Stages of Struggle and Celebration: A Production History of Black Theatre in Texas 9781477307793

Citation preview

Stages of Struggle and Celebration

n u m b e r f o r t y- t h r e e

Jack and Doris Smothers Series in Texas History, Life, and Culture

Stages of Struggle and Celebration a p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o ry o f b l ac k t h e at r e in texas Sandra M. Mayo and Elvin Holt

University of Texas Press Austin

Publication of this work was made possible in part by support from the J. E. Smothers, Sr., Memorial Foundation and the National Endowment for the Humanities.

Copyright © 2016 by the University of Texas Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First edition, 2016 Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work should be sent to: Permissions University of Texas Press P.O. Box 7819 Austin, TX 78713–7819 http://utpress.utexas.edu/index.php/rp-form ∞ The paper used in this book meets the minimum requirements of ansi/niso z39.48–1992 (r1997) (Permanence of Paper).

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mayo, Sandra Marie, author.    Stages of struggle and celebration : a production history of Black theatre in Texas / Sandra M. Mayo and Elvin Holt. — First edition.    pages cm —(Jack and Doris Smothers series in Texas history, life, and culture ; Number Forty-three) Includes bibliographical references and index.   isbn 978-1-4773-0778-6 (cloth : alk. paper)   isbn 978-1-4773-0820-2 (pbk. : alk. paper)   isbn 978-1-4773-0779-3 (library e-book)   isbn 978-1-4773-0780-9 (non-library e-book) 1.  African American theater—Texas—History. 2.  African Americans in the performing arts. 3.  Performing arts—Texas—History  I. Holt, Elvin, 1945– author. II. Title. III. Series: Jack and Doris Smothers series in Texas history, life, and culture ; no. 43.   pn2270.a35m39 2016    792.089'960730764—dc23 2015015463

contents

Illustrations vii Preface xi Acknowledgments xvii PART I  Setting the Stage  Early Work and Overview

1 Black Theatre in Texas From the 1800s 3 PART II  Their Place on the Stage  Representative Organizations

2 San Antonio A Core Venue in the Alamo City  27 3 Austin Artistic Collaboration in the Capital City  73 4 Dallas Engaging the Community  106 5 Fort Worth Joy in the Theatre  161 6 Houston Black Theatre on Main Street  214 Afterword 273 Plays by African American Texans  281 Notes 291 References 315 Index 319

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i l l u s t r at i o n s

Dudley in street clothes and costume (1890s) 17 Sherman Dudley, The New Smart Set (1890s) 18 Carver Community Cultural Center 30 Jo Long, executive director, Carver Community Cultural Center (1974–1999) 33 Sterling Houston, Playwright 35 Sterling Houston’s Driving Wheel (1990) 35 Yonnie Blanchette, executive director, Carver Community Cultural Center (2008–present) 36 Myra Hemmings, founder, Wheatley Dramatic Guild Players (c. 1920–1960s) 38 Wheatley Dramatic Guild Players production (1926) 41 Kathy Hornsby, founder, Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company (1987–present) 44 A Soldier’s Play (1994) 47 Fences program cover (1995) 51 Order My Steps (1996) 52 A Raisin in the Sun (2006) 59 Dearly Departed (2008) 60 Blues for an Alabama Sky (2008) 62 Spell #7 (2002) 62 Black Nativity (2010) 64 The Magic Act (2003) 66 Elouise Burrell, executive director, Black Arts Alliance (1981–1989) 77 Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom (1986) 80 Boyd Vance, founder and artistic director, ProArts Collective (1992–2005) 82 Lisa Byrd, executive director, ProArts Collective (2005–2012) 95 Death and the King’s Horseman (2008) 97 Death and the King’s Horseman (2008) 98 G. W. Carver Museum and Cultural Center, home of the Boyd Vance Theatre 99

viii  ◆  Illustrations

Common Ground (2009) 99 The Black Academy of Arts and Letters, Canton/Akard Street location (1989–present) 115 Curtis King, founder and president, Black Academy of Arts and Letters (1977–present) 117 Third World Players (1979) 120 Profiles of Me (1981) 123 Medal of Honor Rag (1983) 124 Toussaint: Angel Warrior in Haiti (1994) 129 Diary of a Mad Black Woman (2001) 133 Rep Tales (2000) 135 Wild Women Blues (2002) 139 Men, Money, and Gold Diggers (2006) 142 From Garvey to Parks: The Spirit of Marcus Garvey, Ron Bobb-Semple as Garvey (2007) 143 From Garvey to Parks: A Rose among Thorns, Ella Joyce as Parks (2007) 143 The Black Academy of Arts and Letters, North Ervay Street location (1986–1988) 148 Erma Duffy Lewis, founder and executive director, Sojourner Truth Players (1972–1982) 164 Jubilee Theatre founders, Marian and Rudy Eastman. Rudy Eastman, artistic director (1981–2005) 168 It Ain’t Grease, It’s Dixie Peach (1994) 171 Negroes in Space (1986) 173 Jubilee Theatre 174 Drums (1987) 175 The Imaginary Invalid (1989) 177 God’s Trombones (1990) 178 A Soldier’s Play (1988) 179 Attitude, Girlfriend, Attitude (1999) 185 Fear Itself (1996) 187 The Ballad of Isom Dart (1997) 188 Ed Smith, artistic director, Jubilee Theatre (2006–2010) 193 Tre Garrett, artistic director, Jubilee Theatre (2011–2015) 196 Harold J. Haynes, founder and artistic director, Encore Theatre (1994–Present) 220 Samson and Delilah (2009) 225 Women in Prison (2007) 225

Illustrations  ◆   ix Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom (2008) 231 Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom program cover (2008) 232 Incarceration (2004) 233 George Hawkins, founder and artistic director, Ensemble Theatre (1976–1990) 235 George Hawkins in front of Ensemble Theatre, 1010 Tuam location 239 Sty of the Blind Pig (2008) 251 Gem of the Ocean (2008) 252 Seven Guitars (2009) 253 American Menu (2010) 253 Surprise, Surprise . . . A Love Story Flyer (1979) 256 Ensemble Theatre, Main Street location 257 Audrey Lawson, board president emerita, Ensemble Theatre 261 Eileen Morris, artistic director, Ensemble Theatre (1990–1999, 2006–Present) 263

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preface

Theatre is not merely a collection of crafts, a branch of literature, a collaboration of techniques, or even an all-encompassing art form. It is life. It is people. It is people making art out of themselves. Robert Cohen, Theatre, 7th ed. (New York: McGraw Hill, 2005)

Stages of Struggle and Celebration: A Production History of Black Theatre in Texas is an overview focusing on contemporary theatre organizations in five major cities in Texas: San Antonio, Austin, Dallas, Fort Worth, and Houston. It highlights the production history of these theatre groups and their body of work as representation, affirmation, and celebration of African American cultural life. Black theatre productions throughout the state bring to the fore cultural experiences, stories, and rituals as a way of remembering and passing them on—race memory. Then too, these cultural reenactments reveal how reactions to outside forces impact actions and ideas. The narrative includes not only a definition of black theatre but also its history in Texas from the slavery period to the contemporary period, while demonstrating its kinship to black theatre elsewhere in the United States. Though the book is a comprehensive historical narrative of black theatre in Texas, it does not cover black theatre in every city, town, or county or its instances in high schools, churches, small community centers, and the like. Like other histories of its kind, it concentrates on the work in the major urban centers.1 Thus, this narrative is not all-inclusive, nor is it intended to be. The groups chronicled in this study are the most prominent and best documented to date. Though the artistry of black theatre in Texas is influenced by national trends and key productions in major cities like New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Seattle, the purpose of this study is to show the work as it is and was realized in the Lone Star State. It not only reveals the contributions of these groups to the artistic output of the nation but also demonstrates the lively arts outside of the major commercial theatre centers—where most people have an opportunity to participate and attend. Black theatre’s

xii  ◆  Preface

uniqueness is not so much in its originality but in its existence, that is, its influence on, reflection of, and contribution to the whole. It should be archived, chronicled in articles, books, and exhibits, and remembered. In History of the Theatre,2 Oscar Brockett notes that although each theatre historian’s approach differs somewhat, a few basic patterns are discernible. Each historian strives to: . . . [emphasize] theatre as a social and cultural institution and . . . concentrate on the theatre as a reflection of the ideological assumptions of a particular time and society. . . . emphasize the role of individuals . . . adopt a biographical approach and describe the lives and works of those persons who were most prominent, innovative, or influential in the theatrical activities of specific times and places. . . . emphasize the process by which theatrical performance comes into being . . . concentrating on procedures followed from origin to the completion of a theatrical production and how these characteristic approaches have changed from one time and place to another. . . . describe and analyze the product—the performance in the theatre as seen by the audience. Here the principal concern is with the art object, and consequently considerable attention may be paid to stylistic, formal, and aesthetic questions and to audience response.3

The historiography of Stages of Struggle is a combination of three of the four approaches (1, 2, and 4). Black theatre organizations in Texas are looked upon as social and cultural institutions reflecting the aesthetics of black theatre in Texas and the nation. The aesthetics of each institution is reflected in its mission, choice of repertoire, and success with the local audience. These institutions are cultural emblems; their cultural life comes through in the documents and voices that tell their stories. This study also focuses on key individuals. Thus, the narrative includes the biographies of the founders and artistic directors, and frequently identifies directors, playwrights, actors, and technicians. It is a people’s story. We want the people to see themselves in this work; however, we have attempted to be prudent in listing names. In addition, this study also includes analysis of the product, the work of art, created by contemporary black theatre organizations. Showcasing the seasons of these groups documents their productivity. Because we understand the need to streamline the analysis, we high-

Preface  ◆   xiii light a select number of memorable productions for each featured black theatre institution. Though we would like to discuss every production for every year, we have instead provided a complete list of their seasons, as of the completion of this study, in chronological order at the end of each chapter. The book is organized into two sections with six chapters and an afterword. Part I, “Setting the Stage,” includes chapter 1. It begins with definitions and surveys the history to the present. Part II, “Their Place on the Stage,” includes chapters 2 through 6. This section analyzes the history of black theatre in the major cities in Texas through the discussion of past and current representative black theatre organizations. Chapter 2 presents the San Antonio story. It covers the Carver Community Cultural Center (1912), the earliest identified black theatre institution in Texas, and the Wheatley Dramatic Guild Players (Hemmings Players) (c. 1913–1950s). It features the Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company (1987–present) and The Renaissance Guild (2001–present). Chapter 3 presents black theatre activities in Austin, the state capital of Texas. The chapter notes the contributions of the Afro-American Players, Inc. (1970s), Black Arts Alliance (1980s), and the Austin Theatre Project (1986–1993). It features the work of ProArts Collective (1993–2012), the longest-running contemporary group in the city. Chapter 4 takes the reader to Dallas, chronicling the work of the Dallas Minority Repertory Theatre (1973–1979), African American Repertory Theatre (2008–present), Dallas Drama Company (1985–1995), Soul Nation (1995–1996), Soul Repertory Theatre (1995–2004), Vivid Theatre Repertory Company (1990–c.1996), Ebony Emeralds Classic Theatre Company (2006–2008), and Blacken Blues Theatre of African American Life (1998–present). The chapter focuses on The Black Academy of Arts and Letters (1977–present), the longest-running and most financially established of all of the groups. Chapter 5 reviews two black theatre troupes in Fort Worth—the precursor, the Sojourner Truth Players (1972–1991) and the currently running Jubilee Theatre (1981–present), the featured organization. Chapter 6 chronicles the Houston story with the Houston Negro Little Theatre (1931–c.1939), Houston Ethnic Arts Theatre (1979–?), and the Urban Theatre (1969–1980). It features the Encore Theatre (1993–present) and the Ensemble Theatre (1977–present), both currently producing. The analysis in each chapter is chronological from group to group, showcasing the earliest activities to the most recent. Most attention is given to the

xiv  ◆  Preface

featured companies with a discussion of their beginnings, founders, mission, memorable productions, and perseverance and survival strategies. The Afterword includes final thoughts on the nature of the work and its significance, challenges, and future research potential. The book’s content is shaped by the uniqueness of the organizations in the study and the documentation available for them. The discussion focuses on the evidence found mainly in programs, photos, reviews, and interviews. Some currently running institutions kept excellent records, while others kept only a few key documents. We are indebted to all of the institutions that opened their files to us and told us their stories in their own words and to the works of numerous theatre historians for ideas for the basic structure and developmental strategies of our narrative. These works include James Hatch and Erroll Hill’s The Theatre of Black Americans (2003), Hatch and Ted Shine’s Black Theatre USA (1996), Sam A. Hay’s The Theatre of African Americans (1994), Leslie Sanders’s The Development of Black Theater in America (1989), Sue Dauphin’s Houston by Stages (1981), and Oscar Brockett’s History of the Theatre, 10th ed. (2008). This text lays the groundwork for future research on black theatre in Texas. The scholarship on theatre is vast; numerous scholars have written histories of black theatre, but the history of black theatre in Texas is a unique study that has received little or no attention in previous texts. Thus, most of the documentation comes from primary sources. We examined more than three thousand documents, nine hundred photos, and numerous DVDs and VHS tapes. The theatres have continued to produce as we worked, so the opportunity to continue to document the work will be available for future scholars. Texas State University in San Marcos is establishing an archival presence for the documents accumulated on site in its Alkek Library Wittliff Collection; in addition, repositories in all of the cities represented in this study have agreed to archive the work of these groups, with documents to be housed at the University of Texas at San Antonio’s (UTSA) archives at the Institute of Texan Cultures in San Antonio, Prairie View A&M’s John B. Coleman Library just outside of Houston, the Carver Museum and Cultural Center in Austin, the Fort Worth Public Library in Fort Worth, The Black Academy of Arts and Letters’ archival repository in Dallas, and the University of North Texas.

Preface  ◆   xv

The Audience This historical analysis of the history of black theatre in Texas will be of value to graduate and undergraduate university and high school students. It will be a research source for scholars of theatre and performance history (dramaturges, theatre critics, and historians), and readers interested in cultural, ethnic, African American, and Southwestern studies. The market encompasses university theatre and English departments, theatre companies, university and public libraries, and general readers. It will be a resource for future studies by American and international researchers in the fields of black studies, literature and drama, and also for playwrights, producers, directors, actors, and theatrical organizations.

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acknowledgments

Center for Multicultural and Gender Studies Staff: Mary Gibson Sophia Joseph Treena Herington Felix Adam C. Francis Blackchild Alana King Crystal Brown Sixto-Juan Zavala Danielle Antonetti Amanda Benoist Stacey Wilson Julia Juarez Ricardo Lowe Luann Walker ****

Sundra Spears Cecil Mayo Kamal Rasheed Jubilee Theatre, Fort Worth The Black Academy of Arts and Letters, Dallas The Renaissance Guild, San Antonio Hornsby Entertainment Theatre, San Antonio Encore Theatre, Houston The Ensemble Theatre, Houston ProArts Collective, Austin Austin History Center Harry Ransom Research Center Texas Southern Library/Archives Prairie View A&M University, John B. Coleman Library St. Philip’s College Library, Vincent Hardy Alkek Library, Texas State University University of Texas at San Antonio Libraries Special Collection San Antonio Express-News

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Setting the Stage Early Work and Overview

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1 ◆ Black Theatre in Texas from the 1800s

Black theatre, like all great theatre, is a people’s dialogue with themselves about themselves—a live mirror action for helping black people to see, to cope with, and redefine their perceptions of their own humanity at personal, group, and collective levels of being. George Houston Bass, The Present State of Black Theatre, 1983

This chapter sets the stage, as it were, for the historical narratives that follow. It begins with reflections on the significance of black theatre in Texas, black theatre historiography, and black theatre and the Western theatrical tradition. Because the concept of black theatre is central to our study, we define the term, establishing its cultural and artistic differences from European American theatre. The black aesthetic underlies the various aspects of black theatre in Texas and the United States; thus, this chapter provides highlights of its elements. The chapter continues with a brief look at black theatre, the regional theatre movement, and the Texas brand. A brief overview of the origins and resilience of black theatre in Texas follows, tracing it through the emergence of black minstrel performers in the late 1800s, black musicals, the Negro Little Theatre Movement, historically black college theatre troupes, and the rise of black professional theatre companies. The chapter closes by reflecting on the enduring presence of black theatre in the state and previewing the chapters that follow.

Significance Woodie King Jr., legendary director, author, and founder of the New Federal Theatre, reminds readers that “African American theatre of tomorrow must exist as a result of one’s knowledge of the past. We must be aware of the pioneers and their contribution.”1 Similarly, the history of black theatre in Texas must be documented for future generations. In the African American vernacular, those who succeed against great odds are praised for “making a way out of no way.” Against almost insurmountable challenges, black theatres in five major cities in Texas have made a way out

4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration of no way, and in the process they have carved out a space for themselves in their respective arts communities. In so doing, they have also created a space for other artists: singers, dancers, musicians, visual artists, set and lighting designers, and costume designers, thereby nurturing what Alice Walker calls the “springs of creativity.” The contemporary black theatres in Texas honor their African ancestors whose vibrant oral tradition and performance rituals inform their work. Pulitzer Prize–winning playwright August Wilson comments on the value of black theatre: “Imagine if the black artist could have Black theatres in which to practice and develop their craft, places where your visitors’ pass does not expire, as it does for us now, usually on March 1 right after Black History Month.”2 For over one hundred years, black theatres in Texas have represented an oasis of hope and support for black theatre professionals.

Black Theatre Historiography Although scholarship focusing on black theatre in America began to appear shortly after the Civil War, serious research into the history and development of black theatre in Texas dates from the early 1980s, when Sue Dauphin included a chapter on the history of black theatre in Houston in Houston by Stages (1981).3 Bernard L. Peterson chronicles black theatre in Texas in his 1997 book The African American Theatre Directory, 1816–1960: A Comprehensive Guide to Early Theatre Organizations, Companies, Theatres, and Performing Groups.4 In addition, Annemarie Bean’s A Sourcebook of African Performances: Plays, People, Movements includes a chapter by James V. Hatch that offers insight into theatre in historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) in Texas.5 Dawn McGhee, founder and director of Dallas-based Arts for Art Sake, highlights the history of her father, Bill McGhee. In the early 1950s, Bill McGhee broke through the barriers of race and racism and became the first African American to make a professional mainstream debut on the Dallas stage. A growing body of scholarship documents the long history of black theatre in Texas.6 Black theatre in Texas is rarely mentioned in general histories of black theatre such as Errol G. Hill and James V. Hatch’s A History of African American Theatre (2003). Only two of the black theatres in Texas, Houston’s Ensemble Theatre and Fort Worth’s Jubilee Theatre, are reviewed in the Hill and Hatch history, and only in brief notes. Ensemble, Jubilee, and The Black Academy of Arts and Letters, all with more than thirty years of pro-

Black Theatre in Texas  ◆  5 duction history, have fascinating histories that warrant extended treatment, and the other theatres in this study with organizational histories or service of more than a decade also deserve careful analyses. In 1995, Boyd Vance, artistic director and cofounder of Progressive Arts Collective in Austin, curated an exhibit for the Austin History Center documenting twenty years of black theatre in the city. In 2005, Phillip Collins, former curator of exhibits and collections for the African American History Museum in Dallas, curated an exhibit depicting the history of The Black Academy of Arts and Letters as part of its thirty-year anniversary celebration. These are invaluable, though limited, efforts to record black theatre history in Texas. Stages of Struggle and Celebration is the first comprehensive scholarly assessment of black theatre history in Texas, covering active black theatres and historical background information on many important defunct groups. This history of black theatre in Texas adds a heretofore missing dimension to the study of the rich cultural history of blacks in Texas.

Black Theatre and the Western Theatrical Tradition From its very inception, black theatre (in Texas and throughout the United States) has been and continues to be informed by the Western theatrical tradition’s practices, modes, and styles. Commenting on the eclectic nature and character of black theatre, eminent black theatre historian James V. Hatch asserts that “Shakespearean productions, as well as other classics by white authors—but acted by Blacks—were steps on the ladder of black achievement.”7 William A. Brown, a West Indian ship’s steward, took the first tentative steps on that ladder when he opened the African Grove Theatre in New York City in 1821.8 Featuring adaptations of Shakespeare’s Richard III and Othello performed by black actors, Brown launched the black theatrical tradition in the United States rooted firmly in the classical/world theatrical tradition. Black theatre in Texas also taps into the canon of world/classical theatre. For example, the legendary Ollington Smith, founder and director of Texas Southern University’s Little Theatre, produced many Greek and Shakespearean plays during his long tenure as director and theatre professor at Texas Southern.9 Rudy Eastman, prolific playwright and former artistic director for Fort Worth’s Jubilee Theatre, is noted for his adaptations of Aristophanes’ Lysistrata and Shakespeare’s Macbeth. Eastman decon-

6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration structs these texts, setting them in contemporary, black urban venues and featuring black actors speaking black vernacular English. Filtered through Eastman’s imagination and cultural awareness, Macbeth becomes Brother Mac, an entertaining tragicomedy that speaks to the experiences of black urban audiences while retaining the essence of Shakespeare’s timeless masterpiece. Black theatre in Texas also connects with the mainstream theatrical tradition in terms of the types of plays presented to audiences. Although the well-made play is a staple of black theatre in Texas, artistic directors offer patrons a variety of theatrical experiences available in mainstream theatres. For example, experimental works such as Sterling Houston’s Driving Wheel and George C. Wolfe’s The Colored Museum challenge audiences with nonlinear, modernist-inspired narrative structures, elements of magical realism, and direct audience address. Like mainstream theatre, black theatre in Texas places a high premium on musical theatre. Formally trained in the Western theatrical tradition, Harold Haynes, the late Rudy Eastman, and Kathy Hornsby, founders and artistic directors for black theatres in Texas, wrote and directed musicals (e.g., Haynes’s Jezebel is a black adaptation of a classical story in traditional musical style). Because black theatres in Texas typically serve deeply religious audiences and communities, they promote community values and morality via religious-themed productions like James Baldwin’s Amen Corner and Langston Hughes’s Black Nativity. A classic of the African American theatrical canon that harkens back to the medieval mystery play, Black Nativity, a retelling of the nativity story using an all-black cast and featuring black gospel music, appears regularly in black theatres in Texas. Additionally, black theatre practitioners in Texas reinterpret melodrama to entertain and enlighten audiences with works by writers such as the late George Hawkins, founder and artistic director of Houston’s Ensemble Theatre, and the typically humorous and didactic plays of Tyler Perry (e.g., Perry’s Diary of a Mad Housewife in which bad forces threaten to undermine good, but spirituality, family, and love prevail to rescue his victim). These productions, often emotionally charged, frequently bridge the gap between performance and audience in traditional African call and response fashion.10 Black theatre in Texas mirrors mainstream theatre not only with regard to the types of dramas presented to audiences but also in reflecting its willingness to explore a variety of issues, not just racism. For example,

Black Theatre in Texas  ◆  7 black theatre in Texas tackles feminist issues as expressed in works such as Ntozake Shange’s for colored girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf, Elizabeth Brown-Guillory’s When the Ancestors Call, and Celeste Bedford Walker’s Once Upon a Wifetime. Patrons of black theatre can also expect to see plays that deal with mainstream themes such as sibling rivalry and father-son conflicts. Historically, black theatre and mainstream theatre developed along separate but parallel paths. Black theatre in Texas, established and sustained by black theatre professionals trained in the Western theatrical tradition, does not simply imitate theatre in the larger context; infused with a black artistic sensibility, black theatre in Texas fundamentally enriches the Western theatrical experience and is enriched by it.

Definition of Black Theatre Henry Louis Gates, preeminent scholar of black literature, prolific author, and director of the renowned W. E. B. Du Bois Institute for African and African American Research at Harvard University, tells a revealing anecdote that offers a perfect entrée into our reflections on the definition of black theatre. While attending the University of Cambridge, Clare College, Gates informed his tutor of his desire to write a thesis on “black literature.” The tutor replied with great disdain, “Tell me, sir, . . . what is black literature?”11 Fortunately, a reference to the black American literary tradition is unlikely to elicit such a question today. However, when the topic turns to black theatre, readers may welcome a definition of the term. The 1968 Kerner Report identified two parallel societies in the United States, one black and one white. The historical, cultural, sociological, and artistic implications of that separation suggest that “the theatre of Black Americans should by definition be distinct from that of White America.”12 Nurtured by very different experiences, members of the two societies developed strikingly different conceptions of reality “that seem to demand differing modes of creative expression.”13 Foundations for a unique black theatre—the “blackstream,” different from the mainstream—began to be established in the late 1800s when black theatrical performers like George Walker, Jesse Shipp, Alex Rogers, and Bob Cole challenged black minstrel stereotypes with more authentic images of black people on stage.14 White performers in blackface had previously defined the meaning of blackness in Texas and elsewhere in the

8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration South. For example, the Elks Lodge in Mineral Wells, Texas, projected the standard images of black buffoons in a minstrel show performed in 1916.15 Michel Fabre, scholar/critic, comments on the sociocultural dimension of black theatre: The emergence of black theatre is above all a sociocultural phenomenon. . . . The term is taken here to mean theatrical production by Blacks that serves as a tool for research into ethnic identity . . . for symbolic black world view and experience. . . . Black drama reclaims the unquestionable right to express a life that no white person can experience and that no outsider can properly convey.16

From its beginning, black theatre worked to gain control of the black image and to construct an authentic black identity. Developed from a mixture of “transformed oral-based African dramatic traditions [and] European literary traditions,” black theatre (in Texas and elsewhere) is infused with a distinctively black cultural essence.17 Moreover, black theatre gives voice to “a people’s dialogue with themselves” while targeting a diverse audience and promoting cross-cultural understanding.18 That dialogue informs Note on Commercial Theatre, a poem in which poet and playwright Langston Hughes urges fellow black playwrights to foster and create a black theatre of self-representation, to explore the complexities and nuances of black life. Hughes asserts: You put me in Macbeth and Carmen Jones And all kinds of Swing Mikados And in everything but what’s about me— But someday somebody’ll Stand up and talk about me, And write about me— Black and beautiful— And sing about me, And put on plays about me! I reckon it’ll be Me myself! Yes, it’ll be me.19

Additional insight into the nature and function of black theatre can be found in the writings of W. E. B. Du Bois, eminent social scientist, historian, editor, author, and cofounder of the Krigwa Players. In his definition of black theatre, Du Bois argues that it must be:

Black Theatre in Texas  ◆  9 1. About us. That is, they (plays) must have plots which reveal Negro life as it is. 2. By us. That is, they must be written by Negro authors who understand from birth and continual association just what it means to be a Negro. . . . 3. For us. That is, the theatre must cater primarily to Negro audiences and be supported and sustained by their entertainment and approval. 4. Near us. The theatre must be in a Negro neighborhood near the mass of ordinary Negro people.20

First articulated in the 1920s with a remarkable clarity and simplicity, Du Bois’s criteria for “Negro theatre” remain relevant for today’s black theatre. Moreover, black or “Afrocentric theatre places higher value on a presentation’s ability to evoke emotions and lesser value on provoking rational responses.”21 Another salient feature of black theatre involves the audience. Black theatre typically erases the formal boundaries between actors and audience, encouraging black audiences to interact with performers.22 This singular aspect of black theatre elicits a powerful emotional response in black audiences watching classics such as Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun and Tyler Perry’s enormously popular comedies, as noted by theatre critics in a variety of venues, among them The Black Academy of Arts and Letters (e.g., I Can Do Bad All by Myself (2000) and Medea’s Family Reunion (2002).23 Thomas Pawley noted years ago that “it might be well to observe that members of a typical black audience tend to react both verbally and nonverbally, to express their reactions and emotions by clapping their hands, stomping their feet and verbally addressing the actors on stage.”24 Moreover, Douglas Turner Ward, artistic director and founder of the Negro Ensemble Company, declared: “We never had to read the New York Times to know if we had a hit on our hands. . . . We knew it from the reaction of our black audiences who, thankfully, have not been trained out of spontaneous and sometimes unruly response.”25

The Black Aesthetic Black theatre throughout the United States borrows freely from the Western theatrical tradition, but it remains firmly grounded in a specifically black aesthetic that privileges a “unique art derived from unique cultural experiences.”26 In an essay titled The Development of African American

1 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Dramatic Theory (2004), Mikell Pinkney traces theoretical writings on the black aesthetic from W. E. B. Du Bois in the 1920s to August Wilson in the 1990s, citing five fundamental aesthetic principles: protest, revolt, assertion, music, and spirituality. He also describes seven periods of black aesthetic thought in America:27

1. Plantation or Slavery This period was marked by performances by black slaves on the plantations for the master and friends or for each other during brief periods of leisure. It was marked by makeshift instruments, a capella singing, and unscripted enactments of slave life, based on African retentions and parodies of slave life and the master class. It was a continuance of the colorful storytelling and dance rituals inspired by race memory, with, for example, African animal tales evolving into Master/John tales where John through wit gets the best of master. These performance practices influenced the next period.

2. American Minstrelsy (slavery, end of slavery through the turn of the century) White performers began imitating the singing and dancing of blacks. Blacks were not allowed to openly perform in the many minstrel troupes that developed until after the Civil War. When they did begin to perform in blackface, they also picked up the stereotypical presentations of their singing and dancing—a caricature of a caricature.28 By 1870, several troupes of African American minstrels, billed as “real and original,” had crisscrossed the United States with their version of a white entertainment. By 1890, most of the 1,490 black actors enumerated by the census were employed in touring minstrel companies. Saddled with the stage conventions of minstrelsy, black entertainers had to wear the same baggy pants, oversized shoes, and occasionally even the burnt cork that whites wore.29 It was a style demanded by white producers in the commercial performance venues—on occasion noting, as with performances of Uncle Tom’s Cabin, that the performance was being presented by genuine Negroes (and real bloodhounds). These were mainly melodramatic comic presentations that blacks began to change as they developed a musical theatre style with a story line moving away from stereotypes and sometimes showcasing their African roots, as in Williams and Walker’s In Dahomey (1902).

Black Theatre in Texas  ◆   1 1

3. New Negro Renaissance, or Harlem Renaissance (1917 through the 1920s) (Du Bois, Montgomery Gregory, Alain Locke) Black pride and assertiveness marked this period that is remembered as a flourishing of black art, especially in the visual, literary, and performing arts. The work of both Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston revealed characters taking pride in their blackness, protesting racial prejudice and color consciousness, and moving toward black self-identification, as in Hurston’s Color Struck (1925).

4. Assimilation (1930s through the 1950s) (Federal Theatre, ANT, Hansberry) In spite of the pride and assertiveness exhibited in the 1920s, because of the Depression the 1930s dealt a shocking setback and blacks focused mainly on ways to gain acceptance and benefit from the American dream, as vividly portrayed in Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun.

5. Black Power/Black Arts and Aesthetic/Black Revolutionary Era (beginning mid-1960s to mid-1970s) (Amiri Baraka, Ed Bullins, Larry Neal) Baraka’s inflammatory assertiveness with Dutchman (1964) and his move toward black nationalism with his black revolutionary plays inspired other black nationalists like Ed Bullins (In the Wine Time, 1969) and Ron Milner (Who’s Got His Own, 1966).

6. Revolutionary Afrocentric Era (beginning mid-1970s through 1980s) (Paul Carter Harrison, Barbara Ann Teer) Barbara Ann Teer’s rise as artistic director and founder of the National Black Theatre in Harlem sparked a period of return to the rituals of everyday life most often exemplified in church customs, but developed in secular pieces that promoted self-empowerment and liberation thorough symbolism, rituals, and mythology of authentic West African traditions.

7. New Age Post-Revolutionary Era (current) (postmodern intellectual spiritualism and prophetic pragmatism (Shange, Suzan-Lori Parks, Wilson, Cornel West). Ntozake Shange’s moving choreopoem, for colored girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf (1975), marked a new kind of spiritual awakening. In the emotionally sensitive feminist work, black women express

1 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration their pain, but move as a group toward greater inner strength: “I found god in myself.” George Wolfe’s The Colored Museum (1986) also showcased the quest for spiritual awakening, self-definition, and moving away from old answers and stereotypes.30 For more than eighty years black scholars, literary theorists, and artists have engaged in a continuing dialogue about the nature and function of the black aesthetic, with the “prevailing view that the theatre of black Americans should by definition be distinct from that of white America.”31 Commenting on the differences between black and white Americans, playwright August Wilson asserts: “We have different philosophical ideas, and attitudes, different values, different ideas about style and linguistics, different aesthetics.”32 Part of that distinctiveness can be traced back to African cultural influences that inform African American artistic expression. Noted anthropologist Melville J. Herskovits, author of the classic study The Myth of the Negro Past (1941), affirmed the survival of aspects of African cultural heritage in American slave communities, thereby debunking the notion that slavery obliterated the African American’s cultural past. Moreover, Paul Harrison argues that African cultural practices (especially ritual and dance) in the American experience shape the aesthetics of black theatre.33 The American experience is marked by a long history of segregation that resulted in the development of separate black and white societies, documented in Gunnar Myrdal’s classic study, An American Dilemma (1944). Black theatre historian Errol Hill cites the more recent Kerner Report (1968) that also identifies two different societies that have, “through their widely contrasting experiences, arrived at different conceptions of reality that seem to demand differing modes of creative expression.”34 A black sense of reality leads to uniquely black definitions of manhood, heroism, beauty, and freedom that sustain and enrich the artistic/creative impulse.35 For example, speaking of the hero in black culture, Carleton and Barbara Molette in Afrocentric Theatre assert that “Afrocentric culture places a high value on nonaggressive athletic skill, bravery, courage, and wit to resolve crises or achieve victory over one’s adversary.” They note two of the most frequently observed forms of wit as “strategy in lieu of brute force” and “comic irony in a context of diplomatic rhetoric.”36 African American folktales are a continued source of knowledge about the heroic in African American culture, with classic works in the canon including “Br’er Rabbit,” “High John the Conqueror,” “The Signifying Mon-

Black Theatre in Texas  ◆   1 3 key,” and “The Titanic.”37 Also, as current popular black theatre demonstrates in the theatre of Shelley Garrett and Tyler Perry, the African American hero is often one who moves beyond “evil” deeds to find redemption, often in the church. African American concepts of beauty have evolved and become more complex over time, as George Wolfe’ exemplifies in the scene from The Colored Museum in which the Afro wig battles with the straight wig for the attention of their female owner, with each representing a different attitude. Early plays by black female playwrights, as in Zora Neale Hurston’s Color Struck and Georgia Douglass Johnson’s Blue Blood (1926), demonstrate a duality about black beauty in the black community and its complexity from beautiful as bald and dark to darn near white with flowing long hair. Indeed, Hill suggests that “theatre as an art form involved in expressing these concepts [manhood, heroism, beauty, freedom, etc.] will likewise be different for the two societies.”38 Furthermore, Hill insists that “If an aesthetic may be defined as a dialectic of production and appreciation, there is a Black style, a Black sensibility, and it is one that has now been traced directly to African philosophy and social behavior.”39 The key question asks how the black aesthetic differs from Mexican-American or Italian-American perspectives, for example. The difference is in the mode as expressed in the “Afro-American life-style; parts of the African continuum (content, form, style) can be identified in many Afro-American plays.”40 Consequently, black theatre is most fully understood and valued when the complexity and uniqueness of the experience is taken into account.41 Taking into consideration black dual consciousness that includes immersion in mainstream aesthetics, it would be difficult to note all that black art/theatre is without noting the influence of non-black Western culture. While privileging an African sensibility, playwright August Wilson goes so far as to suggest that African American artists, critics, and theatre professionals should reject the dominant Western aesthetics.42 Although Wilson seems to reach for a pure form, it may perhaps be more realistic to reach for the greatest understanding and unique representation by seeking evaluations and interpretations of black theatre that are most richly informed by the black aesthetic, that is, anchored in or derived from a distinctly black perspective on reality.

1 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

The Black Aesthetic and the Regional Theatre Movement The black aesthetic informs the work of the black theatres documented in this study. The Texas black regional theatres are absolutely indispensable to fledgling playwrights struggling against great odds to bring their plays to the stage. While mainstream regional theatres may produce one play annually in their “diversity slot,” black regional theatres (e.g., Houston’s Ensemble Theatre, Fort Worth’s Jubilee Theatre, and Austin’s now-defunct ProArts Collective) build their seasons around plays by black playwrights, nurturing and promoting black theatre in Texas. The black regional theatre movement in Texas is part of a larger national regional theatre movement in the United States. For example, the League of Resident Theatres (LORT) consists of professional (paid staff) nonprofit companies that function outside of New York’s commercial theatre. LORT member theatres frequently produce new plays, experimental work, and plays by unknown playwrights. Black Texas regional theatres also provide training and employment for black theatre professionals; involve local communities via churches, city arts councils, and local news media; engender community pride; and establish successful arts education programs for youth. The regional theatres are the lifeblood of professional black theatre in Texas, and their stories are the cornerstones of its history.

Texas Brand African Americans and other ethnic minorities are engaged in a struggle for the control of Texas history and the maintenance of Texan cultural identity.43 The Texan brand or Texan cultural identity encompasses much more than the iconic cowboys and oil wells. In Branding Texas, Leigh Clemons describes the uniqueness of the Texan cultural identity, which derives from a “whitewashed” discourse that relegates people of color to the margins, with white males dominating the cultural center.44 Although the construction of the Texan cultural identity remains a highly contested process, it is often represented in “violence as romanticized spectacle” grounded in revolution and performed in reenactments.45 According to Clemons, “Historical plays serve as a form of ritual sacrifice presented as if for all Texans, but, in fact, they operate within the Anglo/Mexican binary.”46 Although white male experience dominates the construction of Texan cultural identity, other groups—Mexican Americans, African Americans,

Black Theatre in Texas  ◆   1 5 and women—strive to ensure that their own representations are included. Clemons argues that “Texans can be created through historical plays.”47 Plays by African American Texans help to illustrate the Texas brand. The historical plays Ancestors by Ted Shine and Camp Logan by Celeste Bedford Walker promote the impulse to construct a more diverse Texan cultural identity. In the dominant narrative featuring white males, African Americans are relegated to the periphery of the action, defined as objects rather than subjects with agency. However, African American playwrights refocus the traditional narratives, situating African Americans at the center of the action. Clemons suggests that “Blacks and American Indians, long excluded but with many historical ties to the state, struggle even to be acknowledged as part of the historical narrative other than as footnotes.”48 In Ancestors, a play commissioned for the Texas Sesquicentennial Celebration, Shine focuses on the Battle of San Jacinto, the decisive battle of the Texas Revolution. Bose Ikhard, a slave, and Greenbury Logan, a former slave, participate in the battle. One of the most important facets of white male Texan culture is a selfless courage in the face of danger. By fighting in the battle, Bose Ikhard displays a type of bravery not typically attributed to slaves; yet, he hopes that performing this act of courage will prompt his white master to find him worthy of his freedom. Similar gestures toward the development of Texan cultural identity are highlighted in Celeste Bedford Walker’s historical drama Camp Logan, as well as in the family dramas set in Texas, e.g., Eugene Lee’s Killingsworth or East Texas Hot Links.49

The Roots of Black Theatre in Texas The roots of black theatre in Texas and other slave states reside in African retentions, African cultural memories that the slaves brought with them to the Americas. In West Africa, the chief source of slaves during the transatlantic slave trade, Africans participated in ancient rituals that involved performance practices utilizing costumes, masks, dancing, and singing. Elements of the African performance rituals survived in slave culture in the form of dances like the cakewalk. On plantations in Texas and throughout the southern states, slaves performed the cakewalk, a dance associated with the harvest. “In their Sunday clothes, sometimes lighting the night with torches, the slaves competed for a prize cake awarded for the best ‘cuttin’ figgers. . . ,”50 the nineteenth century equivalent of acting up and getting down. Typically accompanied by hand clapping, foot tap-

1 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration ping, and banjo playing, the cakewalk was a communal activity, like most African rituals, involving a group of dancers and spectators who select the winners through a process of elimination. “Marked by cheerfulness and grace . . . the cakewalk can be traced to African tribal celebrations.”51 The cakewalk allowed slaves to lampoon their masters with impunity. In effect, they were acting, putting on a show, creating theatre. The most popular feature of the minstrel and black theatrical stage, the cakewalk embodied elements of the slaves’ ring-shout and the African circle dance.52 Clearly, the cakewalk played a key role in the development of black musical theatre in the late nineteenth century.53 Black theatre in Texas was also influenced by another African-inspired dance called the juba, performed with rhythmic patting and clapping of the hands and body.54 Plantation owners frequently called on slaves to perform the juba to entertain visitors, creating a theatrical experience for guests.55 A Texas slave interviewed for the WPA Federal Writers’ Project recalled the juba on the plantation where she worked: “They’d have a big ball in a big barn there on the place and sixty and seventy on the floor at once, singin’: ‘juba this and juba that; juba killed a yaller cat.’ ”56 The theatrical impulse to perform found expression among the slaves long before more formal, Western theatrical traditions claimed their attention. The leisure activities of slaves on American plantations gave rise to the earliest distinctly American theatre form, minstrelsy. The form came to the fore in late 1820s when white men began blackening their faces and imitating the singing and dancing of blacks with comic skits and variety acts, with European American actor Thomas “Daddy” Rice leading the way in 1829. Blacks gained recognition as performers in the minstrel tradition as early as the 1840s and 1850s; all-black troupes emerged as early as 1855. Sam Hague’s Slave Troupe of Georgia Minstrels formed around 1865 and toured England in 1866 before being purchased by a white entrepreneur named Charles Callender and renamed Callender’s Georgia Minstrels; they became one of the most successful black companies in America. Black performers in Texas also organized minstrel groups. One such group was the Texarkana Minstrel Company. In 1891 one of their performers was the now celebrated composer, educator, and pianist known as the “King of Ragtime,” Scott Joplin. Also involved in minstrelsy in Texas was Sherman H. Dudley (ca. 1870–1940), black vaudevillian and theatre owner. He was born in Dallas around 1870. According to the Handbook of Texas History Online, he was involved in medicine shows and minstrel groups in his

Black Theatre in Texas  ◆   1 7 youth. One account reports that he had his own troupe, the Dudley Georgia Minstrels. In 1897 they received a favorable review from the Galveston News. Other accounts place Dudley in P. T. Wright’s Nashville Students and in the McCabe and Young Minstrels, where he was nicknamed either Happy or Hapsy.57 Early black musicals helped to move the country beyond the minstrel tradition. A Trip to Coontown, a musical operetta by Bob Cole and William Johnson, became the first recognized musical comedy by blacks for blacks. Popular black musical comedies bridged the gap between minstrelsy and the American musical theatre genre. Examples include Clorindy, the Ori-

Left to right, Sherman Dudley, minstrel performer and playwright in street clothes and costume, 1890s. Photo by permission of the New York Public Library.

1 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration gin of the Cakewalk (1898) by Paul Laurence Dunbar and Will Marion Cook along with the work of Bert Williams and George Walker (The Sons of Hamm [1899], A Shoofly Regiment [1900], and In Dahomey [1902]). Sherman Dudley, previously noted as a Texas minstrel performer, retired from the stage after 1917 and devoted his time to producing musicals. He regularly updated productions of his first authored work, The Smart Set, written and first produced in 1896. It continued to be popular with black audiences. This show was one of the musicals written by blacks that departed from the older minstrel formula. Dudley was a pioneer in writing works about black life that included seriously considered plots and rounded characterization.58

Sherman Dudley, poster of The New Smart Set. Photo courtesy of Library of Congress.

Black Theatre in Texas  ◆   1 9 The earliest mention of black amateur theatre in Texas was recorded in a Houston paper, the Daily Telegraph for October 27, 1866, referring to a “Thespian Society for ‘cullud genman.’”59 This notice appeared less than a year after Colonel Granger read the Emancipation Proclamation at Galveston Island. The African American’s impulse to perform was a strategy for survival during slavery, a time when slaves played roles in their masters’ real-life dramas. Slaves who were good actors could avoid certain punishments. The announcement by the “cullud genman’s” Thespian Society clearly affirms the black Texans’ love of theatre as art and entertainment. In the early twentieth century, Myra Davis Hemmings, graduate of Howard University in 1913, was directing plays at Phillis Wheatley High School in San Antonio. Significantly, Hemmings was studying at Howard University when Alain Locke, key figure in the Harlem Renaissance, and Montgomery Gregory were formulating their philosophy of black theatre. It was during this period, the first decade of the twentieth century, that Gregory conceived of theatre as “a means of social advancement and spearheaded a drive at Howard to put drama and theatre training on the formal curriculum.”60 Hemmings was most likely inspired by the intellectual discussions of theatre led by Locke and Gregory. In the 1920s she and her husband, actor John W. Hemmings, organized the Hemmings Players and the Wheatley Dramatic Guild Players in San Antonio. Hemmings remained active in black theatre in San Antonio until her death in 1968, producing plays for not only Wheatley High School but also her church, Second Baptist, and her sorority, Delta Sigma Theta. Although Myra and J. W. Hemmings occasionally performed their shows in other cities, they were not affiliated with the Chitlin Circuit, organized in 1911 by Sherman Dudley. A chain of twenty-eight black theatres in 1916, the circuit booked a variety of black entertainment acts, including theatre, into small black nightclubs, juke joints, eating establishments, and theatres.61 In the early 1900s, black-oriented vaudeville theatres in Texas that booked the Chitlin Circuit plays included the Pastime Theatre and American Theatre in Houston, the Pastime Theatre in Greenville, as well as the Ruby Theatre in Galveston. A totally white-controlled booking agency, the TOBA Circuit (Theatre Owners Booking Association), active between c. 1907 and c. 1929, booked black entertainers in a number of cities across the country, but also at the Park Theatre in Dallas.62 With bookings of major black musical talents at the Apollo Theatre in Harlem and elsewhere, the circuits flourished from the 1930s until well into the 1960s. The extraordi-

2 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration nary popularity of the black gospel musicals in the early 1990s breathed new life into the Chitlin Circuit. Because the venues were no longer segregated, many artists and critics began referring to it as the Urban Circuit. The work of W. E. B. Du Bois, founder and editor of The Crisis, the monthly journal of the NAACP, influenced theatre activity in Texas and around the country. Du Bois’s emphasis on black theatre for, about, by, and near black people helped promote black theatre activity. Through The Crisis, he founded Krigwa (Crisis Guild of Writers and Artists), originally Crigwa. The Crisis Guild, led by Du Bois, sponsored a yearly literary playwriting competition. It also fostered a theatre company, the Krigwa Players, which rehearsed and performed at the 135th Street branch of the New York Public Library, launching the “Negro Little Theatre Movement.” Du Bois describes the mission of the Krigwa Players as follows: An attempt to establish in High Harlem, New York City, a Little Theatre which shall be primarily a center where Negro actors before Negro audiences interpret Negro life as depicted by Negro artists; but which shall always have a welcome for all artists of all races and for all sympathetic comers and for all beautiful ideas.63

The Negro Little Theatre Movement also emerged in Texas. The Hemmings Players were part of the Negro Little Theatre Movement64 that flourished in the 1920s and 1930s in urban centers like San Antonio and Houston. Hemmings often performed at the Carver Community Cultural Center in San Antonio, then referred to as the Library Auditorium. The Carver was the home for black theatre productions by several groups and individuals in the early decades of the twentieth century, as it still is today. In March 1931, Robert Holland, recreation director of Houston’s black parks, organized the Houston Negro Little Theatre (HNLT). After Holland and his recruits participated in a drama workshop sponsored by faculty at Booker T. Washington High School in Houston, they launched their first season on May 8, 1931, at the Pilgrim Auditorium. Holland presented three short plays, two of which—White Dresses and No ’Count Boy—were written by Paul Green, a white playwright, and the third, The Slave, was written by Elizabeth Yates, a black woman. In the 1920s and 1930s black acting companies frequently performed plays written by whites. Also, in 1932, the Houston Negro Little Theatre’s season productions were augmented by a road show performance of Paul Green’s In Abraham’s Bosom by San Antonio’s Hemmings Players led by J. W. Hemmings.65

Black Theatre in Texas  ◆   2 1 By 1935 the Houston Negro Little Theatre had developed an enthusiastic following within the black community. That year, the HNLT presented a one-act mystery-melodrama, free to the public, titled No Sabe. The performance attracted more than 250 people. Capacity audiences also filled the Pilgrim Auditorium to see HNLT present two one-act plays. Inspired by the black community’s enthusiastic response to HNLT productions, Houston’s recreation department organized a drama tournament in 1940 at the Emancipation Park Clubhouse for the three black playgrounds. Actors representing each playground presented one-act plays judged by associates of HNLT.66 Historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) in Texas were a part of the little theatre movement sweeping the nation. Texas established nine HBCUs; the first was Wiley College in Marshall in 1873. Five of the nine founded black theatre companies and established visual and performing arts degree programs. Wiley College founded the Log Cabin Players in 1925. Prairie View State College (later Prairie View A&M University) founded the Charles Gilpin Players in 1929. Huston-Tillotson College in Austin founded the Tillotson College Players in the 1940s. Texas Southern University in Houston established the University Players in 1947. Texas College in Tyler had established the Mary G. Campbell Players by 1969. The body of work by Texas HBCUs included such works as A Raisin in the Sun (1958), Purlie Victorious (1961), The Amen Corner (1955), Fences (1983), Five Guys Named Moe (1990), as well as Hedda Gabler (1890), Angel Street (1938), RUR (1920), and Little Foxes (1939).67 Texas HBCUs participated in the Southern Association of Dramatic and Speech Arts (SADSA). The organization was founded in 1936 by Dillard University professor S. Randolph Edmunds as an extension of NIDA (Negro Intercollegiate Dramatic Association), the organization he formed in 1930. These two organizations encouraged dramatic activities at historically black colleges and universities around the country. The member colleges in Texas were Prairie View A&M College, Wiley College, Bishop College, and Huston-Tillotson College.68 Although the little theatre movement existed outside of the most commercial center of theatre in the country, Broadway in New York City, blacks were also active on Broadway before the 1960s in plays written by blacks and others about black issues. A sampling of plays by black playwrights that received productions on Broadway include Garland Anderson’s Appearances (1920), Willis Richardson’s Chip Woman’s Fortune, Langston

2 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Hughes’s Mulatto (1935), Theodore Ward’s Our Lan’ (1940), and Lorraine Hansberry’s critically acclaimed A Raisin in the Sun. The 1960s and 1970s, the height of the Black Arts Movement, was a prolific period for black theatre on and off Broadway; it was also a period of burgeoning theatre activities in the regions. Blacks organized over six hundred community and university theatre programs. In 1973 the Black Theatre Alliance counted 139 “professional” theatres around the nation. Texas was a part of this explosion, or new Black Renaissance in the arts, with the Urban Theatre in Houston (1969), Black Arts Alliance in Austin (1970s), and Sojourner Truth Players in Fort Worth (1972) among them. Hatch and Hill listed a few of the key black theatres in the region in A History of African American Theatre (2003). Houston’s Ensemble Theatre was on the list, with other viable black theatres such as the Lorraine Hansberry, the Oakland Ensemble, Berkeley Black Repertory, Plowshares Theatre Company, Penumbra Theatre; St. Louis Black Repertory Theatre, ETA Creative Arts Foundation, Crossroads Theatre, Freedom Theatre, National Black Theatre, Alonzo Players, and Black Spectrum. African American Texans created plays for the black theatres and black audiences as early as 1896 when Sherman Dudley wrote and produced the musical The Smart Set. Contemporary black playwrights have consistently written for the stages in Texas and around the country, starting with the earliest known contemporary work by Ted Shine. Shine has written more than thirty plays, including comedies and serious drama, over a forty-year time period. His earliest play Cold Day in August was produced in 1950. He wrote his most produced work, Contribution, in 1969. He is also a highly regarded teacher, screenwriter, director, and editor. Shine was awarded the Brooks-Hines Award for playwriting in 1970. Since the 1980s, Thomas Meloncon has contributed over thirty plays. Eugene Lee has authored seven plays. His East Texas Hot Links has been produced at several venues including the Joseph Papp Public Theatre in New York City and the Royal Court Theatre in London. Elizabeth Brown-Guillory’s plays have won a series of honors and awards, including residencies in Illinois, Wisconsin, and New York. Sterling Houston has a canon of thirty-three plays and a theatre in his name in San Antonio. Celeste Bedford Walker’s canon includes approximately thirty-seven plays. Her celebrated historical drama, Camp Logan (NAACP IMAGE award winner), has been performed in major venues across the country, including the Kennedy Center in Washington. This study has identified twenty-three African American Texas playwrights.

Black Theatre in Texas  ◆   2 3

Conclusion Black theatre in Texas has persisted in various forms from plantation entertainments to full-length dramas and impressive musicals in a variety of theatre spaces through the trials of African American life since blacks arrived on American soil. The following chapters chronicle the remarkable and inspiring histories of a variety of black theatres in Texas, providing insights into their founders’ vision, their struggles to acquire and maintain performance space, their strong connections with the black church, their efforts to train actors and nurture playwrights, their cultural legacies, and their evolution from itinerant amateur companies into successful professional theatres, several of which enjoy regional and national prominence.

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2 ◆ San Antonio a core venue in the alamo city

Carver Community Cultural Center (1904–present) Wheatley Dramatic Guild Players (c. 1920–1960s) Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company (1987–present) The Renaissance Guild (2001–present) I fell into a numbness til the only tree I cd see took me up in her branches held me in the breeze made me dawn dew ****

I found god in myself & I loved her / I loved her fiercely Ntozake Shange, for colored girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf, 1976

This chapter focuses on two black theatre companies currently active in San Antonio but begins with an overview of black theatre in the city from the earliest documented activity to the most current work. The narrative describes the struggles, triumphs, intersections, and interdependence of black theatre groups producing for African Americans and the entire community. The history begins with the Carver Community Cultural Center (the Carver), continues with the Phillis Wheatley Dramatic Guild Players and the Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company, and culminates with The Renaissance Guild.

Blacks in San Antonio In the 2010 U.S. Census, San Antonio’s population stood at 1,327,558 people, 6.9 percent (91,591) of whom were black. San Antonio’s metropolitan area, which includes Bexar, Comal, and Medina Counties, is located in south-central Texas and has a total population of 1,869,251. Of these counties, Bexar has the highest black population—137,181 black residents.1 Black theatre came to the fore in San Antonio because of a bustling black

2 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration community with a long history in the area and a large enough cultural critical mass to inspire community activists and support numerous black civic and social organizations, black educational institutions, black newspapers, and black churches. Blacks have a long record of involvement in San Antonio. During the Texas Revolution of 1835–1836, Anglo-Texans were joined by several free blacks and conscripted slaves at the Battle of the Alamo, but their participation brought little change for blacks thereafter. By 1850, numerous slaves had found Mexico a favorable site for escaping from slavery. By 1870, five years after the Civil War, the percentage of blacks in San Antonio had begun to increase (from 7 to 16 percent). Job opportunities, mostly as laborers, porters, or servants, influenced this increase. The rights of black citizens changed overtly after the Civil Rights Act of 1964 passed.2 As historian Alwyn Barr notes, blacks in San Antonio are moving forward in all walks of life, though the legacy of slavery (discrimination, violence against blacks, and disenfranchisement) continues to present difficult challenges.3 San Antonio developed several black community activists. In the early 1900s, Charles Bellinger, a black real estate agent from Lockhart, provided mortgage loans for blacks in San Antonio and managed to organize the city’s black vote by purchasing poll taxes for voters. As a result, blacks were able to vote for city politicians who expressed an interest in protecting their rights. Furthermore, by 1919, San Antonio was among the few Texas cities to have more than a thousand members in its local NAACP chapter.4 In 2013 San Antonio had one black city council member, Ivy Taylor (District 2). Of the four assistant city managers, one, David Ellison, was black. Moreover, Ruth McClendon (District 120) was the only black Texas state representative representing a district in San Antonio.5 She frequently sponsored proclamations for black theatre artists. An outstanding cluster of black professionals in San Antonio includes doctors, lawyers, teachers, entrepreneurs, firefighters, and police officers who have made San Antonio their home in the last fifty years. Vigorous professional activity led to the development of the Alamo City Black Chamber of Commerce. Community leaders include Willis Mackey, the superintendent of the Judson Independent School District, and Adena Williams Loston, the president of St. Philip’s College. In addition, a progressive group of black professionals helped to bolster a number of black service organizations, including the San Antonio chapters of 100 Black Women and 100 Black Men, Links, Organization of Black Unity, Sistas in Business,

San Antonio  ◆   2 9 and San Antonio Cares.6 Many of these organizations have supported the arts in San Antonio by serving as donors and coproducers, as well as buying a night of tickets for their members and friends. The Alpha Tau Omega chapter of Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority, Inc. developed an original script on black contributions to Texas and produced it during the 1986 Texas sesquicentennial celebration at the Carver Community Cultural Center. The nonprofit Davis Scott YMCA coproduced many of the Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company productions, allowing Hornsby to apply for city funding. The San Antonio Alumnae Chapter of Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Inc. owns and operates the Myra Hemmings Resource Center. San Antonio is the home of St. Philip’s College, one of the nine historically black colleges established in Texas. St. Philip’s coproduced black theatre with several black playwrights and companies in addition to producing through its theatre program in the Watson Fine Arts Center, currently led by writer, producer, and director Vincent Hardy. In 2012, the college had a black enrollment of 1,280 (12 percent of the total 10,313 students).7 The University of Texas at San Antonio, with a black population of 9 percent (approximately 3,060 out of 34,000 students), includes three black organizations: the African Student Association, the Black Student Union, and the Impact Movement. The university also has three black fraternities and one black sorority. According to a report conducted by Christi Fish, associate director of media relations at UTSA, 34.5 percent (1,050) of the university’s black student population comes from the Houston metropolitan area.8 Most of the national black Greek organizations have active alumni chapters in San Antonio—Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority, Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, and Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity—all incorporated. Black San Antonio residents have a long history of telling their stories through their own newspapers, with the first black papers appearing in the 1920s. Three black newspapers continued to publish in 2014—the San Antonio Observer, A-A Reflections, and The Arrow. Other black newspapers that have published in the city include the San Antonio Register, Snap News, and the San Antonio Informer. The city currently lacks a black-owned radio station, but it does offer hip-hop and rhythm and blues on FM station 98.5 the Beat. However, San Antonio native Percy Sutton operated an affiliate of his Inner City Broadcasting Corporation based in New York in San Antonio in the mid-1970s through the 1980s. Much of the city’s black cultural presence is preserved at UTSA’s Institute of Texan Cultures, the Carver Com-

3 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Carver Community Cultural Center, 226 North Hackberry. Photo by Sandra Mayo.

munity Cultural Center, and the Carver branch of the San Antonio Public Library. As in other large cities, black churches play a significant role in the cultural life of San Antonio. The well-known Second Baptist Church on Commerce Street produced plays with Myra Hemmings beginning in the 1930s until her death in the 1960s, and Kathy Hornsby’s theatre company started as the Players in Christ at Mt. Zion First Baptist Church. In 2014, San Antonio had eight well-known black churches: Antioch Missionary Baptist Church, Family Life Christian Church, New Creation Christian Fellowship Church, Bethel International Christian Fellowship, Empowerment Fellowship, True Holiness Apostolic Church of Our Lord Jesus Christ, New World Christian Church, and Second Baptist Church. Black San Antonio inspired the talent realized in the theatre organizations developed and sustained over the years inside and outside of the church, in educational institutions and community outreach activities, and in a climate of continuing adversity bolstered by race memory, race pride, and undaunted spirit.

San Antonio  ◆   3 1

The Carver Community Cultural Center For nearly a century, blacks have been active in theatre on San Antonio’s East Side. Many developed theatre skills in public school UIL (University Interscholastic League) speech and theatre competitions and church pageants. Historically, St. Philip’s College has been among the academic institutions regularly producing plays featuring black actors and written by black authors. From the earliest record of black theatre in San Antonio, the Carver Community Cultural Center has been an integral part of its history. The Carver served the interests of black theatre in San Antonio beginning with the productions of Myra Hemmings starting in the 1920s. In addition, it has been the favorite venue of the Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company, has hosted several productions of Sterling Houston’s plays produced by Jump-Start Performance Company, and has provided space for productions sponsored by The Renaissance Guild. As the center of cultural life on the historically black East Side since 1904, the Carver has been the home for local black theatre companies as well as national and international touring shows. At the turn of the century during the height of segregation, residents of the East Side formed a Colored Library Association that managed the Colored Community House with the assistance of the Carnegie Library Board. In 1905, W. A. Grumbles, president of the Library Association, successfully petitioned the War Services Board for funds to construct the assembly building that was to serve the black military as well as the local community. Dedicated in 1919, the assembly hall became the Colored Library Auditorium in 1930. The library and the assembly hall prospered under the management of the Colored Library Association. Librarian Prudence Curry led the association from the 1930s through the 1960s; the period from the 1930s to the 1960s marked the beginnings of black theatre company performances in the venue.9 The early history of the Carver Community Cultural Center reflected the challenges of black San Antonio. The center fell into disrepair and neglect over the years for a variety of reasons, including the inability of the community to financially manage its upkeep. It was closed in the late 1960s. In 1973, in dramatic style, the United Citizens Project Planning and Operating Committee (UCPPOC) defended the building from demolition, led by its director, Nova Hill, who decided to lie down in front of the city’s bulldozers. Thus, under the ownership and management of the City of San

3 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Antonio, the building survived and was renovated and reopened in 1976 as the Carver Community Cultural Center. As a city-owned property, the Carver became a performing and visual arts center with a multiethnic and multicultural focus. It continued its emphasis on African American culture as it reached out to attract all of the residents of San Antonio. In 1986, another renovation improved the space with an addition of twelve thousand square feet for production facilities. The auditorium was reconfigured into a 650-seat theatre. In 1994 an anonymous donation made it possible to purchase the building next door, formerly the Porter Memorial Christian Methodist Episcopal Church. After renovation, this new building opened in 2004 as the Little Carver Civic Center—an intimate theatre accommodating up to one hundred people with a multipurpose meeting area. In 2006 the National Register of Historic Places honored the Carver Community Cultural Center by placing it on the list of historic places. A turning point in the center’s fortunes came not only with the renovation but also the hiring of Jo Long as its director in 1975. She served until 1999, when she retired because of illness.10 With an undergraduate degree from Bishop College in Dallas and a graduate degree from Southern Methodist University, Jo Long took the helm when she was twenty-six years old and shepherded the center’s rise to prominence. While hiring stars of national and international status in dance, music, and theatre, she promoted community involvement through classes in the visual arts, theatre, and dance for young people and an open door for community-sponsored arts events such as graduations, pageants, parties, and more. She was notably successful at luring prestigious names (e.g., James Earl Jones) for events that attracted an audience beyond the center’s 654-seat capacity, making it necessary to book in larger venues, such as Trinity University’s two-thousand-seat auditorium. Outstanding touring theatre performances booked by Long between 1987 and 1999 showcased a community celebrating its heritage with work like Lanie Robertson’s Lady Day at the Emerson Bar and Grill (1987), Celeste Bedford Walker’s Camp Logan (1987), the Keith Carter and Rufus Hill musical Po’ (1988), the National Black Touring Circuit production of Williams and Walker (1988), and Laurence Holder’s Zora Neale Hurston (1990). Respectively, these works represent the life of the blues singer Billie Holiday, the largest and most violent black military revolt in US history, the grassroots

San Antonio  ◆   3 3

Jo Long, executive director, Carver Community Cultural Center (1974–1999). Photo courtesy of San Antonio Express-News/University of Texas at San Antonio Libraries Special Collections.

experience of the working poor, the famous singing and dancing duo who helped move the entertainment fare from minstrelsy to book musicals, and the life of a prolific writer and folklorist. Other productions at the Carver included black writers, such as Langton Hughes’s Black Nativity (1961) as adapted by Mike Malone, Endesha Ida Mae Holland’s From the Mississippi Delta (1991), and Behind the Words (1991), a theatrical piece exploring the inner turmoil of James Baldwin. The works selected revealed interest in the African experience, exemplified by Athol Fugard’s The Island and Sizwe Bansi is Dead (1972), Mbongeni Ngema’s Sarafina (1991), Athol Fugard’s Blood Knot (1964), and the Kurt Weill musical Lost in the Stars (1949, based on Alan Paton’s novel Cry, the Beloved Country [1948]), copresented with the San Antonio Symphony. The Carver’s hosting of the New York City Opera’s version of Puccini’s Madame Butterfly (1903) revealed the versatility of the productions for an ever-expanding and diverse community venue.

3 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Jo Long also nurtured local black theatre artists at the Carver Community Cultural Center, providing them with a place to perform while broadening the Carver’s showcase of local talent. Playwright Sterling Houston was one of the most prolific and celebrated local talents showcased at the Carver, with numerous locally inspired plays.11 Sterling Houston returned to San Antonio in 1981 after working in theatre in New York and California, and soon distinguished himself as a voice for the East Side. He was an actor who could sing, direct, and above all write for the theatre. He grew up in the historically black part of town in the shadow of St. Philip’s College. He began an association with Jump-Start Performance Company, a multicultural performing group, as an actor in 1986, then went on to become writer-in-residence (1989), administrative director (1990), and artistic director (1990–2006). Jump-Start Performance Company, founded in 1985, was a perfect fit for Houston, whose plays were frequently written with a diverse company of actors in mind. In 2009 Jump-Start changed the name of its theatre on South Alamo in the Blue Star Arts Complex to the Sterling Houston Theatre. Jump-Start produced and performed most of Houston’s plays. Among those produced at the Carver during Jo Long’s tenure were A’lelia (1990), Driving Wheel (1990), and Isis in Nubia (1994).12 His plays are featured in two anthologies edited by Sandra Mayo; one collection includes seven plays set in Texas.13 Over the years, Houston continued to produce at the Carver Community Cultural Center; in addition, his work became the centerpiece of JumpStart Performance Company. At the time of Houston’s death in 2006, Jumpstart had produced twenty of his plays, alone or in collaboration with other theatres or organizations, including Kool Jams (1990), Womandingo (1992), Miranda Rites (1994), Santo Negro (1995), and his most celebrated satire on the Texas Revolution, High Yello Rose (1992). In addition to the local company productions, the Carver Community Cultural Center continued to attract a diverse mixture of touring companies and performances. As the center continued to renovate and look for another visionary leader after Jo Long’s departure, they produced more memorable works, including John Thorpe’s Chap Am So: the Amistad Victory (1997) and the popular operas Carmen (2001) and Porgy and Bess (2002). Their 2006–2007 main stage events exemplified the Carver’s continued dedication to a variety of multicultural opportunities for the community. Tap dancer Savion Glover, the Drummers of Burundi, singer Rachelle Ferrell, the Jim Cullum Jazz Band, the San Francisco Jazz Collective, vio-

Sterling Houston, playwright. Photo by Reuben Najaa.

Sterling Houston’s Driving Wheel (1990). (Left to right) Bill Southerland, G. A. Johnson, Cassandra L. Small. Photo courtesy of San Antonio Express-News/ ZUMApress.com.

3 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration linist Joan Kwuon, and the Philippine National Dance Company offered a kaleidoscope of talent. Even the Little Carver Civic Center sparkled, with the Intimate Series in 2006-2007 featuring playwright Bobby McMorris’s “A Black History Play,” the instrumental ensemble Mambo Kings, and the Kathy Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company’s production of A Soldier’s Play (1981). The educational program included residencies and master classes: the Kuumba House Dance Theatre, the Youth Matinee Series, and the Carver School for the Visual and Performing Arts.14 As stated in the season brochure, “The season provides the optimum balance of jazz, music, dance, and theatrical renderings, proving once again there is something for everyone ‘At the Carver.’”15 Yonnie Blanchette, the Carver Community Cultural Center’s executive director since 2008, has an extensive background in organizational management. She served in the US Air Force for over twenty years, retiring as

Yonnie Blanchette, executive director, Carver Community Cultural Center (2008– present). Photo courtesy of Carver Community Cultural Center.

San Antonio  ◆   3 7 a lieutenant colonel. Blanchette holds a bachelor of science degree in Social Work from North Carolina A&T State University and a master’s degree in Human Relations from Webster University. In 2009 she began a new era of black theatre at the Carver by establishing The Renaissance Guild as a resident company at the Little Carver Civic Center and adding their productions to the Carver main stage as well. August Wilson’s Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom (1982), Langston Hughes’s Black Nativity (1961), and Charlie Smalls’s and William F. Brown’s popular black musical The Wiz (1975) are among the celebrated high-profile black theatre events made possible by this partnership.16

Myra Davis Hemmings and the Wheatley Dramatic Guild Players Myra Davis Hemmings (1895–1968) was one of the earliest African American directors to create theatre with blacks for blacks on the East Side of San Antonio. When Kathy Hornsby began her work at Mt. Zion First Baptist Church in 1987, Reverend Claude Black remarked that she reminded him of Hemmings. Hornsby carried on the tradition in the community started as early as 1913 when Hemmings returned to San Antonio after graduating with honors from Howard University. She had graduated from Riverside High School in San Antonio in 1909, receiving a scholarship from her church, Second Baptist, when she left for college. At Howard she was part of a significant milestone in African American history, becoming not only one of the twenty-two founders of Delta Sigma Theta Sorority but also its first president.17 In 1933 she helped to start the Psi Sigma chapter of Delta Sigma Theta (renamed the San Antonio Alumnae Chapter in 1958) and was elected its first president. She distinguished herself as a teacher of English at Douglass Middle School, then transferred to the newly established Phillis Wheatley High School. In 1922 she married J. W. Hemmings, a former Broadway actor, and together they organized the Wheatley Dramatic Guild Players and produced theatre in San Antonio for more than thirty years. Myra Davis Hemmings, whose teaching and theatre career spanned fifty-one years, earned a master’s degree from Northwestern University in 1947.18 The San Antonio community remembers Myra Hemmings for her outstanding contribution not only as a teacher of English but also as a theatre enthusiast who directed numerous productions with Wheatley High

3 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Myra Hemmings, founder, Wheatley Dramatic Guild Players (c. 1920–1960s). Photo courtesy of San Antonio Express-News/University of Texas at San Antonio Libraries Special Collections.

School students, Second Baptist Church members, Delta Sigma Theta Sorority members, family, and friends. At Wheatley she sponsored an annual dramatic presentation by the senior class. The productions included America’s Passport (date unknown) in 1941 and Henry Pettitt and Paul Meritt’s The Missing Witness (date unknown) in 1942. In 1943 they presented two dramas, the comedy Mama’s Baby Boy (1933) by Charles George and the mystery Drums of Death (date unknown). Other works presented by Hemmings include Spring Green (date unknown) in 1947, Louis Solomon and Harold Buchman’s Snafu (1945) in 1948, and Anne Coulter Martens’ Don’t Take My Penny (1940) in 1950.19 The San Antonio Register identified The Missing Witness (date unknown) as a three-act courtroom melodrama and one of the most ambitious works offered by Wheatley seniors with a cast of approximately forty. In 1934 Hemmings’s students performed a one-act play, Crime Doesn’t Pay (date unknown), sponsored by Sam Huston College in Austin.20

San Antonio  ◆   3 9 They won the first-prize trophy in theatre. The cast included Alberta Duncan, Bernice Inman, Mamie Smith, Alonzo Glosson, and Robert Myers.21 Myra Hemmings, with her annual senior class productions, followed a tradition started in 1905 by Atlanta University teacher of elocution Adrienne McNeil Herndon with Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice (1596).22 The productions, directed by Myra and J. W. Hemmings for the San Antonio chapter of the Deltas, were annual fund-raisers. They included The Inner Circle (author and date unknown), Hamilton Deane’s Dracula (based on Bram Stoker’s 1897 novel), John Willard’s The Cat and the Canary (1922), Harry Delf ’s The Family Upstairs (1933), and Wilbur Braun’s The Leavenworth Case (1936).23 John Willard’s The Cat and the Canary (1922) is an example of the commercially popular works chosen. The play focuses on the death and inheritance of old Cyrus West, a rich eccentric who felt that his relatives watched his wealth as if they were cats, and he a canary. His will is read in a haunted house twenty years after his death with suspense and unusual occurrences. The play premiered in New York City in 1922 and was adapted as a horror film four times. The Delta Sigma Theta productions were at the downtown Library Auditorium, also referred to at the time as the Colored People’s Library (later to be renamed the Carver Community Cultural Center).24 The Deltas honored Hemmings when they purchased the Pine Street YWCA in 1986 and named it the Myra Davis Hemmings Resource Center. For Second Baptist Church, Myra and J. W. Hemmings also produced and directed plays as annual fund-raisers with the Dramatic Theatre Guild. The productions occurred regularly on two evenings each fall from the 1930s through the 1960s. The church history 100 Years: A Century of Progress, 1879–1979 features many of the Dramatic Theatre Guild productions, with a list of plays starting in the 1940s and several production shots.25 They produced Lillian Hellman’s The Little Foxes (1939) in 1946 and reprised this production in 1960. The productions varied from Mary Chase’s Harvey (1944) in 1951 to their 1961 production of John McGreevey’s The Robe (1952). Arnaud d’Usseau and James Gow’s Deep are the Roots (1945), first performed in 1949, was produced again by popular request later in the year. Alfred Jack Carter, Geraldine Smedler, Claude J. and Minnie Boggs, and others who worked with Myra and J. W. Hemmings at Phillis Wheatley High School or Second Baptist Church called the Hemmings style expressive, flamboyant, and technically savvy. These former students noted a difference in the directing styles of Myra and J. W. Hemmings. Often she

4 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration would develop it one way, and he would come in the next day with a different style.26 Alfred Jack Carter starred in many of the church productions, including The Defender (author and date unknown) and Anita Loos’s The Whole Town’s Talking (1923). Carter’s celebrated work with the Second Baptist Theatre Guild brought him to the attention of the San Antonio Little Theatre. Consequently, Carter was cast in Ira Levin’s No Time for Sergeants (1955) at the San Antonio Playhouse in 1962. He was the first African American to appear at the San Antonio Playhouse. In 1947 the San Antonio Register headline read, “Second Baptist to Present Dramatic Thriller, ‘Angel Street’ (Gaslight) .  .  .”27 Myra Hemmings’s production of Patrick Hamilton’s Angel Street (1938), a three-act mystery melodrama, was noted as “one of the most satisfying theatre adventures of the last decade.”28 She directed this work as a team with her husband, who also played a leading acting role. The impact of the artistic work of Myra Hemmings was so profound that upon her death in 1968, the church honored her by renaming their theatre guild the Myra Davis Hemmings Memorial Theatre Guild.29 A major production of the renamed guild was the presentation on the church’s first one hundred years in a dramatic work of three episodes written by Mattie Lewis and directed by Robert Paul and Minnie Boggs. Myra Hemmings, affectionately known as Moms, and her husband, affectionately called Pops, produced and directed a variety of works, especially comedies, mysteries, melodramas, and an occasional religious drama. Announcements in the San Antonio Register of the Hemmingses’ productions can be found as early as 1938; the newspaper was founded in 1931.30 The exact address of the group’s performances was never given; it was identified only as the Library Auditorium, revealing that the community was well acquainted with the venue. The Library Auditorium (later named Carver Community Cultural Center) belonged to the East Side black community—for theatre, but also for concerts, weddings, socials, and of course to take out a book. The newspaper notices were most likely announcements submitted by the Hemmingses prior to the performances. Reviews after the productions to note the audience response and quality of the work are missing. But the newspaper headlines are informative: “J. W. Hemmings to Present Dazzling Revue at Down-Town Aud, Nov. 3rd to Equip Drum, Bugle Corps” (Friday, October 17, 1942); “Spine Chilling ‘The Cat and the Canary’ Delta Stage Offering, March 19, 20” (February 28, 1947);

San Antonio  ◆   4 1 “Talented Cast in Phillis Wheatley Senior Class Play, ‘Snafu’ ” (May 7, 1948); “Capable Production Staff behind P.W. Senior Play ‘Don’t Take My Penny’ ” (April 28, 1950s).31 Though Myra Hemmings was mainly a director, she was also an accomplished actress. In 1944 she coproduced, codirected, and starred in the movie Go Down Death, based on the work by James Weldon Johnson with noted black film director Spencer Williams. She also performed in films Marching On (1943) and Girl in Room 20 (1946). Through the work of the Phillis Wheatley Dramatic Guild Players and the Dramatic Theatre Guild (renamed the Myra Hemmings Dramatic Theatre Guild), Myra and her husband J.  W. Hemmings forged a productive path in San Antonio by merging the work of a high school group with that of a historical black sorority and a local black church. This three-way collaboration was unique in its work with another community institution— the historically black Carver Community Cultural Center—where her productions were traditionally held.

Wheatley Dramatic Guild Players production (1926). Photo courtesy of Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Inc.—San Antonio Alumnae Chapter.

4 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration The story of Myra Hemmings’s theatre contributions is also unique because of her play selections. The research did not uncover any stage plays she produced with her company by black playwrights. This may have been due to the scarcity of published play scripts by black writers, though there was amazing productivity in playwriting beginning with the work of the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s, and continuing up to the 1960s (the Hemmingses’ production period). A 1926 production photo reveals a fascinating feature of the Hemmingses’ casting choices. The company is in white makeup. The photo does not document the title of the production, but it is clearly a white middle-class family drama with black actors made up to look white—not whiteface, but white makeup. This photo indicates that Myra and J. W. Hemmings were conscious of the production of stories about the “other” they presented with black students and community members. This is an unusual example of nontraditional casting. Interviews of several actors who worked with her indicate that they loved her choices (and their audiences loved them), and they were not involved in the selection of the plays produced or aware of her thinking regarding the selections. The actors did note that she chose great plays, good theatre.32 There are numerous instances of black companies presenting works by European and European American playwrights in Texas; usually these companies played the white characters and situations as universal or black, sometimes changing names and setting to make the reality of a black cast more believable (i.e., the Jubilee Theatre production of Macbeth, renamed Brother Mac with a change in setting to black Fort Worth). While Myra Hemmings and J.  W. Hemmings were producing plays in San Antonio, the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s was in full swing in New York; Montgomery Gregory and Alain Locke had organized the Howard Players at Howard University; many female graduates of Howard University were writing plays that won the playwriting awards sponsored by Crisis and Opportunity magazines; Langston Hughes’s work—poetry and prose— was well known; and Carter G. Woodson was promoting the celebration of African American history. Then too, W.  E.  B. DuBois was advocating the production of theatre that was “for us, by us, about us, and near us.”33 Myra and J. W. Hemmings contributed to the “Negro Little Theatre Movement” with a company of black actors, and the community remembers them.

San Antonio  ◆   4 3

Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company So we would meet, and he [Reverend Dr. Claude Black] would share what God had given him to preach for the week . . . then I would . . . write a skit to go with it or search for a play that would go with . . . the theme. . . . He actually put us in The Amen Corner once at the church, [and] once at St. Philip’s [College]. Kathy Hornsby, interview by Sandra Mayo, tape recording, San Antonio, March 14, 2009

The black church remains the most enduring institution in the black community.34 Historically, it has been a spiritual and social center for black life. Hence, it is no surprise that a small church in San Antonio, Mt. Zion First Baptist Church,35 with a progressive black minister, Reverend Dr. Claude Black,36 supported the theatre by allowing it to enrich his ministry—in the sanctuary, during the Sunday service. The Players in Christ, led by Kathy Hornsby, presented five-minute skits, spiritual dramatic works to complement the ministerial message of the morning. Many of these early skits were a combination of poetry and improvisation around the message, but sometimes they were excerpts from the established African American theatre canon. One of the first pieces was an excerpt from none other than Lorraine Hansberry’s Raisin in the Sun (1959)—the well-known scene in which Mama slaps Beneatha for what she considers blasphemy, and demands she repeat, “In my mother’s house, there is still God.”37 Kathy Hornsby, an active member of Mt. Zion First Baptist Church, organized a theatre group that continues to endure. The group’s initial performances in the church on Sunday morning were risky. Parishioners were skeptical. Hornsby stated that after presenting the scene between Mama and Beneatha, “Everyone was amazed . . . when we finished, they stood up and clapped.” In 1987 her first full-length play for the congregation on a Saturday night in the sanctuary (with the vestibule as the backdrop/set) was also greeted with initial skepticism. Hornsby notes that several people criticized the idea with statements like, “How dare you?” However, the play was James Baldwin’s The Amen Corner (1955), and the church members were “pleasantly surprised, entertained, educated, amused, and moved.” With this debut, Hornsby and Reverend Black launched the Players in Christ.38

4 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Kathy Hornsby, founder, Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company (1987–present). Photo by Michael Cutt.

The Founder Born and reared in San Antonio, Kathy Hornsby attended John Jay High School. She was introduced to theatre by first-rate theatre instructors at John Jay. She vividly remembers Thomas Burgess, who ran the theatre department like a professional company. They had a full season of plays and were active in theatre competitions. Hornsby was exposed to many aspects of theatre from acting to box office, costumes, painting, and mopping floors. Upon graduation, she was offered several college scholarships. In 1978 she completed a degree at Texas State University (formerly Southwest Texas State) in theatre arts with an emphasis in acting and television. She went on to work with local theatre groups and spent a short time in Hollywood. Hornsby worked at the Fiesta Dinner Playhouse as an actress in children’s theatre and dinner theatre productions. The theatre was owned by Earl Holliman, a nationally known award-winning television and theatre actor. Hornsby’s Hollywood experience mirrored the experiences of many who flocked to Los Angeles looking for stardom. She found work, but not on the stage; however, she did direct her first play there. It was an original piece titled A Crowd of One (date unknown), produced at the Santa Monica Club and written by a classmate from San Antonio College.

San Antonio  ◆   4 5 Back in San Antonio, Kathy married Harold Greene, gave birth to their son, Jason Keith, earned her living as a teacher’s aide in the San Antonio School District, continued her education at Incarnate Word University where she earned a master’s degree in 2011, and collaborated with the Davis-Scott YMCA on arts programming. The YMCA provided space for rehearsals and supported her productions in a variety of ways, including cofunding requests to the City of San Antonio, as well as printing and publicity. In 1993 she became head of the Fine Arts Program for San Antonio Area Youth, a volunteer position that recognized her ongoing work with youth in the arts.39 Hornsby’s acting credits include work in television (Capitol [CBS], Three’s Company [ABC], and Heaven Help Us [FOX]), film (Things to Come), and stage (A Raisin in the Sun, for colored girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf, The Amen Corner, A Member of the Wedding, To Be Young), as well as thirty plays with the Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company and hosted programs for local radio stations KKYX and KSTV.

Getting Started Hornsby’s early experiences served her well when she was called to theatre ministry by Mt. Zion First Baptist Church, where early skepticism turned into an amazing outpouring of accolades, participation, and support. A call for participation in the church newspaper brought out twenty-five interested members to the first gathering of the group after church one Sunday. The announcement called for all who were interested to come—no experience necessary. She recruited dancers, actors, poets, singers, and musicians. Men, women, and children participated. Most of the participants were novices, but a few had high school or college experiences in theatre. Beatrice Tennessee minored in theatre at St. Mary’s University, while Dollie Hudspeth, an English major, minored in theatre.40 Many came from the church choir. They fought the initial response of some members of the church who insisted that they were involved in the devil’s work. Those interested quietly asked about the work and asked to be ­involved—­they represented not only the choir but also the deacon’s board, Sunday school department, and other ministries of the church. Hornsby welcomed and trained them all. At rehearsals she frequently drew as many as thirty-five people who gained confidence with each successful experience.41 Earley B. Teal is representative of the many community people who worked with Kathy Hornsby for fifteen years or more. He first performed

4 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration with the company in 1995 in A Soldier’s Play. A retired military man, he was employed as a social worker in San Antonio when he joined the Hornsby Company. He never thought about acting until 1993 when coworkers convinced him to audition for Jean Genet’s The Blacks (1959) in Austin, under the direction of Stephen Gerald, a University of Texas theatre faculty member. These same coworkers convinced him to audition for Alfred Uhry’s Driving Miss Daisy (1987) in San Antonio. This work boosted his confidence and helped him find his way to the Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company. He notes performing with Hornsby in a variety of venues, frequently under what he labeled “nontraditional” circumstances, such as a performance of John Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men (1937) in the lobby of the Josephine Theatre. Rehearsals were usually one-day-a-week marathons because of the working schedules of the cast. He remembers prayer before and after each rehearsal and performance. He never received pay for his work with the Hornsby Company, but stayed because of the satisfaction of playing roles he understood in great plays by African Americans. He worked with many talented black actors from San Antonio and notes that many of the black actors in San Antonio today were given a chance and taught by Kathy Hornsby.42 Reverend Black offered significant support from the beginning. As a well-known and respected pastor, his endorsement was vital to the company’s early progress. He provided space for not only performances but also rehearsals. He made office equipment available for printing tickets and programs, and provided spiritual direction. Hornsby attended regular meetings with him to solicit his help in choosing performance pieces that related to the week’s sermon and spiritual scriptures. It was Reverend Black who suggested The Amen Corner as their first full-length work. In addition, he gave Hornsby guidance on their first grant request to the city of San Antonio. He was familiar with city policies because he had served as mayor pro tem and member of the city council. Moreover, Reverend Black’s connection to the Carver Cultural Community Center as a member of the development board helped Hornsby begin presenting plays at that historic East Side location. In order to get city funding, the Players in Christ had to become secular. They made the change in name to the Hornsby Entertainment Company without a great deal of thought while waiting for a review of their funding proposal at city hall. After the name change (they were also known as the

San Antonio  ◆   4 7

A Soldier’s Play (1994). (Left to right) Donald Bouldin, Kevin Evans, Tyron Tennessee. Photo by Kathy Hornsby.

Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company), they successfully presented their proposal and received support from the city’s Department of Arts and Cultural Affairs. They continued their church ministry and branched out to present significant plays from the African American theatre canon (such as Raisin in the Sun) and a few other popular plays from the American theatre repertoire (including John Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men [1937]).

Mission The Hornsby Company articulated a mission aimed not only at entertaining but also at making a difference in the lives of the performers and the audience. Like many theatres in Texas, the company wanted to offer opportunities for expression and training to black actors who might not otherwise have them. All of this is succinctly revealed in the mission statement: To enrich, to educate, to entertain through quality theatre, and to offer a vehicle for actors to work, and a vehicle for non-experienced but interested people to get basic training in the practice.43

4 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Memorable Productions Decade One: Making a Home throughout the City (1987–1997) The Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company leased the 650-seat Carver Community Cultural Center for most of its major productions.44 They intermittently mounted productions at the Carver from 1989 to 2009—including Baldwin’s The Amen Corner, Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun, Charles Fuller’s A Soldier’s Play, Hansberry’s To Be Young, Gifted and Black (1969), George Wolfe’s The Colored Museum (1986), and Ntozake Shange’s for colored girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf (1976). When the Carver opened the Little Carver Civic Center in 2004, the company began performing in this more intimate and flexible space that accommodated up to a hundred people. Hornsby developed a productive relationship with the administrators at the Josephine Theatre when the Carver was under renovation from 1998 to 2004.45 She produced shows in the Lounge, an open area that seats up to 120. Because of the openness in the lounge of the Josephine Theatre, Hornsby presented for colored girls in this space; she thought it was a good fit.46 Hornsby also forged a relationship with the theatre departments at the community colleges, especially St. Philip’s College, where she mounted numerous productions: The Amen Corner in 1993, for colored girls in 1994, August Wilson’s Fences in 1995, and a revival of Fences in collaboration with the San Antonio College theatre department in 1996.47 As previously noted, The Amen Corner was the first full-length offering of the company. After its initial production in 1987 at Mt. Zion First Baptist Church, it was presented at other venues, including a 1993 production at St. Philip’s College. The Amen Corner is a three-act domestic drama written by James Baldwin in the 1950s, first performed on a professional stage in 1965, and published in 1968. The play’s message about religion and love is timeless. The setting is a Harlem storefront church. The first scene, a rousing religious service led by Margaret Alexander, the central character, has enthralled audiences. Margaret must come to terms with her choices and with loss. She left her husband (Luke) to raise their son (David) alone while completely devoting herself to religion. The husband returns to die, but only after awakening Margaret to their ongoing love and the choices that brought them both to their present state. As she comes to terms with her husband, she is ousted from the church she built after members learn

San Antonio  ◆   4 9 her family story. The losses pile up as her son leaves her and the church to find his own way in the world—the secular music world. The 1993 Hornsby production of The Amen Corner received positive responses. Dan Goddard’s review in the San Antonio Express-News led with “‘Amen Corner’ tops as black theater.” He also noted that Kathy Hornsby “has taken a giant step toward establishing an African American community theatre with a tough-minded staging of James Baldwin’s ‘The Amen Corner.’”48 Also in the Express-News, Kristina Paledes wrote that “‘Amen’ answers East Side prayer.” By 1993, Hornsby had established her theatre program at the Davis-Scott YMCA. Thus, Paledes also took note of the YMCA connection in her review of the play. She quoted Hornsby on the significance of the theatre program at the YMCA: “It targets inner-city youth to provide a positive activity as opposed to being in the streets, being on drugs.”49 The company performed Baldwin’s play in the newly built threehundred-seat Watson Auditorium at St. Philip’s College with Beatrice Tennessee (Sister Margaret), Darryl Flaggs (Luke), Frederick Thomas (David), Loretha Washington (Sister Moore), and Dollie Hudspeth (Sister Boxer). Another great success for the Hornsby Company was Charles Fuller’s A Soldier’s Play, a two-act mystery drama,50 mounted the first time in the 1991–1992 season. They remounted work on numerous occasions, including a 2007 production at the Little Carver Civic Center. Hornsby’s production of A Soldier’s Play began with a preshow with jazz singing and dancing, set to the mood of the 1940s and featuring works by Billie Holiday and Charlie Parker.51 Through a murder mystery, Fuller’s drama explores the complicated feelings of anger and resentment that some African Americans have toward one another, and the ways in which many blacks have internalized white racist attitudes. It takes place at Fort Neal, a US Army base in Louisiana, in 1944, a time of military racial segregation. Whereas The Amen Corner is about religion and love, A Soldier’s Play is about racial hatred and black self-hatred. The play’s action centers around Captain Richard Davenport, a black army officer, Sergeant Vernon Waters, the murder victim, and Private C. J. Memphis, who commits suicide because of treatment by Waters, who hates Memphis’s stereotypical “Negro” ways. The insight that Waters gains shortly before his murder is central to the thought of the work. He comes to realize how futile and foolish his lifelong attempts to behave like a white man have been. His dying words, “They still hate you,” reflect his belated understanding that white hatred and disdain of

5 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration black men like him has nothing to do with stereotypical black behavior, and that whites would probably always hate him, no matter how hard he tried to emulate “white” ways. Hornsby stated, “I am making a comment . . . that . . . we [blacks] should help each other instead of being against each other.” Deborah Martin of the San Antonio Express-News gave the production a mixed review: “The show at the Carver offered little intensity, and the tension never built as the show went on.” However, she praised several performers. “Evans played Waters with great enthusiasm . . . Keown gave a solid performance as Davenport. And Dr. Loren Alves and Tequann Whaltey captured their characters well.”52 In 1995, August Wilson’s Pulitzer Prize–winning Fences (1987) was a success for the Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company. The play, set in the 1950s, is the sixth in Wilson’s ten-play Pittsburgh Cycle in which each play is set in a different decade of the twentieth century. Like all of the Pittsburgh plays, Fences explores the evolving African American experience and race relations. Hornsby’s production featured a strong ensemble cast that included Paul Riddle Jr. (Troy), Loretha Washington (Rose), and Donald Bouldin (Cory). Echoing earlier positive responses to their work, the Hornsby–St. Philip’s College collaboration with Fences earned the company outstanding newspaper commentary. Dan Goddard’s review in the San Antonio Express-News stated, “‘Fences’ among year’s best local dramas.” He called it a “major breakthrough for the city’s fledgling black community theatre.” Referring to Hornsby’s struggles to develop the company, Goddard stated that Fences is “her best production so far” and should be a “real source of pride for the East Side.”53 As with other Hornsby Entertainment productions, the 1995 production of Fences at St. Philip’s College was a community effort. The printed program was a key to the extent of community involvement as it offered special thanks to a number of sponsors including St. Philip’s College, the Davis-Scott YMCA, San Antonio College, Mt. Zion First Baptist Church, the Josephine Theatre, and the City of San Antonio Arts and Cultural Affairs Department. Hornsby’s programs frequently noted that proceeds would go to a community organization, including the YMCA, the San Antonio Food Bank, and Project Free. Cheryl Hornsby, associate executive director of the Davis-Scott YMCA since 2007, and long time staff member, states that her sister Kathy always shared the box office receipts with the Davis-Scott YMCA or another community charity.54

San Antonio  ◆   5 1

Fences program cover (1995). Photo courtesy of Kathy Hornsby.

Decade Two and Beyond: For the Love of the Gospel (1997 to present) While presenting a variety of well-known works from the African American theatre repertoire, Kathy Hornsby also created and produced inspirational spiritual scenarios in collaboration with the company. Billed as gospel musicals, these productions dominated the repertoire of the second decade, though a few of them had been done for the first time during the first ten years. The titles offer insights into the themes: Joy for My Journey (1994), Order My Steps (1997), Run and Tell Somebody (1997), Meetin’ in the Ladies Room (1998), The Called: A Tale of Two Preachers (2002), The Redemption of Reverend Jones (2003), How Miss Johnson Got Her Praise Back (2003), Twelve

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Order My Steps (1996). Kathy Hornsby. Photo by Ava Hornsby.

Angry Women (2006), When All Hell Breaks Loose (2007), A New Beginning (2008), and Go Tell It On the Mountain (2009).55 In 1998, Meetin’ in the Ladies Room at the Carver Center was advertised as an original dramatic comedy. The review by Dan Goddard in the San Antonio Express-News was titled “‘Ladies Room’ touches life’s nitty-gritty issues.” The play touched on everything from breast cancer to adultery. With a cast of thirty-five, the work used brief blackouts that shift from church, school, the mall, and a nightclub as well as the ladies room. Goddard noted that the bits sometimes resembled improvisational acting exercises. The work is a combination of comedy and grim reality. In one startling scene

San Antonio  ◆   5 3 in the mall, shoppers ignore a woman who has passed out; an example of comedy occurs in a scene where elderly women complain of their aches and pains, until someone invites them to go out to a jazz club for seniors’ night.56 The 1997 advertisement promoting Order My Steps stated, “His church in ruins . . . He goes to the streets . . . Only to end up back down . . . On his knees . . . Where he finds the real POWER OF PRAYER!!”57 The program for Run and Tell Somebody described it as a three-act work set in the Ebenezer Church on Sunday morning, with scenes set in a deacon’s meeting, choir practice, an auxiliary meeting, and a neighborhood bar.58 In 2003 the Josephine Theatre production of Joy for My Journey was billed as a “funny” and “powerful” gospel drama and poetry show.59 Like the work of playwrights Shelley Garrett (Beauty Shop, 1989) and Tyler Perry (Diary of a Mad Housewife, 2001), Hornsby’s company filled a need in the black community for a theatre experience that blended Christian values and melodramatic theatrical sensationalism.

Perseverance and Survival As artistic director of an itinerant company of mainly nonprofessional actors and technical assistants without a regular payroll, Kathy Hornsby has been creative, resourceful, and tireless. She personally manages and participates in almost every aspect of the production process from page to stage and chooses the plays based on her knowledge of the African American theatre repertory gained during her years at the community college and the university. Hornsby consistently selects well-known works produced around the country and on and off Broadway in New York. However, she always keeps in mind the actors she has available, the time they need to prepare, and the value of the work as an enjoyable growth experience. Keenly tuned into the San Antonio community, Hornsby often ties her works to community activities such as Juneteenth and Fiesta and chooses works that can command at least twenty dollars at the box office. For example, from the popular theatre reviews, Hornsby knew that women around the country loved Ntozke Shange’s for colored girls. The choreopoem has been popular with black theatre companies from the time of its stunning debut at the Booth Theatre on Broadway in 1976. More than enough talented actors were available to cast it and recruit understudies in San Antonio. Hornsby directs all of her productions, and she also consistently understudies one or two of the roles. Frequently, she plays a major role and

5 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration directs, as in the 1987 production of The Amen Corner in which she played Margaret Alexander, the church pastor. As the artistic director, she not only casts the plays but also leads the rehearsals and develops the concept for the works.60 In her own words, Hornsby and the company did “everything.” The entire cast was involved in some aspect of promoting the productions (flyers, posters, news releases, radio spots). They were all involved in pulling or building costumes (renting/borrowing or constructing), assembling the set, cleaning the space, and working the box office. The few who only wanted to perform left the company.61 Several Hornsby company productions received funding support from the City of San Antonio Arts and Cultural Affairs division. They included Raisin in the Sun in 1994; To Be Young, Gifted and Black in 1996; and Run and Tell Somebody in 1997.62 However, an adequate production budget was a luxury the company seldom enjoyed; hence, they frequently relied on the host theatre and local theatre businesses (e.g., Gibson’s Costumes) to help them make it happen. Hornsby and company were allowed to use set pieces that were available in the Carver Community Cultural Center shop. They refurbished what was found by painting or reconstructing as needed. In addition, they called local theatre departments—usually St. Philip’s College or San Antonio College—or other local theatres (e.g., the Josephine Theatre) for assistance with costumes and set pieces. The Gibson Costume Shop on Broadway in San Antonio was generous with its assistance. With the production of August Wilson’s Fences at St. Philip’s, because of the collaboration with the department of theatre and fine arts, the set was designed and built by Debra Justice, an Incarnate Word College and Yale University theatre graduate who was the technical director at St. Philip’s in 1995. Justice also served as stage manager. The director of theatre at the time, Sandra Mayo, arranged the collaboration that included a waiver of the rental fees and served as a production and directing consultant. One of the special initiatives of the Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company was the Talent Fest, a special event for young people. The company annually produced works for the event from 1990 to 2007. It was a variety talent show featuring young people that typically included scenes from plays or full productions. The 1996 Summer Breeze Talent Fest featured a new gospel choir, billed as Point of Light, organized with the children of the Davis-Scott YMCA.

San Antonio  ◆   5 5 The name changes for the company symbolize its journey. It changed from Mt. Zion Players in Christ in 1987 to the Hornsby Entertainment Group in 1993 (sometimes shortened to Hornsby Entertainment), and then to Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company in 2009. Over the years Kathy Hornsby has achieved her goal to provide performance opportunities for members of the East Side community of San Antonio. Often operating on “a shoe string,” she kept going with professionals and amateurs, with or without sets, in a variety of theatre spaces or just open community rooms or parks, mounting established and celebrated plays or original collaborative improvisational pieces and leaving an impressive legacy of commitment to community through the arts. The work of the company waned while Hornsby returned to university work to earn a master’s degree. However, it has not folded, and a new day producing celebrated works from the African American canon is still on the horizon. Hornsby expresses her love of her journey as follows: The work has been inspiring. Because, at my core, I’m creative . . . and in all things . . . that’s how I see the world. And so, to have had the opportunity to have done it, and for some people to join me along the way, not knowing, has been just like spring.63

Hornsby’s unique contribution to theatre was the example of close collaboration with two community organizations—Mt. Zion First Baptist Church and the YMCA. Other theatre organizations in Texas worked closely with churches, using their space for rehearsal (e.g., the Sojourner Truth Players in Fort Worth) or collaborating on audience development (e.g., the Black Academy of Arts and Letters in Dallas), but it is rare in black theatre history to find a company like the Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company that started in church as part of the morning service, as did the Players in Christ.

The Renaissance Guild In 2001, after working for many years with Kathy Hornsby as a member of the original Mt. Zion Players in Christ, Paul Riddle Jr. joined with Latrelle Bright and Danielle King to launch The Renaissance Guild (TRG) in San Antonio. Riddle met Bright while working on a production with Jump-Start Performance Company. He invited her to join the cast of Kathy

5 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Hornsby’s production of The Colored Museum in 1999. Riddle was a member of Mt. Zion Baptist Church and had previously worked with Hornsby on numerous productions, including A Soldier’s Play and Fences. Bright, Riddle, and King connected during the Hornsby production; over a meal at a Denny’s Restaurant, they decided to take the work, in their words, “to another level” by starting their own theatre company.

Founders Riddle, King, and Bright came to their new company with some level of experience. Riddle had always wanted to do theatre but was involved in band and student government in high school. He received a degree in biology from the University of Texas at San Antonio. His first role was in The Amen Corner with Hornsby’s Players in Christ. He was also involved in many of Hornsby’s improvisational gospel works for the church. The company was a training ground for him and gave him the opportunity to play leading roles, as in his portrayal of Troy in the 1995 Hornsby production of Fences at St. Philip’s College. King remembers frequently taking advantage of informal performance opportunities in high school and church, but did not take it seriously until she began to work with Kathy Hornsby. She answered a call to audition for a Hornsby production at the YMCA and was cast for that show. She performed in some of the original work by Hornsby such as Meetin’ in the Ladies Room as well as in major plays (e.g., The Piano Lesson (1990)). After studying at the Boston Conservatory and the US International University in San Diego, Bright, who left The Renaissance Guild in 2005, began work at Florida State University, where she majored in communications and minored in African American theatre and media production before moving to San Antonio. In San Antonio, Bright was a paralegal by day when she began working in theatre with the Firelight Players, the Hornsby Entertainment Company, and finally The Renaissance Guild. In the beginning Latrelle Bright led the way with her vision for the company. She was its first artistic director and president. Paul Riddle was the treasurer and marketing director, and Danielle King the secretary. They officially began as a company in the fall of 2001 when they applied for and received nonprofit certification from the state of Texas. Riddle, Bright, and King served in various leadership roles as they launched the company.

San Antonio  ◆   5 7

The Mission The founders named the company The Renaissance Guild in memory of the outpouring of work in the arts by blacks during the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s. Their mission statement declares: The Renaissance Guild is dedicated to the examination, preservation, and celebration of the Black experience through theatre; providing educational outreach programs to the San Antonio community and surrounding areas, and providing opportunities for artistic expression to people of color.64

The Renaissance Guild’s focus has been on the inner life of the people, showcasing their relationships, rituals, and accomplishments. The founders wanted their work to reflect the struggle as it relates to African American issues, but also as it relates to the human condition, or the “everyday experience as people.”65 The company works to accomplish its goals with “challenging, diverse and innovative productions featuring traditional plays with non-traditional casting.”66 Many of the plays selected feature African Americans; however, as King states, “The company is multicultural because [we] will cast all people.”67

Memorable Productions The First Decade: Moving Forward (2001–2011) The production season includes the Main Stage Series in February, Black History Month, the ActOne Series in July or August, and intermittent special events. The black church audience is a major supporter in February. However, the summer one-act series has been the company’s most productive financially—large casts, original plays, and emphasis on attracting young audiences have made the difference.68 The first production of the new company was surprisingly not a play by an African American playwright, but one by British playwright Harold Pinter. The play, Betrayal (1978), was the choice of Latrelle Bright, who wanted to start with a work that would signal the multicultural identity of the new theatre company.69 She believed it was a good choice for a fledgling company because of its small cast and universal themes, if not specifically black situations.70 The company has continued to mix its production of the African American repertoire with works from the European and European American canon. Riddle and King appeared in Betrayal while Bright han-

5 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration dled all of the technical and business elements; Luther Maddox, who later became a member of Mt. Zion First Baptist Church, completed the cast. Their first season also included Stephen Schwartz and John-Michael Tebelak’s musical Godspell (1970). Godspell is a series of parables, based mainly on the Gospel of Matthew, though other parables of the prodigal son and of the rich man and Lazarus come from the Gospel of Luke. The parables are interspersed with a variety of modern music set primarily to lyrics from traditional hymns, with the passion of Christ treated briefly near the end of the performance. They completed the season with European American playwright Thomas Gibbons’s Bee-luther-hatchee (1999), a thought-provoking work about an African American book editor who discovers that an autobiography of a reclusive seventy-two-year-old black woman was actually written by a white male. With this choice, The Renaissance Guild producers showcased their interest in taking on controversial subjects. In 2006 they mounted one of their most memorable productions, Raisin in the Sun, at Jump-Start Performance Company. (it was reprised in 2013 at the Carver Community Cultural Center). In her 2006 San Antonio Express-News review, Deborah Martin asserted, “First-rate material, keen performances and deft direction come together in The Renaissance Guild’s production of Raisin in the Sun.” The production won six ATAC (Alamo Theatre Arts Council) Globe awards: best production—drama, best director— drama (Antoinette Winstead), lead actor—drama (Arthur Bouier), lead actress—drama (Cassandra Small), and two in supporting actress—drama (Cyndi Lucas and Sharon Shepherd).71 Antoinette Winstead, professor, poet, short-story writer, and playwright, directed not only the award-winning production of Raisin in the Sun but also many of the main stage productions including In the Blood, Fences, and Blues for an Alabama Sky. She has also directed several plays in TRG’s One Act Series, including Billy, The Interrogation, Good Behavior, and The Living Room. With a master’s degree in fine arts from Columbia University, Winstead serves as professor of English and chair of the Communication Arts program at Our Lady of the Lake University in San Antonio. The Renaissance Guild produced Winstead’s Somebody Else’s Life (2003) in their Main Stage Series, as well as Too Long Coming (2004) and The Interrogation (2004) in their One Act Series. The Department of Theatre and Dance at Texas State University included Winstead’s Common Ground (2008) for a week as a selection for the 2008 Black and Latino Playwrights Conference; this culminated in a readers’ theatre performance. In 2009, ProArts Collec-

San Antonio  ◆   5 9

A Raisin in the Sun (2006). (Left to right) Arthur Bouier, Nathaniel Sherrod, Cyndi Lucas, Sharon Shepherd, Cassandra Smalls, and David Clinger. Photo courtesy of The Renaissance Guild.

tive in Austin produced the premiere of Common Ground at the Boyd Vance Theatre. In 2008, the seventh season, The Renaissance Guild produced the most financially successful work in its history to that point, notes Paul Riddle. It was David Bottrell and Jessie Jones’s comedy Dearly Departed (1991), directed by Diane Malone in Jump-Start Performance Company’s one-hundredseat theatre in the Blue Star Art Complex. The play, about the chaos that ensues as a family pulls together for a funeral, received numerous awards and great reviews by the time TRG produced it (e.g., the New York Daily News: “Dearly Departed is drop dead funny . . . but don’t take our word, see it yourself.”). The Renaissance Guild’s 2008 production of Dearly Departed featured a cast of twelve that included, among others, Phyllis Lee (Raynelle), Kevin Majors (Raybud), and Cyndi Lucas (Lucille). It not only filled the house and paid the bills, but also received an outstanding review by Deborah Martin in the Express-News: Director Diane Malone and her cast strike precisely the right note throughout, nailing the affectionate exasperation that’s part of many family enter-

6 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration prises. The fun begins before the actors take the stage, with an audio ad for the fictional Depew’s Funeral Home, “where funerals are cheaper by the dozen.”72

Martin noted in her closing statement in the review, “The show ends The Renaissance Guild’s seventh season on a winning note.”73 Riddle and King were most surprised that in 2007 they had so little success with August Wilson’s Fences, directed by Antoinette Winstead, at Jump-Start Performance Company. Riddle notes, “We went in the hole on it. People did not come out even though it was shortly after Wilson’s death.”74 In 2010, its first year in residence at the Carver Community Cultural Center, TRG tried another Wilson play, Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom, with more success. Both Wilson plays received glowing reviews; the audience had less difficulty finding the latter production. Their new location in the heart of the historically black East Side may have made the difference. The Ensemble Theatre in Houston has had the greatest success with August

Dearly Departed (2008). Photo courtesy of The Renaissance Guild.

San Antonio  ◆   6 1 Wilson’s plays. Under the leadership of Eileen Morris, the Ensemble Theatre has produced all ten works in the ten-play Pittsburgh Cycle. Throughout the first decade The Renaissance Guild moved from theatre to theatre, frequently leasing Jump-Start Performance Company’s theatre in the Blue Star Arts Complex in San Antonio. Nevertheless, the production choices continued to be well-known and highly regarded works. In addition to Raisin in the Sun and Fences, other popular productions included Pearl Cleage’s Blues for an Alabama Sky, Ntozake Shange’s Spell #7 (1979), and Lynn Nottage’s Fabulation, or the Re-Education of Undine (2004). This lineup showcases a strong interest in women’s voices and plays with great roles for women. TRG’s support of local black playwrights included not only Antoinette Winstead but also Sterling Houston with his tribute to San Antonio history, The Living Graves (2005). In keeping with the company’s mission, in addition to Pinter’s Betrayal and Bottrell and Jones’s Dearly Departed, it continued to produce works by white playwrights, including Robert Harling’s Steel Magnolias (1987), Beth Henley’s Crimes of the Heart (1978), Neil Simon’s Rumors (1988), Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream, and Aristophanes’s Lysistrata, periodically collaborating with the Shoestring Shakespeare Company. With this diverse selection of works, the Renaissance Guild offered its San Antonio audience poignant tragicomedies and hilarious fun—both classical and contemporary. The first decade also included a series of special productions. In 2005, TRG participated in a Carver Community Cultural Center’s SA to South Africa Festival with Wole Soyinka’s The Lion and the Jewel (1959), adapted and directed by Jenelva Carter. These special events were often works adapted by Latrelle Bright. Other special performances included From the Wilderness into the Promised Land, Black Women Speak: Voices from the Harlem Renaissance, Aesop’s Fables, Blessed Assurance by Laddy Sartin, an excerpt from Godspell by Stephen Schwartz (1971), Gangsters by Maishe Maponya, All in the Timing (1993) by David Ives, and The Role of Della (1995) by John J. Wooten. Bright is most proud of her work with From the Wilderness to the Promised Land. This work was inspired by and adapted from Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech. Bright recognized many voices in the speech—the rebel, the mediator, the preacher—and developed these voices into a dramatic work with the speech as the foundation and inspiration.75 The Renaissance Guild had a dream come true for its ninth season, 2009– 2010, with the move to the Carver Community Cultural Center’s Little Carver Civic Center. They began this exciting landmark year with sold-out

Blues for an Alabama Sky (2008). Photo courtesy of The Renaissance Guild.

Spell #7 (2002). (Left to right) Sharon Smith, Paul Riddle, Kim Felder-Johnson, SkudR Jones. Photo courtesy of San Antonio Express-News/ZUMApress.com.

San Antonio  ◆   6 3 performances for the Act One Series, Volume XIV, which featured a series of plays around the theme “Trick or Treat.” The event showcased local and national playwrights and local performers. The rest of the season included: August Wilson’s Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom, the Act One Series, Volume XV, “Writers Choice!” (featuring young actors ages twelve to eighteen), Neil Simon’s Rumors (1988), and the Second Annual Theatre Summer Camp for Youth produced in collaboration with the George Gervin Academy. For 2010–2011, the second year at the Carver, the Renaissance Guild produced Langston Hughes’s Black Nativity, Robert Harling’s Steel Magnolias, and Charlie Smalls’s and William F. Brown’s The Wiz (1975). Danielle King made her directing debut with Black Nativity as a holiday production in December, with Susan Lisa Smith as the assistant director. The cast included Alma Ball Nathaniel (Old Woman/Ensemble), Anita Steemer (Female Narrator/Ensemble), and Anthony L. D. Hall Jr. (Praise Dancer and Choreographer), with approximately thirty more cast members representing a variety of ages. The musical is a soulful retelling of the Christmas story with narrative, pantomime, gospel songs, and folk spirituals. Since its first performance on Broadway in 1961, it has been a holiday classic at black theatres around the country. The Renaissance Guild has now made Black Nativity a traditional holiday classic in San Antonio with an annual remounting of the work. The Renaissance Guild continued the 2010-2011 season at the Carver with Steel Magnolias, directed by Antoinette Winstead, with assistant director Angela Bennett—a remounting of their successful 2007 production. Four actresses from the earlier production returned—Danielle King (Truvy), Cassandra Small (Clairee), Denise Swain (Ouiser), and Cyndi Lucas (M’Lynn). Other cast members included C.  T. Rhames (Annelle) and Adele Sewell (Shelby). Jamina Wellinghoff, in her San Antonio Express-News review on February 11, 2011, wrote that the 2010 production was stronger than the first with a mostly dynamite cast that “bring[s] out the abundant humor in the script while also creating the sense of warmth and caring that the playwright set out to convey.” The Wiz, the soulful black musical adapted from L. Frank Baum’s The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, completed the season. The Renaissance Guild collaborated with the Woodlawn Theatre–based Pennington Productions, directed by Jonathan Pennington. In her July 15, 2011, review in the San Antonio Express-News, Deborah Martin praised the performances by Danielle King, Shaundra Gail Lamkin, and Anthony Hill, though she observed

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Black Nativity (2010). Photo courtesy of The Renaissance Guild.

that the show as a whole did not completely gel. Scott Harris, in his review “Ease on Down the Road to San Antonio for ‘The Wiz,’” noted the great voices, great dancing, and high energy of the production.76 This show with its colorful costumes, exotic characters, great dancing, and upbeat music has been an audience pleaser around the country since its Broadway debut in 1975. The Renaissance Guild/Pennington Productions collaboration scheduled a return engagement for the musical in October 2011 at the Woodlawn Theatre.

The Second Decade: A Change in Leadership (2011–Present) The Renaissance Guild began its second decade with a major loss; Paul Riddle Jr. passed away in 2012. Riddle, the company cofounder who had emerged from the Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company, had a notable acting career that included roles in The Gin Game, A Soldier’s Play, The

San Antonio  ◆   6 5 Sty of the Blind Pig, Ceremonies and Dark Old Men, To Be Young, Gifted and Black, The Colored Museum, A Raisin in the Sun, The Piano Lesson, and Fences. Riddle received a best actor Globe Award nomination for his portrayal of Troy in Fences. His performance with the S.T.A.G.E. production of Blessed Assurance in Bulverde, Texas, won him Bulverde’s Best Actor award for the 2002–2003 season. He coproduced for TRG The Left Hand Singing, Riff Raff, A Raisin in the Sun (a winner in 2006 of six ATAC awards), Fences, Steel Magnolias, Blues for an Alabama Sky, Dearly Departed, Fabulation, or the Re-Education of Undine, Dearly Departed, and ActOne Series, Volumes II through XIV. His steadfast leadership helped to keep TRG afloat and to develop the level of stability they enjoy now with their residence at the Carver Community Cultural Center. Memorable productions in 2011 and the following years include, in addition to the popular annual production of Hughes’s Black Nativity, David Feldshuh’s Miss Evers’ Boys (1992), a reprise of Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun, Laurence Klavan’s The Magic Act (1989), and Suzan-Lori Parks’s In the Blood. With its February 2012 production of Miss Evers’ Boys, TRG further established the versatility and strength of its work. The play is based on true events between 1932 and 1972 when the US Public Health Service conducted experiments on African Americans with syphilis at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama—the infamous Tuskegee Experiment. Jasmina Wellinghoff in her February 16, 2012, review called the production “solid [and] thought provoking.” Representatives of the stellar cast included Vanessa White (nurse), Edward Lawrence Burkley (Willie), and Michael Burger (Dr. Douglas). The directing was another success for Antoinette Winstead.

Perseverance and Survival After trying out various theatre venues, The Renaissance Guild settled for approximately seven years of leasing the Jump-Start Performance Company theatre in the Blue Star Arts Complex. The company financed the productions in this ideal intimate setting with its one-hundred-seat house from the box office run of two weeks. In the second season they tried to develop a company of twelve to fifteen actors who would be in all of the shows. Latrelle Bright noted that this season was the most exciting and satisfying for her because the group bonded as a company in working with the same actors over a series of plays. However, they found it more advantageous for marketing and audience development to open their productions to more people by holding auditions for each production.77

6 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

The Magic Act (2003). (Left to right) SkudR Jones and Alonzo Ellison. Photo courtesy of San Antonio Express-News/ZUMAWire.

King states, “The Renaissance Guild is a volunteer effort from the front door to the back door.” Without the luxury of hiring professional technical support, TRG relied on a variety of talent from the community to help them with lighting and sound. Intermittently, they have had individuals working on grant development. They established a board of directors consisting mainly of artists, chosen because of their support for and belief in the work, rather than for their fund-raising abilities. This is an advantage because they love the theatre, but as Paul Riddle remarked, “It is also a disadvantage because we [the leaders of the company] need a variety of backgrounds to support our efforts.”78

San Antonio  ◆   6 7 Like many other black theatre organizations around the country, The Renaissance Guild survives because of the generous volunteer hours of its members, who work other jobs for survival. Also, like many other black theatre organizations in the state and around the country, TRG has not limited the repertoire to plays by black playwrights, but instead has been creative in making the plays in the European and European American canon their own through adaptations or black embodiment of white roles without major changes in setting or lines—nontraditional casting. Over the years the Renaissance Guild has gained confidence and support. The artists and administrators, like the Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company, acknowledged a Christian foundation, though there is not a direct tie to an institution. Danielle King states, “God is at the center . . . He gets a thank you in the program [by members of the company] every single time.”79

Conclusion From its earliest inception, black theatre in San Antonio has been a community effort. The support of the black sororities and fraternities, the church, the YMCA, the black radio stations, the theatres (community college and nonprofit regional theatres), the volunteer actors, technical staff, and a handful of dedicated artistic directors made it possible. The ongoing collaboration of the community has been documented in the many groups and individuals thanked in the theatre programs, the ongoing hospitality of a variety of theatre venues, and the consistent coverage of the work in the San Antonio newspapers, especially the black press, which covered the city’s black theatre as early as the 1930s. With inspiration from earlier theatre groups and the Carver Community Cultural Center at the core, a burgeoning new voice is on the rise in black theatre in San Antonio—the Renaissance Guild. With numerous productions over eighty years, including the Wheatley Dramatic Theatre Guild’s The Robe and Deep are the Roots, the Carver Community Cultural Center’s Zora Neale Hurston and Cry, the Beloved Country, the Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company’s The Amen Corner and for colored girls, Sterling Houston’s A’lelia and Isis in Nubia, and The Renaissance Guild’s The Wiz and Black Nativity, black theatre organizations in San Antonio participated in and made contributions to the celebration of black life and culture in the United States.

6 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Theatre Productions by Season and Year of Production Dates at the end of each play indicate when the play was produced in the season year. Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company

1987–1988 The Amen Corner by James Baldwin (1987) 1989–1990 Killingsworth by Eugene Lee (1989) The Amen Corner by James Baldwin (1989) Summer Breeze Talent Fest (2009) 1990–1991 The Amen Corner by James Baldwin (1990) 1991–1992 A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry (1991) A Soldier’s Play by Charles Fuller (1992) 1992–1993 No Activity 1993–1994 The Amen Corner by James Baldwin (1993) for colored girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf by Ntozake Shange (1993) A Soldier’s Play by Charles Fuller (1994) Joy for My Journey by Kathy Hornsby (1993) Don’t Give Up Your Dream by Dwight Woods (1993) Talk That Talk by Langston Hughes (1994) 1994–1995 A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry (1994) A Soldier’s Play by Charles Fuller (1994) Fences by August Wilson (1995) 1995–1996 To Be Young, Gifted and Black by Lorraine Hansberry (1996) Summer Breeze Talent Show (1996) 1996–1997 Fences by August Wilson (1995) Order My Steps by Kathy Hornsby (1997) The Piano Lesson by August Wilson (1997)

San Antonio  ◆   6 9 1997–1998 Run and Tell Somebody by Kathy Hornsby (1997) The Gin Game by D. L. Colburn (1997) Ceremonies in Dark Old Men by Lonne Elder III (1998) Sty of the Blind Pig by Philip Hayes Dean (1998) A Soldier’s Play by Charles Fuller (1998) Meetin’ in the Ladies Room by Kathy Hornsby (1998) 1999–2000 Sty of the Blind Pig by Phillip Hayes Dean (1999) Ceremonies in Dark Old Men by Lonne Elder III (1999) How Miss Johnson Got Her Praise Back by Kathy Hornsby (1999) The Second Vote by Jim Parker (1999) The Colored Museum by George C. Wolf (2000) 2000–2001 Meetin’ in the Ladies Room by Kathy Hornsby (2000) 2001–2002 The Colored Museum by George C. Wolf (2001) The Called: A Tale of Two Preachers by Kathy Hornsby (2002) 2002–2003 The Redemption of Rev. Jones by Kathy Hornsby (2003) The Colored Museum by George Wolfe (2002) The Piano Lesson by August Wilson (2003) 2003–2004 How Miss Johnson Got Her Praise Back by Kathy Hornsby (2003) Joy for My Journey by Kathy Hornsby (2004) 2004–2005 Somebody Called by Eugene Lee (2004) Run and Tell Somebody by Kathy Hornsby (2004) A Soldier’s Play by Charles Fuller (2004) Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck (2005) Meetin’ in the Ladies Room by Kathy Hornsby (2005) 2005–2006 Meetin’ in the Ladies Room by Kathy Hornsby (2006) Twelve Angry Women by Kathy Hornsby (2005) 2006–2007 When All Hell Breaks Loose by Kathy Hornsby (2006) A Soldier’s Play by Charles Fuller (2007)

7 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration 2007–2008 Meetin’ in the Ladies Room by Kathy Hornsby (2007) A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry (2008) A New Beginning by Kathy Hornsby (2008) 2008–2009 for colored girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf by Ntozake Shange (2008) Go Tell It on the Mountain by Kathy Hornsby (2009) 2009–2010 TheatreFest (2009) Fear Itself by Eugene Lee (2009) 2011–2012 Standing Room Only by Kathy Hornsby (2011) A Brighter Shade of Black by Kathy Hornsby (2011) Pippi Longstocking by Astrid Lindgren (2012) The Odd Couple by Neil Simon (2012) 2012–2013 A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry (2012) Standing in the Shadows of Love by Jesse Henry and Kathy Hornsby (2012) Radio Golf by August Wilson (2012) The Odd Couple by Neil Simon (2012) Two for the Seesaw by William Gibson (2013) The Boy Who Drank the Cheese by Kathy Hornsby (2013) Twelve Angry Men by Reginald Rose (2013) Note: Works by Kathy Hornsby are spiritual, inspirational short improvisational works adapted from many sources with input from company. The Renaissance Guild

2001–2002 *All in the Timing by David Ives and The Role of Della by John J. Wooten (2001) Betrayal by Harold Pinter (2001) Bee-luther-hatchee by Thomas Gibbons (2002) Godspell by Stephen Schwartz (2002) *Gangsters by Maishe Maponya (2002)

San Antonio  ◆   7 1 2002–2003 Gangsters by Maishe Maponya (2002) Spell #7 by Ntozake Shange (2002) *“Day by Day,” excerpt from Godspell by Stephen Schwartz (2002) *Blessed Assurance by Laddy Sartin (2003) The Left Hand Singing by Barbara Lebow (2003) Riff Raff by Laurence Fishburne (2003) 2003–2004 *Aesop’s Fables: Children’s Theatre Piece adapted by Latrelle Bright (2003) The Magic Act by Laurence Klavan (2003) *Southern Cross by Jon Klein (2004) In the Blood by Suzan-Lori Parks (2004) A Midsummer Night’s Dream by William Shakespeare (2004) 2004–2005 Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, adapted by Victor Gialanella (2004) Long Time since Yesterday by P. J. Gibson (2004) *From the Wilderness into the Promised Land, adapted by Latrelle Bright (2005) Somebody Else’s Life by Antoinette F. Winstead (2005) Simply Shel by Shel Silverstein (2005) Lysistrata by Aristophanes, adapted by Alegria Garcia (2005) *Black Women Speak: Voices from the Harlem Renaissance adapted by Latrelle Bright (2005) 2005–2006 The Lion and the Jewel by Wole Soyinka (2005) The Living Graves by Sterling Houston (2005) A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry (2006) 2006–2007 The Living Graves by Sterling Houston (2006) Fences by August Wilson (2007) Steel Magnolias by Robert Harling (2007) In My Mirror by Jeremy Gay (2007) 2007–2008 Blues for an Alabama Sky by Pearl Cleage (2008) Dearly Departed by David Bottrell and Jessie Jones (2008) 2008–2009 Fabulation, or the Re-education of Undine by Lynn Nottage (2009) Crimes of the Heart by Beth Henley (2009)

7 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration 2009–2010 Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom by August Wilson (2010) Rumors by Neil Simon (2010) 2010–2011 Black Nativity by Langston Hughes (2010) Steel Magnolias by Robert Harling (2011) The Wiz by Charlie Smalls and William F. Brown (2011) 2011–2012 Black Nativity by Langston Hughes (2011) Miss Evers’ Boys by David Feldshuh (2012) ActOne Series (2012) 2012–2013 Black Nativity by Langston Hughes (2012) A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry (2013) ActOne Series (2013) * These are special Renaissance Guild productions performed at special events, including festivals and award shows.

3 ◆ Austin a r t i s t i c c o l l a b o r at i o n i n t h e c a p i ta l c i t y

Afro-American Players (1972–1982) Black Arts Alliance (1981–1989) The Austin Theatre Project (1986–1991) Pyramid Productions (1991–1995) Progressive Arts Collective (1992–2012) There ain’t no mountain high enough Ain’t no valley low enough Ain’t no river wide enough To keep me from getting to you Nickolas Ashford and Valerie Simpson 1966

Because a symbiotic relationship always exists between black theatre and the community it serves, this chapter begins with a sociohistorical summary of blacks in Austin, Texas. The development of black theatre in Austin over the last forty years is documented, focusing on Progressive Arts Collective (ProArts Collective), Austin’s most successful black theatre. The chapter profiles the multitalented, charismatic founder and artistic director of ProArts, looks at artistic collaborations between ProArts and other entities that extend across racial and cultural lines, and examines challenges that ProArts faced after the death of its founder. It concludes with reflections on the precarious status of black theatre in light of the unfortunate demise of ProArts Collective.

Blacks in Austin In most urban centers in Texas, the black population is relatively small. Austin is no exception. According to the 2010 US Census, its population at that time included 790,390 people, 8.1 percent of whom were black.1 Despite their small numbers, blacks in Austin have made and continue to make a significant impact on the city. Blacks have lived in Austin and its vicinity since before the Civil War. Historically, blacks have lived on the east side, an area that was designated the “Negro District” in 1928.2

7 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration To maintain a segregated city, city officials encouraged blacks to settle on the east side by providing city services in that area.3 Anderson High School, one of the few black high schools offering a twelfth-grade curriculum, drew many black families to east Austin. The quest for a better education inspired political activism led by pioneers such as Arthur Dewitty, the first black American appointed to a Travis County grand jury, and Heman Marion Sweatt, who won a lawsuit (Sweatt v. Painter) against the University of Texas at Austin that resulted in his being admitted to the University of Texas Law School in 1950. Culturally, blacks in Austin have made tremendous progress. Legally segregated when it opened in 1945, the historic Victory Grill on East 11th Street was a music venue on the Chitlin Circuit, hosting famous African American performers such as Bobby Bland, Clarence “Gatemouth” Brown, and B. B. King. A black newspaper, The Villager, and a black radio station, KAZI 88.7, as well as online media now provide information and entertainment for an increasingly diverse community. Small black businesses (barber shops, hair salons, cafes and restaurants, real estate and insurance companies, auto repair shops, etc.) still survive in east Austin, supporting the Capital City African American Chamber of Commerce. Historically black Huston-Tillotson University also contributes to the cultural life of east Austin with musical and theatrical productions. The black church in Austin has played an important cultural role, nurturing the African American musical and spoken-word traditions. The historic Wesley United Methodist Church (formerly A.M.E.), Greater Mount Zion Baptist Church, David Chapel Missionary Baptist Church, Mount Zion Baptist Church, and Ebenezer Baptist Church are among the churches in east Austin that serve the spiritual and cultural needs of their community. Many schools and churches in east Austin find cultural enrichment via their association with the George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center, an institution that not only preserves Austin’s black history but also offers music and dance lessons.

Early Black Theatre Activity in Austin For generations, African Americans in Austin have nurtured their love for the stage. School plays at the old Anderson High School and at Huston-Tillotson College gave black Austinites their first exposure to black theatre. Beginning in the 1920s, black high schools such as Anderson participated in the University Interscholastic League (UIL) athletic and literary compe-

Austin  ◆   7 5 titions hosted by Prairie View A&M College. One of the most popular UIL events was the one-act play competition. A source of pride for the school and community, the one-act play contest introduced students to the world of theatre. Huston-Tillotson also mounted plays for competitions among black colleges. Community-based theatre organizations began to appear in Austin in the 1970s.

Afro-American Players, Inc. In 1972 two undergraduate African American students, Glo Dean Baker and Freddie Gardner, enrolled at the University of Texas-Austin and organized the Afro-American Players, Inc. with four classmates. Other members of the group included Doug Sivad, Sherry Stowers, Leland Witherspoon, Charles Pace, Dan Bailey, Melvin Lampley, and Paula Poindexter.4 Glo Dean Baker was Austin’s first major black female director, producer, and actress. Baker and Gardner produced Austin’s first consistent and important series of African American theatre programming. Inspired by the revolutionary theatre that was developing on the East Coast, the Afro-American Players (AAP) wrote and performed “message plays” intended to raise social and political consciousness among blacks in Austin. In the early 1970s the AAP took black theatre to the streets, performing on Guadalupe Street, known as the “Drag,” across the street from the University of Texas campus; they also performed in Rosewood Park in a predominantly African American neighborhood. The inspiration for the establishment of Afro-American Players, Inc. was a group assignment in Geneva Gay’s African American studies class at UT-Austin. Gay challenged her students to dramatize one of their required readings. Baker, Gardner, and other members of their group enjoyed performing so much that they decided to organize a theatre company. Indoor productions were held in the Methodist Student Center at Guadalupe and 24th Street, on the “Drag.”5 The Afro-American Players extended its reach by contracting with the Austin Independent School District to perform in the schools to facilitate racial integration. The troupe also negotiated a contract with the city of Austin to perform for inmates in the local jail. These contracts and grants from the local arts community supplemented the revenue raised from ticket sales. Although AAP began with six black actors, it quickly evolved into a multiethnic group, welcoming more than thirty performers from a wide

7 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration variety of backgrounds. Because AAP frequently presented message plays, most of the plays in the AAP repertoire were written by members of the group to address particular topics. AAP’s first production was an adaptation of Claude Brown’s semi-autobiographical novel, Manchild in the Promised Land (1965), published at the height of the Civil Rights Movement. Incorporated on May 16, 1973, AAP’s board of directors reflected the company’s multiethnic, inclusive approach to theatre. The diverse board included representatives from higher education (Bill Pfuderer, drama department, St. Edwards University), the religious community (Marvin Griffin, pastor, Ebenezer Baptist Church), the business sector (Ed Hill, owner of Metropolitan Management Company), the Austin Independent School District (Bertha Means, secondary reading supervisor), and the media (T. L. Wyatt, editor of The Villager).6 The Afro-American Players, Inc. staged several productions in the 1970s. Among the company’s most memorable productions was Ghetto Vampires (1975), a spoof on vampire movies directed by Glo Dean Baker and Freddie Gardner. Merry Christmas, Baby (1975), loosely based on the Charles Brown blues classic of the same title, was the first major musical produced by the Afro-American Players. The AAP produced the popular musical Purlie (1970) based on Ossie Davis’s Purlie Victorious (1961) in 1977 and again in 1980. Yolanda Harrison, a graduate of the UT-Austin drama department, played Idella in the 1980 production of Purlie, and Boyd Vance played Gitlow. Directed by Glo Dean Baker at the Paramount Theatre in 1981, Raisin was the second major musical mounted by the Afro-American Players, Inc. The cast included AAP cofounder Freddie Gardner as Walter Lee Younger, Ne Washington as Lena Younger, and Linda Ross as Beneatha.7 Douglas Turner Ward’s Happy Ending (1965), an Afro-American Players production, was especially notable because it featured two major players on the Austin arts scene from the 1970s and 1980s, Ruby Williams and Elouise Burrell. Williams was the administrative assistant and founding member of AAP and singer/actress/producer Burrell led the Black Arts Alliance in the production of some of the most important African American theatre ever presented in Austin. In the late 1980s, Baker and Gardner moved to Dallas, where they reestablished the Afro-American Players, Inc. Under their leadership, the AAP has developed into a successful, multifaceted arts organization that provides programming for children, youth, and adults designed to promote cross-cultural communication. The Gardners have toured African American colleges and universities over the past twenty

Austin  ◆   7 7 years, performing a variety of African American dramatic works. For example, AAP presents Children’s Mask Theatre in more than 120 schools in the DFW Metroplex to encourage arts appreciation.8

Black Arts Alliance After Baker and Gardner relocated Afro-American Players, Inc. to the Dallas-Fort Worth area in the early 1980s, Elouise Burrell, founder of the Black Arts Alliance in 1981, filled the void, producing a series of outstanding shows.9 A multidisciplinary arts and cultural organization, Black Arts Alliance (BAA) was “designed to create professional opportunities for emerging Black artists to showcase their works and advance their careers.” BAA also sponsored and coordinated a variety of black arts activities, including visual, literary, and performing arts.10 A native of Waco, Texas, Burrell also founded the women’s singing collective called Scintilla. Under her leadership, the Black Arts Alliance achieved an enviable local, statewide, and national reputation for its fine visual and performance art presentations. Burrell was also the lead vocalist for the jazz band Cool Breeze and later established her own band, “Elouise Burrell and Trickle Down.” The Black Arts Alliance and the Zachary Scott Theatre Center coproduced The Wiz (1974), featuring over fifty performers

Elouise Burrell, executive director, Black Arts Alliance (1983–1988). Photo by Danna Byrom.

7 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration in an epic musical with a multicultural, nontraditional cast. Fashion designers Andre Terry and Margaret Wiley, who worked with Esther’s Follies productions, constructed costumes. All of the principal characters were double cast, and over twenty of Austin’s most talented performers were cast in lead and featured roles, with Jai Kym Stephans’s dazzling choreography topping off this highly successful show. Among the other shows coproduced by Black Arts Alliance and Zachary Scott Theatre are Lofton Mitchell’s Bubbling Brown Sugar (1976) and a nontraditional casting (all black cast) at Capitol City Playhouse of Tennessee Williams’s A Streetcar Named Desire (1947) directed by Boyd Vance in 1986 and featuring Julius Tennon, Starla Benford, Billy Harden, and Cheryl Beckham. The Black Arts Alliance paved the way for collaborative efforts between mainstream theatrical institutions such as the Zachary Scott Theatre Center and African American theatre companies such as the Austin Theatre Project founded by Vance.11

The Austin Theatre Project The Austin Theatre Project was incorporated in 1986. The new theatre company was organized by a group of performers who had performed in productions such as Bubbling Brown Sugar; The Wiz; Merry Christmas, Baby; Ain’t Misbehavin’ (1978); and Eubie. The letter to patrons of the arts indicates that the Austin Arts Council had recommended that the new theatre company receive funding grants for two of its upcoming productions: $4,668 for Charles Fuller’s A Soldier’s Play (1981) and $6,440 for Purlie. The letter appeals to the arts community for donations to defray the costs of the productions. Austin Theatre Project organizers had two fund-raisers planned: “Sunday, October 19th, from 3:00 to 7:00 p.m., we will celebrate our incorporation and kick off our Play Reading Series at Club Islas, 217 Congress Avenue. On Wednesday, October 29th, Michel Jaroschy of Capitol City Playhouse is generously donating all proceeds from the preview of A Streetcar Named Desire to benefit ATP.”12 Cosponsored by the Black Arts Alliance, the play was performed from October 30 to November 22, 1986, at the Capitol City Playhouse.13 After the show, patrons were treated to a “soul food buffet featuring homemade Creole delights and refreshments.” A Soldier’s Play was produced in the same 1986–1987 season, directed by Boyd Vance. Performers included

Austin  ◆   7 9 Clayton Murrell, Keith Price, Dewy Brooks, Empra Moore, Terrell Montgomery, Michael Watson, James McConnell, David Moore, and Zell Miller. The fund-raising letter came from Charles Bridgeman, vice president for fund-raising. The corporate address of ATP was listed as 1205C Willow Street in Austin. By the 1990–1991 season, ATP had twenty-eight members in the company, including Dottie and Milton Curry, Billy Harden, Janis Stinson, Michael Mitchell, and Victor Steel, with Boyd Vance serving as artistic director. In the 1990–1991 season, ATP staged Aurand Harris’s Ladies of the Mop, a comedy for four women actors. Because the script of Ladies of the Mop is in the public domain, ATP did not have to pay royalties. The 1990–1991 season also included The Tortoise and the Hare, an adaptation of Aesop’s fable for children’s theatre, and Merry Christmas, Baby, a compilation of songs by Vance.14 The Austin Theatre Project produced a number of works in addition to those already mentioned. For example, August Wilson’s Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom (1982) was ATP’s first dramatic production. Funded by the City of Austin Cultural Affairs Division and directed by Vance, this production marked the first time a play by August Wilson was performed in Austin. The cast included Janis Stinson as Ma Rainey, Lonnie Johnson as Cutler, Billy Harden as Toledo, Carlton Moore as Levee, Doug Mathis as Slow Drag, Milton Curry as Sylvester, Robert Faires as Sturdyvant, and Janice Tyson as Dussie Mae.15 The production was successful, both artistically and financially. At the Zachary Scott Theatre, Vance directed a new production of the musical Purlie in 1987; performers included Demethia McVea, Billy Harden, Janis Stinson, Dan Hand, Carla Nickerson, Jimmy Wilson, Michael Watson, Ander Mitchell, and Marcia Williams.16 These were artistically successful productions that highlighted Vance’s directing skills and attracted enthusiastic audiences. According to a promotional brochure, “Austin Theatre Project is an organization of predominately minority theatre artists who have been working together informally as far back as 1978 in productions of Purlie and Raisin (1973).” The brochure goes on to note, “In 1985 alone Austin Theatre Project gave more than twenty benefit performances for local non-profit organizations and charities.” ATP developed its multiracial audiences through quality productions and thoughtful marketing designed to reach targeted communities. In its inaugural season as an incorporated company in 1986–1987, ATP sponsored a Play Reading Series from

8 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom (1986). (Left to right) Janice Tyson, Douglas Mathis, Milton Curry, Billy Harden, Janis Stinson, Carleton Moore. Photo by Danna Byrom.

September to February that featured plays such as Medea by Euripides, Happy Ending/Day of Absence by Douglas Turner Ward, Wilson’s Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom, LeRoi Jones’s The Toilet (1964), N. R. Davidson’s El Haji Malik (1969), Ntozake Shange’s Spell #7 (1979), Athol Fugard’s Master Harold and the Boys (1982), and Lorraine Hansberry’s Drinking Gourd (1960). The Austin Theatre Project staged popular musicals that featured local talent. For example, the cast for the musical revue Merry Christmas, Baby (December 1986), conceived and directed by Vance, included choir members from area churches. A Soldier’s Play was presented in May 1987, and Purlie, a musical with book by Ossie Davis, was staged in June of the same year. In the summer of 1987, ATP produced The Red Shoes (1993), a musical based loosely on a fairy tale by Hans Christian Andersen, and The Emperor’s New Clothes, also based on a tale by Andersen. To accommodate his expanding vision for black theatre in Austin, Vance disbanded ATP and established Progressive Arts Collective in 1993 with cofounders Trina Scott and Dewy Brooks.

Austin  ◆   8 1

Pyramid Productions Operating contemporaneously with the ProArts Collective, Pyramid Productions was a smaller black theatre company founded by Doug Sivad and Julius Tennon. Sivad, writer, actor, and charter member of the Afro-American Players, Inc., lives and works in Austin. Tennon performed in numerous productions such as Alfred Uhry’s Driving Miss Daisy (1987), a musical version of Othello, and A Streetcar Named Desire during his involvement with theatre in Austin. Other members of the company included Starla Benford and Sonja Parks. In a newspaper article, Pyramid was described as “a black-owned, operated and controlled theater group boasting some of the strongest acting talent in the city.”17 The group performed plays written by Sivad as well as popular canonical works such as George C. Wolfe’s The Colored Museum (1986), in cooperation with the Black Arts Alliance. Initially, Pyramid found rehearsal space at Kealing Middle School in east Austin; however, the group acquired a new performance and rehearsal space at Riverside Live Theatre, 1930 East Riverside Drive. Pyramid also held a premiere for the film Riverbend at the Paramount Theatre on March 10, 1990. Pyramid sponsored weekly showcases as well as a children’s theatre workshop.18 When several key members of Pyramid left Austin to pursue solo acting careers, the group disbanded.

Progressive Arts Collective (ProArts Collective) In the fall of 1992, Vance invited a group of friends, including cofounders Brooks and Scott, to join him for a dinner meeting at a restaurant on Sixth Street in the entertainment district. It was there that he announced his plan to organize the Progressive Arts Collective. He explained that “Progressive Arts” reflected his desire to move forward artistically, and “collective” expressed his interest in forming a cooperative/collaborative company that would connect with other arts groups in Austin. However, the central focus of the new organization would be African American theatre.19 To that end, Vance directed Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom for Cassandra Knobloch’s Theatre Austin company in 1986.20 That production marked the beginning of a close collaborative relationship between Knobloch and Vance. In addition to directing plays, Vance wanted to develop an organization capable of “providing talent for major theatre houses in Austin and

8 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration central Texas.” He was keenly aware of the need to establish and nurture a cadre of highly competent black performers and support staff/technicians in Austin. Of course, money would be needed to fulfill his goals. To make fund-raising easier, Vance applied for 501c3 designation for ProArts Collective in 1999. Over the years, ProArts received financial support from entities such as 3M Corporation, Dell Computer, and the Texas Commission for the Arts.21 Without a permanent performance space, ProArts became an itinerant theatre troupe performing in rented theatres, a situation that created many challenges for Vance and the company. Vance also collaborated with organizations such as the Austin History Center, Austin Chamber Music Center, LBJ Museum, Austin Museum of Art, George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center, Austin Public Library, Austin Fire Department, Center for Mexican American Culture, Austin Children’s Museum, St. Stephen’s Episcopal School, and the Austin Independent School District. ProArts cowrote the Austin Fire

Boyd Vance, founder and artistic director, ProArts Collective (1992–2005). Photo by Bret Brookshire.

Austin  ◆   8 3 Department’s Fire Safety Comedy Hour that included humorous skits and participatory theatre targeting middle-school students. In collaboration with the Heralds and Minstrels Chamber Music Ensemble, ProArts Collective presented an hour-long show for young audiences featuring music and rhyme. By working with a diverse coterie of arts organizations, Vance endeavored to establish a “community of theatre artists, technical theatre artists, and theatre administrators who have both an artistic and business understanding of the performing arts.”22 For several years, ProArts headquarters was a large, two-story Victorian house, known as Heritage House, at 13th and Oleander Streets. There Vance sponsored monthly poetry readings, provided rehearsal space for other arts groups, encouraged visual artists to display their work on the walls, rented space for writers who needed privacy, and provided shortterm accommodations for artists who needed a place to stay.23 The house at 13th and Oleander was a Mecca for local artists. Vance wanted African Americans prepared to impact all aspects of theatre in Austin. After meeting Cassandra Knobloch in 1986, Vance collaborated with her on several theatre projects. For example, in the 1990-1991 season he played the angel Gabriel in Theatre Austin’s production of What Angels Do for Christmas, directed by Knobloch. Also, in 1991, Theatre Austin and the Austin Theatre Project coproduced August Wilson’s Fences at the Mary Moody Northen Theatre at St. Edward’s University, with veteran actor Billy Harden playing Troy. It was a critical and box office success. Harden received the Austin Circle of Theatres award for best actor in a drama. Vance also collaborated with Theatre Austin on its production of “Ellington at Eight: A Concert in Voice and Dance” featuring Vance and local artists (1991). Vance directed the show (Tapestry Dance Company performed) at Huston-Tillotson College as part of the Juneteenth celebration.24

Mission The purpose of ProArts Collective is set forth in its Articles of Incorporation composed in 1991. According to that document, the goals of ProArts Collective are: • To annually produce a series of quality performing arts events which will include: full-length plays, one-act plays, musical revues, performance art, educational programs for children, children’s theatre, original works and concerts in music and dance.

8 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration • To develop a community of theatre artists (performing artists, technical theatre artists, and theatre administrators) who possess both an artistic and business understanding of the performing arts. • To hold an ongoing series of showcases, seminars, workshop classes, and collaborations for the development of the provisions one and two. • To provide an outlet for technical, administrative and artistic development as they relate to the performing arts. • To build a viable audience of theatre and a strong financial base resulting from the development of a patron pool, board of directors, while drawing upon state, local, federal, corporate, and private funding sources. • To accept and acquire funds, stocks, securities, and property by donations, bequests, fees and to use, hold, invest . . . and dispose of all revenues for the accomplishment of the purposes of this corporation, but not for profit. • To do all acts, exercise all powers and to assume all obligations necessary or incidental to the purpose of said corporation.25

Founder One of Boyd Vance’s closest friends said: “I never imagined Boyd Vance being seventy-five years old and walking with a cane. I just never imagined it. I knew I wouldn’t have him around forever or for a long time. I think Boyd knew he was on a fast track to get it done as quickly as he could. . . . And that was part of his energy. He didn’t want to take a chance on tomorrow not coming, so he wanted to get it done today.”26 The lyrics to “Ain’t No Mountain High Enough,” a classic Motown hit from the 1960s, capture the incredible drive and determination that Vance, cofounder and artistic director, brought to his work with Progressive Arts Collective. A gifted vocalist as well as a talented actor and director, Vance loved to sing “Ain’t No Mountain . . .” because he identified so completely with its words, which articulated his personal philosophy of life. Although he faced many challenges during his tenure as artistic director of ProArts Collective, he refused to let anything or anyone block his artistic mission. A diminutive, hyper-energetic, gregarious artist, Boyd Vance was the spirit and heart, the powerful engine that for more than a decade kept the Progressive Arts Collective alive, thriving, and highly productive. No one expected his life to end so soon. But on April 7, 2005, a Saturday night, Vance

Austin  ◆   8 5 died at St. David’s Hospital of an aortal aneurysm,27 with family and close friends at his bedside, a Miles Davis CD playing softly in the background. The Austin arts community, especially members and friends of his beloved ProArts Collective, were shocked and devastated by his untimely death. Born July 9, 1957, in Houston, Boyd Reginald Vance grew up in the Third Ward, where he participated in activities involving his church, school, sports, and music.28 He grew up in a happy home with his mother, older brother Clen, and his twin Booker. His mother was an elementary school teacher who stressed the value of education to her sons while steering them along a path of educational achievement. She was a small woman, weighing approximately one hundred pounds, but she commanded the respect of her fifth-grade students. She was bold and extremely self-confident, traits that Vance inherited in large measure. In 1973, Vance and Booker received scholarships to attend the prestigious, predominantly white college preparatory St. Stephens Episcopal School in Austin. He and Booker were tenth graders who adjusted quickly to life at the small, private, academically rigorous school. At St. Stephens his brother played football and Vance became the school’s first male cheerleader.29 Vance developed a close relationship with his friend, English teacher, and mentor, Laurence Becker. Boyd was a frequent guest in the home of Becker and his wife, Rosanne. He performed in the school’s drama productions, and in his senior year he was awarded a medal as outstanding senior. The foundation for his life’s work in the theatre and the community was laid during his three years at St. Stephens. After graduating from St. Stephens in 1975, Vance enrolled at Rice University, where he remained for one school year. He was a cheerleader at Rice.30 He later returned to Austin and enrolled at the University of Texas, where he earned a bachelor of arts degree in English in 1983. Vance made his acting debut in 1978 as Gitlow in Purlie, a musical produced by the Afro-American Players. He made his directing debut in 1984 with a production of Lorraine Hansberry’s To Be Young, Gifted and Black (1969) staged at Huston-Tillotson College. Michel Jaroschy, founder of Capitol City Playhouse and managing director, saw the production and invited Vance to direct Ain’t Misbehavin’.31 The Fats Waller revue was a popular and critical success. Robert Faires asserts that “Through directing, Vance made one of his most valuable and lasting contributions to Austin’s arts scene: giving fledgling performers their turn in the spotlight and nurturing them into strong, seasoned artists.”32

8 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Vance became deeply involved in the Austin theatre community, performing in and directing shows. In the following quote, he comments on his decision to help improve opportunities for African Americans in theatre: “Early on, when I was just acting, I noticed that there was an absence of African Americans in the local theatre scene, especially in positions of power: producers, directors—people who can make things happen. So it became my goal to make the system more representative of people who look like me.”33 By all accounts, Boyd was an energetic, brilliant, tireless dynamo with a great sense of humor and a generous spirit. One of his friends described him as follows: “I don’t know if ‘dynamo’ is as big as ‘dynamite.’ He was more explosive than that. He was dynamite. He was just a ball of energy.”34 He devoted much of his energy to community service, serving on the board of ACTV, assisting the Central East Austin Community Organization, and promoting HIV youth education initiatives. He also served two terms as board president of the Austin Circle of Theatres. Vance received many awards for his work in theatre (e.g., B. Iden Payne award; “Best Stage Actor,” Readers Poll, 1994; Austin Circle of Theatres’ Special Recognition Award for outstanding contributions to local theatre in 2004, and induction into the Austin Arts Hall of Fame, also in 2004).35 After his untimely death, he was honored with several memorials. On a motion by mayor pro tem Danny Thomas, the Austin city council voted to name the new theatre at the recently renovated George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center in honor of Boyd Vance in November 2005. The motion passed unanimously.36 The Boyd Vance Theatre has a proscenium stage with stadium seating for an audience of 134. The ProArts Collective established the Boyd Vance Award for the Advancement of the Arts to recognize individuals and organizations that support the arts. To further honor Vance’s memory, Austin Community College and ProArts Collective cosponsor the Boyd Vance Scholarship available to dance or theatre students. Frequently, an organization such as a theatre company strongly reflects the personality of its founder and leader. Although ProArts was organized by three people, the company soon bore the indelible imprint of its artistic director, Boyd Vance. A hands-on manager, Vance ran the company without much oversight from his board of directors.37 The company prospered largely due to Vance’s work ethic and his tremendous powers of persuasion. One of his friends reports, “Boyd was

Austin  ◆   8 7 such a dynamic person that people got involved with ProArts because of Vance.”38 Vance focused on the artistic side of the productions. He did not like dealing with the financial realities of theatre. He entrusted that aspect of the company’s work to trusted friends like Dewy Brooks and Michael Bryant.39 Sometimes he would neglect to adequately publicize a show and the attendance would be low, resulting in small box office receipts and frustrated, unpaid cast members. Because he was never motivated by a desire to make a profit, Vance was never upset when the productions made little money. However, this cavalier attitude toward the business end of the theatre work, one of the actors recalled, “drove some of us crazy.”40 On one of those occasions, disappointed performers asked him: “Why didn’t you do advertisement so people could come and we could get paid?” Vance’s typical response: “Ahhh, don’t worry about it; we had a good time.”41 Working with Vance in a production was an exciting, frequently frustrating experience. As a director, he was generally more focused when he was directing a drama, and less so when directing a musical. One of the actors who worked with him recalled that “with Boyd, you had to be prepared. You had to come in the room knowing your lines.”42 Working on a production with him, one actor recalled, “was always gonna be fun, even if Boyd had to come backstage and make it fun, he would.”43 After the opening night of a production, cast members and staff would go to dinner together. On those occasions, Vance would regale the group with stories. “Boyd had stories on top of stories, and people would be just rolling with laughter. He was a great storyteller, and he was just funny. He was one of those people who made me laugh even more, that would tell a story and everybody is laughing and he’s just serious. Straight faced. And that’s funnier to me.”44

Memorable Productions The First Decade: Women Playwrights, Innovative Scripts, and Controversial Themes In its first decade, ProArts gave voice to several outstanding black women playwrights whose work was unconventional and often experimental. For example, in the 1994–1995 season, ProArts produced Hansberry’s To Be Young, Gifted and Black, an autobiographical work adapted from her writings by her husband, Robert Nemiroff. This play is important for several reasons. First, it suggests Vance’s commitment to black female playwrights,

8 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration a commitment that remained firm throughout his tenure as artistic director for ProArts Collective. Because To Be Young, Gifted and Black does not conform to the structure of the familiar well-made play, it challenged Vance’s directing skills, steadily increasing the confidence that allowed him to meet the challenges. Thematically, the play is significant because it affirms Hansberry’s concern for the plight of humanity in general, not just black people. Similarly, under Vance’s leadership, ProArts promoted an all-inclusive, multicultural perspective on theatre. Another memorable ProArts production in the first decade was Ntozake Shange’s for colored girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf (1975) at the Public Domain (807 Congress Avenue). Again, Vance chose an unconventional work by a black woman writer for this production during the 1996–1997 season. In for colored girls, Shange rejects the structure of the well-made play as too restrictive and creates an experimental work that does not resemble a traditional script. Shange’s immensely popular choreopoem forced Vance to expand his definition of “play.” Pearl Cleage’s Blues for an Alabama Sky (1999) was a highly successful production for ProArts. The play explores economic hardships, reproductive rights, and homosexuality in Harlem in 1930. Because reproductive rights and homosexuality were still volatile issues in the black community in the 1990s, ProArts risked offending its target audience. Directed by Vance, the cast included Cara Briggs (Ange), Curtis Polk (Sam), Alan Keith Caldwell (Leland), Maurice Moore (Guy), and Marcia Williams (Delia). Performed at the Santa Cruz Center for Culture, the production was funded in part by the City of Austin under the auspices of the Austin Arts Commission. A theatre critic for the Austin Chronicle, Mary Jane Garza, praised the “good acting, good script, and cozy venue.” The reviewer goes on to note that “even with opening night jitters and minor fumbles, this local premiere of Pearl Cleage’s powerfully written Blues . . . succeeds.” Moreover, the reviewer indicated that this “romantic comedy-drama touches on social and racial issues that are as relevant today as they were in Depression era Harlem, when the play is set.” Cara Briggs and Maurice Moore drew high praises from the reviewer for their outstanding performances. The reviewer observed that “every scene is well-crafted, well-acted, and well-lighted. Boyd Vance excels in directing his cast, and together keeps the audience on edge, waiting for the next dramatic moment.”45 Commenting on Vance’s creative use of the small performance space, the reviewer wrote: “Vance cleverly gets the maximum use of the small

Austin  ◆   8 9 venue by having actors make some entrances from the back of the space and staging some scenes in the center aisle. . . . These touches also make for a more intimate experience between audience and actors.” Furthermore, the reviewer declared, “If this show is an indication of what we can expect from Vance and ProArts, I eagerly await their next production.”46 In a press release, Vance described Blues for an Alabama Sky as “both entertaining and thought-provoking, appropriate for the entire family and a definite cultural calendar item for February, African American History Month,” suggesting his desire to make theatre an intellectually stimulating experience for his audiences. Since the early twentieth century, musicals have been a staple in the black theatre. In the 1997–1998 season, Vance directed a perennial favorite, James Weldon Johnson’s God’s Trombones (1927), based on seven folk sermons—performed June 19–28—at the Jump-Start Art Complex Theatre, 108 Blue Star, in San Antonio. The production featured Austin vocalists and musicians. The show was also presented at the historic Victory Grill in Austin. Featured musicians included organist Rita Vendrell, Sheila KingKnight, Curtis Polk, Maurice Moore, and Marla Fulgham. A reviewer for The Villager described the quality of the production as “professional.”47 The reviewer assured readers, “If you are looking for an evening at the theatre that touches your soul, embraces your spirit, and forces you to tap your feet and clap your hands, go see God’s Trombones. It’s a wonderful way to spend an evening.”48 Vance also performed in the show, playing the role of the preacher in “Go Down, Death” in the Jump-Start production. God’s Trombones demonstrates in art the dignity and beauty of African American folk culture. Moreover, it appealed to the church-going patrons who formed the core of the ProArts audience base. By sending announcements to the local black churches, Vance could attract substantial audiences. Also, the fact that many of the performers were members of the churches helped to fill the seats. The show was produced at the John Henry Faulk Theatre, 204 East 4th Street. Typically, ProArts scheduled at least one musical production each season during the first decade. The musicals represented an opportunity for ProArts to expand its audience and to increase revenues. Although musicals were fun to produce and financially rewarding, Vance recognized the importance of bringing the best of Broadway theatre to his patrons. Consequently, ProArts produced August Wilson’s Two Trains Running (1990) in June 1999 at the Santa Cruz Theatre, directed by Cassandra Knobloch.49 According to Knobloch, Vance asked her to direct

9 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Two Trains because he was already committed to direct Blues for an Alabama Sky and did not care to direct both plays.50 Working collaboratively, Knobloch accepted Vance’s invitation to direct the Wilson play and assembled a first-rate cast, including Billy Harden (Memphis), Clayton Murrell (Wolf ), and Carla Nickerson (Risa). The play evokes the changes wrought by the 1960s on the African American urban community. Critic Jeanne Claire van Ryzin reviewed the production for the Austin American-Statesman. She described the performance as a “commendable and sensitive presentation.”51 Ryzin praised Billy Harden for his acting skills, observing that he “brings enormous complexity to the role of Memphis, projecting a character who is at once cantankerous yet generous, wise but still searching.” Murrell, Moore, and Brooks are commended for their performances, also. The reviewer cited staging and technical problems as reasons for the three-hour playing time on opening night. Ryzin further observed “a play written in 1992 that takes place in 1967, Two Trains Running has plenty of relevance for the fast-growing, ever-changing Austin of 1999.”52 The local newspapers did not review ProArts productions regularly. Because the productions were frequently under-rehearsed and sets were not ready, sympathetic critics chose to avoid writing a review that would hurt the production.53 Because Vance and his actors had day jobs, it was often difficult to schedule rehearsals or supervise the construction of sets, resulting in productions that lacked his usual attention to detail. In the 1999 season, ProArts sponsored the first “Black Play Fest.” In a news release dated July 6, 1999, Vance promotes a black one-act play festival held at La Frontera, Hyde Park Theatre, July 9–11. Performances were scheduled for Friday and Saturday at 8:00 p.m. and 6:00 p.m. Sunday. Three one-act plays were presented each evening. Plays performed included One More Night with the Frogs by Jeanette Bushner; Rolling Stone by Marla Fulgham, What’s Going On by Curtis Dorsey, and Interview and Letter by Ed Glower. These one-act plays served as encouragement to local playwrights whose work was staged, provided stage experience for actors, and attracted new audience members. In 2000–2001, ProArts opened its season with a perennial favorite, A Raisin in the Sun, directed by Boyd Vance, with partial funding from the Austin Arts Commission. The cast included Ian Bernard as Travis, Para L. Jackson as Ruth, Maurice Moore as Walter, Andrena Galloway as Beneatha, and Marlah as Lena. This classic play challenges the director to keep it fresh and compelling for audiences familiar with the script. The religious

Austin  ◆   9 1 theme made it very popular with Boyd’s church-oriented patrons. The production ran from February 9 to March 4, 2001. In an interview with Michael Barnes, theatre critic for the Austin American Statesman, Vance indicated that the play had not been produced in Austin in sixteen years, and he felt it was time for a revival.54 Reflecting on why he decided to do A Raisin in the Sun, Vance said: “When I finally read the play again, it was amazing to me, that although it was written in the 1950s, the issues that affected the black people in the play—Pan-Africanism, integration, employment options, the black family structure—are very fresh today.”55 In a review entitled “ProArts Makes A Raisin in the Sun Shimmer on Stage,” Barnes wrote: “Vance clearly respected Hansberry’s script, making sure each story within the story received its full due. This led to some very slow scenes, as Vance’s actors mulled over every reaction and line, robbing the play of some natural momentum and passions.”56 However, Mary Jane Garza, theatre critic for the Austin Chronicle, expressed a different response to the pacing of the play. She wrote: “ProArts uses the revised edition of A Raisin in the Sun, which includes scenes that Hansberry added after the original production. Even though it makes for a long evening (3 hours), the play doesn’t drag; I was glued to my seat to the very end.”57 Although Barnes disliked what he perceived as the slow pace of the production, he praised ProArts for treating the play “with quiet grace. What comes through is Hansberry’s indestructible sense of humanity, pride and compassion.”58 Vance understood the importance of exposing his audiences to the universal themes that inform Hansberry’s play. In a review published in The Villager, Evelyn Martin Anderson wrote: “This version of Lorraine Hanberry’s Raisin in the Sun was community theatre at its best. I found myself totally engrossed with this play from the moment I sat down until the last character closed the stage door, signaling the end of the play.”59 After praising performances by the three leading actors, Maurice Moore, Para L. Jackson, and Marlah, Anderson indicated that, “This was a standing room only audience which was great for Boyd Vance and for community theatre in general.”60 Clearly, Hansberry’s brilliant script, Vance’s insightful directing, and the actors’ superb performances combined to make this one of ProArts’ most successful productions. Hansberry’s play resonates with black audiences, and it gives groups like ProArts a chance to showcase their artistry. Anderson also commented on audience response, noting, “This was one of the few productions I’ve attended where the audience was so in tune with the actors.”61

9 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

The Second Decade: Traditional and Experimental Plays, and New Director In the 2001–2002 season, Vance directed the ProArts production of Having Our Say: The Delany Sisters’ First 100 Years (1995) at the Santa Cruz Center for Culture. This was a particularly notable production because it is not a typical “black” play. The author, Emily Mann, is white, and the Delany sisters were black. Nevertheless, the play, based on the book of the same title by Sarah and Elizabeth Delany with Amy Hill Heath in 1993, was popular among black audiences. Adapted in 1995 by Emily Mann, Having Our Say tells a simple but powerful story of two extraordinary African American sisters who overcome great odds to achieve success in their careers during the era of Jim Crow. The Delany sisters’ incredible strength, determination, and resourcefulness resonate with black theatre audiences. As artistic director, Vance did not limit himself to scripts by African American writers. The play was an excellent choice for the ProArts target audience; it is an inspiring story of history, courage, struggle, and achievement, with themes that hold universal appeal. Having Our Say was a successful Broadway production as well as a CBS television movie. Consequently, many blacks in Austin were familiar with the Delany sisters’ story, and they were interested in seeing it on stage. Because Vance was a cultural insider, he was able to infuse a script by a white writer with the essence of blackness inherent in the black characters. Carla Nickerson and Jennifer Cumberbatch played the two sisters, Sadie and Bessie. In her review for the Villager, Evelyn Martin Anderson wrote: “That Having Our Say succeeds is due in large measure to Boyd Vance’s directing and to the phenomenal acting of Jennifer Cumberbatch and Carla Nickerson. The most striking thing is the level of transformation that occurs when you see the performers on the stage.”62 One of the most exciting productions of the 2003–2004 season was Suzan-Lori Parks’s Topdog/ Underdog (2001), winner of the Pulitzer Prize for drama in 2002. Like Having Our Say, Topdog/Underdog focuses on two African American siblings. Suzan-Lori Parks examines the lives of Lincoln and Booth, brothers in their thirties. Abandoned by their parents in their youth, the brothers learned to depend on each other for survival. With a strong emphasis on the importance of family history in the development of their identity, the play explores the brothers’ competition for women, their struggles to triumph over racism and poverty, and their penchant for

Austin  ◆   9 3 gambling. A richly allusive, avant-garde work that challenges a director’s skills, Topdog/Underdog highlights the wide range of dramatic styles and themes that attracted Vance’s attention. Michael Barnes, theatre critic for the Austin American-Statesman,63 wrote: “Director Boyd Vance doesn’t miss a beat coaching Maurice Moore and Mark Banks as the rival brothers. Pacing a stage the size of a modern bathroom, the actors credibly synthesize not only streetwise mannerisms and rhythms, but also the subtle interplay of domination and submission.”64 The reference to the small stage suggests one of the challenges that Vance faced as a director. However, Barnes criticized the ending: “Blame it on the script or on the production, but the final, admittedly predictable action of the play did not seem sufficiently motivated on Saturday. Otherwise, ProArts has forged Topdog into the company’s most cogent production to date.”65 Since the ending of Topdog/Underdog is generally viewed as problematic, the weaknesses that Barnes noted in the ProArts productions may be due to flaws in the script. Vance is to be commended for undertaking the staging of a play that is both technically and intellectually challenging. During the 2003–2004 season, Vance also directed a perennial Christmas musical, Langston Hughes’s Black Nativity, at the Hyde Park Theatre. The musical retells the familiar nativity story with a black cast, featuring traditional Christmas carols and other songs presented in the style of contemporary black gospel music. The annual Black Nativity production was a highlight of the season, drawing an enthusiastic audience of church folks who came to support their favorite gospel singers. Although the production was usually a box office success for ProArts, Vance rarely focused on that aspect of the show, even though the company was frequently short of funds.66 Vance was much more concerned about the total experience of the show, especially that of the actors and staff. He wanted everyone involved to have a positive experience. The production often featured actors representing a broad range of skills, from novices to veterans. Vance was committed to giving “artists at every level of development an opportunity to perform.”67 Black Nativity was one of Vance’s favorite shows; it fulfilled his “desire to interact with the audience whenever possible. He saw the stage as an extension of life.”68 He enjoyed singing gospel music because it allowed him to interact with the audience. Some of the more memorable vocal performances from Black Nativity included Janice Jeans’s rendition of “Who Would Imagine a King” and Sheila Knight King’s version of Tramaine Hawkins’s “Change,” which

9 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration always brought down the house. Atwell Tinnon’s rendition of “The Lord’s Prayer” set the house on fire. Curtis Polk and Jennifer Cumberbach gave memorable performances. Vance’s longtime friend, musician Billy Harden, assisted with the keyboards.69 Unfortunately, local theatre critics rarely reviewed productions of Black Nativity. In 2004–2005, his final season with ProArts, Vance directed Anna Deavere Smith’s Twilight: Los Angeles (1992) at the State Theatre, with Lisa Byrd as associate producer. Like many other plays that Vance directed for ProArts, Twilight appeals to Vance’s strong sense of history and fulfills his desire to enlighten and entertain his audience. Twilight is not a play in the traditional sense, but it consists of a series of monologues focusing on the aftermath of the Rodney King beating that precipitated social disorder in Los Angeles in 1991. The cast included Carla Nickerson, Mark Banks, Jude Hickey, Margaret Hoard, Joey Hood, Gina Houston, Curtis Polk, Elizabeth Scott, and Hans Venable. As a testament to his versatility as a director, Vance moved easily from a nontraditional script like Twilight to Charles Fuller’s A Soldier’s Play, a traditional work produced in collaboration with Huston-Tillotson College. ProArts also presented the popular Crowns (2004), a play with music and dance. Sometimes classified as a gospel musical, Crowns is a comingof-age narrative focusing on seventeen-year-old Yolanda, who is sent from Chicago to the South to live with her grandmother. Told using a mixture of hip hop and spoken-word song and dance, the play celebrates the sisterhood of black women who share their testimonies of struggle and survival with Yolanda. Playwright Regina Taylor adapted Crowns from the book of the same title by Michael Cunningham and Craig Marberry. Structured around a series of stories that foreground the African American oral tradition, Crowns highlights black women’s love of church hats, while relating the story of a young black woman searching for her identity and place within the black community. This musical appealed to black church women, ProArts’ most dedicated supporters.

Lisa Byrd—A New Vision for ProArts Collective Finding someone to replace Vance as artistic director of ProArts was a difficult task because he brought so many skills and talents and so much enthusiasm to the job. Fortunately, Lisa Byrd, one of Vance’s close friends and former board member, was available and willing to take on the challenge. A native of Philadelphia, Byrd brought over twenty years of experience

Austin  ◆   9 5 in arts administration to her work at ProArts. She was eminently qualified to lead ProArts in the absence of its charismatic founder and artistic director. Her expertise included “developing programming, coordinating theatrical events and managing all aspects of the performing and media arts.”70 Whereas Vance’s official title was artistic director, he also acted as executive director/business manager for ProArts. Byrd had worked closely with Vance for several years, gaining the experience that prepared her to step into the void created by Vance’s untimely death. Byrd was named executive director for ProArts and the African American Arts Technical Resource Center, and Stephen Gerald of the University of Texas Department of Theatre and Dance was recruited to serve as the new artistic director. Having worked with Vance over the years, Gerald was familiar with the ProArts mission and philosophy. Lisa Byrd brought impressive credentials to the job. She earned a bachelor’s degree in philosophy from Lock Haven State University in Lock Haven, Pennsylvania, and a certificate in audio engineering from the State University of New York-Fredonia. She was the audio supervisor for the University of Texas Performing Arts Center, and she holds a master’s degree in theatre and public administration from Texas State University. Prior to accepting the position with ProArts, Byrd served as production director at Ballet Austin.

Lisa Byrd, executive director, ProArts Collective (2005–2012). Photo courtesy of Lisa Byrd.

9 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Although ProArts achieved many notable successes in a variety of areas under the leadership of Boyd Vance, Byrd articulated a bold new vision for the organization. Whereas Vance was deeply committed to community art with an emphasis on nonprofessional performers, Byrd endeavored to move ProArts toward a higher level of professionalism by attracting trained actors, directors, and technical staff. To that end she established a collaborative relationship with St. Edwards University and Austin Community College “to access more of the actors and dancers for whom theatre is their profession.”71 In 2006, Byrd established Black Arts Movement, BAM for short, an annual festival of the arts. Festival organizers bring in national touring acts to work with local artists, thereby providing professional development opportunities for local artists. In 2008 actor and director Charles S. Dutton was the festival’s national artist. He performed his autobiographical solo show, From Jail to Yale: Serving Time on Stage (2011). Festival activities involve dance, theatre, music, visual arts, and other arts that are held at venues throughout the city. An indication of Byrd’s new vision for ProArts is evident in the outstanding plays produced in the 2008–2009 season. ProArts’ second decade was also marked by the appointment of a new artistic director, ushering in the post–Boyd Vance period. For the first time in its history, the organization’s managerial and artistic duties were in separate hands, with Lisa Byrd as executive director handling the day-to-day business and Stephen Gerald serving as artistic director. Gerald directed two exciting plays for ProArts, Wole Soyinka’s Death and the King’s Horseman (1975) and Antoinette Winstead’s Common Ground (2007), in its 2008– 2009 season. Continuing the collaborative model that was a hallmark of Vance’s tenure at ProArts, Byrd and Gerald partnered with St. Edwards University’s Mary Moody Northen Theatre on the production of Soyinka’s play. Professional, university-trained actors, rather than amateurs drawn from the community, filled the leading roles. Soyinka’s play presents many challenges (African dance, costumes, singing, and language) for actors, director, and technical staff. However, the ProArts/St. Ed’s production was absolutely first rate. A reviewer writing for the Austin American-Statesman called the production a “galloping success” and went on to describe it as a “potent, captivating rendition of a Twentieth Century theatre classic.”72 Avimaan Syam, arts reviewer for the Austin Chronicle, wrote: “In this production at St. Edward’s University, Marc Pouhé as Elesin and Richard

Austin  ◆   9 7 Romeo as the Praise Singer deserve recognition for both embracing and delivering Horseman’s wonderful poetry. Director Stephen Gerald creates many dynamic images onstage, and the high energy that the play demands never flags.”73 The costumes, dance, and pace of the action were remarkable. The ProArts/St. Ed’s production of Death and the King’s Horseman received the 2007–2008 Austin Critics’ Table Award in the drama category. Performed in the Boyd Vance Theatre at the George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center, Winstead’s Common Ground focuses on a dysfunctional African American family. Two brothers compete for the affections of the same woman. The theatre critic writing for Austin360 asserted that “ProArts Collective finds moments of full-force emotion and sentiment that are unmistakably powerful.”74 The cast included Aaron Alexander (Luk), LeVan Owens (Jame), Robbie Ann Darby (Sara Beth), Selma Pinkard (Miss Ruth), and Feliz McDonald (Rosa). Stephen Gerald’s directing was insightful. He helped the actors bring Winstead’s script to life, exposing the conflict and emotion, drawing the audience into the play.

Death and the King’s Horseman (2008). (Left to right) Marc Pouhé and Patricia Robinson. Photo by Stephen Pruitt.

9 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Death and the King’s Horseman (2008). (Down center) Marc Pouhé. (Up, left to right) C. J. Thomas, Carla Nickerson, and Brandon Edwards. Photo by Stephen Pruitt.

Community Outreach through the Arts Other events and programs that ProArts supported in the 1998–1999 season included the Third Annual African American Festival of Dance, a Jazz Workshop with Ron Brown, the MLK Essay Contest, the St. James Jazz Festival, and the low-rider car-building workshop. In the 1999–2000 season, ProArts opened with a production of George C. Wolfe’s classic, The Colored Museum. The production ran from February 19 to March 6, 1999, at the Santa Cruz Center for Culture on 1805 East 7th Street. The cast included Carla Nickerson, Andrena Holloway, Para Jackson, Maurice Moore, and Curtis Polk, and was directed by Vance. Jamie Cantara reviewed the production for the Austin American-Statesman:75 “Although the current production by ProArts, directed by Boyd Vance, needs another solid week of rehearsal to get up to speed, it is amazing how the humor and messages in this play remain potent.” The reviewer noted that “The pared-down show features five actors who each have at least one gracious turn.” The reviewer suggested, “Curtis Polk, who al-

G. W. Carver Museum and Cultural Center, home of the Boyd Vance Theatre. Photo by Chauncey Wiley.

Common Ground (2009). (Left to right) Selma Pinkard, Robbie Ann Darby. Photo by Michael Meigs.

1 0 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration ways has a mesmerizing presence on stage, plays the uptown man trying to throw away the past and only be black on weekends and holidays.”76 In a review by Evelyn Martin Anderson that appeared in The Villager, the reviewer indicated, “The ensemble cast does a wonderful job of conveying a wide range of emotions. Boyd Vance has done an excellent job of directing a play that has become an American Classic.”77 To boost attendance, ProArts offered half-price tickets to the special Sunday opening weekend matinee of Colored Museum to members of Vance’s church, St. James Episcopal Church. Other activities included staging of “Our New Day Begun” and “Colors of America.” However, no programs or documentation for these plays has been found. ProArts also hosted the second Annual Soulful Christmas Bazaar and the Fifth Annual African American Festival of Dance. In addition to the stage productions developed for the 1998–1999 season, ProArts was involved in a variety of community-outreach programs. The Martin Luther King Project included an elementary school essay contest, a march against poverty, and a youth rally and commemorative ceremony celebrating the life of King. Also, in conjunction with the public education department of the Austin Fire Department, ProArts cowrote the Fire Safety Comedy Hour, a show featuring video, humorous skits and presentations, and participatory theatre for middle-school students. This program reached approximately five thousand students annually.78 ProArts was involved with the HIV/AIDS Health Education Program coordinated by the HIV/AIDS Task Force of the Austin Diocese. ProArts company members performed Doug Holshaw’s Get Real, Too, an exciting performance and discussion targeting children in pre-kindergarten through fourth grade. Two rappers who have trouble with their “flow” or rhyme and need some help from the audience to present HIV/AIDS information/education present the highly interactive play.79 Another community-oriented ProArts initiative was the Music Appreciation Program. In conjunction with the Heralds and Minstrels Chamber Music ensemble, ProArts presented an hour-long show for young audiences filled with music and rhyme. Performers were Cindy Woods and Boyd Vance. The program was presented at Brooke, Blackshear, Harris, Sims, St. Elmo, Metz, and T. A. Brown schools. ProArts was a partner in the Historic African American/Hispanic Austinite Mural Project. In collaboration with Austin-area visual artists, Austin public school art students, and the Austin History Center, ProArts coordinated the construction of ten murals

Austin  ◆   1 0 1 recognizing Austinites who are namesakes for area schools. Visual art as a forum for creating and learning about history and educating the community at-large was the goal of the project.80 African American History Month was an important event for ProArts during Vance’s tenure as artistic director. For more than fifteen years, ProArts presented a series of programs for young audiences focusing on the contributions and heritage of African Americans. The fifty-minute interactive program featured skits about African American composers, other musicians, scientists, the sixties Civil Rights Movement of African Americans in dance, and a piece on the history of rock and roll. The program included interactive games and dances to highlight the contributions of African Americans. Lynn Koenning, a pianist, assisted Vance with the annual Black History Month programs presented in the elementary and middle schools. Vance always booked as many schools for the February programs as possible. On some days, Vance and Koenning performed their show in three schools. They never rehearsed before presenting the programs; because they presented basically the same program each year, a quick on-site review of the order of the program was all they needed to get ready for the show. Prior to Koenning’s last Black History Month program with Vance, she wondered: “Why does Vance do this? . . . It was the day before spring break and the students were bouncing off the walls.”81 She discovered the answer to her question as she watched him end his show for the final time— singing “Ain’t No Mountain High Enough.” Koenning marveled at how he captured the enthusiasm of eight hundred kids from various ethnic backgrounds in a cafeteria or auditorium, with their hands in the air, swaying and singing “Ain’t No Mountain High Enough.” “As he closed the show, he would have the students make a little aisle for him so he could walk down among them. He would walk down that aisle of children, and he was like a rock star to them. They would hold their hands out. They wanted to touch him and shake his hand; they just loved him so much. Then I thought: ‘This is why he does it!’ I thought of all the children over the years whose lives he touched.”82 Clearly, Vance had a special gift for reaching out to both children and adults. His years of performing in Zachary Scott Theatre’s children’s theatre, InterAct, allowed him to perfect his skills in children’s theatre. Under Vance’s direction, ProArts provided many arts-related experiences to diverse audiences, from preschool children to adults. Vance emphasized education as well as entertainment, touching on topics rang-

1 0 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration ing from HIV/AIDS education to fire safety. He produced a remarkable variety of arts programs that enriched the Austin community.

Perseverance and Survival For more than twelve years, Boyd Vance faced seemingly insurmountable challenges as he struggled to keep ProArts viable. ProArts never enjoyed the support of corporate donors; there were no galas attracting affluent supporters, no capital campaigns to raise much-needed funds for the theatre. Consequently, Vance dealt with obstacles posed by inadequate financial support, lack of paid staff, and lack of a permanent performance space. Indeed, Vance found it difficult to maintain office space and rehearsal space for his theatre company. He moved frequently, sometimes sharing space with other organizations. The precarious financial status of ProArts during most of Vance’s tenure is illustrated in the following recollection reported by Vance’s friend Billy Harden, a professional actor who performed in many ProArts productions. When it was time to pay the cast, Vance told Harden: “Billy, I know you don’t need yours right now. I’m gonna go ahead and pay everybody. I’ll get you yours. You know you can wait.”83 Because Harden, like other members of the company, worked a full-time job, he did not depend on his actor’s salary. Therefore, Vance could pay the less financially stable cast members first, while those with good jobs waited until money to pay them became available. Of course, Vance himself maintained a “day job,” since ProArts could not pay him a salary. He lived with a constant cash flow problem. Because money was so limited, Vance had to be creative and resourceful to survive. For example, he maintained an arrangement with a thrift store owner who provided costumes for free. He would send cast members to the thrift store to pick out clothing for the show. To get furniture for his sets, Vance borrowed items from friends’ homes or apartments, or he would arrange to get furniture from a rental company in exchange for an ad in the program. Other expenses (e.g., theatre rental) were paid from ticket/ box office receipts. When box office receipts did not cover expenses, Vance would call one of his more affluent patrons and request a donation.84 Yet, Vance remained undaunted by the financial difficulties that he encountered almost daily. He surrounded himself with enthusiastic volunteers who handled staff duties, and enjoyed a good relationship with theatre managers who al-

Austin  ◆   1 0 3 lowed him to schedule productions on their stages. The need to rent a performance space made it difficult for ProArts to establish an identity in the east Austin community. Despite these challenges, Vance persevered, determined to make theatre available to audiences in east Austin and beyond. Unfortunately, Lisa Byrd resigned from her post as executive director at ProArts in 2012, leaving the theatre’s future uncertain. Michael D. Bryant, president of the ProArts board of directors, is working to keep ProArts alive while he searches for a new executive director and an artistic director. At this writing, ProArts is no longer functioning as a theatre.

Conclusion Progressive Arts Collective was a model of collaboration in the Austin arts community. Cofounder and artistic director Boyd Vance found strength and sustenance in forging partnerships with other theatre professionals, academic institutions, churches, commercial theatres, and libraries. For nearly two decades, ProArts provided an artistic outlet, a theatrical oasis for black actors and technical staff as well as good theatre for a historically underserved community. Under Vance’s leadership, ProArts staged classic works from the African American theatrical canon, showcased innovative, experimental plays by women writers, and explored controversial topics, making it a truly progressive theatre company. In the spirit of his signature song, “Ain’t No Mountain High Enough,” Vance forged ahead, climbing and conquering any mountains that threatened to derail his artistic vision. Because failure was not an option for Vance, ProArts inspired and empowered African American performers and technical staff to develop and refine their artistic skills and gifts. Due to Vance’s love of performing for children, ProArts maintained a strong children’s theatre program whose productions were as fulfilling for him as they were for the children. At some level, Vance was associated with each of the black theatres in Austin that preceded or operated concurrently with Progressive Arts Collective. Those associations provided invaluable insights into the world of black theatre. Familiarity with the earlier theatre groups enabled Vance to avoid some of the pitfalls that caused them to fail. Under his management, Progressive Arts Collective emphasized the value of community-wide collaboration in the arts, forging links with a diverse array of individuals and groups, both professional and amateur.

1 0 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Theatre Productions by Season and Year of Production Dates at the end of each play are when the play was produced by the theatre. ProArts Collective

1992 A Tribute to Nat King Cole (1992) A Soldier’s Play by Charles Fuller (1992) Merry Christmas, Baby, revue conceived by Boyd Vance (1992) 1993–1994 Merry Christmas, Baby, revue conceived by Boyd Vance (1993) 1994–1995 To Be Young, Gifted and Black by Lorraine Hansberry (1994) She Flies by Mike D. Garcia (1994) 1995–1996 No theatre activity 1996–1997 A Love Song for Miss Lydia by Don Evans (1996) Merry Christmas, Baby, revue conceived by Boyd Vance (1996) for colored girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf by Ntozake Shange (1997) The African Theatre Company Presents Richard III by Carlyle Brown (1997) 1997–1998 God’s Trombones by James Weldon Johnson (1998) 1998–1999 Blues for an Alabama Sky by Pearl Cleage (1999) Two Trains Running by August Wilson (1999) God’s Trombones by James Weldon Johnson (1999) A Soldier’s Play by Charles Fuller (1999) 1999–2000 Colors of America (1999) The Colored Museum by George C. Wolfe (2000) 2000–2001 The (Bad) Boy Next Door by Tony Valenzuela (2000) A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry (2001) The Amen Corner by James Baldwin (2001) 2001–2002 Having Our Say: The Delany Sisters’ First 100 Years by Emily Mann (2001)

Austin  ◆   1 0 5 Driving Miss Daisy by Alfred Uhry (2002) Why Do Black Divas Die So Soon? by Vincent Woodard (2002) Master Harold and the Boys by Athol Fugard (2002) 2002–2003 Blood on My Name, War in My Veins by Vincent Woodard (2002) Hospice and Late Bus to Mecca by Pearl Cleage (2002) for colored girls . . . by Ntozake Shange (2002) Jitney by August Wilson (2003) 2003–2004 A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry (2003) Black Nativity by Langston Hughes (2003) Topdog/Underdog by Suzan-Lori Parks (2004) 2004–2005 A Soldier’s Play by Charles Fuller (2004) Black Nativity by Langston Hughes (2004) Twilight: Los Angeles by Anna Deavere Smith (2005) King Hedley II by August Wilson (2005) 2005–2006 Black Nativity by Langston Hughes (2005) Kissing the Goodbye by Zell Miller III (2006) 2006-2007 Funnyhouse of a Negro by Adrienne Kennedy (2007) Neat by Charlayne Woodard (2007) 2007–2008 Death and the King’s Horseman by Wole Soyinka (2008) Robert Johnson: Trick the Devil by Bill Harris (2008) 2008–2009 Common Ground by Antoinette Winstead (2009) 2009–2010 No theatre activity 2010–2011 Ti Jean and His Brothers (In conjunction with Austin Community College) 2011–2012 No theatre activity 2012–2013 No theatre activity

4 ◆ Dallas engaging the community

The Janus Players (1969–1974) Dallas Minority Repertory Theatre (1973–1979) Dallas Drama Company (1985–1995) Vivid Theatre Ensemble (1990–c1996) Soul Nation (1995–1996) Soul Repertory Theatre (1995–2004) Blacken Blues Theatre of African American Life (1998–present) Ebony Emeralds Classic Theatre Company (2006–2008) African American Repertory Theatre (2008–present) The Black Academy of Arts and Letters (1977–present) When Israel was in Egypt’s land: let my people go, Oppress’d so hard they could not stand, let my people go. Go down, Moses, Way down in Egypt’s land, Tell old Pharaoh, Let my people go. Go Down Moses, author unknown

African American Texans have found Dallas a thriving place for theatre. The impulse to organize contemporary theatre companies there goes back as far as the 1950s, with groups developing and disbanding over the years. After a review of blacks in Dallas, this chapter surveys ten black theatre organizations. The Black Academy of Arts and Letters (TBAAL), featured in this chapter, has the longest record, with over thirty years of producing black plays in the Dallas area, but it was not the first. The narrative focuses on beginnings, founders, and key productions. The more detailed coverage of TBAAL also reveals its humble beginning, numerous moves, production styles, community outreach, collaborations, and arts advocacy.

Blacks in Dallas In 2010, according to the US Census, the city of Dallas was the home of 1,197,816 people, with blacks numbering 299,454, about 25 percent of the

Dallas  ◆   1 0 7 population. Dallas’s five-county metropolitan area, which includes Collin, Dallas, Denton, Kaufman, and Rockwall Counties in northeastern Texas, possessed a total of 3,994,781 residents. Of these counties, Dallas County had the highest black population, with 532,831 black residents.1 The black community in Dallas began its formation after the Civil War with the migration of free blacks seeking work in the train yards. By the 1950s, most blacks lived in south Dallas and parts of Oak Cliff. Most whites moved away from the Oak Cliff area after civil rights legislation outlawed segregation. Though the civil rights era brought greater freedoms, this watershed period also led to changes in black neighborhoods (e.g., the black middle class spreading out across the metropolitan area) that led to decline during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. With greater educational opportunities came an increase in black home ownership. The early communities with concentrations of blacks were Bear Creek (Irving), Freedman’s Town/ Tenth Street Historic District (Oak Cliff), Freedman’s Town (North Dallas), and Deep Ellum (Elm Street, just east of the Houston and Texas Central tracks near the depot). As the black population increased, many more black communities emerged—more than thirty have been documented in early Dallas.2 With this growth came black newspapers, black radio stations, and numerous black organizations, churches, and historically black schools. Newspapers and radio stations have kept that black community informed about many significant areas of black life, including politics, church news, sporting events, and other entertainment, including of course black theatre. Theatre goers often heard about upcoming events from their culture-specific news sources in print and on the radio. The black newspapers in the Dallas metroplex have included the Dallas Weekly, North Dallas Gazette, Elite News, DFW Church and Community News, Dallas South News, Garland Journal, and the Dallas Examiner. The Dallas black radio stations that culturally bind the community and support artistic ventures are 94.5 KSoul, adult urban and old school music; 97.9 The Beat, the hip hop station; K104 FM, representing hip hop and rhythm and blues; Smooth R&B 105.7, new rhythm and blues; and Heaven 97—KHVN, AM—contemporary gospel.3 Dallas has a proud history of strong black political leadership and community activism. In the 1920s a group of local black leaders created the Independent Voter’s League, which served to promote “work for street lights, better schools, and other local issues.”4 The league profited in 1937 by “pro-

1 0 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration viding the margin of victory” in an extremely close city election.5 Moreover, several blacks in Dallas and neighboring cities led protests at local restaurants, parks, and golf courses after a 1948 poll indicated 66 percent of white Texans opposed equal opportunities for blacks, in contrast to 98 percent of blacks desiring equality.6 To combat these social and economic disparities, national organizations such as SNCC organized boycotts from local Dallas white-owned supermarkets. Also, job and vocational training programs were established in the city, such as the Opportunities Industrialization Center, which later expanded to other Texas cities in the early 1970s. In 1995, Dallas became the first major city in Texas to elect a black mayor, Ron Kirk. In 2011, Dallas had four black council members, Vonciel Hill, Carolyn Davis (District 7), Dwaine Caraway (District 4), and Tennel Atkins (District 8). Atkins has served as deputy mayor pro tem for Mike Rawlings. The city also had a black police chief, David Brown, and a black fire and rescue chief, Louis Bright III. Of the five assistant city managers, one, Forest Turner, was black.7 Moreover, as of 2013, blacks had held eighteen Texas state representative positions, and six blacks had managed districts located in Dallas.8 A great respect for black history and the preservation of black culture in Dallas can be found with organizations like the African American Museum, National Cowboys of Color Museum, Dallas Black Dance Theatre, Texas Black Film Festival, Tulisoma South Dallas Book Festival, MLK Celebration Dallas, and Kwanzaa Fest. Black Dallas professional organizations have included the Dallas-Fort Worth Black MBAs and the Dallas Metroplex Council of Black Alumni Associations. Black civic-related organizations are a testimony to vigorous black community activities; among these have been the Black Police Association, Dallas Black Fire Fighters Association, Dallas NAACP, and the Dallas Urban League. Dallas is a city with four black branches of the chamber of commerce. The church audience is a significant target audience for the theatre in the Dallas metroplex. With over one hundred black churches, the Dallas community also supports four black megachurches (with over one thousand members each), including the Potter’s House with the celebrated Bishop T. D. Jakes as pastor, described as a global humanitarian organization with thirty thousand members spread over four locations.9 Dallas has four historically black schools, including colleges and public schools. Initially founded in Austin, Paul Quinn College is a historically black private institution hosting four black fraternities and four black

Dallas  ◆   1 0 9 sororities.10 Dallas universities with significant black populations include the University of Texas–Dallas and the University of North Texas, with black prevalence of 6 percent and 10 percent, respectively.11 A robust and progressive black community in the Dallas metroplex has promoted prolific and quality work in the arts. Political activism, community involvement, culturally enriched educational institutions, vigorous spirituality, and an interest in remembering and preserving the black community’s history have all fueled and inspired black theatre in the area.

Early Black Theatre Activity in Dallas One of the earliest known African American actors in the Dallas area was William McGhee (1930–2007). McGhee broke racial barriers in the 1950s by performing professionally on the Dallas stage in roles that were not racially specific; this was an early example of nontraditional casting. His first roles were with the Round-up Theatre, Courtyard Theatre, and Theatre Three, all in Dallas. As one of the first unionized African American actors in Dallas with SAG (Screen Writers Guild) and AFTRA (American Federation of Television and Radio Artists), McGhee performed in more than thirty-five theatre productions and fifteen films.12

The Janus Players McGhee was a member of the Janus Players of the Dallas Theater Center. They were organized in 1969 to provide more opportunities for African American and Latino actors. The company was active from the 1969–1970 season until the 1973–1974 season. Reginald Montgomery, actor and director, was instrumental in establishing the Janus Players. The group presented a variety of African American and Latino works in its first three years. In their final year, the Janus Players produced Polish playwright Slawomir Mrozek’s Enchanted Night and Charlie. The African American plays produced were Shades of Black and Brown, an original musical by the Janus Players, Ceremonies in Dark Old Men by Lonne Elder III, and Day of Absence by Douglas Turner Ward.

Dallas Minority Repertory Theatre Reginald Montgomery moved on as a cofounder of the Dallas Minority Repertory Theatre (DMRT), a multiracial group, with Irma P. Hall in 1973.

1 1 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration DMRT initiated productions in 1973 and continued to produce through 1979. When they began in 1973, playwright Beth Henley, now known for the award-winning play Crimes in the Heart (1978), was a member of the company. DMRT’s first productions were We Are Ready and Douglas Turner Ward’s Happy Ending (1965) in 1973 at the Warren Methodist Church. In 1974 they produced Montgomery’s When the Last One Calls (1973), directed by Charles Jones. In 1974 they produced Hall’s From Exploitation to Excellence, a one-act historical play that depicts the achievement of blacks in Dallas. It was presented at the South Dallas Business and Professional Women’s Trail Blazer Award luncheon. The repertoire of DMRT in 1974 also included J. E. Franklin’s Black Girl (1969) and Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun (1958). At this point in their early history they had already shown with their choice of productions that they were interested in comedy (Happy Ending), women’s issues (Black Girl), and black history (From Exploitation to Excellence). In addition, they demonstrated an interest in promoting plays by local playwrights, as well as in showcasing the work of the best-known black playwrights in the country with A Raisin in the Sun and later Purlie. They coproduced the musical Purlie (1970) in 1975 with Theatre Three for a six-week run. Charles Richter served as the guest director, and the production featured Coy Anderson as Purlie, Leslie Lee as Lutiebelle, Irma P. Hall as Missy, Naomi Bruton as Idella, Richard Watts as Gitlow, Ray Le Pere as Cap’n Cotchipee, and Steve Tobolowsky as Ol’ Cap’n’s son Charlie. Joe Pouncy gave them a favorable review in the Dallas Morning News on May 5, 1975, with the headline, “Rep Theatre Makes Mark.” The versatility of the company was demonstrated by the variety of offerings, from serious to comic and from drama to musicals, in the next few years. From 1975 through 1979 DMRT produced Irma P. Hall’s Gentle Fires (1975), William Hanley’s Slow Dance on the Killing Ground (1964), an evening of one-acts entitled The City and the South (1976), South African playwright Athol Fugard’s Blood Knot (1961) and Boesman and Lena (1969), and Ted Shine’s Morning, Noon, and Night (1964). They also showcased their talent with the entertaining social protest musical by Micki Grant, Don’t Bother Me, I Can’t Cope (1971). With Judi Ann Mason’s A Star Ain’t Nothing but a Hole in Heaven (1977), DMRT accepted the challenge of a poignant and funny piece of black Americana focused on a young black woman torn between her country roots and support for her ailing relatives and moving forward to take advantage of the opportunities opened to her by the Civil Rights Movement.

Dallas  ◆   1 1 1 One of the founders of the DMRT, Irma P. Hall, has a long history of performance on the stage, as well as in television and films. Her work with DMRT brought her to the attention of film and stage directors around the country. Hall was a natural for casting as a middle-aged, strong authority figure. Her film and television career, which includes more than one hundred appearances, began in 1973 with Book of Numbers. Acting recognitions for Hall include Best Actress in a Musical/Comedy for The Ladykillers in 2005 and a nomination for the best supporting actress in the mini-series/ television movie A Lesson Before Dying in 2000. One of her best-known roles is Big Mama Joseph in the film Soul Food (2000)—both the film and the television spin-off series. In addition to her stage performances with the Dallas Minority Repertory Theatre over the last thirty-five years, she has appeared on established regional theatre stages—the Goodman Theatre in Chicago, Syracuse Stage in Syracuse, New York, the Cleveland Playhouse, San Diego Repertory Theatre, and Second Stage Theatre in New York City.13

Dallas Drama Company The Dallas Drama Company, founded by playwright diannetucker (Dianne Tucker) in 1985, offered plays to the Dallas area until 1995. Tucker wrote many of their plays, including Hershey with Almonds (1992) and Daddy’s Maybe (1994). Playwriting for the Dallas Drama Company became Tucker’s focus for most of its ten-year history. She notes: When we formed Dallas Drama I was a human resources manager in a corporate setting. I worked with multi-hi-tech corporations like HewlettPackard and Levi-Strauss. Other than HR manager, I had never done any other kind of work. After the Dallas Drama Company got up and going and the non-profit started to do reasonably well we kept thinking we would find a permanent home and things would work themselves out so I left the corporate environment entirely. I continued to do things like workshops, seminars, free-lance contract consulting, but I didn’t return to it full-time. And then after Dallas Drama closed, I went back into computer tech for a few years, still in HR.14

The Dallas Drama Company debuted with Shoes by Tucker at The Black Academy of Arts and Letters in the Naomi Bruton Theatre, which seats 1,750 people. Tucker was surprised by the large audience for the event. One of the most memorable productions, notes Tucker, was her play Cat Crossing, produced in 1990. In addition to her plays, she produced works by oth-

1 1 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration er playwrights, including Tisha Crear’s Just a Little Black Girl.15 One of the Dallas Drama Company’s actors, Evette Perry-Glass, received a nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Actor at the 1994 Dallas Theater Critics Forum Awards for her work in Ce-sha Walters’ The Ineffable Pale Eclipse. A few years after establishing the Dallas Drama Company, Tucker successfully applied for 501c3 nonprofit status. She recruited veteran and novice actors, including playwright/actor/director Guinea Bennett-Price and playwright/actor/director Anyika McMillan-Herod—both academically trained, experienced artists. The challenge to find performance venues was one of the main reasons Tucker discontinued the company after ten years. She went on to a productive relationship with Jubilee Theatre in Fort Worth, where Rudy Eastman produced seven of her plays.16

Vivid Theatre Ensemble and the Ebony Emeralds Classic Theatre Company Akin Babatunde was the founder and artistic director of two theatre companies in Dallas: the Vivid Theatre Ensemble (1990–c. 1996) and the Ebony Emeralds Classic Theatre Company (2006–2008). With cofounder Christopher Long, the Vivid Theatre Ensemble produced Toast in 1991 and Of Guns, Ropes and Lies and Reveal in 1992. With a base at 1409 Lamar Street in Dallas, Babatunde produced and directed four of his plays for Ebony Emeralds Classic Theatre Company: Shakespeare . . . Midnight Echoes (2003) in 2006; Blind Lemon: Prince of Country Blues (2007) in 2007 (with Alan Govenar); and Of Ebony Embers: Vignettes of the Harlem Renaissance and Songs in the Key of Glee (1998) in 2008.17 Babatunde’s long career in the theatre began as early as high school, but he moved forward professionally with acting in the 1970s. He performed with well-known theatres such as Providence, Rhode Island’s Trinity Repertory Company, the Alley Theatre in Houston, Florida Stage, the Dallas Theater Center, La MaMa E.T.C. in New York, and The Black Academy of Arts and Letters in Dallas. He spent eight years as an artist-in-residence at Brown University. He starred in several solo pieces, including Of Ebony Embers (1998), based on the Harlem Renaissance, which he toured nationwide and in the Caribbean, and Louis Armstrong: Before the Second Set: A Visit with Satchmo (1997). His first one-man show, Zig-Zag (1985), a series of monologues from Shakespearean classics, including The Merchant of Venice and King Lear, played in Berlin in 1985.

Dallas  ◆   1 1 3

Soul Nation and Soul Repertory Theatre In 1995, Tisha Crear organized Soul Nation. The company produced between 1995 and 1996. Their repertoire included Love Awaits in 1995 and New Voices ’96: Simply Black in 1996 (part of a five-play festival). The Soul Repertory Theatre evolved from Soul Nation in 1995. Tonya Holloway, Guinea Bennett-Price, and Anyika McMillan-Herod established the company with Keith Price as their artistic director. They mounted their shows at the African American Museum (formerly African American Museum of Life and Culture). From 1995 to 2004 their repertoire included Endesha Ida Mae Holland’s From the Mississippi Delta in 2000, George Wolfe’s adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston’s short stories in Spunk and Ossie Davis’s Purlie Victorious in 2001, Pearl Cleage’s Blues for an Alabama Sky in 2003, and Charles Fuller’s A Soldier’s Play in 2004—all highly regarded works in the African American theatre canon. With these theatre pieces they chronicled and celebrated the heartbreaking, gritty, beautiful, ugly, and humorous experiences in black life. The choice of Wolfe’s Spunk shows the company’s willingness to address poignant stories of love, money, and survival in the form of narration, dramatization, puppetry, dance, and musical interludes.

Blacken Blues Theatre of African American Life Blacken Blues Theatre of African American Life, founded by Willie Holmes in 1998, remains active. Holmes is a political science professor as well as a playwright with a master’s degree from Ohio State University. The company’s mission is “to share the rich culture of African American life and promote racial tolerance through education and understanding.”18 Holmes produced many of his own works, including The Corporate Plantation (1999), The Wounded (1999), Rhaka’s Redemption (2000), Daddy’s Girl (2001), Eve’s Garden (2003), Suspects in America (2003), and A Heaven for a Gee (2006). An example of a poignant drama produced by Holmes that was not his own was Romulus Linney’s A Lesson Before Dying (2000), based on the novel by Ernest J. Gaines, in 2006.19 This moving drama gave Holmes the opportunity to share a disturbing and heartrending story of a young black male who is caught up in a crime that causes him and the blacks around him to struggle to understand tough realities of living black in the pre-integration South. The company has received regular positive reviews by staff writer Tom Sime of the Dallas Morning News. The performance

1 1 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration venues have included the South Dallas Cultural Center, African American Museum, Tenth Street Playhouse, and the Trinity River Arts Center.

African American Repertory Theatre After working away from Dallas for many years, Irma P. Hall, one of the founders of the DMRT, returned with the intent to retire. However, the lure of the stage was still appealing, and she was cast in a 2008 Dallas production of Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun, directed by William Earl Ray. The work was so fulfilling that, along with Vince McGill and Regina Washington, she started the African American Repertory Theatre (AART) in 2008 to serve as the house company for DeSoto’s Corner Theatre. Their first production was Fuller’s highly popular and award-winning A Soldier’s Play (1984). Some of the other work produced by the company in 2008 included Charlayne Woodard’s autobiographical one-woman show Neat (1997), Pearl Cleage’s Flyin’ West (1992), Jeff Stetson’s The Meeting (1990), and Sandra Fenichel Asher’s A Woman Called Truth (1993). In 2009 they reprised the production of A Raisin in the Sun and produced several other stellar works, including August Wilson’s Seven Guitars (1995), Athol Fugard’s Master Harold and the Boys (1982), and The Gift of the Magi based on the 1906 story by O. Henry. In 2010 they offered Emily Mann’s Having Our Say: The Delany Sisters’ First 100 Years (1995) and Pearl Cleage’s A Song for Coretta (2007).20 With an outstanding company of actors and outstanding reviews to bolster its confidence, AART continues to produce a season of four to five productions with the most celebrated black plays in the regional theatres in the country, e.g., Crowns, Two Trains Running, A Lesson Before Dying, Jar the Floor, and Warriors Don’t Cry.

The Black Academy of Arts and Letters The Black Academy of Arts and Letters (TBAAL) began its ascent to prominence in Dallas in 1977, shortly after DMRT and running concurrently with the other Dallas theatre companies. TBAAL became the cornerstone and center of black theatre activity in Dallas. After an approximately twelve-year struggle, in 1989 the Black Academy of Arts and Letters, Inc. acquired an impressive home, a 250,000 squarefoot facility in the downtown Dallas Convention Center Theater Complex. The city of Dallas funded a custom renovation of the space that included 1,750-seat and 250-seat theatres, in addition to a gift shop, gallery, costume

Dallas  ◆   1 1 5 shop, administrative offices, banquet and meeting rooms, and rehearsal and storage space. Taking up residence in the Dallas Convention Center was the culmination of a long journey from the Academy’s modest beginning in 1977 with a personal investment of $250 in the home of its founder Curtis King. By 2014 TBAAL had grown to an institution that boasts an annual multimillion dollar budget, a membership base of approximately eight thousand, and ongoing collaborations with numerous touring theatre companies, book seminars, concerts, film festivals, art exhibits, and children’s institutes.

Their Roots Run Deep When Curtis King officially launched The Black Academy of Arts and Letters in 1977 as the Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, it was on the shoulders of earlier organizations with roots that go back as far as 1897. The early inspiration for the current academy was the American Negro Academy (ANA), founded in Washington, DC, by Reverend Alexander Crummell, the son of a West African tribal chief (Temme Tribe). With this organiza-

The Black Academy of Arts and Letters, Canton/Akard Street location (1989–to present). Photo courtesy of the Black Academy of Arts and Letters.

1 1 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration tion, black artists and scholars from around the world came together to promote scholarship, higher education, literature, science, and the arts, as well as political advocacy against oppression of blacks. The noted scholar W. E. B. DuBois became its president in 1908. ANA folded in 1924, but the idea of the organization lived on and reemerged in 1969 when notable poets, historians, dancers, essayists, musicians, dramatists, novelists, actors, journalists, scholars, and painters established The Black Academy of Arts and Letters (BAAL). BAAL carried on the legacy of ANA with outstanding programming that included incentive awards to promising artists and scholars, touring exhibits, support of the local black arts community, biennial conferences of black artists and scholars, competitions and festivals for filmmakers, annual retreats for black writers, oral history of the black experience, photographic records of black achievement in architecture and the crafts, and sponsorship of cultural festivals and forums on black theatre, music, art, and dance. Administrative challenges led to the folding of BAAL in 1974, but not before it ignited another flame. Eighty years after the inception of ANA, and eight years after the development of BAAL, a third academy, the Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, formed with the concepts, goals, dreams, purposes, and objectives of the previous academies.21

Founder Curtis King, president and founder, has been the driving force behind the rise of The Black Academy of Arts and Letters in Dallas. He is a native southerner, as he says, from the Deep South town of Coldwater, Mississippi. It was in Mississippi that his love of the arts and theatre began to grow. His father, Jonah King, was a public worker and farmer; his mother taught in the public schools in Mississippi and always kept a piano in the house. He and his three brothers took piano lessons; he was in the band. They all were expected to do something “culturally,” says King. He attended segregated schools that promoted oratorical, sports, music, and theatre competitions. At Tate County Colored High School under the direction of teacher Wilma Jean Moore, he starred in four theatre productions with outstanding success, winning both the local and state acting competitions in theatre.22 A graduate of Jackson State University in Mississippi, King also earned a master’s degree from Texas Christian University and credits toward a doctorate at the University of Texas at Dallas. However, it was Jackson

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Curtis King, founder and president, The Black Academy of Arts and Letters (1977–present). Photo courtesy of the Black Academy of Arts and Letters.

State that was pivotal in nurturing his interest in theatre and the arts and paving the way toward his founding of TBAAL in Dallas. At freshman registration at Jackson State, King discovered that Margaret Walker, author of the celebrated novel Jubilee and numerous poems, including “For My People,” was a professor there and the head of the black studies program. He took several classes with her, he thinks at least seven, and went to the 1972 Black Academy of Arts and Letters conference in Chicago with her. At this conference, King met numerous nationally known and celebrated artists, including Ruby Dee, Sydney Poitier, Romare Bearden, Charles White, John Oliver Killens, Harry Belafonte, Ossie Davis, C. Eric Lincoln, and others.23 While others were getting autographs, King was collecting phone numbers and addresses, and he followed up after returning to Jackson State, staying in contact with many of these celebrities. Several years later after finishing graduate school, he discovered that the Black Academy was defunct; he went to visit Dr. C. Eric Lincoln, its founding president, in Durham, North Carolina, and expressed his interest in bringing it back. While working on his master’s degree at Texas Christian University in Fort Worth, King made another significant step toward the project

1 1 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration that would be his life’s work. He met Erma Lewis, the executive director and founder of the Sojourner Truth Players in Fort Worth, and was invited to direct a production of A Raisin in the Sun. This project led to a short stint (about one and a half years) as the artistic director for the Sojourner Truth Players and the opportunity to meet many other black theatre artists working in Fort Worth, including Rudy and Marian Eastman, founders of Jubilee Theatre in Fort Worth. Among the plays directed by King for the Sojourner Truth Players were an original piece entitled Our Heritage, Philip Hayes Dean’s Sty of the Blind Pig (1972), Charlie L. Russell’s Five on the Black Hand Side (1973), and Ted Shine’s Morning, Noon, and Night and Contribution (1969). After King left the Sojourner Truth Players, he worked briefly in North Carolina and New York before returning to Dallas to continue his graduate studies. It was then 1977, and with numerous files and references from the now defunct Black Academy of Arts and Letters he launched the Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters (JBA).24 In addition to spearheading the development of one of the most progressive cultural arts centers in the country, King’s stellar accomplishments include producing a special tribute to comedian/activist Dick Gregory at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, DC, hosted by Bill Cosby and also starring Cicely Tyson and Stevie Wonder. In addition, he spearheaded “Symphony with the Divas,” a gala evening featuring classical, jazz, pop, hip-hop, and gospel stars on the same stage with local symphonies. He also produced the “National Civil War Gala” at Washington’s Lincoln Theatre Center in 2000. King is the recipient of the Larry Leon Hamlin National Black Theatre Festival Producer’s Award, Man of the Year Dream Makers Award, Esquire Magazine Register Award, the Dallas Historical Society’s Arts Leadership Award, the Texas Ambassador of Goodwill Award, and the World Peace Award in the Arts from the Interreligious and International Federation for World Peace in 2004.25 King speaks metaphorically of his work with TBAAL: . . . My Life is a Scrap Book. We the willing, led by the unknowing, are doing the impossible for the ungrateful. We’ve done so much for so long with so little that we’re now qualified to do anything with nothing. We’ve taken bits and pieces, a scrap here a scrap there . . . it was almost like our grandmothers when they milk the cow, then take the milk and strain it. They let it sit for a day or two. They take the milk and churn it and the butter comes. They scrape the butter off. They take the flour out of the big barrel and mix it with the eggs from the hen house to make their biscuits, and then they have the

Dallas  ◆   1 1 9 sorghum molasses. They don’t throw the biscuits away; they put them in water, and when they become soggy in the water then they make bread pudding out of it. So everything that we’ve done has been a scrap of a piece of a scrap of this and that, so I would say that if I had a title [for my work] it would be My Life is a Scrap Book.26

Mission Humble beginnings did not preclude lofty goals. The purpose and objectives were clearly articulated from the beginning: • To enhance and help sustain the total cause and efforts for which ANA and BAAL were established; • To work jointly and cooperatively under the auspices of the founders and former members of BAAL; • To serve as a catalyst and clearinghouse for Black arts and letters organizations and institutions; • To help promote, implement, and disseminate the goals objectives and dreams of ANA and BAAL by: »» defining, preserving, cultivating, promoting, fostering and developing the arts and letters of Black People; »» promoting and encouraging public recognition of the universality of the arts and letters of Black People; »» promoting and encouraging fellowship and cooperation among Black artists, composers, musicians, writers, performers, and all others engaged in artistic and creative endeavors; »» promoting and encouraging the public recognition and honor of the young artists and others as being representative of its purposes, goals and objectives; »» promoting and encouraging the holding of competitions, exhibits, performances, presentations and showings of the arts and letters of Black People; »» providing a reference depository accessible to members and others which will depict (through any and all media now known or subsequently developed, including but not limited to photographs, paintings, sketches, carvings, casting, moldings, films, tapes, recordings, engravings and publications) the skills and achievements of Black People in the arts and letters;

1 2 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration »» providing encouragement to and an outlet for the creative efforts and achievements in the arts and letters of Black People; »» establishing, providing, and granting fellowships, prizes and awards for creative efforts and achievements in the arts and letters of Black People.27

Memorable Productions Decade One: Rebirth, Creation, and Transition, 1977–1987 When the first decade of work began, the administrative function of JBA was housed in the personal quarters of Curtis King’s Knight Street apartment in North Dallas. King launched the first season, 1977–1978, with Lofton Mitchell’s Tell Pharaoh (1967) in the Bonanza Steakhouse in Oak Cliff in May of 1978 as a dinner theatre special with playwright Lofton Mitchell in attendance along with the three hundred other audience members. This debut of the newly formed professional resident touring company, the Third World Players, under the direction of King himself was followed by a special summer fund-raising tour of Tell Pharaoh. This effort was assisted

Third World Players (1979). Photo courtesy of The Black Academy of Arts and Letters.

Dallas  ◆   1 2 1 by Lofton Mitchell waiving the royalty payments.28 The play was presented at several venues around the country—New Orleans, Los Angeles, Birmingham, Raleigh, Washington, DC, New York City, Mississippi, and Texas —a total of fifty performances between July 19 and August 12.29 Our Heritage, compiled by Curtis King, became the second touring production in 1978–1979. It was a poetry, song, and dance piece performed forty times. One of the performance venues was the Hall of State Building in Fair Park in Dallas for a three-night run Friday through Sunday. A 1978 brochure promoted the tours of the Third World Players in Tell Pharaoh and their new work Our Heritage. The brochure showcased members of the company, who hailed from a number of cities—Tou Braudy (Washington, DC), Bryon Jones (Akron, Ohio), Regina Taylor (Dallas), Lawrence Walton, II (Dallas), Juanita Simmons (Wichita Falls, Texas), Phillip Thorton (Seattle), Louise Armstrong (Dallas), Sabrina Johnson (Dallas), Larry Whittington (Cuero, Texas), and Lillie Turner (Caldwell, Texas). King, of Coldwater, Mississippi, roots, served as the director of the company, assisted by Bert Cross (Dallas) as assistant musical director and James Pleasant (Cleveland) as company musical director. In addition, a stellar group of nationally known artists and scholars agreed to appear on JBA programs, including actress Beah Richards, painter/sculptor Vertis Hayes, Lofton Mitchell, and poet B. F. Maiz. The core company volunteered twenty hours a week, sharpening their artistic skills for community performances and major tours. They worked under the theatre component coordinated by Sharon West in 1978.30 The first decade (1977–1987) included six historical productions, revealing a commitment to the drama of inner life, or telling the stories of the people to teach the history and culture and remember them with pride. The other historical works produced included Beah Richard’s A Black Woman Speaks,31 produced in 1978 as part of the JBA arts convocation on the relationship of the black church to the arts and featuring Maiz at the Crestmore United Methodist Church on Danube Street in Dallas. In addition, in 1982 the commitment to dramatize history included C. Bernard Jackson and James Hatch’s Fly Blackbird (1959), Esther Rolle’s Ain’t I a Woman, a play on the women’s suffrage movement developed by and featuring television actress Esther Rolle (known for her television role on Good Times), and William Marshall’s drama Enter Frederick Douglass (1990) on the life of the abolitionist orator, author, newspaper editor, recruiter for the Union Army, and statesman.

1 2 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Beyond the presentation of history was a commitment to the entertainment value found in the black musical. Thus, JBA produced four musicals between 1977 and 1987. Among these was Dallas playwright Bob Ray Sanders’s Blues on 125th Street (1978), featuring the Third World Players with Curtis King directing. The company presented Blues to an audience of 1,550 at the Dallas Convention Center in the Memorial Auditorium in November 1978. The sponsors for this event included Alpha Xi Omega Human Resources AKAdemy, Inc. of Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority. In the program booklet, playwright Sanders describes the work as a “spiritual affirmation of black life.”32 It was a musical tribute to many inspirational black figures to . . . introduce the art, the struggles, the dreams and the hopes of a band of black angels to an often (all too often) complacent black people . . . Blues attempts to re-establish in the minds and souls of black people the gospels according to Langston, Lorraine, Jimmy, Louis, Pearlie Mae, W. C., Mahalia, Martin, Malcolm, Bessie, the Count, the Duke, Lady Day, Paul, Brother Ray, Little Stevie, and thousands of others.33

James Weldon Johnson’s God’s Trombones (1927), Waves Inner Emotions conceived by JoAnn M. Williams,34 and Hallelujah: A Bit of Broadway adapted by Curtis King in 1987 were among the musical offerings. God’s Trombones, well established in the repertoire around the country, was another Third World Players production directed by King in 1980; JBA gave twenty-five performances. JBA demonstrated a strong commitment to producing original works as well as established musicals. In the first decade, the variety of theatre genres produced demonstrated JBA’s conscious outreach to its diverse audience. The productions during this time included not only drama but also comedy, often by and about women. With Ntozake Shange’s for colored girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf (1975), coproduced with Theatre Three in 1980,35 and Tommie Harris Stewart’s Profiles of Me, JBA included feminist drama appealing mainly to women. Actress/singer Tommie Harris Stewart in Profiles represented the quality of the talent working with JBA at the time. Stewart’s biography in the program stated: [She is] . . . an actress, directress, humanitarian, and orator, as well as a native of Greenwood, Mississippi, and a graduate of Jackson State University and the University of California, Santa Barbara. As an actress, she has performed on stage in fourteen states; starred in the premier of an American play, Uncle M by Marvin Drzic, toured with the University of California Touring Company, and appeared on four major television networks.

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Profiles of Me (1981). Tonea “Tommie” Stewart. Photo courtesy of The Black Academy of Arts and Letters.

Profiles also included the vocals of Beverly Harris Branson, an artist, vocalist, pianist, and organist from Greenwood, Mississippi, with a degree from Jackson State University. With Samm-Art Williams’s Home (1979) and Tom Cole’s Medal of Honor Rag (1975), directed by Bob Ray Sanders, JBA offered dramas focusing on male issues. In Home the central male character is a draft evader imprisoned briefly for his failure to serve who heads north after he is released and fails there, then returns home to the South to try to find himself. Medal of Honor Rag dramatizes the story of a Vietnam veteran’s readjustment to society after the horrors of the war experience. One of the many high points of the first decade was the organization’s 1985–1986 season production of James Baldwin’s moving church-centered drama The Amen Corner, directed by Curtis King. JBA teamed up with two other arts groups to produce the Baldwin work—the Dallas Theater Center and Dallas Summer Musicals—at the Frank Lloyd Wright Theatre. The stellar production cast featured local actors, television and movie stars Esther Rolle (Good Times), Helen Martin (227), and Al Popwell (the Dirty Harry

1 2 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Medal of Honor Rag (1983). (Far left) Louie White. Photo courtesy of The Black Academy of Arts and Letters.

films), Oscar nominee Juanita Moore (Imitation of Life), and Adrian Richard. The collaboration promoted a crossover audience for the sponsoring groups. The Dallas Theater Center and Dallas Summer Musicals were seeking black theatre audience members, and JBA was seeking a larger base of white audience members.36 Comedy took its place in the production lineup with the 1981–1982 season presentation of Ossie Davis’s Purlie Victorious, a hilarious drama about the post-slavery, pre-integration South, produced both in 1981 and 1986. Purlie Victorious featured Darryl Thierry (Purlie) and Tou Braudy-Whittingham and Velva Carter (Lutiebelle Gussie Mae Jenkins in alternate performances). The Dallas Morning News review stated: Finally, a black arts institution had emerged which would increase the awareness of black artistic accomplishments among all races; which would preserve the vast cultural heritage of black Americans rooted in African culture; and would inspire and train a new generation of black performers who would carry on the legacy of their forefathers.37

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Decade Two: Adversity and Revelation, 1987–1997 King ended his first ten years and began the next ten with an upbeat, extravagant, high-profile celebrity gala that would become his signature. He invited more than fifty artists, authors, musicians, singers, and activists to the celebration that included a “Homecoming” art exhibit with reception, “Celebrity Forum” featuring Margaret Walker Alexander and composer Eva Jessye, “Secondline Parade” through downtown Dallas, “All-Star Testimonial Brunch,” and “Birthday Worship Service.”38 By 1988, JBA accomplishments were already considerable and historic. According to a fact sheet circulated by the organization, they had trained over ten thousand children and youth in the Summer Arts Institute, presented more than ninety-seven Image, Tony, Oscar, Grammy, and Emmy award-winning artists and scholars, involved more than one thousand Dallas artists in its programs, presented more than fifty art exhibitions, thirty theatrical productions, twenty-five major concerts, two hundred receptions, four major conferences, six arts retreats, twenty improvisational parties, ten lecture/book discussions, eight jazz revues, six writer showcases, and enrolled more than two hundred adults and youth in classes.39 During the second decade, 1987–1997, The Black Academy produced or coproduced twenty-six plays and musical stage shows. This second decade was as versatile as the first, with collaborations that included serious drama, history plays, popular comedies, and musicals. The selections had attention-getting titles and well-known performers sure to inspire the interest of the theatre’s black community base as well as attract the larger community. After being housed in as many as six different locations in its first twelve years, JBA finally arrived at the spacious facility in the Dallas Downtown Convention Center Theatre Complex in 1989—twelve years after the company’s beginning. In the first season of the second decade, 1987–1988, JBA produced many well-attended events, including the fifth Black Music and the Civil Rights Movement Concert featuring Emmy award–winning actress Ester Rolle and Tony and Grammy award–winning singer Jennifer Holliday, in addition to the celebratory gala. Because the company was in transition between locations, it limited the regular variety of offerings. In the 1988–1989 season, JBA began strong with Driving Miss Daisy (1987). Miss Daisy had name identification from not only its off-Broadway hit in

1 2 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration 1987 but also its Academy Award–winning movie in 1989. The visibility of the production increased with the cosponsorship of a group called the Black/Jewish Dialogue at the Majestic Theatre in Dallas. JBA extended its community outreach in the 1989–1990 season, collaborating with the Dallas Interdenominational Ministerial Alliance to bring God’s Trombones to the Alliance’s membership and the greater community that loved religious-themed drama. One of the highlights of the 1989–1990 season was the collaboration with a Los Angeles touring group featuring Ron Stacker-Thompson’s Stompin’ at the Savoy, directed by Stacker-Thompson and produced by Pamela Goodlow. A promotional brochure described the production, with its story line to bring out the old-timers on a trip down memory lane, as: . . . a musical reminiscence spoofing the café society of the Cotton Club and the Old Savoy Ballroom Era in Harlem. The play takes its audience on an imaginary evening at the Club Savoy back in the 1930s when “Tasty Chocolate Kisses” and “Sultry Singing Sepia Beauties” charm the audience with lofty ballads, flashy routines, scat-singing and lots of lo-down humor.40

In the Dallas Morning News Jerome Weeks praised the music, but criticized the comedy: Mr. Stacker-Thompson has selected a lively and eclectic musical mix . . . When the comedy works it’s usually better integrated into the music—notably in the performance of Thomas Scott Gordon as Hal, the finger popping band leader who’s always making eyes at his coochie-coo dancers (Cynthia White and Nofritari Braudy).41

JBA consistently collaborated with local talent. As part of the 1989–1990 season, King contracted with Dallas resident Roger Boykin to produce his Zanzibar (1990), directed by Charles Hillman. A salute to a popular downtown Dallas nightclub, it premiered at the Clarence Muse Café Theatre with the billing “Grand Opening Premiere Production,” featuring Nelda Washington, T.  J. Miller, Lisa Todd, Michael Stewart, and Victoria Mangram, with music by the Zanzibar Band with Roger Boykin on piano, Alex Camp on bass, and Alan Green on drums. JBA added variety and history to the fare for the season with Langton Hughes’s Don’t You Wanna Be Free (1937), a dramatization of Hughes’s poetry commenting on salient issues in black America. The poignant poetry is critical of troublesome reality, but with a hint of humor that made the criticism and difficult reality easier to witness. The Dallas Morning News

Dallas  ◆   1 2 7 noted the success of the JBA year in an article titled “A Solid Season in their New Home.”42 The 1990–1991 season featured six musicals. A bright light of the season was star-powered Lanie Robertson’s Lady Day at Emerson’s Bar and Grill (1987), featuring the music of Billie Holiday in a one-woman show performed by Chris Calloway, Cab Calloway’s famous daughter, and directed by Curtis King. The performance took place in the JBA Clarence Muse Café Theatre on November 9–10, 1990. Among the celebrated songs was “Crazy He Calls Me,” “God Bless the Child,” “Somebody on My Mind,” and “Strange Fruit.” The production program noted: [Chris Calloway] grew up learning show business from an expert [Cab Calloway], but paying her dues with the requisite stints as a hat check girl, nightclub chanteuse, and very off-Broadway player. Along the way from Boston’s Unit of Fine Arts, she appeared in every major club on both coasts and has performed in special Cotton Club shows with her father throughout the world.43

The other productions of the 1990–1991 season began developing the JBA audience’s taste for gospel musicals, among them God Is Trying to Tell You Something (1990) (author unidentified) and Michael Matthews’s Momma Don’t (1990). The church crowd loved the relationship dramas centered around sin, but not without repentance and redemption in the end. A significant event of this season was the revival of Lofton Mitchell’s Tell Pharaoh (1963). King dedicated this production to the memory of Eugene Ward, native of Birmingham, Alabama, and former music director for the Third World Players, and Byron Jones, native of Akron, Ohio, and former actor with the Third World Players between 1977 and 1979. The production was a reunion of actors of the Third World Players from the 1987 production, including Tou Braudy, Larry Whittington, Wanda Sykes-Moore, Louie “Wolfman” White, and Sabrina Moulaud.44 The work toured after the February 1–3, 1991, performance in the JBA Naomi Bruton Theatre.45 JBA celebrated the African American holiday, Juneteenth,46 in 1991 with Louis Johnson’s Watermelon, with Johnson also as the director and choreographer. According to the season brochure, the work is . . . a precise and spirited musical that . . . takes a sharp and innovative look at the joys, casualties, and ironies of Black life. The story consists of fast paced collages, the journey of the main character, Sambo, through Harlem [and] his love affair with a scatter brained Pickaninny. . . .47

1 2 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Steve Carter’s Bethune (1991), starring Esther Rolle and directed by Curtis King, was one of JBA’s many celebrity collaborations.48 Curtis King took the production to the 1991 National Black Theatre Festival in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. JBA audiences continued to see a variety of performances. The productions in the 1991–1992 season included a musical, Michael Mathew’s Wicked Ways. But the year also included a history play and a comedy. With the historical drama, Frank G. Greenwood’s Malcolm X: Reminiscences of a Black Revolutionary (1986), directed by Ron Milner and starring Duane Shepard, they took a different direction from the musical comedies, telling the challenging and legendary stories of heroes and events. The play dramatizes the life of the Black Muslim leader Malcolm X—his personal and political odyssey from prison to pulpit, from a black separatist–follower to a fiery, complex leader who moved away from uncompromising militancy without surrendering his independence or commitment.49 The comedy of the season was the popular One Monkey Don’t Stop No Show (1982) by Don Evans, set in Philadelphia. The play is a relationship drama that focuses on a clash of values between generations and the country versus the city. Gospel musicals continued to set the tone for JBA in the next season, 1992–1993. Among them, in collaboration with Channel 4, Dallas, JBA produced Michael Matthews’s I Need a Man. Among the gospel musicals on tour were Shelley Garrett’s Beauty Shop, Part 2 (based on the 1989 Beauty Shop stage play), directed by Garrett and presented also in collaboration with Channel 4. The show was held over an extra week, demonstrating the popularity of the genre with local audiences, even though the critical reviews were not flattering.50 According to Dallas Morning News staff writer Lawson Taitte, “Shelly Garrett’s popular sequel . . . can hardly be called a play because the construction is too weak.”51 Taitte was most appalled by the work’s reliance on stereotypes for the laughs: Here, the only memorable characters are a stereotypically flamboyant gay man, an overweight woman, an elderly man, a dwarf, a woman over 7 feet tall, and two uneducated young women.52

However, audience word-of-mouth praise overcame the negative press to fill the house through the extended run. Other collaborations with Channel 4 in 1992–1993 included Woody Woods’s Portraits of a Black Woman in Love, a jazz musical, and Celeste Bedford Walker’s Once in a Wife Time (1977), directed by star of television and

Dallas  ◆   1 2 9 film Glynn Turman, and featuring Debbie Morgan and Marvin WrightBey. Walker’s play included locals with the Dallas Black Dance Theater, the Lincoln High School Dance Ensemble, and Omari Drummers. Also featured were Judy Milner, Robert F. Ellerbee, Carla Louise, and T. R. Riggins.53 Seldom straying far from the desire to showcase black history in the theatre, JBA produced Audley Hafferden’s historical drama Toussaint: Angel Warrior in Haiti, starring Antonio Fargas, in April 1993. They took this one-man show to the National Black Theatre Festival in August with Curtis King as the director.54 In the 1993–1994 season JBA collaborated with Channel 4 to produce one of the big-name hits, Tom Eyen’s Broadway hit musical Dreamgirls (1982) with music by Henry Kreiger, starring Miki Howard, on a national tour direct from New York. Audiences packed the house even though the critics were less than flattering. Tom Sime noted in his November 13, 1993, review,

Toussaint: Angel Warrior in Haiti (1994). Antonio Fargas. Photo courtesy of The Black Academy of Arts and Letters.

1 3 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration “This [Dreamgirls] is a pale echo of the fussed-over original.” Sime did have praise for a couple of the stars: “Mr. Young’s Curtis is a standout, and Cary Hampton steals the show as the soul raver James Thunder Early.”55 In 1994–1995, the world premiere of Curtis King’s Blues Bar (1994), also directed by King, led JBA’s theatre offerings. Jerome Weeks of the Dallas Morning News called it “a blues-­revue–­cum reunion drama, drawing not only on the career and artistry of Billie Holiday but on an invented Mississippi blues singer named Etta Pickens.”56 The production featured Phyllis Hyman and Billy Preston. After a three-day run, Blues Bar began a fifteen-city tour. Morning News critic Lawson Taitte had high praise for the musical talent in Blues Bar in his review titled “ ‘Blues Bar’ Rises on a Tide of Soul.”57 The national touring production of David Talbert’s He Say, She Say, But What Does God Say? (1996) highlighted the 1995–1996 season. This gospel musical starred Fort Worth’s Kirk Franklin as Pastor Steven Jackson in a good versus evil story in which he struggles against a drug dealer, Satin Jones (Sid Burston), to take over an entire city block for his church. Critic Dave Ferman observed that although the outcome is predictable, the key performers all delivered strong performances.58 The 1996–1997 season was the end of the second decade of JBA’s work in arts and letters. Four shows highlighted the theatre season: Akuyoe’s Spirit Awakening, Where Is My Father? (author unidentified), Thank God, The Beat Goes On (author unidentified), and David E. Talbert’s A Fool and His Money. The first, Spirit Awakening, was a one-woman show written and performed by Ghanaian actress Akuyoe. JBA advertised the work as a powerhouse of remembrances and a play every black woman and man should experience about taking a stand, loving ourselves, and awakening our spirit.59 They promoted the second, Where Is My Father?, as a “man’s play . . . whether the man is loving and attentive, or negligent and retarded. This play is a must see. Even if you are only thinking about fatherhood, this play is certain to be helpful in making that decision.”60 The third, Thank God, The Beat Goes On, a national touring production, starred the musical group The Whispers. The fourth, the touring production, David E. Talbert’s A Fool and His Money, featured David Peaston, Beverly Todd, Glenn Jones, Melissa Morgan, LaShunn Pace, Shukki Dukki, Cheryl “Pepsi” Riley, BerNadette Stanis, Earnest Thomas, and Maurice Wilkerson. Though musicals dominated decade two, this ten-year period also included plays, both serious and comic. With the company’s move in 1989

Dallas  ◆   1 3 1 into the Dallas Convention Center, audience development was paramount. JBA now had to fill the Naomi Bruton Theatre with its 1,750 seats on a regular basis with theatre, as well as music and dance events. They also had to be creative with the smaller Clarence Muse Café Theatre and its 250 seats. Thus, it is not surprising that Curtis King increased the emphasis on working with touring companies bringing popular musicals, and often featuring celebrities of stage and screen. Sixteen shows during the second decade were collaborations with other companies, mainly national touring companies but also local production companies, e.g., the Dallas Drama Company and the Soul Repertory Company. JBA helped diversify the audience through collaborations with local established theatres that had different audience bases (e.g., Theatre Three and the Dallas Theater Center).

Decade Three: Triumph and Victory, 1997–2007 In September of 1997 JBA launched its new season with its revised name, The Black Academy of Arts and Letters (TBAAL). The 1997–1998 season was especially exciting because King took the one hundred singers in the national symphonic concert “Symphony with the Divas” to Washington with conductor Martin Piecuch and guest director Julius Williams, as well as vocalists Barbara Conrad (classical), Dionne Warwick (pop/jazz), Erykah Badu (hip-hop), and Tramaine Hawkins (gospel), with nationally known actors of television and film Beverly Todd and Ruby Dee among the featured artists.61 Although this first season of the third decade began with one theatre production, TBAAL went on to produce an amazing number of productions in comparison to the four to six shows a year traditionally produced at regional theatres around the country. On the following page is a snapshot of TBAAL’s productions for 1997–2007. King’s greater emphasis on collaborating with local and national touring troupes made this increase possible. Although collaborations with other theatre troupes started in the first decade, these partnerships were most prolific in the third decade. One of the highest-profile collaborations during this time was with actor, director, and playwright Tyler Perry. TBAAL produced eight gospel musicals with Perry’s company during this ten-year period, starting with I Know I’ve Been Changed in 1998. The play, also written and produced by Perry, toured from 1998 to 2000. It was Perry’s first successful play, and it established his winning formula of serious issues, in this case child abuse and

1 3 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Theatre productions between 1997 and 2007 (the third decade)

rape, coupled with comedy and gospel music in a melodramatic ending. Perry, performing the character Joe, later achieved fame as the highly popular character Madea. Also headlining I Know I’ve Been Changed was Sheila Stroud (Dreamgirls) and Carl Pertile (Sounds of Blackness), as well as Ann Nesby and LaShun Pace. Tyler Perry’s popularity at TBAAL was part of his nationwide success on the Urban Theatre Circuit (also referred to as the Chitlin Circuit)62 that launched his work in television and films. Perry’s financial success allowed him to purchase his own movie studio in Atlanta in 2008. Perry’s I Can Do Bad All By Myself (1999) began TBAAL’s 2000–2001 season. It was his first play featuring the hilarious character Madea. A look at the list of the musical titles for I Can Do Bad reveals the work’s appeal to the church audience that filled the seats. Spirituals interwoven with an inspirational story included “A Motherless Child,” “Old Time Mix,” “Help Me Lord,” “Let Me Hold You—Bobby,” “Get Out of Here (In the Name of Je-

Dallas  ◆   1 3 3 sus),” “It’s Gonna Be Hallelujah,” and “God Is the Answer.” The gospel songs included “I Got the Angels Watching Over Me,” “There’s a Leak in This Old Building,” and “I Know the Lord Will Make a Way.” Perry overhauled I Can Do Bad’s complicated relationship story line when it was made into a movie in 2009. This Joint Is Jumpin’ . . . And It’s Off the Hook was the 2001–2002 season theme highlighted in the season brochure. Tyler Perry returned with his Diary of a Mad Black Woman and Madea’s Family Reunion. Perry’s consistent presence at TBAAL continued into the 2002–2003 season with Madea’s Family Reunion, presented in November 2002, and Madea’s Class Reunion, presented in January 2003. Perry starred in both musicals. In the first, Madea must find a way to pay for a funeral, wedding, and family reunion. In the second, as the title suggests, Madea attends her class reunion, billed as “the class that had no class, the class of 1953 with the character Mable ‘Madea’ Simmons voted most likely to end up in jail.”63

Diary of a Mad Black Woman (2001). Tyler Perry (left) and company. Photo courtesy of The Black Academy of Arts and Letters.

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Speaking of his inspiration, Perry noted: Before I write a show I pray . . . I say, ‘God, what do you want me to talk about now?’ . . . He said, ‘Speak to grandmothers who are raising their children’s children . . . Speak to married couples who took vows in My name but are giving up at the first sign of trouble. . . . Speak to young men who don’t know their fathers and let them know I am all the Father they need.64

Tom Sime noted in his Dallas Morning News review, “Luckily, Mr. Perry gets all that sanctimoniousness out of the way in the $10 souvenir booklet. Onstage, he gets down to his real mission: making us laugh.”65 Tyler Perry continued to present entertainment to Dallas audiences in collaboration with TBAAL in the 2002–2003 season with Why Did I Get Married? starring Kelly Price and Chico Debarge. Perry’s final production in the third decade at TBAAL was in March 2005 with Meet the Browns. The musical focuses on a family funeral with a shortage of funds as the source of the comedy. Perry later successfully launched Meet the Browns as a movie and television situation comedy. Another productive collaboration took place with the Soul Rep Theatre Company in TBAAL’s twenty-third season, 1999–2000, to present Mike Malone’s Breakfast in Harlem, billed as an incredible musical during Harlem’s heyday of jazz and blues tunes made popular by Duke Ellington, Ethel Waters, and Billie Holiday. Critic Tom Sime noted some production challenges, but praised a few performers: Choreographer Dane Hereford, who plays a fleet-footed Langston Hughes, and Professor Keyz, who plays Duke Ellington, both go a long way toward giving the show some artistic chops. Mr. Hereford’s work in the two scenes of ensemble dancing came close to the kind of hair-raising excitement the show urgently needs. And Mr. Keyz’s wonderful singing and pianism provided an infusion of solid musicianship amid a lot of canned accompaniment. Otherwise, Breakfast seemed hemmed-in, working at half-speed, and poor sound further impaired its message. Too bad, when there were more ears than ever to hear it.66

The critical response was in opposition to the popular response of enthusiastic people who filled the theatre. In the 1999–2000 season, Soul Rep Theatre Company joined with TBAAL to present Rep Tales (2000), an original work by the company. Rep Tales is a soulful journey adapted from folk and fairy tales for young and adult audiences. Sime’s review described the uniqueness of the work:

Dallas  ◆   1 3 5 Writer Keith Price comes up with some playful and witty takes on Mother Goose and the Brothers Grimm. “The Young Spry Lady” (Bethany Burnough) “lived inside a dollar” instead of a shoe and “couldn’t have children, so she didn’t know what to do.” She decides to adopt. In “Mary and Her Cousin Kid,” Mary (Nicole Smith) has no little lamb, but a pesky cousin (Jose Hernandez) who follows and makes fun of her all day, until a wise farmer (Professor Keyz) sets him straight by turning the tables. In “Lil’ Red Rides the Hood,” Ray Hall plays a red-clad boy who crosses his neighborhood to deliver milk of magnesia to his uncle. Red’s talking bicycle helps him avoid such wolves as a bully and drug dealer. The appealing Mr. Hall scores again in “Pinnochi—Toe” as a puppet whose toe swells when he fibs. His brainy friend Opal Jean (Crystal) tells Pinnochi-Toe, “You need counseling.” “Sherry Perry Quite Contrary” is about a woman (Ms. Burnough) whose garden of singing flowers upstages her in the news media, leading to a mixture of pride and jealousy.67

Rep Tales (2000). Soul Rep Theatre Company. Photo courtesy of The Black Academy of Arts and Letters.

1 3 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Continuing its collaboration with TBAAL, Soul Rep Theatre Company presented Endesha Mae Holland’s emotional autobiographical drama, From the Mississippi Delta (1984) during the 1999–2000 season. This was a bold selection of Holland’s heroic rise from poverty, rape, prostitution, and jail to civil rights activism. The work has been popular in the repertoire around the country after the off-Broadway production in 1991 at the Circle in the Square Downtown. Soul Rep showed its versatility and range with these TBAAL productions—from musical, to light comedy, to serious problem drama. The twenty-third season ended in 2000 with Soul Rep Theatre Company sponsoring its fifth annual New Play Festival featuring several new short plays by playwrights from Texas and the Southwest.68 Another prolific collaborator during the third decade, the Griot Production Company, produced five shows during the 1999–2000 season. The first was Mildred Dumas and Silvia Roberts’s Looking for a Man, directed by Deborah “Dee Dee” Gibson, also in collaboration with Future Production and corporate sponsor WDM CD Duplication. In December Griot’s second production of the season was Twas the Night before Christmas (1999), an original comedy about a family’s annual Christmas Eve gift-giving ritual that goes haywire. The third production was Donald Greaves’s The Marriage, directed by Arlisha Cornist. The fourth was Keith Antar Mason’s for colored boys who have considered homicide when the streets were too much (2000), inspired by Shange’s for colored girls and highlighting the tension and rage of black men who feel they have been marked from birth as just another number. Griot Productions finished this busy TBAAL season with Errol Hill’s Strictly Matrimony (1959), a comedy featuring a woman who schemes to get her common-law husband to do the right thing by marrying her. Griot Productions continued its collaboration with TBAAL into the 2000–2001 season with Dessie Sanders’s Fatback and Collard Greens, an exaggerated melodrama about an African American family that struggles to deal with life’s daily problems deep in the heart of Gladewater, Texas. Tom Sime called Fatback “tasty comedy”: “Even patrons who don’t leave Fatback with a craving for ‘bread soaked in gizzard grease’ will go home hungry for more.”69 Sime found less to praise in the next Griot production, Peter DeAnda’s prison drama Ladies in Waiting. He noted, “[It is] a little monotonous, even though performances are reasonably authentic.”70 Griot Productions demonstrated its versatility by portraying a variety of roles from a variety of themes when the company continued the season’s lineup with

Dallas  ◆   1 3 7 Linus-lynell’s Black Folks Don’t Need No Shrinks, a play that explores mental illness challenges of blacks by showing “a parade of wacky patients.”71 In its 2001–2002 season, Griot Productions presented two highly regarded musicals frequently produced in the repertoire around the country—Five Guys Named Moe (1990) in the fall and Ain’t Misbehavin’ (1978) in the spring. Five Guys Named Moe garnered outstanding reviews: The charismatic Keenan Zeno directs and stars as Big Moe, who emerges with four cronies from the radio of a romantically challenged man, Nomax (Johnny Anderson). The cast has a ball with this great stuff, and sees that the audience does too. Mr. Zeno melds gospel shouts with effervescent pop stylings, harmonizing with comrades Little Moe (Travis Williams), Eat Moe (Sammie D. Williams), No Moe (Ketrick Braggs), and Four-Eyed Moe (Dane Hereford).72

Another play by Linus-lynell received a production by a collaborator of TBAAL: Soul Conscious Productions presented his Friends for Life in 2000. The play reflects the lives of four African American males who grew up together and then separated as they began to pursue their individual identities, only to find themselves reunited to deal with life’s difficult issues. The highest-profile work of TBAAL’s twenty-seventh season was Clarke Peters’s Five Guys Named Moe (produced previously with Griot Productions). The Cake Theatre Center, another frequent collaborator with TBAAL, staged the popular Broadway musical revue about the character Nomax. This character, a young man experiencing girlfriend woes, learns all he needs to know about life and relationships when five guys named Moe (Big Moe, Eat Moe, No Moe, Four-Eyed Moe, and Lil’ Moe) jump out of his radio. The production featured the music of the 1940s jazz figure Louis Jordan with actors Johnny Anderson, Kenneth Artry, Ty Foard, Bréjan Jackson, Cedric Neal, and Gary Williams. In the 2003–2004 season, the Cake Theatre Center also collaborated with TBAAL to present Cedric Neal’s Who’s That Lady?—a musical revue directed also by Keenan Zeno, featuring the music and contributions of African American women such as Mahalia Jackson, Aretha Franklin, Nancy Wilson, Tramaine Hawkins, Natalie Cole, and Chaka Khan. TBAAL began the 2004–2005 season with The Cotton Club, another Cake Theatre Center collaboration. This was also the season of the first annual Dallas Arts Gala, an event that showcased a diverse group of talented performers.

1 3 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Also significant during the third decade was the emphasis on historical works, though such works, like collaborations, were part of the early offerings as well. The productions included Akin Babatunde’s one-man show Louis Armstrong: Before the Second Set: A Visit with Satchmo (1997),73 Peter Bailey’s docudrama Malcolm, Martin, and Medgar (2001), and The Eyes of Black Folks (2002), featuring Mississippi state senator John Horn in a one-man historical drama. Additional historical highlights included Nick LaTour’s Spirit in the Wind (2000), which chronicles LaTour’s fifty-year odyssey as an actor, singer, and storyteller. TBAAL also featured two other historical works, Fannie Lou Hamer (author unidentified) (2003) with actress M’zurie and Phillip Hayes Dean’s Paul Robeson (1978), starring Avery Brooks. Another historical offering was George Faison’s If This Hat Could Talk: The Untold Stories of Dorothy Height (2005); based on Heights’s memoirs, it is set to jazz, gospel, blues, and rhythm and blues. The play highlights the upheaval of the Civil Rights Movement with an uplifting musical score and compelling historical images. A collection of star-featured musicals continued to be relied on as signature works that brought in large audiences during TBAAL’s third decade. Je’Caryous Johnson’s Secret Lover (2000) was one of the national tours produced in the 1999–2000 season, featuring Cuba Gooding, Sr. (father of Academy Award winner Cuba Gooding Jr.), Tony winner Melba Moore, and Douglas Miller. The TBAAL season brochure described Secret Lover as “an electrifying drama about the conflict of a devoted husband betrayed by his wife.”74 Tom Sime noted: Secret Lover is fun, its music is strong, and its high-spirited church raveups—where the old cavort with walkers and canes—are gleefully hedonistic, but its generous, redemptive message is marred by late breaking homophobia.75

Another star-featured work, a musical comedy, was Lisa Garrett Reynolds’s Be Careful What You Pray For. It told the story of seventeen-year-old Samantha Stuart, a gospel-singing phenomenon who is on a quest to find love and a better life outside her Christian family upbringing. Be Careful featured Cuba Gooding, Sr., Shirley Murdock, David Peaston, and Clyde R. Jones. An additional musical offering with well-known stars was Avery O. Williams’s A Mother’s Prayer, a moving story that deals with a black woman’s life in a small town after her husband-to-be is brutally murdered on the day of their wedding.76

Dallas  ◆   1 3 9 In the 2001–2002 season, TBAAL produced Michael Baisden’s Men Cry in the Dark, Jan Feaster’s A Fool for Love, and Michael Matthew’s Who Can You Trust. Men Cry in the Dark, directed by Harold J. Haynes, featured Allen Payne (of Jason’s Lyric) in the leading role of Derrick and Richard Roundtree (of Shaft) as his widowed father. Tom Sime called Men “a healthy dose of drama” without the expected crying suggested by the title, and using the conventions of gospel music despite its secular orientation.77 Among the exciting and memorable events of the 2001–2002 season was the musical revue Wild Women Blues. After a five-year tour of Europe, Wild Women Blues made its American debut at TBAAL. The revue featured Tony Award winner Linda Hopkins with Maxine Weldon and Mortonette Jenkins. TBAAL’s season brochure described the revue: “Three ladies with flair in skintight glittering robes and saucy swinging hips turn dozens of blues, jazz, and gospel classics into completely new and fresh songs.” Dallas Morning News critic Tom Sime noted that the musical revue attracted appreciative crowds.

Wild Women Blues (2002). (Left to right) Linda Hopkins, Maxine Weldon, Mortonette Jenkins. Photo courtesy of The Black Academy of Arts and Letters.

1 4 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Get Here, Come Celebrate was the theme highlighted in the 2002–2003 season brochure. The national touring production’s urban circuit again filled out the TBAAL theatre offerings. The local production of Beah Richards’s There’s a Brown Girl in the Ring, a compilation of several dramatic monologues by the writer, featured an all-star cast—Glynn Turman, S. Pearl Sharp, Tommie “Tonea” Stewart, and Akin Babatunde. An active performer and director, Babatunde also produced Shakespeare . . . Midnight Echoes (2003) for TBAAL, a dramatic presentation based on the works of Shakespeare and making use of monologues, sonnets and prose, spoken word, and dance. In 2003–2004, in the annual season brochure, Curtis King proudly proclaimed Dallas as “The Third Cultural Coast,” after New York and California. At this time, King also celebrated TBAAL’s role in nurturing artists. He observed: TBAAL, and organizations like us, played a key role in providing opportunities for talented and emerging artists to hone their craft. Many artists who have Dallas roots have become very successful in the entertainment industry, such as Erykah Badu, Roy Hargrove, Kirk Franklin, Bobbi Humphrey, Yarbrough & Peoples, Steve Harvey, The Mac Band (Charles McDonald), Larry Hagman, LeAnn Rimes, Erma Hall, Regina Taylor, and Norah Jones.78

In 2006–2007, TBAAL celebrated its thirtieth anniversary with an extravagant black tie and red carpet gala on September 23, 2006, in the TBAAL home in the Dallas Convention Center Theatre Complex. Approximately thirty-five celebrities from around the country gathered to help Curtis King, his staff, the board of directors, the advisory board, members, and the Dallas community celebrate the occasion. Among the august guests were Louis Gossett Jr., Kim Fields, Erykah Badu, Mari Evans, Regina Belle, Kirk Franklin, Ray J, Robert Hooks, Ruby Dee, Marla Gibbs, Micki Grant, Irma P. Hall, Ella Joyce, Della Reese, Sonia Sanchez, Linda Hopkins, Peabo Bryson, Roger E. Mosley, Oleta Adams, Regina Taylor, Phyllis Yvonne Stickney, and Albertina Walker. The highlights of the evening celebration were a series of programmed tributes, memorable moments, musical performances, and award presentations. Celebrated African American visual artist Elizabeth Catlett designed the thirtieth anniversary award presented to guest artists. The historic thirtieth year included, among the diversity of arts activities, the opening of “The Black Academy of Arts and Letters: Three De-

Dallas  ◆   1 4 1 cades of Excellence,” an exhibit by curator Phillip Collins, former curator of the African American Museum in Dallas. Organized into three decades, it opened in three parts—Decade One in September, Decade Two in January, and Decade Three in June. After April 2011 the exhibit remained the focus of the lobby in the TBAAL gallery. The thirtieth anniversary theatre season included three national touring productions. The first was Je’Caryous Johnson’s Men, Money, Gold Diggers, a relationship drama about a woman torn between two men of means. It featured a collection of celebrity performers—Miguel Nunez (Juwanna Man), Chico Benymon (Half and Half), Essence Atkins (Half and Half), Tank (Platinum recording artist), Robin Givens (Boomerang), Carl Payne (Martin), and Terri J. Vaughn (The Steve Harvey Show). Lawson Taitte of the Dallas Morning News noted that the show “sticks to the genre’s [gospel musical] outlines, but fills them in quite differently from most.”79 He continued: Music, gospel or otherwise, isn’t really at the center of this piece. A band contributes musical commentary and punctuation, and occasionally an actor will toss out a few lines of a song. But in the nearly-90 minute first act, there are only a couple of real vocal numbers, both of them short and sexy.80

Taitte praised the actors, saying they were “on a slick professional level, and what singing there is stands out.” He even commented on the audience response: “There’s enough romance and enough glamour to the piece that the audience at Wednesday’s packed performance hung in there and talked back to the show all night long.”81 Another highlight of the 2006–2007 season was a double billing focusing on history, From Garvey to Parks, featuring Ron Bobb-Semple as Marcus Garvey in The Spirit of Marcus Garvey and Ella Joyce as Rosa Parks in A Rose among Thorns. As with other shows of this season, talented celebrities helped draw the audience to TBAAL. Ron Bobb-Semple has been keeping the name of Garvey alive since his 1999 performance of the charismatic Jamaican-born black leader who founded the American Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in 1917. Bobb-Semple has traveled the world with this one-man show, including Dakar, Senegal; Elmina Castle in Ghana; and of course the West Indies. At the time of his performance in Dallas, he had already won numerous awards for this show and had showcased his work as the voice of Garvey in a 2001 PBS film Marcus Garvey: Look for Me in the Whirlwind. Ella Joyce is well known to black audiences around the country because of celebrated performances of stage, film, and

1 4 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Men, Money, Gold Diggers (2006). Photo courtesy of The Black Academy of Arts and Letters.

television. She won many fans as Eleanor on the TV show The Roc and as Jasmin on My Wife and Kids. With From Garvey to Parks, The Black Academy of Arts and Letters treated its loyal following to an opportunity to celebrate black history as they enjoyed performances of celebrated black talent. During the thirtieth anniversary year, TBAAL produced over one hundred cultural arts programs, attracting over five hundred thousand patrons. It was the favorite venue of local and national theatre production companies, and it focused on youth with its annual summer Theatre Institute for Youth and collaborations with the American Theatre Arts for Youth.

Decade Four: Continuing the Tradition, 2007 to Present The excitement at TBAAL continued into the fourth decade, with theatre only a part of the wide variety of work that continued to include poetry slams, jazz revues, civil rights concerts, comedy nights, and film festivals. TBAAL’s theatre productions continued to be as memorable as in earlier

From Garvey to Parks: The Spirit of Marcus Garvey (2007). Ron Bobb-Semple. Photo courtesy of The Black Academy of Arts and Letters.

From Garvey to Parks: A Rose among Thorns (2007). Ella Joyce. Photo courtesy of The Black Academy of Arts and Letters.

1 4 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration years, with the focus on producing its own musical revues but also supporting local and national touring shows. The Naomi Bruton Theatre (1,750 seats) continued to house the big-cast-and-set touring musicals, while the Clarence Muse Café Theatre (250 seats) housed the Dress Performance Theatre Series that showcased smaller productions. In addition, King began a playwrights’ spotlight, coordinated by Akin Babatunde, a series of staged readings with the playwright invited to speak or answer questions. One of the many highlights during the 2007–2008 season was the production of Curtis King’s revue Hip Hop Broadway: The Musical (2008). Hip Hop showcased some of Broadway’s memorable show tunes and featured multiple Grammy award winner Erykah Badu, Tony Award winners Jennifer Holliday and Melba Moore, Metropolitan Opera star Harolyn Blackwell, and, from Broadway’s The Color Purple, Felicia P. Fields and Trent Armand Kendall. Hip Hop was produced again in the 2009–2010 season. National touring productions continued as popular fare with the 2008– 2009 season production of JD Lawrence’s The Clean-Up Woman (2009) as a representative example (presented again in the 2009–2010 season). The Clean-Up Woman showcased the work of well-known performers Telma Hopkins, Christopher Williams, Jackée Harry, George Wilborn, and author JD Lawrence. In this hilarious work, called by its author a dramedy, a newlywed wife is a career-driven journalist who tries to satisfy her husband’s need for her to fill the traditional role of cleaning the house by hiring a maid—with unexpected results. The stage play was released on DVD in 2010. Angela Barrow-Dunlap’s and Vanessa Lynn’s Church Girl, directed by Reuben Yabuku and featuring Robin Givens, Karen Clark Sheard, Demetria McKinney, and Tony Grant, represented the touring musical agenda in the 2010–2011 season. The book for this musical relays the story of a prominent pastor’s daughter, Emily (Robin Givens), who falters spiritually by performing in a sleazy nightclub. Emily has a double life, hiding her seedy behavior behind a good-girl image. Emily’s secret is uncovered, and events take a drastic turn. Church Girl represents the inspirational stage plays aimed at the black market that wrap up the action with redemption. The work was reshaped as a film and released on DVD in 2012. Joy Franklin’s A Song for You . . . The Civil Rights Journey of a Negro Woman: Lena Calhoun Horne, and Tommie Stewart’s Profiles of Me (produced also in 1981 and 1990) were among the plays mounted with local production troupes. Both included historical narratives, one on the internation-

Dallas  ◆   1 4 5 ally known Lena Horne and the other projecting a less-known personal journey. Many of the works produced as part of the TBAAL Dress Performance Theatre Series featured stars of television and/or film (e.g., Kim Fields of Diff ’rent Strokes and The Facts of Life) in Black Don’t Crack, But My Soul Does Ache and Jasmine Guy (A Different World) in Raisin’ Cane (based on work by Jean Toomer and Avery Sharpe). Also part of the Dress Performance series was local actor and director Akin Babatunde’s Obituary (2007), a comedy that satirizes black funeral traditions. Several works booked under the Dress Performance Theatre Series were one-man shows such as Michael Fosberg’s Incognito and David Whitfield’s comedy Don’t Be Deceived, There’s Still Some Good Men Left. The series included Picture Incomplete starring Trent Armand Kendall in a one-man musical about a desperate black middle-class New Yorker who “drags his memories to the curb and begins a journey of self-discovery.” Also, television actor Carl Payne “takes an in-depth dramatic and comic look into his own life from childhood to his rise to fame as an actor” in the 2009–2010 presentation of Here Comes the Payne. The Dress Performance Theatre Series also featured women, as in Anne Adair’s All the Queen’s Men, a comedic one-woman show directed by Babatunde, and Rene Marie’s Slut Energy Theory, a one-woman show directed by Donnie Betts. Historical works were included with Ali . . . The Man, the Myth, the People’s Champion with Vincent Cook. Blue, Black and Hot (author unidentified), a musical revue featuring tunes from the blues, Broadway, rhythm and blues, and jazz, conceived and directed by Stephen Semien, was among the small-cast musicals in the Dress Performance series. The Playwright’s Spotlight showcased a variety of plays and playwrights on Sunday afternoons. Playwrights featured included Derrick E. Grant in the fall of 2012 with his My Father’s House, a comedy about a father and son who are frequently at odds with each other but must deal with a kidney request from the biological father. In March 2012, TBAAL featured Reason to Fight by Melanie Villines and Hiram Johnson. The season brochure billed this work as a powerful drama about Bernice Johnson’s incarceration and the injustices that unfold upon her release. In the 1982–1983 season, the Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters’ Children’s Theatre Institute presented their first annual production, the L. Frank Baum–inspired musical The Wizard of Oz featuring youth between the ages of six and eleven, beginning a tradition that has endured every

1 4 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration year with few exceptions. Their productions included the 1998–1999 season’s Hallelujah: A Bit of Broadway, directed by Dane Hereford. In season 2005–2006, with approximately six hundred young people in attendance, the Children’s Theatre Institute presented Akin Babatunde’s Djaamana’ Deen (One Who Was Lost and Found His/Her Way Back Home), directed by Babatunde and Curtis King in collaboration with the Dallas Independent School District. The musical revue featured music, dance, dramatization, and song.82 By 2013, TBAAL had produced twenty-nine annual institutes and changed the name to Summer Youth Arts Institute. In 2001, TBAAL began to collaborate with the American Theatre Arts for Youth in presenting an annual treasure of classical musicals for Dallas Youth. The best known included Sleeping Beauty, Tom Sawyer, Anne Frank, Babes in Toyland,83 The Wizard of Oz, Ellis Island . . . Gateway to a Dream, Alice in Wonderland, Pippi Longstocking, The Little Mermaid, A Christmas Carol, Cinderella, Pinocchio, Black Journey, and Beauty and the Beast.

Perseverance and Survival From the beginning, Curtis King planned an organization that was tied to the community—individuals of all income levels, foundations, businesses, and local government arts councils. As the president and founder, King organized an impressive founding board of directors in 1977. Among the board members were Bob Ray Sanders, first vice president; Charles Bell, second vice president; Myrtle Bell, secretary; Carolyn Myers, assistant secretary; Barry Anderson, treasurer; Vernell Jessie, business manager; Burnice Smith, assistant business manager; and members Grace Akbar, Woody Austin, Marilyn Clark, Robert Edison, Howard Ervin, Deborah Godfrey, Judge Mary Ellen Hicks, and Janis Mayes.84 Eighty celebrities from stage, screen, television, literary and visual arts, drama, music, and dance formed his first board of advisers (e.g., Margaret Walker, Debbie Allen, Margaret Avery, Pearl Primus, Romare Bearden, Jacob Lawrence, Elizabeth Catlett, Ruby Dee, Beah Richards, and Esther Rolle). The institution was built on big names, says King, because they attract audience members who enjoy seeing people they have admired from stage, television, and movies. The seasons have all been anchored with recognizable stars from television and the movies. The season brochures and posters have showcased the familiar celebrity faces coming to the institution. In addition, celebrities have made contributions to the theatre and have al-

Dallas  ◆   1 4 7 lowed TBAAL to use their endorsements to increase the membership base (e.g., in program inserts, Tyler Perry noted that he is a member and asked others to become members as well). King was the sole administrator of JBA in 1977, but he had a volunteer staff of coordinators and a business committee.85 The program director recommended the annual season, and King submitted it to the board. The number of board members decreased over time to nine members in 2011. At that time, board members had to pay or raise a minimum of five thousand dollars. Their options for raising the money included membership and ticket sales, renting the venue, and seeking contributions. Board members also selected a program to host and took on the responsibility of getting out the audience. Some board members hosted as many as three programs a year.86 A look at TBAAL fiscal activities gives insight into how they have been able to survive over the years. TBAAL’s first annual membership drive was in September 1984 with a request of $7.50 from individuals to $500 from benefactors. The organization followed with a Radio-Thon in October of that same year in which they raised $12,000. By 2006, the thirtieth anniversary, TBAAL had close to fourteen thousand members contributing from $20 to $7,500 each and was also modestly supported by major foundations, plus it received 15 percent of its budget from Dallas’s Office of Cultural Affairs. As the president and head of the board, Curtis King employed a staff of eighteen plus contract workers and a large cadre of volunteers and managed a budget of $2.1 million. In 2005, approximately seven hundred thousand people came to the various programs. The membership method has replaced the subscription program because it gives audience members more flexibility during the season. Members receive a discount on many of the season’s shows. They are also encouraged to bring their organizations to rent the space. The touring musicals help increase membership numbers. With Momma Don’t in 1991, says King, sixteen performances in the 1,750-seat theatre generated seven or eight hundred members at the $20 level. When community groups rent the space, they often purchase a $1,000 membership.87 Over the years, the spacious accommodations have been used for numerous special speaking engagements, conferences, and even weddings. According to King, they regularly generate $100,000 in membership income and $200,000 from venue rental—all part of the earned income stream. This is a major boost to TBAAL and helps generate

1 4 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration 75 to 80 percent of its earned income budget; the rest is granted from Dallas’s city government, corporations, and private foundations. During the years from 1977 to 1989, JBA relocated several times. Its homes included Knight Street (the founder’s apartment), North Dallas (1977–1978); Lancaster Street, Oak Cliff (1979–1981); Peak Street, east Dallas (1981–1983); Commerce Street, east Dallas (1983–1986); Ervay Street, downtown Dallas (1986–1988); and Austin Street, downtown Dallas (1988– 1989). The ongoing struggle was for funds to acquire a suitable permanent home; in the midst of this struggle the company had early support from the Meadows Foundation and Hoblitzell Foundation. By 1986, King noted, they had continued support from the Meadows Foundation, but also from ARCO, IBM, and Rockwell International, in addition to the funds from private donations and membership drives.88 The City of Dallas gave them an old warehouse on Austin Street in downtown Dallas that needed major renovations; after $90,000 was spent, they still needed thousands more.89 Thus, King launched a $500,000 fund-raising campaign entitled “Leap for Legacy.”

The Black Academy of Arts and Letters, North Ervay Street location (1986–1988). Photo courtesy of The Black Academy of Arts and Letters.

Dallas  ◆   1 4 9 King found inspiration for financial success with the production God Is Trying to Tell You Something in 1990. He was amazed by the success of this musical featuring gospel music; for New Year’s Eve, it attracted an audience of approximately 1,400 people. He put it in the season for a one-week run in 1991. The audiences flocked to the theatre to see it, helping him to realize he had found a winning formula for filling his 1,750-seat theatre. Thus began a serious commitment to popular theatre over critically and academically acclaimed works in the black theatre canon. Speaking of the touring shows, Tyler Perry musicals and the like, King noted, “We clear $45,000 to $50,000 with these shows.”90 In addition, King worked to develop a taste for the critically acclaimed canon, or more recognizable literary works, and small-budget or small-cast shows in the smaller venue, the Clarence Muse Café Theatre with 250 seats. In reflecting on his legacy and TBAAL’s future, King observed that the way to provide for the future is to keep young people with new ideas involved and to mentor them so that they have the skills to carry on the work. King says, “I remember Esther Rolle telling me to make sure that what I have and learn I pass on to the young so that they will not have to plow the same fields.” A strong financial foundation is also critical. To that end, the board has put together a succession plan and secured a key man insurance policy on King.91 The journey for TBAAL and Curtis King was filled with many highs and lows. His mentors from the beginning impressed upon him the importance of building a strong base of support and a solid financial foundation from the people, not just government, corporate, or foundation funding. King built a network of local and national support. He collected stellar endorsements for his endeavors. With his board of directors set to help him with grants, celebrity supporters lending their time and talent, and community activists at work, he battled the Dallas city establishment for his fair share of the available funds. In 1982 the pastor of the Griffin Christian Academy, Hilliard Griffin, worked with him to acquire an east Dallas building for his arts programming, even allowing him to move in before all of the funds were raised to purchase the site. Unfortunately, Hilliard died before the deal could be finalized, and his family had other plans for the building. King and the community went to court to fight the decision to go against the wishes of Reverend Griffin. He involved the mayor and other city officials in his fight to secure the space. Although they lost, the fight garnered more support for JBA, making it

1 5 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration stronger for the battles ahead. King began collaborations with Dallas mayors that were productive. For example, in 1982, Mayor Jack Evans held a Breakfast with the Mayor which 150 top corporate executives attended to help raise funds for the JBA effort to purchase the Griffin Academy on Peak Street. In the midst of a hard-hat reception in 1984 at their future home on 720 Austin Street, in attendance to lend support were the mayor Starke Taylor, mayor pro tem Annette Strauss, members of the Dallas Citizens Council, the president of Proline Corporation, Comer Cottrell, and several more of the city’s corporate executives. The turning point in the fortunes of the JBA came in 1985. In February the Dallas Historical Society honored King for his leadership in the arts. By July, King had a management agreement with the city for a warehouse at 720 South Austin Street. The city decided that the academy could not continue to renovate the Austin Street project because it needed the land to expand the Dallas Convention Center. With the help of Taylor, Strauss, deputy mayor pro tem Dianne Ragsdale, and Park Board member Vivian Johnson, the city offered the Dallas Convention Center Theatre Complex to JBA. In spite of several city council votes against giving the JBA city arts funds, in September 1985 the council approved the request for JBA to occupy the space. This began an era of consistent city support, which included a Minority Arts Incentive Program that major Dallas institutions could participate in to diversify their programming and personnel. It also introduced the option for ongoing operations funding for smaller, mid-sized, and major institutions in the city—those with an operating budget of less than $350,000. This support came during the formative years of the development of the organization, when King regularly spoke to the press and sent letters to the city stating his case for funding. A major battle ensued in 1985 with King writing several letters to the city council to point out the inequitable level of funding for African American institutions. After politicians implemented petitions, church groups held prayer breakfasts, and a significant grass roots campaign began, the city began talking about changing its cultural policies. Through the many physical site moves and battles for their share of corporate, city, and grant monies, Curtis King was the unrelenting intellectual presence at the center with the right stuff— excellent writing, speaking, and interpersonal skills. This work led to a home for JBA in the Dallas Convention Center in 1989. Many arts groups seek to discover the Curtis King formula. Thus, King (a nationally known director, producer, and arts administrator) has led

Dallas  ◆   1 5 1 workshops around the country, including in Chicago, Los Angeles, and Washington, DC. He has also been a frequent presenter at the National Black Theatre Festival in Winston Salem, North Carolina. King shared what has been critical in his success in a 2011 Dallas Morning News interview: • We can’t isolate ourselves from our audiences as if we are elitist. • We don’t target audiences on a certain economic level. • We rely on electronic broadcast more so than on print to get the word out—and for our audiences, specifically radio. • It’s better to give seats away and have a full house so that people will become familiar with you. • We can’t work in race or gender isolation; the theatre is for anyone who will pay.92

The only arts institution and African American organization housed in a major urban convention center, The Black Academy of Arts and Letters serves over 650,000 patrons annually and has a membership base of 13,000. It sends brochures to 50,000 persons on a nationwide general mailing list, receives over two million hits on its website, and advertises and communicates daily through its email database. It presents and produces over one hundred programs in theatre, music, dance, literary arts, film, and visual arts. The founder, Curtis King, has been responsible for the restoration of three cultural arts facilities in Dallas, raising over $15 million for facility restorations, and over $65 million to create and produce arts programming.93

Conclusion The Black Academy of Arts and Letters’ work in theatre promotes technicians and playwrights as well as local and national performers. First and foremost, it has been an institution for the people, lifted up by the Dallas community. TBAAL’s audiences craved shows that revealed the inner life of blacks in their homes, churches, and communities, with messages that not only revealed this inner life in all its ugly truth but also held out the hope of redemption through religious fervor or love of family. These works celebrated the African American’s ability to overcome adversity. With a theatrical emphasis on black musicals, serious drama, historical works, and comedies, TBAAL gave its audience what it craved.

1 5 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration According to Bob Thomas, chairman of TBAAL’s board of directors in 2006, “Without a doubt, TBAAL’s accomplishments are due to a great degree of invaluable support we receive from the City of Dallas, sponsors, volunteers, the media, churches, social, civic and community organizations.”94 Its significance in the community has been noted by many city officials, including several Dallas mayors. One mayor, Laura Miller, remarked in 2006 that, “Organizations like The Black Academy of Arts and Letters are vital to the growth and stability of Dallas neighborhoods and are a link to the community at-large.”95 TBAAL emerged and flourished in the fertile ground created by two stellar black organizations and the numerous black theatres in the Dallas/ Fort Worth area before and concurrent with its own existence. With the aggressive and politically savvy driving force of the founder, Curtis King, as a consistent spine for the organization, the Black Academy of Arts and Letters has become an established and celebrated icon in the Dallas/Fort Worth area that is widely recognized not only in Texas but also throughout the country.

Theatre Productions by Season and Year of Production Dates at the end of each play are when the play was produced by the theatre. The Black Academy of Arts and Letters

1977–1978 Tell Pharaoh by Loften Mitchell (1978) 1978–1979 A Black Woman Speaks by Beah Richards (1978) Blues on 125th Street by Bob Ray Sanders (1978) Our Heritage adapted by Curtis L. King (1979) 1979–1980 God’s Trombones by James Weldon Johnson, adapted by Curtis L. King (1980) for colored girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf by Ntozake Shange (1980) 1980–1981 No Theatre Activity 1981–1982 Profiles of Me adapted by Tommie Harris Stewart (1981)

Dallas  ◆   1 5 3 Purlie Victorious by Ossie Davis (1981) Waves Inner Emotions conceived by JoAnn M. Williams (1982) Fly Black Bird by C. Bernard Jackson and James Hatch (1982) Ain’t I a Woman, adapted by Esther Rolle (1982) 1982–1983 Enter Frederick Douglass by William Marshall (1982) Home by Samm-Art Williams (1982) Medal of Honor Rag by Tom Cole (1983) The Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum, adapted by Curtis King (1983) 1983–1984 No Theatre Activity 1984–1985 No Theatre Activity 1985–1986 The Amen Corner by James Baldwin (1986) 1986–1987 Purlie Victorious by Ossie Davis (1986) Hallelujah: A Bit of Broadway, adapted by Curtis King (1987) (CTI) 1987–1988 No Theatre Activity 1988–1989 Driving Miss Daisy by Alfred Uhry (1989) 1989–1990 Stompin’ at the Savoy by Ron Stacker-Thompson (1989) God’s Trombones by James Weldon Johnson (1989) Zanzibar by Roger Boykin (1990) Sable: The Musical by Mable Bealer (1990) Don’t You Wanna Be Free by Langston Hughes (1990) 1990–1991 Profiles of Me by Tommie Stewart (1990) Lady Day at Emerson’s Bar and Grill by Lanie Robertson (1990) God Is Trying to Tell You Something (author unidentified) (1991) Momma Don’t by Michael Matthews (1991) Watermelon by Louis Johnson (1991) Bethune, adapted by Esther Rolle (1991) 1991–1992 One Monkey Don’t Stop No Show by Don Evans (1991) Wicked Ways by Michael Matthews (1992)

1 5 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Malcolm X: Reminiscences of a Black Revolutionary by Frank G. Greenwood (1992) 1992–1993 The Children’s Museum by Leroi Holmes (1992) Only the Strong (author unidentified) (1992) Young Man, Older Woman by Doug and Helen Smith (1992) I Need a Man by Michael Matthews (1993) Portraits of a Black Woman in Love by Woody Woods (1993) Once in a Wife Time by Celeste Bedford Walker (1993) Toussaint: Angel Warrior in Haiti by Audley Haffenden (1993) Beauty Shop, Part 2 by Shelly Garrett (1993) When Effie Burke Passed by diannetucker (1993) 1993–1994 Dreamgirls by Tom Eyen and Henry Kreiger (1993) I Need a Man by Michael Matthews (1994) Toussaint: Angel Warrior in Haiti by Audley Haffenden (1994) Profiles in Faith by diannetucker (1994) 1994–1995 Blues Bar by Curtis L. King (1994) What Goes Around Comes Around (author unidentified) (1994) 1995–1996 He Say, She Say, But What Does God Say? by David E. Talbert (1996) 1996–1997 Spirit Awakening by Akuyoe Graham (1996) Where Is My Father? (author unidentified) (1996) Thank God! The Beat Goes On (author unidentified) (1996) A Fool and His Money by David E. Talbert (1997) 1997–1998 Before the Second Set: A Visit with Satchmo by Akin Babatunde (1997) 1998–1999 Before It Hits Home by Cheryl L. West (1998) I Know I’ve Been Changed by Tyler Perry (1999) The Whosoever Will Prayer Band by Arthur Allen (1999) Hallelujah: A Bit of Broadway adapted by Curtis King (1999) 1999–2000 Looking for a Man by Mildred Dumas and Silvia Roberts (1999) Breakfast in Harlem by Mike Malone (1999) Twas the Night before Christmas adapted by Griot Productions (1999)

Dallas  ◆   1 5 5

The Marriage by Donald Greaves (2000) Spirit in the Wind by Nick LaTour (2000) Secret Lover by Michael Matthews (2000) Rep Tales by Keith Price (2000) Be Careful What You Pray For by Lisa Garrett Reynolds (2000) for black boys who have considered homicide when the streets were too much by Keith Antar Mason (2000) Lord, Why Do I Keep Choosing the Wrong Man? by Emmanuel Seegars (2000) From the Mississippi Delta by Endesha Mae Holland (2000) Strictly Matrimony by Errol Hill (2000) 2000–2001 I Can Do Bad All By Myself by Tyler Perry (2000) Fatback and Collard Greens by Dessie Sanders (2000) Friends for Life by Linus-lynell (2000) God Don’t Like Ugly by Carlton Hamilton (2000) Ladies in Waiting by Peter DeAnda (2001) Real Men Pray (author unidentified) (2001) Malcolm, Martin, Medgar by A. Peter Bailey (2001) Succeeding Beyond the Limits by Teresa Coleman Wash (2001) Black Folks Don’t Need No Shrinks by Linus-lynell (2001) A Mother’s Prayer by Avery O. Williams (2001) 2001–2002 Five Guys Named Moe by Clarke Peters (2001) Diary of a Mad Black Woman by Tyler Perry (2001) Sleeping Beauty by Charles Perrault, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2001) T’Keyah Live! . . . Mostly: A True Variety Show by T’Keyah Crystal Keymah (2001) Madea’s Family Reunion by Tyler Perry (2002) Malcolm, Martin, Medgar by A. Peter Bailey (2002) Men Cry in the Dark by Michael Baisden (2002) The Eyes of Black Folks by John Horhn (2002) Succeeding Beyond the Limits by Teresa Coleman Wash (2002) Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2002) Anne Frank by Anne Frank, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2002)

1 5 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Ain’t Misbehavin’ by Murray Horwitz and Richard Maltby Jr. (2002) A Fool for Love by Jan Feaster (2002) Who Can You Trust by Michael Matthews (2002) Wild Women Blues by Mel Howard (2002) Hallelujah: A Bit of Broadway conceived by Curtis King (2002) 2002–2003 Madea’s Family Reunion by Tyler Perry (2002) There’s a Brown Girl in the Ring by Beah Richards (2002) Babes in Toyland by Victor Herbert, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2002) Madea’s Class Reunion by Tyler Perry (2003) Fannie Lou Hamer (author unidentified) (2003) Forbidden Fruit by Michael Matthews (2003) If These Hips Could Talk by Angela Barrow-Dunlap (2003) Paul Robeson by Phillip Hayes Dean (2003) The Maintenance Man by Michael Baisden (2003) Ellis Island . . . Gateway to a Dream adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2003) The Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2003) Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2003) Before the Second Set: A Visit with Satchmo by Akin Babatunde (2003) A Woman’s Revenge by Derrick and Celeste Brinkley (2003 Shakespeare . . . Midnight Echoes by Akin Babatunde (2003) 2003–2004 P.S. I’m Still Standing (author unidentified) (2003) Five Guys Named Moe by Clarke Peters (2003) Pinocchio by Carlo Collodi, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2003) Why Did I Get Married? by Tyler Perry (2003) Cinderella by Edward and George Dalziel, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2004) Not a Day Goes By by E. Lynn Harris, adapted by Yolanda Starks (2004) The Family that Prayed Together by David E. Talbert (2004) Shadowlands by William Nicholson (2004) Who’s That Lady? by Keenan Zeno (2004)

Dallas  ◆   1 5 7

Beauty and the Beast by Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Gallon de Villeneuve, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2004) Guilty until Proven Innocent by Derrick Brinkley and Laterras R. Whitfield (2004) Jezebel by Ossie Davis (2004) 2004–2005 The Cotton Club (author unidentified) (2004) Friends & Lovers by Eric Jerome Dickey (2004) A House Is Not a Home (author unidentified) (2004) A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2004) Babes in Toyland by Victor Herbert, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2004) Black Boy by Richard Wright, adapted by Charlie Holt (2005) What Men Don’t Tell by Laterras R. Whitfield (2005) Never Turn Back by Curtis L. King (2005) Meet the Browns by Tyler Perry (2005) Don’t Bother Me, I Can’t Cope by Micki Grant and Vinnette Carroll (2005) Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2005) Pippi Longstocking by Astrid Lindgren, adapated by the American Theatre for Youth (2005) The Little Mermaid by Hans Christian Andersen, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2005) Cheaters by Eric Jerome Dickey, adapted by Michael Jacobs (2005) 2005–2006 Why Do Good Girls Like Bad Boyz? (2005) by Angela Barrow-Dunlap (2005) Willie and Esther by James Graham Bronson (2005) A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens (2005) Sleeping Beauty by Charles Perrault, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2005) If This Hat Could Talk: The Untold Stories of Dr. Dorothy Height by Dorothy Height (2005) Issues! We All Got ’Em by Laterras R. Whitfield (2006) Gut Bucket Gospel: From Church to Broadway conceived by Curtis L. King (2006)

1 5 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

By a Black Hand by Arthur M. Reese and Darryl Goodman with Larry Leon Hamlin, artistic consultant (2006) Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2006) The Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2006) Cinderella by Charles Perrault, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2006) Split Ends by Venus Opal Reese (2006) Cheaters by Eric Jerome Dickey, adapted by Michael Jacobs (2006) Djaamana’ Deen . . . conceived by Akin Babatunde (2006) 2006–2007 Welcome Home, Marian Anderson by Vanessa Shaw (2006) Men, Money, Gold Diggers by Je’Caryous Johnson (2006) The Late Great Ladies of Blues and Jazz by Sandra Reeves Phillips (2006) A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2006) Issues! We All Got ’Em by Laterras R. Whitfield (2007) Beauty and the Beast by Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Gallon de Villanueve, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2007) From Garvey to Parks: The Spirit of Marcus Garvey by Ron Bobb-Semple and A Rose among Thorns by Ella Joyce (2007) My Sweet Potato Pie (author unidentified) (2007) Pinocchio by Carlo Collodi, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2007) 2007–2008 By Any Means Necessary by Laterras R. Whitfield (2007) A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2007) A Song for You . . . The Civil Rights Journey of a Negro Woman: Lena Calhoun Horne by Wendi Joy Franklin (2008) Ellis Island . . . Gateway to a Dream adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2008) Cinderella by Charles Perrault, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2008) Where’s Papa Ray’s Money? by Thomas Miles (2008) The Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2008)

Dallas  ◆   1 5 9 Profiles of Me by Tommie Stewart (2008) Hip-Hop Broadway: The Musical conceived by Curtis L. King (2008) 2008–2009 Obituary by Akin Babatunde (2008) South of Where We Live by Kenneth B. Davis (2008) This Is Our Story: Learning, Loving and Living Well with Diabetes by Wendy Coleman (2008) Pinocchio by Carlo Collodi, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2008) Christmas . . . Who Needs It by Fred Hammond (2008) The Clean-Up Woman by JD Lawrence (2009) Pippi Longstocking by Astrid Lindgren, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2009) Black Don’t Crack, But My Soul Does Ache by Kim Fields (2009) Anne Frank by Anne Frank, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2009) Incognito by Michael Fosberg (2009) Raisin’ Cane by Jean Toomer, adapted by Avery Sharpe (2009) 2009–2010 Ali . . . The Man, The Myth, The People’s Champion (author unidentified) (2009) Hip-Hop Broadway: The Musical by Curtis L. King (2009) Don’t Be Deceived, There’s Still Some Good Men Left by David Whitfield (2010) Black Journey, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2010) Here Comes the Payne by Carl Payne (2010) The Clean-Up Woman by J.D. Lawrence (2010) Beauty and the Beast by Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Gallon de Villeneuve, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2010) Picture Incomplete by Trent Kendall (2010) Bonita and Billie by Bonita Brister (2010) 2010–2011 Eureka (author unidentified) (2010) Church Girl by Angela Barrow-Dunlap and Vanessa Lynn (2010) Cinderella by Charles Perrault, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2010) All the Queen’s Men by Annie Adair (2010) Slut Energy Theory by Rene Marie (2011)

1 6 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Me and Mrs. Jones by JD Lawrence (2011) Blue, Black and Hot (author unidentified) (2011) Beauty and the Beast by Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Gallon de Villeneuve, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2011) Pippi Longstocking by Astrid Lindgren, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2011) Marriage Material by Je’Caryous Johnson (2011) A Handsome Woman’s Retreat by Kim Wayans (2011) 2011-2012 A Black Woman Speaks by Beah Richards (2011) Pippi Longstocking by Astrid Lindgren, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2011) Love Won’t Let Me Wait by T. J. Hemphill (2011) Harvest of Katrina Voices by Akin Babatunde (2012) Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2012) Dink Blues by Phillip Hayes Dean (2012) 2012–2013 Babes in Toyland by Victor Herbert, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2012) Do Lord Remember Me by James de Jongh (2013) Another Man Will by David E. Talbert (2013) Ain’t Ethiopia by Michael Bettencourt (2013) The Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2013) Sleeping Beauty by Charles Perrault, adapted by the American Theatre for Youth (2013)

5 ◆ Fort Worth j o y i n t h e t h e at r e

Sojourner Truth Players (1972–1991) Jubilee Theatre (1981–present) I’m lookin’ forward to makin’ my own livin’. Driving a truck with my name on it. Change my reputation. Workin’ with my brother again. I think we’ll both like it better this time around. And I’ll help’im with his temper. Help my sister raise that boy right and get her act together. She’ll be alright. We’ll be alright. Texas! No place like it. Nowhere. Lots of sky. Lotta land. Lotta pride. Forgivin’. Lotta love. Eugene Lee, Killingsworth, 1988

After a review of the black Fort Worth community that inspired the founding of black theatre in the city, this chapter focuses on the Sojourner Truth Players and the Jubilee Theatre. The Sojourner Truth Players came of age during the 1970s, a prolific period of black theatre activity around the country inspired by the black arts movement with its visionary theorists, poets, and playwrights including Amiri Baraka and Ed Bullins. Jubilee Theatre came to the fore in the 1980s, a decade that saw the ascent of one of the most celebrated and prolific black playwrights in contemporary America, August Wilson. Black theatres in Fort Worth, like others around the country with progressive black communities, worked to find their voices and express their pride. This part of the Texas black theatre story reviews the struggle for these Fort Worth theatre companies not only to find their artistic homes but also to survive the challenge of losing their inspirational founders. The chapter highlights the theatres’ origins, missions, memorable productions, and community outreach along with their perseverance and survival strategies.

Blacks in Fort Worth According to the US Census, Fort Worth was the home of approximately 741,206 people in 2010, 18.9 percent (140,087) of whom were black. Fort Worth’s metropolitan area, which includes Tarrant, Denton, Johnson, Park-

1 6 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration er, and Wise Counties, is in north-central Texas and has a total population of 2,647,702. Of these counties, Tarrant has the highest black population with 276,782 black residents.1 The city is described by its residents as a cultural gateway into the American West. Fort Worth’s black community has also benefited from close association with the city’s robust and progressive neighbor, Dallas. Many of Fort Worth’s most talented theatre artists have worked in both cities, e.g., Akin Babatunde and Diane Tucker. After the Civil War, several emancipated blacks in Fort Worth began building the foundations for the city’s black community. In 1887 renowned black businessman William M. McDonald organized the Lone Star Fair Association, which served to promote prospective black economic enterprises in Fort Worth.2 McDonald established the Fraternal Bank and Trust Company in Fort Worth in 1912. In addition, other black businessmen assisted in organizing chapters of Booker T. Washington’s National Negro Business League in Fort Worth in 1905. These businesses served the increasing black urban population that rose from 1 to 46 percent of those residing in urban wards of Fort Worth by 1910.3 The community continued to find ways to overcome adversity. For example, a black doctor from Louisville, Riley A. Ransom, founded the Ethel Ransom Memorial Hospital in 1937 to ease the problem of medical service to blacks in the area, who often received second-class medical care in the basement of the local hospital. In spite of continued segregation, the city elected its first black political figure, Dr. Edward Guinn, in the 1960s. He is remembered as an energetic and creative leader. Over the years, black Fort Worth citizens also achieved leadership positions in city and state government; for example, in 2013 they were represented in the city council with Frank Moss (District 5) and Kelly Allen Gray (District 8),4 while Nicole Collier served District 95 as a state representative.5 Communications through radio and news media has bolstered the Fort Worth community. In 1970, Cecil Johnson became the first black journalist hired by the Fort Worth Star-Telegram.6 Two black newspaper outlets, La Vida News—The Black Voice and Fort Worth Black News (online), specialize in disseminating black news. Blacks in Fort Worth also listen to several black radio stations operating in the Dallas metropolitan area, including 94.5 K-soul—adult urban and old school music—and Heaven 97-KHVN, AM— contemporary gospel. Notable representatives of black culture in the city have included Buttons Food and Music for the Soul, Lenora Rolla Heritage Center Museum,

Fort Worth  ◆   1 6 3 and the National Multicultural Western Heritage Museum and Hall of Fame.7 In addition, black citizens have supported cultural and civil activity through the Tarrant County Genealogical Society, the National Alliance of Black School Educators, and the local NAACP chapter.8 The Fort Worth black community is bolstered by nine black churches that range from Baptist, Unity, Church of God in Christ, and nondenominational. These churches include Eagles Nest Missionary Baptist Church, Inspiring Temple of Praise, and Heavenly Gospel Church of God in Christ. The development of a strong sense of race memory and pride led Fort Worth citizens to develop a cohesive community in many areas. The rise of Fort Worth as a cultural center sparked exciting and productive work in the theatre.

The Sojourner Truth Players Although Jubilee Theatre has the status of being the longest-running African American theatre company in the Fort Worth area, it was not the first. That honor belongs to the Sojourner Truth Players. Erma Mozelle Duffy Lewis (d. 1982), the founding executive director, established the company with five others in 1972. The company started as an outgrowth of a group organization for girls called the Junior Debutantes of Fort Worth. Its leader was Lewis, who had a background in theatre and dance. In the 1950s and 1960s she served as the program director for the YWCA, teaching ballet, modern, and African dance. The Junior Debutantes had originated with the YTeens of Dunbar High School; later I. M. Terrell High School students participated. City hall connections led to seed money from the Health, Education, and Welfare Department to support Lewis’s efforts with the youth. This organization also collaborated with mayor’s Council on Youth and Council on Opportunity to sponsor workshops led by Lewis. The first home for the theatre was the Community Christian Church at 1800 E. Vickery Boulevard. Lewis created a theatre of approximately seventy-five seats in a small annex to the church. Though a fire destroyed the theatre and forced Lewis to find another space, she convinced the owner of Harold’s Grocery Store on the corner of Rosedale Drive and Fabons Street to give her the store’s 4,500 square feet of space to renovate as a cultural center. With volunteer assistance, the new center was successfully renovated and opened in 1981. Erma Lewis recruited a variety of local talent to mount her productions.

1 6 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Erma Duffy Lewis, founder and executive director, Sojourner Truth Players (1972–1982). Photo courtesy of Gloria L. Smith.

Bob Ray Sanders, who went on to become associate editor and senior columnist for the Fort Worth Star-Telegram, wrote for the company while he was manager of the public radio station KERA-FM. Willis Charles Jackson, a writer with the Sojourner Truth Players, was a managing editor for the Oakland Tribune. Frank Moss was at one point chairman of their board of directors. Curtis King, now known for his work as the founder and president of the Black Academy of Arts and Letters, helped to direct and develop workshops while attending Texas Christian University in Fort Worth.

Founder Erma Lewis grew up in Fort Worth, where she attended I. M. Terrell High School. She attended Wiley College in Marshall, Texas, and Dillard University in New Orleans. At Dillard she majored in social work, a degree that helped her to secure a job in Fort Worth as a social worker, but also as the program director for YWCA. She is remembered as an outgoing force of energy who could talk to all kinds of people. She had an open, winning way that brought people to her. She was a polished and sophisticated

Fort Worth  ◆   1 6 5 dancer who was often called a natural beauty. She was said to have been an avid reader with an incredible laugh, who smoked, and who was often in leotards.9

Memorable Productions The Sojourner Truth Players’ season consisted of two plays a year and a number of workshops and other special community projects. The theatre produced many well-known black experience plays, including Ossie Davis’s Purlie (1970), James Weldon Johnson’s God’s Trombones (1927), Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun (1959) and To Be Young, Gifted and Black (1969), and Murray Horwitz and Richard Maltby Jr.’s Ain’t Misbehavin’ (1978). Also in their repertoire were plays and musicals by white playwrights such as Marc Connelly’s The Green Pastures (1930), Stephen Schwartz and John-Michael Tebelak’s Godspell (1970), Tennessee Williams’s A Streetcar Named Desire (1947), and Ernest Thompson’s On Golden Pond (1979). The special community projects included Our Heritage (1976), an original work produced in 1976 at Bishop College as part of the opening activities of the Southwest Research Center and Museum for the study of African American Life and Culture in the Zale Library.10 The Green Pastures (1930), the Pulitzer Prize–winning play by Marc Connelly, was one of the Sojourner Truth Players’ most ambitious projects, with a cast of approximately one hundred people. It opened the 1981 season in the company’s new theatre space in the Sojourner Truth Arts Center. Connelly adapted the play from Ol’ Man Adam an’ His Chillun (1928), a collection of stories written by Roark Bradford. It is a reenactment of Old Testament stories in which all the characters (including God) are African American and speak in a black southern dialect. The play portrays episodes from the Old Testament as seen through the eyes of a young African American child during the depression who interprets the Bible in terms familiar to her. The Green Pastures places stories of the Bible, such as Adam and Eve, Noah and the flood, Moses and the exodus from Egypt, and the crucifixion of Christ, in a rural black southern setting. One of the scenes takes place at a “fish fry” in “pre-Creation Heaven.” God eats boiled pudding, smokes cigars, and runs Heaven out of a shabby “private office,” assisted by Gabriel. The settings are roughly contemporary to the time period in which the play was first written and performed; a New Orleans jazz nightclub represents the city of Babylon. The Green Pastures, featuring numerous African American spirituals arranged by the famous Harlem

1 6 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Renaissance choral director Hall Johnson, was a big hit for the Sojourner Truth Players.11 In 1987 the Sojourner Truth Players produced the Native American drama Big Pow Wow (1987) by LeAnne Howe and Roxy Gordon, both Choctaw Indians. This was a rare instance of collaboration in Texas between American Indian theatre and African American theatre. The play ran for six weeks.12

Perseverance and Survival A partnership with Miller Brewing Company helped the Sojourner Truth Players produce a number of musicals—most memorable was Purlie because they were able to host the author, Ossie Davis, and his wife, Ruby Dee. In addition, they had the funds to bring in a guest director for their production of Ain’t Misbehavin’. During the early 1980s they were operating with budgets of approximately $7,500, says Charlese Thomas-James, executive director from 1982–1991.13 In addition to support from Miller Brewing Company, they started getting support from the Fort Worth Arts Council, Radio Shack, Tandy Corporation, and the Texas Commission on the Arts. Although a few staff people received stipends, most of the funds were spent on costumes, set design, and royalties. The actors and technical people were mainly volunteer workers with other jobs to sustain them. Thomas-James also worked for Tarrant County College. Board member Frank Moss was also an elected official (District 5 city councilman, 1998– 2004; 2007 to present) and Dorothy Scott, board member and occasional performer, was an assistant principal and administrator in the Fort Worth Independent School District. The theatre group continued under the leadership of Thomas-James, one of its earliest supporters, when Erma Duffy Lewis died shortly after the Players moved to their new space in 1982. Charlese Thomas-James had previously served as an assistant, helping with theatre activities for both children and adults, writing grants, and performing administrative duties. She was also one of the first presidents of the Junior Debutantes, the first company members. Thomas-James was a graduate of Nolan High School in Fort Worth and attended Clark College in Atlanta, now Clark Atlanta University, where she earned a degree in theatre administration before returning home to work with the Sojourner Truth Players. A second fire in 1988 destroyed the building on Fabons Street, devastating the theatre company. They tried shows at several venues in Fort Worth

Fort Worth  ◆   1 6 7 and reemerged for a short time in 1991 at 6619 Forest Hills Drive before disbanding. The loss of their home, the loss of their inspirational founder, and the constant challenge to find the money to survive led to their demise. The box office take based on a ticket price that typically ranged between three and five dollars per person and the annual summer Celebrity Stroll fund-raiser were not enough to support operations, even with the intermittent support of businesses and arts organizations. Nonetheless, the Sojourner Truth Players provided a notable beginning for black theatre in the Fort Worth/Dallas area that involved a significant portion of the community, especially the black arts community. As noted by Thomas-James, “[The Sojourner Truth Players] should be marked down in the state of Texas as one of those entities [that] afforded the opportunity for a lot of theatre that we see today.”14

Jubilee Theatre They’re acting up and getting down.15

In 1981, Marian and Rudy Eastman decided to spearhead a new theatre group in Fort Worth, with Rudy Eastman at the helm. This decision led to the founding of the Jubilee Players, who became the longest-running African American theatre group in the Fort Worth area. Today, over thirty years later, Jubilee Theatre has a regular season of plays, a home in downtown Fort Worth, a productive board of directors, a full-time paid staff of three, a host of community outreach programs, a large following of diverse fans, and a committed group of news reporters covering their work.

Mission Pride and Joy in Theatre

From its inception the mission of the Jubilee Players, now Jubilee Theatre, has been to celebrate and to entertain. They have kept black culture at the center as they mined the rich resources of the world theatre canon, giving African American performers opportunities to sharpen their skills in satisfying major roles that showcased their singing, dancing, and acting talents. “Jubilee” means to celebrate. Founders Marian and Rudy Eastman gave their company this evocative title because it symbolized their desire to delight audiences of all kinds, especially those who had not traditionally seen themselves center stage.16 Thus, as their official statement of objec-

1 6 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Jubilee Theatre founders, Marian and Rudy Eastman. Rudy Eastman, artistic director (1981– 2005). Photo courtesy of Jubilee Theatre.

tive reveals, they aimed “to create and present theatrical works which reflect the African American experience.” Their core principles have been to “promote and present new works, with a focus on both musicals and plays, and find and present the universal message in the works, so as to attract and affect a diverse and multicultural audience.”17

Founders Rudy Eastman was born in Oklahoma in 1944 and raised in Hereford, Texas. He received a bachelor’s degree in history and business education in 1966 from Paul Quinn College in Waco (the college moved to Dallas in 1990). He taught history and theatre and was involved in University Interscholastic League competitions with the public school system in Fort Worth for twenty-four years—fourteen at O. D. Wyatt High School. He completed further

Fort Worth  ◆   1 6 9 studies at the University of North Texas, where he received a teaching certification in theatre, and Texas Christian University. He met his future wife when he accepted a position to work with the Sojourner Truth Players. Rudy was hired as a director, Marian as a stage manager. After five years with the Sojourner Truth Players, they moved on to start their own company in 1981. Rudy became the company’s inspiration as the artistic director, writer, and adapter of numerous plays, while Marian helped in a variety of support functions—everything from helping with plays under development, line coaching, building and pulling costumes, and working in the box office. Although Rudy Eastman acted in their first production of A Raisin in the Sun in the 1981–1982 season and did some acting with the Sojourner Truth Players, he found his niche in directing, writing, and adapting plays with Jubilee. Marian Eastman, a Fort Worth native, graduated from I. M. Terrell High School. She attended historically black Wiley College in Marshall, Texas, where she double majored in biology and chemistry. Though she has always loved the theatre, she was a medical researcher for most of her career. Her theatre involvement began in high school with her English teachers, but also with an aunt who was active in theatre; thus, in her words, “theatre activity was all around me.”18 Meeting Rudy at the Sojourner Truth Players led to a lifelong involvement in and passion for theatre.

Memorable Productions The First Decade With experience, contacts, and inspiration from the Sojourner Truth Players, the Eastmans founded the Jubilee Players. In 1981 they secured a space at 1801 East Vickery Street in Fort Worth. They began with a four-play season that included Alice Childress’s Mojo (1970) and String (1969), Lorraine Hansberry’s classic A Raisin in the Sun, James Rosenberg’s The Life and Death of Sneaky Fitch (1965), and Eastman’s Dunbar Is Not Just a High School (1982). With the inclusion of Childress and Hansberry, they began with playwrights who were well known in the theatre world. With the inclusion of Rosenberg’s Sneaky Fitch, they launched the beginning of a long line of hilarious comedies and farces as regular offerings to entertain their fans. In the play, the character Sneaky Fitch is a no-good, drunken, brawling nuisance in the little town of Gopher Gulch, where his antics lead to mischief in the plot and fun for the audience. The choice of Sneaky Fitch in the first season also signaled that the plays chosen by the company would not all be

1 7 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration by African American playwrights, but would come from a diverse group of playwrights representing many periods of theatre history—though always developed from a black perspective (e.g., Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream as Dreamin’ on a Hot Summer Night (1989) and set on a Caribbean island). In the first season, Dunbar Is Not Just a High School signaled Eastman’s ties to the high school where he taught. The production revealed his objective to use theatre as a vehicle for teaching, in this case a history lesson about the historical background of Dunbar High School and the significance of its being named after the poet Paul Laurence Dunbar.19 The cost of the lease and royalties in the 1981–1982 season, combined with low attendance as they began, led the Eastmans to a quick adjustment. Thus, by the end of that first season they had left the East Vickery Street location to become a gypsy troupe performing at a variety of venues—Stage West Theatre, Upstairs at the White Elephant, Circle Theatre, and the Caravan of Dreams. The Caravan of Dreams was the favorite location. The acoustics were top notch, as were the facilities overall—nice tile showers and counters, dressing rooms, and theatre lighting.20 On the road in the 1982–1983 season, the Jubilee Players produced their first of the many blues musical revue crowd-pleasers, The Blues Ain’t Nothin’ but a Good Man Feeling Bad (1982), at Stage West Theatre and the first of their many gospel musical adaptations, Prodigal (1983), by Rudy Eastman and Robert Sanders. Prodigal, based on the Bible story of the prodigal son, received support from the Fort Worth Arts Council. This grant allowed the players to mount a gala fund-raising effort at the Scott Theatre. The production was so well received that they extended the run by moving it to Stage West.21 The work of Jubilee Theatre continued with two shows the next season, 1983–1984. They opened with the Tony and Drama Desk Award–nominated Home (1979) by Samm-Art Williams. The comedy was first mounted by the Negro Ensemble Company at St. Mark’s Playhouse before moving to Broadway’s Cort Theatre from May 7, 1980, to January 4, 1981. The moving storyline with its emphasis on the importance of roots appealed to Jubilee audiences, who could identify with the young protagonist. Cephus Miles loses his love, his land, and his dignity, but recovers it all as he returns home. With the second show, Eastman, with coauthor Mary Catherine Jordan (later Mary Keaton-Jordan), adapted the work of the celebrated poet Paul Laurence Dunbar and his comic black dialect poem “When Malindy Sings” (1983) (poem written c. 1897). It was a one of the best-known poems

Fort Worth  ◆   1 7 1 of the day and a favorite among African American students in oratorical contests. The following is a sample of the popular dialect and lightheartedness of the work: G’way an’ quit dat noise, Miss Lucy— Put dat music book away; What’s de use to keep on tryin’? Ef you practise twell you’re gray, You cain’t sta’t no notes a-flyin’ Lak de ones dat rants and rings F’om de kitchen to be big woods When Malindy sings.22

Produced for civic group observations, Jubilee’s “When Malindy Sings” showcased locally and toured in Huntsville and Paul Quinn College in Dallas. The Jubilee Players swung into 1984–1985 with their first big hit, It Ain’t Grease, It’s Dixie Peach (1984), an original rock and roll review, produced first at the WRST Bar and Grill, Caravan of Dreams, and later in the season at Taheeti’s in Dallas. The musical was the creative work of Eastman, his board member Darwin Mendoza, and composer Joe Rogers.

It Ain’t Grease, It’s Dixie Peach (1994). (Left to right) Blake Moorman, Elisabeth Yawn Ivy, Robert Rouse Jr. Photo by Michael Bodycomb.

1 7 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Eastman followed the success of It Ain’t Grease with another musical, Cotton Club Night (1984), featuring the great jazz music of the 1920s that made the Cotton Club of Harlem famous. They produced the revue at the Upstairs at the White Elephant club in Fort Worth. The season also included the comedy One Monkey Don’t Stop No Show (1982) by Don Evans. In the play, Harrison, a Baptist preacher, and his wife, Myra, cling tenaciously to their position in the local black elite as numerous hilarious complications ensnare them. During this time, Jubilee board members tried to secure a regular performance venue by leasing a space north of the downtown overpass on Fifteenth Street, but they found the task of bringing the warehouse space up to code requirements daunting. Thus, they abandoned the effort when the lease expired without ever producing a show there. The 1985–1986 season was a busy one with four productions in three different spaces underwritten by the Arts Council, Tandy Corporation, and twenty other individuals and corporations.23 The season opened with Small Change (1976) by Peter Gill at Stage West. For a Juneteenth benefit in Sycamore Park, the Jubilee Players produced their first show especially for children, Bruh Rabbit Meets Tar Baby (1985), an adaptation of the folktale by Rudy Eastman. The innovative sci-fi musical Negroes in Space (1986), developed by Eastman and composer Doug Balentine, opened the 1986–1987 season. Sellout crowds at the Caravan of Dreams during the first three-week run of the musical led to a reengagement for three weeks in January. The inspiration for the work came from creative talk during a card game at the Eastman home. Their absurd ideas led to the development of the work; thus, many members of the troupe felt a connection to its creation. It was an upbeat, hilarious work with innovative costumes and a space ship they manually operated to move around the stage. The space ship was driven by four stagehands wearing jumpsuits, goggles, and white caps. The musical showcased four singers along with the actors presenting the story. They performed before a full house every night of the run. Descriptions of Eastman’s Negroes in Space showcase the fun: Shelley DeVille, a black security guard accidentally time-warped into the future; funk stolen by Plastic Man, the godfather of galactic funk; a Negroes in Space Earth-Aid Concert; a planet-sized rent party and quest for stolen funk to redeem the over-mortgaged Earth from its creditor. Negroes in Space led to a sequel, Coop DeVille: Time Travelin’ Brother (2001). As one reporter raved, “Funk without end. Amen.”24

Fort Worth  ◆   1 7 3

Negroes in Space (1986). (Front to back) Steven Griffin, Brett Coleman. Photo by Michael Bodycomb.

The 1986–1987 season was a turning point in the fortunes of the Jubilee Players. They received an Amon G. Carter Foundation challenge grant, successfully raised the matching funds, and leased the storefront space at 3114 East Rosedale across the street from the Texas Wesleyan Campus. This took the players to the Polytechnic Main Street area of Fort Worth and involved them in its revitalization efforts. Jubilee’s new space was in the center of the seven-block area designated for redevelopment as a project under the Texas Main Street Program to revitalize declining business districts in cities throughout Texas. Known as the Polytechnic Main Street Project, the effort involved Texas Wesleyan College, area churches and businesses, Neighborhood Health Services, and the city government of Fort Worth. Jubilee’s storefront renovation to a theatre space of ninety seats was the first serious commitment to the revitalization project in the area.25 Finally having a home made them feel they had arrived. According to Marian Eastman, they were singing “Moving on Up to the Eastside,” the theme song from the television show The Jeffersons, because indeed it was a move up, and it was to the east side of town.26

1 7 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Jubilee Theatre, 3114 East Rosedale. Photo by Michael Bodycomb.

On May 15, 1987, the Jubilee Players presented their first show in the new space with the revival of the popular original blues revue, Blues Ain’t Nothin’ But a Good Man Feeling Bad. Eastman updated the work as a two-act comedy featuring a three-man, two-woman cast of singers and dancers accompanied by piano and drums. Revamped with new music and dialogue, The Blues Ain’t Nothin’ was a tribute to blues songs from the turn of the century to the 1930s, from both the southern rural and the early urban black experiences. The players continued the season with Drums (1987) by Rudy Eastman and Betty Green, a work based on a South African story with drumming and chanting. The 1987–1988 season found the Jubilee Players, now established as the Jubilee Theatre, with a diverse lineup in the first full year in their new

Fort Worth  ◆   1 7 5 home on Rosedale Street. A revival of their 1982 production of Home by Samm-Art Williams opened the season. Jubilee also featured the classic The Amen Corner by James Baldwin. The production received an encouraging critical response: The gospel singing, with just tambourines and a piano for accompaniment, as in a real storefront church, opens the play with a burst of high energy. And much of Eastman’s cast, especially Janice Peace, Meretta Savannah and Robert Rouse, are very adept at Baldwin’s wry, satiric portraits of the disgruntled churchgoers. Peace, in particular, may be playing beyond her years, but she has a nice touch with comic hypocrisy.27

In the same season, Killingsworth (1988), a murder mystery by local playwright Eugene Lee, earned mixed reviews but also some encouragement for the playwright: Lee’s is a talky play, but a great deal of it is good talk. Lee has a knack for funny, funky, often profane anecdotes and wisecracks and uses them to delineate character. Keaton-Jordan, for instance, is an amusing, prattling, fussy mother, giving everyone advice and still demanding obedience. And

Drums (1987). (Left to right) Steven Griffin, David E. Patterson, Blake Moorman, Brett Coleman, Quincy Johnson. Photo by Michael Bodycomb.

1 7 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration the women’s gossip scenes are often choice interactions, particularly Delores’ delight in dishing dirt on everyone while spunkily doing her morning exercises.28

It also earned accolades for the director and set designer: Director Rudy Eastman has done well enough by Killingsworth—the play keeps its pace. And Dale Domm, once again, makes intelligent use of the Jubilee space with his attractive, simple set design.29

The big hits of the 1987–1988 season were the musicals Class of ’62 (1987), adapted by Rudy Eastman and Robert Sanders, and the revival of Prodigal (1982). The Class of ’62 takes three women graduates of the 1962 class at the mythical Paul Lawrence Booker T. George Washington Carver High School back to prom night. Actors featured were Kay Jones, Dorothy Sanders, Barbara Woods, Blake Moorman, and Robert Rouse Jr. Among the 1962 songs showcased were “The Duke of Earl,” “Mama Said,” “Please, Mr. Postman,” “Hit the Road Jack,” and “Spanish Harlem.” Other audience pleasers were “Stand by Me,” “Twistin’ the Night Away,” and “Dancing in the Streets.” Musicians accompanying the cast included Vivian Moore on piano, Eddie Dunlap on drums, and Joe Feldstein on guitar and bass. The 1988–1989 season opened with Bessie Smith, Empress of the Blues (1988), adapted for stage by Eastman, showcasing the music of the late great blues singer. The most innovative work of the season was Dreamin’ on a Hot Summer Night (1989), an adaptation by Eastman of Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream, set on a tropical island, with Doug Balentine as the composer. Balentine’s music for the production was diverse, touching on styles as varied as blues, rock, and opera.30 The Imaginary Invalid (1673) was another classical adaptation by Eastman, based on the play by Neoclassical French playwright Molière. Eastman’s version, like the original first performed in 1673, included dance sequences and musical interludes. On the Corner (1989), a musical revue developed by Eastman, Robert Sanders, and Darwin Mendoza, closed out the year. In its dramatization of “the life,” i.e., local color in the Polytechnic Heights area, the production was a symbolic nod to the area the theatre now called home. In the first full season in their new home, Jubilee produced eighty-three performances of six plays. Ain’t Misbehavin’ (1978) opened the 1989–1990 season. The well-known Broadway musical originally adapted by Murray Horwitz and Richard Maltby Jr. was the first musical produced by Jubilee that was not developed

Fort Worth  ◆   1 7 7

The Imaginary Invalid (1989). (Left to right) Robert Rouse Jr., David Mann, Barbara Woods. Photo courtesy of Jubilee Theatre.

in-house; it was no doubt chosen because it sizzles with the celebratory tone and music of the favorite fare at Jubilee. The work showcases the irresistible music of jazz great Fats Waller. From the comedy of “Your Feet’s Too Big” to “Honeysuckle Rose” and “Keepin’ Out of Mischief Now,” this Tony Award–winning Broadway favorite features more than thirty upbeat songs. The show brings to life the whole world that Fats Waller lived in and largely represented: Harlem in the 1920s and 1930s, the golden age of places like the Cotton Club and the Savoy Ballroom, the honky-tonk dives along Lenox Avenue, rent parties, stride piano players, and the new beat, swing. The in-house adaptations in the 1989–1990 season included Dem Birds (1990) based on the Greek comedy by Aristophanes, The Birds. The adaptation was set in the Polytechnic District of Fort Worth, giving it local appeal and recognition. Jubilee opened in December for the holiday season with their first of many productions of God’s Trombones (1927), an adaptation of the work of James Weldon Johnson—which they also produced in 1993, 1998, 2001, 2004, and 2007. With its biblical theme and spiritual and gospel

1 7 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration songs, God’s Trombones has been a favorite in the black theatre repertoire around the country since its 1927 debut. Jubilee also revived one of their favorites, the hit rock musical It Ain’t Grease, It’s Dixie Peach (1984). Rounding out the season was Split Second (1984) by Dennis McIntyre, Eden (1976) by Steve Carter, and A Joyful Noise (1989), a musical revue by Eastman and New Arts Six. The production of McIntyre’s Split Second in the 1989–1990 season was a departure from musical celebrations to an intense police drama that begins as follows:

God’s Trombones (1990). (Left to right, first row) Steven Griffin, Bessie Richards; (Left to right, second row) May Allen, David E. Patterson; (Left to right, third row) Janice Jeffery, Darren Woods, Blake Moorman. Photo courtesy of Jubilee Theatre.

Fort Worth  ◆   1 7 9 On a lonely West Side street a black policeman arrests a car thief, handcuffs him and waits for his backup patrol to arrive. The thief, who is white, tries to cajole the officer into releasing him, and after that approach fails he showers him with a torrent of racial insults. Silently, the policeman listens, and we can feel him bristling with years of suppressed rage. Finally, pushed past the breaking point, he takes out his revolver and shoots the man through the heart, turning off the stream of abuse.31

As Mel Gussow noted of the New York production in 1984, the opening scene is stunning, and it is followed by a tautly connected series of scenes in which the policeman faces an investigating officer, a friend on the force, his wife, and his father. McIntyre’s Split Second represents the other side of Jubilee, the side that moves beyond foregrounding entertainment to serious, thought-provoking education. Jubilee introduced similar intense emotional experiences in the early years with The Amen Corner (1955), Killingsworth (1988), A Soldier’s Play (1981), and The Colored Museum (1986). A Joyful Noise (1989) was Eastman’s first collaboration with the classically trained singers New Art Six. According to critic Perry Stewart, it was an

A Soldier’s Play (1988). (Left to right) Grover Coulson, Alonzo Waller. Photo by Michael Bodycomb.

1 8 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration inspired collaboration. Stewart called it a spiritual jubilee that soared with voices like angels. The joyful noise was sprinkled with the poetry of Paul Laurence Dunbar.32 In the 1990–1991 season Jubilee again featured the work of Samm-Art Williams, this time performing his Woman from Town (1990).33 This was another departure from Jubilee’s signature musicals. However, musicals filled out the rest of the season: The Tarzan Movie (1991) by Rudy Eastman and Douglas Balentine, Kate and Petruchio (1991), adapted by Eastman, Medea and the Doll (1984) by Rudy Gray, and a revival of The Prodigal by Eastman and Sanders. Gloria Abbs notes Eastman’s humor in The Tarzan Movie: “The main character hits his head in an accident and wakes up in the jungle where he meets Tarzan and turns into Cheetah, the monkey.”34 They closed the season with Zimwe and the Drum (1991), an adaptation of a South African folktale by Eastman and Rogers. The play was a morality piece about innocence and evil, with storytelling in the African griot tradition mixed with song and dance. The production was an opportunity to celebrate African culture with lessons about life but also glorious music and beautiful, colorful costumes. In August of 1991 Jubilee reached another milestone—the board raised funds to hire full-time three members of their regular artistic and management team: Rudy Eastman as artistic director, Gloria Abbs as house manager, and Blake Moorman as business manager. It was also the year they celebrated the development of a ten-year strategic plan written by board member Emanuel “Mac” McKinney, who had joined the board two years earlier. The ten-year plan objectives were to: • Develop financial resources and fund-raising events so the theatre would have enough money at the end of each six-production season to invest in plays and musicals for the next season. • Increase theatre attendance and revenue by fifteen percent each year to support a 150-seat theatre. • Acquire additional space to store theatre equipment and props and enlarge the theatre. • Increase the number of performances for each production. • Retain a sufficient staff to improve the quality and number of productions.35

In 1991–1992, the tenth anniversary of Jubilee, Marian and Rudy Eastman’s love of the blues resurfaced in the production of Harlem Blues (1991)

Fort Worth  ◆   1 8 1 and Back on the Corner (1992) (a revival of their 1989 On the Corner), all with books by Eastman. Musicals dominated the year as they also produced Eastman’s musical tribute to legendary singer Sissieretta Jones with Black Diva (1992) and a black nativity story by Mark Caywood and Joe Rogers, Go Tell It on the Mountain (1991). Leslie Lee’s Colored People’s Time (1983), a history play, and Ramona King’s comic drama Steal Away (1981) added variety to the season. With Colored People’s Time, a collection of thirteen episodes depicting moments of change in the history of American blacks, Lee covers a time span from the eve of the Civil War to the Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott a century later. Steal Away was another great choice for Jubilee audiences. In his 1981 review of the play as it was produced by the New Federal Theatre in New York, news columnist John Corry called it “as friendly as a church supper.”36 Steal Away, observes Corry, is about the kind of women who frequently run church suppers: respectable, cheerful and sturdy, and, when they have to be, tough as nails.37 The humor and surprise come when the audience discovers that these women in Chicago in the 1930s become bank robbers—dressed in Al Capone–style gangster dress—to raise scholarship funds for local black youth. Jubilee also premiered Detroit playwright Bill Harris’s Stories from the Old Days in the 1991–1992 season, a comic work featuring a forgotten blues singer and a factory worker. While playing checkers, the two recall dreams of their youth and the once-thriving black urban culture. Critic Perry Stewart noted, “While Stories has its share of despair, one leaves Jubilee Theatre’s well-staged regional premiere of the Harris play with a smile.”38 Stewart also commented on Eastman and Abbs’s costume creativity: Director Eastman and stage manager Gloria Abbs designed the costumes, which are calculated in their simplicity. For most of the play Savannah wears a moth-ravaged brown sweater that may have come from my closet. An upgrading of attire late in the play signals a life change for Clayborn. Woods has a more gradual metamorphosis with three different outfits and a hat that shouts its fashion statement.39

The Second Decade Five years after the move to 3114 East Rosedale, Jubilee moved downtown to 506 Main Street in the developing Sundance Square business area. The site was the first floor of the Jarvis Building, a two-story structure between the Burk Burnett and Sinclair buildings, one block away from Casa Mañana Theatre on the Square.40 Led by their board, Jubilee raised $32,000 to-

1 8 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration ward renovation and a five-year lease. Sundance Properties agreed to remodel the 4,169 square-foot space to increase the seating capacity from eighty-seven to ninety-nine seats, with a potential expansion to 120. The larger performance space gave the group more flexibility with play choices. With the relocation to Main Street, Jubilee left the historically black east side. They were concerned about this, but felt it was best to make their work available to a wider audience. They helped to negotiate a change of their old Rosedale location to the Jubilee Arts Space, which hosts a dance company and daytime classes by Texas Wesleyan University’s Fine Arts Department.41 Thus, the 1992–1993 season began with the Jubilee Players in their new home on Main Street. They opened with Kate’s Sister (1992) by New Mexico writer Maisha Baton, a play about black pioneers in the old West in the 1880s, particularly two black women who respond differently to the challenges of the West—one choosing to learn to ride and shoot well enough to become a Buffalo Soldier. The company continued with the seasonal favorite, God’s Trombones, during the holiday season, then opened the second half of the season with Brother Mac (1993), an imaginative adaptation of Shakespeare’s Macbeth by Eastman and Michelle Baker. Eastman’s drama takes place in an urban American ghetto during the volatile summer of 1969. Shakespeare’s Macbeth was an ambitious general intent on winning the throne of Scotland. In Eastman’s version, Brother Mac is a soldier in the People’s Liberation Party, a militant black organization in an unspecified US city. The season continued in May with another drama by Eugene Lee, East Texas Hot Links (1993), his most frequently produced work. The play, set in 1955, firmly grounds the Jubilee cast in the Texas milieu in language, characters, and theme. The mainly male cast gathers at the Top-o-the-Hill Cafe, a juke joint, to exchange life stories in the midst of a terrifying mystery. The final show of the season was the musical Blacula (1994), a parody of Dracula, another adaptation by Eastman—a high camp thriller that one reviewer noted would be perfect for Halloween.42 The 1993–1994 season was typically entertaining, with Eastman signature musical pieces Straight, No Chaser (1993) and a revival of Negroes in Space and God’s Trombones. With Straight, No Chaser, Eastman and Rogers took on the music that Eastman noted “evolved into jazz.” “It started just after World War II,” said Eastman, “and for about ten years we called it bebop.”43 The revue celebrated the music made popular in the late 1940s by

Fort Worth  ◆   1 8 3 Charlie Parker, Thelonious Monk, Miles Davis, Dizzy Gillespie, and Eddie Jefferson. The 1993–1994 season also featured Richard Wesley’s The Mighty Gents (1978), a play that tells the story of gang members that had ruled the Central Ward of Newark after conquering their rivals, the Zombies. The Mighty Gents had been a power in the streets of the Newark black ghetto—proud, feared, and confident. But now, at thirty, the glory years are gone, and the few Gents who still acknowledge their leader, Frankie, are mired in slum defeatism and a sense of nowhere to go. Unemployed and bitter, they hang around street corners guzzling wine, cracking jokes, and deriding the two characters who symbolize what are, in truth, the only alternatives really left to them: the drunken derelict, Zeke, and the flashy small-time racketeer, Braxton.44 This kind of work, strongly influenced by the success of the street dramas of Ed Bullins in the late 1960s and early 1970s, was rare at Jubilee because it did not attract a wide audience. Another unique production was The Trials and Tribulations of Staggerlee Booker T. Brown (1985) by Don Lee. Perry Stewart of the Fort Worth StarTelegram wrote, “Staggerlee delivers humorous goods.”45 It is a contemporary Faustian tale featuring the character Staggerlee, who is willing to sell his soul to be intimate with Sister Polly, but also includes Big Red (the adaptation of the devil), Rhymin’ Willie, and High John Conqueror. Jubilee moved from the male-dominated show Staggerlee Booker T. Brown to a female-focused work with A Star Ain’t Nothin’ but a Hole in Heaven (1977) by Judi Ann Mason and featuring female actors Carmen Jones as Pokie, T. K. McDonald as Joretta Washington, Summer Selby as Mamie Beckett, and Audrey Shabazz as Pearl Delahoussey. The supportive cast of males included Aaron Petite as Bernard Washington, F. Carl Brown as Lemuel Beckett, and Charles Barnes Sr. as Sonny Gilliam. It was one of the few instances when Eastman did not direct; Mary Catherine Keaton-Jordan served as the director. The central character, Pokie Cotton, an orphan, wins a scholarship to a college in Ohio in 1969, but if she accepts it, the fragile, childless aunt and uncle who raised her will be left alone on their Louisiana farm. Pokie is also troubled about leaving her little rural community and the traditional values defended not only by her uncle and his neighbors but also her boyfriend. The productions for the 1994–1995 season were Spunk (1989), an adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston’s work by George C. Wolfe, a revival of It Ain’t

1 8 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Grease, It’s Dixie Peach by Eastman with Darwin Mendoza and Joe Rogers, Caesar and Cleopatra (1995) by Eastman, Bessie Smith: Empress of the Blues (1995) by Eastman, for colored girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf by Ntozake Shange, and Black Orpheus by Joe Rogers and Mark Cayman. They received glowing reviews for the season. Larry Swindell of the Star-Telegram wrote, “Jubilee cashes another winner with Spunk.”46 The production, he continued, was “provocative and consistently entertaining.”47 Robert Rouse Jr., Blake Moorman, and Beth Yawn Ivy received high praise for their musical performances in the return to Sammy Davis Jr. High in the revival of It Ain’t Grease, It’s Dixie Peach, aided by the drumming of Eddie Dunlap, bass sounds of Michael Bodycomb, and choreography of Cinetrea Grace.48 Casting Caesar and Cleopatra from an Afrocentric perspective made the political statement of claiming Egypt as a black achievement. Included also in the 1994–1995 season was Hershey with Almonds (1995), the first Jubilee production of a play by diannetucker (Diane Tucker).49 The comedy explores the romantic challenges of a group of African American singles. This production was so successful that it began an ongoing collaboration with Tucker. Eastman agreed to produce five of her plays over a period of five years. The result was seven—Hershey with Almonds (1995), Daddy’s Maybe (1997), Attitude, Girlfriend, Attitude (1999) with Joe Rogers, Madam Queen (1998), Great Jubilation (2001), Fat Freddy (2001), and Road Show (2003). Tucker was the founder of the Dallas Drama Company, where many of her early works were produced. She met Eastman through her sister, who was also a teacher. After her company folded, Tucker began what became a prolific outpouring of work with Jubilee, including children’s plays. Because of Jubilee’s desire to work with the best actors available in the area, in 1995 they negotiated an agreement with Actors Equity to give Equity actors credit for their work with the company. Thereafter, they regularly employed at least one Equity actor each season. By 2006, when Ed Smith led the artistic staff, they employed at least two Equity actors each season. The 1995–1996 season included the musicals Black Diva (1995) by Rudy Eastman and New Arts Six (the second collaboration with the classically trained African American singers),50 Lysistrata PLEASE! (1996), adapted from Aristophanes’ Lysistrata by Eastman with Joe Rogers as the composer, and the gospel musical The Book of Job (1996). All were unique creative productions. Black Diva focused on a major talent from the past

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Attitude, Girlfriend, Attitude (1999). (Left to right, first row) Sheran Goodspeed Keyton, Peaches Wilson; (Left to right, second row) Vicki Morgan, Carolyn Hatcher, Nikki Williams. Photo by Buddy Myers.

who is not well known in contemporary times—Matilda Sissieretta Joyner Jones (1868–1933). She was an African American soprano, sometimes called “The Black Patti” in reference to the Italian opera singer Adelina Patti, who established a repertoire that included grand opera, light opera, and popular music. Perry Stewart noted the stellar singing by New Arts Six in his Star-Telegram review: Each singing member is a soloist in her own right. Glenda Cole Clay, a petite and vibrant coloratura with a top range that will curl your eyebrows, plays Jones as a youngster. Lyric soprano Gale Washington Tyler excels on Verdi

1 8 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration and Puccini arias. Mezzo Dorothy Regina Powell is the resident Carmen, and much more. And mezzo Margaret James, newest member of the Six, moves you to tears with Soon Ah Will Be Done. The real magic, however, is in the mixing of the voices. Powell and Clay share an exquisite duet from Lakme. And, of course, when the full foursome comes together, the effect ranges from blissful to heart-breaking. Two of many examples: the slave lament, Lord How Come Me Here and Motherless Child.51

In his review of Lysistrata PLEASE!, Dallas Morning News writer Tom Sime wrote, “Jubilee Theatre’s original musicals have been of uneven quality, but the company raises its standards considerably with Lysistrata PLEASE!, a raucous update of a bawdy 2,500-year-old Aristophanes comedy about women going on a sex strike to force an end to a drawn-out war.” He also noted that the show was “distinguished by a unified comic sensibility and musical style. Its songs, written by Joe Rogers, are catchy and clever, and are wittily enhanced by Keisha Breaker-Haliburton’s spoofing choreography.”52 In The Book of Job Eastman combines thirteen original gospel and spiritual songs with actual scriptures. The musical featured Angelo Reid as Job, Blake Moorman as his tempter, Satan, and Janice Jeffery as the narrator. Also featured were Sheran Goodspeed Keyton, Robert Rouse Jr., Kevin Haliburton, David E. Patterson, Carolyn Hatcher, Antoinette Pollard-Watts, Bessie Richards, Marcellus Hayes, and Andrea Springer, with Keisha Breaker-Haliburton as the choreographer. The comedies in the 1995–1996 season were Livin’ Fat (1974) by Judi Ann Mason and The John Doe Variations (1986) by Silas Jones. The only serious work in the mix was the intense realistic drama by Eugene Lee, Fear Itself. Critic Lawson Taitte noted, “Fear Itself has courage that comes from the heart . . . The resolution of the two plots doesn’t escape sentimentality. But Fear Itself ’s intelligence and, above all, its wit are winning nonetheless.”53 The 1996–1997 season offered more entertaining variety for Jubilee audiences. With Daddy’s Maybe (1996) fans were treated to another relationship drama by diannetucker. Reviewer Tom Sime called it a “slice of life, a prime cut . . . [that] offers many sharp insights.”54 Another production, the revival of Class of ’62 (1988) by Rudy Eastman, renewed the fun of the music of the sixties. Going further with Samuel L. Kelley’s Pill Hill, Jubilee returned to an intense realistic social drama, this time featuring black males in pursuit of the American dream symbolized by the big homes owned mainly by African American doctors on Pill Hill on the Southside of Chicago. Rounding

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Fear Itself (1996). (Front) F. Carl Brown; (Back) Lloyd Barnes. Photo courtesy of Jubilee Theatre.

out the season, the company returned to the joy of the musical with Back on the Corner (1997) by Rudy Eastman, Dirty Laundry (1997) by C.  C. Cole (alias for Rudy Eastman), and The Ballad of Isom Dart (1997) by Joe Rogers and Mark Caywood. The next few years Jubilee continued to produce a season of six to seven plays. They consisted of the same variety as in past years, with a mix of comedies, musicals, and serious dramas—always heaviest on the musicals. The well-known playwrights produced between the 1997–1998 season and the 1999–2000 season included George C. Wolfe, Charles Fuller, James Weldon Johnson, Don Evans, and Lorraine Hansberry. Well-known Texas playwrights produced were diannetucker, Eugene Lee, and Thomas Meloncon. In addition, Eastman adapted more musicals with Joe Rogers and New Arts Six. A unique offering for Jubilee during this period was Rudy Eastman’s Spirits of the Passage (1997), a work commissioned by the Fort Worth Museum of Science and History to highlight their exhibit on slavery. The exhibition, featuring artifacts from an actual slave ship, was titled “A Slave Ship Speaks: The Wreck of the Henrietta Marie.” The resulting one-act play of

1 8 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

The Ballad of Isom Dart (1997). (Left to right) Juan Fernandez, Gary Payne. Photo by Buddy Myers.

thirty minutes showcased dialogue and music “to teach history as well as touch the emotions.”55 Jubilee Theatre celebrated its twentieth anniversary in the 2000–2001 season on the Terrace at the Renaissance Worthington Hotel with a musical revue, Great Jubilation (2001). During this season they showcased the works of celebrated authors such as Lonne Elder III’s Ceremonies in Dark Old Men (1969), Langston Hughes’s Black Nativity, and Don Evans’s A Love Song for Miss Lydia (1986). The musicals included Joe Rogers and diannetucker’s Fat Freddy (2001) and Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers’s Coop DeVille: Time Travelin’ Brother (2001). Referring to Coop DeVille, Mark Lowry of the Fort Worth Star-Telegram observed in his 2001 review, “If at first you do succeed, well, do it again and again and again. That seems to be Jubilee Theatre’s mantra when it comes to its well-loved and attended musicals, often original works from the inspired team of Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers.”56

The Third Decade As Jubilee entered the twenty-first century and headed toward its thirtieth anniversary of producing theatre in Fort Worth, its seasons continued to celebrate the blues and the gospel, reinvigorate Shakespearean classics, and pay tribute to serious dramatic writing. Tim Kelly’s Murder by Natu-

Fort Worth  ◆   1 8 9 ral Causes and C. C. Cole’s (Eastman’s alias) Romeo (2002), an adaptation of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, delivered murder, suicide, and mayhem in the 2001–2002 season. Fans found inspiration from the blues and laughing comedy in Johnson’s God’s Trombones, The Lowdown Man, Dirty Woman Blues (2002), adapted by Eastman and Rogers, and Jar the Floor (2002) by Cheryl West. Joy and wonder entered with Alice Wonder (2002), adapted by Eastman and Rogers from the Lewis Carroll children’s story. The 2002–2003 and 2003–2004 seasons featured many revivals, including Eastman and Rogers’s Travelin’ Shoes (2002) and Lysistrata, PLEASE!, Eastman and Michelle Baker’s Brother Mac (2003), Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun, Eastman’s Bessie Smith: Empress of the Blues (2004), and Samm-Art Williams’s Woman from the Town (1990). The new work included Rudy Eastman, diannetucker, and Joe Rogers’s Road Show (2003). Road Show includes all the traditional characters from the Chitlin Circuit—a washed-up soul diva, Myra (Ebony Marshall); a former ’80s sitcom star, Bradley (Kevin E. Johnson); an unscrupulous producer, August (Robert Rouse Jr.); and a flaming hairdresser character, Dante (Rickey L. Spivey). The concept, music, and set design were well received: Jubilee’s small stage has little room for scenic artistry, but this set by E&P Productions is cunningly functional—permitting quick shifts to backstage, where Myra and her dressing roommates, Vonda and Jamillah, gaze into their makeup mirrors and contemplate The Dream. It’s probably the gem of composer Joe Rogers’ score, and it’s definitely one of the show’s best moments.57

In the 2003–2004 season, Eastman’s new holiday musical Auntée Explains X-Mas (2003) exemplified Jubilee’s traditional audience-pleasing holiday fare. In this musical, a matriarchal woman outlines the traditions of the holiday season to a younger generation. Tom Sime captured the irreverence and humor in his review in the Dallas Morning News: Rudy Eastman’s original comedy stars Janice Jeffery as Auntée, your basic matronly Sunday fashionista, heir to a long line of “Big Mama” characters from Gone with the Wind to A Raisin in the Sun, with a stint selling maple syrup along the way. Here she offers her own colorful take on the Gospels, fan in hand, accompanied by church pianist Mrs. Peterson (Melanie Bivens) as she sings a host of Christmas songs reworked with Mr. Eastman’s irreverent lyrics. Black Nativity this isn’t. In Mr. Eastman’s affectionate spoof, the spacey Auntée integrates urban legends from Bigfoot to UFOs into her version of the

1 9 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration story of Jesus, Mary and the great “Baby Daddy” in the sky. Along the way, Auntée tells us about her own “favoritest Christmastime” along with many other personal digressions, all acted out with the help of an ensemble of Jubilee regulars. And though Mr. Eastman knows how to get silly, he will no doubt plant some holiday poignancy along one of Auntée’s zany tangents.58

The 2004–2005 season was another productive one for Jubilee. A significant goal was reached when the $460,000 expansion project was completed at their 506 Main Street home. The productions were an interesting mix of musical revivals and thought-provoking dramas. Popular productions—Johnson’s God’s Trombones and Eastman and Rogers’s Harlem Blues (1992) and The Book of Job (2000)—were revived. With Eastman as the director, Jubilee mounted its first August Wilson play, Fences (1983). This popular Pulitzer Prize–winning play about an unfaithful husband and abusive father was not as well received as their signature musicals and straight comedies.59 Jubilee produced two more intense dramas in the 2004–2005 season: Thomas Gibbons’s Bee-luther-hatchee (2001) and Samuel L. Kelley’s Thruway Diaries (2005). In Bee-luther-hatchee an African-American editor publishes “Bee-luther-hatchee,” the autobiography of Libby, a hermit-like seventy-two-year-old black woman, only to discover that the author is not a black woman but actually a white male named Sean Leonard. Shelita accuses Sean of lying, but Sean defends the book as a truthful work of imagination. As Cary M. Mazer noted of the play, it addresses several interesting questions: . . . whether white men can tell black women’s stories, whether a good story and good writing can stand independently from the identity of the storyteller (“Why is the author more important than the words?” Sean asks), whether writers should be invisible (especially when, as Shelita observes, black writers have been rendered invisible for centuries), whether African Americans have a monopoly on African-American stories, and where the boundaries lie between truth and the imagination, between fiction and nonfiction, and between ventriloquism, appropriation, cultural colonization and theft.60

These issues are even more poignant because the author of the play, Thomas Gibbons, is a white male who has successfully authored numerous plays on the African American experience. No less interesting was Samuel Kelley’s socially conscious and stimulating Thruway Diaries (2005), a play about a black family that travels from

Fort Worth  ◆   1 9 1 Chicago to Mississippi in a newly purchased Cadillac and find themselves the target of police in a very ugly racial situation. Forty years later they take the trip again, as grandparents, with similar results. The 2004–2005 Jubilee season ended like no other. In June 2005, twenty-four years after starting the company, writing, directing, assisting with technical development, inspiring and entertaining a diverse generation of theatre fans, and providing opportunities for so many artists, Rudy Eastman passed away. Celebration was overshadowed by transition and mourning in the 2005– 2006 season, Jubilee’s twenty-fifth anniversary. Eastman had already selected the season schedule, and the staff and board carried out his plans. It was a revival of two of Eastman’s own works—Auntee Explains Xmas (2003) and The Imaginary Invalid (1989), and another favorite, George Wolfe’s The Colored Museum (1986). They also produced Pearl Cleage’s Blues for an Alabama Sky (1995), local playwright Sheran Goodspeed Keyton and musician/ lyricist Joe Rogers’s Diaries of a Barefoot Diva (2006), and the work Eastman outlined before he passed, The Odyssey (2006)—Sheran Goodspeed Keyton completed the book, and Joe Rogers developed the music. It was another season of rave reviews as they continued the work started by their former artistic leader who had been the heart of their organization.

Eastman’s Signature Work Between 1981 and 2005, Rudy Eastman wrote or adapted thirty-eight works, not including those written with diannetucker for high school workshops and tours, frequently in collaboration with Douglas Balentine or Joe Rogers.61 Eastman’s musical adaptations (the book for the musicals) were signature pieces for Jubilee Theatre. They ranged from rock, bebop, and the blues (Empress of the Blues) to adaptations of Greek drama (Dem Birds), Shakespeare (The Tempest), and modern British drama (Caesar and Cleopatra), as well as religious stories (Prodigal) and parables or fables for children (Alice Wonder). Eastman not only developed one to three scripts for production each year during his tenure as artistic director but also directed them, with a few exceptions. From the 1981 inception of Jubilee until 2005, Rudy Eastman’s aesthetic reflected his vision, creativity, and taste. His goal was to entertain, but not without giving the audience something substantial as a truth about life or a lesson for living today. He wanted the work to attract and satisfy a diverse group of theatre goers.62 He accomplished his goal. Jubilee’s website carries this tribute to him:

1 9 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Whether it was adapting Aristophanes’ The Birds into Eastman’s Dem Birds, plunking Macbeth into a 1960s Black Panther cell, letting Coop DeVille roar through Negroes in Space, trailing a Black Orpheus through a Brazilian carnival of Hell, helping Auntee Explain Xmas, Jarring the Floor, swinging through the Harlem Blues, creating A Joyful Noise, Romancing the Stereotypes or making Rhythm: A Musical Myth, Rudy captured audiences’ imaginations and helped them think, find their personal tempo and relate with their brothers and sisters of all hues.63

The Ed Smith Years (2006–2010) After a year-long national search for a new artistic director, Jubilee’s board of directors hired celebrated veteran director Ed Smith. A new era at Jubilee began in 2006 that combined building on the vision of the past and accommodating a new vision for the future. The ability to capture a veteran like Smith was a testimony to the status of Jubilee as a regional theatre producing works that reflect the African American experience. Ed Smith’s distinguished career in black theatre spans over forty years. Smith was born and raised in Philadelphia. His interest in theatre blossomed there in training sessions in the community and at Temple University. He moved to New York, where he lived in Greenwich Village and worked with the well-known Robert Macbeth and Ed Bullins at the New Lafayette Theatre in Harlem. He was nurtured also by the famous Negro Ensemble Company. Smith’s work as an actor in New York led him to a contract with the children’s theatre company at the Studio Arena Theatre in Buffalo, New York. While touring the schools as an actor with the children’s theatre company, he established himself as a versatile theatre talent in the community. This brought him to the attention of the Black Studies Department at the University of Buffalo. After several years teaching black theatre, he received a tenure-track position with the theatre department. He rose through the ranks to full professor on the strength of his creative teaching and direction of numerous black theatre productions on campus and in the community. He became a full professor at Florida State University, the University of California in Los Angeles, and the Hilberry graduate program at Wayne State University. In the late 1960s Smith founded the Buffalo Black Drama Workshop, now defunct. In the 1970s he helped to establish Black Canada in Toronto. In the 1980s he served as founder and artistic director of the Buffalo Black Dinner Theatre. From 1993 to 1996 he served as the associate artistic director

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Ed Smith, artistic director, Jubilee Theatre (2006–2010). Photo by Buddy Myers.

of the Alabama Shakespeare Festival in Montgomery, Alabama. His duties included directing, but also participating in a reading series for the Southern Writers Project. He had directed over ninety productions during his long tenure in the theatre in professional regional theatres and universities throughout the United States, as well as in Canada and the West Indies. In the summer of 2009 he received the Lloyd Richards Director’s Award at the National Black Theatre Festival in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Smith continued many of the popular genres established at Jubilee. His holiday offerings included a revival of James Weldon Johnson’s God’s Trom-

1 9 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration bones, Ed Smith’s Home for the Holidays (2009), Langston Hughes’s Black Nativity, and Joe Rogers’s Uncle Duz Christmas (2008). Smith produced a string of musicals that varied in tone, style, and message. They included Smith’s Rudy (2007), a tribute to Rudy Eastman, and also Marian J. Caffey’s Cookin’ at the Cookery (2004), Regina Taylor’s Crowns (2002), Murray Horwitz and Richard Maltby Jr.’s Ain’t Misbehavin’ (1978), Joe Rogers’s Sam Shade: A Detective Musical (2009), Smith’s The Gospel Queen (2009), Vernel Bagneris’s One Mo’ Time (2002), and Sheldon Epps’s Blues in the Night (1980). Smith also produced a variety of comedies, e.g., Don Evans’s A Lovesong for Miss Lydia (1986) and Samm-Art Williams’s The Dance on Widow’s Row (2000). However, Smith’s most influential contribution came with his offerings from the established African American theatre canon, with three by August Wilson—Joe Turner’s Come and Gone (1988), Piano Lesson (1990), and Gem of the Ocean (2003)—in addition to the serious dramas by nationally known female playwrights including Ntozake Shange’s for colored girls, Lynn Nottage’s Crumbs from the Table of Joy (1995), Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye (2005), and Endesha Mae Holland’s From the Mississippi Delta (1991). Serious dramas by males included Thomas Gibbons’s Permanent Collection (2003) and Charles Randoph-Wright’s Blue (2003). Smith’s season formula was not unlike those in previous years; he selected three musicals, two serious dramas, and a comedy or lighter fare, with little variation. Critics found much to praise during the Ed Smith years. Of the 2006 production of Wilson’s Joe Turner’s Come and Gone (1988), Lawson Taitte noted, “‘Joe’ heralds a promising future for Jubilee . . . [the] [s]how evokes new subtlety, restraint.”64 Mark Lowry also had high praise for Joe Turner: “Above average ‘Joe’—New artistic director shines in directorial debut.”65 Of the production of Rudy, Mark Lowry concluded, “Tribute does Rudy Eastman proud.”66 On God’s Trombones during the 2007–2008 season, Mark Lowry stated, “Solid production is a worthwhile revival.”67 Lawson Taitte noted in review of Permanent Collection, “Fort Worth’s Jubilee Theatre has revived the piece to open a 2007–2008 season that’s more cosmopolitan than in previous years.”68 Lawson Taitte noted on The Bluest Eye, “An ageless appeal—Jubilee cast powerful in adaptation of Toni Morrison’s novel . . . The Bluest Eye tackles difficult subjects, including incest, racism, and things don’t end well for Pecola. Jubilee’s production is so adept it helps you through the darkness.”69 On Piano Lesson in 2009, the title for Lawson Taitte’s review was “Family Ghosts—Jubilee Ensemble Players Hit the Right Notes.”70

Fort Worth  ◆   1 9 5 After a tenure of four years, Ed Smith returned to contract directing and part-time university teaching after resigning from the position of artistic director at Jubilee Theatre. He notes that he is proud of his work with Jubilee, especially the production of The Bluest Eye and his ability to bring out the African American audience members with his season selections.71 While in the midst of a search for a new artistic director, Jubilee entered its thirtieth anniversary season, 2010–2011. The board of directors and staff planned an exciting collection of works for their loyal fans, including Samm-Art Williams’s Home and James Weldon Johnson’s God’s Trombones. For the second half of the season, early 2011 through the summer, they produced Shay Youngblood’s Shakin’ the Mess Outta Misery (1988), Caryle Brown’s The African Company Presents Richard III (1987), and Eastman and Rogers’s Alice Wonder. Alice Wonder was one of three musicals for the season that had been performed before in 2002. It is one of the many extravagant takeoffs on classics by Rudy Eastman; this time it was a black Alice in Wonderland story full of the spunk and funk that characterizes Eastman’s comic genius. Critic Eric A. Maskell of John Garcia’s The Column in the Pegasus News observed, “Alice Wonder was a treat in every sense of the word.” In 2010 Jubilee’s board of directors selected Tre Garrett as their new artistic director, and he added Stephen Flaherty and Lynn Ahrens’s Once on This Island (1990) for his directorial debut in their final show of the season.

Introducing Tre Garrett Tre Garrett joined the Jubilee family as the third artistic director in January 2011, in time to preside over the second half of the season. Garrett, a Houston native, attended Houston’s High School for the Performing and Visual Arts—the equivalent to Dallas’s Booker T. Washington Arts Magnet High School—before earning a bachelor of fine arts degree in directing from the North Carolina School of the Arts. He also earned a master’s degree from Academy of Art University School of Motion Pictures and Television. In spite of being just twenty-nine at the time he was hired in 2010, he joined Jubilee with an extensive resumé. Garrett was a Eugene O’Neill Playwright’s Conference Directing Fellow, Society of Stage Directors and Choreographer’s John Gielgud Directing Fellow, and Kenan Institute for the Arts Directing Fellow. His credentials include an extensive list of regional work such as directing Blues for an Alabama Sky, Emmett Till: The Opera, Summer’s End, Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom, and Men Cry in the Dark. He also served as the assistant director in the Broadway production of Julius

1 9 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Caesar, starring Denzel Washington, and On Golden Pond, with James Earl Jones. He has worked with other well-known theatre celebrities, including Ntozake Shange and Ed Bullins. In 2005 he was director-in-residence for the John F. Kennedy Center. Garrett left a position as a show director with Walt Disney Entertainment in San Francisco to take the artistic director position at Jubilee. Garrett’s debut directing Lynn Ahrens and Stephen Flaherty’s Once on This Island (with Mark Miller as the music director) earned positive reviews. Critic Punch Shaw observed in the July 31, 2011, issue of DFW.com that “Garrett’s brisk direction infuses the show with a relentless forward motion. He creates and maintains the atmosphere of the piece well, giving it all a cheerful, sunny glow.” Shaw’s accolades extended to the acting, music, choreography, and set design. Tre Garrett served as artistic director with original spark and tradition. He has produced the traditional favorites of the diverse Jubilee audience and introduced a few variations. The audience and critics have been

Tre Garrett, artistic director, Jubilee Theatre (2011–2015). Photo courtesy of Jubilee Theatre.

Fort Worth  ◆   1 9 7 mostly kind. In September 2011 he received the Dallas–Fort Worth Theater Critics Forum Awards for direction of Suzan-Lori Parks’s Topdog/Underdog. His recasting of Stephen Sondheim’s musical Company with a mostly African American cast and his directing of a one-woman, multicharacter memory play, Charlayne Woodard’s Pretty Fire, were both box office hits. The Column, an online news bulletin covering the Dallas/Fort Worth metroplex, gave Garrett two outstanding recognitions in 2012: Best Director of the Year and Best Production for Pretty Fire, directed by Garrett. For the opening production of Jubilee’s 2012–2013 year, Woodard’s Flight directed by Garrett received a variety of rave reviews from theatre critics in the area. Also in the 2012–2013 season, Garrett helped orchestrate Jubilee’s first NEA (National Endowment for the Arts) award to develop an original work about cowboys of color in the late 1800s. The work, directed by Garrett as the second show in Jubilee’s fall lineup, became Black Spurs, with book by Celeste Bedford Walker and music by Ron Hasley.

Perseverance and Survival From 1981 until their move to 3114 East Rosedale, the Jubilee Players mostly operated from the trunk of Rudy Eastman’s car and those of his key staff members (e.g., Gloria Abbs—stage hand, house manager, reservation clerk, script collaborator, and director). Abbs joined the company in 1982 during its first season and was still with the group in 2005 when Eastman passed. She resigned in 2006, but returned in 2010 to direct. Through her eyes, one perspective of how the company operated comes to light. Gloria Abbs, like many who joined the company, was one of Rudy Eastman’s former students. She first met him when he joined the staff as a teacher at Como High School in Fort Worth in 1966 and directed the first senior class play in the same year. Abbs was in Eastman’s third senior class production, the year of her graduation, in 1968. After graduation she continued to work in theatre as a volunteer with the Sojourner Truth Players, where she again had the opportunity to work with Eastman. Shortly after Rudy and Marian Eastman started the Jubilee Players in 1981, she joined the group for its third production, The Life and Death of Sneaky Fitch.72 At Jubilee, Abbs was a loyal and active supporter. Part of the company props and documents were kept in her car when Jubilee was on the road in the first few years. She did whatever was needed to support the productions—painting, building sets, and copying scripts. When they moved to the East Rosedale location, she continued to work as a stagehand, but

1 9 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration also helped with front-of-house activities, e.g., answering phones. However, when the play started she was usually backstage. While working for Jubilee, she maintained a job at the local electric company. Eastman always paid her something, but not a living wage. She remembers receiving at least five dollars for gas in the first few years. In 1991 she was one of the three company members, along with Rudy Eastman and Blake Moorman, hired full-time. Moorman was not only the business manager but also one of Jubilee’s performers. He had a long history of performance when he began with the company, starting as a singer in the Texas Boy’s Choir. He had a variety of training experiences in the arts as a youth, including tap and singing lessons.73 Rudy Eastman was a versatile leader. He wrote the book for most of the musicals, often taking inspiration from company members, Abbs included, and his wife. Abbs and Marian Eastman were his main reviewers when he had a play in development. The rehearsal period was often four to six weeks. If the play was an original by Eastman, he was often still writing the work as they rehearsed. He gave them their parts as he developed them— often handwritten. They made duplicates as needed using a mimeograph machine. Eastman took in everything around him and knew theatre literature and history. He adapted many of their big hits from the classics; he pulled together great black music around entertaining themes or as revues. He worked well with a number of musicians who played the music he selected or composed original music around his book for the show. Eastman also built or pulled costumes, and when necessary stationed himself in the lighting booth to direct the lighting or work the lights himself. They seldom had a full tech week where it was all pulled together. Between 1981 and 1987 Jubilee performed wherever it could find a lowcost or no-cost option in the community. The company’s first real home was 3114 East Rosedale, a renovated storefront space—next door was the shoe repair shop, and the store on the other side sold T-shirts. This first home was a tiny space where they could set up eighty-eight folding chairs. The back wall area on the stage was small. They hung black curtains to give the actors privacy. On one side the space ran into the bathroom and on the other side into the concession stand. They shared the bathroom with the audience. The space was about half the size of their future Main Street location. For lighting they painted coffee cans and placed the lights inside.

Fort Worth  ◆   1 9 9 To work the lights they pulled up and down on a cord and operated them from a control board. During his tenure with the theatre, Rudy Eastman directed most of the plays. During her twenty-five years with the company, Abbs directed four plays—the three while Eastman was the artistic director were Medea and the Doll, Killingsworth (1988), and Travelin’ Shoes (1999). Eastman also engaged a few others to direct—Cecilia Flores for Shakin’ the Mess Outta Misery in 1993, Mary Keaton-Jordan for A Star Ain’t Nothin’ but a Hole in Heaven in 1993, Keisha Breaker-Haliburton for Class of ’62 in 1996, Juan Fernandez for God’s Trombones in 1998 and Ceremonies in Dark Old Men in 2000, Sharon Benge for A Raisin in the Sun in 2003, and Phyllis Cicero for Woman from Town in 2004 and The Colored Museum in 2005. As a teacher, Eastman had many contacts with potential actors and supporters. Many of the actors were his former students. They had a core group of performers who were with them from show to show. Eddie Dunlap, one of the first musicians with the company, played drums. He recruited his brother-in-law, Joe Rogers. Joe became the most used musician, coordinating, playing, and then composing music for the group. Most of the music they used was in the public domain. Vivian Moore often played the piano for their performances. The rehearsals would sometimes have to be scheduled around the availability of the musicians. Gracie Tune, sister of the famous Broadway dancer Tommy Tune, helped them with choreography. Gina Greene, who has her own dance company in the area, also served as choreographer—her boyfriend helped with box office duties. Carmen Jones, another dancer who helped, was an actor, singer, and dancer at the time. Abbs remembers Marian Eastman as the theatre mom. Her stamp of approval, says Abbs, was important. Marian Eastman always had a word of encouragement and helped them through difficult issues. She also helped with ideas for many of the adaptations. She often read the parts for her husband and critiqued the work. Both Rudy and Marian Eastman built costumes; she says she was the better seamstress. She especially liked helping actors with their lines, particularly working on dialects.74 Abbs believes the Jubilee Players have survived because they always tried to do their best. And Rudy Eastman, she says, knew how to entertain. His adaptations touched on topical issues, the familiar, e.g., Shakespeare, set in the Polytechnic District of Fort Worth. Musicals sell, so they specialized in them. Blacks and whites love black church music. In the beginning

2 0 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration most of their patrons were white, but after they moved to the East Rosedale location blacks attended in larger numbers. The religious plays brought out the black church crowd. Then they came back for other productions. The Jubilee newsletter helped to spread their name throughout the state and from coast to coast. They had regular subscribers from other states, including North Carolina, New York, and California. Abbs hopes their work will be remembered as a reflection of Fort Worth, a reflection of Texas, a reflection of the world. Jubilee created a theatre community for black people in the city of Fort Worth. It gave others a chance to see the world through their filter, their perspective.75 From Jubilee’s inception, Marian and Rudy Eastman envisioned their theatre as a business. They sought to combine artistic achievements with sound business practices. Over the years Jubilee Theatre featured incorporation, formed a board of directors, developed by-laws, kept financial records, paid its workers, organized outreach activities, developed a subscriber’s base, sought grant support, and distributed a newsletter. In 1982, one year after their beginning, the Jubilee Players incorporated as a not-for-profit organization. Darwin Mendoza saw one of their first performances and volunteered to contribute to their success. He was part of the initial board; he and his wife, Muriel, managed the business from their home until Jubilee took up residency at East Rosedale. With incorporation came the development of the by-laws that established a volunteer board of directors. In addition, the by-laws outlined board duties, terms of service, and election procedures. It established formal committees and meeting parameters. It also established general provisions that covered contracts, checks, drafts, and other orders for payment, gifts, books, the fiscal year, and procedures for amendments.76 Jubilee started with a board of nine, but increased it to fifteen in 1984.77 The August 1984 Jubilee newsletter, Jubilee, documents some of the earliest board members. The newsletter lists the officers as Ron Russell, president; Maxwell Scarlett, first vice president; Sharon Young, second vice president; Jannis Dilworth, secretary; and Michael Heiskell, treasurer. Along with the other board members, the newsletters document that the artistic director and business manager were also part of the board—Rudy Eastman and Darwin Mendoza respectively. A July 8, 1987, news release announcing the newly elected board revealed a significant representation of people from local businesses—Joe Dulle was president of Stockyards Enterprises, Inc., and a former local advertising executive; first vice president Jim

Fort Worth  ◆   2 0 1 Ponds was a professional stage and cinema actor; second vice president Oliver Eastman was a purchasing manager for Electrocom; secretary Claudia Wilson was the owner of Claudia Wilson Advertising; and treasurer James Lee Stokes Jr. was an accountant with the Fort Worth Economic Development Corporation. By 2010, board members served three years and cycled off in alternate years—thus keeping some consistency on the board.78 Benjamin Espino notes that their board was first a founder-led model, but has evolved into a community-led model after the death of Rudy Eastman.79 The 1981–1986 financial history report details the early financial picture for Jubilee. The report includes gate receipts, grants, fund-raising, and donations. In 1981–1982 they received $2,560 in gate receipts, no grant funds, and $450 from fund-raising, for a total income of $4,371 with four productions. In 1982–1983 they received $2,000 in gate receipts, $350 from fund-raising, and $150 in donations, for a total income of $2,500, with two productions. In both years the expenses were reported as equaling the income. A big financial lift came in 1983–1984 with two major hits and a popular third production totaling $9,750 in revenues. With the addition of $3,600 in grant income, $2,100 in fund-raising, and $650 in donations, total revenues reached $16,100. It was the first year they reported a carryover of funds, with income exceeding expenses by $1,422. The following year was even better, with an income of $21,000 to cover expenses of $20,635. In the 1985–1986 season the income dropped to $13,920 over expenses of $11,650. These were exciting, productive years for the fledgling company. The big moneymakers were the musicals The Blues Ain’t Nothin’ ($4,600) and It Ain’t Grease, It’s Dixie Peach ($4,600). The community was responding to their requests for support, and grants already accounted for close to $10,000.80 Early in 1986, Jubilee was in a position to request support from the Amon G. Carter Foundation in Fort Worth to help secure its first home. On November 25, 1986, a letter was received from Bob J. Crow, executive director of the Carter Foundation, announcing that they had been approved for a matching grant of $15,000 toward securing and renovating an old storefront at 3114 East Rosedale. By June of that year, Jubilee had successfully raised cash and in-kind donations toward the match. In 1990, Jubilee received a two-year grant from the Anne Burnett & Charles Tandy Foundation that funded full-time salaries. In 1991, during their tenth anniversary, they received their first grant from the Texas Commission on the Arts and matching grants from the Meadows Foundation and the Carter Foundation to enable installation of a professional lighting

2 0 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration system. They also received additional support during the 1991–1992 season from Miller Brewing Company and Philip Morris. The season ticket sales campaign doubled the number of subscribers, and the annual budget was up to $168,000. By the 1991–1992 season, Jubilee Theatre was enhanced by three employees hired full-time—Eastman, Gloria Abbs, and Blake Moorman. With Moorman working full-time as the business manager, Jubilee began an era of financial success in which they were able to cover all of their expenses. The projected budget for 1992–1993 was $226,725; the projected income was the same.81 According to a detailed 1992 report, 35 percent of Jubilee earnings came from individual ticket sales, 7 percent from season sales, 1 percent from program advertising, 15 percent from corporate gifts, 6 percent from individual gifts, 7 percent from fund-raisers, 18 percent from grants, and 10 percent from special projects and outreach. This same report detailed how the income was spent: 36 percent on artistic production, 9 percent on marketing development, 29 percent on administration, 19 percent on theatre operation, and 29 percent on outreach activities (Jubilee African American Dance Ensemble).82 By the end of the 1991–1992 season, they had produced 570 performances of twenty-eight plays and musicals. They had involved over 150 local actors, actresses, playwrights, composers, musicians, set builders and designers, choreographers, scene painters, lighting designers, costumers, box office personnel, ushers, and technical support personnel. Many of them received small stipends, and many more served as volunteers—a wealth of in-kind support. The business manager executed contracts with all employees, from the performers to the technical and artistic staff. In March 1997, Moorman announced that the Jubilee budget had grown to $235,000—a major contrast from the inaugural 1981 budget of approximately $2,000.83 Fifty-five percent of the budget at this time came from corporate donations and public grants, while 45 percent came from ticket, merchandise, and program sales. Attendance hovered at about 70 percent in the 101-seat space. Kenneth Kahn of the Arts Council of Fort Worth noted that the council had given over $200,000 to Jubilee over the previous decade—an indication of their respect for the work of the theatre.84 A major financial milestone for Jubilee Theatre came with the 2005– 2006 season, their twenty-fifth anniversary. Not only did they sign a new ten-year lease, but they celebrated a $450,000 renovation. The success of this effort demonstrated how far they had come since the early gypsy

Fort Worth  ◆   2 0 3 years. Rudy Eastman, building campaign chairman Joe Dulle, managing director Benjamin Espino, board president Horatio Porter, the rest of the board of directors, and numerous friends of Jubilee put together a financial collaboration that included a variety of donations to make the renovation a reality. Jubilee’s August 2005 newsletter pays tribute to the large group of renovation donors; they are identified as Bates Container, Betty and Hardy Sanders, the Amon G. Carter Foundation, the Meadows Foundation, the Schollmaier Foundation, and Sundance Square Management, and close to one hundred other donors. The newsletter also included special thanks to those who donated through their seat campaign and gave special recognition to Birdie Sadberry, the board vice president, whose company, BNSF, donated funding for 147 new seats and risers. The program booklet for the production of Blues for an Alabama Sky during the twenty-fifth anniversary season, 2005–2006, showcased a variety of theatre contributors identified in categories such as Angels, Stars, Guarantors, Producers, Directors, Sponsors—a list that covers three pages of the traditionally sized booklet. A look back at the 1989 program booklet for the production On the Corner reveals how far the theatre had progressed by its twenty-fifth year. In the 1989 program the list of funders covers a third of one page—seventeen contributors—many whose names also appear in the twenty-fifth anniversary program in 2005. The advisory board jumped from two in 1989 to fifteen in 2005, and the board of directors from twenty to twenty-nine.85 Contributions in the 1988–1989 season reveal the early commitment to the advancement of the theatre; a handwritten list of donors for the season shows that donations varied from $10 from an individual donor to $8,000 from a corporation.86 Seeking support at all levels and consistently showing their appreciation in their newsletters, programs, and news releases contributed to Jubilee’s business success and longevity as an artistic endeavor. Benjamin Espino, managing director, held a number of titles related to the business of Jubilee from 2000 to 2012, with a hiatus from 2005 to 2007. He handled a variety of key functions, including bookkeeping, fund-raising, general management of the staff (there were five full-time staff members, including himself, in 2010), and all contracts, with development identified by him as his most important function. The staff included a managing director, box office manager, front-of-office manager (who also served as operations manager), marketing manager, and technical director (who also served as chief carpenter and set builder). Espino served as the

2 0 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration primary liaison to the board of directors. He noted that for the 2010–2011 proposed budget of $800,000, approximately 6 percent of the profit would be unearned revenue streams from contributions, grants, and fund-raisers, while 40 percent of the income would come from ticket sales—earned income. Espino says that diversity is one of their keys to success and he had watched the company diversify over the ten years from 2000 to 2010. The audience in 2010 was approximately 52 percent African American, 43 percent Anglo, and 5 percent Hispanic, with a mix of other minorities making up the rest. The diversity also extends to class—from the single mother working customer service to the wealthy philanthropist. He is most proud of their community outreach.87 In July 2012, Stephen Braun replaced Benjamin Espino (who resigned) as the managing director of Jubilee Theatre. Braun came to Jubilee from Tarrant County ACCESS for the Homeless, where he served as the executive director. He came to Jubilee with thirteen years of experience in development and community service and formal training in administration, with a master’s degree in public administration from the University of Texas at Austin and course work toward a doctoral degree. In addition, he is CFRE (Certified Fund Raising Executive) certified and a current officer of the local chapter of the Association of Fundraising Professionals. Other changes in 2012 came with David Hadlock replacing Katherine Ware as the marketing manager. Hadlock previously worked for several area arts organizations, including the Fort Worth Symphony Orchestra Association and the Dallas Theater Center. The ability to continue forward with new support leadership is indicative of the quality of the leadership from the advisory board led by Blake Moorman and from artistic director Tre Garrett. The Fort Worth community has always been an important part of the work and success of Jubilee Theatre. Their extended programming reflects this ongoing engagement with the community over their thirty-year history. The Community Partners Program reflects this collaboration. It is an initiative developed by the marketing committee of the board of trustees to engage the community in the life of the theatre. The goal is to nurture partnerships with organizations, groups, and individuals who will act as goodwill ambassadors and supporters. Community Partners are considered extended family members of Jubilee. The advantages of being a partner include: a listing in the performance playbill, listing on the Jubilee website, discounted prices on Jubilee merchandise, and special invitations to Jubilee’s events and performances. The commitment from the Partners

Fort Worth  ◆   2 0 5 involves attending one to three community partners’ orientation receptions, distributing Jubilee brochures, sponsoring at least one group night at the theatre with ten or more persons per season, and marketing the theatre productions by encouraging the community to attend. At the annual Mendie Awards Ceremony in 2008, four community partners were honored: YWCA of Fort Worth and Tarrant County, the Fort Worth Chapter of the Links, Inc., Mount Zion Baptist Church, and the Fort Worth Alumnae Chapter of Delta Sigma Theta.88 The Arts in Education program has been a productive community outreach activity. Jubilee belongs to the Arts Council of Fort Worth and Tarrant County’s Neighborhood Arts Program. This involvement has allowed them to travel to underserved schools within the community, reaching over 38,000 students in the Fort Worth Independent School District since 2002. The programs have been aligned with Texas educational standards and teach students about cultural diversity. Two of the programs offered have been The Bill, a study of the history of the Bill of Rights, and What Women, a play detailing historically important women in the United States. Rudy Eastman and playwright diannetucker worked together to develop the scripts for these programs.89 Through presentations of Out of Many, We Are One at Fort Worth–area schools, they reached 1,100 students in the Fort Worth Independent School District during the fall of 2007 and spring of 2008. This program addresses the relationship between African American and Latino communities, and was produced in collaboration with Artes De La Rosa. The tour was made possible by funding from the Neighborhood Arts Program of the Arts Council of Fort Worth and Tarrant County. The popular Broadway musical The Wiz was their 2010 project. With The Wiz they included the local high school, middle school, and elementary school students in the performance. The Community Residencies program involves educational residencies that utilize the expertise of the Jubilee Theatre artist family. During the residency at Bethlehem Community Center, Jubilee Theatre’s production manager Tyrone King conducted a summer acting workshop with local children that culminated in a performance at Jubilee Theatre. Promoting professional training for the community is part of the theatre’s work. This is done through the Artistic Enhancement Project. The goal is “to increase the level of artistry amongst African-American theatre artists in Dallas/Fort Worth through professional training workshops and opportunities.” Through this initiative, Jubilee intends to develop and

2 0 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration present acting and stagecraft workshops for area professionals led by local directors and Jubilee production staff, and coordinated by the production manager. Other community-building activities sponsored by Jubilee support groups include the Mendies Awards and the Annual Birthday Bash. The first, presented in the names of Darwin and Muriel Mendoza, honors the best male and female actors, the all-star cast, the best show of the past season, and retired board members. Initiated during the tenth anniversary season in 1991–1992, the award ceremony is now an annual tradition known as the Mendies or Mendie Awards and kicks off each new season in September. Darwin and Muriel Mendoza ran many of the theatre’s business activities from the earliest years of its inception, and through a variety of activities were a significant part of Jubilee’s success.90 The Annual Birthday Bash is an opportunity to honor community supporters while celebrating Jubilee’s history. The tenth anniversary season was also the year Jubilee initiated the Darwin and Muriel Performance Awards.

Conclusion Black theatre in Fort Worth mirrored black theatre in the nation. The works that were popular in the African American theatre canon around the country were also at play in Fort Worth in the inspirational hands of the Sojourner Truth Players, then Jubilee Theatre. Jubilee was founded on Afrocentric sensibilities and aesthetics. But in seeking to entertain and welcoming the entire diverse city in which they worked, they developed a multicultural audience. Their popularity emerged from the love of black music and comedy inherent in their founders, Rudy and Marian Eastman. Once Eastman discovered the tastes of his audience, he continued to give it what it wanted—great musical voices, great laughs, and great fun. Eastman’s original scripts or books for musicals reflected his inheritance of the comic genius of such masters as Langston Hughes with Simply Heavenly (1957), Ossie Davis with Purlie Victorious (1961), and Douglas Turner Ward with Day of Absence and Happy Ending (1965). Eastman was more an entertainer than a playwright, despite the approximately thirty-eight scripts to his credit. His written work ended when the play opened. He prepared his work mainly for the performance, with seemingly little interest in his work enduring in a written form. As a result his creative genius lives on in the memories of those who staged his work and in manuscripts, some still

Fort Worth  ◆   2 0 7 in handwritten form and unavailable to the public at this time. Eastman created more than a theatre; he created a community. This community included his artistic family and an extended family in the Fort Worth area that helped the theatre to endure—through attendance at events, volunteerism, critical reviews, and financial support. From Rudy Eastman to Ed Smith to Tre Garrett, the Jubilee continued a legacy of black storytelling and music, producing an amazing body of work that creatively reflects black struggle and triumph—and most of all an ability to laugh for the pure joy of it, and to laugh to keep from crying.

Theatre Productions by Season and Year of Production Dates at the end of each play are when the play was produced by the theatre. Jubilee Theatre

1981–1982 Mojo and String by Alice Childress (1981–1982) A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry (1981–1982) The Death and Life of Sneaky Fitch by James L. Rosenberg (1981–1982) Dunbar Is Not Just a High School, adapted by Rudy Eastman (1981–1982) 1982–1983 The Blues Ain’t Nothin’ But a Good Man Feeling Bad adapted by Rudy Eastman (1982–1983) Prodigal adapted by Rudy Eastman and Robert Sanders (1982–1983) 1983–1984 Home by Samm-Art Williams (1983–1984) When Malindy Sings (revision of Dunbar Is Not Just a High School) adapted by Rudy Eastman (1983–1984) 1984–1985 One Monkey Don’t Stop No Show by Don Evans (1984–1985) Cotton Club Night by Rudy Eastman (1984–1985) It Ain’t Grease, It’s Dixie Peach, adapted by Rudy Eastman, Joe Rogers, and Darwin Mendoza (1984–1985) Don’t Get So Drunk You Can’t Smell My Whiskey by Rudy Eastman (1984–1985) 1985–1986 Small Change by Peter Gill (1985–1986) Bruh Rabbit Meets Tar Baby by Rudy Eastman (1985–1986)

2 0 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration One Monkey Don’t Stop No Show by Don Evans (1985–1986) Prodigal adapted by Rudy Eastman and Robert Sanders (1985–1986) 1986–1987 Negroes in Space adapted by Rudy Eastman and Douglas Balentine (1986–1987) The Blues Ain’t Nothin’ But a Good Man Feeling Bad adapted by Rudy Eastman (1986–1987) Drums adapted by Rudy Eastman, Betty Green, and Quincy Johnson (1986–1987) 1987–1988 Home by Samm-Art Williams (1987) The Amen Corner by James Baldwin (1987) Class of ’62 adapted by Rudy Eastman (1988) Prodigal adapted by Rudy Eastman and Robert Sanders (1988) Killingsworth by Eugene Lee (1988) Negroes in Space adapted by Rudy Eastman and Douglas Balentine (1988) 1988–1989 Bessie Smith: Empress of the Blues adapted by Rudy Eastman (1988) A Soldier’s Play by Charles Fuller (1988) Dreamin’ on a Hot Summer Night adapted by Rudy Eastman and Douglas Balentine (1989) The Colored Museum by George C. Wolfe (1989) The Imaginary Invalid adapted by Rudy Eastman (1989) On the Corner adapted by Rudy Eastman, Robert Sanders, and Darwin Mendoza (1989) 1989–1990 Ain’t Misbehavin’ adapted by Murray Horwitz and Richard Maltby Jr. (1989) Split Second by Dennis McIntyre (1989) God’s Trombones by James Weldon Johnson (1990) Dem Birds adapted by Rudy Eastman (1990) A Joyful Noise adapted by Rudy Eastman and New Arts Six (1990) Eden by Steve Carter (1990) It Ain’t Grease, It’s Dixie Peach adapted by Rudy Eastman, Joe Rogers, and Darwin Mendoza (1990) 1990–1991 Midnight Walker adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (1990)

Fort Worth  ◆   2 0 9

Medea and the Doll by Rudy Gray (1990) The Tarzan Movie adapted by Rudy Eastman and Douglas Balentine (1991) Woman from the Town by Samm-Art Williams (1991) Kate and Petruchio (or U Ain’t No Street Walker Mamma But I Sho’ Do Like the Way U Strut Yo Stuff) adapted by Rudy Eastman (1991) Zimwe and the Drum (revision of Drums) adapted by Rudy Eastman (1991) Prodigal adapted by Rudy Eastman and Robert Sanders (1991) 1991–1992 Colored People’s Time by Leslie Lee (1991) Go Tell It on the Mountain: The Second Greatest Story Ever Told by Mark Caywood and Joe Rogers (1991) Harlem Blues adapted by Rudy Eastman (1992) Stories about the Old Days by Bill Harris (1992) Black Diva adapted by Rudy Eastman and New Arts Six (1992) Steal Away by Ramona King (1992) Back . . . on the Corner adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (1992) 1992–1993 Kate’s Sister by Maisha Baton (1992) Freedom’s Roots by Rudy Eastman (1992) God’s Trombones by James Weldon Johnson (1992–1993) Brother Mac adapted by Rudy Eastman and Michelle Baker (1993) Shakin’ the Mess Outta Misery by Shay Youngblood (1993) East Texas Hot Links by Eugene Lee (1993) Blacula: Brother of the Night adapted by Rudy Eastman (1993) 1993–1994 The Mighty Gents by Richard Wesley (1993) God’s Trombones by James Weldon Johnson (1993–1994) The Trials and Tribulations of Staggerlee Booker T. Brown by Don Lee (1994) Straight, No Chaser adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (1994) A Star Ain’t Nothin’ but a Hole in Heaven by Judi Ann Mason (1994) Negroes in Space adapted by Rudy Eastman and Douglas Balentine (1994) Happy Ending by Douglas Turner Ward Not in My House by Mary Keaton-Jordan and William Hass II (1994) 1994–1995 Spunk by George C. Wolfe (1994)

2 1 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

It Ain’t Grease, It’s Dixie Peach (1994–1995) Caesar and Cleopatra adapted by Rudy Eastman (1995) Bessie Smith: Empress of the Blues adapted by Rudy Eastman (1995) for colored girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf by Ntozake Shange (1995) Black Orpheus adapted by Joe Rogers and Mark Caywood (1995) Hershey with Almonds by diannetucker (1995) 1995–1996 Black Diva adapted by Rudy Eastman and New Arts Six (1995) Livin’ Fat by Judi Ann Mason (1995) The John Doe Variations by Silas Jones (1996) Lysistrata, PLEASE! adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (1996) Fear Itself by Eugene Lee (1996) The Book of Job adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (1996) 1996–1997 Daddy’s Maybe by diannetucker (1996) Class of ’62 adapted by Rudy Eastman with Mary Keaton-Jordan (1996–1997) Pill Hill by Samuel L. Kelley (1997) Back . . . on the Corner adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (1997) Dirty Laundry adapted by Charles C. Cole (1997) The Ballad of Isom Dart adapted by Joe Rogers and Mark Caywood (1997) 1997–1998 The Colored Museum by George C. Wolfe (1997) A Joyful Noise adapted by Rudy Eastman and the New Arts Six (1997–1998) Spirits of the Passage adapted by Rudy Eastman (1997–1998) Madam Queen by diannetucker (1998) Zimwe and the Drum adapted by Rudy Eastman (1998) A Soldier’s Play by Charles Fuller (1998) God’s Trombones by James Weldon Johnson (1998) 1998–1999 One Monkey Don’t Stop No Show by Don Evans (1998) The Sho-Nuf Blues: A Musical Tribute to W. C. Handy adapted by Rudy Eastman (1998–1999) Killingsworth by Eugene Lee (1999) The Trial of One Short-Sighted Black Woman vs. Mammy Louise and Safreeta Mae by Marcia L. Leslie (1999)

Fort Worth  ◆   2 1 1 Johnnie B. Goode by Thomas Meloncon (1999) I Too Sing adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (1999) Attitude, Girlfriend, Attitude by Joe Rogers and diannetucker (1999) 1999–2000 The Grandmama Tree by Bernard Cummings (1999) Travelin’ Shoes adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (1999–2000) To Be Young, Gifted and Black: A Portrait of Lorraine Hansberry by Lorraine Hansberry/Robert Nemiroff (2000) The Tempest adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (2000) The Drums of Sweetwater by Thomas Meloncon (2000) The Book of Job adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (2000) 2000–2001 Ceremonies in Dark Old Men by Lonne Elder III (2000) Black Nativity by Langston Hughes (2000–2001) Fat Freddy adapted by Joe Rogers and diannetucker (2001) A Love Song for Miss Lydia by Don Evans (2001) Hedy Understands Anxiety by Angela Counts (2001) Coop DeVille: Time Travelin’ Brother adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (2001) 2001–2002 Murder by Natural Causes by Tim Kelly (2001) God’s Trombones by James Weldon Johnson (2001) Romeo adapted by Charles C. Cole (aka Rudy Eastman) (2002) The Lowdown Man, Dirty Woman Blues adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (2002) Jar the Floor by Cheryl West (2002) Alice Wonder adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (2002) 2002–2003 Romancing Stereotypes by Silas Jones (2002) Travelin’ Shoes adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (2002–2003) Brother Mac adapted by Rudy Eastman and Michelle Baker (2003) Lysistrata, PLEASE! by adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (2003) A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry (2003) Road Show adapted by diannetucker and Joe Rogers (2003) 2003–2004 Flyin’ West by Pearl Cleage (2003) Auntée Explains X-Mas adapted by Rudy Eastman (2003–2004) Mr. Rickey Calls a Meeting by Ed Schmidt (2004)

2 1 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Bessie Smith: Empress of the Blues adapted by Rudy Eastman (2004) Woman from the Town by Samm-Art Williams (2004) Rhythm: A Musical Myth adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (2004) 2004–2005 God’s Trombones by James Weldon Johnson (2004) Fences by August Wilson (2005) Harlem Blues adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (2005) Bee-luther-hatchee by Thomas Gibbons (2005) Thruway Diaries by Samuel L. Kelley (2005) The Book of Job adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (2005) 2005–2006 The Colored Museum by George C. Wolfe (2005) Auntée Explains Xmas adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (2005–2006) Blues for an Alabama Sky by Pearl Cleage (2006) Diaries of a Barefoot Diva: And Other Tales and Stories From the Ghetto by Sheran Goodspeed Keyton and Joe Rogers (2006) The Imaginary Invalid adapted by Rudy Eastman (2006) The Odyssey: A Musical Adventure adapted by Rudy Eastman and Sheran Goodspeed Keyton (2006) 2006–2007 Joe Turner’s Come and Gone by August Wilson (2006) Black Nativity by Langston Hughes (2006) Crumbs From the Table of Joy by Lynn Nottage (2007) Cookin’ at the Cookery by Marian J. Caffey (2007) A Lovesong for Miss Lydia by Don Evans (2007) Rudy conceived by Ed Smith (2007) 2007–2008 Permanent Collection by Thomas Gibbons (2007) God’s Trombones/Celebration by James Weldon Johnson (2007) A Lesson Before Dying by Ernest Gaines, adapted by Romulus Linney (2008) Crowns by Regina Taylor (2008) Blue by Charles Randolph-Wright (2008) Ain’t Misbehavin’ adapted by Murray Horwitz and Richard Maltby Jr. (2008)

Fort Worth  ◆   2 1 3 2008–2009 for colored girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf by Ntozake Shange (2008) Uncle Duz Christmas conceived by Joe Rogers (2008) The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison, adapted by Lydia Diamond (2009) The Piano Lesson by August Wilson (2009) The Gospel Queen conceived by Ed Smith (2009) Sam Shade: A Detective Musical conceived by Joe Rogers (2009) 2009–2010 The Dance on Widow’s Row by Samm-Art Williams (2009) Home for the Holidays by Ed Smith (2009) From the Mississippi Delta by Dr. Endesha Ida Mae Holland (2010) One Mo’ Time: An Evening at the Lyric Theatre 1926 by Vernel Bagneris (2010) Gem of the Ocean by August Wilson (2010) Blues in the Night conceived by Sheldon Epps (2010) 2011–2012 Topdog/Underdog by Suzan-Lori Parks (2011) Auntée Explains Xmas adapted by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers (2011) Pretty Fire by Charlayne Woodard (2012) Tambourines to Glory by Langston Hughes (2012) Broke-ology by Nathan Louis Jackson (2012) Company—A Musical Comedy by George Furth; music and lyrics by Stephen Sondeim (2012) 2012–2013 Flight by Chalayne Woodard (2012) Black Spurs (A Jubilee Theatre Original Musical) by Celeste Bedford Walker (2012) Black Pearl Sings (A play with music) by Frank Higgins (2013) Trav’lin by Gary Holmes and Allan Shapiro (2013) Knock Me a Kiss by Charles Smith (2013) Mirandy and Brother Wind by Patricia C. McKissack; adapted by Michael J. Bobbitt (2013)

6 ◆ Houston b l a c k t h e at r e o n m a i n s t r e e t Thespian Society for “Cullud Genman” (ca 1866–) Coleridge-Taylor Glee Club and Drama Group (ca 1920–) Houston Negro Little Theatre (1931–1955) Urban Theatre (1969–1980) The Repertory Theatre (1970–1975) Encore Theatre (1994–present) Ensemble Theatre (1976–present) Imagine if the Black artist could have Black theatres in which to practice and develop their craft, places where your visitors’ pass does not expire, as it does for us now. . . . August Wilson, The Ground on Which I Stand

Houston has a long history of black theatre activity, dating back to the nineteenth century. This chapter provides an overview of the black experience in Houston and charts the development of black theatre in the Lone Star State’s largest city, focusing first on precursors and concluding with an in-depth look at Houston’s two most enduring black theatres, Encore and Ensemble Theatre. Included are biographical highlights of the founders and a review of memorable productions by Encore and Ensemble. The chapter also explores the featured theatres’ community outreach initiatives as well as their perseverance and survival.

Blacks in Houston With a population totalling approximately 2,099,451 residents in the 2013 US Census, Houston is the largest city in Texas. It is also the most culturally diverse. Blacks represent 23.7 percent (497,569) of Houston’s population. Located on the Gulf coastal plain, Houston’s metropolitan area includes Harris, Fort Bend, and Montgomery Counties, registering a total population of 5,133, 580. Harris, the most populous of the three counties, boasts a black population of more than 789,844 residents.1 For generations, Hous-

Houston  ◆   2 1 5 ton, the fourth-largest city in the nation, has been a symbol of opportunity and challenge for thousands of blacks in small towns on the Gulf coast. During Reconstruction, many former slaves settled in Houston, hoping to eke out a living using skills learned in slavery times. However, they encountered rejection and resistance from local whites, prompting the Freedmen’s Bureau to intervene on their behalf in disputes involving wages, contracts, housing, and so forth. For example, white opposition to the deployment of the all-black Twenty-fourth Infantry precipitated the Houston race riot of 1917, resulting in the deaths of fifteen whites and four black soldiers. Despite the hardships, blacks managed to establish secure and economically viable enclaves such as the Third Ward, which became home to the largest concentration of blacks in Houston. Fortunately, blacks in Houston developed a strong political consciousness, which inspired them to organize a local NAACP chapter in 1912. In the civil rights era and its aftermath, many black Houstonians fought for justice and equality in employment, education, and housing. As a result of its large black population, Houston supports a variety of black cultural institutions. For example, Houston is home to seven black newspapers, African American News and Issues, Houston Forward Times, Houston Defender, Houston Sun, Houston Style Magazine, Pearland in Color, and DBA Business Media. Blacks in Houston also communicate via the six radio stations that serve the neighborhoods. These stations include 90.9 KTSSU-TU Jazz, 97.9 The Box, Majic 102.1, KYOK Amen, KCOH Talk Radio, and KWWJ-Gospel. Other cultural institutions include the Shrine of the Black Madonna, Houston Museum of African American Culture, the Black Heritage Gallery, Ensemble Theatre, and the Encore Theatre. Although blacks in Houston face challenges associated with illicit drugs, gangs, crime, and poverty, clear evidence of economic and social progress among Houston’s black population abounds. For example, two black branches of the Chamber of Commerce are active in Houston, suggesting the presence of a black middle class capable of supporting black theatre and other artistic/cultural endeavors. Other indicators of a vibrant black middle class include the establishment of professional organizations such as the Houston Association of Black Journalists, Black Heritage Society, Black United Fund of Texas, Houston Lawyers Association, the Houston chapter of 100 Black Men of America, and the National Forum for Black Public Administrators. The economic plight and social advancement of blacks

2 1 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration are intimately linked to access to higher education. In addition to Houston Community College and several private universities, blacks in Houston can attend historically black Texas Southern University or the University of Houston, whose enrollment in 2013 was 12.1 percent black.2 The major black theatres in Texas have forged meaningful relationships with black churches in their respective cities. Houston’s black theatres are no exception. For example, George Hawkins, founder of Houston’s Ensemble Theatre, garnered support from the historic Antioch Missionary Baptist Church shortly after organizing his theatre. Other prominent black churches in Houston that helped black theatres build their audience base include Wheeler Avenue Baptist Church, Brentwood Baptist Church, First Metropolitan Church, Trinity United Methodist Church, and Windsor Village United Methodist Church, a megachurch with more than ten thousand members. Not surprisingly, artistic directors of black theatres in Houston and elsewhere developed seasonal lists that featured works with strong religious themes. For many years, well-organized political activism has elevated black life in Houston. Barbara Jordan, Houston’s most famous black politician, led the struggle for justice and equality on the state and national levels. Houston has a rich history of black political involvement in city government, the school district, and state government. In 1997, Lee Brown became the first African American elected mayor of Houston. Other black elected officials in Houston include state representatives Senfronia Thompson (District 14), Sylvester Turner (District 139), and Harold Dutton (District 142). An active political culture in Houston’s black community promotes an air of hope and possibility that can benefit institutions like black theatres.

Early Black Theatre Activity in Houston Thespian Society for “Cullud Genman” Although very little is known about the black actors who formed the Thespian Society for “Cullud Genman,” they hold an important place in the history of black theatre in Texas. They represent the earliest documented evidence of organized black theatre in the state.3 Since the minstrel show was the dominant form of theatrical expression in the 1860s, it is reasonable to assume that the Thespian Society for “Cullud Genman” was a black minstrel troupe. However, their notice, which appeared in a local Houston

Houston  ◆   2 1 7 newspaper, suggests a level of sophistication not usually associated with the minstrel tradition. The wording of their notice raises tantalizing questions about black self-identity and the nature of black theatre in Houston in the nineteenth century.

Coleridge-Taylor Glee Club and Drama Group Named for the celebrated black composer Samuel Coleridge-Taylor, the Coleridge-Taylor Glee Club and Drama Group was organized by educator E. O. Smith. Actors who performed with the group included George Webster, cofounder of the Houston Informer newspaper, his business partner, Cliff Richardson, Emil Farnsworth, Edna Griffith, and San Antonio native J. W. Hemmings. Their repertoire consisted mainly of Broadway shows written for white actors. The venue for the performances was the City Auditorium. Although the shows did not focus on black themes, black teachers used them to highlight universal values.4

Houston Negro Little Theatre Robert Holland, who was among the students who witnessed productions by the Coleridge-Taylor Glee Club and Drama Group, became the first director of the Houston Negro Little Theatre (HNLT). Established in 1931 under the auspices of the Houston Recreation Department, the HNLT was active through the beginning of World War II. The city’s recreation department appropriated twenty thousand dollars to organize a drama club for whites and one for blacks, with the funds divided equally between the two clubs. Houston recreation director Corinne Fonde, charged with implementing her department’s directive, faced a dilemma; there were no black theatre groups active in Houston at that time. Fonde recruited Holland, the recreation director for the city’s black parks, to organize the black drama club.5 Initially, the HNLT performed in the leaky basement of the Carnegie Branch Library on Frederick and Robbin Streets.6 Later the theatre moved to nicer accommodations in the Atlantic Light Building on Louisiana Street. This venue was equipped with a fine stage, a first-rate lighting system, and a superb rehearsal space.7 The HNLT cast black actors in plays that were written for white actors. For example, they performed The House of the Seven Gables, The Savage, and Our Town.

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Urban Theatre Barbara Marshall, protégé of Robert Holland who organized the Houston Negro Little Theatre, felt a need to provide theatre opportunities for actors regardless of race, gender, or ethnicity. To that end, she established the Urban Theatre in 1969. Explaining why she opted for a multiethnic theatre, Marshall said, “We never wanted to perpetuate the same thing that had caused us so much frustration by saying this is just for blacks.”8 Marshall staged James Baldwin’s Blues for Mr. Charlie with both black and white actors, thereby expanding opportunities for actors via nontraditional casting. Based in the Third Ward, the Urban Theatre was one of the first predominantly black theatre groups to be reviewed in the print media. Barbara Marshall’s Urban Theatre was a model for bold, innovative theatre that sprang from black cultural and aesthetic roots. Despite a run of only about eleven years, Urban Theatre introduced new ways of thinking about theatre in Houston.

The Repertory Theatre Founded in 1970 by the Reverend Earl Allen, a civil rights activist, the Repertory Theatre (TRT) was a program associated with Allen’s Black Arts Center. The center offered arts programs to residents of the Fifth Ward. Loretta Devine, former member of the Urban Theatre Company, worked as an arts teacher for the Black Arts Center and assisted with the development of the Repertory Theatre. A Houston native, Devine went on to become a successful stage, film, and television actress. Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee participated in TRT’s opening celebration. The Repertory Theatre performed three or four plays each season, including plays by major voices from the black arts movement such as Ed Bullins and Ron Milner. The Repertory Theatre also attracted high-profile guest stars such as Butterfly McQueen and Melvin Van Peeples. Allen’s Black Arts Center acquired the Roxy Theatre, which became the home of the Repertory Theatre. The Urban Theatre also staged some of its plays in the Roxy Theatre. Following its promising opening, the Repertory Theatre served Fifth Ward residents until 1975.9

Encore Theatre To commemorate Encore’s move to the Main Street location in the 1997– 1998 season, Harold J. Haynes, founder and artistic director of Encore The-

Houston  ◆   2 1 9 atre, staged a new work entitled It Ain’t Over Til the Fat Lady Sings, a musical set in Harlem during the 1920s. Haynes not only wrote and directed the play but was also responsible for the choreography, lighting, and sound design, as well as the set and costume design. He told a reporter, “I kind of overdid it on this one. This one nearly killed me.”10 Typically, Haynes “overdoes it” with virtually every production that he presents at Encore, a small theatre with a loyal company of actors and an enthusiastic and supportive audience. Haynes brings an incredible level of commitment to his work at Encore, along with a remarkable mastery of the crafts and technical aspects of theatre. He is a multitalented theatre professional who often does the work of half a dozen people. When we interviewed him in his theatre at 4816 Main Street, the set that he designed for his play, Jezebel, was still in place. It was an elegant, professionally rendered, visually appealing set that captured the play’s central theme. With help from his dedicated staff, Haynes gives Encore Theatre audiences a truly memorable theatrical experience. And he does it with limited financial resources.

The Founder A native of Port Arthur, Texas, Harold Haynes has lived and worked most of his life in Houston’s Third Ward. He holds a bachelor of arts degree in English, a bachelor of fine arts in theatre from Prairie View A&M University, and a master’s degree in English from the University of Iowa. Haynes also did graduate work at the University of Houston and Texas Southern University. He has taught at Prairie View A&M, in the Houston Independent School District, at Texas Southern University, the University of Houston Downtown, and Houston Community College Central. Haynes has served as a critic judge for the University Interscholastic League, and he is a prolific Texas playwright, with more than twenty plays to his credit. His teaching career began in the 1970s when he taught drama and directed plays in Houston high schools, such as Phillis Wheatley in the Fifth Ward. His students frequently competed in the University Interscholastic League one-act play contests. Although students in the area were not exposed often to live theatre, Haynes directed a group of inexperienced freshmen and sophomores in Lorraine Hansberry’s To Be Young, Gifted and Black, and they won first place in the regional competition.11 Working with theatre in high school and college prepared Haynes for his work with Encore. Haynes has had notable successes over the years in developing and mentoring talented performers. He has sent actors on to perform in soap

2 2 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Harold J. Haynes, founder and artistic director, Encore Theatre (1994 to present). Photo courtesy of Harold J. Haynes.

operas such as The Young and the Restless and Days of Our Lives. Haynes is especially proud of his role in the career of nationally recognized singer/ actress Jennifer Holliday, who got her big break while working in an Encore production entitled Don’t Bother Me, I Can’t Cope. Haynes and C. Lee Turner were in rehearsals when music promoters from New York sat in on a rehearsal and were so impressed by Holliday’s singing that they invited her to New York for an audition. She sang for Michael Bennett, and her career on Broadway was launched.12 Haynes has also mounted productions for the YMCA’s Children’s Theatre (for five or six years) and for the Young People’s Workshop in Acres Homes. Haynes has directed and designed costumes for the Ensemble Theatre; he received a “Giorgee” Award13 for his work with Ensemble. Although the

Houston  ◆   2 2 1 Ensemble and Encore Theatres are physically close to each other, they are philosophically far apart. Haynes insists that there is room for both theatres in Houston: “We’re doing a different style of work, so we appeal to different segments of the theatre-going public.”14 Reflecting on the circumstances surrounding the establishment of Encore Theatre, Haynes remembers a conversation he had with friend, mentor, and fellow director C. Lee Turner: I started this theatre in a really awkward way because I was talking to Turner one night and I said, “You know Turner, I think I’m gonna start a theatre.” He said, “Well, do it; do it.” I said, but I don’t know. Can I live, eat, and breathe this everyday? Cuz it’s like you married to the theatre.15

To make his dream a reality, Haynes sold the two-story house that he had finished renovating. With the money from the sale, he says, “I bought the lighting equipment, supplies, and everything I needed, leased the building on the corner of Fannin—where the CVS store now stands.”16 The building’s size was small, he added; it was a “quaint space but people loved it, and I began to get hooked, and I decided from that point on, that this is what I wanted to do, and so I’ve been doing it ever since.”17 Haynes also was inspired by the example of his late friend George Hawkins, founder of Houston’s Ensemble Theatre. Haynes watched Hawkins establish his theatre. According to Haynes, Hawkins was “able to pull people in. And I watched him work, and I said, ‘Well, if he can do it, I can do it.’” Haynes was present at Hawkins’s very first production at the 1010 Tuam Street location, a renovated pet shop. Haynes recalls, “It was so hot in there. I mean, it was like a hundred and ten degrees. . . . You had to go across the stage to get to the restroom which was a small tin building, detached from the main building. Actors shared the same facilities with the public.”18

Mission Harold Haynes knew exactly what he wanted to achieve in establishing his theatre. His objectives were as follows: [Provide] quality theatre to the citizens of Houston living in the inner city who have had limited exposure in the past. In addition, the theatre takes serious its self-imposed charge to provide a training ground for theatre aspirants . . . who need experience to develop highly trained theatre professionals.19

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Encore: Theatre for the Inner City Haynes organized the Encore Theatre, a nonprofit urban public theatre, on January 22, 1994. Encore’s first theatre site in August 1995 was located at 3224 Fannin. It provided only about 2,100 square feet with seating for only fifty people.20 On June 30, 1997, the Encore moved to the Playhouse at 4816 Main Street. A historic theatre, the Playhouse was the first professional arena theatre in the country; the brainchild of Bill Rozan and Joanna Albus, it opened on February 21, 1951.21 Under Haynes’s leadership, the theatre’s seating configuration was redesigned as a modified thrust with a pseudo proscenium arch and 210 seats. The Main Street lobby was also redecorated in maroon and gold; the gold metallic ceiling and glittering chandelier give the space a touch of elegance.22 The Main Street theatre offered approximately 3,800 square feet of space. During the Main Street revitalization project in 2003–2004, Encore Theatre temporarily relocated to 2011 Lamar Street, returning to the Main Street location after the revitalization project was completed. Encore was also housed at the 4118 Fannin, a space with “one hundred straight seats or seventy-five with tables and chairs.”23 Encore was located at 8616 Cullen Boulevard for several seasons. The theatre is located at 4715 Main Street, Suite E. Committed to making theatre available to all, Encore serves a diverse, largely inner-city clientele as well as more affluent African American audiences, many of whom have not been exposed to live theatre. Having spent much of his career living and working in the targeted neighborhoods, Haynes knows his audience very well. Based on his intimate knowledge of his audience, he has developed a successful formula that allows him to tailor his plays to fit his particular audience. For example, he recognizes the strong influence of the black church in the lives of his audience members. Therefore, religious themes, settings, and characters abound in his plays. Since his audiences love music and dance, his plays are often best described as musicals with light book. The fact that he maintains musical director Sammie Ammons on staff suggests the importance of music to his dramatic vision. Haynes’s plays feature a wide range of contemporary and historical settings, classical adaptations of Shakespeare (Othello and Romeo and Juliet) and Euripides (Medea), musical revues, and African American classics

Houston  ◆   2 2 3 such as August Wilson’s Fences and Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom. Haynes is not afraid to stage the great classics of the Western theatrical tradition even without the benefit of a big budget and a large professional staff (there is no dramaturge, no costume designer on staff, no set designer, and interns frequently handle lighting and sound). Although Encore is an African American theatre company, Haynes does not limit himself to works by black writers. For example, he has done Michael Cristofer’s Tony Award and Pulitzer Prize winner The Shadow Box (1977) with a black cast. By using performers from the targeted neighborhoods in his plays and musicals, Haynes increases his audience base by drawing people into the theatre who come to see and hear their favorite church soloists/ choir members. For example, in season fourteen (2007–2008), the nineteen-member cast of Divas and Daredevils (2007), a musical featuring local performers impersonating artists such as Mahalia Jackson and Diana Ross, included Eric Henry, minister of music at the Mt. Ararat Baptist Church in Houston; LaShondra Lankford, a member of the Southeast Inspirational Choir; and Gary Richardson, organist for Green Chapel A.M.E. Church.24 Haynes also casts talented children and teenagers in his musicals, thereby attracting doting parents and relatives. Divas and Daredevils is presented in two acts. This type of show is appealing to a theatre like Encore because of the low production costs, large pool of performers who work for free, and strong audience appeal. Moreover, the show can be repeated, using different singers. It is essentially a musical revue or variety show (talent show format) that produces revenue needed to cover operating costs (e.g., rent, utilities) and help finance other theatre projects. Encore’s season generally consists of five or six productions, but occasionally, only two plays are produced in a season. For example, in season thirteen, six plays were produced, but in season fourteen only two plays were produced. In season fifteen, only one play was produced. The availability of funds to cover production costs dictates the length of Encore’s seasons. And the lack of consistent seasons may account, at least in part, for local theatre critics’ failure to review Encore’s productions regularly. Theatres and theatre patrons need knowledgeable critics to assess the strengths and weaknesses of a production and to advise patrons on whether or not the show is worth their time and money. Unfortunately, Encore’s artistic director, performers, technical staff, and audiences do not have the benefit of insightful, professional reviews. A writer for a local Houston

2 2 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration newspaper commented on the media’s tendency to ignore small theatres like Encore: Houston has a number of theaters that rarely get reviewed and receive little or no press coverage. Their audiences are primarily drawn to their shows via word of mouth, or invitations from family or friends who are part of the production. One of these theaters is a small ensemble company known as Encore Theater on Main, just a few blocks down from the Ensemble Theater, a larger, more predominantly well known and also, an African-American theater company.25

One searches in vain for consistent media coverage of Encore’s productions. Yet the 2011–2012 season marked Encore’s seventeenth year of continuous productions. Clearly, Encore fulfills a need and deserves to be reviewed regularly. Even though it is not the only black-oriented theatre in Houston, it has established a solid, loyal, and enthusiastic audience. Encore is “grass-roots” theatre at its best. The media’s neglect not only impacts Encore’s ability to expand its audience base but also robs it of the reviewer’s unbiased analysis, taking away an opportunity for directors and actors to improve their work. A prolific playwright and a successful director, Haynes consistently stages his own works. For example, in season eight he wrote and directed four of the five plays presented. These works included It Ain’t Over Til the Fat Lady Sings (1997), a musical comedy and the first production presented at 4816 Main Street, and three new plays: God’s Mad Clown (2002), Three Blind Mice (2002), a musical, and Samson and Delilah (2002). By writing and directing his own plays, Haynes is free to shape them to meet audience expectations, while avoiding royalties. Haynes also writes plays for specific performers in his company. For example, he created the role of “Inmate Cassie” in Women in Prison for LaTrina Rice, one of his theatre students at Houston’s Wheatley High School and a former member of the Encore company (she was on the Women in Prison program in 2005). Encore’s productions of plays by Shakespeare give black actors an opportunity to play some of the great roles in the Western theatrical tradition, while introducing their audience to classics from a culturally relevant perspective. Haynes infuses his adaptations of the classics with an urban sensibility and a dash of humor, without doing violence to the texts. The actors speak in the rhythms and tones of the black vernacular.

Samson and Delilah (2009). (Left to right) Reggie Davis, Rocifelle Living, E’Tian Parker. Photo courtesy of Harold J. Haynes.

Women in Prison (2007). (Left to right standing) Curtis Von, Rocifelle Living, Sarah Jackson, Aurelia Holland, Takesha Bendy, LaTrina Rice, Angie Alexis; (Left to right on floor) Cristy Wells, Bre Jiles, Angela Archield. Photo courtesy of Harold J. Haynes.

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Memorable Productions Decade One In 2014, Encore Theatre celebrated two decades of service as a professional theatre, making it the second-oldest continuously operating black theatre in Houston. In Encore’s first decade, Haynes created a socially relevant theatre that educates, entertains, and inspires audiences. Haynes offers his audience plays that explore a variety of social issues such as crime, men and women in prison, and child abuse, topics familiar to his target audience. Central themes in Haynes’s plays include women’s issues (Behind Closed Doors, Women in Prison, Medea, Jezebel); children at risk (I Just Wanna Tell Somebody, Isolation); male-centered themes (God’s Mad Clown, Rage, Incarceration); Christian-oriented musicals (Shout! Hallelujah, The Music and Magic of Christmas, Praise the Lord . . .); cabaret-style musicals (It Ain’t Over Til the Fat Lady Sings, Divas and Daredevils, Black on Broadway); and social justice topics (Stand, Miss Evers’ Boys, The Shadow Box). One of the highlights of Encore’s first decade was a play titled I Just Wanna Tell Somebody (1995) that combines singing and acting, though it is not a musical. I Just Wanna Tell Somebody, an early two-act play written and directed by Haynes (book and lyrics), is essentially a didactic drama interspersed with several original songs that comment on the plot. However, a director can present the play with or without the music. Because the plot is developed in episodes, a director may also choose to shorten the playing time by eliminating selected episodes. A compelling drama that exposes the effects of child abuse, I Just Wanna Tell Somebody was sponsored by the Downtown YMCA in Houston and first presented by “an ethnically mixed company of teenagers .  .  . at the Maceba Theatre in Houston, Texas.” The play was later produced by Prairie View A&M University at the American College Theatre Festival at Pan American University in Edinburg, Texas.26 Additionally, it was performed in the 1995–1996 season. In the play, Tony, a teenager whose unemployed father abuses him physically, becomes the prosecutor in a courtroom, and his father is the defense attorney. Twelve abused children serve as the jury. It has been produced in venues as diverse as Colorado and Canada. In at least one school in which the play was performed students felt empowered to disclose instances of child abuse to school counselors.27 Due to a highly enthusiastic audience response, the Houston YMCA’s production of I Just

Houston  ◆   2 2 7 Wanna Tell Somebody was held over for several extra shows.28 With music by John J. Gordon, I Just Wanna Tell Somebody is perhaps Harold Haynes’s most accomplished work. The DVD version of I Just Wanna Tell Somebody reveals a visually attractive set consisting of different-sized boxes. The actors perform on an essentially bare stage. Although the small stage is frequently filled with fifteen or twenty actors, it never appears crowded or awkward. Haynes makes very effective use of a small space. He uses lighting to define space and highlight scenes, and he uses a multi-level set (living quarters raised above the main floor, courtroom and other scenes set on the main floor). The well-rehearsed actors deliver their lines with precision and confidence. Movement and blocking are excellent.29 Although the play runs more than two hours, there is no intermission. Haynes gets high marks for assembling and skillfully directing a cast of over twenty actors (many without speaking roles). Clearly, Haynes gives a great deal of attention to detail in all aspects of his production (e.g., set design, costume design, lighting, and sound). Nevertheless, I Just Wanna Tell Somebody is a powerful, thought-provoking play in the traditional mode (linear plot structure) that deserves a wide audience, especially among children. In the fourth season (1997–1998) and season eight (2001–2002), Haynes wrote and directed a musical entitled It Ain’t Over Til the Fat Lady Sings (1997). Set in a Harlem cabaret named The Jungle during the 1920s, It Ain’t Over reminds one of August Wilson’s Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom. The “fat lady” is a temperamental jazz singer who refuses to be dominated by her employer/lover. The musical opens with six waiters performing a dance routine around the club. The singer arrives late, like Ma Rainey, and establishes her diva status, putting the owner of the cabaret on notice. The conflict develops as the club owner struggles to impose his will on the sassy singer. The script is replete with humorous sexual innuendos intended to evoke laughter from the audience. The situation with Big Daddy, the club owner, and his entertainer is complicated by the fact that they are also lovers. The singer is a fiercely independent woman, the type of woman Encore’s audience loves to watch. This period piece is an excellent example of Encore’s secular musicals. Encore is also noted for its crowd-pleasing gospel musicals/plays. The gospel play/musical has a long history in the African American theatrical tradition. Typically, the gospel play

2 2 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration combined spirituals and biblical parables with pageantry—a series of key moments held together by scripture, music, and spectacle in which the minister bridged dramatic sketches with narration. Gospel plays employed local talent from church choirs and rarely used original music, although Haynes departs from this tradition, composing lyrics for some of his gospel shows. The plots were simple, usually a Bible story already known to the audience.”30

Langston Hughes capitalized on gospel’s popularity with four musicals: Black Nativity (1961), which opened off Broadway and then toured Europe for two years; The Gospel Glow (1962); Tambourines to Glory (1963); and Jericho-Jim Crow (1963). Written and directed by Harold J. Haynes, Shout! Hallelujah (2001) is one of the best contemporary examples of the black gospel musical. Shout! Hallelujah was one of the most successful productions in the seventh season (2000–2001). Written and directed by Haynes, it takes place in a black church, a setting familiar to his audience. Haynes declares that Shout! Hallelujah has already become Encore’s “signature piece.” Sammie Ammons was the musical director for the production. It begins with the newly appointed choir director, aptly named Bro. Choir Director (Damon Gilmore) leading the choir in a rehearsal. Tension arises when the talkative and obnoxious Sis. Mouth (LaTrina L. Rice) and her friend Sis. Melony (Harmone Crenshaw) rudely interrupt the rehearsal to advise the new choir director regarding which songs choir members should sing. After repeated attempts to make the duo pay attention and keep their comments to themselves, Bro. Choir Director leaves in a huff and meets the new pastor, Reverend Goody (Chris Wright), who tells him to keep trying and never give up the faith.31 Haynes weaves two additional secondary plot elements into the play/musical; the disruptive sisters are romantically interested in the pastor, and the pastor is implicated in a possible case of misappropriated church funds. Reviewer Joey Berner praised the production of Shout! Hallelujah: “It’s played with energy, smart timing, and some over-the-top performances that border on caricature.”32 He also noted that the main “problem with the show is that at two hours and forty minutes, it’s far too long. Scenes that become laborious need to be trimmed and tightened to make their point clearer and quicker. The comic points, of which there are many as Haynes has a gift for funny dialogue, would be far more entertaining if the set up didn’t take so long to arrive at the payoff.” According to Berner, the “high-

Houston  ◆   2 2 9 lights of the show are the amazing gospel numbers, including the terrific title song.” His overall assessment is that “Haynes has assembled a talented cast of local actors and singers.”33

Decade Two In season ten (2003–2004), Encore presented Incarceration, a adult-oriented prison drama, written and directed by Harold J. Haynes. Nudity, adult situations, and strong language make the play unsuitable for general audiences. Yet, Incarceration was an artistic triumph as well as a box office success. A starkly naturalistic drama, Incarceration focuses on two brothers who were separated shortly after birth and reared in different socioeconomic environments. They are brought back together in a county jail. But the reunion is not a joyous one, for one of the brothers, Andrew, resents his twin, Andre, because he was adopted by a wealthy family and given all the benefits of an affluent lifestyle. Andrew grew up in a poor family, and he feels trapped in an unrelenting cycle of poverty.34 Andre snitches on his fellow inmates, and they plan a gang rape to teach him a lesson. Andrew must decide whether he will risk his own life to save his brother’s life. Structured like the classic well-made play, Incarceration balances humor and pathos to give the audience an entertaining and thought-provoking theatrical experience. For Incarceration, Haynes designed an austere, realistic set, using lighting that evokes a sense of foreboding and dread. The large cast included Encore Company regulars Broderick Jones, Rocifelle Living, Daron Gilmore, E’tian Parker, and Deno Ballard, among others. Broderick Jones also served as fight choreographer, Erran Booker was the lighting technician, and W. Gonzalez was DVD editor.35 Incarceration resonated with Encore’s audience members, making it one of the theatre’s most popular productions. Because so many black families in Houston are touched by the criminal justice system, a play like Incarceration is incredibly relevant to their daily lives. One of Encore’s most outstanding productions is Behind Closed Doors (2006), written and directed by Harold J. Haynes. This play has been produced twice since its premiere in 1994, once in 2007 and again in 2011. Moreover, the work reflects a production practice or pattern that Haynes has followed diligently throughout his seventeen years with Encore. He continues to write and direct his own plays at Encore. Behind Closed Doors is a typical Haynes production. His work demonstrates impeccable stage-

2 3 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration craft, disciplined performers, careful attention to detail, generous doses of humor, and familiar and uncomplicated themes, following the format of the traditional, well-made play. One does see echoes of Tyler Perry in Behind Closed Doors and many other plays by Harold Haynes. Music is always a key element in his productions. Therefore, Behind Closed Doors opens with a male and female duet singing about love lost behind closed doors. The well-designed and constructed set consists of a large house front with several doors opening onto a wide porch. In the first scene, eight black women are venting about the trials and tribulations of living with lazy, cheating, abusive, broke black men, a topic sure to resonate with women in Haynes’s audiences. After taking turns voicing their complaints against black men, the women exit the stage. In the next scene of Behind Closed Doors, Dr. Remington Ross, psychologist, addresses the audience about the impact of infidelity on the black family. He recounts his personal experience with cheating on his wife, and he proposes to share the files of five of his patients with the audience. A chorus of eight men appears on the stage and recounts their various experiences with uncaring, nagging women. Again, there is no acting; the men stand in place and deliver their lines like soliloquies. The play then focuses on a specific couple trying to work through their domestic, marital conflicts. In one scene of the two-act play, a husband feels that his wife does not appreciate him and his struggles to provide for his family. In another scene a wife accuses her husband of cheating on her with a woman half his age; in another scene a wife is shocked when she discovers that her husband has been cheating not with a woman but with another man. The husband complains that his wife had been emotionally distant, but his male partner filled that void. However, if the bisexual husband is not shocking enough, the jilted wife reveals that she too is bisexual; her girlfriend knocks on the door and barges into the scene, claiming her girlfriend. This is an extremely bold, even audacious scene, given the degree of homophobia that pervades the African American community, especially in the black church, which ironically supplies the majority of Encore’s performers and audiences. Under a heavy veil of humor, Haynes forces his audiences to confront a taboo topic, homosexuality. Although Haynes risks alienating his audiences with this subject matter, he takes his chances to open a constructive dialogue on this volatile issue. While it is true that Harold Haynes writes many of the plays that he directs at Encore, he does not neglect the classics of the African American

Houston  ◆   2 3 1 theatrical canon, such as the plays of August Wilson. For example, in 2008 during Black History Month, he mounted a successful production of Wilson’s Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom. Haynes assembled a cast of veteran actors and technical staff to make the production a memorable occasion for his audience. Because the play combines good music with a compelling plot, Encore patrons were delighted with the production. In 2009, Haynes staged Samson and Delilah, a play that he wrote and directed at Encore. Like many writers, Haynes is familiar with the Bible

Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom (2008). (Left to right) Aurelia Holland, Kenneth Gary, Brandon Shelton. Photo courtesy of Harold J. Haynes.

Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom program cover (2008). Photo courtesy of Harold J. Haynes.

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Incarceration (2004). (Foreground) Rodney Cox; (Background) Jose Montenez. Photo courtesy of Harold J. Haynes.

and draws inspiration from scripture for his art. Of course, the story of Samson and Delilah was well known among his largely church-going audience members. The male-female conflict resonated with his audiences, and they were eager to see the actors bring the story to life on the stage.

Perseverance and Survival Reflecting on his mastery of the fundamental theatrical crafts, Haynes revealed that the lack of operating funds forced him to learn how to handle lighting, sound, costumes, set design, and other aspects of theatre production. He admits, “I’ve never had money.”36 Consequently, he approaches

2 3 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration theatre as a teaching arena in which he attracts or recruits people who want to learn the technical side of theatre. He provides on-the-job training. “We take people that are not as skilled but by the time we get through with them, everybody wants them in their shows.”37 Haynes has a role in all aspects of the theatre. He designs the publicity posters, fliers, and programs, and he also oversees the box office receipts, pays bills, and solicits donations from individuals, grantors, and businesses. There is no budget to hire salaried staff; therefore, Encore depends on volunteers. In 1996 a board of directors was established, with Betty Cox serving as the first president. Other members of Encore’s first board included Milton and Rose Austin, Glory Brown, Syble Davis, Betty Frazier, Maude Guilford, Harold Haynes, Barbara McKenzie, Constance Morris, and Deborah Reed. One of Haynes’s most difficult challenges is maintaining a home for his theatre. Consequently, he takes justifiable pride in the venues that he has secured for Encore over the years. Even though Encore lacks the funds and staff to mount a traditional publicity campaign for its shows, people still pack the theatre, sometimes exceeding Encore’s seating capacity. Commenting upon his efforts to comply with the fire marshal’s seating restrictions, Haynes admits that “sometimes it’s scary, and you can hardly move, but people insist on coming in, and if you try to turn them away, they’ll wait until I’m busy elsewhere and I’ll see the little curtain part, and I’ll see some eyes looking in. . . . They will try to sneak in.”38 Although Encore is a 501c3, nonprofit organization, it has not received the kind of financial support it sorely needs and deserves. Encore’s production programs indicate the source of its revenue. For example, ads for small businesses such as Walker’s BBQ and Idell’s Bakery are listed.39 Individual donors are listed, also.40 Encore’s productions were supported by the Cultural Arts Council of Houston, which provided a little over five thousand dollars annually.41 Therefore, Haynes supplements these funds with revenues from ticket sales, DVD sales, and his personal funds. Consequently, Encore delivers outstanding productions on the proverbial “shoestring” budget, while giving aspiring actors and technical staff opportunities to work in theatre.

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The Ensemble Theatre: From Dream to Reality Houston is large enough to support Encore and Ensemble Theatres. Although both theatres continue to stage outstanding productions, Encore Theatre faces financial challenges, while Ensemble Theatre enjoys the support of generous corporate donors and numerous subscribers. Consequently, Ensemble has achieved a national profile. Founded by George Hawkins in 1976, Ensemble ranks among the most successful regional theatres in the United States, and it is one of only a handful of black theatres that owns its building.

The Founder George Wayne Hawkins was born on January 18, 1947, in Dallas, and he attended public schools there. Upon graduating from high school, George enrolled at Prairie View A&M College, where he earned a bachelor’s degree in business administration. He subsequently earned a degree in accounting from Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland. On August 23, 1969, Hawkins married Sylvia Elizabeth Larkin. Their son, David Jon Elliott Hawkins, was born on September 19, 1975. By this time, Hawkins was deeply involved in the development and support of Ensemble. After he arrived in Houston in the early 1970s, he worked in retail and briefly pursued a career as a model.

George Hawkins, founder and first artistic director (1976– 1990), Ensemble Theatre. Photo courtesy of Ensemble Theatre.

2 3 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Willie Bright, who operated an employment agency, placed Hawkins in a job in the accounting department at Tenneco Oil Company,42 a position that afforded him a measure of financial stability. Although Hawkins was delighted to land a job in the business sector, he maintained his love for theatre and hoped to imitate poet and insurance executive Wallace Stevens by working in corporate America while pursuing a second career in theatre. Sue Dauphin, author of Houston by Stages: A History of Theatre in Houston, indicates that Hawkins had accumulated eleven years of professional theatre experience before he decided to establish Ensemble Theatre. He was already an experienced stage director as well as a stage and film actor, having worked with Glynn Turman and James Ward. Hawkins enhanced his professional training through studies at Beale Street Repertory Theatre in Memphis and New Freedom Theatre in Philadelphia, as well as through a year of study and observation in London.43 According to Dauphin, Hawkins once was cast in the lead role of Professor Higgins in Shaw’s Pygmalion as his first stage appearance.44 He performed professionally in St. Louis, Cleveland, and Houston, making his local debut in Nedela in 1970. Hawkins was cast in Seesaw, the second show directed by Marietta Marich at Dunfey’s Dinner Theatre, and followed that with the role of Morris in God’s Favorite, also for Marich.45 Hawkins also gained experience and inspiration from participating in the Urban Theatre organized by Barbara Marshall in 1969.46 However, the Urban Theatre was virtually inactive in the late 1970s, forcing Hawkins to look elsewhere for opportunities to work in theatre. Commenting on why he decided to organize the Ensemble, Hawkins said, “I was an actor, and I was frustrated because there was no place for me to work.”47 Even though he had no financial support and no performance space, Hawkins looked beyond those challenges and, with the help of a few friends, established the Black Ensemble Company, later renamed the Ensemble Theatre, in November 1976. Hawkins set up the theatre in his home at 2010 Wentworth Street in Houston.48 For his first production, he chose Douglas Turner Ward’s Day of Absence (1965). According to Dauphin, Hawkins put out an audition notice that attracted fifty interested actors. Set in a small southern town, the play explores the chaos created by the absence of the town’s black population, suggesting the often-unacknowledged dependence of whites on blacks. Although the play received mixed reviews in its New York production, it was a very popular play among black audiences and directors.

Houston  ◆   2 3 7 With the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s still fresh in the memories of many black Houstonians, the theme of Day of Absence resonated with the audience. The play presents a compelling, socially relevant message without the politically militant rhetoric characteristic of plays reflecting the artistic ideals of the black arts movement. Serving as artistic director for the new company, Hawkins rehearsed his thirty-member cast, in whiteface, for two months and staged the performance in the historic Antioch Missionary Baptist Church and the Blue Triangle Branch of YWCA.49 The production was well received, and Hawkins was encouraged to forge ahead with his fledgling company of twelve actors.50 Since he had no permanent location in which to house his company, Hawkins adopted the itinerant theatre model; the actors carried props and lighting equipment in the trunk of their cars.51 Hawkins carried props and costumes in a long black Cadillac that someone had given him.52 Undaunted by the challenges of operating a theatre without a performance space, Hawkins, with Aubrey Dunham, adapted the Br’er Rabbit folktale for children’s theatre, premiering the piece at the Good Time Charlie’s stage in Sharpstown Center. Hawkins’s adaptation was based on Br’er Rabbit and the Tar Baby by Ruth Mitchell and Alfred Allen;53 after eliminating negative images and offensive dialogue, Hawkins took the show on the road, performing at daycare centers, churches, community centers, and elementary schools in the 1977–1978 season. Without funding, Hawkins was obliged to underwrite all productions from his accountant’s salary.54 But he could not sustain the work using his salary, and a lack of funds forced him to suspend production of Br’er Rabbit. During this break in production, Hawkins traveled to Europe to study and experience theatre. After about ten months, he returned to Houston in March 1979 “armed with scripts he had gathered in his travels and a new philosophy of developmental theatre. The Ensemble would produce original material or if not brand new, at least fresh work that offered opportunities to create new roles.”55

Mission From its inception, Ensemble Theatre has endeavored to find its niche within Houston’s arts community. The Ensemble’s mission statement is simple and direct: “In the belief that live theatre is the cornerstone of an arts community, The Ensemble is committed to promoting cultural diversity through theatre arts.”56

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Memorable Productions Decade One In the first decade, Hawkins struggled to satisfy his audience as well as the reviewers, who dismissed his work as socially irrelevant fluff. For example, reviewer William Albright complained about “a lack of ‘relevance’ or ‘blackness’ in Ensemble productions.”57 He observed, “Unlike the longdefunct Black Arts Center, The Ensemble seems to shy away from probing, hard-hitting plays by Amiri Baraka (the former LeRoi Jones) and other controversial but pivotal figures in black theatre. In their place, Houston’s leading black theatre company gives us dopey ‘live soap operas,’ i.e., Beulah Johnson, dismal verse dramas built around old sermons, i.e., God’s Trombones (1927), and featherbrained comedies that could just as easily have white characters.” Albright called the Ensemble’s shows “frothy, colorblind comedies.”58 The theatre critic did not allow Hawkins the freedom to choose a path different from Baraka’s. Although Hawkins did not embrace Baraka’s brand of politically militant art, his efforts to establish his own theatre reflected the spirit of self-determination and self-reliance that inspired proponents of the black arts movement to establish their own publishing houses, magazines, journals, and institutions. But Hawkins was not deterred by the critic’s harsh assessment of his work. He would take his theatre to the next level. One of the most memorable productions at the Tuam Street theatre was Cecil Alonzo’s Beulah Johnson (season 1978–1979). A soap opera on stage, the play opened on August 26, 1979, for six Sunday evening productions, directed by C. Lee Turner.59 According to Dannette Davis, a member of the cast, Alonzo was present for rehearsals and on opening night.60 The plot, which focuses on a day worker who supports her perennially unemployed aspiring actor-husband, was a “smash hit.”61 Hawkins’s target audience, working-class African Americans, could relate to the familiar male/female conflicts portrayed in the play, and they knew real-life individuals like Beulah and her trifling husband. No one wanted to miss an episode of the soap opera, and the tiny theatre was filled, often beyond capacity, throughout the six-week run. The play’s satirical treatment of the husband reflected reality for many men and women in the audience. With a packed house each night, the Ensemble acquired some much-needed funds. Encouraged by the tremendously successful production of Beulah Johnson, Hawkins decided to write and direct his own soap opera. The result

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George Hawkins at the Ensemble Theatre, 1010 Tuam location. Photo by Jeffery St. Mary.

was a murder mystery entitled Who Killed Hazel Patton? written under the pen name Carl Anderson. By writing his own soap opera, Hawkins hoped to cash in on the popularity of his production of Beulah Johnson. This show would produce more revenue for the Ensemble, however, since no royalties would have to be paid. Presented in four episodes on consecutive weekend performances, it opened on February 22, 1980.62 The plot focuses on Hazel Patton, a rich old woman whose family members hate her, but love her

2 4 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration money. When she is killed, a Colombo-like detective searches for her killer. It was not great theatre, but the audiences loved it. Hawkins’s next production was a musical revue, Monday Night Follies, which he also wrote and directed. Musical variety shows are usually huge moneymakers for black theatres, and Monday Night Follies was no exception. Indeed, the tiny theatre at 1010 Tuam drew standing-room-only crowds from its inception.63 Hawkins staged several additional pieces that he wrote and directed, light, mostly comedic works designed to increase his audience base and provide some much-needed funds for the theatre’s bank account. The 1979–1980 season was successful in popularizing the name of Ensemble, both commercially and artistically. For the 1979–1980 season, Hawkins wrote and directed an experimental piece titled A Travelin’ Minstrel Show. Structured like a traditional minstrel show, Hawkins’s piece followed a three-part structure. During the first part, the entire troupe danced onto the stage singing a popular song. Upon the instruction of the interlocutor, the group sat in a semi-circle with the interlocutor in the middle flanked by stock characters Tambo and Bones. The interlocutor acted as the master of ceremonies while the endman and corner men exchanged jokes and performed a variety of humorous songs. The second part of the show resembled a variety show in which one actor presented a political stump speech in black dialect. The third part or afterpiece was a skit set on a southern plantation that included song-anddance numbers and featured Sambo and Mammy-type characters in slapstick situations. Hawkins had rehearsed his cast rigorously and secured costumes and a set for the show. Instead of putting his actors in blackface, he “flipped the script” by directing them to wear whiteface makeup. The show proceeded without interruption on opening night; however, when the play ended, the audience erupted in outraged protest, an unexpected reaction that shocked and disappointed Hawkins. In response to the audience’s strong negative reaction, Hawkins closed the show after the opening-night performance. The audience viewed the minstrel show format and the whiteface makeup as a level of self-mockery that they were not prepared to accept.64 In the 1980–1981 season, Hawkins featured several comedies that appealed to his audience. He opened the season with Once in a Wife Time by Celeste Bedford Walker, an emerging Houston playwright—a selection that reflects his earlier commitment to present original works by local writers.

Houston  ◆   2 4 1 Hawkins directed the comedy, which is set in the home of the Rogers, a middle-class couple whose seemingly average lifestyle unravels when Willie Rogers meets sexy Nwanyeruwa at the Center for Black Enlightenment and takes her home as his second wife.65 The cast included Deborah Ledet as Irma, J. Lawrence Smith as Willie, Ladjamaya as Nwanyeruwa, Yolonde Sigers as Irma’s mother, Phillip Glass as Kweli, and Ellis Moss as Emile.66 Reviewers called the production “consistently amusing.”67 At this point, Hawkins was still honing his skills as a director. The production ran from October 25 through November 25, 1980, attracting enthusiastic audiences throughout its run. In the 1980–1981 season, Hawkins began to feel more confident in his directing skills and his ability to select plays that his audiences would enjoy. James Baldwin’s The Amen Corner, a classic in the African American canon, previewed on February 12 and ran through March 8, 1981. With The Amen Corner, Hawkins moves from comedy to drama in three acts, instead of one-act pieces. Directed by Hawkins, the play explores themes involving the role of the church in the African American family, the complex relationship between religion and earthly love, and the effect of poverty born of racial prejudice perpetrated against the African American community. Sister Margaret Alexander, the pastor of a storefront church in Harlem, is exposed as a hypocrite who destroys her family in the name of religion. Again, Hawkins’s audience could relate to the focus on poverty, racial prejudice, domestic conflicts, religion, and the importance of the family. The cast featured some of Hawkins’s most skillful and dedicated performers: Yolonde Sigers (Sister Margaret), Charles Johnson (David Alexander), J. Lawrence Smith (Luke Alexander), and Dannette Johnson (Sister Moore).68 The reviews were very good, indicating Hawkins’s improving skills as a director. The Amen Corner was probably the most artistically challenging work that he had brought to the Ensemble stage, and it succeeded remarkably well. Lonne Elder III’s classic domestic drama, Ceremonies in Dark Old Men (1969), opened Ensemble’s 1981–1982 season. Ceremonies focuses on the disintegration of an African American family. Nominated for a Pulitzer Prize, the play is set in a run-down barbershop in which men enact the rituals of manhood, while the playwright explores conflicts between the older and younger generations. The play explores themes and characters with which Hawkins’s audience could relate: a hard-working, self-sacrific-

2 4 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration ing black woman in conflict with her dependent father and two brothers. Adele Parker, the daughter and sister, supports her father, Russell, who runs an unsuccessful barbershop, and her brothers, who pursue criminal activities to avoid working for a living. Hawkins displayed a preference for family dramas like Ceremonies. The play was also attractive to Hawkins because the staging is very simple, an important factor for an artistic director working on a limited production budget. Hawkins directed the play, and his cast included Keith Wright (Russell Parker), James Oliver (William Jenkins), Curtis Stansberry (Theopolis Parker), Anthony Buckner (Bobby Parker), Brenda Redmond (Adele Parker), and Wayne DeHart (Blue Haven).69 The 1982–1983 season finale was Don Evans’s One Monkey Don’t Stop No Show (1983) with Hawkins in the director’s chair. A comedy in two acts, One Monkey is set in suburban Philadelphia where the Reverend Harrison, a Baptist preacher, clings tenaciously to his position in the local black elite. His upwardly mobile philosophy is avidly shared by his wife, Myra, whose hilarious malapropisms continually betray her ghetto origins, and by his son, Felix, a private school product with a strict upbringing who has suddenly discovered the joys of sex, thanks to a surreptitiously studied manual and the cooperation of a local charmer known as “Lil Bits.” Another jarring note is struck when the Reverend’s countrified niece Beverly, the only daughter of his recently demised brother, arrives from the rural South with the news that she has been left in the custody of Caleb Johnson, a jive-talking, fast-living macho type who was the partner of Beverly’s father in a disreputable local nightclub. Hilarious complications ensue in One Monkey as the Reverend and his wife find their passions rekindled; Felix and “Lil Bits” nervously face the prospect that she may be in a “family way”; and Beverly, who is a lot sharper than her country background might suggest, plots her conquest of the increasingly helpless Caleb. The cast included Anthony White (Caleb Johnson), Ruth Adams (Beverly Harrison), Dannette Johnson-McElroy (Myra Harrison), and Travis Willis (Reverend Avery Harrison). The costume designer was Deborah Pettaway-Boston, and lighting design was by John Trojanowski.70 Albright described the production as “one of the most enjoyable things The Ensemble has ever done.” In an aside, Albright quipped, “Some might argue that the most enjoyable thing the company has ever done was to recently install ceiling fans to help out the too-small air conditioner.”71

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Decade Two The Ensemble held auditions for its 1989–1990 season opener, Leslie Lee’s Hannah Davis (1987), on August 7, 1989, in the theatre at 3535 Main. The Ensemble also produced Don Evans’s Spooks (1989), one of Hawkins’s favorite playwrights, in the 1989–1990 season. It was directed by George Hawkins. Spooks was the last play that Hawkins directed before his death. The plot focuses on an urban couple who move into an antebellum Virginia mansion only to find out that it is apparently haunted by its former owners— slave masters who don’t care to have an African American couple as tenants. Since ghost lore is a central element in African American culture, Hawkins’s audience would relate easily to a play in which ghosts appear. Theatre critic Everett Evans, writing in the Houston Chronicle, described weaknesses in the script: “The action is shaped in a clumpy way, with some overextended scenes in the first act and a too-abrupt second act in which both husband and wife undergo sudden and unconvincing changes.”72 Evans went on to note, “Director George Hawkins makes the most of the comic opportunities, particularly those scenes in which the ‘spirits’ hold sway and the wife goes bananas. At these points, pandemonium reigns, and the effect is lively and hilarious. Only in one or two of the script’s talkie interludes does Hawkins’ staging bog down to the static level.”73 Clearly, Hawkins had learned how to overcome the limitations of a flawed script. George Hawkins died at age forty-three on July 21, 1990, with plays running on both of Ensemble’s stages and his theatre thriving artistically. His friends and coworkers pledged to keep the theatre open.

Eileen J. Morris Departs: A Time of Transition Following the death of George Hawkins, his longtime assistant, managing director Eileen J. Morris, was appointed acting artistic director by the board of directors. In terms of training and experience, Morris was the most suitable replacement for Hawkins. She was committed to keeping the theatre viable and productive. Morris opened the 1990–1991 season with a one-night performance of Houston native Marsha Jackson’s Sisters as part of the annual awards ceremony and gala at Jones Hall on November 2, 1990. Morris continued to build seasons on the guidelines that Hawkins followed: new plays, classics, standard repertory, and new playwrights. In the 1991–1992 season she opened with Shakespeare’s The Taming of the Shrew; produced in collaboration with Talento Bilingue de Houston and Houston

2 4 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Community College, the production featured a multiethnic company performing in a commedia dell’arte format. Although Eileen Morris is a very versatile director, she is best known for her sensitive and insightful treatment of August Wilson’s plays. One of the highlights of the 1994–1995 season was the Houston premiere of Wilson’s Pulitzer Prize winner, The Piano Lesson (1992). Ensemble’s founder George Hawkins was dedicated to showcasing new plays, and Eileen Morris continued to feature or introduce Houston audiences to new works in virtually every season, with the exception of the 1993–1994 “Revivals” season. Again in the spirit of artistic collaboration, the Ensemble brought in the Alley Theatre’s Claude Purdy, a veteran director familiar with Wilson’s work, to direct its production of The Piano Lesson. The Alley Theatre is one of the most highly regarded resident theatre companies in the United States. Purdy’s brilliant directorial vision was fully realized in stellar performances rendered by the Ensemble cast, including Alex Allen Morris (Boy Willie), Eileen J. Morris (Bernice), and Ray Walker (Doaker). Because renovations were underway at 3535 Main, the Ensemble’s summer productions were staged at Hannah Hall Auditorium on the campus of Texas Southern University, whose Office of Institutional Advancement coproduced the play.74 In this season of premieres, the Ensemble closed with the Houston premiere of Jaye T. Stewart and Joe Plummer’s Get Ready (1994), a play with songs. Directed by Alex Morris, the play is about the attempt of the Doves, a fictional 1960s rhythm and blues singing quintet, to make a comeback in middle age. Plays with songs usually attracted large audiences and increased box office revenues. The play reminded audiences of popular Motown groups such as the Temptations and the Supremes. The most memorable event of the 1996–1997 season was playwright August Wilson’s visit to Ensemble in May 1997. Wilson was in town to participate in the Alley Theatre’s fiftieth anniversary celebration. With the facility on Main Street undergoing renovation, the theatre was working from temporary quarters at the Midtown Art Center. Ensemble board president Audrey Lawson gave Wilson a tour of the state-of-the-art building scheduled to be finished in September 1997 at a cost of $4 million. Wilson was in the audience on May 2 when the Ensemble presented his Two Trains Running (1991), directed by Eileen Morris. Wilson described the show as “one of the best productions of the play he had seen.” After the show, Wilson met with the cast and crew.75 Ensemble maintained a close working relationship with Wilson until his death in 2005.

Houston  ◆   2 4 5 In February 1999 the Ensemble board of directors terminated its contract with artistic director Eileen Morris. Morris had been with the company for seventeen years. However, the eighteen-member board of directors voted unanimously to replace her. According to board president Argentina James, the board wanted to move the theatre in a new direction and broaden its audience. The board’s decision shocked the Ensemble Company as well as the local arts community. Morris had played a major role in the company’s purchase and renovation of the facility at 3535 Main Street, and she helped to raise the theatre’s regional and national profile. Most importantly, Morris’s formidable directing and public relations skills had assisted in elevating Ensemble to the professional theatre that its founder had envisioned. Consequently, her dismissal forced changes in Ensemble’s operations. August Wilson withdrew his play, Jitney, citing Morris’s dismissal as his reason for refusing to allow Ensemble to produce it as part of the 1998–1999 season schedule. Alex Morris, Eileen’s husband, was slated to direct Jitney, but he withdrew as well. By withdrawing rights to produce his play, Wilson registered his disapproval of the board’s decision. Wilson also sent a letter of protest to Ensemble’s executive director, Erie Callaway, in which he expressed his dismay at Morris’s termination. Moreover, Victor Walker, president of the African Grove Institute for the Arts and spokesman for Wilson, indicated that some members of Ensemble’s board wanted to see the company do American classics such as A Streetcar Named Desire using a black cast, an artistic vision that Morris may not have shared. Walker and Wilson expressed disapproval of plays written for white actors being appropriated for black actors, saying, “That’s not black theatre.” Wilson withdrew his play because he believed that Morris’s departure would compromise the integrity of the production. Morris consulted an attorney to investigate her legal options. Commenting on her dismissal, Morris said, “I’m just disappointed at the disloyalty shown by the board of The Ensemble.”76 As a result of Morris’s termination, Ensemble lost the sense of continuity and stability that she had brought to her work as artistic director. Veteran Ensemble actor/director Sterling Vappie assumed the responsibilities of interim artistic director, and The Drums of Sweetwater (1995), a drama by Houston playwright Thomas Meloncon, was chosen to replace Wilson’s Jitney. Set in a small Texas town in 1968, Meloncon’s play focuses on Stephanie, a smart young psychiatrist from New York who comes to a

2 4 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration mental hospital to treat three black patients in Sweetwater, Texas. A reviewer for the Houston Chronicle gave Vappie high marks for his “steady, unshowy direction” and praised the cast for its outstanding performance. The cast included Rachel Hemphill (Stephanie), the psychiatrist, Je’Caryous Johnson (Rufus), Edward Spinks (Fred), and Kirk Dautrive (Monroe).77 Fortunately, Ensemble managed to hold the company together during this difficult period of transition. The successful staging of the Meloncon play was an affirmation of Ensemble’s determination to survive.

Michael Washington—New Artistic Director In the 1999–2000 season, Ensemble Company member Michael Washington was named the theatre’s new artistic director. Washington’s work with Ensemble began in 1985; he acted in Pearl Cleage’s Blues for an Alabama Sky and directed Marcia Leslie’s The Trial of One Shortsighted Black Woman (1997). The season opened with Joseph A. Walker’s The River Niger, 1974 Tony winner for best play. The Negro Ensemble Company first produced the play off Broadway in 1973. The season list also included local playwright Celeste Walker’s Praise the Lord and Raise the Roof (1996), a play about a black congregation that befriends a white drifter amid a climate of suspicion engendered by a series of mysterious church fires. Harold Haynes directed the production. Washington’s strengths included having worked with Ensemble’s founder George W. Hawkins, his acting experience, and his strong directing skills. Washington was scheduled to direct Leslie Lee’s Spirit North (1998), a courtroom drama concerning an attorney who defends a young man accused of murder and the role the “race card” plays in the case. He was also scheduled to direct Riffs by Bill Harris, a comedy based on discussions of men in the North End Preservation Association. The season closed with Bourbon on the Border by Pearl Cleage, a play in which romance and politics mingle as two college students meet and fall in love during the Civil Rights Movement of the early 1960s. These selections indicate Washington’s commitment to serious drama, which had been a hallmark of Ensemble since George Hawkins served as artistic director. After only eight months on the job, Washington resigned as artistic director, citing conflicts with board members (board president Argentina James, treasurer Brenda Peters, and president emerita Audrey Lawson) as his reason for quitting.78 Although he left his post as artistic director before Spirit North completed its run, he chose not to sabotage the production

Houston  ◆   2 4 7 by deserting the cast. Like a consummate theatre professional, he fulfilled his commitment to the cast and audience under what must have been uncomfortable circumstances. In April, Argentina James spoke to the Houston Chronicle regarding Washington’s resignation. She insisted, “There was no interference from the board.” Moreover, James indicated that she and other board members had not dictated artistic decisions, describing the situation as one in which they made “suggestions” that Washington chose not to accept. “It was not the ‘big bad board’ hindering artistic direction and the theatre’s growth,” she explained.79 She complained, “the full commitment we wanted [from Washington] seemed to have stopped. He was not exercising the autonomy that he had. We wanted an artistic director who would give his full attention, time, expertise and experience to the theatre—one who not only had an artistic vision but would also actualize that vision.”80 James indicated that Washington had requested a raise, which became another source of contention for the board. The Ensemble’s problems raise questions about the role of the board of directors in the company’s artistic decisions. In the meantime, another seven-member committee was chosen to select productions for the 2000–2001 season. Despite the conflicts between Washington and the board, the scheduled productions went on without delay.

Marsha Jackson-Randolph—Artistic Director Nine months after Michael Washington resigned as artistic director, Ensemble’s board of directors named Marsha Jackson-Randolph, former artistic director of Atlanta’s Jomandi Productions, as Ensemble’s new artistic director. A native of Houston and an honors graduate of the Houston High School for the Performing and Visual Arts, Jackson-Randolph brought an impressive background in theatre to her appointment. The cofounder of Jomandi Productions, one of the nation’s largest African American theatre companies, Jackson-Randolph was a very versatile theatre professional with experience as a director, producer, playwright, actor, and company leader. She held degrees in theatre and African American studies from prestigious Smith College, taught at Spelman College, and performed on Broadway with Ruby Dee, Denzel Washington, and Paul Winfield.81 Jackson-Randolph announced that her top priorities would include improving the theatre’s relationship with the community and advancing its growth and visibility through her own connections on the national theatre scene. The 2001–2002 season marked the Ensemble’s twenty-fifth season, which

2 4 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration opened with Bill Harris’s Robert Johnson: Trick the Devil (1993), directed by visiting artist Woodie King Jr. The reviewer for the Chronicle noted, “Script, direction and performances gel smoothly here to make Trick the Devil one of The Ensemble’s stronger outings of recent seasons.”82 The reviewer also praised set designer James Thomas’s “genuine-looking roadside ‘jook joint’ setting.” Toni Whitaker’s costumes and David Gibson’s lighting also received praise from the reviewer. Actors Cedric Turner as Robert Johnson, Michael Carter as Georgia, David Born as Kimbrough, Wayne DeHart as Stokes, and J. D. Hawkins as Lem delivered outstanding performances. Other works on the season list for 2001–2002 included Langston Hughes’s Black Nativity, a perennial favorite, directed by Jackson-Randolph; August Wilson’s Fences (1987), also directed by Jackson-Randolph; Lanford Wilson’s Book of Days (2000), directed by George Brock; Lynn Nottage’s Crumbs from the Table of Joy (1995), directed by Ed Muth; and Samm-Art Williams’s The Dance on Widow’s Row (1999), directed by Wayne DeHart. The highlight of the 2001–2002 season was Ensemble’s staging of August Wilson’s modern classic, Fences, directed by Marsha Jackson-Randolph. The cast included Ron McCall (Troy), Alice M. Gatling (Rose), Sterling Vappie (Gabriel), and Marcus W. Freeman (Cory). Everett Evans, the Houston Chronicle reviewer, called the show Ensemble’s “strongest production in years.”83 Due to a very positive response from audiences, Fences was extended an additional week. From the 2002–2003 season through 2004–2005, Jackson-Randolph directed ten productions; seven guest directors handled the remaining productions. She was a very hardworking director who experienced some hits and misses. For example, In Walks Ed (1997), a crime drama by Keith Glover, received mostly favorable reviews, while They Sing Christmas Up in Harlem (2000) received generally negative responses from Evans, who called Jackson-Randolph’s direction as “muddled and unfocused as the script and song program.”84 Nevertheless, the holiday play at Ensemble has become a mainstay for many of the churches; they buy out performances for their members, senior citizens, and youth ministries. The churches, especially Wheeler Avenue Baptist Church, have long supported Ensemble, and many of Ensemble’s actors, singers, and musicians are also affiliated with area churches. August Wilson’s Two Trains Running was the highlight in 2005. Ensemble’s production received very positive reviews. A reviewer wrote: “Former Ensemble artistic director, Eileen Morris, achieves a seamless, natural staging, its flow constant and steady. The rendition reflects her sensitivity

Houston  ◆   2 4 9 and respect for the play’s humor, warmth and truth.”85 The cast included Wayne DeHart as Memphis, Timothy Eric Dickson as Sterling, Aisha Ussery as Risa; Davi Jay as Wolf, Willie Dirden as West, and Troy A. Hogan as Hambone. Moreover, the reviewer noted, “Ensemble brings Wilson’s unforgettable characters to vivid life, making Two Trains a crash course not just in great theatre but in living.”86 Morris, who was then managing director of Pittsburgh’s Kuntu Theatre, was invited back to Ensemble to serve as guest director for Two Trains. At Ensemble’s mortgage-burning ceremony on New Year’s Day 2004, Morris was one of the key speakers. The Houston Chronicle’s Everett Evans wrote that “Marsha Jackson-Randolph had asked Morris to return as a guest director.”87 Jackson-Randolph and Morris set aside the disaffection occasioned by the latter’s termination and put Ensemble’s future first.

Eileen Morris Returns to the Ensemble As Ensemble prepared to open the season in 2006–2007, a familiar face was back. After seven years as managing director of Kuntu Repertory Company at the University of Pittsburgh, Eileen J. Morris was asked to resume her position as artistic director for Ensemble. When the board decided not to renew Jackson-Randolph’s contract, a national search for her replacement was undertaken. No explanation was given for not retaining Jackson-Randolph. On the surface, her work seemed to be professional and strong. No conflicts with the board were apparent. When Morris was terminated in 1999, board president Argentina James had cited the board’s desire to take the theatre in a different artistic direction. Apparently, Morris and Ensemble’s board resolved whatever differences had led to her termination. The board asked Morris to assist in its efforts to “increase the company’s regional and national visibility; dramatically boost subscriptions this season to 3,000 (over last year’s 600); and reach 30,000 students, through either touring productions to schools or visits by student groups to The Ensemble’s main-stage productions.”88 The thirtieth anniversary season was devoted to revivals of significant shows produced in the theatre’s early years. They included Joe Plummer’s Get Ready, a musical about a singing group; Christmas Is Comin’ Uptown (1982), Philip Rose and Peter Udell’s musical of A Christmas Carol set in Harlem; Don Evans’s One Monkey Don’t Stop No Show (1982), one of the most popular comedies of the Ensemble’s early days; and Lorraine Hansberry’s classic A Raisin in the Sun.89 Evans wrote, “Waiting to Be Invited, S.  M. Shephard-Massat’s play about a group of

2 5 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration women challenging segregation at an Atlanta restaurant in 1964, was the sole Houston premiere. The season also included the Ensemble’s first staging of August Wilson’s Joe Turner’s Come and Gone (1988), previously staged by the Alley Theatre.”90 During her tenure at Kuntu Rep in Pittsburgh, Eileen Morris was not merely marking time. Indeed, time away from Ensemble had allowed her an invaluable opportunity to gain a fresh perspective on her role as artistic director, to hone her directing skills, to improve her theatre management skills, and to expand her professional networking. When she resumed her job as Ensemble’s artistic director on September 5, 2006, Morris brought with her new and enhanced skills and competencies. In the 2007–2008 season the highlights were Phillip Hayes Dean’s Sty of the Blind Pig (1971) and August Wilson’s Gem of the Ocean (2003). Ensemble first staged Dean’s play in its 1983–1984 season. Eileen Morris directed the 2008 production of Dean’s play for Ensemble. Winner of the Drama Desk award in 1971, Sty of the Blind Pig is set on the south side of Chicago in 1955, just as the Civil Rights Movement is gaining momentum. Although the play explores a serious mother-daughter conflict, the humorous dialogue makes it an enjoyable experience. Ensemble is noted for reviving previously produced plays and presenting them to a new generation of theatre patrons. Because its themes are timeless, Sty of the Blind Pig fits perfectly into that tradition. Gem of the Ocean, set in 1904, focuses on Aunt Esther, a “soul cleanser” referenced in several other plays in Wilson’s cycle. Directed by Allie Woods Jr., the cast includes Wayne DeHart as Old Joe, Henry Edwards as Sterling Johnson, Cheray Dawn Josiah as Mame, Benjamin Cain Jr. as Harmond Wilks, and Broderick Jones as Roosevelt Hicks. In his review for the Houston Chronicle, Evans called Ensemble’s production a “skilled and heartfelt rendition of the final play in August Wilson’s monumental ten-play Century Cycle.”91 He praised the director, Eileen Morris, for guiding “her strong cast to persuasive, well-rounded portrayals, especially convincing in their interactions.”92 The 2009–2010 season opened with Wilson’s Seven Guitars (1995), a play about Floyd Barton, a blues musician who dies shortly before achieving the fame he had long pursued; friends gather to remember his life and speculate about the circumstances surrounding his death. Wilson called the play a “murder mystery of sorts.” The Ensemble’s production, directed by Eileen Morris, was “vibrant and accomplished.”93 The stellar cast includ-

Houston  ◆   2 5 1

Sty of the Blind Pig (2008). Wayne DeHart, Deborah Oliver Artis. Photo by David Bray.

ed Broderick Jones (Floyd), Rachel Hemphill (Vera), Wayne DeHart (Hedley), and Bebe Wilson (Louise). Set in the 1940s and focused on the African American male, Seven Guitars is one of the most poignant installments of Wilson’s Pittsburgh Cycle. Under Morris’s direction, Ensemble confirmed its status as one of the nation’s major interpreters of the plays of August Wilson. While Ensemble stages many plays by established playwrights like August Wilson, the theatre also showcases new plays. In 2010, Ensemble presented American Menu, a new drama by Don Wilson Glenn. The play focuses on five black women who work in the kitchen of a segregated Texas

2 5 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Gem of the Ocean (2008). (Left to right) Troy Hogan, Timothy Eric, Autumn Knight, Clarence Whitmore, Byron Jacquet. Photo courtesy of Ensemble Theatre.

diner in 1968. The women struggle with their personal challenges, but they also react to the social change and upheaval occasioned by the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Premiered during Black History Month, American Menu’s engagement with history makes it a perfect selection for that celebration.

Decade Three With more than thirty years of outstanding productions to its credit, Ensemble has built a loyal cadre of patrons. In keeping with its reputation for staging brilliant productions of the plays of August Wilson, Ensemble’s 2011–2012 season concluded with a memorable production of King Hedley II. The theatre reviewer for the Houston Chronicle wrote, “Under Eileen Morris’ masterful direction, so sensitive to the shifting moods, the Ensemble’s terrific cast makes the most of the play’s uproarious laughter, wrenching sadness, ferocious anger and tentative hope.” After praising the technical staff for the excellent set design, costumes, lighting, and sound designs,

Seven Guitars (2009). (Left to right) Wayne DeHart, Timothy Eric, Broderick Jones, Byron Jacquet. Photo by David Bray.

American Menu (2010). (Left to right) Shirley Marks Whitmore, Detria Ward, Rachel Hemphill Dickson, Tisha Dorn, Lee Waddell. Photo by David Bray.

2 5 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration the reviewer observed, “August Wilson’s plays in general—and the Ensemble’s production of King Hedley II (1999) in particular—are exactly why we go to the theatre.”94 Like most black theatres, Ensemble schedules at least one and maybe two musicals each season. In the 2011–2012 season, Ensemble scored a phenomenal success with its production of Javon Johnson’s Sanctified (2010), a musical about a pastor determined to make his revival a success by recruiting his cousin Pauletta to serve as choir director and soloist. Conflict erupts between Pauletta and choir members, as well as between the pastor and a deacon. The reviewer wrote, “Johnson gets good comic mileage from the foibles . . . of his characters and, overall, serves up enough funny lines and affecting sentimental moments to keep one entertained.” Director and choreographer Patdro Harris and musical director Carlton Leake received high marks from the reviewer, who insisted, “Ensemble’s Sanctified will make you believe that the right mix of talents can turn a familiar premise into an entertaining and exhilarating experience.”95 In its third decade, Ensemble’s productions have revealed a high degree of professionalism and sophistication. Ensemble has definitely come of age artistically, and it has a secure place among the nation’s most outstanding regional theatres.

Community Outreach Initiatives Ensemble began as a touring company that brought theatre to the community, performing in churches, schools, and YWCA facilities. Over the years, Ensemble has enhanced its community outreach initiatives, developing several programs and activities designed to enrich and empower the community. For example, Ensemble maintains an active Children’s Theatre program that trains actors and entertains children. The Young Performers Summer Program established in 1983 offers high school students intensive study of theatre, dance, music, and arts, as well as the technical aspects of theatre production. The four-week program concludes with a production that allows participants to showcase the skills and knowledge acquired during the four weeks of study. Other community outreach initiatives include performances for children and adults at Miller Outdoor Theatre, performances for children in the public schools, and master classes and acting workshops for aspiring youth and adult performers. Ensemble also enriches the Houston arts community by collaborating with other institu-

Houston  ◆   2 5 5 tions such as the Houston Grand Opera, the Alley Theatre, Texas Southern University, and Houston Community College.

Perseverance and Survival Inspired by his European travels, Hawkins was determined to find a performance space for his theatre. In May 1979 he and his friend Yolonde Sigers drove around Houston looking for a building for the Black Ensemble Company. Using five hundred dollars borrowed from Sigers, Hawkins signed a month-to-month lease and converted a bird shop at 1010 Tuam into a theatre.96 James V. Thomas, Ensemble’s senior set designer, recalls occasions in which the regular seating was filled and the piano bench was used to accommodate one additional customer.97 In the summer months, one small window air-conditioning unit labored unsuccessfully to cool the space, leaving patrons and actors sweltering in the heat.98 Encore Theatre founder Harold J. Haynes was in the audience for several of Ensemble’s productions at the theatre on Tuam. “It was hot in there. I mean it was like a hundred and ten degrees,” Haynes recalled.99 Despite the uncomfortable, cramped environment, more than ten thousand patrons were seated each season in the building on Tuam Street. Surprise, Surprise, A Love Story (1979), a one-woman show written by George Hawkins in collaboration with Yolonde Sigers was the first production presented in the Tuam Street location. Sigers played the lead.100 By using his own scripts, Hawkins avoided the royalty on plays by established playwrights. Sigers delivered an outstanding performance, helping to build the credibility of the new theatre and its writer/director. He followed Surprise with Beulah Johnson (1979) and Who Killed Hazel Patton? (1980), works that “introduced Houston to live soap operas, shows in four episodes, each part presented on a consecutive weekend.” All four episodes were blocked out at the beginning and then each was polished in rehearsals during the week preceding its presentation. Both shows were immensely popular with audiences. In keeping with his commitment to racial and cultural diversity, Hawkins also dropped “black” from the theatre’s name. To that end, he welcomed Alexia Hogg, a white actress, to his predominantly black company. Hawkins knew the sting of racism that had prevented him from acting in the traditionally white theatres. Therefore, he refused to exclude actors based on race. From the very beginning, Hawkins attracted a num-

2 5 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration

Surprise, Surprise . . . A Love Story promotional flyer (1979). Photo courtesy of Yolonde Sigers.

ber of talented, dedicated actors and staff. Other members of the company included Deborah Ledette, who also served as the general manager, J. L. Smith, Dannette Johnson, Melissa Thibideaux, Ellis Moss, and Gloria McCrary.101 Hawkins was excited about acquiring the 1010 Tuam location, but the building was plagued with problems that resulted in citations for building code violations.102 He was constantly trying to upgrade the building to keep the inspectors at bay. Not surprisingly, the fire marshals threatened to close the theatre due to overcrowding and inadequate exits. To keep the theatre open, Hawkins entered into negotiations with the city,103 but he realized that the Tuam location was woefully inadequate for his needs. Moreover, in 1984 the Houston fire marshal ordered Hawkins to install a rear exit and build separate restrooms for the actors, rewire the building, and install urinals in the men’s restroom. Additionally, the fire marshal imposed a seating capacity of forty-nine patrons. Faced with expensive

Houston  ◆   2 5 7 renovations and drastically reduced seating, which translated into lower box office receipts, Hawkins realized that the survival of his theatre was at stake. Unable to make the required upgrades to the building, Hawkins closed Ensemble’s production of Charles Fuller’s A Soldier’s Play (1981). The fire marshal condemned the building, but the theatre was granted a temporary extension and production resumed.104 In 1984, Hawkins began to search earnestly for a more suitable location for his company. Hawkins wanted his theatre to be located near Main Street. In an interview with Astrid Sheil, Hawkins commented on his attraction to Main Street. “The Ensemble is one of several groups interested in revitalizing Downtown and the midtown area, making it exciting again,” Hawkins said. “Alley Theatre, Chocolate Bayou, Stages, and The Ensemble are all off Main Street. We would like to see an off-Main mentality develop, like off-Broadway, but an indigenous inner-city theatre district.”105 Clearly, Hawkins viewed the fledgling Ensemble as an equal member of Houston’s community of professional theatres, and he envisioned a thriving theatre district. He was thinking about participating in the economic development that a theatre district could promote. While Hawkins was dedicated to building

Ensemble Theatre, 3535 Main Street location. Photo courtesy of Ensemble Theatre.

2 5 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration a viable theatre for black theatre professionals and audiences, he insisted upon forging links with other theatres across racial/ethnic lines. Productions continued at 1010 Tuam until the 1984–1985 season.

A Looming Financial Crisis In the early 1980s, Hawkins was overwhelmed by the theatre’s worsening financial circumstances. Even though he had a background in accounting, Ensemble’s financial affairs were disorganized and chaotic. As one member of the company recalled, Hawkins faced “past due cleaner’s bills, rent, light bills, and money owed to the cast.”106 Actor Wayne DeHart remembered a precarious financial circumstance that forced actors to run to the bank to cash checks from Hawkins before the account was emptied of funds.107 Heretofore, Hawkins had been operating the theatre without a board of directors, but his continuing and worsening financial difficulties forced him to establish a board of directors to help relieve the financial stress that threatened to destroy the theatre. Fearful of losing control of the theatre, Hawkins reluctantly recruited a group of professional people to sit on the board of directors. The new board included the following officers: Julius Gordon, chairman; Frank Rush, vice chairman; Joan Edwards, secretary; and Ron Scales, treasurer. Board members included Volly Bastine, Robert Dennis, Diana Fallis, Mildred Bright, Melvin E. Evans, Edith Martin, Edna Brown, Annie Robinson-Hill, Brenda Redmond, JoAnne Vallie Rush, and Sharon Sanders.108

Seeking Individual and Corporate Funding To supplement the small box office receipts and annual subscriptions, Hawkins sought funding from government agencies such as the Texas Commission on the Arts and Houston’s Cultural Arts Council. The theatre’s budget needs had far outgrown Hawkins’s personal income with which he financed much of the first two seasons. Moreover, Hawkins was virtually destitute, prompting the board to seek funds from individual contributors. The board solicited contributions in four categories: the Gold Medal contributors included Edna Brown, Janetta DeWitt, Abraham Davidson, Derek Gordon, and Al Morin. Silver Medal contributors included Frank Rush, and Patrons included Volly Bastine, Mildred Bright, Joan Edwards, Julius Gordon, Edith Martin, Ron Scales, Ted Shine, Rev. John Westbrook, and John White. Corporate contributors/donors included Baldwin-Lively, the Contemporary Arts Museum, Eagle Insulation, Gulf Oil, and Pull for

Houston  ◆   2 5 9 Youth.109 Grants from the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) not only provided much-needed funding but also enhanced the theatre’s visibility and “provided leverage for other funding on both local and national levels.”110 Commenting on the importance of the NEA funding, Eileen Morris observed, “It helps our peers in Houston and across Texas to realize the seriousness of what our company is doing.”111 The funds generated by this successful campaign marked an important watershed in the life of the theatre. For the first time since Hawkins opened his theatre, he was able to hire staff, including himself as executive director/artistic director, Melvin E. Evans as development director/business manager, Deborah Ledet as general manager, and Charlotte Kennedy as bookkeeper.112

Hawkins Contemplates Ensemble’s Future With a paid management team in place, Hawkins could begin to think about moving his theatre to a better location. The Ensemble needed space to expand its seating capacity and to accommodate its growing programs.113 Initially, Hawkins considered moving his theatre to the Hogg Building at 402 Louisiana in the downtown theatre district. He intended to lease approximately five thousand square feet on the ground floor facing Preston Street.114 However, Stages, another theatre that had been evicted from its facility due to building code violations, was also looking at moving to the Hogg Building. While still trying to make up his mind about the move, Hawkins made a discovery that dramatically changed the future of the Ensemble Company. His car broke down on his way to the Tuam Street location, and he was walking to the theatre when he noticed the building at 3535 Main Street. Formerly Plaza Lincoln Mercury and Modern Furniture Rentals, the building seemed to be the answer to Hawkins’s prayers. Unfortunately, the theatre’s board of directors refused to approve his plan to acquire it, citing a lack of funds. Ignoring the financial obstacles that gave the board pause, Hawkins persisted in his efforts to persuade the board to enter into agreement to lease the building and its twenty-five thousand square feet. When the board held its ground, Hawkins dismissed the board members and negotiated a contract to lease the building for five years with a five-year renewal option and a purchase option.115 Hawkins was willing to make personal sacrifices to realize his dream. James V. Thomas remembers Hawkins living in a small efficiency apartment off Richmond Street, “a one-room number with a kitchenette.”116

2 6 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration The Ensemble opened at 3535 Main Street on July 4, 1985, a date that mirrored the developing independence of the company. Hawkins and his friend, Eileen Morris, were extremely excited about the possibilities for development that the new site would allow. The new building offered two performance spaces, seating 150 in the larger area and 75 in the other. Although Hawkins left the Tuam Street facility with approximately two hundred subscribers, he launched an aggressive campaign to recruit a thousand subscribers by January 1, 1986.117 Reflecting on the advantages of moving to the Main Street Location, Hawkins explained: At the old building, we had so many talented artists but couldn’t give them enough work due to limited facilities. Now we have the artists, the program, the space—and the challenge is to raise the money to make it all work.118

After moving into the Main Street location, Hawkins had alleviated the problems posed by the inadequate facilities at 1010 Tuam, and he forged ahead in the subsequent seasons, offering a wide variety of new and standard works until his health failed. Two days before his death, George Hawkins called Audrey Lawson, his board president, to the lobby of his apartment building. He wanted to ensure that his theatre did not die with him. For fourteen years, he gave his all to Ensemble; he had loved it and nurtured it, but the time had come to recruit someone who he trusted to take his dream to the next level. Selecting the right person to discharge that task was crucial to the survival of his theatre. Throughout his tenure as artistic director, control of the theatre rested securely in Hawkins’s hands. Therefore, handing over Ensemble to someone else was like giving up one’s fourteen-year-old child for adoption. He had offered Lawson a seat on his board of directors in the 1985–1986 season, and she was elected board president in 1987. Hawkins was impressed by her leadership skills and her dedication to Ensemble. They enjoyed a cordial working relationship, and he was confident that she was right for the monumental task he was about to ask her to undertake. But would she accept the challenge? He had nothing to offer in the way of compensation, no salary, not even an office with a view. When Lawson arrived at the apartment, he was waiting for her. Not one to waste time or beat around the bush, Hawkins got right to the point. He asked Lawson to “keep the Ensemble alive.” There was no haggling about how that would be accomplished; no contracts were signed. He simply wanted her promise,

Houston  ◆   2 6 1 a verbal commitment to take the theatre forward, to fulfill his dream. She accepted the challenge.

Audrey Lawson Leads the Capital Campaign The Ensemble board decided to upgrade the Main Street facility by expanding seating capacity, enlarging the stage and dressing rooms, purchasing new technical equipment, creating a space for youth programs, and acquiring and developing parking space.119 The preliminary budget included $475,000 to purchase the property, $850,000 for construction/renovations, $125,000 for design/engineering, $100,000 for equipment, and $150,000 for contingency, a total of $1.7 million.120 With the help of Eileen Morris,

Audrey Lawson, board president emerita, Ensemble Theatre. Photo courtesy of Ensemble Theatre.

2 6 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Audrey Lawson embarked upon an ambitious fund-raising campaign. The first substantial donation toward the $4 million goal was a gift of $315,000 from the Houston Endowment.121 From 1992–1996, Lawson directed a successful capital fund-raising effort. During this period, fund-raising galas were held annually at the Houston Hyatt Regency Hotel, with guests including Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee and the New Federal Theatre of New York. By the beginning of its 1994–1995 season, the Ensemble had raised $1.3 million. The Ensemble received grants in three categories from the National Endowment for the Arts totaling $42,500. A $25,000 design arts grant assisted the theatre in paying for design services to renovate the building. The theatre also received $7,500 to help pay salaries in the 1994–1995 season, and $10,000 to cover basic operating expenses.122 These grants from the prestigious NEA highlighted the theatre’s growing regional and national reputation and its outstanding business and artistic leadership. The theatre had made great strides since its founding in 1976. The renovation expanded seating for the large stage from 105 to 199. The refurbished smaller performance space continued to be used as a “black box” configured in different shapes and sizes, depending on the production. The renovation expanded space for the children’s theatre classes, added a carpentry shop and dance studio, and converted a large warehouse space into a multipurpose ballroom area that is rented for banquets, parties, and other activities, generating revenue for the theatre. In July 1995, Lawson and the treasurer, Mildred Bright, presented the final building payment to the site’s former owners, Sam J. Shapiro and Harold Weiser. While the renovation was in progress, Ensemble’s office space and its young people’s program operated out of the Mueller Building of South Main Baptist Church at 4212 Main.123 In 1997, after two seasons in temporary quarters, the Ensemble observed its twenty-first anniversary in a state-of-the-art facility with a twohundred-seat proscenium theatre with revolving stage, a flexible blackbox arena theatre, and a six-thousand-square-foot rental space for special events.124 The 1997–1998 season was special because it marked the completion of Ensemble’s fund-raising campaign. Because Audrey Lawson, assisted by many like-minded supporters of Ensemble, worked diligently to put the theatre on a sound financial foundation, George Hawkins’s legacy shines more brightly with every new season.

Houston  ◆   2 6 3

Eileen Morris, artistic director, Ensemble Theatre (1990–1999, 2006–present). Photo by Robert Ross.

Eileen Morris: Ensemble’s Guiding Light Eileen Morris’s association with Ensemble dates back to 1982. She was there when fire marshals threatened to close the theatre for code violations and overcrowding, when Hawkins used his own money to pay rent and other expenses, when payroll for actors was often short, when the stifling heat made it difficult for patrons to enjoy a performance. Therefore, one understands when Morris says, “Keeping George’s memory and the history of The Ensemble alive is important to me. I don’t think that I will ever leave this theatre. I have invested too much of my life [here] to ever leave. It is important for me to stay because someone has to be here that remembers George and our history. Someone must stay to tell our story.”125

Conclusion Black theatre in Houston originated in the late 1800s with a group of “cullud genman.” After decades of dormancy, the theatrical impulse was revived in the 1930s via the Houston Negro Little Theatre. A series of black

2 6 4   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration theatre groups followed, paving the way for the establishment of Houston’s most enduring black theatres, Ensemble and Encore. For more than two decades, Encore Theatre has struggled to carve out a place for itself in the shadow of its much larger and more financially secure neighbor, Ensemble Theatre. Convinced that Encore and Ensemble serve essentially different though frequently overlapping audiences, Encore founder Harold J. Haynes remains fully committed to theatre that enriches the lives of an underserved segment of the black community, while welcoming patrons from the larger arts community. For nearly four decades, Ensemble Theatre has carried on the legacy of its founder, George Hawkins, providing career development opportunities for black actors and technical staff, as well as exposing audiences to critically acclaimed productions in the comfort of its spacious, state-of-the-art facility. To paraphrase playwright August Wilson, black theatre in Houston is alive and well.

Theatre Productions by Season and Year of Production Dates at the end of each play are when the play was produced by the theatre. The Encore Theatre

1994–1995 Behind Closed Doors by Harold J. Haynes (1994) 1995–1996 No theatre activity 1996–1997 No theatre activity 1997–1998 It Ain’t Over Til the Fat Lady Sings by Harold J. Haynes (1997) Moon on a Rainbow Shawl by Errol John (1997) 1998–1999 Rage by Harold J. Haynes (1998) Romeo and Juliet by Shakespeare, adapted by Harold J. Haynes (1999) 1999–2000 Bruised but Not Broken by Cynthia Lewis Foreman (1999) 2000–2001 Othello by Shakespeare, adapted by Harold J. Haynes (2001) Shout! Hallelujah by Harold J. Haynes (2001) Giving Up the Ghost by Donyail Linsey (2001)

Houston  ◆   2 6 5 Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck (2001) Antigone by Sophocles, adapted by Harold J. Haynes (2001) 2001–2002 Native Son by Richard Wright, adapted by Paul Green (2002) It Ain’t Over Til the Fat Lady Sings by Harold J. Haynes (2002) God’s Mad Clown by Harold J. Haynes (2002) Three Blind Mice by Harold J. Haynes (2002) Samson and Delilah by Harold J. Haynes (2002) 2002–2003 No theatre activity 2003–2004 Praise the Lord and Raise the Roof by Celeste Bedford Walker (2004) Incarceration by Harold J. Haynes (2004) Medea by Euripides, adapted by Harold J. Haynes (2004) The Boys Next Door by Tom Griffin (2004) Short Play Festival (2004) 2004–2005 No theatre activity 2005–2006 Stand by Harold J. Haynes (2006) 2006–2007 Behind Closed Doors by Harold J. Haynes (2006) Schezelle by Harold J. Haynes (2007) Over Forty by Celeste Bedford Walker (2007) Women in Prison by Harold J. Haynes (2007) Storyville by Mildred Kayden and Ed Bullins (2007) Driven by Harold J. Haynes (2007) 2007–2008 Divas and Daredevils adapted by Harold J. Haynes (2008) Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom by August Wilson (2008) 2008–2009 Jezebel by Harold Haynes (2008) 2009–2010 The Music and Magic of Christmas adapted by Harold J. Haynes (2009) Black on Broadway adapted by Harold J. Haynes (2009) I Just Wanna Tell Somebody by Harold J. Haynes (2009) 2010–2011 Behind Closed Doors by Harold Haynes (2010)

2 6 6   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Ensemble Theatre

1976–1977 Day of Absence by Douglas Turner Ward (1977) 1977–1978 Br’er Rabbit adapted by George Hawkins (1977) Ayisha and Child of Scorn by Carol Ann Morizot (1978) 1979–1980 Surprise, Surprise . . . A Love Story by George Hawkins (1979) Beulah Johnson by Cecil Alonzo (1979) Who Killed Hazel Patton? by Carl Anderson (pen name of George Hawkins) (1980) Monday Night Follies, author unknown (1980) 1980–1981 Once in a Wifetime by Celeste Colson Walker (1980) Livin’ Fat by Judi Ann Mason (1980–1981) The Amen Corner by James Baldwin (1981) Tiger, Tiger, Burning Bright by Peter S. Feibleman (1981) Purlie Victorious by Ossie Davis (1981) Domestic Affairs: Contribution by Ted Shine and Happy Ending by Douglas Turner Ward (1981) 1981–1982 Ceremonies in Dark Old Men by Lonne Elder III (1981) Backalley Tales by George C. Wolfe (1981–1982) Who Killed Hazel Patton? by Carl Anderson (1982) The Dozens by Laird Koenig (1982) Jo Anne! by Ed Bullins (1982) Steal Away by Ramona King (1982) 1982–1983 A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry (1982) God’s Trombones by James Weldon Johnson (1982) When the Chickens Come Home to Roost by Laurence Holder and Dreams of Flight by Brian Richard Mori (1983) On Midnight Friday the 13th by Roger Furman (1983) Zooman and the Sign by Charles Fuller (1983) One Monkey Don’t Stop No Show by Don Evans (1983) 1983–1984 Tambourines to Glory by Langston Hughes (1983)

Houston  ◆   2 6 7 A Soldier’s Play by Charles Fuller (1984) 227 by Christine Houston (1984) The River Niger by Joseph A. Walker (1984) It’s Showdown Time by Don Evans (1984) Sty of the Blind Pig by Phillip Hayes Dean (date unknown) God’s Trombones by James Weldon Johnson (date unknown) Day of Absence by Douglas Turner Ward (date unknown) Happy Ending by Douglas Turner Ward (date unknown) 1984–1985 No Place to Be Somebody by Charles Gordone (1984) To Be Young, Gifted and Black by Lorraine Hansberry (1985) Five on the Black Hand Side by Charlie L. Russell (1985) Under Heaven’s Eye . . . til Cockcrow by J. E. Franklin (1985) Mojo and Wine in the Wilderness by Alice Childress (1985) Split Second by Dennis McIntyre (date unknown) 1985–1986 Short Eyes by Miguel Pinero (1985) Christmas Is Comin’ Uptown by Phillip Rose, Peter Udell and Garry Sherman (1985) Five on the Black Hand Side by Charlie L. Russell (1986) The Birds by Aristophanes (1986) Next Time for Real by Harry Cauley (1986) A Hatful of Rain by Michael V. Gazzo (1986) Hunter by Nuba-Harold Stuart (1986) 1986–1987 Louie and Ophelia by Gus Edwards (1986) Henrietta by Karen Jones-Meadows (1986) Do Lord Remember Me by James de Jongh (1987) One Monkey Don’t Stop No Show by Don Evans (1987) A Love Song for Miss Lydia by Don Evans (1987) 1987–1988 Rollin’ with Stevens and Stewart by Ronald “Smokey” Stevens and Jaye Stewart (1987) Brownsville Raid by Charles Fuller (1988) Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom by August Wilson (1988) Two Can Play by Trevor Rhone (1988) Long Time since Yesterday by P. J. Gibson (1988)

2 6 8   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration 1988–1989 West Memphis Mojo by Martin Jones (1988) One Mo’ Time by Vernel Bagneris (1989) Brown Silk and Magenta Sunsets by P. J. Gibson (1989) El Hajj Malik by N. R. Davidson Jr. (1989) Reunion at Bartersville by Celeste Colson Walker (1989) The Poison Tree by Ronald Ribman (1989) 1989–1990 Hannah Davis by Leslie Lee (1989) Spooks by Don Evans (1990) for colored girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf by Ntozake Shange (1990) Eden by Steve Carter (1990) 1990–1991 Cloud Nine by Caryl Churchill (1990) Br’er Rabbit adapted by George Hawkins (1990) Sisters by Marsha Jackson (1990) God’s Trombones by James Weldon Johnson (1990) Lady Day at Emerson’s Bar and Grill by Lanie Robertson (1991) And the Men Shall Also Gather by Jeff Stetson (1991) Checkmates by Ron Milner (1991) 1991–1992 The Taming of the Shrew by William Shakespeare (1991) Paul Robeson: The Man and His Music by Phillip Hayes Dean (1991) Christmas Is Comin’ Uptown by Phillip Rose, Peter Udell, and Garry Sherman (1991) Daytrips by Jo Carson (1992) Miss Evers’ Boys by David Feldshuh (1992) That Serious He-Man Ball by Alonzo D. LaMont Jr. (1992) 1992–1993 The Trials and Tribulations of Staggerlee Booker T. Brown by Don Evans (1992) Christmas Is Comin’ Uptown by Phillip Rose, Peter Udell, and Garry Sherman (1992) Spunk by George C. Wolfe (1993) East Texas Hotlinks by Eugene Lee (1993) Willie and Esther by James Graham Bronson (1993) Camp Logan by Celeste Colson Walker (1993)

Houston  ◆   2 6 9

Brothers and Sisters, Husbands and Wives by Celeste Bedford Walker (1993) 1993–1994 for colored girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf by Ntozake Shange (1993) Christmas Is Comin’ Uptown by Phillip Rose, Peter Udell, and Garry Sherman (1993) A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry (1994) Purlie Victorious by Ossie Davis (1994) A Soldier’s Play by Charles Fuller (1994) One Mo’ Time by Vernel Bagneris (1994) 1994–1995 A Midsummer Night’s Dream by William Shakespeare (1994) Grey Panthers by J. E. Franklin (1994) Tambourines to Glory by Langston Hughes (1994) Flyin’ West by Pearl Cleage (1995) Lotto: Experience the Dream by Cliff Roquemore (1995) The Piano Lesson by August Wilson (1995) Get Ready by Jaye Stewart and Joe Plummer (1995) 1995–1996 Shadow and Substance by Patti Aldredge (1995) Tattered Dreams by Frank Anderson and Reasons by Jacquelyn Lillard (1995) Just a Little Mark by Elizabeth Brown-Guillory (1995) Sing a Christmas Song by Peter Udell and Garry Sherman (1995) Miss Dessa by Shirley Hardy-Leonard (1996) Over 40 by Celeste Bedford Walker (1996) 1996–1997 Ceremonies in Dark Old Men by Lonne Elder III (1996) Sing a Christmas Song by Peter Udell and Garry Sherman (1996) Jar the Floor by Cheryl L. West (1997) Two Trains Running by August Wilson (1997) Who Killed Hazel Patton? by Carl Anderson, adapted by Franklin J. Anderson and Ed Muth (1997) 1997–1998 Black Eagles by Leslie Lee (1997) Black Nativity by Langston Hughes (1997) The Colored Museum by George C. Wolfe (1998)

2 7 0   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration Distant Voices by Celeste Bedford Walker (1998) Buses by Denise Nicholas (1998) The Tap Dance Kid by Charles Blackwell (1998) Johnny B. Goode by Thomas Meloncon (1998) 1998–1999 A Huey P. Newton Story by Roger Guenveur Smith (1998) Distant Voices by Celeste Bedford Walker (1998) Blues for an Alabama Sky by Pearl Cleage (1998) Christmas Is Comin’ Uptown by Phillip Rose, Peter Udell, and Garry Sherman (1998) The Trial of One Short-Sighted Black Woman vs. Mammy Louise and Safreeta Mae by Marcia L. Leslie (1999) The Drums of Sweetwater by Thomas Meloncon (1999) Once on This Island by Lynn Ahrens and Stephen Flaherty (1999) Indigo Blues by Judi Ann Mason (1999) 1999–2000 The River Niger by Joseph A. Walker (1999) Praise the Lord and Raise the Roof by Celeste Bedford Walker (1999) Guess Who Is Pregnant by Thomas Meloncon (2000) The African Company Presents Richard III by Carlyle Brown (2000) Spirit North by Leslie Lee (2000) Riffs by Bill Harris (2000) Bourbon at the Border by Pearl Cleage (2000) 2000–2001 The Old Settler by John Henry Redwoods (2000) Black Nativity by Langston Hughes, adapted by Marsha JacksonRandolph (2000) Having Our Say by Emily Mann (2001) Home by Samm-Art Williams (2001) Shakin’ the Mess Outta Misery by Shay Youngblood (2001) Higher Ground by Marsha Jackson-Randolph (2001) 2001–2002 Robert Johnson: Trick the Devil by Bill Harris (2001) Black Nativity by Langston Hughes, adapted by Marsha JacksonRandolph (2001) Fences by August Wilson (2002) Book of Days by Lanford Wilson (2002) Crumbs from the Table of Joy by Lynn Nottage (2002)

Houston  ◆   2 7 1 The Dance on Widow’s Row by Samm-Art Williams (2002) 2002–2003 Checkmates by Ron Milner (2002) Black Nativity by Langston Hughes, adapted by Marsha JacksonRandolph (2002) The Piano Lesson by August Wilson (2003) Harlem After Hours by Celeste Bedford Walker and Audrey H. Lawson (2003) Sundown Names and Night Gone Things by Leslie Lee (2003) 2003–2004 In Walks Ed by Keith Glover (2003) They Sing Christmas Up in Harlem by Eric LeRoy Wilson (2003) From the Mississippi Delta by Dr. Endesha Ida Mae Holland (2004) Crowns adapted by Regina Taylor (2004) The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (Abridged) by Adam Long, Daniel Singer, and Jess Winfield (2004) Daytrips by Jo Carson (2004) 2004–2005 That Serious He-Man Ball by Alonzo D. LaMont Jr. (2004) A Pure Gospel Christmas by Leslie Dockery and David A. Tobin (2004) Two Trains Running by August Wilson (2005) The Story by Tracey Scott Wilson (2005) Crowns adapted by Regina Taylor (2005) Nat King Cole and Me by Gregory Porter (2005) 2005–2006 A Lesson Before Dying adapted by Romulus Linney (2005) A Pure Gospel Christmas by Leslie Dockery and David A. Tobin (2005) Color Me Dark: A Story of the Great Migration by North Jerome Hairston (2006) Waitin’ 2 End Hell by William A. Parker (2006) The Colored Museum by George C. Wolfe (2006) Sparkle: The Musical adapted by Ntozake Shange and Walter Dallas (2006) 2006–2007 Get Ready by Joe Plummer (2006) Christmas Is Comin’ Uptown by Phillip Rose, Peter Udell, and Garry Sherman (2006) Waiting to Be Invited by S. M. Shephard-Massat (2007) Joe Turner’s Come and Gone by August Wilson (2007)

2 7 2   ◆   Stages of Struggle and Celebration A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry (2007) One Monkey Don’t Stop No Show by Don Evans (2007) 2007–2008 Blue by Charles Randolph-Wright (2007) The Twelve Ways of Christmas by Carlton Leake (2007) Gem of the Ocean by August Wilson (2008) The Sty of the Blind Pig by Phillip Hayes Dean (2008) Ashes to Africa by Mark Clayton Southers (2008) Ain’t Misbehavin’ adapted by Richard Maltby Jr. and Luther Henderson (2008) 2008–2009 Radio Golf by August Wilson (2008) The Twelve Ways of Christmas by Carlton Leake (2008) The Man Who Saved New Orleans by Thomas Meloncon (2009) Constant Star by Tazewell Thompson (2009) Livin’ Fat by Judi Ann Mason (2009) The Wiz by Charlie Smalls and William F. Brown (2009) 2009–2010 Seven Guitars by August Wilson (2009) Christmas with Great Aunt by Thomas Meloncon (2009) American Menu by Don Wilson Glenn (2010) Stick Fly by Lydia Diamond (2010) Five Guys Named Moe by Clarke Peters (2010) 2011–2012 Sanctified by Javon Johnson (2012) Lotto: Experience the Dream by Cliff Roquemore (2011) Cinderella by the African American Shakespeare Company (2011) The Ballad of Emmett Till by Ifa Bayeza (2012) Cuttin’ Up by Charles Randolph (2012) King Hedley II by August Wilson (2012) 2012–2013 The Nacirema Society by Pearl Cleage (2012) Cinderella by the African American Shakespeare Company (2012) Knock Me a Kiss by Charles Smith (2013) Broke-ology by Nathan Louis Jackson (2013) Race by David Mamet (2013) From My Hometown by Lee Summers, Ty Stephens, and Herbert Rawlings (2013)

Afterword Black theatre reveals perspectives, images and ideas that ennoble the human spirit and illustrate [black people’s] powers to endure the strain of tremendous odds. Mikell Pinkney, “The Development of African American Dramatic Theory: W. E. B. Du Bois to August Wilson”

As Thomas Postlewait notes in The Cambridge Introduction to Theatre Historiography, “Analytical and interpretive procedures guide the descriptive and narrative modes of historical representation.” Postlewait discusses five primary elements that are significant as historians report or analyze historical representation: archive, time, space, identity, and narrative.1 For this book we examined archives, studied theatrical spaces and identity related to the collaborative teams creating the work, and then developed the narrative of the various theatres to chronicle their history. These elements were the scaffolding for discovering and reporting highlights of black theatre in Texas. The story of black theatre in the state’s major cities was organized around a discussion of typical areas of concern to historians: who, what, where, when, how, and why.2

Who Black theatre in Texas has been carried forward by college-educated artists and self-trained or trained-on-the-job theatre enthusiasts. It has been a venture not just for the artists, but for the entire black community—made possible by bustling black communities eager for self-affirmation.

What Our central goal, to uncover the details of the development of black theatre in Texas, focused our study on production history. Moreover, the nature of the available historical documents fostered an objective rather than an analytical research agenda. Our objective agenda allowed us to report who, what, when, where, and how in some detail. However, the lack of sus-

2 7 4   ◆  Afterword tained critical perspectives/reporting prevented an extensive analysis of black theatre’s effectiveness, and sometimes even its purpose. The story of black theatre in Texas centers on the celebration of black life. To accomplish this purpose and vision, the production histories of major black theatres in Texas have included original plays by Texas playwrights as well as plays made famous by having been toured around the country for the last fifty years. The selections have demonstrated the audiences’ eclectic tastes. The theatres have staged musicals and dramas without music. The subject matter has included historical figures, folk heroes, and the black everyman, representing genres such as comedy, farce, fantasy, melodrama, and domestic tragedy. Boldly reimagined classical works included Shakespeare’s Macbeth transformed into Brother Mac, Rudy Eastman’s wonderfully urbanized version of the play. But black theatre in Texas has also featured nontraditional casting of European American pieces, as with Crimes of the Heart by The Renaissance Guild in San Antonio. Black theatre institutions celebrate the works of the notable black playwrights produced in New York and around the country; they have also commissioned and promoted the works of local playwrights—several of which were then produced in venues outside of the state and even outside of the country (e.g., Celeste Bedford Walker and Eugene Lee). Black Texas theatre artists have helped shape and define the Texas brand beyond the mystique of horses, cattle, and battle bravado to a more realistic, holistic picture of the state’s diverse population and have been agents in its history. The provocative words of Amiri Baraka help clarify the works chosen and celebrated in black Texas theatres: “We will talk about the world and the preciseness with which we are able to summon the world, will be our art.”3

Where Texas black theatre companies have sprung up around the state, most notably in the key metropolitan areas where substantial numbers of blacks reside—Austin, Dallas, Fort Worth, Houston, and San Antonio. Many of the theatres began as itinerant troupes performing wherever space was inexpensive and available, or moving from leased space to leased space. However, over the years, many of these groups found stable homes, some as elaborate as The Black Academy of Arts and Letters’ multi-theatre venue in the Dallas Convention Center, the renovated Jubilee Theatre on Main

Afterword  ◆   2 7 5 Street in Fort Worth, and the Ensemble Theatre’s home on Main Street in Houston.

When The impulse to create theatre has existed in Texas since the 1800s. It has been carried forth most diligently during the contemporary period, with a flowering that has not ceased since the 1970s.

How Black theatre in Texas has been supported by city arts funding, foundation and corporate funding, churches, organizations, businesses, and individuals. The support has come from sales of theatre tickets, theatre memberships and subscriptions, and millions of dollars raised for staff and capital improvements (e.g., the renovation of the Dallas Convention Center space for The Black Academy of Arts and Letters). In the last thirty years, many of the theatre groups have organized advisory boards with diverse community advocates from various organizations, businesses, churches, public schools, and universities. These board members served in various ­capacities—­fund-raising, personnel management, strategic planning, and oversight of season selections.

Why First and foremost, black theatre in Texas serves the high purpose of satisfying a need to express unique culture. This expression, as in other cultural communities, involves an affirmation and celebration of the culture, as well as an opportunity to remember cultural heroes and heroines, and to showcase cultural accomplishments (entertainment, sports, academia, and key historical events). While engaging black cultural expression, artists not only showcase their talents, but they may also signify upon the works of other artists—intertextuality being an important characteristic of the African American literary tradition. Thus, the art of theatre has been an important avenue for defining self in positive ways but also purging negative emotions and facing oppressive challenges. In his satirical play The Colored Museum, George Wolfe metaphorically expresses the complexity of the black experience showcased in a variety of ways on black theatre stages across the country. This excerpt from “The

2 7 6   ◆  Afterword Party” vignette illuminates the diversity in black life captured onstage in fact and fiction: Inside was the largest gathering of black/Negro/colored Americans you’d ever want to see. Over in one corner you got Nat Turner sippin’ champagne out of Eartha Kitt’s slipper. And over in another corner, Bert Williams and Malcolm X was discussing existentialism as it relates to the shuffle-ballchange. Girl, Aunt Jemima and Angela Davis was in the kitchen sharing a plate of greens and just goin’ off about South Africa. And then Fats sat down and started to work them eight-eights. And then Stevie joined in. And then Miles and Duke and Ella and Jimi and Charlie and Sly and Lightin’ and Count and Louie! . . . And whereas I used to jump into a rage anytime anybody tried to deny who I was, now all I got to do is give attitude, quicker than light, and then go on about the business of being me. . . . I am dancing to the music of the madness in me.4

In the simplest terms, blacks in Texas created theatre because of a love of artistic expression—a love that is deeply rooted in the history of black people going back to origins in African culture and metaphorically dancing to their own rhythms. Art is made from the spiritual resources of the people who create it. Out of their experiences, the sacred and the profane, is made a record of their traverse and the many points of epiphany and redemption. It empowers and provokes a sense of self that speeds development and progress in all areas of life and endeavor.5

Research Challenges We had the opportunity to examine archival documents at the theatres and in repositories across the state. Interviews of key personnel (artists, administrators, and supporters) guided our research on the current groups featured in the chapters. We encountered numerous challenges, including the following: Moving Target: The history was still in progress. As we researched and wrote, the people we were writing about resigned, retired, changed jobs, and passed away. Most of the organizations continued to produce, but a

Afterword  ◆   2 7 7 few became inactive (e.g., ProArts Collective in Austin). In addition, new groups have emerged (e.g., Spectrum Theatre Company in 2014 in Austin). Gaining Access to the Archives: Most of the groups had to organize their archives before we could view them. Two organizations kept them in storage facilities away from the theatre site, so they had to arrange to bring them to the theatre for our review. In a few cases, we were given access to the documents, and we organized them before we reviewed them (e.g., by decade, by year within decade, by production), separating administrative documents from the artistic. Where there were minimal records or access to organization documents was limited, the story had to be discovered from online postings (often prolific) and a variety of print articles kept by others. Verifying the Facts: Special challenges arose when information from an interviewee conflicted with the written documents of the event. Sometimes documents referencing the same facts or events showed conflicting dates. Theatres did not always include dates on the key promotional documents. Often flyers and posters included month and day and not year; likewise, programs often were not dated. Therefore, a great deal of work was required to reconcile season brochures, programs, flyers, news announcements, and reviews to verify information. Getting Responses from Individuals: Over the years many theatre enthusiasts connected with the theatres in this study kept documents related to the work in their home collections. We were fortunate to view some of these records, but this is a source of information that needs to be mined more thoroughly. Limited Information in Previous Historical Narratives: Historical narratives, dictionaries, and encyclopedias either did not mention black theatre in Texas or included limited information. Hence, this work has been groundbreaking in terms of bringing the Texas story out of invisibility.

Future Research Potential Popular Audience Response: The audience’s response to the theatre is key to its survival. The longevity of the efforts in Texas is a testament to the popularity of the work. The historical account of the work of the Texas theatres would benefit from oral history research documenting the audience responses. Most of the response to the work came from newspaper reviews

2 7 8   ◆  Afterword in each city. In some cases, the reviewers had a long history of reviewing the company; thus they knew the work well. However, these reviews offered only one perspective, except in a few instances where more than one critic reviewed the same production. This study captured the production history, but getting the larger audience response is important work yet to be done. In-depth Focus on Individual Organizations: The black theatres in Texas with over thirty years of work (e.g., The Black Academy of Arts and Letters, Ensemble Theatre, and Jubilee Theatre) are all organizations whose stories warrant individual, detailed, focused accounts. They are trailblazers with success and survival stories that could fill the pages of individual books on their administrative strategies, productions, and collaborative teams. Focus on Contribution of Historically Black Colleges: In chapter 1, we briefly discuss the historically black colleges and their black theatre contributions in Texas. These colleges, especially in the last twenty years, have been productive contributors to black theatre. However, detailing their stories was beyond the goals of this research, though we recommend this work as an area of future research.

Final Reflection Black theatre in Texas will continue to be a part of the mosaic of American theatre. Its persistence over the years reveals that those black citizens who migrated to the Lone Star State have stories to tell, the talent to present them, and the mettle to work against all obstacles to continue to make theatre happen in their names and in their images, projecting their hopes and dreams and celebration of life. This prolific, productive outpouring of work is part of the whole, a piece of American theatre history. With this research we have helped to preserve black theatre history for theatre supporters and scholars who may use this work as a foundation or inspiration. The common values of the American theatre that we can share are plot . . . dialogue . . . characterization . . . design. How we . . . make use of them will be determined by who we are—what ground we are standing on and what our cultural values are . . . we are unique, and we are specific.6 ***

Afterword  ◆   2 7 9 . . . someday somebody’ll Stand up and talk about me, And write about me— Black and beautiful— And sing about me, And put on plays about me! I reckon it’ll be Me myself!7

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p l a y s b y a f r i c a n a m e r i c a n t e x ANS

p: date first produced w: date written * published play

Babatunde, Akin Zig-Zag (p: 1985) What If? (p: 1991) Louis Armstrong: Before the Second Set: A Visit with Satchmo (p: 1997) Of Ebony Embers: Vignettes of the Harlem Renaissance (1998) Shakespeare . . . Midnight Echoes (p: 2003) Blind Lemon Blues (co-writer, p: 2007) God’s Leading Ladies (p: 2007) Obituary (p: 2007) Songs in the Key of Glee (p: 2007) Bedford Walker, Celeste Once in a Wife Time (formerly Sister, Sister) (w: 1977, p: 1978) Smokes Bayou (w: 1979, p: 1979) Adam and Eve, Revisted (w: 1980, p: 1981) The Wreckin Ball (w: 1980, p: 1980) Spirits (w: 1980, p: 1981) Reunion in Bartersville (w: 1983, p: 1983) Camp Logan (w: 1987, p: 1987) Over Forty (w: 1989, p: 1989) Brothers, Sisters, Husbands and Wives (w: 1992, p: 1993) Noble Lofton, Buffalo Soldier (w: 1993, p: 1994) Praise the Lord, and Raise the Roof (w: 1996, p: 1996) Jack Yates (w: 1996, p: 1996) Distant Voices (w: 1996, p: 1997) The Boule (w: 1997, p: 1997) Blacks in the Methodist Church (w: 1998, p: 1998) The History of Wheeler Baptist Church (w: 1998, p: 1998) The African Talking Drum (w: 1999, p: 1999)

2 8 2   ◆   Plays by African American Texans

Where My Girls At? (w: 1999, p: 1999) Fabulous African Fables (w: 2001, p: 2001) Reparations Day (w: 2001, p: 2001) Freedom Trail (w: 2002, p: 2002) Harlem After Hours (w: 2002, p: 2003) Sassafras Girls (w: 2003) Giants in the Land (w: 2004, p: 2004) Hip Hoppin’ the Dream! (w: 2004, p: 2006) Sassy Mamas (w: 2007, p: 2007) I, Barbara Jordan (w: 2008, p: 2008)

Brown-Guillory, Elizabeth *Bayou Relics (p: 1981) *Mam Phyllis (p: 1981) *Somebody Almost Walked Off with All of My Stuff (p: 1982) *Marry Me, Again (p: 1984) *Snapshots of Broken Dolls (p: 1986) *Saving Grace (p: 1993) *Missing Sister (p: 1996) *La Bakair (p: 2001) Ten Years in a Suitcase (p: 2002) *When the Ancestors Call (p: 2003) *The Break of Day (p: 2005) A Little Diversion (p: 2005) Carrier, Naomi Mitchell *Slav’ry Chain Done Broke at Las’ (p: 1994) *Arcy Attempts Escape (p: 1995) *Arcy Makes Room for Judith Martin: The Breakup of a Slave Family (p: 1996) *Christmas at Varner-Hogg: Patton Plantation Memories (p: 1998) *Hell or High Water: Brit Bailey Heads Off Stephen F. Austin (p: 1998) *Jumpin’ Juba: Uncle Bubba and Mammy Bell Jump de Broom (p: 1998) *Juneteenth at the George Ranch (p: 1998) *Social Politics in Victorian Texas: A Living History Interpretation of African Americans and Their Responsibilities (p: 1998) *A Little Slave For Sale—Cheap! (p: 1999) *Fugitives of Passion: On the Texas Underground Railroad to Mexico (p: 1999) *Sweet By and By: Barrington Farm Chronicle (p: 2000) *Cane Cutter Country: The Saga of the Lake Jackson Plantation (p: 2000)

Plays by African American Texans  ◆   2 8 3 *Still Am A’Risin’: The Battle of Velasco and the Vigil at Bolivar (p: 2002) *Plantation Liendo: Civil War Reenactment (unknown) Caywood, Mark Go Tell It on the Mountain: The Second Greatest Story Ever Told (with Joe Rogers) (p: 1991) Black Orpheus (with Joe Rogers) (p: 1995) The Book of Job (with Douglas Balentine) (p: 1996) The Ballad of Isom Dart (with Joe Rogers) (p: 1997) Dudley, Sherman The Smart Set (p: 1986) The Black Politician (written with S. B. Cassion) (p: c. 1906) His Honor, the Barber (p: 1909) Dr. Beans from Boston (written with Henry Troy) (p: 1911) Eastman, Rudy Blues Ain’t Nothin’ but a Good Man Feeling Bad (p: 1982) Dunbar Is Not Just a High School (p: 1982) It Ain’t Grease, It’s Dixie Peach (with Darwin Mendoza and Joe Rogers) (p: 1984) Prodigal (with Robert Sanders) (p: 1984) Drums (with Betty Green and Quincy Johnson) (p: 1986) Negroes in Space (with Doug Balentine) (p: 1986) Class of ’62 (p: 1988) Dreamin’ on a Hot Summer Night (with Doug Balentine) (p: 1989) Bessie Smith: Empress of the Blues (p: 1989) On the Corner (with Robert Sanders and Darwin Mendoza) (p: 1989) The Imaginary Invalid (p: 1989) A Joyful Noise (p: 1990) Dem Birds (p: 1990) Midnight Walker (with Joe Rogers) (p: 1990) Kate and Petruchio (or You Ain’t No Street Walker . . .) (p: 1991) The Tarzan Movie (with Douglas Balentine) (p: 1991) Harlem Blues (p: 1992) Black Diva (with New Arts Six) (p: 1992) Back . . . on the Corner (with Joe Rogers) (p: 1992) Blacula: Brother of the Night (p: 1993) Brother Mac (with Michelle Baker) (p: 1993)

2 8 4   ◆   Plays by African American Texans

Straight, No Chaser (with Joe Rogers) (p: 1994) Caesar and Cleopatra (p: 1995) Book of Job (with Joe Rogers) (p: 1996) Lysistrata PLEASE! (with Joe Rogers) (p: 1996) Dirty Laundry (C. C. Cole—Eastman alias) (p: 1997) The Sho-Nuf Blues: A Musical Tribute to W. C. Handy (p: 1998) Spirits of the Passage (p: 1998) Zimwe and the Drum (p: 1998) I Too Sing (with Joe Rogers) (p: 1999) Travelin’ Shoes (with Joe Rogers) (p: 1999) Coop DeVille: Time Travelin’ Brother (with Joe Rogers) (p: 2001) The Tempest (with Joe Rogers) (p: 2000) The Low Down Man/Woman Dirty Blues (with Joe Rogers) (p: 2002) Alice Wonder (with Joe Rogers) (p: 2002) Romeo (C. C. Cole—Eastman alias) (p: 2002) Auntée Explains Xmas (with Joe Rogers) (p: 2003) Rhythm: A Musical Myth (with Joe Rogers) (p: 2004) The Odyssey (unfinished when deceased; completed by Sheran Goodspeed Keyton with Joe Rogers) (p: 2006)

Edmund, Reginald The City of the Bayou Collection (nine-play series/in progress): Juneteenth Street (w: 2006) Redemption of Allah Black (w: 2006) The Ordained Smile of Saint Sadie May Jenkins (w: 2008) Southbridge (w: 2009, p: 2011) Last Cadillac (w: 2010) Blood Moon (w: 2010) White America (w: 2010) A Love Story (w: 2003, p: 2004) Nat Turner: A Prophet’s Sorrow (w: 2005, p: 2006) Southpark (w: 2004, p. 2005) Black Theatre: Our Story (w: 2006, p: 2006) Picnics (w: 2008) Everybody Respects Big E (w: 2009) Apartment 2301 (w: 2010, p: 2010) Racing the Blue Lights (w: 2010)

Plays by African American Texans  ◆   2 8 5 Glenn, Don Wilson American Menu (p: 2009) Hall, Irma P. From Excellence to Exploitation (p: 1974) Black Girl (p: 1974) Gentle Fires (p: 1975) Hawkins, George Br’er Rabbit (p: 1977) Surprise, Surprise . . . A Love Story (p: 1979) Who Killed Hazel Patton? (Carl Anderson, Hawkins alias) (p: 1980) Haynes, Harold Schezelle (w/p: 1983) Three Little Pigs (adaptation, w/p: 1984) Rulers, Riches and Rainbows (w/p: 1985) Alleyways (w/p: 1987) *I Just Wanna Tell Somebody (p: 1987) Cinderella (w/p: 1990) Behind Closed Doors (w/p: 1991) Isolation (p: 1993) Incarceration (p: 1995) Shout! Hallelujah (w/p: 1996) It Ain’t Over Til the Fat Lady Sings (w/p: 1997) Rage (w/p: 1998) Romeo and Juliet (adaptation, p: 1999) Othello (adaptation, p: 2000) Samson & Delilah (w/p: 2002) Three Blind Mice (w/p: 2002) God’s Mad Clown (w/p: 2004) Women in Prison (w/p: 2005) Stand (w/p: 2006) Black on Broadway (adaptation, w/p: 2007) Divas and Daredevils (adaptation, w/p: 2007) Jezebel (w/p: 2008) Love on the Rocks (w: 2008) The Greatest Story Ever Told (adaptation, w/p: 2009)

2 8 6   ◆   Plays by African American Texans

Driven (w: 2010) Jack and the Beanstalk (adaptation, w/p: 2010)

Holmes, Willie The Wounded (p: 1999) The Corporate Plantation (p: 1999) Rhaka’s Redemption (p: 2000) Daddy’s Girl (p: 2001) Love Doesn’t Hurt (p: 2002) Saturday (p: 2002) America vs. Racism (p: 2002) Suspects in America (p: 2003) Eve’s Garden (p: 2003) A Heaven for a Gee (p: 2006) Houston, Sterling Harlem: A Renaissance Remembered (p: 1986) A Brief History of American Song (p: 1988) The Modernization of Sainthood (p: 1988) The Late Late Show at the Gilded Cage (p: 1989) Relationships: Good and Not so Good (p: 1989) A’lelia (p: 1990) Kool Jams (p: 1990) Travels of the Time-Train (p: 1990) Cheap Talk (p: 1992) *Driving Wheel (p: 1992) *High Yello Rose (p: 1992) *Womandingo (p: 1992) *La Frontera (1993) *Isis in Nubia (p: 1993) *Miranda Rites (p: 1994) Snow White and the Seven Deadly Sins (p: 1994) On the Pulse of Morning (adaptation, p: 1995) Santo Negro (p: 1995) *Black Lily and White Lily (p: 1996) *Miss Bowden’s Dream (1998) The Alien Show: Kool Jams (p: 1999) Le Griffon (p: 2000) Message Sent (p: 2000)

Plays by African American Texans  ◆   2 8 7 *Cameoland (2002) El Calor de Amor (p: 2003) Black and Blue, Four Centuries of Struggle and Transcendence (p: 2003) *The Living Graves (p: 2005) The Last of the Tennessee Waltz (p: 2006) Leche de Luna (p: 2006) Millie and Christina (p: 2006) Hollywood and Time (p: 2007) Miz Johnson and Mr. Jones (undated) The Ballad of Box Brown (undated) Keyton, Sheran Goodspeed Diaries of a Barefoot Diva (w/p: 2006) The Odyssey (w/p: 2006) Uncle Duz Christmas (w/p: 2008) I’m Every Woman: A Tribute to Great Women in Music (w/p: 2009) The Man I Love (w/p: 2010) Lee, Eugene Killingsworth (p: 1988) *East Texas Hot Links (p: 1990) Twist (w: 1993) Stones in My Passway (w: 1994) Fear Itself (p: 1996) Somebody Called (w: 2003) The Rest of Me (w: 2010) Mayo, Sandra Frederick Douglass: Reflections on a Struggle for Freedom (w: 1982) Meloncon, Thomas The Death of O. D. Walker (p: 1975) From Africa to Third Ward (p: 1980) The Diary of Black Men (p: 1982) Where Were You in ’65 (p: 1984) Guess Who Is Pregnant? (p: 1988) Poetry in E Minor (collection of poetry, p: 1991) Their Berries Are Sweeter (p: 1991) Mrs. Cavender’s Class (p: 1992)

2 8 8   ◆   Plays by African American Texans

A Matter of Manhood (p: 1993) A Storm in the Church (p: 1993) Our Feet Can Tell a Story (p: 1993) The Colored Section (p: 1994) The Melting Pot (p: 1994) Before Time Runs Out (p: 1995) If Beds Could Talk (p: 1997) The Drums of Sweetwater (p: 1997) Stop the Noise (p: 1997) The Tree that Grew Human (p: 1997) When Love Is Not Enough (p: 1997) Ain’t Nothin’ Wrong with a Gizzard Sandwich (p: 1998) Johnnie B. Goode (p: 1998) Whatever Happened to Black Love? (p: 1998) The Dream of Doors (p: 1999) A Song of Abstinence (p: 2000) Four Songs in the Key of Love (p: 2000) The Rainbow Celebration (p: 2001) The Tobacco Road (p: 2001) Young Mandela (p: 2002) The Laws of Storms (p: 2002) Let Yesterday Go (p: 2002) Jump the Broom (p: 2003) Restricted Area (p: 2003) The Grass Ain’t Always Greener (p: 2003) A Hip Hop Wedding (p: 2004) Father in the House (p: 2004) The Robeson Family Chronicles, A Radio Drama Series (p: 2006) What Shall We Teach the Children? (p: 2006) Sarah and Joshua: A Juneteenth Musical (p: 2008) The Marriage Test (p: 2008) Carlton’s Closet (p: 2009) Christmas with Great Aunt (2009) Dreams and Decisions (p: 2009) The Man Who Saved New Orleans (p: 2009) The Gospel According to Hip Hop (undated)

Montgomery, Reginald When the Last One Goes (1974)

Plays by African American Texans  ◆   2 8 9 Sanders, Bob Ray Blues on 125th Street (1978) Shine, Ted Cold Day in August (p: 1950) Sho Is Hot in the Cotton Patch, Miss Weaver (p: 1951) Dry August (p: 1952) The Bats Out of Hell (p: 1955) Entourage Royale (p: 1958) Epitaph for a Bluebird (p: 1958) A Rat’s Revolt (p:1959) *Morning Noon and Night (p: 1964) Miss Victoria (p: 1965) Pontiac (p: 1967) Jeanne West (p: 1968) Revolution (p: 1968) Come Back after the Fire (p: 1969) *Contributions (p: 1969) Flora’s Kisses (p: 1969) Hamburgers at Hamburger Heaven Are Impersonal (p: 1969) Idabel’s Fortune (p: 1969) *Shoes (p: 1969) *Plantation (p: 1970) Packard (p: 1971) *Herbert III (p: 1974) The Night of Baker’s End (p: 1974) *The Woman Who Was Tampered with in Youth (p: 1981) Ancestors (w/p: 1986) Tucker, Dianne (diannetucker) Shoes (p: 1986) Cat Cross (p: 1988) The Christmas Secret (p: 1988) When Effie Burke Passed (p: 1989) The Gamesmen (p: 1990) Mahalia Speaks (p: 1991) Profiles in Faith (p: 1992) Hershey with Almonds (p: 1995) Daddy’s Maybe (p: 1996)

2 9 0   ◆   Plays by African American Texans

Madam Queen (p: 1998) Attitude, Girlfriend, Attitude (with Joe Rogers) (p: 1999) Fat Freddy (with Joe Rogers) (p: 2001) Road Show (p: 2003)

Winstead, Antoinette Too Long Coming (p: 2003) The Interrogation (p: 2004) Blues before Sunrise (p: 2005) For the Love of Man (w: 2005) Somebody Else’s Life (p: 2005) The Birthday Surprise (p: 2007) The Gift (p: 2008) A Lifetime of Lifetimes (p: 2009) Common Ground (p: 2009)

notes Preface 1. Brockett’s History of the Theatre and Hatch and Hill’s A History of African American Theatre have influenced the organizational development of Stages of Struggle and Celebration. 2. Oscar Brockett and Franklin J. Hildy, History of the Theatre, 8th ed. (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1998), 673. 3. Ibid. Chapter One 1. Woodie King Jr., The Impact of Race: Theatre and Culture (New York: Applause Theatre & Cinema Books, 2003), 99. 2. August Wilson, Cultural Power and the Case for Black Theatre, Revolutionary Worker #893, February 9, 1997, accessed August 5, 2013, http://www.revcom.us/a/firstvol /890-899/893/theater.htm. 3. Dauphin, Houston by Stages: A History of Theatre in Houston (Burnet, TX: Eakin Press, 1981). 4. Bernard L. Peterson, The African American Theatre Directory, 1816–1960: A Comprehensive Guide to Early Black Theatre Organizations, Companies, Theatres, and Performing Groups (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1997). 5. Annemarie Bean, ed., A Sourcebook of African American Performance: Plays, People, Movements (London: Routledge Press, 1999). 6. William “Bill” McGhee Dallas’ Pioneer Actor, accessed August 30, 2013, http:// www.legacy.com/obituaries/dallasmorningnews/obituary.aspx?n=william-mcghee -bill&pid=86578564&fhid=3803#fbLoggedOut. 7. James V. Hatch, “Preface,” in Erroll G. Hill and James Hatch, A History of African American Theatre (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), xv–xvi. 8. Samuel A. Hay, introduction to African American Theatre: A Historical and Critical Analysis (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 5–6. 9. Thomas Meloncon, “African American Theatre: The Legacy Continues,” TSU Faculty Senate Newsletter (Fall 2010): 4–5. 10. In order to relate drama to the Civil Rights Movement, and in the process to go beyond the European fin-de-siècle notion of “art for art’s sake,” some black playwrights turned to the African praxis of total theatre, which blends the visual and performing arts, allows for improvisation, and eliminates the gulf between performers and audience. See Babatunde Lawal, “The African Heritage of African American Art and Performance,” in Black Theatre: Ritual Performance in the African Diaspora, eds. Paul Carter Harrison, Victor Leo Walker II, and Gus Edwards, e-book, 84. Several oth-

2 9 2   ◆   Notes for Pages 7–10 er scholars have addressed the issue of African influences on African American theatre; see James Hatch, “Some Influences on the Afro-American Theater,” and Shelby Steele, “Notes on Ritual in New Black Theatre,” both in The Theatre of Black Americans, ed. Errol Hill (New York: Applause Books, 1988); also see Paul Carter Harrison, The Drama of Nommo: Black Theatre in the African Continuum (New York: Grove Press, 1972). 11. Henry Louis Gates Jr., introduction to “Tell Me, Sir . . . What Is ‘Black’ Literature?” PMLA 105 (1990): 12. 12. Hill and Hatch, A History of African American Theatre, 5. 13. Ibid. 14. Philip U. Effiong, In Search of a Model for African-American Drama: A Study of Selected Plays by Lorraine Hansberry, Amiri Baraka, Ntozake Shange (New York: University Press of America, Inc., 2000), 8. 15. Minstrel Show Program, text, n.d., digital image, accessed August 4, 2013, http:// texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth60965/. 16. Quoted in Effiong, In Search of a Model, 8. 17. Ibid., 5. 18. George Houston Bass, quoted in Addell Austin, “The Present State of Black Theatre,” TDR 32, no. 3 (1988): 89. 19. Langston Hughes, “Note on Commercial Theatre,” The Norton Anthology of American Literature, shorter 7th ed., vol. D (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2007), 2032. 20. W. E. B. Du Bois, “Krigwa Players Little Negro Theatre,” The Crisis 32, no. 3 (July 1926): 134. 21. Carleton W. Molette and Barbara J. Molette, Afrocentric Theatre (Xlibris Corporation, 2013), 16, e-book. 22. Ibid., 17. 23. One of the most moving scenes in A Raisin in the Sun deftly illustrates the phenomenon of the black participatory audience. In act 1, scene 2, Beneatha rejects the existence of God in the hearing of her God-fearing Christian mother. Hansberry writes: “Mama . . . rises slowly and crosses to Beneatha and slaps her powerfully across the face.” Then Mama tells Beneatha: “Now—you say after me, in my mother’s house there is still God.” Typically, black audiences stand and cheer in support of Mama’s strong assertion of her Christian values. There is often enthusiastic applause at this juncture in the production as audience members talk back to the actors. Most of Tyler Perry’s plays affirm core Christian values that appeal to his black audiences, prompting them to interact with the actors. The black participatory theatre audience is rooted in the call-and-response tradition brought from Africa to America by slaves and adapted to black religious/musical practice. 24. Thomas Pawley, “The Black Theatre Audience,” Players (August-September 1971): 37. 25. Gus Edwards, “Performance, Introduction,” “Interview with Douglas Turner Ward,” June 1995, quoted in Harrison et al., Black Theatre, 314. 26. Addison Gayle, ed., The Black Aesthetic (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971), 22. 27. Mikell Pinkney, “The Development of African American Dramatic Theory: W. E. B. Du Bois to August Wilson,” in August Wilson and Black Aesthetics, ed. Dana Williams and Sandra Shannon (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 11–36.

Notes for Pages 10–16  ◆   2 9 3 28. Hill, Theatre of Black Americans, 108. Annamarie Bean, “Black Minstrelsy and Double Inversion, Circa 1890,” in African American Performance and Theater History: A Critical Reader, eds. Harry J. Elam Jr. and David Krasner (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 176. 29. Allen Woll, Black Musical Theatre: From Coontown to Dreamgirls (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989), 1–2. 30. Ibid. 31. Hill, Theatre of Black Americans, 5. 32. Bill Moyers, A World of Ideas: Conversations with Thoughtful Men and Women about American Life Today and the Ideas Shaping Our Future (New York: Doubleday, 1989), 172. 33. Harrison et al., Black Theatre, 8. 34. Hill, Theatre of Black Americans, 5. 35. Ibid., 6. 36. Molette and Molette, Afrocentric Theatre, 162. 37. Roger D. Abrahams, African American Folktales: Stories from Black Traditions in the New World (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985). See also Julius Lester, Black Folktales (New York: Grove Press, 1970); Virginia Hamilton, The People Could Fly: American Black Folktales (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985); Roger Abrahams, African Folktales: Traditional Stories of the Black World (New York: Pantheon, 1983); Zora Neale Hurston, Spunk: Three Tales (Berkley: Turtle Island, 1985); Zora Neale Hurston, Tell My Horse (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1938). 38. Ibid. 39. Ibid., 25. 40. Ibid., 26. 41. Ibid. 42. Sandra Shannon, “Audience and Africanisms in August Wilson’s Dramaturgy,” in Elam and Krasner, African American Performance and Theater History, 151. 43. Ibid., 11. 44. Leigh Clemons, Branding Texas: Performing Culture in the Lone Star State (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2008), 10. 45. Ibid., 8. 46. Ibid., 27. 47. Ibid., 7. 48. Ibid., 9. 49. Sandra Mayo and Elvin Holt, eds., Acting Up and Getting Down: Plays by African American Texans (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2014), 10. 50. Eric Sundquist, To Wake the Nations: Race in the Making of American Literature (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 281. 51. Ibid. 52. Ibid., 277. 53. Ibid., 282. 54. Harrison et al., Black Theatre, 335. 55. Ibid. 56. Work Projects Administration 1936–1938. “Slave Narratives: A Folk History of

2 9 4   ◆   Notes for Pages 17–31 Slavery in the United States from Interviews with Former Slaves, Texas Narratives 16, pt. 2, 167, Project Gutenberg ebook, http://www.pgdp.net. 57. Kharen Monsho, “Dudley, Sherman H.,” Handbook of Texas History Online, accessed August 5, 2013, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fdumj. 58. Hill and Hatch, A History of African American Theatre, 206. 59. Quoted in Dauphin, Houston by Stages, 396. 60. Hill, Theatre of Black Americans, 611. 61. Peterson, African American Directory. 62. Ibid. 63. Krigwa Players, Krigwa Players Little Negro Theatre, ca. 1926, W. E. B. Du Bois Papers (MS 312), Special Collections and University Archives, University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries, accessed August 5, 2013, http://oubliette.library.umass .edu/view/full/mums312-bo34-i165. 64. Dauphin, Houston by Stages, 396. 65. Neil Sapper, “Black Culture in Urban Texas,” in The African American Experience in Texas, ed. Bruce Glasrud and James Smallwood (Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press, 2007), 248. 66. Ibid., 249. 67. James Hatch, “Theatre in Historically Black Colleges,” in Bean, Sourcebook of African American Performance, 150–166. 68. Ibid. Chapter Two 1. US Department of Commerce, “United States Census Bureau State and County Quick Facts,” San Antonio, n.d., accessed April 22, 2013, http://quickfacts.census.gov /qfd/states/48/4865000.html. 2. On July 2, 1964, President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which banned discrimination based on “race, color, religion, sex or national origin” in employment practices and public accommodations. The bill authorized the US attorney general to file lawsuits to enforce the new law. The law also nullified state and local laws that required such discrimination. 3. Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528–1995 (Austin: Norman, 1996). 4. Ibid. 5. City of San Antonio, “S.A. Government,” accessed April 22, 2013, http://www .sanantonio.gov/. 6. Blackbook, “Blacks in San Antonio,” n.d., accessed April 24, 2013, http://www .blacksinsanantonio.com/. 7. St. Philips College—Quick Facts, 2013, accessed April 24, 2013, http://www.alamo .edu/spc/quick-facts/. 8. Christi Fish, “More Houston Area College Students are Choosing UTSA,” UTSA Today, October 12, 2012, accessed April 22, 2013, http://utsa.edu/today/2012/10/ houstonenrollment.html. 9. Prudence L. Curry (1885–1990), a college professor, was head of the Domestic Science Department at Prairie View A&M University before becoming the director

Notes for Pages 32–37  ◆   2 9 5 of the George Washington Carver Library in San Antonio. She was married to Reverend G. F. C. Curry, who pastored the Mt. Zion First Baptist Church in San Antonio for many years and was the founder of the Friendship Baptist Church. He pastored the First Baptist Church (NBC) in San Marcos from 1897–1908. 10. After the retirement of Jo Long, Kim Jordan and Marva Crisp served as interim directors. William Lewis served briefly as the executive director. The director as of November 2009 is Yonnie Blanchette. 11. Jo Long, interview by Sandra Mayo, tape recording and telephone, San Marcos, TX, July 21, 2011. 12. Jump-Start Performance Company, founded in 1985, was a perfect fit for Sterling Houston, whose plays were frequently written with the diverse company of actors in mind. In 2009, Jump-Start changed the name of its theatre on South Alamo in the Blue Star Arts Complex to the Sterling Houston Theatre. 13. Sterling Houston, High Yello Rose and Other Texas Plays by Sterling Houston, ed. Sandra Mayo (San Antonio: Wings Press, 2009). As noted in the anthology, Houston’s plays showcased the history of black San Antonio. High Yello Rose (1992) takes us back to 1835–1836 and the salient events of the Texas Revolution with mulatto bondswoman Emily Morgan. Living Graves (2005) starts in the early years of the twenty-first century but reflects on historic pillars of the white and black communities in San Antonio in the early 1800s. Miss Bowden’s Dream (1998) starts at the turn of the century in 1902 when Miss Artemisia Bowden began academic leadership of St. Philip’s Episcopal School and moves forward in time to the 1940s when she is instrumental in leading St. Philip’s to become a part of the Alamo Community College District. Cameoland (2002) and Driving Wheel (1992) turn to the postwar years of the 1940s with stories about the old Cameo theatre and its entertainment history, while Black Lily and White Lily (1996) highlights the pre–civil rights era of the 1950s with an unlikely friendship between two women of different classes and races. La Frontera (1993) brings to the fore the post–segregation, post–civil rights era of the 1990s after integration with families from different cultures adjusting to living side by side. 14. Carver Community Cultural Center, Department of Community Initiatives, City of San Antonio, June 2007, season brochure. 15. Ibid. 16. Yonnie Blanchette, executive director of the Carver Community Cultural Center in San Antonio, is responsible for all aspects of the Carver’s management, including programs, events, and community and educational outreach services. Supervising ten full-time employees in the areas of administration, development, marketing, theatre production, building operations, and arts education, Blanchette is also responsible for long-range program and facility planning and oversight of the Carver’s operational budget. 17. Delta Sigma Theta is one of the largest black sororities in the United States and has an international presence in West Germany, the Virgin Islands, Nassau, the Bahamas, and West Africa. 18. Myra Lillian Davis Hemmings also appeared in several films, including Go Down Moses in 1941, Marching On in 1943, and Girl in Room 20 in 1946.

2 9 6   ◆   Notes for Pages 38–43 19. Many of the early plays produced by Myra Hemmings could not be traced to uncover authors and original production dates. 20. More information about this play is not available. 21. San Antonio Register, April 20, 1934. 22. Errol Hill and James Hatch, A History of African American Theatre (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008). 23. “Portrait of Founder,” Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, San Antonio chapter, 1985. 24. Ibid. 25. 100 Years: A Century of Progress, 1879–1979 (San Antonio: Second Baptist Church, 1979). 26. Geraldine Smedler, Jack Carter, Mrs. Carter, Claude J. Boggs, Minnie Boggs, Jerelyn Williams, Charles Etta Perry, interview by Sandra Mayo, video recording, Second Baptist Church, San Antonio, February 2010. 27. San Antonio Register, 1947. 28. Ibid., 1938. 29. Myra Lillian Davis Hemmings, Handbook of Texas Online, http://www.tshaon line.org/handbook/online/articles/HH/fhe64.html. 30. San Antonio Register, http://www.saregister.com/aboutus.html. 31. These headlines come from articles in the San Antonio Register from 1942 to the 1950s. 32. Geraldine Smedler, interview by Sandra Mayo, February 2010. 33. W. E. B. Du Bois, “Krigwa Players Little Negro Theatre,” The Crisis 32, no. 3 (July 1926), 134. 34. “Women of Belief: Black Church and Black Theatre: An Interview with Trazana Beverley,” Black America Literature Forum 25, no. 1 (Spring 1991), captures the importance of the black church in black culture, and particularly in black theatre: When I was growing up, we didn’t have a high school for the performing arts. There was no such thing. If you wanted to do something extra in that vein, nine times out of ten you did it in the church, because that is our tradition, our history. We are a people that have been raised in the church. That’s where the pianos were, the space was, and that’s where I used to go. So it’s not surprising that so many Black plays are rooted in church ritual, because as youngsters we sat in churches and watched the preachers preach, watched the choirs sing, watched people get happy, and listened to conversations between people that led to certain stories. I know in Baltimore you go every three or four blocks and there’s a church. You can’t get away from it. Morgan University was started in the church basement of Sharp Street. The church started the college. It’s not unlike a lot of other churches where the learning institutions came out of the spiritual institutions, the religious institutions.

35. Mt. Zion First Baptist Church is a historic African American church at 333 Martin Luther King Drive in San Antonio. The church was founded in 1871 by former slaves and has since provided ministerial services to thousands and played a major role in the Civil Rights Movement of the city. In 1949 the Rev. Claude Black Jr. became pastor. Pastor Black, who would become a civil rights icon and city council representative, led the church to national prominence in the National Baptist Convention and

Notes for Pages 43–48  ◆   2 9 7 invited Thurgood Marshall, Adam Clayton Powell Jr., Azie Taylor Morton, Percy Sutton, Barbara Jordan, and others to speak from his pulpit. The church created not only the city’s first black-owned credit union but also Project Free, a program dedicated to assisting the poor and elderly. The church was burned by an arsonist in 1974, but was rebuilt the following year. 36. Claude William Black Jr. (November 28, 1916–March 13, 2009) was an American Baptist minister and political figure. Black attended Morehouse College in Atlanta and initially aspired to be a doctor, but was called to the ministry and then attended Andover Newton Theological School. Black served as pastor of Mt. Zion First Baptist Church in San Antonio from 1949 to 1998 and then as pastor emeritus until his death in 2009. Black was known throughout the South for his civil rights activism and throughout the late 1950s and 1960s, he along with state representative G. J. Sutton and Harry Burns led and organized marches throughout the state. He took Texas governor Price Daniel, San Antonio mayor Walter McAllister, and the rest of the political establishment to task for its unfair treatment of minorities in the city. He became an associate of such leaders as A. Philip Randolph, Martin Luther King Jr., Thurgood Marshall, Adam Clayton Powell Jr., James L. Farmer Jr., Ella Baker, and others. Black, as a local ally to president Lyndon B. Johnson, was present for the White House Conference on Civil Rights in 1966. He endured many threats to himself, his family, and his church including a drive-by shooting at his home, and the burning of his church in 1974. No suspects were charged. Black also supported the efforts of San Antonio’s local Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) after a massive demonstration against police brutality in downtown San Antonio and an armed attack on the SNCC office. The San Antonio Committee to Free Angela Davis and SNCC-Panther meetings were also allowed at his church and members of the SNCC-Panthers were allowed to raise funds at the church on Sundays. Before Nelson Mandela was released from prison, Black coauthored a city council resolution against the sale of the South African Krugerrand gold coin in December 1976. Serving four terms on the San Antonio city council from 1973 to 1978, Black also became the city’s first black mayor pro tem. 37. Lorraine Hansberry, A Raisin in the Sun, in Black Theatre USA: Plays by African Americans: The Recent Period, 1935–Today, ed. James Hatch and Ted Shine (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996), 116. 38. Program, The Amen Corner, May 31, 1987. 39. “Hornsby to Head YMCA Arts Program,” SNAP News, May 1, 1993. 40. Dollie Hudspeth served as the chair of the Department of English at North West Vista College, one of the Alamo Colleges. 41. Kathy Hornsby, interview. 42. Earley Teal, interview by Sandra Mayo, tape recording, Texas State University-San Marcos, December 9, 2009. 43. Kathy Hornsby, interview. 44. The Carver Community Cultural Center is a thriving hub for educational, social, and cultural services on the East Side of San Antonio serving the African American community and broader reaches of the San Antonio metropolitan area. For

2 9 8   ◆   Notes for Pages 48–57 over seventy-five years, the Carver has welcomed talented performers such as the Jim Cullum Jazz Band, Audra McDonald, Marion Meadows, Robert Earl Keen, and Savion Glover as a part of its performance season. 45. The Josephine Theatre is a nonprofit community theatre committed to expanding San Antonio’s cultural horizons by creating opportunities for individuals to enjoy the excitement of live theatre as patrons, performers, and students. 46. Kathy Hornsby, interview. 47. St. Philip’s College and San Antonio College are both part of the Alamo College. St. Philip’s College is a historically black and Hispanic-serving college of about seven thousand students, and San Antonio College is now the largest of the five Alamo colleges with approximately forty thousand students. 48. Dan Goddard, review of The Amen Corner, by James Baldwin, directed by Kathy Hornsby, San Antonio Express-News, June 1993. 49. Kristina Paledes, review of The Amen Corner, by James Baldwin, directed by Kathy Hornsby, San Antonio Express-News, June 18, 1993. 50. A Soldier’s Play was originally staged by the Negro Ensemble Company at the Lucille Lortel Theatre in Greenwich Village. It opened on November 10, 1981, and ran for 468 performances. In addition to the Pulitzer, it won the Outer Critics Circle Award for Best Off-Broadway Play, the New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award for Best American Play, and the Obie Award for Distinguished Ensemble Performance. The original cast included Adolph Caesar as Sergeant Waters, Denzel Washington as Private Peterson, Samuel L. Jackson as Private Louis Henson, and Peter Friedman as Captain Charles Taylor. Caesar and Washington reprised their roles in the film version, A Soldier’s Story, directed by Norman Jewison. 51. Kristina Paledes, review of A Soldier’s Play, by Charles Fuller, directed by Kathy Hornsby, San Antonio Express-News, 1994. 52. Deborah Martin, review of A Soldier’s Play, by Charles Fuller, directed by Kathy Hornsby, San Antonio Express-News, June 21, 2007. 53. Dan R. Goddard, review of Fences, by August Wilson, directed by Kathy Hornsby, San Antonio Express-News, 1994. 54. Cheryl Hornsby, interview by Sandra Mayo, tape recording, November 2009. 55. Production flyers. 56. Dan Goddard, review of Meetin’ in the Ladies Room, directed by Kathy Hornsby, San Antonio Express-News, June 20, 1998. 57. “Hornsby Entertainment & the Davis Scott YMCA Present ‘(please) Order My Steps,’” San Antonio Informer, September 26, 1996. 58. Production program. 59. Production flyer. 60. Ibid. 61. Ibid. 62. This is documented in the production programs for these plays. 63. Kathy Hornsby, interview. 64. The Renaissance Guild, http://www.therenaissanceguild.org/. 65. Ibid.

Notes for Pages 57–67  ◆   2 9 9 66. Ibid. 67. King and Riddle, interview. 68. Ibid. 69. Latrelle Bright, interview by Sandra Mayo, tape recording, January 29, 2010. 70. The choice of Pinter’s work shows San Antonio theatre artists, like others in the country, did not feel limited to plays by black writers. Black theatre companies promoted nontraditional casting long before it became the buzzword in the postsegregation theatre community. Color-blind casting, also called nontraditional casting, or integrated casting, is the practice of casting a role without considering the actor’s ethnicity. In 1986 the Non-Traditional Casting Project (NTCP), a not-for-profit advocacy organization, was established to address and seek solutions to the problems of racism and exclusion in theatre, film, and television. Nontraditional casting continues to evoke debates on its value and truth among black artists, as documented in Harvey Young’s publication of the roundtable discussion “A Black Cat and Other Plays: All Black Productions of Tennessee Williams’s Works,” Tennessee Williams Annual Review, 2012. 71. Alamo Theatre Arts Council (ATAC), http://www.atac-sa.org/Awards%202006 .html. 72. Deborah Martin, review of Dearly Departed, by David Bottrell and Jessie Jones, directed by Diane Malone, San Antonio Express-News, July 7, 2008. 73. Ibid. 74. The reason for the poor audience response to The Renaissance Guild production of Fences was not explored in any depth by the company, so it is not possible to determine its causes. However, it should be noted that at the time of August Wilson’s death in 2005 he was a highly produced and celebrated African American playwright. See Charles Isherwood, “August Wilson, Theater’s Poet of Black America, Is Dead at 60,” New York Times, October 3, 2005. With the exceptions of “Radio Golf ” and “Jitney,” a play first produced in St. Paul in 1981 and reworked and presented off Broadway in 2000, all of the plays in the cycle were ultimately seen on Broadway, the sometimes treacherous but all-important commercial marketplace for American theatre. Although some were not financial successes there, “Fences,” which starred James Earl Jones, set a record for a nonmusical Broadway production when it grossed $11 million in a single year and ran for 525 performances. Together, Mr. Wilson’s plays logged nearly 1,800 performances on Broadway in a little more than two decades, and they have been seen in more than 2,000 separate productions, amateur and professional. 75. Latrelle Bright, interview. 76. Scott Lewis, review of The Wiz, directed by Jonathan Pennington, San Antonio, July 16, 2011, http://thisweekintexas.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=vie w&id=721&Itemid=99. 77. Ibid. 78. Danielle King and Paul Riddle, interview by Sandra Mayo and Elvin Holt, San Antonio, December 6, 2008. 79. Ibid.

3 0 0   ◆   Notes for Pages 73–85 Chapter Three 1. U.S. Department of Commerce, “State and County Quick Facts: Austin, Texas,” January 10, 2013, accessed April 22, 2013, http://quickfacts.census.gov. 2. Austin History Center, “Desegregation in Austin: Five Decades of Social Change,” Austin Public Library, accessed April 22, 2013, http://www.austinlibrary .com/ahc/desegregation/index.cfm?action=overview. 3. Ibid. 4. Afro-American Players, Inc., accessed August 9, 2013, http://.902emac.com /about/about.htm. 5. Doug Sivad, telephone interview by Elvin Holt, August 5, 2013. 6. Afro-American Players, Inc., Brochure, 6, n.d. 7. Boyd Vance, Exhibit Notes, “BlackStage: 1975–1995,” Austin History Center, February 16, 1997. 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid. 10. Black Arts Alliance, Organizational Profile, n.d. 11. Ibid. 12. ProArts Patron Letter, October 1986. 13. Ibid. 14. ProArts Collective, Organizational History, n.d. 15. Billy Harden, interview by Elvin Holt, tape recording, Austin, August 10, 2009. 16. Dewy Brooks, e-mail attachment to Elvin Holt, June 15, 2009. 17. Kharen Monsho, “Community Arts,” Austin American-Statesman, May 26, 1990. 18. Ibid. 19. Cassandra Knobloch, interview by Sandra Mayo and Elvin Holt, tape recording, Austin, November 31, 2008. 20. Boyd Vance, interview by C. Francis Blackchild, tape recording, Austin, December 6, 1996. 21. ProArts Collective Organizational History, n.d., n.p. 22. Ibid. 23. Lisa Byrd, interview by Sandra Mayo and Elvin Holt, tape recording, Austin, February 27, 2009. 24. Program Notes: What Angels Do for Christmas, 1991, Austin. 25. Articles of Incorporation, Progressive Arts Collective, Austin, 1991. 26. Billy Harden interview, August 10, 2009. 27. Jeanne Claire van Ryzin, “Star of Austin Stage Nurtured Arts for African Americans,” Austin American-Statesman, April 10, 2005. 28. Memorial Program: In Loving Memory of Boyd Vance, n.d. 29. Dr. Laurence Becker, interview by Elvin Holt, tape recording, San Marcos, TX, February 23, 2010. 30. Ibid. 31. Robert Faires, Boyd Vance obituary, Austin Chronicle, April 15, 2005. 32. Ibid.

Notes for Pages 86–93  ◆   3 0 1 33. Jeanne Claire van Ryzin, Boyd Vance memorial tribute, Austin American-Statesman, April 10, 2005. 34. Billy Harden interview. 35. Ibid. 36. Robert Faires, Boyd Vance Theatre, Austin Chronicle, November 11, 2005. 37. Lisa Byrd interview. 38. Ibid. 39. Billy Harden interview. 40. Ibid. 41. Ibid. 42. Ibid. 43. Ibid. 44. Angela Ausbrooks, interview by Elvin Holt, tape recording, San Marcos, June 29, 2009. 45. Mary Jane Garza, review of Blues for an Alabama Sky, Austin Chronicle, February 19, 1999. 46. Ibid. 47. Evelyn Martin Anderson, review of What Angels Do for Christmas by Ellsworth Schave, directed by Cassandra Knobloch, Theatre Austin, The Villager, December 26, 1991. 48. Ibid. 49. ProArts Organizational History, n.d. 50. Cassandra Knobloch interview. 51. Jeanne Claire van Ryzin, review of Two Trains Running by August Wilson, directed by Boyd Vance, ProArts Collective, Austin, Austin American-Statesman. n.d. 52. Ibid. 53. Billy Harden interview. 54. Michael Barnes, review of A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry, directed by Boyd Vance, ProArts Collective, Austin, Austin-American Statesman, February 4, 2001. 55. Ibid. 56. Ibid. 57. Mary Jane Garza, review of A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry, directed by Boyd Vance, ProArts Collective, Austin, Austin Chronicle, February 16, 2001. 58. Michael Barnes, review of A Raisin in the Sun. 59. Evelyn Martin Anderson, review of A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry, directed by Boyd Vance, ProArts Collective, Austin, The Villager, March 9, 2001, 3. 60. Ibid. 61. Ibid. 62. Evelyn Martin Anderson review of Having Our Say by Emily Mann, directed by Boyd Vance, ProArts Collective, Austin, The Villager, October 12, 2001, 4. 63. Michael Barnes, review of Topdog/Underdog by Suzan-Lori Parks, directed by Boyd Vance, ProArts Collective, Austin, Austin American-Statesman, January 12, 2004. 64. Ibid. 65. Ibid.

3 0 2   ◆   Notes for Pages 93–108 66. Billy Harden, interview by Elvin Holt, tape recording, San Marcos, March 11, 2010. 67. Ibid. 68. Ibid. 69. Ibid. 70. http://www.proartsaustin.org. 71. Lisa Byrd interview. 72. Jeanne Claire van Ryzin, review of Death and the King’s Horseman by Wole Soyinka, directed by Stephen Gerald, ProArts Collective, Austin, Austin-American Statesman, February 19, 2008. 73. Avimaan Syam, review of Death and the King’s Horseman by Wole Soyinka, directed by Stephen Gerald, ProArts Collective, Austin, Austin Chronicle, February 22, 2008. 74. Jeanne Claire van Ryzin, review of Common Ground by Antoinette Winstead, Austin Live Theatre, accessed August 16, 2013, http://austinlivetheatre.com/index .php?option=article&1d. 75. Jamie Cantara, review of The Colored Museum by George C. Wolfe, directed by Boyd Vance, ProArts Collective, Austin, Austin American-Statesman. 76. Ibid. 77. Evelyn Martin Anderson, review of The Colored Museum by George C. Wolfe, directed by Boyd Vance, ProArts Collective, Austin, The Villager, March 10, 2000. 78. Jamie Smith Cantara, review of Driving Miss Daisy, Austin American-Statesman, January 30, 2002. 79. Ibid. 80. Ibid. 81. Lynn Koenning, interview by Elvin Holt, tape recording, Austin, June 18, 2009. 82. Ibid. 83. Billy Harden interview, August 10, 2009. 84. Dewy Brooks, telephone interview by Elvin Holt, San Marcos, June 15, 2009. Chapter Four 1. US Department of Commerce, United States Census Bureau State and County Quick Facts: Dallas, Texas, January 10, 2013, accessed April 22, 2013, http://quickfacts.census .gov/qfd/states/48/4819000.html. 2. Blacks in Dallas, Dallas Black History, n.d., accessed April 22, 2013, http://www .blacksindallas.com/DallasBlackHistory.html 3. Radio Black, Texas Black Radio Stations, n.d., accessed April 24, 2013, http://www .radioblack.com/Texas.html 4. Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528–1995 (Austin: Norman Press, 1996). 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid., 184. 7. Dallas City Hall, Dallas Serving You, n.d., accessed April 22, 2013, http://www .dallascityhall.com/government/government.html.

Notes for Pages 108–122  ◆   3 0 3 8. Texas House of Representatives, House Members, n.d., accessed April 22, 2013, http://www.house.state.tx.us/members/. 9. Blacks in Dallas, African American Churches in Dallas, n.d., accessed April 22, 2013, http://www.blacksindallas.com/churches.html 10. Paul Quinn College, Quinnite Life, n.d., accessed April 22, 2013, http://www.pqc .edu/. 11. Forbes, University of Texas–Dallas, n.d., accessed April 22, 2013, http://www .forbes.com/colleges/the-university-of-texas-at-dallas/. 12. William “Bill” McGhee, Dallas’ Pioneer Actor, http://www.artists4artsake.org /Bill_McGhee_s_Biography.html. 13. Film Reference, Irma P. Hall: Biography: 1935–, accessed April 22, 2013, http:// www.filmreference.com/film/75/Irma-P-Hall.html. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid. 16. diannetucker (Dianne Tucker), interview by Sandra Mayo, telephone, tape recording, March 4, 2010. 17. Akin Babatunde, “Akin Babatunde,” accessed August 21, 2013, http://www.mary collins.com/akin-babatunde. 18. Willie Holmes, Conscious Theatre, n.d., accessed August 21, 2013, http://black enblues.org/; http://site.info//www.linkedin.com/pub/willie-holmes/11/97b/700. 19. Blacken Blues Theatre of African American Life, n.d., accessed December 2010, www.blackenblues.org. 20. Ibid. 21. The Black Academy of Arts and Letters, n.d., accessed December 2010, http:// www.tbaal.org/. 22. Curtis King, interview by Sandra Mayo, tape recording, Black Academy of Arts and Letters, October 8, 2010. 23. Ibid. 24. Ibid. 25. Curtis King, Biographical Resume, TBAAL, 2010. 26. Curtis King, interview. 27. The Black Academy of Arts and Letters, History, n.d., accessed December 2010, http://www.tbaal.org/ 28. Bill Minutaglio, “Curtis King,” Dallas Morning News, February 12, 1984, 4E. 29. Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, Profile of Major Programs, 1980. 30. Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, brochure, 1978. 31. Beah Richards’s acting credits in 1978 included The Amen Corner, The Miracle Worker, In the Heat of the Night, Mahogany, and The Great White Hope. She is well known today for her role in the movie Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner? 32. Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, Blues on 125th Street, program, November 19, 1978. 33. Ibid. 34. Waves Inner Emotions, a one-woman show directed by Lorna Littleway, featuring JoAnn M. Williams (January to February 1982) in the JBA Café Theatre, was performed at the 723 S. Peak Street location.

3 0 4   ◆   Notes for Pages 122–130 35. Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, Profile of Major Programs, 1980. 36. Jane Sumner, “Theatre Notes,” Dallas Morning News, May 19, 1986. 37. R. Smith, Dallas Morning News, 1985. 38. Ken Perkins, “Black Academy Plans Star Studded Birthday Party,” Dallas Morning News, July 12, 1988. 39. Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters Is Homeless!!! Why???, flyer, 1988. 40. Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, Hallelujah, We’re Home, brochure, 1989. 41. Jerome Weeks, “Stompin’ at the Savoy,” Dallas Morning News, September 23, 1989. 42. Ken Parish Perkins, Dallas Morning News, July 12, 1990. 43. Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, Lady Day at Emerson’s Bar & Grill, program, November 1990. 44. Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, Tell Pharaoh, program, February 1991. 45. Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, Tell Pharaoh, flyer, June 1991. 46. Juneteenth is the oldest known celebration commemorating the end of slavery in the United States. On June 19, 1865, Union soldiers led by Major General Gordon Granger landed at Galveston, Texas, with news that the war had ended and the enslaved were now free. This was two and a half years after the Emancipation Proclamation—which had become official January 1, 1863. 47. Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, JBA Celebrates Juneteenth with Louis Johnson’s Musical Watermelon, newsletter, June 1991. 48. Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, program, Mary McLeod Bethune, National Black Theatre Festival, 1991. The program notes that the world premiere of Bethune was originally supported by FINA and the Miller Brewing Company of Dallas. 49. Jerome Weeks, “Malcolm X Reminiscence of a Black Revolutionary,” Dallas Morning News, May 8, 1992. 50. Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, Beauty Shop: Part II, flyer, May 4–9, 1993. 51. Lawson Taitte, ‘Beauty Shop’ Has Ugly Sense of Fun—Shelly Garrett Show Leans on Stereotypes to Produce Laughs,” Dallas Morning News, April 24, 1993. 52. Ibid. 53. Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, Once in A Wifetime, program, March 23–29, 1993. 54. Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, National Black Theatre Festival, flyer, August 2–7, 1993. 55. Tom Sime, “Revival Dilutes Musical—‘Dreamgirls’ Reduced to Fluff in Road Show,” Dallas Morning News, November 13, 1993. 56. Jerome Weeks, review of Blues Bar, by Curtis King, Dallas Morning News, September 23, 1994. 57. Lawson Taitte, review of Blues Bar, by Curtis King, Dallas Morning News, September 24, 1994.

Notes for Pages 130–140  ◆   3 0 5 58. David Ferman, review of He Say, She Say, But What Does God Say? by David Talbert, Fort Worth Star-Telegram, April 27, 1996. 59. “Reflections . . . Struttin’ Into the 21st Century,” poster, Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, October 11, 1996. 60. Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, brochure, 1996. 61. Norma Adams Wade, “Renamed Black Academy Launches Ambitious Projects,” Dallas Morning News, September 9, 1997. 62. Hatch and Shine note in A History of American Theatre, “The Chitlin Circuit was the name used to identify theatres that once thrived between the 1930s and mid-1960s by booking musical talents such as Nat King Cole or the Ink Spots. Before integration diverted black audiences to white theatre, black clientele had filled the Apollo Theatre in Harlem.” “Chitlin” comes from the name of the food, hog guts, popular among many blacks since slavery, served with other soul food in the performance venues. The gospel musicals of the late 1980s revived the tradition, starting with the success of Shelley Garrett’s Beauty Shop in 1987 that grossed $33 million. Ebony magazine and other promoters began calling the gospel musical tour route the Urban Circuit in the 1990s. Tyler Perry became the most popular promoter of the gospel musical beginning in 1998. 63. TBAAL Season 26, brochure, Get Here! Come Celebrate: African, Caribbean, and African American Culture, 2002. 64. Tom Sime, review of Medea’s Class Reunion, by Tyler Perry, Dallas Morning News, March 27, 2003. 65. Ibid. 66. Tom Sime, review of Breakfast in Harlem, by Mike Malone, Dallas Morning News, April 16, 2000. 67. Tom Sime, “Soul Rep on the Go—Troupe’s 1999–2000 Lineup Features New Places, Faces,” Dallas Morning News, September 27, 1999. 68. The Black Academy of Arts and Letters, Season 23, Ah Wang Dang Doodle, brochure, 1999. 69. Tom Sime, review of Fatback and Collard Greens, by Dessie Sanders, Dallas Morning News, October 15, 2000. 70. Tom Sime, review of Ladies In Waiting, by Peter DeAnda, Dallas Morning News, January 13, 2001. 71. Tom Sime, review of Blacks Don’t Need No Shrinks, by Linus-lynell, Dallas Morning News, March 22, 2001. 72. Taitte Lawson, review of Five Guys Named Moe, by Clarke Peters, Dallas Morning News, October 5, 2001. 73. Perry Stewart, review of Louis Armstrong: Before the Second Set: A Visit with Satchmo, by Akin Babatunde, Fort Worth Star-Telegram, November 13, 1997. 74. The Black Academy of Arts and Letters, season brochure, 1999. 75. Tom Sime, review of Secret Lover, Dallas Morning News, February 10, 2000. 76. Ibid. 77. Tom Sime, review of Men Cry in the Dark, by Michael Baisden, Dallas Morning News, February 20, 2002. 78. Curtis King, TBAAL, Season 27 brochure, 2003–2004.

3 0 6   ◆   Notes for Pages 141–163 79. Lawson Taitte, review of Men, Money, Gold Diggers, by Je’Caryous Johnson, Dallas Morning News, November 16, 2006. 80. Ibid. 81. Ibid. 82. “Djaamana’ Deen,” program, TBAAL, July 2006. 83. This production was in collaboration with the American Theatre Arts for Youth of Philadelphia. 84. The founding board is listed in an October 31, 1978, letter by Curtis King to the Dallas Morning News. It was also verified by King in a 2011 telephone interview. 85. JBA, Strategic Plan Report, 1977. 86. Ibid. 87. Lawson Taitte, “Curtis King Preaches the Gospel of Arts and Culture,” Dallas Morning News, September 23, 2006. 88. Curtis King, 1986 report. 89. Harry Bowman, “Leap for Legacy—Junior Black Academy Aims to Raise $500,000,” Dallas Morning News, July 30, 1987. 90. Curtis King, interview. 91. Ibid. 92. Lawson Taitte, quoted in “The Arts: Black Academy Founder Built a Cultural Institution and a National Reputation, Curtis King Preaches the Gospel of Arts and Culture,” Dallas Morning News, September 23, 2006, updated in telephone interview with Curtis King, August 2011. 93. Ibid. 94. Bob Thomas, TBAAL, chair, board of directors, Thirtieth Anniversary Gala Program, 2006. 95. Laura Miller, Dallas mayor, September 23, 2006, Thirtieth Anniversary Gala Program, 2006. Chapter Five 1. US Department of Commerce, “United States Census Bureau State and County Quick Facts,” Fort Worth, January 10, 2013, accessed April 22, 2013, http://quickfacts.census .gov/qfd/states/48/4827000.html 2. Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528–1995 (Austin: Norman, 1996), 95. 3. Ibid. 4. Fort Worth Government, “Fort Worth City Council,” n.d., accessed April 22, 2013, http://fortworthtexas.gov/government/. 5. Texas House of Representatives, “House Members,” n.d., accessed April 22, 2013, http://www.house.state.tx.us/members/ 6. Ibid. 7. Black Past, “African American Museum,” n.d., accessed April 22, 2013, http:// www.blackpast.org/?q=aah/african-american-museums-united-states-and-canada. 8. News and Books, “Fort Worth Black News,” accessed April 24, 2013, http://www .newsandbooks.com/.

Notes for Pages 165–180  ◆   3 0 7 9. Ibid. 10. Julia Scott Reed, “Three Institutions to Start Center,” Dallas Morning News, February 5, 1976. 11. Background information on The Green Pastures can be found in Ward W. Briggs Jr., “Marc Connelly,” in Dictionary of Literary Biography, vol. 7: Twentieth-Century American Dramatists, edited by John MacNicholas, Gale Group, 1981. 12. “Big Pow Wow Opens Friday in Fort Worth,” Dallas Morning News, June 4, 1987. 13. Charlese Thomas-James, interview by Sondra Spears, Eastern Hills High School, Fort Worth, June 14, 2009. 14. Ibid. 15. Perry Stewart, “They’re Acting Up and Getting Down,” Fort Worth Star-Telegram, May 6, 1994. 16. Marian Eastman, interview by Sandra Mayo, tape recording, San Marcos, TX, February 8, 2010. 17. Jubilee Theatre website, “About Jubilee,” http://www.jubileetheatre.org/about_ jubilee.php. 18. Marian Eastman, interview. 19. Gloria Abbs, interview by Sandra Mayo, tape recording, San Marcos, TX, April 20, 2010. 20. Marian Eastman, interview. 21. Jubilee Players, History, 1986. 22. Paul Laurence Dunbar, “When Malindy Sings,” About.Com. Classic Literature. http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/pldunbar/bl-pldunbar-whenmalindy .htm. 23. Jubilee Players, History, 1986. 24. Lawson Taitte, review of Coop DeVille: Time Travelin’ Brother, by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers, directed by Rudy Eastman, Dallas Morning News, July 22, 2001. 25. Dallas Morning News, May 14, 1987. 26. Marian Eastman, interview. 27. Jerome Weeks, review of The Amen Corner, by James Baldwin, directed by Rudy Eastman, Dallas Morning News, December 4, 1987. 28. Jerome Weeks, review of Killingsworth, by Eugene Lee, directed by Rudy Eastman, Dallas Morning News, May 4, 1988. 29. Ibid. 30. Rudy Eastman, quoted in Dallas Morning News, January 19, 1989. 31. Mel Gussow, “Theater: ‘Split Second,’ A Crisis of Conscience,” New York Times, February 26, 1984. 32. Perry Stewart, review of A Joyful Noise, directed by Rudy Eastman, Fort Worth Star-Telegram, August 1989. 33. Samm-Art Williams was a writer-producer for the television show Frank’s Place and a writer for the Fresh Prince of Bel Air. 34. Gloria Abbs, interview. 35. Emanuel McKinney, quoted in John G. Penn, “Jubilee Pressing Ahead . . . ” Fort Worth Star-Telegram, May 2, 1991.

3 0 8   ◆   Notes for Pages 181–186 36. John Cory, review of Steal Away, by Ramona King, New York Times, July 24, 1981. 37. Ibid. 38. Perry Stewart, review of Stories of the Old Days, by Bill Harris, directed by Rudy Eastman, Fort Worth Star-Telegram, March 21, 1992. 39. Ibid. 40. Casa Mañana Theatre was completed as a fully enclosed, air-conditioned, aluminum-domed theatre in 1958 in downtown Fort Worth. The theatre’s black-tie opening with a production of Can-Can on July 5, 1958, introduced audiences to the 1,805-seat house and to theatre-in-the-round, a stage configuration featuring a stage surrounded by the audience. With no backstage area, the actors and stagehands use the surrounding concourse and aisles to move set pieces, props, and other materials on and off stage. 41. Jerome Weeks, “Jubilee Moving to Downtown FW,” Dallas Morning News, September 1, 1992. 42. Perry Stewart, “Jubilee Camps Out with ‘Blacula,’” Fort Worth Star-Telegram, July 8, 1993. 43. Rudy Eastman, quoted by Harry Bowman, in review of Straight, No Chaser, by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers, Dallas Morning News, April 1, 1994. 44. Wesley is the author of numerous plays, including Black Terror and the Talented Tenth, in addition to the screenplays Uptown Saturday Night (1974) and Let’s Do It Again (1975). 45. Perry Stewart, “‘Staggerlee’ Delivers Humorous Goods,” Fort Worth Star-Telegram, April 2, 1994. 46. Larry Swindell, “‘Spunk’ . . . with Spark—Jubilee Fashions Fine Tribute to Spirit of Author,” Fort Worth Star-Telegram, October 26, 1994. 47. Ibid. 48. Perry Stewart, “It Ain’t Grease, It’s Dixie Peach, A ‘Peach’ of a revival,” Fort Worth Star-Telegram, December 16, 1994. 49. Diane Tucker used the stage name “diannetucker” for her theatre work. 50. As stated on their website (http://www.newartssix.org/history.html), “New Arts Six has brought its charm and brilliance to audiences throughout Texas, the Southwest and the nation. Individually and collectively, the ensemble members come with extensive musical training in classical opera, musical theatre, education and theology. In Texas, NAS tours under the auspices of Texas Commission on the Arts. From their debut performance at Thanksgiving Square in 1981 in Dallas, TX to the concert halls of Europe, New Arts Six’s haunting melodies continue to lift its audiences into a world of another place and time.” 51. Perry Stewart, “A Divine Diva—Local Play Serves Up Music and Leaves Audience Hungry for More,” Fort Worth Star-Telegram, October 22, 1995. 52. Tom Sime, “Women Get Annoyed—Men Go Nowhere—Athens Females End War . . .” Dallas Morning News, March 17, 1996. 53. Lawson Taitte, review of Fear Itself, by Eugene Lee, directed by Rudy Eastman, Dallas Morning News, May 11, 1996. 54. Tom Sime, review of Daddy’s Maybe, by diannetucker, directed by Rudy Eastman, Dallas Morning News, October 27, 1996.

Notes for Pages 188–202  ◆   3 0 9 55. Perry Stewart, review of A Slave Ship Speaks, by Rudy Eastman, Fort Worth Star-Telegram, December 29, 1997. 56. Mark Lowery, review of Coop de Ville . . . , by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers, directed by Rudy Eastman, Fort Worth Star-Telegram, July 13, 2001. 57. Perry Stewart, review of Road Show, by Rudy Eastman, diannetucker, and Joe Rogers, Fort Worth Star-Telegram, July 20, 2003. 58. Tom Sime, review of Auntée Explains Xmas, by Rudy Eastman and Joe Rogers, Dallas Morning News, December 5, 2003. 59. Tom Sime, review of Fences, by August Wilson, directed by Rudy Eastman, Dallas Morning News, February 4, 2005. 60. Cary M. Mazer, “Thomas Gibbons’ Intelligent New Play Explores Questions of Authorial Voice,” http://www.english.upenn.edu/~cmazer/bee.html. 61. The exact number of Rudy Eastman’s plays is yet to be determined because new documents and oral history accounts keep adding to the list. At publication of this book, thirty-eight titles have been attributed to him. 62. Marian Eastman, interview. 63. Jubilee Theatre, website, http://www.jubileetheatre.org/about_jubilee.php. 64. Lawson Taitte, review of Joe Turner’s Come and Gone, by August Wilson, directed by Ed Smith, Dallas Morning News, October 7, 2006. 65. Mark Lowry, review of Joe Turner’s Come and Gone, by August Wilson, directed by Ed Smith, Fort Worth Star-Telegram, October 8, 2006. 66. Mark Lowry, review of Rudy, by Ed Smith, directed by Ed Smith, Fort Worth Star-Telegram, July 21, 2007. 67. Mark Lowry, review of God’s Trombones, by James Weldon Johnson, directed by Tyrone King, Fort Worth Star-Telegram, November 25, 2007. 68. Lawson Taitte, review of Permanent Collection, by Thomas Gibbons, directed by Harry Potter, Dallas Morning News, October 11, 2007. 69. Lawson Taitte, review of The Bluest Eye, by Toni Morrison, directed by Ed Smith and Andrew Marton, Dallas Morning News, February 5, 2009. 70. Lawson Taitte, review of The Piano Lesson, by August Wilson, directed by Ed Smith, Dallas Morning News, March 29, 2009. 71. Ed Smith, interview by Sandra Mayo, telephone, 2009. 72. Gloria Abbs, interview. 73. Marian Eastman, interview. 74. Ibid. 75. Gloria Abbs, interview. 76. Jubilee Theatre, By-Laws, 1984. 77. Jubilee Theatre, newsletter, August 1984. 78. Jubilee Theatre, “Jubilee Theatre Announces New Directors, Officers for 1987–89,” news release, July 8, 1989. 79. Benjamin Espino, interview by Sandra Mayo, tape recording, Fort Worth, October 7, 2010. 80. Jubilee Players, “Financial History,” 1981–1986. 81. Jubilee Theatre Report, 9/29/1992. 82. Ibid.

3 1 0   ◆   Notes for Pages 202–222 83. Blake Moorman, quoted in April M. Washington, “Behind the Scenes, Theater’s Managing Director Helps Put Black Artists in the Limelight,” Dallas Morning News, March 10, 1997. 84. Kenneth Kahn, ibid. 85. Program, On the Corner, August 1989; program, Blues for an Alabama Sky, 2005. 86. “1988–89 Donations,” handwritten document in Jubilee Theatre files. 87. Benjamin Espino, interview. 88. Jubilee Theatre, website, http://www.jubileetheatre.org/about_jubilee.php. 89. diannetucker, interview by Sandra Mayo, tape recording, San Marcos, TX, 2010. 90. Perry Stewart, “Jubilee Jubilation—The Only Black Community Theater in North Texas Producing a Year-Round Season Makes It a Tough Act to Follow,” Fort Worth Star-Telegram, January 19, 1992. Chapter Six 1. US Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, “State and County Quick Facts: Houston, Texas,” January 10, 2013, accessed April 22, 2013; US Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, “State and County Quick Facts: Harris County, Texas,” January 10, 2013, accessed April 22, 2013. 2. University of Houston, “Facts and Figures,” accessed April 24, 2013, http://www .uh.edu/about/uh-glance/facts-figures/. 3. Sue Dauphin, Houston by Stages: A History of Theatre in Houston (Burnet, TX: Eakin Press, 1981), 396. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid., 397. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid., 399. 8. Ibid., 402. 9. Ibid., 403. 10. K. Pica Kahn, Houston Chronicle, 1. 11. Harold J. Haynes, interview by Sandra Mayo and Elvin Holt, tape recording, Houston, October 28, 2008. 12. Ibid. 13. The Giorgee Award, named in honor of George Hawkins, founder of the Ensemble Theatre, is given to talented performers, designers, and technicians who have performed in and/or worked on any of the Ensemble’s six main stage productions in the previous year. 14. Harold J. Haynes, interview. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid. 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid. 19. History of Encore Theatre, n.d. 20. Ibid. 21. Ibid.

Notes for Pages 222–239  ◆   3 1 1 22. Ibid. 23. Harold J. Haynes, interview. 24. Program, Divas and Daredevils, October 2007. 25. Joey Berner, Houston’s Other, n.d., 6. 26. http://www.ieclark.com/. 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid. 29. Harold Haynes, Incarceration, DVD. 30. Errol G. Hill and James V. Hatch, A History of African American Theatre, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005, 384. 31. Berner, Houston’s Other, 6. 32. Ibid. 33. Ibid. 34. Incarceration, DVD Liner Notes. 35. Ibid. 36. Harold J. Haynes, interview. 37. Ibid. 38. Ibid. 39. Program, Magic of Christmas, December 2009. 40. Program, Black on Broadway, July 2009. 41. Harold J. Haynes, interview. 42. Willie Bright, interview by Elvin Holt, San Marcos, TX, June 6, 2010. 43. Dauphin, Houston by Stages, 404. 44. Ibid. 45. Ibid. 46. Dauphin, Houston by Stages, 402. 47. History of Ensemble Theatre, n.d. 48. Ibid. 49. Dauphin, Houston by Stages, 404. 50. History of Ensemble Theatre, n.d. 51. Dauphin, Houston by Stages, 404. 52. Eileen Morris, interview by Sandra Mayo and Elvin Holt, Houston, April 8, 2009. 53. Sharon Gray, “A History of the Ensemble Theatre and Its Productions 1976– 1999,” master’s thesis, University of Houston, 1999, 39. 54. History of Ensemble, n.d. 55. Dauphin, Houston by Stages,404. 56. The Ensemble Theatre: From Launch Pad Into Orbit! Capital Campaign Booklet, 1993, 1. 57. Albright, Houston Post, July 30, 1983. 58. Ibid. 59. Gray, 41. 60. Dannette Davis, email to Elvin Holt, June 22, 2010. 61. Ibid. 62. Ibid.

3 1 2   ◆   Notes for Pages 240–250 63. Ibid. 64. Dannette Davis, interview by Elvin Holt, San Marcos, TX, September 21, 2010. 65. Gray, 44. 66. Ibid. 67. Albright, quoted in ibid., 44. 68. Ibid. 69. Ibid., 51. 70. Ibid., 57. 71. William Albright, review of One Monkey Don’t Stop No Show, by Don Evans, directed by George Hawkins, Ensemble Theatre, Houston Post, July 30, 1983, n.p. 72. Everett Evans, review of Spooks, by Don Edwards, directed by George Hawkins, Ensemble Theatre, Houston Chronicle, January 23, 1990. 73. Ibid. 74. Everett Evans, review of The Piano Lesson, by August Wilson, directed by Claude Purdy, Ensemble Theatre, Houston Chronicle, June 6, 1995. 75. Ensemble, Ensider, newsletter, Summer 1997. 76. Everett Evans, “Writer Pulls Play from Ensemble Schedule,” Houston Chronicle, March 28, 1999. 77. Everett Evans, review of The Drums of Sweetwater, by Thomas Meloncon, directed by Sterling Vappie, Ensemble Theatre, Houston Chronicle, April 21, 1999. 78. Everett Evans, “Washington Quits as Ensemble Artistic Director,” Houston Chronicle, March 31, 2000. 79. Everett Evans, “Board Comments on Ensemble Resignation,” Houston Chronicle, April 16, 2000. 80. Ibid. 81. Everett Evans, “Ex-Houstonian to Head Ensemble,” Houston Chronicle, December 30, 2000. 82. Everett Evans, review of Robert Johnson: Trick the Devil, by Bill Harris, directed by Woodie King Jr., Ensemble Theatre, Houston Chronicle, September 15, 2001. 83. Everett Evans, review of Fences, by August Wilson, directed by Marsha JacksonRandolph, Ensemble Theatre, Houston Chronicle, February 5, 2002. 84. Everett Evans, review of They Sing Christmas Up in Harlem, by Eric LeRoy Wilson, Ensemble Theatre, Houston Chronicle, December 1, 2003. 85. Everett Evans, review of Two Trains Running, by August Wilson, directed by Eileen J. Morris, Ensemble Theatre, Houston Chronicle, January 31, 2005. 86. Ibid. 87. Everett Evans, “Two Trains Brings Director Home,” Houston Chronicle, February 11, 2005. 88. Everett Evans, “Ensemble Looks to Past to Secure Future,” Houston Chronicle, August 11, 2006. 89. Ibid. 90. Ibid. 91. Everett Evans, review of Radio Golf, by August Wilson, directed by Eileen J. Morris, Ensemble Theatre, Houston Chronicle, September 29, 2008. 92. Ibid.

Notes for Pages 250–273  ◆   3 1 3 93. Everett Evans, review of Seven Guitars, by August Wilson, directed by Eileen J. Morris, Ensemble Theatre, Houston Chronicle, September 26, 2009. 94. Everett Evans, theatre review, “August Wilson’s characters come alive in Ensemble’s King Hedley II,” directed by Eileen Morris, Houston Chronicle, May 16, 2012, 1. 95. Everett Evans, theatre review, “Sanctified Entertains with Spirited Song,” directed by Patdro Harris, Houston Chronicle, June 30, 2012, 2. 96. Yolonde Sigers, interview by Elvin Holt, San Marcos, TX, September 21, 2011. 97. James V. Thomas, interview by Elvin Holt, tape recording, San Marcos, TX, June 17, 2010. 98. Ibid. 99. Harold J. Haynes, interview. 100. Yolonde Sigers, interview. 101. Dauphin, Houston by Stages, 405. 102. James V. Thomas, interview. 103. History of Ensemble, n.d. 104. Gray, 65, 66. 105. Quoted in ibid., 65. 106. Wilturner quoted in ibid., 46. 107. Ibid. 108. Ibid. 109. Ibid., 49. 110. Ibid. 111. Ibid. 112. Ibid., 50. 113. History of Ensemble Theatre, 4. 114. Gray, 66. 115. Ibid., 70. 116. Quoted in ibid., 87. 117. Everett Evans, Houston Chronicle, October 13, 1985, 4. 118. Ibid. 119. From Launch Pad into Orbit, Ensemble Theatre Capital Campaign, 1993. 120. Ibid. 121. Ensemble Theatre, history/website. 122. Ibid. 123. Everett Evans, “Ensemble Renovation,” Houston Chronicle, June 11, 1995. 124. Ensemble Theatre, History, website. 125. Gray, 88. Afterword 1. Charlotte M. Canning and Thomas Postlewait, eds., Representing the Past: Essays in Performance Historiography (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2010), 12. 2. Thomas Postlewait, The Cambridge Introduction to Theatre Historiography (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 3.

3 1 4   ◆   Notes for Pages 274–279 3. Imiri Baraka, “Revolutionary Theatre,” in Home: Social Essays (New York, William Morrow, 1966), 211. 4. George Wolfe, The Colored Museum, in Two by George C. Wolfe (New York: Fireside Theatre, 1991), 61–62. 5. August Wilson, quoted in Mikell Pinkney, “The Development of African American Dramatic Theory: W. E. B. Du Bois to August Wilson,” in August Wilson and Black Aesthetics, eds. Dana Williams and Sandra Shannon (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 122. 6. August Wilson, “The Ground on Which I Stand,” in August Wilson and Black Aesthetics, 122. 7. Langston Hughes, “Note on Commercial Theatre,” The Norton Anthology of American Literature, shorter 7th ed., vol. 2 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2008).

references

Abbott, Doug Seroff. Out of Sight: The Rise of African American Popular Music, 1889– 1895. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2003. Bean, Annemarie, ed. A Sourcebook of African American Performance: Plays, People, Movements. New York: Routledge, 1999. ———. Inside the Minstrel Mask: Readings in Nineteenth-Century Blackface Minstrelsy. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1996. Black Drama: 1850 to Present. Alexander Street Press. Johns Hopkins University. https://my.johnshopkins.edu/uPortal/render.userLayoutRootNode.uP (online subscription database includes 10 plays by Brown-Guillory, Elizabeth) Brasmer, William, ed. Black Drama: An Anthology. Columbus, OH: C. E. Merrill, 1970. (includes Contribution by Ted Shine) Carrier, Naomi Mitchell. “Go Down, Old Hannah”: The Living History of African American Texans. Austin: University of Texas, 2010. Dauphin, Sue. Houston by Stages: A History of Theatre in Houston. Burnet, TX: Eakin Press, 1981. Elam, Harry Jr., and David Krasner, eds. African American Performance and Theater History: A Critical Reader. New York: University of Oxford Press, 2001. George-Graves, Nadine. The Royalty of Negro Vaudeville: The Whitman Sisters and the Negotiation of Race, Gender and Class in African American Theatre, 1900–1940. Gordonsville, VA: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000. Handbook of Texas Online. http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/ fdumj. Harrison, Paul, and Gus Edwards. Black Theatre: Ritual Performance in the African Diaspora. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002. Hatch, James, ed. Black Playwrights, 1823–1977: An Annotated Bibliography of Plays. New York: Bowker, 1977. ———. Black Theatre U.S.A. Plays by African Americans: The Recent Period, 1935–Today. New York: Free Press, 1996. (includes Contribution by Ted Shine) ———, and Ted Shine, eds. Black Theater U.S.A.: Forty-Five Plays by Black Americans, 1847–1974. New York: Free Press, 1974. (includes Herbert III by Ted Shine) Hay, Samuel. African American Theatre: A Historical and Critical Analysis. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Haynes, Harold. I Just Want to Tell Somebody. Schulenburg, TX: I. E. Clark Publishing, 1987.

3 1 6   ◆  References Hill, Anthony D., and Douglas Q. Barnett. Historical Dictionary of African American Theatre. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2010. Hill, Errol G. Theater of Black Americans: A Collection of Critical Essays. New York: Applause Books, 1988. ———, and James Hatch, eds. A History of African American Theatre. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Houston, Sterling. High Yello Rose and Other Texas Plays by Sterling Houston. Edited by Sandra Mayo. San Antonio: Wings Press, 2009. ———, ed. Jump-Start Play Work: A Collection of Multicultural Plays and Solo Performance Works from Jump-Start Performance Co. San Antonio: Wings Press, 2004. (includes Womandingo by Sterling Houston) ———. Myth, Magic and Farce: Four Multicultural Plays by Sterling Houston. Edited by Sandra Mayo. Denton: University of North Texas Press, 2005. Hughes, Langston, and Milton Meltzer. Black Magic: A Pictorial History of the Negro in American Entertainment. New York: De Capo, 1990. Krasner, David. Resistance, Parody, and Double Consciousness in African American Theatre, 1895–1910. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997. Lee, Eugene. East Texas Hot Links. New York: Samuel French, Inc., 1994. Lhamon Jr., W. T. Raising Cain: Blackface Performance from Jim Crow to Hip Hop. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000. McAllister, Marvin. White People Do Not Know How to Behave at Entertainments Designed for Ladies and Gentlemen of Colour: William Brown’s African and American Theater. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003. Ostrow, Eileen Joyce, ed. Center Stage: An Anthology of 21 Contemporary Black-American Plays. Oakland, CA: Sea Urchin Press, 1981. (includes The Woman Who Was Tampered With in Youth by Ted Shine) Otfinoski, Stephen. African Americans in the Performing Arts. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2003. Peterson, Bernard L. Jr. The African American Directory, 1816–1960: A Comprehensive Guide to Early Theatre Organizations, Companies, Theatres, and Performing Groups. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1997. ———. Profiles of African American Stage Performers and Theatre People, 1816–1960. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000. Reardon, William R., and Thomas Pawley, eds. The Black Teacher and the Dramatic Arts: A Dialogue, Bibliography, and Anthology. Westport, CT: Negro Universities Press, 1970. (includes Morning, Noon, and Night by Ted Shine) Richard, Stanley, ed. The Best Short Plays of 1972. New York: Chilton Book Company, 1972. (includes Contribution by Ted Shine) Sanders, Leslie. The Development of Black Theater in America: From Shadows to Selves. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989. Shine, Ted. Contributions: Three One-Act Plays. New York: Dramatists Play Service, 1970.

References  ◆   3 1 7 Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States from Interviews with Former Slaves. Texas Narratives, Part 2. Work Projects Administration, 1941. Smith, Chuck, ed. Seven Black Plays: The Theodore Ward Prize for African American Playwriting. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2004. Toll, Robert C. Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth-Century America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974. Woll, Allen. Black Musical Theatre: From Coontown to Dreamgirls. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989.

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index

Abbs, Gloria, 180, 181, 197–200, 202 African American Arts Technical Resource Center, 95 African American History Museum, 5 African American Museum, 108, 113–114, 141 African American Museum of Life and Culture. See African American Museum African American Repertory Theatre (AART), xiii, 106, 14 African Grove Theatre, 5 Afro-American Players, xiii, 73, 75– 77, 81, 85 Allen, Reverend Earl, 218 Alamo Theatre Arts Council (ATAC), 58, 65 American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA), 109 American Theatre (Houston), 19 American Theatre Arts for Youth, 142, 146, 155–160 Ammons, Sammie, 222, 228 Anderson, Evelyn Martin, 91, 92, 100 Antioch Missionary Baptist Church, 30, 216, 237 Austin History Center, 5, 82, 100 Austin Theatre Project, xiii, 73, 78–80, 83 Babatunde, Akin, 112, 138, 140, 144–146, 154, 156, 158, 160, 162, 281; Before the Second Set: A Visit with Satchmo, 112, 138, 156, 281; Blind Lemon Blues, 281; Djaamana’ Deen, 146, 158; Obituary, 145, 158, 281; Of Ebony Embers: Vignettes of the Harlem Renaissance, 112, 282; Shakespeare . . . Midnight Echoes, 112, 140, 156, 281; Songs in the Key of Glee, 112, 281

Baisden, Michael, 139, 155–156; Maintenance Man, The, 156; Men Cry in the Dark, 139, 155, 195 Baker, Glo Dean, 75–76 Balentine, Douglas, 172, 176, 180, 191, 208–209, 282 Barnes, Michael, 91, 93, 183 Beale Street Repertory Theatre, 236 Bean, Annemarie, 4 Bedford Walker, Celeste. See Walker, Celeste Bedford Bennett-Price, Guinea, 112–113. See also Dallas Drama Company Black, Claude, 37, 43 Black Academy of Arts and Letters, (TBAAL), xiii, xiv, 4, 5, 9, 55, 106, 111, 112, 114–160, 164, 274, 275, 278. See also Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters black aesthetic, definition of, 3, 9–14 Black Arts Alliance, xiii, 22, 73, 76–78, 81 Black Arts Movement (BAM), 22, 96, 161, 218, 237, 238 Black Ensemble Company, 236, 255. See also Ensemble Theatre Blacken Blues Theatre of African American Life, xiii black theatre, definition of, xi Blanchette, Yonnie, 36 Bobb-Semple, Ron, 141, 143, 158 Boyd Vance Theatre, 59, 86, 97, 99 Boykin, Roger, 126, 153; Zanzibar, 126, 153 Bright, Latrelle, 55, 56, 57, 61, 65, 71 Brooks, Dewy, 79, 80, 87 Bryant, Michael D., 87, 103 Burrell, Elouise, 76–77 Byrd, Lisa, 94–96, 103

3 2 0   ◆  Index Capitol City Playhouse, 78, 85 Carver Community Cultural Center, xiii, 20, 27, 29, 30, 31–37, 39, 40, 48, 58, 60, 61, 65, 67 Caywood, Mark, 181, 187, 209, 210, 281; Ballad of Isom Dart, The, 187, 188, 210, 282; Black Orpheus, 184, 192, 210, 281; Book of Job, The, 184, 186, 190, 210–212, 282; Go Tell It on the Mountain: The Second Greatest Story Ever Told, 52, 70, 181, 209, 281 Charles Gilpin Players, 21 Chitlin Circuit, 19–20, 74, 132, 189. See also Urban Theater Coleridge-Taylor Glee Club and Drama Group, 217 Colored Community House, 31. See also Carver Community Cultural Center Colored Library Auditorium. See Carver Community Cultural Center; Library Auditorium Crear, Tisha, 112–113; Just a Little Black Girl, 112 Curry, Prudence, 31 Dallas Drama Company, xiii, 107, 111–112, 131, 184 Dallas Minority Repertory Theatre, xiii, 106, 109, 111 Dauphin, Sue, xiv, 4, 236 DeHart, Wayne, 242, 248–252, 258 Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, 29, 38, 41. See also Hemmings, Myra Devine, Loretta, 218 diannetucker. See Tucker, Dianne Dramatic Theatre Guild, 39–41, 67 Du Bois, W. E. B., 7–11, 20, 273 Dudley, Sherman H., 16–19, 22, 282 Eastman, Marion, 118, 167–169 Eastman, Rudy, 5, 6, 112, 118, 167–176, 178– 184, 186–192, 194, 195, 197–203, 205–213, 274, 282–283; Alice Wonder, 189, 191, 195, 211, 283; Auntée Explains X-Mas, 189, 211; Bessie Smith: Empress of the Blues, 176, 282; Blues Ain’t Nothin’ but a Good Man Feeling Bad, 170, 174, 207, 208, 282; Black

Diva, 105, 181, 184, 209–210, 282; Blacula: Brother of the Night, 182, 209, 282; Book of Job, The, 184, 186, 190, 210, 211, 212, 282; Brother Mac, 6, 42, 182, 189, 209, 211, 274, 282; Caesar and Cleopatra, 184, 191, 210, 282; Class of ’62, 176, 186, 199, 208, 210, 282; Coop DeVille: Time Travelin’ Brother, 172, 188, 211, 283; Cotton Club Night, 172, 207; Dem Birds, 177, 191, 192, 208, 282; Dreamin’ on a Hot Summer Night, 170, 176, 208, 282; Dunbar Is Not Just a High School, 169, 170, 207, 282; Drums, 38, 174, 175, 199, 208–209, 282; Harlem Blues, 180, 190, 192, 209, 212, 282; It Ain’t Grease, It’s Dixie Peach, 171, 172, 178, 184, 201, 207, 208, 210, 282; Imaginary Invalid, The, 176, 177, 191, 208, 212, 282; Kate and Petruchio, 180, 282; Negroes in Space, 172–173, 182, 192, 208–209, 282; On the Corner, 176, 181, 187, 203, 208–210, 221, 282; Prodigal (with Robert Sanders), 170, 176, 180, 191, 207–209, 282; Spirits of the Passage, 187, 210, 283; Straight, No Chaser, 182, 209, 282; Tarzan Movie, The, 180, 209, 282; Travelin’ Shoes, 189, 199, 211, 283; Zimwe and the Drum, 180, 209, 210, 283 Ebony Emeralds Classic Theatre Company, xiii, 106, 112 Edmunds, S. Randolph, 21 Encore Theatre, xiii, 214, 215, 218–234, 235, 255, 264–265 Ensemble Theatre, xiii, 4, 6, 9, 14, 22, 60–61, 214, 215, 216, 220, 221, 235–263, 264, 266–272, 275, 278 Espino, Benjamin, 201, 203–204 Gardner, Freddie, 75–77 Garrett, Tre, 195–197, 204, 207 George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center, 74, 86, 97 Gerald, Stephen, 46, 95–97 Glenn, Don Wilson, 251, 272, 283; American Menu, 251–253, 272, 283 Griot Production Company, 136 Goodspeed Keyton, Sheran. See Keyton, Sheran Goodspeed

Index  ◆   3 2 1 Hall, Irma P., 109, 110, 111, 114, 122, 140, 151, 164, 203, 241, 246, 258, 284; From Exploitation to Excellence, 110, 285; Gentle Fires, 110, 284 Harden, Billy, 78–80, 83, 90, 94, 102 Hardy, Vincent, 29 Hawkins, George, 6, 216, 221, 235–237, 239, 243, 244, 246, 255–260, 262, 264, 266, 268, 284; Br’er Rabbit, 237, 266, 268, 284; Surprise, Surprise . . . A Love Story, 255–256, 266, 285; Who Killed Hazel Patton? (under the name Carl Anderson), 239, 285 Haynes, Harold, 6, 219, 221, 227, 230, 234, 246, 265, 285; I Just Wanna Tell Somebody, 226–227, 265, 284; Incarceration, 226, 229, 233, 265, 284; Jezebel, 6, 157, 219, 226, 265, 284; Samson and Delilah, 224, 225, 231, 233, 265, 285; Women in Prison, 224–226, 265, 285 HBCUs (historically black colleges and universities), 4, 21. See also specific colleges and universities Hemmings, John W., 19 Hemmings, Myra Lillian Davis, 29, 30, 31, 37–42 Heritage House, 83 Hill, Nova, 31 Holland, Robert, 20, 217, 218 Holloway, Tonya, 113. See also Soul Repertory Theatre Hornsby, Kathy, xiii, 6, 30, 36–37, 43–47, 49, 51–53, 55–56, 68–70 Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company, xiii, 27, 29, 31, 36, 43–55, 56, 64, 67, 68–70 Houston, Sterling, 6, 22, 31, 34–35, 61, 67, 71, 285; A’lelia, 34, 67, 285; Driving Wheel, 6, 34–35, 285; High Yello Rose, 34, 285; Isis in Nubia, 34, 67, 285; Kool Jams, 34, 285; Miranda Rites, 34, 285; Santo Negro, 34, 285; Womandingo, 34, 285 Houston Ethnic Arts Theatre, xiii Houston Negro Little Theatre, xiii, 20, 21, 214, 217–218, 263 Huston-Tillotson College, 21, 74, 83, 85, 94

Hyde Park Theatre, 90, 93 Jackson-Randolph, Marsha, 247–249, 270–271 Janus Players, 106, 109 Jaroschy, Michel, 78, 85 Johnson, Je’Caryous, 138, 141, 158, 160, 246; Marriage Material, 160; Men, Money, Gold Diggers, 141–142, 158; Secret Lover, 138, 155 Jordan, Mary Catherine. See KeatonJordan, Mary Catherine Josephine Theatre, 46, 48, 50, 53–54 Jubilee Theatre, xiii, 4, 5, 14, 42, 112, 118, 162–163, 167–213, 274, 278 Jump-Start Performance Company, 31, 34, 55, 59–60, 65 Junior Black Academy of Arts and Letters, 115–116, 118, 145; See also Black Academy of Arts and Letters Keaton-Jordan, Mary Catherine, 170, 175, 183, 199, 209–210, 215–216, 272 Keyton, Sheran Goodspeed, 185–186, 191, 212, 283; Diaries of a Barefoot Diva, 191, 212, 283; Odyssey: A Musical Adventure, The, 191, 212, 283, 286 King, Curtis, 115–117, 120–123, 127–131, 140, 144, 146–147, 149–154, 156, 164; Blues Bar, 130, 154; Hip Hop Broadway: The Musical, 144, 159; Our Heritage, 118, 121, 152, 165 King, Danielle, 55–56, 63, 67 Knobloch, Cassandra, 81, 83, 89–90 Koenning, Lynn, 101 Lawson, Audrey H., 128, 130, 141, 186, 194, 244, 246, 260–262 League of Resident Theatres (LORT), 14 Lee, Eugene, 15, 22, 68–70, 161, 175, 182, 186, 187, 208–210, 268, 274; East Texas Hot Links, 15, 22, 182, 209, 286; Fear Itself, 70, 186, 187, 210, 286; Killingsworth, 15, 68, 161, 175–176, 179, 199, 208, 210, 286 Lewis, Erma Mozelle Duffy, 118, 163–166 Library Auditorium, 20, 31, 39–40. See also Carver Community Cultural Center

3 2 2   ◆  Index Log Cabin Players, 21 Long, Jo, 32–34 Marshall, Barbara, 218, 236 Mary Campbell Players, 21 Mary Moody Northen Theatre, 83, 96 McGhee, William (Bill), 4, 109 McGill, Vince, 114. See also African American Repertory Theatre McMillan-Herod, Anyika, 112. See also Dallas Drama Company Meloncon, Thomas, 22, 187, 211, 245–246, 270, 272, 286; Drums of Sweetwater, The, 211, 245, 270, 287; Johnny B. Goode, 211, 270, 287 Mendoza, Darwin, 171, 176, 184, 200, 207, 208, 282 minstrelsy, 10, 16–17, 33 Montgomery, Reginald, 109; When the Last One Calls, 110 Morris, Eileen, 61, 244–245, 248–250, 252, 259–261, 263 Myra Hemmings Dramatic Theatre Guild. See Dramatic Theatre Guild Negro Intercollegiate Dramatic Association (NIDA), 21 Negro Little Theatre Movement, 3, 20, 42 Park Theatre, 19, 90, 93 Pastime Theatre (Greenville), 19 Pastime Theatre (Houston), 19 Peterson, Bernard L., 4, 189 Phillis Wheatley Dramatic Guild Players, 19, 27, 37, 41 Pinkney, Mikell, 10, 273 Players in Christ, 30, 43, 46, 55–56. See also Hornsby Entertainment Theatre Company Price, Keith, 79, 113, 135, 155; See also Soul Repertory Theatre Progressive Arts Collective (ProArts Collective), xiii, 5, 73, 80, 81–104, 277 Renaissance Guild, The, xiii, 27, 31, 37, 55–67, 70–72, 274

Repertory Theatre, the, 214, 218 Riddle, Paul, Jr., 47, 50, 55–57, 59, 60, 62, 64–66 Rogers, Joe, 7, 171, 180–182, 184, 186–191, 194, 195, 199, 207–213, 281–283, 289 Ruby Theatre, 19 Ryzin, Jeanne Claire van, 90 Sanders, Bob Ray, 122, 123, 146, 152, 164; Blues on 125th Street, 122, 152, 288 Santa Cruz Center for Culture, 88, 92, 98 Scott, Trina, 80 Screen Writers Guild (SAG), 109 Shine, Ted, xiv, 15, 22, 110, 118, 258, 266 Sigers, Yolonde, 241, 255, 256 Smith, Ed, 184, 192–195, 207, 212, 213 Smith, Ollington, 5 Sojourner Truth Players, xiii, 22, 55, 118, 161, 163–167, 169, 197 Soul Conscious Productions, 137 Soul Nation. See Soul Repertory Theatre Soul Repertory Theatre, xiii, 106, 113 Southern Association of Dramatic and Speech Arts (SADSA), 21 St. Philip’s College, 28–29, 31, 34, 48–50, 54, 56 Teal, Earley B., 45 Texarkana Minstrel Company, 16 Texas College, 21 Theatre Austin company, 81 Third World Players, 120–122, 127 Thomas-James, Charlese, 166–167 Tillotson College Players, 21 TOBA Circuit (Theatre Owners Booking Association), 19 Tucker, Dianne (diannetucker), 111, 154, 162, 184, 186–189, 191, 205, 210, 211, 289; Attitude, Girlfriend, Attitude, 184–185, 211, 289; Cat Crossing, 111; Daddy’s Maybe, 111, 184, 186, 210, 289; Fat Freddy (with Joe Rogers), 184, 188, 211, 289; Great Jubilation, 184, 188; Hershey with Almonds, 111, 184, 289; Madam Queen, 184, 210, 289; Road Show, 20, 184, 189, 211, 289; Shoes, 111, 289

Index  ◆   3 2 3 University Players, 21 Urban Theatre, xiii, 22, 132, 214, 218, 236. See also Chitlin Circuit Vance, Boyd, 5, 59, 76, 78–79, 82, 84, 86, 88, 90–93, 96–100, 102–104 Vivid Theatre Repertory Company, xiii Walker, Celeste Bedford, 7, 15, 22, 32, 128, 154, 197, 213, 240, 265, 269, 271, 274; Brothers, Sisters, Husbands and Wives, 281; Camp Logan, 15, 22, 32, 268, 281; Distant Voices, 270, 281; Harlem After Hours,

271, 290; Once in a Wife Time (formerly Sister, Sister), 128, 154, 281; Over Forty, 265, 281; Praise the Lord, and Raise the Roof, 226, 246, 265, 270, 281 Washington, Regina, 114; See also African American Repertory Theatre Wheatley Dramatic Guild Players, xiii, 19, 27, 37–42 Wiley College, 21, 169 Winstead, Antoinette, 58, 60, 61, 63, 65, 71, 96, 97, 105, 290; Common Ground, 58–59, 96, 97, 99, 105, 290; Somebody Else’s Life, 58, 71, 290