tus ( con tra C ia low icz 1 987 ) . ( The c ompa ra t ive r a r i ty o f maceheads i nP redyna s t ic t omb s , t h eh i gh -v a lue m a te r ia ls f r om w h ich m any w e re m ade ( e .g . d i o r i te , i vo ry ) , a nd t h e f a c t t h a t t h ey a r e o f ten f ound i n w ea l thy b u r ia ls a nd /o r a s soc ia ted w i th o the r , u nden iab le s ymbo l s o fa u tho r i ty : a l l t h e se f a c to r s s ugge s t t h a t t h ey d i d i n deed r e p re sen t s ome d eg ree o fp re s t ige . ) T h is b u r ia l i st h e l a rge s t i ni t s s ubpha se a nd w a s f u rn ished w i th o t he r h igh s t a tus o b jec t s : t wo s t one v e sse ls , r a re a ts uch a n e a r ly d a te , t wo s l a te p a le t tes a nd as t r ing o fb eads . T he c omb ina t ion o f a l l t h e se a t t r ibu te s ma rk s t h e g rave o u t a s b e long ing t o a p e r son o fc ons ide rab le s t a tu s . E xp l ic i tb adge s o fs t a tus a r e n o t a t te s ted i nt h eb u r ia ls f r om t h e s e cond h a lf o f Ma tma r p ha se 2 , o r f r om C eme te ry 2 00 ( Ma tma rp ha se 3 ) . T rends i n mor tuary i n equal i ty a nd e l abora t ion T he d a ta f o r g rave s i ze a nd w ea l th s uppo r t t he a bove e v idence f o r i d en t ify ing Ma tma r 1a s ap hase o f m a rked s oc ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion . B o th i n d ice s s how a l a rge s t anda rd d ev ia t ion f o r t h is p ha se . Ma tma r 2 c -d e me rge s a s t h e p ha se o f max imum mor tua ry d i f f e ren t ia t ion , wh i ls t t h e re i s a s i gn if ican t d ec rea se i n Ma tma r 3 .T he i nd ice s o f mo r tua ry e l abo ra t ion s how d i f fe r ing t r ends , m ean g rave s i ze b e ing h i ghe s t i n Ma tma r 1 , mean g rave w ea l th i n Ma tma r 2 c -d . T ak ing i n to a c coun t b o th i n d ice s , mo r tua ry e l abo ra t ion , a nd t h u s a u tho r i ty , s e ems t oh ave b een ma rked i n Ma tma r 1a nd a ga in d u r ing t h e l a t te r h a lf o f Ma tma r 2 , e xpe r ienc ing a d ec l ine a tt h e e nd o f Naqada I wh ich c on t inued i n to t h e E a r ly D yna s t ic p e r iod .

7 5

T he c l ea r s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion o bse rved a t Ma tma r d u r ing p ha se 1 ( c or re spond ing t oN aqada I )p robab ly r e f lec t s t h e f l oru i t o ft h is c ommun i ty , a nd o ft h i s a r ea o fE gyp t . M idd le E gyp t ian s oc ie ty a ppea r s t oh ave b een p a r t icu la r ly d ynam ic d u r ing t h e e a r ly P redyna s t ic . T he r eg ion b e tween Ma tma r a nd Q au w as a ppa ren t ly t h e h ea r t land o f t h e B ada r ian c u l tu re , a nd n ume rous s e t t lemen t s f r om t h eN aqada Ip e r iod h ave b een e xcava ted a l ong t h e d ese r t e dge ( B run ton 1 937 : 7 5 -82 ) . A s t h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod p rog re s sed , t h e f o cus o f s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l d eve lopmen t s s h if ted s ou thwa rds t o Uppe r E gyp t . None the le ss , i n c ommon w i th o the r s i te s t h roughou t t h eN aqada c u l tu ra l a r ea , Ma tma re xpe r ienced a n i n c rea se i na u tho r i ty d u r ing m id -Naqada I .A se l sewhe re , t h e e l i te a t Ma tma r a ppea rs t oh ave g a ined i n c rea s ing c on t ro l o f r e sou rce s . A t t h e v e ry e nd o fN aqada I -r e p re sen ted b y t h e t r ans i t ion f r om p ha se 2 (d ) t op ha se 3-Ma tma r w i tne s sed a s ha rp d ec l ine i na u tho r i ty , ad ec l ine w h ich w a s t oc on t inue i n to t he E a r ly Dyna s t ic P e r iod . T h is d ec l ine may b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e f i na l s t age s o fs t a te f o rma t ion , ap roces s w h ich w a s v e ry l a rge ly c en t red o n U ppe r E gyp t a nd t h e Memph i te a r ea , a nd i n wh ich M idd le E gyp t ian c ommun i t ie s s uch a s Ma tma rs eem t oh ave p l ayed v e ry l i t t le p a r t .

Ma tma r -g r ave s i z e

— m2

0

—

Mean

1 0

S td D ev

3

p ha se ( Ca se s : Ma tma r 1-1 9 , Ma tma r2 ( a -b ) -1 5 , Ma tma r2 ( c -d ) -2 3 , Ma tma r 3-2 6 , a l p ha se s -8 3 )

Ma tma r -g r ave w ea l th 7

6—

5—

4—

n o . o fp o t s 3—

—

. .. . . . .. . . •. . . . . . . . . . .(EL , .•. . . . . . .

0 0

—

Mean S td D ev

. . .. 1 ) 2—

2 a -b

2 c -d

3

p ha se ( Ca se s : Ma tma r 1-2 5 , Ma tma r2 ( a -b ) -2 3 , Ma tma r2 ( c -d ) -2 6 , Ma tma r 3-2 9 , a lp ha se s -1 03 )

7 6

Mo s tagedda G rave s i ze T he d imens ions a r e p ub l ished f o r 6 4 o f t h e s e r ia ted g rave s f r om Mos tagedda . Mean g rave s i ze i n crea se s s t ead i ly t h roughou tt h es equence , a sd oe s t h es t anda rd d ev ia t ion . G rave w ea l th A l l 7 5 s e r ia ted g rave s may b e a na lysed f o r g rave w ea l th . Mean g rave wea l th i nc rea ses t h roughou t t he s equence , t h ough m os t ma rked ly f r om Mos tagedda 1t o2 .T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s hows l i t t le c hange . H igh s ta tu sb ur ia l s O n ly o ne o ft h e s e r ia ted g rave s f r om Mos tagedda c on ta ined wha tc ou ld b ei n te rp re ted a s as ymbo l o fa u tho r i ty : am ace i n MG1727 . H oweve r , t h is g rave d id n o t c on ta in ap a r t icu la r ly l a rge n umbe ro fp o t s ,n o ri si tp a r t icu la r ly b i gi na r ea -i nf a c t MG 1727 i st h e f ou r th s ma l le s tg r ave i n Mos tagedda p ha se 1 . I ti sd oub t fu l whe the r t he o ccupan t w a s i nf a c t ap e r son o f h igh s t a tu s . T rend si n mor tuary i n equa l i ty a nd e l abora t ion T he d a ta f o rg rave s i ze s ugge s t t h a t m o r tua ry i n equa l i ty w a s p a r t icu la r ly ma rked i n Mos tagedda 3 , w h i ls t t h e t r end i n g rave w ea l th s how s l i t t le v a r ia t ion . B o th s e t s o fd a ta i n d ica te t h a t t h e g ene ra l l e ve l o f mo r tua ry e l abo ra t ion w a s g rea te s t d u r ing Mos tagedda 3 ,c o r re spond ing t ot h e t r ans i t ion f r om t h el a te P r edyna s t ic t ot h eE a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod . I n c ommon w i th o the r s i te s i n E gyp t , i n c lud ing n ea rby Ma tma r ,t h e re i se v idence f o rm o r tua ry d i f f e ren t ia t ion d u r ing N aqada Ia nd m id -Naqada I . A l o ne s ymbo l o f a u tho r i ty f r om Mo s tagedda 1m ay i nd ica te t h e e x is tence o fa n e l i te a t t h is t ime . H oweve r , a s m igh t b e e xpec ted i n av e ry s ma l l f a rm ing c ommun i ty , e v idence f o r al a rge d eg ree o f s oc ia l d i f fe ren t ia t ion i sn o t a ppa ren t . Mos tagedda d i f f e r s f r om a l t h e o t he rs i te s i nt h ep re sen ts t udy d u r ing t h et r ans i t ion f r om t h e P redyna s t ic t o t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod ( Mos tagedda p ha se 3 ) . I ts e em sa st h ough t h ec ommun i ty a tl a rge b enef i ted f r om t h e c hanges w h ich a ccompan ied t h e p rocess o f s t a te f o rma t ion , s i nce b o th m ean g rave s i ze a nd w ea l th r e ached t h e i r p eak d u r ing Mos tagedda 3 .T he d a ta r e f le c t a n i n c rea se i nt h e w ea l th o ft h ep opu la t ion a s aw ho le , a nd i nt h e a moun t o ft ime a nd e f fo r te xpended o n mo r tua ry p rov is ion . B o th a r e s i gns o f as o c ie ty o n t h e v e rge o fs t a te f o rma t ion . P e rhaps , a s S pence r ( 1 993 : 9 7 ) s ugges t s , t h e n ew p o l i t ica l s t ab i l i ty b rough ta ni n c rea se i np rospe r i ty f o rr u ra lc ommun i t ie s .

7 7

Mo s tagedda -g r ave s i ze

—13 — •

2

Mean S td D ev

3

p ha se ( Ca se s : Mo s tagedda 1-1 2 , Mo s tagedda 2-3 1 , Mo s tagedda 3-2 1 , a l lp ha se s -6 4 )

Mo s tagedda -g r ave w ea l th 6

5—

4Mean

n o . o fp o t s

3—

. . . . . e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0. ... . . . . . ..

•

S td D ev

2—

1—

2

3

p ha se ( Ca se s : Mo s tagedda 1-1 5 , Mo s tagedda 2-3 7 , Mo s tagedda 3-2 3 , a l lp ha se s -7 5 )

Maha sna

T he re i s , t hus , a bundan t e v idence f o r e l i te s t a tu s w i th in t h e Maha sna c ommun i ty , p a r t icu la r ly d u r ing t he N aqada Ip e r iod ( Maha sna 1 ) . I n a dd i t ion , c e r ta in o the r g rave s c on ta ined o b jec t s w h ich m igh tw e l l i nd ica te s ome s pe c ia l r o le f o r t h e i r o wne r s , t hough n o t n eces sa r i ly p o l i t ica l p owe r . G rave s MH042 a nd MH033 , f r om Maha sna l a , e ach c on ta ined a f ema le f i gu r ine o f c l ay . S uch o b jec ts a lmo s t c e r ta in ly p o sse ssed amag ica l o rr e l ig ious s i gn if icance . I ti si n te re s t ing t on o te t h a t MH033 a l so c on ta ined av e s se l o fB lack inc ised w a re ( Pe t r ie 's N -wa re ) , ar a re c l ass o f p o t te ry p robab ly i mpo r ted f r om N ub ia . T h ree g raves f r om Maha sna 3 , MH120 , MH122 a nd MH134A , e ach c on ta ined ag oa t s ku l l . T he se m ay a l so h ave h e ld s o me s pec ia l , p e rhaps m ag ica l , s i gn if icance . I n g ene ra l , t h ough , s ymbo ls o f a u tho r i ty a r e r a re r i ng r ave s o ft h e l a s t p ha se a t Maha sna . I ts eem s l i ke ly t h a t o nce a c en t ra l a u tho r i ty -b ased a t Memph is , t h ough o r ig ina t ing f r om t h e v i c in i ty o f Maha sna -h ad r i sen t o p rom inence , s oc ia l s t a tu s w a s e xp res sed i n w ay s d i f f e ren t f r om t h ose mos t c ommon ly emp loyed i n t h e P redynas t ic p e r iod .

G rave s i ze T he d imens ions a r e p ub l ished f o r 6 7 o f t h e s e r ia ted g rave s f r om Maha sna . B o th mean g rave s i ze a nd t he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion r ema in v i r tua l ly c ons tan t f r om Maha sna 1 t o Maha sna 2 ,a nd a r e ma rked ly l owe ri np ha se 3 . G rave w ea l th A l l 9 6 s e r ia ted g rave s may b e a na lysed f o r g rave w ea l th . Mean g r ave w ea l th p eaks i n Maha sna 2 a nd d ec l ines s i gn if ican t ly i n p ha se 3 . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i sh igh t h roughou t t h e s equence , a ga in p eak ing i n Mahasna 2 a nd f a l l ing a way q u i te m a rked ly i np ha se 3 . H igh s ta tus b ur ia l s Ove r t s ymbo ls o f a u thor i ty a r e mo re c ommon a t Maha sna t h an a ta ny o t he rs i te i nt h ep re sen ts t udy . A t l e a s ts i x g rave s , f r om Maha sna 1 a nd Maha sna 3 , c on ta ined o ne o r more o b jec t s w h ich c an b e i n te rpre ted a sb adges o f s t a tu s . G rave MH029 , f r om Maha sna l a , i st h e e a r l ie s t o ft h e se g raves . A s w e l l a se i gh t p o t te ry v esse ls , t wo s t one v e sse ls , t wo s l a te p a le t te s ,b eads , s he l ls a nd n ume rou s i v ory o b jec ts ( i nc lud ing v a se s a nd af i gu r ine ) , t h eg rave c on ten t sa l so c on ta ined ac l ay m acehead .F u r the rmo re , MH029 i sb y f a rt h e l a rge s tg rave i n i t ss ubpha se . O ne o ft h er e a sons f o rt h es i ze o ft h eg rave may b e t h a t i ts e rved t wo i nd iv idua ls . H oweve r , o the r mu l t ip le b u r ia ls a r e k nown a t Maha sna a nd t h ey a re b y n o m eans a lways a s l a rge . G rave MH039 , a l so f r om Mahasna l a , c on ta ined ad i o r i te m acehead . T h is b u r ia l w a s f u rn ished w i th t h i r teen p o t te ry v e s se ls , t h e mos t o fa ny c on tempo ra ry g rave a t Maha sna .

T rend si n mor tuary i nequa l i ty a nd e l abora t ion T he t wo s e t s o fd a ta p re sen t c omp lemen ta ry p i c tu re s o ft h e t r end i nm o r tua ry i n equa l i ty . T he d a ta f o rg rave s i ze s e em t o h igh l igh t Maha sna 1 a nd 2 a s t he p ha ses o f g rea tes t d i f f e ren t ia t ion , w h i le t hose f o r g rave w ea l th a ppea r t o e mpha s i se Maha sna 2 .I nv i ew o ft h ee v idence f o rh igh -s ta tu s b u r ia ls d e sc r ibed a bove , i t i s c l ea r t ha t ma rked s oc ia l i n equa l i ty a l ready e x is ted i n Maha sna 1 ( a ) , a nd w a s a ga in h igh d u r ing Maha sna 2 (a -b ) . B o th s e t s o f d a ta a g ree t h a t Mahasna 3 w as c ha rac te r ised b y g rea t ly r educed d i f f e ren t ia t ion . T h is i sp a r t icu la r ly t h e c a se i n Maha sna 3 b , c or re spond ing t ot h eb eg inn ing o ft h eE a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod ) . A u tho r i ty -a sr ef lec ted i nm o r tua ry e l abo ra t ion -s e ems a l so t o h ave d ec l ined d u r ing p ha se 3 a t Maha sna , w h i ls t i ti s h ighe s ti n Maha sna 2 ,c o r re spond ing t ot h eN aqada I p e r iod .

T h ree g r ave s f r om t h e f o l low ing s ubphase , l b , c on ta ined s im i la r s t a f f -heads . MH041 a ppa ren t ly b e longed t o t h ree p eop le , aw oman , ac h i ld a nd a no the r o fu n iden t if ied a ge a nd s ex . I ti sl i ke ly t ha t t h is g rave s e rved a f am i ly g roup . T he f am i ly w a s o bv ious ly o fc ons ide rab le s oc ia l s t a tus s i nce , i n a dd i t ion t ot h ed io r i te s t a f f -head -a lmo s tc e r ta in ly ab adge o f a u thor i ty , g i ven t he v a lue o f t h e m a te r ia l i t se lf -t h e g r ave g oods i n c luded g o ld a nd s i lve r b eads , ac l ay f ema le f i gu r ine , s eve ra l i v o ry o b jec t s a nd a g am ing t a b le . G rave MH023 , w h ich c on ta ined a no the r d io r i te s t af f -head , a l so c on ta ined t wo f u r the r m aceheads , o ne o fs t one a nd o ne o fi vo ry . T he p r e sence o ft h ree s uch s ymbo l s o fa u tho r i ty i n as i ng le g rave m ake s i tv i r tua l ly c e r ta in t h a t t he o wne r h e ld e l i te s t a tu s i n t h e Maha sna c ommun i ty . T he t h i rd g r ave t oi n c lude as t a f f h ead , t h is t i me made f r om b recc ia , w a s MH006 . I ts eems l i ke ly t h a tt h i s b u r ia l h ad b een p lunde red b efo re e xcava t ion , a sn o o t he rg r ave g ood sw e re f ound .

L oca ted c l ose t oT h is , o ne o f t h e m a jo r c en t res d u r ing t h e p roce ss o fs t a te f o rma t ion , s oc io -econom ic d eve lopmen t s a t Maha sna r ef lec t b o th t h i s p roce s s a nd t h e c hang ing f o r tune s o f t h e r eg ion a s a who le . A s a t o t he r s i tes , t he re i sc l ea r e v idence f o r ma rked s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion a t Maha sna d u r ing N aqada I ,w hen t h e d ema rca t ion o f l o ca l e l i tes f r om t h e g ene ra l p opu la t ion -a sr e f lec ted i nb u r ia l c u s toms -s e em st o h ave b e en p a r t icu la r ly s t rong . A st h e i n f luence o ft h eT h in i te r e g ion g r ew , d u r ing N aqada I ( Maha sna 2 a -b ) , p rospe r i ty a t Maha sna s eems t oh ave g rown t o o ,r ef lec ted i na n i n c rea se i n t h e a moun t o f w ea l th a nd e f for t i nve s ted i n b u r ia ls . T he d ec l ine i n b o th a u thor i ty a nd m or tua ry d i f fe ren t ia t ion a t Maha sna a tt h ee nd o ft h e P redyna s t ic a nd t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod i sp e rhaps c onnec ted w i th t h e d ec l ine o f T h is a s a ma jo r n a t iona l c en t re , f o l low ing t h e e s tab l ishmen t o f Memph is a s t he n a t iona l c ap i ta l . N eve r the less , u n l ike s ome o the r s e t t lemen t s i n t h e r e g ion , Maha sna s aw c on t inuous -i f much r educed -o ccupa t ion t h roughou tt h eE a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod .

T he s ame f a te m us t s u re ly h ave b e f a l len t h er i che s tg rave s o f Maha sna 2 .F o r wh i le g rave s f r om t h is p ha se c on ta in t h e l a rges t n umbe r s o fp o t te ry v e sse ls , f ew o f t h e b u r ia ls w e re f ound t o c on ta in a ny o t he r g rave g oods . On ly t h e o dd s u rv iv ing f l i n t k n if e , s l a te p a le t te o r s t r ing o f b eads c an t e s t ify t ot h ep r esumed w ea l th o ft h e se g r ave s . O ne g rave f r om Maha sna 3 , MH065 , a l though r e la t ive ly p oo r i ng rave g ood s( a ga in , p e rhaps , d ue t ot h e a t ten t ions o fg rave r o bbe r s ) , d i d c on ta in ac l ay macehead , s im i la r t o t h a t f r om MH029 .

7 9

Maha sna -g r ave s i ze 2

1 .5 —

m 2

—

1—

0- -

Mean

0

S td D ev

0 .5 —

o

I 1a -b

1 2 a -b

i 3 a -b

p ha se ( Ca se s : Maha sna 1 ( a -b ) -3 1 , Maha sna 2 (a -b ) -2 1 , Maha sna 3 ( a -b ) -1 5 , a l lp ha se s -6 7 )

Maha sna -g r ave w ea l th 7

5

—

0--

Mean

0

S td D ev

1 o

I 1a -b

I 2 a -b

i 3 a -b

p ha se ( Ca se s : Maha sna 1 ( a -b ) -3 7 , Maha sna 2 (a -b ) -3 4 , Maha sna 3 ( a -b ) -2 5 , a l lp ha se s -9 6 )

A rman t

T he p i c tu re o fs oc io -econom ic c hange a tA rman t r e f lec t s t h e g ene ra l p a t te rn f o r t h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod . Ma rked s oc ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion i sa l ready a ppa ren t i nN aqada I( A rman t 1 ) . B o th d i f f e ren t ia t ion a nd a u tho r i ty i n c reased d u r ing N aqada T h is i n c rea se i na u tho r i ty a ccompan ied t h e p roces s o f s t a te f o rma t ion , w he reby e conom ic r e sou rces a nd p o l i t ica l p owe r b ecame c oncen t ra ted i nt h eh and so fl o ca l e l i te s .

G rave s i ze T he d imens ions a r e p ub l ished f o r 9 0 o f t h e s e r ia ted g raves f r om A rman t . B o th mean g rave s i ze a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i n c rea se s t ead i ly t o A rman t 2 b , t h en d ec rea se i n A rman t 3 . Howeve r , a st h ey a r e b a sed u pon j u s t s i x g rave s , t h e d a ta f o r A rman t 3a r e n o t v e ry r e l iab le a nd a r e b e t te r d i scoun ted f o rt h ep u rpo se s o ft h ep re sen ts t udy .

C ompar i son o fr e su l t sw i th B ard 's a na ly s is

G rave w ea l th A l l 9 5 s e r ia ted g raves may b e a na lysed f o r g rave w ea l th . A ga in , b o th mean g rave w ea l th a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i n c rea se s t ead i ly t h roughou tt h es equence . H igh s ta tus b ur ia l s A r tef a c t sw h ich m igh th ave s ymbo l ised s t a tu s w e re f ound i n t h ree g r aves a tA rman t . G rave A 1466 f r om A rman t p ha se 2 a c on ta ined s eve ra l u nusua l o b jec ts , n ame ly a b ed , t h ree p a in ted g esso o b jec t s -u n ique t o A rman t -a nd a g aze l le s ku l l . T he e l abo ra te n a tu re o ft h is b u r ia l i sa l so s ugge s ted b y t h e l a rge s i ze o ft h e g rave , a nd t h e l a rge n umbe r o fp o t te ry v es se ls w i th wh ich i tw a s f u rn ished . I ti sn o tewo r thy t h a t t h e b ody i n g r ave A 1466 w as i den t if ied a s " Af r ican" ( A .J .E . C ave i n Mond & Mye r s 1 937a : 1 54 ) . T he p a in ted g e sso o b jec t s m ay b e mode l s h ie lds , p e rhaps s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e o ccupan t o fA 1466 a ch ieved h igh s t a tus a tA rman t t h rough m i l i ta ry p r owess . As e cond g rave i n C eme te ry 1 400 -1500 c on ta ined ab ed : g r ave A 1511 f r om A rman t 2 b . T h is b u r ia l w as l e s s l a v ish t h an A 1466 , b u t may n one the le ss h ave b e longed t o ap e r son o fs t a tus . B a rd ( 1988 : 5 2 )h a s s ugge s ted t ha t t h e se t wo b ed -bu r ia ls may h ave b e longed t o l o ca l ( v i l lage )l e ade r s . G rave A 1461 f r om A rman t 1 ,c on ta ined t wo i n sc r ibed i v o ry w and s . T he se may a l so i nd ica te s t a tus , a nd i t i ss i gn if ican t t ha t t h e g rave o ccupan t w as i d en t if ied a s a c h i ld . T he s t a tus o ft h e t omb o wne ri s empha s ised b y t h es i ze o f t he g r ave , t he l a rge s t i n i t s p ha se . T he p re sence o f a n e l abo ra te c h i ld b u r ia l c onf i rm s t h e e x is tence o f ar a nked s oc ie ty , w i th h e red i ta ry s t a tus , a tA rman t , f r om t h e e a r l ie s t p e r iod r e p re sen ted i nC eme te ry 1 400 -1500 . T he l a rges tg rave f r om A rman tp ha se 3 ,A 1583 , a l so c on ta ined ag aze l le s ku l l . T he d ecea sed w a s i d en t if ied a s f ema le . I fc o r rec t , t h is m ay i nd ica te t h a t h igh s t a tu s i n t h e A rman t c ommun i ty w a s n o t r e s t r ic ted t om en . T rend si n mor tuary i n equa l i ty a nd e l abora t ion B o th s e t s o fd a ta s ugge s t t h a t mo r tua ry i n equa l i ty i n c rea sed s t ead i ly t h roughou tt h eN aqada I p e r iod ( A rman t p ha se s 2 a 2 b ) . A s t h e s t ud ie s o f S e id lmaye r ( 1 988 ) a nd B a rd ( 1988 ) i n d ica te , t h i s i n c rea se s eem s t o h ave t a ken p lace w i th in a n o t he rw ise s t ab le h ie ra rch ica l s ys tem . I n o t he r w o rds , t h e s o c ia l s t ruc tu re a ppea r s t oh ave r ema ined c ons tan t , a l though t h e re w a s a n i n c rea s ing c oncen t ra t ion o f r e sou rce s i n t h e h ands o f t h e e l i te . T he s t ra t if ied n a tu re o f t h e A rman t c ommun i ty d u r ing A rman t2 ai s empha s ised b yg rave A 1466 , d e ta i led a bove . T he i n c rea se i n b o th m ean g rave s i ze a nd m ean g rave w ea l th i nd ica te s t ha t t h e r e sou rce s a va i lab le f o r m o r tua ry i n ve s tmen t i n c rea sed a tA rman t d u r ing t h eN aqada Ip e r iod . T he a bsence o f c ompa rab le d a ta f r om t h e l a te P redynas t ic -Ea r ly Dyna s t ic t r ans i t ion m ake s i td i ff icu l t t o r e cons truc ts oc io -econom ic d eve lopmen td u r ing t h i sp e r iod .

B a rd 's ( 1988 : 3 9 ) q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s is s howed t h a t " bo th m ean g rave s i ze a nd m ean n umbe r o fg rave g oods i n c rea se t h rough t ime" . T he a bove d a ta c onf i rm t h is f i nd ing . I n c on t ra s t , B a rd 's ( 1988 : 5 3 ) a sse r t ion t ha t " t h rough t ime , g rave s i ze i n c rea sed much more f o r t h e h igh s t a tus b u r ia ls t h an f o rt h e l ow s t a tus o ne s" , i sn o t s uppo r ted b y t h ep resen t a na lys i s . T he c hange i nt h es i ze o fh igh s t a tus a nd l ow s t a tus b u r ia ls o ve rt ime i sc ha r ted b e low . T he t a b le s how st h e mean s i ze o ft h ef i ve l a rge s t ( ' h igh -s ta tu s ' ) a nd f i ve s ma l les t ( ' low s t a tu s ' ) g rave s i ne ach p ha se . T he f i gu re s g ive g rave a r ea i n m 2 .

A rman t2 a

A rman t 1 l a rge s t s ma l le s t

A rman t2 b

2 . 68 0 . 47

1 . 64 0 . 67

3 . 39 0 . 80

I ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e l ow -s ta tus g rave s a c tua l ly e xpe r ienced a d ec rea se i n m ean s i ze f r om A rman t 1t o A rman t 2 . I ft h e f i gu re s f o rA rman t2 a a nd 2 b a r ee xp re ssed a sp e rcen tage s o f t h e f i gu res f o r t h e p reced ing p ha se 1 , t h en t h e r e la t ive i n c rea se f o re ach p ha se m ay b es een .

( A rman t 1 )

l a rge s t s male s t

2 a

2 b

( change f r om A rman t 1t o2 b )

1 63 % 7 0%

1 26% 1 70%

2 07% 19%

T h is t a b le s how s t h a t t h ei n c rea se i ng r ave s i ze f o r l ow -s ta tu s g rave s f r om A rman t 2 a t o2 b w a s i n f a c t g rea te r t han t h e c or re spond ing i ncrease f o r h igh -s ta tus g raves - 1 70% c ompa red t o1 26% . A l though t h et o ta l c hange f r om A rman t 1 t oA rman t2 bw a sg rea te rf o rh igh -s ta tus b u r ia ls t h an f o rl ow s t a tus o ne s ( 207% a ga ins t 19% ) , t h ed e ta i led p i c tu re i s mo re c omp lex . T he f i gu re s s ugge s t t ha t i nA rman t 2 a t h e re wa s a l a rge i n c rea se i n t he r e sou rces a va i lab le t o h igh -s ta tus i n d iv idua ls , a ccompan ied b y ad ec rea se i nt h e m eans o f t h e l ow -s ta tus s e c t ion o ft h e p opu la t ion . I no t he r w o rds , A rman t 2 as aw ag rea te rd i f f e ren t ia t ion b e tween t h e t wo g roup s . T h i s t r end w a sr e ve r sed i nt h ef o l low ing A rman t2 b . T he d a ta d emons t ra te t h a t , a s t h e p roce s s o f s t a te f o rma t ion i n tens if ied t owa rd s t h e e nd o f t h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod , t h e r e sou rce s a va i lab le f o r m o r tua ry i n ve s tmen t -r e f lec t ing t h e e conom ic r e sou rces o f t h e c ommun i ty a s aw ho le -b ecame i n c rea s ing ly c oncen t ra ted i nt h eh and s o ff ewe ri nd iv idua l s . I t i st h is c en t ra l isa t ion o f p owe r , a t t h e l o ca l , r eg iona l a nd u l t ima te ly n a t iona l l e ve l , wh ich m a rk s t he b i r th o f t he E gyp t ian s t a te a tt h ee nd o ft h e f ou r th m i l lenn ium BC .

8 1

A rman t -g r ave s i z e

Mean m

2

•

1

2 a

2b

S td D ev

3

p ha se ( Ca se s : A rman t 1-1 3 ,A rman t2 a -4 1 , A rman t2 b -3 0 , A rman t 3-6 ,a l l p ha se s -9 0 )

A rman t -g r ave w ea l th

-1 :3

n o . o fp o t s

-

Mean S t dD ev

I 1

I 2 a

i 2b

3

p ha se ( Ca se s : A rman t 1-1 5 , A rman t2 a -4 3 , A rman t2 b -3 1 , A rman t 3-6 ,a l l p ha se s -9 5 )

H ierakonpol i s

p a t te rn o f s oc io -econom ic c hange a to the r s i te s . T he s oc io e conom ic a spec ts o f s t a te f o rma t ion a r e r ef lec ted i n t h e i n c rea sed i nve s tmen to fr e sou rces i nt h e mo r tua ry s phe re , a nd h ence i nt h ei n c rea s ing e l abo ra t ion o fb u r ia l s .

G rave s i ze T he d imens ions a r e p ub l ished f o r 1 05 o ft h e s e r ia ted g rave s f r om H ie rakonpo l is . Mean g rave s i ze i n c rea se s ma rg ina l ly f r om H ie rakonpo l is 1t o3 .T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion p eak s i n H ie rakonpo l is 2 ,b e fo re d ec rea s ing a ga in i np ha se 3 .

C ompar ison o fr e su l t sw i th Adam s ' sa na lys is

G rave w ea l th A l l 1 25 s e r ia ted g raves m ay b e a na lysed f o r g rave w ea l th . Mean g r ave w ea l th r ema ins a lmos t c on s tan t t h roughou t t h e s equence . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s mos t ma rked d u r ing H ie rakonpo l is 1 ,f a l l ing s i gn if ican t ly i nH ie rakonpo l is 2a nd r i s ing a ga in i np ha se 3 . H igh s ta tu sb ur ia l s E xp l ic i tb adge s o fs t a tu s a r e r a re i nt h eF o r t C eme te ry . T h is i sn o ts u rp r is ing , s i nce t h ee l i te o fH ie rakonpo l is w e re b u r ied e l sewhe re -p robab ly a tL oca l i ty 6 ,2 5 km u p t h eG rea t Wad i ( Adam s 1 987 : 1 78 ) . T he F o r t C eme te ry v e ry l i ke ly s e rved t h e g ene ra l p opu la t ion o f t h e l a te P redynas t ic t o E a r ly Dyna s t ic t own ( Adam s 1 987 ) , wh i le t he l e ade rs w e re b u r ied i ne l abo ra te t omb s f u r the r o u t i nt h e d e se r t . None the le ss , a f ew o f t h e g rave s i n t he F o r t C eme te ry s eem t o h ave b e longed t o p er sons o f s t a tus . G rave H 143 , f r om H ie rakonpo l is 3 , i s t he l a rges t b u r ia l o f i t s p hase , a nd c on ta ined a tl e a s t 1 9p o t te ry v e s se ls . A n umbe r o f w ea l thy c h i ld b u r ia ls a l so p rov ide c l ea r e v idence o f ar anked s oc ie ty . G rave H066 , a l though s ma l l , s t and s o u t a s t h e w ea l th ies t g rave o f H ie rakonpo l is 1 .I n a dd i t ion t o2 4p o t s , t h e g rave g ood sc o mp r ised s l a te p a le t te s a nd i t em s o f c oppe r . T he g rave o wne r w a s i d en t if ied a s a c h i ld . I ndeed , a l l t h ree g raves o f H ie rakonpo l is 1 wh ich c on ta ined m e ta l o b jec t s a ppea r t oh ave b e longed t oc h i ld ren . T he s ke le tons i ng rave s H066 a nd H 090 w e re i d en t if ied a s t h ose o f c h i ld ren , w h i le H098 w a s ap o t b u r ia l , u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e i n te rmen t o fi n f an t s . T he e xpend i tu re o f l a rge a moun t s o fe f fo r t a nd ma te r ia l w ea l th o n t h e b u r ia l o f c h i ld ren i s as u re s i gn o fs oc ia l s t ra t if i ca t ion . T rend si n mor tuary i n equal i ty a nd e l abora t ion T he t wo s e t s o fd a ta p rov ide c on t ra s t ing p i c tu res o ft h e t r end i nm o r tua ry i n equa l i ty . I nequa l i ty i ng rave s i ze a ppea r s t ob e g rea tes t i n H ie rakonpo l is 2 , wh i ls t d if fe ren t ia t ion a s e xp re s sed i ng r ave w ea l th i sg rea te s td u r ing H ie rakonpo l is 1 . T he h igh f i gu re f o r H ie rakonpo l is 1 i st h e r e su l t o f t wo e xcep t iona l ly w ea l thy b u r ia ls , H 042 a nd H066 , wh ich c on ta ined 2 2a nd 2 4p o t te ry v es se ls ,r e spec t ive ly . A sw eh ave a l ready s e en ,o ne o ft h e se g rave ss e em st oh ave b e longed t oa c h i ld , i n d ica t ing i nhe r i ted s t a tus . T he d a ta f o r mean g rave s i ze a nd w ea l th i n d ica te t h a t mo r tua ry e l abo ra t ion r ema ined r ough ly c ons tan t t h roughou t t he l i fe t ime o f t h e c eme te ry . T h is i sn o ta l toge the r s u rp r is ing , i fw er emembe rt h a tt h eF o r t C eme te ry r e p re sen t s t h e b u r ia l g round o f ap opu la t ion f r om w h ich t h e e l i te h ad a l ready b een s epa ra ted ( t o b e b u r ied e l sewhe re ) . Av e ry s ma l l i n c rea se i n m o r tua ry e l abo ra t ion t owa rd t h e e nd o f t h e s equence ( H ie rakonpo l is p hase 3 ) w ou ld , n one the le ss , s eem t o ma rk o u t t h e p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion a st h ep ha se o fm ax imum a u tho r i ty . T he i n c rease i na u tho r i ty a tH ie rakonpo l is d u r ing m id la te N aqada I ( H ie rakonpo l is p hase s 1a nd 2 ) p a ra l le ls t h e

8 3

T he c h rono log ica l b as is f o r A dams 's a na ly s is o f t h e F o r t C eme te ry i nvo lved a s imp le d iv is ion o f t he g rave s i n to N aqada I o rN aqada I I , f o l low ing K a ise r 's s ys tem o fS tuf en . H ence , A dams 's ( 1987 : 1 83 -6 ) t a b le s c ompa re g rave s i nt h e t wo p ha se s . H e r o bse rva t ions o n t r ends i n g rave s i ze a nd w ea l th a r e n o t e n t i re ly s uppo r ted b y t h e p re sen t a na ly s is . A dams ( 1987 : 1 86 ) a rgue s t ha t " s ize s eems t o h ave h ad n o th ing t o d o w i th t h e n umbe r o f o b jec t s i n t h e g rave s" , a dd ing t ha t " t he p e rcen tages a r e e qua l i n t h e s ma l le r a nd l a rge r g rave s" . Ad e ta i led i n spec t ion o f t h e d a ta r evea ls a d i f f e ren tp i c tu re .W i th in t h ec eme te ry a s aw ho le , g rave sw i th t e n o r mo re p o t s c ons t i tu te 2 5% o f a l l b u r ia ls . T h is f i gu re r i se s t o 8 0% w he re t h e t e n l a rges t g rave s a r e c once rned . G rave s w i th f i ve o rf ewe r p o t s c ons t i tu te 3 5% o fa l b u r ia ls , b u tt h is d oub le s t o7 0% a mongs tt h et e n s ma l le s tg r ave s . F o r H ie rakonpo l i s 3a l one as im i la rs i tua t ion i sa ppa ren t .T hu s , o f t h e t e n l a rge s t g rave s i n H ie rakonpo l is 3 , 7 0% c on ta ined mo re t han t e n p o t s , w e l l a bove t h e a ve rage f o r t h is p ha se , w h ich i s3 0% . O f t h e t e n s ma l le s t g rave s i nt h e p ha se , t h e s ame p e r cen tage ( 7o u to f1 0 )c on ta ined f ewe rt h an f i ve p o t s , a ga in w e l l a bove t h e a ve rage f o r t h ep ha se o f3 5% . T he d a ta i n d ica te t h a tt h e re i ss ome c onne c t ion b e tween g rave s i ze a nd g rave w ea l th : l a rge r g rave s a r e mo re l i ke ly t oc on ta in mo re v es se ls , s ma l le r g rave s a r e mo re l i ke ly t o c on ta in f ewe r v e s se ls .

H ie rakonpo l i s -g r ave s i ze 1 .5

1 .2 5 —

m

2

. 0' ». . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . ..

0.7 5 —

—

. . . . . . . ."

0 .5 —

. 7.

0—

Mean

0

S td D ev

0 .25 —

o

1 i

i 2

i 3

p ha se ( Ca se s : H ie r akonpo l i s 1-1 5 , H ie rakonpo l i s 2-2 0 , H ie rakonpo l i s 3-7 0 , a l lp ha se s -1 05 )

H ie rakonpo l i s -g r ave w ea l t h 8

[ 2

7—

1 3

6— 5-

n o . o fp o t s

— 4—

0 --

Mean

0

S td D ev

3— 2—

o

i 1

i 2

1 3

p ha se ( Ca se s : H ie rakonpo l i s 1-1 7 , H ie rakonpo l i s 2-2 9 , H ie rakonpo l i s 3-7 9 , a l p ha se s -1 25 )

Su m mary T he a bove d a ta h igh l igh t t he v a r ied p a t te rns o f s oc io e conom ic d eve lopmen t e xpe r ienced b y d i f f e ren t r e g ions o f t h e c oun t ry , a nd e ven d i f f e ren t s i te s w i th in t h e s ame r eg ion , d u r ing t he t r ans i t ion f r om t h e P redynas t ic t o t h e E a r ly D yna s t ic p e r iod . Wh i ls t e a r ly a nd m id -Naqada I s eems t o h ave b een c ha rac te r ised b y i n c rea s ing a u tho r i ty a nd s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion a ta l l s i tes , t h e p i c tu re b ecomes much mo re d ive r se t owa rds t h e e nd o f t he P redyna s t ic p e r iod , a s t h e p roce s so fs t a te f o rma t ion i n tens if ied . T he i mpac t t h a t t he f ounda t ion o f Memph is h ad u pon c ommun i t ie s i nt h er eg ion i sh igh l igh ted b y d eve lopmen t s a t T u ra a nd T a rkhan . N one the le s s , l o ca l f a c to r s a ppea r t oh ave p l ayed a n i mpo r tan t r o le . Wh i ls t b u r ia ls a tT u ra c on t inued t h roughou t t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod , t h e f ounda t ion o ft h e n ew c ap i ta l c i ty d ea l t a mo re s e r iou s b low t o t h e l a rge r c ommun i ty a tT a rkhan . T he l a t te r s i te i lus t ra te s p a r t icu la r ly w e l l t he i mpos i t ion o f n a t iona l a u thor i ty o n l oca l c ommun i t ie s . A f te r t h e f ounda t ion o f t h e E gyp t ian s t a te , p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic p owe rw e re n ow t h eu l t ima te p re se rve o f t h e k i ng . S ta tu s w a s t h e refo re e xp re s sed i nt h e m o r tua ry s phe re b yr e f e rence t ot h is f oun to fa u tho r i ty . T he c ommun i t ie s i nM idd le E gyp t a ppea r t oh ave f l ou r ished i n e a r ly P redynas t ic t ime s . B o th Ma tma r a nd Mos tagedda p rov ide e v idence o fm a rked mo r tua ry d i f f e ren t ia t ion d u r ing N aqada I .L ikew ise , m id -Naqada I w a s c ha rac te r ised b y a n i n c rea se i na u tho r i ty a nd i n equa l i ty . A tt h ee nd o fN aqada I , l o ca l f a c to r s , i n c lud ing t he s i ze o f t he c ommun i ty a nd p e rhaps i t s d i s tance f r om t h e r i ve r , s eem t o h ave b ecome mo re i mpo r tan t . T he se c aused s oc io -econom ic d eve lopmen t s i nt h e t wo c ommun i t ie s t op roceed a l ong v e ry d i f f e ren tl i ne s . Ma tma r , al a rge r s e t t lemen t w i th e a s ie r a cces s t oN i le t r ade a nd c ommun ica t ions w i th t h e r e s t o ft h ec oun t ry , s u rv ived a s ac ommun i ty , b u t s eem s t oh ave b een a dve r se ly a f f ec ted a s t h e c en t re o fp o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic p owe r s h if ted t oU ppe r E gyp t a nd t h ence t o Memph is . T he p opu la t ion o f Ma tma r i n t h eE a r ly D yna s t ic p e r iod may h ave b een g rea t ly r e duced . I n c on t ra s t , t h e s ma l l v i l lage a t Mos tagedda s ha red i n t h e i n c rea s ing p rospe r i ty w h ich a ccompan ied t h ep roce s so fs t a te f o rma t ion , b u t may n o t h ave s u rv ived b eyond t h e b eg inn ing o ft h eF i r s tD yna s ty . T he T h in i te a r ea a ppea r s t oh ave b een much mo re c l ose ly i nvo lved w i th t h e p rocess o f s t a te f o rma t ion . T he m a jo r c hange s w h ich t h is p roce ss w rough t i n t he d emog raph ic s t ruc tu re o ft h er eg ion w i l l b e d i scu ssed i nt h e n ex t s e c t ion . T he s oc io -econom ic d a ta f r om Maha sna s eem t or e f lec t t h e d ec l ine o ft h is c ommun i ty a tt h e v e ry e nd o ft h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod a nd i n to t h e F i r s t Dyna s ty . Two f a c to r s a r e p robab ly i nvo lved : t h e r i se o fu rban ism a tT h is a nd A bydos , a nd t h e e f f ec tt h a tt h ee s tab l ishmen t o f Memph is a st h ec en t re o ft h e n a t iona l a dm in is t ra t ion h ad o n t h e T h in i te r eg ion a s aw ho le . Due t o t h e a bsence o f r ep resen ta t ive b u r ia ls f r om t h e P redynas t ic t o E a r ly Dyna s t ic t r ans i t ion , s oc io -econom ic c hange a tA rman tc anno tb et r aced b eyond l a te N aqada I .U p t o t h is p o in t , t h e c ommun i ty s eem s t o h ave e xpe r ienced a s im i la r p a t te rn o fd eve lopmen t t oo t he r P redyna s t ic s i te s i n Uppe rE gyp t , t h a ti s ar i se i na u tho r i ty d u r ing N aqada I .T h is i sa l so t h ec a se a tH ie rakonpo l is , w he re t h e f o l low ing N aqada I I p e r iod - r ep resen t ing t he c u lm ina t ion o f t h e s t a te f o rma t ion p roce ss -m a rk s t he f loru i t o f t h e c ommun i ty b u r ied i nt h eF o r tC eme te ry .

8 5

POL IT ICAL AND DE MOGRAPH IC CHANGE T he i mpo s i t ion o fn a t iona l a u thor i ty a tt he l oca l l e ve l We h ave s e en t h a tt h ec on s t ruc t ion o ft h ree l a rge m a s taba sa t T a rkhan , i n as e pa ra te l o ca t ion , t ot h es ou th o ft h em a in e l i te H i l l C eme te r ie s , s e em s t om a rk t h e i mpos i t ion o f n a t iona l a u tho r i ty , r e p lac ing t h e l o ca l p owe r s t ruc tu re , e a r ly i n t h e F i r s tD yna s ty . T he a r ch i tec tu re o ft h e t omb s -e mp loy ing t h e ' p a la ce -f açade ' s t y le a s soc ia ted w i th t h e r oya l c ou r t -a nd t h e i r s pa t ia l l o ca t ion a way f r om t h e t r ad i t iona l e l i te b u r ia l a r ea s , i n d ica te am a jo r c hange c ompa red t o t h e p reced ing p e r iod . A s im i la r p henomenon i sa t te s ted a ts eve ra l o t he r s i te st h roughou tE gyp t . T h is s ugge s t st h a tt h et r an s i t ion f r om t h e l a te P redyna s t ic t o t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod w a s c ha rac te r ised b y as i gn if ican t r e s t ruc tu r ing o f p owe r r e la t ionsh ip sw i th in t h ee me rg ing E gyp t ian s t a te . A tH ie rakonpo l i s -p robab ly t h e c ap i ta l o f al a te P r edyna s t i c U ppe r E gyp t ian p o l i ty , a nd t h e ref o re o ne o f t h e c en t re s o f s t a te f o rma t ion -t h e e l i te c eme te ry w h ich i n c luded t h e f amou s ' P a in ted T omb ' T 100 w a s a bandoned t owa rd s t h e e nd o ft h eN aqada I p e r iod .D u r ing N aqada I I ,t h eb u r ia ls o f t h e l o ca l r u le r s w e re l o ca ted i n ar emo te c eme te ry , s ome 2 5 k ma l ong t h eG rea t Wad i f r om t h ec u l t iva t ion .T h is c eme te ry , d e s igna ted L oca l i ty 6 ,h ad s e en e x ten s ive u se i nt h eN aqada I p e r iod ; b u t t h e t omb s c ons t ruc ted h e re d u r ing N aqada I I w e re o f ad i f f e ren t c ha rac te r a l toge the r : l a rge , r ock -cu t c hambe r s , p os s ib ly a c compan ied b y b u i ld ing s s e rv ing t h e m o r tua ry c u l t . A l though t h e s upe rs t ruc tu re s o f t h e t ombs h ave n o ts u rv ived , p o s th o le s s u r round ing o ne o ft h eb u r ia ls , T omb 1 ,i n d ica te t h a ti tw a s o r ig ina l ly s u r rounded b y ar e ed f e nce , p e rhaps t o d ema rca te t h e h a l lowed g round . T he c ons t ruc t ion o f u np receden ted ly l a rge t ombs , i n aq u i te s e pa ra te e l i te c eme te ry , d u r ing t h e p e r iod o fs t a t e f o rma t ion i n d ica te s t h a t t h e o l d p owe r s t ruc tu re s -e p i tom ised b y t h e h i gh s t a tu sb u r ia ls i nt h e ' P a in ted T omb ' c eme te ry -h ad b een r e p laced b y s ome th ing m uch mo re a k in t o i n c ip ien t s t a tehood . T hu s , t h e m o r tua ry e v idence f r om H ie rakonpo l is s e em st oi lu s t ra te t h ep roce s so fs t a te f o rma t ion i no pe ra t ion , a to ne o ft h em o s ti mpo r tan tl a te P redyna s t ic s i te s . T h e s i tua t ion a tA rman te qua l ly s t r ik ing . A sw eh ave a l ready n o ted , C eme te ry 1 400 -1500 w en t o u t o fu se t owa rd s t h ee nd o ft h eP redyna s t ic p e r iod . E a r ly N aqada I I i sr e p re sen ted b y j u s t ah andfu l o fb u r ia l s , w h i l s tt h e re a r en oi n te rmen t s a ta l f r om t h ef i na ls t age so fs t a te f o rma t ion -l a t e rN aqada I Ia nd t h e t r an s i t ion t ot h e F i r s t D yna s ty . H oweve r , t h is p e r iod i s r e p re sen ted b ye l i te b u r ia l si n as e pa ra te c eme te ry , s i te 1 200 . Two l a rge b r ick b u i l t m a s taba s , 1 207 a nd 1 208 , d a ted t ot h e t h re sho ld o ft h eF i rs t Dyna s ty , s t and o u t i np a r t icu la r . B o th c on ta ined l a rge n umbe r so fs t one v e s se ls -as t rong i n d ica t ion o ft h e i r o wne r s ' s t a tu s -w h i ls t t omb 1 207 a l so y i e lded l a rge q uan t i t ie s o fp o t te ry a nd s e ve ra l c oppe r o b jec t s . T he s c a le a nd w ea l th o ft h e se t omb si sq u i te u np receden ted a tA rman t , a nd t h e i rc on s t r uc t ion m a rk s am a jo rn ew d eve lopmen t . B a rd ( 1 988 : 5 4 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e n ew t omb t y pe o r ig ina ted e l sewhe re , a nd t h a t t h ey " we re i n t roduced b y f o rce s o u t s ide t h e e x is t ing s o c ia l o rde r a tA rman t" . S he c onc lude s t h a t t omb s 1 207 a nd 1 208 p robab ly r e f lec t " t he i mpos i t ion o f r oya l o r de rb y t h e a dm in is t ra t ive h i e ra rchy o ft h e k i ng s w ho u n if ied E gyp t a tt h e e nd o f t h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod" ( Ba rd 1 988 : 5) , r a the r t h an ad eve lopmen t w i th in t h e i n d igenou s s o c ia l s t ruc tu re .

8 6

P e rhaps t h e m o s t s t r ik ing e xamp le o f t h i s p henomenon i s a t te s ted a tN aqada , a no the r m a jo r c en t re o fs o c io -e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l d eve lopmen t s i nt h e l a te r P redyna s t ic p e r iod . L ike H ie rakonpo l is , N aqada w a s p robab ly t h e c ap i ta l o f a l a rge t e r r i to ry , o ne o fK emp 's ( 1 989 : 3 4 f i g . 8 ,3 5 -7 ) ` p ro to k i ngdom s ' w h ich e ven tua l ly c oa lesced a s E gyp t moved t owa rd sp o l i t ica l u n if ica t ion . E v idence f o rt h ei mpo r tance o f N aqada i nt h el a te rP redyna s t ic p e r iod i sp rov ided b yt h ee l i te C eme te ry T . C omp r is ing h igh s ta tu s b u r ia ls , s ome o f t h em b u i l t o f m udb r ick , a nd s eve ra l f u rn ished w i th p res t ige a r te fa c t s , C eme te ry T w a s ad i s c re te b u r ia l g r ound w h ich s e em s t o h ave s e rved t he P redyna s t ic r u le r s o f N aqada ( Kemp 1 973 ) . T he mos t l a v ish i n te rmen t s d a te f r om t h e s e cond h a lf o fN aqada I . F o r as i te a tt h eh ea r t o ft h e s t a te f o rma t ion p roce s s , t h e re i sa n u nexpec ted d r op i n g rave w ea l th t h roughou tt h eN aqada c eme te r ie si nN aqada I I . T h i s i sp a r t icu la r ly t h e c a se i nC eme te ry T , s ugge s t ing t h a t " by N agada I It i me sC eme te ry T n ol o nge rr e p re sen ted t h er u l ing e l i te a tN agada [ s ic ]" ( Ba rd 1 994 : 1 08 ) . A l though t h e re w a s s t i l l s pace i nt h e c eme te ry f o r f u r the r b u r ia ls , t h e s i te w a s a ppa ren t ly a bandoned i nN aqada I I , i nf a vou ro f an ew e l i te c eme te ry n ea r ly 7 km t o t h e s ou th . H e re t wo ma ss ive m udb r ick m a s taba sw e re e r ec ted a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eF i r s t D yna s ty ( d e Mo rgan 1 897 : 1 48 f i g . 5 13 , 1 59 ; c f .K emp 1 967 : 2 4 -5 f o o tno te ) . B o th w e re d eco ra ted w i th r e ce s sed n i che s i n t h e r oya l p a lace -f açade s t y le , a nd w e re e qu ipped w i th v a s t q uan t i t ie s o ff u ne ra ry g ood s . O ne o ft h e t ombs w a s d ubbed b y i t s e xcava to r t h e ' r oya l t omb ' , a nd h a sb een a t t r ibu ted t o q ueen N e i th -ho tep , m o the r o fk i ng A ha o ft h eF i r s t Dyna s ty ( Eme ry 1 961 : 4 9 ) . B one a nd i vory l a be ls a nd s ea l i mp re s s ion sw e r er e cove red f r om t h et omb b ea r ing t h en ame s o fb o th N e i th -ho tep a nd A ha . T he o wne r sh ip o ft h ea d ja cen t , h eav i ly p l unde red t omb i sn o tk nown ,b u tt h eb u r ia l s e em st o h ave b een o f as im i la r n a tu re . T he h i a tu s r e p re sen ted b y t h e a bandonmen t o fC eme te ry T , t h e l o ca t iona l c hange o fe l i te b u r ia l g round , a nd t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f h uge t ombs i n t h e c ou r t s t y le o nce a ga in m a rk s t h e r i se o ft h e E gyp t ian s t a te . Mo r tua ry e v idence i lus t ra te s t h e i mpos i t ion o f an ew , n a t iona lh i e ra r chy t or e p la ce t h ep r e -ex is t ing l o ca l o ne . A s ap o s t sc r ip t ,i ti sw o r th r ema rk ing t h a tt h er i s et op owe ro f t h e T h in i te r oya l f am i ly a s t h e F i r s t D yna s ty i s a l so i lus t ra ted i n t h e mo r tua ry e v idence , i n t h is c a se , t h e s e quence o f r oya l c eme te r ie s a tA bydo s : C eme te ry U , t h e c on t iguou sC eme t e ry B a nd t h e Umm e l -Qaab . T he s i tua t ion a tA bydo s i sc l ea r ly u n ique , i n t h a t t h e l o ca l P redyna s t ic l i neage -b u r ied s e pa ra t e ly f r om t h e i r s ub jec t s , l i ke t h er u le r s o fN aqada a nd H ie rakonpo l i s -b ecame t h en a t iona l a u tho r i ty . H ence , t h eP r edyna s t ic e l i te c eme te ry w a sn o ta bandoned , a s a to t he r s i te s , b u t d eve loped i n to t h e r oya l c eme te ry o ft h e F i r s t D yna s ty . T he s e quence o ft omb s ( r e )excava ted b y t h e G e rman E xped i t ion o ve rr e cen ty ea r s i nC eme te r ie s Ba nd U p rov ide u nequ ivoca l e v idence f o r t h er i se t oa b so lu te p owe r o ft h e T h in i te d yna s ty ( Ka ise r &D reye r 1 982 ; D reye r e ta l . 1 990 ;D reye r 1 993a , 1 993b ) .

C eme tery p a t tern ing a nd e ar ly u rban ism T he n a tu re a nd l o ca t ion o f e l i te c eme te r ie s i lu s t ra te t h e p o l i t ica l p roce sse s w h ich c ha rac te r ised t h e r i se o f t h e E gyp t ian s t a te . Mo r tua ry e v idence o f al e s s e xc lu s ive k i nd t h e c eme te r ie s s e rv ing t h e g ene ra l p opu la t ion d u r ing t h e P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly D yna s t ic t r an s i t ion -c an s h ed l i gh t o n a

-a s soc ia ted w i th t he b eg inn ings o f u rban ism - a ppea r s i n c rea s ing ly c onv inc ing ( c on t ra T r igge r 1 985 : 3 48 ) .

d i f f e ren t , b u t e qua l ly i mpo r tan t , a spec t o f s t a te f o rma t ion . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fc eme te r ie s w i th in ar eg ion p rov ide s t h e b e s t a v a i lab le e v idence f o r t h e a s soc ia ted s e t t lemen tp a t te rn . S imu l taneous c hange s i n t h e c eme te ry p a t te rns o f s eve ra l r eg ion s s e em t op o in t t o an uc lea t ion o fp opu la t ion t owa rds t h e e nd o ft he P redyna s t ic p e r iod . When c omb ined w i th t h e l im i ted a moun t o fe xcava ted ma te r ia l f r om e a r ly s e t t lemen t s i te s , s uch i n fo rma t ion c an h e lp t oi lum ina te t h e p roce ss o f u rban isa t ion w h ich s eems t oh ave o ccu r red d u r ing t h ep e r iod o fs t a te f o rma t ion . B u t , b ef o re s uch a n a na ly s i s c an b em ade , i ti s i mpo r tan t t o r ecogn ise t h e l im i ta t ions o f c eme te ry e v idence .

T he r i se o fu rban i sm C hange si nt h e s i ze a nd l o ca t ion o fc eme te r ie s , i ti sg ene ra l ly a ccep ted , r ef lec t c hange s i n t he s e t t lemen t s t hey s e rved . Mo reove r , c hange s i nt h e s e t t lemen t p a t te rn o f ar eg ion a r e l i ke ly t or ef lec t l a rge -sca le c hange s i nt he s oc ie ty a s awho le ( Pa tch 1 991 : 1 00 ) . T he p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion s eems t o h ave b een c ha rac ter ised b y aw idesp read n uc lea t ion o f p opu la t ion . T h is p roce ss i sd i rec t ly a t tes ted b y t h e r ap id e xpan s ion o fc e r ta in s e t t lemen t s , a nd i sa l so r ef le c ted i nt h e mo r tua ry s phe re b yt h es imu l taneou s a bandonmen to fs eve ra l s ma l l c eme te r ie s i n t h e s ame r eg ion . T he p henomenon i s p a r t icu la r ly a ppa ren t i ns eve ra l a r ea s o f Uppe rE gyp t ( Kemp 1 977 ; H a s san 1 988 : 1 61) , t h e b es t e v idence c om ing f r om H ie rakonpo l i s , A rman t , N aqada a nd t h eA bydos r eg ion .

D iscon t inu i ty i n mor tuary a rchaeo logy I n t h e h i s tor ic p e r iod , a r chaeo log ica l mo r tua ry d a ta d o n o t a lway s a g ree w i th t he p i c tu re d e r ived f r om t e x tua l s ou rce s . T h is i sm os t s t r ik ing ly t h e c a se f o r L owe r Nub ia i nt h e l a te E igh teen th a nd N ine teen th Dyna s ty ( T r igge r 1 976 : 1 33 -7 ) . T he t e x tua l e v idence s ugges ts t ha t t he E gyp t ian a dm in is t ra t ion o f Nub ia c on t inued t o f unc t ion , a nd i ndeed f l ou r i sh , a si th ad d one i nt h e e a r ly E igh teen th Dyna s ty . T he g rand t emp les b u i l t b y R amesses I s uppor t t h is v i ew . H oweve r , t h e b u r ia l r e co rd f r om L owe r N ub ia i se x t reme ly s pa r se d u r ing t h is p e r iod , a nd a lmos t n on -ex is ten t i n t h e f o l low ing Twen t ie th Dyna s ty . T he m a rked a bsence o fb u r ia ls f r om L owe r Nub ia d u r ing t he l a te r N ew K ingdom h a s l e d s o me a u tho r s ( e .g . T r igge r 1 976 ) t o s ugges t ad ra s t ic d epopu la t ion o f t he r eg ion . B u t t h e c on t inued wo rk ing o f l a rge t emp le e s ta tes , a s a t tes ted b y t e x tua l e v idence , p resupposes a s ubs tan t ia l l o ca l p opu la t ion . F o r New K ingdom L owe r Nub ia , i t mus t b e a dm i t ted t ha t t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f r om c eme te r ie s i sl a ck ing . T h is s hou ld s e rve a s an o te o fc au t ion w hen i n te rpre t ing s im i la r e v idence f o r t he P redynas t ic p e r iod , f o r wh ich t h e c oun te rba lance o ft e x tua l e v idence i sn o ta va i lab le . Two f u r the r e xamp les f r om t he h is tor ic p e r iod o f d i scon t inu i ty i n mo r tua ry a r chaeo logy m ay b e c i ted . F rom t h e O ld K ingdom t o t h e e nd o f t h e S econd I n te rmed ia te P e r iod , t h ec eme te ry s e rv ing t h ei mpo r tan tt own o fE dfu w a s l o ca ted j u s to u t s ide t h et own w a l l . B u ta tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e N ew K ingdom , f o r r ea sons wh ich r ema in u nc lea r , t h e t own c eme te ry w a s moved t o an ew s i te , s ome 4 km t ot h e w e s t ( Gab ra 1 977 ) .I nt h eL a te P e r iod , af u r the rc hange o fl o ca t ion t o ok p l a ce , t h e c eme te ry mov ing t oN aga e l -Ha ssaya , as i te 1 2 km t ot h e s ou th ( Ve rnu s 1 986 : 3 24 ) . D e sp i te t h e se ma jo r c hange s i nc eme te ry l o ca t ion , t h e t own o fE df u r ema ined o n t h e s ame s i te . A t Dende ra , as im i la r c hange o f c eme te ry l o ca t ion s e em s t o h ave o ccu r red a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e Twe lf th D yna s ty . T hus , t he E a r ly Dyna s t ic P e r iod , O ld K ingdom a nd F i r s tI n te rmed ia te P e r iod a r ea l lr ep re sen ted b y b u r ia ls i nt h ec eme te ry c l ose t ot h e t own m ound , b u tt h e re i s t h en a g ap i n t h e b u r ia l r e co rd u n t i l t h e P to lema ic P e r iod ( F ische r 1 968 ) . T he l o ca t ion o f t h e M idd le a nd N ew K ingdom c eme te ry ( o r c eme te r ie s ) i su nknown , b u t i ti s c e r ta in t h a t t h e t own o fD ende ra s aw u nb roken h ab i ta t ion t h roughou tt h i s ' s i len t ' p e r iod . We s hou ld b ea r i nm ind t h e p oss ib i l i ty t h a t t h e w ide sp read c hange s i nt h el o ca t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fc eme te r ie s a tt h e e nd o f t h e P redynas t ic d o n o t n ecessa r i ly i nd ica te c o r respond ing m a jor c hanges i n t h e s e t t lemen t p a t te rn . E xcava ted s e t t lemen tr ema ins a r e e x t reme ly s ca rce f r om t h e l a te P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iods , s o i ti sn o t p oss ib le t o b a lance t he v i ew d e r ived f r om t he c eme te ry e v idence .N one the le ss , t h ee v idence f o rs e t t lemen tn uc lea t ion

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Du r ing l a te N aqada I a nd N aqada I I , t h e H ie rakonpo l is r eg ion w i tne ssed ap rog re s s ive s h if t o fs e t t lemen t a way f r om t h eG rea t Wad i a nd t owa rds t h ef l oodp la in . T h is d eve lopmen t s e em st oh ave b een t h er e su l to fs eve ra l f a c to r s , i n c lud ing t h e d e s icca t ion o ft h es avanna f o l low ing t h ee nd o ft h eN eo l i th ic S ubp luv ia l , a nd t he p roce sses o f p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic c oncen t ra t ion w h ich a ccompan ied s t a te f o rma t ion . B y t h e l a te P redyna s t ic p e r iod , s e t t lemen t a l ong t h e G rea t Wad i , p rev iou s ly e x ten s ive , h ad d ec l ined t o a n a r ea o fj us t t wo h ec ta re s , c omp r is ing ah andfu l o fs ma l l s i tes ( Adam s 1 995 ) . T he n ew ly -founded t own o n t h e e dge o ft h e c u l t iva t ion h ad b ecome t h e m a in r eg iona l c en t re o fp opu la t ion . Mos t o ft h e p opu la t ion l i ved o n t h e K om e l -Ahma r o r i n t wo s ma l le r o u t l ie r s t o t h e n o r th a nd e as t ( Adams 1 995 : 4 6 ) . T h is s e t t lemen t p a t te rn w a s m ir ro red i n t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f c eme te r ie s : b yt h ee nd o fN aqada I t h e re i se v idence f o ro ne l a rge c eme te ry ( Hk -33 ) s u r rounded b y as e r ie s o f s ma l le r b u r ia l p lo ts ( Hk -30G , Hk -43 , Hk -44 a nd Hk -45 ) . T he n uc lea t ion o f s e t t lemen t i st h e refo re a ccompan ied b y , a nd r ef lec ted i n , an uc lea t ion o fc eme te r ie s ( Adam s 1 987 : 1 92 ) . A t N aqada , t h e m any s ma l l c ommun i t ie s w h ich s u r rounded t h e l a rge r s e t t lemen t w e re a ppa ren t ly a bandoned d u r ing t h e p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion ( Lambe rg -Ka r lov sky & S ab lof f 1 979 : 1 32 ) . A t t h e s ame t ime , t h e s u rv iv ing s e t t lemen t ( t he S ou th T own ) , i t s p opu la t ion p robab ly s we l led b y a n i n f lux f r om t h e s u r round ing v i l lages , w a s e nc losed b y t h ick mud b r ick w a l l s ( Kemp 1 977 : 1 92 ) . T he p henomenon , w he reby s ca t te r s o f l ow -dens i ty v i l lage s w e re r ep laced b y w a l led t owns w i th a much h ighe r p opu la t ion d ens i ty , i sa l so a t te s ted a tA rman ta tt h ee nd o ft h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod . Sma l l v i l lage s o n t h e d e se r t e dge s eem n o t t oh ave s u rv ived i n to t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod , w hen t h e re i sl im i ted e v idence f o r t h e g row th o f at own a tA rman t ( Kemp 1 977 : 1 92 ) . T he p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion s eems t o h ave w i tnes sed p a r t icu la r ly m a rked c hange s i nt h e s e t t lemen t a nd c eme te ry p a t te rn o ft h eA bydos r e g ion . T he t empo ra ry a bandonmen to f t h e P redyna s t ic c eme te ry a tN aga e d -De i r w a s o ne s uch e f f ec t . Mo re s t r ik ing e v idence c ome s f r om t h e v i c in i ty o f A bydos i t se lf . F rom N aqada I t imes , n ume rous s ma l l c eme te r ie s w e re i n u se a r ound A bydos , p robab ly s e rv ing v i l lage s o n t h e d e se r t e dge . T he re may a l so h ave b een s e t t lemen t s o n t h e f l oodp la in , a nd i ti sq u i te l i ke ly t h a t o ne e x is ted o n t h es i te o ft h e l a te rt own ( Kemp 1 977 : 1 89 ) . Many o ft h e c eme te r ie s i nt h e i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o f A bydos w e re a ba ndoned a tt h e e nd o ft h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod , i n d ica t ing

t h a t an uc lea t ion o f s e t t lemen t t o ok p lace . T he e f f ec t s o f u rban ism w e re a ppa ren t ly f e l t t h roughou t t he r eg ion . F o r e xamp le , t h e c eme te ry a tS a lmany , n o r th o fA bydo s , w a s i n u se t h roughou tt h eP redyna s t ic p e r iod , b u tw a s a bandoned a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he F i rs t Dynas ty . T he c eme te ry a t H awa sh im , s ou th o fA bydos , c ame i n to u se d u r ing N aqada I , b u t l i ke S a lmany w a s a bandoned a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h e E a r ly D yna s t ic P e r iod . T he c eme te ry a tN aga e l - Ma shay i l ch o n t h e e a s t b ank w a s s im i la r ly a bandoned a tt h is t ime . T he c eme te ry a t Mahasna s pans t h e w ho le o f t he P redyna s t ic p e r iod , f r om N aqada It ime su p t oa nd i n c lud ing N aqada I I . T he c eme te ry a ppea r st oh ave e xpanded d u r ing t h el a t te rp a r t o fN aqada I ,p e rhaps r e f lec t ing t h ei n c rea sed i mpo r tance a nd p rospe r i ty o ft h er eg ion a s awho le a tt h is t ime . H oweve r , i n a bou t t h e m idd le o ft h eF i r s t Dyna s ty , t h e n umbe r o fb u r ia ls d ec rea sed s ha rp ly a t Maha sna , a l though t h e p re sence o fO ld K ingdom g raves a tt h e s ame s i te m ay i nd ica te t h a t as ma l l p opu la t ion r ema ined i nt h ev i c in i ty d u r ing t h eE a r ly Dyna s t ic P e r iod . L oca ted m uch c l ose r t ot h e n ew t own a tA bydos , t h e c ommun i ty o f e l -Am ra s eem s t o h ave b een mo re s eve re ly a f fec ted . T he l a rge c eme te ry s aw mo re -or les s c on t inuous u se t h roughou t t h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod b u t w a s a bandoned a l toge the ri nt h ee a r ly F i r s t Dyna s ty , a nd w a sn o tu sed a ga in u n t i l t h e N ew K ingdom . T he e a r l ie s t l e ve ls i nt h e t own a t A bydos c an b e d a ted t ot h e N aqada I I p e r iod . T he e a r ly t own m ay h ave b een w a l led , a l though P e t r ie 's ( 1902 ) e xcava t ions d id n o t r evea l a ny e v idence o f t h is ( c f . K emp 1 977 : 1 89 ) . A s t h e t own g rew , i tw ou ld h ave a t t rac ted t h e p opu la t ions o fs ca t te red v i l lage s , l u red b y t h e e conom ic a nd p hy s ica l s e cu r i ty w h ich at own p rov ided . T he b eg inn ings o f u rban ism r ep re sen t b o th a f undamen ta l c hange i ns oc ie ty a nd o ne o ft h e d ef in ing c ha rac te r is t ics o f c i v i l isa t ion , wh ich w a s o n t h e p o in t o f eme rg ing i nt h e N i le v a l ley . T he f a c to r s a f f ec t ing t h e b eg inn ing o fu rban ism a r e l i ke ly t oh ave b een s eve ra l , a nd t oh ave v a r ied a cco rd ing t o l o ca l c ond i t ions ( T r igge r 1 972 ) .T he g row th o fl a rge t owns i n U ppe r E gyp t a tt h e e nd o ft h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod m ay h ave b een p a r t ly f o r d efens ive r ea son s ( T r igge r 1 984 : 1 03 ) . T he n uc lea t ion o fs e t t lemen t a tH ie rakonpo l is m ay h ave b een t h e r e su l t o fc l ima t ic a nd /o r e co log ica l f a c to r s ( Hof fman 1 976 : 4 1) . Wha t i sc l ea r i st h a t u rban ism b o th r ef lec ted , a nd w a s made p os s ib le b y , t h e l a rge -sca le c hange s w h ich t o ok p lace w i th in E gyp t ian s oc ie ty d u r ing t h eP redyna s t ic p e r iod . T hus , i n c rea s ing s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion , t h e p roduc t ion o fa g r icu l tu ra l s u rp luse s a nd t h e r ed is t r ibu t ion o f t h e se r e sou rce s b y t h e l o ca l e l i te e nab led a s e c t ion o f t h e p opu la t ion t ob ecome e ngaged i n f u l l t ime n on -agr icu l tu ra l a c t iv i ty . T he t r end o f c r af ts pec ia l isa t ion w a su ndoub ted ly f o s te red b yt h ed emand s o ft h e e l i te a nd u l t ima te ly e ncompa ssed t h e d eve lopmen t o f w r i t ing a nd t h e g row th o f al i t e ra te s c r iba l c l a ss e ngaged i n a dm in is t ra t ion . N o l o nge r t i ed t o t h e l a nd , as i gn if ican t s e c t ion o fs oc ie ty c ou ld n ow b enef i tf r om l i v ing a nd w o rk ing i n am o re c ompac t f o rm o fs e t t lemen t . S uch am ove w ou ld h ave b een p a r t icu la r ly a dvan tageous t o a n ascen t a dm in is t ra t ion , a l low ing f o r mo re e f f ec t ive c en t ra l s t o rage o f a g r icu l tu ra l p roduce . F u r the rmo re , t h e r o le o fc u l t c en t res i n t he b eg inn ings o f u rban ism s hou ld n o t b e o ve r looked ( T r igge r 1 972 : 5 90 -1) . T he s i te o f al o ca l s h r ine w ou ld h ave p rov ided an a tu ra l f o cus f o r a c t iv i ty , p a r t icu la r ly i ft h e l o ca l e l i te d epended u pon i n t ima te a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he s upe rna tu ra l t o ma in ta in i t s a u tho r i ty . W i th t h e p oss ib le c on t r ibu t ion o fc l ima t ic a nd d ef ens ive f a c to r s , u rban ism w a s t hus b o rn i n l a te P redyna s t ic Uppe r E gyp t . I t was a d eve lopmen t wh ich w ou ld m a rked ly a f f ec t t h e f u tu re c ou r se o fs oc ie ty .

8

U rban ism d id n o tt a ke p lace s imu l taneous ly i na l r eg ions o f E gyp t . I ta ppea r st oh ave b egun i nU ppe rE gyp t , w he re s oc io e conom ic c hange h ad b een mos tr ap id a nd w he re t h ep roce s s o f p o l i t ica l u n if ica t ion was i n i t ia ted . B y c on t ras t , t h e s e t t lemen tp a t te rn o ft h e Ma tma r -Qau r eg ion a ppea r s t oh ave b een l a rge ly u naf f ec ted b y t he d eve lopmen ts o f t h e P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly Dyna s t ic t r ans i t ion . H e re t h e re i sl i t t le e v idence f o r t he g row th o f u rban c en t re s u n t i l t he O ld K ingdom , w hen a dm in is t ra t ive d eve lopmen t sc onnec ted w i th t h er oya l c ou r tr e su l ted i nt he g row th o fE tman ia ( O 'Conno r 1 972b : 9 3 -4 ) . D emog raph ic d eve lopmen t s i nt h e Memph i te r eg ion w e re u ndoub ted ly d om ina ted b y t h e f ounda t ion o f Memph is i t se lf , am a rk o ft h ei mpos i t ion o fc en t ra l a u tho r i ty a nd c on t ro l o n t h e p a r t o f t he n ew n a t iona l a dm in is t ra t ion . T he re i s i n c rea s ing e v idence t ha t u rban ism w a s w e l l a dvanced i nt h e D e l ta i nl a te P redyna s t ic t ime s . T he s i te s o f B u to , Mende s a nd p robab ly S a i s a r e l i ke ly t o h ave b een o ccup ied b y t own s b e fo re t h e i n co rpo ra t ion o ft h eD e l ta i n to au n if ied k i ngdom ( c f .K a ise r 1 986 : 1 071) . T he r i se o fu rban i sm a td i f f e ren t t ime s i nd i f f e ren tr e g ion s o f t h ec oun t ry e mpha s ises t h ei mpo r tance o fl o ca l f a c to r s f o rt h e p ace a nd e f f ec t s o f s t a te f o rma t ion ( cf . K emp 1 977 : 1 96 , 1 98 ) .

CONCLUDING RE MARKS T he i mpor tance o fl o ca lf ac tor s T he r e su l t s o ft h ep re sen t s t udy i lus t ra te t h e i mpo r tance o f l o ca l g eo -po l i t ica l f a c to r s o n t h ee f f ec t s o fs t a te f o rma t ion . I t h a s l o ng b een r ea l ised t ha t c e r ta in a r ea s o f E gyp t w e re p ar t icu la r ly i n f luen t ia l i nt h e p roce ss o fs t a te f o rma t ion : t h e r eg ion s a r ound T h i s ( Abydos ) , N aqada a nd H ie rakonpo l is i n Uppe r E gyp t a nd t h e Memph i te r eg ion a tt he a pex o f t h e D e l ta . C e r ta in s i te s i nt h e D e l ta i t se lf may a l so h ave p layed a ni mpo r tan tr o le i nt h eu n if i ca t ion p roce s s , p a r t icu la r ly B u to a nd p e rhaps S a i s a sw e l l . A s a r chaeo log ica l i nve s t iga t ion o f t he N i le D e l ta c on t inue s , o u r u nde r s tand ing o fs ome o ft h e l a rge rc ommun i t ie si se nhanced a nd mod if ied . C on t inued d eba te s u r rounds t h e r ea sons why T h is , N aqada a nd H ie rakonpo l is r ose t op rom inence d u r ing t h e p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion ( Ba rd 1 987 : 9 0 -1) . I t may b e t ha t t h e t opog raphy o f t h e N i le v a l ley i nt h e se a r ea s w as e spec ia l ly c onduc ive t ot h e p rac t ice o fb a s in i r r iga t ion ( T r igge r 1 983 : 1 4 ; B a rd 1 987 : 9 0 ) . I nc reas ing a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t iv i ty wou ld h ave e nab led c r af t s pec ia l isa t ion t o d eve lop . I n t h e c ase s o fN aqada a nd H ie rakonpo l is , a ccess t o t h e m ine ra l wea l th -e s pec ia l ly g o ld -o ft h eE a s te rn D e se r t , v i at h e Wad i Hammama t a nd t h e Wad i A bbad r e spec t ive ly , may h ave p layed a s i gn if ican t p a r t i n t h e c oncen t ra t ion o f p o l i t ica l p owe r ,b ye nab l ing l o ca l l e ade r st oc on t ro l a cce ss t op res t ige a nd t r ade c ommod i t ie s ( Ba rd 1 987 : 9 0 ; 1 994 : 1 06 ; T r igge r 1 983 : 3 9 -40 , 4 9 ; 1 984 : 1 02 -3 ) . T o s pecu la te f u r the r , t h e re may w e l l h ave b een ar o le f o r s uch u nde tec tab le f a c to r s a s t he p e r sona l i ty a nd c ha r isma o f i n d iv idua ls . P e rhaps t h e r u l ing l i neages o f t h e t h ree k ey s i tes o u tshone t he ir n e ighbou r s i np o l i t ica l a s tu tenes s , a low ing t h em t oi n c rea se t he i r s phe re o f i n f luence , a nd u l t ima te ly t e r r i tory , a t t h e e xpense o f t h e ir l e s s a mb i t ious c on tempo ra r ie s ( Se rv ice 1 975 : 2 9 1 ;L ambe rg -Ka r lovsky & S ab lof f1 979 : 1 33 ) . T he r e a sons f o r t he i mpo r tance o ft h e Memph i te a r ea , a tt h e c u lm ina t ion o ft h e s t a te f o rma t ion p roce s s , a r e mo re c e r ta in . T he f ounda t ion o f t h e n ew c ap i ta l c i ty a t Memph is w a s c l ea r ly as t ra teg ic d ec i s ion . I t s g eog raph ica l l o ca t ion , a tt h e j unc t ion b e tween Uppe r a nd L owe r E gyp t , a l lowed t h e g ove rnmen to ft h e n ew ly u n if ied c oun t ry e a sy a cce ss t ob o th r e g ions . T he o l de r , P redyna s t ic c en t re s o fp owe r -i n Uppe r E gyp t -w e re t o o r emo te f r om t h e v a s t e xpanse o ft h e D e l ta w h ich h ad b een i n corpo ra ted i n to t h e u n if ied s t a te . On ly a c i ty w i th in e a sy r each o fb o th t h eN i le v a l ley t ot h es ou th a nd t h e mo re s p read o u t , d i f f icu l t t e r ra in t o t h e n o r th c ou ld p rov ide t h e n e cessa ry p o l i t ica l c on t ro l w h ich t he r u le rs o f E a r ly Dyna s t ic E gyp tr e qu i red . T he r e g ion o f Memph is mus t h ave s e rved a s a n i mpor tan t n ode f o r t r anspor t a nd c ommun ica t ions , e ven b efo re t he u n if ica t ion o f t h e Two L and s . Ma rk ing t h e b ounda ry b e tween t h e n a r row v a l ley o f U ppe rE gyp ta nd t h es p read ing w a te rcou r se so ft h eD e l ta , t h e Memph i te a r ea p robab ly a c ted a s a n e n t repö t f o r r i ve r ine t r ade b e tween n o r the rn a nd s ou the rn E gyp t . G oods f r om U ppe rE gyp td e s t ined f o rt h e De l ta o ro t he rl a nds o ft h eN ea r E a s t mus t h ave p assed t h rough t he r eg ion . L ikew ise , c ommod i t ie si mpo r ted f r om t h eN ea rE a s tb yt h er oya l c ou r t s o f P redyna s t ic U ppe r E gyp t wou ld h ave b een c hanne l led t h rough t h e Memph i te r eg ion o n t h e i r w ay s ou th . I n s ho r t , t h e ref o re , t h e s i t e o f Memph is o f f e red t h er u le r s o ft h e E a r ly D yna s t ic p e r iod a n i dea l l o ca t ion f o r c on t ro l l ing a l i n te rna l t r ade w i th in t h e i rr e a lm -a n e s sen t ia lr e qu i remen tf o r as t a te d i rec ted , r ed is t r ibu t ive e conomy . E qua l ly i mpor tan t f o r t h e

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n a t iona l a dm in is t ra t ion was t he a b i l i ty t o c on t ro l c ommun ica t ions w i th in E gyp t . T he N i le p rov ided t h e e a s ie s t a nd q u icke s t a r te ry o f c ommun ica t ion , a nd t he n a t iona l c ap i ta l w a s , a ga in , i d ea l ly l o ca ted i n t h is r e spec t . R ecen t g eo log ica l s urvey s o f t h e Memph i te r eg ion h ave r evea led much a bou t i t s t o pog raphy i n a nc ien t t ime s . A s ar e su l t , i t a ppea r s t h a t t h e l o ca t ion o f Memph is m ay h ave b een e ven mo re a dvan tageous f o r c on t ro l l ing t r ade , t r anspor t a nd c ommun ica t ions t h an w a s p rev ious ly a pp rec ia ted . S u rvey s a nd d r i l l -co res h ave s hown t ha t t he l eve l o f t he N i le f l oodp la in h as s t ead i ly r i sen o ve r t h e l a s t f i ve m i l lenn ia ( J ef f rey s &T ava re s 1 994 : 1 57 -8 ) . When t h e f l oodp la in w a s much l owe r , a si tw ou ld h ave b een i nP redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic t ime s , t h e o u twa sh f a ns o ft h e Wad i H of a nd Wad i D ig la w ou ld h ave b een much mo re p rom inen t f e a tu re s o ft h e e as tb ank g eog raphy i nt h e Memph i te r eg ion . I ndeed , t h e f a n a s soc ia ted w i th t h e f o rme r may h ave e x tended as i gn if ican t w ay i n to t h e N i le f l oodp la in , t h us f o rm ing ac ons t r ic t ion i n t h e v i c in i ty o f Memph is . I n t h is c a se , t h e v a l ley may h ave n a r rowed a tt h is p o in t t o am e re 3 km ( J ef f rey s & T ava re s 1 994 : 1 57 -8 ) . T h is w ou ld h ave made t h e s po t e ven mo re i d ea l f o rc on t ro l l ing r i ve rt r a ff ic .T he Memph i te r e g ion s eem s t oh ave b een f a vou rab ly l o ca ted f o r t h e c on t ro l , n o t o n ly o f r i ve r ine t r ade , b u t a l so o f d ese r t t r ade r ou te s . T he t wo o u twa sh f ans a l ready m en t ioned g ave a cce ss t o • e x tens ive w ad i s y s tem s o ft h e e a s te rn d e se r t . I n P redyna s t ic t imes , t h e Wad i D ig la may h ave s e rved a s at r ade r ou te b e tween t h e Memph i te r eg ion a nd t h e N ea r E a s t , t o j udge f r om t h e u nusua l c oncen t ra t ion o f f o re ign a r tef ac ts f ound i n t h e P redyna s t ic s e t t lemen t o f Maad i . A cce s s t o , a nd c on t ro l o f , t r ade r ou te sb e tween E gyp t a nd t h e N ea rE a s t s eem s t oh ave b een ap reoccupa t ion o fE gyp t 's r u le r s d u r ing t h e p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion . I ndeed , t he d e s i re t o monopo l ise f o re ign t r ade -t h e s ou rce o f p re s t ige c ommod i t ie s r equ i red b y t h e r oya l c ou r t s f o r c onsp icuous c onsump t ion a nd d i sp lay -m ay h ave b een o ne o f t h e p r ima ry f a c to r s b eh ind t h e p o l i t ica l u n if ica t ion o f E gyp t ( T r igge r 1 983 : 4 9 ; f o r e v idence o f i n tense E gyp t ian i n te re s ti ns ou the rn P a le s t ine d u r ing t h el a te P redyna s t ic t o E a r ly Dyna s t ic t r ans i t ion s ee , i n ter a l ia , B rand l 1 992 , G ophna 1 992 ) . T he f ounda t ion o ft h e n a t iona l c ap i ta l a tt h e j unc t ion o f a n i mpor tan t t r ade r ou te w i th t h e N i le v a l ley i sn o t l i ke ly t o h ave b een e n t i re ly f o r tu i tous . Mo reove r , t h e Wad is H of a nd D ig la p rov ided t h e Memph i te r eg ion w i th a cces s ib le d e se r tp a s tu rage . T he c omb ina t ion o f d e se r tp a s tu rage a nd a luv ia l a r ab le l a nd i nt h es ame a r ea w a s ap a r t icu la r ly a t t rac t ive o ne f o re a r ly s e t t lemen t , a nd n od oub t c on t r ibu ted t ot h ei mpo r tance a nd p ro spe r i ty o ft h e Memph i te r eg ion f r om e a r ly P redyna s t ic t ime s . J us t a sc e r ta in a r ea s o f t h e c oun t ry p a r t ic ipa ted f u l ly i nt h e p roce s s o fs t a te f o rma t ion , s o o t he rr e g ions w e re , i n ev i tab ly , l e s s d i rec t ly i nvo lved . T h is s eems t oh ave b een t r ue o f t h e s t re tch o fM idd le E gyp t b e tween Ma tma r a nd Q au , p e rhaps b e cau se o fg eog raph ica l a nd /o rp o l i t ica l f a c to r s . B a rd ( 1987 : 9 1) a t t r ibu te s t h e a ppa ren t ly ma rg ina l p os i t ion o f M idd le E gyp t i n t h e p roce s s o f s t a te f o rma t ion t oi t s c ompa ra t ive l a ck o fi n tens ive t r ad ing c on tac t s . H oweve r , t h e i n comp le te n a tu re o fp re sen tk now ledge a bou t P redyna s t ic M idd le E gyp t s hou ld b e t aken i n to p rope r a ccoun t . T he s u rv iva l o f P redyna s t ic s i te s i sh aphaza rd a nd f u tu re d i scove r ie s m ay c hange o u rp e rcep t ion o ft h is a r ea o fE gyp t . T o s umma r ise , d u r ing t he N aqada I p e r iod , t h e f i ve P redyna s t ic s i te s i nt h ep resen t s t udy -Mos tagedda , Ma tma r ,

Maha sna , Annan ta nd H ie rakonpo l is -s ha re ac ommon t r end : i n c reas ing a u thor i ty , a s r e f lec ted i n i n c rea s ing mo r tua ry e l abo ra t ion . P o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic p owe rw e re c oncen t ra ted t oa n e ve r g rea te r d eg ree i n t h e h ands o fe l i te g roups , w ho ma rked t he i r s t a tus b y more e l abora te b ur ia ls , o f ten c on ta in ing p re s t ige o b je c t s o r ma te r ia ls t ow h ich a cce s s w a s r e s t r ic ted . T h is , i n t u rn , n eces s i ta ted a n i n c rea se i n t he v o lume o ft r ade d u r ing t h e Naqada I p e r iod .F u r the rmo re , a s c raf t s pec ia l isa t ion i n tens if ied a nd l oca l b u reaucrac ies d eve loped ( a s a t te s ted , f o r e xamp le , b y t h e i n sc r ibed l a be ls f r om T omb U j a t Abydos ) , a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion mus t h ave b ecome mo re e ff ic ien t t o c ope w i th t h e i n c rea s ing n umbe r o fn on -p roduce r s . T he i n tens if ica t ion o f e conom ic a c t iv i ty s eem st oh ave r e su l ted i na n i n c rea se i nt h ew ea l th o f t he p opu la t ion a s a who le , a nd i n t he a moun t o f e f fo r t i n ve s ted i nm o r tua ry p rov is ion . Du r ing t h e P redyna s t ic t o E a r ly Dyna s t ic t r ans i t ion , t h e u n ifo rm s oc io -e conom ic d eve lopmen to ft h ep reced ing p ha se b reak sd own ,t ob er ep laced b yl o ca lp a t te rn so fd eve lopmen t b a sed u pon l o ca lc omb ina t ions o ff a c to rs .

S ta te f orma t ion : amu l t i -cau sa l p roce s s R ecen t t h eo r ie s o f s t a te f o rma t ion h ave s t re ssed , a bove a l l , t h e mu l t ip l ic i ty o ff a c to r s i nvo lved ( Cohen 1 978 ; L ambe rg K a r lov sky & S ab lof f 1 979 : 2 07 -11) . Whe re e a r l ie r a u tho r s empha s ised o ne o r a no the r f a c to r a s t he ' p r ime move r ' b eh ind t h ed eve lopmen t o fc i v i l isa t ion ( e .g . W i t tf oge l 1 957 i r r iga t ion ; C a rne i ro 1 970 -p opu la t ion p re s su re ) , t h e c hange s i n as oc ie ty a si tmoves t owa rd s s t a tehood a r e n ow g ene ra l ly a cknow ledged t oh ave b een many , c omp lex a nd i n te r l inked . T he p roce ss m ay b e c ha rac te r ised a s " sy s tem ic a nd mu l t i c ausa l" ( Cohen 1 978 : 3 2 ) . P opu la t ion p re ssu re , t r ade , t e chno logy , i r r iga t ion , c ou r t insp i red ' g rea t t r ad i t ions ' ( Lambe rg -Ka r lovsky & S ab lof f 1 979 : 3 29 -30 , q uo t ing F lanne ry ) , e ven wa rfa re , a r e a l f a c to r s i nvo lved i n t h e p roces s o fs t a te f o rma t ion , i na nc ien t E gyp ta se l sewhe re . " I t i si nt h ei n te r re la tednes so ft h e se c ond i t ions t h a tt h ee vo lu t ion o f c i v i l iza t ion i st ob e u nde r s tood" ( Lambe rg -Ka r lov sky & S ab lof f1 979 : 3 30 ) . Ad i scu ss ion o ft h e v a r ious t h eo r ie s o fs t a te f o rma t ion , a nd t h e i r a pp l icab i l i ty t ot h e a nc ien t E gyp t ian c a se , l i e s b eyond t h e s cope o ft h e p re sen t w o rk . I n a ny c a se , s uch q ue s t ions h ave b een t r ea ted a tl e ng th b yo t he ra u tho r s( Ba rd 1 994 : 1 7 ) . T he p re sen ts t udy i sc once rned r a the rw i th t h ee f f ec t s o fs t a te f o rma t ion t h an w i th t h e c auses o ft h e p roce ss . Ac onsensus s eems t oh ave b een r eached a mong s cho la r s s t udy ing t h er i se o fc i v i l isa t ions , n ame ly t h a t t h ep roce ss w a sc ha rac te r ised b y t h e c omp lex i n te rac t ion o f many f a c to r s .T h is i sa n i mpo r tan t p o in t . F o r d i f f e ren t f a c to r s a r e b ound t oh ave b een mo re o r l e ss i mpo r tan ti nd i f f e ren t r eg ions o ft h e c oun t ry , d epend ing u pon t h e p a r t icu la r l o ca l c i rcums tances o f g eog raphy , e co logy , a nd s o f o r th . A s ar e su l t , d i f f e ren t r eg ions o f t h e c oun t ry a r e v e ry l i ke ly t oh ave r e sponded d i f f e ren t ly , a nd a t d i f f e ren tr a te s ,d u r ing t h ep e r iod o fs t a te f o rma t ion .

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P ar t5 : S ta te f orma t ion a nd t he D e l ta

F igu re 1 8 . Map o ft h eN i le D e l ta , s how ing s i te s m en t ioned i nP a r t5 9 2

I n troduc t ion A s w e h ave s een , s t a te f o rma t ion i n E gyp t c omb ined t wo i n te r re la ted p roces se s . C u l tu ra l c hange sl e d t ot h e a bso rp t ion o f l o ca l a nd r eg iona l v a r ia t ions i n ma te r ia l c u l tu re i n to a s i ng le t r ad i t ion . S oc io -po l i t ica l c hange s r e su l ted i n t he u n if ica t ion o fE gyp t i n to as i ng le n a t ion -s ta te . I ts eems t h a t t h e i mpe tus f o r b o th p henomena c ame f r om Uppe r E gyp t ; a nd i tw a st h e s ou the rn c u l t ura l t r ad i t ion a nd as ou the rn l i ne o f k ing s t h a t e me rged v i c tor ious . T he n o r th o ft h e c oun t ry , a nd t h eN i le D e l ta i np a r t icu la r , c an t h e re fo re b e s een a st h e o b jec t o fs t a te f o rma t ion , b o th i nc u l tu ra l a nd s oc io -po l i t ica l t e rm s . H oweve r , f a r f r om b e ing as pa r se ly -popu la ted r eg ion w h ich c ou ld b ea bso rbed i n to t h es ou the rn c u l tu ra l a nd s oc io p o l i t ica l s phe re w i th l i t t le d i ff icu l ty , i ti sn ow a ppa ren t t h a t t h e D e l ta i nP redyna s t ic t ime s w a s af l ou r ish ing a r ea . T he r e cen t i n ten s if ica t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l a c t iv i ty i nt h e D e l ta h a s c onf i rmed t ha t m any o f t h e s i tes i mpo r tan t i n l a te r , d yna s t ic t ime s h ad b een s i gn if ican t c ommun i t ie s i n t he P redyna s t ic p e r iod . T he n o r th -ea s te rn D e l ta i np a r t icu la rh a s eme rged a s a n a rea o f s ubs tan t ia l P redynas t ic a c t iv i ty ( K roepe r 1 989 ) , p robab ly d ue t o i t s s t ra teg ic l o ca t ion f o r t r ade ( Ba rd 1 987 ) .

T he n a tura le nv ironmen ta nd h uman s e t t lemen t A s i n U ppe r E gyp t , s o i n t h e D e l ta t h e t opog raphy w a s a c ruc ia l f a c to r a f fec t ing p a t te rns o f l o ca l a nd r eg iona l d eve lopmen t . I nt he l ow ly ing D e l ta , s e t t lemen t w ou ld h ave b een e f f ec t ive ly r e s t r ic ted t o a rea s r a ised a bove t he f l oodp la in . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f s uch s i te s a ppea r s t o h ave a f f ec ted p rofound ly t h e s e t t lemen t h i s to ry o ft h e D e l ta , a nd t h u s i t ss o c io -econom ic d eve lopmen t . E v idence f o r Neo l i th ic s e t t lemen t i n t h e D e l ta i s s t i l l e x t reme ly l im i ted o u ts ide t h e m a rg ina l s i te o f Me r imda ( E iwange r 1 984 , 1 988 , 1 992 ) . S e t t lemen t ma te r ia l , p e rhaps d a t ing b ack t o t he N eo l i th ic p e r iod , h a s b een f ound a t M insha t A bu Oma r i nt h e n o r th -ea s te rn D e l ta . S he rds w e re r e cove red a t ad eepe r l e ve l t h an , a nd a bou t 1km f r om , t h e l a te P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dyna s t ic c eme te ry ( K rzyzan iak 1 992 : 1 53 ) . I n c on t ra s t , t he re i sa bundan t a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l s how ing t ha t t h eD e l ta w a s s e t t led f r om a tl e a s t t h e f ou r th m i l lenn ium BC ( And res & Wunde r l ich 1 992 ) . T he e a s te rn a nd w es te rn a r ea s o f t h e D e l ta s eem t o h ave e xpe r ienced q u i te d i f f e ren tg eo log ica l h i s to r ie s , w h ich i nt u rn mu s t h ave a f f ec ted t h e i r s e t t lemen tp o ten t ia l . I nt h e w e s te rn D e l ta , b e f o re t h e e nd o ft h e f i f th m i l lenn ium , t h e l a ndscape t o ok t h ef o rm o f" va s tv ege ta ted p l a ins f r ee f r om i n unda t ion" ( And re s & Wunde r l ich 1 992 : 1 64 ) . T h is m ean t t ha t s e t t lemen t w a s n o t r e s t r ic ted t oh ighe r g round , a s i tw a s i n t h e e a s te rn D e l ta . T he w e s te rn D e l ta w ou ld t h e ref o re s eem t o h ave b een t h e mo re f avou rab le a r ea f o r s e t t lemen t i n N eo l i th ic t i me s , a nd f u tu re e xcava t ions d eep b e low t h ew a te r t a b le m igh t b e e xpec ted t o r evea l e v idence f o r N eo l i th ic h uman a c t iv i ty . F rom a tl e a s t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e f ou r th m i l lenn ium ,c l ima t ic a nd g eo log ica lc ond i t ion si nt h ew e s te rn D e l ta c hanged s i gn if ican t ly , n ece ss i ta t ing t h e r emova l o f s e t t lemen t st oh i ghe r l o ca t ions . T hu s , f r om N aqada I a tt h e l a te s t , t h e e a s te rn D e l ta w ou ld a ppea r t oh ave b een e qua l ly f a vou rab le f o rs e t t lemen t( And re s & Wunde r l ich 1 992 : 1 64 ) . T he a dded a t t rac t ion o f a cce ss t o t r ade r ou te s -a t at ime w hen c on tac t s b e tween E gyp t a nd t h e N ea r E a s t w e re i n tens ify ing -m igh t e xp la in t h e g r ea te r c oncen t ra t ion o fl a te P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly D yna s t ic s i te s i n t he e a s te rn D e l ta r e vea led b y r e cen t e xcava t ions ( t hough t h is c oncen t ra t ion

c ou ld , e qua l ly , b e d ue t o t he g rea te r i n tens i ty o f a r chaeo log ica l s u rvey a nd e xcava t ion i nt h is a r ea , c ompa red t ot h ew e s te rn D e l ta ( Ch lodn ick i e ta l . 1 992 : 1 83 ) ) . R ecen t g eo log ica l s u rvey s o ft h e D e l ta h ave c onf i rmed t h e w ide sp read p resence o f ' t u r t le -back s ' o rg ez iras ( And re s & Wunde r l ich 1 992 ; e l -Gam i l i e ta l . 1 992 ) . G ez i ra s a r e l ow , s andy h i l ls , u sua l ly o f m idd le P le is tocene s ed imen t s , r i s ing a bove t h e a l luv ia l p l a in ( van We semae l 1 988 : 1 26 ) . S ome g ez i ra s h ave b een p a r t ly b u r ied s i nce a nc ien t t ime s b y t h e d epos i t ion o fl a te r a l luv ia l s ed imen t s . I ti sc l e a r t h a t , i nt h e e a s te rn D e l ta , e a r ly h uman s e t t lemen t w a s c oncen t ra ted o n h ighe r g round , o u t o fr e ach o ft h e a nnua l i nunda t ion , b u t a t t h e s ame t ime a sc l ose a sp os s ib le t ot h ef e r t i le f l oodp la in . I n p rac t ice t h is mean t g ez i ra s a nd l e vee s -t h e s u rv iv ing b ank s o f o ld r i ve r c hanne ls . T he c oncen t ra t ion o f g ez i ra s i n t h e e a s te rn D e l ta i sp a r t icu la r ly s t r ik ing ( Ch lodn ick i e ta l . 1 992 : 1 71) . A l l o f t he e as te rn De l ta a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i nves t iga ted i n r ecen t y ea rs a re l o ca ted o n g ez iras (Wunde r l ich 1 988 : f i g . 1 ) , i n c lud ing T e l l I b rah im Awad ( van d en B r ink 1 992 ) , T e l l e l -Fa r l cha ( Ch lodn ick i e ta l . 1 992 ) a nd M insha t A bu Oma r ( K rzyzan iak 1 992 ) . T he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e f o rma t ion o f t h e g ez i ra a tM insha t A bu Oma r a nd t h e h i s to ry o f h uman a c t iv i ty a t t he s i te h a s b een e xp lo red i n s o me d e ta i l a nd i s i n fo rma t ive f o r t h e mo re g ene ra l p i c tu re o f e a r ly s e t t lemen t i n t h e e as te rn D e l ta ( K rzyzan iak 1 992 ; A nd re s & Wunde r l ich 1 992 ) . T he p re sen t g ez i ra i s much s ma l le r t h an i n a nc ien t t imes , d ue t o t h e d epos i t ion o fr i ve r s ed imen t s o ve r t h ec ou r se o ft h e l a s t f i ve m i l lenn ia . I n a nc ien t t ime s , s e t t lemen ts w ou ld h ave b een l o ca ted o n t h e l owe r s l ope s o fg ez i ra s , w he re t h ey w e re s a f e f r om f l ood ing b u t a s c l ose a s p oss ib le t ot he f i e lds o f t h e f l oodp la in . ( The s t eady a ccumu la t ion o f s ed imen t s w ou ld h ave f o rced s e t t lemen t s t o move p rog re ss ive ly h i ghe r u p t h e g ez i ra . T hu s , t h e r ema in s o f a n e a r l ie r s e t t lemen t w ou ld b e l o ca ted f u r the r f r om t h e c en t re o f ag ez i ra , a sw e l l a s l owe r d own , t h an t hose o f al a te rs e t t lemen t . T h i si si n deed t h ec a se w i th t he e a r l ies t s e t t lemen t ma te r ia l f r om M insha t A bu Oma r . ) C eme te r ies , o n t h e o t he r h and , s eem t oh ave b een l o ca ted o n t he t op o f g ez ira s , i n t h e a r ea s l e ss s u i ted t o h ab i ta t ion ( And res & Wunde r l ich 1 992 : 1 64 ) . T he s ed imen ta t ion s i nce a nc ien t t imes , r e su l t ing i n t h e p a r t ia l b u r ia l o f many g ez i ra s , means t h a t t h e c eme te r ie s , o n t h e h ighe r g round , h ave s u rv ived , wh i ls t t h e s e t t lemen t s t h ey s e rved h ave d i sappea red b enea th l a ye r s o fs ed imen t . T h is i s t h e c a se a tM insha t A bu Oma r , w he re a ugu r ing h a s r evea led l a te P redynas t ic s e t t lemen t ma te r ia l o n t he s l ope o f t h e g ez i ra , s ome 4 00 t o7 00 m e t re s a way f r om t h ec eme te ry a nd a t am uch l owe rl e ve l ( K rzyzan iak 1 992 : 1 52 ) . H ence , ac ons ide ra t ion o ft h e e nv i ronmen ta l f a c to r s h e lps t o e xp la in t h er e la t ive p auc i ty o fP redyna s t ic s e t t lemen ts i te s s o f a r i d en t if ied i nt h e D e l ta . T he a ppa ren t s pa r sene ss o fe a r ly s e t t lemen t i nt h eD e l ta i sa lmos t c e r ta in ly af a lse i mp re s s ion , c rea ted b y t he i mpac t o f e nv ironmen ta l p rocesses o n a r chaeo log ica l s u rv iva l( c f .K roepe r 1 989 ) .

T he i n tegra t ion o fh i s tor ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l e v idence T he u se o f l a ter t rad i t ion s t o e s tab l i sh t he p r imacy o f e ar ly D e l ta s i tes B ecause t he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r P redynas t ic s e t t lemen t s t h roughou t E gyp t i sv e ry s pa r se , i th a s b een c ommon f o r s cho la rs t o u se l a te r E gyp t ian t r ad i t ions t o

9 3

e s tab l ish t h e e a r ly i mpo r tance o f p a r t icu la r s i te s . A g ood e xamp le o ft h is m e thod i st he s i te o fN aqada . T he i mpo r tance o ft h e g od S e th -s t rong ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h eN aqada r eg ion i nh i s to r ic t ime s -f r om t h e v e ry b eg inn ings o ft h e E gyp t ian s t a te h a s b een t a ken t oi nd ica te t ha t Naqada w a s ac en t re o f c ons ide rab le p o l i t ica l i mpor tance e a r l ie r i n t h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod ( e .g . K emp 1 989 : 3 5 -37 ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , c omp r is ing s ubs tan t ia l mudb r ick a r ch i tec tu re ( i n t h e e a r ly t own ) a nd e x tens ive c eme te r ies , o ne o f t h em r e se rved f o r t h e l o ca l e l i te , a dds w e igh t t o t h is h ypo the s is , a nd g oe s s ome w ay i n v ind ica t ing t he u se o f t h e me thod i t se lf . I ft h es ame m e thod i sa pp l ied t oL owe rE gyp t , t h ei n d ica t ions a r et h a ts eve ra ls i te si nt h eD e l ta mus th ave b een i mpo r tan ti n l a te r P redyna s t ic t imes . Ka ise r ( 1986 : 1 071) s aw i n t h e ma rked c oncen t ra t ion o f e a r ly n ome -cap i ta ls i n t h e c en t ra l D e l ta ar e f le c t ion o ft h er eg ion 's e a r l ie ri mpo r tance . B ecau se o fi t s g rea tc u l t ic i mpo r tance i nt h eh i s to r ic p e r iod , B u to h ad l o ng b een i d en t if ied a s ak ey s i te f o r t h e p roce s s o f s t a te f o rma t ion i nE gyp t ( He lck 1 951 ; R edfo rd 1 983 ) . T he r e su l t s o f r e cen t G e rman e xcava t ions h ave c onf i rmed t h is v i ew , g iv ing a r chaeo log ica l w e igh t t o ap rev ious ly h ypo the t ica l a r gumen t . S im i la rc on s ide ra t ions w ou ld s uppo r ta ni mpo r tan t e a r ly r o le f o r o t he r s i te si nt h eD e l ta . T he se i n c lude S a i s , t h e c u l t -cen t re o ft h e g odde ss N e i th , whose c u l t s eems t oh ave b een c l ose ly c onnec ted w i th t h e r oya l f am i ly i n t h e e a r ly F i r s t Dyna s ty , B uba s t is a nd Mendes -b o th i mpo r tan t e a r ly c u l t -cen t re s . T he o ngo ing Ame r ican e xcava t ions a t Mende s h ave a l ready r evea led P redyna s t ic s e t t lemen t m a te r ia l , a nd i t m ay b e h oped t h a t f u tu re s ea sons w i l l f u r the r e l uc ida te t h e P redyna s t ic i mpo r tance o ft h es i te . An i n t r igu ing c a se i st h a t o f B ehde t , t h e c u l t -cen t re o f ap a r t icu la r f o rm o f t he g od H orus . H o rus o fB ehde t a cqu i red p rom inence f r om t h e l a te O ld K ingdom o nwa rds a st h e r ep re sen ta t ive d e i ty o fL owe r E gyp t , a nd B ehde ti t se lf c ame t os ymbo l ise t h e n o r the rnmos t e x t rem i ty o ft h eE gyp t ian r ea lm ( Ga rd ine r 1 944 ) .D iff icu l t ie s s u r round t h e e xac t l o ca t ion o fa nc ien t B ehde t , b u t G a rd ine r made a c onv inc ing c a se f o r T e l l e l -Ba lamun , as i te i n t h e n o r the rn D e l ta a nd t h e f o cus o fr e cen t B r i t ish e xcava t ions . T hu s f a r , n o e v idence f o r P redynas t ic o ccupa t ion o ft h e s i te h a s c ome t ol i gh t , b u t i ti sn o t i mp robab le t h a t t h e t e l l w a s s e t t led f r om a n e a r ly p e r iod . T he p a r t icu la r s u i tab i l i ty o ft h e n o r th -ea s te rn D e l ta f o r e a r ly s e t t lemen t may h ave l e d t ot h e g row th o f o ne o r mo re i mpo r tan t P redyna s t ic c en t re s i nt h e r eg ion . T h is i sh in ted a tb y s eve ra l f i nd s o fl a te P redyna s t ic e l i te c u l tu ra l m a te r ia l . P redyna st ic e l i te c u l tura l ma t er ia lf rom t he e a s t ern D e l ta O ve r t h i r ty y ea r s a go , F i sche r( 1958 , 1 963 ) d rew a t ten t ion t o as e r ie s o f a r te fac t s w h ich h ad r e cen t ly p a s sed t h rough t h e h ands o f a n a n t iqu i t ie s d ea le r i n t he e a s te rn D e l ta t own o f H ehya , a nd w h ich a ppea rt oh ave d e r ived f r om i l ic i td igg ing a tn ea rby s i te s . T he a r tefac t s i n c luded a l a te P redyna s t ic n a r row -shou lde red w ine ja r i n c ised w i th ar oya l n ame . T he n ame c anno t b e r ead , b u t may r e cu r o n t wo v e sse ls o f t h e s ame f o rm e xcava ted a tT u ra ( J unke r 1 912 : 4 7 f i g . 5 7 .1-2 ) . F u r the r e v idence f o re a r ly r oya l a c t iv i ty i nt h e n o r th -ea s te rn D e l ta i sp rov ided b y an umbe r o f s im i la r v e s se ls , b ea r ing a nonymou s e a r ly r oya l i n sc r ip t ions , wh ich w e re f ound a te l B eda , ad e se r t -edge s i te .

e xamp le s s how ing s c ene s o fa n ima l a c t iv i ty w h i ls t t h e l a te r o ne s c a r ry d ep ic t ion s o f r oya l a ch ievemen t s ( Dav is 1 989 : 1 41-159 ; C ia low icz 1 991) . T he C a i ro p a le t te ,w h ich d ep ic t sa p a i r o f r ampan t o ryxe s , w as s a id t o h ave c ome f r om t h e H ehya d ea le r , w ho i nt u rn g ave as i te i nt h ee a s te rn D e l ta a s i t s p rovenance ( F ische r 1 958 : 6 5 n . 1 0 ) . A f r agmen t o f a no the r s l a te p a le t te s o ld b y t h is d ea le r w a sr e po r ted t oh ave b een f ound a t Munaga t , i n t h e d i s t r ic t o f F aqus ( F ische r 1 958 ) . I ti sd i ff icu l tt op inpo in tt h ep re c ise p r ovenance , s i nce t h e re a re t wo p lace s c a l led Munaga t ( i nc iden ta l ly , b o th s i tua ted o n g ez i ra s ) i nt he i mmed ia te v i c in i ty . Neve r the le s s , t h e Munaga t f r agmen t i st he b es t -au then t ica ted c a se o f a P redynas t ic e l i te o b jec t f r om t he D e l ta . F ische r ( 1958 ) p os tu la ted t h a t t h e e a r l ie r c l a s s o f d eco ra ted s l a te p a le t te s c ha rac te r ised b y ap a i r o f a n ima ls f a c ing e ach o the r a nd f r am ing t h ep a le t te ,b yi n te r lock ing a r rangemen t s o fa n ima ls , a nd b y d ep ic t ions o fa n ima l r a the r t han h uman a c t ion -m ay h ave o r ig ina ted i nt h eD e l ta . An umbe r o ft h e r iomo rph ic s l a t e p a le t te s h ave a l so b een f ound i n t h e n o r th -eas te rn D e l ta , e mpha s is ing t h e d eg ree o f l a te P redyna s t ic a c t iv i ty i nt h is a r ea . A f i sh -shaped p a le t te f r om t h e ( e a s te rn? ) D e l ta , p u rcha sed i n1 951 , i sn ow i nt h eI sma i l iya Museum ( F ische r 1 957 : 8 7 ) . E xcava t ions i n 1 950 -51 i n t h e Z agaz ig a r ea y i e lded a s e r ie s o f t h e r iomo rph ic s l a te p a le t tes , i n c lud ing f i sh -shaped a nd b i rd shaped e xamp le s , a nd o ne i nt h ef o rm o f ac r ouch ing o x ( Le c lan t 1 952 : 2 44 ) . K roepe r( 1 989 ) p rov ide s ac omp rehens ive l i s t ing o f a l l a r chaeo log ica l f i nds o fe a r ly m a te r ia l f r om t h eD e l ta .

S ta te f orma t ion C u l tura ld eve lopmen tE v idence f o r as i gn i f ican tc hange t hroughou tt he D e l ta a t t he b eg inn ing o fN aqada I l A l l t he e xcava ted s i te s i n t he D e l ta a ppea r t o s how a s i gn if ican t c hange a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h eN aqada I I p e r iod ( c . 3 200 B C ) . T he h i a tus b e tween p ha se s Aa nd B a tT e l l e l I sw id i s ap a r t icu la r ly m a rked m an if es ta t ion o f t h is p henomenon ( v an d en B r ink 1 989 : e spec ia l ly 7 7 -8 ) . A t M insha t A bu Oma r t h e t r ans i t ion i sr ef lec ted i n mo re s ub t le t e rms : ac hange i nb u r ia l o r ien ta t ion . T he d ecea sed i n t h e e a r l ie r b u r ia ls ( G roups 1a nd 2 ) w e re a lway s l a id o n t h e i r r i gh t s i de , w he rea s t h e i r s uccesso r s ( G roups 3 a nd 4 ) w e re l a id o n t h e i r l e f t s i de ( I C roepe r 1 988 : 1 2 -13 ) . Mu tua l ly e xc lus ive c e ram ic a s semb lage s r e inf o rce t h is b ina ry d i v is ion a nd s ugges t ad eve lopmen t o f s ome i mpo r tance , w i th r e pe rcuss ions i nt h e s phe re o f f une ra ry b e l ie f s -o r , a tl e a s t , b u r ia l p rac t ices . T he t r ans i t ion f r om P redyna s t ic t oE a r ly Dyna s t ic a tT e l lI b rah im Awad i sr e f lec ted i nb o th t h ep o t te ry a nd t h e a r ch i tec tu re ( van d en B r ink 1 989 ) . E a r l ie r h ea r th s a nd p os t -ho le s g ive w ay t o mudb r ick s t ruc tu re s i nN aqada I I . A t t h e s ame t ime t h e p o t te ry i nt h e i n d igenou s , L owe r E gyp t ian P redyna s t ic t r ad i t ion i sr e p la ced b y t h e u n ifo rm , u t i l i ta r ian s t raw tempe red w a re f ound a t s i tes t h roughou t E gyp t . T he p henomenon a t tes ted a t s i te s i n t h e e a s te rn D e l ta i s m a rked a tB u to b y t h e s o -ca l led ' t rans i t ion l a ye r ' i nw h ich t h e c e ram ic a s semb lage u nde rgoe s ar a the r r ap id a nd p rofound c hange . A s w e h ave s een , t h e t r ans i t ion r e p re sen t s t h e d ec l ine o fp o t te ry i nt h e i nd igenous P redyna s t ic L owe r E gyp t ian t r ad i t ion , a nd i t s d i sp lacemen t b y t e chno log ica l ly s upe r io r p o t te ry f ound t h roughou t E gyp t f r om t h e b eg inn ing o fN aqada I I .T h is ' n ew ' p o t te ry i sa n a luv ia l w a re w i th l e s s o r gan ic t empe r , f i red u nde r mo re c on t ro l led c ond i t ions t o

T he re i se v idence , t o o , f o r c e remon ia l s l a te p a le t te s f r om t h e e a s te rn De l ta . S uch o b je c t s i n d ica te t h eg row th o fl o ca l e l i te s a nd c onsp icuous c onsump t ion d u r ing t h e p e r iod o f s t a te f o rma t ion . T he d e s ign o f t he se p a le t te s c hange s , e a r l ie r

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g ive i tg r ea te r h a rdne ss a nd s t reng th . T h is f ab r ic w as t o r ema in t h es t anda rd o ne t h roughou tt h eE a r ly Dynas t ic p e r iod a tB u to . A l though t h e c e ram ic t e chno logy b eh ind t h e n ew p o t te ry o r ig ina ted i nU ppe r E gyp t , t h e re i sl i t t le d oub t t h a t t h e B u to a s semb lage w a s made l o ca l ly , a l be i ti n c rea s ing ly b y s pec ia l is tp o t te rs . T he d eve lopmen t o fn ew t e chno log ies a nd c raf t s pec ia l isa t ion l i e s a tt h e h ea r t o f t h e c u l tu ra l c hange s wh ich c ha ra c te r ised t h ep e r iod o fs t a te f o rma t ion . As t udy o f t he d ome s t ic p o t te ry f r om t h ree s i te s i n Uppe r E gyp t h a s s hown t h a t s t anda rd ised , a ppa ren t ly ma s s -p roduced , s t raw t empe red p o t te ry a brup t ly r ep laces l o ca l t r ad i t ions o f d ome s t ic p o t te ry p roduc t ion a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eN aqada I p e r iod ( F r iedman 1 992 : 2 04 n .8 ;A dams & F r iedman 1 992 : 3 27 ) . T he c e ram ic e v idence f r om B u to s eems t oi nd ica te a s im i la r p rocess , t hough o ccu r r ing s omewha t l a te r , t owa rds t h e e nd o fN aqada I . I ta ppea r s t h a t t h e c hange i np o t te ry t e chno logy , p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion w a s an a t ion -w ide p henomenon wh ich a f f ec ted a l l p a r t s o fE gyp t . T h is c hange w a sm a rked b o th b yt h ed eve lopmen to f amo re s oph is t ica ted c e ram ic t e chno logy - a bove a l l , mo re c on t ro l led f i r ing c ond i t ions , t he p e rf ec t ion o f w h ich a l so a l lowed t h e p roduc t ion o f ma r l -c lay v esse ls f o r t h e f i r s t t ime -a nd b y a c hange i n t h e n a tu re o f p o t te ry p roduc t ion a s i tb ecame i n c rea s ing ly t h e p re se rve o fs pec ia l is t s . T he t r end o r ig ina ted i nt h e s ou th o ft he c oun t ry whe re t h er i se o fe l i te s s t i mu la ted c raf t s pec ia l isa t ion a nd e ncouraged t e chno log ica l d eve lopmen t s . The n o r th , a nd e spec ia l ly t h e D e l ta , whe re s oc io -po l i t ica l d eve lopmen t w a s l e s s a dvanced , w a s a f f ec ted s l igh t ly l a te r . T he i mpo r tan t c hange i n d omes t ic p o t te ry a t tes ted a tB u to a nd a to the r D e l ta s i tes ( Mende s , T e l l e l I sw id a nd T e l l I b rah im Awad ) c an , t h e re fo re , b e i n te rp re ted a st h e c u lm ina t ion o f ag ene ra l t r end a f f ec t ing t h e w ho le o f E gyp t . S oc io -po l i t ica l d eve lop men t -a rch itec ture e xpre ss ion o fs oc ia ld if eren t ia t ion

a s

a n

T he t r ans i t ion r ef lec ted a tB u to a nd T e l l I b rah im Awad i nt h e a dop t ion o f an ew c l a ss o f p o t te ry i sa l so c ha rac te r ised a t t h e se s i te sb y t h e a ppea rance o f mudb r ick a r ch i tec tu re . T h is s eem s t oh ave o ccu r red a tt he s ame t ime a s t h e c hange i n b ur ia l p ra c t ice s a tM insha t A bu Oma r , a nd i ti sp oss ib le t h a t b o th p henomena a re r e la ted ,j o in t man if e s ta t ions o f ap roce s s b y wh ich t h es oc io -po l i t ica l s t ruc tu re o ft h eD e l ta d eve loped r ap id ly a l ong t he s ame l i nes a s t ha t o b ta in ing i n c on tempo ra ry U ppe rE gyp t . T he e a r l ie s t e v idence f o r s ubs tan t ia l mudbr ick a r ch i tec tu re c ome s f r om t h e ' Sou th T own ' a tN aqada ,e xcava ted b yP e t r ie a nd Qu ibe l l ( 1896 ) a tt h e e nd o f t h e l a s t c en tu ry a nd r e i n ve s t iga ted r e cen t ly b y a n I t a l ian e xped i t ion ( Ba roca s e ta l . 1 989 ) . A sw eh ave s een ,N aqada s eem st oh ave b een a n e a r ly c en t re o f p o l i t ica l p owe r , p e rhaps t h e c ap i ta l o f as ma l l k i ngdom i nl a t e P redyna s t ic t ime s . I ft h is w a s t h e c a se , t h en t h e u se o fm udb r ick a r ch i tec tu re m ay h ave b een c onnec ted w i th al o ca l e l i te . L a rge c on s t ruc t ions i n mudb r ick may h ave s e rved a s a no the r e l emen t i n t he c onsp icuous d i sp lay o f w ea l th a nd s t a tu s p rac t ised b y t h e l a te P redyna s t ic r u le rs o f U ppe r E gyp t . T h is i sc e r ta in ly t r ue a tI I ie rakonpo l i s , whe re a m onumen ta l E a r ly Dyna s t ic p a lace g a teway w i th in t h e t own e nc losu re p rov ides u namb iguous e v idence o f t he r oya l a s soc ia t ions o f t he a r ch i tec tu ra l s t y le k nown a s ' p a lace f a çade ' (Week s 1 971-1972 ; O 'Conno r 1 992 g ives a n a l te rna t ive i n te rpre ta t ion o f t h is b u i ld ing ) . T he u se o f m udb r ick s t ol i ne t ombs b ecame m o re c ommon i n U ppe r E gyp t f r om t h em idd le o fN aqada I .I ts e em st oi n d ica te b o th a n i n c rea se i no ve ra l l w ea l th , a nd a n i n c reas ing ly s t ra t if ied

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s oc ie ty whose h i e ra rch ies w e re e xp ressed , i n ter a l ia , i n m o r tua ry a r ch i tec tu re . I fw e a ccep tt h ei d en t if ica t ion o f mudb r ick a r ch i tec tu re a sa n e xp res s ion o f s oc io -econom ic d i f f e ren t ia t ion , t h en i t s f i r s t a ppea rance i n D e l ta s i te s a tt h e b eg inn ing o f N aqada I I a s sume s ag rea te r s i gn if icance . I tc an b ei n te rp re ted a s as i gn o f c hanged s oc io -econom ic c ond i t ions , i n w h ich a n e l i te e xe rc ised g rea te r p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic p owe r t han b efo re ( von d e r Way 1 993 : 9 6 ) . T he e v idence f r om B u to i s p a r t icu la r ly t e l l ing : t h ee a r l ies t mudb r ick b u i ld ing e xcava ted t od a te a ppea r s t oh ave h ad as pec ia l , p e rhaps c u l t ic p u rpose . I nf r on to ft h eb u i ld ing s t ood al a rge p o t te ry b a s in , ma rked o n t h e i n s ide r im w i th t wo f i gu re s o fb u l ls ( von d e r Way 1 989 : 2 95 f i g . 1 2 .1-2 ) . A s l igh t ly l a te r , b u t a d jacen t , b u i ld ing , w h ich w a s m a in ta ined a nd e n la rged t h roughou t t h e f i r s tt wo d yna s t ie s , c omp r ised ac omp lex s e r ie s o fc o r r ido r s a nd i n te r c onnec t ing r oom s , l e ad ing t ot wo r ooms a tt h e c en t re o ft h e c omp lex . O ne o f t h e se c on ta ined a l imes tone p la tfo rm o f u nknown p u rpose . C lea r ly , t h e b u i ld ing w a s mo re t h an a s imp le d we l l ing . V on d e r Way ( 1993 : 2 88 -9 ) s ugge s ted t h a t i tm ay h ave b een c onnec ted i ns ome w ay w i th t h er oya l c u l t . I n s ho r t , t h e a r chaeo logy o f s i te s l i ke B u to , T e l l I b rah im Awad a nd M insha t A bu Oma r may p rov ide d i rec t e v idence f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o fn ew p o l i t ica l s t ruc tu re s i nt h e D e l ta , a ni n teg ra l c omponen to ft h es t a te f o rma t ion p roce s s . T he n a ture o fp o l i t ica lu n if ica t ion T he d eve lopmen t o f n ew p o l i t ica l s t ruc tu re s i n t h e D e l ta d u r ing t h e p e r iod o fs t a te f o rma t ion w a s t h e p re lude t ot h e r e g ion 's i n co rpo ra t ion i n to au n i ted E gyp ta tt h eb eg inn ing o f t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod . T he k i ng s o f t h e F i r s t Dyna s ty w e re o f Uppe r E gyp t ian o r ig in . T he u n if ica t ion t hus r e p re sen t s t h es ucce s s fu l e xpans ion o fU ppe rE gyp t ian p owe r i n to t h e a d jo in ing r e g ions : L owe r E gyp t , L owe r N ub ia a nd e ven s ou the rn P a le s t ine f o r as ho r t p e r iod . T he p henomenon o f ' c o re a nd p e r iphe ry ' i sa t te s ted f o r o the r i n c ip ien t s t a te s ( e .g . A lgaze 1 993 ) . I n t h e E gyp t ian c a se , o ne o f t h e p r ime r e a sons b eh ind t h e p roce s s o fe xpans ion s eem s t oh ave b een t os e cu re a cces s t op re s t ige c o mmod i t ie s , w he the r b y d i re c t e xp lo i ta t ion o rb yc on t ro l o ft r ade r ou te s . I mpo r ted w ine , o i l s a nd o t he r e xo t ic g ood s w e re ar equ i remen t o ft h e e a r ly r oya l c ou r t s o fU ppe rE gyp t . O ne o ft h ep r inc ipa l s pu r s t op o l i t ica l u n if ica t ion m ay w e l lh ave b een ad e s i re t o monopo l ise a cce s s t o s uch c ommod i t ie s . I n t h is c a se , t h e D e l ta , wh ich h ad m a in ta ined c l ose t r ad ing r e la t ions w i th S y r ia -Pa le s t ine ( by b o th l a nd a nd s ea ) s i nce e a r ly P redyna s t ic t imes ( von d e r Way 1 987 , 1 992 ; Moo rey 1 990 ) , w ou ld h ave b een a k ey o b je c t ive f o rt h eU ppe rE gyp t ian r u le r s . I ti sa s sumed t h a tt h e f i na l s t age s o fp o l i t ica lu n if i ca t ion m us t h ave i nvo lved a d eg ree o f c oe rc ion . T he e v idence f r om L owe r N ub ia d oe s i ndeed s ugge s t ah os t i le t a ke -ove r b y U ppe rE gyp t . R ock c a rv ing s a tG ebe l S he ikh S u le iman i nt h e S econd C a ta rac t r eg ion i nd ica te m i l i ta ry a c t iv i ty b y l a te P redyna s t ic E gyp t ian r u le r s ( Need le r 1 967 ; Mu rnane 1 987 ) . T he r oya l c eme te ry a tQ us tu l w a sa bandoned a tt h i st ime , a nd t h e f l ou r ish ing A -G roup c u l tu re c ame t o a n a b rup t e nd , a ppa ren t ly e x t irpa ted b y t h e E gyp t ians . I th a sb een p roposed t h a t t h e l o ca l r u le r s m ay h ave " i nc rea sed t h e i r p owe r t oa n u nexpec ted e x ten t" , n ecess i ta t ing a s w if t a nd d ec is ive r e sponse f r om t h e i r E gyp t ian r i va ls ( Takam iya 1 994 ) . T he e v idence f r om t h e n o r th -ea s te rn D e l ta a l so s ugges t s t h e p r esence o f al o ca l e l i te , p e rhaps o ne w h ich , l i ke t h e r u le r s b u r ied a tQ us tu l , c l a imed t h e i c onog raphy o fk i ng sh ip . I si t p o s s ib le t h a tt h e U ppe r E gyp t ian c onque s t a nd a nnexa t ion o f

o wn p u rposes . I fp o l i t ica l u n if ica t ion i se nv isaged a s a m i l i ta ry c onque s to fL owe rE gyp tb y Uppe rE gyp t ian r u le r sa nd t h e re m us th ave b een a n e l emen t o ft h is -t h e D e l ta m ay h ave b een v iewed a s ' c onque red t e r r i to ry ' , r i pe f o r a pp rop r ia t ion b y t h e c ou r t w i thou t r efe rence t op re -ex is t ing p o l i t ica l s t ruc tu re s .

L owe r E gyp t may h ave b een i n r e sponse t o as im i la r p e rce ived t h rea t? I n ar e cen t t h e s i s o n t h e N ub ian A -G roup , t h e d em ise o f t h e i nd igenous L owe r N ub ian c u l tu re w a s d e sc r ibed i nt h ef o l low ing t e rm s : " Hos t i le c ampa igns [ by E gyp t ian r u le r s ] a re . . a t tes ted b yt e x tua l a nd p i c to r ia l e v idence i nd ica t ing t h e i n te rven t ion o fe s tab l ished r oya l p owe r . . .T he r oya l i n te rven t ion s eem s t oh ave b rough ta bou tb o th t h ee nd o ft h et o ta l e xchange n e two rk a nd t h es oc io e conom ic s t ruc tu re o ft h e . .c u l tu re , p re sumab ly t h e r e su l t o f t h e f ounda t ion o f a mo re d i rec t a nd e f f ic ien t i n s t i tu t ion f o r e xp lo i t ing . . r e sou rces" ( Takam iya 1 994 : 3 3 ) . T he a pp l icab i l i ty o fs uch am ode l a l so t oL owe rE gyp ts e em s t ob es uppo r ted b y af i na l c a tego ry o fe v idence .

C onc lu s ion

T he a dm in i s tra t ion o f t he D e l ta i n t he E ar ly D ynas t ic p er iod T he e a r l ie s t w r i t ten e v idence f o r p rov inc ia l a dm in is t ra t ion s eem s t oi n d ica te t h a t i nE a r ly D yna s t ic t ime s t h eD e l ta w a s c ha rac te r ised b y a n a dm in is t ra t ive s t ruc tu re wh ich p e rm i t ted d i rec t c on t ro l b y t he r oya l c ou r t . T he e a r l ies t a t te s ted t i t le s c onnec ted w i th p rov inc ia l a dm in is tra t ion a r e h q3 h w .t -`3 . 1a nd 9 -mr ( Ma r t in -Pa rdey 1 976 : 2 4 ) . T he f o rme r i sa t te s ted o n s t one v e sse ls , p robab ly d a t ing t o t h e F i r s t o r S econd Dynas ty , f r om t he g a l le r ie s b enea th t h e S tep P y ram id a l though aI n v .t -9 . /-i sm en t ioned o n t h e l a te F i r s t Dyna s ty s t e la o f Me rka f r om S aqqa ra .T he l a t te rt i t le a ppea r s o n F i r s t Dyna s ty s ea l ings . I th a s b een p roposed t h a t t h e s y s tem o f a dm in is t ra t ion r ep re sen ted b yt h e se t wo t i t le s w a sc onf ined t o L owe r E gyp t , w he rea s t h e s omewha t l a te r n ome s y s tem w a s d eve loped f o rU ppe rE gyp t a nd o n ly s ubsequen t ly a pp l ied t o L owe r E gyp t , o n t op o f t h e p re -ex is t ing a dm in is t ra t ive s t ruc tu re ( Ma r t in -Pa rdey 1 976 : 2 8 ) . I ft h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fh w .t -9 . t a s ar oya l e s ta te i sc o r re c t , i t i n d ica te st h a tt h ee a r l ie s t a dm in i s t ra t ion o fL owe rE gyp tw a s b a sed u pon t h ec r ea t ion o fr oya l e s ta te st op e rm i td i rec tr oya l managemen t o ft h eD e l ta 's a g r icu l tu ra l r e sou rce s . S im i la r ly , t h e t i t le 9 -mr , t he p rec ise m ean ing o fw h ich i su nce r ta in , m ay h ave h ad s ome c onnec t ion , a l though n o te xc lu s ive , w i th r oya l mo r tua ry e s ta te s ( Ma r t in -Pa rdey 1 976 : 4 5 ) . T he t i t le i s f i r s t a t te s ted i nt h e e a r ly F i r s tD ynas ty , a nd i ne a r ly t ime s i s u sed a lmos t e n t ire ly i n c onnec t ion w i th l o ca l i t ies i n t h e w e s te rn D e l ta . S ign if ican t ly , i tw a s i nt h is r e g ion t h a tm os to f t h er oya l e s ta te sw e re l o ca ted ( Ma r t in -Pa rdey 1 976 : 4 6 ) . Two s ea l ing s f r om t h e t omb o f t he F i r s t Dyna s ty q ueen Me rne i th a tA bydos p rov ide t h e e a r l ie s t e v idence f o r t h e b i pa r t i te d i v i s ion o ft h e D e l ta i n to t wo a dm in is t ra t ive u n i t s . T he s e a l ing s r e fe r i no ne c a se t ot h e ' f i e lds o ft h e w e s t ' a nd i nt h e o t he r t ot h e e a s te rn D e l ta ( Pe t r ie 1 900 : p l . XX I I I .37 , 3 8 ; Ma r t in -Pa rdey 1 976 : 1 7 ) . T h is a dm in is t ra t ive d iv is ion m ay r ef lec t t h e g eo log ica l d i f f e rence b e tween t h e w e s te rn a nd e a s te rn D e l ta . A s w e h ave s e en , t h e e a s te rn D e l ta , w i th i t s g r ea te r c oncen t ra t ion o f g ez i ra s , m ay h ave b een mo re s u i ted t oP redyna s t ic s e t t lemen t , a nd t h e e v idence p o in t s t oa s i gn if ican t l e ve l o f e l i te a c t iv i ty t owa rds t h e e nd o f t h e P redyna s t ic p e r iod . I nc on t ra s t , t h e w e s te rn D e l ta m ay h ave b een m o re s pa r se ly p opu la ted , l e s sp o l i t ica l ly d eve loped , a nd t h e re fo re t h e mo re o bv iou sl o ca t ion f o rt h ef ounda t ion o fn ew r oya l e s ta te s . T he e v idence s ugges ts t ha t t h e D e l ta , a nd p e rhaps t h e w e s te rn D e l ta i n p a r t icu la r , m ay h ave b een r e ga rded a s ' u nc la imed l a nd ' -l a nd w h ich t h e k i ng c ou ld e xp lo i t f o r h i s

9 6

T h i r ty y ea r s a go , t h e e a r ly h i s tory o f t h e N i le De l ta w a s r ega rded a s " a c l o sed b ook" ( Eme ry 1 961 : 1 92 ) , o ne w h ich a r chaeo log is t s c ou ld f o resee n o p rospec t o f o pen ing . T he s t r ik ing p auc i ty o fe a r ly r ema in s , b o th P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly Dynas t ic , f r om t h e D e l ta - t h e r esu l t o f e nv ironmen ta l p roce s se s , a nd n o t at r ue r ef lec t ion o f t h e h i s to ry o fh uman a c t iv i ty i nt h er e g ion -l e d t oi t s c ha rac te r isa t ion a s a n e mp ty z one , o ne w h ich p l ayed l i t t le p a r t i n t h e p roces s o f s t a te f o rma t ion . H oweve r , t h is s eemed t o c on t rad ic t t he w r i t ten e v idence f r om l a te rp e r iods , w h ich i nd ica ted t h a ts eve ra l s i te s i nt he D e l ta w e re i mpo r tan t f r om t he v e ry b eg inn ing o ft h e E gyp t ian s t a te . S u rveys a nd e xcava t ion s o fD e l ta s i te s o ve r t h e l a s t t wo d ecade s -g rea t ly f a c i l i ta ted b y m ode rn p ump ing e qu ipmen t , w h ich h a s e nab led t h e e a r l ie s t , P redyna s t ic s t ra ta t o b e r eached f o r t h e f i rs t t ime - h ave r evea led much i n forma t ion a bou t t h e r o le o f t h e De l ta i nt h e c u l tu ra l a nd s oc io -po l i t ica l c hange s w h ich t r ansfo rmed E gyp t a tt h e e nd o ft h ef ou r th m i l lenn ium B C .

R eferences A bbrev iat ions AVDA IK GM J AH J ARCE J EA J NES J SSEA MDAIK N SSEA OMR0 ZÄS

A r chäo log ische V e rö f f en t l ichungen ,D eu t sche sA r chäo log i sche sI n s t i tu t , A b te i lung K a i ro . G ö t t inge rM i sze l len , G ö t t ingen . J ou rna l o fA f r ican H i s to ry ,C amb r idge . J ou rna l o ft h e Ame r ican R e sea rch C en te ri nE gyp t ,B os ton . J ou rna l o fE gyp t ian A rchaeo logy ,L ondon . J ou rna l o fN ea rE a s te rn S t ud ie s ,C h icago . J ou rna l o ft h eS oc ie ty f o rt h eS t udy o fE gyp t ian A n t iqu i t ie s , T o ron to . M i t te i lungen d e sD eu t schen A rchäo log i schen I n s t i tu t s , A b te i lung K a i ro , Ma inz a m R he in . N ew s le t te r o ft h e S oc ie ty f o rt h eS t udy o fE gyp t ian A n t iqu i t ie s ,T o ron to . O udhe id l cund ige Mo dedee l ingen u i th e tR i j l c smus eum v an O udheden t eL e iden ,L e iden . Z e i t sch r if tf ü rÄ gyp t ische S p rache u nd A l te r tum skunde ,L e ipz ig & B e r l in .

A d am s ,B . 1 9 87 . T he f or tc eme t e ry a tH ierakonpo l i s . L ondon : K egan P au l . 1 995 . A nc ien t N ekhen . G ar s tang i n t h e c i ty o f H i erakonpo l is . N ew Ma lden : S i a P ub l ish ing . E gyp t ian S t ud ie sA ssoc ia t ion P ub l ica t ion N o . 3 .

A y r ton , E .R . &W .L .S . L oa t 1 911 . P r e -Dynas t ic c eme te ry a t E l Mahasna . L ondon : E gyp tE xp lo ra t ion F und . Memo ir 3 1 .

A dam s , B .&R .F .F r iedman 1 992 . ' Impo r t s a nd i n f luence s i n t h e P redynas t ic a nd P ro todyna s t ic s e t t lemen t a nd f u ne ra ry a s semb lage s a t H ie rakonpo l is ' , i nE .C .M . v an d en B r ink ( e d . ) , T he N i le D e l ta i nt r an s i t ion : 4 th . -3rd . m i l lenn ium B .C . , 3 17 -38 . T e l A v iv : v an d en B r ink .

B a rd ,K .A . 1 987 . ' The g eog raphy o fe xcava ted P redyna s t ic s i te s a nd t h er i se o fc omp lex s o c ie ty ' , J ARCE 2 4 , 8 1 -93 . 1 988 . ' Aq uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i s o ft h eP redyna s t ic b u r ia l s i n A rman tC eme te ry 1 400 -1500 ' ,J EA 7 4 , 3 9 -55 . 1 989 . ' The e vo lu t ion o fs oc ia l c omp lex i ty i nP redyna s t ic E gyp t : a n a na ly s i s o ft h eN aqada c eme t e r ie s ' ,J ourna lo f Med i t er ranean A r chaeo logy 2 : 2 ,2 23 -48 . 1 992 . ' Excava t ions a tH a lf iah G ib l i a nd S ema ineh , U ppe r E gyp t ' , C on tex t ( Bos ton U n iver s i ty C en ter f or A r chaeo log ica lS t ud ie s ) 1 0 , 1 0 12 . 1 994 .F rom f armer st op haraoh s . Mor tua ry e v id ence f or t h e r i se o fc omp lex s oc ie ty . S heff ie ld : S he ff ie ld A cadem ic P re s s .

B a ine s , J .& J . Mä lek . 1 980 .A t las o fa nc i en tE gyp t . O x f o rd : P ha idon .

A dam s ,W .Y . 1 985 . ' Doub t s a bou tt h e " Los t P ha raoh s - ,J NES 4 4 , 1 85 9 2 . A dam s ,W .Y . &E .W . A dam s 1 991 . A rchaeo log ica l t y po logy a nd p rac t ica l r ea l i ty . A d i a l e c t i ca la ppr oach t oa r t if ac tc l a s s if i ca t ion a nd s o r t ing . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s .

B a roca s , C . , R . F a t tov ich & M . T o s i . 1 989 . ' The O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te o f N ap le s e xped i t ion t o P e t r ie 's S ou th T own ( Uppe r E gyp t ) , 1 977 -1983 : a n i n te r im r e po r t ' , i nL . K rzyzan iak a nd M . K obu s iew icz ( e d s . ) , L a te p r eh i s tory o ft h eN i l e b a s in a nd t h e S ahara , 2 95 -301 . P oznan : P oznan A rchaeo log ica l Museum . S t ud ie si nA f r ican A rchaeo logy 2 .

A lgaz e ,G . 1 993 . T h e U ruk w or ld s y s t em . T h ed ynam ic so fe xpan s ion o f e ar ly Mesopo tam ian c i v i l iza t ion . C h icago a nd L ondon :U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P r e s s . A nde r son ,W . 1 992 . Sada r ian b u r ia ls : e v idence o fs oc ia l i n equa l i ty i n M idd le E gyp td u r ing t h e e a r ly P r edyna s t ic e r a ' , J ARCE 2 9 , 5 1 -66 .

B info rd ,L .R . 1 972 . ' Mo r tua ry p rac t ice s : t h e i r s t udy a nd t h e i r p o ten t ia l ' i nL .R . B info rd ( e d . ) , A n a r chaeo log ica l p er spec t ive , 2 08 -243 .N ew Y o rk & L ondon : S em ina rP r e s s .

A nd re s ,W . &J . Wunde r l ich . 1 992 . ' E nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s f o r e a r ly s e t t lemen t a t M in sha t A bu Oma r , e a s te rn N i le D e l ta , E gyp t ' , i n E .C .M .v an d en B r ink ( e d . ) , T he N i l eD e l ta i nt r an s i t ion : 4 th . -3rd . m i l lenn ium B .C . , 1 57 -166 . T e l A v iv : v an d en B r ink .

B oehme r , R .M . , G .D reye r &B .K rome r 1 993 . E in ige f r ühze i t l iche 1 4C -Da t ie rungen a us A bydo s u nd U ruk ' , MDA IK 4 9 , 6 3 -8 . B ou r r iau ,J . 1 985 . ' T echno logy a nd t y po logy o fE gyp t ian c e ram ic s ' i n W .D . K inge ry ( e d . ) , A nc ien t t e chno logy t o m od ern s c ienc e ,2 7 -42 . C o lumbus ,O h io : T he Ame r ican C e ram ic S oc ie ty . C eram ic sa nd c i v i l i za t ion 1 .

A rke l l , A . J . 1 975 . T h e p reh is tory o ft h e N i l e v a l ley . L e iden : B r i l l . H and buch d er O r ien ta l i s t i k7 . A tz le r , M . 1 981 . U n tersuchungen z ur H erausb i ldung v on H er r schaf t sf ormen i nÄ gyp t en . H i lde she im : G e r s t enbe rg . H i ld e sh e imer Ä gyp to log i sche B e i t räge 1 6 .

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1 982a . ' Ana ly se s o f E gyp t ian P redyna s t ic a nd E a r ly D yna s t ic c eme te r ie s . F ina l c onc lus ion s ' , J SSEA 1 2 :1 ( 1 982 ) , 2 9 -53 . 1 982b . Ar e appra i sa lo ft h ep ub l i sh ed e v id enc eo nE gyp t ian P r ed yna s t ic a nd E ar ly Dynas t ic c eme t e r i e s . T o ron to : p r iva te p ub l ica t ion . 1 983 . As t ud yo ft h es pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o fl a rg ea nd r i ch l y e ndowed t ombs i n E gyp t ian P redyna s t ic a nd E ar ly D yna s t ic c eme t er ie s . T o ron to :p r iva te p ub l ica t ion .

B rand l ,B . 1 992 . ' Ev idence f o r E gyp t ian c o lon iza t ion o ft h e s ou the rn c oa s ta l p l a in a nd l ow land s o fC anaan d u r ing t h e E a r ly B ronze IP e r iod ' , i nE .C .M . v an d en B r ink ( e d . ) , T he N i l eD e l ta i nt r an s i t ion : 4 t h . -3 rd . m i l lenn ium BC ,4 4 17 6 . T e l A v iv : v an d en B r ink . v an d en B r ink , E .C .M . 1 989 . ' A t r ans i t iona l l a te P redyna s t ic -Ea r ly Dynas t ic s e t t lemen t s i te i n t h e n or thea s te rn N i le D e l ta , E gyp t ' , MDA IK 4 5 , 5-108 . 1 992 . ' P re l im ina ry r epo r t o n t h e e xcava t ions a t T e l l I b rah im Awad , s e a son s 1 988 -1990 ' , i nE .C .M . v an d en B r ink ( e d . ) , T he N i le D e l ta i n t r ans i t ion : 4 th .-3rd . m i l lenn ium B .C . : 4 3 -68 . T e l A v iv : v an d en B r ink . ( e d . ) . 1 992 . T he N i le D e l ta i n t r ans i t ion : 4 th .-3rd . m i l lenn ium B .C . T e l A v iv : v an d en B r ink .

C a ton -Thomp son , G . &E . Wh i t t le 1 975 . ` The rmo lum inescence d a t ing o f t h e B ada r ian ' , A n t iqu i ty 4 9 , 8 9 -97 . C hapman , R . &K . R and sbo rg 1 981 . ' App roa che s t o t h e a r chaeo logy o f d ea th ' , i n R . C hapman , I .K inne s & K . R andsbo rg ( eds . ) , T he a rchaeo logy o fd ea th , 1 24 . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s .

B rown , J .A . 1 981 . ' The s ea rch f o r r a nk i np r eh is to r ic b u r ia ls ' , i n R . C hapman , I . K inne s & K . R andsbo rg ( e ds . ) , T he a r chaeo logy o fd ea th , 2 5 -37 . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s .

C h lodn ick i , M . , R . F a t tov ich & S . S a lva to r i . 1 992 . ' T he N i le D e l ta i nt r ans i t ion : av i ew f r om T e l l e l -Fa rkha ' , i n E .C .M .v an d en B r ink ( e d . ) , T h eN i le D e l ta i nt r an s i t ion : 4 t h . -3rd . m i l lenn ium B .C . , 1 7 1-190 . T e l A v iv : v an d en B r ink .

B run ton , G . 1 927 . Q au a nd B adar i I .L ondon : B r i t ish S choo l o f A rchaeo logy i nE gyp t . 1 937 . Mos tagedda a nd t h e T as ian C u l tur e . L ondon : Q ua r i t ch . B r i t i sh Museum E xped i t ion t oM idd le E gyp t , f i r s ta nd s e cond y ea r s1 928 , 1 929 . 1 948 . Ma tmar . L ondon : Q ua r i tch . B r i t ish Museum E xped i t ion t oM idd le E gyp t1 929 -1931 .

C ia low icz , K .M . 1 987 . L es r e t e sd e m as sues d e sp er iod e sP redyna s t ique e t A rcha ique d an s l av a l lee d u N i l . K rakow : Un iwe r sy te t J ag ie l lon sk i . 1 991 . L e sp a le t t e s e gyp t ienne s a ux m o t if s z oomorph e s e t s an sd ecora t ion . E tud e sd el ' a r tp red yna s t ique . K rakow : U n iwe r sy te t J ag ie l lonsk i . S tud ies i na nc ien t a r t a nd c i v i l i za t ion 3 .

B run ton , G . & .G . C a ton -Thomp son 1 928 . T he B adar ian c i v i l i sa t ion a nd p red yna s t ic r ema in s n ear B adar i . L ondon : B r i t ish S choo l o fA rchaeo logy i n E gyp t .

C la rke , S . 1 902 . ' The F o r t ' , i n J .E . Qu ibe l l & F .W . G reen , H ierakonpo l i sI ,1 9 -20 .L ondon : Q ua r i t ch .

B u r le igh , R . 1 983 . ' Two r a d ioca rbon d a te s f o r f r e shwa te r s he l l f r om H ie rakonpo l is : a rchaeo log ica l a nd g eo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s ' , J ourna l o fA r chaeo log ica l S c ience 1 0 , 3 61 -7 .

C leda t , J . 1 9 14 . ' Le s v a se s d e e l -Beda ' , A nna les d u S er v ic e d e s A n t iqu i te sd e l ' Egyp te 1 3 , 15 -21 ,p l . X I I I .

C aneva , I . ,M . F rang ipane & .A . P a lm ie r i 1 989 . ' Recen t e xcava t ions a t Maad i ( Egyp t ) ' , i n L . 1 C rzyzan iak & M . K obu s iew icz ( e d s . ) ,L a t ep r eh i s to ry o f t h eN i l eb as in a nd t h e S ahara , 2 87 -93 . P oznan : P oznan A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum . S t ud ie s i nA f r ican a r chaeo logy 2

C lo se , A .E . 1 980 . ' Cu r ren tr e sea rch a nd r e cen tr a d ioca rbon d a t e s f r om n o r t he rn A f r ica ' ,J AH 2 1 , 1 45 -67 . 1 984 . ' Cu r ren tr e sea rch a nd r e cen tr a d ioca rbon d a te s f r om n o r the rn A f r ica ,I ' ,J AH 2 5 , 1 24 . 1 988 . ' C u r ren tr e sea rch a nd r e cen tr a d ioca rbon d a t e s f r om n o r the rn A f r ica , I I ' ,J AH 2 9 , 1 45 -76 .

C a rne i ro , R .L . 1 970 . ' A t h eo ry o ft h e o r ig in o f t h e s t a te ' , S c ience 1 69 , 7 33 -8 .

C ohen , R . 1 978 . ' S ta te o r ig ins : ar e app ra i sa l ' , i nH . J .M . C la e s sen & P . S ka ln fk ( e d s . ) , T he e ar ly s t a t e , 3 1 -75 . T he H ague : Mou ton .

C a s t i l lo s , J . J . 1 976 . ' An a na ly s is o f t h e t ombs i n aF i r s t D yna s ty c eme t e ry a tS akka ra ' , N SSEA 6 : 4 , i x i i . 1 977 . ' A n a na ly s is o f t h e t omb s i nC eme te r ie s 1 300 a nd 1 400 1500 a tA rman t ' , N SSEA 7 : 2 , 4 -23 . 1 978 . ' An a na ly s is o ft h eP redyna s t ic C eme te r ie s Ea nd U a nd t h e F i r s t D yna s ty C eme te ry S a tA bydos ' , J SSEA 8 : 3 , 8 6 -98 . 1 979 . ' An a na ly s is o f t h e t ombs i n t h e P redyna s t ic C eme te ry N 7000 a tN aga -ed -De r ' ,J SSEA 1 0 :1 , 2 1 -38 . 1 981 . ' An a na lys is o f t h e t ombs i n t h e P redyna s t ic c eme te r ie s a tN aqada ' ,J SSEA 1 :2 , 9 7 106 .

C owg i l l , G .L . 1 972 . ' Mode ls , m e thod s a nd t e chn ique s f o r s e r ia t ion ' , i n D .L . C la rke ( e d . ) , Mod e ls i n a rchaeo logy , 3 8 1-424 . L ondon : Me thuen . D av i s , W . 1 989 . T he c anon ica l t r ad i t ion i na nc ien t E gyp t ian a r t . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s .

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D ebono , F . &B . Mo r tensen 1 988 . T he P r ed yna s t ic c eme t ery a tH e l iopo l i s . Ma inz a m R he in : v on Z abe rn . AVDAIK 6 3 .

F a i r se rv i s , W .A . , J r . &M .A . H of fman 1 971-1972 . ' P re l im ina ry r e po r t o n t h e f i r s t t wo s e a sons a t H ie rakonpo l is ' , J AR CE 9 ,7 -68 .

D reye r ,G . 1 987 . T in S i ege l d e r f r ühze i t l ichen K ön ig snek ropo le v on A bydo s ' , MDAIK 4 3 , 3 3 -43 , p l s . 3 5 . 1 992 . ` Horu s K rokod i l , e i n G egenkön ig d e r D yna s t ie 0 ' , i nR .F . F r iedman & B . A dam s ( e d s . ) , T he f o l lower s o f H oru s :s t ud ie sd ed ica t ed t oM ichae lA l l en H of fman ,2 59 2 63 . Oxfo rd : O xbow P ub l ica t ions . E gyp t ian S tud ies A s soc ia t ion P ub l ica t ion N o . 2 . 1 9 93a . ' Ah und red y ea r sa tA bydo s ' ,E gyp t ian A r chaeo logy 3 ,1 0 -12 . 1 993b . ` Umm e l -Qaab : N achun te rsuchungen i m f r ühze i t l ichen K ön ig sf r iedhof . 5 . /6 . V o rbe r ich t ' , MDA IK 4 9 , 2 3 -62 . 1 995 . ' Recen t a c t iv i t ies o f t h e G e rman I n s t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy i nE gyp t ' . U npub l ished p ape r d e l ive red a t t h e S even th I n te rna t iona l C ong ress o f E gyp to log i s t s , C amb r idge , 3 r d . S ep tembe r 1 995 . ( To b e p ub l ished i n t h eP r oceed ing so ft h eS even th I CE . )

F i sche r , H .G . 1 958 . ' Af r agmen to fl a te P redyna s t ic E gyp t ian r e l ie ff r om t h ee a s te rn D e l ta ' ,A r t ibus A s iae 2 1 , 6 4 -88 . 1 963 . ' Va r ia A egyp t iaca 8 :AF i r s tD yna s ty w ine j a r f r om t h ee a s te rn D e l ta ' ,J ARCE 2 ,4 4 -7 . 1 968 . D end era i nt h e T h ird M i l lenn ium B .C . d own t ot h e T h eban d om ina t ion o f U pper E gyp t . N ew Y o rk : J . J . A ugus t in . F r iedman , R .F . 1 98 1 .S pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion i n aP r ed yna s t ic c eme t e ry :N aga e dD er 7 000 . U npub l ished M .A . T he s i s , U n ive r s i ty o f C a l if o rn ia ,B e rke ley ( r ev is ed 1 987 ) . 1 990 . ` H ie rakonpo l is . L oca l i ty 2 9A ' , B u l le t in d e L ia i son d u G roupe I n t erna t iona l d 'E tud e d e l a C eram ique E gyp t ienne 1 4 , 1 8 -25 . 1 992 . ' The E a r ly Dyna s t ic a nd t r ans i t iona l p o t te ry o f Mende s : t h e 1 990 s e a son ' , i n E .C .M . v an d en B r ink ( e d . ) , T he N i l eD e l ta i nt r an s i t ion : 4 t h .-3rd . m i l lenn ium B .C . , 1 99 -205 . T e l A v iv : v an d en B r ink . 1 994 . P r ed yna s t ic s e t t l emen t c e ram ic s o fU pper E gyp t : a c ompa ra t ive s t ud yo ft h ec e ram ic so fH emam ieh ,N agada , a nd H ierakonpo l is . U npub l ished d oc to ra l t h es is , U n ive r s i ty o fC a l if o rn ia a tB e rke ley .

D reye r ,G . ,A . B oe s sneck , A .v on d en D r ie sch & A .K lug 1 990 . ` Umm e l -Qaab : Nachun te rsuchungen i m f r ühz e i t l ichen K ön ig sf r iedhof . 3 . /4 . V o rbe r ich t ' , MDA IK 4 6 , 5 3 -90 . E iwange r ,J . 1 984 . Mer imde -Ben isa läme I .D i e F und e d er U r sch ich t . Ma inz a m R he in : v on Z abe rn . AVDAIK 4 7 . 1 988 . M er im ,d e -Ben isa läme I .D ie F und e d er m i t t l er en M e r imd eku l tur . Ma inz a m R he in : v on Z abe rn . AVDAIK 5 1 1 992 . M er imde -Ben isa läme I I . D ie F und e d er j inger en M er imd eku l tur . Ma inz a m R he in : v on Z abe rn . AVDAIK 5 9 .

G ab ra , G . 1 977 . ' The s i te o f H age r E d fu a s t h e N ew K ingdom c eme te ry o fE d f u ' , C hron ique di 'gyp t e 5 2 ,2 07 -22 . e l -Gam i l i , M .M . , A . O h . H a s san ien & A .E . e l -Mahmoud i . 1 992 . ` Geoe le c t r ic r e s i s t iv i ty c on t r ibu t ion t ot h e m ode o f o ccu r rence o fs a nd i s le t s " t u r t le -back s " i nt h eN i le D e l ta , E gyp t ' , i nE .C .M . v an d en B r ink ( e d . ) , T h eN i l eD e l ta i n t r an s i t ion : 4 t h . -3rd . m i l lenn ium B .C . , 2 69 -87 . T e l A v iv : v an d en B r ink .

E l l is , C . 1 992 . ' As t a t is t ica l a na ly s is o ft h e P ro todyna s t ic b u r ia l si n t h e ' Va l ley ' C eme te ry o fK a f rT a r l chan ' , i nE .C .M . v an d en B r ink ( e d . ) , T he N i l e D e l ta i nt r an s i t ion : 4 th . -3rd . m i l l enn ium B .C . , 2 41-58 . T e l A v iv : v an d en B r ink .

G a rd ine r ,A .H . 1 944 . ` Hor u st h eB ehde t i te ' ,J EA 3 0 , 2 3 -60 . G iddy , L .L . , D .G .J e f f rey s &J . Mä lek 1 990 . ' Memph i s , 1 989 ' , J EA 7 6 , 1 15 .

Eme ry , W .B . 1 949 . G r ea t t ombs o f t h e F ir s t Dynas ty , I . C a i ro : G ove rnmen tP re s s . 1 954 . G r ea tt omb so ft h e F i r s tD yna s ty , I .L ondon : E gyp t E xp lo ra t ion S oc ie ty . 1 958 . G r ea t t omb s o f t h e F ir s t D ynas ty , I I . L ondon : E gyp tE xp lo ra t ion S oc ie ty . 1 961 .A r cha ic E gyp t . H a rmond swo r th : P engu in .

G in te r , B . &J .K . K oz low sk i . 1 994 . P r ed yna s t ic s e t t lemen t n ear A rman t . . H e ide lbe rg : H e ide lbe rge r O r ien tve r lag . S t ud ien z ur A r chäo log ie u nd G e sch ich t eA l tägyp t en s6 . G ophna , R . 1 992 . ' The c on tac t s b e tween ' En B e so r o a s is , s ou the rn C anaan , a nd E gyp t d u r ing t h e l a te P redyna s t ic a nd t h e t h re sho ld o ft h eF i r s tD yna s ty : af u r the ra s se s smen t ' , i n E .C .M .v an d en B r ink ( e d . ) , T he N i le D e l ta i nt r an s i t ion : 4 th .-3 rd . m i l lenn ium B .C . , 3 85 -94 . T e l A v iv : v an d en B r ink .

E nde s f e ld e r ,E . 1 990 . ' Zu r K e ram ikaus s ta t tung p r ädyna s t ische r G räbe r , d a rge s te l l t a m B e i sp ie l d e s F r iedhof e s v on A rman t ' , i n D . A pe l t , E . E nde sfe lde r & S . Wen ig ( e d s . ) , S t ud ia i n h ono r em F r i t zH in t z e , 9 7 118 .B e r l in : A kadem ie -Ve r lag . Me ro i t ica 1 2 .

G r iswo ld ,W .A . 1 992 . ' Mea su r ing s o c ia l i n equa l i ty a tA rman t ' , i n R .F . F r iedman & B . A dam s ( e d s . ) , T he f o l lower s o fH orus : s t ud ie s d ed ica ted t o M ichae l A l len H of fman , 1 93 -8 . O xfo rd : O xbow P ub l ica t ions . E gyp t ian S tud ies A s soc ia t ion P ub l ica t ion N o . 2 .

F a i r se rv i s , W .A . , J r . 1 983 . T h e H ierakonpo l i sp ro jec t : e xcava t ion o n t h e K o r n e l G emuw ia , s eason o f 1 978 . P oughkeeps ie : V a s sa r C o l lege . O cca s iona lp ape r si na n thropo logy 1 . 1 986 . T h eH i erakonpo l i sp ro j ec t : e x cava t ion o ft h eA r cha ic r ema ins o f t he n iched g a te , s eason o f 1 981 . P oughkeep s ie : V a ssa r C o l lege . O ccas iona l p aper s i n a n thr opo logy 3 .

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t h e S ahara , 3 17 -23 . P oznan : P oznan A rchaeo log ica l Museum .S t ud ie si nA f r ican a r chaeo logy 2 .

G uk sch , C .E . 1 991 . ' E thno log ica l mode ls a nd p rocesses o f s t a te f o rma t ion -c h ief dom s u rv iva ls i nt h e O ld K ingdom ' , GM 1 25 , 3 7 -50 . H abach i ,L . &W . K a ise r 1 985 . ' E in F r iedhof d e r Maad i l cu l tu rb e i e s -Sa ff ,MDA IK 4 1 , 4 3 -6 . H a ssan , F .A . 1 980 . ' Rad ioc a rbon c h rono logy o fA rcha ic E gyp t ' , J NES 3 9 , 2 03 -7 . 1 984a . ' Rad ioca rbon c h rono logy o f p redyna s t ic N agada s e t t lemen t s , U ppe r E gyp t ' , C ur ren tA n thropo logy 2 5 :5 , 6 81 -3 . 1 984b . ' The b eg inn ings o f E gyp t ian c i v i l iza t ion a t H ie rakonpo l is ' ( Rev iew o f M .A . H of fman , T he P r edynas t ic o f H ierakonpo l is -a n i n t er im r epor t ) , Q ua r t e r l yR ev i ew o fA r chaeo logy 5 : 1 , 1 3 -15 . 1 988 . ' The P redyna s t ic o f E gyp t ' , J ourna l o f Wor ld P r eh i s t ory 2 : 2 , 1 35 -85 . H a s san , F .A . &S .W . R ob inson 1 987 . ' H igh -p re c is ion r a d ioca rbon c h ronome t ry o fa nc ien t E gyp t , a nd c ompa r isons w i th N ub ia , P a les t ine a nd Me sopo tam ia ' ,A n t iqu i ty 6 1 , 19 -35 . H end r ick, S . 1 989 . D e g raf ve ld en d er N aqada -cu l tuur i nZ u id -Egyp te , m e tb i j zond er ea andach tv oor h e tN aqada I Ig raf ve ld t e E lkab . I n terne c hrono log ie e n s oc ia le d i f f er en t ia t ie . Unpub l ished d oc tora l d i sser ta t ion , K a tho l ieke U n ive r s i t e i tt eL euven . 1 990 . R ev iew o f B . A dam s , T he F or t C eme te ry a t H ie rakonpo l i s ,B ib l io theca O r ien ta l i s4 7 ,6 43 -6 . 1 993 . ' Re la t ive c h rono logy o f t h e N aqada c u l tu re ' . U npub l i shed p ape r d e l ive red a t t h e B r i t ish Museum c o l loqu ium o n ' Ea r ly E gyp t ' , L ondon , 2nd .J u ly 1 993 . 1 994 .E l / cab V . T he N aqada I Ic eme te ry . B ru s se ls : Mu see s R oyaux d 'A r t e td 'H is to i re , C om i te d e sF ou i l le s B e lge s e nE gyp t e . H e lck ,W . 1 951 . Z ur V or s te l lung v on d er G r en ze i nd er ä gyp t i schen F rühg e sch ich te . H i lde she im : G e r s tenbe rg . V or träge d er o r ien ta l i s t i schen T agung i n Marburg , F achgruppe : Ä gyp to log ie . H of fman , M .A . 1 974 . ' T he s oc ia l c on tex t o f t r a sh d i sposa l i n a n E a r ly Dyna s t ic E gyp t ian t own ' , Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 9 , 3 5 5 0 . 1 976 . ' T he c i ty o f t h e h awk : s e a t o f E gyp t 's a nc ien t c i v i l iza t ion ' , E xped i t ion 1 8 :3 , 3 2 -41 . 1 980 . ' A r e c tangu la r A r r u-a t ian h ou se f r om H ie rakonpo l is a nd i t ss i gn if icance f o r P r edyna s t ic r e sea rch ' , J NES 3 9 , 19 -37 . 1 982 . T h eP r ed yna s t ic o fH ierakonpo l i s -a ni n t er im r e por t . G iza & Macomb , I l ino is : C a i ro U n ive r s i ty H e rba r ium & We s te rn I l ino is U n ive r s i ty . E gyp t ian S tud ies A s soc ia t ion P ub l ica t ion N o . 1 . 1 986 . ' A p re l im ina ry r e po r t o n 1 984 e xcava t ions a t H ie rakonpo l is ' , N ew s le t t er o ft h e Amer ican R esearch C en t er i nE gyp t 1 32 , 3 14 . 1 989 . ' A s t ra t if ied P redynas t ic s equence f r om H ie rakonpo l is ( Uppe r E gyp t ) ' , i nL . K rzyzan iak & M . K obu s iew icz ( e d s . ) ,L a t ep r eh i s to ry o ft h eN i l eb a s in a nd

H of fman , M .A . , H .A . H am rou sh & R .O . A l len 1 986 . ' A mode l o f u rban d eve lopmen t f o r t h e H ie rakonpo l is r e g ion f r om P redyna s t ic t h rough O ld K ingdom t ime s ' ,J ARCE 2 3 , 1 75 -87 . H o lme s , D .L . 1 988 . ' The P redyna s t ic l i t h ic i n dus t r ie s o fB ada r i , M idd le E gyp t : n ew p e r spec t ive s a nd i n te r reg iona l r e la t ion s ' , W or ld A r cha eo logy 2 0( 1 988 ) ,7 0 -86 . 1 989 . T he P r ed yna s t ic l i t h ic i ndus tr ies o fU pper E gyp t : a c ompara t ive s t udy o ft h e l i th ic i ndus t r ie s o fB adar i , N aqada a nd H ierakonpo l is . 2v o lume s . O x fo rd : BAR . B AR I n t erna t iona lS er ie s4 69 . 1 992a . ' The e v idence a nd n a tu re o fc on ta c t sb e tween U ppe r a nd L owe r E gyp t d u r ing t h e P redyna s t ic : av i ew f r om U ppe r E gyp t ' , i nE .C .M . v an d en B r ink ( e d . ) , T he N i l e D e l ta i nt r ans i t ion : 4 t h .-3rd . m i l lenn ium B .C . , 3 0 116 . T e lA v iv : v an d en B r ink . 1 992b . ' A rcha eo log ica lc u l tu ra lr e sou rce sa nd m ode rn l a nd u se a c t iv i t ie s : s ome o b se rva t ions made d u r ing ar e cen t s u rvey i nt h eB ada r ir e g ion , E gyp t ' , J ARCE 2 9 , 6 7 -80 . 1 993 . ' A rchaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ions i nt h eB ada r i r e g ion , E gyp t : ar e po r t o n t h e 1 992 s e ason ' , N yame A kuma 3 9 , 1 9 -25 . H o lme s , D .L . &R .F . F r iedman 1 989 . ' T he B ada r i r e g ion r e v is i ted ' ,N yam eA kuma 3 1 , 1 5 1 9 . J e f f rey s ,D .G . &A .T ava re s 1 994 . ' The l a ndscape o f E a r ly Dyna s t ic Memph is ' , MDAIK 5 0 , 1 43 -73 . J unke r , H . 1 912 .B e r ich tü ber d i eG rabungen d er K a i s er l .A kad em i ed e r W is sen schaf t en i n W ien a uf d em F r iedhof i n T urah . W in t er 1 909 -1910 . V ienna : A lf red H ö ld e r . K a ise r ,W . 1 956 . ' S tand u nd P rob leme d e r ä gyp t ischen V o rge sch ich t s f o r schung ' , Z AS 8 1 , 8 7 109 . 1 957 . ' Zu r i n ne ren C h rono log ie d e r N aqadaku l tu r ' , A r chaeo log ia G eograph ica 6 ,6 9 -77 ,p l s . 1 5 -26 . 1 964 . ` E in ige B eme rkungen z u r ä gyp t is chen F rühze i t Z ÄS 9 1 , 8 6 125 . 1 985a . T in K u l tbez i rk d e s Kön ig s D en i n S akka ra ' , MDA IK 4 1 , 4 7 -60 . 1 985b . ` Zu r S üdau sdehnung d e r v o rgesch ich t l ichen De l taku l turen u nd z ur f r ühen E n tw ick lung O be rägyp tens ' , MDA IK 4 1 , 6 1-87 . 1 986 . ` Vo r - u nd F rühge sch ich te ' , i nW . H e lck & E .O t to ( eds . ) , L ex ikon d er Ägyp to log ie V I , 1 069 -76 . W ie sbaden : H a r ra s sow i tz . 1 987 . ` Z um S i ege l m i t f r ühen Kön ig snamen v on Umm e l Q aab ' , MDAIK 4 3 , 15 -9 . 1 990 . ` Zu r E n t s tehung d e s g e sam tägyp t i schen S t aa te s ' , MDAIK 4 6 , 2 87 -99 . 1 995 . ' T r ia l a nd e r ro r ' , GM 1 49 , 5 14 . K a ise r ,W . &G .D reye r 1 982 . ` Umm e l -Qaab : Nachun te rsuchungen i m f r ühze i t l ichen K ön igs f r iedhof . 2 .V o rbe r ich t ' , MDAIK 3 8 , 2 1 1-69 .

1 00

1 989 . S e t t lemen t i nt h e N i le D e l ta t ot h e e nd o ft h e O ld K ingdom -a ccord ing t oc on temporar y a rchaeo log ica l e v idence . U npub l ished d oc to ra l d i s se r ta t ion , Wa rsaw U n ive r s i ty .

K an to r , H . J . 1 944 . ' The f i na l p ha se o fP redyna s t ic c u l tu re : G e rzean o r S ema inean ( ? ) ' ,J NES 3 , 10 -36 . K ap lony , P . 1 958 . ` S echs K ön igsnamen d e r I . Dyna s t ie i n n eue r D eu t ung ' , O r ien ta l ia S uecana 7 ,5 4 -69 . 1 963 . D ie I n schr if ten d er ä gyp t i schen F rüh ze i t , 3v o ls . W ie s baden : H a r ra s sow i t z . K emp , B . J . 1 963 . ' Excava t ions a t H ie rakonpo l is F o r t , 1 905 : a p r e l im ina ry n o te ' ,J EA 4 9 , 2 4 -8 . 1 967 . ' The E gyp t ian i s t Dyna s ty r oya l c eme te ry ' , A n t iqu i ty 4 1 , 2 2 -32 . 1 973 . ' Pho tog raphs o f t he Decora ted T omb a t H ie r akonpo l is ' , J EA 5 9 , 3 6 -43 . 1 975 . ' Da t ing P ha raon ic c eme te r ie s . P a r tI :n on -me chan ica l a pp roa che s t os e r ia t ion ' , MDA IK 3 1 , 2 59 -9 1 . 1 977 . ' The e a r ly d eve lopmen t o f t owns i n E gyp t ' , A n t iqu i ty 5 1 , 1 85 -200 . 1 982 . ' Au toma t ic a na ly s i so fP r edy na s t ic c eme te r ie s : an ew m e thod f o r a n o l dp rob lem ' ,J EA 6 8 , 5 15 . 1 989 .A nc ien tE gyp t : a na tomy o f ac i v i l i za t ion . L ondon & N ew Y o rk : R ou t ledge . K enda l l ,D .G . 1 963 . ' As t a t is t ica l a pp roach t oF l inde r sP e t r ie 's s e quence d a t ing ' , B u l le t in d e l ' I n s t i tu tI n terna t iona ld e S t a t is t ique 4 0 , 6 57 -81 . 1 969 . ' S ome p rob lem s a nd me thods i n s t a t is t ica l a r cha eo logy ' , W or ld A r chaeo logy 1 ,6 8 -76 .

K roepe r ,K . 1 988 . ' The e xcava t ions o f t h e Mun ich E a s t -De l ta E xped i t ion i nM insha t A bu Oma r ' , i nE .C .M . v an d en B r ink ( e d . ) , T he a rchaeo logy o ft h eN i l eD e l ta :p rob l em s a nd p r ior i t i e s , 1-46 . Ams te rdam : N e the r land I n s t i tu te o f A r cha eo logy a nd A rab ic S t ud ie si nC a i ro .

I C r zyzan ia l c ,L . 1 992 . ' Aga in o n t h e e a r l ie s t s e t t lemen t a tM insha t A bu Oma r ' , i nE .C .M . v an d en B r ink ( e d . ) , T h eN i l eD e l ta i n t r ans i t ion : 4 t h . -3rd . m i l lenn ium B .C . , 1 5 1-5 . T e l A v iv : v an d en B r ink . L ambe rg -Ka r lov sky , C .C . &J .A . S ab lof f 1 979 . A nc ien t c i v i l iza t ions : t he N ear E as t a nd Mesoa merica. Men lo P ark , C a l iforn ia : B en jam in /Cumm ing s P ub l ish ing C o . L an s ing , A . 1 935 . ' The Museum 's e xcava t ion a t H ie rakonpo l is ' , S upp lemen tt ot h e B u l l e t in o ft h e Me t ropo l i tan Museum o fA r t i ,3 7 -45 . L a rga cha ,A .P e rez 1 993 . E l n ac im ien to d e l e s tado e n E g ip to . Mad r id . A egyp t iaca C omp lu ten s ia I .

K lasen s , A . 1 957 . ' The e xcava t ions o f t h e L e iden Museum o f A n t iqu i t ie s a tA bu -Roa sh . R epo r t o f t h e f i r s t s e a son : 1 957 P a r t I ' , OMR0 3 8 , 5 8 -68 . 1 958 . ' The e xcava t ions o f t h e L e iden Museum o f A n t iqu i t ie s a tA bu -Roa sh . R epo r t o ft h e s e cond s e a son : 1 958 P a r t I ' , OMR0 3 9 , 3 2 -55 . 1 959a . ' The e xcava t ions o f t h e L e iden Museum o f A n t iqu i t ie s a tA bu -Roa sh . R epo r t o ft h e s e cond s e a son : 1 958 P a r tI ' , OMR0 4 0 , 4 1 -61 . 1 959b . ' Abou -Roach . F ou i l le s d u R i jksmuseum v an O udhe den t eL e iden ' , C h ron ique dtgyp t e3 4 ,3 4 -5 . 1 960 . ' The e xcava t ions o f t h e L e iden Museum o f A n t iqu i t ie s a tA bu -Roa sh . R epo r t o f t h e t h i rd s e a son : 1 959 P a r tI ' , OMR0 4 1 , 6 9 -94 . K öh le r , E .C . 1 992 . ' The P re - a nd E a r ly D yna s t ic p o t te ry o f T e l l e l -Fa re in ( Bu to ) ' , i nE .C .M . v a n d en B r ink ( e d . ) , T he N i le D e l ta i nt r an s i t ion : 4 th . -3rd . m i l lenn ium B .C . , 1 2 2 .T e l A v iv : v an d en B r ink . 1 993 . T e l le l -Fara ` in -Bu to :D ie K eram ik d er S ch ich ten I I b i s V I . U n ter suchungen z ur T öpf er e iproduk t ion e i ner f rühen S i ed lung d es N i ld e l tas . U npub l ished d oc to ra l d i s se r ta t ion ,H e ide lbe rg U n ive r i s ty . 1 995 . ' T he s t a te o fr e se a r ch o nl a te P redyna s t ic E gyp t : n ew e v idence f o rt h ed eve lopmen to ft h eP ha raon ic s t a te ' , GM 1 47 , 7 9 -92 .

K roepe r , K . &D . W i ldung 1 985 . M in sha tA bu Omar Münchner O s td e l ta -Exped i t ion V orber ich t 1 978 -1984 . Mun ich : S t aa t l iche S amm lung Ä gyp t ische rK un s t . 1 994 .M in sha tA bu Omar . E in v or - u nd f rühg esch ich t l ich er F r iedhof i mN i ld e l ta I .Ma inz a mR he in : v on Z abe rn .

L ec lan t ,J . 1 952 . ' F ou i l le s e tt r avaux e n E gyp te , 1 950 1951 , P a r t 2 ' , O r i en ta l ia 2 1 ,2 33-49 . L y thgoe , A .M . ( e d .D . D unham ) 1 965 .N aga -ed -Dir I V : T he p r ed yna s t ic c eme t e ry N7000 . B e rke ley & L o sA nge le s : U n ive r s i ty o fC a l if o rn ia P re s s . Ma c rama l lah , R . 1 940 . U n c ime t iire a r cha ique d e l ac l ass e m oyenne d u p eup l e äS aqqarah .C a i ro : G ove rnmen tP r e s s . Mä lek , J . 1 986 .I nt h es hadow o ft h ep yram id s .L ondon : O rb is . Mann , G .E . 1 989 . ' On t h e a ccu racy o f s ex ing o f s ke le tons i n a r chaeo log ica lr e po r t s ' ,J EA 7 5 ,2 46 -9 . Ma rqua rd t ,W .H . 1 978 . ' Advance s i n a r chaeo log ica l s e r ia t ion ' , i n M . S ch if f e r ( e d . ) , A d vanc es i na rchaeo log ica l m e thod a nd t h eo ry 1 ,2 57 -314 .N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s . Ma r t in -P a rdey ,E . 1 976 . Untersuchungen z ur ä gypt ischen P rov inz ia lverwa l tung b i s z um E nd e d e sA l t en R e iche s . H i lde she im : G e r s tenbe rg . H i ld eshe imer Ä gyp to log i sch e B e i t räge 1 . M idan t -Reyne s ,B . 1 992 . P r e 'h i s to ir e d e l ' Egyp te . D es p r em ier s h ommes a ux p r em ier sp haraons . P a r i s : A rmand C o l in .

1 01

Mond , R . &O .H . Mye r s 1 937a . C em e t er ie s o fA rman t I .T h e t e x t . L ondon : E gyp t E xp lo ra t ion S oc ie ty . 1 937b . C eme t er i e so fA rman tI .T he p la te s .L ondon : E gyp t E xp lo ra t ion S oc ie ty . Moo rey , P .R .S . 1 990 . ' F rom G u lf t oD e l t a i nt h e f ou r th m i l lenn ium BCE : t h eS y r ian c onnec t ion ' ,E r e t zI s rae l2 1 ,6 2 -9 . d e Mo rgan ,J . 1 897 . R echerches s ur l e s o r ig ines d e l ' Egyp te , I . E thnograph i ep ra i s tor ique e tt omb eau r o ya ld eN egadah . P a r i s : E rne s tL e roux . Mo r ten sen ,B . 1 991 . ' Change i nt h e s e t t lemen t p a t te rn a nd p opu la t ion i n t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e h i s to r ica l p e r iod ' , Ä gyp ten u nd L evan t e2 ,1 -37 . Mu rnane , W . J . 1 987 . ' The G ebe l S he ikh S u le iman m onumen t : e p ig raph ic r ema rk s ' , J NES 4 6 , 2 82 -5 . N eed le r ,W . 1 967 . ' A r o ck -d raw ing o n G ebe l S he ikh S u l iman ( nea r Wad i H a lf a ) s how ing as corp ion a nd h uman f i gu re s ' , J AR C E 6 ,8 7 -92 . 1 981 . T ede rn ' s r e v is ion o f P e t r ie 's P redyna s t ic p o t te ry c l a s s if i ca t ion ' , J SSEA 1 :2 , 6 9 -74 . 1 984 . P r ed ynas t ic a nd A rcha ic E gyp t i n t h e B rook lyn Mu seum . B rook lyn : B rook lyn Museum . O 'Conno r , D . 1 972a . ' Ar e g iona l p opu la t ion i nE gyp t ; P reh is to r ic t ime s t oc a . 5 00 B .C . ' .U npub l i shed d r a f t . 1 972b . ' Ar e g iona lp opu la t ion i nE gyp tt oc i rca 6 00 B .C . ' , i nB .S poone r( e d . ) , P opu la t ion g r ow th : a n thropo log ica l i mp l ica t ions , 7 8 -100 . C amb r idge , Ma s sachuse t t s & L ondon :M IT P r e s s . 1 992 . ' T he s t a tu s o fe a r ly E gyp t ian t emp le s : a n a l te rna t ive t h eo ry ' , i n R .F . F r iedman & B . A dam s ( e ds . ) , T he f o l lower s o fH orus : s t ud ies d ed ica ted t oM ichae lA l len H of fman , 8 3 -97 . O xf o rd : O xbow P ub l ica t ion s . E gyp t ian S t ud ie sA s soc ia t ion P ub l ica t ion N o . 2 . P a tch , D .C . 1 991 . T he o r ig in a nd e ar ly d eve lopmen t o fu rban i sm i n a nc i en t E gyp t : ar eg iona l s t ud y . U npub l ished d oc to ra l t h e s i s , U n ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia . P e e t , T .E . 1 914 . T he c eme t er ies o fA bydos I ( 1 911 -1912 ) . L ondon : E gyp tE xp lo ra t ion F und . Memo ir 3 4 . P e t r ie , W .M .F . 1 899 . ' S equence s i np r eh is to r ic r ema in s ' , J ourna l o ft h e A n thropo log ica lI n s t i tu t e ( N .S . )2 9 , 2 95 -30 1 . 1 900 . T h e r oya l t omb s o ft h e F ir s t D yna s ty I .L ondon : E gyp tE xp lo ra t ion F und . Memo ir 1 8 . 1 90 1 .D iospo l i sP ar va : t h ec eme t er ie so fA bad iyeh a nd H u 1 898 -9 .L ondon : E gyp tE xp lo ra t ion F und . 1 902 . A bydos I . L ondon : E gyp t E xp lo ra t ion F und . Memo ir 2 2 . 1 914 . T arkhan I . L ondon : S choo l o f A rchaeo logy i n E gyp t . 1 921 . C orpu s o fp r eh i s tor ic p o t t er y a nd p a l e t te s . L ondon : B r i t ish S choo l o fA rcha eo logy i nE gyp t .

1 939 . T he mak ing o fE gyp t . L ondon : T he S he ldon P re s s . 1 953 . C er emon ia ls l a t ep a le t t es , c orpu so fP ro to -d yna s t ic p ot tery . L ondon : B r i t ish S choo l o f E gyp t ian A r chaeo logy & Q ua r i t ch . P e t r ie , W .M .F . &E . Ma ckay . 1 915 . H e l iopo l i s , K af r Ammar a nd S huraf a . L ondon : S choo l o fA r chaeo logy i nE gyp t . P e t r ie , W .M .F . &J . E . Q u ibe l l 1 896 .N aqada a nd B a l la s .L ondon : Q ua r i t ch . P e t r ie , W .M .F . , G .A . Wa inw r igh t&A .H . G a rd ine r 1 913 . T arkhan Ia nd Memph is V . L ondon : S choo l o f A r chaeo logy i nE gyp t . Q u ibe l l , J . E . 1 900 .H ierakonpo l i sI .L ondon : Q ua r i t ch . Q u i rke , S . 1 990 . Who w er e t h e p haraoh s? A h i s tory o ft h e ir n am e s w i th a l i s t o f c ar touches . L ondon : B r i t ish Mu seum P r e s s . R ed f o rd ,D . 1 983 . ' No te s o n t h e h i s to ry o f a nc ien t B u to ' , B u l l e t in o f t h eE gyp to log ica lS em inar 5 ,6 7 -10 1 . R enf rew , A .C . &P .B ahn 1 991 . A rchaeo logy : t h eor ies , m e thod s , a nd p rac t ic e . L ondon : T hame sa nd H ud son . R izkana , I .& J .S e ehe r 1 987 . Maad i I .T he p o t t ery o ft h ep r ed yna s t ic s e t t l emen t . Ma inz a m R he in : v on Z abe rn . AVDA IK 6 4 . 1 988 . Maad i I . T he l i th ic i ndus tr i e s o ft h e p r ed yna s t ic s e t t lemen t . Ma inz a m R he in : v on Z abe rn . AVDA IK 6 5 . 1 989 . Maad i I I . T he n on l i th ic s ma l l f i nd s a nd t h e s t ruc tura l r ema in s o ft h ep redyna s t ic s e t t lemen t . Ma inz a m R he in : v on Z abe rn . AVDAIK 8 0 . 1 990 . Maad iI V . T he p r edynas t ic c em e t er ie so f Maad ia nd Wad iD ig la . Ma inz a mR he in : v on Z abe rn . AVDA IK 8 1 . S aad ,Z .Y . 1 947 . R oya l e xcava t ion s a tS aqqara a nd H e lwan ( 1 941 1 945 ) . C a i ro : I n s t i tu tF ran o is d 'A rch6o log ie O r ien ta le . S upp lbnen t a ux A nna le s d u S er v ice d es A n t iqu i ti s d e l ' Egyp t e , C ah i er 3 . S avage , S .H . 1 995 . D e scen t , p ower , a nd c ompe t i t ion i n P r edyna s t ic E gyp t : m or tuary e v id ence f rom C eme te ry N 7000 a t N aga -ed -Di r .U npub l ished d oc to ra ld i s se r ta t ion ,A r izona S ta te U n ive r s i ty . ( Un ive rs i ty M ic rof i lms , A nn A rbo r , M ich igan . ) e l -Sayed , A . 1 979 . ' Ap r eh is to r ic c eme te ry i nt h eA bydos a r ea ' , MDAIK 3 5 , 2 49 -30 1 . S co l la r , I . 1 993 . T h e B onn s er ia t ion a nd a r chaeo log ica l s t a t i s t ic s p ackag e , V er s ion 4 . 1 ( U se rg u ide ) . B onn : T he U nke lba ch V a l ley S o f twa re Wo rk s .

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S e id lmaye r , S . J . 1 988 . T une rä re r A ufwand u nd s o z ia le U ng le ichhe i t : e i ne m e thod ische A nmerkung z um P rob lem d e r R ekon s t ruk t ion d e r g e se l lscha f t l ichen G l iede rung a u s F r iedhof sfunden ' , GM 1 04 ,2 5 -51 . 1 990 . G raberf e lder a us d em Ü b ergang v om A l t en z um M i t t leren R e ich : S t ud ien z ur A r chäo log ie d er E r s t en Z w ischenze i t . H e ide lbe rg : H e ide lbe rge r O r ien tve r lag . S t ud i en z ur A r chäo log ie u nd G e sch ich te A l tägyp t ens 1 .

U cko , P . J . 1 969 . ' E thnog raphy a nd a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion o f f u ne ra ry r ema in s ' , Wor ld A rcha eo logy 1 : 2 ,2 62 -80 . V e rcou t te r ,J . 1 992 . L 'Egyp t e e tl av a l li . e d u N i l 1 :d e s o r ig ine s äl af i n d e l ' Anc ien Emp ir e 1 2000 -2000 a y . . I -C . P a r is : P r e s se s U n iv e r s i ta i r e sd eF rance .

S e rv ice , E .R . 1 975 . O r ig ins o ft h e s t a t e a nd c i v i l i za t ion : t h ep roce s s o f c u l tur a le vo lu t ion .N ew Y o rk & L ondon :W .W .N o r ton . S haw , I .M .E . 1 985 . ' E gyp t ian c h rono logy a nd t h eI r i sh o ak c a l ib ra t ion ' , J NES 4 4 , 2 95 -317 . Sm i th , H .S . 1 992 . ' T he mak ing o fE gyp t : ar e v iew o ft h e i n f luence o f S u s aa nd S ume ro nU ppe rE gyp ta nd L owe rN ub ia i nt h e 4 th m i l lenn ium BC ' , i n R .F . F r iedman & B . A dam s ( e d s . ) , T he f o l lower s o fH oru s : s t ud ie s d ed ica ted t o M ichae l A l len H of fman , 2 35 -46 . O xfo rd : O xbow P ub l ica t ions . E gyp t ian S t ud ie sA s soc ia t ion P ub l ica t ion N o . 2 . S pence r , A . J . 1 993 . E ar ly E gyp t : t h e r i se o fc i v i l isa t ion i n t h e N i le v a l l ey . L ondon : B r i t i sh Mu seum P re s s . T a in te r , J .A . 1 975 . ' S oc ia l i n f e rence a nd m o r tua ry p rac t ice s : a n e xpe r imen t i n n ume r ica l c l ass if ica t ion ' , Wor ld A r cha eo logy 7 ,1 15 . 1 978 . ' Mo r tua ry p r ac t ice s a nd t h e s t udy o f P reh is to r ic s oc ia l s y s tem s ' , i n M .B . S ch if f e r ( e d . ) , A dvances i n a rcha eo log ica lm e thod a nd t h eo ry 1 ,1 05 -4 1 .N ew Y o rk : A cad em ic P re s s . T akam iya ,I . 1 994 . E gyp t ian p o t tery i nA -Group c eme ter ies , N ub ia : t oward s a n u nd er s tand ing o fp o t tery p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion i np r e -d ynas t ic a nd e ar ly -d yna s t ic E gyp t . U npub l i shed MPh i l t h e s is ,U n ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge . T r igge r ,B .G . 1 972 . ' De t e rm inan t s o f u rban g r ow th i n p r e indus t r ia l s oc ie t ie s ' , i n P . J . U cko , R . T r ingham & G .W . D imb leby ( e d s . ) , Man , s e t t l em en ta nd u rban s im , 5 75 -99 . L ondon :D uckwo r th . 1 976 . N ub ia u nd er t h e p haraoh s . L ondon : T hame s a nd H ud son . 1 983 . ' T he r i se o fE gyp t ian c i v i l iza t ion ' , i nB .G . T r igge r , B .J . K emp , D . O 'Conno r &A .B . L loyd ,A nc ien tE gyp t : as oc ia l h i s tory . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . 1 984 . ' T he m a in l ine s o fs oc io -econom ic d eve lopmen t i n d yna s t ic E gyp t t ot h e e nd o f t h e O ld K ingdom ' , i nL . I C rzyzan ia l c &M . K obu s iew icz ( e d s . ) , O r ig in a nd e ar ly d eve lopmen to ffo od -produc ing c u l tur es i nn or th -ea s t ern A f r ica , 1 0 1 -8 . P oznan : P oznan A rchaeo log ica l Museum . S tud ie si nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 1 . 1 985 . ' The e vo lu t ion o fp r e indu s t r ia l c i t ie s : am u l t i l inea r p e r spe c t ive ' , i n F . G eus & F . ' T h i l l ( e d s . ) , Mé langes of er t s äJ ean V ercou t ter , 3 43 -53 . P a r i s : E d i t ions R eche rche s u r l e sC iv i l isa t ion s .

V e rnu s , P . 1 986 . ' T e l l E df u ' , i nW . H e lck & E . O t to ( e d s . ) ,L ex ikon d er Ä gyp to log ie V I , 3 23 -31 . W ie sbaden : H a r ra s sow i t z . v on d e r Way ,T . 1 986 . ' T e l l e l -Fa re in /Bu to , 1 .B e r ich t ' , MDAIK 4 2 , 1 912 12 1 987 . ' T e l l e l -Fa re in /Bu to , 2 .B e r ich t ' , MDAIK 4 3 , 2 4 15 7 . 1 988 . ' T e l l e l -Fa re in /Bu to , 3 .B e r ich t ' , MDAIK 4 4 , 2 83 3 06 . 1 989 . ' T e l l e l -Fa re in /Bu to , 4 .B e r ich t ' , MDAIK 4 5 , 2 75 3 07 . 1 99 1 . D ie G rabungen i nB u to u nd d i e R e ich se in igung ' , MDA IK 4 7 ,4 19 -24 . F es t schr if tK a i ser . 1 992 . ' E xcava t ion s a tT e l l e l -Fa re in /Bu to i n1 987 -1989 ' , i n E .C .M . v an d en B r ink ( e d . ) , T he N i le D e l ta i n t r ans i t ion : 4 t h . -3rd . m i l lenn ium B .C . , 1 10 . T e l A v iv : v an d en B r ink . 1 993 . U n t er suchungen z ur S pa tvor - u nd F rühg esch ich te U n terägyp t ens . H e ide lbe rg : H e ide lbe rge r O r ien tve r lag . S t ud i en z ur A r chäo log ie u nd G e sch ich t eA l tägyp t en s8 . Week s , K .R . 1 97 11972 . ' P re l im ina ry r e po r t o n t h e f i r s t t wo s e a sons a t H ie rakonpo l is . P a r t I : t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p a lace ' , J ARCE 9 ,2 9 -33 . Wenke , R . J . 1 99 1 . ' The e vo lu t ion o fe a r ly E gyp t ian c i v i l iza t ion : i s sue s a nd e v idence ' ,J ourna lo f Wor ld P r eh i s to ry 5 ,2 79 -329 . v an We semae l , B . 1 988 . ' The r e la t ion b e tween n a tu ra l l a ndscape a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fa r chaeo log ica lr ema ins i nt h en o r thea s te rn N i le D e l ta ' , i n E .C .M . v an d en B r ink ( e d . ) , T he a r chaeo logy o ft h eN i le D e l ta :p rob lem s a nd p r ior i t ie s , 1 25 -34 . Ams te rdam : N e the r lands F ounda t ion f o r A r chaeo log ica l R e se a rch i nE gyp t . W i ldung ,D . 1 981 . Ä gyp ten v or d en P yram iden : Münchner A usgrabungen i n Ä gyp ten . Ma inz a m R he in : v on Z abe r n . W i l l iam s , B .B . 1 982 . ' No te s o n P r eh is to r ic c ache f i e ld so fL owe rE gyp t ian t r ad i t ion a tS edmen t ' ,J NES 4 1 , 2 13 -2 1 . 1 986 . E xcava t ion s b e tween A bu S imbe l a nd t h e S udan f ron t ier . T he A -Group r oya l c eme tery a t Q us tu l : C eme tery L . C h icago : T he O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te o f t h e U n ive r s i ty o f C h icago . O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te N ub ian E xped i t ion I I . 1 987 . ' F o rebea r s o f Mene s i nN ub ia : m y th o r r e a l i ty? ' , J NES 4 6 , 1 5 -26 .

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W i lk inson , E .M . 1 974 . ' Te chn ique s o fd a ta a na ly s i s -s e r ia t ion t h eo ry ' , i n E .M . W i lk inson , C .E . Mu l l ins & A . T abbagh , T echn i sche u nd n a turw i s sen schaf t l iche B e i träge z ur F e ldarchäo log ie , 1 142 . C o logne : R he in land V e r lag . A r chaeo -Phy s ika 5 . W i lk inson , T .A .H . 1 993a . E gyp t i n t r ans i t ion : P r edynas t ic -Ear ly D yna s t ic c hrono logy a nd t he e f ec t s o f s t a te f orma t ion . U npub l i shed d oc to ra lt h e s is ,U n ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge . 1 993b . ' The i d en t if ica t ion o fT omb B 1 a tA bydos : r e f u t ing t h ee x i s tence o f ak i ng * I ry -Ho r ' , J EA 7 9 , 2 41-3 . 1 995 . ' An ew k i ng i nt h ew e s te rn d e se r t ' ,J EA 8 1 , 2 05 -10 . W i t t f oge l , K . 1 957 . O r ien ta l d espo t ism . Ac ompara t ive s t udy o ft o ta l p ow er .N ew H aven : Y a le U n ive r s i ty P r e s s . Wunde r l ich ,J . 1 988 . ' I nve s t iga t ions o n t h e d eve lopmen t o ft h e w e s te rn D e l ta i nH o locene t ime s ' , i nE .C .M . v an d en B r ink ( e d . ) , T he a r chaeo logy o f t h e N i le D e l ta : p rob lem s a nd p r ior i t ie s , 2 51-7 . Am s te rdam : N e the r lands F ounda t ion f o rA r chaeo log ica l R e sea rch i nE gyp t . Wunde r l ich ,J . ,T .v on d e r Way & K . S chm id t 1 989 . ' Neue F und s te l len d e rB u to -Maad i -Ku l tu rb e i E sbe t e l -Qe rdah i ' , MDAIK 4 5 , 3 09 -18 .

1 04

APPENDICES P 012 -L a rge c l o sed t a pe r ing j a r s w i th p ronounced r im B 50 , B 53 , B 53a , B 53b , B 53C , B 53F , B 54 M

P o t t ery g roups T he f o l low ing l i s t a nd t h e c ha r t s a t t he e nd o f t h e w o rk g ive d e ta i l s o ft h e i nd iv idua l p o t t e ry t ype s w h ich c omp r i se e a ch o f t h e p o t te ry g r oup s u sed f o r s e r ia t ion . T ypes w i th t h e p ref ix MAT o r MOST a ppea r a s ' n ew t ype s ' i n t he p ubl ica t ions o f Ma tma r a nd Mos tagedda r espec t ive ly ( Brun ton 1 948 : p l s . X I -X I I I , XX I ; 1 937 : p l s . XX X II I ,O CXV I , XL IV ) . T he o the r f o rms a r e i lu s t ra ted i n o ne o r mo re o f t h e o the r P redyna s t ic (Ay r ton & L oa t 1 9 11 : p l s . XXVI II -XXXV II I ; P e t r ie & Qu ibe l l 1 896 : p l s . XVI II -XL I ; B run ton & C a ton -Thompson 1 928 : p l s . XXXV -XL IV ; P e t r ie 1 92 1 : p l s . I -L I ) o r ' P ro todyna s t ic ' c orpo ra ( Pe t r ie e t a l . 1 913 : p l s . XLV I -LV II I ; P e t r ie 1 9 14 : p l s . XXVI II -XXX I ; B run ton 1 927 : p l s . X I I I -XV I ; P e t r ie 1 953 ) . T ype s o fB -wa re , P -wa re , F -wa re , Wwa re , D -wa re , R -wa re a nd L -wa re a r e g iven t h e a pp rop r ia te l e t te r p ref ix ( e .g . B 11k2,mosTR9 ) . T ype s o f ' P ro todyna s t ic ' p o t te ry a re g iven w i thou t ap ref ix ( e .g . 4 7p , 9 4K 1 2 , mAT10 ) . A b r ief d escr ip t ive t a g a ccompan ie s e ach g roup i n t h e l i s t b e low ( e .g . ' m in ia tu re s qua t b eake r s ' ) . T hese a r e me re ly i n tended f o r e a se o f r e fe rence w hen c on su l t ing t h e p o t te ry c ha r t s , a nd s hou ld n o t b e t a ken a s a ccu ra te d e sc r ip t ion s . G roup s P 0 10 , P 030 , P 039 , P 064 , P 066 , P 133 , P 137 , P 139 a nd P 140 w e re o r ig ina l ly f o rmu la ted w hen f i r s t g roup ing t he p o t tery , b u t d o n o t o ccu r i n t h e s e r ia t ion s . T hey h ave t h e refore b een e xc luded f r om t h e l i s t a nd c ha r ts . B -ware P 001 -B ow l s B lA , B ib , B lF , B lla , B ulb , B ild , B ile , B hf , B 11G , B ll i , B 11 j , B 11K , B 11k2,B 111 , BU M , B 11N , B 12A , B l2g , B 15 ,

P 013 -C lo sed t a pe r ing r im le ss j a r s B 54a , B 55A , B 55B , B 56 , B 56a , B 57a , B 57a2,B 57b 2,B 57G , B 58a , B 63b , B 63c , B 74a , B 74b , B 75a , B 75a2,B 76A , B 76M , mATB7 , MATB9 , mATB13 , mO sTB15 , mosTB17 P 014 -T a l l n a r row p o in ted j a r s B 37b , B 38a , B 38c , B 38d , B 39a , B 39b P 015 - B ag -shaped j a r s w i th f l a t b a se B 62b 3,B 62d 2,B 62m 2,B 62m 3,B 62m 4,B 62m 5,B 82 , B 8 3b 2 , B 84a P 016 -P i r i fo rm /g lobu la r j a r s B 44S , B 69 , B 69a , MATB11 , mosTB18 , mosTB19 , m0sTB21 P 017 -D eep b ow l s w i th w ide mou th B 71a , B 7 1b , B 76b 3,mATB10 P 018 -M in ia tu re p o in ted j a r s B 4 1a , B 42b , B 44a , B 44b , B 46 , B 47 , B 49 , B 49a , mATB12 P 019 -M in ia tu re c l osed j a r s w i th c onvex s i de s a nd f l a t b a se B 33K , B 57b , B 58b , B 58c , B 61 , B 61A , B 62b , B 62b2 , B 62D , B 62g , B 63a , B 64c , B 65a , B 65b , B 65 M , B 66a , B 68a , B 68b , B 68C , B 72a , B 75b , B 76G , B 77b , B 77e , B 78b , B 78c , B 81A , B 81B , mATB6 , mosTB20

mATB1 ,m ATB2 , mATB3 , mATB4 , mo sTB1 , mosTB2 , mosTB3

U ng rouped t ypes B 75b 3,B 76 , B 92c , B 94M , mATB14

P 002 -V e ry l a rge b eake r s B 21b 6,B 79

P -ware P 020 -P i r i f orm j a r s w i th f l a t b a se P 42 , P 43a , P 45a , P 45b , P 45D , P 45E , P 46b , P 46F

P 003 -L a rge t a l l b eake r s B 25c , B 25h , B 25 i , B 25o , B 25p , B 25q , mosTB11 , mosTB12 , m osTB13

P 021 -Med ium s ized g l obu la rj a r s P 75G , mATP2 1

P 004 -Med ium s ized d eep b eake r -bow l s B 18a , B 18b , B 18c , B 18d , B 18E , B 18G , B 18K , B 18N , B 19 , B 19a , B 19E , B 19k i , B 2 1d 2,B2 1d 3,B 2 1d 5,mATB5 , mosTB4 , m osTB5 , mo sTB7

P 022 -R ound -bod ied j a r s w i th f l a t b a se a nd f l a r ing mou th P 36a , P 36b , P 38

P 005 -Med ium s ized t a l l b eake r s B 2 1b , B 2 1b 2,B 22b , B 22h , B 22k , B 25a , B 25b , B 25b 2,B 25f ,

P 023 -T al v a se s w i th f l a r ing mou th P 63a , P 63m , P 64A , P 65A , P 65B , P 66 , P 68a

B 25g , B25 j , B 25L , B 25o 2,B26e , B 27 i , B 27 1 , B27m , B 29 , B 29a , B 35 , B 35E , B 35G , B 52 , B 52a , B 77D , mosTB6

P 024 -Med ium s ized t a pe r ing a nd /o r p o in ted j a r s P 95c , P 97 , P 97K , P 98a ( f o r P 98 ) , P 98b

P 006 -Med ium s ized s qua t b eake r s B 2 1b 4,B2 1d , B 25s 3,B 72 f , B 72g , B 77 , B 77a , B 77c , B 78 ,

P 025 -Sma l l l e n to id j a r s w i th f l a r ing mou th P 84C , P 84E , P 92a , P 93b , P 93c , P 93d , P 95a , P 95b , P 95G , P 96 , P 98 j , mosTP8 , mosTP 11

m ATB8 P 007 -Sma l l a nd m in ia tu re b eake r s B 21a , B 2 1o , B 22c , B22e , B22f , B 22n , B 22o , B22p , B 25d , B 25d 3,B 25e , B 25e 2,B26b , B 26D , B 27b , B 35f , B 36d , B 74E ,

P 026 -B o t t le shaped v a se s w i th f l a r ing mou th P 47a , P 53 , P 54 , P 54b , P 54D , P 56b , P 57a , P 58a , P 58c , mATP23 , mATP24 , mOsTP 10

B 78D , mosTB8

P 027 -Smal a nd med ium s ized g l obu la rj a r s w i th f l a r ing mou th P 74 , P 8 1a , P 81b , P 82a , P 82b , P 82c , P 82D , mATP22

P 008 -M in ia tu re s qua t b eake r s B 25k , B 33P , B 57C , B72b , B 72c , B 72D , B 72E , B 74c

P 028 -S qua t b eake r s P 26a , P 26d , P 33 , mATP19

P 009 -T a l l n a r row b eake r s B 22 J , B 27a , B 27c , B27f , B 27g , B27 j , B 27K , B 29E , B 35a , B 35b , B 35c , B 35d , B 35H , B 36 , mOsTB9

P 029 -B a r re l -shaped j a r s P 36E , P 37d , P 38K ( ou t s ize ) , P 40 , P 40a , P 40b , P 40c , P 40c 2,

P 011 -L a rge c l o sed j a r s B 62 , B 62a , B 64E , B 99 , B 99G

P 40c 3,P 40c 4,P 40d , P 40d 2,P 40e , P 40e 2,P 40G , P 4OH , P 40 i , P 40 j , P 4OK , P 40 1 , P 4OP , P 40q , P 4 1a , P 4 1b , P 4 1c , mosTP6 , mosTP7

1 05

P 031 -L a rge d eep b ow l s w i th c onvex s i des P 23a , P 23b P 032 -B ow l s w i th s t ra igh t s i de s P 13c , P 13d , mATP 15

P 049 -T a l lj a r s t a pe r ing f r om t h e s hou lde r , w i th w avy d eco ra t ive b and a r ound t h e s hou lde r W49 , W50 , W51 , W5 1A , W51G , W55a , W56G , W60A , W60G , W61 , 4 3 r , 4 3s , 4 6F 3

P 033 -B ow l s w i th r ounded b a se P lb2 , P lc , P ld , P IE , P lt 3,P 2a , P 4 , P 7a , EL -AP I , mosTP3 ,

P 050 -T a l lj a r s t a pe r ing f r om t h e mou th , w i th w avy d eco ra t ive b and a r ound t h e s hou lde r W55 , W58 , W58a , W62a , W64m , 4 6b , 4 6d , 4 6 177,4 6f , 4 6E4,

mOsTP4

4 6h , 4 6w

P 034 -Med ium s ized ( mos t ly s ha l low ) b ow l s P 4a , P 4b , P l3f2,P 14 , P 2 1B , P 22A ( two v a r ian t s ) , P 22B , P 22d ,

P 051 -L a rge t a l l b a r re l -shaped j a r s w i th wavy h and les W30 , 4 4c , 4 4f

P 23C ( two v a r ian t s ) , P 24K , P 24L , P 24M , P 24m 2,P 24m 3, P 24m 4,P 24N , MosTP 1 , mo sTP2 P 035 -Sma l l ( mo s t ly s ha l low ) b ow l s P 1la , P Il b , 1 31 c , P 1ld , P ile , P l1F , P l1G , P 13 , P I3a , P l4G , P 15 , P l5C , P l5D , P 16 , P 16c , P l6D , P 17a , P 22b 2,P 22C P 036 -Sma l l d eep b ow ls P 21 , P 24e 2,mATP 16 , mATP 17 , mATP18 U ng rouped t ype s P l3b , P 19c , P 19D , P 23 , P 23e , P 31b , P 57 , P 85 M , mOsTP5

F -ware P 037 -Sma l l o va l d i she s F 10 , F ll a , F l1C , F l1G , F 12 , F l2a , F l2b , F l2c , F l4a , F l4b , F l5a , F l5c , F l5G , mosTF 13 P 038 -L a rge o va l d i shes F 14 , F 15=F 15B , F l5D , F 18 , mATF2 , mATF6 P 040 -B ag shaped j a r s F 31c , F 31d P 041 -S pou ted v e sse ls F 58a , F 58e , F 58J , mATF9 P 042 -D oub le b ag -shaped v e s se l s F 42a , mosTF 16 P 043 -V e s se l s w i th t wo s ha l low w el s mATF3 , mATF4 U ng rouped t y pe s F l9c , F 83B , mATF 1 , MATF5 , mATF7 , MATF8 , MATF IO , mATF25 , mATF26 , mosTF 12 , mosTF14 , mo sTF 15 , moSTF 18 , mosTF 19 , mosTF20 , moSTF2 1 , mosTF22 , mosTF23

C -ware P 044 -a l l f o rm s

P 052 -T rue c y l inde r v e sse l s W69 , W69a , W70 , W70a , W7 1 , W71a , W7 1c , W7 1d , W80 , 4 6 j , 4 7m , 4 7p , 4 7 r , 4 8 , 5 0b , 5 0c , 5 0d , 5 0e , 5 0 f , 5 0n P 053 -Sma l l a nd s ho r t c y l ind r ica l v e sse ls 5 0h , 5 0 j , 5 0p , 5 0 s , 5 0 t , 5 1d , 5 1f , 5 1g , 5 1k , 5 1m , 5 2 , 5 3f , 5 3m U ng rouped t ype s W43 , 5 0 1

D -ware P 054 -P i r i fo rm v e s se ls w i th t h ree t r iangu la r l u g h and le s D 50B , D 51B ( w i thou t h and les ) , D 59C , D59P , D 59q , mATD 11 , mosTD 14 , mosTD 15 P 055 -Sma l l o va l v e sse l s w i th l u g h and le s a nd a b s t rac t ( o r r epre sen ta t iona l* ) d eco ra t ion D 4c , D 7C , D 8G , D lOK , D 17b , D 31G , D3 1L , D 31S , D31 t , D 32L , D 36a* , mATD 15 , mATD18 P 056 -L a rge o va l v e sse l s w i th l ug h and le s a nd a bs t ra c t d eco ra t ion D 8P , D lOm , D ION , D 11 N , mATD 16 , mATD26 , MATD27 , mo sTD4 , mosTD7 , mo sTD9 , mo STD 11 P 057 -L a rge o va l v e sse ls w i th l ug h and le s a nd r ep re sen ta t iona l d eco ra t ion D 36G , D 4 1 , D 43 , D 49 , mATD 12 , mosTD 17 , m osTD19 P 058 -L a rge b a s in shaped v e s se ls w i th l u g h and le s , u ndeco ra ted D 6 1=D6 1A , D 6 1B P 059 -L a rge b a s in -shaped v e s se ls w i th l u g h and le s a nd a bs t ra c t d ecora t ion D 62 , D 63a , D 67B , D 67c , D 68 , mATD 13 , mATD 14 , mo sTD3 P060 - Sma l l b a s in -shaped u ndeco ra t ed mATD23 , mATD24 , mATD25

v esse ls

w i th

l ug

h and les ,

P 061 -Sma l l b a s in -shaped v e s se ls w i th l u g h and le s a nd a b s t rac t d eco ra t ion D IT , D 7a=D9C , D 34K , D 63b , D67c 3,D 67d 2,D67 1 2,D 68c ,

W-ware a nd c y l inder j ars

m oSTD8

P 045 -L a rge w ide -bod ied j a r s w i th w avy l e dge -hand le s W3B , mAT W27

P 062 -L a rge b a r re l shaped /p i r iform j a r s D 46 , D 51 , D 60 , mosTD 10 , mo sTD12 , m osTD 16 , mo sTD 18 , MAT17 , m osT5 , mo sT6

P 046 -L a rge t a l l c onvex j a r s w i th w avy h and le s W4 , W8 , W14 , W19 , W20h , W22 , W23 , W24 , W25 , W26 , W27 , W43a , W44 , mo sT W 1 , mosT W2

P 063 -S qua tj a r s w i th f l a t b a se a nd s imp le s t r iped d ecora t ion D 20M , D 2OU , D 25A , D 25C

P 047 -M in ia tu re w avy -hand led j a r s W42 , W43c

P 065 -Sma l l b eake r s w i th s imp le s t r iped d ecora t ion D 66a , D 66f , D 66g , MATD17

P 048 -Smal t a pe r ing j a r s w i th wavy h and le s W4 1 , W4 1a , W43B , W43G , W43g 5,W43 M , W43n , W47A ,

U ng rouped t y pe s D 16A , D 29C , mATD 1 , mATD2 , mATD3 , mATD4 , mATD5 , mATD17 , mATD 19 ,m ATD20 , mATD2 1 , mATD22 , mo sTD5 , mosTD6 , mosTD 13

W47G , W47M , W48 , W48a

1 06

P 086 -Med ium s ized c oncave s ided b ow l s ( mo s t ly s ha l low ) R 4 , R 4a , R 4a ( va r ian t ) , R 4c , R 4d , R 23a , R 23b , R 23f , R 23g , R23g 2,R 24=R24A , R 24M , R 24n , R 26 , R 26C , R 26E , R 26F , R 26f2,R 28b , R 33B , R 33c 2,mOsTR20

R -ware P 067 -L a rge a nd med ium -s ized s qua tj a r s R 42B , R 42C , R44a , R 44S , R 44 W , R 45A , R 45B , R 45C , R 45f , R46

P 087 -Med ium s iz ed a nd s ma l l d eep b ow l s R 13c , R 23c , R 26g , R 34a , R 34b , R 34c , R 36 , R 38 , mosTR10 , mo sTR 11

P 068 -Med ium -s ized t a pe r ing j a r s w i th w ide mou th R 42a , R 83A P 069 -L a rge t a pe r ing b a r re l -shaped j a r s R 80a , R 84 , R 84a , R 84b , R 84C , R 84D , R 84E , R 84G , R 84H , R 85a , R 85C , R 85P , R 85S , R 86D , R 86F , R 86f2,R 86f3,R 86G , R 86M , R 86n

P 088 -Med ium s ized a nd s ma l l s ha l low b ow ls w i th r ounded b a se R ib , R ic , R 6b , mATR6 , mosTR5 , mosTR6 , mosTR7 , mosTR8 , m0 sTR14

P 070 -L a rge t ape r ing p o in ted j a r s w i th w ide mou th ( ' a sh ja r s ') R 81 , R 8 1a , R 81C , R 81c 2,R 81d , R 8 1e , R 81F , R 81L

P 089 -Sma l l d eep b ow l s w i th r ounded b a se R 3a , R 3b , R 3c , R 3f , R 3f6,R 3f7,R 3f8,R 3f io ,R 11 , mATR7 , mo sTR3 , m0sTR15 , mosTR2 1

P 071 -" A sh ja r s " w i th f l a t tened b a se R 82 , R 82A , R 82B

P 090 -M in ia tu re d eep b ow l s R 3e , R 3e 3,R 3f5,R 3f 1 ,MOsTR 12 , mOsTR 13 , m0sTR17 ,

P 072 -Med ium s ized b u lbou sj a r s w i th w ide mou th ( i .e . s ma l le r ' a sh ja r s ') R 81b , R 81J , R 81 K , R 81k 2,R 81k 3,R 8 1N , R 81P , R 81V , R 82a ,

mo sTR 18 P 091 -M in ia tu re s ha l low b ow l s R ld , R le , R if , R 2 la ( f o r R 2 I) , R 2 1b , R 2 1d , R 22a , R 23b 2,

R 82e , mosTR27

R 23d 2,R 36b

P 073 -Med ium -s ized b a r re l -shaped j a r s R 85c 4,R 85c5,R 8 5c 6

P 092 -Med ium s ized d eep b eake r s mATR9 , mATR10 , mATR 11 , mosTR25 , mosTR34 , ( mo sTR16 o u t s ize )

P 074 -Sma l l b ag-shaped j a r s R 6OL , R 61b , R 61G , R 62S , R 63m , R 65a , R 65b , R 65c , R 68 t , R 96D , mATR 19 , mosTR29 P 075 -lemon ja r s ' R 66 , R 66A , R 66B , R 66 M , R 66P , R 67 , R 68A , R 68 M , R 68m 3, R 69 , R 69a , R 69b , R 69c , R 69d , R 69f , R 69H , R 69J , R 69R , mosTR26 P 076 -Med ium -s ized b ag shaped j a r s w i th f l a r ing mou th R 90 , R 9 1a , R 9 1b , R 91c , R 92 , R 93 , R 93a , R 93C , R 94 , R 94a , R 94b , R 94c , R 94D , R 94d 2,R 94E , R 94H , R 94h 2,R 94 j2 , R 94L , R 94m , R 94P , R 945 P 077 -L a rge t a pe r ing b a r re l -shaped j a r s w i th p ronounced r im R 84L , R 84S , R 84T P 078 -Sma l l b a r re l shaped j a r s w i th w ide o r f l a r ing mou th R 85D , R 85f , R 85G , R 85L P 079 -Sma l l p o in ted j a r s R 71B , R 74c 2,R 75 , R 76B , R 76D P 080 -Med ium s ized p o in ted j a r s w i th f l a r ing mou th R 74=R74A , R 74B , R 74D , R 74G , R 75C , R 75g 2

P 093 -Sma l l b eake r s R 3d , R 3f 1 2 ,R 16 , R 17a , R 17C , R 17e , R 17f , R 17G , mATR12 , mATR 13 , mATR 14 , mATR 15 , mATR 16 , mATR 17 , mosTR22 U ng rouped t ype s R 2 1 , R 23 , R 50 , R 53b , R 59c , R 67c , R 71A , R 80 , R 85e , R 9 1 , R 96 ( f o r R 96o ) , mATR8 , mATR18 , mosTR4 , mosTR23 , mosTR28 , mosTR30 , mosTR31 , mo sTR32 , mosTR35 L -ware

a nd

` Protodynast ic '

p ot tery

P 094 -L a rge s ha l low b ow ls L 7F , L l6F , L l6G , 8 ,8 g , 1 2u , 1 2v , 1 4 1 , 1 9b , 1 9d , 1 9g , 2 7d P 095 -L a rge m ed ium -deep b ow l s L l6B , L l6d , L l6e , 3 b , 3m , 8 f , 9 , 1 4m , 1 6 t , 1 7n , 1 8b , 2 7 r P 096 -L a rge d eep b ow ls L l6A , L l6C , 1 4 j , 1 8f , 1 8k , 1 8m , 3 3k , 3 3 1 , 3 3n P 097 -Med ium s ized b ow l s L 7E , L 7G , L l2a , L l2b , L 12c , L l2G , L l2K , L l2p , L l6h , 3 f , 3 g , 5 g , 1 3b , 1 3f , 1 3g , 1 3k , 1 3m , 1 4g , 1 4n , 1 6 r , 1 7b , 1 7c , 1 7g , 1 7h , 1 7 j , 1 7 1 , 1 7m , 1 9 s , 2 0b , 2 0c , 2 4f , 2 7f , 2 7g , 2 7h , 2 ' 7p , 2 7 s , 2 9d , 2 9g , 3 1h , 3 3b , 3 7b

P 081 -Med ium s ized t al p o in ted j a r s R 76 , R 76G , R 76H , R 76 j , R 76K , R 76M , R 76P , R 76S , R 76V , R 8 1H , R 84 W

P 098 -Med ium s ized s ha l low b ow l s w i th p ronounced r im 1 6b , 1 6 1 , 3 9 , 3 9 j

P 082 -Sma l l s qua tj a r s R 40m , R 44N , R 51 , R 53 ( f o r R 53b ) , R 54 , R 55a , R 57a , R 57e

P 099 -Med ium s ized d eep b ow l s w i th r ounded b a se 2 4m , 2 4 s , 3 7e , 3 7f , 3 7 1 , 7 9d , mAT2

P 083 -Med ium s ized s qua t r im le s sj a r s R 8 1w , mo sTR33

P 100 -Med ium s ized d eep b ow l s w i th c onvex s i de s a nd f l a t b a se L l7a , L l7b , L l7c , L l7F , L l7g=L 17G , 1 9u , 2 0d , 2 0e , 2 0f , 2 0h , 2 0 j , 2 0k , 2 0m

P 084 -L a rge d eep b ow l s R 34 t , mosTR 1 , m o sTR2 , mOsTR9 P 085 -L a rge s halow b ow l s R IG , R 23D

P 101 -Med ium s ized d eep b ow l s w i th s t ra igh t o r c oncave s i de s L 26H , 4 ,5 ,5 f , 5 k , 9 b , 1 4d , 1 4e , 1 6y , 1 9v , 1 9w , 2 8 , mAT3 P 102 -Sma l l b ow l s w i th c onvex s i de s L 3b , L 17 , L l9a , L 19b , L l9c , l y , 1 4q , 1 4S 2,1 9f , 1 9m , 2 5s , 2 5 t , 2 6 , 3 7 j , 3 8

1 07

P 103 -Sma l l s ha l low b ow l s L 2d , L 7a , L 7b , L 7c , L 7d , i d , i f , i h , l j , l k , 2 b , 2 d , 3 d , 3 k , 3 1 , 1 3a , 1 3c , 1 3d , 1 6d , 1 6f , 1 6h , 1 6 j , 1 6n , 3 7n

P 122 -Med ium s ized t a l l d rop shaped j a r s L 37=65b , 6 5d , 6 5f , 6 5h , 6 5k , 6 5 1 , 6 5m , 6 5n , 6 5o , 6 5p , 6 5 r , 6 5 t , 6 5u , 6 5w , 6 7p , 9 5a , MAT15

P 104 -Sma l l , med ium a nd l a rge p l a te s L 2a ( f o r L 2 ) , L 2b= 12 t , 7 b , 7 d , l ib , 1d , 1 2b , 1 2d , 1 2h , 1 2 1 , 1 2n , 1 2o , 1 2p , 1 2 r , 1 2w , 2 5d=L4 , 2 5f , 2 5h , 2 5m , 3 1d

P 123 -L a rge t a l lj a r s w i th p ronounced s hou lde r a nd e l onga t ed n eck 7 3f , 7 3h , 7 3H 2,7 3k

P 105 -M in ia tu re s t ra igh t -s ided b ow l s a nd b eake r s 2 k , 3 p , 1 4S , 1 4y , 3 6c ( s eve ra l v a r ian t s ) , 3 6e , 3 6f , 3 6g , 3 6 j , 3 6k ( s eve ra l v a r ian t s ) , 3 6 1 ( s eve ra l v a r ian t s ) , 3 6m , 3 6n , 3 6s , 3 6 t , 3 6u

P 124 -Med ium s ized t a pe r ing j a r s w i th p ronounced s hou lde r a nd e l onga ted n eck 7 3c , 7 3g ( no t i lus t ra ted ) , 7 3n P 125 -Sma l l c on ica l v es se l s 5 4f , 5 4g , 5 4h , 5 4 j , 5 4m , 5 4p , 5 4q , 5 4 s , 5 4 t , 5 4w , 5 6F 2,6 1d ,

P 106 -M in ia tu re b ow ls w i th c onvex s i de s L l2D , 1 N 2,I s , i t , l u , l w , l x , 1 3 t , 1 3T2,1 4 t , 1 4u , 1 6u , 1 8v ,

7 0c , 7 0d , 7 0e , 7 0f , 7 0g , 7 0h , 7 0 j , mAT13

1 8w , 1 9k ( s eve ra l v a r ian t s ) P 126 - ' G rana ry -ve sse l s ' 7 0m , 7 0n , 7 0o , ' 7 0p , 7 1 , 7 2d , 7 2g , mosT4 ( much s ma l le r )

P 107 -B road -shou lde red ' w ine ja r s ' 7 4b ( s eve ra l v a r ian t s ) , 7 4m , 7 5b , 7 5c , 7 5e , 7 5 j , 7 5k , 7 5u , 7 6b , 7 6c , 7 6e , 7 6g

P 127 -Sma l l s qua tj a r s w i th w ide mou th a nd b a se 8 5c , 8 5d , 8 5e , 8 5f , 8 5k , 9 4 1 , 9 4n , 9 40 , 9 4p , 9 4q , 9 4 r

P 108 -N a r row shou lde red ' w ine ja r s ' ' 7 4p , 7 5m , 7 5n , 7 5o , 7 5v , 7 6d , 7 6 j , 7 6 1 , 7 6m

P 128 -Smal r ounded j a r s w i th n a r row n eck a nd f l a t b a se L 53K , 8 7p , 8 7 r , 8 7 s , 8 8e ( s eve ra l v a r ian t s ) , 8 8f , 8 8h , 8 8 j , 8 8s , 8 8u , 8 9a , 8 9c , 8 9d , 8 9g , 8 9 1 , 8 9m , 8 9n , 8 9p , 8 9 s , 9 1p , 9 4m

P 109 -S t ra igh t s ided t a l l c on ica l v esse l s L 32=L33C , L 33A , L 33d , 7 0a , 7 0b , mAT 12 P 110 -T a l l t a pe r ing v e sse ls w i th c onvex -concave p rof i le a nd n ar row f l a t tened b a se L 30 . L 30a=L30K , L 30M , L 30P , L 31A , L 31B , L 31c=L31D , L 33b 3,L 33h , mAT 14 P 111 -T a l lj a r s t a pe r ing f r om t h e s hou lde r L 36a=60d , L 36b , L 36D , L 36e , L 36F , L 36g , L 36L , L 36N , L 36S , L 38a , 6 0b , 6 0e , 6 0g , 6 0h , 6 0 j , 6 0k , 6 0m , 6 0n , 6 0p , 6 0q , 6 0 r , 6 0 t , 6 0v , mosT3 P 112 -B road s hou lde red j a r s w i th f l a t b a se L 30B , L 30C , L 36=L36 W , 5 9g , 6 3w , 6 8g , 7 4d , 9 0 , 9 1d , 9 1e P 113 -T a l l t a pe r ing j a r s w i th w ide s hou lde r s a nd f l a t b a se 5 5 , 7 4k P 114 -S qua t b ag shaped j a r s t a pe r ing f r om t h e s hou lde r L 38 , 5 9b , 5 9d , 5 9f , 5 9h , 5 9k , 5 9m , 5 9p , 5 9 t , 6 3b , 6 3d , 6 3e , 6 3g , 6 3 j , 6 3 1 , 6 3n , 6 3p , 6 3q , 6 3s , 6 3 t , 6 3u , 6 3v , 6 7 j , 6 7 1 , 8 1c , 8 1d P 115 -Med ium s ized b ag shaped j a r s L 39=64h , 5 9 j , 6 3 r , 6 4a , 6 4b , 6 4d P 116 -V ery l a rge b u lbou sj a r s L 40 , L 47 , L 47a , 8 1f , 8 1g , 8 2c P 117 -R ough c on ica l r im le s s j a r s L 33F , L 33G , 6 6f , 6 7b , 6 8c , 6 8e , 6 8h , 6 8 j , 6 8 1 , 6 8m , mosT 1 P 118 -L a rge s qua tj a r s w i th f l a t b a se L 44 , L 44c ( t wo v a r ian t s ) , L 45a , 7 7 , 8 2f , 8 2g P 119 -L a rge h e s -va ses 5 5d , 5 6b , 5 6d , 5 6f , 5 6h , 5 6m , 5 6n , 5 6o , 5 6p , 6 6h , 6 6 j , 6 6 1 , 6m , 6 6s , 9 1h

P 129 -L a rge b o t t le shaped j a r s L 53F , L 53n , L 65c , 9 4b , 9 4d , 9 4k , 9 4K 1 3 , mAT21 P 130 -Sma l l b o t t le shaped j a r s L 53G , L 53H , L 53J , L 60a , L 62a , L 65b , 9 4e , 9 5m , 9 5p P 131 -Smal a nd med ium s ized g l obu la rj a r s L 42=87h , L 42B , L 43B , 3 7N 2,8 7n , 8 8d , m osT7 P 132 -F la t tened g l obu la rj a r s L 53q , 8 7 t , 8 8m , 8 9b P 134 -Smal d rop shaped j a r s L 58C , L 58D , 8 6c , 8 6d , 8 6e , 8 6f , 8 6g , 8 6h , 8 6k , 8 6n , 8 6o , 8 7c , 8 7d , MAT16, mo sT2 P 135 -Sma l l b ag shaped j a r s 6 2 , 8 7e , 8 7f , 8 7g , 8 7 j , 8 7v , 8 8g , 9 5d P 136 -V e ry s mal s qua tj a r s L 53C , L 53r , L 53 W P 138 -Med ium s ized n a r row t a per ing j a r s w i th w ide mou th a nd f l a t b a se L 56B , L 65d , L 65e , L 65f , 5 7m , 9 1a ( s eve ra l v a r ian t s ) , 9 1b ( t wo v a r ian t s ) , 9 1f , 9 1g , 9 1n , 9 5b P 150 -` P ro to -w ine ja r s ' w i th d i s t inc t iv e t u rned r im 7 4e , 7 4g , 7 4 j , 7 5s U ng rouped t y pe s L ib , L 2 , L 4d , L 12 , L 36c , L 37b , L 42a , L 43C , L 44a , L 45b , L 63 , L 75D , 9M , 1 2 s , 1 6w , 1 6z , 2 9m , 3 4d , 5 4k , 5 4u , 6 6b , 6 6g , 6 6gg , 7 4a , 7 4 f , 8 8 1 , 9 1s , 9 2g , 9 5g , 9 5s , 9 5 t , 9 6d , 9 8m , 9 8 t , 9 9b , 9 9d , 9 9f , 9 9k , 9 9m , 9 9p , 9 9s , mAT4 , MATS , mAT6 , mAT7 , mAT8 , mAT 19 , mAT20 , mAT22 , mAT25

P 120 -Sma l l a nd s qua t h e s -va ses 5 7b , 5 7d , 5 7f , 5 7g , 5 7 j , 5 7k , 5 7n , 5 7o , 5 7p , 5 7 r , 5 7 t , 5 7v , 9 2p , 9 4a P 121 -Med ium s ized s qua tj a r s w i th f l a t b a se L 53a , L 53A , L 53b=92m , L 53D , L 53E , L 53 1 , L 530 , L 53P , L 59D=L65a , L 65 , 9 1 j , 9 11 , 9 2b , 9 2f , 9 2 j , 9 2 s , 9 3d , 9 3k , 9 4 t

1 08

T ura s er iat ion d ata

G rave

P o t te ry t ypes

I n t h e t a b le b e low , t he g rave n umbe r s a re t hose wh ich a ppea r i n t h e s e r ia t ion ma t r ix . T hey c o r respond t o t he g rave n umbe r s l i s ted i n t he p ubl ished g rave r eg is ter ( Junker 1 912 : 6 2 -85) , s t anda rd ised i n to t h ree d ig i t s a nd p refaced b y t he i d en t if ica t ion l e t te r ' T ' f or T ura . T he p o t te ry t ypes l i s ted r ep resen t t h e c onve r s ion o f J unke r 's t ypes i n to t h ose o f P e t r ie 's P ro todyna s t ic c o rpus ( Pe t r ie e ta l . 1 913 : p l . LXVI I1 ) . F ina l ly , t he p o t t e ry t ype s h ave b een c onver ted i n to t he g roup s u sed f o r s e r ia t ion .

T 241 T 266 T 273 T 288 1 293 T 311 T 335 T 337 T 338

3 f 6 3g 7 4e 6 0p /d 7 0o /p 3 g 1 4e 2 7r 5 0d 3 k 2 7h 6 3g 5 0d 7 5e 1 9v 5 0d 6 3g 7 4e 9 0 3 g 5 7f 6 3g 5 0 t 5 7f 5 7n 5 70 6 3g 6 5 t l x 3 k 2 0h 5 0 t 5 9p 6 5 t 9 1j 3 k 5 0 t 6 5 t 9 1h 5 7o 6 3g 6 5 t 3 k 5 9h 6 4b 6 5p 5 0 t 5 9p 7 5m 7 6d / 1 3 1 1l d 5 0d 9 1d 3 k 5 0 t 5 6p 5 9p 6 5 t

G rave

P o t te ry t ype s

1 0 15 1 0 17 T O 19 1 025 T 027 T O30 T 034 1 036 1 038 1 042 1 043 T 044 T O47 1 048 T O49 T 053 1 054 T O57 T 058 T O64

7 0 j 8 8g 6 0p /d 7 0f 4 ' 7p 5 9h 3 f 5 0d 7 0g 3 6g 4 7p 4 ' 7p 6 0p /d 4 ' 7p 6 0p /d 7 0p 4 6h 4 7p 6 0p /d 7 5e 4 ' 7p 7 4 j 3 k 7 0g 4 7p 7 5e 9 1h 3 6g 3 6n 7 0f 7 0g 4 7p 6 0p /d 7 4m 3 6g 3 6n 4 7p 4 ' 7p 6 0p /d 3 k 3 6g 4 8 7 4 j 7 5s 4 7p 7 5s 3 f 3 g 4 7p 6 0p /d 3 f 4 7p 6 0p /d 7 5s 9 1e

T 084 T O89 T 090 T 091 T O95 T 099 T 101 T 109 T 110 T 113 T 117 T 120 T 122 T 131 T 139 T 158 T 159 T 162 T 164

1 3m 4 7p 4 7p 7 4 j 7 5s 4 ' 7p 6 0p /d 3 f /k 1 4e 4 8 8 8g 4 7p 6 0p /d 3 g 4 ' 7p 6 0p /d 3 f 4 7h 4 8 7 0h 4 8 6 0p /d 3 f 6 0p /d 9 h 1 4y 5 1g 7 0o /p 3 1 4 7p 4 ' 7p 5 1g 6 0n 5 7f 7 0o /p 9 1h 3 f /g 4 7p 6 0p /d 3 1 4 ' 7p 8 6f 5 0d 8 8g 5 0d 5 1g 3 k 1 4 j 4 7p 5 7n 1 4e 4 7p 6 0n 7 0o /p 9 1e

T 169 T 172 1 174

2 7h /31 m 5 9p 5 0d 6 0v 3 k 2 7h 4 ' 7p 5 6p 5 9p

T 177

2 b 3 k l id 4 7p 7 5s 8 6f

T 179 T 181 T 182 T 186 T 193

4 7p 6 0p /d 7 3k 6 3g 7 5e 8 1f 8 6d 1 4e 6 0n 7 4m 5 0d 5 9p 7 5s 2 b 5 1k 7 0o /p 7 6c 9 0

T 197 T 204 T 215 1 216 T 222 T 223 T 230 T 236

3 g 4 7p 7 5e 7 5s 3 f 1 4e 7 0o 3 k 1 9v 9 5p 9 8m 3 f l id 4 7p 5 1k /d 3 k l id 4 6h 7 0 j 7 5e 2 7h 2 7 r 5 0d 5 9p 6 3g 1x3 f 5 0d 7 0g

P o t te ry g roups P 125 P 111 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 050 P 052 P 103 P 052 P 105 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 103 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 150 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 025 P 097 P 053 P 052 P 052 P 119 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 126 P 10 1 P 052 P 052 P 119 P 052 P 150 P 052 P 107 P 10 1 P 052 P 053 P 126 P 052 P 097 P 101 P 052 P 050 P 107 P 052 P 052

P 135 P 125 P 114 P 097 P 105 P 111 P 111 P 052 P 150 P 125 P 107 P 125 P 107 P 105 P 111 P 105 P 150 P 150 P 097 P 097 P 097 P 150 P 111 P 10 1 P 111 P 103 P 097 P 105 P 105 P 10 1 P 103 P 053 P 120 P 097 P 103 P 135 P 053 P 096 P 10 1

P 125

P 126 P 107 P 111

T 341 T 342 T 343 T 344 T 356 T 357 T 361 T 363 T 364 T 365

P 119 P 111

P 103 P 111 P 111 P 112

P 103 P 135

T 366 T 367 T 369 T 370 T 371 T 372 T 377 T 391 T 403 T 417 T 423 T 435 1 438

P 111 P 125 P 111 P 111 P 105 P 126

T 442

P 111 P 126 P 111 P 134

1 469 T 470 T 474 T 477 T 487 T 490 T 494 T 495

P 103 P 120 P 111 P 112

P 114 P 111 P 097 P 103 P 114 P 103 P 104 P 134 P 111 P 114 P 107 P 114 P 103

P 123 P 134 ( P116 ) P 111 P 150 P 107 P 112

P 097 P 101 P 103 P 053 P 103 P 125 P 095 P 097

P 107 P 150 P I26 ( P 130 )

P 097 P 104 P 104

T 455 T 456

T 496 T 498 T 500 T 501 T 502 T 505 T 518 T 525 1 539 T 543 1 548 T 549 1 551 1 573 1 575 T 578

P 097 P 114 P 106 P 125

1 09

P o t tery g roup s

P 097 P 114 P 111 P 126 P 052 P 095 P 097 P 103 P 052 P 107 P 052 P 101 P 097 P 114 P 053 P 114 P 053 P 103 P 122 ( P 100 ) P 053 P 103 P 114 P 120 P 103 P 114 P 053 P 108 P 052 P 103 P 053 P 103 P 122 P 097 P 120 1 3m 5 7f 3 1 2 7d 5 0 t 5 9g P 053 P 094 P 094 P 103 3 k 1 4 1 5 7f 6 5p P 053 P 103 3 1 5 0 t 5 9p 6 5k /p / t 7 6d P 122 P 053 P 095 3m 5 0 t 6 5 t 8 1d P 053 P 094 2 7d 5 0 t 5 7o 6 5 t P 053 P 094 3 k 2 7d 5 0 t 5 7o 6 5p P 122 P 053 P 097 1 3g 5 1d 6 5 t P 053 P 097 2 7h 5 0 t 5 7f 6 5 t 108 P 114 5 6m 6 5k /p / t 7 6d 8 1d 9 1h P P 103 P 120 3 k 5 7v 6 5k 6 5p 2 7d 5 0 t 5 9h 6 5p P 053 P 094 3m 2 7 r 5 0c 9 0 P 052 P 095 3 1 5 0 t 6 8e 7 5m P 053 P 103 P 108 P 114 6 3g 7 6 1 3 k 5 0n 5 6p 8 5d P 052 P 103 2 7h 5 0 t 5 1f 9 1h 9 4 1 P 053 P 097 P 127 l x 5 0n 6 5k 8 5d 8 8g P 052 P 106 P 135 2 7d 3 7 j /e 5 1d 5 7o 6 4b P 053 P 094 8 7g 8 8g P 120 P 135 l x 3 f 5 0 t 6 3g 6 5k P 053 P 097 P 122 5 7n 5 9p 8 7f 8 8g P 114 P 120 P 114 P 122 5 9h 5 9p 6 5w 5 9g 5 9h 7 6 1 8 1d P 108 P 112 5 0 t 5 7f 5 7o 6 5p P 053 P 120 3 1 5 0n 5 9p P 052 P 103 4 7m 5 0 t 5 7o P 052 P 053 l x 3 k 5 0n 5 70 P 052 P 103 3 k 2 7h 5 0n 5 7v 5 9h 6 5p P 052 P 097 P 120 P 122 1 3m 5 0n 5 9p P 052 P 097 5 6p 6 5p P 119 P 122 3 1 1 9v 6 5p 7 5m P 10 1 P 103 5 9p 6 5p 8 8 1 P 114 P 122 3 k 5 9p 6 4b 6 5k P 103 P 114 5 0n 5 6m 6 5k 6 5p P 052 P 119 3 k 5 0n 5 9h 8 5e P 052 P 103 5 0n 5 9h 6 5k / t 7 6d 7 6 1 P 052 P 108 3 k 5 0n 5 9p 6 5p 7 6d / 1 P 052 P 103 P 122 3m 5 0n 6 5p P 052 P 095 3 1 1 9v 5 7o 6 5p P 10 1 P 103 2 7h 5 7o 6 5p 8 5d 9 4 r P 097 P 120 1x 5 0n 6 5p 7 6c P 052 P 106 3 7 j/e 5 9p 6 8m P 099 P 114 P 10 1 P 117 9 b 6 8m P 114 P 115 3 7f /n 5 9 j 5 9p 6 8m

P 150 P 097 P 10 1 P 114 P 114 P 150 P 120 P 120 P 122 P 106 P 114 ( P 12 1)

P 119 P 122 P 115 P 114 P 104 P 114

P 122 P 122 P 112 P 119

P 103 P 112 P 120 P 122 P 108 P 114 P 114 P 122 P 120 P 122 P 103 P 120 P I22 P 120 P 119 P 122 P 114 P 112 P 108

P 122 P 122 P 122 P 117

P 119 P 127 P 119 P 120 P 122 P 127 P 099 P 115 P 106 P 114 P 135 P 114 P 122 P 114 P 120 P 106 P 120 P 103 P 114 P 114 P 108 P 122 P 115 P 122 P 114 P 114 P 108

P 122 P 127 P 122 P 114

P 122 P 120 P 122 P 122 P 127 P 107 P 122 P 117 P 117

P o t te ry g roup s i n c luded i nt h e s e r ia t ion :

G rave

P o t te ry t ype s

P o t tery g roup s

P 050 P 052 P 053 P 094 P 095 P 097 P 099 P 101 P 103 P 104 P 105

TK0054 TK0055 TK0057

5 0 f 6 3g 7 5e 7 6c 1 9u 3 6ce 5 0 3 b 1 4d 2 0b 4 6b 6 0d

P 107 P 114 P 100 P 105 P 095 P 097 P 10 1

TK0058 TK0059 TK0061

1 2bn 5 9p 7 3h 2 7h 5 9bh 6 7 j lb 1 4dm 2 7f 3 2 5 7d 5 9b 6 0b 6 5k 2 7p 3 6c t 5 9f 6 5f 1 2t h 3 3b 6 3p 6 8h 2 7h 6 0b 6 5k 4 6d 8 1 6 0b 8 7h 4 6bdhkmp 5 6f 6 0d 4 6d 5 6f 6 0bd 84 6bd fm 6 0d 6 3 1p 8 5f 4 6f 5 4 s 7 b 5 9p 1 9u 5 4m 5 9h 7 6 1 8 5f

P 052 P 052 P 050 P 123 P 104 P 097 P 095 P 111 P 097 P 097 P 097

P 114 P 131 P 111 P 111 P 094 P 127 P 125 P 114 P 108

2 d 1 9u 6 5f 5 9h t 6 5f 7 5 -6 8 5c 1 2n 1 7 1 1 9 s 2 7m 5 6f 5 7v 6 5 fkn 7 5no

P 050 P 111 P 050 P 050 P 050 P 114 P 050 P 104 P 100 P 127 P 114 P 114 P 097 P 122 P 104 P 108 P 052 P 097 P 111 P 105 P 107 P 052 P 111 P 052 P 127 P 100 P 107 P 097 P 120

TK0 117

l k 21 3g 2 7g 5 9d 6 3d 6 4

P 097 P 103 P 108 P 114

TK0 118 TK0 119 TK0 120

7 5no 5 9b 7 5 -6 1 6n 6 3 2 9 5 7g 6 0b 6 4h 6 5f 9 5d

P 115 P 107 P 114 P 103 P 114 P 097 P 111 P 115 P 120

TK0 121 TK0 123 TK0 125

4 8d 6 3 1 7g 5 7k 5 9h 9 1c 9 2 j 7 d 3 3g 5 9p 9 9m

P 122 P 052 P 114 P 097 P 114 P 120 P 12 1 P 096 P 104 P 114

TK0 127

P 10 1 P 114 P 103 P 097 P 052 P 103 P 106 P 094 P 118 P 097 1 2 1 2 9d 5 9d 6 0d 6 5f P 122 1 9 s 2 0f 4 6p 5 7n t 6 5b 8 5c P 050 P 122 P 10 1 1 2n 1 9w 5 9h 6 3b 6 5k P 104 l ib 5 9 t 41 7b 5 0b 5 9b P 052 P 114 5 9p 6 5fkm P 096 7 b 1 2 1 1 6z 3 3 1 5 9k 7 5 mn 7 6g 1 P 114 095 1l bd 1 6 t 3 6s 6 3e 6 5bk 7 5 -6 P P 114 1 2 t 5 9bhp 6 4h P 104

P 106 P 107 P 108 P 111 P 112 P 114 P 115 P 117 P 119 P 120 P 122 P 125 P 126 P 127 P 134 P 135 P 150 P o t te ry g roup s ( shown i n b racke t s a nd i n s ma l le r t ype i n t h e t a b le a bove ) e xc luded f r om t h e s e r ia t ion b ecause e ach o ccu r s o n ly o nce : P 100 P 116 P 12 1 P 130

Tarkhan

s er iat ion

d ata

I n t h e t a b le b e low , t h e g rave n umbe r s a r e t hose w h ich a ppea r i n t h e s e r ia t ion m a t r ix . T hey c o r re spond t o t he g rave n umbe r s l i s t ed i n t h e p ub l i shed g rave r eg i s te r s ( Pe t r ie e t a l . 1 913 : p l s . LX -LX I , LX II I -LX IV , LXV I -LXV I I ; P e t r ie 1 914 : p l s . XXX I I -XL I I I ) , s t anda rd i sed i n to f ou r d ig i t s a nd p re faced b y t h e i d en t i f ica t ion l e t te r s ' TK ' f o r T a rkha .n . T he p o t te ry t ypes l i s ted a r e i lus t ra ted i n t h e e xcava t ion r epo r t s a nd i n t h e P ro todyna s t ic C orpu s . T he se t ype s h ave b een c onve r ted i n to t h e p o t te ry g roups u sed i n t h e s er ia t ion . F o r c e r ta in g r ave s , t h e p o t te ry c on ten t s r eco rded o n t h e t omb c a rd ( c omp le t ed a tt h e t ime o fe xcava t ion ) d o n o t c o r re spond w i th t hose l i s ted i n t he t omb r eg is te r o f t he p ub l i shed e xcava t ion r epo r t . I n s uch c a se s , t h e t omb -ca rd wa s t aken t o b e t h e mo re r e l iab le r eco rd . T he g raves c once rned a re u nder l ined i n t h e

TK0062 TK0063 TK0064 TK0065 TK0070 TK0071 TK0073 TK0074 TK0080 TK0086 TK0089 TK0090 TK0091 TK0093 TK0097 TK0098 TK0 100 TK0 10 1 TK0 103 TK0105

f o l low ing t a b le . T he p ub l i shed g rave r eg is te r l i s t s t wo s epa ra te g rave s w i th t h e n umbe r 3 36 . T he s econd o ft h e se h a s b een r enumbe red TK0337 i n t h e t a b le b e low a nd i n t h e s e r ia t ion .

TK0 107 TK0108 TK0109 TK0 110

G rave

P o t te ry t ype s

P o t te ry g roup s

TK000 1 TK0002 TK0005 TK0006

1 7g 2 9d 5 9hkm 6 5d f lmw 2 9d 6 5k t 8 5c 1 8k 5 6bh 5 9 7 6 j 3 b 4 6bf t 4 7p 5 9h 7 3f

TK0007

4 7bhkm 4 8d s 4 9d 1 6 0n 7 3h 8 1f 4 6b 4 8d 4 9 1 6 0b 4 7p 4 9g 7 3f 1 2 t 1 8b 5 4k 6 3 8 5 8 8h

P 097 P 097 P 096 P 050 P 123 P 052

TK0039

P 050 P 052 P 097 P 128 1 3c 1 8b 4 6h 4 7df 6 3 1 8 1f P 050 P 114 3 b 4 6f 4 7dh rn s 4 8d s 4 9d P 050 5 9h 7 3h P 123 3 b 4 6bdp rw P 050 3 b 4 7p 4 9dg 7 3h P 052 4 6d fhp 4 7m 8 1f 8 2c P 050 4 7p 4 8d 1 4 9g 6 0bd 7 3h 7 5c P 052 4 8s 6 0b 7 3h 7 5c 8 1f P 052 P 123 83 6 jkn 4 7b 6 0d 7 0g 7 3f P 052 P 123 3 6 j 4 4f 4 6bfh 4 7b 6 0d P 051 P 111 3 b 4 6bk 4 7p 4 8dg s 4 9d 7 3h P 050

TK0040 TK004 1

1 2 t 4 6b 6 0b 3 b 2 5m 4 8s 6 0d 6 3g

TK0042 TK0043 TK0052

1 4d 4 9 1 7 5bc 3 b 6 4h 8 1f 2 b 92 7p 5 0 7 6c

TK0053

3 b 1 4d 4 6d l akm 6 0bdgk 6 3 j

TK0008 TK0009 TK0012 TK0015 TK0016 TK0018 TK0019 TK0020 TK0027 TK0036 TK0037 TK0038

P 050 P 052 P 114 P 052 P 095 P 052 P 107 P 050 P 114

P 114 P 122 P 108 P 052

P 122 P 127 P 114 P 119 P 095 P 114

TK0 112 TK0 113 TK0 115

P 111 P 116 P 123 P 052 P 111 P 123 P 104 P 114 P 127 P 052 P 097 P 103 P 116 P 052 P 095 P 114 P 095 P 095 P 052 P 107 P 107

P 123 P 116 P 111 P 123 P 111 P 116

P 094 P 105 P 111 P 125 P 050 P 052 P 105 P 052 P 095 P 123 P 104 P 111 P 095 P 104 P 111 P 101 P 107 P 115 P 116 P 095 P 097 P 103 P 095 P 10 1 P 111

TK0128 TK0129 TK0 130 TK0 131 TK0 132 TK0 136 TK0138 TK0 14 1 TK0 142 TK0143 TK0 144 TK0 145 TK0 148 TK0149 TK0150 1 10

5 9k 6 5k 5 9k 6 5 t 8 5c 1 2 r 1 7gm 3 1d 6 5 t 8 5d 8 9n 1 2n 5 9hk 9 1c 5 9hmp 6 5f 7 5n 3 6 jk 4 7p 5 4 j 1 2np 1 3d 1 7 1 1 9u 2 7f 6 0b 8 5f 3 6c 5 9p 5 5 6 0d 6 3ge 7 6c 1 6f 2 0d 5 0 5 9 t 6 0d 6 3 1 6 4d 7 5-6 1 8m 4 8s 5 0p 5 9h 7 5no 9 4n

1 2h 1 9w 2 5f 5 6d 5 9p 6 0b 6 5f 7 5e 1 2 t 1 3c 5 9p 2 7h 5 9p 6 3e 5 0 5 9b 6 3e 6 5k i s1 2d 1 3a 1 8v l s tu 5 9p 6 5m 1l b 1 2b ru 1 9d 5 9p 7 5v 7 7

P 114 P 114 P 097 P 114 P 105 P 104 P 111

P 122 P 122 P 104 P 127 P 114 P 114 P 105 P 100 P 127 P 114 P 111 P 100 P 114 P 096

P 123 P 10 1 P 120 P 114 P 114 P 122

P 104 P 122 P 122 P 117

P 119 P 119 P 111

P 114 P 125

P 127 P 128 P 122 P 125 P 103 P 104

P 113 P 114 P 103 P 107 P 115 P 108 P 114

P 103 P 122 P 114 P 122 P 127 P 104 P 108 P 119 P 122

P 104 P 119 P 104 P 114 P 114 P 104 P 114 P 104

P 107 P 111 P 122 P 114 P 122 P 106 P 122 P 108 P 114

P 104 P 111 P 114 P 097 P 127 P 104 P 114 P 097 P 122 P 104

P 100 P 120 P 114 P 122 P 10 1 P 112 P 107 P 108

P 104 P 105 P 107 P 122 P 114 P 115

G rave

P o t te ry t ypes

P o t te ry g roups

G rave

P o t te ry t ype s

P o t tery g roup s

TK0 153

1 2w 2 9d 5 9d 7 6m 9 2f

TK0 154

2 9d 3 3r 5 6n 5 7g 5 9b 9 2m 9 4p 1 2d 2 0 f 6 3eg 7 6m

P 097 P 121 P 097 P 120 P 100

TK0268 TK0274 TK0275 TK0276 TK0278 TK0280 TK0281 TK0282 TK0283 TK0284 TK0287 TK0290 TK0291 TK0292 TK0295 TK0296 TK0297

3 4d 4 7hp 4 8d 1 6 0n 4 8g 4 9 1 6 0d 4 8s 5 6h 5 9b 7 3f 4 8 1 4 9dg 7 3f 6 3e 6 5m r 5 9b 6 4h 2 9 5 0 6 0bd 2 4 s 6 4d 2 4f 5 9 8 8u 9 5g 1 3k 5 0 j 5 9 t 6 5k 9 5b 5 0 t 6 6b 9 2s 6 0b 6 5f 1 9f 2 0f 6 3 4 9 1 5 0 6 0d 2 9d 5 0n 6 3gr 5 0 5 9m 5 9k t 6 0d 6 4h 7 6m 8 2g 9 0

TK0300 TK0304

1 9w 2 7p 3 8 r 6 3 1 1 6f 4 7p 4 8g 4 9d 6 0 j 7 5kn

TK0305

1 6 r 4 8 1 s 4 9dg 6 0d 6 3p 8 1f

TK0306 TK0307 TK0308 TK0312 TK0313 TK0314 TK0315 TK0317 TK0319

1 2hy 5 9p 6 0n 4 6bd 6 4d 44 6b 5 9p 4 6d 5 0 7 4g 3 6 jsu 4 6b 6 0d 4 6bf 4 7m 4 9 1 7 3f 8 2c 4 4c 4 6b fk 6 0d 1 6 th 4 7b 5 4 s 6 0d 4 6d fk 4 7d 5 6b 6 5

P 052 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 114 P 114 P 052 P 099 P 097 P 053 P 053 P 111 P 100 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 108 P 115 P 097 P 052 P 111 P 052 P 116 P 097 P 050 P 050 P 050 P 050 P 050 P 050 P 052 P 050

TK0322

1 6 j 4 7p 4 8g 4 9g 1 6 0d 7 3h 8 1f 4 8s 4 9dg 6 0d 7 4b 1 6h j 1 4 6f 4 7d 6 0d

TK0 155

P 104 P 108 P 114 P 10 1 P 114 P 119 P 121 P 127 P 104 P 108 P 114

P 097 P 114 P 120 P 122 P 107 P 114 P 122 P 096 P 104 P 108 P 114

TK0 159 TK0 160 TK0 16 1

1 8b 2 9d 5 7n 5 9p 6 3g 6 5k 5 9mp 6 5bw 7 6c l ib 1 2p 3 3k 1 5 9b fk r np 7 6 1 8 1c 1 9bd 2 7g 5 9fp 1 6f 6 3v 6 5 t 1 2n-p 1 3g 5 9b 6 3g 8 5

TK0 162

2 9d 5 9b 6 5b

P 097 P 114 P 122

TK0 163 TK0 165

3 d 2 9d 5 9bp 1l b 1 2br 1 4m 5 9bkmp 6 5m 7 5no 3 k 5 9p 4 8gs 5 0 5 7 j 6 3g 6 5fh 1l b 5 6d 5 9bp t 6 3e 7 5nv 7 6m 7 7 3 k 1 3ad 1 6y 5 6h 5 7p 5 9k 6 3e 7 5-6 8 6k 8 8f 9 8 t lbd 6 3b i f2 9d 6 5k 8 5d 1 4d 2 9d 5 0h 6 5f 5 9b 6 5w l ib 1 9w 2 0f 2 5h 3 3k 5 0 s 5 6d 5 9 1 imp 6 5p t 7 5n

P 097 P 095 P 122 P 103 P 052 P 104 P 119 P 101 P 119 P 104 P 097 P 053 P 114 P 053 P 104 P 122 P 097 P 104 P 127 P 104 P 050 P 097 P 050 P 097 P 122 P 102 P 100 P 050 P 114 P 050 P 050 P 114 P 135 P 100 P 114 P 097

TK0 156 TK0 157 TK0 158

TK0 167 TK0 168 TK0 169 TK0170 TK0 171 TK0 172 TK0 174 TK0 175 TK0 176

TK0 177 TK0 178

l ib 1 3f 5 9m 6 5k 1 2d 5 9bp 6 5h 7 6 1 8 5f

TK0 179 TK0183 TK0 187 TK0188 TK0 189

1b5 9p 1 2y 1 9f 4 6bdf 7 3cg 1 7g 2 0h 6 6b 4 6b 4 7p 5 9b 1 2p 1 7 1 2 7p 5 9bp 6 5m 7 6 1

TK0191 TK0194 TK0195

1 2p 3 8 6 3 1 2 0k 6 3e I d 4 6bf 5 6f 6 0k 6 3g 7 5e

TK0196 TK0197

4 6f 4 7p 4 9 1 6 0b 3 b 3 6g 4 6f 5 0 6 3 6 5m 7 0d 7 3f 8 8g 9 5 mp

P 094 P 097 P 114 P 103 P 114 P 122 P 097 P 104 P 114 P 127 P 103 P 114 P 104 P 108 P 114 P 114 P 114 P 120 P 122 P 108 P 114 P 118 P 103 P 120 P 114 P 103 P 097 P 122 P 096 P 108

P 104 P 114 P 103 P 119 P 052 P 052 P 122

TK0257 TK0258 TK0260

P 104 P 114 1 2n 5 9b P 094 P 114 2 7d 5 9b 6 5k 8 7v 052 P 103 3 d 4 7d 4 8d 4 9g 5 4g 6 0dn 9 0 P P 125 P 107 P 114 5 9bp 6 3g 7 5-6 P 096 P 108 1 4 j 5 9bmp 6 0b 6 3e 6 5 6 5 r P 122 P 135 7 5o 9 5d P 050 P 098 1 2 1 1 6b 4 6k 5 9m t 6 0b 6 3 1 7 4d P 112 P 114 P 111 P 114 5 9m t 6 0d 3 7 1 6 8h j 1 P 099 P 117 P 103 P III 3 k 1 6w 6 0b 9 0 1 9u 4 7f 6 0b 6 3e 6 5km P 052 P 100 P 122 P 104 P 114 2 5d 5 9bdf 8 5d P 097 P 10 1 1 2p 1 4d 1 7 1 2 9dm 5 9f P 052 P 102 1 9m 4 7d 4 9 1 5 5 5 9p 6 0d

TK0261 TK0262 TK0264 TK0266 TK0267

4 7h 4 8g 4 9 1 5 0 6 3e 8 1f 9 1d 4 9 1 6 0b 4 7m 4 9g 1 6 3e 4 7p 4 8 t 4 9 1 7 5-6 4 7m 4 9 1 6 0bn

P 114 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 052

P 114 P 107 P 111 P 111 P 095 P 105 P 123 P 125

P 115 P 128 P 120

TK0203 TK0204 TK0211

TK0231 TK0238 TK0250 TK0252

P 100 P 10 1 P 114 P 119

P 114 P 097 P 102 P 124 P 100 P 052 P 114 P 104 P 108 P 114

1 9u 6 4d 5 9p 6 3n 8 9n 1 8b 2 7p 5 7 t

TK0230

P 122 P 127 P 10 1 P 122

P 104 P 114 P 122 P 108 P 114 P 122

TK0 198 TK0200 TK020 1

TK0212 TK0213

P 107 P 114 P 128

TK0324 TK0325

TK0327 6 0d 7 3f 8 1f TK0336 1 6 j 4 7p 4 8s 4 9d 1 5 6h 7 5 -6 TK0337* 4 9 6 0d TK0401 5 0 6 0b TK0402 l x 1 6d 6 5m TK0403 TK04 10 TK04 11 TK04 12

P 111 P 114 P 104 P 111

P 112 P 111 P 114 P 127 P 104 P 114 P 111 P 113

P 112 P 114 P 116 P 111 P 114 P 107 P 111

P 104 P 115 P 10 1 P 052 P 105 P 052 P 051 P 103 P 052

P 128 P 114 P 122

P 114 P 114 P 115 P 112 P 114 P 114 P 107 P 108

P 111 P 114 P 114 ( P 150 )

P 111 P 116 P 123 P 111 P 111 P I25 P 119 P 122

P 107 P 111 P 052 P 098 P 103 P 116 P 123 P 103 P 107 P 119 P 111 P 111 P 106 P 122

TK04 17

7 2g 7 3fn 3 d 54 8s 4 9 150d 6 0d 7 0n 7 2g 7 6bc 3 d 2 4f 5 0 5 9b 6 5

P 120 P 052 P 111 P 052

TK04 19 TK0420 TK0421 TK0422 TK0423 TK0474 TK0477 TK0481

5 0 6 3e 6 5h 7 2 2 0m 5 9b 6 0b 6 5b 1 7 1 2 4f 6 5b 2 4f 5 0 6 0b 5 9m 6 0d 1 8f 4 6 6 0dk 4 9g 5 0 6 0d 1 2n 2 9d 4 6df 5 9b 6 0d 6 5b

TK0484 TK0527 TK0542 TK0544 TK0802 TK0804

3 d 4 6dh 4 7ps 7 0b 7 3f 4 6db 6 0bd 6 4 4 6f 6 0b 5 0 6 3p 7 3f 4 6f 6 0bd 7 2g 3 g 4 6d fh 6 0d 6 5 8 8b

TK0900 TK0902 TK 1000

5 0 6 5h 6 0b 6 5dk 2 0e 5 4u 6 5k 6 3g 1 6 4d

11

P 111

P 103 P 111 P 116

P 097 P 111 P 097 P 114

TK I002

P 119 P 123

P 097 P 111 P 114

1 3g 6 0b 1 7h 2 4f 5 9b l w 6 0b 3 f4 7m 4 9 1 5 0 5 6b 5 7r 6 0d

TK04 14

P 122 P 135 P 111 P 112

P 052 P 123 P 052 P 050 P 111 P 111 P 052 P 052 P 052 P 103

P 111 P 111 P 114 P 123 P 122 P 115 P 097 P 115 P 114 P 097 P 121 P 122 P 102 P 111 P 097 P 114 P 111 P 118 P 10 1 P 103

P 106 P 111 P 052 P 097 P 111 P 119

P 122 P 052 P 100 P 097 P 052 P 111 P 050 P 052 P 050 P 114 P 050 P 050 P 050 P 052 P 050 P 050 P 128 P 052 P 111 P 100

P 123 P 124 P 126 P 101 P 103 P 107 P 126 P 097 P 103 P 114 P 114 P 111 P 122 P 097 P 114 P 096 P 111 P 097 P 122 P 052 P 111 P 111 P 114 P 111 P 097

P 122 P 126 P 114 P 122 P 111 P 111 P 104 P 1I1 P 103 P 123 P 115 P 123 P 126 P 111 P 122

P 122 P 122 P 122 P 125

P 114 P 115

G rave

P o t te ry t ype s

P o t te ry g roups

G rave

P o t te ry t ype s

P o t te ry g roup s

TK 1005 TK 1006 TK 1009 TK 1010 TK 1011 TK 1013 TK 1014 TK 10 15 TK 10 16

1 2 1 2 0d 5 4u 6 5f 4 6b -b 7 5c 1 2 t 2 0e 6 3g 1 2 0e 6 4d 1 2 r 2 0e 6 3e 1 3f 9 1 1 2 0e 6 3e 4 6df 5 6d 7 6 1 2 t 2 0h 2 5d 6 3g 1

MT0202

P 114

MT0205

W50 L 3OB L 3 1A L 36S mATM ISC22 W55 L 7G L 12 DL 33H

P 114

MT0206 MT0207 MT0208 MT0209

R 22A R 94L L 36N L 30C L 33C W55 L 31A L 31D L 36F W58 L l6G L 36N L 53A

1 3g 6 3e 1 1 2 t 5 9p 6 3g 1 2 t 1 3f 2 0e 5 4u 6 3g 1

P 104 P 107 P 104 P 115 P 104 P 12 1 P 114 P 107 P 104 P I14 P 114 P 100

P 122

TK 1017 TK 1020 TKt021

P 100 P 050 P 100 P 100 P 100 P 097 P 100 P 050 P 100 P 097 P 104 P 097

MT0210

1W 4 6D 4 6J 4 7R 5 6F2 6 0D 9 4R 2M 1 3T2 1 4S 1 9K 3 6E 4 6K

P 049 P 112 P 050 P 110 P 076 P 109 P 050 P 050 P 121 P 050 P 111 P 050

TK 1023 TK 1025 TK 1026 TK 1028 TK 1029 TK 1031 TK 1034

4 6dfp 4 7h 6 0bd t 1 3f 2 0e 2 5d 5 4u 6 3g 1 4 9g 5 0 7 5be 1 2v 1 8bf 8 5k 45 9m 6 3gp 1 2 1 5 9m 6 3gp 8 2c 1 2h 1p 2 7f 6 3gq 8 5k 9 1p

P 052 P 100 P 107 P 096 P 114 P 114 P 104

TK 1035 TK 1037 TK 1038 TK 1039 TK 104 1 TK 1045 TK 1046

1 2 1 1 6 j 2 0e 5 9p 4 6d fh 5 6d 6 0k 2 0 j 5 9p 6 3eg 7 9d 8 5e 8 8d s 3m 4 7h 4 7h 6 3e 7 5 -6 1 2 1 1 6 j 1 8b 6 0d 6 3g t 8 7n 8 9c 4 6d 4 7m 4 8s 4 6d f5 6b 6 3e 4 9d 5 9f 6 0 r 7 3h 7 5b 7 6 j

P 050 P 097 P 052 P 094 P 10 1 P 104 P 097 P 128 P 100 P 050 P 100 P 099 P 052 P 052 P 097 P 114 P 050 P 050 P 052 P 114 P 050 P 111 P 052 P 105 P 097 P 100 P 053 P 104 P 115 P 12 1 P 050

TK 1047 TK 1048 TK 1052 TK 1053 TK 1054 TK 1055 TK 1056 TK 1057 TK I060

TK 1061 TK 1062 TK 1070

4 6b 4 7bdmp 4 9d 5 6f 6 0d 7 3h 7 5b 7 6 j 4 7h 7 5b 3 6 j 6 0d 2 7 s 2 8 6 3g 1 2 1 2 0d 6 3g 41 2d 1 7c 1 9g 2 4m 3 7e 5 0 t 5 6f 5 7 r t 5 9h 6 4d 6 7b 6 8ce 7 5 jou 7 6deg 9 1c 9 2b 9 3dk 9 9s 4 6dh 4 7kmp s 4 8dg t 4 9d 7 2g 7 5b 4 6dhk 6 0k 1 2 1 2 0e 2 5s 5 9p 6 3g 8 5k 9 1p

P 119 P 114

P 051 P 10 1 P 112 P 12 1

P 052 P 102 P 113 P 122

P 053 P 103 P 114 P 123

P 094 P 104 P 115 P 124

P 095 P 105 P 116 P 125

P 096 P 106 P 117 P 126

s er ia t ion

P 052 P 106 P 127 P 052 P 103

MT02 11

4 7R 6 0E 2

P 105 P 106 P 111

MT02 13

2 D3 K1 9K 4 6K 6 0E2 7 4G

P 050 P 103 P 106

P 097 P 127

MT02 14 MT02 17

P 116 P 114 P 127

MT0218

W6OG L 3OP 4 6B 4 7R 9 4L3 3H 1 3F 4 3S 5 4T7 5 5S 6 3J

P 104 P 114 P 119

MT0220

8 7 1 14

P 111 ( P108 ) P 049 P 110 P 050 P 052 P 127 P 049 P 097 P 101 P 110 P 114 P 125 ( P 135 )

P 103 P 111 P 114 P 127 P 095 P 107 P 103 P 128 P 052 P 114 P 107 P 123 P 052 P 119 P 107 P 111 P 10 1 P 104 P 094 P 107 P 117

MT022 1

2 A 3C 1 4S 1 4T 1 9K 2 2J 4 7R 9 1E m AT4 1 4E 1 4G 4 6F 7 4D

MT0222

3 C4 6D 4 7T 6 0D3 8 6U m AT3

P 052 P 106 P 050 P 112 P 050

MT0223

2 B4 6F 5 5S 87H 2

P 111 ( P134 ) P 050 P 103 P 110

MT0224

2 D 1 3T2 1 6B 4 6K 4 7R 6 0J

P 131 P 050 P 052 P 103

MT0226 MT0228 MT0229

1 9K 4 6B 5 5L 5 45 9 2E 1 9K 2 0D 5 55 9 2F

P 106 P 050 P 12 1 P 103

MT0230

1 9K 2 0C 5 5H 9 40 2

P 128 P 131 P 114 P 104 P 111 P 131 P 119 P 108 P 111 P 107 P 108 P 123

P 114 P 114 P 099 P 10 1 P 108 P 114 P 119 P 120

MT0231

MT0234

2 B8 EI 3K 1 9K 3 6E 5 0F 5 6T 9 9A m AT5 /W 5 F 1 9K 2 2G 4 7T 6 0D3

P 052 P 107 P 126

( P 100 )

P 10 1 P 103 P 112 P 097 P 10 1 P 052 P 10 1

P 111 ( P098 ) P 106 P 112 P 125 P 110 P 12 1

P 097 P 103 P 110 P 131 P 052 P 095 P 097 P 103 P 105 P 106 P 125 P 052 P 10 1 P 106

MT0235

2 D 1 9K 4 6D 6 3J 7 0A m AT 1

MT0236

3 C 3H 3K 1 2W 1 4M 4 6D 5 6T 6 3J

P 111 P 050 P 109 P 050 P 103

MT0237

3 C 1 9K 5 6E5

P 10 1 P 106

MT3005 MT3006

B 47 B 58B P 24M 4 P 58A P 40C D 3 1L W43G D 67L2

P 0 18 P 0 19 P 026 P 029 P 034 P 055 P 048 P 061 P 069

MT3007

R 66A R 76G R 85P B 53A B 55B B 57B F 14 R 8 1

MT3008 MT3021

P 40C D 16 R 94L R 34B R 76V R 84C L 53R

MT3022 MT3023

B 99G R 67J R 84 R 84C R 84D L l6G R 69C R 75G , R 81 W

P 075 P 0 12 P 038 P 029 P 069 P 136 P 069

MT3033

P 46B R 26C R 85P R 86F 3

8 8L 7 9 4K 4

P 098 P 099 P 108 P 119 P 128 P 131 P 135

P o t t e ry g roup P 150 w a s e xc luded f r om t hes e r ia t ion a s i to ccu r s o n ly o nce .

Ma tmar

P 091 P 111 P 112 P 110 P 111 P 094 P 111

P 111 P 104 P 114

P 050 P 111 P 100 P 102 P 104 P 114 P 127 P 128

P 097 P 107 P 118 P 127

P 097 P 106

P 104 P 114

P o t te ry g roup s i n c luded i nt h e s e r ia t ion : P 050 P 100 P 111 P 120

P 110 P 111

d a ta

I n t h e t a b le b e low , t h e g r ave n umbe r s a r e t h ose w h ich a ppea r i n t h e s e r ia t ion m a t r ix . T hey c o r re spond t o t h e g rave n umbe r s l i s t ed i nt h e p ubl i shed g rave r e g i s te r s ( B run ton 1 948 : p l s . V II I -X , XX ) , s t anda rd ised t o f ou r d i g i t s a nd p refaced b y t h e i d en t if ica t ion l e t te r s ' MT ' f o r Ma tma r . T he p o t t e ry t ype s l i s t ed a r e i lu s t ra ted i n t h e P r eh i s tor ic C o rpu s a nd /o r B adar ian C iv i l iza t ion . T ype s w i th t h e p re f ix MAT r ep resen t n ew t ype s f i r s t e ncoun te red a t Ma tma r ; t h ey a r e i lu s t ra ted i n t h e e xcava t ion r epor t . T ype s i n i t a l ic s a r e i lus t ra ted i n t h e P ro todyna s t ic C orpus . T he t ypes h ave b een c onve r ted i n to t h e p o t te ry g roup s u sed f o r s e r ia t ion .

12

( P104 )

P 127 ( P 132 ) P 103 P 106 P 114 P 095 P 10 1 P 114 P 125 ( P I19 )

P 081 P 0 13 P 0 19 P 070 P 076 P 081 P 087 P 081 P 094

( P011)

P 075 P 080

( P083 )

P 069 P 086 P 095

MT3036

L l6B L l6C mATP22 R 65B R 76G R 84D R 85D L l6F P 93D R 76 M R 81 R 84D

MT3039

P 24 M 4 R 24M R 85P R 86G L 7C

P 069 P 08 1 P 025 P 081 P 034

MT3049

P 40D 2 R 84S R 85C R 86D

P 103 P 029 P 069 P 077

MT3063

B 62B 2 F l5G D 61B R 17G R 2 1B R 26C R 8 1

MT3034

( P020 ) ( P096 )

P 074 P 078 P 094 ( P027 ) P 069 P 070 P 069 P 086

P 0 19 P 037 P 058 P 070 P 086 P 091 P 093

G rave

P o t te ry t ypes

P o t te ry g roup s

G rave

P o t te ry t ype s

P o t te ry g roup s

MT3064

D 67C R 69B R 81 R 94M

MT3132

MT3065

B 27A B 57A 2 B 62B 3 B 68B

P 059 P 070 P 075 P 065 P 009 P 013 P 0 15

MT3134

B 53A W4 W22 R 66P R 8 1 R 85C P 4OB D lT R 61G R 76P R 84H

MT3067

L l2C D 1OK D 67D 2 R 69B R 69 J R 85P

P 019 P 097 P 055 P 061 P 069

MT5102

mATD 12 R IB R 3E 3 R 69B

P 0 12 P 070 P 029 P 074 P 075

MT5107 MT5108 MT5109

R 69J P 40E2 D 2OM R 66P R 84H R 85P 1 . 16B B 53A D 67C mATD 13 R 66P R 67 R 69H R 76B R 85P B lIE F l5B B 77B L l2B B 38A P 24M 4 P 40C 4 P 93B

P 029 P 097 P 0 12 P 075 P 00 1 P 0 19 P 025

MT5111

mATP2 1 W23 D 67B R 76G R 86G B 74A P 22D P 58C R 34C

MT3069

B 1B B 35A B 76 M mATB10 R 69 R 82B mATR7 L l2F L l2P

MT307 1 MT3072

B 55B MATF 1 R 81 B 25A R 86G R 94L L l2C

MT3074

B 35E B 74B mATD4 R 1B R 8 1D

MT3075

B 11 K B 35B B 49K B 68B F l5B

MT3076

B 57B R 23F R 69C R 81

MT3077

B 11B B 27A B 53B B 58B mATF6 D 7C R 69C

MT3078 MT3079 MT3080 MT308 1 MT3082

B lIB B 57C B 74C B 35B P 26A mATF3 mATF4 R 1B R 6B R 22A mATR17 B 57B2 D 62 R 26C R 69D R 94L mATR 15 B21 D2 B 57B

P 075 P 00 1 P 07 1 P 097 P 013 P 005 P 097 P 005 P 088 P 00 1 P 038 P 019 P 086 P 00 1 P 019 P 075 P 00 1 P 009 P 091 P 013 P 076 P 004

P 009 P 013 P 075 P 089 ( P017 )

P 070 P 076 P 078 P 013 P 070

P 070 P 075 P 009 P 012 P 038 P 055 P 008 P 028 P 088 P 093 ( P043 ) P 059 P 075 P 086 P 093 P 0 19

MT3089 MT3090

R IB R 69C mATR12 B 49 mATB14 mATP 17 L 7C

MT309 1 MT3092 MT3093 MT3095 MT3098 MT310 1

B 27F R 8 1E B 35F R 3F 11 R 16 B 35G B 57B P 24N B 62D mATF2 B 35F mATB8 R 69R F 14 mATD25 R 23G 2 R 91C R 94

P 009 P 007 P 005 P 019 P 007 P 038

MT3109 MT3110 MT3111

W47 M R 24M B 47 mATF9 B 2IB 2 B 27A B 57C mATB3

P 086 P 048 P 086 P 018 P 04 1 P 00 1 P 005 P 008

MT3112 MT 3116 MT3117

B2 1 D3 B 55B B 58B B 55B B 57B F l5C B 44A R ID R 23G R 82B

MT3118 MT3I20

mATB13 R 24N B 11 K2 B 57B 2 B 58B R 3A R 3F7 R 26C

P 009 P 004 P 013 P 018 P 091 P 013 P 00 1

P 070 P 090 P 093 P 0 19 P 034 P 038 P 075 ( P006 ) P 060 P 076

MT3I24 MT3126

R 23F R 9 1A mATR14 W19 R 1D 4 R 66B R 74G R 76D

P 013 P 076 P 086 P 093 P 046 P 069 P 070

MT3128

B 11 M P 24K F l5C F 58J mATF8 W19 R 66P R 81 R 84D R 94L L 12 P

MT3129

B 53C P 24M 2 P 24N P 4 1B

MT3130

m ATF 10 W19 D 34K R 22A R 24A R 8 1 R 84D B 53A B 53B P 4OE P 54D P 93D P 96 W19 D 34K R 22A R 24A R 8 1 R 84D

MT3131

B1 K2 B 62D P 56B R 81

P 24K P 24N D lT R 4OM R 45C

P 034 P 061

MT5116

B 53A P 24M P 98J W19 D 67C R 68T R 75C R 76D R 81 R 94 J2

P 0 12 P 025 P 034 P 046 P 059 P 070

L 53A

P 074 P 080 P 0 12 P 070 P 0 19 P 029

P 076 P 121 P 029 P 076 P 025 P 034

P 076 P 09 1 P 097 P 110 P 121 P 046 P 069

MT5114

P 078 P 091 P 034 P 046 P 075

P 079

P 046 P 077 P 0 12 P 029 P 069 P 091 P 00 1

P 070 P 075

P 037 P 069 P 076

P 029 P 034

P 025 P 026 P 046 P 06 1 P 070 P 086

P 059 P 069 ( P014 ) ( P021 )

P 026 P 034 P 075 P 080 P 055 P 091 P 029 P 069 P 075

P 069 P 094 P 034 P 070 P 077

( P035 ) ( P056 )

MT5117 MT5118

B 53A P 40C2 mAT W27 R 81 R 84T R 94L B 66A P 24M P 40A P 47A P 93D D 6 1A R 23B 2 R 81 R 94

( P082 )

( P067 )

P 079 P 046 P 077 P 026 P 058

MT5119

W51G L l2B L 3OM L 36N L 53A

MT5120

P 24K W19 R IC R 84H R 85C 5

P 070 P 049 P 111 P 034

MT5130

L 30C W8 D 67C mATD 11 mATD24 R 23B R 65B R 76G

P 073 P 088 P 112 P 046 P 059 P 060 P 074 P 081 P 086

P 38K D 67C R 66P R 68 M P 97K X 11 1 .24 L 17A L30M L 53A L 53R R 38 R 65B MATD 15 R 66 M R 68F 3

P 029 P 059 P 075 P 110 P 12 1 P 136 P 074 P 087 P 055 P 075

P 23C W43G W51G R 81H R 84 R 84C L 36 W

P 034 P 048 P 049 P 069 P 081 P 112

MT5131 MT5132 MT5133 MT5134 MT5135

P 089 P 007 P 009 P 026 P 007 P 009

P 075 P 080 P 00 1 P 04 1 P 070 P 097 P 012

P 059 P 069 P 079 P 038 P 097 P 029 P 034

MT5115

MT5113

P 086 P 013 P 019

B 11 B B 27C B 35F B 12G P 58A BU M B 35D B 35F B 57A 2

P 069 P 075 ( P063 )

mATD22 R 23A R 69 J R 74A R 84D W2OH D 31L R IF R 81 R 84D R 86N L 16F P 22B 2 P 24L P 4OH P 95A F 15D mATD27 R 66A R 81F R 84S R 85C R 85C 5

MT5112

P 0 13 P 0 19 P 0 19 P 037 P 07 1 P 086

MT312 1 MT3122 MT3123

( P057 )

P 046 P 08 1 P 0 13 P 087 P 069 P 086 P 046 P 070 P 025 P 038 P 073

P 036 )

P 086 P 00 1 P 00 1 P 00 1

R 81 R 84D R 85G

MT5105

P 009 P 0 19

P 008 P 0 19 P 028 P 078 P 075 P 088 P 093 P 015 P 0 18 P 103

B 58B B 72B mATP 19 R 85D

MT5I04

P 046 P 069 P 075 P 061 P 069 P 081 P 088 P 090

( P054 )

( P024 ) ( P 102 )

P o t te ry g roup s i n c luded i nt h e s e r ia t ion : P 001 P 025 P 050 P 074 P 089 P 109

P 004 P 026 P 052 P 075 P 090 P 110

P 005 P 028 P 055 P 076 P 09 1 P 111

P 007 P 008 P 009 P 0 12 P 0 13 P 0 15 P 0 18 P 029 P 034 P 037 P 038 P 041 P 046 P 048 P 058 P 059 P 060 P 061 P 069 P 070 P 071 P 077 P 078 P 079 P 080 P 081 P 086 P 087 P 093 P 094 P 095 P 097 P 101 P 103 P 105 P 112 P 114 P 121 P 125 P 127 P 131 P 136

P 0 19 P 049 P 073 P 088 P 106

P o t te ry g roup s ( s hown i n b racke t s a nd i n s ma l le r t ype i n t h e t a b le a bove ) e xc luded f r om t h e s e r ia t ion b ecause e a ch o ccu r s o n ly o nce : P 006 P 0 11 P 0 14 P 0 17 P 020 P 02 1 P 024 P 027 P 035 P 036 P 043 P 054 P 056 P 057 P 063 P 067 P 082 P 083 P 096 P 098 P 100 P 102 P 104 P 108 P 119 P 132 P 134 P 135

P 0 19 P 026

P 070

13

Mos tagedda

s er iat ion

d a ta

I n t h e t a b le b e low , t he g rave n umbe r s a r e t h ose wh ich a ppea r i n t h e s e r ia t ion ma t r ix . T hey c or re spond t o t h e g rave n umbe r s l i s t ed i nt h e p ub l i shed g rave r eg is te r ( Brun ton 1 937 : p l s . XX LX -XXX I ) , p re faced b y t h e i d en t if ica t ion l e t te r s ' MG ' f o r Mos tagedda . T he p o t te ry t ype s l i s ted a r e i lus t ra ted i n t h e P reh is tor ic C orpu s a nd /o r B adar ian C iv i l iza t ion . T ype s w i th t he p ref ix M OST r ep re sen t n ew t ype s f i r s t e ncoun te red a t Mos tagedda ; t h ey a r e i lus t ra ted i n t h e e xcava t ion r epor t . T ypes l i s ted i n i t a l ics a r e i lus t ra ted i n t h e P ro todyna s t ic C orpu s . T he t ypes h ave b een c onve r ted i n to t h e p o t te ry g roup s u sed f o r s e r ia t ion . G rave

P o t te ry t ype s

P o t te ry g roup s

MG 1 602

B 58A P 1I DR 84E mosTR10

MG1603 MG1604

P 4OP R 24M L 3OK P 24N P 85B mosTF 18 R 66 M R 69B R 75 R 76H R 86F L l2A

MG1607

R 24A R 68 M R 84G mosTM ISC26 D 61B R 74D R 81B R 81F R 84S m osTR9 mo sTR20

P 0 13 P 087 P 029 P 027 P 075 P 097 P 069

MG1608

MG1711

W47 M L l2C L l2D L l6F L 53A

MG1714

3 K4 3R 5 5N 6 0H 6 0V 8 1F 8 1H 8 7G 9 0H W49 moSTD5 L 3OM B 44S R 23B 2 R 23D 2 R 81 K 3 L3 S 1 7H 4 6D 4 7T MosT2

P 076 P 054 P 074 P 070 P 097 P 0 13 P 086 P 06 1 P 076 P 08 1

P 074 P 103 P 070 ( P020 )

P 072 P 086

P 069 P 074 P 069 P 075 P 087 P 076 P 059 P 067

P 070 P 070 P 086 P 046 P 072 P 086 P 089 P 076 P 055 P 0 16 P 061

B 53F P 93B W26 R 66A R 76G R 86D L 3OB

MG1648

P 40 W24 D 29C R 86F 3 L l6F D lOK R 3F 6 R 24M R 85P

P 094 P 055 P 069 P 086

2 0D 5 5N 6 0G 6 30 mosT2

P 089 P 100 P 111 P 134

MG1654

P 82C W43B mosTR7 mo sTR 15

MG 1 660

W64 M D 1T R ID mo sTR 17 mosTR18 B 47 P 4OH F 14 R 63 M R 94H mosTR22 L l2G

MG 1 667

P 077 P 025 P 046 P 075 P 081 P 046 P 069

( P114 )

P 091 P 097

P 094 P 097 P 121 P 103 P 111 P 135 ( P 116 ) P 110 P 072 P 052 P 097 P 134 P 088 P 091

MG1729 MG1732 MG1737

B 75A mOsTF 13 R IC M D mo sTR25 3 K 1 7J 5 5S 6 0J 6 0V / IV 4 3S 5 5N 8 8G 1 4M 5 5M 6 0G 8 8G mosT 1

P 048 P 106 P 049 P 112 P 049 P 0 16 P 050 P 103 P 0 13 P 092 P 097 P 049 P 095

MG 1 740

4 6F3 mosT7

P 050 P 131

MG 1 743 MG 1 744 MG 1 748

P 049 P 029 P 069 ( P 02 1 ) P 027 P 095 P 090

P 088 ( P 101) P 074 P 081 P 086

MG 1 749 MG 1 750 MG 1 752

W51C R 1B L 16N P 40C R 6OL P 75G R 23B R 26C R 76G R 84 R 84H P 82B R 65B 1 7N 1 9K mosT6 R 3F 5 L l6B L 3OB L 53K L 53P

MG1753

D 16A R 23D 2 L 12 DL 3OK L 36N

P 12 1 P 091 P 111 P 048 P 111 P 106 P 029

P 128 P 106 P 131 P 103 P 121 P 131 P 046

P 103 P 042 P 0 13 P 038 P 034

P 112 ( P031) P 075 P 0 18 P 0 19

R 23B B 75B F 42A R 3B R 3E

MG1717 MG1723 MG 1 726 MG1727

MG1756 MG1759

L 42 W47 M L 7B L l2D L 36N L 42 L 53A L l2D L 43B P 23A P 40D 2 W19 R 84L L 7B

MG1763 MG1764

L 30C m o sTF 12 mosTF 16 R 66P B 42B B 72A B 74B F 14

MG1755

MG1769

( P 136 )

( P 117 )

P 049 P 110 P 121 P 131

( P037 )

P 103 P 111 P 106 P 135 P 111 P 135

P 074 P 106 P 095 P 112 P 110 P 106 P 131 P 077

P 070 P 075

MG1802

P 24K P 24N F 83B R 69B R 69H R 81 B 19K2 B 74C

MG1819

1 8B 2 0D 4 6F6 4 7R

P 050 P 052 P 097

MG1826 MG1831

P 100 P 00 1 P 018 P 076 P 004 P 019 P 052

P 06 1 P 090

MG 1 843 MG 1 869 MG 1 870

mo sTB1 mo sTR29 B 42B D 67B R 8 1 R 91 A m osTR5 L 7A B 18K B 25C mosTB8 B 77B mosTR34 1 3T 1 4M 5 0B 9 4D 2

P 029 P 038 P 076 P 093

MG1892

B 25D P 11B

P 025 P 087 P 12 1 P 048 P 088

P 025 P 069

( P 063 ) ( P078 ) ( P082 )

P 055

P 013 P 034 P 055

P 013 P 09 1 P 027 P 089 P 050 P 091 P 0 18 P 074 P 097

D 2OM R 22A R 55A R 85L

P 097 P 103 P 112 P 128

P 093 P 0 13 P 0 19 P 089 P 090 P 008 P 0 19

( P040 )

P 069 P 069 P 00 1 P 075 P 091 P 059 P 029 P 013

P 93B mo sTF20 R 86G

P 103 P 074 P 106 P 074 P 086 P 106 P 110

P 086 P 008 P 042 P 00 1 P 091 P 048 P 111

( P084 )

MG1647

B 76A P 93D R 22A R 36 L 53A

P 135 P 029 P 059

MG 1 692

P 131 P 0 13 P 075 P 0 12 P 095 P 029

W43G WS I AL 3OM L 36N L 42 L 53A L 53 W

P 075 P 012 P 069 P 112 P 029

MG1652

B 76M P 4OH D 67C R 69A

MG1699

R 81F R 86D R 24 R 81F R 86D B llA W14 R IF R 3C R 26C R 69C mosTR27

MG1651

MG 1 680

P 058 P 070 P 072 P 077 P 080 P 086

MG1630 MG1631 MG1632

MG 1 649

3 D 3H 1 3A 2 7S 4 3S 5 4U 5 5S 6 0V 8 1M 8 7E 8 7H6 8 8U 9 0K

B lID B 33P B 68A R 36B

F 31D D 62 R 68A R 68M L l6F

MG1643

MG1678

MG1698

MG1629

D 63A R 94 P 40 mosTD9 mo sTB15 mo sTB2 1 D 8P mo sTD8 B 57A 2 P 24L D 8G R 69B R 84L

W19 L 7B R 65C R 81 mo sTR30 L l2D W47A R 3F R 24A R 65C L l2D L 3OM L 36N

P 075 P 086

P 075 P 059 P 075 P 094

MG1633 MG1635 MG1637

P 069 P 080

MG 1 673 MG 1 676 MG 1 677

P 054 P 087 P 046 P 070 P 048 P 089 P 111 P 049 P 111

MG1696 MG1697

B 38A W43B R 65A R 75 R 8 1 L 7C L 7D L 7E L 7G B 50 -54 B 74A P 45 W43 R 23B R 81 R 94L B 54M D 67D2 R 65C R 81P R 94H L 26H mosTD3 R 24M R 76H L 1 2K L l2P P 40C R 65B R 85P mosTP7 R 24M R 68 M R 84G mosTR11 R 44S R 93C D 61B D63A R 45A R 67 R 68M 3

MG 1 625 MG1626

D 59Q R 23C R 74B R 84E

MG 1 694

MG1612

MG1622 MG1623

MG1672

P 086 P 110 P 034 P 069 P 079 P 081

P 070 P 012 P 070 P 048 P 079 P 012 P 076 P 012 P 074 P 059 P 097 P 029 P 029 P 086 P 067 P 058

MG1620

P o t te ry g roup s

B 53C L 16 B P 4OG L 12 C R 17F B 57C

R 81 R 94 B 50 D 31G m0sTD 14 R 65B R 8 1

MG1618

P o t te ry t ype s

P 035 P 069

MG1609 MG1611

MG1613

G rave

P 004 P 008

P 074 P 059 P 070 P 088 P 103 P 007 ( P003 ) P 092 P 095 P 106

( P 129 )

14

P 007 P 035

P o t te ry g r oups i nc luded i n t h e s e r ia t ion : P 00 1 P 027 P 052 P 072 P 089 P 110

P 004 P 029 P 054 P 074 P 090 P 111

P 007 P 034 P 055 P 075 P 091 P 112

P 008 P 035 P 056 P 076 P 092 P 121

P 0 12 P 038 P 058 P 077 P 093 P 128

P 0 13 P 042 P 059 P 079 P 094 P 131

P 0 14 P 044 P 061 P 080 P 095 P 134

P 0 16 P 046 P 062 P 081 P 097 P 135

P 0 18 P 048 P 067 P 086 P 100

P 0 19 P 049 P 069 P 087 P 103

G rave

P o t te ry t ype s

P o t te ry g roup s

MH054 MH055 MH057 MH058

B 19 R 13c B 12a B 4 la B 25 1 B 35 P l6c B ilk B ll m B 25b B 25k B 35e B 72b B 74b B 78c B 78d P 22d

MH059 MH060 MH061A MH062 MH065 MH066 MH069 MH070 MH072 MH076 MH077

B 35e R 80a B 68c B 75d L 7e L l6a B 2 lb B 63a B 62g B 77d B 92c F l2c P 3lb W7 1 R 26 L 53k W71c L 65b L 30a L 65e L l2c L 30a D 66f D 66g R 84a L 58d R 65c R 8 la B 55a P 4Ob P 45a R 44a R 8 la L l6e L l6g

MH078 MH080

W80 L 65 B 53b P 43a P 8d R 76 R 80a

MH081

R 66b R 8 la R 94c L l6e

MH082

B lf P 40 P 95c L l6g L 16h

MH083

B 53 P 92a P 93b W43b R 8lb R 94a L 4b L 7d

MH084 MH086

W60a R 96d L 3Ic B 53 P 40e W14 R 26 R 80a

MH087

B 56a P 40c W4 la R 69b R 85d L 16g L 44c

MH088

B 26b P 66 F l4b CWARE

MH088A MH089 MH092 MH093 MH097

R 94d R 94e L l6e R 82 L 30c L 53q W49 L 30 c B 78 P 35g R 82a B 22p B 29e P l3d CWARE

MH102

P 4Od P 40 j R 69f L 3b L 4a

MH107

B 25o P 4Od P 4Oh P 45e W3b DWARE R 69 R 8la R 94c L 4a L 7f L l6 fL l6g L 44c L 47

MH 108 MH109 MH110 MH111 MH112

W69a W71 L l7a L 65c W80 L 53n L 62a P 8lb R 26e R 80a L 19a L 58d L 60a P 40 1 R 66 R 8la R 84c L 7c L l6g

MH113 MH114

B 53 D 9 R 85a R 53b R 94b R 94e L 4b L 7f

MH115

W48 W49 W51 R 4a R 45f R 81c L 30a L 36d L 36f

P 0 13

MH118

W50 D 25 R 4a L 30

P 006 P 044 P 074 P 046 P 094 P 035 P 035

MH119 MH120 MH12 1 MH 122

P 45d R 85c R 85e L 43c P 4Ok W55 W55a R 26f L 3la L 32a R 4c L 36g L 42a W30 W55 W55a W60a L 3e

MH123

P 40 j F 58e R 93 L 43b

MH124

P 40c D 36g R lf R 4ava r . L 36g

P 004 P 087 P 00 1 P 0 18 P 005 P 035 P 001 P 005 P 008 P 0 13 P 034 P 005 P 069 P 0 19 P 097 P 005 P 0 19 P 005 P 0 19 P 052 P 086 P 052 P 130 P 110 P 138 P 097 P 110 P 065 P 069 P 070 P 074 P 0 13 P 020 P 067 P 070 P 095 P 052 P 130 P 0 12 P 020 P 069 ( P o s 1 ) P 070 P 075 P 095 P 00 1 P 029 P 097 ( P 024 ) P 0 12 P 025 P 072 P 076 P 103 P 049 P 074 P 0 12 P 029 P 069 P 086 P 0 13 P 029 P 075 P 094 ( P 07 8 ) P 007 P 023 P 044 P 076 P 095 P 07 1 P 112 P 049 P 112 P 006 P 072 P 007 P 009 P 044 P 029 P 075 P 102 P 003 P 020 P 061 P 070 P 076 P 094 P 116 P 118 P 052 P 102 P 052 P 129 P 027 P 069 P 102 P 130 P 029 P 069 P 075 P 094 P 0 12 P 061 P 076 P 094 ( P 082 ) P 048 P 049 P 070 P 086 P 111 P 049 P 063 P 110 P 020 P 069 P 029 P 049 P 086 P 109 P 086 P 111 P 049 P 050 ( P 0 5 1 ) P 029 P 04 1 ( P 13 1 ) P 029 P 057 P 111 ( P 09 1 )

P 025 P 050 P 070 P 088 P 106

P o t te ry g roup s ( s hown i nb racke t s a nd i ns ma l le r t y pe i nt h e t a b le a bove ) e xc luded f r om t h e s e r ia t ion b ecau se e a ch o ccu r s o n ly o nce : P 003 P 020 P 021 P 031 P 037 P 040 P 063 P 078 P 082 P 084 P 10 1 P 114 P 116 P 117 P 129 P 136

Mahasna

s er iat ion

d ata

I n t h e t a b le b e low , t h e g rave n umbe r s a r e t hose w h ich a ppea r i n t h e s e r ia t ion ma t r ix . T hey c o r re spond t o t h e g rave n umbe r s l i s ted i n t h e e xcava t ion r epo r t ( Ay r ton & L oa t 1 911) , s t anda rd i sed i n to t h ree d i g i t s ( w i th o r w i thou t a n a dd i t iona l s uf f ix l e t te r A ) a nd p refaced b y t h e l e t te r s ` MH ' f o r Maha sna . T he p o t te ry t ype s l i s ted a r e i lu s t ra ted i nt h e P reh i s tor ic C orpu s . T he se t y pe s h ave b een c onve r t ed i n to t h e p o t te ry g roup s u sed f o r s e r ia t ion . G rave

P o t te ry t ype s

P o t te ry g roups

MH001

B 64c B 74c B 79 L 4a

MH003 MH004

R 23c L 53o D 25c D 66a L 17 L 33a L 65 L 65d L 65 B 12a B22o B 26e B27 i B 57b W2a L 53p B 72c B 72e P l6c B 72g P l7a CWARE B 25 i B72d B 63c P llg F ll c F 12 F l2a F l2b B 35g B 52 R 8 1 B 52 B 77c W19 R 69b R 75 R 76b R 80 R 8la B 49a B72 fB 74b B 72d P 4b P 22a B lli B74e B 74a P l6d B 25o B25p B 25q B27c P 7a P 64a P 65b CWARE B 84a P l7a CWARE B 22 j B25 j B 26b B 27 j B 69a P l9c R 82e

P 008 ( P 00 2 ) P 087 P 063 P 109 P 00 1 P 005 P 050 P 008 P 006 P 003 P 013

MH005 MH006 MH008 MH012 MH015 MH016 MH017 MH018 MH021 MH022 MH023 MH025 MH028 MH029 MH030 MH032 MH033 MH034 MH038 MH039 MH040 MH041 MH042 MH045 MH047 MH048 MH049 MH053

B 22b B 62 L l9c B lln B25b B 25k P 36e F l5a R 80a B lli B65a B 65b B 77 P l5c F l4a F 18 B 12a B 19 B 25h B 25 j B 26b B 27m B 52a B 62d B 65b P Il d B 27g B 55b B 26d P 63a B ll j B 18d B 72g P ie P 65a CWARE P 40 i R 45a R 96d P 40e P 93d P 95b W43a R 68a R 9 la L 16 B 68b P ld P Il b P l5d B 22n P l3a P l3c F ll c

P 0 19 P 097 P 12 1 P 065 P 12 1 P 007 P 0 19 P 12 1 P 035 P 035 P 008 P 035

P 005 P 070 P 005 P 006 P 070 P 075 P 006 P 013 P 008 P 034 P 00 1 P 007 P 0 13 P 035 P 003 P 009 P 033 P 044 P 035 P 044 P 005 P 009 P 007 P 009 ( P 0 16 ) P 005 P 102 P 00 1 P 005 P 029 P 037 P 00 1 P 006 P 035 P 037 P 00 1 P 004 P 003 P 005 P 0 19 P 035 P 007 P 009 P 023 P 00 1 P 004 P 023 P 033 P 029 P 067 P 025 P 029 P 075 P 076 P 0 19 P 033 P 007 P 032 P 037

P 102 P 138

P 044 P 037

P 046 ( P 07 9 ) P 018

P 023 ( P 0 15 ) P 072 ( P 0 1 1 ) P 008 P 069 P 0 19 ( P 03 8 ) P 007

15

P 007 P 0 19

( P o w P 037 ( P 12 8 )

P 134 P 029 P 094

P 027 P 076 P 094 P 048 P 097 P 110 P 046 P 048 P 118 P 037

( P 11 2 )

P 032 P 097 P 029 P 075 P 097 ( P 04 5 ) P 129 P 130 P 086 P 134 P 070 P 103 P 069 P 097 P 067 P 110 P 086

P 050 P I10 P 111 P 076 P 086

G rave

P o t te ry t ype s

P o t te ry g roup s

G rave

P o t te ry t ypes

MH125 MH126

R 84 L l6d W55a R ib R 4d L 45b L 53

P 069 P 095 P 049 P 086 P 12 1

A 1425 A 1430

MH127 MH128

W55 W58a R 66a L 3lb W60a W61 R 26f L 36a L 45a

A 1469

P 0 13 P 0 13 P 076 P 007 P 0 13 P 0 18 P 070 P 0 18 P 070 P 0 19 B 68b P 24m P 84a R 69c R 81 P 070 P 029 P 40e R 66a R 69g R 81 0 11 B 62a R 3a R 11 R 23b R 81c R 92 P P 086 P 0 13 B 6la B 74a R 92 R 93c B 57a B 74a B 74b 1 B 94c P 24k 1 P 0 13 P 075 R 63a 1 B 57b3 B 57g B 58b P 013 P 0 12 B 53c W19 R 22a R 65b P 091 001 B l4g B 25d3 B 25f2 B25g B 27a P B 53a P 24n R 84 P 009 P 069 B 37b B 44x P 95b W43b R 84 t P 0 14 P 048 P 061 D 23c R 84 t R 9 1c R 93c L 53q 1

A 1470 A 1472

B u m B 57b1 B 55b B 57b B 69a P 23a

A 1473 A 1474 A 1485 A l4 86 A 1487 A 1488 A 1492

B hf B 72a R 81v B 76g P 38k R 44c R 85g R 92 B 57b 1 P 24n B 55b P 24n B 72a R 65b B 42k P 23c R 57a R 81 L l2d

A 1494 A 1495 A 1496

R 23b R 24b R 8 1 R 81h B 74a R 8 1 P 1 1fD 67d R 26e R 4 1c R 69b

A 1498 A 1499A A 1502 A 1510 G rave

P 23c P 24g P 24p P 40b1 R 81 R 84d R 84e B 53a P 24n R 81 B 57b B 62a B 78c P 24g R 85s P o t te ry t ype s

A 1511

B 53a P 23b P 45b1 R 81 R 84e

A 1512

P 40g 1 W47m R 65c R 84 c R 84d

( P088 )

P 050 P 049 P 118 P 052 W70a W7la R 17a L 58c P 006 B 2 1d B27gva r . 035 P 16 W48a R 65c R 84a L 7g L 53 1 P P 074 P 00 1 B lf F 58e L 65a P 046 W44 L l7g L 36 P 029 P 40e D4 1 R 45b P 034 P 4a P 4b P l9d L l6d P 052 W69 W70 W7ld R ig R 26c P 116 R 42a L 36a L 38a L 47a

MH129 MH130 MH130A MH131A MH 132A MH133 MH 133A MH 134A

( P 114 )

MH135 MH 135A

B 2 1d B 11 1 P lc W55 W61 R 65c R 84b L 53 j

MH136 MH137 MH 137A MH 138A MH140 MH143

B 47 B 49a L l6e B 61 B 74b P 22a W58a L 32 R 23c R 68a B 18e B 77e B 27 1 B29 R 80a

P 00 1 P 049 P 074 P 0 18 P 0 13 P 050 P 075 P 004 P 005

P 075 P 110 P 086 P 111 P 134 P 009 P 048 P 097 P 04 1 P 112 P 057 P 095 P 086

A 1432 A 1439 A 1440

( P093 )

A 1441

P 069 P 12 1 P 12 1 ( P u0 0 ) P 067

A 1442 A 1446 A 1448

P 111

A 1449 A 1458

( P068 ) ( P085 )

P 006 P 033 P 050 P 069 P 130 P 095 P 0 19 P 034 P 109 P 087 P 019 P 069

A l4 61 A 1464 A 1466

A 1468

P o t te ry g roup s i n c luded i nt h e s e r ia t ion : P 00 1 P 0 19 P 04 1 P 067 P 097 P 130

P 003 P 020 P 044 P 069 P 102 P 134

P 004 P 023 P 046 P 070 P 103 P 138

P 005 P 025 P 048 P 072 P 109

P 006 P 027 P 049 P 074 P 110

P 007 P 029 P 050 P 075 P 111

P 008 P 032 P 052 P 076 P 112

P 009 P 033 P 057 P 086 P 116

P 012 P 034 P 06 1 P 087 P 118

P 0 13 P 035 P 063 P 094 P 12 1

P 0 18 P 037 P 065 P 095 P 129

P o t te ry g roup s ( s hown i n b racke t s a nd i n s ma l le r t ype i n t h e t a b le a bove ) e xc luded f r om t h e s e r ia t ion b ecau se e ach o ccu r s o n ly o nce : P 002 P 0 11 P 0 15 P 0 16 P 024 P 038 P 045 P 051 P 068 P 078 P 079 P 08 1 P 082 P 085 P 088 P 091 P 093 P 096 P 100 P 114 P 128 P 131 P 132

A rman t

s er ia t ion

d ata

I n t h e t a b le b e low , t h e g rave n umbe r s a r e t h ose w h ich a ppea r i n t h e s e r ia t ion m a t r ix . T hey c o r re spond t ot h e g rave n umbe r s l i s t ed i nt h e e xcava t ion r epo r t ( Mond & Mye r s 1 937a ) , p refaced b y t h e i d en t i f ica t ion l e t te r ' A ' f o r A rman t . T he p o t t e ry t y pe s l i s ted a r e i lu s t ra ted i n t h e P reh i s tor ic C orpus . T hese t ype s h ave b een c onve r ted i n to t h e p o t te ry g roup s u sed f o r s e r ia t ion .

B 74b 1** P 22b R 3b B 58a B 76m D 62a R 17c R 81 R 92 L l6f B 29b P 4 P l8c P 63m B 58a R 66a B 42a P 24m P 8O s P 84 i R 69 j R 81 R 81 j B 42a P 24m P 84 i R 81 R 93c

( P 12 1)

G rave

P o t te ry t ype s

P o t te ry g roup s

A 1513 A 1514

P 23d R 24b B 38c 1 B 53d P 23c P 93b W43g R 33b R 65

A 1402

B 16 B 75b B 76a B 77a P llc

A 1408

D lOg l R la R 82b L 53q

P 00 1 P 006 P 013 P 0 19 P 035 P 056 P 071 P 088

A 1517 A 1518

P 23b R 8 1 P 24 r P 45c 1 R 23b L 30g L 36n

A 1411 A 1412

B 55b B 58c R 3c B 55b P 22a R 3a R 6la

P 019 P 034 P 074

A 1519

R 65c R 8lf R 84e L 7b L l6b

A 1415 A 1416 A 1418

B 35e B 57a P 4 B 35e B 57a2 B 58b P 47a R 81 R 9la R 92

P 013 P 033 P 013 P 026 P 070

A 14 19

B 80e R 26c R 69b R 81 R 92

A 1520 A 152 1 A 1522 A 1523 A 1525

B 53f B 57b1 R 66m B 53a R 3f8 R 66b W43b R 26c R 84? R 81 R 94h R 22b R 34a R 81 R 84d R 84e

A 1420 A 1421

B 2 1b* R 81 B 57a2 B 57b R 17e R 2 lb R 83g

A 1423

B 62a R 92

A 1526 A 1527 A 1528 A 1530

B 57b P 16 P 23a P 23b R 8 1 P 23b R 8 1 P 24m D lOm R 81 R 84d

( P 132 )

P 0 13 P 0 13 P 089 P 005 P 005 P 0 19 P 076 P 070 P 086 P 005 P 013 P 09 1 P 0 11

P 075 P 076 P 070 P 019 P 072 P 093 P 076

16

P o t te ry g roup s

P 00 1 P 0 13 P 031 P 001 P 019 P 067 P 0 19 P 013 P 019 P 0 18

P 034 P 059 P 093 P 033 P 075 P 025 P 072 P 025 P 076 P 025 P 075 P 070 P 070 P 089 P 0 19 P 034 P 093 P 0 19 P 046

P 089 P 070 ( P094 ) ( P023 )

P 034 P 075 P 034 P 034 P 075 P 076 P 076 P 059

P 074

P 005 P 007 P 0 12 P 034 P 0 16 P 025 P 077 P 076 P 077 P 0 19 P 0 16 P 0 19 P 0 19 P 072 P 029 P 076(P 0 78 ) P 034 P 034 P 074 P 034 P 070

( P082 ) ( P 106 )

P 070 P 08 1 P 086 P 013 P 070 P 035 P 059 P 070 P 075 P 076 P 086 P 029 P 031 P 034 P 069 P 070 P 0 12 P 034 P 070 P 011 P 0 19 P 0 19 P 034 P 069 P o t te ry g r oup s P 0 12 P 069 P 029 P 074 P 034 P 0 12 P 034 P 086 P 031 P 020 P 111 P 069 P 095 P 0 12 P 0 12 P 048 P 070 P 069 P 09 1 P 0 19 P 031 P 031 P 034 P 070

P 020 P 031 P 070 P 048 P 069 P 086 P 0 14 P 025 P 048 P 074 P 070 P 086 P 110 P 070 P 103 P 0 19 P 075 P 069 P 076 P 070 P 103 P 035 P 070 P 070 P 056

P 074 P 075 P 089 P 086 P 087

P 069

G rave

P o t te ry t ypes

A 1531 A 1532

D 68a R 81 B 42b B 57a B68b P 24m R 66p R 81 B 29c P 38 P 45b2 W19 P lb3 P 8O s R 81 R 92 P 23c1 P 44a W19 P 24m D 34 R 92 B 50 P 40c P 75g1 R 23b R27 R 44u R 66p R 67 R 81

A 1534 A 1535 A 1536 A 1538 A 1539

A 1541

A 1542 A 1544 A 1548 A 1550

A 1553 A 1557

A 1558

A 1559 A 1561

A 1564 A 1565 A 1566

A 1568 A 1570

P o t te ry g roups

P 059 P 070 P 013 P 018 P 019 P 034 P 070 P 075 P 005 P 046 ( POZ 2 ) P 034 P 070 P 076 P 029 P 034 P 046 P 034 P 061 P 076 P 012 P 025 P 029 P 067 P 070 P 075 P 086 ( P021) P 009 P 014 P 046 B 35d B 38a B 39b B 39b1 W19 P 069 P 074 P 075 W27 D 63d R 21d R 26c R 65b P 076 P 086 P 091 R 69b R 84e R 84h R 94 L l6g W24 W43b R 3c R 22a R84h P 046 P 048 P 069 P 089 P 091 P 006 P 007 P 076 B 19c B 2 1d R 3a R 34a R9 1c P 087 P 089 P 034 P 055 P 069 P 24k D im R 23c R 81 R 84g P 070 P 076 P 087 R94k P 029 P 034 P 046 P 24m P 24n P 40c W19 D 31 P 055 P 070 P 075 R 23b R 66p R 81 P 086 P 012 P 0 19 P 031 B 53a B 62b P 23a R 81 P 070 P 067 P 074 P 086 R 24a R 26e R 45a R 45c R 65b P 095 P 103 P 110 R 65c L 7c L l6b L 30m L 36n P 111 L 36s P 020 P 029 P 048 P 24q P 40d1 P 40q P 45b1 W4 1 P 074 P 075 P 086 R24a R 65b R 66a L 30b P 112 P 020 P 048 P 069 P 46b W4 1 R 84 R 87a R 94p L 30b L 30c P 076 P 112 B 53c P 42 R 4 R 26c R 69b R 81 P 012 P 020 P 070 P 075 P 076 P 086 R92 P 088 P 025 P 069 P 09 1 P 93d R 22a R 86g B 53a P 24g P 24h P 40e P 93 P 012 P 025 P 029 W24 R 24a P 034 P 046 P 086 P 012 P 013 P 019 B 53a B 53b B 62b B 74a 1 P 24b P 40e P 4Ok D 36a 1 D 63 R 81 L 7b P 029 P 055 P 059 P 070 P 103 W24 R 26c R 66a R 84e R 84g P 046 P 069 P 075 P 086 R84h P 24m P 40e1 P 82 1 W42 P 029 P 034 P 074 P 086 P 088 ( P027 ) R ib R 23b R 65b

G rave

P o t te ry t ypes

P o t tery g roup s

A 1598

B44b P 22c P 24k P 56a D lu R 81 R 92

A 1599

B 4 le D 3lt R 81

P 0 19 P 026 P 034 P 035 P 059 P 070 P 076 P 0 18 P 055 P 070

* * *

I n t h e g rave r eg i s te r t h i s f o rm a ppea r s i nco r rec t ly a s B 2 16 . I n t h e g rave r eg is te r t h is f o rm a ppea r s i n co r rec t ly a s B 7461 .

P o t tery g roups i n c luded i n t h e s e r ia t ion : P 001 P 0 19 P 055 P 076 P 103

P 005 P 020 P 056 P 077 P 110

P 006 P 025 P 059 P 081 P 111

P 007 P 026 P 061 P 086 P 112

P 009 P 029 P 067 P 087 P 116

P 0 11 P 031 P 069 P 088

P 012 P 033 P 070 P 089

P 013 P 034 P 071 P 091

P 0 14 P 035 P 072 P 093

P 016 P 046 P 074 P 095

P 018 P 048 P 075 P 102

P o t tery g roups ( s hown i n b racke t s a nd i n sma l le r t ype i n t he t a b le a bove ) e xc luded f r om t h e s e r ia t ion b ecause e ach o ccu r s o n ly o nce : P 021 P 022 P 023 P 027 P 047 P 049 P 057 P 062 P 063 P 078 P 079 P 082 P 094 P 097 P 099 P 104 P 106 P 12 1 P 131 P 132

H ierakonpo l is

s er iat ion

d ata

I n t h e t a b le b e low , t h e g rave n umbe r s a r e t hose w h ich a ppea r i n t h e s e r ia t ion ma t r ix . T hey c or respond t o t h e g rave n umbe r s l i s ted i n A dam s 's p ub l ica t ion , s t anda rd ised t o t h ree d ig i t s a nd p refaced b y t he i d en t if ica t ion l e t te r ' H ' f o r H ierakonpo l is ( For t ) . T he p o t te ry t ype s l i s ted a r e i lus t ra ted i n t h e P reh i s tor ic C orpus . T ypes l i s ted i ni t a l ics a r e i lus t ra ted i nt h e P ro todyna s t ic C orpus . T hese t ype s h ave b een c onve r ted i n to t h e p o t te ry g roup s u sed f o r s e r ia t ion . G rave

P o t te ry t ypes

P o t te ry g roup s

H006 H007 H008 H009

R 67 R 76G R 26b o r R 33b R 57a R 76p W61 L l9p L 43p 8 1f 8 7m 5 9 2A

P 075 P 081 P 049 P 12 1

P 081 P 086 P 082 P 070 P 099 P 127

H010 H011

W62 L 2a L l2 d W61 L 53k W61 W62 R 26a L 36n 6 3e

P 069 P 049 P 128 P 102 P 069 P 136 P 050 P 049 P 049 P 111 P 047 P 103

P 086 P 086 P 111

H012 H014

R 24m R 84d W61 R 26a L 36h L 53s L 58c L 53r L 19 -20 6 3b R 24m R 76h o r R 76m R 84d

( P047 )

( P134 )

P 114 P 081 P 086

A 1573

P 24m W43b R 84? L 20

P 034 P 048 P 069

A 1575

B 35d P 24k D 53a 1 R 62 R 69b R 94 L 7g

P 009 P 034 P 074 P 075 P 076 ( P057 ) ( P097 )

H016 H017 H018

A 1577

B 25f P 23b P 24m P 24n W43b R 33b R 76d R 84d

P 005 P 031 P 034 P 048 P 069 P 086

H 19 /20

A 1578

P 23b D20q R 24m R 84d

P 031 P 069 P 086

W42G R 76p L 53k 2m 3 a 1 7g 5 7N 6 0k 6 0n 8 7 1 16

A 1580

P 4Ob W24 R 26c R 36 R 66a R 66p R 67 R 76g R 84d

P 046 P 069 P 081 P 086

H021 H023

A 1582 A 1583

B l8f R 69h R 94 1 P 23d R 2lb R 26f L l9p L 30k L 36s L 40b

P 029 P 075 P 087 P 00 1 P 034 P 102 P 116 P 020 P 110

P 075 P 076 P 086 P 09 1 P 110 P 111

H024

2 d 2 R 9 0B D 61k ( undeco ra ted ) R 2 1d R 26c R 57c R 67 R 647 R 76H R 84D L 53r

P 086 P 102 P 116 ( PO e

H027 H 028 H030

P 1l b W14 W43b R 24 R 84h L l2D R 76p P 93b W43B R 24a R 84 F 88 R 55a R 65c L 7c L 30B /C

H031

R 24a L l8c L 36k L 50A

P 128 P 103 P 060 P 086 P 069 P 136 P 046 P 086 P 025 P 048 P 074 P 112 P 086

H032

W3/W3G R ib R 76h L 53F

P 081 P 129 ( N4 5 )

H033

P 24k P 45b R 26c R 67

H034

B 76M D 67J L l6F

P 020 P 034 P 075 P 086 P 0 13 P 061 P 094

A 1591 A 1592

P 46a W56g D2Op R 24m R 26f L 2a L l9p L 30g L 3Oh L 40a L 40b P 24 1 L 30g L 43y R 84s L 3Op L 36 s L 40b

A 1594 A 1596

R 3a L 30b B 46 B 54a P 24k R 82

A 1590

( P099 )

( P079 )

( P063 )

H025

( P062 ) ( P 104 )

P 034 P 077 P 116 P 089 P 013 P 071

P 110 ( P 131) P 110 P 111 P 112 P 018 P 034

17

( P 118 )

P 194 P 128 P 050 P 114 P 081 P 111

P 106 P 086 P 097 P 120

P 135 ( P095 ) P 112 P 075 P 082 ( P091)

P 075 P 081 P 048 P 106 P 081 P 069 P 082

P 069 ( P035 )

P 086 P 103

P 106 P 111

( P088 )

G rave

P o t te ry t ype s

P o t te ry g roups

G rave

P o t te ry t y pe s

P o t t e ry g roup s

H 035

H 107

P 97k W43b R 24m L 3Op L 36a L 43p R 24m 5 f4 6 j 7 0m 7 0p 7 3f

P 024 P 110 P 052 P 126

P 048 P I Ze6 P 111 P 086 P 123 ( P 10 1 )

H 109 H 112

W62 L 36a R 24m R 647 L 42 6 0 j

R 24a R 66A R 85P L l6B

H 042

P 029 P 047

H 114 H 115

W62 R 26 W55 R 24m L 3Op L 36n

H 043

P 40c P 95b F 32d W42 D lt D 8G D IOc ( d ecora t ed a sD 8G ) W6 1 W62 5 6E 2 6 3e

P 050 P 114

H 119

H 044 H 045 H 047

P 103 P 127 D 4 lb ( undeco ra ted ) L 7c L 53 M P 074 P 111 R 65c L 36P 034 P 06 1 P 069 P 24m D 12b ( s hape ) D67L R 84d P

H 121 H 122 H 123

W5la R 24m R 26a L l6b L 3Op L 36a R 24a L l6b L 3O s L 36a W5la L l6b L 3Op L 53 j

H048 H 049 H 051 H 052 H 053 H 055 H 056

P 40c L 40 l j 9 1 1 R 65c R 84H L l2c R 8 1 L 7b L l6g W43b R 84d R 38 R 65c R 26c L 19 aL 3K 6 3F 8 9c -d

H 124

W5la R 84 L 3Op L 36a 9 0u

P 050 P 075 P 111 P 050 P 050 P 111 P 049 P 110 P 086 P 109 P 049 P 130 P 049 P 111 P 049 P 111

P 111 P 086 P 110

H 039

P 047 P 086 P 097 P 086 P 106 P 081 P 111 P 069 P 097 P 025 P 061 P 049

H 103

H 038

W42 D 63c R 24a R 38 R 65d R 81p L l6b 8 4H 9 3d W19 o r W43b R 24a R 24mP046 R 26e R 74G L 7b L l2D L l6B R 24a R 34c R 76G L 30b L 36K

H 057 H 058 H 060 H 061

L 36h 7 0L P 82b R 4b R 24a R 54a R 63 R 66a W80b 2 5d 6 3e W61 L 3lb I d l k3 d6 3 j

H 062 H 065 H 066

H 036 H 037

H 068 H 069 H 070 H 071 H 072 H 073

( P080 )

P 086 P 087 P 112 P 075 P 086

( P 119 )

( P057 )

P 116 P 12 1 P 074 P 094 P 069 P 087 P 102 P 128 P 126 P 074 P 086 P 104 P 103

R 24m R 26a 6 0f F l5b R 26f R 38 R 66p

P 029 P 103 P 069 P 070 P 048 P 074 P 086 P 114 P 111 P 027 P 082 P 052 P 049 P 114 P 086 P 075

P 40e P 75 1 P 95d W19 R 81p R 84d L l6b F 69T W47g R 23D R 26c R 38 R 84c -d P 57a P 93b W4 1 R 26c R 38 R 81 s P 93d D 36 D4Om D 63a R 26e R 38 R 62 R 81

P 025 P 069 P 049 P 087 P 025 P 086 P 025 P 074

P 029 P 046 P 072 P 097 P 069 P 086 ( P085 ) P 048 P 072 P 087( 1 3 02 6 ) P 055 P 070 P 086 P 087

P 24K P 84A R 76D W62 R 66a W55 W6 1 R 26f 6 0k 6 3e

P 025 P 034 P 079 P 050 P 075 P 049 P 050 P 086 P 111 P 114 P 049 P 86 P 111 P 048 P 109 P 086 P 099 P 110 P 111 P 025 P 081 P 048 P 097 P 110 P 111 P 110 P 111 P 029 P 034 P 070 P 029 P 082 P 025 P 086 P 111 P 049 P 110 P 111 P 025 P 033 P 075 P 049 P 111 P 013 P 025 P 046 P 075 P 079 P 069 P 075 P 111 P 131 P 049 P 110 P 111 P 049 P 111 P 12 1 P 025 P 034 P 075 P 069 P 075 P 087 P 049 P 086 P 111 P I29 P 049 P 086 P 110 P 111

H 079 H 081

W61 R 26f L 36a W47a L 33c R 24m L l9p L 3Op L 32A 4 5m 6 0 j P 93a R 76h W47a L l6b L 3Op L 36k

H 084 H 085 H 087 H 088 H 089 H 090 H 091 H 092 H 093 H 094 H 095 H 096 H 097 H 098 H 099 H 10 1

L 3Op L 36k P 22b P 4 1c R 81c P 40e R 57c P 95b R 24a R 26a L 36a W5la L 3Op L 36n P la P 95b R 66p W61 L 36a B 58a P 93d W13 R 69c R 69d R 76d R 67 R 84 L 42 6 0 j W5la L 3Op L 36k L 36a L 59c 4 5M P 22b P 93d R 67 R 38 R 67 R 84d W6 1 R 26a L 36a 9 4k

1 102

W5la R 24m L 3Op L 36n

H 074 H 075 H 076

P 072 P 075 P 087 P 12 1 P 097 P 103

( P038 )

( P059 )

P 097 P 103

P 110

P 075 P 114 P 110

P 111 P 086 P 087

H 126 H 128 H 129

H 130 H 132 H 133 H 134 H 136 H 137 H 138 H 139 H 140 H 141 H 142 H 143

W5la W62 W80 W85 L 36n 4 6d8 R 24m R 26a L 3Op L 36n P 24 r W5la R 84 L 3Op L 36n L 53k 6 3e

P 086 P 034 P 110 P 128 P 049 W5la R 26a L 3Op L 36a P 111 P 075 R 67 L 3Op P 049 W5 la R 24m L 3Op L 53k P 128 P 049 W5la R 24m L 3Op P 025 P 84 i D lOk R 38 9 3a 055 D 7c D 6 1k R 76h R 81 R 84 R 84d P P 070 R 84e P 050 W62 1 6d P 050 R 26f 4 6F6 4 6k

P 086 P 086 P 110 P 086 P 097 P 111 P 097 P 111 P 097 P 110 P 069 P 110 ( P138)

P 050 P 052 P 110 P 111 P 049 P 069 P 111 P 114 P 086 P 110 P 110 P 086 P 110 P 086 P 110 P 055 P 087 P 060 P 069 p üel P 103 PW6

W90 R 24m R 26a R 26c L 36a L 57k 4 9 1 5 0q W85 R 26a R 27 L 36b L 71G 4 6F6 6 3e

P 052 P 086 P 111 P 120 P 050 P 052 P 086 P 111 P 114

W62 R 24m R 26a R 70 L 36a L 59c 6 3e 6 3 j W62 R 26a L l6c L 3Op L 3O s L 36L 8 1f

P 050 P 111 P 050 P 110

P 075 P 114 P 086 P 111

W62 L 36a 5 0G P 46k W51 W61 R 26f L 19c L 59d 6 3e 6 5u W80 7 0m 9 5R W62 R 26f L 36b 6 3e

P 052 P 111 P 086 P 102 P 12 1 ( P 122 ) P 126 P 086 P 111

( P 096 )

P 086 P 12 1 P 109 P 116

H 148

W5la W90 R 24m 2 d4 6d 6 0 j 6 0k 7 3 7 3s 8 6F2 8 7g

P 050 P 049 P 114 P 052 P 050 P 114 P 049 P 086

H 149

R 24m L l2d L 36n

P 123 P 135 ( P 134 ) P 050 P 086 P 106

H 150

R 24m L 3Op L 46 8 7e

H 151 H 152 H I53 H 154

W62 L 36a R 24m L l7m P 8 lb L 59G 6 3e R 24m R 65b L 3Op L 59d

H 155 H 156

L l7n L 53k W5la R 24m R 45a L 3Op L 36n

H 157

R 57e 4 6D 2 6 0k

H 158 H 159 H 160

D 2Om R 65c R 38 R 24m R 38 B 39a P 46a P 97m W43b o r W5la R 26f L l7n L 3Op 6 0 j

H 144 H 145 H 146 I 147

46 F 6

P 050 P 052 P 103 P 111

P 111

18

1 : 0 16 P 110 P 116 5 P 050 P 086 P 027 P 074 P 121 P 106 P 049 P 110 P 050 P e " ;4 P 086 P 020 P 086 P 111

P 111 P 097 P 114 P 130 P 086 P 110 P 128 P 067 P 086 P 111 P 082 P 111 P 087( ,0 6 3 ) P 087 P 024 P 049 P 106 P 110 ( P0 14 )

P o t tery t ype s

P o t te ry g roups

G rave

J unke r p o t te ry t ype s

H 161

L l9p 4 6D 3 6 0 j

P 050 P 099 P 111

H 162

W5la R 24m L 3Op L 42

T 089 1 090 T 091 T 095 T 099 T 101 1 109 T 110 T 113 T 117 T 119 T 120 T 122 1 131 T 133 1 139 1 140 1 153 T 157 1 158 T 159 T 162 1 164 T 169 T 170 1 171 T 172 1 174 T 177 T 179 T 181 T 182 T 183 1 184 T 186 1 193 1 197 T 202 1 204 1 205 T 215 1 2 16 1 219 T 222 T 223 T 225 T 226 1 236 T 237 T 241 T 248 T 262 1 273 1 289 T 293 1 302 1 304 T 310 T 311 T 313 T 318 1 324 T 329 1 335 1 337 1 338 1 339 T 340 T 341 1 343 1 344 T 349

J 001 J 014 J 065 J 014 J 0 14 J 064 J 0 14 J 0 14 J 072 J 064 J 003 J 0 15 J 019 J 014 J 015 J 064 J 015 J 014 J 003 J 066 J 066 J 064 J 0 15 J 024 J 064 J 064 J 012 J 024 J 001 J 0 14 J 007 J 006 J 007 J 007 J 001 J 001 J 001 J 014 J 104 J 014 J 092 J 064 1 066 J 061 J 007 J 064 J 015 J 057 J 066 J 004 1 00 1 J 066 J 066 J 004 J 007 J 026 J 004 J 108 J 004 J 002 J 026 J 029 J 036 1 026 J 026 J 020 J 024 J 066 J 0 19 J 022 J 024 J 021

G rave

P 049 P 131 P 086 R 26a L 36a 6 0 j P 086 R 24m L l7n P 049 W61 R 24m L 42 6 0g P 131 P lc P 93b P 97k R 24m R 45a P 024 L l7m L l7n L 3Op P 067 P 106 050 W62 R 24m R 26a L l7n 6 0k 6 3 j P P 111

H 164 H 165 H 167 H 168

H 169

P 086 P 110 P 111 P 106 P 086 P 111 P 025 P 033 P 086 P 097 P 110 P 086 P 106 P 114

P o t te ry g r oup s i n c luded i n t he s e r ia t ion : P 013 P 049 P 075 P 104 P 126

P 020 P 050 P 079 P 106 P 127

P 024 P 052 P 081 P 109 P 128

P 025 P 027 P 029 P 033 P 034 P 046 P 047 P 048 P 055P060 P 061 P 067 P 069 P 070 P 072 P 074 P 082 P 086 P 087 P 094 P 097 P 099 P 102 P 103 P 110 P 111 P 112 P 114 P 116 P 120 P 12 1 P 123 P 129 P 130 P 131 P 135 P 136

P o t te ry g r oup s ( shown i n b racke t s a nd i n s ma l le r t ype i n t h e t a b le a bove ) e xc luded f r om t h e s e r ia t ion b ecause e ach o ccu r s o n ly o nce : P 0 14 P 026 P 035 P 038 P 045 P 057 P 059 P 063 P 080 P 085 P 088 P 091 P 095 P 096 P 101 P 118 P 119 P 122 P 134 P 138

C on tro l Tura

s er iat ions

s er ia t ion

d ata

-J unker 's

t ypo logy

F or t h e c on t ro l s e r ia t ion o f T u ra u s ing J unke r 's o wn t ypo logy , t h e p ub l i shed p o t tery t ype s w e re s imp ly c onve r ted f r om R oman i n to A rab ic n ume ra ls . E ach t y pe h a s b een s t anda rd i sed t o 3d ig i t s a nd i sp receded b y t h e l e t te r ` . 1 ' f o r ' J unke r ' . H ence , J unke r 's t ype LXIV - a c ommon t ype o f c y l inder v esse l -a ppea rs i n t h e s e r ia t ion m a t r ix a s J 064 . T he s e r ia t ion d a ta h a s b een t aken d i rec t ly f r om J unker 's g rave r eg is te r . Many o f t h e p o t tery i d en t if ica t ion s l i s ted b y J unke r a r e u nce r ta in ; ar ange o f p oss ib le t ypes i s g i ven f o r s o me v esse ls . S uch i n c idences h ave b een om i t ted f r om t h e s e r ia t ion d a ta , s i nce t h ey i n t roduce a n e l emen t o f d oub t , t h e e f fec t s o f wh ich o n t he s e r ia t ion wou ld b e d i f f icu l t t oq uan t ify . G raves c on ta in ing f ewe r t han t wo n on -un ique t ype s , o r t ypes w h ich o ccur o n ly o nce , h ave b een e xc luded i n a ccordance w i th t he d emand s o f t he s e r ia t ion p roce ss . T he l i s t b e low g ive s t h e s e r ia t ion d a ta u sed f o r t h i s c on t ro l s e r ia t ion . G rave

J unke r p o t te ry t ypes

1 015 T O19 1 025 T O27 T O30 T 034 T 036 T 038 T 042 T 043 T 047 T 049 1 053 T 054 T 057 T 058 T 064 T 065 T 079 T 084 1 088

J 056 J 022 J 056 J 064 J 014 J 014 J 007 J 002 J 057 J 007 J 006 J 014 J 085 J 002 J 001 J 014 J 001 J 014 J 100 J 064 J 014

J 089 J 064 J 057 J 104 J 085 J 064 J 064 ( J 054 ) J 0 14 J 061 J 064 J 064 J 0109 J 019 J 064 J 014 J 064 J 064 J 109 ( S i) ( S2 ) J 065 J 064 J 064 J 104 J 105 J 014 J 018 J 064 J 104 J 064 J 104 J 107 J 104

19

J 002 J 064 J 064 J 089 J 106 J 064 J 064 J 105 J 065 104 ( J 058 ) J 065 J 116 J 104 J 116 J 10 1 J 117 J 108 J 104 J 116 J 064 J 072 J 032 J 064 J 106 J 087 J 108 J 018 J 066 J 014 J 077 J 072 J 109 ( J 096 ) J 018 J 064 J I06 J 094 J 109 J 104 J 066 J 030 J 064 J 094 J 064 J 087 J 109 J 064 ( J 013 ) J 026 J 088 ( J 023 ) J 0 15 J 106 J 104 J 012 J 026 J 066 J 024 J 066 J 005 J 110 ( J 008 ) J 07 J 064 J 105 J 105 J 106 ( J 055 ) J 015 J 109 ( J 047 ) ( J 102 ) J 104 J 116 J 108 J 109 J 114 ( s 4 ) J 056 J 094 J 10 1 J 104 J 066 J 104 J 111 J 092 J 116 J 026 J I04 J 014 J 105 J 093 J 105 J 106 J 007 J 066 J 075 J 093 J 093 J 116 J 005 J 026 J 066 J 066 J 093 J 030 J 095 J 032 J 105 J 029 J 069 J 024 J 029 J 069 J 026 J 104 J 109 J 103 J 029 J 069 J 109 J 025 J 028 J 109 J 069 J 022

J 109 J 110 J 114

J 088 J 090 J 108

J 092

J 090 J 109 J 111

G rave

J unke r p o t te ry t ype s

T 355 T 356 T 357 T 359 T 361 T 363 T 364 T 365 T 366 T 367 T 369 T 371 T 372 T 377 T 378 T 381 T 389 T 391 T 397 T 398 T 401 T 407

1 004 J 066 J 024 1 04 1 J 032 1 149 J 028 1 009 J 02 1 1 029 J 028 1 029 1 909 J 027 1 024 J 028 1 927 J 022 J 027 1 995 1 028 1 377 J 071 J 026 J 031 J 011 J 051 J 010 J 030 J 027 J 025 J 026 1 927 J 024 J 024 J 010 J 028 J 024 J 038 1 331 1 028 J 031 J 022 J 024 J 028 J 011 J 024 J 024 J 043 J 050 J 009 J 068 J 024 J 024 J 028 1 028 J 028 J 024 J 053 J 048 J 024

7 4 12 7 4 13 7 4 14 7 4 17 T 421 T 423 T 435 T 442 T 455 T 456 T 468 T 469 T 470 T 474 T 477 T 487 T 488 T 490 T 491 T 494 T 495 T 496 T 498 T 500 T 501 T 502 T 505 T 518 T 525 T 534 T 535 T 539 T 543 T 548 T 549 T 573 T 575 T 577 T 578

J unke r p o t te ry t ype s ( s hown i n sma l le r t ype a nd i n b racke t s a bove ) e xc luded f r om t h e s e r ia t ion b ecau se e ach o ccu r s o n ly o nce :

J 116 J 108 J 1I4 ( J 044 ) J 029 J 030 J 069 J 109 J 043 107 J 113 J 069 1 095 108 J 032 109 ( J 097 ) J 024 1 069 J 108 1 029 1 069 J 103 1 069 J 095 1 069 1 095 J 109 J 032 1 069 1 394 1 019 1 021 1 343 J 028 J 035 J 109 109 1 069 J 043 J 069 1 028 J 069 1 069 109 1 069 105 J 109 1 069 J I09 J 051 J 069 J 108 J 069 1 026 J 038 1 968 J 109 1 038 J 068 J 111 ( J 04 ) 1 031 J 075 J 077 J 095 100 ( J 07 0 ) 1 027 1 969 J 111 J 114 J 069 J 077 ( J 076 ) J 042 J 021 1 922 J 049 J 031 J 032 J 069 J 068 J 108 J 109 J 069 J 071 J 031 1 938 J 049 1 095 1 068 J 109 ( J 09 1 ) 1 028 J 035 J 050 J 068 J 094 J 109 J 068 J 107 J 030 J 028 1 992 J 108 J 028 J 036 J 025 J 027 109 J 068 J 068 J 109( 7 039 ) J 0 10 J 022 1 068 113 J 027 J 043 J 028 J 068 J 109 J 068 J 103 J 031 J 092 J 108 J 031 J 038 J 04 1 J 094 J 053 J 100 J 117 J 115 J 048 J 053 J 115 ( S3 )

J 008 1 0 13 J 023 J 039 J 040 J 044 J 047 J 054 J 055 1 058 J 070 1 076 1 091 J 096 J 097 J 102 ` S onde r typen ' S I S 2 S 3 S 4

T ura

J 002 J 003 J 004 J 005 J 006 J 007 J 009 1 0 10 J 0 11 J 014 1 0 16 J 018 J 0 19 J 020 J 021 J 022 1 024 J 025 1 028 J 029 J 030 J 031 J 032 J 035 J 036 J 038 J 04 1 J 048 1 049 J 050 J 051 J 053 J 056 J 057 J 061 1 064 1 068 J 069 J 071 J 072 J 075 J 077 J 085 J 087 J 088 1 092 J 093 1 094 J 095 J 100 J 101 J 103 J 104 105 J 108 J 109 J 110 J 111 J 113 J 114 115 116 J 1 17

d ata

- P e tr ie 's

t ypo logy

F or t he c on t ro l s e r ia t ion o f T u ra u s ing P e t r ie 's t ypo logy , t h e g r ave r eg is te r s p ub l i shed b y P e t r ie ( e t a l . 1 9 13 : p l s . LXV , LXVI E ) h ave b een u sed . T he t ypes l i s t ed f o re ach g rave h ave b een u sed f o r s e r ia t ion , w i thou t f u r the r g roup ing . E ach t ype h a s b een s t anda rd ised t o t wo d ig i t s ( w i th o r w i thou t a l e t te r a f te rwa rd s ) a nd i sp re ceded b y t h e l e t te r ` P ' f o r ' P e t r ie ' . T hu s , f o r e xamp le , t ype 4 7p -a c ommon t ype i n many g rave s a t T u ra a ppea r s i n t h e s e r ia t ion ma t r ix a s P 47P ; 7 0g a ppea r s a s P 70G . T he d a ta f o r t h is c on t ro l s e r ia t ion c o r repond s t o t h e s econd c o lumn (To t te ry t ype s ' ) i n t h e e a r l ie r t a b le o f ' Tu ra s e r ia t ion d a ta ' . P e t r ie p o t te ry t y pe s i n c luded i nt h e s e r ia t ion : P 0 1X P O2B P O3F P O3G P O3K P O3L P O3 M P O9H P 11D P l3 M P 14E P 14Y P l9V P 27D P 27H P 27R P 36G P 36N P 37E P 37F* P 46H P 47P P 48 P 5OD P 5ON P 5OT P 51 D P 51G P 51 K P 56 M P 56P P 57F P 57N P 570 P 57V P 59G P 59H P 59 J P 59P P 6OD P 6ON P 6OP P 63G P 64B P 65K P 65P P 65T P 68 M P 7OF P 7OG P 700 P 7OP P 74E P 74 J P 74M P 75E P 75N P 75S P 76C P 76D P 76L P 81D P 85D P 86F P 88G P 88H P 90 P 91E P 91H *f o r ' 3 7f -n ' i nt h e g rave r e g i s te r s P o t te ry t ype s e xc luded f r om t h e s e r ia t ion b ecau se e ach o ccu r s o n ly o nce : P l3G P 14L P 2OH P 3 1M P 47 M P 50C P 5OL P 6OV P 65H P 65 W P 68E P 68G P 7OH P 70 J P 7 1M P 73H P 76M P 8 1F P 85E P 86D P 87F P 87G P 89B P 9 1D P 9 1E -H P 91J P 94L P 94R P 95P P 98M

E lkab

s er ia t ion

d a ta

T he Naqada D I C eme te ry a tE lkab w a s s e r ia ted t w ice : o nce u s ing t h e t ypo logy d ev i sed s pec i f ica l ly f o r t h e s i t e b y H end r ickx ; a nd a s e cond t ime u s ing t h e t ypo log ica l g roup ing s u sed i n t h e p re sen t s t udy . F o r t h e c on tro l s e r ia t ion u s ing Hendr ickx 's own t y po logy , h i s t y pe s w e re a s s igned s equen t ia l n umbe r s , f r om 1t o 6 0 , s t anda rd i sed t o t wo d ig i t s a nd p receded b y t he l e t te r ' H ' f o r ' Hend r ickx ' . T he t a b le b e low s hows t h e c oncordance b e tween H end r ickx 's t ypes a nd t he n ew t ype n umber s u sed i n t he s e r ia t ion . T he o rde r o f p o t te ry t ype s f o l lows t ha t g i ven i n t he p ub l i shed e xcava t ion r epo r t ( Hend r ickx 1 994 ) .

J unke r p o t te ry t y pe s i n c luded i n t h e s e r ia t ion : J 00 1 J 0 13 J 027 1 043 J 066 J 090 107

s er iat ion

J 0 12 J 026 J 042 J 065 J 089 106

F or t h e s econd s e r ia t ion o f E lkab , i tw a s n ecessa ry t o c onve r t H end r ickx 's t ypes i n to t h e t ypo log ica l g roup ings u sed i n t h e p re sen t s t udy . T h is w a s s t ra igh tfo rwa rd f o r mos t t y pe s , s i nce H end r ickx ( 1 994 ) g i ve s t h e c oncordance s b e tween h i s o wn t ype s a nd t h ose o f P e t r ie 's c o rpo ra . F rom t h i s i n forma t ion , e ach t ype c ou ld b e a s s igned t o o ne o f t h e p o t te ry g r oups . F o r af ew t ype s , n o P e t r ie e qu iva len t s a r e g iven . I n s uch c a se s t he l i ne d r aw ing s i n t h e e xcava t ion r epo r t w e re u sed t o a s s ign t h e t ype t o ap o t te ry g roup . T he t a b le b e low a l so s hows t h e c onco rdance b e tween H end r ickx 's t ypes a nd t h e p o t tery g roup s u sed i n t h e p r esen t s t udy . I n t h e c a se o f t wo o f H end r ickx 's t y pe s , A UFB 2 a nd A U FC 2 , n umbe red 2 2 a nd 2 4 r e spec t ive ly , t he g iven P e t r ie t ype e qu iva len t s d i d n o t a l low t h e t ype t o b e e qua ted w i th a s i ng le p o t te ry g roup . T he refo re , t h e l i ne -d raw ing o f e ach i n d iv idua l o ccu r rence o f A UFB 2 a nd A UFC 2 w a s c hecked a nd c ompa red w i th t h e c ha r t s o f p o t te ry g roups g i ven i nt he Append ix a bove . T h i s e nab led t h e c or rec t g roup t o b e a s s igned t o e ach v e s se l , a nd t h us t oe ach g r ave wh ich c on ta ined o ne o ft h e t ype s i nq ue s t ion .

1 20

H end r ickx t ype

N ew t y pe n umbe r

P o t te ry g roup e qu iva len t

G rave H end r ickx p o t te ry t ypes

P o t te ry g roup s

E 02

H 04 H 13 H 17 H 18 H45 ( 1 4 4 8 )

P 10 P 110 P 111 P 130 P 049 P 094 P 095 P 111 P 128 P 086 P 103 P 110 P 12 8 P 050 P 110 P 130 P 086 P 091 P 050 P 100 P 052 P 097 P 134 P 050 P 102 P 110 P 111 P 128 P 130 P 134 P 049 P 095 P 134 P 095 P 103 P 117 P 049 P 086 P 095 P 110 P 086 P 110 P 117 P 094 P 110 P 111 P 094 P 110 P 049 P 095 P 110 P 111 P 086 P 095 P 097 P 102 P 110 P 111 P I2 8 P 049 P 095 P 102 P 111 P 114 P 049 P 086 P 095 P 100 P 110 P 111 P 114 P 128 P 134 P 138 P 094 P 111 P 048 P 049 P 086 P 094 P 095 P 102 P 117 P 048 P 049 P 095 P 110 P 111 P 110 P 117 P 138 P 049 P 086 P 094 P 097 P 110 P 111 P 134

AF R J 1 AF R J 3 AF R J 6 AFRO 1 AF RO 3 AF S J 1 AF S J2 AF S J3 AFS J5 AR FC 2 AR FC 3 AR FC 4 AR FC 5 AR FC 6 A RR J 1 A RR J3 AR S J 1 AR S J 2 ARS J3 ARS J4 AR S J6 A UFB 2 A UFB 4 A UFC 2 A UFC 3 A UFC 4 A UFY l a A UFY 2 A UFY 3 A UFY 4 A UFY 5 A UFY 6 A UFY 7 A UFY 8 A UFY 1 0 BR FE 1 BR S J 2 B UFB I BU FC 1

0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9

P 138 P 128 P 128 P 130 P 049 P 049 P 049 P 048 P 095 P 095 P 100 P 100 P 095 P 134 P 134 P 111 P 111 P 114 P 111 P 114 P 094 /P097 P 097 P1 02 /P096 P 095 P 102 P 049 P 050 P 050 P 049 P 050 P 050 P 050 P 050 P 052 P 126 P 122 P 086 P 087

E 05

H 03 H 17 H 22 H 25 H 30

E 09

H03 H 28 H 45 H 50

E ll E 13 E 16 E 17 E 18

H04 H 50 H 13 H 15 H 03

E 23 E 25 E 29

H08 H IO H 16 H 11 H 47 H 56 H 08 H 14 H 44 H 57

E 30 E 34 E 36 E 40

H 43 H 20 H 40 H 08

E 4 1

H 02 H 18 H 20 H 22 H 25 H 26 H 43 H 53 H 57

E 42

H 06 H 14 H 19 H 20 H 26

E 43

H O I H 02 H 06 H 08 H 10 H 12 H 16 H 19 H 20 H 44 H 49 H 51

E 46 E 47

H 20 H 59 H 06 H 09 H 10 H 14 H 26 H40 H 47 H 49 H 53 H 59

E 48

H 08 H 09 H 11 H 18 H 44 H 46

E 49 E 50

H 0 1 H 43 H 46 H 07 H 16 H 20 H 22 H 40 H 43 H 44 H 50 H 59

CD IS I CF R J 1 CP SJ 2 CP S J 3 CP SJ 4 CP S J5 CP S J 6 CR S J 1 CU FB 1 CU FB 2 CU FB 3 C UFB 4 C UFB 5 C UFB 7 CU FC 1 CU FL 1 CU FL 2 C UFL 3 CURB 1 C URB 2 C URP 2

4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0

P 075 P 109 P 110 P 110 P 110 P 110 P 117 P 091 P 086 P 086 P 086 P 086 P 086 P 086 P 091 P 103 P 086 P 091 P 094

E 51 E 52 E 54 E 6 1

H 06 H 20 H 47 H 07

E 62

H 12 H 13 H 19 H 26 H 59

E 63 E 68

H 56 H 60 H 11 H 18 H 29 H 31 H 52 H 58 H 60

E 69

H 20 H 25 H 45 H 47 H 53 H 59

E 72

H 17 H 30 H 45 H 57

E 74 E 76

H 18 H 35 H 02 H 14 H 19 H 37 H 38 ( H36 ) ( H39 )

H 34 H 57 H 34 H 23 H 04

H 47 H 47 H 43 H 11

H 43 H 58 H 60 ( } 1 5 5 ) H 35 H 15 H 17 H 24 H 28 H 44

H 49 H 59 H 59 H 18 H 44 H 46

H 14 H 44 H 45 H 49 H 20 H 45 H 47

( H4 1 )

P 049 P 095 P 110 P 110 P 111 P 086 P 117 P 049 P 110 P 111 P 117 P 094 P 100 P 102 P 114 P 103* P 050 P 086 P 09 1 P 095 P 111 P 086 P 094 P 095 P 110 P 111 P 117 P 049 P 086 P 110 P 111 P 052 P 111 P 086 P 095 P 114 P 122 P 128 ( P075 ) ( P087 ) ( P126 ) P 095 P 114 P 122 P 050 P 086 P 102 P 103 P 111 P 134

E 77 E 85

H 10 H 19 H 37 H 05 H 15 H 18 H 26 H 29 H 33 H 34 H 38 H 49 H 5 1 H 52 H 53 H 54 ( H2 1)

T he t a b le b e low g ive s t h e d a ta u sed f o r b o th s e r ia t ion s o f E lkab . T he p ub l i shed g rave n umbe r s h ave b een s t anda rd ised t o t wo d i g i t s a nd a r e p receded b y t h e i d en t if ica t ion l e t t e r ' E ' f o r E lkab .

E 86

H 08 H IO H IS H 24 H 47 H 56

E 90

H 02 H 47 H 51 H 54

G rave H end r ickx p o t te ry t ype s

P o t te ry g roup s

E 9 1 E 93

H 05 H IS H 19 H 35 H IS H 18 H 23 H 26 H 33 H 35 H 49

P 052 P 114 P 134 P 050 P 052 P 086

E 0 1

P 050 P 096 P 102 P 110 P 111 P 128 P 130

H 50 H 51 H 52 H 53 H 57 H 59

P 094 P 097 P 102 P 111 P 134 P 094 P 117

H 03 H 04 H 20 H 24 H 26 H 29 H 3 1 H 45

( H32 ) ( H42 )

E 94

1 21

H 47 H 59

P 049 P 095 P 096 P 117 P 134 P 086 P 103 P I17 P 128

H end r ickx p o t te ry t ype s i nc luded i n t h e f i r s t s e r ia t ion : H 0 1 H 14 H 29 H 47

H02 H 15 H 30 H49

H 03 H 16 H 31 H 50

H04 H 17 H 33 H 5 1

H 05 H 18 H 34 H 52

H06 H 19 H 35 H 53

H 07 H 20 H 37 H 54

H08 H22 H 38 H 56

H 09 H 23 H 40 H 57

H 10 H 24 H 43 H 58

H 11 H 25 H 44 H 59

H 12 H 13 H26 H 28 H45 H 46 H 60

H end r ickx p o t te ry t ypes ( s hown i n s male r t ype a nd i n b racke t s a bove ) e xc luded f r om t h e f i r s t s e r ia t ion b ecause e ach o ccu r s o n ly o nce : H 2 1 H 32 H 36 H 39 H 4 1 H 42 H 48 H 55

P o t te ry g roup s i n c luded i nt h e s econd s e r ia t ion : P 048 P 049 P 050 P 052 P 086 P 091 P 094 P 095 P 096 P 097 P 100 P 102 P 103 P 110 P 111 P 114 P 117 P 122 P 128 P 130 P 134 P 138 P o t te ry g roup s ( s hown i n s ma l le r t ype a nd i n b racke t s a bove ) e xc luded f r om t h e s econd s e r ia t ion b ecause e ach o ccur s o n ly o nce : P 075 P 087 P 126 *G rave E 63 w a s n o t i nc luded i n t h e s econd s e r ia t ion , a s i t c on ta ined o n ly o ne g roup a cco rd ing t o t h e t ypo log ica l s ys tem d ev i sed f o r t h e p re sen t s t udy .

1 22

P 001

7 _7 BlA

B ib

B lF

B ila

B ulb

/ B ild

7 _7 B 11G

Bh f

Bile

B il l

B llj

77 B il K

B ilk2

mOSTB2

mATB2

MOSTB3

B 11 M

B 12A

B UN

MATB1

B il l

MATB3

B12g

MATB4

B15

MOSTB1

P 002

B21b6

B79

!

0 0

0

B25c

B25c 1

B25b

M OSTB11

B25 i

mOSTB12

B25o

mOSTB13

B 25p

P 004

B18a

B18N

B 21d 3

B 18b

B 18c

B19

B 21d5

B 18d

B 19a

B 18E

B 19E

mATB5

B 18G

B 18 K

B 19k 2

MOSTB4

B21d2

MOSTB5

MOSTB7

P 006

B21b 4

B77

B 21d

B 77a

B 25s3

B 77c

B 72f

B78

B72g

MATB 8

POOS

B22b -·

B22h

B22k

B2-Sa

-- ·- ..... _, . . -·---. . ... :· .....

B2Sb

B25g

B2Sf

B2SL

B2Sj

'••········

B26e

B27i

B271

B27m

B29

B29a

. - ----...... ...

B35

B3SE

B35G

B52

B52a

·B77D

MOSTB6

P 007

B 2la

B 2 s e 2

B 2lo

B 22c

B 26b

B22f

B22e

B 26D

B 27b

B22n

B35 f B36 d

B 22p B 25d

B22o

B25d3 B 25e

B78D MOSTB8

B 74E

P 008

B 25k

B 33P

B 57C

B 72b

B72c

B 72D

B 72E

B 74c

P 009

B 22J

B 27a

B 35a

B 35b

B27c

B 35c

B27f

B 35d

B 27g

B 351 1

B 27 j

B36

B27 K

mOSTB9

B 29E

P 011

B 62a

B 62

B 99

B 64E

B 99G

P 012

B 50

B 53

B 53a

B 53b

B 54 M

P 013

B54a

B 57a2

B 74a

B 76A

B 55A

B 57b2

B 74b

B 76 M

B 56a

B 56

B 55B

B 57G

B 58a

B 63b

B 75a

mATB9

mATB13

mosTB17

B 57a

B 63c

P 014

B37b

B38a

B 38c

B 38d

B 39a

B 39b

P 015

B 62b 3

B82

B 62d 2

B83b2

7 B 62m2

B 62 m 3

0 8 62 m4

B 62 m 5

B 84a

P 016

B44S

mOsTB19

B69

M OSTB21

B69a

mATB 1 1

mOSTB 1 8

P 017

B 7la

B 76b 3

B 7lb

MATB10

P 018

B 4la

B 42b

B 44a

144b

B46

B 47

B 49

B 49a

mATB12

P 019 7--

B 331{* B 57b

B 58b

B 58c

B61

B 61A

B 62b

B 62b 2

B 62D

( ) B 62g

B 63a

B 64c

B 65a

B 65b

B 65 M

B 66a

B 68b

B 68a

0 o B 68C

B 72a

B 75b

B 76G

i B 81A

B 81B

mATB6

mOSTB20

B 77b

B 77e

B 78b

B 78c

P 020

P 42

P 43a

P 45a •

P 45b

P 45D

P 46b

P 45E

P 46F

P 021

P 75G

P 022

M ATP21

P 38 .

P 36b

P 36a

P 023

P 63a

P 63 m

P 64A

P 65A

P 65B

P 66

P 68a

P 024

P 95c

P 97K

P 97

P 98a

P 98b

P 025

P 84C

P 84E

P 92a

P 93b

P 93c

P 93d

P 95a

P 95b

0000 P 95G

P 96

P 98j

MOSTP8

MOSTP11

P 026

P 47a

P 53

P 54

P 58c

P 54b

MATP23

.P 57a

MATP24

MOSTP10

P 027

C=5 P 74

P 8la

P 8lb

P 028

P 82a

P 82c

P 82b

P 82D

MATP22

c 3

7

P 26a •

•

P 26d

mATP19

P 33

P 029

P 36E

P 40c

P 40e

P 37d

P 40

P 40c2

P 40c 3

P 40e2

P 4OG

P 4Ob

P 40a

P 40c4

P 4OH

P 4Od

P 40 i

P 40d2

P 029

c ont inued

P 41a

P 4OP

P 40 1

P 4O K

P 4lb

P 41c

MOSTP6

P 031

( \

P 23a

P 23b

P 032

u P 13c

P 13d

MATP15

P 40q

MOSTP7

P 38K

P 033

7 _ 7 P 2a

P 4

P lt3

P IE

P ld

P lc

P lb 2

MOSTP3

P 7a

MOSTP4

P 034

P 4a

P l3f 2

P 4b

7 17 P 22A

P 23C

P 24 M

P 14

/

41 _ 71' N P 22A

'17 ' P 221 1

P 23C

P 22d

P 24K

P 24r n3

P 24 m2

MOSTPI .

P 21B

MOSTP2 :

P 24L

P 24 m4

P 035

P 1lb

P 1lc

U: = 7 P 13

P 16

P 11d

P ile

N P 13a

P 15

P l4G

P l6D

P l6c

P 24e 2

mATP16

mATP17

PUG

/ P l5C

P l7a

P 036

P 21

P l1F

mATP18

P l5D

P 22b2

P 22C

P 037

F 10

F l2a .

F lla

FUG

F l4a

F l2c

F l2b

F l5a

F 11C

F l5G

F l5c

F 12

F l4b

MOSTF13

P 038

F 15=F15B

F 14

F 18

MATF2

P 040

F 31c

F 31d

F l5D

MATF6

P 041

F 58a

P 042

F 58e

'

F 42a

mostF16

P 043

} MATF3

MATF4

F 58J

MATF9

P 045

MAT W 27 .

W3B

P 046

.

W8

W4

W14

D W2Oh

W26

W22

W27

W19

W23

W43a

W44

MOST W1

MOST W2

P 047

U W42

W43c

P 048

W41

W47A

W4la

W47G

W43B

W47 M

W43g 5

W43G

W48

W43 M

W43n

W48a

P 049 ` . . . -3 2 "-, -

W49

W50

W51

W56G

1 W60A

W6OG

W61

4 3r

4 3s

4 6F 3

P 050

W58

W55

4 6D 7

4 6f

W58a

4 6F4

W62a

W64 m

4 6h

4 6b

4 6w

P 051

W30

4 4c

4 4f

4 6d

P 052

W69

W69a

W70

W71

W70a

W71c

W7la

c \

— W7ld

W80

4 6 j

4 7m

4 7p

4 7r

4 8

7

5 0b

5 0c

5 0d

5 0e

5 0f

5 0n

P 053

5 0h

( 5 0 j

5 0p

5 0s

5 0t

5 1d

5 1f

5 1g

5 1k

5 1m

U GH

5 2

5 3f

5 3m

P 054

D5OB

D51B

D59C

D59q

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D59P

MOSTD15

mOsTD14

MAT D11

P 055

D 4c

D 36a

D8P

mosTD4

D7C

D8G

mATD15

DlO K

D17b

D31 G

D 31L

D31S

D 3lt

mATD18

DIOm

mosTD7

D32L

P 056

DION

DIIN

mosTD9

mOSTD11

mATD16

mATD26

m TD27

P 057

D41

D36G

D43

mosTD17

mATD12

D 49

P 058

D61B

D 61=D61A

mOSTD19

P 059

D67c

D 63a

D62

M AT D 1 4

MAT D 1 3

D68

mosTD3

P 060

mATD23

mATD24

mATD25 D68c

M OST D8

P 061

DlT

D 7a=D9C

D 34 K

D 63b

D67c 3

D67d2

D67 12

P 062

D46

mosTD10

D51

MOSTD12

MOST5

D60

mosTD16

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D25A

P 065

D66a

mAT17

M OST6

P 063

D2O M

MOSTD18

D66f

D66g

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D25C

P 067

R42B

R44 W

R45 f

P 068

R42a

R 44a

R42C

R45A

R46

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R44S

R45B

R45C

R80a

R84D

R85a

R84

R84E

R85C

R84b

R84a

R84G

R85P

R84C

R84H

R85S

P 069

c ont inued

R86D

R86G

R82

R86F

R 86f 2

R86n

R 86 M

R82A

R86f 3

R82B

P 070

R81

R81d

R8la

R8le

R81C

R81F

R81 .c2

R81L

P072

R8lb

R81N

R81J

R81P

MOSTR27

P073

R85cs

R81K

R81V

R81kz

R82a

R8lk3

R82e

P 074

o0000000 R 6OL

mATR19

R62S

R 63m

R 65a

R65b

R65c

R 68 t

0 R 66A

0 R66B

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R66P

0 R 67

0 R68A

R 68 M

1 ° 000 00000 R69

R96D

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P 0 O 75

R66

R61G

R 6lb

R 69a

R 69b

R 69c

R69d

R69f

R69I 1

I t 69J

R 69R

P 077

R 84L

R848

R84T

R 68 m 3

mOsTR26

P 076

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R90

R94

R93C

R94E

R9411

R 94a

R94h2

R94b

R 94 32

R94c

R 94L

R94S

P 078

R85D

R85f

R85G

R85L

R93a

R93

R92

R91c

R9lb

R 94D

R 94 m

R94d2

R94P

P 079

R71B

R 76D

R76B

R75

R74c2

P 080

R74=R74A

R74B

R 74D

R 74G

R75C

R75g 2

P 081

R76

R76P

R76G

R76S

R761 1

R76 j

R76V

R76 K

R811 1

R76 M

R84 W

P 082

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R44N

R51

R53

R54

P 083

R8lw

MOSTR33

P 084

R34t

MOSTR2

MOST R1

mosTR9

P 085

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R55a

R57a

R57e

P 086

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R 4a

R 4a v ar .

R4d

R 4c

R23a

77 : 17 R 23b

R23g

R23f

R24n

R 28b

R26f 2

R 26E

R26C

R26

R 23g 2

R24=R24A

/

R 33c2

R33B

R24 M

R26F

mOSTR20

P 087

7 :7 7 17 R13c

R 23c

R36

R ib

R38

R ic

R26g

mosTR10

R 6b

MATR6

R34a

R34b

moSTR11

MOSTR5

R 34c

P 088

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MOSTR7 MOSTR8

MOSTR14

P 089

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R3b

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R3c

mOSTR15

R 3f

R 3f 6

R3f 7

R 3f8

R3f io

R11

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P 090 c i 9 R 3e R3e 3 R 3f s R3fii

MOST

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C 3

MOST

MOST

R 12 R 13

P 091

R17

R18

R id

Rle

Rif

R 2la

R 2lb

R21d

R 22a

R 23b2

R 23d 2

R 36b

P 092

mATR9

mATR10

mATR11

P 093

R3d

MATR14

R3 f 1 2

R16

MATR15

mOsTR25

C 2Uu R i7a

mATR16

R17C

mATR17

R17e

mOST R22

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mosTR16

R17f

MATR12

R i7G

MATR13

P 094

L l6G

L l6F

L 7F

8 g

8

1 2v

1 4 1

1 9d

1 9g

1 2u

1 9b

2 7d

P 095

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L l6e

L l6d

3 b

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8 f

3m

1 8b

1 4m

1 6t

1 7n

2

P 096

1 4j

L l6C

L l6A

1 8m

1 8k

1 8f

3 3n

3 3 1

3 3k

P 098

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3 9

1 6 1

P 099

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3 7e

3 7f

3 7 1

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P 097

L 7E

L 12c

L l2G

3 f

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1 3m

1 3k

1 6r

1 7h

1 7j

2 71 1

3 1h

2 0c

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3 3b

L 16 1 1

7 _7

1 3b

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2 0b

L l2p

L l2K

5 g

3 g

L l2b

L l2a

L 7G

1 3f

1 4g

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1 7c

1 7g

1 7m

1 7 1

2 4f

2 7f

2 9d

2 7s

3 7b

1 9s

2 7g

2 9g

P 100

L l7a

C3 : 17 U

L l7b

L l7c

L l7F

L l7g=L17G

u u U U u 1 9u

2 0d

2 0 j

2 0k

2 0e

2 0f

2 0h

2 0m

P 101 / L 26H

4

1 4d

1 4e

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1 4S2

2 8

1 9v

P 102

M AT3

L l9a

1 9f

9 h

5 f

1 6y

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L 17

5 k

5

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L 19b

2 5s

7 _ 1 2 ' L l9c

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P 103 157

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L 2d

L 7a

L 7b

L 7d

L 7c

i f

l k

3 d

3 k

1 6f

3 1

1 3a

1 6h

2 b

1 3c

1 6 j

I d

1 3d

1 6n

2 d

1 6d

3 7n

P 104 "2 L 2a

l lb

1 2h

7 b

L 2b=12t

1 1d

1 2 1

7 d

1 2b

1 2n

1 2o

1 2r

1 2p

2 5d= L4

2 5f

2 5m

3 1d

1 2d

1 2w

2 5h

P 105

2 k

3 P

1 4S

C

p

1 4y

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3 6f

3 6e

3 6g

n i =oc : 377c 3u 7 3 6j

3 6k

3 6 1

3 6m

3 6n

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3 6s

3 6t

3 6u

P 106 1

17