Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More 9781138485105, 9781138671379, 9781315562575

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Title
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Author
1 Introduction and General Lighting Review
What Is Light?
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The Controllable Qualities of Light
Intensity
Distribution
Color
Movement
Functions of Lighting
Visibility
Establishing a Scene
Mood
Modeling
Focus
Composition
Style
Staging the Story
Rhythm
Illuminance and Luminance—Five Metrics
Luminous Flux
Illuminance
Luminous Intensity
Inverse Square Law
Luminance
Luminous Exitance
Light and Perception
Visibility
Intensity or Brightness
Relative Intensity
Psychological Responses
Intensity-Related Issues
Mood Alteration
Overstimulation
Glare
Color Perception and Intensity
Adaptation
Defining Form and Shape
Front Light
Sidelight
Downlight and Uplight
Backlight
Key and Fill
Silhouettes and Grazing
Shape
What Is Color?
Color and Its Effects
The Visible Spectrum
Primary Colors
Color Temperature
CIE Chromaticity Chart
Color Rendering
Additive and Subtractive Mixing
Additive Mixing
Subtractive Mixing
Filtering Light
Color Media
Plastic Media
Sidebar 1.1: Spectral Analysis of Gel
Glass Media
Dichroic Filters
Diffusion
Creating Color Through Light
Color Prediction
LEDs and Additive Color Mixing
Red Shift/Amber Drift in Tungsten Light Sources
Psychological Effects of Color
Color Contrast
Adaptation and Afterimages
Practical Use of Color
Sidebar 1.2: Designer Considerations for Color and Light
For Further Reading
2 The Music Scene (Revues, Clubs, and Concert Lighting)
Musical Revues
Evolution of Club and Concert Lighting
Nightclubs and Dance Club Lighting
Club Gear
Stage and Band/Musician Areas
Dance Floors
Sidebar 2.1: Specialized Lighting Effects for Dance Floors (Presented in an Approximate Order of Appearance)
Club Design Principle
Stage Areas
Dance Areas
Unique Issues in Concert Lighting
Touring Successfully
Sidebar 2.2: A Sample Concert Tour Schedule
Sidebar 2.3: A Sample Page From a Contract Rider
Concert Lighting Gear
Luminaires
Trusses
Ground Support, Lifts, and Chain Motors
Dimmers and Cables
Consoles
Road Cases
Automated Lighting and Scrollers
Sidebar 2.4: Common Automated Lighting Effects 69 Video and Effects
Plotting Principles for Concert Lighting
Cueing Principles for Musical Events and Concerts
Sidebar 2.5: Designer Profile: James L. Moody
For Further Reading
3 The Spectacle Performance
Sidebar 3.1: Designer Profile: Jeff Ravitz
Headline Acts
Festival Productions
Arena Productions
Stadium Productions
Specialty Shows With Spectacle
Dedicated Venues
Additional Areas of Spectacle
For Further Reading
4 Trade Shows, Industrials, and Corporate Events
Corporate Mentality
Trade Shows
Fashion Shows
Corporate Meetings
Industrials
Sidebar 4.1: Designer Profile: Betsy Adams
For Further Reading
5 Film and Video Basics
Unique Qualities of Film and Video
Sidebar 5.1: Designer Profile: Alan Adelman
Light and the Camera
Color Temperature
Color Rendering Index (CRI)
Speed of Exposure
F-Stops
F-Stop Considerations
Other Factors
Sidebar 5.2: Designer Profile: Patrick Cady
Key and Fill Lights
Hard Light Versus Soft Light
Latitude and Contrast Ratios
Light Meters
Film and Video Luminaires
Soft-Lights
Hard-Lights
Location Luminaires
Specialty Luminaires
Lighting Accessories
Sidebar 5.3: Designer Profile: Michael Grimes
Film and Video Control Elements
Filters, Color Correction, and Diffusion
LEDs and Film/Video Production
Film/Video Studios and Sound Stages
Location Lighting
Film/Video Production Practices
Developing a Lighting Concept
Drafting for Film and Video Design
Film and Video Shooting Procedures
Key Elements in Film/Video Illumination
Distribution
Three-Point Lighting
Following Source
Area Lighting for Film and Video
Sidebar 5.4: Designer Profile: William L. Klages
Special Cases of Lighting for Film and Video
Portrait and Commercial Photography
Documentation of Stage and Installation Lighting
Composite and Matte Photography
For Further Reading
6 Display/Retail and Exhibit/Museum Lighting
Essentials of Display and Exhibit Lighting
Color Temperature
Color Rendering
Optimal Visibility
Ambience
Organizational Principles
Lighting Layers
General Circulation
Sidebar 6.1: Traditional Fluorescent Tubes
Sidebar 6.2: Fluorescent Lamp Specifications
Accent or Secondary Lighting
Background or Perimeter Lighting
Shelving Units and Vertical Displays
Specialty Areas
Decorative and Effects Lighting
Principles of Retail Lighting
Display Cabinets
Sidebar 6.3: Several Principles of Retail Lighting
Window Displays
Open-Back Windows
Closed-Back Windows
Island and Other Varieties of Window Displays
Essentials of Museum and Gallery Lighting
Exposure and Conservation
Sidebar 6.4: Designer Profile: Cindy Limauro
Daylighting in Museums and Galleries
Energy Efficiency, Economics, and Maintenance
For Further Reading
7 Architectural Lighting
Unique Qualities/Demands of Architectural Lighting
Architectural Luminaire Classifications
Light Sources
Sidebar 7.1: Pros and Cons of Common Light Sources
Mounting Classifications
Distribution Pattern Classifications
Design Application
Sidebar 7.2: IESNA Luminaire Types
Ballasts and Architectural Control Elements
Architectural Hanging/Mounting Positions
Architectural Lighting Techniques
Task Lighting
Ambient Lighting
Accent Lighting
Cove Lighting
Decorative Lighting
Grazing
Space Manipulation
Wash Lighting
Commercial Power Distribution
Lighting Calculations
The Lumen (Zonal Cavity) Method
Illuminance at a Point (Direct Component)
The Architectural Lighting Design Process
Design and Construction Process
Sidebar 7.3: Construction Phases
Lighting Schemes and Design Process
Sidebar 7.4: Design Steps in Architectural Lighting Design
Sidebar 7.5: Sample Lighting Design Questions
Sidebar 7.6: IESNA Illuminance Categories
Lighting Layouts and Design Documentation
Sidebar 7.7: Common Architectural Lighting Layout Symbols (Based on IESNA Standards)
Daylighting
Direct Sunlight and Skylight
Sidebar 7.8: Designer Profile: Robert “Bob” Shook
Penetration
Daylighting Control
Lighting Green and Lighting Economics
Examples of Interior Lighting
Residential Lighting
Hospitality (Hotel, Club, and Restaurant) Design
Public Buildings
Houses of Worship (Churches)
Museum and Gallery Lighting
Retail Lighting
Commercial Lighting
Office Lighting
Educational Facilities
Health Care Facilities
Industrial Design
Examples of Exterior Lighting
Building Exteriors
Public Spaces
Sidebar 7.9: Designer Profile: Paul Gregory
Roadways and Bridges
For Further Reading
8 Landscape Lighting
Lighting Landscapes
Essential Approaches to Lighting Landscapes
Distribution Patterns in Landscape Lighting
Area Lighting
Fill Lighting
Safety Lighting
Security Lighting
Spotlighting
Accent Lighting
Background Lighting
Contour Lighting
Cross Lighting
Downlighting and Moonlighting
Grazing Light
Perspective Lighting
Shadowing
Silhouette Lighting
Uplighting
Vista Lighting
Principles of Landscape Lighting
Plants, Shrubs, and Foliage
Trees
Pathways and Steps
Hardscape and Sculptures
Architectural Features
Water Features
Line-Voltage Versus 12-Volt Lighting Systems
Voltage Drop
Fighting the Elements
Landscape Luminaires and Accessories
Lampholders
Architectural Luminaires
Post Lights
Bollards
Area Lights
Pathway Lights
Well Lights
Accent Lights
Linear (Wash) Lights
LEDs in Landscape Lighting
Control of Landscape Lighting
The Design Process and Documentation
Design Considerations
Sidebar 8.1: Designer Profile: Janet Lennox Moyer
The Site Plan
Design Documentation
Sidebar 8.2: Common Landscape Lighting Symbols
Lighting Exteriors and Buildings as Landscape Design
Landscape Lighting on a Grand Scale
For Further Reading
9 Themed or Specialty Lighting
Themed/Specialty Design Versus Amusement Entertainment
History of Themed Entertainment
The Story
Development of a Themed Project
Sidebar 9.1: Some Common Terminology Associated With Theme Park Attractions
Considerations of Themed (Specialty) Lighting Design
Story/Theatrical Elements
Architectural Elements
Effects Lighting
Lighting Equipment and Design Documentation
Construction/Installation Process
Sidebar 9.2: Designer Profile: Tom Ruzika
Examples of Themed (Specialty) Lighting Design
Theme Parks
Hospitality Industry (Hotels and Restaurants)
Museums and Exhibits
Retail
Themed Spectacle Events
For Further Reading
10 Virtual Lighting (Renderings, Virtual Reality, Gaming, etc.)
Virtual Design
Calibration
Virtual Light Sources
Ambient Lights
Directional Lights
Point or Omnidirectional Lights
Spotlights
Area Lights
Effects Lighting
Global Illumination
Lighting Techniques for Virtual Lighting
1-Point or Single-Point Lighting
2-Point or Key/Fill Lighting
3-Point Lighting
Naturalistic Lighting
Stylized Lighting
Contrast Ratios
Sidebar 10.1: Several Hints for Successful Virtual Lighting
Rendering Approaches
Unique Properties of Virtual Rendering
Examples of Virtual Lighting
Theatrical and Entertainment Design Visualization
Architectural Visualization
Sidebar 10.2: Designer Profile: Christopher Higgins
Simulations and Animation
Motion Capture Animation
Game Design
For Further Reading
Appendices
A. Lighting Periodicals
B. Lighting Equipment Manufacturers
C. Professional Organizations and Unions
D. USITT Light Graphics Standard
E. IESNA Lighting Graphics
Glossary
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

STAGE LIGHTING Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More builds upon the information introduced in Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals to provide an in-depth reference to a number of specialty areas of lighting design. These are from traditional applications such as drama, dance, and designing for different venues to more advanced applications such as concert, corporate, film and video, virtual, architectural/landscape, and other forms of entertainment lighting. Each chapter gives the essential background, design practices, and equipment details for each specialization, so readers can make informed decisions and ask informed questions when encountering each field. The book provides insight on the latest technology and includes profiles of prolific designers, such as James L. Moody, Jeff Ravitz, Alan Adelman, and Paul Gregory. Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More is intended to help lighting designers translate their theatrical skills to other areas of lighting design and provides guidance on how to take those initial steps into new ventures in their lighting careers. Richard Dunham is a scenic and lighting designer as well as a professor and head of design at the University of Georgia. He is a United States Institute for Theatre Technology (USITT) Fellow and former lighting commissioner from 1998 to 2006. His professional credits include several hundred productions throughout the East Coast, New York City, and the Midwest, as well as being Lighting Certified (LC) and a member of the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) and an associate member of the International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD). He is the author of Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals (Routledge, 2019).

STAGE LIGHTING Design Applications and More

RICHARD DUNHAM

First published 2019 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 Taylor & Francis The right of Richard Dunham to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Dunham, Richard, author. Title: Stage lighting : design applications and more / Richard Dunham. Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2019. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018024836 | ISBN 9781138485105 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138671379 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781315562575 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Stage lighting. Classification: LCC PN2091.E4 D86 2019 | DDC 792.02/4—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018024836 ISBN: 978-1-138-48510-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-67137-9 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-56257-5 (ebk) Typeset in Adobe Garamond and Frutiger by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Dedicated to Joelle, Chelsea, and Richy for all their support and understanding as we produced both editions of these books.

CONTENTS

CONTENTSCONTENTS

Prefacexiv Acknowledgmentsxvi About the Authorxvii

  1 Introduction and General Lighting Review 1 What Is Light? 1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum1 3 The Controllable Qualities of Light Intensity3 Distribution3 Color3 Movement4 Functions of Lighting 4 Visibility4 Establishing a Scene4 Mood5 Modeling5 Focus5 Composition6 Style6 Staging the Story6 Rhythm6 Illuminance and Luminance—Five Metrics 7 Luminous Flux7 Illuminance8 Luminous Intensity8 Inverse Square Law 8 Luminance8 Luminous Exitance9 Light and Perception 9 Visibility9 Intensity or Brightness 9 Relative Intensity10 Psychological Responses10 Intensity-Related Issues10 Mood Alteration 11 Overstimulation11 Glare11 Color Perception and Intensity 11 Adaptation11 Defining Form and Shape 12

Front Light13 Sidelight13 Downlight and Uplight14 Backlight15 Key and Fill15 Silhouettes and Grazing16 Shape17 What Is Color? 18 Color and Its Effects18 The Visible Spectrum18 Primary Colors19 Color Temperature19 CIE Chromaticity Chart19 Color Rendering20 Additive and Subtractive Mixing 21 Additive Mixing21 Subtractive Mixing22 Filtering Light 23 Color Media23 Plastic Media23 24 Sidebar 1.1: Spectral Analysis of Gel Glass Media26 Dichroic Filters26 Diffusion27 27 Creating Color Through Light Color Prediction27 LEDs and Additive Color Mixing29 Red Shift/Amber Drift in Tungsten Light Sources30 30 Psychological Effects of Color Color Contrast31 Adaptation and Afterimages31 Practical Use of Color 32 33 Sidebar 1.2: Designer Considerations for Color and Light For Further Reading 34

  2 The Music Scene (Revues, Clubs, and Concert Lighting) 35 Musical Revues 35 Evolution of Club and Concert Lighting 38 39 Nightclubs and Dance Club Lighting Club Gear40 Stage and Band/Musician Areas 40 42 Dance Floors Sidebar 2.1: Specialized Lighting Effects for Dance Floors (Presented in an Approximate Order of Appearance) 43 Club Design Principles45 Stage Areas 45 Dance Areas 50 Unique Issues in Concert Lighting 50 Touring Successfully 53 Sidebar 2.2: A Sample Concert Tour Schedule 54 Sidebar 2.3: A Sample Page From a Contract Rider 55 Concert Lighting Gear 57 Luminaires57 Trusses58 Ground Support, Lifts, and Chain Motors59 Dimmers and Cables64

viii  Contents

Consoles64 Road Cases66 Automated Lighting and Scrollers68 Sidebar 2.4: Common Automated Lighting Effects 69 Video and Effects71 Plotting Principles for Concert Lighting 73 Cueing Principles for Musical Events and Concerts 77 Sidebar 2.5: Designer Profile: James L. Moody 79 For Further Reading 80

  3 The Spectacle Performance Sidebar 3.1: Designer Profile: Jeff Ravitz Headline Acts Festival Productions Arena Productions Stadium Productions Specialty Shows With Spectacle Dedicated Venues Additional Areas of Spectacle For Further Reading

81 82 84 84 86 94 99 100 103 107

  4 Trade Shows, Industrials, and Corporate Events 108 Corporate Mentality 108 Trade Shows 109 110 Fashion Shows Corporate Meetings 112 Industrials114 Sidebar 4.1: Designer Profile: Betsy Adams 119 122 For Further Reading   5 Film and Video Basics 123 Unique Qualities of Film and Video 123 Sidebar 5.1: Designer Profile: Alan Adelman 125 128 Light and the Camera Color Temperature129 Color Rendering Index (CRI)129 Speed of Exposure129 F-Stops131 F-Stop Considerations131 Other Factors132 Sidebar 5.2: Designer Profile: Patrick Cady 133 Key and Fill Lights 134 Hard Light Versus Soft Light 135 Latitude and Contrast Ratios 135 Light Meters 136 Film and Video Luminaires 137 Soft-Lights139 Hard-Lights141 Location Luminaires143 Specialty Luminaires146 Lighting Accessories 147 Sidebar 5.3: Designer Profile: Michael Grimes 148 Film and Video Control Elements 151 Filters, Color Correction, and Diffusion 152 LEDs and Film/Video Production 154 Film/Video Studios and Sound Stages 156 Location Lighting 157

Contents  ix

Film/Video Production Practices 158 Developing a Lighting Concept158 Drafting for Film and Video Design159 Film and Video Shooting Procedures159 Key Elements in Film/Video Illumination 161 Distribution162 Three-Point Lighting162 Following Source164 Area Lighting for Film and Video 164 Sidebar 5.4: Designer Profile: William L. Klages 165 Special Cases of Lighting for Film and Video 166 Portrait and Commercial Photography167 Documentation of Stage and Installation Lighting167 Composite and Matte Photography169 For Further Reading 170

  6 Display/Retail and Exhibit/Museum Lighting 171 Essentials of Display and Exhibit Lighting 171 Color Temperature171 Color Rendering172 Optimal Visibility172 Ambience172 Organizational Principles173 173 Lighting Layers General Circulation173 175 Sidebar 6.1: Traditional Fluorescent Tubes Sidebar 6.2: Fluorescent Lamp Specifications 176 Accent or Secondary Lighting176 Background or Perimeter Lighting178 Shelving Units and Vertical Displays180 Specialty Areas182 Decorative and Effects Lighting182 Principles of Retail Lighting 183 184 Display Cabinets Sidebar 6.3: Several Principles of Retail Lighting 186 187 Window Displays Open-Back Windows187 Closed-Back Windows189 Island and Other Varieties of Window Displays190 191 Essentials of Museum and Gallery Lighting Exposure and Conservation 194 Sidebar 6.4: Designer Profile: Cindy Limauro 195 Daylighting in Museums and Galleries 197 Energy Efficiency, Economics, and Maintenance 197 For Further Reading 198   7 Architectural Lighting 199 Unique Qualities/Demands of Architectural Lighting 200 Architectural Luminaire Classifications 202 Light Sources203 Sidebar 7.1: Pros and Cons of Common Light Sources 204 Mounting Classifications206 Distribution Pattern Classifications207 Design Application208 Sidebar 7.2: IESNA Luminaire Types 208 Ballasts and Architectural Control Elements 208

x  Contents

Architectural Hanging/Mounting Positions 212 Architectural Lighting Techniques 212 Task Lighting212 Ambient Lighting212 Accent Lighting213 Cove Lighting213 Decorative Lighting214 Grazing216 Space Manipulation216 Wash Lighting216 Commercial Power Distribution 217 Lighting Calculations 217 The Lumen (Zonal Cavity) Method218 Illuminance at a Point (Direct Component)219 The Architectural Lighting Design Process 222 Design and Construction Process223 Sidebar 7.3: Construction Phases 223 Lighting Schemes and Design Process225 Sidebar 7.4: Design Steps in Architectural Lighting Design 226 226 Sidebar 7.5: Sample Lighting Design Questions 227 Sidebar 7.6: IESNA Illuminance Categories  Lighting Layouts and Design Documentation 229 Sidebar 7.7: Common Architectural Lighting Layout Symbols (Based on 231 IESNA Standards) Daylighting235 Direct Sunlight and Skylight235 236 Sidebar 7.8: Designer Profile: Robert “Bob” Shook Penetration238 Daylighting Control238 Lighting Green and Lighting Economics 239 241 Examples of Interior Lighting Residential Lighting241 Hospitality (Hotel, Club, and Restaurant) Design242 Public Buildings246 Houses of Worship (Churches)246 Museum and Gallery Lighting248 Retail Lighting249 Commercial Lighting249 Office Lighting250 Educational Facilities252 Health Care Facilities253 Industrial Design255 Examples of Exterior Lighting 257 Building Exteriors259 Public Spaces261 Sidebar 7.9: Designer Profile: Paul Gregory 262 Roadways and Bridges263 For Further Reading 268

  8 Landscape Lighting 270 Lighting Landscapes 270 Essential Approaches to Lighting Landscapes 271 Distribution Patterns in Landscape Lighting 272 Area Lighting272 Fill Lighting273 Safety Lighting273

Contents  xi

Security Lighting273 Spotlighting273 Accent Lighting273 Background Lighting273 Contour Lighting273 Cross Lighting274 Downlighting and Moonlighting274 Grazing Light274 Perspective Lighting274 Shadowing275 Silhouette Lighting276 Uplighting276 Vista Lighting276 Principles of Landscape Lighting 276 Plants, Shrubs, and Foliage276 Trees277 Pathways and Steps277 Hardscape and Sculptures278 Architectural Features278 Water Features279 281 Line-Voltage Versus 12-Volt Lighting Systems Voltage Drop 282 283 Fighting the Elements Landscape Luminaires and Accessories 285 Lampholders285 Architectural Luminaires285 Post Lights285 Bollards286 Area Lights286 Pathway Lights286 Well Lights287 Accent Lights287 Linear (Wash) Lights288 LEDs in Landscape Lighting 289 291 Control of Landscape Lighting The Design Process and Documentation 292 292 Design Considerations Sidebar 8.1: Designer Profile: Janet Lennox Moyer 293 The Site Plan295 Design Documentation295 Sidebar 8.2: Common Landscape Lighting Symbols 296 Lighting Exteriors and Buildings as Landscape Design 296 Landscape Lighting on a Grand Scale 299 For Further Reading 300

  9 Themed or Specialty Lighting 301 Themed/Specialty Design Versus Amusement Entertainment 301 History of Themed Entertainment 302 The Story 303 Development of a Themed Project 304 Sidebar 9.1: Some Common Terminology Associated With Theme Park Attractions 306 Considerations of Themed (Specialty) Lighting Design 307 Story/Theatrical Elements308 Architectural Elements308 Effects Lighting309

xii  Contents

Lighting Equipment and Design Documentation 309 Construction/Installation Process 311 Sidebar 9.2: Designer Profile: Tom Ruzika 312 Examples of Themed (Specialty) Lighting Design 313 Theme Parks313 Hospitality Industry (Hotels and Restaurants)314 Museums and Exhibits317 Retail320 Themed Spectacle Events322 For Further Reading 323

10 Virtual Lighting (Renderings, Virtual Reality, Gaming, etc.) 324 Virtual Design 325 Calibration328 Virtual Light Sources 328 Ambient Lights329 Directional Lights329 Point or Omnidirectional Lights329 Spotlights330 Area Lights330 Effects Lighting330 Global Illumination331 331 Lighting Techniques for Virtual Lighting 1-Point or Single-Point Lighting331 2-Point or Key/Fill Lighting332 3-Point Lighting332 Naturalistic Lighting333 Stylized Lighting334 334 Contrast Ratios Sidebar 10.1: Several Hints for Successful Virtual Lighting 334 335 Rendering Approaches Unique Properties of Virtual Rendering 337 339 Examples of Virtual Lighting Theatrical and Entertainment Design Visualization339 Architectural Visualization342 Sidebar 10.2: Designer Profile: Christopher Higgins 343 Simulations and Animation346 Motion Capture Animation 347 Game Design348 For Further Reading 349 Appendices A. Lighting Periodicals B. Lighting Equipment Manufacturers C. Professional Organizations and Unions D. USITT Light Graphics Standard E. IESNA Lighting Graphics

352 353 357 358 368

Glossary370 Bibliography418 Index422

Contents  xiii

PREFACE I

PREFACEPREFACE

T IS IMPORTANT to note that Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More is the second volume of a two-part companion set of lighting design books, the first book being Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals. The chapters that form the basis for the material presented in this volume are based on the online chapters of the first edition (Stage Lighting: Fundamentals and Applications) while the more traditional introductory topics of lighting design can be found in the first book (Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals). This book is focused primarily on a variety of specialized lighting applications that are characteristic of topics presented in more advanced lighting classes. The book may also be used by more advanced readers as a reference to these lighting applications. Both books have also been updated with new materials to reflect current trends in the industry and are now also printed in color. Regardless of the reader’s level of lighting expertise, they will most likely find materials that speak to their interests and needs in both books. Before going any further, I want to express my continued thanks to the many instructors and colleagues who have made the first edition of the book so successful. More importantly, I’m thankful for the conversations and suggestions that we have had that aided me in making improvements throughout this second edition. Focal Press/Routledge–Taylor  & Francis Group reflects a new partnership that I feel will allow the book to continue to grow in both popularity and usefulness to our students and future lighting designers. In addition to updating, the most significant changes between the first and second editions relate to moving the former online chapters into a second volume and printing both volumes in full color. This allowed me to move the first volume more toward introductory materials while shifting some of the more advanced concepts related to the applications topics to the second volume. Several of the additional upgrades and revisions in the second edition of both volumes include printing the majority of the images and figures in color, updating a number of technology sections to reflect current trends and equipment (especially in the area of LEDs, which are overtaking the lighting industry), updating several design processes (i.e., significant changes have been made in the recommended practices of architectural lighting since the printing of the first edition), reorganization and consolidation of several topics to fit the manner in which instructors are using the book, additions to the books’ resources (glossary, bibliography, manufacturer contacts, and periodical listings), and the addition of new professional profiles that provide introductions to additional lighting designers as well as to lighting professionals who aren’t necessarily designers but who represent many other avenues of employment for future lighting specialists (along with updates to the majority of the designer profiles that appeared in the first edition). Lighting design is one of the most influential design specializations existing in today’s society. Light gives us the primary means by which we sense our environment. It plays a fundamental role in our perception of the world and how we observe it. Light can hide or reveal an object and its features, modify the perceived shape of an object, suggest motion, distort or enhance an object’s colors or texture, and can be used to create or alter moods. These are only a few of the many ways that light can manipulate our perception of the world. This book has been written primarily for the more advanced student and is meant to form a bridge between the more general topics presented in Stage Lighting: The Foundations and the more specialized lighting applications that many traditionally trained theatrical lighting designers are now moving into. Although it is assumed that this and its partner book will be used primarily in theatrical lighting classes, the books should also be useful to those in the electrical engineering and architectural or interior lighting design fields as well. They speak to a broader audience—one that is seeking the fundamentals of lighting regardless of lighting discipline and where we are encouraged to crossover between the many lighting specialties. I believe that the future of lighting design lies in a designer’s ability to understand and deliver designs in light—period. Whether designing for an opera or a building, the basic principles of lighting hold true despite the differences in equipment and specific design applications that exist between the disciplines. Many theatrical designers already move naturally among any number of genres of entertainment lighting, and while most were trained predominantly in theatrical design, there is immense potential for designing in a number of additional areas of lighting as well. Likewise, designers with an electrical engineering background are also bringing more theatrical elements into their designs. All one needs to succeed can

be found in a positive attitude in making the shift, becoming familiar with the equipment and practices of the specialty, looking for opportunities to observe and learn a new discipline, and being able to modify our techniques in order to suite the new avenue of design. Regardless of individual preferences, more and more lighting designers are finding themselves crossing back and forth among a variety of lighting applications as a means of maintaining a successful career. As an added benefit, these additional areas of lighting also typically offer larger design fees and other incentives for a project (such as permanence) that many theatrical organizations or projects cannot provide. The premise of both books lies in providing a link between many of these lighting disciplines. While there is a solid introduction to theatrical lighting design in the first book, it is my hope that you can use both books as references that focus on lighting design and the design methodology that connects the various specialized fields rather than simply focusing on the equipment and technological emphasis that are characteristic of many lighting books. The topic of crossover to this degree had not really been attempted in a lighting text before the first edition of this text. Many of these specialized applications are presented in considerable detail and as individual chapters here in Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More. These chapters focus on essential design issues and equipment differences that are unique to working in these disciplines as well as providing questions related to special considerations, luminaires, control and equipment needs, and design concerns that are characteristic of a particular lighting specialty. Having said this, these chapters can still only provide an introduction to a specific lighting application and further information on each specialty can be obtained through the references that are listed at the end of each chapter. In most cases, a number of entire books are dedicated to these disciplines. While technology cannot be avoided, it’s been my goal to present the technical material as it becomes relevant and best pertains to the design needs of a given application. Because much of this equipment is different from theatrical equipment more equipment photographs have been included in this volume. However, due to the fact that equipment is in a constant state of evolution, we have once again chosen to dedicate many of our figures to illustrations of design concepts, plots, and specific projects rather than to numerous photographs of lighting equipment. In order to remain current, we are once again providing an appendix with a listing of lighting equipment manufacturers along with a link to their websites where up to date product information is always available. Finally, the most important element of both books is to simply demonstrate the profound effect that light and a lighting designer can have on our lives. My hope is that I can not only provide the spark of inspiration that will allow a reader to have a deeper appreciation of the art and tools of lighting, but also that these books will equip them with enough information to use these tools to develop effective art while “painting with light.”

Preface  xv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A

S WITH ANYTHING of this magnitude, there are many people who have provided help in producing this project. You don’t have to work very long in this business to discover that many professionals in our line of work are truly giving and willing to share their knowledge and experiences freely. This extends from the designers who have worked on common projects with me, to fellow educators, to the Tony Award nominees and winners who are the mainstay of Broadway lighting design. Colleagues who have been using the first edition of the book have also been a great source of suggestions as we have worked on the second edition of this project. Additionally, our equipment manufacturers and professional organizations are another group of contributors who are truly interested in sharing their expertise and knowledge with us as well. It is impossible to mention every one of them here, but there are a number of individuals that deserve a special mention and thank you. First, my editors and the rest of the staff at Focal Press/Rutledge: Stacey Walker (acquisitions editor, who first approached me regarding the second edition) and Meredith Darnell and Lucia Accorsi (editorial assistants) who have kept this project on track since we first began to work on the second edition nearly three years ago. Also, to my initial editors and staff at Pearson Education/Allyn & Bacon who brought the first edition of the book to life. I am most appreciative of all of these individuals and their helpful suggestions as we have gone through the process of producing both editions of the books. I also want to thank all of the designers and manufacturers who shared materials with me or who were kind enough to be interviewed and let me feature them in the sidebars. These are among some of the busiest people in the business and I appreciate their willingness to share their knowledge with the next generation of lighting designers. Also, I want to thank the many students that I have had the pleasure of teaching, and in some cases learning from, over the 30 plus years that I have been involved in lighting education. Nobody is an expert in all areas, and the breadth of these books makes this an even more relevant issue. This is especially important for those topics that are featured in Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More—and to that point I enlisted several colleagues and friends who graciously read and offered comments and corrections on materials I have presented on various specialty areas of the lighting industry. Many, but not all, of these individuals are featured in the sidebars, but to make sure that none are missed I want to publicly acknowledge and thank the following individuals for their support and comments: Marilyn Lowey, Jim Moody and Jeff Ravitz (Concert and Spectacle Lighting), Bill Klages, Jim Moody and Jeff Ravitz (Film and Television Lighting), Bob Shook and the late Bill Warfel (Display, Landscape, and Architectural Lighting), Tom Ruzika (Themed/Specialty Design), and finally Mike Hussey and John Kundert-Gibbs (Virtual Lighting). These folks are all at the top of their respective specialties. I also want to thank those colleagues who reviewed portions of the manuscript as I went through the process of updating the second editions and am very appreciative of all the comments and suggestions that came from these individuals. It’s difficult to be a sole writer on a project as large as this, and the book is much improved through the comments and input that I received from all of these individuals. Finally, as in the first edition, a very special thankyou to my family (my soulmate and unwavering supporter, Joelle and our children, Chelsea and Richy) and our many friends and extended family who once again had to deal with the fact that “the books” were always somewhere in my list of priorities over the last several years. Richard Dunham, Fall 2018

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

ABOUT THE AUTHORABOUT THE AUTHOR

Richard Dunham, LC, IESNA (Professor and Head of Design at The University of Georgia) has been involved in lighting design for close to 40 years—more than 30 in lighting education. He has hundreds of design credits in both academic and professional lighting/scenic design with credits in drama, dance, musical theatre, opera, concert/music festivals, and various architectural projects. Several lighting credits include designing for the Brunswick Music Theatre (Maine State Music Theatre), Music Theatre North, Springer Opera House, Atlanta Lyric Theatre, and many New York metropolitan and Off/ Off-Off Broadway productions with companies like Broadhollow Theatres, The Circle Repertory Lab, and Jean Cocteau Repertory Theatres. He is a USITT Fellow, has served on the board of directors and has been active in the leadership of the lighting commission of USITT for many years—most notably as a lighting commissioner from 1998 to 2006. He is a frequent presenter at conferences and has authored articles on theatre design and technology, edited the second edition of Practical Projects for Teaching Lighting Design: A Compendium (USITT, 1992—reprinted 1999), was on the editorial committee of the second volume of the compendium (Practical Projects for Teaching Lighting Design: A Compendium—Volume 2 (USITT, 2016), and has won two Herbert D. Greggs Honor Awards for his articles. He also coordinated the latest revision of the RP-2 Recommended Practice for Lighting Design Graphics (USITT, 2006). In architectural lighting, he holds the LC certification granted by the National Council for Qualifications for the Lighting Profession (NCQLP) and is a member of IESNA and an associate member of IALD. He can be contacted through his website (rdunhamdesigns.com).

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL LIGHTING REVIEWINTRODUCTION AND GENERAL LIGHTING REVIEW

INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL LIGHTING REVIEW

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S WE BEGIN, it is important to note that Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More is actually the companion book to its partner, Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals. In the first edition, the chapters that form the basis of the material presented in this volume were found in the online chapters. The second edition of Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals is focused primarily on materials found in introductory courses while Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More is focused on a variety of specialized areas of lighting design and is aimed at more advanced readers and use as a personal reference. The content in both books has been updated with new materials and revised to reflect current trends as we have gone through the process of putting together these editions. Regardless of the reader’s level of lighting expertise, they will most likely find materials that speak to their interests and needs in both books. As in the earlier online chapters, it must be made clear that this book provides only an introduction to these specialized areas of lighting design: A reader should go on to the Further Reading lists to obtain more detailed and specific information on these applications before taking on projects in these areas of lighting design. If the reader is using this book independently of Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals, it would be beneficial to read through this chapter as an introduction to some of the key principles and concepts that relate to light as a general topic and how these materials were presented in the first book. If the reader has used the first book, the following pages can be used as a review of those materials. Overall, this chapter provides a summary of the concepts found in the first three chapters of Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals and will also provide essential information related to how those concepts are applied to the design applications that are found here in Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More.

What Is Light? The Electromagnetic Spectrum Light is a form of radiant energy that is associated with a given portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum represents all forms of radiant energy. This energy is thought to pulsate outward from a source at the speed of light (186,000 miles/second) in oscillations that create a wavelike effect that forms patterns that may be measured. In fact, the variables that we generally use to describe radiant energy are based on wave theory. Most commonly we make distinctions between different forms of radiant energy through measurements of either frequency ( f ) or wavelength (λ). These variables are inversely proportional to one another: As frequency increases, the wavelength gets shorter, and as frequency decreases, the wavelength gets longer. The strength or amplitude of the waves is commonly called the intensity (I). In visible light, we often refer to this as the brightness of the light. Figure 1.1 illustrates the relationship between intensity, frequency, and wavelength.

Figure 1.1  Wave relationships

We commonly use “frequency” or “wavelength” to distinguish between different forms of electromagnetic energy. In lighting, we typically use “wavelength” to make a distinction between different colors of light. The range of wavelengths produced by radiant sources is extreme. At one end of the electromagnetic spectrum we find electrical waves with wavelengths measured in miles. The 60-cycle electrical currents used in our homes may have a wavelength of more than 3,000 miles while other forms of electromagnetic radiation are associated with wavelengths so small that a special unit, the angstrom (Å), has been introduced to measure them. One angstrom is equal to 1/254,000,000 of an inch. At the opposite end of the electromagnetic spectrum from electricity are cosmic rays, which may have wavelengths as small as 1/10,000 of an angstrom. The electromagnetic spectrum is a collection of different types of radiant energy that can be specified through their varied wavelengths. What concerns us as lighting designers is a very limited range of wavelengths contained within the electromagnetic spectrum which we commonly refer to as the visible spectrum. This is a collection of wavelengths that can be sensed by the human eye. Figure  1.2 illustrates the relationship between wavelength and the individual classifications of energy that makeup the electromagnetic spectrum. The visible spectrum can be further broken down into smaller components representing individual colors— each color representing a specific wavelength or frequency of radiant energy. The range of wavelengths generally found within the visible spectrum includes approximately

Figure 1.2  The electromagnetic and visible spectrums

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400 (violet) to 700 (red) nanometers. A  nanometer is one-billionth of a meter. A  second manner of expressing wavelength has already been introduced through the measurement known as an angstrom, which is 1/10 of a nanometer. In this case, the visible spectrum would be expressed as having wavelengths in the range of 4,000–7,000 Å.

The Controllable Qualities of Light One of the most difficult tasks for a lighting designer is describing the lighting that they envision for a project. Light is our medium and it cannot be illustrated effectively through means such as models or renderings that other designers may use. Though there are some excellent computer visualizers now in use, they still render light indirectly. There can be a big difference between the lighting that is seen on a computer screen and what actually appears in the theatre. In many cases, people can’t get a true sense of a lighting design until the actual lights (luminaires) are placed, colored, and balanced in the theatre through setting specific brightness levels for the lights. Because of this, several descriptive qualities have been defined to help us communicate with each other about light. The reader needs to be introduced to a vocabulary that enables us to describe light and its associated qualities. These are generally not thought of in terms of quantitative (measurable) elements but are used instead to help us set up a comparison between various lights and lighting effects. While absolutes may come into the discussion, most of these qualities are used solely within a descriptive or comparative basis. These qualities are also universal and can be translated to any field of lighting, whether working in traditional drama or lighting an office tower, garden, or the latest Rolling Stones tour. While there may be slight variations in terminology between lighting disciplines, most designers have come to refer to four primary qualities for describing light. Any light, no matter how produced or modified, can be described through these four attributes: intensity, distribution, color, and movement. As a whole, these are essentially the same qualities that Stanley McCandless described in 1932 when he first wrote A Method of Lighting the Stage.

specific level of illumination (i.e., lux or footcandles) or simply describing intensity on a comparative basis, intensity is one of the most important ways of helping us describe different types of light and lighting.

Distribution The second controllable quality of light is known as distribution. McCandless described this as “form.” Most lighting designers today actually relate distribution to two specific properties of light. These properties include angle (or direction) and quality. Angle refers to the direction from which the light is coming. Where are you hanging the light source? How does it play upon the subject? Where are the highlights? Where do the shadows fall? Light coming from behind the subject presents a completely different image and associated mood than light coming from in front of the subject. The angle of the light also helps to define or reveal the form of an object. Light coming directly from the front tends to flatten a subject and will cause the subject to appear two-dimensional while from the side it tends to sculpt and etch a subject away from its background. Backlight tends to push objects forward, while downlight tends to squash the subject. A light from below generally appears unnatural and can be used to create non-realistic effects. Quality refers to the texture and characteristic features of the light. Some lighting may be harsh and crisp while other lighting will reflect a soft diffuse quality. Is the light even in distribution, or are there patterns? A  walk on a sunny day through an open field exposes you to a very different kind of light than the textured light that you would expect once you move into a wooded area where the trees create patches of light and shadow along the path that you follow. Lighting designers can even create their own textured light by inserting patterns known as gobos into the fixtures that illuminate a space. Distribution may also relate to how light is contained within a space. Examples being an even distribution of light over an entire stage or classroom versus a well-defined cone of light that is created by a single spotlight.

Color

Intensity The most easily described quality of light is intensity, or the brightness of the light. While it might be described very specifically and can be evaluated through measurements such as the candela, lumen/lux, or footcandle, it is more often described through a comparative basis. “This light is brighter than that light,” “this light is approximately half the intensity of another light,” or “that light is as bright as the moon” are all examples of this type of comparison. We may also describe intensity by placing it on a relative scale (0–10, where 10 represents the brightest light possible) or percentage scale (0–100%, where 100% represents the highest intensity). Regardless of whether describing a

The third controllable quality of light is color. Color is considered by many to be the most dynamic and most easily observed quality of light. All light has an associated color that is determined through the specific collection of wavelengths present within its makeup. However, color is actually a perception based on how specific wavelengths of light stimulate our eyes. More importantly, light has a major impact on the color of any objects that it falls on and the resultant color is a factor of both the object’s actual color and the color of the light that strikes it. All objects selectively absorb or reflect various wavelengths of light and the color that we actually see is produced through a combination of the spectral makeup of the light itself, the

Introduction and General Lighting Review   3

removal of specific wavelengths of the light through filtering (gelling), and the selective absorption/reflection of various wavelengths by a subject’s surface. The use of a light containing the wavelengths of light that are naturally reflected by an object will generally result in enhancing that object’s color, while the use of a colored light with limited or no common wavelengths with that of an object will result in a distortion and graying of that object’s natural color. While it is generally agreed that color is the easiest quality of light to observe, it is also commonly acknowledged that due to the unpredictability of its results, it is perhaps the hardest quality to master.

Movement The final quality of light is movement. Movement refers to changes in the light from moment to moment. This might be represented in a variety of ways: first, by the actual movement of the light source. This is quite common and can be illustrated by a candle or flashlight carried across a room, where you actually see the source move from one location to another. A second form of movement involves the movement of the light without observing the light source directly. Two examples of this include watching the effect of a followspot on a performer and using a progression of lamps to light actors as they move from one position on the stage to another. The last element of movement relates simply to changes within the lighting over time. For all practical purposes, this would come about through making changes in any of the other three controllable qualities of light. Lights suddenly getting brighter or dimmer, shifting to another color, or slowly moving to a different angle are all examples of this kind of movement. The movement may be instantaneous, such as in flipping a light switch on/off, or could be so subtle that a viewer isn’t even aware of the changes being made—such as in a sunset or sunrise sequence. Movement can also be thought of as a transition in lighting. While there are occasions where the lighting for an environment may be static, most of us consider lighting transitions to be just as important as the actual images or cues that a designer creates for a given project.

Functions of Lighting There are numerous functions associated with lighting. Light is used to reveal and many of the functions of lighting relate specifically to the manner in which light is used to reveal an object(s) or setting. While most lighting designers and illuminating engineers agree in principle with many of the lighting functions discussed in the following sections, sometimes designers combine several of these into larger groups or may associate a different term with a given function. What is important is the performance of the function rather than the specific name used by a given individual. In reality, we combine and modify the controllable qualities of light to produce the varied functions that we must

achieve within a lighting project. I  will discuss the functions of lighting in the following sections from a more traditional theatrical or entertainment background first and then go into other functions that are more specific to other practices.

Visibility Many designers would argue that the most important element of lighting is visibility. Some even refer to it as the primary function of lighting. Visibility simply refers to the principle of using light to reveal or illuminate objects. In the early days, the job of the designer was nothing more than to create enough light so that the audience or occupants of a space could see. In many ways, this philosophy of lighting was based on the premise that more was better and many believed that the more footcandles or lumens placed on a stage or in a room, the better visibility that you had. Since the 1950s or ’60s, theatrical designing moved toward a concept that we call selective visibility, which simply refers to revealing to an audience only what needs to be seen. Hence, a less-revealing image on stage might be more appropriate for the dramatic action than a fully illuminated stage. In selective visibility, areas of low intensity, shadows, silhouettes, and high contrast can become effective elements in a lighting designer’s arsenal of tools. An image of Dracula appearing from the shadows is much more terrifying than seeing him come to his next victim in full light. Until the last 10 or 20  years, architectural lighting was known for being largely dependent on the quantity rather than the quality of its lighting and most recommended practices of the past primarily specified the minimum number of footcandles of illumination that were required for a given task or environment. This is no longer the case, and while providing a given level of illumination is still part of the process, other lighting qualities and the judgment of the designer now play a much greater role in the design and specification process. Finally, while it may appear obvious that the level of illumination plays a dominant role in the visibility of an object, it is not the only control that has an effect on whether you can see something or not. The angle of the light also determines how much or little of an object is revealed to you. The color of the light might help an object either blend in or pop out from its background and can also enhance or gray an object’s color. These are just a few of the many elements that can have an effect on visibility.

Establishing a Scene In a theatrical production, it is critical for the lighting to help establish or communicate specific information about the environment that is being created. Time of day, season, and geographical location are all parts of this function. Many refer to this as establishing a scene. In short, the lighting, as well as all the other elements of the scene, must

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combine to create a single cohesive environment that creates a “true” world of the play. A play that requires a night scene must be lit in some fashion that would be suggestive of night. This could be a night with lights on or off, lights that would suggest a specific interior lighting (i.e., a chandelier versus a fireplace or table lamp), or even lights that are suggestive of a specific light source or historical period (electric versus gas or candlelight). All of these are specific design considerations that lighting designers should consider as they light the given night scene. Establishing a scene is much more important for an entertainment lighting designer who is concerned with creating a world for a performance than an architectural lighting designer who is simply lighting a particular space. However, architectural lighting designers must also create a design that deals in some manner with establishing a scene that is consistent with producing the proper response or ambience for a building or environment. An example would be in creating the appropriate lighting for a five-star restaurant versus an office suite. There is an appropriate and unique approach to lighting each of these projects.

Mood Another function of lighting relates to creating mood. Mood refers to producing a given emotional response to the lighting. Lighting can be foreboding or inviting, carefree and light, energetic versus passive, or tragic and oppressive. In all of these, and many more moods, the light provides an atmosphere or ambiance for the environment that is being lit. Other than visibility, mood is probably the function of lighting that has the next most important impression or effect on a viewer. Studies have shown that light can have a profound effect on individuals and their moods. In entertainment lighting, we often produce extreme ranges of mood for a given production or special event. In architectural lighting, more subtle choices are used to produce environments for more productive offices, more welcoming reception areas, and to provide calming effects for patients in medical facilities. Lighting has also been used to help impact sales volumes and turnover rates in retail markets.

Modeling Another common function of lighting is in modeling or sculpting. Some designers refer to this as “revelation of form.” This function relates to using light for enhancing the three-dimensional qualities of an object. We can best distinguish form through carefully observing the highlights and shadows of an object. Highlights represent the splashes of reflected light coming from areas that are directly illuminated by a light source while shadows may be represented by either the area of an object that is not lit by the light source or by the area of darkness or shadow that is cast by a lit object (cast shadows). Areas that are raised are prone to highlights, while recessed surfaces usually fall

into shadow areas. The revelation of highlight and shadow is dependent on both the angle and number of lights that strike an object. As an object is lit from different directions more, or less, of its surface textures and associated form are revealed to an observer. As a rule, the best light for revealing an object’s form or three-dimensional qualities is to its side. Angles that come from either behind or in front of an object tend to create more of a two-dimensional or profile-like image of the subject. When lit from straight front, the individual details and shapes of an object might even be masked and may not reveal any depth at all. The vertical angle of the light source(s) also has an effect on how an object is revealed to an observer.

Focus One role of a lighting designer is to help point out where a viewer’s attention should be directed at any given time. Focus is a lighting function that relates to drawing attention to various elements within an environment. Architectural designers often refer to this type of lighting as accent lighting. It is quite common in many environments to have several different layers of attention or focus established for a stage or given space. The single most important focus is generally referred to as the primary focus of a scene or environment. Also, while a given subject may be less prominent than the primary focus, it may well appear more prominent than the rest of the environment, which results in a secondary focus being created. On a stage, what should the audience be watching at any given moment? Who in the band has the solo? Does an element of a scenic design need to be highlighted? The signage at an airport should be lit so that passengers can easily navigate locations such as gates, ticket counters, and baggage claim areas. Techniques that a lighting designer can use to control focus include many familiar tricks. We often use relative brightness to direct focus. Highlighting an actor delivering a monologue in a single spotlight or subtly raising the intensity of the light around a particular area during a long conversation are several obvious manners of directing focus. Another example is in when an entrance is pointed up by boosting the level of a special that is focused on the door from which an actor enters from. While I have spoken of raising the intensity of light on a subject, an equally valid and at times even preferred technique involves lowering the intensity of the areas surrounding the point to which we want to draw focus. The eye is unique in that it will usually focus on the element within our vision that is different from the rest of the view that we see. Color can also be used by lighting designers to control focus. Placing a single white light on the lead singer while the rest of a band is bathed in magenta-colored light is an example of using color to establish focus. A  designer does not necessarily have to make use of extreme color differences to make use of this principle. A night scene in which the entire stage is cast in blue light,

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with bluish lavender moonlight streaming through the French doors where Dracula is to appear can be just as an effective use of contrast in color.

Composition Composition is a function of lighting that relates to combining all of the elements of a stage or room together into a complete visual package. We see nothing until it is revealed to us through light, and one of the lighting designer’s primary responsibilities lies not only in choosing what to reveal but also how it is revealed to us. While other collaborators give us the primary elements of a composition, such as the scenery and costumes, the actors/characters or performers, and the furniture/building itself (in architectural practices); the lighting designer can reveal these objects in an infinite number of ways. By comparison, the lighting designer often makes the largest single contribution in determining the overall composition of a stage or environment. The same objects or space can appear quite differently with simple alterations to the lighting of that event or environment. The lighting also determines how all of the individual objects/designs tie together as a whole; it becomes a unifying element for most design projects.

Style Style represents yet another function of lighting. It relates to creating visual traits that provide a characteristic overall visual quality to be connected to a given production/ project. In reality, style is specifically determined through the collaboration and discussions of the entire production team. While we may discuss the style of any given production, we may also use style to compare the project to other productions or projects. An architect may refer to postmodernism, while a director might speak about absurdism. In each case, style is representative of various visual qualities that are characteristic of each movement. The scenic designer, director, costume designer, and lighting designer must share a common understanding of the style of a production in order to realize a successful unified project. Most importantly, once the style is agreed upon, a production or project should remain consistent in the manner in which it approaches style throughout a project. One manner in which style becomes most readily identified is through establishing the degree of realism in a production. How literal is the world that we are creating? Could this be a naturalistic environment? Are there any symbolic elements? Are there any recurring themes to be reinforced or emphasized? Are we simplifying our image so that it contains only those key elements that are absolutely essential to the action? Are period realism and historical accuracy important to the piece? Should there be a limited color palette? How are the traditional elements of design (line, form, texture, etc.) characterized within a given project? Are there particular conventions used in the

production? All of these questions are examples of issues that will help a design team define a project’s style.

Staging the Story In the case of entertainment design, we also need to consider the actual techniques of production as another function of lighting. A  number of designers refer to this as staging the story. In principle, this simply means taking the script and finding a proper mechanism for presenting it to an audience—giving an approach to our storytelling. In a production making use of a single box setting, a design team may simply use the act curtain and a series of blackouts to make distinctions between various scenes. A  very different approach would be required for a production containing 20 independent scenes in which each scene requires a different location. Do we need to observe the entire space, or can we break it up through using smaller locations such as a series of platforms at different levels? Is a unit set part of the design solution? Can tightly confined specials be used to define the spaces required by the actions of the play? What scenic mechanisms might we utilize to move from one scene to another? What theatrical conventions will be used throughout the production? Are there specific lighting techniques or equipment available that will help us present the play to an audience? How are transitions handled? Lighting transitions have become one of the most important means of enabling us to quickly shift the reality of a play from one location/time period to another. The answers to these and other similar questions will also help to establish the style of both the production and its lighting.

Rhythm A final function of light that relates primarily to entertainment lighting is rhythm. Rhythm in lighting relates essentially to the movement and transitions of a production; it may be very subtle and unobserved or dramatic and very apparent to an audience. Rhythm can relate to transitions based simply on the logistical needs of making the production workable (staging the story), or more importantly, rhythm can follow the dramatic tensions of a production. Do changes from one scene to another occur in a natural, fluid manner, or are they disruptive to the flow of the show? As tensions mount and are resolved, the lighting should also underscore the associated emotional changes throughout a production. A well-designed production will be dynamic and will have lighting that follows the rhythm of the show. In fact, it has been demonstrated that lighting that remains too static can have a negative impact on audience members. Even architectural practices now make allowances for rhythm when lighting projects. Not only is rhythm varied throughout the day in offices and other workplaces, but it can also become a major design element for lighting large exterior projects such as building facades and towers, landscape structures, and even bridges. In

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these cases, the lighting may slowly change color through intervals of as little as 30 seconds to as long as 30 minutes or longer. Lighting designers can also use rhythm in their sense of the timing that cues are delivered throughout a production. Are cue sequences following a particular pattern such as on every beat of a song or is there a given lighting sequence for the transition between scenes? Rhythm can also be observed in something as simple as the spacing intervals and patterns that are created when laying out a group of luminaires in the arrangement of ceiling fixtures.

about is how this light responds to being reflected off surfaces and how we can process this information into a significant image.

Illuminance and Luminance—Five Metrics While I  have previously described the intensity of light from the perspective of relative comparisons, there are times when the lighting designer must consider the absolute intensity of the light or the actual amount of energy represented by it rather than the brightness as perceived by a viewer. To quantify the manner in which we describe the intensity of light, the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) has established five metrics or measurements for describing intensity (Figure 1.3).

Luminous Flux The first metric, luminous flux, refers to a measure of the actual flow of energy from a light source, with the most common unit being the lumen. However, we do not generally observe light itself, but rather, we see the effect of light on other surfaces. Also, light moves away from its source in all directions, which means that in most cases much of the lumen output created by a light source is wasted. Think of the poor efficiency of a bare bulb that hangs in an attic or garage ceiling. What we, as designers, are more concerned

Figure 1.3  Five measurements for describing the intensity of light. General Note: Illuminance relates to the intensity of the light (luminous flux) being emitted or reflected from a source or surface. You cannot see illuminance. However, luminance can be seen and is a product of light being conducted over a given surface area (source or surface)

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Illuminance As light radiates away from its source with a given luminance flux it can proceed only along a straight path until it comes into contact with an object. At that point, it may either be reflected or absorbed to some degree by any object that lies in its path. In some cases, the light may also be refracted if it should pass through the material. Illuminance is the second metric and refers to the density of the light that has the potential of striking an object’s surface and being reflected back to an observer. It can be thought of as a measurement of concentration. Two typical measurements of illuminance include the lux (one lumen per square meter) or the footcandle (one lumen per square foot). A light meter will typically measure illuminance, and most specifications in architectural projects will be based on recommend levels of illuminance for a given task (visual task) or environment. While the effect of illuminance can be seen, illuminance itself cannot be seen.

Luminous Intensity The third metric relates to the ability of a light source to produce intensity in a given direction. This is referred to as luminous intensity and is generally measured in candelas. Simply put, no light source produces light of equal luminance flux or intensity in all directions. Luminous intensity is a manner of measuring this unequal distribution pattern around a light source. If we go back to our example of the bare bulb it can easily be recognized that the area directly above (where the socket/base is located) and below the bulb

will be deficient in the amount of light produced as compared with those areas located to the sides of the lamp. INVERSE SQUARE LAW  The importance of these three metrics comes about through their interrelationships. When brought together, they create a relationship that can be expressed through a formula known as the Inverse Square Law: E = I/D2 where E = Illuminance I = Luminous Intensity D = Distance The law simply states that the illuminance of a light source is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source. Practically speaking, this means that the light’s intensity drops off much more quickly per unit area as the distance from the light source is progressively increased. Some refer to this drop in intensity as attenuation or falloff. A quick examination of this principle can be demonstrated through shining a flashlight on a wall and noting the apparent size and brightness of the associated pool of light while varying the distance that the light is held from the wall. Figure 1.4 illustrates the effect of distance on illuminance.

Luminance There are two more metrics that allow engineers and designers to describe light. Unlike those already mentioned, the final two metrics can be directly observed by a viewer. The

Figure 1.4  The Inverse Square Law. As distance from the light source increases, intensity drops in a manner that is inversely proportional to the distance

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first, luminance, refers to the intensity divided by the surface area of the source as observed by the viewer. This is a directional function, and its value will be dependent on the viewing angle of the observer to the source. The viewer would actually see the light source, but the source may or may not be in a direct path of observation from the viewer. An example of this can be seen when viewing a theatrical light source dead-on versus from a position somewhere to the side. In this case, the surface area of the source would appear as a circle from dead-on, while from the side, the same source would appear oblong and distorted while presenting a smaller surface area to the viewer. Therefore, even with no change in illumination there would still be a lower luminance associated with viewing the source from the side position. The manner in which we observe the light displayed by the various phases of the moon is another example of this phenomena.

Luminous Exitance The final metric for quantifying intensity is luminous exitance. This relates to light reflecting or leaving a surface, but it is not direction-dependent like luminance. In this metric, we relate the amount of luminous flux to a given reflectance or transmission value for the material of the source or object being considered. Hence, in a situation where two objects are exposed to the same luminous flux, one colored black and the other white, the object with the white coloring would have a higher associated level of reflectance and therefore higher luminous exitance than the black object.

Light and Perception The importance of light in the perception of our world cannot be overstated. Light, by its very nature, allows us to see and therefore perceive the environment around us. To be seen, though, an object must be capable of reflecting some degree of light. This is in addition to assuming that it can be sensed through a sensory device like an eye or camera. Since we observe the world through images that are created through the stimulation of our optic nerves and nerve impulses, we must also account for the fact that what we sense is actually an indirect means of observation. Therefore, images can be interpreted very differently from one person to another. Also, without a surface to reflect upon, light will continue to expand outward unnoticed. We have all seen the effect of a car’s headlight beams becoming observable in the mist of a foggy night, while on a clear night it is often impossible to distinguish the edges of the beams that the fog so clearly defines. Also, the angle between the viewer and light source might be changed to create very different revelations of an object. An example of this is how the moon is revealed to an observer through its different phases. In other instances, the color of the lighting could be changed to create a significantly different response

in how an object is seen by an observer. Everyone knows that a white T-shirt under red light will appear red even though we know that the color of the shirt remains white. All of these are examples of light being used to modify a viewer’s perception of an object.

Visibility Visibility refers to creating a situation that allows the eyes and mind to be stimulated to such a degree that we can make an observation. Visibility, however, is a relative term, and we need to examine it in terms of a specific context. In the most basic sense, it refers to the effect of providing enough visual information so that viewers can establish meaning from what you have presented them with. In a way, visibility becomes a means of communication. If done well, the message is received, but if done poorly, the message becomes confused or is lost. Illuminating engineers generally refer to the demand for successful vision as visual acuity (though in addition to lighting this takes into consideration other elements of vision like size or distance from an object). Historically, there have been two basic approaches for creating visibility through light. The first is based on providing good uniform illumination over a widely dispersed area, where quantity of light (intensity) is considered a major component of visibility. The second refers to the quality of the visual experience and requires consideration of a wider range of lighting characteristics in addition to intensity—a concept that we refer to as quality of light. Here issues like glare, shadow definition, contrast ratios, etc. are also brought into consideration. We may also refer to visibility in terms of what needs or doesn’t need to be seen by an observer. In other words, we simply increase visibility to a point where we reveal enough of a subject to bring meaning to an audience. Most lighting designers refer to this as selective visibility. Today shadows, distorted colors, and even low intensities have become common techniques for manipulating the lighting in order to express mood and style associations. Often, these manipulations can actually produce more effective lighting than simply bringing visibility to an environment.

Intensity or Brightness While visibility may be modified through any one of the controllable qualities of light, many people often associate the most important element of visibility with the control of intensity or brightness. For now, I’ll primarily examine the effects of intensity on vision. The other controllable qualities and their effects on vision will be addressed later in this chapter. The eye is an amazing mechanism in that it can observe an incredible range of light intensities. While at one extreme we might observe light so bright that it could damage our eyes (such as in looking at the sun) we can also observe light in intensities as low as that of a candle or match flame from more than 10–15 miles

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away. Additionally, we can perceive relatively small variations in intensity. This extreme range of sensitivity cannot be found in equipment such as cameras or other optical sensors. A camera also isn’t usually as susceptible to these extreme variations in intensity and will recognize illumination only within a pre-selected and limited range of brightness (though this window of sensitivity can be adjusted to nearly any overall level of intensity). To describe this, we often refer to contrast ratios, which relate to the range of intensities that exist between the brightest and darkest elements of a view or image. Also, unlike the human eye, video cameras and films have a much more limited range of contrast ratios that they can process successfully without having portions of an image becoming either over- or underexposed.

Relative Intensity In many cases, what is more important to many lighting designers is the perceived, rather than actual or absolute, brightness of an object or light source. We have learned that simply adding more light to an environment doesn’t always produce better visibility. An object’s perceived brightness is a function of several items, not just the amount of light focused onto it. Other factors include the distances between the source, object, and viewer; the reflectivity of the object; and the sensitivity of the optical device (eye or camera). In the early days of television and film lighting, cameras weren’t nearly as sensitive as they currently are, and directors of photography were much more concerned with creating intensity thresholds so that the cameras could simply process the information necessary to create an image. Even though cameras are vastly improved, it is still quite common for designers working in the video and film industries to use a light meter to ensure that both even coverage and minimal intensity levels are established for a shoot. As a whole, we consider the brightness of a subject compared with that of both the surrounding environment and other objects—the relative intensities of these objects. On the one hand, an object often receives focus if it is lit more brightly than the objects that surround it, whereas on the other hand, our attention might also be drawn to the darkest part of an image—like an upstage tunnel entrance to a cave. In both cases, the eye goes to the most different element of the scene and the relative intensities of the objects play a significant role in determining the focus. We also refer to brightness perception when we consider all of the variables that determine the overall brightness of a particular object. The amount of light falling on the subject, our optical sensitivity, and the degree of reflectivity all play a role in determining the perceived intensity of an object.

Psychological Responses Finally, there is the element of psychological response to light of different intensities. This plays a role in the

determination of the mood of the occupants in an environment. On the whole, well-lighted environments produce an emotional response that is positive and healthy while poorly lit spaces can produce gloomy environments that tend to have a negative impact on the inhabitants’ moods. Studies have found an association between people’s moods and the hours of sunlight exposure that they receive in a typical day. A condition known as Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), a mild form of depression, affects people during the winter who live in high latitudes where they aren’t exposed to enough sunlight in a typical day. Elevated brightness levels have also been associated with increases in heart and respiration rates as well as with increased productivity. More friendly work environments have even been created through making modifications in the lighting intensities of a workplace. Finally, psychiatric hospitals, elderly care facilities, and social service clinics often make use of intensity to alter the behavior of their patients.

Intensity-Related Issues Some of the most common design problems in lighting design can be attributed to intensity issues. First, everyone’s visual system is slightly different: People will often have varying responses to a given design. Some individuals are light sensitive while others may have good night adaptation. Even in people who display what we would consider to have normal vision we often find large variations in the individual responses that they may have to the same visual stimuli. Due to this, we typically design for the individuals who require the most stringent visual requirements. For example, our eyes degenerate over time, and our vision generally becomes more impaired as we get older; therefore, we should design the lighting for the oldest occupants that will be seeing a play or making use of a given room. Likewise, we also design lighting based on the most critical task to be performed in a given setting. An operating room requires much brighter lighting than a stairway in an apartment building. In following this practice, we can fulfill the lighting needs of all the people who use a particular environment since most individuals will be comfortable with the minimum intensity levels set by the most demanding needs of a project. While individual reactions may be responsible for much of how we both respond and perceive light, there are many other factors that can also have a significant impact on our sense of visibility and how we sense light. Many of these relate specifically to how our eyes function and compensate for varying conditions that are created within an environment. Some may be due to the physical properties of our personal visual systems, while others are related primarily to psychological responses to the brightness of a given object or environment. The majority of these effects can have a negative impact on the visual experience. A  designer must be both aware of and sensitive to these effects so that they can produce the most effective designs

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for a client or production. Several visual effects that are specifically related to the intensity of a given light include mood alteration, overstimulation, glare, shifts in color perception, and adaptation. MOOD ALTERATION  Intensity is a key element in helping a lighting designer create mood. The contrasts that you observe in the brightness levels found in many buildings quickly demonstrate the association that intensity plays upon mood. Bright offices create productive atmospheres, while funeral homes are lit in soft warm tones in order to create a somber reflective mood. A fast-food restaurant will be lit in a way that produces a less-inviting environment than a formal sit-down restaurant because these businesses are interested in volume sales and turnover. Low lighting levels can create mysterious and foreboding moods while bright lighting can be associated with celebratory or comic moods. On stage, we have traditionally used higher intensities for comic plays, while tragedies have characteristically been lit with low intensities and shadows. Think back to the lighting levels found in the Batman and Pirates of the Caribbean films. Each can be associated with a very different overall mood and lighting even though both films had both comic and frightening moments. The lighting and moods of the Batman films were generally darker and more sinister than those found in Pirates of the Caribbean films. On the other hand, the intensity of the lighting for each of these is very different from that of more upbeat comedic films like Baywatch, Crazy Rich Asians, or Going in Style. OVERSTIMULATION  A common occurrence in theatrical design relates to overstimulating various combinations of rods or cones within the eye. This may happen through exposing the eye to disproportionally high levels of light in a given color range or through simply leaving the environment unchanged for extended periods of time. In these cases, upon the removal of the stimulus or light, the eye is tricked and continues to provide sensory information that gives an appearance that the environment remains unchanged. We refer to these illusions as afterimages. An example of this phenomenon is the old trick of looking at a neutral surface after staring at a colored box or dot for a given amount of time. Once your view is shifted to the neutral surface, an afterimage of the box or dot is commonly observed to be floating on the neutral background. A variation of this effect may happen on stage during blackouts where a brightly lit scene is suddenly plunged into darkness. In most cases, many audience members can perceive a momentary glow or afterimage of the scene several seconds into the blackout. GLARE  Glare refers to the presence of distracting light within a viewer’s field of vision. This may come about through a number of ways. The first is nothing more than

the result of seeing an unusually high level of brightness. This may come from the reflectance of light striking the surface of an object or from the object itself giving off excessive light. The sometimes-painful experience that you might have while looking at white beach sand or newly fallen snow on a bright sunny afternoon are examples of this kind of glare. Another type of glare occurs when an observer is forced to look directly into a light source. Common examples of this include the oncoming headlights of an approaching car at night or when a person looks directly into a spotlight. As a rule, the farther that the source of glare is located from the subject, the less effect or distraction that it will present to the overall scene. As designers, we usually try to avoid glare and choose lighting angles that place our sources either out of the observer’s view or within their peripheral vision. In theatrical lighting, a designer must be especially mindful of glare when working in thrust and arena theatres where audience members could easily look directly into the lenses of lighting fixtures that light the opposite side of the stage. On the other hand, there are times when glare may be considered as a positive element of a scene. We often refer to this positive form of glare as sparkle or glitter and may occasionally create a limited amount of glare (sparkle) to simply add visual interest and perhaps some focus to a project. An example of this would be in the lamps and crystals of a chandelier. In this case, the chandelier may or may not be the primary light source of a room, but it could take on a primary focus simply through the glitter created through the reflections of its lamps and crystals. COLOR PERCEPTION AND INTENSITY  An object’s color is often perceived differently when viewed under light sources of different intensities. Colors will generally appear more saturated if viewed under light of a lower intensity. Colors found near the center of the spectrum are less affected by intensity than those at the extreme ends of the spectrum. Under increased levels of illumination red-colored objects tend to have colors that shift toward the shorter yellow wavelengths, while violet-colored objects shift toward the blue wavelengths. Conversely, under lower intensities red objects will appear redder while violet objects will appear even more violet. In addition, we lose our ability to differentiate individual colors as the intensity of the light is lowered. While what has been discussed to this point has been limited to the effects of brightness on color, there are a number of additional effects related to perception that are due to the actual color of the light itself. These are expanded upon a bit later in this chapter. ADAPTATION  While many people may be able to see an immense range of brightness, the eye quickly narrows its response to a limited range of brightness perception. We refer to this as adaptation. Adaptation allows the eye to become more efficient and sensitive within a relatively narrow range of brightness. The eye accepts this range as

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less light to give the appearance of a brightly lit scene in these cases. Another effect of adaptation is often experienced when walking into a darkened room after returning from the outside during a bright, sunny day. In this case, most people find it nearly impossible to see anything until after their eyes have grown accustomed to the darkness. The opposite effect commonly occurs as people get up in the middle of the night and turn on the lights to make their way to the bathroom or kitchen. In both cases, the experience not only limits your vision but may also bring painful sensations to your eyes.

Defining Form and Shape

Figure 1.5  The effect of intensity on color perception: (a) High level of intensity. (b) The same chips under medium-intensity light. (c) The same chips under low-intensity light.

normal and tends to ignore anything with brightness levels that lie outside of this range. Unfortunately, being stimulated by the same intensity of light over a long period of time can also have negative impacts on vision. One of the most commonly experienced problems is visual fatigue. When viewers are subjected to an unchanging visual environment, their eyes grow tired through the overuse of some of the optical receptors. Due to this, they may experience effects like eyestrain, headaches, and blurriness that negatively impact their vision. We commonly correct for visual fatigue while reading or doing detailed paperwork through simply glancing across the room and away from our work for a minute or so once we feel the effects of fatigue setting in. A  common practice used in the theatre to avoid this condition simply involves creating subtle shifts in the lighting over an extended period of time, which many of us call “blood pressure cues.” Care must be taken when a dark scene follows a bright scene to ensure that the dark scene doesn’t appear excessively dark. The challenge of maintaining a bright scene generally requires that the intensity be continually raised in order that the perceived brightness appears unchanged throughout the scene. Many times, the most effective lighting of bright scenes will occur immediately following dark scenes during which audience members’ eyes have undergone adaptation based on the lower intensity of the previous dark scene. It takes much

Light is the primary medium through which we get visual clues that help us determine the form and shape of objects. These visual clues not only allow us to identify an object but also allow us to judge spatial relationships and relative positions between objects based on our prior experiences and memory. Light travels only in a straight path and can therefore have its direction easily determined through careful study of the shadows and highlights that it produces. We see those areas where light strikes a surface as highlights, while those that are not lit are seen as shadows. In many ways, shadows are simply the absence of light (even though a shadow may often contain light from other sources or ambient light) while highlights are restricted to those surfaces directly in the path of the light. We use highlights and shadows to help distinguish depth and form. In a complete void, where there is no chance of scattered reflections, a single light source will produce characteristic highlights and shadows that will allow us to determine an object’s directional relationship with its light sources. We must also consider the relationship of the viewer to the subject as well as the correlation that exists between the positions of the object and light source. One of the most obvious day-to-day illustrations of this phenomenon in the natural world is in the observation of the phases of the moon. In this case, at different times of the month we observe more or less of the reflected highlights and shadows of the moon’s surface. At full moon, the sun is behind the earth and we observe an image of the moon that looks like a complete circle because all of the surfaces that we see are exposed to the sun’s light. However, at either quarter-moon phase, we see only part of the moon’s exposed surface (actually only a quarter of the total surface) because the earth is oriented in such a manner that we observe half of the moon in highlight while the other half is left in shadow—despite the fact that the sun still fully illuminates the same amount of the moon’s surface. In most cases, things aren’t as simple as this, and having a single light source is more often the exception than the rule. The relative angle between an object and a light source can be used to either enhance or diminish the three-dimensional qualities of an object. In fact, angle becomes a major determinant in how we perceive the form of an object.

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Figures  1.6–1.12 provide illustrations of how light plays on a subject from a variety of angles that are common to theatrical lighting. Light from the front tends to flatten a subject. This is due to the fact that from a flat angle (relatively straight-on) the entire surface appears to be equally well lit and there isn’t a distinction or any contrast between the shadow and highlight areas. This results in the object appearing without shadows and mostly two-dimensional rather than three-dimensional. As the direction of the light rotates to the sides and back, the viewer will see a more modeled three-dimensional quality, which designers commonly call revealing form. What has happened is that the light now reveals those surfaces and shadows that the eye uses to define depth. The effects of several principal lighting angles are summarized in the following sections.

Light from a front diagonal is considered to be one of the most naturalistic angles that a lighting designer can use. The reason for our attraction to this angle isn’t so much in when a light is used as a single light source as in when it is combined with a second light. One of the most familiar formula lighting combinations places two different lights on opposing 45° diagonals so that the two fixtures mirror one another. Through this, the front of the subject is under the influence of two lights—producing one zone on the subject that is lit with an equal mixture of light from both sources while also creating two additional areas that are lit predominantly under the influence of one light or the other. The front diagonal provides a good combination between the visibility desired by a front light and the modeling capabilities of a sidelight.

Front Light

Sidelight

Front light is popular because it reveals details in a subject. Most designers associate front light with visibility. It is used for tasks such as lighting an actor’s face, making the lettering of a large piece of signage readable, or simply providing enough illumination for people to clearly see the walls and background of a setting. Front light is an overall naturalistic angle but can be distorted through either raising the angle until it becomes so steep that unnatural shadows form in areas like the eye sockets, or lowering it to the point that it produces unnatural highlights from underneath the subject.

Sidelight may come from either side of the subject and helps to reveal its depth and form. It can take on qualities that may appear either dramatic or naturalistic depending on how it might be colored or mixed with other combinations of light. Sidelight is often the most productive angle for creating modeling and dimensionality in a subject. It is also, due to its extreme angle to a viewer, often used to enhance the surface textures of an object. Sidelight can be created through a variety of vertical angles. The steeper-angled high sidelight is generally more naturalistic than

Figure 1.6  Flat front light

Figure 1.7  Front diagonal (approximately 45°)

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Figure 1.8 Sidelight

Figure 1.9 Downlight

shining light on a subject as a direct sidelight. An even further dramatic quality can be achieved through using low sidelight that may even angle upward. In this case, the light reveals areas such as the undersides of a subject that would normally fall into shadow. Dance lighting is typically characterized by a heavy use of sidelight angles.

Downlight and Uplight Several additional lighting angles are important because of their ability to bring drama to a setting while creating still other influences on the appearance of an object or subject. The downlight can create one of the most dramatic angles available to a lighting designer. The dramatic quality is primarily due to the excessive shadows that are created from the overhead light source. Flashes of highlight on the very top surfaces of the subject are also characteristic of this angle. While it creates a strong sense of dimension or modeling, it also tends to produce shadows that aren’t very naturalistic. A viewer will typically see the eye sockets of a subject develop into deep shadows (raccoon eyes) under strong downlights. A  certain harshness or distortion is also often characteristic of this lighting angle. Downlight may even give the perception of a shortening or squashing appearance to a subject. In the opposite manner, uplight, comes from below the subject. This is perhaps the most

Figure 1.10  Low front light (uplight)

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unnatural of the lighting angles. It brings a distorted effect to a subject due to the fact that it reverses the appearance of what would be considered normal shadow and highlight patterns. Highlights are now found on the underside surfaces of a subject while areas that would normally display highlights when lit from above will now appear to be shadowed. The familiar image created when placing a flashlight under one’s chin displays characteristic uplight qualities.

Backlight Backlight comes from behind the subject and can create a silhouette. It often produces a rimming effect around the subject by casting an outline of highlight around the subject’s edges and can produce a halo-like appearance that has been known to cause performers’ hair to glow. A look at concert videos where performers have large frizzy hair styles (popular in the 1970s) clearly illustrate this effect. Backlight also has the ability to help separate a subject from its background and can seemingly push the subject forward toward the viewer. This angle is especially important in film and video lighting. A back diagonal source simply forms an angle that is a combination of the back and sidelight angles. Figure 1.12  Back diagonal light

Key and Fill

Figure 1.11 Backlight

In practice, most objects are under the influence of several light sources—each with varying intensities and qualities that may make it difficult to identify the specific source of any given light. The fewer the number of light sources, the more stark the associated lighting will appear and the more easily a given source and its position might be identified. From our perspective, we almost always see light sources coming from above. The sun is generally high in the sky, rooms are typically lit from ceiling fixtures, and even the sky itself becomes a source of illumination through the effects of atmospheric scattering and diffusion. Because of this, we tend to view lighting with the primary source coming from above as a natural condition. In addition to this, there will also often be a softer, less intense ambient light that is created by reflections associated with most lighted environments. The light that is primarily responsible for lighting a scene is often called the key light or primary light source. In a performance situation, we usually prefer that stray light created by the key light, or spill, be quickly absorbed once it passes beyond a subject. We achieve this by coloring most of our masking fabrics, walls, and floors black to absorb and prevent reflections of this excess light. In the real world, the light produced by these reflections and scattering is called ambient light. In theatres, there is usually little ambient

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light due to all the non-reflective surfaces and a single key light often produces extreme contrasts between the highlight and shadow areas of a subject. On the other hand, a subject may also be under the influence of light that comes as a result of diffusion or scattered reflections that will add light to those areas of a subject that would normally be shadowed. This light can be referred to as fill light and can be thought of as the ambient light that exists within an environment. Fill light is typically diffused and often cannot be readily associated with a directional angle; it is simply present. In video and film design, fill light specifically refers to the light that is provided by additional fixtures that soften the shadows and “fill in” those areas of a subject that would otherwise be cast into dark shadows. Figure  1.13 illustrates the effect of a combination of key and fill light on a subject. This naturalistic effect has become the basis for one of the most common formula approaches to lighting design: the McCandless Method or Complementary Tint System of stage lighting. This method places two lights of complementary tints at opposing angles that are 45° to either side of a subject. The lights are also elevated vertically to an angle of 45° (Figure 1.14). In reality, these produce an equivalent to key and fill lighting that is quite similar to the light that we would observe in the natural world.

Figure 1.14  A McCandless hang for naturalistic lighting. Two lighting instruments are gelled in complementary tints that are hung at 45° to either side of a subject along with a 45° vertical angle

Silhouettes and Grazing

Figure 1.13 Key and fill lights—a combination of lighting angles (two opposing front diagonals at approximately 45° to each side and vertical from one another)

There are two other forms of light that also relate to the direction in which a source may illuminate a subject. The first, silhouette lighting (Figure 1.15), relates not to lighting the object itself but to lighting the background behind an object. Under this type of lighting the object is seen as a dark outline or silhouette against its background. The second, grazing (Figure 1.16), occurs when a light is played on a surface of an object at an extreme angle. This angle is commonly used to enrich or enhance the surface textures of an object. Ceiling or ground/floor lights that are mounted relatively close to a wall can enhance the shadows formed

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designer wants to initiate interest in a particular section of a structure’s wall. These techniques can also be used quite effectively in entertainment lighting as a way of adding interest to a design.

Shape

Figure 1.15  Silhouette lighting: a tree silhouetted against a fence

by the downward direction of the light and make the unevenness of the rocks and cracks or mortar in a masonry wall appear much more interesting. Grazing techniques are common practices for lighting building facades, where a

Light may also have shape. This can best be described as the area or volume to which the light is confined or projected. In a spotlight, the shape of the light is generally in the form of a cone. The apex forms at the luminaire, while the light spreads outward away from it in a conical volume. A performer within a single spotlight is an example of this type of shape or distribution pattern. Other styles of fixtures produce light in other distribution patterns. If the light from a spotlight is cast directly onto a wall, you will observe a circle if the angle is dead-on—but the shape becomes an ellipse if the angle is skewed. Light can be shaped to a rectangle as it enters a room through a doorway or window. This might also be skewed if the position of the light is to the side or above the opening (forming a trapezoid-like shape). Light may also be defined through a combination of several different fixtures that together form a particular shape in light. An example of this would be a theatre marquee of chasing lights or a roadway that is composed of hundreds of light fixtures, which together produce a linear path of illumination along an interstate or highway. While the examples previously mentioned relate only to the overall shape of a light source, there can also be shape within the light itself. In the case of light passing through the slats of a louver door or Venetian blind, the resultant shape of the light will be divided into slivers. An outdoor location will typically feature textured light as a result of

Figure 1.16  Grazing lighting: A stone wall lit from (a) straight on and (b) a grazing light

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understand for people who are less familiar with describing hues. On the other hand, a color like “sandy rose” or “surprise pink” will most likely cause a problem in color understanding no matter who is discussing these particular hues. In practice, the color that we actually see is a function of three factors, and a change in any one of these will result in our perceiving a different color. These factors are the color of the light itself, the ability of the optical sensor such as an eye or camera to distinguish between different colors, and the color of the objects being observed. If you have ever worn a white T-shirt while riding an amusement ride or attended a club where there were a variety of different colored lights, you most likely noticed that your shirt appeared to change color as you walked under the different colored lights. This is a basic example of the color of the light changing your perception of the color of the shirt. In reality, the shirt never changed color, just your perception of it. While this is a drastically simple example of how colored light can alter the appearance of an object, the effect is always present. We are constantly seeing less obvious shifts in an object’s color due to the constant lighting changes that exist in our world.

Color and Its Effects Figure 1.17  Light shaped by a gobo

light passing through overhead trees and branches. A popular technique for initiating texture and pattern into light is by placing gobos in lighting fixtures. While a single gobo might be used to project the image of a window with all its decorative mullions, a group of a half-dozen units with leaf-breakup patterns can be used to create a tree canopy over an entire stage. Gobos may be custom manufactured or purchased from catalogs that contain hundreds of patterns. Figure 1.17 illustrates the effect of a breakup gobo on a subject and the surrounding floor.

What Is Color? Color is a perception. It simply refers to how we see an object and how we have come to associate specific visual responses with the naming of given colors. Color is therefore dependent on memory associations. As children our parents taught us what was red, blue, or any other color, and we have learned that these basic color names can be associated with a given visual response. We refer to these color names as hues—the generic description or name of a given color. As long as we aren’t color blind, these hues become a familiar way of communicating color information from one person to another. Basic hues such as red, orange, or purple are easily understood, while hues like fuchsia, ultramarine, or sepia may be harder to

Of all the controllable qualities of light, color produces one of the greatest impacts on how we see an object and the surrounding environment. In fact, many say that color is the most difficult element for a young designer to master. Some of the reasons for this profound impact come from the fact that color has both physiological and psychological effects on how we view a scene or object. It has the ability to completely alter the observed color of a subject, change the perceived distance of objects, and can even cause objects to blend in with or pop out from their backgrounds. More importantly, the color of light has been associated with the ability to affect our heart and breathing rates, influence our productivity, and alter our moods. The first portion of this section provides essential color theory while the later segments address specific design considerations and techniques that a designer may use to manipulate color.

The Visible Spectrum Most light sources like the sun or a lamp contain elements of all the individual wavelengths of the visible spectrum (full-spectrum sources), with the combined result producing an overall color that is perceived as white light. This white light is actually a mixture of all the other colors or wavelengths of light. The visible spectrum can be observed through a prism that (through refraction) breaks a light source into its component wavelengths. Red is associated with the longest wavelengths while violet is associated with the shortest wavelengths.

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As illustrated earlier, hue may not give enough information for communicating a color from one person to another. Because of this, we have additional ways of describing color. Saturation refers to the purity of a color. The more saturated the color, the more specific and limited the range of wavelengths associated with it. Saturation may also be referred to as chroma. We often describe the opposite effect of saturation as a tint. In tints, a color is combined with either white light or a mixture of other wavelengths to produce a softer, less saturated variation of the hue, so that a greater variety of wavelengths are present in the light. We may also describe color through referencing its overall lightness or darkness based on a gray scale ranging from black to white. We describe this component of color as value. When we see a wide variety of wavelengths of light (full-spectrum light), we perceive the combination as white light—a condition that we see as normal. One of the most interesting concepts of color perception lies in the wide range of deviation in what our mind will accept as white light (color constancy). This quality of perception allows us to accept that an object’s color is constant despite variations in the color of the light that it is illuminated by. In exterior mid-morning settings, white light tends to take on a cooler quality that has an overall blue tint, while interior light sources are commonly associated with incandescent lamps that produce an overall warm amber-like tint. However, in each case we still accept the associated light as being white. The light associated with the sun may also be influenced by the time of day or year and physical location of the observer. Regardless, we all tend to register each of these conditions as white light.

Primary Colors The eye contains a collection of photoreceptors called cones and rods. The cones are separated into three specific types, each one sensitive to a different range of color frequencies or wavelengths of light—red, blue, and green. The cones detect and respond to varying levels of each of these three colors in order to help us create an understanding from a given stimulus of light. These colors have become known as the primary colors of light because they are used in various combinations to produce every other color. A close examination of your computer monitor or television screen will illustrate a composite use of these primaries to produce colored lighting effects.

Color Temperature Since sunlight is constantly undergoing color shifts, we need a way to describe the associated color that we perceive as white light. This is done through a referencing technique that we call color temperature. Color temperature compares the sum of all the individual wavelengths of a given light source with the color emitted from a black body

radiation of a given temperature (measured in degrees Kelvin). All materials emit radiation, or glow, when heated; as the temperature rises, the material’s glow shifts from red to yellow, yellow to white, white to blue, etc. In this way, every color of radiant energy can be equated to a referenced temperature on the Kelvin scale, where absolute zero (where no molecular action occurs) equates to 0°. All light sources— the sun, the arc from a welder’s flame, the lamps in our homes and businesses, and the light sources used in stage and film/television production—can be described through their color temperatures. The general range of color temperatures to which we are typically exposed is from about 2,000–13,000° K. Light sources with low color temperatures (approximately 3,000° K) will appear relatively warm and have an overall reddish tint, while sources with higher color temperatures (4,000–5,000° K and higher) will appear cooler and have more white or blue colors to them. Low color temperatures have an abundance of red or orange/yellow colored wavelengths while higher color temperatures are associated with an increased presence of blue and violet wavelengths. Several approximate color temperatures for everyday light sources include candles (2,000° K), 50-watt incandescent lamps (2,500° K), stage and studio lamps (3,500° K), cool fluorescent lamps (4,000° K), arc sources (6,000° K), and skylight (7,000° K or even higher).

CIE Chromaticity Chart The relationships between the many varied colors of light can be related to one another through a chart called the CIE Chromaticity Chart (Figure 1.18). While this chart illustrates the different wavelengths of color radiation given off by various temperatures of a black body radiation, the importance to us as lighting designers lies in its depiction of the relationships that exist between each of the three primary colors of light. Points associated with colors that fall toward the outside extremes of the chart are associated with colors that have higher saturations and can be seen as being more pure, while colors plotted near the center of the chart are indicative of tints and white light that contain a wider selection of individual colors or wavelengths. Colors falling between the primary colors will be shifted more or less toward one of the two primaries, such as red-orange or red-violet, or could fall equally between the primaries, representing the secondary color of the two initial primary colors. In light, these secondary colors are magenta (blue and red), cyan (blue and green), and amber (green and red). You can use this chart to make a fairly accurate prediction of the color that will result from a specific combination of colored lights. The resultant color of any combination of light sources can be predicted by locating the point that lies within the center of all the plotted positions for each of the individual colored sources. If only two sources are represented, the resultant color will lie at the mid-point of a line drawn between the points representing the two colors. If three sources are indicated, the resultant color will be

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Figure 1.18  CIE Chromaticity Chart. The most saturated hues are located along the outer edges of the diagram, with the primary colors (red, blue, and green) falling at the corners and the secondary colors (magenta, cyan, and amber) at approximately the midpoints between these. White light is found at the center with tints found between the white and the basic hue of the tint Credit: Figure based on a variation of the 1976 C.I.E. Chromaticity Diagram by Photo Research, Inc.

found at the middle of the field of a triangle that is created by connecting the points that represent the three colors.

Color Rendering While color temperature relates to the cumulative color of the light, many light sources produce light with very different spectral compositions despite having an overall appearance of light of a particular color temperature. In other words, the actual wavelengths present in a white light

source may vary considerably from one source to another. In fact, light sources may share the same color temperature while also having very different spectral compositions. While they may for all effective appearances appear the same, they will produce very different responses to the materials that they illuminate. If a source contains a lot of red wavelengths within its composition, a subject with a fair amount of red in its color will be enhanced, while another source that contains predominantly blue wavelengths will tend to mask, or gray, the red color of the subject. On the

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other hand, the second source will enhance blue objects, while the original source will gray a blue object. The ability to produce or reflect or absorb a variety of wavelengths is generally referred to as color rendering. This principle is readily seen in the high-pressure sodium lighting that is characteristic of interstate highways. In this case, the illumination has a pinkish-yellow tint produced through the given color temperature of the roadway lamps. However, these lamps also have a very narrow spectral composition, which results in poor color rendering for many of the colors that we see. Many colors that we would normally see under daylight conditions become masked, and it is hard to determine the original color of objects like cars under the effects of the sodium lighting. In fact, many colors simply turn to varying shades of gray and black under these conditions. This effect is even more drastic in low-pressure sodium lighting, which is found along some roadways and is identified by its dark yellow coloring (similar to bug lamps). The natural color of any object is due to the fact that its surface selectively absorbs and reflects different wavelengths of light. A red sweater reflects primarily red light, while it tends to absorb other wavelengths or colors of light. A green shirt reflects green light, while a purple shirt will reflect some combination of blue and red light. We call this either selective reflection or selective absorption depending on whether you are referring to the wavelengths that are being reflected or absorbed. An object appears best when it is illuminated with lighting that contains some of the wavelengths that it naturally reflects. In these situations, it is said that the lighting enhances an object’s color. The red object will look good not only under red light but also under white light because the white light contains red wavelengths as one of its components. A white light source that is a full-spectrum light source (like the sun) contains a diverse range of wavelengths and will usually make most objects look relatively good. On the other hand, light that has a very narrow or limited spectral composition will make many objects appear dull and gray. In the extreme cases, white objects reflect all colors of light and will take on the color of any light that is shone on them while black surfaces tend to absorb all wavelengths of light and will typically appear black no matter what color of light strikes them. One of the problems in choosing light sources in architectural and display lighting relates to the diversity in the spectral composition of the light. Many light sources such as fluorescent lamps have an overall high concentration of blue light within their spectral composition. When these lamps are used to light sales displays such as the meat at your local grocery store the meat often doesn’t look very attractive—most likely appearing dull and gray. The meat would look better if the light source contained an element of red light to help enhance the bright red color of the blood that the meat contains. By enhancing the color of the blood, the meat takes on a fresh, healthy appearance. If a store’s products have a wide range of colors, the light source that you choose should have a wide distribution of

colors in its spectral composition. We can address these issues through making a comparison of a property known as the Color Rendering Index (CRI) for each light source. Color rendering refers to how well a source can render or accurately depict an object’s color. Sources with high CRIs will have more individual wavelengths present within their associated light output and will enhance a larger range of individual colors. The maximum value that a source may have for its Color Rendering Index is 100. This is a point where color rendering is considered to be ideal and is generally associated with daylight or incandescent light sources that reflect a full-spectral composition. A  typical fluorescent lamp will have a CRI rating of only 40–50. If we go back to the example of the meat, we would find that a lamp with a CRI rating of 80 or 90 or better would make the meat look the best. Unfortunately, the expense of using lamps with higher CRI ratings also increases as the CRI rating gets higher; at some point a designer must weigh the factors of appearance versus cost as part of the design solution. A newer form of making CRI determinations is the recently created TM-30 metric, which makes comparisons of a light source’s color rendering to a palette of 99 reference colors.

Additive and Subtractive Mixing There are two different methods by which color may be created. One is through additive color mixing, while the other is through subtractive color mixing. Colors are modified through either the addition or removal of specific wavelengths of light. These mixing methods produce variations in color through very different means and each has a different group of primary and secondary colors. Each system also has a unique color wheel that illustrates the relationships between the principal hues of each color system. In each color wheel, the three primary colors are located equally distant around the perimeter of the circle while the secondary colors are placed at points equally distant between the primaries that mix a given secondary color. A complementary color is a color that lies directly across the color wheel from a color and forms a pair between the two colors.

Additive Mixing Additive color mixing comes about when different wavelengths of light are combined or added together. The process can occur only with two different colored light sources and their associated light illuminating a common surface. The overlapping light combines, or mixes, to produce a third and different color. Earlier we identified the primary colors of light as red, blue, and green. All colors are determined through various combinations of these three colors. A mixture of red and blue light will produce a violet or magenta-colored light, while a mixture of blue and green light will produce a turquoise or cyan colored light.

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A combination of all three colors with a bit more red will produce a pink colored light. An equal mixture of all three primaries produces white light. The relationships between all of these colors are indicated by the Color Wheel of Light (additive mixing), which is illustrated in Figure 1.19a. The Color Triangle (Figure 1.20) is a variation of the CIE Chromaticity Chart and color wheel that is commonly used as a reference to the relationships between the primary and secondary colors of light. It also helps to illustrate how complementary colors interact with one another. The primary colors are located at each of the corners of the triangle, while the secondary colors lie at the mid-point along

Figure 1.20 The Color Triangle: The color that results from mixing two different colors can be determined by locating the approximate position of the initial colors on the triangle and drawing a line between them. If colors are balanced, the resultant color will be located midway along the line. If unbalanced, the color is found along the line based on the relative proportions of the two initial colors. Additional colors may also enter into consideration, in which case the central point of any field defined by the initial colors (e.g., a triangle for three colors) is identified with the resultant color

each of the triangle’s sides. These positions also correspond to the complementary relationships between each of the colors. White light is located in the center of the triangle while an unequal mixture or combination of the primary colors will produce tertiary or intermediate colors.

Subtractive Mixing

Figure 1.19  The color wheels: (a) Additive (light). (b) Subtractive (pigment).

Subtractive color mixing comes about through a process where various wavelengths of light are removed by an object or material. All materials selectively absorb (or reflect) different wavelengths of light (selective absorption or selective reflection). An object appears to be a given color such as blue because it absorbs the wavelengths of all colors except blue—which it instead reflects. This is the basic color system that most of us have been instructed in since elementary school, and the primary colors include the familiar colors of red, blue, and yellow. These are often called the primary colors of pigment. Just as in the case of additive mixing, if you combine equal portions of any two primary colors you will produce a secondary color, which in this case will produce the secondary colors of orange, violet, and green. Finally, if you combine an equal mixture of all three primaries you

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will create a muddy warm brown color (similar to chocolate milk) that we often refer to as neutral gray. The Pigment Color Wheel (Figure 1.19b) is based on subtractive mixing and illustrates the relationships between each of these colors. Subtractive mixing can also come about by filtering the light, that is, by passing it through different materials. In this case, the material will absorb certain wavelengths while allowing others to travel onward. This is precisely what happens when we place gel or colored glass in front of a light source. Some wavelengths (colors) will pass through the gel (also known as a filter) while others will be absorbed and converted into heat.

Filtering Light On the whole, the light that we experience naturally throughout the day comes directly from its source unaffected. We may experience this unaffected light when we go outside into an open field or when we read a book under the light of a table lamp. However, many times we often want to either change the quality or color of the light to better suit our purposes. In fact, in the entertainment world, it is more common to modify or change the color of the light of a lamp than to keep the color of the light that the lamp originally produced. In architectural lighting, we more often want to alter the quality rather than color of the light. Filtering simply refers to placing an object in front of a light source to selectively filter, or remove, various frequencies or wavelengths of the light. The remaining wavelengths will pass through the material and continue on to interact with the environment. Some wavelengths are absorbed or removed, while others are transmitted or permitted to pass through the material. Those that are absorbed are converted into heat. Through this, the color of light can be altered through selectively choosing which wavelengths of color pass through a filter and continue on to a target. Historically, many devices have been used to filter light, including colored glass, plastic, and even fluids like wines and oils. As stated in the discussion of subtractive mixing, filtering also takes place when light strikes an object and we perceive an object’s color through sensing those wavelengths that the object has selectively reflected back to us.

Color Media Color media is the name that we give to the materials that we use to either filter or modify the color of the light that is produced by a lighting fixture. The media may be made from a number of different materials such as glass or ­plastic—even fluids or silks can and have been used for these purposes. The media is usually placed in a frame that is positioned at the front of a lighting instrument. Light from the fixture then passes through the color media, where it is altered and continues to travel on toward its intended target. The most common type of color media, by

far, is the colored plastic filters that we call gel. Light passes through the material where certain wavelengths are filtered out while others continue to pass through to the other side. Due to this filtering effect, many designers also refer to gel as filters. Gel was originally made from a specific material (animal gelatin) that was tinted to produce a variety of different colored filters. As lighting fixtures improved and lamps of higher intensities were developed, gel could no longer stand up to the extreme temperatures that were produced by the newer lamps and would melt or burn out (pale or fade where the heat and light were concentrated) resulting in an inconsistent coloring of the light. Along with more efficient light sources, engineers also developed filters in plastic media such as acetate and Mylar that could survive the higher temperatures. Today, even though we rarely use actual gelatin media, we often refer to all these filters collectively as gel—regardless of the actual material.

Plastic Media Plastic media is by far the most common form of filter in the entertainment lighting industry due to its overall low costs and ease of replacement. The media is purchased in 20 × 24 inch sheets (size can vary between manufacturers) or in rolls that allow the user to individually cut the media to any size needed. The material that is used to manufacture these sheets may be acetate or Mylar, plastics that were developed to withstand the higher temperatures of contemporary lighting fixtures. Some filtering systems have the color applied to the surfaces of clear sheets of plastic like acetate, while others, such as Mylar, have the color embedded into the plastic through the manufacturing process. By far the most important advantage of these filters is in the range of colors that are available to a designer for making their color selections. There are four primary filter manufacturers (Apollo, Gam, Lee, and Rosco) who each produce approximately 100 or more different colored filters (As a side note, Rosco acquired Gam several years ago). Each company produces a booklet with samples of the colored filters called swatch books that contain every color filter that they manufacture in a given system (several companies produce three or four different color systems). While plastic is the most popular filtering material, it does have a drawback in that it will fade or burn out over time. The rate of burn out is related to issues like the intensity of the light source (the brighter the light, the quicker a gel will burn out), the hanging position of the fixture (lights pointed upward will result in more heat passing through a filter than those where the light is pointed downward), and the color saturation of the filter (the more saturated the filter, the quicker it will burn out). In most theatrical situations burn out isn’t a problem and gels can be used and reused over many different productions. If burn out becomes an issue—through using very saturated colors or through being used over an extended period of time, such as at a theme park installation—the designer may either

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replace the gel as needed or will consider more permanent and often more expensive filtering materials like glass. With so many different colors available, there have been issues in trying to name and reference each individual color. While the manufacturers have given a name to every one of their colored filters, the name assigned to any particular filter will often not give a clear indication of the actual color that the filter will create. It is also impossible to indicate all these names on the light plot and paperwork. Therefore, each manufacturer has also referenced each filter by a numbering system in addition to giving a name to each color. With this system, filters or gels can be quickly indicated in a designer’s plans by writing a simple two-, three-, or four-digit number to indicate the color on the plot. While designers in the past often chose to use a single manufacturer’s gels on a given project, today’s designers often use a variety of gel selections that represent color

choices from several different manufacturers. In order to keep the color designations straight we often place a letter in front of the gel number which corresponds with the manufacturer of the specified filter (i.e., R-33 for Rosco #33, L-120 for Lee #120, G-160 for Gam #160, and AP-7900 for Apollo #7900). It is important to note that each of these color systems is completely independent from one another. While you may find the same name or even number in two or more of the different filter systems, these filters may, in fact, be quite different from one another. Even those gels that at first glance appear to look quite similar to one another may upon further examination respond quite differently in regard to which wavelengths of light they actually absorb or transmit. Sidebar 1.1 discusses how a designer can use swatch books and their associated spectral composition diagrams to predict the behavior of different colored gels.

Sidebar 1.1  SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF GEL To illustrate the response of light under the influence of a given gel, manufacturers provide a spectral analysis for each filter. This is presented as a graph on a sheet of paper that is mounted directly behind each filter in a swatch book. This analysis provides two essential types of information for a designer. First, a percentage identifies the overall transmission of the filter. This tells you how much of the light actually passes through the gel and is available to illuminate your subject. In many cases, a filter will reduce the light by a significant amount. Pastel or lightly tinted colors frequently have transmission rates in the 70–80% or better range while colors of even medium saturation quickly drop down to transmission rates in the 30–40% range. The transmission rates of heavily saturated colors like the deep blues can often have transmission rates of less than 10%, meaning that more than 90% of the light is being absorbed and converted into heat! Second, the graph displays the individual transmission values of specific wavelengths of light as affected by the given filter. The individual wavelengths of the visible spectrum are identified by wavelength (usually in nanometers) and plotted along the horizontal axis while the individual transmission rates of each wavelength are plotted along the vertical axis. The importance of this graph lies in how each wavelength responds to different colors of the spectrum when using a given filter. Tints generally reflect an overall high transmission rate across many of the wavelengths (Figure  1.21a), while highly saturated colors (Figure  1.21b and 1.21c) generally have low transmission rates across the spectrum while spiking in specific

Figure 1.21 Spectral analysis of gels: (a) Spectral distribution graph for Lee 153 (Pale Salmon). Note the relative high transmission levels for most wavelengths throughout the spectrum and slightly higher ones yet within the red portions of the spectrum. Overall transmission rate is relatively high at 64.9%. (b) GamColor 250 (Medium Red XT). Note the lack of transmission across most of the spectrum with a strong spike of transmission in the red wavelengths. Overall transmission rate is only 7.7%. (c) Blue filters often contain a hidden amount of transmission in the red portion of the spectrum. Here, Rosco 80 (Primary Blue) illustrates transmission in not only the blue but also the red area of the spectrum.

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wavelengths. A saturated red filter will have its highest transmission values in the 700–800 nanometer range while a saturated blue will have its peak transmission in the 400–500 range. A designer can make use of these graphs to help predict how a filter will affect the color of any objects that it strikes. If a designer wants to enhance an object with a green color, they need to choose a filter that has a fair to good amount of transmission in the green portion of the spectrum, high red transmission if the object is red, or high blue transmission if the object is blue. If a designer wants a wide range of colors to appear unaltered, they need to choose a filter that is more of a tint with a high degree of transmission across the entire spectrum. A  designer can also use the transmission curves to predict what colors a given filter will have a negative impact upon. Any color that is found to correspond with a wavelength of an overall low transmission will generally be darkened or grayed. In one final example, colors that appear to be strongly dominant in a given color may contain some hidden transmissions in other parts of the spectrum. One of the strange effects of deep blue lighting is in that many blue filters also have a high degree of transmission in the red portion of the spectrum, resulting in many objects containing any red dye or pigmentation taking on a reddish glow despite the overall blue color of the lighting. The perceived colors of costumes, paint, and even maskings such as legs and borders may demonstrate this effect, which has surprised designers who have not carefully

One of the largest problems of traditional filters lies in the fact that only one filter can be used in a fixture at a given time. Until the last 30 or so years, the only way to remotely change the color of light coming from a

planned their color selections. If effects such as these are undesirable, then the designer needs to carefully choose a filter with very limited, if any, transmission in the particular portion of the spectrum where these problems have been encountered. These spectral distribution charts are also posted on the manufacturers’ websites. Rosco even provides an indication of where the filter is located on the CIE Chromaticity Diagram. It should be noted that as a general principle a designer should avoid the practice of placing or stacking several layers of gel in an instrument. While this may occasionally prove desirable—such as in the case of bringing two relatively unsaturated colors together to produce a new color—this practice typically causes problems. This is particularly true if the colors are saturated and unrelated to one another. If you think about how a filter works, it should become apparent why stacking gels usually doesn’t work. For instance, if you were to try to combine a red and blue gel together to produce a purple colored light, you would find that the red filter would eliminate all the light except the red light and that the blue gel would filter out all except the blue light—including the red light transmitted by the red filter. The outcome of mixing these filters therefore results in effectively eliminating all of the light. This not only creates virtually no light transmission but also produces the added effect of a large heat conversion that will most likely result in melting the gels together and causing them to burn out. It is therefore best to select a single gel to produce a color than to try to combine several gels to produce a given color. Over time, especially with more saturated gels, the media will eventually break down and fade or burn out. Several methods of slowing down or preventing this include placing a heat shield or color extender on a fixture. Heat shields are a special variety of clear gel that are placed in a second slot of a fixture’s color holder (between the lens and the gel). This creates a gap between the gel and the fixture which allows additional air to circulate and cool the gel while also filtering out some of the harmful ultraviolet heat. Not all lighting instruments have the additional slot to hold a second filter. A  color extender looks like a top hat and works in much the same way but has internal slots that allow the gel to be placed further away from the lamp. Another technique involves running a pouncing wheel over the gel to create a number of small holes in the gel’s surface to help dissipate the heat buildup. The small holes are not perceptible in the resultant light.

given direction was to hang a second fixture containing a second color next to the first light. The color was then chosen through selecting which fixture was used at any given time. It also provided a way to use additive color

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mixing to produce a host of new colors through adjusting the intensity proportions between the two fixtures. This is commonly called double-hanging. In recent years, manufacturers have overcome this problem and have created an accessory that holds a variety of filters that are taped together to form a scroll. The scroll can then be rolled back and forth to specific positions that correspond to different colors. These devices, called automated color changers or scrollers, slide into the color attachment of a lighting instrument and allow a single fixture to have its color changed numerous times throughout a production. Scrollers can substantially reduce the number of fixtures required for a project. Earlier models contained 10–20 different filters in a single scroll or gelstring, while more recent models can contain 30 or more colors. A second generation of color scrollers produce their colors through the movement of two different scrolls that lie in front of one another. These later generation scrollers have an enormous range of color selection (nearly 500 colors) and allow the light to be mixed in various combinations through using the relative positions of the two scrolls. This effectively allows a designer to actually mix the color of light that they feel is appropriate for any given moment. The positioning of the scrolls is done through simple electronic commands that come from a typical lighting console. Scrollers have become quite popular and can be found in both entertainment and architectural/ display applications. Yet another technology makes use of inserting dichroic wedges in which the density of the dichroic materials has been gradually increased into the optical path of the light. These dichroic filters are based on the secondary colors of light (cyan, magenta, and yellow) and this manner of color manipulation is known as CYM or CMY mixing. This also allows a designer to mix nearly any color imaginable. Though still popular in the field, scrollers are most likely on their way out due to the advent of LED technologies that now allow luminaires to produce virtually any color imaginable through additive color mixing.

Glass Media In the past, glass was a very favorable form of color filter. However, due to problems such as color consistency (keeping colors consistent from one manufacturing run to another), limited color selection, breakage, and costs, glass filters have for the most part been replaced by gel products. However, if a filter is to be used over a long-term project such as in an architectural installation or themed environment where the filters will be subjected to months or years of service, glass once again becomes a viable alternative to gel. Many of the glass filters of earlier times were in the form of roundels, which are circular glass filters that are often installed in striplight fixtures. Frequently, these

striplights were placed permanently in theatres, and color was created through using roundels to color each of the independent light sources. Due to expense, roundels were only made in a few colors (typically red, blue, green, amber, and white). By using these colors in various combinations, it is possible, through color mixing, to create almost any color that a designer might want. While roundels may be used in striplights even today, most designers now specify gel for their striplight colors. In addition to providing color filtering, the roundels may also provide some form of patterning or diffusion that modifies the softness and focus of the lamps. Manufacturers have recently introduced a new line of glass filters that are inserted into the gate of a lighting instrument rather than at the front end of a fixture. These filters are being referred to as variegated glass filters and in general are used primarily to alter the physical quality of the light. While they may also provide color filtering, the majority of their effect is in creating various diffusion patterns and textures in the light. The variegated glass may also be used in combination with traditional color filters to make further changes in the light.

Dichroic Filters A special version of glass filter is the dichroic filter. These filters work on the principle of reflecting unwanted wavelengths of light rather than absorbing them. A red dichroic filter will allow red light to pass through it while the majority of the remaining light is reflected backwards away from the filter. In this case, the reflected light will appear cyan (the complementary color to red). Dichroic filters need to be oriented correctly within the light path to work properly. An angle that isn’t acute enough may result in scattered reflections of the light rather than allowing the desired wavelengths to pass through the filter. Advantages to dichroic filters lie in their color permanence and increased purity or saturation of a color. Dichroic filters can produce some of the most vivid, strongly saturated colors that are available to a lighting designer. Because of this, it has become popular to include a selection of dichroic filters in the color wheel of many automated fixtures that are rigged for lighting spectacle events like concert and themed activities. While expensive, the costs of dichroic filters continue to drop. In applications where a filter may be used for many months or years, designers are often choosing to use dichroic filters for their projects. They are especially attractive for themed environments and architectural applications. While these filters are often placed in the gate of a lighting instrument, there are also many dichroic filters that are designed to be placed in the traditional color loading location at the front of a lighting fixture. Manufacturers like Rosco are producing a solid collection of colors in dichroic filters. Though the range

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of colors is quite limited when compared to traditional filters, the number of dichroic colors that are becoming available continues to improve with every passing year. Dichroics may also be used in gobo designs where crushed pieces of dichroic glass are mounted on a slide to produce effects like water reflections or stained-glass imagery.

Diffusion Technically speaking, diffusion isn’t an actual color medium. This is due to the fact that it primarily alters the quality rather than the color of the light that passes through it. Many designers and manufacturers refer to diffusion media as frost. The materials from which diffusion media are typically derived from are plastics and are therefore manufactured by many of the same companies that make color media. In fact, manufacturers usually combine their diffusion and color filter media together into the same swatch books. As a rule, diffusion media softens the beam of any light that passes through it. Various degrees of diffusion can be created through a wide selection of frost materials. Frost may be very light or quite heavy depending on the individual needs of a design. There are even frosts that can spread or diffuse light differently in different orientations. However, diffusion cannot be used to sharpen or harshen a light, it can only produce a softening effect. Several uses of frost include softening the edges of lights that won’t quite focus softly enough, evening out the spread and eliminating any shadows between two or more adjoining light sources, and knocking down any hot spots between comparable lights. As a side effect, frosts can also cause a large amount of ambient or spill light. The use of frost or diffusion materials is especially important to the film and video lighting communities. One final form of diffusor that is making an appearance is based on technology where microstructures are embedded on thin film or semi-rigid plastics that have been duplicated from a holographic master. When exposed to a light source, the resultant beam’s direction and beam spread (which may be two different angles in different orientations) is altered based on the specific structure of the diffuser. These diffusors tend to have a much higher transmission efficiency than conventional diffusers that simply scatter the light. Frost is often combined with color filters. It should always be placed on the side of the color media that is away from the light source. Not doing so may cause excess heat to form and the two sheets could melt together. The effect will occur even more quickly if you try stacking several layers of frost together. In order to remedy problems like this, most gel manufacturers have designed a limited selection of media that combine a color filter with diffusion treatment in a single product. These combined colors are for the most part restricted to primary colors and

several additional colors that are typically used to light cycs and drops. Finally, media can also be used to change fundamental qualities like the color temperature of any light passing through it. In the film and video industry it is imperative that light from different sources be modified to share common traits like color temperature. Many of these filters are known as color correction and are used for applications like converting fluorescent lighting to daylight or incandescent color temperatures, shifting daylight (crews actually gel over the windows of an on-location set) to a tungsten color temperature so that the interior and exterior light sources are compatible with one another for the camera, or reducing the higher color temperatures of an arc light to match other incandescent light sources. Correcting for color temperature is also common in architectural applications of lighting design.

Creating Color Through Light As stated earlier, the color that we perceive for any object is actually the result of several variables. We need to consider the actual color of the object (those wavelengths of light that are reflected or absorbed), the color of the light (what wavelengths are present), and the color sensitivity of the viewing device (those wavelengths that an eye or camera can respond to). We don’t really have to consider the response of the eye since, for most practical purposes, we all have similar responses to color. However, this does become a factor when comparing color perception between devices like film and video cameras, because different cameras and films may respond to light quite differently from one another. This is also the main reason why a camera has to be white balanced before shooting a scene. Two primary questions that a lighting designer needs to answer in regard to color perception are: What does this object look like under different colored light sources, and what do all these different colored objects look like under this color of light? An often forgotten fact is that all colors, even light tints, that an audience (or any observer) sees are always going to be perceived colors that have been modified in some way, unless the scene is lit only with full-spectrum lighting.

Color Prediction I have found that you can get a pretty good indication of the perceived color for an object by simply thinking of the light in terms of its primary and secondary color components. By thinking of what colored wavelengths are present in a light and how each is affected by filtering and reflection you can get a pretty good indication of how an object’s color might be changed under the influence of a given color of light. Figure 1.22 illustrates this principle by showing different colored shirts illuminated

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by a magenta light source. In the first case (Figure 1.22a), the light leaving the lighting fixture contains white light with equal proportions of red, blue, and green light (the three primaries that form white light). In order to create magenta light, a filter is placed in front of the light to filter out green light and allow the blue and red to continue on to the shirt. The shirt, being red, will absorb the blue light and reflect the red light, resulting in us seeing the shirt as red. This is an easily predictable result. The same is true if we don’t change the magenta lighting, but switch to a white shirt as indicated in Figure  1.22b. In this case the magenta lighting goes on to strike the white shirt, which reflects both the blue and red light, resulting in the shirt appearing magenta in color. On the other hand, if we switch to a green shirt, the magenta light will strike the green shirt, but both the blue and red light will be absorbed. This results in the shirt reflecting no light,

which gives it a dark or black appearance as illustrated in Figure 1.22c. If you think of white light and objects as either having all three wavelengths present or being capable of reflecting all three wavelengths, and black as both absorbing or lacking all three wavelengths, you can make some initial predictions as to how a colored light will theoretically affect the colors of any materials that you may be lighting. This same approach can be used to predict the resultant color when combining two or more filters with the same light source. In Figure 1.23a the initial light from the source provides red, blue, and green wavelengths. Upon passing through the first filter (amber) the blue light is filtered away and the red and green continue toward the second filter. In passing through the second filter the red light is absorbed while the green light passes on toward its target. The second example (Figure 1.23b) clearly illustrates

Figure 1.22  Effect of colored light: (a) The shirt appears red because red wavelengths of magenta light are reflected while the blue ones are absorbed. (b) The shirt appears magenta because both red and blue wavelengths of magenta light are reflected. (c) The shirt appears black because both red and blue wavelengths are absorbed

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light source will be filled by the color of the second source, while the shadows of the second light source will be filled by the color of the first light source. Finally, if the lights are mounted as mirror images in such a way that they are both to the sides and slightly front of the subject, the resultant colors will begin with each of the different colors to each side of the subject that slowly grade or blend into an equal mix of both colors on those surfaces that are under the influence of both sources. Figure 1.23  Combining color filters: (a) Light coming from the fixture contains red, blue, and green primaries. Upon passing through the amber gel, the blue is absorbed, while the red and green continue on to the green gel, where the red is absorbed. Only green light passes completely through both sets of filters. (b) Again, the fixture provides red, blue, and green light, which is filtered to only red light once passing through the red gel. The red light continues on to the green gel, where it, too, is absorbed resulting in all light being filtered out by the gels.

why we shouldn’t combine filters. In this example, the first gel (red) filters out each of the wavelengths except red, while the green gel absorbs the remaining red light, which results in no light continuing beyond the two filters. Through experience and careful study of the spectral graphs that accompany the color samples in a swatch book a designer can make educated guesses regarding the perceived color of various combinations of filters and colored objects. Despite these techniques for predicting the effects of different colored objects and light sources, there are still surprises that come about due to various combinations of fabrics, dyes, and filters. For instance, the black fabrics that we use in theatre masking drapes are often dyed with dyes that contain a lot of hidden red colorant. When lit with certain blue gels (ones that contain a lot of hidden red), these drapes can take on a deep burgundy color as a result of the red dye. Because of issues like these, there really is no substitute for experimenting with the actual materials and filters and trying various combinations of colors by using mechanisms like light labs or mockups to test the color selection process. Angle should also be considered when looking at the effect of colored light on an object. This is particularly noticeable if an object is lit by lights that are colored quite differently from one another (see Figure 1.24). If the two sources come from essentially the same direction, the object will provide a common surface where the light from both sources will mix quite evenly, producing a third color through additive mixing. On the other hand, if the lights are positioned in such a manner that they are directly opposed to one another they will strike very few common surfaces. Some surfaces of the object will be colored with the light of the first source, while others will be lit by the second source. In effect, the shadows of the first

LEDs and Additive Color Mixing With the introduction of LEDs into the arsenal of lighting technologies lighting designers must make additional considerations in regard to color response and how additive color mixing will influence the colors that are observed on a subject. Aside from those luminaires that make use of “white” LED sources in which LEDs are specified to a specific color temperature(s), the novelty of most LED luminaires is in their ability to mix a seemingly limitless number of colors. This is done by combining LEDs of different colors for the unit’s light source. Unfortunately, LEDs produce light in a very narrow range of wavelengths and therefore have especially narrow spectral compositions. The most basic LED color mixing luminaires make use of only three LEDs and are known as tri-colored units (red, green, and blue—or RGB units). Though these LEDs are in the primary colors of light and can theoretically mix any color, due to their narrow spectral compositions, large “holes” are left between the individual wavelengths/outputs of each of these LED colors. This results in many colors illuminated by these sources not being rendered properly and a low CRI for the light source. While this isn’t as much of a concern when lighting something of a single color like a cyclorama (cyc), it can wreak havoc on scenic and costume pieces as well as skin tones. To address this issue, manufacturers have added LEDs of additional colors to fill in those “holes” in the spectral compositions of the light sources. The most common addition is of amber or white colored LEDs (RGBA or RGBW) while the most advanced system, the ETC Selador system, makes use of seven differently colored LEDs. A lighting designer must therefore think of color a bit differently when designing with LED fixtures. First, in order to mix a given color, a designer must determine the appropriate intensity proportions for each of the individual LEDs (each with its own channel) that will additively mix to produce the appropriate color. While this wasn’t too hard to determine with an RGB fixture, the combinations can become quite challenging when dealing with a unit with seven different LEDs to control—plus the additional channel that controls the overall intensity of the entire unit. Fortunately, most lighting consoles now provide some form of “color picker” technology that allows a designer to simply pick a color through using a mouse to grab a color on a color diagram (CIE, etc.) or by naming a particular gel by

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Figure 1.24  Angle and color mixing: (a) Spotlights 1 and 2 are positioned at opposing angles to the sphere or subject. The areas to each side indicate those areas that are under the influence of only one light, while the central area will most likely represent some form of shadow area where there is no or little light from either spotlight and therefore virtually no color mixing. (b) Spotlights 1 and 2 are brought closer toward the front of the subject, which once again results in the two side areas being lit by only a single source, but this time much of the light overlaps in a common mixing area where additive mixing produces a third color that is derived from the two spotlight colors.

manufacturer and gel number. The console then automatically determines the correct intensity proportions of each of the LED colors and their associated channels to create the given color. Second, though it has gotten much better with the use of additional colored LEDs, a designer still has to consider that there can still be “holes” in the spectral coverage of a fixture depending on the specific units being used.

Red Shift/Amber Drift in Tungsten Light Sources A final effect that needs to be considered is variation in the color of a light source. As stated earlier, different light sources have different color temperatures. Most color systems for the stage (filtering systems) are based on a tungsten light source having a color temperature of around 3,200° K. This is fine when the lamp is operating at full capacity, but in most stage applications we like to dim the lights, which lowers the color temperature of the lamp. In reality, the light output of the lamp shifts to producing a much larger proportion of red and yellow wavelengths of light. We call this effect red shift or

amber drift. The effect can have a dramatic impact on any colors and filters used with light sources that are run at lower intensity levels. Art directors in film and video need to be extremely conscious of color temperatures; for this reason they use special filters to correct color temperatures for a variety of situations. In fact, film designers usually prefer to run lamps at full intensity (hot light sources) so that they don’t have to contend with the effects of red shift at all.

Psychological Effects of Color Color can be an extremely effective tool for creating an overall mood or emotional effect for an environment. This is primarily due to the effectiveness that it can have in shaping moods and other psychological responses in a viewer. After intensity, color is the next most likely element of lighting to shape the mood that will be produced through a given lighting condition. One of the most distinguishing ways of characterizing light is by its sense of warmth. Light that has an overall abundance of red, yellow, and orange wavelengths is said to be warm,

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while light that is dominated by blue, green, and lavender wavelengths is said to be cool. Warm and cool light each produce distinct psychological responses in an observer. Most people tend to associate warm colors with conditions of higher energy, tension, and excitement, while cool colors tend to generate a more peaceful, tranquil feeling. On the whole, there are fairly consistent emotional responses that can be observed in a viewer when we examine color associations and mood. For instance, red brings about arousal and draws our attention or focus. It also creates relatively strong responses and can be associated with emotions like passion, conflict, and anger. Yellow forms that area of the spectrum to which we are most sensitive and tends to be perceived overall as white light. Green tends to react poorly with skin tones and is associated with unnatural feelings. It also tends to provide an overall neutral response. Blue helps create the illusion of distance and is associated with tranquility and more peaceful emotions (particularly in tints or medium saturations). Finally, violet produces a more solemn or melancholy response. We tend to have more positive responses to colors that aren’t strongly saturated. Pink produces a more pleasant association than red. A  golden color can be associated with light sources that are based on our daily experience (sunlight, candlelight, or a table lamp) and is seen as natural, while a light with a strong orange or red color is more unnatural and can take on a greater symbolic interpretation—many times in a negative frame of reference such as in the implication of hell or anger. A  medium blue color could be associated with romantic moonlight, while a deep blue might help create the mystery of a scene set near Count Dracula’s crypt. Warm colors tend to attract our attention while cool colors tend to be submissive and draw a more neutral response from a viewer. We choose to paint emergency vehicles red because of the attention-getting power of the red color. Understanding these properties allows a designer to use color to draw focus to particular elements of a scene. Another practical observation lies in the tendency of warm colors to advance or jump toward us while cool colors tend to recede into the background or distance. A  look at a distant landscape horizon clearly illustrates this principle of distancing. In the manufacturing and health care industries the overall color temperature of the light that illuminates a space is often used to modify the behavior of the occupants. Psychiatric hospitals incorporate lighting to create non-threatening environments for their patients, while the birthing rooms of traditional hospitals are often illuminated in warm incandescent lighting that suggests the warmth that you would find at home. Relief of anxiety, productivity, sense of contentment, and overall degree of comfort are all psychological feelings that have been shown

to be correlated with the color of the lighting for a given environment. Architects are working to create additional ways of incorporating daylight into building designs because it has been discovered that the number of hours of natural daylight exposure that we experience has a positive impact on our overall moods.

Color Contrast It must also be understood that color can be relative. It is easy to compare a red-colored light to a blue one to determine which of the two colors is warm or cool. However, a designer can make use of the relative warmth or coolness of any two colors to make a design statement. Is this blue cool in comparison to that blue? Is this pink warm compared to that pink? In fact, most colors will be warm when compared to some colors and cool when compared to others. We refer to these changes and relative comparisons of warmth and coolness as color contrast. What we acknowledge isn’t so much the degree of color contrast (large or small) but that color contrast is simply present in a given scene. Designers can use this to their advantage in a number of ways. First, in a broad sense, color can be used to draw focus through simply placing a single object in a different colored light from everything else on stage. The eye has a natural tendency to be drawn to whatever is different in a composition. A concert stage washed in red light with a single amber spotlight on the lead vocalist will bring attention to this performer. A room bathed in deep blue light with light-lavender moonlight streaming through the window will bring attention to the area lit by the window. Second, it is possible that a scene might work best in an overall single hue, but in order to make it more interesting and modeled, some form of contrast will need to be added to the image. By using variations of a basic hue where small differences in relative warmth or coolness are found, a designer can go a long way toward creating a scene that has believable overall coloring without necessarily using a distinctly warm versus cool color scheme. In going back to the example of the moonlight streaming through the window, variations of several distinctly cool colors will most likely produce a much more effective scene than simply picking a warm and cool color scheme.

Adaptation and Afterimages A final effect of color relates to two generally negative principles called color adaptation and afterimages. These occur when the eye has been overstimulated in some way. If the lighting remains unchanged for an extended period of time it is possible for color adaptation to become an issue. Fatigue may play upon the viewers’ eyes or colors may

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appear to shift in hue and value. The effect is especially pronounced if there are strong color saturations in the lighting of a scene. For a night scene that is lit under predominantly blue lights, the blue cones of the eye will become desensitized and sluggish through color adaptation. If the scene is followed by a day scene that is lit under essentially white lighting, the day scene will often initially appear to be too gold or yellow in color. This is due to the fact that the red and green cones are fully sensitive while the blue ones aren’t as reactive. For the second scene, the eye simply misses some of the blue light sensitivity that would normally balance the color to its normal white appearance. In time, the blue cones once again become fully functional and the gold quality will eventually fade away. Afterimages come about through a similar phenomenon in which the eyes remain stimulated even though the source of the stimulation has been removed. In this case, the cones will overcompensate once the initial image is removed—causing an afterimage to appear on a neutral surface. These images often appear to be colored in the complementary tint of the original image. You can create an experience that produces an afterimage by simply staring at a colored object for a period of 30–60 seconds. After a minute has passed, shift your sight to a neutral piece of paper or white wall and you will experience the temporary sensation of seeing the second object in the complementary hue of the original object. A similar effect can occur when a strongly saturated hue is the dominant lighting color for a scene that is immediately followed by a blackout. In this case, an afterimage is quite commonly experienced by the audience in the initial moments of the blackout. A designer may even make use of this phenomenon to add to the dramatic impact of the final image of a scene.

Practical Use of Color One of the fundamental concepts that a lighting designer must ultimately master is the use of color in a lighting design. It generally takes time and experience before you learn to feel comfortable with making appropriate color assignments. The primary reason for this lies in the dramatic impact that color can have on our perception of a scene. Young designers often choose colors that are either too pastel, which adds little interest or contrast to a design, or so saturated that they significantly distort a project. More often, a designer will need to make color choices that are more middle of the road—while also learning to know when pastels are appropriate versus when saturated hues might be required to successfully light a project. Color choices must always be made within the context of a project. What worked in one situation may not be successful at all in a similar situation. Every color choice ultimately comes down to a consideration of whether the color is appropriate or not for a specific image. There are a wealth of color choices available for a

designer’s consideration—not only through the hundreds of colors of gel that are available but also through the additional abilities of color mixing through the use of LED sources and automated fixtures that can mix colors internally. Experimenting is the one technique that a designer can use to best come to grips with the color selection for a project. The use of a light lab or software simulations like WYSIWYG™, LD Assistant™, Capture, or Virtual Light Lab™ can greatly assist in this process. Even shining light through a gel sample from a swatch book to view the results of the filtered light on the skin, costume fabrics, and painted colors of a set rendering or paint elevation will give the designer some indication of how these materials will react under a specific filter. There are designers who like to peer through a filter to see its effect on sample materials but I prefer to shine sunlight or an incandescent drafting lamp through a filter to observe how the light actually reacts on my skin, paint elevations, and costume swatches. If using this method, try to be sure that the color temperature of the light source is compatible with that of the fixtures that you will be using in your design (i.e., don’t use a fluorescent drafting lamp). Although I  discuss color considerations at length in regard to specific design applications in later chapters of this book, there are a couple of practical considerations that are fairly typical that I have chosen to explore at this point in my discussion. First, as a general rule, a lighting designer is typically trying to enhance the colors of a subject as they light a scene or object. This requires that, to some degree, the colors that are present in the costumes, scenery, or any other portions of the stage or environment must also be present within the light that is being used to light a scene. If these colors aren’t present, or if there is a high presence of the complement of these colors, the lighting might actually produce a dulling or graying effect on these objects. A prevalent rule of lighting relates to the trend that the more lights and varied colors that you introduce to a stage or environment at a given time typically results in increasing the amount of graying that is found within a scene. Second, it is also possible to overcompensate for this, causing some colors to be so enhanced that they might “zing” or become neon-like in their appearance. This, too, is usually considered an undesirable effect of choosing the wrong colors. Sidebar 1.2 provides a list of several practical considerations that lighting designers should keep in mind as they consider color for a given project. While these may tend to be true in most situations, be forewarned that none of these statements are absolute. In some cases, it might even be appropriate to use a completely conflicting technique for a given production. Stick to the principle that all design decisions are relative and must be made within the context of the given project. Also remember that your color decisions commonly change from one moment to another and that a stage composition doesn’t remain static.

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Sidebar 1.2  DESIGNER CONSIDERATIONS FOR COLOR AND LIGHT 1. Use colors that enhance the skin tones of the performers. For light-skinned performers these tend to be tints in the pink and lavender hues. Care must be taken when using amber gels because the green within the amber tends to emphasize the arteries that lie just below the skin’s surface, which can produce an overall sullen or sickly color on the performer. Green light should generally be avoided because of both its unnatural color and, once again, the effect that it has on the arteries of performers. Dark complexions such as those found in African Americans and performers from areas of the world such as India are generally enhanced by lavender tints while colors with strong elements of red may give an unnatural glowing quality to the skin tones of these performers. The yellow tint in the complexions of many Asian performers will also react differently to color than any other ethnic subjects and this, too, must be considered when choosing gels for a production or event. In projects where there is a constant mixture of individuals reflecting a diverse range of ethnic backgrounds, the best choices of color will reflect various tints that have a wide range of colored light. 2. In addition to the obvious effect of colored light on the skin tones of various ethnic groups, a designer should also consider the social effects of color on a given design. Color often represents different meanings from one society to another. For instance, in Western tradition black is a color often reserved for mourning, while in Eastern societies white is commonly associated with death. In our society, social implications of color include examples like white light being associated with purity while red light is often symbolically associated with anger, passion, or even demonic events. 3. Any natural colors found in the environment should be enhanced through choosing lighting colors that reflect a spectral composition that augments these natural colors. Fabrics, paints, and other colors that are characteristic of the individual design areas will look best if lit with similar colors. This principle is also true in architectural and display lighting where the product should be made to look its best through selecting colors that have an enhancing effect on the natural color of a subject. In some cases, especially in the areas of theatrical design and themed environments, materials may be painted or colored intentionally with different colors that can be purposefully modified by making changes in the color of the light that illuminates the material at any given time. With this technique, some design

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elements may be quite visible under one lighting condition while becoming hidden under another. Color can be used to mold/shape or to increase the dimensionality of an object by using progressively more saturated variations of a color in light sources that wrap around the subject from front to back. Colors from the front that are too saturated will distort an object. Additive color mixing will have an increased effect as the angles between two separate light sources (with different colors) becomes less pronounced. In other words, there will be more surfaces that are commonly illuminated by both sources, resulting in a larger display of color mixing between the two colors on these surfaces. In examining overall hues: keep in mind that warm colors tend to advance, while cool colors tend to recede, and that warm colors can generally attract focus—although it needs to be understood that all colors must be considered on a relative basis. The illusion of distance on stage can be amplified by lighting downstage objects and performers with warm light while upstage areas and backgrounds such as cycs are lit with comparably cooler colors of light. With motivational lighting, or light that is linked to an apparent light source, the color of the light needs to reflect the natural color properties of that source of illumination. For example, the light lavender of moonlight, the golden glow of a candle, the red glow of embers, or the warm amber of a late afternoon sun are all based on the color of each light source. Lighting color plays a dominant role in developing the mood and character for an environment or setting. Light airy moods are generally associated with warm colors, while somber moods tend to be associated with cool colors. The depiction of psychological energy can also be associated with color choices: warm colors are characteristic of more energetic feelings and tension while cool colors are more often associated with tranquility and more peaceful, reflective moments. The argument of using pink light for comedy comes out of these observations. In many theatrical applications lighting is the dominant manner of producing colored backgrounds for the stage. This is done through creating large washes of evenly colored light on large scenic surfaces like a cyclorama (cyc) or skydrop. In this case, filter colors are chosen that can either mix a large range of colors (i.e., the primary colors) or will work together to amplify a given range of color that is found in the scenic elements of these backgrounds.

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Even after discussing several general principles for color selection, the importance of experimentation needs to be re-emphasized in the process of working with color. Color can be unpredictable and there can be no better way of gaining an understanding of the hidden properties of a gel than through trying it out on a sample of the materials that will actually be illuminated. Many fabrics with colors such as navy blue and black are dyed with chemicals that contain hidden colors that aren’t immediately apparent under white lighting conditions. Another practical consideration to keep in mind is the sense of relativity that exists in the color applications of lighting. What was an appropriate color choice for one setting or project might be completely wrong in another situation. To help designers sort through some of the effects that many gels might produce, most gel manufacturers have developed a set of tables that suggest many applications for which a given color of gel might be appropriate. Finally, if worse comes to worse, gel is relatively cheap and can be changed fairly easily if you should decide that you have made the wrong choice. In fact, next to changing intensities, color is the most easily changed variable of the controllable qualities of light. The significance of color to the lighting’s overall design is a major impact on any project. Through time and experience a designer will learn how to control color and make it an effective element of their design tools.

For Further Reading Albers, Josef. Interaction of Color, 50th Anniversary Edition. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013. Bellman, Willard F. Lighting the Stage: Art and Practice. 3rd ed. Louisville, KY: Broadway Press, 2001. DiLaura, David L., Kevin W. Houser, Richard G. Mistrick, and Gary R. Steffy. eds. Illuminating Engineering Society—The Lighting Handbook Tenth Edition: Reference and Application. New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2011. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. IESNA Lighting Education 100 (Fundamental Level). New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 1993. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. IESNA Lighting Education 150 (Intermediate Level). New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 1993. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. IESNA Lighting Ready Reference. 4th ed. New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2003. McCandless, Stanley. A Method for Lighting the Stage. 4th ed. New York, NY: Theatre Arts Books, 1958. McCandless, Stanley. A Syllabus of Stage Lighting. 5th ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1941. Palmer, Richard H. The Lighting Art: The Aesthetics of Stage Lighting Design. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994. Rae, Mark. ed. IESNA Lighting Handbook. 9th ed. New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2000. Warfel, William B. and Walter R. Klappert. Color Science for Lighting the Stage. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981.

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CHAPTER 2

THE MUSIC SCENE (REVUES, CLUBS, AND CONCERT LIGHTING) THE MUSIC SCENETHE MUSIC SCENE

T

HIS CHAPTER BEGINS with a discussion of musical revues. Some may argue that musical revues are more closely tied to traditional musical theatre, but I have placed them here because I feel that they form a bridge to the performance events that are more specifically connected to the music scene. In either case, music is an especially important element of these productions and the lighting must support the song and dance routines found in these performances. The rest of the chapter focuses on club and concert lighting.

Musical Revues Many revues showcase the work of a particular time period or artists such as a choreographer, director, or songwriter/lyricist. Jerome Robbins on Broadway, Fosse, Sugar Babies, Little Me, Cole, and Side by Side by Sondheim are all examples of these revues. Cole and Side by Side by Sondheim showcase musical songwriters (Cole Porter and Stephen Sondheim), Jerome Robbins and Fosse showcase choreographers/directors, while Sugar Babies and Little Me showcased performers (Mickey Rooney and Sid Caesar). There are also a host of contemporary musicals that we have come to call “jukebox musicals” that feature the songs of famous pop and folk music artists. Just a few of these musical hits include Mama Mia (ABBA), Ring of Fire (Johnny Cash), Beautiful: The Carole King Musical (Carole King), and Jersey Boys (The Four Seasons). A number of songs/dances are selected from a variety of musicals involving that artist or other common denominator (i.e., vaudeville or burlesque routines, a popular period/era, etc.) and are presented together as a single program—sometimes with narration between the numbers and sometimes not. In some cases, such as with many of the “jukebox musicals,” some sort of storyline or plot may also be worked into the production—but again, the programs are more about performing the artists’ hits. A revue may also showcase a particular theme or talent. The Follies programs associated with the “show girl” productions in Las Vegas or the performances by the Rockettes at Radio City Music Hall are examples of these revues. Tintypes is a musical revue that showcases music of a nostalgic period (that of Charlie Chaplin and Theodore Roosevelt) while Sugar Babies is a tribute to vaudeville and burlesque performances. Due to the number and variety of musical numbers presented in a revue it is rare, if not impossible, for a production team to create a specific setting for each musical number. Instead, a unit setting is typically created to give a neutral background for the production while also allowing flexibility in the design. Any changes made to the set are usually minor. Common mechanisms for achieving this flexibility include flying elements, drops, revolves, traps, and reveals. These add variety to a scenic design while at the same time can be easily changed. Frequently the same scenic elements are used for several numbers instead of shifting sets for every new song. To make matters even more interesting, it is also fairly common to place the musical ensemble or orchestra (usually of limited size) on stage as part of a setting. Due to the relatively few scenic changes in revues, lighting takes on a more central role in creating the variety needed for these productions.

Figure 2.1  A musical revue (Side by Side by Sondheim): (a) A ballad. (b) An ensemble number.

Figure 2.2  Classic use of followspots: (a) Dames at Sea. (b) Sisters of Swing Credit: photos courtesy of Roman Tatarowicz.

It is quite common to use lighting as the primary vehicle for creating an appropriate mood and unique environment for any given song or dance while it also takes on a critical role in moving an audience through the transitions that occur between the musical numbers. Often, the cyclorama, or cyc, is a primary element in these designs—providing a canvas for creating unlimited backgrounds behind a setting. As a general principle, the lighting of a revue should reflect the basic qualities found in musical theatre—including a strong emphasis on side and back lighting. Washes work best in these applications and booms and ladders are used as much as possible. Low sidelight such as shins and mids may or may not be possible due to the scenic elements used in a production. Some good front lighting must also be available for the full company or ensemble numbers so that the performers’ faces will appear well lit and natural. It is especially popular to use followspots to add focus to the principal performers. They are often used for intimate ballads and solo/duet numbers or for pointing up the leads in a full company/big production number. While followspots are used extensively for directing focus, they also add to the presentational quality that is often associated with musical revues. It is best to use no fewer than two followspots for these productions—although at times, four or even more may become preferable. Additional accents and specials are then added to cover special areas and any action that is dictated by the needs of the director. Cueing is critical to the success of musical revues—not only in the sense of creating an appropriate image for each number but also in making the transitions from one song to another. Cues usually change between songs, although several musical numbers may be combined into routines that may be presented under the same or similar lighting (i.e., a series of ballads or a medley). One of the dangers of designing revues is in letting the lighting become stagnant when a series of songs are performed together that share similar moods and styles. More commonly, additional cues are set internally within each song (i.e., different cues for each verse and the chorus) while even more internal cues are generally associated with the big production numbers. Even though variations in color are the most logical changes that a lighting designer can use to create this variety, changes in angle, focus, and intensity are also good manners of bringing different images to the stage. Though some of the cueing may be triggered manually (generally in small venues), most is done through memory consoles with the operator only having to worry about initiating the cues. The timing and looks of all the cues are pre-programmed by the lighting designer. In extreme cases, where a show is based on pre-recorded music where the music is played back from a hard drive or other time-coded device, the entire cue sequence may be linked to a sound track through some form of show control. In these situations, the operator only needs to monitor the progress of the cue play back and override the sequence as needed—an example being where the sequence is paused during applause or during a

38   The Music Scene

scene change and then restarted with the beginning of the next musical number. Revues presented on cruise ships and theme parks often run in this fashion. Most musical revues are very presentational, and direct contact or acknowledgment of the audience often forms part of the experience and style of the performances. It is also quite common to parade performers through the aisles or to bring up the house lights to encourage audience participation in activities like sing-alongs in many revues. Visual effects such as strobe lights, ballyhoos, haze (or fog), blacklight, and rain curtains are tricks that also often find their way into these productions; the lighting designer must be prepared to deliver any, if not several, of these effects to a show. There are even special effects like the lobster scope that developed out of the old vaudeville circuits that can appear in musical revues. These effects are discussed in Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals and are not repeated here (though they can also be found in the glossary). However, to be successful, a designer working in this area should become familiar with effects like these so that they can be utilized in their designs. While many musical revues take place in small intimate theatres with simplified staging, others can grow into huge extravaganzas or spectacle events. Many cruise ships now have well-equipped theatres that present musical revues—many revolving around tributes to Broadway. More recent cruise productions like those produced by Norwegian, Celebrity, and the Disney cruise lines have grown into spectacle performances that are part of the basic entertainment package that is provided for a ship’s guests. Cruise productions are an attractive market where early career lighting designers and technicians can gain valuable professional experience. You’re not going to be entrusted with the featured designs (they usually go to topnotch designers), but there are always onboard clubs/ lounges, special activities, and the running/upkeep of the shows which can provide valuable experience for a young designer. While the principles for designing revues are essentially the same, the sense of scale (size and budget) can grow to an extreme. The dance revues associated with casino hotels (Las Vegas; Atlantic City; Branson, Missouri, etc.) are examples of revues of this extreme. These revues are often housed in a modified hall that is half theatre and half ballroom—complete with tables and bars that allow the audience to consume drinks throughout the performance. Several large-scale revues are examined more specifically in Chapter 3.

Evolution of Club and Concert Lighting The roots of club and concert lighting can be found somewhere in the late 1950s to ’60s. Although nightclubs had existed for many years—i.e., the dance clubs that featured the swing or big bands of World War II—any specialty lighting tended to be theatrically based, with the primary

function focused on the illumination of the band leader, soloists (vocal and instrumental), and the band itself. A  different lighting style developed with the pop music movement as this new form of music became popular and performers searched for another way to experience the music. While there are a number of different types of clubs, each can be associated with some element of specialty lighting. From tiny lounge acts found in many hotels to sophisticated dance clubs and discos, lighting frequently takes on a significant role in the club experience. Many of the earliest lighting effects associated with this new music were influenced by the psychedelic environment that was commonly connected to the new music. A  central concept revolved around recreating the hallucinatory experience associated with the drugs that were connected to many of the performers and their music. This also came at a time when the musicians were more concerned with the music itself than in becoming the focus of the event as performers. One of the more popular lighting developments that came out of this era was the invention of liquid oil light shows where clear plates of oils (such as mineral oil) were set on overhead projectors while colored dyes were introduced to the mixture. As the oils were heated, new fluids and dyes were introduced and a constantly changing projection of psychedelic color could be created. Within a darkened room, the projectors could throw the images of swirling colors onto screens, the club walls, or the band and audience members themselves. Other psychedelic lighting effects that were associated with these shows included blacklight, neon, and strobe lights. Over time, not only the bands and club owners, but also the patrons demanded more spectacle. As the lighting became more sophisticated, it grew in popularity and became a major component of club performances. With the increasing popularity of the new music and the need to sell more records, musicians began to play clubs to not only provide entertainment but to also promote their latest singles and LPs or albums. For those of you who have grown up in the era of CDs, downloads, and Apple iPods: singles relate to a vinyl record approximately 6 inches in diameter (played at a speed of 45 rpm) with one song per side, while LPs are about a foot in diameter (played at a speed of 33 1/3 rpm) and contain about 20 minutes of playing time per side. Oddly enough, LPs are now gaining popularity once again as enthusiasts are attracted back to the “sound of vinyl.” As a way of increasing their following, bands typically play a night or two at a bar or club and then move on to other clubs for subsequent performances in other towns—the hope is in being discovered and developing a wide-enough audience to sell more recordings. Many bands play the club circuits since this is the usual manner in which a career begins. As successful performers develop followings, they outgrow the smaller bars/clubs and move into larger, more prestigious venues that allow them to play to larger crowds. This eventually leads to concert touring where the musicians

perform in spaces that provide room for much larger audiences. While traditional theatres might provide an acceptable performance venue for small to medium-sized concerts, many facilities managers didn’t want to deal with the other elements commonly associated with concerts (smoking, drugs, and drinking). This resulted in many concerts being presented in facilities like gyms, fair buildings, and warehouses that were not equipped to provide for the theatrical needs of the artists. Issues like staging, audience seating, power, and lighting/sound equipment were non-existent in these venues and the artists had to either bring their own gear or contract other companies to provide the gear for them. Often, the local promotor was shouldered with these responsibilities. While it was common for a local promoter to have no problem providing seating, catering, and security, many had no background in the technical requirements of a band—which often resulted in the bands not being provided with the equipment that they needed to produce their shows. This eventually led to many musicians avoiding these hassles by either purchasing their own gear or contracting a company to rent the lighting and sound equipment for an entire tour. A number of production companies were born from this need to service the technical needs of the tours that were organized during the 1970s. Much of the touring revolved around the concept of playing to as many people as possible. Typical tour itineraries include back-to-back performances in different cities and nightly shows for five or six days at a time. This placed an immense amount of pressure on both the setup and transportation of the lighting and sound systems used by these acts. Innovators quickly developed numerous methods of packaging their equipment in ways that shortened the load-in and load-out process. These developments now allow hundreds of lights, dimmers, and other gear to be set up, used in a performance, and struck within an 8- to 12-hour period. Efficiency is so high that the same gear can often be struck and on its way to the next site within only 2–3 hours following a performance. As musicians become more popular and eventually break into “star” status, the size of the venues and the associated lighting and sound rigs grow even larger and more sophisticated. With success, these tours will graduate from the club circuit to the larger, more lucrative, concert tours. Major artists playing on today’s tours are booked into large sports arenas, stadiums, or convention centers where they can perform to tens of thousands of fans in a single performance. At the same time, the lighting must be expanded in both scale and degree of spectacle.

Nightclubs and Dance Club Lighting In traditional nightclubs, audience members sit around tables and are offered drinks while a band performs a set consisting of 6–10 musical numbers. A band typically plays three or four sets a night with 20- to 30-minute breaks

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between each set. Some clubs, on the other hand, prefer to book a different band for each set. In most cases, a stage is part of the permanent facility and is equipped with a variety of basic lighting and sound equipment. The artists traditionally provide their own instruments and amps while the venue uses a repertory plot and house sound system for the primary lighting and sound needs of each act. Typical club rigs provide a series of washes from several different directions like front and back lighting along with some specials and a short-throw followspot. In the smallest clubs or lounges, this may be as limited as having several different colored PAR-38 lamps focused to each member of the band. As clubs grow in prestige and size, so do their lighting rigs—many providing a reasonably well-equipped rig featuring PAR-64s for front and backlight washes in several colors. These rigs/rep plots are fairly permanent, often with not even the colors being changed from one night to another and requiring a lighting designer to work with what is available. Some bands have their own designer who thoroughly knows the group’s music and simply works with the rig as best as they can while others are lit by a member of the club’s staff. This person has most likely never heard the band’s music and simply improvises the design as they go—what many in the business call busking or designing on the fly. While this may seem to be an unsatisfactory arrangement at first, most beginning bands can’t afford to pay for a lighting designer. Another saving factor lies in the fact that the majority of the material performed by many beginning bands isn’t original but instead consists of popular songs that a staff designer probably already knows.

Club Gear There is a huge amount of variety in the lighting equipment that a designer may come across when working in clubs. Some of the gear is extremely sophisticated and has been developed specifically for dance or club use while some clubs use equipment that was designed primarily for theatrical uses. Years ago, some clubs would go as far as to place store-bought PAR-38 lamps in coffee cans while using homemade switching boxes and zip cord as a solution to their lighting needs. Nowadays, people are more safety conscious and most municipalities have regulations that require bands to use equipment that has been specifically designed for entertainment purposes. While this has gotten rid of most of the garage-inspired equipment, a significant amount of the gear used in these environments is often borrowed from the theatrical community—the exception being the specialized luminaires typically associated with lighting a dance floor. In many cases, the lighting for the space isn’t specified properly and a designer will find issues like PAR-64 units (because the club owners have seen them in concert rigs) lighting musicians from as little as 3–6 feet away. Although there are clubs that only provide a dance environment, the majority have a

40   The Music Scene

stage in addition to a dance floor so that live bands can perform in the venue. Because of these dual needs, there are often two different entertainment lighting systems in many clubs (one for the stage and one for the dance floor). In addition to the entertainment systems, there will also be architectural lighting systems that light specific areas like game rooms, table/seating areas or bars, emergency lighting, and worklight (for cleaning and preparing the club during off hours). Of these, the most prominent systems outside of the entertainment systems relate to lighting the seating/lounge areas because they set the theme and overall mood for a club. Some clubs are lit to encourage more conversation at the tables and bars while others emphasize the stage and performers—and still others may emphasize a dance floor. In reality, this is usually kept flexible so that the clients will be comfortable in a variety of situations at different times. Only the lighting associated with the entertainment systems associated with the stage and dance floor are presented here. STAGE AND BAND/MUSICIAN AREAS  The gear lighting the stage can vary considerably from one venue to another but is in many ways connected to the scale of the events being presented in a space. On the small side, a stage can be as simple as an elevated corner of a hotel lounge that is designed for as few as one to three performers (i.e., a vocalist playing an acoustic guitar). At the other end of the spectrum are nightclubs fashioned after Las Vegas revues that contain lavish scenery, well-defined stages, and elaborate lighting rigs. The type of equipment that you find in any of these spaces depends both on the size of the space and the type of acts that perform in it. While we usually think of musicians working in these venues, other popular forms of entertainment like comedians, magicians, and improv troupes also perform throughout this circuit. Some venues have their own lighting rigs, while others expect the band or performance group to bring their own gear to a gig. If this is the situation, the venue is equipped with company switches that allow bands to tie into the building’s power. In extremely small venues, a company switch won’t be provided and a band may have to tie into a circuit panel such as one found in the kitchen. They may even be limited to plugging their equipment into standard convenience outlets that are located throughout the facility (load distribution must be a careful consideration of this practice). In many cases, a club operates using some combination of in-house gear along with equipment that is supplied by the band (often a couple of movers and a lighting console). This allows bands to create a unique “look” by simply hanging and tweaking the movers and adding the in-house gear to an otherwise pre-programmed show. There is an entire line of dimming equipment designed for work in the smallest lounges/clubs. Here, designers may have to do nothing more than run a heavy-duty extension cord from a convenience outlet to a dimming module that is placed near the lighting units. The luminaires are plugged

into the module and a control cable is then run from it to a dedicated controller that is placed by the operator (a form of distributed dimming). In the smallest operations the musicians may even run the lighting themselves through some form of foot switching device. Each module typically contains two to four low-capacity dimmers (400–1,200 watts) and care must be taken to ensure that too many modules aren’t placed on the same 20-amp house circuit. You also have to be careful of any other loads that may assigned to the same circuits as your lighting. I have found clubs where every outlet in the room was assigned to the same circuit—along with equipment like refrigerators and coffee machines—which will effectively lower the amperage that is available for the lighting. Many of the lighting systems discussed here come packaged as a complete system that combines one or two booms, each outfitted with four PAR units, along with the control and dimming modules. While elementary, such a system is very portable and can be all that’s necessary for many acts that perform in hotel lounges and small bars/clubs. Moving into larger venues results in the use of more elaborate lighting systems. Most gear (luminaires and dimming/control systems) for lighting club stages and bands

Figure 2.3  A package system for club touring: Chauvet LED PAR package (4BAR USB) Credit: ©2013 Chauvet & Sons, LLC

is borrowed directly from theatrical applications. Although computer systems are in use, manual systems have traditionally been preferred because of the need for a lighting designer to improvise a design. Using consoles that provide some degree of presetting or loading “looks” into a number of different submasters generally form the basis of a good nightclub system—especially if different bands and designers use the rig on a nightly basis. Other features that are frequently found on consoles used in club work include bump or flash buttons, independent masters, blackout switches, and chase effects. These give a designer an immense amount of flexibility in responding to the music as they cue the show. These consoles are also more affordable. When computers are used, they are more often used to create a palette of effects and “looks” (including moving light cues) that the designer will store and then call up as needed. Often multiple effects or looks are simply piled-on or layered on top of one another when using these systems. Most clubs have a number of “looks” and effects already programmed into their consoles so that a designer only has to make a selection of those presets/effects that they want to use at any given time. Many clubs use traditional theatrical fixtures (Fresnels, ellipsoidal reflector spotlights, and PAR cans) in a rep plot that will be used by the groups playing at a particular venue. Bands may be permitted to re-color or focus a rig but in most cases they simply deal with what is already assigned to the instruments. Ceilings in clubs are notorious for being too low. It’s quite common for a club to have a 12- or 15-foot ceiling (low by lighting standards) while placing the musicians up on a stage that is 3 or even 4 feet off the ground. This can put the front ends of the lighting instruments only 2 or 3 feet above the heads of the musicians. Hanging positions are also often nothing more than 1 1/2–inch pipes that are dead hung from the structure of the building. Unistrut may be used in some cases to hang the luminaires a bit closer to the ceiling. A designer may also find a real hodgepodge of circuiting in some clubs. Although there are clubs with pre-wired raceways, it’s not at all uncommon for these rigs to be completely spidered. Permanent trussing is used in a number of clubs for the front and back lighting positions while PAR-64s or their smaller cousins are used for many of the primary luminaires. It is also common to find units incorrectly sized for a space. Many club owners see PAR-64s used in concert setups and think that they too should have them when in fact the throw distance is more in line with what would be needed for a PAR-38 or -56 fixture. Club owners may also fail to understand the concept of beam spreads and the different lamp configurations associated with PAR lamps. Numerous clubs are lit with banks of PAR-64s that are less than 4–6 feet from the heads of the musicians, which can produce harsh shadows and hot spots on the artists. There are also a number of the newer-generation LED PAR heads that have become quite popular in club rigs.

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Large clubs will go even further and can use a significant amount of equipment that was originally developed for concert touring. This is most often reflected through a prominent use of trussing and PAR-64 luminaires. The trussing can take on a design element of its own through being configured into visually interesting layouts as well as by having highly decorative finishes like chrome. In the most elaborate rigs, the trussing may be supported by hoists or chain motors that are capable of moving the trusses into different configurations. It is important to note that any chain motor used in this fashion must be both rated for and modified (by a factory-authorized rep) for rigging operations. As a means of creating further spectacle, the trusses are often lit internally. Automated luminaires and scrollers are frequently significant elements of upscale rigs with the moving heads and scanners providing shafts of light that search through the space in time to the music. Automated lighting often becomes a primary method for creating specials throughout a performance. Gobos and projections can also be worked into the specifications of many clubs. Haze, smoke, fog, and even bubble machines are used for effect as well as to make the shafts of light more visible to an audience. Lasers, blacklight, LED display and panel systems, and even neon are also found in many nightclub systems. Finally, video projections using plasma or LED screens and other video monitors along with LCD projectors are being used in many club settings. Full video walls may even appear in some upscale designs. Regardless of whether the rig is provided by the facility or the performers, flexibility, and the ability to improvise are two essential requirements that a lighting designer must fulfill when working in these settings. This holds true whether you’re employed by the act or a club. The key advantage to being employed by the club rests in being familiar with the rig and pre-programmed effects/cues stored in the console while the designer who travels with an act will be more familiar with the band’s music—though they must quickly adapt to each rig and console that they encounter.

DANCE FLOORS  Movement is in constant play on a dance floor and this lighting should have rhythmic features that are timed to the tempo and beat of the music. Even slow dances have some form of movement generated by the swirling motions of a more subtle effect like a mirror ball. On the other hand, the majority of the effects are not at all subtle and include elements like roving beacons, spinning search lights, flashing neon, strobes, and chasing light displays. While the fixtures used in lighting a stage are fairly standard, those used on the dance floor are often selected for the specific effect that they create. They must also have heavier duty lamps that stand up to the constant motion and vibrations of the music for extended periods of time (6–10 hours a day). A number of these luminaires make use of small spotlights like PAR-38s, but due to the intense shaft of light required by many of these effects, the smaller filaments of DC lamps and variations of Aircraft Landing Lights (ACLs) often become popular sources for dance floor settings. Many designers and club owners refer to these luminaires as pinspots. Sidebar 2.1 lists several of the more popular luminaires used in club design and their associated effects while Figure  2.4 provides photographs of several different types of club fixtures. Disco brought a huge interest to this type of lighting in the late 1970s. Even though disco isn’t popular at this time, dance clubs continue to use many of the same effects today.

Figure 2.4  Specialized lighting fixtures commonly used on dance floors: (a) LED beacon, (b) Six-head PAR-36 helicopter, and (c) DJ Scan 250 HP Credit: photos courtesy of ADJ Products LLC

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Sidebar 2.1  SPECIALIZED LIGHTING EFFECTS FOR DANCE FLOORS (PRESENTED IN AN APPROXIMATE ORDER OF APPEARANCE) Mirror Balls

A motorized ball covered with mirrored tiles that spins as tightly focused lamps are played upon it. The resulting effect produces hundreds of dots of light that swirl around a dance floor.

Color Wheels

A filter wheel or disk containing several colors and a slowly revolving motor that is placed in front of a light source to produce a series of alternating colors.

Flashing Lamps

Luminaires (often PAR-38s) that may be clear or colored, which have a stationary focus and simply pulsate to the music. They are often worked into chase sequences by flashing circuits of common colors together.

Neon

Neon tubing is created in decorative designs that are often worked into the ceiling of a dance floor. Different gases are used to produce a variety of colors in the designs. The units may be lit continuously but are often programmed into chase sequences.

Blacklights

Tube or more concentrated sources such as UV cannons that wash an area in ultraviolet light.

Strobes

High-intensity lamps (with high color temperatures—typically xenon) that are used in rapid flash sequences to produce a stop-motion effect. Many clubs use several different strobe systems. The first, borrowed from theatrical applications, washes over the dancers and related areas while the second contains a number of smaller strobes that form point light sources that are hung throughout a ceiling. These are programmed to fire in several combined circuits or individually. They may also appear as flash tubes in which a clear tube contains multiple strobes that can be programmed to chase.

Chase Lights

These effects can be worked into a club design on several levels. First, as a programming choice, any number of lighting circuits can be programmed to chase through using the lighting console. More importantly, marquee lamps (several circuits of different colors) are often worked into the ceiling design of many clubs and can be programmed into different chase patterns. Other variations of chase lights are found in rope lights and bee lamps (miniature sources) that can also be programmed into chases.

Beacons

Revolving directional lamps that are encased in lenses of different colors (red, blue, amber, and green). Variations of the units are used on emergency vehicles.

Tiled Panels

Translucent panels that are diffused and backlit with light sources of different colors (red, blue, amber, and green). The colors can be programmed to the music resulting in the panels changing colors as a response to the music. Dance floors and wall or ceiling panels use this technology.

Pivoting Fixtures

Luminaires that usually use a variation of PAR-38 or ACL lamp to produce a sweeping beam of light that mimics the effect of a search light. Many refer to the individual heads as “pinspots.” Some pivot a full 360° while others sweep a fixed back and forth pattern They only have pan movement and are equipped with clear or colored lenses. While most fixtures only have a single moving head, others may have three, four, or more heads that can sweep individual patterns or function as a coordinated group.

Spinners

A variation of pivoting fixture in which two, three, or up to six individual heads/light sources (variations of pinspots, ACLs, or PAR-38s) are spaced evenly around a central pivot and spun by a common motor. The lamps may be colored the same or differently from one another and are commonly placed on different circuits. They may also be referred to by several different names—Lee Watson uses “whirlers” to describe these while other manufacturers such as American DJ call them “helicopters.”

Effects Lighting

These are specially designed mechanisms that produce a given lighting effect. Many run independently of a control system and are simply plugged into an AC power source and are left to run using their own audio sensors. Sensitivity and intensity of the effect are commonly their only controls. In addition to an audio sensor, many also accept a direct

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audio feed from the sound system. While intensity and speed may be changed, the overall nature of the effect is always about the same—leading to a wide variety of devices that provide very unique effects. American DJ specializes in many of these effects. Automated Lighting

Smaller versions of the moving heads and scanners that are used in concerts have also become popular in many club designs. Scanners have become especially important due to the limited ceiling space that is found in many club environments. Full moving effects along with the ability to change color and a variety of gobo patterns have led to the acceptance of these fixtures in the club markets. In addition to programming these units through a console, many are also equipped with audio sensors that allow them to react without programming specific cues for their movements. Many automated luminaires used in clubs are sold with dedicated controllers.

LEDs

LEDs are working their way into numerous applications in the club circuits. In the simplest cases, they have been placed in linear displays that are used to chase pre-programmed patterns across the display. Recently, different colored LEDs are being mounted into fabrics and dance floors which are circuited so that chases and other patterns can be created in the surface of the materials. LED video walls and projection systems are also making an appearance in club circuits. Finally, PAR heads and other luminaires that contain LED arrays are now being used for a variety of wash and spotlighting applications.

Another difference between dance lighting systems and those used for the bands/stages relates to the manner in which many of the lights are controlled. While a designer often runs the stage lights through manual instructions, most dance systems are operated through an audio sensor or interface like a color organ that can be tuned to specific frequencies. The color organ detects specific frequencies that in turn trigger control channel(s) that are assigned to the associated frequencies. The effect produces a sequence of lights that pulsate with the beat of various

elements of the music. The frequencies were typically separated into three or four control channels (highs, mids, and lows)—each triggering a different set of lights. With audio sensors like this, a somewhat predictable light show can be choreographed to the music without a huge amount of programming. Many moving lights and scanners also contain audio sensors that allow the automated fixtures to shift their functions in response to the music. In many small clubs a DJ may run both the lighting and sound systems. They may also operate a single console

Figure 2.5  Dance club lighting effects: (a) ADJ Products Stinger II. (b) ADJ Products Aggressor HEX LED Credit: photos courtesy of ADJ Products LLC

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that controls all of the lighting effects together or a series of dedicated controllers (i.e., for moving lights) that are run in addition to the primary console. Because of the need to be flexible and to respond to the music and crowd, a number of specialized consoles have been developed for lighting dance floors and clubs. These are quite similar to theatrical consoles but contain extra features that enable a light jockey to “play” the console while responding to the music (Figure 2.6). Several of these features might include: a manner of setting a variety of chase patterns with easily manipulated speed and pattern settings, a number of programmable submasters that can store both cues and pre-programmed effects, audio inputs, and features like encoders or joysticks, and touch-sensitive flash contacts that are enlarged and sometimes lit for easier operation. If the dance music is pre-recorded, elaborate cueing sequences can be pre-programmed and initiated from rack mounted consoles that simply play back cues that were previously recorded by a more sophisticated board. This type of setup is particularly helpful when a club plays pre-recorded dance music or for when a live band is taking a break between sets. Abstract video and projections have also become part of many clubs’ programs—with the people creating this media becoming known as video jockeys or VJs.

Club Design Principles Designing for clubs revolves around several different lighting systems. Each is tailored specifically to the image that a club strives to create and the type of patrons that they cater to. An upscale club catering to personal success and established professionals would be frequented by older business people while a club designed for the

20-something crowd would take on a completely different look. There are clubs that cater to the pre-drinking crowd and others that relate to specific themes like contemporary country/western music. The type of dancing found in a 20-something club will be completely different from the line dances performed in a country/western club. The lighting designer needs to be familiar with the types of music and expectations of a club and its owner so that they can produce lighting that fits the club’s profile. Often a design consultant will be brought into a club to design the overall lighting systems while a light jockey will run the lights on a nightly basis. When designing a club system, the light jockeys that work there should be consulted because they have the clearest understanding of the needs of the club and the effects that would be best received by the clientele. Figure  2.7 provides a sample light plot for what would be considered a fairly typical stage arrangement for a club installation. STAGE AREAS  Most club arrangements involve a fairly flexible solution to lighting the stages in a given facility. While rep plots are often created for these lighting systems, they are easily modified as needed. The majority of these lighting systems place luminaires (usually PAR units) both directly in front of and behind the stage and with enough fixtures, full-stage washes are created that light the performers from both the front and back in a variety of colors. This solution is based on concert lighting and offers lots of flexibility. Specials, if available, are then added to bring focus to the individual performers. In more limited plots, the front PARs are simply focused to each musician. As long as the musicians stay roughly in the same locations, this will effectively result in each member of the band being lit by each

Figure 2.6  Lighting controllers developed for club use: (a) ADJ Products LED-T-FC Foot Controller. (b) ADJ Products DMX DUO Rack Mount. (c) ADJ Products DMX Operator 192. (d) Avolites Arena Console Credit: (a–c) photos courtesy of ADJ Products LLC, (d) photo courtesy of Avolites Lighting

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Figure 2.7  A light plot for a club stage

color with the shadow areas falling between the musicians. Backlight is approached in a similar manner—washing the stage first, then going on to focusing individual specials on each of the musicians. Several pairs of luminaires lighting the drummer are also often added that form mirror images with one another across the centerline (drum kits are typically placed upcenter). If money is available, effects fixtures like strobe lights, beacons, and automated luminaries will also be added to the plot. Often, a single followspot is used to highlight the solos. While some clubs rely solely on the artists to provide the band’s lighting, most provide some form of repertory rig that offers many of the above elements and is directly proportional to the size of the venue. As the clubs get larger, the rigs will also grow in size and complexity. Figure 2.8 provides examples of several different types of club lighitng. Timing and flexibility are important elements in these designs. How elaborate the design becomes is based primarily on the nature of the individual band and its music. While some bands follow a more laid-back presentation that falls into a Top 40 format, others may lean more toward a metallic high-energy sound—and the lighting must be appropriately designed for each of these different styles. While flashing lights and effects are often employed

in club situations, care must be taken to avoid the temptation to simply flash the lights to the tempo of the music. If using chase or flash sequences, special care should be taken to match the tempo of the lights to the music. In fact, a more conservative stationary look is often better than flashing lights that are not in sync with the music. This is especially important in situations where a designer is unfamiliar with a band’s music. Common threads or themes should be found in the music so that each song can have an overall “look” while still providing variations that respond to each of the song’s verses and choruses. A lighting designer should strive to create an element of uniqueness for each song. Bands have a repertoire that they will often develop into a play list or set list for a given show. This is simply a listing of the songs and order in which they will be performed during a given set. Because bands respond to an audience, play lists are often determined during the break immediately preceding a set. In reality, bands are known for getting wrapped up in a performance and forgetting to stick to the play list—they may even transition into songs from their repertoire that weren’t even on the play list for a given performance. Surprises like this keep lighting designers on their toes. Jim Moody recommends watching what instruments are being picked up between songs as a means

Figure 2.8  Club lighting: (a) A bar entrance area. (b) A nightclub lounge area. (c) A dance floor with trussing. (d) A lounge and dance floor with visible moving heads. (e) An active dance floor with automated lighting in full swing Credit: photos courtesy of dwphotos/Shutterstock

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Figure 2.8  (Continued)

Figure 2.8  (Continued)

of narrowing down what song the band may be going into when they have departed from the set list or are giving multiple encores. DANCE AREAS  If a club has a dance floor, this, the music, and associated lighting often define the character of the club and type of clientele that it attracts. A notable difference between lighting a nightclub stage and dance floor is the amount of permanence that is given to the lighting of each area. The stage area is based around flexibility and the rigs along with their associated equipment should be easy to change based on the needs of the bands that perform in a club. Dance floors, on the other hand, are relatively permanent installations. A number of the specialty fixtures associated with dance floors have already been discussed. On the small scale, a dance floor can be as unassuming as a corner of a bar that is lit with a couple of specialty luminaires. On a grand scale, such as in the clubs found in Las Vegas or Disney World’s former Pleasure Island, they can include elements as large as several story dance halls, complex lighting rigs with moving trusses, and room-sized turntables that function as dance floors. Due to the permanence of the rigs that are often used to light a dance floor, special considerations should be made toward the aesthetics of a rig. It must appear slick and well-organized, and fixtures should not appear to have a random or cluttered placement. Luminaires for a dance floor are usually mounted directly to the ceiling which is often relatively low and painted black. Ceilings as tall as 12 –16 feet are common, although some clubs may extend between two to three stories of a building. There is also a formal layout frequently designed into the placement and manners in which the fixtures are mounted (Figure 2.9). Many dance floors are based on square or rectangular shapes and the fixture layout reflects the floor’s design. Symmetry is also typically worked into the layout so that patterns of circling lights can be made around the dance floor. This is particularly true of any linear fixtures like chase strips, rope lights, and neon tubes. In other popular layouts, a dance rig will have a central focus around which much of the equipment is placed in some variation that radiates outward from this central point. Spinners or beacons mounted on one side of the floor are often mirrored on the opposite side of the floor. The fixtures themselves also have more decorative finishes since they are rarely masked and are almost always in full view. Typical finishes are black matte so that the units blend into the dark ceilings. Others are more theatrical in nature and can sport painted or chrome finishes. In addition to all the specialized gear, a number of clubs also use smaller versions of the scanners and moving heads that are used in concert and stage applications. Issues like maintenance, durability, and lamp life should also receive consideration when designing a dance rig. Finally, a designer must work within the aesthetics of the club and the design of the entire building. In regard to

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installation, two items that need to be examined include budget and timing. Most clubs cannot afford to be closed for an extended period of time to undergo renovation. In fact, many owners like to add new equipment and effects during off-hours so that they don’t lose any income during a renovation. The budget also dictates what effects and systems are affordable for a club. One final concern rests in the fact that most of this lighting equipment is considered permanent and must be installed in accordance with local codes by a licensed electrician. In most clubs, the dance floor and its lighting become primary elements of a club’s entertainment when bands are not performing. When the bands return to the stage, the dance lighting is usually cut back and shifts more to a secondary role while the stage lighting and performers take on the primary focus. This doesn’t prevent patrons from dancing when a band is playing; it just shifts the focus to the band. Regardless, the primary goals of this lighting are to enhance the music (live or recorded) while enticing the patrons to become active participants on the dance floor.

Unique Issues in Concert Lighting Concert touring initially came about through the need to promote new recordings. It also was a way of introducing bands and solo artists to a larger audience while providing fans with a live experience. In the early part of a band’s career this touring is usually in the form of playing as many clubs as possible. While some bands will play an entire weekend (Thursday–Saturday night) in a single club, it is more popular for a club to present different bands every night as bands move on to other towns and clubs in order to build a larger following. Other ways of getting discovered include playing as an opening act or warm-up band for a more established group and playing in a festival where several bands use the same setup over the course of a day or weekend. The more successful a band, the more nights they will play in a week and the larger venues that they will perform in. All bands hope to become the headline or principal act in their own concerts. Ironically, no matter how successful a band becomes, touring remains a popular element for developing an audience—only the scale of the tour and venues will change. In recent years tours have become increasingly costly to put together and many bands and solo artists (see Boz Scaggs—Figure 2.10) have responded by going out on longer tours on a more infrequent basis. The industry has also changed in that with the ability to download single songs on the web, the majority of a band’s income now comes not from album or download sales but from performing live concerts. Musicians usually begin their careers working the small bar and nightclub scene; if successful, they outgrow these stages and move into larger venues. This often equates to a large vacant space that is rarely equipped for theatrical presentations. In many cases, even the seating and staging are not part of the original facility. Fair buildings, warehouses, and

Figure 2.9  Lighting layout for a dance floor

Figure 2.10  Boz Scaggs in concert at the Great American Music Hall, San Francisco (lighting by Jeff Ravitz) Credit: photo courtesy of Jeff Ravitz

many college gyms have become venues for concerts that have outgrown the club or bar act. On a more positive side, these alternative facilities can handle several thousand audience members as opposed to the several hundred that even a large club or theatre could safely accommodate. In time, venues such as these can accommodate audiences of 5,000, 10,000, or even 15,000 fans. As bands attain even more popularity these facilities also become too small and the groups migrate to still larger venues like stadiums, convention halls, and arenas where 50–75,000 or more audience members can be in attendance. There are numerous tours on the road at any given time that work through an established round of venues in a number of cities as part of the regular tour circuit. Spring and summer are some of the most popular times for touring. While there are relatively few mega-tours featuring the most popular stars playing to the largest cities and arenas on the road at any given time, there are a number of other tours, with less familiar artists, that follow a different circuit that play to smaller audiences and facilities on the road at the same time. Another popular touring strategy in the last 10 years has been to combine two acts into a co-headliner arrangement. This allows larger facilities to be booked by the groups while cutting down on the costs of having each group tour on its own. Regardless of how big a star or band becomes, touring usually remains an important part of their careers. In the early days, even though the artists usually provided the promoters with a contract rider (a contract attachment of technical and performance specifications),

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many promoters did not have the expertise to understand those elements that pertained to the lighting, sound, and staging requirements of the band. While they quickly understood and could deliver on the number of cases of drinks and food for the artists, mention of booms, dimmers, and washes had the same effect as if the rider had been written in Greek. To make matters worse, the promoter’s people who could interpret these aspects of the rider were often not involved in the negotiations with the band’s reps. The practice often resulted in frustration and daily arguments between the band and a new round of promoters each day as power requirements, light and sound gear specifications, and staging requirements were compromised from venue to venue. Since the quality of the concert reflected on the artists and not the promoters, most tour managers eventually found that it was much easier to simply package their own equipment so that they could deliver a consistent show from one performance to another. Even after bands began touring with their own or rented equipment, they did not compromise their itineraries and continued to maintain a schedule that frequently required back-to-back performances on a daily basis. Many bands averaged five or six concerts at as many venues each week. Even with the larger technical demands placed on these productions, the one-night stand still is the most popular form of touring. This puts increasing demands on the crews in the form of the speed and ease in which the gear can be transported and assembled on a new site for

each performance. Often the venues that will be played are not known by the lighting designer (LD) when putting together a touring package. It is important to not only look at flexibility but to also work the “deal breakers” into the riders while also determining where compromises might be negotiated with the promoters and facilities managers (i.e., the number and type of followspots required). Conditions are constantly changing from venue to venue, and a touring designer must be capable of quickly sizing up a situation and making decisions that keep the momentum of a show moving forward. Learning the difference between when a compromise is necessary and when to push for a given production requirement forms a critical ability that a touring lighting designer must possess. Due to the immense role that a lighting designer plays in the overall success of a concert, most designers are expected to tour with the group and personally run the console during each performance. Exceptions to a lighting designer not personally running a tour are the largest tours that use well-known designers that are too busy to go out on an entire tour. These designers typically light the show and quickly move on to other projects within the first week or so after a tour is up and running (the shakedown)—­ leaving the tour and lighting in the hands of someone else (a lighting director). The followspots for these performances are typically run by local operators who are not familiar with the show, and the lighting designer/director typically calls or gives instructions to these operators throughout a performance. Lighting is a major element of most concerts and often represents the primary visual element of a performance. Spectacle and effect play a significant role in this type of lighting. Designers frequently improvise throughout a performance. A lighting designer/director is paid for their musicality and sensitivity and must bring the lights into a design that will heighten and enhance the performance of the group and its music. In most cases, a designer is paid an up-front fee for the design plus an additional daily or weekly fee based on how long they are physically touring with the show. Many bands are very loyal to the people who have been doing their sound and lighting over the years but may be required by their management to use a “name” designer when they break into the big time. With this being the case, along with the fact that many “name” designers don’t like to go out on extended tours, the person who has been with the band for much of their journey is often retained to take over the lighting once the “name” designer moves on. In the early days of concert lighting, designers used manual two- or three-scene preset boards that were equipped with pin-matrix submasters and momentary flash buttons that allowed them to “play” the light board in much the same way that a keyboard might be played. Chase engines were also common features of these boards. Later-generation boards allow cues and effects to be stored in a memory that could be used to cue the performance one cue at a time. Manual elements can still be used as effects and “looks” previously stored in a board’s submasters can be piled-on or

loaded on top of the existing lighting. Now that touring rigs contain so many automated luminaires and that lighting consoles have become so specialized; most tours also employ a programmer to complete much of the programming and cue operation for a concert tour. Programmers have become an integral part of the design team. A number of designers have developed such good professional relationships with their programmers that they often negotiate with producers to get their favorite programmers hired on their shows. In the case of a name designer, the programmer is also often the person who takes over the running of the show once the production gets rung-in and on a normal schedule.

Touring Successfully There are a number of issues that can cause a tour to break down: poor communication, circumstances, and personnel issues are just of few of the areas that can cause problems that can seriously compromise a concert event. Tours operate on tight itineraries and everything must be coordinated like clockwork—even to the point of the order and time in which the trucks arrive at a venue. A breakdown or lost truck that arrives several hours late can cause havoc in the load-in of a concert. Even with such a loss of time, decisions must be made and the load-in must proceed so that a show can still happen at the projected curtain time. The guiding principle of touring relates to the attitude that no matter what the circumstances, a show must go up—the only exceptions being illness on the part of the artists or some catastrophic event. Even outdoor festivals plagued by storms usually happen despite the circumstances. While one may have an attitude that “the show must go on” no matter what, there are still a number of issues that might be compromised or forfeited if improper planning or certain situations should develop. Since there is potential for all sorts of disasters during a load-in, care must be taken to not compromise the safety of the audience, artists, or crew in any way. Speed, organization, and the ability to be flexible are several of the most important considerations for touring successfully. Each venue is an unknown, and every day the problems of mounting a show will be different. An immensely successful show one night can be followed by several nights of inadequate facilities and crews that become real challenges to pulling off a successful event. If all goes well, by 4:00 or 5:00 in the afternoon a fully completed rig should be assembled and ready for sound check. If you like new challenges on a daily basis, can think clearly and unemotionally in a pinch, and have a talent for troubleshooting—touring might be a wonderful career for you. While many artists tour from four to six weeks to six months at a time, most touring electricians and designers are on the road the majority of the year—moving on to new groups and tours after completing a given tour. Sidebar 2.2 provides a sample daily schedule that would be considered fairly normal for a concert tour.

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Sidebar 2.2  A SAMPLE CONCERT TOUR SCHEDULE 8:00 a.m. 9:00 a.m. 10:00 a.m. 12:00 noon

2:30 p.m. 3:00 p.m. 4:00 p.m. 5:30 p.m. 6:00 p.m. 7:00 p.m. 8:00 p.m. 9:00 p.m. 9:30 p.m. 11:00 p.m. 11:30 p.m. 1:00 a.m.

Rigging call (if required) Trucks arrive at venue and begin load-in Company Switch Connected Trusses/fixtures in air and working (focus early afternoon); followspots rigged during focus PA balanced/room EQ (silent time except sound) Instrument truck and artists arrive Sound check Preset opening act Opening Act Sound Check Open house (dinner for band and crew) Opening act goes on Changeover to headline band Headline band goes on Show ends and strike begins Load-out begins Load-out complete (Trucks and crew travel overnight to next venue.)

One of the most important elements for ensuring that a tour is successful relates to pre-planning. Everything should be planned in as much detail as possible—even before a tour leaves the shops. A designer must know the exact requirements of their rig. How much weight does each truss carry? How much power does the rig draw? What is the minimum power requirement? How many stagehands and hours will the load-in/strike require? What are the minimum number of followspots needed for the show? All of these are critical questions that need to be answered before the very first stop and are the basic requirements of the tour. These requirements along with other artists’ demands must usually be provided/met by a local promoter who needs to know of the requirements well ahead of the day of the concert. The promoter is not only in charge of ensuring that all of these obligations are met, but must also typically pay the costs of providing these elements of the show. The rider is typically sent to the promoter weeks ahead of the performance date with the demands being negotiated between the promoter and the band’s management. Riders can be divided into several areas: the musicians’ needs (local travel to and from venue, hotel accommodations, etc), dressing rooms (number and size, showers, food, drinks, etc.), gear needs (piano tuned to a given frequency), and staging requirements (size and height of stage and sound wings, power needs, followspots, fork lifts, and number of local crew members required

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at various times throughout the day). One of the issues that might arise in regard to crews could be the requirement of union or non-union stagehands as well as the fact that some IA locals (local union chapters of International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees) may not permit their members to work across departments as general stagehands (i.e., a member is only a rigger, electrician, carpenter, etc.) and that some promoters set a maximum number of crew hours for an event. At one point, the artists used to try to specify their entire lighting rig (i.e., so many colors of front and back wash light—often with a rough plot), which the promoter then provided as best as they could. When bands grew into larger setups and developed a more personal image than generic lighting could provide, it became more effective to package their own gear so that they could avoid the many surprises that appeared at the venues. A  problem with riders is that they can become excessively burdened with more trivial needs like the number of cartons of cigarettes or cases of beer or other catering supplies that the band desires. In the meantime, major elements that are essential to the production are either lost in the details or completely misunderstood by the promoter. Many times, the promoter’s people who should respond to the technical elements of the rider aren’t even consulted before the contract and rider are negotiated—or the band’s management accepts compromises on behalf of the band without consulting with the technical people who are actually on the road with the show. Both cases are common and result in crews showing up at a load-in and not finding what they are expecting at a facility. Tour personnel have often arrived at venues to find issues like the amount of power at the company switch or generator not to be adequate, unsafe portable stages, a lack of trained personnel, or loading facilities that aren’t up to par. One manner of preventing a number of these problems is to advance a venue, which means that a staff member personally visits a facility to see the performance space and talk to the primary technical supervisors about any foreseeable issues before the tour is scheduled to move into a facility. This provides an opportunity for not only discovering any potential problems but also gives you and the venue’s team several days to come up with adequate solutions to the problems. While all of these situations are frustrating, and some can force compromises in the way a show may be presented, “the show must go on.” While you could spend time arguing with the local people and threatening not to unpack the show, it is better to find a way to scope out the situation and find a way to make do with what you have while negotiating what you can to make the show happen. Even though these problems still happen today, they have become much less of an issue as promoters have become more educated in the needs of touring and venues have become better equipped for conducting concert tours. The key to a successful rider is in being able to specify exactly what the minimum requirements of your rig really are. Each item or

concern must be listed clearly and if any substitutions are acceptable, several alternative choices might be specified. If something is a deal breaker, (i.e., the absolute minimum

power requirement), it should be so specified in the rider. Sidebar 2.3 provides an example of a page from a typical concert rider.

Sidebar 2.3  A SAMPLE PAGE FROM A CONTRACT RIDER 1. Artist requirements (all to be provided at the sole expense of the promoter) 1.1. Baby concert grand piano available for entire day of concert 1.2. Piano to be tuned on day of concert to A440 after piano is placed on stage 1.3. Limo service for six musicians to and from hotel and airport 1.4. A personal car and driver for the crew 1.5. Two large dressing rooms to accommodate up to 15 individuals (w/restrooms) 1.6. Shower facilities w/toiletries plus no fewer than 50 towels 2. Food 2.1. Coffee and pastry selection for crew at load-in and hot breakfast for all touring personnel (coffee to remain available all day) 2.2. A cold selection of sodas, fruit drinks, and bottled water must be kept available for the crews throughout the entire call 2.3. Selection of fruits, fresh vegetables and beef jerky on hand throughout call 2.4. One catered lunch for all crew members (pizza not permitted) *2.5. One hot catered meal for all performers and crew to be served at 4:30 p.m. (No less than two meats (chicken, steak, roast beef, or pork . . . NO FISH), salad w/ selection of dressings, and breads, four different vegetables (mashed potatoes, baked potatoes, corn, lima beans, asparagus, or beets . . . NO GREEN BEANS) 2.6. Fresh fruit /cheese trays delivered to dressing rooms prior to opening house **2.7. Two fifths of Jack Daniels Black Label, one fifth of Absolute vodka, three cases of Corona light, two cases of Budweiser, one case of a variety of sodas and water for performers and crew (placed in dressing rooms by dinner time) 3. Staging requirements 3.1. A stage of minimum dimensions of 40 feet wide and 20 feet deep and a height of 3 feet

Speed and efficiency rule the concert scene. Most tours play no more than a single performance in a venue and often travel several hundred miles during the time between

3.2. Two sound wings at the same height as the stage that measure no less than 15 feet wide by 8 feet deep 3.3. Crew calls (all crew to be provided by promoter): 9:00 a.m. Six loaders, four carpenters, and six electricians Four carpenters and six 12:00 noon electricians 4:00 p.m. Two carpenters and four electricians/followspots 11:00 p.m. Six loaders, four carpenters, and six electricians 3.4. Forklift and operator for load-in and load-out 3.5. Minimum power supplied at company switch to be 3 phase 400 amp service 3.6. Promoter to provide house electrician for power tie-in and removal ***3.7. Promoter to provide four followspots sized for the venue with the following Frame assignments (Frame 1—R02, Frame 2— R09, Frame 3—R36, Frame 4—L128, Frame 5— G940, and Frame 6—G925. Substitute media may be used provided that the colors are the equivalent to those indicated here.) Many riders now specify a particular menu for * each day of the week. This provides a reasonable diet and prevents the crews from having four straight days of ham, baked beans, or some other menu item. ** This list of alcoholic beverages reflects what was a common practice at one time. With the problems of abuse in recent years, demands such as these have become de-emphasized—even to the point that many bands request only juices and bottled water. *** Some lighting directors prefer to carry pre-loaded followspot color frames and an ample supply of extra gel in the followspot colors to ensure that the followspots will always be in the correct colors. These frames are given to the crews to install in the house followspots and are struck once a show is over.

shows. Not only must the stage, lighting, and sound gear be set up quickly, they must also be set up safely. The concert industry has set the standard for portable staging equipment

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and the packaging of lighting and sound systems for touring. Because of the tight itineraries the industry has modified traditional theatrical equipment or developed new gear that have significantly reduced the amount of time required for a tour to load-in and assemble their rigs in a new facility. Luminaires are now often pre-mounted and wired into portable structures, dimmers are pre-wired into rolling road cases that are connected to the loads by multi-cables and quick connections, and large frames of lighting gear (trusses) are simply bolted together and winched into place above the stage. The idea of packaging all of the components into modular systems has formed a central concept throughout the concert industry for many years. Not only the gear itself but also the road boxes are planned with standard sizes so that they can be packed into the trucks in the most efficient way possible. The road boxes are also loaded or stacked in the trucks in a specific order so that they can be off-loaded as needed and long waits can be avoided as crews wait for a given piece of equipment. Many companies even color-code and label the road cases so that the electricians can know at a glance what is in a box and where it should be directed during the load-in process: i.e., downleft, front of house (FOH), upstage, etc. Even truck arrival times are coordinated so that the staging and rigging trucks arrive first, followed by the sound and lighting trucks, with the band equipment and instruments showing up last. In the largest tours, portions of the equipment might even be duplicated so that some elements of the staging are used for every other venue—what is commonly known as leapfrogging. This is modeled after the circus practice in which circuses established A and B or Red and Blue teams (Jim Moody is credited with bringing the red/ blue convention to the concert industry). The specialized stages of many mega-tours often use two different stages or rigging setups that are used for every other venue of a tour. Unfortunately, there is usually only one lighting and sound rig, which must be transported and set up in each venue. All of these practices save considerable time in the load-in process. What is ironic is that rather than making use of the efficiency and extra time to relax production schedules, tours have instead grown in scale and complexity as we have used the added efficiency to place additional spectacle and gear on the stage. In addition to speed, many of these innovations have also produced gear that is more precisely tailored to the durability requirements of concert tours. As an exception, the very largest tours and artists may produce shows for large stadiums and arenas that could take several days to load-in and set up before a given performance. Decision making and flexibility are critical needs of anyone who works in the concert industry. Even running the console becomes an intuitive act in which many of the cues are improvised by a lighting designer or lighting director. If you agonize over decisions, this is not the place for you to seek employment. There are too many issues that can surface that will throw curve balls into an otherwise well-planned load-in. Remaining flexible and open to

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compromising elements of the load-in without causing a compromise in the overall outcome of a show is perhaps the most important attribute that a concert designer must have. There are many times when decisions simply have to be made and committed to simply in the interest of getting the show up and running. I  have personally had to cut back on the number of dimmers I have used because of inadequate power and lowered trim heights by 10 or more feet due to stages being placed under fold-up basketball backboards that produced clearance issues for the upstage trusses. I have also had to start load-ins several hours late because of a lost truck, and I know colleagues who have had to do shows missing a significant amount of gear because of a breakdown or accident. In all of this lies the ability to assess the situation and to commit to some form of action that will get the show up and running. The only cardinal sin is inaction and to wait or not make a decision. A plan B (or C, D, . . .) should always exist so that you can make the show happen in some form by curtain time. While a certain amount of delay is possible, concert schedules are tight enough that it is best to redirect your crews so that the time isn’t completely wasted while you are waiting for a truck to arrive or some other critical situation to be resolved. Once a decision has been made, commit to it and find a way to produce the best show that you can under the given circumstances. Remember that for the most part, only you and the band actually know what the full package may entail, and that the audience is there primarily to hear and see the artists. If you look at the tour in this light you should be able to deal with the day-to-day challenges of being out on the road. In reality, possessing these traits will allow you to become successful in any form of entertainment design—not just rock and roll. One last consideration should be mentioned in regard to working successfully in the concert industry. This relates to the issue of your personal perspective on life and personal care. This industry is laden with abuses—not only in the obvious areas of drugs, sex, and rock and roll but also in the entire concept of scheduling and maintaining the rigors of a typical tour. Most concert itineraries require many backto-back 12- to 15-hour days on the part of a lighting crew, which can be grueling on your body. While the temptation is to live the fast life, we all need time to rest and recuperate. Make maximum use of the limited time that you can spend in the tour bus or hotels and find ways to eat, sleep, and stay as fresh as you can. Once you are tired, sickness can quickly settle in, which will make the touring experience all the more difficult. It also becomes more and more difficult to get back to 100% without the proper amount of rest. You need to recognize when you are too sick to work. If you’re tossing cookies every 15 minutes you’re probably going to be pretty useless for running the show. While we say that the “show must go on,” it doesn’t necessarily mean that you personally have to be sitting behind the console—in nearly all situations there will be another member of the crew who knows the show well enough to get the rig in the air, operate the console,

and pull off an acceptable show. As a final word of caution, be careful of all the abuses that are associated with the glamor of the rock and roll industry. Alcohol and sex have brought down a number of our colleagues in the concert field, and drugs (both prescription and street) have wrecked many lives. While they may appear to offer benefits like being able to keep up with the pace or getting more in tune with the music, they nearly always cause dependency issues and end up having a negative impact on your ability to complete your responsibilities (both personally and professionally)—all while the side-effects are probably least recognized by the individual user. The altered perception and lack of attention span or alertness can not only result in compromised productions but can also produce situations that may be unsafe for not only the individual themselves, but also the crew, performers, and even the audience. In reality—due to the need to keep a clear head for remaining flexible and making decisions— these behaviors are best avoided.

Concert Lighting Gear In the early days of touring, many groups used theatrical dimmers and luminaires—only to discover that the abuse of touring quickly trashed their equipment. Lenses would break while bouncing around in the trucks, shutters would get bent and burned, and the connections between cables and connectors would constantly work loose, causing shorts and dead circuits. Because of this, the concert industry quickly developed equipment that would be more efficient and quick to set up while also being able to withstand the abuses of daily load-ins/ strikes. Many of these innovations have not only been accepted by the concert community but are also widely used in many theatrical applications as well. The majority of this theatrical equipment was presented in Chapter 6 (Luminaires) of Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals while the material presented here is more uniquely associated with concert touring.

Luminaires In earlier rock and roll lighting the designer typically sent a plot to the promoter, who would then have to acquire the lighting instruments from a local supplier. As stated earlier, promoters often didn’t understand these needs and artists would frequently arrive at a facility to find something other than what they had specified in their riders. This along with the need for more specialized equipment eventually prompted artists to either purchase their own gear or arrange for a rental house to supply the gear that they would tour with. Luminaires that were included in plots of that time were often a mixture of Fresnels and ellipsoidal reflector spotlights (ERSes), which lighting companies soon discovered couldn’t handle the abuses of rock and roll touring. These units also required a fair amount of time to focus/adjust which also led to their unpopularity. PAR-64 Companies in search for a better fixture soon came upon the PAR can, which simply houses a PAR lamp

(most commonly the PAR-64) in a housing. The cost of the unit is quite cheap—in fact, only several times the cost of the lamp that it houses. Development of the PAR for the concert industry is often credited to the work of Chip Munk and Bill McMannus (both had heavy ties to the early concert industry). The units were durable, delivered a good punch of light for the wattage, and were easily colored and focused through simply pointing them in the right direction. For all these reasons the PAR-64 was widely accepted and soon became the mainstay lighting instrument of the concert industry. The most popular lamp configurations were the 1,000 watt versions of the wide and medium flood beam varieties of the PAR-64. Very Narrow Spot (VNSP) and aircraft landing lights (ACLs) were popular for creating tight beams of light that were used for a variety of lighting effects. Concert rigs soon grew from using several dozen PAR-64s to hundreds of these units as lighting came to become an important element of the concert experience. While smaller venues may use other variations of the PAR lamp, the concert industry has made pretty much exclusive use of the PAR-64 in its applications. In the earliest days these units were simply sidearmed to a traditional boom, but later they were mounted in frames or structures that would permanently house the instruments. As a means of simplifying the load-in, many companies mounted up to six PAR cans along a single pipe or metal channel (like unistrut) called a PAR-bar. The bars are typically between 4 and 6 feet in length and frequently have circuiting already pre-wired for each of the individual units. The entire assembly is taken from a road box and is hung as a unit on a truss or tower. The PAR-64 is still in common use today even though the number of units in a typical concert plot has dropped significantly due to the popularity of automated luminaires being used in concert rigs. Cyc lights Most bands carry some form of cyc or scenic background that must be lit using cyc lights or far cycs. These units are used in the same manner as in theatrical applications and can be mounted from both above or the floor. Most designers specify these in three or four different colored circuits. As an alternative to scenic backgrounds, many contemporary setups make use of video displays or complex arrangements of other luminaries for a background. Brute variations There are occasions when a designer will want to create a fairly compact source of fill light for a given application in a concert. Many rental houses came up with their own versions of the film industry’s mini-brute that essentially combined anywhere from four to nine similar lamps in a single housing. The individual lamps usually are a variation of PAR lamp and can range in size from MR-16s all the way up to a nine-lamp PAR-64 unit. These instruments are used to add punch and fill to a given area of the stage. On many occasions these units are used to wash an audience from the stage. A number of designers in the concert field also use these without color and refer to the units as “audience blinders” since they are often focused into the house and are used to temporarily blind an audience.

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Figure 2.11 A PAR-bar Credit: courtesy of Applied Electronics, New Port News, VA

Trusses One of the most unique developments that came out of the concert industry was the development of lighting trusses. These are modular frames constructed of lightweight metal such as aluminum that are used to hang the lighting equipment from above the stage. The oldest trusses were nothing more than triangular metal frames that were designed after antenna masts. It is important to note that triangular-shaped antenna masts are not rated for the demands of concert trussing (the load is distributed vertically in one case and horizontally in the other) and that it is illegal to use them for this purpose. Triangular trussing is specially manufactured by production houses to deal with the heavier horizontal loads of concert lighting. This comes in modular lengths of approximately 10- to 12-feet long and can be bolted together to span the entire width of the stage. In the early days, the trusses traveled empty and all the lighting gear was added on site at the load-in. The trusses were oriented with two of the three side-edges or pipes oriented along the bottom of the structure. This formed two hanging positions (an upstage and downstage pipe) with the luminaires being bolted to the pipes using standard C-clamps while jumpers/cables and two-fers were run through the center of the truss to each of the units. Later truss designs shifted to a more modular design that was based on a rectangular frame called a box truss. Box trusses come in metal frames that can be anywhere from 4 to 10 or more feet long.

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The advantage to using box trussing lies in the fact that the luminaires and often much of the wiring are mounted in a relatively permanent fashion that allows the instruments to actually travel within the truss. This eliminates the need to re-mount and strike the units at each stop along the tour; also, much of the labor intensive tasks of mounting, coloring, and wiring the fixtures is done only once (at the rental house), prior to departing on the tour. Each module typically has its own wheels and is simply rolled into place in the order in which the truss is laid out and bolted together. Once assembled, the unit is raised slightly off the ground, a set of pins or bolts are released, and one or two sets of PAR-bars or individual fixtures simply drop out of their stored/traveling positions to the position in which they will be used for the show. The color remains in the units and the circuiting is often completed by simply mounting multi-cables to a series of pre-wired connectors that are built into the actual truss frames. Before the truss is flown to trim, the units are checked and troubleshot. In many cases, the units even retain their focus as long as the ride hasn’t been especially rough. These measures have trimmed a significant amount of time off concert load-ins. Box trusses are capable of holding heavier loads than triangular trussing and are more popular—even if they are more expensive. Box truss units have an added advantage in that they can often be stacked on top of one another as they travel in the trucks or are stored in a warehouse. Another advantage of many box trusses is that electricians can focus the instruments without

Figure 2.12  Trussing: (a) Triangular truss. (b) Box truss. (c) Moving light truss Credit: courtesy of Applied Electronics, New Port News, VA)

a ladder by crawling along the top of a truss while focusing the units that are mounted directly below them. If this, or any other form of aerial work is done, proper fall protection gear must be worn by anyone who is working more than several feet off the ground. Lifts and ladders (with fall protection) are still the preferred method for focusing triangular trusses and box trusses that make use of ground support. The earliest use of many trusses was for a single back truss placed upstage of the performers for backlight. The front light generally came through followspots and two geni-towers or booms that were placed in the house just downleft and downright of the sound wings. Some designers used these for sidelight and placed them behind the sound wings while others preferred to move them to the FOH and use them for front-diagonal washes much like a box boom position in a theatre creates. As concerts became larger, the geni-towers were replaced by a second truss that spanned across the front of the stage. The Yes 90125 tour of the early 1980s carried six full-stage trusses and hundreds of PAR lamps. Eventually trusses evolved into major visual elements of these shows by being constructed in a variety of shapes that were based off the modular nature of the truss components. Some trussing, like that made by James

Thomas Engineering and Applied Electronics, is finished in a highly reflective chrome finish that may even contain internal lighting so that the trusses themselves become a colorful element of the production. While earlier tours used trussing in relatively straight configurations based on rows and rectangular grids, which are still popular for today’s more generic productions and festival staging, most trusses used on large concert tours are now specially designed for a given tour. This can include hanging the trusses both vertically and diagonally, structures based on arcs or circles, having elements of the trussing fly throughout a performance, and the creation of specialty shapes that have been designed specifically for a given show.

Ground Support, Lifts, and Chain Motors The earliest solution to mounting lighting instruments in venues that did not provide any lighting positions was to use booms that were outfitted at their tops with two or three sections of 4-to-6-foot pipe that were mounted with rota-locks or cheeseboros. PAR-64s were then hung from the pipes using standard C-clamps and cabled as required. To give the booms a more substantial base, three or four

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Figure 2.13  Layout of traditional concert floorplans: (a) Genie-lift variation; (b) trussing with Genie Super Towers

Figure 2.14  Examples of concert trussing: (a) Circular truss. (b) Star truss Credit: photo courtesy of Applied Electronics, New Port News, VA

sets of outriggers were added for both stability and to level the booms when they were placed on uneven floors. Later variations, such as the Genie® Super Tower™, provide a prehung frame that holds up to 16 PAR-64s that is mounted to a telescoping piston that allows compressed air or a winch to raise the instruments to their working height. When stored in the lowered position, the entire unit withdraws into a metal frame or road case that forms protection for the units while traveling. It also provides a stable base when the lift is extended. Although trussing usually holds the majority of the lighting rig, it still must be elevated to an operating height. Initially this was done through what we call ground support. A lift is placed at either end of the truss as it spans across the stage and is extended until the truss is raised to its proper trim. It is critical to know the load capacities of both the lifts and the trussing so that the truss and all its components can be safely hung above the stage. If the span is too great the torque produced by the lifting could be strong enough that the bolts holding the modular sections of the truss together could snap. It is also important to raise a truss evenly so that no twisting motion is initiated into the rig, which could once again cause a truss to fail. The most common lift, the Genie® Lift™ (variations include the Genie Super Tower, Superlift Contractor® and Superlift Advantage®), was made as an adaptation of a lift that was used in the construction industry. Several of these are illustrated in Figure 2.15. The lifts have a rolling base that allow them to be moved easily and are placed at the end of a truss where specialized prongs (much like those used in a fork lift) are inserted into fittings that allow the truss to be mounted/supported by the lift. At the same time, outriggers or leg extensions and leveling plates/hardware are used to both level and give the lift a more stable base before raising the truss to its working height. The maximum height of a Genie Super Tower is about 24 feet. The lifts usually raise the truss into place through the use of a hand-powered winch that uses a cranking motion to raise the telescoping segments of the lift. Electrical motors and compressed air cylinders or pistons are two additional ways that these lifts might be powered; however, the air cylinder has not been popular because of its more limited load capacities and the fact that a small leak can slowly cause the trims to lower. There are several variations of these lifts. I refer you to James L. Moody’s excellent book, Concert Lighting: Techniques, Art, and Business, for a thorough look at lifts, trussing, and other concert-related gear. Ground-supported trussing is still popular today in smaller venues like ballrooms and outdoor events where overhead rigging isn’t possible. A variation of ground-supported trussing that has been developed by several truss manufacturers assembles a truss or grid structure that sits on four separate towers (one at each corner of the rig). In one version, the entire grid is lifted to trim by four Super Lifts and then set down on vertical truss elements that are then bolted into place. In a second variation, vertical trusses sit within segments of the

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Figure 2.15 Traditional lifts: (a) Genie Super Tower®. (b) Genie Superlift Contractor® Credit: photo courtesy of Genie Industries—A Terex Brand

horizontal trusses, and a chain motor and block fitting are placed in each of the vertical units, which are then used to pull the grid/trussing up to trim along the path of the vertical supports (Figure 2.16). When using lifts, it is critical to examine what the lifts will be placed on. Remember that the entire weight of the truss and lifts becomes concentrated at two points. There have been occasions where lifts have been placed on rickety temporary staging or soft soil like sand or mud that has caused the lift and its associated trussing to collapse. A more popular manner of raising trussing in large indoor venues involves using portable winches or chain motors to lift the truss into position rather than raising it from the ground. This is called a flying rig or flown truss. In reality, the trussing is the same as that used in ground-supported systems—it is just hung differently. In a flying rig, electrical winches called “chain hoists” or “chain motors” (specifically modified for rigging applications) are rigged to the superstructure of a facility through a combination of belts, slings, aircraft cable, and other rigging hardware. One of the most important advantages to using a flown rig comes in the improved sightlines that are made available through this technique. Sound, too, has gone to using primarily overhead rigging. The huge sound wings that blocked so much of the earlier stages have now been eliminated in many concert situations. Other advantages to using a flying rig include being able to run higher trims, the possibility of moving the trusses during a concert for effect, and being able to

use longer spans of truss to extend across a stage. Where ground-supported systems typically restricted trussing to a span of 40 feet or less, additional chain hoists can be placed along the length of a truss to pick up the weight in more locations. While using chain motors eliminates many of the issues that arise with ground-supported rigs, there are also considerations here that must be examined carefully by the person who is rigging a show. Only a competent rigger should supply the rigging for these productions. While many tours of the 1980s and 1990s carried their own personal riggers, there is now a national certification program that allows many of the smaller tours to make use of local riggers who are certified. This certification, the Entertainment Technician Certification Program (ETCP), is granted through a national certification test. A certain amount of documented experience is also required even before a candidate can take the exam. The certification is good for a period of five years only and must be renewed by retaking the exam or by completing a given number of credits in rigging recertification/education activities. This keeps riggers abreast of new practices within the field. A  parallel ETCP program certifies entertainment electricians. Large tours and a growing number of venues are now requiring lead riggers and electricians to hold these certifications to work in their venues. A popular practice in touring will have a lead rigger associated with a tour rig a show but will then have a local rigger coordinate the strike of a show while the lead rigger has gone on to the next venue.

Figure 2.16  Thomas Towers Ground Support Lighting Grid and Roof System Credit: photo courtesy of James Thomas Engineering and Roc-Off Productions

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With each venue being completely different from the one before, even for specialists determinations of loads and rigging points can be tricky. While the truss pickups or pick points generally do not vary from one night to another, the manner of attaching these to the hoists and superstructure of the building can change significantly from one concert venue to another. A  pick point is any location where the truss is supported by a hoist. These must be rigged in such a way that the hoists lie directly above these points. Some considerations that should be examined when using flying rigging that might not be immediately obvious include knowing how much load that you are adding to a building’s structure: for example, if there are several feet of snow on the roof, you need to get a new set of load calculations due to the risk of bending the structural steel with the additional load of your rig. You should also know how much cable weight is related to the multi-cables that extend off the ends of a truss. No matter how complex the trussing, care must be taken to raise each unit evenly so that there is no additional stress placed on the joints and framing. In most cases, two chain hoists can safely fly trusses of up to about 40 feet in length. Above that, or when there are larger loads, a central pickup should also be placed along a truss while making sure that the load is distributed evenly across all three hoists and that the one in the center isn’t taking more or less of the load than the other two. There should also be pickups for cables that drop off the ends of a truss to ensure that the additional weight of the cable is not transferred to the truss as it goes to its designated trim. Once a truss or grid has reached its working height, additional safety cables should be rigged between it and the building for added protection from any components that might fail. Finally, special care must be taken in regard to the hoists themselves. While newer versions of this equipment have eliminated many of these problems, care should be taken to inspect the motors before and after every use, make sure that the chains and buckets of each hoist are stacked property so that the chain doesn’t fowl and jamb or become tangled and drop out of the basket to the deck below, and to ensure proper phase wiring of the motors (if they run backwards, up becomes down and down becomes up, which could cause a major problem when someone uses a controller to change a critical trim position). While there is potential for many problems, hoists and rigging have become regular elements of most concert operations over the last 30 years, and when done safely by trained professionals, flown rigs are the most popular means of supporting a truss.

Dimmers and Cables Another important innovation of the touring industry that has influenced the entire lighting industry relates to the development of high-density dimming systems. Early electronic dimmers were built for theatrical applications and could not stand up to the rigors of concert touring. They

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also usually had capacities of 2,400 watts or more, which weren’t efficient once the primary lighting instrument of the concert industry shifted to the 500 or 1,000 watt PAR unit. Efforts soon shifted to creating dimming packages that could take a given power source and break it into more dimmers of a lower capacity rather than a few dimmers of a larger capacity. With 1,000 or 1,200 watt dimmers, more individual control could be gained for a rig while providing a more efficient use of the same amount of power. Miniaturization was another important development in dimming technology. Solid-state electronics led to smaller physical sizes for the dimmers, which in turn allowed more dimmers to be contained in a given area. This also made it easier for the units to be transported as dictated by the demands of touring. The appearance of high-density touring racks with standard configurations of either 48 or 96 dimmers are the culmination of this technology (Figure 2.19). As a means of further reducing the time of a load-in, rental houses began to make widespread use of multi-­cables and their associated connectors. When concert touring first began, the number of instruments used in a rig was quite limited and cabling was typically done through bundling cables together and running them backstage, where they were plugged directly into the dimmers. As productions became more complex, labeling and keeping track of all of the cables and plugs as well as the weight of all the individual cable runs eventually grew into an electrician’s nightmare. Because of this, methods were developed that allowed multi-cables to take on the primary role of electrical distribution. These specialized cables allow a half-dozen or more circuits to be encased within a single cable. In a typical touring application, raceways are mounted inside a segment of truss where lighting units are either wired directly to the raceways or plugged into outlets representing different circuits that have been located throughout the raceway. The raceways often terminate in a special connector that has multiple pins and a screw connector that allows the raceway to be plugged to a multi-cable that is fitted with the same type of connector. This cable may form a jumper between one segment of truss and another or could run all the way back to the dimmers. To eliminate all the plugging that used to take place at the dimmers, many touring racks are now wired internally and terminate in a connector(s) that can be joined directly to the multi-cables that come from the different parts of the lighting rig. An entire touring rack can distribute power to a number of circuits through as few as one to 12 or so of these multi-cables. A particularly popular brand of connectors made for these multi-cables is made by Socapex. These specialized cables may also be configured with break-outs and breakins as needed.

Consoles The earliest boards used in the concert industry were borrowed from the theatrical community. Two or three-scene

Figure 2.17  Touring dimmer rack (front and back) with interface for multi-cable connections by Applied Electronics Credit: photo courtesy of Applied Electronics, New Port News, VA

preset consoles with portable electronic dimming packages ruled the early years. The systems were relatively lightweight, could handle the rigors of touring, and had modular designs so that a knowledgeable technician could repair almost any component by replacing a module or swapping out a circuit board when they failed on the road. Today’s boards, on the other hand, are complex computers. Road technicians rarely have the ability to service them. Instead, a backup console is often assigned to a tour just in case a board should go down. Sometimes, both boards are even run in a tandem configuration so that the operator can immediately shift to the backup board when a critical failure occurs with the principal board. The most popular early boards came in variables of dimmers/control channels that were based on a factor of six. A small band would use six or 12 channel boards while larger bands would commonly use 24 or 36 dimmer setups. Even though theatrical boards were popular, they didn’t provide the features that a concert designer needed for making quick changes like flashing lights or other rapid cuing sequences that responded to the beat of the music. Because of this, console manufacturers

and even some rental houses began to modify their preset boards to include the features that the concert industry demanded. The most popular of these features included momentary flash or bump buttons, pin-matrix submastering, and chase features. The pin matrix was a predecessor of the soft patch system that is now in common use today. While individual dimmers or control channels could not be reassigned, the dimmers could be assigned to a matrix submaster through inserting an electronic pin into a grid that assigned the dimmer to a selected fader. The feature is quite similar to the game board used in Battleship®. The pinning assignment was done electronically and dimmer loads didn’t have to be considered when making assignments to a matrix submaster. With this, a designer could group all the red or blue lights (front and back trusses) onto a single fader—regardless of the number of lamps or dimmers that were involved in an assignment. In addition to often having bump buttons assigned to every individual dimmer, each matrix submaster was equipped with a bump button as well. Manual control was a critical element of the design, and designers improvised their

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lighting right along with the band. Obviously, a sense of musicality and rhythm along with being comfortable with designing on the fly or busking were critical requirements for working successfully during this era of concert lighting. To this day, a significant amount of concert and festival design is still designed on the fly and consoles that are used primarily in concert design frequently contain features that are geared toward manual control of the lighting. Many lighting manufacturers produce versions of their consoles (even computerized consoles) that are equipped with many of these specialized features. One example, that was popular for some time, is ETC’s Insight 3 console, which is a variation of the Expression 3 with a lot more submaster/ preset control faders. As concerts and their lighting needs grew and the equipment became more sophisticated, a point was reached where preset consoles were unable to handle the number of control features that were being demanded by the concert industry. This became especially true when automated lights were introduced and the number of control channels required to run a show increased significantly. Because of all of the increased control demands, concert designers began using memory or computer systems shortly after they first appeared. They were also attracted to the reliable manner in which they could store cues. Today’s consoles control hundreds or even thousands of channels in addition to providing numerous effects and other tools for designing a production. Many of the early automated lighting systems required dedicated controllers, which resulted in running and coordinating two different lighting consoles for a concert. In many ways, this is probably the single most important factor leading to programmers emerging as key members of the lighting team. Finally, the performers also got to the point that they wanted a consistent show from night to night and were no longer content with having the designers work solely on the fly. Other dedicated consoles such as ones running only scrollers could also be found on the concert circuit. In the early 1980s, Yes (the band) carried an Apple Computer with custom programming that was used to run the prototype scrollers that were used in their rig. While computer consoles allowed a vast number of cues and effects to be pre-loaded, designers still needed a way to run elements of the show on a manual basis. This allowed the shows to remain fairly consistent while still keeping the lighting fresh and in sync with the music. Memory consoles designed for the concert industry tend to provide more features related to manual control like lots of submaster or preset/page assignments and bump buttons while those designed for theatrical applications will not include as many of these features. One of the drawbacks of using separate consoles for conventional and moving lights relates to coordinating the two boards or operators. When each moving light company used their own control protocol it was impossible to combine the multiple systems, but, once the manufacturers agreed to adhere to the DMX512 standard, virtually any luminaire (moving or conventional) could then be run by any board

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using the DMX512 protocol. While traditional consoles could and still can be used to run moving lights, their programming is tedious and time consuming. Eventually, a line of consoles and accessories were developed that provided features that were more user friendly toward the operation of moving lights. These consoles made their appearance by adding features like fixture libraries (a computer file of feature or attribute settings for a moving light) that are either pre-programmed or downloaded into a console, encoders that allow easier manipulation of a moving light’s attributes, and page settings that allow submasters, encoders, and other features to be quickly reassigned for faster programming. Other features allow programmers to store favorite color combinations, fixture moves, focus points, etc. Sometimes these features can be added to a more traditional console like the moving light package for the ETC Expression or added encoders and touch screen features of the later generation Eos and Ion consoles. In other cases, the entire console is designed around the control of moving lights. In the higher-end versions of automated lighting consoles, more userfriendly features include touch screens, console magic sheets, manners of creating and selecting pre-­programmed palettes with easily selectable attribute/function choices or control keys, numerous customizing features that allow a designer to label many functions, and user friendly selection mechanisms such as a point-picking method for choosing color based on a color distribution diagram. Other consoles that have gained popularity—not only in the rock and roll industry, but in many projects where sophisticated control is required (i.e., special events, Broadway, and industrials)— are the GrandMA console by MA Lighting, the Whole Hog series of consoles by High End, and Martin’s Maxxyz consoles (Figure 2.18). The primary issue plaguing consoles over the late 1990s and early 2000s related to the fact that consoles tended to be better designed for one or the other of automated or conventional luminaires—often resulting in two boards being used in many productions. In the last five to 10 years, manufacturers have been developing consoles, like ETC’s Congo console, that combine the best features of both types of boards so that once again all the lighting can be run from a single console (Figure 2.19). Chapter 7 in Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals discusses many of the basic features of these consoles.

Road Cases With the advanced electronics used in concert rigs, touring required production companies to create road boxes that could stand up to the abuses of the constant traveling and loading/unloading that were required by this type of touring. The early days of concert tours found popular use of the canvas hampers and plywood road boxes that were typically used in theatrical touring. Unfortunately, these had little if any cushioning effect for the sensitive gear and at times the equipment could be literally shaken apart while traveling to the next gig. The plywood often got smashed and developed

Figure 2.18  Lighting consoles frequently used in concert and moving light applications: (a) Road Hog 4. (b) GrandMA 2 by MA Lighting. (c) Congo Console Credit: (a) photo courtesy of High-End Systems—A member of ETC, (b) photo courtesy of MA Lighting, (c) photo courtesy of Electronic Theater Controls

Figure 2.19  Lighting consoles designed for combined use of conventionals and automated lights: (a) Tiger Touch II. (b) Eos Console. (c) Leprecon LP-X Series Console Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Avolites, (b) photo courtesy of Electronic Theatre Controls, (c) photo courtesy of Leprecon Lighting

rough edges that resulted in giving half the crew splinters while the hampers generally got torn and bent fairly quickly on the tour. There were even times when the luminaires were simply stacked or loaded individually into the backs of Ryder or U-Haul trucks—quite different from the air-cushioned trailers that are in common use today. As luminaires began to be mounted into trusses, crews also began to build custom road cases for the more sensitive gear. They were made of durable plywood interiors that had a heavy plastic coating applied to their outside surfaces. The edges were trimmed with metal edging to prevent damage to the box’s edges/corners and heavy-duty rubber casters were added to both quiet and cushion the box while it was moved from one location to another. Easily accessible handles were also added to aid the crew. The hardware used in the construction of these cases was of a heavy-duty nature and the plastic outer-coating protected the gear when it was left on loading docks during storms while waiting to be loaded /unloaded during strikes and load-ins. Most importantly, the boxes were designed around the particular equipment that they carried. Cases designed to house valuable electronic gear had enclosed racks, foam rubber padding, and high-density foam inserts that were custom fit to the gear contained in a given case. Later, entire dimming racks were packaged into road boxes that were simply rolled into position and hooked up to the company switch on one face with Cam-locks as multi-cables from the trusses were secured to an interface that was connected directly to the dimmers. One particularly popular manufacturer of road cases is the Anvil Case Company. As stated earlier, most companies color and label their road boxes so that they can be quickly recognized during strikes and load-ins.

Automated Lighting and Scrollers Much of this technology has already been discussed in Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals and only a brief overview is presented here. As concerts expanded to larger scales, time and space became issues along with transporting more and more trusses and lighting equipment from one venue to another. Concert tours eventually got to a point where limits were reached regarding what could be managed for the night-to-night performances while still allowing enough time for the load-in, strike, and transportation of a show. Innovators began to look at new ways of getting more functions from a single fixture than a given focus and color. The first experiments with creating multi-featured luminaires were in the area of changing a light’s color and resulted in scrollers becoming the answer to this problem. Other, less successful, models were based on a variation of a spot boomerang that were remote controlled and placed at the front of a lighting instrument. I remember the early days of scrollers when shops were producing their own

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prototypes. Two complications that were quite common at that time were breaking the tapes that held the individual gels of a gelstring together (resulting in a single lamp in a wash going without color for the duration of an event) and scrollers not finding or remaining in their assigned positions (resulting in a lamp slowly drifting back and forth between two or more colors). Reliable scrollers are now made by a number of manufacturers and have gone on to become popular accessories throughout the lighting industry. However, with the advent of LED fixtures, these will most likely be replaced by LED luminaires in the not-toodistant future. Automated lighting had its true beginnings in the concert industry. Although various attempts at producing automated fixtures can be traced back through many years, it wasn’t till there was significant funding through the concert industry that much progress was made in producing a unit that could deliver what lighting designers wanted in an automated luminaire. The drive for automated lighting was not only due to the needs for creating effects but also to help consolidate the equipment needs of the groups that toured at that time. Lights that could change both color and focus significantly reduced not only the amount of equipment required by a tour but also the amount of time and crew needed to produce the show on a nightly basis. The actual movement of the lights was a secondary benefit that soon became a major visual element of the concerts. The very first time that automated lighting was used in a concert setting is credited to the use of a Vari*Lite system (by Showco, Inc., a concert production/rental house in Texas) that was used on the Genesis Abacab tour in 1981. Since then, these units have grown significantly in complexity. Many automated fixtures may have as many as 40 or more attributes or functions. The most popular ways of making distinctions between these luminaires relates to two different manners that automated units are characterized. The first relates to optics and draws a distinction between spot luminaires, which produce a hard-edged beam and contain features like gobo wheels and possibly shutters, and wash luminaires, which produce a relatively soft edge and are used to wash the stage. Both have pan/ tilt attributes and color mechanisms along with a variety of other commands. The second means of identifying these units relates to whether the entire fixture moves (moving head or moving yoke) or whether the motion is made by reflecting the light off a moving mirror (scanner). Figure  2.20 provides an example of each type of luminaire. Moving heads have become the preferred choice because they can be pre-hung and travel within the trusses as well as for having a larger range of movement associated with them. More detailed discussions of these fixtures were presented in Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals. The automated lighting units that are currently in use are quite reliable—resulting in concert tours with a lot

Figure 2.20  Moving head/yoke versus scanner/moving mirror luminaires: (a) Clay Paky MYTHOS (moving head). (b) ADJ Products Inno Scan HP (moving mirror/scanner) Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Clay Paky, (b) photo courtesy of ADJ Products LLC

fewer luminaires since automated lighting has been added to concert designs. On the other hand, the amount of data required to program a show has increased astronomically. Not only will a luminaire be assigned an intensity, but a significant number of additional parameters such as pan, tilt, and color will also have to be programmed into a console as well—each one adding layers of complexity and time to a show’s programming. Of particular interest in the concert industry are the choreographed moves of automated lights that add spectacle to a performance.

Today’s concert crowds are no longer content with simply flashing lights or placing entertainers in a followspot while the rest of a stage is bathed in washes. Even older crowds who follow the headliner acts to places like Branson, Missouri, or Las Vegas expect to see choreographed automated lighting to some degree. Several of the more popular moving effects are presented in Sidebar  2.4. Textured washes produced by etched-glass gobos form another popular automated lighting effect that are found in concerts.

Sidebar 2.4  COMMON AUTOMATED LIGHTING EFFECTS Strobe Sequences Color Rolls Chasing Sweeps Circles

Luminaires are programmed to flash in rapid succession—flashing may be within a single fixture or could flash between multiple fixtures. Luminaires move through a series of color changes. A series of luminaires are turned on and off in some form of sequence that forms a pattern. Sweeps move the light from one location to another while the lamp is still lit and may be completed with one or multiple luminaires. A group of luminaires are each programed to sweep in a circular movement producing a random searching effect (similar to a ballyhoo effect).

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Crosses

Fans

Kicks/Can-Can

This term refers to patterns where individual beams of different lamps cross one another but more commonly relates to where a series of lamps actually cross paths from the extreme edges of the stage (i.e., several lamps from the upleft truss are focused or sweep to the downright area of the stage and are then mirrored by additional units from upright that sweep to downleft). A group of luminaires move together either toward or away from a series of reference points—an example being lights pointed straight downward and then moving upward and outward away from the stage. A single unit sweeps from a downward position to an upward position where it is extinguished as another fixture repeats the motion—much like a dance kick-line.

In today’s concert scene, the majority of the rigs are now designed predominantly with automated luminaires and much of the concert experience is in seeing these units sweep through the venue while producing a number of choreographed moves along with making changes in color and texture (gobo breakup patterns—both stationary and spinning). Due to improved technology and reliability, most concert designers now prefer to specify automated lighting based on moving heads rather than moving mirrors. The more sophisticated units can even project video. LEDs have also become a significant light source in concert production— not only as a light source in themselves, but also as a means

of producing effects through creating patterns in the LED lens arrays that are placed in full view of the audience (Figure 2.21). Multi-colored LED units, which can easily mix what seems to be limitless shades of color, have also developed strong enough intensities to function as wash units for the concert industry—with variations of the LED PAR-64 now becoming a popular concert luminaire. Many concert designers place numerous LED and other automated units in grid-like patterns behind the performers where the units can be used primarily for creating a variety of visual effects. Regardless of how many automated fixtures a designer may use, or how complex the moving sequences, they still

Figure 2.21  Examples of LED luminiares: (a) LED PAR—ETC Color Source PAR-300. (b) LED column or tube unit—ADJ Products LED Color Tube II. (c) LED wash unit—Altman Spectra Cyc 100. (d) LED moving head wash unit—Martin’s MAC Aura. (e) LED Moving Head Spot/Wash Unit—High End System’s SolaHyBeam Fixture. (f) LED Scanner—Martin’s Rush Scanner 1 LED Credit: (a) photo courtesy of ETC, (b) photo courtesy of ADJ Products LLC, (c) photo courtesy of Altman Lighting, (d) photo courtesy of HARMON Professional Solutions, (e) photo courtesy of High End Systems—ETC, (f) photo courtesy of HARMON Professional Solutions

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Figure 2.21 (Continued)

need to first showcase the performers and their music. Special care must be taken when using flashing lights and unmotivated moves due to the potential that they have for becoming a distraction that can take away from a concert experience. The lighting designer should also try to avoid too much repetition in a design: lighting that becomes too predictable can become boring and may work against a show. Often, you can establish a unique base look for each musical number and can then go on to create variations of this image throughout the song. Repeating cues and effects in a song are perfectly acceptable—just find ways to create variety throughout the entire performance.

Video and Effects A number of special effects are associated with the concert industry—with one of the most important ones to consider probably being smoke or haze. Those of us who both attended and were involved with concerts in the 1970s and ’80s came with the expectation that smoking and drinking were part of the experience. The result of several hundred or thousand people being confined to an enclosed room like a gymnasium (many smoking any number of substances) produced a haze that allowed an audience to see the beams of light coming from the lighting instruments. Designers liked this and soon made use of this effect as they designed lighting patterns in the haze while using the actual beams of light as their primary design element. This effect is often called air light (Figure  2.22) and is commonly worked into patterns such as fans or other effects (see Sidebar 2.4). Nowadays, smoking is almost always prohibited from these venues and designers have to bring their own smoke or haze to a concert through using commercially available smoke and hazing machines. Both smoke and haze produce small particles that are suspended in the air. These particles catch and reflect the beams of light as they radiate away from the lighting fixtures. Smoke is more dense than haze and can actually obscure or hide objects, which makes hazing the preferred method for making the light beams visible. Also, haze lingers longer than smoke.

Another popular spectacle of concert tours are pyro effects. These are small-order explosives that are used to create flame, smoke, and sparkler-like effects. In many ways, they can be considered low-powered fireworks. Anyone familiar with a band called Kiss probably knows their reputation for huge towers of fire that are often produced on either side of the stage. Many other concert and touring events also make use of a wide variety of pyro effects. These are beyond the scope of this book and will not be dealt with here. However, one must be aware that at times a lighting console may in some ways be used to trigger these effects. Pyro can also work itself into the nightclub scene, and extreme care must always be taken with its use. Because of the associated dangers, only a licensed professional should deal with pyro in a performance situation. In many cases, a separate “firing” license must be applied for and issued for every single performance in which pyro is used. In 2001 a terrible fire triggered by the improper use of pyro devices at The Station Nightclub in West Warwick, Road Island resulted in the deaths of approximately 100 people. In the last 20 years, video has become an extremely important part of many concert designs. Video may be worked into concert and music productions in one of several manners. First, the video may be a component of the actual performance such as in the case of using video screens as a scenic background or to produce close-ups of the performers for the more distant audience members. Second, a band may produce music videos that are specifically designed around a given song or concert. These later videos are responsible for the early growth of a number of cable networks such as MTV, CMTV, and VH1. The earliest videos were simply recordings of the bands during a concert while later ones became concept-related productions in themselves. The lighting of these productions is more in line with traditional video production (refer to Chapter 4 for information regarding this type of lighting). Also, much of the discussion relating to video displays and projections was presented in Chapter  8 of Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals and that, too, will not be discussed here.

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Figure 2.22  Air light: Avril Lavigne in a webcast for music.msn.com live from the Roxy in Hollywood (lighting by Jeff Ravitz) Credit: photo courtesy of Jeff Ravitz

Video has become an important element in the concert industry for two reasons. First, as venues got larger, many audience members were seated farther away from the stage and some form of monitoring was needed just so that they could see the event. The solution to this came about through using live cameras during a performance and sending the video signals to large-format monitors or projectors that were placed around the stage. This form of video projection is typically called I-MAG imaging. Popular locations for these monitors were to the sides or above the stage as well as directly behind the performers as part of a video wall. The second use of video is solely for effect. Realistic or non-realistic images are shown on the monitors as a means of bringing yet another dimension to the concert experience. In addition to screens and panels, video images are also being used for creating texture in gobo-like applications that can be changed and moved around the stage at will. The digital lights that have made an appearance in the last 10 years are examples of this technology. From a lighting designer’s perspective, all of these uses of video puts additional demands on what the lights must accomplish for a performance. Light emitting from a fixture, moving or conventional, should not strike the

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projection surfaces—while at the same time, a threshold or minimal level of light must also be made available so that the I-MAG video cameras can provide quality images of a performance. Not only the angle of the lights, but also the angle of the camera in relationship to the lights must be taken into account. For example, if a performer is lit predominantly with a followspot from the front and a camera is going to be shooting the performer from the side, the camera will see a high-contrast side-lit image of the performer that may or may not be acceptable for placing on the I-MAG system. Many concerts make use of live video feeds using a minimum of two to four cameras to provide adequate coverage of an event. A lighting designer may also be the person responsible for coordinating and calling the video segments of a concert—even up to calling the camera shots. Other devices that have entered the world of concert tours may or may not have as direct of an impact on the lighting designer as those just mentioned. Many are simply gimmicks that provide a memorable event for an audience. Mirror balls, blacklight, strobes, and beacon lights are some of the tamer tricks that a concert designer might use, while the performers often come up with even more audience

pleasing effects. Stars like to make a grand first and final appearance—animals have appeared in these acts, confetti cannons and streamers may be fired, multiple stages, lasers, and curtain calls might even include the simulated (or actual) destruction of instruments or equipment. The Rolling Stones have used large blow-ups, Cher and Lady Gaga have used lifts, and Madonna and Justin Bieber have even been flown out over the audience. It can only be assumed that even more outlandish gimmicks will appear and continue to be associated with concert tours.

Plotting Principles for Concert Lighting A number of items must be considered when assembling a light plot for a concert or tour. Not only must the plot provide a designer with the necessary gear to produce the aesthetic elements that a tour will require, but it must also be carefully planned in terms of the practicality of getting it loaded into a venue and struck in a reasonable amount of time. You will even have to consider the number and size of the trucks that will have to transport the gear. If you design a rig that can’t be assembled within the given limitations, you run the risk of not getting the rig up in time for a show or running into additional labor charges—neither will be well-received by the band or their management. Additional crew may have to be hired, put-ins will always feel stressful since you’re racing against the clock, and you’ll have less time to deal with the unexpected issues that are bound to come up when you’re on the road. In short, you should avoid the temptation to plot a rig that is so complex that it might run the risk of not being fully ready by sound check. Once sound check begins, most designers want some time to relax and eat dinner prior to opening the house and having to run the show—not running around in panic mode trying to solve a series of last-minute problems. Budget will always play a role in how big a tour is; even mega-tours have a budget. While budget might first appear to be a restriction in regard to gear and rental rates, personnel are often just as important in determining how big of a plot you can develop for a show. Most promoters are only willing to pay for a limited amount of man-hours to mount a show. Flexibility is also a requirement since so many venues will require you to make last minute revisions to accommodate the specific needs of a space. The one-night-stand will probably always be the standard format for most concert tours. With this being the case, speed and efficiency must be a primary consideration when designing most touring plots. The use of modular elements can drastically speed up the load-in and will also help eliminate many of the time-consuming tasks that can slow a load-in down. Pre-mounted trusses eliminate the need for hanging, circuiting, coloring, and in many cases even focusing many of the lighting units. This can knock hours off the load-in if only assembling the rig and a touch-up focus are required before each show. Lighting directors who

do concert lighting create plots and paperwork that are usually based on theatrical practices and often use CAD packages like Vectorworks, AutoCAD, or other CAD software to produce their plots. Most lighting directors use conventions that are based on the USITT RP-2 Recommended Practice for their drafting, but others may create plots in a slightly different manner. This usually relates to the manner in which individual attributes (color, channel, etc.) are indicated on the plot. Rather than placing the majority of the attributes outside of a fixture’s symbol, as in theatrical conventions, much of this information is placed within the body of these lighting symbols. Regardless of how a plot is drafted, the key and notation should communicate to the crews the exact intentions of the designer—making clarity and communication the primary responsibilities of the plot. Still other drafting packages that go into pre-show visualizations like those of Emphasis or WYSIWYG are also used for drafting concert light plots. Washes of light in a variety of colors from banks of PAR-64s are a significant element of most traditional concert light plots. There are no set rules in terms of what colors a designer needs to use. However, as a general principle the colors are much more saturated than what you would find in a theatrical plot. This is due to the fact that much of the color used in concert lighting is used as a form of wash and accent lighting—light that typically comes from the back and sides of the stage. Color is used as a major element for producing the mood and spectacle of concert lighting; it’s an important component of this form of entertainment. Specials and followspots usually provide special visibility and focus where needed. While budget may dictate how many different washes you may have, most traditional concert designs use between four to eight different colored washes from a given direction. Six color washes is perhaps the most common since PAR-bars typically contain six individual fixtures. In many cases, more variety is given in the backlight colors than from any other direction. Popular color choices are often along the lines of primary and secondary colors along with an additional circuit of white or no-color. Colors that are often found in addition to the no-color circuits include deep red, deep blue, turquoise, magenta or hot pink, lavender, amber, yellow, and green (Figure 2.23). Specials of less-saturated colors can be added on top of these to help point-up individual artists and their instruments. Finally, effects lighting such as air light and gobos are added as a final tool for the designer to work with. Another technique for creating more effective concert lighting relates to using several different colors on stage at the same time. If the foreground is lit in magenta, try lighting the background in deep blue. This adds contrast to the stage while also allowing for some color mixing, which can produce still further interest in the design. You can even mix variations of the same hue so that a gradient wash is developed across the depth of the stage—this can also reinforce the audience’s sense of depth perception. It is

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Figure 2.23  Sample color layouts for concert lighting: (a) A more traditional color layout. (b) A contemporary color layout.

important to light separate areas of the stage differently so that you not only add visual contrast but also different levels of focus to the stage. Jim Moody refers to this technique as layering. Care must be taken not to mix too many colors: the more you mix, the more washed-out the stage will appear and the closer to white all the colors will become. With automated fixtures it is possible to dial-in virtually any color that you could imagine. This, too, can be used to create a form of layering for a concert. The washes are laid out first, individual artists are pointed up, and then the solo is given the primary focus. Traditionally, followspots have been used to establish the primary focus on concert stages, but this can also be done just as effectively with a special or moving light. Followspots also tend to be colored in less saturated colors than the rest of the stage so that they will cut through the other lights and draw focus. However, they are still usually more saturated in color than those found in more traditional theatrical applications. Smaller throw followspots and their operators can also be placed in the upstage trusses for producing a variety of backlight effects. Lighting is often half the show during a concert. It is rare that a designer will attempt to mask the trusses and lights from an audience’s view. The back truss(es) is usually a major visual component of a show and efforts should be made to make it as attractive as possible—this includes the actual arrangement of the lights since these will be the primary source of air light for a performance. Care should also be taken to ensure that the trim of the back truss is high enough that glare from it doesn’t go directly into the eyes of the audience. This is often acceptable for the first several rows who want to be part of the show, but having the spill from an upstage truss extend three-quarters of the way into the house should be avoided. Concert lighting is often mounted in a reverse order than that of traditional theatrical applications. Back lighting is possibly the most important lighting angle and the upstage truss is a significant

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element of the design. Sidelight is the next most important angle while front light generally has the lowest priority. There should be no reason to worry about this reversal since followspots are used extensively to illuminate the primary artists from the front. Two different styles of light plots for concert festival stages are illustrated in Figure 2.24. Something that can save on the number of luminaires that you will need and their associated rental costs relates to lighting only the members of the band and major scenic elements: There is no need to wash an entire stage from the front if the performers seldom leave their usual positions. Just light them at their stationary positions with specials— you can only see the effect of a light when you see it strike something. If it only hits the floor, then it will have no effect on the band and only the folks up on the third tier will see it. On the other hand, now that we are using wireless mikes and pickups, performers have been known to strut all over the place, which should cause a designer to think more seriously about general washes than only placing specials on the musicians. Regardless of which situation you run into, the secret is in knowing your performers and what they both can and like to do on stage. Additional lamps should be added to light any scenic elements that may be required by a setup. Even more units may be required to supplement specific effects like the band’s first appearance, designated specials, audience washes/blinders, or air light effects. While some concerts may play with no scenic background at all, many tours carry a drop that has been designed and painted specifically for a given tour. These backings are usually attached to the upstage truss to mask the area directly behind the stage and are often lit at various times throughout a performance. Some productions get even more sophisticated and will work scrims and projection surfaces into these backgrounds. Other elements that may require special lighting include items like scenic covers that are placed over the

Figure 2.24  Sample concert plots: (a) Traditional trussing. (b) A contemporary truss design.

Figure 2.24 (Continued)

sound wings, lights placed below or behind the drum riser, and uplighting from positions that are actually mounted below the stage (gratings or traps). Frequently, a series of different colored specials that mirror one another across the centerline of the stage are hung on the back truss and are focused to the drum kit. Scenic backgrounds could be lit with floodlights like far cycs from both above and/or below while other scenic elements could be lit through the use of single or multiple specials. Other effects might include lasers, strobes, blacklights, and other specially devices. Automated luminaires are now frequently worked into a rig if the budget allows. In most concert plots, at least a few automated units are added simply to bring moving effects to a show. In reality, most concert rigs for medium to larger scale concerts are currently composed primarily of automated fixtures, which have replaced the majority of the PAR-64s that would traditionally be found in a touring rig. House lights in a concert situation are often non-existent and many venues like gymnasiums are lit by high-intensity discharge (HID) fixtures that are simply turned off at the top of the show. To make matters worse, these lamps have warm-up times of approximately 10 minutes—meaning that it takes a while for the lights to come back on after the last curtain call and a false house light cue could put you in the dark for an extended period of time. One final area that should be addressed relates to using a rig for an opening act versus what has been designed for the headliner or principal band. This usually presents an awkward situation in that most opening acts are simply dumped in front of the headline band’s setup—even to the point of avoiding much changeover, which is often kept to nothing more than carrying the opening act’s equipment off stage and moving some mics and other equipment around for the headline act. If an opening act is touring with the headliner for a significant part of a tour you might be able to add some fixtures into the rig that are specifically used for the opening band. However, this is usually not the case and the opening act is typically lit with whatever is in place for the main event. In fact, some of the instruments and effects might even be kept off limits since management will want to save the best effects for the headliner’s show.

Cueing Principles for Musical Events and Concerts Assuming that you have been contracted to work with a band on a long-term basis like a tour, the most important place to begin a design is in getting to know the band’s music. Download their music to your iPod/phone, or listen to their CDs (albums or cassettes for you older readers) but be cautious of getting too attached to the arrangement and mix that you hear in the recording. Studio mixes can vary considerably from what you might hear on the road— backup singers and musicians may be different, instruments used on the recording may not be on the tour, and individual arrangements and tempos can vary significantly.

After a period of time you will begin to associate each song with a particular mood or emotional quality. This mood will also change to some degree throughout most songs. You should also be able to identify major themes in a song. Songs will often tell a story. What is it? Who are the people in a song? What is their relationship? Is the song circular in any way? Where is the climax? How many verses and choruses are there? Who sings during the chorus? Does a different vocalist do each verse or is the song performed more as a solo piece? Does the song alternate between different vocalists for the verses and everyone for the chorus? What about instrumental sections? Are there any solos or bridges? After spending some time with the music, a general impression should be formed for each song. This may be in the form of color associations or a general image for each number. After becoming fully familiar with a band’s repertoire and a probable play list, the designer can go on to create the plot. If possible, try to listen and watch the band as they rehearse. Unfortunately, the plot will often have to be completed well before the band goes into final rehearsals because of the bidding process and the time that is needed to assemble the rig in the shop. If this is the case, talk to the artists and their management as much as possible. The more that you know about the artists and their music, the better shape you will be in. After assembling the lighting package the show is cued—many times late at night in an abandoned arena or warehouse where the equipment is set up for an extended period of time. This allows many of the base cues and effects programming to be dealt with outside of rehearsals with the band. With the need for speed and complex cueing that is required for many concert events, the role of previsualization in the design process has increased by many folds. Software programs such as WYSIWYG, Capture, and LD Assistant and even previsualization studios are frequently used to aid in pre-cueing these events. Though not photorealistic in the images that they produce, they give good indications of the overall composition of the cues and are particularly helpful in working out the choreography of moving lights and cue timing. Pre-visualization studios have become especially effective for roughing cues in prior to actually working with the band. How much of the cueing and effects are pre-­ programmed or set and how much of a show is improvised really becomes a function of what the band and individual designer are comfortable with. While many effects and presets are programmed into a console before actual rehearsals with the band begin, a lighting director or console operator will still have to coordinate the design’s execution while also layering other elements of the design into the production throughout the rehearsal process. Counts and execution of cues that are in sync with the music are critical elements at this point in the design process. Even when using preset or memory equipment, it is advantageous to create some formal paperwork that at least documents the major cues for each song that a band will likely play during a tour. This provides a sense of consistency

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from performance to performance while also covering your backside if something should happen and someone else would have to run the console in your absence. While some designers use lyric sheets and indicate their cues— much like we would in musical theatre—others use index cards that are based on nothing more than describing the basic looks and when they should occur during a song (Figure 2.25). Sometimes this is expressed by dimmer/channel numbers in a form of manual notation and other times by an actual listing of presets or memories (another name for pre-programmed cues in a rock and roll console) that have previously been programmed into a console. While counts may be pre-programmed into these cues many are left to be executed manually so that they can be modified with the pace of the performance. One last area of cueing that is particularly important to concert lighting relates to the significant use of followspots during a typical performance. A designer should strive to have a minimum of one followspot for each of the primary vocal or solo performers—this often translates into four to six followspots for a given show. One of the problems associated with followspots is that while they perform a critical function in the lighting of a concert, they and their operators are generally provided by the local promoter and have the least amount of experience with a show. This can raise havoc when spots aren’t powerful enough to cut through the rest of the lighting or when there is a poor intercom system or inexperienced operators that end up running a

Figure 2.25  Cue notation using an index card

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show. These problems occur more often than you might think and the best way of heading them off is to make sure that the contract rider fully specifies your concerns related to the followspots and their operators. Assuming that the right spots have arrived at the venue and that you have been provided with knowledgeable operators, you still have the problem of crew members who have never seen the show. The manner of addressing this problem is through talking the operators through the show as it takes place. Each operator is connected by an intercom to the lighting designer/director who will actually call the followspot cues throughout the performance. As a rule, spot operators must leave their mics off during a performance and should listen carefully to the lighting director. While it is nearly impossible to talk during a concert due to the excessive volume of the music, with proper communication and concentration, each of the operators can be talked through the show quite successfully. Communication of the cues is typically done through a series of short commands in which the lighting director gives a series of abbreviated instructions that are later executed by the operators on a “go” command which is also given by the lighting director. Such a conversation would evolve in a manner that would go something like this. Approximately 15–30 seconds before a cue the lighting director might say, “Spots 1 through 4 standby Frame 3 on the lead vocalist in a one count.” At the time of the actual cue the lighting director would simply say, “Spots 1 through 4 Go.” The next cue

might be “Spots 2 and 3 fade out on a three count. . . . Go,” then “Spots 2 and 3 return Frame 5 on the bass player to a five count . . . Go.” All of these commands are typically called by the lighting director as they also run the console for the event. Multi-tasking therefore becomes yet another major requirement of the job. Lighting plays a major role in any concert event. While there may be a significant amount of stress associated with mounting/running these productions, they can also be very fulfilling experiences for anyone who chooses to work in this area of lighting. The pace is fast and the challenges can be stimulating, but no other form of lighting allows the work of a lighting designer to have such a significant

impact on a performance. Even though spectacle often rules this industry, subtlety can become just as important to the success of a given moment. The primary focus should remain on the artists and their music—but it’s important to find a balance in making the show visually stimulating and exciting while avoiding the temptations that could cause the lighting to become a distraction. Once again I urge you to explore Jim Moody’s book, Concert Lighting: Techniques, Art, and Business for a much more in-depth examination of concert lighting. Jim is one of the pioneers of concert lighting. He provides thorough discussions and many examples of concert productions that relate to his personal experiences in this part of the lighting industry.

Sidebar 2.5  DESIGNER PROFILE James L. Moody

Credit: photo courtesy of Beatrice Huguet

James L. “Jim” Moody is a Professor Emeritus as Head of Technical Theatre and Design at The Theatre Academy at Los Angeles City College. He is a truly diversified lighting designer with credits in concert, television, theatre, Vegas shows and reviews, corporate productions, and film. He has designed over 250 productions at Regional Equity theatres as well as for a number of college and universities as a guest artist. Jim is considered one of the founders of concert lighting and received the very first Concert Lighting Designer of the Year Award. Several of the concert acts and tours that he has designed include: America, David Bowie, John Denver, The Eagles, The Fifth Dimension, Dolly Parton, Kenny Rogers, Linda Ronstadt, Rod Stewart, The Supremes, and Stevie Wonder. Also active in television lighting, he has earned two Emmy nominations and one team win for his lighting for video. He served for ten years as Director of Photography on Entertainment Tonight and

then switched to Jeopardy! and Wheel of Fortune for 12 years. He has also lit a number of corporate productions with a client list that includes Apple Computers, Sony, Wendy’s Restaurants, The Sunkist Growers Association, Epson, Goodyear, Disney, Mercedes-Benz, CocaCola, Federal Express, and Bank of America. He has also designed architectural lighting including the Nevada State Museum in Las Vegas with the first all LED lighting system. In addition to the Emmys, his designs have earned him numerous other awards, including: The USITT Distinguished Achievement in Lighting Award, Drama Logue Awards, and IESNA Achievement Awards. He has written many articles for a variety of lighting publications and two books, The Business of Theatrical Design and Concert Lighting: Techniques, Art, and Business (now in its 4th edition). Jim holds a B.S. degree from Southern Illinois University and an M.F.A. in Theatre Lighting Design from UCLA, and has completed his doctorate in Educational Management. After college, he needed work, and began his lighting career in manufacturing as the assistant to the president of a rather small lighting manufacturing company while designing theatre at night. His venture into concert lighting is best told in his own words. “After 10  years, I  left a good paying job to try full-time professional theatre, but it just didn’t pay much. Concerts were new back then and I  had a music background, so when I  was offered a chance to do one I tried it and liked it. I made a lot of contacts very quickly and started going on the road with bands within the year. My first tour was with Rod Stewart and Small Faces, which had Ronny Lane as the guitarist before he joined the Rolling Stones. My second tour was for David Bowie and the Spiders from Mars on his first American tour.” When asked about how he prepared for working in the concert industry Moody relates that he had no advanced preparation

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for concerts because nothing existed at the time—it was a brand new media. “That is why Bob See, Tom Fields, Bill McManus, and I  are considered by many as the founders of the concert lighting style. We all helped ‘teach’ each other. The Las Vegas shows came with my concert artists being signed to do shows in the casinos and I  went with them.” His crossing into film and television came later. “I  worked in L.A. on non-union shows between tours and built up my knowledge of working in these mediums on the job and eventually got my International Alliance for Theatrical Stage Employees (IATSE) local #600 Director of Photography card. Corporate and Las Vegas shows are so much like theatre musicals that the transition to designing for them was pretty easy.” Once he became a full-time professor, his responsibilities to his department took the majority of his time, but he continues to design professionally, with the work being about 70% theatre, 10% architectural, 10% television, and 10% concerts. Moody credits two individuals with helping him break into the business. First, Joe Tawil (President of GAM Products), the man he went to work for when he finished college, would become a real mentor and friend to him. Second, Joe would introduce him to famed Broadway lighting designer Julies Fisher whom he later assisted for two shows. “That was my second big break. Jules is a great teacher as well as designer and really ‘trained’ his assistants—not just demanded that they go for coffee and pick up the laundry.” Several unique considerations of designing for concerts, as well as for Vegas revues and corporate shows, is that a sense of timing (musicality) is more critical than that needed in theatre. Jim also claims that working in this area is great training for theatre because of the time pressure that is imposed on these designs. “Theatre now seems to me like we are walking at half-speed because I got used to the much tighter scheduling of concerts.” In designing for film and television, he says that, “You have to give up the notion that you, as the LD, control what the audience will see and accept that the director determines which shots will be used. In multi-camera setups, the DP must allow each of the

For Further Reading Cadena, Richard. Automated Lighting: The Art and Science of Moving Light in Theatre, Live Performance, Broadcast, and Entertainment. 2nd ed. Oxford and Boston: Focal Press, 2010. Claiborne, Vickie. Media Servers for Lighting Programmers: A Comprehensive Guide to Working with Digital Lighting. Oxford and Boston: Focal Press, 2014. Moody, James L and Paul Dexter. Concert Lighting: Techniques, Art, and Business. 4th ed. Oxford and Boston: Focal Press, 2017.

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angles to be lit properly, not just one angle. Film and television lighting also require a heightened awareness of the needs of a director and an ability to be two steps ahead of them. Finally, knowledge of the technical requirements of the media, such as light levels and contrast are a must.” Unique considerations of working in the concert industry relate primarily to time. “Scheduling, load-in, focus, calling the show, and strike all have to happen in 12–14  hours. Staying on top of everything and total advance planning are some of the keys to a designer’s success. Not being afraid to make a decision when things are moving very quickly is another must-have skill.” What he likes most about concert lighting is the immediate gratification. “Decisions must happen on the spot and the ability to think on your feet is essential. You must never be wed to a single idea. Be flexible and keep a clear vision of what your end design wants to be and then focus on getting as much as you can under the time, space, and financial constraints.” What he dislikes about the business is hardly anything. Sometimes the inability of a booking agency to lay out the tour far enough in advance or incomplete advance work can cause headaches. Worse, dates and venue styles can change at the last minute, such as from an arena to a few mixed dates in theatres. That can cause a situation where your rig won’t work as you planned and you have to make quick decisions on what to drop or modify in a design. He believes that remaining totally flexible is the most important rule to consider when working in these areas. “You must have a plan and that plan must be open enough to have options that have already been considered so that when a change is necessary you are ready.” He also suggests being bold. “There is no right or wrong way to light concerts—those who are successful are the ones that take chances.” In closing, Jim shares that “I  am a great believer in learning about all areas of lighting because cross-­ pollinated ideas from other media help make the most creative decisions possible. The added exposure will give you access to more creative tools. Even if you have no desire to work in these alternate media, the broader aspect of knowledge will always serve you well.”

Mumm, Robert C. Photometrics Handbook. 2nd ed. Louisville, KY: Broadway Press, 1997. Sapsis, Bill. Heads Up and Tales. Lansdowne, PA: Sapsis Publications, 2007. Schiller, Brad. The Automated Lighting Programmer’s Handbook. 3rd ed. Amsterdam and Boston: Elsevier and Focal Press, 2017. Vasey, John. Concert Sound and Lighting Systems. 3rd ed. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann Press, 1999. Watson, Lee. Lighting Design Handbook. New York, NY: McGrawHill, 1990.

CHAPTER 3

THE SPECTACLE PERFORMANCE

THE SPECTACLE PERFORMANCETHE SPECTACLE PERFORMANCE

T

HE MAJORITY OF spectacle events are presented within one of two formats. In the first, theatrical spaces are modified or designed around a particular production (i.e., the many Cirque du Soleil and Blueman Group programs or musical revues of Las Vegas) while in the second, the production is treated as a touring production that is mounted in large facilities like arenas, sports stadiums, and massive outdoor venues such as The Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles or Jones Beach on Long Island. In fact, many spectacle shows are touring productions such as concert tours or ice shows that move from arena to arena and city to city. Some are live single performance events that are televised such as Super Bowl half-time shows (Figure 3.1) or the opening and closing ceremonies of the Olympic Games. Each production brings a unique set of experiences to a lighting designer. Due to the similar modes of production that these events share with the concert industry, this chapter ultimately builds on many of the principles and technologies that have already been presented in Chapter 2.

Figure 3.1  Super Bowl LI half-time show (2017) with Lady Gaga: (a) Lady Gaga’s grand entrance (b) Stadium view of stage. Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Brian Allen/Voice of America, (b) photo courtesy of Brian Allen/Voice of America

Figure 3.1  (Continued)

Sidebar 3.1  DESIGNER PROFILE Jeff Ravitz

Credit: photo courtesy of Jeff Ravitz

Jeff Ravitz has been involved in lighting for over 30 years and entered the profession through designing concerts. He was introduced to video lighting through both adapting his live shows for a television audience and following his concert clients to light their music videos. His reputation is now found primarily in lighting television studio and live events for broadcast and musicbased entertainment. Several notable clients that he has lit for broadcast specials and concert tours include Bruce Springsteen, Cher, Usher, Shania Twain, Rush, and the Superbowl XXIX Halftime Show. His lighting has

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won awards, including a Primetime Emmy Award and second Emmy nomination plus nine regional Emmys. His program credits include comedy specials for Kevin Hart and Dave Chappelle, the Writers Guild Awards, game shows Caesars Challenge, Personals, Wheel of Fortune and Jeopardy!, ice shows, a specialty scene for the feature film, The Manchurian Candidate, and a number of infomercials and other special events. Jeff is a frequent guest lecturer about his art, craft and techniques. Jeff holds a theatre degree from Northwestern University but points to 30 years of experience as an important element of his training. “Trial and error, taking risks, learning from mistakes, observing the masters, and endless conversations and debates with friends, colleagues, and teachers are all important to my learning and staying current in the business.” After college, he embarked on a theatre career but found that he missed his days as a musician. When an ad appeared in a local paper seeking a lighting designer for a local recording artist he applied and landed the job. He states that, “I  had the time of my life combining my theatre, lighting, and music skills and found myself at the ground floor of an exploding new area in entertainment production.” After several years, Ravitz was exposed to the emerging field of music videos as well as lighting live concerts for broadcasts. “I watched the crews and production teams that were brought in to create the videos and TV specials for my concert clients and learned much of the process. When it became common to have I-Mag projection of our shows onto large screens for the benefit of the

audience seated farthest from the stage I had the opportunity to see the effects of lighting for the camera while I  watched the results of the live action compared with the images that appeared on the screens. I got a sense of what worked, or didn’t, and developed my own style and standards. With a few lucky breaks and the confidence of my clients, I  was eventually given the opportunity to be the television LD on a few shows, and my resume and reel began to take form.” Jeff’s next break came when he partnered with renowned designer James Moody to form a design firm. Moody had already made the transition from theatre to concerts and then into television lighting. “Jim often had multiple opportunities (that is to say, he was frequently double and triple booked!), and I had the chance to sub for him on shows like Wheel Of Fortune and Jeopardy! as well as for sitcoms and newsmagazine shows. Jim is a most generous teacher and shares his experience and knowledge liberally. This partnership brought me to a new level of skill and confidence, and with the purchase of some really good meters I had the impetus to seek work as a lighting designer specializing in televised entertainment.” An event that really shaped Ravitz’s career was his televised lighting of the Bruce Springsteen E-Street Band reunion at Madison Square Garden. The show was shot in high-definition video, which was new at the time, and they spent a lot of time adjusting the show’s lighting so that it was balanced for the camera while retaining the excitement of the original touring design. “The resulting show was broadcast on HBO and I was honored with the Primetime Emmy for Outstanding Lighting Design along with my tour lighting director, Gregg Maltby. This gave me credibility as a TV lighting designer and I soon began to get more chances to design shows for live broadcasts and to adapt other designers’ shows for the camera.” Ravitz suggests becoming an active member of professional organizations that service special areas of the lighting industry when crossing into other disciplines of lighting. “I have been an avid member of the International Cinematographers Guild, the American Society of Lighting Designers, the United Scenic Artists, and the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA). These organizations hold seminars and workshops that allow for person-to-person exchanges of ideas and experiences. I have also taken courses in architectural lighting and read everything that I have time for: trade publications, books, and articles.” Jeff also believes that maintaining a dialogue with your peers is important, from crew members to directors, producers, and senior members of the design community. “Talking to these people and sharing experiences continues an oral tradition of passing information along.” Finally, he notes that just doing it is the most important way to

improve and develop. “Trying out the newest equipment or techniques and doing your best to squeeze the most out of them is the best way to learn and grow.” Jeff shares that the main thing that separates television lighting from theatrical lighting is the wide gap between the sensitivities of the human eye and the camera. “The ability of the eye to simultaneously see many things of vastly different intensities and to assimilate them comfortably into a whole picture is far superior to  that of a camera.” Another major difference is in the camera’s tendency to put the viewer in the front row or even nose-to-nose with the subject. “The live audience sees a full frame from one end of the stage to the other and a lighting designer draws attention to the most important elements in a way that is similar to how a cinematographer goes from a wide shot to a close-up. However, the closest that a live audience member ever gets to a subject is still a minimum of 20 feet away. Things simply look different and the detail is not the same as when you view someone’s face from 1 foot away as it would appear in an extreme close-up, where you see every subtle shadow. More importantly, the techniques that a lighting designer uses to make things look good, dimensional, and visible in a large venue for a live show, create exaggerated shadows and other features that would appear somewhat grotesque if you were to suddenly change camera angles from a wide shot to a close-up. In lighting for the camera, there is much more emphasis on using lighting angles that flatter the face.” He also shares that, in live performances, it is not unusual to allow areas of the stage to fall off into darkness, which can be a problem in camera work. Multi-camera productions must be especially careful in paying attention to the different angles that can be simultaneously captured. “From a tight close-up to a wide shot, from a view of what is behind the talent to a view of what is off to their side in the far distance—it all has to be considered. That is why we spend a lot of time analyzing the wings in TV production and how they will look in the background of certain side- or cross-shots. We also tell our clients that it is our mission to make the show on the screen appear as close to the live show as possible. But, in order to accomplish this, we also tell them that we will have to make some changes to the live show that might alter the experience for the in-house audience—though they may not even realize it.” Although the technical limitations of the camera can sometimes be challenging, he enjoys the new advantages that the medium poses and claims that they have kept his approach fresh while allowing him to cross-pollinate between different parts of the lighting industry. “There is no doubt that my TV lighting style is greatly affected by my years as a live show designer. I can draw from things that work—or don’t—from each area and can then use them to extend my palette and broaden my tool chest.”

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Headline Acts Headline acts are events that are usually built around a specific artist who has risen to “superstar” status. These programs are often performed as a solo act in some form of casino environment. The entertainers are typically housed close to the casino in which they perform (often upstairs in a suite) and perform five or six nights a week. While it is common for small acts to be performed in an area of a casino where the venues are small and ceiling heights are in line with what are found in ballrooms, headline acts are typically housed in large, well-equipped theatres that often surpass many significantly sized theatre facilities. These facilities are often modified proscenium theatres that are equipped with very heavy rep plots, fly spaces, and scenery that has been designed for specific shows. The house, or seating areas, often includes areas where patrons can be seated at tables with drinks in addition to the traditional auditorium seating. These shows often run for many weeks or months—if not years. Also, the theatres are rarely used for any other purpose than the headline act. They are frequently renovated extensively when an artist moves on and another headliner moves into the space. The rep plots, often containing hundreds of luminaires, are also changed-out when a new act moves into a venue. The lighting of these events should showcase the headliner in as many ways as possible, even though effects and spectacle often are significant elements of many of these shows. Also, the spectacle elements cannot distort or make the artist look unattractive in any way. While many acts are billed around a single artist, most have accompanying vocalists, dancers, or chorus members, and an orchestra that must also look attractive to an audience. At the same time, focus should be clearly maintained on the main attraction or “star” performer(s), resulting in followspots playing an essential role in this form of entertainment. Outside of the larger scale and need for establishing a strong primary focus, much of the remaining elements of lighting these events follow the same principles that traditional concerts and musical revues might use. Color washes are used to accent the act and scenery while followspots are used to create contrast and draw focus to the primary artist. While moving lights and their effects are popular, special effects such as strobe and neon sequences, chase lights, and sophisticated cuing are also popular elements of many headline acts. Specials that are designated to add sparkle or “glitz” to scenic elements such as rain curtains and sequined costumes are also popular. A lighting designer typically designs and sets a show and then goes on to other projects and leaves the production in the hands of a local crew. Finally, there may be additional requirements: for example, when working with an illusionist, a lighting designer must ensure that the production is lit in a manner that doesn’t reveal any of the performer’s secrets. Some of the more popular artists even use sophisticated effects like flying or elaborate lifts that can maneuver the performer out over an audience.

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Both Barry Manilow and Cher have used flying effects in their shows while Trans-Siberian Orchestra uses elaborate lifts to carry two of their principal band members out over an audience. There are also spectacle music and dance acts that don’t necessarily highlight a single performer but instead feature a group of artists. Perhaps the best examples of these performances include the female dance or follies reviews associated with Las Vegas, the Radio City Music Hall’s Rockettes, or Michael Flatley’s Lord of the Dance or River Dance revues. Again, even though there may be many elements of spectacle within the performance, a lighting designer must be mindful of making the performers as attractive as possible while also keeping them as the main focus of the event. Figure 3.2 provides an example of a light plot for a musical review that featured several Rat Pack impersonators, whereas Figure 3.3 illustrates some of the paperwork associated with the show.

Festival Productions There are a number of festivals where a series of (usually) related performances are presented in a shared venue(s) over a brief period of time. They may be in the form of a weekend dance or music festival, a series of repertory productions, or a summer festival like the numerous Shakespeare festivals that are presented on a regular basis. The Stratford Festival, Great Lakes Shakespeare Festival, Spoleto Festival (international productions), Jacob’s Pillow (dance), Jones Beach Summer Concert Series (music/pop concerts), and Williamstown Theatre Festival are all festivals that range from several evenings through most of the summer. Figure  3.4 provides several examples of festival and repertory productions. Most festivals extend from 3 to 15 weeks. Each presents a variety of productions; some are produced in house, while others are brought in as touring productions for as little as a single performance. Some are outdoor festivals while others are produced in more traditional facilities. The manner in which a lighting designer designs for these festivals is dependent on the type of entertainment and the individual situation in which a festival operates. In many cases, a rep plot is developed for the whole season and services all of the productions that are part of a festival, with minor adjustments made during changeovers for the specific needs of any given show. The individual requirements of each of the programs are often prioritized as in any other repertory situation based on the place of the event/ production in the season, how many performances, billing of the act, changeover, etc. All of these considerations and more play a role in how specific a design can be for a given program. Once again, flexibility and being able to deliver quickly are significant elements of working successfully in these formats. For more specific methods of working in these situations see Chapter  13 (Variations on Essential Theatrical Design) in Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals.

Figure 3.2  A light plot for a headliner revue: New Year’s Eve gala

Figure 3.3  Special paperwork for the New Year’s Eve gala: (a) page/memory assignments. (b) Set or play list.

Arena Productions Even in the most simplistic situations, many sports teams now incorporate entertainment elements into their home arenas and pre-game activities. These effects aren’t as a rule terribly sophisticated but can involve the use of strobe cannons, flashing beacons, and even moving lights for part of the pre-game or half-time presentations. At the University of Georgia basketball games, our arena is equipped with about a half-dozen automated lights that have among their effects glass-mounted gobos of our Bulldog mascot. These spinning gobos are panned throughout the court and sometimes entire arena in preparation for an upcoming game. The units can also be strobed and may change color to add yet another dimension to the effects that are used for the pre-game activities and timeouts that occur during a game. Our women’s gymnastics team goes one step further and adds pyro effects to their opening activities for each home match. Numerous professional teams also make use of similar effects to fire up their fans. The Anaheim Mighty Ducks (ice hockey) even have their mascot fly down onto the ice from the arena catwalks—also to the accompaniment of pyro effects. In events like professional boxing,

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WWE wrestling, or even Battlebots (team-built robot destruction matches) spectacle plays a huge role in entertaining an audience prior to the actual event. In Battlebots, sequenced strobes and flashing lights that extend around the perimeter of the battle cage play a significant role in advancing the countdown that initiates the robot matches. Spectacle lighting also plays a large role in the pre-match activities and as each of the opposing teams enter the arena. Arenas not only provide a performance space that is large enough to make production costs more manageable, they also provide an environment that is unaffected by the weather. More importantly, light can be placed under full control of a designer, which allows arena productions to become much more theatrical in their manner of presentation. Circuses and ice shows were fairly early users of large arenas, but it wasn’t long before more traditional shows like Disney on Parade, Barney, and Sesame Street Live also began to use these facilities. There are a number of productions that make regular tours of the arenas of our cities, often making yearly stops at the same facilities year after year. The majority of these shows are geared toward families with young children. Marvel Universe Live, Monster Jam, and

Figure 3.3  (Continued)

Disney Live are just a sampling of the many arena shows that have recently toured throughout our country. Other similar shows that are presented in arena formats include the many ice shows like Disney on Ice: Frozen or Stars on Ice, as well as circuses. At the extreme, productions can grow to large-scale events that take place in sports arenas and stadiums. Additionally, many concerts are also presented in arenas and stadiums due to the ability to control the performance environment while also playing to a large crowd. Lighting these events is very similar to the way in which a concert would be approached—at least from the perspective of the type of equipment that is used in many of these productions. One end of the arena is usually identified as a staging area and will have a modular set, often with a proscenium (created with trussing) mounted on some form of portable staging. This section of the arena is then shut off as a backstage or limited sightline area while the majority of the audience is seated in the normal seating sections of the facility. This arrangement resembles a thrust staging configuration. The remainder of the court or main level is usually turned into a seating area for higher-priced

seats. There may or may not be entrances to and from the stage from the audience areas. The lighting and soft-goods are then flown directly above the stage using trusses, which are in turn rigged to the structure of the building. The lighting is generally more minimal than that found in concert rigs and typically contains a couple of tinted washes that are used to provide good illumination throughout the majority of the stage areas. Additional washes such as a deep blue down wash are often included for various effects while specials are added as a production needs them. When trussing is used, the units are usually located fairly close to the stage while at other times battens are simply rigged from an arena’s superstructure and hung with the required fixtures. In lighting larger venues, trusses may be hoisted into place throughout the entire facility, with trims as high as 50 or more feet. In both cases, vertical sightlines must also be considered so that the view of the stage from the upper decks is not obstructed by overhead rigging that has been added for the event. Throw distances are relatively large in most arena situations and require luminaires that are of relatively high wattages and small beam angles: 1K

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Figure 3.4 Festival and repertory productions: (a) Love’s Labour’s Lost—2005 Utah Shakespeare Festival (lighting by Donna Ruzika). (b) Cyrano de Bergerac—2005 Utah Shakespeare Festival (lighting by Donna Ruzika). (c) The Miser at the Cocteau Rep (lighting by R. Dunham). (d) The Miser at the Cocteau Rep (lighting by R. Dunham) Credit: (a) photo courtesy of B. J. Wilkinson, (b) photo courtesy of B. J. Wilkinson, (c) photo courtesy of R. Tatarowicz, (d) photo courtesy of R. Tatarowicz

Figure 3.4  (Continued)

Figure 3.5  Arena and stadium lighting: (a) A circus production (note lighting rig). (b) An arial act (note lighting rig below the performers). (c) An arena ice show (note trussing in ceiling). (d) A stadium illustrating sports lighting Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Pavel L Photo and Video/Shutterstock, (b) photo courtesy of Yellowj/Shutterstock, (c) photo courtesy of s74/Shutterstock, (d) photo courtesy of Africa Studio/Shutterstock

Figure 3.5  (Continued)

Figure 3.5  (Continued)

and 2K (1,000 and 2,000 watt) units are popular. Most ellipsoidal spotlights tend to fall in the 10–20° range (5° versions are also popular in larger facilities) while PAR-64s are often of the NSP (Narrow Spot) variety. In many productions, automated fixtures are added to provide an additional layer of flexibility and to bring effects to a design. Followspots play a significant role in these productions and it is not uncommon for events to use six or more of them in a show. It is also important to note that many of these productions will have some form of runway or walking area that allows the characters to get closer to select members of an audience. This presents a special set of problems for a lighting designer in terms of providing illumination of the performers as they are on the runway while at the same time taking care to avoid unwanted spill on the audience. Visibility is a major design element of these productions because audience members such as children often come to see and meet the characters. Also, care should be taken to avoid any situations that could startle or scare younger audience members. Finally, an additional area of concern lies in avoiding low-angled light as much as possible. Many performers are attempting to move and dance in oversized costumes that have some form of head gear or mask that at best gives them a very limited field of vision. Direct glare from a low-angled unit can cause a performer to lose their bearings, which could result in a fall that could be dangerous not only to the performer but also to the audience members who are around them. As yet another precaution, a set of blue safety lights are typically run along the perimeter of these stages and runways. Other forms of arena productions that require unique lighting relate to specialty programs like awards programs. While these may be produced for local audiences,

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in most cases the events are televised as a live broadcast to a much larger television audience. Examples of this type of programming include the Miss America Contest at the Convention Center in Atlantic City (although it has been hosted by other venues in recent years), The Country Music Awards (CMA) and Dove Awards (both presented at the Nashville Arena). The Grammy, Tony, and Academy Awards shows are similar live-broadcast productions that take place in large-scale arenas or theatres. These productions are mounted in much the same way as other theatre or arena productions with the added twist that the lighting must be adjusted for the television audience while also remaining acceptable for the “live” audience. An important issue relating to these performances is that the focus is usually directed toward the television rather than live audience. Levels must be balanced so that the cameras can produce an attractive image and colors/color temperatures are carefully monitored so that they provide a more naturalistic quality for the televised image. With the cameras that are currently in use today, this has become much less of an issue than it was in the past. In any case, priority is almost always given to the television audience: if it works for the live audience as well, great—if not, the image for the live audience will be the one that is compromised. The live audience for the Miss America Pageant often can’t see the contestants due to the cameras, monitors, boom operators, and other equipment and personnel that are situated between the audience and the contestants. In fact, the famed runway in a way actually becomes a dolly track for much of the event. Awards shows have a further complication in that the audience must also be illuminated at various times throughout the event. This covers the performers as they make their way between the stage

Figure 3.6  A large-format followspot: the SuperTrouper by Strong Entertainment Lighting Credit: photo courtesy of Strong Entertainment Lighting

Figure 3.7  A television awards show: the Filipino-American Visionary Awards at the Dolby Theatre (lighting by Jeff Ravitz) Credit: photo courtesy of Jeff Ravitz

Figure 3.8  Lakewood Church I-MAG and broadcast lighting (lighting design and consultation by William M. Klages) Credit: photo courtesy of Bill Klages

and their seats during the event (Figure  3.7). There are even mega-churches that have homes in former sports arenas. These worship facilities may make use of both I-MAG and broadcast video of their worship services. Joel Olsteen’s Lakewood Church in Texas is a great example of a mega-church making use of a former sports arena and both I-MAG and broadcast video (Figure 3.8).

Stadium Productions These events are reserved for the largest productions that we can bolster. Events that characterize this type of spectacle include the very largest concert events and other significant celebrations like the half-time shows associated with the Orange Bowl or Super Bowl and the opening and closing ceremonies of the Olympic Games. Scale becomes a major factor in these productions. Choices must generally be bold. A significant amount of the lighting emphasizes the bodies of the performers. Washes are a common approach to providing general area coverage and basic illumination of these events. Establishing focus and revealing facial features of the performers are best done through followspot techniques, often with the additional

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aid of large-format projection screens that contain live camera feeds (I-MAG) which are often used throughout these events. These performances contain not only spectacle lighting but also often add audience participation, pyro, and even fireworks and laser displays into their presentations. In recent years, projection mapping and LED panels have often been incorporated into the playing fields which also makes them a significant design element of these events. Frequently, these techniques are used to produce an ever-changing floor/ground treatment for an event. Projection mapping is also used in architectural lighting displays like the tiger that is projected onto the Empire State Building shown in Figure 3.9. Since there is usually no roof to confine the production, the events often expand to using aerial elements like fireworks and lasers as they approach their finales. For a good inside look at what goes on behind the scenes of events like the Olympic ceremonies read Brad Schiller’s journal of his participation in the 2000 Olympic Games at Sydney, Australia. This can be found in the appendix of his book, The Automated Lighting Programmer’s Handbook. Figure  3.10 includes photographs from the 2008 Summer Olympics ceremonies in Beijing, China.

Figure 3.9  Projection/video mapping: Obscura Digital’s projection of images of endangered species on the Empire State Building for the film Racing Extinction Credit: photo courtesy of WikiMedia Commons and Willchase, CC (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Obscura_Empire_State_Building)

Figure 3.10  Opening ceremony of the 2008 Summer Olympics (Beijing): (a) The iconic sphere. (b) Aerial view of the “Bird’s Nest” stadium Credit: (a) photo courtesy of White House photograph by Eric Draper, (b) photo courtesy of US Army Photo by Tim Hipps

A unique issue of these productions relates to the exterior environment of a stadium. While inclement weather may be an obvious concern, there are actually other factors that can have a more profound effect on a performance than the weather. If the event takes place in the afternoon, special considerations will have to be taken to get the lighting to read. It is often more difficult to light events at dusk than

once the sun has dropped below the horizon due to the relatively high level of ambient light that exists in these facilities at this time of the day. The effect of dwindling sunlight can also make it more difficult to develop a proper contrast between the theatrical lighting and the light that is already present in a stadium. Fog and haze can be used to help make the lighting more visible—especially when a significant

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amount of sunlight is still present in a venue. Deep shadows will also form in these venues due to the specific location of the sun. Many stadiums supplement the natural daylight with additional high-intensity discharge (HID) sources at a relatively early point in the afternoon to simply maintain an acceptable level of visibility throughout a facility. Each of these factors tend to make entertainment lighting more difficult until after a stadium has fallen into complete darkness. Another issue relating to the exterior location comes through having no rigging points available to rig the equipment from overhead. Because of this, all of the possibilities of trussing and overhead rigging found in arena situations are not possible for stadium productions without using specialized equipment. This forces a designer to move in one of two directions. First, they may choose to use ground-supported lighting systems that allow the trussing to be supported from devices like Super Lifts, booms, or Genie Towers. Second, on occasion, even cranes are used to help rig the lighting for stadium events. Each of these could be erected fairly easily on the playing field within several hours of a performance. Figure 3.11 provides several images from past olympic games where the lighting had to be achieved by other means than by ground support.

However, in some cases these productions are under extreme time considerations that make it impossible to set up the equipment in a timely fashion. A  half-time show might have to be erected, performed, and struck within a 30-minute time frame. You also have to be careful about affecting the field or playing surface in some negative fashion. A more successful approach for events that require a quick setup involves creating a lighting system that will not have to be moved or modified for a performance. A common approach to this is to either locate Genie Towers/ lifts in locations where they can be left up without moving them or to mount the luminaires along the front tiers of the seating levels of a stadium. The higher up in a stadium that the fixtures are mounted, the more narrow their associated beam spreads as well as the higher their assigned wattage should be. A popular solution for any event that does not have to go up or be struck in the matter of minutes involves the use of portable stages that are equipped with roofing and lighting grids/trusses that are ground supported. Many of these setups support elaborate lighting rigs as well as a canopy that can cover stages as large as 80 × 60 feet or larger (Figure 3.12). Modular scaffolding is often used to assemble many of the basic components like sound wings

Figure 3.11  Additional opening and closing olympic ceremonies: (a) Winter Olympics in Turin (opening ceremony). (b) 2002 Summer Olympics in Sidney (closing ceremony). (c) 2002 Winter Olympics at Salt Lake City (opening ceremony). (d) 2010 Olympic Winter Games in Vancouver, British Columbia (opening ceremony) Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Executive Office of the US President Photo by Shealah Craighead, (b) photo courtesy of Department of Defense Photo by TSGT Robert A. Whitehead USAF, (c) photo courtesy of Department of Defense/US Navy Photo by 1st Journalist Class Preston Keres, (d) photo courtesy of Department of Defense/US Army Photo by Tim Hipps

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Figure 3.11  (Continued)

Figure 3.11  (Continued)

Figure 3.12  Outdoor festivals and staging: (a) The Great Tree Lighting (Atlanta, GA) (b) Festival stage (with trussing/canopy roof system) Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Rick Clark and Entertainment Design Group, (b) photo courtesy of Applied Electronics, New Port News, VA

Figure 3.12  (Continued)

for setups like these. These portable stages and modular units are also frequently used for street festivals and other special events.

Specialty Shows With Spectacle There are a number of specialty shows that are examples of spectacle performance that are unique within themselves. In some cases these productions are presented in arenas and stadiums as touring productions, while in others an entire facility may be renovated or built to house a particular production or company. Ice shows and circuses are common examples of the former types of productions, while the Cirque du Soleil shows that are housed in permanent theatres are examples of the latter. Each production has a specific set of challenges presented to both the lighting designer and production team. Ice shows are probably the earliest examples of these specialty shows. Some of the more popular ice shows in recent years include Disney on Ice, The Ice Capades, The Ice Follies, and Olympic Stars on Ice. Using a sports arena or convention hall, a large temporary performance area or ice rink is laid on the concrete floor of the arena. The ice is several inches thick and is frozen as part of the load-in process. The performance area is almost always rectangular-shaped and generally covers the majority of the main level of the facility. The layout usually follows the same configuration as a hockey rink or basketball court. Much of the lighting and scenic elements are rigged just as they would be in any other arena situation. In shows or competitions that showcase the talent of the skaters, no scenic elements are added and the skaters perform to an audience on all sides of the

arena. Good visibility must be achieved and measures must be taken to light the skaters from all directions. This type of performance often makes little use of theatrical lighting and the majority of the illumination is provided by the HID lighting systems of the arena. Several followspots are frequently used on solo or couple skaters and come from a variety of angles throughout the arena. The ice-skating programs that are presented in Olympic competitions or skater exhibitions often make use of this type of lighting. In events where the skating emphasizes form and technical expertise, nothing should be done to distract the performers. The glare from a low-angled light source or misdirected followspot can cause a skater to lose their spotting or become disoriented—which might result in a fall. Safety should always be a concern when lighting these events due to the limited space available and high speed of the skaters. In those shows that make use of theatrical elements, the choices must often be bold because of the distances that exist between the luminaires and the performers. A  proscenium-like setting is often erected at one of the short ends of the ice with enough overlap with the rink to permit skaters to enter while skating from behind any settings that might be used for a production. The proscenium is also often masked out to the edge of the venue to help produce a backstage area. Monsters Inc. on Ice, Frozen, and Disney on Ice are just a few examples of these themed ice shows. Followspots are major components of these events: 10 or more are frequently used and multiple colors are often thrown on a skater at any given time. The followspots are traditionally placed in pairs of two, three, or more at one of the top levels of each of the four corners of the arena. Multiple-colored washes (often more along the

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line of tints) are also popular and are used to help provide a neutral background that will contrast with the heavy emphasis of the followspots. Much of the color within these performances can come from the followspots. Units that are selected for these designs are often PAR fixtures that must generally be mounted from relatively high trims (45° angles are ideal). In reality, the 45° angle must often be compromised and units are more frequently hung from nearly directly overhead in order to provide the desired washes while avoiding glare for the performers. Color scrollers and moving lights are often utilized as a means of adding flexibility to a design; spinning gobos and patterned breakups that completely wash the ice are also popular in ice shows. In many productions a number of lighting effects are incorporated into these performances: blacklight, beacons, strobe sequences, and mirror balls are a few of the more popular effects that are characteristic of these shows. Portable DC lighting effects such as LEDs may also be worked into elements of the scenery or costumes. Additional effects such as neon and fiber optics may be frozen into the ice itself. Finally, specials are added throughout the rig as required. One last area of major concern for a lighting designer relates to lighting the ice. Most importantly, the edges of the ice must be marked so that the performers can always be aware of how much space they are working in. Rope lights, neon, marquee chase lights, and fiber optics have all been used to mark the edges of the ice, while multiple-colored units like striplights, multiple circuits of wide-angled PARs, or other variations of striplights have also been used to mark the edge of the ice. The latter methods provide additional benefits such as coloring the ice while adding a low-angled light source that can help illuminate the skaters’ legs (similar to a shin buster) although these effects are often negligible since the majority of the skating does not take place near the edges of the rink. Care must also be taken not to create glare for audience members who are sitting directly across the ice from these lighting units. Cueing is more commonly reserved for changes between each number or presentation, although internal cues are possible and actually quite common in some presentations. In many ways the cuing is similar to the way in which a dance concert might be presented—and like dance, emphasis should be placed on the bodies of the skaters and directing focus to the proper skaters at any given time. While a certain amount of visibility must be present for the entire company, some form of contrast also needs to be maintained so that an audience can quickly identify the “featured artists” within the large performance area. Circuses are another area of spectacle that have moved into arena venues. Prior to about 1960 most circuses performed in tents, which required them to carry virtually every element of the lighting and rigging that they needed to produce a performance. Since then, virtually all circus

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performances have stopped performing under the “Big Top” and have instead shifted to arena setups that now make them interior events. These, too, are rigged and lit in fashions that are similar to ice shows. Safety and glare become even more important since so many of the performances involve dangerous acts that are thrill related. A fall from a high wire or trapeze can be fatal. For this reason, most circus lighting is kept to a fairly smooth and even coverage that tries to avoid shadows and contrast (especially with animal acts where unpredictability can occur). This gives artists the best chance for non-distorted visibility when making split-second decisions such as jumping onto a moving horse or clasping the hands of another airborne performer. Mounting angles tend to be high so that there is minimal potential for causing glare and so that the even coverage typically desired for these acts is created. Several different washes of color are usually hung for each principal performance area or ring of a circus. PAR-64s are the dominant luminaire for producing these washes; specials can be added as needed. Once again, followspots are heavily used in this type of entertainment—especially in aerial acts where operators must take special care to remain on their targets. Followspots are used to add more saturated colors to the event and to direct focus to the featured performers. Moving lights and scrollers are also popular—although once again, safety needs to be a major consideration in how the automated lighting is worked into a program. Other considerations include keeping the lighting rig out of the way of the various aerial programs and lighting performance areas that are far above the floor. Even with all these restrictions, the lighting for many circus acts tends to be bright and colorful, along with some sparkle, adding to the sense of spectacle that is typically associated with circus events. Cueing, outside of any special sequences demanded by specific acts, is often relatively conservative in circus productions. Creating a flattering look for an act that will probably not be altered until the next act is quite popular since frequent lighting changes could cause problems with the perception and vision of the performers. On the other hand, bump cues are often used to signify the successful completion of an especially risky feat.

Dedicated Venues Dedicated venues are facilities in which an entire performance space has been created around the artistic demands of a particular show or performance group. The best examples of these include the many Cirque du Soleil productions that have been mounted in cities like Las Vegas over the last 20 or so years and the park-closing events/pavilions at major theme parks such as at Walt Disney World Resort and Universal Studios. One of the most successful Disney programs is the 30-minute Fantasmic show that

is presented nightly at both the West Coast and Orlando parks. In this show, which is based predominately around the themes of Walt Disney’s Fantasia film, Mickey Mouse and his friends battle many of the Disney evil characters. The setting is an open-air amphitheater with a multistory staging area that includes a façade of a mountain with a number of playing areas scattered throughout its height and a large lagoon in which numerous boats carrying the majority of the Disney characters parade in front of the audience. Spectacle plays a huge role in this production, which includes elements like pyro, lasers, water jets/fountains, large animated puppets, and a water scrim/curtain that covers the entire setting and onto which projections are cast for a significant portion of the show. Installations that have been developed by the Blue Man Group, and specialty events like the medieval dinner recreations that are designed around horse riding arenas complete with jousting competitions, are other examples of these dedicated venues. Cirque du Soleil productions are noted for both their conceptual and spectacle approach to mounting an event. Cirque performances emphasize the artistry of these circus-like acts through the control and form of the human body. While the acts are often dangerous, they are not centered on the element of thrill that conventional

circuses are based upon. In addition to the artistry, every element of these productions is themed and ties into a greater story and concept that has been created for the entire production. Just a few of the productions that Cirque du Soleil has produced in this format include KÁ (Figure  3.14), O, La Nouba, and Mystère. In each case, entire theatres have been created around specific productions. O at the Bellagio Casino in Las Vegas represents an extreme form of modified performance space where performers use a principal staging area of a pool for aquatic acts that provide acrobatics and choreography both above and below the surface of the water. Luc Lafortune’s lighting is exquisite despite the needs for developing specialized equipment that was both safe and could stand up to the wet environment of the show. These productions cost millions of dollars to mount and months if not years to produce. The scale is huge and monumental elements are frequently characteristic of these productions. Even though the lighting must first consider the safety of the performers, an immense amount of time is spent in creating a visual spectacle around the performers. Lighting is very unique for each act and care is taken to produce a design that speaks not only to the individual performers but also to the show as a whole. Stunning visual images have been associated with these productions.

Figure 3.13 Disney’s Fantasmic at Disneyland Park in the Disneyland Resort Credit: photo courtesy of ©Disney

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Figure 3.14  Spectacle events: Cirque du Soleil (KÀ, Las Vegas): (a) KÀ Theater, (b) Slave Cage act Credit: photos courtesy of Cirque du Soleil, Photo Credit: Nils Becker, Costume Credit: Marie-Chantale Vaillancourt ©Cirque du Soleil 2010

The lighting is very specific—even to the point of adding hanging positions throughout the facility as needed by the designer. If a unit is needed in an unconventional position, a new position is created to house the associated unit(s). Everything is worked and reworked until the entire creative team is satisfied with the final product. On a smaller scale, Blue Man Group also produces shows that are housed in theatres that have been modified for a specific program or production. This group has resident theatres and companies performing in Boston, Toronto, New York, Las Vegas, and other major cities throughout the world. Even though not as extensive as the Cirque or Disney shows, this company also makes frequent use of video, moving lights, strobes, and blacklight to bring spectacle to their performances.

Additional Areas of Spectacle Two final areas of spectacle come about through combining several elements of spectacle performance with architectural lighting. These include events like the fountains used in the dancing water displays that are frequently found in the gardens or atriums of upscale hotels and the aerial shows often associated with community festivals or celebrations. In both cases, specialized luminaires are used to project light onto the surfaces of either the water or clouds. Most dancing water displays contain a range of water fountains that use a variety

of water jets, sprays, and fountain heads to create displays of pulsating water that are timed and choreographed to a sound track of music. In order to add more theatricality to the event, the fountains are lit and programmed to change color in response to the music and choreography of the fountains (Figure  3.15). Pre-programmed shows usually last about 5 minutes and are repeated on regular intervals of every 15–30 minutes. Examples of these spectacles can be found outside of the Disneyland Hotel in Anaheim (though removed in 2011, you can still find recordings of the show on YouTube), in the atriums of the Opryland Hotel in Nashville, and outside of the Bellagio Hotel in Las Vegas. The luminaires may be mounted either above or below the surface of the water and are focused to light the sprays of each fountain. Different lights are frequently used for lighting the different heights and shapes of the fountains as well as for providing a variety of colors for the short programs. The last area of spectacle lighting relates to aerial shows, or projecting light into the air or sky. Aerial shows are performed over large events like stadiums, state fairs, or other festivities and can be seen several miles away from the actual event. In aerial productions the light must fall onto some form of projection surface in order to become visible. If the night sky is too clear it will be impossible for the light to be seen by an audience. Many theme parks make use of search lights like Sky Trackers (roving search lights), aerial spotlights, fireworks, and lasers in their nightly finales.

Figure 3.15  Dancing waters/fountain shows: choreographed fountains and lighting by Bright East Water Arts: (a) A large exterior fountain show that is set along the waterfront of a resort area, (b) a linear display in a mirror pool along a pedestrian walkway, and (c) a fountain show within a shallow reflecting pool Credit: photos courtesy of Bright East Water Arts (www.bewaterarts.com)

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Figure 3.15  (Continued)

Figure 3.16  Sky Trackers: (a) Trailer-mounted unit, (b) Sky Trackers at Universal Studios Credit: photos courtesy of Strong Entertainment Lighting

While common water vapor and atmospheric dust may provide enough atmospheric particles to reflect a beam of light, these are often not enough and clouds of smoke from sources like fog/smoke machines or fireworks are often used to help make the light more visible. Full scenic projections, fireworks, and lasers are frequently worked into

aerial shows. The Sky Trackers (Figure 3.16) often used to announce sports events or special sales like grand openings are examples of this type of spectacle as well. An extremely effective use of light in an aerial display was the Twin Towers Memorial that has been created several times as a tribute to the victims of the 911 tragedy (Figure 3.17).

Figure 3.17  Twin Towers Memorial (Towers of Light) Credit: photo courtesy of Department of Defense/US Air Force Photo by Denise Gould

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For Further Reading Cadena, Richard. Automated Lighting: The Art and Science of Moving Light in Theatre, Live Performance, Broadcast, and Entertainment. 2nd ed. Oxford and Boston: Focal Press, 2010. Claiborne, Vickie. Media Servers for Lighting Programmers: A Comprehensive Guide to Working with Digital Lighting. Oxford and Boston: Focal Press, 2014. Moody, James L and Paul Dexter. Concert Lighting: Techniques, Art, and Business. 4th ed. Oxford and Boston: Focal Press, 2017.

Sapsis, Bill. Heads Up and Tales. Lansdowne, PA: Sapsis Publications, 2007. Schiller, Brad. The Automated Lighting Programmer’s Handbook. 3rd ed. Amsterdam and Boston: Elsevier and Focal Press, 2017. Vasey, John. Concert Sound and Lighting Systems. 3rd ed. Woburn, MA: Butterworth- Heinemann Press, 1999. Watson, Lee. Lighting Design Handbook. New York, NY: McGrawHill, 1990.

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CHAPTER 4

TRADE SHOWS, INDUSTRIALS, AND CORPORATE EVENTS

TRADE SHOWS AND CORPORATE EVENTSTRADE SHOWS AND CORPORATE EVENTS

T

HIS CHAPTER BRINGS together a unique combination of theatrical and exhibit or displaylike productions or events. Many of these productions contain dozens of singing and dancing cast members, moving scenic elements, video projections, and lighting effects that can rival anything that you might see at a concert or Broadway show. Most of these events are produced by corporations and are called corporate events or productions. Some refer to this as corporate theatre. The productions may even require a designer to produce several different but related events in a single venue using the same rig. A significant difference in these productions is that there is often only a single performance for most corporate events. Many corporate productions occur on an annual basis and are linked to corporate meetings or to the introduction of the latest products or services that have been created by a company. Sometimes these events are produced as a single show presented at the national level while at other times a smaller event is toured to several regional locations. A number of the techniques used in lighting these events are borrowed from traditional theatrical, concert, and spectacle events as well as from display or exhibit lighting. Since these are discussed in detail elsewhere in this and its partner book, Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals, they are not repeated here. Instead, I have chosen to discuss the elements that make these events unique and ask that you refer to the other chapters for information relating to the applications and techniques that are most appropriate for an event.

Corporate Mentality Whether lighting trade shows, industrials, or any other type of corporate event, the most important element to working successfully in this type of programming is making the product and its corporate sponsors look as good as possible. Because these events are produced predominantly by sales and commercial representatives there are several important differences in how a designer is expected to work in this area of production. Probably the most significant difference lies in the fact that your producer is the company and that the people who are responsible for working with the design team often have limited backgrounds in theatrical production. This can lead to a number of situations where decisions are made by individuals who do not understand the ramifications of their choices. The best corporate producers have some background in the theatrical business and know how to be involved in the process while trusting their designers to create the most effective presentation possible. Finding an effective way of communicating with those who aren’t versed in theatrical terminology or practices is an important task for any designer working in corporate theatre. Visual illustrations and photographs are important and can go a long way toward creating an understanding of what you intend to produce for a particular event. Another issue comes in the question of who is really in charge of a corporate production. While the production team may have worked extensively with an individual or team that represented the company throughout the planning stages of a project, someone further up the executive chain like a vice president or board chairman who

has not been a part of the process may come in at the last minute and make demands of the event and its designers. Such situations can be frustrating and can add an incredible amount of stress and expense to an event as designers scramble to accommodate the changes being demanded by these people. I know of corporate shows where designers had to re-color and re-cue significant parts of a production due to revisions in a script or move entire stages and their related lighting rigs to different locations within a venue. I  have even heard of an occasion where all of the lighting fixtures and trusses were repainted a different color just hours before the beginning of an event—all on the insistence of a corporate player further up the company ladder. Corporate image is a final distinction between these areas and designing for more traditional theatrical venues. Where jeans and T-shirts are an unquestioned wardrobe for concert designers, a designer working in a corporate setting must fit in with the clients that they are serving. While you may dress less conservatively than the typical suit and tie associated with most corporate dress codes, you do need to dress appropriately for the occasion and corporation for which you are working. This often requires a dress shirt and slacks or skirt, dress, or pant suit that gives a professional image to a designer. With some clients, this dress code could include a coat and tie or other proper business attire. Being well-groomed without displaying distracting body piercings or tattoos is also part of this professional image.

Your corporate image should be presented at every occasion in which you are dealing with the client, which includes not only design meetings but also at all times when you are in the venue dealing with the company and general public. A designer’s communication skills should also reflect those used in the business world and are yet another important element of working successfully in this niche of lighting design. Speaking with the language of a truck driver is only going to work with the drivers and crew; it will most likely make you look unprofessional when working with your clients and other reps who are involved with a corporate event. These manners of professionalism and paying attention to details as well as your client’s needs are just as important in a small ballroom event as they are in a large multi-day event that takes place in a large arena hall convention center.

Trade Shows A trade show is nothing more than a gathering that features a collection of manufacturers and distributors who are assembled in a facility as a group of related professions/ industries. Companies do this in order to make contact with potential clients and to provide exhibits that display their most current products. Most conventions and conferences provide some form of exhibit area/trade show where manufacturers and distributors can display their products and services (Figure 4.1). The advantage to producing trade

Figure 4.1  A Trade Show Exhibit (Saturn Car Show Display–Lighting by Betsy Adams) Credit: (Photo by Dennis Menard)

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shows is in that potential customers can observe a diverse range of companies and products that are related to a given industry in a single place. Home and garden shows, builder shows, flower shows, auto and boat shows, medical, and scientific instruments, and even theatrical equipment are all represented by a number of specialized trade shows each year. Several of the largest annual trade shows affiliated with the lighting industry in the United States include the United States Institute for Theatre Technology’s (USITT) Annual Conference and Stage Expo, Lighting Dimensions International (LDI), and Lightfair International, which caters to the architectural lighting community. Most trade shows are organized under the premise of setting up portable displays in a rented area of an exhibit hall or convention center. The more square footage that a company rents, the larger its fee and the larger the display/ exhibit that it will mount. While many trade shows fill large halls and convention centers, others are conducted in areas like hotel ballrooms or even common areas like foyers and corridors of conference hotels and meeting rooms. Exhibit space can range from as small as table top displays to twostory constructions that are created from modular components that are assembled on a temporary basis which are designed specifically for a given trade show. The lighting of these shows follows many of the practices of lighting any other merchandising exhibit and the cardinal rule rests in lighting the featured products so that their appearance is unaltered and as attractive as possible. You should make sure that your shop order contains extra accessories like donuts, Blackwrap, frost, breakup gobos, and other materials that will give you maximum control of the light that is used on the featured products. Other considerations that should be observed while lighting trade show exhibits include providing enough general lighting for patrons to circulate throughout the exhibit booth, lighting featured products in such a way that patrons and sales staff will not throw shadows onto the merchandise, prioritizing appropriate focus and contrast throughout the display, and providing adequate task lighting so that sales and marketing staff can conduct business transactions while on the exhibit floor. The primary lighting system is usually part of the permanent installation of large exhibit halls and is often provided with economical floodlights like high-bay fixtures using fluorescent or metal halide lamps. In smaller venues like ballrooms and conference meeting rooms, some form of incandescent or fluorescent downlighting is usually used for the general lighting. Many of the luminaires that are common to traditional display and retail lighting are popular sources for lighting trade show exhibits. For accent lighting, many small exhibits use lighting fixtures that are designed into the actual display itself. Decorative luminaires that include tungsten sources and low-voltage units are frequently designed and mounted directly into displays. Larger exhibits often use theatrical gear such as PAR luminaires and spotlights like Fresnels or ellipsoidal reflector spotlights that are worked into ground-supported

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lighting systems that are frequently designed as part of the exhibit. The largest displays can involve rigging the display and its lighting from overhead and may use stock or custom-made trusses and other concert related gear. When creating exhibits of this magnitude, the company must usually pay additional fees for union crews that rig and assemble the displays in the exhibit hall. Power for lighting and any other electrical needs for an exhibit must also be bought through an additional fee that is paid to the venue. In some cases, limited theatrical presentations may be conducted right from within a company’s booth. Such events are usually fairly small and are frequently scheduled at regular intervals like once an hour throughout a trade show. A lighting designer must consider the additional needs of these presentations when a company produces these events in their booths. Fire codes and aisle clearances must also be determined so that gear and cables can be placed in locations that are in compliance with the local codes. Frequently power distribution is dropped in from above the exhibits. Finally, ambient light from the rest of the trade show floor and neighboring booths must be considered since these presentations are conducted while an exhibit hall’s lighting is at its normal levels.

Fashion Shows Fashion shows are a unique area of corporate lighting due to several factors that set them apart from other corporate productions. Several of these include the layout of the performance space, which almost always includes some form of runway, an energetic highly charged performance environment, and a fairly intimate setting between the patrons and the models. These events are typically conducted on a seasonal basis and may be presented to either the general public or to a more specific audience like the buyers who work for various department or chain stores. Fashion shows are frequently linked to the introduction of new clothing lines and accessories associated with the seasons and often include themes like fall, spring, winter, or swim wear/summer fun. A  special variation of these events includes the many bridal shows that also appear throughout the year. The most important shows, such as the ones where major label designers introduce their new fashions, are usually produced in a well-controlled environment like a hotel or conference ballroom. In these cases, the room can be set up in any manner that is desired by the design team, and the lighting is assembled as deemed appropriate for the space. More importantly, a lighting designer will usually have full control of the lighting in this environment. Once the show begins, only theatrical lighting is used to light the models and their garments. At the other extreme are fashion shows that are conducted in very uncontrolled environments—an example being the Friday evening or Saturday afternoon shows that are assembled in the atrium or court areas of many shopping malls. In this case, the stage is often quite small, with staging areas as limited as 8 × 12 feet, runways

that are as short as 8–10 feet and only 4–6 feet wide, simple scenic backgrounds, and a very limited (if any) backstage space. In most situations the show and models are in competition with the noise of surrounding vendors, distracting sounds and sights of shoppers who are in close proximity to the stage, and a host of other issues related to areas commonly associated with a high degree of traffic and congestion in a mall. More importantly, the lighting will have to overpower the primary mall lighting while not becoming a distraction for people who are not involved with the show. An important consideration that a lighting designer must examine when designing fashion shows relates to the fact that many of the rooms where these productions are mounted have ceiling heights that are quite low. Ballrooms typically have ceiling heights of only 10–20 feet—meaning that if a stage is even just 2 feet off the floor, a 6-foot model could literally have her head up in the lights. These low trim heights must be carefully evaluated by the lighting designer as they work through the development of a fashion show’s lighting. A  lighting designer will have further complications when lighting events that are conducted in environments like mall atriums. In these situations, it may or may not be possible to hang the lighting from overhead, and ground support will many times be the only solution for mounting the luminaires. Any theatrical lighting provided for these shows must also overcome the general circulation or primary lighting of the mall as well as any daylighting that is used to light these public spaces. Unfortunately, most contemporary malls make heavy use of daylighting as an economic solution to lighting court and atrium areas. These additional sources cannot be dimmed and form severe competition with any theatrical lighting that a designer may want to use for a stage. Since the ambient lighting cannot be altered or controlled, often the best that can be hoped for is to add supplemental lighting to the stage as a means of altering the color temperature of the light, increasing the overall intensity of the performance area, and producing an even coverage that eliminates shadows and other distractions on the models. Because fashion shows are a variation of retail design, a “cardinal rule” of lighting fashion shows lies in not only providing good illumination for the garments and models but also preventing any significant alterations in their appearance. A lighting designer should strive to enhance the fabrics and patterns that are used in the materials of the garments while also augmenting the natural skin tones and makeup of the models. In most situations, several lighting systems are created to support the types of illumination that most fashion shows require. These systems might include one or two downlight washes that are placed directly over the runway and other areas of the stage along with a system or two of wash lights that are oriented along each side of the runway. Care must be taken in placing the units that run parallel to the runway so that their angles don’t become so steep that excessive shadowing is created on the models. At the same time, the angles cannot be so flat that patrons

seated near the sides of the runway are exposed to excessive glare from lights that are hung from across the runway on the other side of the stage. Avoiding flat angles also prevents excessive spill on the audience. Finding a balance between these two extremes can make or break the effectiveness of a lighting design for a fashion show. A front wash should be added for general visibility and back washes are used to help rim and separate the models from the background. The front wash is especially important for providing a means of quickly adding visibility to areas of the stage as needed. All of these washes, except for the back washes, should be colored in very light tints or clear/no color light. Additional specials in variations of white light can be placed on the speaker’s lectern while other specials can be focused on pre-assigned positions that are placed in regard to the positions where the models pause and turn in their walks. Podiums are often lit as a secondary focus throughout these productions. Two followspots located on approximately 45° front angles from the primary performance area can also be used quite extensively to cover the models as they move along the stage and runway. The followspots become even more important when it’s not possible to provide as much area or wash lighting, as discussed earlier. Striplights or footlights may be added along the edges of a runway (both top and bottom) to help fill in some of the shadows coming from the relative steep angles of the area lighting and for color toning the design. Next, additional washes and specials are added to light the entrances and scenic elements of the production while scrollers can be added to any of the systems to provide more color options throughout a design. Finally, most fashion shows have an upbeat tempo and thrive on creating a positive energy and sense of excitement. The most common means of energizing these shows comes through using spectacle elements of music and lighting. Some of the more popular lighting elements used to create this excitement include chase lights, mirrored balls, strobes, textured or patterned gobos, and colored washes that pulsate to the music. Numerous moving light elements that include scanners and moving head luminaires are also heavily used to increase the flexibility and spectacle of the programs. These units may be hung almost anywhere in the rig but are best placed where they can cover the greatest portion of the stage while creating a maximum impact on a design. These units may also be played over the audience for additional effect. Many of the effect elements are used as part of a base image, which will then have units that produce the wash or visibility lighting systems layered on top of them. In this manner, a creative background is formed while at the same time providing the non-distorted illumination that is required for the models and garments. Cueing of these events is generally elaborate and must often require a designer to improvise or run many of the productions on the fly. So, both the selection of console and programmer (if you’re not doing it yourself ) are also important. Figure 4.2 provides examples of several different variations in fashion show arrangements along with their associated lighting.

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Figure 4.2  Fashion shows: (a) A typical lighting scheme as seen from a model’s perspective. (b) Runway lighting. (c) Fashion Now. (d) Visualization in LD Assistant software (design and visualization by T. Hennings) Credit: (a, b) photos courtesy of CatwalkPhotos/Shutterstock, (c) courtesy of Rick Clark and ID3 Group, (d) courtesy of Design and Drafting

Corporate Meetings Corporate meetings can range in size from an event taking place in a meeting room that seats as few as 30 to 50 guests at your local Holiday Inn to filling a large sports arena with more than 50,000 people. Some corporate events follow a simple meeting format and are comprised of nothing more than a series of small presentations while others consist of several days of large-scale presentations and a host of

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special events. Some of these presentations follow a more traditional lecture format while others will bring a variety of delivery styles into play. Video, computer presentations, theatrical and musical events, and other forms of popular entertainment are worked into many of these larger meetings. In many of the large-format programs, corporate meetings are worked into a bigger schedule of events that are linked to product introductions, sales presentations, press releases, and even full-blown industrials and

Figure 4.2  (Continued)

trade shows. Other variations of these events include large convention/conference presentations or seminars where an arena or large ballroom is filled with participants who are observing a speaker or instructor speaking on a given topic. Political conventions, religious crusades, and inspiration speakers are examples of this type of programming. In the simplest corporate meetings a lighting designer will most likely only have to consider the task of illuminating the speakers properly. A  typical format for these

presentations involves placing a podium or single table that is long enough to seat all of the presenters on a riser at one end of a meeting room. Many events like these can be found in hotels or convention centers in virtually any city. Existing track lighting often is the only element for lighting these events. The designer simply needs to provide an even wash of illumination over the entire panel of presenters. If a podium is used, it should be lit with a separate circuit—preferably with two fixtures coming from different

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angles. All of the panelists’ lighting, general lighting, and podium lighting should be capable of being dimmed to a point where an appropriate focus can be brought to the speaker and other panelists. Lower levels will be required for audio-visual presentations but, the speaker(s) should, as a rule, remain lit to some degree at all times. The angle of these lights should be steep enough that the speakers don’t have to look directly into the units, yet far enough from downlight to avoid casting distracting shadows on the speakers and their notes. Speakers will also often want to see their audience, so some form of house lighting with dimming should also be figured into these packages—in larger venues, this cannot be the general high-intensity discharge (HID) lighting since a proper balance must be maintained between the lighting levels of the speaker and the audience. Color is not generally used in these applications. If it used at all, it is kept in the range of pastel tints unless there is some special need for a more saturated color, such as washing an area in the “corporate colors.” It is also quite popular for audio-visual components and screens to play a significant role in these presentations. Overhead, slide, and digital projectors with Microsoft PowerPoint presentations are commonly used to illustrate a speaker’s message. Precautions must be taken to keep both ambient and direct light off of all the projection surfaces. When these meetings move into large meeting halls and arenas, large video screens are the best means of allowing many of the participants to observe the speakers. Here, the screens typically carry close-up images of the presenter’s face (I-MAG) along with the illustrative materials (such as charts and diagrams) that provide supplemental aids to the presentation. Regardless of type of image, in addition to keeping light off of the screens, a lighting designer must also light the subject in a way that produces good video images for the cameras that will be supplying the video to the projection screens. A relatively recent trend involves broadcasting or taping these meetings and productions to a television or web audience that can witness the event “live” from almost anywhere in the world. Web broadcasts and distance learning are two additional areas that make similar use of these techniques and technologies. Although corporate events can grow to a staggering size, many corporate meetings don’t get any larger than a large ballroom or convention hall setup. These smaller meetings are conducted by local companies that simply use the facilities of one of their local hotels to produce their event. Regardless of size, it is important to draw appropriate focus to the individuals that are making the presentations and to illuminate them in as flattering of a manner as possible. An even wash of lighting that is hung from a single truss located on a 45° vertical front angle can be a sufficient solution to lighting many of these events. Some venues will have pre-existing trusses that may be rigged with a pre-determined inventory of lighting instruments, while others may be equipped with rigging points but will require a lighting designer to specify and rent a truss,

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luminaires, and any other components that are required for an event. Still others are even more limited and will require a designer to provide ground support in addition to the lighting equipment that will be used for an event. An important consideration of corporate events is the amount of power that is available for a lighting rig. While power is typically not an issue in venues that are used for large corporate meetings (such as convention centers and arenas), hotels will frequently have very limited power sources for theatrical lighting and sound systems. In the most limiting conditions a designer might even be restricted to using the 20-amp convenience outlets that are located around the perimeter of a room or running feeder cables back to an electrical panel in an area like a kitchen or service corridor to power their rig. Care must also be taken to carefully identify which outlets in a room are assigned to the same circuit and to note any other loads that may already be assigned to these circuits. A device as common as a commercial refrigerator or freezer could drop the available load of a circuit considerably. Many of the distributed dimming systems currently on the market can be used in venues that make use of convenience outlets for their power distribution. Larger facilities typically provide additional power through disconnect services that are located in service corridors that run either between or adjacent to the meeting rooms. In some cases, they might even provide a disconnect in the meeting room itself. Sizes of these disconnects are typically smaller than you would find in a theatre (often 100 amps or less) but are usually quite adequate for producing most corporate events. It is also quite common to run feeder cables from these disconnects, down the service corridors, and into the room where the dimmers and remaining lighting gear are located. Whenever using portable equipment and power, care must be taken to ensure that feeder cable of the proper configuration, gauge, and length are specified for the event. Many venues may have additional requirements that might include items like requiring a house or licensed electrician to do the tie-in. Several ballroom corporate events are illustrated in Figure 4.3.

Industrials The most theatrical corporate events are industrial shows or productions. Industrials are large spectacle presentations that often combine performers who dance to high-energy music, numerous theatrical gimmicks like spectacle lighting, pyro effects, and heavy use of video and other digital images in their productions. The spectacle used in many of these productions can be compared to that found on Broadway stages. Several unique considerations of these events include the fact that most, if not all, of the audiences are a non-paying audience; time in production and the extent of a show’s run are quite limited; and that the “stars” of the productions are the products or services of a company that functions as the producer of the event. It is quite common to use these programs to get hundreds if not

Figure 4.3  Ballroom shows/corporate meetings: (a) Gillette (lighting by Betsy Adams). (b) monster Masquerade. (c) Ghoul Train Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Fred J. Hancock, (b, c) photos courtesy of Rick Clark and ID3 Group

thousands of company reps together to present information regarding the company and its products. More importantly, a critical function of these events is to get these reps hyped up and excited about a company’s latest products. They, in turn, will take the message back to their individual

markets and will sell more products and services. Two of the most popular types of industrials that are produced in the United States include the annual auto shows that introduce new car models to the dealers and general public and the pharmaceutical shows that introduce medications and

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c.

Figure 4.3  (Continued)

specialized equipment to health professionals. Companies like Ford Motor Company, Amway, Pfizer Pharmaceutical, Coca-Cola, IBM, and Anheuser-Busch all produce shows to both educate and motivate their sales reps. Figure  4.4 provides examples of several different scales of industrial productions. While some industrials are much larger than others, there are several common threads that tie these corporate productions together. Probably the most important one being the fact that the “star” of these productions is usually a product. The latest computer processor or operating system, introductions to the latest model cars and boats, a line of furniture, or a new formulation of soft drink have all been featured elements of past industrials. While spectacle and a host of theatrical devices often are major elements of these productions, they are all used to build up to a climax where the featured product or service makes its first appearance. This appearance is often called a reveal and virtually every theatrical ploy in the book has been used to maximize the effect of this moment. Car shows are some of the most lucrative industrials and reveals have included driving cars through banks of fog, smoke, and/ or pyro; using traps to bring cars up to the stage; and even flying cars in from the overhead rigging. Lighting, sound, and the performers are all used to help build the show to this climax. Popular lighting effects that are used for this moment include the use of silhouettes, strobe sequences, chase lights, automated lighting, and even advanced technologies like LEDs and lasers. Many industrials take place in convention halls and make use of lighting and other theatrical equipment that

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has been developed primarily for touring and concert applications. Portable lighting systems are in popular use for these productions and often make use of trusses, which are easily configured into a variety of arrangements that are then flown to the necessary trims that are required by a production. PAR units and automated lighting are the majority of the instrumentation used in these productions and lighting inventories can number from several hundred luminaires up. Followspots and video projection also find frequent use in these productions. Finally, large-scale scenic pieces, many times with moving elements, bring yet another element of spectacle to these events. While there is always a budget, budgets on the whole are much larger for industrials than a designer would see for comparable work in the traditional areas of theatrical production. This is primarily due to these productions being seen as a marketing investment and the fact that a company has probably already invested hundreds of thousands or even millions of dollars into bringing a product to market. When it comes to the productions, corporations do everything that they can to introduce a product in such a way that widespread sales of the product will shortly follow its introduction. The introduction of any of the iPhone models are great examples of where Apple has created a given amount of hype and huge demand for the phones even before their release to the market. As with many other corporate events, it is common for video to be` worked into industrial productions. This video is used for effect as well as to deliver important messages regarding both the product and event. The content of this material can range from providing a “live” close-up of a corporate speaker to

Figure 4.4 Industrial productions/corporate theatre: (a) IBM Mach I  Introduction at Radio City Music Hall (lighting by Betsy Adams). (b) CIMG Corporate Show—A large full-cast production number. (c) CIMG Corporate Show—Lower key duet as part of the production Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Betsy Adams and Blue Hill Design, (b, c) photos courtesy of Rick Clark and ID3 Group

Figure 4.4  (Continued)

presentations of corporate data, and promotional ads/videos that will be launched in conjunction with the release of a new product. The need for flexibility and ease of setup, and the fact that many industrials are one-time events, makes renting gear for these productions quite popular. It is rare for a company to purchase this equipment for their own needs. Just as there are lighting companies that cater to the rock and roll industry, there are design firms that work with corporate clients to produce industrial productions. A design firm may not only provide lighting consultation to a client but may also design and produce an entire event (lighting, scenic, sound, and video as well as audio-visual consultation and production services). There are many Audio Visual (AV) companies at the local level that provide computers, projectors, and basic sound and lighting support for the many corporate events that are conducted at the lower end of this design market. More importantly, lighting designers who want to explore this type of production can often get a start in the business through working for one of these smaller production services. Even though many corporate events are produced only once, some may be remounted several times at different locations that correspond to the regional sales or distribution territories of a company. Therefore, the modular nature of touring gear can help make the industrial productions more manageable for the limited tours that some of these events may follow. Even for a single put-in, the advantages of using this type of equipment far outweigh

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the use of traditional theatrical gear. When designing for this type of touring, the designer must plan the rig so that it can be supported and set up in the smallest venue that the production will be scheduled to be produced in while at the same time not compromising any of the production values of the event. Designing for corporate theatre can vary quite dramatically based on the specific nature of the industrial in which you are working. The scale of these productions probably plays the most significant role in how a lighting designer approaches a production. A  program that takes place in a ballroom can’t compare with the amount of gear and personnel that it will take to mount an event in a civic center or large arena. Some productions only require good illumination and general visibility while others are extremely theatrical in their presentation. These, too, will have an impact on what a lighting designer brings to a production. The nature of the talent and scenic elements represented in a show are other factors that play a role in how you approach the lighting design. An event with lots of dancers and choreography will most likely have strong side lighting while in other situations the lighting may have to be tightly confined to specific platforms or other areas of stage. Are there any scenic elements that must be lit? Are there maskings? What’s the company’s image? What about corporate seals or logos? Company logos and signage should almost always have at least one special assigned to each of them. Are washes more appropriate for this program—or a number of specific specials? If washes,

Sidebar 4.1  DESIGNER PROFILE Betsy Adams

Credit: photo courtesy of Robert Murphy

Betsy Adams began her lighting career in theatrical design. She is a graduate of Smith College and assisted Tharon Musser for several years in the mid-1980s. She went on to design lighting for a number of regional and NYC productions before moving into corporate lighting where she is a founding partner of the corporate design/production firm of Blue Hill Design. She continues to be active in both areas. She has notable theatrical credits with The Guthrie, Denver Center, Mark Taper Forum, Arena Stage, and Paper Mill and La Jolla Playhouses in addition to many others. Opera companies that she has designed for include the Seattle and San Diego Opera Companies, among others. A few of her more prominent clients in the corporate world include Saturn, Pfizer, IBM, Gillette, Ford, Kodak, Canon, and Pepsi-Cola. Ms. Adams had gained a number of professional design credits at reputable theatre companies across the United States and was well on her way to a very successful theatrical career when an incident occurred that would change her professional life. A  company which had contracted her to light four productions folded on the night before she was to begin techs for the first production. This left her with a large hole in her immediate design schedule and employment. She contacted everyone she knew who might be able to send some design work her way. One friend introduced her to the head of the staging department at a company that produced corporate events, and that led immediately to work drafting for several technical directors in the company. After a short period of

time she was given the opportunity to light her first corporate production, which ultimately led her to a whole new area of lighting design. While the percentage of corporate versus theatrical projects varies from month to month, she consistently finds that corporate events typically form about half of her design work in any given year. She notes that the state of the economy has a bigger impact on corporate projects: when the economy slows down, there are fewer corporate events, and those that exist tend to have smaller budgets. When asked to discuss several of the significant differences between designing for corporate and more traditional forms of theatre, Ms. Adams singled out venue and schedule. “Most corporate events are produced in hotel ballrooms or convention centers. There is a lot more rigging involved, and lighting positions are dictated by rigging points. There also is a lot of creative truss design that goes hand-in-hand with the lighting design of corporate events. Once you get past the mechanical aspects, the design process is very similar in both worlds. Adjusting to the corporate world has more to do with getting used to the speed at which these events happen and expanding one’s vocabulary.” She also emphasizes preparation and being able to deal with stress effectively. “The time pressure in corporate events is severe; one of the significant differences is that a corporate event has no previews and often only one rehearsal. The pressure of putting together a successful show is magnified many times.” Adams goes on to add several additional tips that are fairly unique to working in corporate theatre. The design needs to work with the theme graphics of an event, which calls for close attention to both color and template choices. “You must know each company’s corporate colors. Ford blue, Gillette blue, and IBM blue are all different. If you don’t have the ability to change color with color-mixing equipment you must choose your colors with extreme care. It is also useful to know the color of the competition; this way you will not end up using Fuji green in a Canon show unless it is to support a moment where it is used to make a point or to get a laugh.” Video is often a part of corporate presentations through I-Mag (Image Magnification). If I-Mag is being used, the lighting must work for the camera as well as for the audience. A single person at a lectern is often projected onto a screen that is 7’ x 15’ or larger. Backlight is important, while downlight is rarely used

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because the shadows are much more apparent to the camera than to the naked eye. The background also needs to be visible. While a black velour drape behind a speaker may be perfectly acceptable to a live audience, on screen, the speaker will appear as a floating head if no light is placed on the dark background. On the positive side, budgets and fees are larger than they are in the theatre and often give a designer an opportunity to try new equipment long before it becomes affordable in the theatre. It is also important to remain abreast of changes in the profession. “Keep in touch with colleagues, read the trades, go to rental houses or manufacturers’ open houses to see demos of new equipment. It is a very small world, and we have all survived in it because we are good at what we do.

how many colors? From what directions? Perhaps most important is how the reveal is to be accomplished? All of these questions will bring you back to a variety of techniques that are characteristic to any number of production formats. While much of a corporate meeting is traditionally about illumination using tinted washes and overall high-intensity levels, there are still plenty of opportunities where spectacle and all of its illusion can be put into play. Referring to these topics in other chapters will help in approaching the challenges of designing corporate productions. There are several unique twists that might occur when designing industrial productions. One such twist may include having to produce several different types of events in the same venue or location with the same lighting rig. These events could range from full-blown product introductions, to a series of press conferences, to corporate meetings conducted by a company’s leadership. In these situations, provisions must be made to accommodate the specific needs of each of these events. While there are occasions where there is time (overnight or several hours) for refocusing and re-cueing between events, many designers prefer to incorporate the requirements of all of the events into the rig right from the beginning. This will ensure that minimal efforts are needed to make shifts in the rig from one event to another. The incorporation of automated lighting into these rigs has really helped to support the flexibility required for lighting these events. Another situation that a designer may find themselves in occurs when several different companies are scheduled to use the same performance space on a fairly tight schedule. These presentations might be made from one day to the next—giving the design team an evening

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There is a confidence and camaraderie that grows out of this type of work that I really enjoy.” On the downside, schedules are extremely tight, and there is rarely enough time to really polish your work. When asked what she believes to be the most important principle for lighting within the corporate environment Adams states, “Rule #1—Make the client happy. The lighting must support the structure of the event, whether that means a smooth opening sequence, an exciting awards segment, or a flawless speech by the CEO. The design process is all about being well-prepared when you walk into the venue and being able to do your job well and fast under high pressure on site. You have to think on your feet, adapt to changes, stay calm, and keep your sense of humor.”

or, if they’re lucky, the entire night to make the change from one company’s production to another. At other times, events may be planned within hours of one another and a team may only have from 11:00 a.m. to 1:00 p.m. to complete a changeover between two entirely different productions, possibly even featuring two rival companies or competitors. This is especially true for issues like color schemes where many corporations have specific colors associated with their corporate image (i.e., IBM’s corporate blue or H&R Block’s green). Actually there are differences between the blues of Gilllette, Ford, and IBM—and a designer should be able to produce the proper shade of blue for a specific client. When these multiple uses occur, it is beneficial to create some form of repertory plot that will facilitate the change from one event to another. This is especially easy if a single designer or design firm is designing all of the events but it can be worked out even if there are different designers for each event and company. If multiple designers are being used, each designer is given a copy of the basic rep plot and is consulted in regard to their specific needs which are then added to the master plot. Through using this technique, a number of both the generic and specific needs of each production can be specified so that the rig will support all the events. This doesn’t mean that a certain amount of refocusing, re-gelling, or even the addition of extra instrument can’t take place; it just helps to avoid as much additional work as possible. More importantly, it allows the designers to use their time efficiently and to prep more of the rig right from the initial load-in. Another solution may involve creating separate performance areas within a larger venue—each with its own rigging and lighting systems. The Coca-Cola Company at one time used to use up to three different stages and lighting designers for some of its corporate events.

Figure 4.5  Lakewood Church with I-MAG and broadcast lighting (lighting design consultation by William M. Klages) Credit: photo courtesy of Bill Klages

One final element of working on industrial productions has been mentioned earlier but bears repeating. This relates to the ability to remain flexible and finding a means for accommodating the needs of your client. The representatives that you work with are not theatrical professionals and will typically not understand why or why you can’t produce a particular effect or quality of light on the stage. If this is the case, a designer needs to go out of their way to educate the client and must work with them so that they don’t develop any unrealistic expectations for a production. Clients also often don’t understand issues related to time and money when making modifications in a design once the equipment has been assembled in the venue. Again, offering explanations and education can go miles toward creating a satisfactory experience and future business relationship with a client. Just as importantly, you have to figure out who is really calling the shots for a production and who you ultimately have to both please and answer

to. A  not-so-infrequent scenario involves having to make changes when someone farther up the corporate food chain decides that they don’t like what they see on the stage. Even though you may have completely satisfied the individuals with whom you’ve been working with over the last several months, you’ll still have to find ways to satisfy these other individuals if you want to be considered for the next gig that the company is planning. Finally, as stated earlier, the product must look good, if not exceptional, under the lights! A number of contemporary churches or worship centers—especially the large non-denominational megachurches that are making an appearance throughout the country also follow staging and lighting practices that are based on many of the techniques described throughout this chapter. This can include elements such as working in arena productions, lighting for both music and speaker formats, I-MAG, and even broadcast video (Figure 4.5).

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Despite some of the unique issues related to working in corporate theatre, many lighting designers find the money and personal rewards of working in this part of the industry to be both challenging and refreshing. Regardless of how much you strive for that unique piece of theatre that might inspire you to create that ultimate design for a new play (while making virtually no design fee at all), many designers find that they can explore these other artistic opportunities on their downtime because they can support themselves quite handsomely through designing for corporate theatre on a regular basis.

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For Further Reading Claiborne, Vickie. Media Servers for Lighting Programmers: A Comprehensive Guide to Working with Digital Lighting. Oxford and Boston: Focal Press, 2014. Moody, James L and Paul Dexter. Concert Lighting: Techniques, Art, and Business. 4th ed. Oxford and Boston: Focal Press, 2017. Schiller, Brad. The Automated Lighting Programmer’s Handbook. 3rd ed. Amsterdam and Boston: Elsevier and Focal Press, 2017. Vasey, John. Concert Sound and Lighting Systems. 3rd ed. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann Press, 1999. Watson, Lee. Lighting Design Handbook. New York, NY: McGrawHill, 1990.

CHAPTER 5

FILM AND VIDEO BASICS

T

HIS CHAPTER CAN provide only a basic source of information related to lighting film and video projects. Many books have been written on these topics and can provide you with much more detail if you are particularly interested in these forms of lighting after you have read through the basic materials presented here. More importantly, these lighting techniques and equipment are under constant modification as cameras and films improve and as taste/style preferences are in a neverending state of evolution. Also, the introduction of LEDs to this industry is having a significant impact on how studio and on location shooting are lighted. It is more than just today’s technology that creates the difference between the appearance of television or film that was shot recently and what was shot 20 years ago. It is the style and approach to the lighting as much as the more sensitive equipment that produces these differences. The accepted norm of “what looks good” is changing all the time, as fashion, cultural trends, and technology advance. This chapter will introduce you to several key concepts of camera operation and exposure control, a sampling of equipment associated with the film/video industry, and will provide several basic approaches/considerations for lighting these projects. The chapter concludes with several specialized areas of film and video production such as modifying the lighting of a “live” production for camera, documenting stage designs, and composite shooting. Other important specialties like producing in a studio or on location are also discussed. For more detailed information you should refer to specific references like the ones listed at the end of the chapter. Several especially helpful references include Gerald Millerson’s Lighting for Television and Film, Blain Brown’s Motion Picture and Video Lighting, Ross Lowell’s Matters of Light and Depth, and Harry C. Box’s The Set Lighting Technician’s Handbook. Finally, you might also want to consider enrolling in a still photography course. Such a course will help you understand how light is manipulated and how issues like balance, contrast ratios, and exposure affect an image.

Unique Qualities of Film and Video Film and video lighting can vary significantly from that of live theatrical production. These distinctions may be large or small—and since both film and video produce their images in an indirect manner, many professionals like to refer to both of them as “media.” One of the most significant differences between lighting for film or video and other forms of entertainment lighting is that you are lighting for a camera and not the human eye. This holds true not only in the manner in which a designer must approach a project, but also in the type of equipment that is used in a design. On the other hand, many of the concepts of good lighting that a designer learns through theatrical applications are also applicable to film and video lighting design. One of the more significant differences between designing for media and live theatrical events lies in the philosophical difference between the aesthetic and artistic forces that drive traditional forms of entertainment and the often more commercially driven requirements of film and video production. This is not to say that creating good art is not important in these media, but that much of these industries

is centered around a more commercial attitude due to the increased costs related to these productions, especially television work. A design team needs to not only produce satisfactory results from an artistic perspective but also must do so efficiently under time and cost restraints. However, video and film productions aren’t typically produced as frugally as most theatrical productions—although consideration must still be given to the scheduling and rental rates of a studio or sound stage, the size and calls of crews, and any number of special issues like the transportation of crews, talent, and equipment when a project is shot on location. As just mentioned, one of the most significant differences between producing film/video and other forms of lighting is in the fact that you are lighting for a camera and not the human eye. In the case of film, light must react with a chemical emulsion that will have varying sensitivities to the light; with video, an electronic plate records the exposures. Neither is as sensitive to light as the human eye—which is true not only for the overall range of intensities that may be sensed, but also in the degrees of contrast that may be found within a visual reference. On the other hand, distance can quickly make up the difference in low-light situations, where a camera can reveal images that would never be successful in a large auditorium with the native eye. In the end, it is not what is seen in the studio, but what the master monitor or finished film reveals that determines whether the lighting is successful. While the viewfinder on a camera can act as a visual reference, this can also provide misleading information regarding the final image and this indirect means of working can take a while to get used to. Experienced lighting directors (LD) and head lighting technicians learn how to evaluate and predict the difference between the appearance of the lighting in a live image and how it will appear in final form. While cameras may not be able to capture the extreme range of intensities that the human eye is capable of seeing, they are becoming ever more sensitive to a variety of both intensity and contrast ranges with each new generation of equipment. Some camera sensitivities are even greater than what we can perceive with the native eye and problems can show up in the final film or video that weren’t at all apparent when the shot was created. You can probably recall the “appearance problems” of many news anchors as local stations switched to High-Definition (HD) television and it took a while for the lighting and makeup departments to figure out how to deal with the newer cameras. Live productions provide the eye with images which, through visual memory, are interpreted as a three-dimensional reality. Film is presented on a screen and television on a flat monitor—both being two-dimensional representations of the objects and spatial relationships that exist between them. Without proper lighting and good contrast between different portions of an image, specific features of what a camera “sees” can become obscured. This is especially true

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when trying to separate performers from a background. The more varied the layering of a frame’s elements and the less emphasis that is placed on sculptural lighting, the greater chance that there will be contrast and dimensionality problems in the final image. Even though directors of photography (DPs) through gaffers or head lighting technicians and lighting directors (LD) through electricians design and control light, they deal with it in a rather indirect fashion, having to rely not on what they see on set but how the image finally appears on the screen (film) or master monitor (video). Even though the name of “gaffer” is still used, these professionals are usually now called “head lighting technicians.” Both are affiliated with the film industry. While the DP generally has the overall vision for a film’s lighting, the head lighting technician is actually responsible for the majority of the lighting decisions and deals with the selection and placement of the equipment along with maintaining the desired intensity levels. Another group of professionals, the grips, are in a way comparable to theatrical stagehands and are responsible for setting up and assembling most of the equipment that will be used on a shoot, including scenery and camera equipment (e.g., dollies, cranes, and booms) along with rigging and setting up many of the stands, reflectors, and other accessories that are associated with the lighting. The DP is also concerned with camera positions and angles, lens choice, exposure settings, and the overall look of a scene. In reality, they provide the broad vision for the lighting and describe it (direction, intensity, character, mood, ambiance, etc.) to the gaffer, who then translates this information into an image by selecting and placing the equipment properly. This forms a sense of collaboration between these two professionals, with one of the most important jobs of a gaffer being simply in anticipating the needs of the DP. LDs are traditionally associated with video work and have responsibilities and a role in productions that are quite similar to that of the lighting designer in theatre. They work with the video engineer or video controller (VC) to produce good quality images for a program. Together they work to ensure that no under- or over-exposure situations occur and that issues like color balance, exposure requirements, contrast ratios, and image matching are accounted for when shifting between different shots and cameras. One of the most important responsibilities of their jobs is in being accountable for image resolution and the contrast ranges of the images. The VC’s main monitor displays what the final image will look like when broadcast or captured to tape or digital video. It is because of this need to work so closely together that the LD and VC generally sit next to one another in the control room for many studio productions like game shows, sitcoms, music videos, and live events. This is especially true when multiple cameras are used. The LD is quite involved with the technical elements of lighting a video project—choosing luminaires, coloring, making determinations of intensity levels, contrast ratios and ranges, etc.

Sidebar 5.1  DESIGNER PROFILE Alan Adelman

Credit: photo courtesy of Alan Adelman

Though Alan Adelman is probably best known for his lighting design work in video and digital cinema, his design experiences cover a wide, very diversified range of projects. This includes credits in concerts, dance, theater, and special events. Mr. Adelman has designed over thirty-five Broadway video captures since lighting the first live broadcast from Broadway of Sophisticated Ladies in 1982. He has been the lighting designer for all Carnegie Hall staged concert/theater productions since 1990 as well as facilities lighting design for Zankel Hall. He has been the lighting designer for all Live From Lincoln Center productions since 1998 including the Primetime Emmy Award winning production of Sweeny Todd staged with the NY Philharmonic. Alan has been a primary designer for PBS’s Great Performances series since 1984 designing over one hundred shows including sixteen Dance in America and nine American Playhouse productions. Additional television credits include: In Performance at the White House, The Kennedy Center Presents, Christmas In Rockefeller Center, The Video Music Awards, The Tony Awards, The Chris Rock Show, Late Show with David Letterman, and Saturday Night Live. Feature Film credits include: The Nutcracker (New York City Ballet), Carlito’s Way, and The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland. Concert designs include: The Gershwin Prize (music tributes to Paul McCartney, Stevie Wonder and Paul Simon amongst others), Tony Bennett & Lady Gaga: Cheek To Cheek, Josh Groban: All That Echoes, Audra McDonald One Night Only, Dave Matthews  & Tim Reynolds Live at Radio City, 9/11 Concert for America, Tribute to Brian Wilson, The Rainforest Concerts with Sting, Elton John, and James Taylor and consulting designer for the

classic U-2 At Redrocks concert video captured on the band’s first US tour. Adelman earned a BA in Theater from SUNY – Buffalo and his MFA in Theater Lighting Design from the University of Wisconsin, Madison under the guidance of Gilbert Hemsley. Informally, he learned much of his craft from practical experiences that he gained while working as an assistant on opera, dance and Broadway/Off Broadway productions as well as through serving as a principle lighting designer with Imero Fiorentino Associates. Alan’s initial interest in lighting design goes all the way back to elementary school while his beginnings in video can be traced to his working with the Buffalo Center for Media Study and the original SONY Portapak system that he used to capture dance and theater shows that he had designed at the university. “That experience extended into my MFA work at Madison where I  helped pioneer doing live theater simulcasts of university operas over Wisconsin Public Television. These shows were being broadcast while the Metropolitan Opera was still researching how to begin their own live television broadcasts.” Of his current workload: Video/Digital Cinema comprises approximately 60% of his projects while Corporate, Concerts and Events makeup about 30% and Theatre can be credited with the final 10% of his lighting projects. Alan relates that learning about the video medium requires hands on work and experimenting with different cameras, lighting tests, and trial and error. Lighting for Video/Digital Cinema is quite different in that, “the camera’s perspective is what counts and that there are special considerations such as exposure, color temperature, contrast, frame rate, gamma, and other camera variables that must be taken into account to make compelling video pictures. In all circumstances, taking the time to fully understand the director, producer or client’s expectations and determining what is appropriate for that particular project (as well as what can reasonably and reliably be accomplished within the budget, time and available resources) is central to a project’s success.” He remains abreast of new developments in the industry through reading, visiting demos and watching other people’s work. Several practical elements of advice that Alan offers include, “make sure you have the best support staff possible and, if there isn’t a separate director of photography on your show, step up into that role and take the lead in working with your video engineer or post production colorist so that the pictures are captured and electronically ‘painted’ as you envision them”.

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In closing, Adelman states that, “My primary interest in video was and still is as an archival medium for theatrical shows and events. Creating a growing library of theater performance is something wonderful to leave for our future generations and helping to capture these shows in their best light not only helps document exceptional performances but can also make a huge difference in capturing the wonderful work of the designers.” Ironically, this also ties into what he likes both most and least about the profession. What he likes most is “capturing Broadway/Off-Broadway, Opera and Dance performances and working with their

There are other differences between film/video production and other forms of entertainment than just the manner in which light is sensed and recorded. First, the director and editor of a film/video make a specific choice in what to reveal to an audience. This is quite different from theatrical productions where an audience is free to view whatever they wish. Good theatrical design leads the audience to the proper focus of a scene even though the audience may become distracted and has the freedom to look elsewhere. Second, the film/video (media) audience cannot see outside of the camera and has no choice but to focus on what is contained in a frame. Because of this, films and videos are typically produced only to the extent of the camera frame. Rather than designing and building an entire set, only those areas in view of a camera are constructed—often just to the limits of the widest camera angle that will be used for a given setting. If this means designing only a corner of a room, that’s fine. The lighting is also designed from this limited perspective and luminaires are frequently placed on stands just out of view of the camera. In tight shots this can result in lamps being placed 6 feet or even closer to the performers— requiring an especially delicate treatment by the lighting team. A third difference relates to the fact that film and video are often of a “recorded” rather than “live” form of production. The most significant advantage to being recorded lies in that the image may be re-shot or edited and manipulated after the shoot has been completed. In film, minor exposure problems can often be corrected at the film lab in post-production. Even though video has traditionally not worked so well in post-production (there is less latitude), you still have a fair amount of room to manipulate the images. However, the potential for editing/manipulation is becoming especially true with the newer, digital video formats. In fact, with the gains that have been made in post-video production, some films are first shot on film stock that is converted to a digital video format (digital inter-negative-DI), which is then edited/

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creative teams to capture the essence of a live performance”. While what he likes least is that, “stage captures in the U.S. remain few and far between, unlike in Europe where a growing number of institutions have made digital captures an integral part of their mission and operation. My entire career I  have been looking forward for this work to be embraced in this country. Now, with the increasing popularity of the Met Opera broadcasts and those coming from the National Theater in the UK amongst other theaters internationally, there are signs that this important work may finally be catching on!”

manipulated and enhanced before being converted back to film for final distribution and viewing. The 2000 film, O Brother, Where Art Thou, starring George Clooney, was the first Hollywood film to make use of this process for the entire film. Now, many films even remain in a digital format for final distribution in the theatres (not to mention DVDs and Blu-ray disks as an outlet for digital video). Except for live broadcasting, most video and film production is based on a series of individual setups or shots that are recorded and later edited to produce the final product. A  typical film makes editorial cuts every few seconds, with the longest cuts rarely lasting more than 15 to 30 seconds. This means that an incredible number of individual setups must be shot in order to complete a full-length film. It isn’t uncommon for a crew to complete numerous setups on an average day of shooting. On the other hand, a complex scene—like one containing a number of special effects—might require an entire day or more to shoot. When a set is used several different times in a film/video, all the scenes on that set are typically shot together on the same day(s). The crew then moves on to a different location to shoot all the scenes that occur at that location . . . then the next location . . . etc. This has the advantage of avoiding the logistics issues of moving performers, crews, and equipment back and forth between different locations, but it can lead to problems in continuity. Continuity simply relates to making sure that all the details of a setup remain consistent from one camera angle or setup to another. When shooting out of order and with multiple takes and angles it is easy for an editor to combine a series of shots where inconsistencies can occur from one cut to another. Famous continuity problems that have made their way to the big screen include props shifting positions, actors wearing or not wearing accessories like hats, and drinks that miraculously appear to refill during a scene. At the other extreme are the video-taping of live broadcasts where an LD must make adjustments on the

fly. This is common for multiple camera shoots for events like awards and game shows as well as for talk programs. Although films usually shoot single camera setups, they may also use multiple cameras for action shots like stunt sequences that are hard to recreate. A final difference between these media and theatrical entertainment relates to the fact that on the whole, film and video production tends to be more realistic or even naturalistic in their overall presentation styles. Film/ video teams also have the option of taking a camera on location and filming a scene in its native setting, which produces a more authentic feel for a project. If asked to produce a movie or television program set in a major city like Law and Order, the best solution isn’t to build scenery, but to travel to New York and actually tape on that location. This is not to say that films can’t use stylization abstraction—many have done so quite successfully or ­ for futuristic or sci-fi projects where a variety of scenic and special effects wouldn’t have been possible without the magic of the camera and post-production wizardry. The Batman or any of the Avenger films like Spider-man: Homecoming or Black Panther films in recent years are great examples of this more abstract approach to film and production style. However, as a matter of general principle, the television and film industries have traditionally leaned toward more naturalistic approaches while theatrical productions have found better success in more abstract production styles. While we have been comparing film and video production to more traditional theatrical practices, there are also several important distinctions between film and video themselves. As a general principle, in the past most people working in either media felt that film delivered a superior image. Up to recently, despite significant advances in video technology, film consistently made improvements in emulsions and processing techniques that kept it a step ahead of video in terms of picture quality. In fact, when a video team wanted to make especially high-quality images it was fairly common to shoot the scenes first in film and then convert the film to video for final distribution. However, in recent years video has been gaining ground and is now surpassing film in regard to not only producing quality images but also in providing incredible potential for additional editing and image manipulation. In fact, film is even becoming more difficult to acquire due to the fact that many manufacturers are discontinuing the production of many film products. On the other hand, there are still a number of professionals that still feel that film best captures the beauty of wide-­angled panoramic shots like landscapes. With the advent of highdefinition television, the industry has now arrived at a point where video can provide superior images as well as more efficient editing/post-production services to a project than film. There are also issues related to economics when making comparisons between film and video production. Feature films tend to follow a more traditional approach

with the emphasis on delivering the best product possible while working within a set of production limitations. For large budget films, shots are repeated as often as needed and care is taken in rehearsing and prepping each shot. A  director and crew won’t move on until they are satisfied with a shot and only then will proceed to the next camera angle, scene, or location. Many independent films are produced under a more budget-conscious atmosphere with some only having a couple of takes per shot in their budget—film is very expensive to shoot! Television, on the other hand, had its beginnings in a more commercial environment and in many ways is guided by the day-today costs of producing a program and running a studio profitably. While film projects may make use of a studio or sound stage for as long as a project may require, television studios are typically scheduled quite tightly—­sometimes even on an hourly basis for those studios that cater to projects like producing commercials. Rather than tying up a studio for weeks at a time, a typical television studio can produce or tape three, four, or more individual shows in a day. Even a small news studio associated with a local network affiliate often produces three or more productions in a typical work day. Major networks, like NBC through the Rockefeller Center in New York, will have several studios producing multiple programs throughout a day. Television changeovers are conducted fairly quickly and the designs of these projects must often be more generic in order to achieve the quick turnarounds that are required for these programs. In order to facilitate this, the lighting in many studios is frequently based on variations of repertory plots. These plots contain a combination of luminaires that are either dedicated to specific shows or are simply stored on the grid so that they can be quickly adjusted to the needs of a particular program. Studios that are associated with long-running programs like a series, talk, or game show are frequently dedicated to a single program. The plots are usually not moved between taping sequences and are frequently left in place even between seasons. If the studio must be used during a show’s “downtime” the plot must typically be “restored” by the production company that has used the studio on a temporary basis. It is fairly common for every camera angle/shot to be specifically set up and lit in film. Exceptions to this can occur when non-repeatable action is being filmed where several cameras are run at the same time. On the other hand, in television, multiple cameras are typically run at the same time as a more efficient way of producing a variety of camera angles for an event. This can lead to a more generic approach to lighting since the lighting must be successful for each of the camera angles at the same time. This is different from a film setup where there usually is an opportunity to light each camera angle and individual shot separately. This can lead to surprises in a video shoot where lighting that was successful in one angle simply doesn’t work from a second or third camera angle. Dimmers are

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frequently used as a means of balancing the lights for these different views while also helping to maintain lighting continuity between the different angles. On the other hand, DPs and head lighting technicians are at a disadvantage in that they don’t have a clear indication of what they have recorded until the end of the day when the dailies are run—well after the actors and crews have left the set. Video lighting directors get immediate feedback and can rerun a scene if the lighting wasn’t successful. Even in “live” situations, the LD can observe the lighting and final images as they are being produced on the VC’s monitor and can make adjustments while the production is being taped or broadcasted. The need for immediate feedback has led film directors and DPs to use an in-lens video camera called a video assist system that captures the framing of the camera and provides some immediate evaluation of what has been captured by the film. In reality, DPs and gaffers get paid for being able to predict what will be captured on film based on their experience and intuition.

Light and the Camera Film and video cameras are pretty similar in regard to the principles in which they function. Both make use of lenses and apertures to focus and control the light and images that they produce. Film cameras focus an image onto a photosensitive substance (film) made up of chemical emulsions, or layers, that are applied to the surface of a plastic material (celluloid in the past). The emulsions respond to different wavelengths (typically blue, green, and red) as the film is exposed to light. Once developed or processed, the film is a record of the associated images. A  video camera works in much the same way, with the exception that the film is replaced by photo-electric sensors that convert the light into a series of corresponding electrical signals. While films use different emulsions for recording the various wavelengths, a video camera captures three separate video signals—once again, each associated with a different primary color of light (red, blue, and green). The overall exposure recorded by a camera is a result of three different factors: the sensitivity of the film or video sensors, length of time that an image is exposed, and the amount of light permitted to enter the camera at any given time. Film and video lighting come under a number of unique influences as a result of using cameras to record and event. Cameras see light in a different way than the human eye, and a lighting designer must be aware of several properties that may change between the lighting that is observed in a studio or location setup and how it actually appears in the final image. To make matters more difficult, many of these changes can only be detected by an experienced eye or with the aid of special equipment like light meters. There are a number of factors that can have an impact on a film or video image. Several of these include color temperature, color rendering, speed of exposure, and

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aperture or f-stop considerations. All of these provide specific controls in how light is captured by a camera. Two of the most important considerations relate to producing lighting levels that fall within the sensitivity ranges of a film or camera. The intensities must be strong enough to actually record the event (the threshold exposure) while also not being so strong as to overexpose the image. The second consideration relates to producing appropriate contrast ratios in an image. Contrast ratios simply relate to the ratio between the brightest and darkest parts of the image. Cameras and films are not as sensitive as the human eye and cannot respond to contrast ranges or ratios that are too wide. On the other hand, a camera may also pick up variations in intensity that we cannot perceive with our human eyes. Trying to expose a camera or film to too great a contrast ratio results in parts of the image either going into extreme darkness or becoming so bright that they are overexposed and appear burned out. Innovations like high-definition television have taken over as the standard broadcast format for nearly all US television markets and today’s cameras can perform well with less than 10 footcandles of light. These advances are requiring designers to not only rethink lighting but other elements of production, like makeup, as well. The new cameras pick up much more detail—and with that, the flaws in a subject or performer that previously wouldn’t have been seen. In extreme close-ups, all of the imperfections of a face can become readily visible to a television audience through improper lighting. Whether working in video or film, one of the most significant differences between lighting for these media and other forms of entertainment relates to the fact that cameras respond to light differently than the human eye. Details seen with the human eye can be lost by a camera when viewed under the same lighting conditions. This shortcoming of losing detail has been constantly improved upon over the years, but even as recently as 20  years ago an immense number of footcandles and thousands of watts of power were required to get to a level of illumination that a camera could successfully process an image. Nowadays, while overall illumination is still critical, the huge amount of light formerly required to process an image isn’t needed. Images can now be recorded quite successfully on film or video with an intensity of 10 footcandles or even less. In the past, film was generally more sensitive to exposure than video and was more successful under low lighting conditions, but now both are fairly comparable in regard to recording an image. Another element of sensitivity that is just as important relates to the range of intensities that a film or camera might record. While a camera might be adjusted for overall brightness sensitivity, the window in which intensities can vary on either side of this optimum exposure is generally rather small. Intensity levels that are lower than this exposure level will appear underexposed and go dark while those with brighter intensities can become overexposed and will burn or blow out.

Color Temperature Color temperature is a much more delicate issue when working with cameras and lighting for video or film than with lighting for the human eye. The eye tends to be fairly flexible in its interpretation of white light while cameras aren’t as forgiving. While the human eye may not detect a difference in color temperature, a camera can often be affected by a change of as little as 50° in color temperature. Due to this, video cameras are usually adjusted for white balance as a means of registering just what the camera considers as white light for a given setup. Many video cameras can achieve this automatically through focusing the camera on a neutral white or gray target and pushing a button that electronically adjusts the camera’s white balance sensitivity. Film achieves the same process through selecting a film stock or emulsion that best reacts to a specific color temperature of light (most commonly either incandescent light of approximately 3,200° K or exterior light of approximately 5,500° K). Different light sources in a scene will often have different color temperatures, such as scenes containing sources like light from an exterior window and artificial sources such as fluorescent or incandescent lighting fixtures. Film can be adjusted for color differences between setups by the colorist, who can adjust the development of the film so that there is adequate exposure and color continuity between shots and setups. This is typically prepared for by shooting several frames of a reference color chart under the lighting setup at the beginning of each major shooting sequence. Whenever the lighting or any other significant change is made between setups, another shot of the reference chart should be taken. This gives the colorist a baseline that is then used for balancing the color as they develop the film. However, even in a studio setting where there are only washes of white or no color light, color temperatures can vary enough from one unit to another to produce lighting inconsistencies that a camera may reveal. Some LDs make positive use of this effect and may even use dimmers to alter the color temperature of specific lamps to add variety or to solve exposure problems such as having performers with different skin tones on a set. In video work, the VC will have each camera focus on a chip chart and will adjust each camera’s signal so that the cameras are matched and issues like white balance are consistent between all the cameras. One of the principal ways of adjusting these signals is through evaluating the video signal of each camera using a vectorscope (Figure  5.1). This instrument breaks the signal into its composite color wavelengths and plots the individual color signals in a radial format on a screen or scope. When a scene contains several different light sources such as incandescent, fluorescent, and natural daylight, a camera will record each source differently and precautions need to be taken to correct the light associated with each light source. Most often this is accomplished through placing color correction filters over the sources to adjust

their spectral output and associated color temperatures. One must also be cautious of lamps like fluorescent lamps because of their uneven spectral distribution and the fact that their ballasts can produce a flicker effect that might be caught by a camera. Special measures are frequently taken to eliminate these effects. An alternative to placing filters over the light sources may include filtering the entire scene through placing a filter over the lens of the camera. These additional filters can be used to produce effects like making the sky appear bluer or creating an aged sepia effect. The filters can have the same effect as the skylight filters that many photographers place on their personal cameras. By matching or balancing the color temperature of the light sources with that of the film, or white balancing a video camera, a designer should be able to faithfully reproduce the majority of the colors in a given scene.

Color Rendering Index (CRI) True “white light” and the sun provide continuous-­ spectrum light where the full range of spectral colors and their associated wavelengths are present. Most incandescent and tungsten-halogen studio/stage lamps do an overall good job of producing continuous spectrum lighting that allows them to properly illuminate most colors. However, there are other light sources that do not produce all the wavelengths necessary for good full-spectrum color rendering. Instead, these provide peak transmissions in different portions of the spectrum. In truth, most light sources have color transmission peaks throughout several parts of the spectrum while they are lacking in other areas of their spectral output. In some instances, like in using low-­pressure sodium, portions of the spectrum may be associated with virtually no light output at all. We rate the ability of a light source or lamp to respond to different colors through a quality known as the Color Rendering Index (CRI). The more colors present in a source’s spectral composition, the better it will render or enhance most colors. It is best to use light sources that have a high CRI rating for film and video lighting because they react favorably with most colors. In reality, this means that sources used in media lighting should generally have CRI ratings of 90 or better. One of the problems of many early LED light sources related to the fact that most LEDs have very specific spectral o­ utputs— often completely lacking in output in different portions of the spectrum.

Speed of Exposure Speed of exposure relates to how fast a camera records an image of light. There are several different factors that contribute to the control of light in recording it through a camera—any and all are used to vary the light’s exposure and will produce a variety of results. Many of these principles are shared not only between video and film setups but are also applicable to traditional photography as well.

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Figure 5.1 A vectorscope Credit: photo copyright © Tektronix (all rights reserved—reprinted with permission)

Therefore, much of what is discussed in the following paragraphs can also be applied to portrait or still photography. Digital cameras also follow many of these same principles. One of the first elements of exposure lies in the sensitivity of the film or video camera to light. In film and still photography this relates to the particular emulsions that are used to create the film itself. In film production this is typically represented by films designed around tungsten (3,200° K) or interior light sources and those designed around daylight (5,500° K) sources. Film, especially color film, has improved considerably in the last 20 or 30 years. A primary concern relates to how sensitive or quickly the film reacts to an exposure of light. Some films are fast and capture an image in a very short period of time while others are much slower. This property is best indicated through a rating known as a film’s ASA (American Standards Association, now ANSI) or ISO (International Organization of Standardization) speed. This rating simply acts as an index of how sensitive or fast a film will react to light. The higher the rating, the faster the film speed and the more quickly that it can capture an image. As a general principle, photographers should use faster films for either low-light

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conditions or situations where there is a lot of action. The lower the light levels or faster the action, the higher the ASA rating of a selected film should be. While there are obvious benefits of using faster exposures and films, there are also tradeoffs such as the additional graininess in images that are associated with faster films and their higher costs. Standard slide and print films carry ASA/ISO ratings. A photographer should take care to select a film speed that is appropriate for what they are shooting. Several popular speeds used in still photography include ASA ratings of 64, 100, 160, 400, 800, and 1,000. Film used for moving pictures is also rated by ASA and is most commonly chosen based on the particular light sources that will be used on a shoot. Ultimately, the choice of film helps determine the f-stop settings and lighting levels (and by association the equipment) that are required for a shoot. Video cameras can be adjusted for light sensitivity in each of the three video signals (red, blue, and green), with many now capturing images with just a few footcandles of light—although brighter is usually better. A typical video setup is best lit with approximately 50 footcandles, although there are many location shoots that are shot quite successfully with much lower levels. In

fact, for low-light applications, shooting at 25 footcandles or less is quite common. Ironically, traditional film is becoming harder to find since more and more people are shifting to digital cameras. A second element or method of controlling exposure involves using an adjustment of the shutter speed of a camera. This is a measurement of how long the film is exposed. In still photography, the shutter speeds of cameras are typically adjustable from an exposure length of several seconds to as short as 1/1,000 of a second. Each progressive step in shutter speed is associated with being twice as fast or half the speed of the previous one. Most photographers’ cameras also have the ability to lock the shutter open as a means of producing time-lapsed images. Film and video cameras, on the other hand, do not exhibit a large range of shutter speeds because the resultant motion is dependent on how many frames or images that the camera takes per second. Film cameras tend to shoot 24 frames per second while video cameras are faster and will shoot around 30 frames per second. This translates to actual shutter speeds of around 1/50 or 1/60 of a second for these cameras.

F-Stops The final area in which exposure is controlled in a camera relates to how much light is permitted to enter a camera at a given time. This is controlled through an aperture or opening within the lens that is called an f-stop. F-stops relate to the size of the aperture and are expressed through a set of numbers that are logarithmically related to one another. The largest f-stop or lens opening is assigned the value of 1 and then each progressive stop equates with the aperture being closed down by a factor of 2 or 1/2. Therefore, an f-stop of 2 is half as big as an f-stop setting of 1. This also means that only half as much light will enter the lens with the f-2 setting. As the f-stop numbers increase, the size of the aperture progressively gets smaller and less light is permitted to enter the camera. Figure 5.2 provides an illustration of this principle. Every lens has its own range of f-stops and larger lenses (i.e., telephoto lenses) will not be capable of shutting down as much as smaller

lenses because of their increased focal lengths and overall absorption of light.

F-Stop Considerations Even though we normally think of intensity measurements in terms of footcandles, it is often more common in the film and video industry to think of exposure in terms of f-stops or lumens and lux. Rather than stating that they need to light a scene with a certain number of footcandles, a DP or LD will instead ask that a scene be lit to an appropriate f-stop setting. In the end, this correlates with a given specification of footcandles—but by using f-stops, factors like shutter speed and film speed can be factored into the exposure settings automatically. It’s important to understand that the actual light intensity required for a scene will vary on the film speed that a DP has selected. Larger lenses like telephoto lenses require more light than smaller ones and often do not have the smaller f-stop settings. The light meters typically found in single lens reflex cameras follow these principles. The meter is set for the film’s ASA rating and a selected shutter speed while the f-stop setting indicated in the camera’s viewfinder provides the photographer with the proper exposure setting for the shot. This basic process is also the most common manner in which exposure settings are made for film and video productions. Although camera-mounted light meters are commonly found in consumer cameras, commercial photographers, head lighting technicians, and LDs typically use hand-held meters that more accurately report the light associated with a given situation. The lighting and f-stop settings for a shot are frequently determined using a standard reference based on the reflectivity of white light. This reference is illustrated by a gray scale that rates reflectivity and value on a scale of 0 (black equals total absorption) to 10 (white equals total reflection). In most cases, camera exposures (including white balancing for video cameras) are based on adjusting a camera’s exposure to match a reference card that illustrates a middle gray on this scale. Middle gray is important in that it represents the midpoint of the perceived reflectance value for the human eye. It is associated with an overall 18% reflectance of light. White balancing and color temperature for a setup are frequently

Figure 5.2  Relationship of f-stop to aperture size

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calibrated by shooting a gray card (a poster-like card printed in middle gray) under the given lighting conditions. Not only do f-stop settings control the amount of light entering a lens, but they are also responsible for controlling several other aspects of an exposure. Perhaps the most important one being the concept of depth of field. Depth of field relates to the range or distance in which objects both in front of and behind a subject will remain in focus. The larger the f-stop setting, the larger the depth of field and the greater distance on either side of a subject that objects will remain in focus. Conversely, the smaller the f-stop setting, the narrower the depth of field and more likely that objects outside the focus area will become softened and out of focus. Figure 5.3 illustrates these principles. Depth of field can be used to an advantage in scenes where you might want to focus on a subject in the foreground while obscuring the details of the background. As a rule, it is usually better to set the exposure somewhere in the middle of a camera’s f-stop range (i.e., 5.6) because focus and overall clarity of the image are going to be at their best at this setting. F-stop settings will also affect or be affected by contrast ratios, film latitude, and falloff.

Figure 5.3  Depth-of-field as affected by f-stop setting

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Other Factors One significant issue in lighting for a camera has to do with light falloff. Falloff relates to a light’s intensity dropping as you move farther away from its source (i.e., the Inverse Square Law). While this is also a factor in stage lighting, the eye generally compensates for the attenuation or falloff. A camera, however, is less forgiving and all too often is affected significantly by this light loss. Where this effect becomes most apparent is in scenes where the frame includes objects that are at different distances from a light source. Thanks to the Inverse Square Law, the light drops off quickly as the distance from the source becomes greater. Since this is an inversely proportional relationship, the effect is most notable for distances that are relatively close to a light and diminishes as the distance from the source increases. In practicality, this means that a setup will have better lighting with more even coverage if a more powerful source is placed at a greater distance from the subject than if a less powerful luminaire is used at a closer distance to the subject. This can become a significant problem in location

Sidebar 5.2  DESIGNER PROFILE Patrick Cady

Credit: photo courtesy of Patrick Cady

Patrick Cady, ASC has been involved in the film/video industry since the late 1980s. He first learned filmmaking while studying for a BFA at Ithaca College and then went on to earn a MFA at NYU’s Tisch School of the Arts. During his time at NYU he served as a camera intern for Roger Deakins on the John Sayles film Passion Fish and ten years later was director of photography on Sayles’ Sunshine State. He spent a large portion of those ten years working first as an electrician and then as a gaffer before getting noticed for his work on the Sundance winner Girlfight. In the years since, he has worked behind the camera on features like The Stepfather and Lottery Ticket, as well as TV series such as Bosch, Insecure, Cold Case, In Treatment and Body of Proof. Cady’s path to filmmaking and cinematography was fairly conventional through his studies at Ithaca and NYU but it was his experience on Passion Fish and working with Roger Deakins that really started his love of what lighting could do for a project and the odd mix of science and art that all good lighting requires. He also shares that, “While still taking classes and making shorts at NYU I worked as an electrician in NYC . . . mostly for a wonderful gaffer (now DP) Eric Schmidt. We worked on Music Videos, Commercials and a couple independent features (including Little Odessa). When Eric started shooting himself, he made me his gaffer and my lighting jobs grew out of working for him.” In the mid to late 90s Patrick had the great luck of lighting Music Videos with a variety of Cinematographers for artists such as David Bowie, The Beastie Boys, The Dave Matthews Band, and Shawn Colvin to name just a few. “Lighting all those different and stylized jobs while shooting student films really helped make me flexible about how to make the lighting match the particular

story we were telling. When I made the move to being a cinematographer in 1999, I ended up shooting a few independent features. The first one that got released was Girlfight which was a huge stroke of luck as it won awards at Sundance while its photography was also written up in American Cinematographer and Variety magazines. At that point, my career shifted from the world of commercials and videos into the world of narrative filmmaking—features and television.” “As the cinematographer, I’m in charge of the entire approach to the shooting of a project, the camera work, the lighting and the shaping of that lighting. camera, grip and electric . . . all working in unison to tell a story. That is what I would call my specialty, trying to tell the story the best way possible, in the time allowed, with the gear each project can afford. I owe most of my good fortune to Eric Schmidt, who took me on as an inexperienced electrician and eventually made me his gaffer and John Sayles, who let me be a camera intern on Passion Fish. Sayles also financed Girlfight (released in 2000) which I  shot and then he hired me to shoot Sunshine State which came out in 2002. If there were a single event that I attribute to my success, I guess it would be either the success of Girlfight at Sundance, or Eric asking me to cover him for an episode of Cold Case during its first season. That led to me shooting the show when he left, and from then on I was easily approved by studios to shoot television shows.” Cady believes that narrative filmmaking is all about drawing an audience into a story and that oftentimes this may mean making things seem “real” but still controlling the lighting in such a way as to create an emotion. “That’s tricky—you want to influence people on an emotional level without calling too much attention to what you’re doing.” He and his gaffers often consider what exists in the real world and then find ways to blend that with their lighting. Lately, this has meant actually using industrial fixtures in conjunction with new LED technology and old school tungsten lights . . . all on a very tight schedule. “The mix of what works best, what we can afford, and what is fastest are constantly under consideration and often, managing the flow of activity on a set is just as critical as managing what the equipment is.” When he was a gaffer he remained abreast of industry developments by subscribing to magazines in film and other disciplines, theatrical design, etc. “Now I work with very skilled gaffers who bring the technology to me. Sometimes an idea will come before I even know what equipment can pull it off, and then I  start researching on line and asking colleagues for advice.”

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What he likes most about working as a cinematographer relates to how the team can create a setup where the final product looks like “they just got lucky.” “Imagine a world where all the time the light was just right for what was happening to you and somehow beautiful. I love that I am surrounded by a few key people who also adore the way light works, how it can be shaped, and the way that it is a physical thing that we can make work for us. Every now and then in a 12 hour work day we will finish a lighting setup and it all just clicks. All of the people in charge had interesting ideas, they worked in conjunction with one another, and when you finish watching a take being filmed you notice that the smiles on everyone’s faces are just like the one on yours. I love getting to work with other professionals that are still invested and interested in what they do. I am VERY lucky that I have a crew that won’t give up and where we happen to agree many many more times than not on when something looks right.” On the other hand, one of the drawbacks can be that time restraints are tough to work within. “You know

shooting where throw distances by their very nature have to be small due to the confined spaces that are often found on these setups. As a further method of controlling intensity, DPs may also want to shoot at a given f-stop and will then modify the intensity of light by simply adjusting the distance that the light sources are placed from the subject.

Key and Fill Lights The actual system of key/fill lighting had its beginnings in the film and television industries but is now often utilized as a design formula throughout the entire lighting industry. This approach is discussed in detail in Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals through the discussion of theatrical lighting formulas in Chapter  10. At its inception, key light was associated with the primary or most intense light for a scene and was usually equated with the scene’s motivating light source. In the early days of video and film lighting, cameras, and film had very low light sensitivities. If the intensity levels fell too low, areas of the image would appear dark and unlit. Luminaires had to be capable of creating a high-enough threshold of illumination simply for objects to be seen by the camera or film. Just as on a stage where there is little or no ambient light, cameras also have a problem of seeing into shadow areas that are not lit by the key light. More importantly, since cameras have a more limited range in contrast ratios, they frequently have an even larger problem in recording scenes where there is a significant difference between the darkness of the shadow areas and the areas that are illuminated by the key light. As a means of compensating for

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how much work needs to be done in one day and you look at your watch and realize you need to shoot when it is good enough instead of great—that is the hardest part of the job. The funny thing though, is that sometimes those restraints force you into crazy ideas that pay off.” In offering some closing advice, Patrick shares that in order to do this successfully one must be a storyteller. “If I know what the story is or which story we are telling, then I  know what the lighting needs to do .  .  . story, story, story  .  .  . we are all telling tales. Knowing the story makes all the other creative ideas easier to come by.” He also emphasizes the need to learn the basics. “When I  was learning about the inverse square law in school I  had no idea it would be such a constant companion. I think that with new equipment (cameras in my line of work) it is easy to think you don’t need a thorough understanding of the basics . . . I’m here to tell anyone still reading that those basics are the solid foundation you need to be truly creative.”

this, additional luminaires (fill lights) are added to fill in or soften the effect of these shadows. This additional lighting provides a base level of illumination that prevents portions of the subject from going completely dark when seen through a camera. You can also think of fill light as the ambient light that would be found in a setting. In the early days of video lighting, some referred to fill light as base level lighting or base light. If a designer is not careful though, this manner of lighting can also produce low contrast lighting that will ultimately create a flat uninspired image. Once a relationship has been established between the distribution angles of the key and fill light, the pattern is re-created through a series of adjoining lighting areas just as is typically done in area lighting for the stage. However, this repetition—unlike theatrical area lighting—is often limited to a much smaller portion of a studio (e.g., the anchor desk for a news program) and it is rare that an entire studio will be lit in this fashion. These systems are also based on the camera placement and angles that will be used during a filming or taping sequence. Also, film and video designers need to be conscious of the intensity differences (contrast ratios) that exist between the key and fill light of a scene. Today, most film and video lighting makes some use of key/fill principles and the subject/talent is lit from at least two different directions. Each pair of luminaires creates a key/fill relationship that provides an indication of light coming from a given direction with enough shadow illumination to sustain visibility throughout a scene. Even the McCandless Method is a specific variation of a key/fill application.

Hard Light Versus Soft Light In addition to key and fill lights we also speak of hard light and soft light in film or video lighting. This is sometimes called coherence. Hard light is often associated with the key light for a scene and is quite directional. It is usually responsible for producing the strong highlights and sharp, well-defined shadows in a scene. Soft light is associated with diffuse illumination and can be characterized by not having any prominent shadows. It is often used as fill light to soften shadows that may have been created by the key light and frequently provides a base level of illumination for the shadow areas of a subject. Hard light is frequently created by compact light sources that produce a very concentrated directional beam while soft light is produced by luminaires that create a soft, widely distributed pattern of light. Soft light, because of its relatively large source, tends to wrap around a subject and fill in shadows that would be associated with the surface texture of the subject—something that is a real benefit when a performer’s skin might have wrinkles or other imperfections. Many video and film lighting professionals prefer to shoot with soft light unless there is a specific need for the more dramatic shadows of a hard-lit scene. Soft light also allows a camera's f-stop setting to be opened up a bit more, which gives more control over the depth-of-field of an image. Whether a light source is perceived as a hard or soft source generally comes down to a combination of two variables: first, and most importantly, the relative size of the light source in comparison to the size of the subject (soft sources are large); and second, the distance between the source and the subject. In reality, even though we may talk about hard or soft light luminaires, a luminaire could actually become either one depending on the specific combination of these factors. The key to producing soft light is to create diffuse light from a relatively large light source that creates parallel rays that gradually wrap around the surfaces of a subject. In fact, a soft light could in effect become a hard light if the source is placed far enough away from the subject that the rays no longer appear to be parallel.

Latitude and Contrast Ratios When we speak of latitude and contrast ratios we are talking about a camera’s ability to accurately record a range of lighting exposures. More specifically, a film’s latitude relates to the range of darkness to brightness that its emulsion is capable of capturing. Films do not undergo exposure in a linear fashion, meaning that there are levels of exposure to which the film is more or less sensitive. In examining the exposure response of a typical film, there is a point in low-intensity exposures where there is a relatively large change in intensity required to register a given degree of exposure on the film. In other words, the film is not very sensitive to intensity changes at relatively low intensities. When exposed to progressively higher lighting intensities the film starts to react more quickly (the toe of

the film) and greater changes are recorded as a result of being exposed to higher levels of light. This effect becomes more significant as the film is exposed to even higher levels of light until a point is reached where the film once again becomes less sensitive (the shoulder) and exposure to progressively higher light levels once again has a diminished effect. In summary, the middle portion of a film’s exposure sensitivity undergoes the most change, and it is within this range (between the toe and shoulder) that the film has its optimal performance. Figure  5.4 illustrates the relationships between these elements of exposure. Every film stock responds to light in similar but different manners and it is up to the production team to pick a film that best matches the sensitivity to the lighting levels that will be used in a setup. Ideally, the light levels that will be used in a film should fall somewhere between the toe and shoulder levels of the film. A night scene will use film with a better response in the lower illumination levels while a bright sunlit scene will be shot using film with a higher shoulder level that has a better response to higher levels of illumination. Latitude therefore isn’t only important in determining the overall range of the exposures but also where the range is located in regard to a film’s response to light. Latitude is also expressed in terms of f-stops. If the latitude of a film is four stops and the correct exposure setting for a scene is set at f/5.6, anything with a reflectance of two stops above or below f/5.6 should be accurately recorded on the film. Any objects with a reflectance falling outside this range will be either overor underexposed. Several general characterizations of film latitude include: color films have wider latitudes than black and white films, films shot under high levels of illumination have wider latitudes than those shot under low illumination levels, and the less contrast that exists in a setup, the more overall latitude that will appear in a film. While latitude as expressed here is based on films and cinematography, it must also be considered when working with video. Video cameras have been improving constantly and are now capable of dealing with fairly large ranges of exposure, but are best utilized when latitudes are kept within one half-stop either side of the optimum exposure. Contrast ratios relate to the ratio of darkness to lightness between objects that are contained in a camera’s frame. Historically, film can support more drastic contrast ratios than video cameras. A contrast ratio of up to 100 to 1 (100:1) can be associated with film while video contrast ratios tend to fall more along the lines of 25:1 or 20:1. Recent advances in video technology have brought about huge gains in increasing the range of video contrast ratios. Most video cameras also provide a means of adjusting the individual gains of each signal so that the extreme edges of exposure (dark and light) can be clipped or spread out within a given range of intensities. Extremely bright areas can become a large problem for incorrectly adjusted video cameras, which causes unwanted aberrations or signals to be produced in the dark portions of the image that are called noise. While contrast ratios are often determined precisely by taking readings

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Figure 5.4 Exposure

with a light meter, a LD may also use a set of special glasses known as contrast viewing glasses to view a scene through a tinted filter to identify those areas with the highest and lowest intensities and to determine the proper lighting and exposure settings for a scene. Viewing a setup through filters such as these can even replace the need for meters when used by an experienced technician or LD. In video lighting, comparative contrast ratios can also be made between any two objects/areas that are expressed as exposure ratios. An example of this would be in making comparisons between the light on a performer’s face and that of the background. Contrast ratios can also be described in terms of the relationship between the intensity of the key light and that of the base or fill light for a given scene. This tie to key and fill is quite popular in video production; an LD often refers to lighting ratios when making comparisons between the intensities of the key and fill light. If the key light for a scene is measured to be 100 footcandles and the fill is metered at 50 footcandles, the contrast ratio will be 100:50 and therefore 2:1, or a one-stop difference between the light levels. This represents a fairly flat or even lighting ratio. A  more dramatic contrast ratio would include a two-stop or 4:1 ratio. Sometimes professionals working in video will speak of high-key and low-key lighting. High-key lighting relates to images in which there is little difference between the intensity levels of the key and fill light—those with a small lighting ratio (1:1, 2:1, or 3:1). Low-key lighting is more dramatic and reflects higher contrast ratios and a

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greater difference between the two lighting levels (5:1, 8:1, 10:1, etc.). Lighting ratios approaching 9:1 or greater tend to make the difference so drastic that the fill-lit areas may appear to be in complete darkness. A bright sunlit day can often have contrast ratios along this order. The famous film noir movies of the 1940s and ’50s are great examples of lowkey lighting. At the other extreme are the 2:1 lighting ratios that are fairly common for many television talk and news programs. Contrast ratios may be great or small—but the larger the degree of contrast, the more dramatic the image and the greater the potential for encountering problems in your overall exposure settings.

Light Meters Light intensities in film and video lighting can be expressed in terms of footcandles, lux/lumens, or f-stops. While many light meters are capable of displaying any of these, most head lighting technicians prefer to use the f-stop as the preferred method of measuring light levels and exposure. In video, the LD is typically told what f-stop to set the lights to based on the manner in which the VC has set up the cameras. At this point, the LD can use their meter to take a reading of the test chart while adjusting the lighting to reflect the same f-stop given by the VC. Once these match, the LD uses the meter to identify areas and objects that fall both within and outside the contrast ratios and latitude settings of the cameras. As a rule, the exposure settings for

network television are set so that the light on the performers’ faces are indexed at about 70% of the recordable image. There are several different kinds of light meters used in the film and video industries. Still or portrait photographers also use them in their work. Several light meters that are in popular use measure light intensities directly or more commonly provide data that includes a specific exposure recommendation (in f-stops) for a camera under particular lighting conditions. The meters are set to the appropriate video or ASA rating and are then used to check the exposure by sampling the light. Incident light meters are the first type of exposure meter. These are used by standing in the location of the subject and pointing the meter back toward the camera and light source. In this manner the meter measures the level of light actually striking the subject. The second type of meter is the reflective light meter, which is used by standing near the subject and measuring the light that reflects off of the subject. This is the type of light meter typically found in a photographer’s camera. This tends to be a more accurate measure of exposure since it measures the amount of light actually leaving the subject and being reflected back toward the camera. Figure 5.5 demonstrates the difference between the use of these two meters. Reflective meters may also be further broken down into those that record the average light level over the entire field of a camera (averaging meter) or ones that measure the light through a very narrow portion of the camera’s field (spot meter). Averaging meters are good for determining overall exposure while spot meters are good for measuring contrast ratios between different areas/objects within a setting. In reality, spot meters are used more commonly because LDs can usually set overall exposure settings fairly accurately based on their personal experience. However, identifying elements of a setup where the intensity levels of particular objects may fall outside the contrast ratio/latitude of a film or video camera are harder to spot and more easily missed without using a meter. All meters are calibrated for middle gray and will therefore provide the head lighting technician/gaffer or LD with an exposure setting that will be properly placed within the latitude of the camera or film.

Film and Video Luminaires There are several broad classifications of luminaires associated with video and film production. While several are unique to these applications, many are variations of luminaires used in other areas of the entertainment lighting industry. Even though there are only a limited number of luminaires presented in this chapter, there are a variety of sizes and variations of each unit that are available through the lighting manufacturers and production studios. Several luminaires used in the film and video industry, like scoops or ellipsoidal reflector spotlights, are essentially the same fixtures used for theatrical applications while others are uniquely designed for film and video applications. It should

Figure 5.5  Light meters: (a) Incident light meter, (b) Reflective light meter, and (c) Hand-held light meter

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Figure 5.5 (Continued)

also be noted that many luminaires are given pet names by industry professionals such as Baby, Tweenie, Junior, or Senior. In most cases, these are references to different sizes and wattages of a luminaire, but often the actual name given to a piece of equipment can vary from one studio to another—sometimes causing confusion when luminaires are ordered from different studios. Since many of these units are designed using the same principles as theatrical luminaires, their photometrics are not discussed here. However, just as with theatrical luminaires, each luminaire produces a characteristic quality and control of light that can be understood by examining its cut sheet. A significant difference between luminaires designed for the film/video industry and those designed for theatre is that many of these units have modified designs that allow them to be easily mounted from stands that sit on the ground. This presents itself through a series of adaptations like having modified yoke assemblies. This doesn’t negate the possibility that units may be hung from above; in fact, many studios and sound stages light primarily from overhead grids. However, instead of a C-clamp, luminaires that are used in conjunction with stands are equipped with a special mounting device called a spud. These are pin-like fixtures that allow a luminaire to be quickly attached to a stand or other mounting device. They come in several stock sizes based on the size of the units that they support: 1/4 inch, 3/8 inch, 1/2 inch, 5/8 inch (baby), and 1 1/8 inch (junior/senior).

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Like stage lamps, many lamps used in television and film production are of the tungsten-halogen variety. However, due to the more demanding intensity requirements of video and film, these luminaires are often equipped with large capacity lamps. While a 1K lamp (1,000 watts) may represent a relatively high wattage lamp in the theatrical community, lamps used in the film and video industry are typically of several kilowatts. 1K, 2K, 5K, and 10K are common with 12K, 18K, 20K, and even 24K lamps being used for some applications. Film, especially, makes use of the higher wattage lamps. Several reasons for this include the relatively large throw distances to the subject (wide-­angled distance or establishing shots to establish location), balancing high-powered sources like the sun in exterior shots, and the fact that many of these lights aren’t focused onto the subject directly but are aimed at reflector or diffusion panels that light the subject in an indirect manner. The need for such high-wattage lamps has diminished over the years as cameras and films have become more sensitive—­ especially in location lighting. With the improvements in video technology the large 5K and 10K lamps of the past aren’t that common any longer; most lamps used in today’s studios only need to be in the 1K–2K range. In digital video production, 2K lamps represent the standard wattage of most luminaires. Another consideration of this equipment is that the gaffer and crew must not only be concerned with the portability of the equipment, but also with the power that will be required by the lights. On many location setups the only power comes from plugging the luminaires into ordinary convenience outlets. With using larger lamps comes the need to bring additional power to a set through tapping into sources such as neighboring rooms and buildings, tying into main circuit boxes, or even bringing a generator to the location. Another option that can reduce the power demands of a shoot might include using more efficient halogen metal iodide (HMI) lamps instead of incandescent or tungsten-halogen lamps (TH-lamps). LEDs are now bringing a whole new dimension to film and video lighting setups with their lower power consumption needs. We can expect the trend of using smaller, less powerful luminaires to continue as cameras/films continue to improve. Film luminaires are commonly designed to be operated flat-out at full power. This maintains not only a consistent light output in footcandles but also a constant color temperature. In fact, a number of light sources used in the film and television industries make use of arc or short-arc/encapsulated arc sources that for all practical purposes cannot be dimmed (mechanical dimming only). Luminaires powered by HMI sources are quite popular—­ especially as a supplement to daylight shooting. When using ballasted arc sources (again, most notably HMI) a lighting technician must consider an issue known as lamp flicker, which relates to the film or video camera picking up exposure inconsistencies caused by not having the camera and lamp ballasts synchronized properly. One manner of

avoiding this is to use arc sources that are operated by DC rather than AC power. This eliminates the flicker since the voltage remains constant and there is no frequency modulation in the setup. However, it is usually much easier to get AC power to a set. As an alternative, most units today are equipped with electronic rather than magnetic ballasts that suppress the frequencies that can interfere with the cameras. Finally, AC generators that are used in film and video production are equipped with special features that modulate or change the frequency of the power to control any flicker in the HMI lamps that they power. Other light sources might include fluorescent lamps that are assembled into bays containing several tubes laid out in a parallel arrangement. The most popular of these, Kino Flo lights, are equipped with both flicker-free ballasts and special fluorescent lamps that have spectral responses and color temperatures that are appropriate for video and film production. A significant difference when comparing film/video lighting to theatrical lighting is found in the proximity of the fixtures and camera to the subject or talent. In theatrical design, a lighting designer is frequently responsible for directing the focus of an audience, while at the same time the luminaires must be placed quite a distance from the subject—often out of sight. In film and video setups the camera controls the focus through its angle and cropping, which in turn allows the lighting equipment to be placed much closer to the subject. If a camera is used for a close-up, the lighting equipment only has to be as far away as being out of the camera’s field of view. With this closeness, luminaires of a much smaller size and wattage can be used to illuminate these shots. In fact, a designer may even choose to use reflective panels to direct light into a scene. The proximity of the sources may also cause problems with shadows that a DP or LD may wish to soften or blend out. The smaller the size of a light source and the closer that it is placed to the talent, the more pronounced shadows it will create. In order to dampen this effect, a lighting technician may choose to either use larger light sources or move the sources farther out of the scene and away from the talent. A small light source causes light to spread out more quickly than a large source. If both types of sources are placed relatively close to a subject at about the same location, the larger source will cause the highlights to wrap further around the subject while the sides of the subject will display less shadowing than the light produced by the smaller source. Additional luminaires and techniques like placing diffusion over a unit’s barn doors have also been developed to cope with this problem and to increase the apparent size of nearby light sources. At the other extreme, still other luminaires are designed for long throw distances—often much longer than those associated with theatrical applications.

Soft-Lights The first group of film and video luminaires are simply called soft-lights. These luminaires typically produce a nice

shadow-free light over an area. In reality, they are designed to be placed fairly close to a subject and produce soft diffused shadows that are hard to distinguish. Soft-lights can be used to mask imperfections like wrinkles in a performer’s face. If placed too far away from the subject they can create a hard-edged shadow. The fixtures lack a lens system and are often outfitted with diffusion media to help ensure a soft shadow-free source of illumination. Soft-lights are in many ways comparable to the floodlights found in the theatre. Soft-lights are frequently used where a DP might want to give the impression of a distant uniform source such as that of a cloudy overcast day or a classroom or other environment lit by a number of overhead fluorescent units. They may also be used where a wash of light must flood over a large area of scenery such as a cyclorama or skydrop. Soft-lights are often used to produce a base level of illumination for a scene and will frequently be used to produce the fill light for a given setup—giving the camera enough light to prevent the shadow areas from going dark. Soft light can be produced through a variety of techniques but for the most part is related to providing a comparatively large-sized fixture through a relatively large source and/or reflective area. Soft-lights may contain multiple lamps and are usually equipped with a means of mounting diffusion materials in front of the light source. The face of the soft-light units where the diffusion is mounted typically forms a large surface area. While diffusion media may be inserted into frames and placed directly in front of the source as with theatrical fixtures, it is also frequently clipped (with clothespins) to the front edges of barn doors or other accessories that are placed in front of a luminaire. This allows the luminaire to produce an even larger source of light— which in effect will also make it a softer light source. Though not soft-lights themselves, a lighting director may also use reflector units, panels, or boards to bounce light from a strong light source like the sun or a spotlight into a scene. Some of the more popular soft-lights used in film and video production include several luminaires that have no lens system and are called open-faced or open fronted soft-lights. The 14- to 18-inch scoop, which is essentially the same fixture used in theatre, is an example of this type of luminaire. Another example, the broad (Figure 5.6a), is a linear light source that is based on a design that features thin tubular lamps. While most broads contain a single lamp, some have two lamps that are wired on separate switches. Most broads are equipped with barn doors. A softlite (Figure 5.6b) is a variation of soft light that combines a large reflective surface with a matte finish that is slightly curved and contains several lamps that are housed and hidden below the reflector. Softlites are also equipped with mechanisms for mounting diffusion across the front of the unit and are frequently equipped with egg crate accessories that help control some of the directionality of the luminaire. Another special fixture that is used for soft light is the skypan, which is used to wash large areas. A skypan is just a reflector with a lamp

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scenic backdrops as well as to create an overall ambient fill light over large areas. Fluorescent and LED bank luminaires (Figure 5.7) are a final version of general illumination soft-lights that can be found in television and video production. Initially the fluorescent units weren’t that popular due to the low light output of the fluorescent lamps and issues related to matching the color temperature of the units with the rest of the lighting— temperature changes on the set could even have an effect on

Figure 5.6 Open-faced soft-lights: (a) A  broad (ARRI— mini-floodlight); (b) a softlite (Molequartz Baby 4K SoftLite) Credit: (a) photo courtesy of ARRI (www.arri.com), (b) photo courtesy of Mole-Richardson Company.

and has no focus control. It resembles a flattened scoop and simply throws a lot of relatively uncontrolled light in a given direction. It is frequently used to light cycs and

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Figure 5.7  Unique soft-lights: (a) Kino Flow Image LineUnits (four- and eight-lamp). (b) Rosco’s LitePad® Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Kino Flow Lighting Systems, (b) photo courtesy of Rosco Laboratories

the color temperature of these lamps. However, these luminaires have quickly gained popularity through recent improvements in fluorescent technologies. The heart of these units lies in providing a high-frequency ballast and high CRI lamps that produce a flicker-free source with a very high degree of color rendering. The units can even be dimmed quite successfully. Kino Flow units have become one of the most popular forms of soft light used in many film and video setups. They come in a variety of sizes, color temperatures, and lamp configurations that range from an eight-lamp unit measuring 4 feet in length to miniature units with 9-inch T-5 lamps that can be easily hidden in a car’s interior and run off of the car’s battery. Kino Flo fixtures have become especially popular in television work and produce a good even-washed economical source of light. They may also be used for hard light when placed and controlled in a manner that is more consistent with a key light. Television studios, especially high-definition ones, are making regular use of these light sources. With LEDs gaining more popularity, they too, are finding their way into film and video applications. Rosco makes a small LED panel called the LitePad™ that essentially creates a flat panel light source measuring as small as 3 × 3 inches. The source comes in a variety of sizes up to 12 × 12 inches and is powered by a DC transformer that can be plugged into a cigarette lighter. The units are flat and take up virtually no space. They can be used in applications like up-lighting podiums or in tight-fitting places like a car’s dashboard. The units also put out virtually no heat. Additional LED luminaires are being introduced to the film and television industry all the time. A more detailed discussion of these units is found at the end of this chapter.

Hard-Lights The second group of film and video luminaires produces a sharp crisp light with well-defined shadows. The sources, often called hard-light sources or hard-lights, are usually focusable and have a reasonable degree of control built into them. Because of this, they are frequently used to supply the primary illumination or key light for a scene. Two major considerations in the choice of using one hard-light over another relate to the size of the light source (smaller sources produce harsher/harder shadows) and the distance that the source needs to be from the talent as a result of the tightness of the shot or camera frame. As a rule, the closer that the luminaire is mounted to the subject, the more contrast that you will find in the shadows that are created by that fixture. On location shoots, these hard-light sources are usually placed on stands just out of view of the camera or may even be hand-held by a crew member. The workhorse and probably most popular hard-light source found on film and video sets is the Fresnel spotlight (Figure 5.8). These luminaires are variations of the theatrical Fresnel with a couple of notable exceptions. First, the wattages of these units are often much higher than those found in theatrical applications. This is due to both the increased distance

that usually exists between the luminaire and the subject in media productions as well as the higher intensities required for television and film lighting. The smallest Fresnels (baby or inky) have lenses measuring 3 inches in diameter and lamps of only 250 watts. Incandescent Fresnels with larger lenses and 1,000 watt lamps are known as 1Ks and tend to be the smallest popular designation of Fresnel found on many sets, while larger units such as the 2K, 5K, and 10K are also popular. Lens diameters of Fresnels can vary significantly throughout the industry—ranging from the 3-inch inky to as large as 24–36 inches or more. Those with the largest diameters are used for the longest throws and are associated with the highest wattage lamps. As with theatrical units, the units may also be adjusted to a spot or flood setting. The second significant difference is that while the majority of Fresnels are equipped with tungsten-­halogen lamps, some are equipped with arc sources. In fact, HMI sources are quite popular and especially useful for working on location for daylight scenes. On large exterior setups a crew may use 12K or 18K versions of the HMI Fresnel. Fresnel spotlights are often given names based on their size and include variations like: baby (1K), junior (2K), senior (5K), and tener (10K). Yet another light sources, xenon (an arc lamp) units, have polished parabolic reflectors that are very powerful and are used for especially long throws. These are capable of maintaining a tight beam over several blocks and come in 1K, 2K, 4K, and 7K varieties. A second set of hard-lights that are used to less effect in film and video production are the ellipsoidal reflector spotlight (ERS) and enhanced ERS. While these luminaires are extremely popular in theatrical communities they are used far less in film and video lighting because they are too hard-edged. Ironically, the sharp control and focus that make them so attractive in theatrical design make them unattractive as a source for film and television work unless their use is carefully considered by the user. The luminaires’ well-defined beam and ability to shape the light make them an attractive choice for some key light applications where a designer requires strong control of the light. This also holds true for when a fair amount of control is desired for a backlight. In addition to shutters, the units can hold gobos that can add texture to the light. Also, there are kits for converting an incandescent ERS to an HMI lamp or LED source that will allow the unit to be better balanced for daylight or interior applications. One area of confusion between theatrical-based designers and those who work in the film/video industries lies in the definition of a gobo, which in both cases refers to creating shadow projections. Theatrical professionals speak of inserting gobos or template patterns into an ERS while the film and video industries identify a gobo as a custom-made flag or panel (with holes or patterns cut into it) that is placed between a light source and its target. Originally these panels were meant as a “go between.” While they

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Figure 5.8  Fresnel spotlights for film and video: (a) A tungsten-halogen (TH) Fresnel (ARRI Junior-2K). (b) HMI Fresnel (De Sisti Rembrant-575). (c) An electronic ballast (De Sisti Digiral Electronic Ballast) Credit: (a) photo courtesy of ARRI (www.arri.com), (b) photo courtesy of De Sisti Lighting, (c) photo courtesy of De Sisti Lighting

still create textured projections, the effect is actually quite different from placing a template in an ERS. This unique flag is more appropriately called a cookie or a cucaloris and people in the film/video industry prefer to use these terms rather than gobos to describe them. As an example, cutting a branch from a tree and hanging it from a stand placed between a Fresnel (with its lens removed) and the

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set will allow a shadow of moving branches to be created by gently bumping the branch or stand. This is illustrated in Figure 5.9. PAR cans (PARs) are also used in the television and film industries. In some cases they are assembled into multilight units, while at other times they are used on a standalone basis. When used as an independent luminaire, they

Figure 5.9  Use of a cookie

are typically used where a strong directional light source is desired. Several examples include using them for specials or for simulating sunlight and other strong light sources that are projected through openings like windows or doors. As in theatre, these units aren’t much more than a housing that holds specially designed PAR lamps that are available in a variety of pre-designed beam spreads and wattages. The 1,000 watt PAR-64 is one of the most popular units and comes in a range of beam spreads from wide flood to very narrow spot configurations. There are also a number of newer versions, like the Daylite PAR or Cinepar 575, that use a modified design based around an HMI light source (Figure 5.10). These are especially popular for exterior setups and also come in 1.2K, 4K, 6K, and 12K varieties. Source Four PARs are also being used where conventional PARS were previously used. Other lights that are important to film and video production include several multi-lamp luminaires. In reality, these may be considered hard-lights or soft-lights based on the effect that they are set up to produce and the type of lamps with which they are equipped. Many contain PAR lamps, which can add significant punch and shadows to a subject, while at other times the units can become softlights by being equipped with more diffused lamps or adding diffusion between the lamps and the subject. Some of the most popular of these are multi-lights that contain an array of lamps mounted on a single panel in a fixed gridlike arrangement. Each lamp may be turned on or off independently or in some designs are controlled as part of a bank or smaller group of the lamps. We tend to name these units by the number of lamps that they contain (2-light, 4-light, 9-light, etc.). One of the most popular version is the Nine-Light, which typically combines nine PAR or R

lamps in a 3 by 3 arrangement. This unit may also be called a brute (a Maxi-brute makes use of PAR-64 lamps while a Mini-brute uses PAR-38s). The common studio term for the Maxi-brute is a FEY light because FEY is the ANSI code of the 5,600° Kelvin (daylight) lamps that they are usually equipped with (FEYs are often used for outdoor fill light). These powerful units are more in character with hard light and may produce a side-effect of creating additional shadows for each lit lamp. There are even multi-lights designed around the arrangement of MR-16 lamps. While not unique to television and film production, striplights and cyc lights are also popular for providing multi-lamped washes over large scenic areas like drops and cycs.

Location Luminaires Luminaires used for both very small and very large-scaled settings are contained in this section simply as a matter of organization. This may at first appear rather arbitrary since the individual fixtures can also be thought of in terms of being hard- or soft-light instruments. However, the luminaires in this section are discussed here because of their portability rather than for the type of light that they produce. Also, even though many of the luminaires discussed earlier were introduced primarily for the type of light that they produce, they too, are available in variations that are used in location lighting. These units may also come in incandescent/quartz, HMI or now, even LED varieties. HMIs are popular on location settings not only for their higher color temperatures but also for being a more efficient light source that can simply be plugged into an ordinary outlet. Several popular wattages for these smaller HMI units include 200K, 400K, 575K, 800K, and 1.2K lamps.

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Figure 5.10  PAR units used in film and video lighting: (a) 5 K Tungsten PAR, (b) DayLite PAR-575, and (c) Remington 575 PAR Credit: (a, b) photos courtesy of Mole-Richardson Company, (c) photo courtesy of De Sisti Lighting

The first category of location luminaires include focusing spots. These spotlights are relatively small and are designed to be mounted on small portable stands. Many of the stands are lightweight and collapsible. Focusing spots can be either open-faced or may contain a lens that allows them to function as a hard or key light. Some have polished reflectors while others have pebble-like reflector surfaces that aid in producing light of a softer more diffuse quality. In some cases, the reflector may be tinted and changeable—to the point of toning the light with gold or

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cool tints. What remains important with these sources is that they are portable, easily set up, and of low-enough wattages that they can be powered with what power is readily available on location (i.e., plugging them into a standard wall outlet). The units are typically equipped with a ring for holding scrims (an intensity control accessory) or filters, a basic set of barn doors, and a simple flood/spot adjustment. Perhaps the most popular luminaire within this category is the lensless spotlight (Figure 5.12). These units are nothing more than a housing containing a roughly spherical

Figure 5.11  A multi-light: 9,000 watt Molequartz Nine-Lite Credit: photo courtesy of Mole-Richardson Company

    Figure 5.12  (a) Open-faced soft-lights: ARRILITE 600. (b) Molequartz Teenie Mole Credit: (a) photo courtesy of ARRI (www.arri.com), (b) photo courtesy of Mole-Richardson Company

reflector and small tubular TH-lamp. This spotlight has a very wide beam spread and provides a good economical source of light for the limited amount of power that it consumes. Variations of the luminaire include 250-, 650-, and 800-watt units as well as larger 1K and 2K versions. The lensless spotlight is preferred for many video applications and is especially useful in tight location shots. These

units are often called by their trade names (Omni-Lights, DP, Redhead, etc.) or by their wattage (850, 1K, etc.). An undesirable effect associated with these units is that a hotspot can appear at the center of their field when they are set to a flood setting. Due to this, they are often used for bounce effects where their light is reflected off of panels or other materials onto the subject.

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A special group of location luminaires includes units that are designed specifically for portability and run off of battery power. One of the most popular examples of this is the sun-gun (Figure 5.13), which is a hand-held fixture that resembles a spotting lamp that is simply aimed at the talent. Power for the unit comes from a belt pack that contains a series of rechargeable batteries. Another variety of portable luminaires include the camera-light (sometimes called an Obie—after actress Merle Oberon), which is relatively small and mounted to a camera to produce fill light on the subject. This type of source is often used for on-location news lighting setups and in many cases becomes the only light source for this type of shoot. The angle provides good facial light for visibility and may be called eye-light because it brings sparkle to a subject’s eyes. It does have several disadvantages in that it may flatten a subject and tends to produce a narrow range of contrast ratios between what may or may not be lit within the camera’s field. A significant amount of location lighting can be done through using relatively small units that do not have the large power demands or issues of setup and transportation that many of the larger luminaires might have. In fact, many lighting manufacturers offer a basic selection of a half dozen or so luminaires, along with their accessories and stands, and a touring case as a package known as a lighting kit (Figure 5.14). These are an excellent manner of acquiring a basic selection of lighting gear that can be used for small location setups. On the other end of the spectrum are location luminaires that are used for lighting large-scale productions. A number of these are even larger than what are found in a studio. In most cases, the bigger units are reserved for exterior scenes and may include sources as simple as high-powered Fresnels (HMI and other lamps of high wattage). The power sources required for these units are much larger and often require the rental of sizable generators. The most elaborate setups include lighting arrays of multiple lamps that are placed on booms/cranes that are mounted on trucks with aerial lifts. One of the most popular platforms for adding supplemental lighting for televised sports events are Musco Lights (company brand). These are a truck-mounted crane system that is used to place an array of approximately a dozen luminaires high enough above the walls of a stadium to light the playing field below. Placing 6–10 of these truckmounted units around a stadium usually provides enough light to supplement a stadium’s lighting for the successful broadcast of an evening event. Yet another solution for covering large areas includes flying specialty lighting balloons containing internal HMI light sources above a scene that provide diffuse light to the area below them. In another line of applications, portable battery packs are used along with a power inverter to change DC to AC voltage, which in turn is used to power lights on a location setup. A common example of this can be found when shooting sequences on a moving platform like a car or boat. The inverter and battery pack(s) are typically stored in the trunk of the vehicle while

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Figure 5.13  Sun-gun with related accessories by Frezzi Energy Systems (shown with battery/power supply, belt packs, accessories, and travel case) Credit: photo courtesy of Frezzi Energy Systems—Division of Frezzi Electronics, Inc.

Figure 5.14  A lighting kit by De Sisti Lighting (4-Cosmobeam 650w open-face units, stands, scrims, case, and other accessories) Credit: photo courtesy of De Sisti Lighting

the luminaires are mounted on special platforms that are attached to the vehicle’s exterior.

Specialty Luminaires A few final examples of luminaires that can be found in popular use in the film and video industry include Chimera

(Figure  5.15a), chicken coop (Figure  5.15b), and space lights. All are essentially associated with soft light. These units are built around the concept of creating a soft reflective canopy that contains one or more light sources. While the Chimera is generally mounted on a stand and used to produce horizontal fill light, the other two are typically suspended from above and are used to create general fill or overall area lighting. The chicken coop is rectangular while the space light is cylindrical and places the multiple lamps in a circular rather than grid arrangement. Chicken coops were often hand-made on site by crew members who simply gaff-taped the panels together around the light sources. The Chimera is frequently used in video production and provides a collapsible hood of diffuse material that is adjusted to suit the needs of a given setup. It may use one or two lamps. Yet another method of producing soft area lighting includes using Chinese Lanterns, which are smaller versions of the lighting balloon and nothing more than traditional Chinese lanterns equipped with low-powered single light sources.

Lighting Accessories Due to the way in which unions are established, some lighting gear is controlled by the electrics department (i.e., the gaffer and associated crews) while some is set up and operated by the grips. Although actual responsibilities may vary with the type of shoot, studio, and specific project, a general rule for determining who is responsible for a given task would place luminaires, their wiring, and accessories mounted directly to the luminaire under the head lighting technician and electrics department while any stands, control accessories (diffusion, flags, silks, etc.) and reflectors placed either in front of a luminaire or on independent stands as the responsibility of the grip department. A number of lighting accessories found in film and video production are quite similar to those found in other areas of the entertainment industry. Barn doors, for example, are fit to most luminaires during a typical setup—although their shape is usually slightly different from their theatrical cousins. A  head lighting technician/gaffer may even fashion their own barn doors using a special form of black foil that is simply bent or shaped to the needs of the moment (i.e., Blackwrap by Gam Products). Other similar accessories include snoots (a “top hat” in theatre terminology) funnels (a tapered or cone-shaped snoot) and other devices that control directionality and spill such as egg crates and spill rings. Since ERSes often provide too harsh of an edge for video/film production, edges of lighting beams are usually controlled by placing an opaque object somewhere between the source and target as a means of blocking light from an unwanted area. Several of these devices include flags, fingers, and dots (Figure 5.16). In reality, they all achieve the same purpose: the various names simply relate to different shapes and sizes of the light-blocking accessories. They are

Figure 5.15 Specialty luminaires: (a) Chimera Daylight Bank Kit with Egg Crate (with egg crate accessory). (b) Chicken coop (Mole-Richardson’s 6,000 watt Six-Light Overhead Cluster) Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Chimera Lighting, (b) photo courtesy of Mole-Richardson Company

made in a variety of materials that range from being completely opaque to various degrees of translucency. Additionally, specialty names may be given to them based on the purpose of an accessory. For example, a topper relates to a flag that blocks the upper portion of a light. The relative placement of a flag between the source and target also determines how hard or soft the resultant shadow will be. The closer that a flag is placed to the subject, the sharper the shadow will become. Flags are typically held in place by adding an additional arm or separate stands in front of the luminaire from which the associated shadow will be cast. Sometimes a head lighting technician may want to bring soft diffuse lighting to a set where light coming directly from a luminaire is too hard for a given scene. In this case, a screen made from diffuse material is placed

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Sidebar 5.3 DESIGNER PROFILE Michael Grimes

Credit: photo courtesy of Michael Grimes

Mike Grimes began his career in theatre and dance lighting but states that, “I  then sold my soul for the money of television.” He began television lighting in the early days of cable programming which allowed him to do a variety of events in many different venues. He worked for HBO, MTV, and Lifetime television back when opportunities for lighting cable programs, special events, and music videos were just becoming popular. He has also often been a gaffer on large spectacle events such as television awards programs and concerts. Several of his credits include: The CMT Music Awards, MTV Video Music Awards, TV Land Awards, The BET Honors, VH1 Storytellers programs, The 25th Anniversary Rock  & Roll Hall of Fame Concert, NBC’s New Year’s Eve with Carson Daly, and special television programs for artists such as Tracy Morgan, Jim Jefferies, John Oliver, and Bill Maher. Currently, he does about 30% TV awards shows, 30% other television special events (such as standup comics or food competitions), about 20% corporate meetings and/or parties, and the rest of the time on music videos and fashion shows. Grimes began his career with two years of study at Arizona State and then transferred and finished a BA degree from Brooklyn College. This was followed by six years of touring with theatrical and dance troupes and then thirty years of doing a variety of events from Bar Mitzvahs to the Olympics. He states that when he made the shift to television, “The constraints of a big network didn’t exist. If you wanted to do a shoot on top of a building you did it . . .’This is the way we’ve always done it’ made me laugh. I learned to adapt to a situation and figure it out. If someone said, ‘we need to light the river’ . . . I learned to never say ‘no’ outright, but instead

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would say, ‘let’s see what we can do.’ This is what special events are all about.” Several of the new tasks that he had to learn along the way included: how to use a color temperature meter, how to draft and read plans, and how to run a crew. “I’ve taken classes in running various consoles, electricity, and rigging. I’m learning more about video because more and more shows are all about video.” People that had a significant impact on Grimes career include: “Paul Estes (my TD at Arizona State), who taught me about working hard, drinking a lot, but still making it to the call the next day; Michael Callahan (he was THE TV gaffer in New York in the 90s and 2000s), who introduced me to big special events like the Concert for NY after Sept. 11th and taught me that sometimes you never get to hang a light on the biggest shows, but that you need to know how to when the time comes. He also taught me to surround myself with the best people, give them the information and the tools that they needed, and to then get out of the way.” Mike makes several important comments relating to several of the differences between lighting for television and the theatre. “Lighting for the camera is much different than lighting for a live event. Most shows I do have anywhere from 5–15 cameras. The shot must look good on all of them. In a live event you only see one view. Color is different on camera, and it also looks different depending on what you’re viewing it on. Follow spots used on camera must also be much more precise in terms of color temperature and intensity. When you’re working on a roof, in an old bank, the lobby of a hotel, or a ballroom you have to figure out how to create lighting positions in addition to lighting the show. What do you have to do to create the lighting positions safely? Where does power come from? If you’re doing a fashion show in an old warehouse, do you light the old machinery there? When you work in a non-traditional space, you’re not just lighting the event, you’re creating an environment. What will the camera see, and what will it not see just two feet off camera?” Mike likes many things about working as a gaffer in this part of the industry. “I love being in a new space and figuring out what I need to do to make a designer’s vison come true. I love when all the lights work and the show looks great and the fact that on Tuesday night at 8 pm that a hundred, or a thousand, or a million people will be tuning in and that the show has to be ready. There’s no postponing it till next week. It’s live and it’s now.” Finally, he loves the fact that there are no limits to people’s visions. Some of it’s wonderful and some of it is crap. But it’s always different.” What he dislikes is that, “We don’t have time for bad attitudes.” He also hates bad equipment. “These events happen quickly

and it takes too much energy to deal with lousy attitudes and things have to be right the first time.” Finally, he also dislikes the idea that video is becoming lighting. “I’m a bit old fashioned and believe that good lighting is much better than good video.” He also feels that it is difficult to remain abreast of new developments in the industry because it is changing so quickly. He states that, “It’s almost impossible . . . I read some of the trade magazines and talk to a lot of the younger technicians because they absorb things better than I do.” Some final advice that Grimes offers relates to two specific ideas. First, “Never say it can’t be done.

Figure 5.16  Shadow control: (a) Flags, targets, fingers, dots, etc., (b) Scrim/Flag Survival Kit by Matthews Studio Equipment (selection of scims, silks, flags, and a cucaloris with stands) Credit: photos courtesy of Matthews Studio Equipment

between the subject and the light source(s). A  variety of materials are used for these screens, each producing varying degrees of diffusion. Diffusers also come in a number of

With enough money and enough time, or no money and no time, we have to figure out how to make it look good by show time. He also states that students and young designers need to know about all of the possibilities that are out there in the world of lighting. “They need to know that only maybe one percent of theater lighting students will end up making a living as a theater lighting designer. They need to know about fashion shows, TV, and dance. How to approach the Olympics, and how they can still be a lighting designer while not necessarily doing Shakespeare.”

different sizes and can be made of translucent muslin or silk-like fabric that is mounted on large folding frames that are then placed on a set where the light sources are placed behind them. These panels may also be used to reflect light. Smaller versions are mounted on simple frames and stands that are then placed directly in front of a luminaire. These accessories are usually called silks or butterflies depending on the size and material that make them up. On location shoots you might see diffuser panels that are as large as 10 × 20 feet in size or even larger. The 10 × 20 is a popular standard-sized frame while the 4 × 4 is common for smaller setups. Regardless of size, these frames will have different diffusion materials like silks or muslin stretched over them. Many of these materials are available from gel manufacturers. These accessories may be lit with a distant source like the sun or could have multiple sources focused onto the side of the frame that is away from the subject. Obviously, stands holding these frames and reflector panels must be both secured and stored properly to ensure that they don’t become sails during a wind gust when used on outdoor shoots. The panels (especially the largest ones) are typically stored with their surfaces oriented parallel to the ground and are rotated up into position just prior to shooting a sequence. One or two grips are typically assigned to each of these units to make sure that the units remain properly oriented to the sun or luminaires lighting them as well as for the safety of the cast and crew. In special cases, a surround of diffusion material (tenting) may be placed most of the way around a setup to produce an evenly diffused environment completely around a subject(s). Another group of film and video accessories, reflector units, function as light sources by controlling light by reflection. These are frames or panels that can be covered with a selection of reflective materials that are used to indirectly light a scene. Some call these accessories reflector panels or shiny boards. A panel with a mirrored surface may be called a mirror board. Smaller versions of reflector units are nothing more than a hand-held piece of FoamBoard or Styrofoam that isn’t much larger than an artist’s pad. Larger versions of these panels also exist—one popular size being approximately 4 feet square. Larger panels

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are created by fastening fabric over collapsible metal frames in the same way that silks are used. While the texture of the surface will determine the overall reflectivity of a panel (hard or soft), it may also be colored to raise/lower the color temperature of the reflected light. Examples of these variations include gold, cool blue, and blue tinted panels. The light source may be a luminaire that is mounted nearby or a distant source like the sun. A reflector unit that everyone has most likely had personal contact with is the umbrella reflector that photographers use during portrait sittings. While there are a number of commercial reflector products available, many are expensive—resulting in a number of beginning film/video makers becoming resourceful and using household items like bed sheets, panels of Styrofoam, and white FoamBoard or covering panels like these with aluminum foil and other makeshift materials to create their own diffusers and reflectors. Figure 5.17 illustrates a basic kit of diffusion and reflector panels along with their associated stands made by Chimera Lighting. As pointed out earlier, a lot of film and video lighting is done from the floor rather than from above. In fact, on location shoots, there often isn’t anything to mount the units from at all. Lighting stands are used to mount the majority of these units which are typically placed 6 to 8 feet off the floor. Also, mounting arms can be clamped to overhead pipes or other architectural elements to hold luminaires, flags, and nets while avoiding the use of floor stands. The lower angles associated with stand mounted units are usually desirable because they help soften the severe shadows that can come from sources that are mounted from above. In a studio setting, ground supports are nothing more than rigid stands that are used to mount a single unit at a time. These may or may not have dollies (wheels) and usually contain telescoping poles with hand

knobs that allow them to be easily adjusted to a variety of heights. Additional mounting hardware is designed to hang units off the tops and backs of sets, from booms, and even from the ceiling. For location lighting, most stands are made from lightweight materials that are modular and collapsible. Many stands also contain a number of specialty fittings that allow for the quick assembly/mounting of the lighting equipment. Rather than requiring C-clamps and wrenches, much of this gear is quickly set up with no tools—where the luminaires are simply dropped over a spud and tightened down with a simple hand adjustment. One of the most popular portable stands for holding luminaires and grip equipment is the Century or C-Stand. This is equipped with telescoping uprights, collapsible bases, adjustable arms, and specialized grip heads that allow the equipment to be easily mounted and placed in a variety of positions. A  special variation, a goal post, creates a horizontal hanging position for hanging down or backlight behind a subject through supporting a horizontal pipe between two C-Stands. Many smaller luminaires can be mounted as simply as using spring clamps or modified vicegrips and construction C-clamps that have been equipped with spuds. Some luminaires are even small enough to be taped in place by applying gaff tape to the unit. Most light kits contain not only the luminaires but also a variety of lighting stands, fittings, and other accessories like scrims and flags that provide a solid selection of equipment for location setups. Even when mounted from above in a lighting grid, some luminaires are placed on telescoping poles, monopoles, or pantographs so that they can be pulled into a set to create flatter lighting angles. Figure 5.18 is a photograph a typical studio grid and it’s associated lighting gear. These mounting accessories are characteristically used in

Figure 5.17 Diffusion and reflector equipment (Chimera Panel Kit with a selection of frames and C-stands along with diffusion and reflective cloths and carrying case)

Figure 5.18 A  studio grid; note pantographs for changing heights of luminaires

Credit: photon courtesy of Chimera Lighting

Credit: photo courtesy of Philips Strand Lighting

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television studios—especially for multiple camera productions where the studio floor needs to be kept as clear as possible for camera and other equipment moves. Pantographs (extensions on scissor-like arms) are disappearing because of their unreliability and aren’t usually found in contemporary studios. In fact, in today’s practices, providing mechanisms for lowering luminaires to heights below the lighting grid isn’t as common as in the past because the lights can get in the way of other equipment like microphone booms. On the other hand, as a means of saving time and avoiding ladder work, a floor electrician or grip can use a specialized pole (lighting pole) to pull a luminaire mounted on a monopole or pantograph into position from the ground. This accessory has a hook similar to a boat hook which aids the electricians in manipulating the luminaires from the ground. In addition to pulling the unit into position, the electrician is also able to focus and make many of the adjustments in accessories and overall beam characteristics of a light with further use of the lighting pole. The advantage to using grid mounting accessories lies in being able to hang the units at a relatively low height without creating any of the floor clutter that stands and cable runs would normally make. It also makes shifts to other camera views or parts of a studio more efficient. A number of studio grids are actually winched and can be flown to different heights.

Film and Video Control Elements Historically, dimmers were not heavily used in film or video lighting design. The reason for this relates to the undesirable effects that dimming has on a lamp’s color temperature when using a dimmer. Also, due to the lack of exposure sensitivity in older cameras, much of the lighting for film and video of the past was concerned primarily with providing a base level of illumination that could be recorded by the cameras. Rather than using dimmers, many luminaires used in film and video lighting, even to this day, make use of “hot” or continuous light sources that are simply plugged into a power source and turned on. These luminaires may also be equipped with multiple lamps or lamps with several filaments that can be turned on or off in different combinations to control how much light that a luminaire produces. Dimming has also been restricted because of the number of luminaires that use ballasts and arc sources in film/video production. Because of this, a head lighting technician may use one of several alternative methods to modify the intensity of a luminaire. Scrims, silks, and diffusers along with mechanical dimmers are several of these solutions. Film is especially sensitive to color temperature and intensity variations, making it desirable to simply not use dimmers in many applications. Video setups, on the other hand, often use dimmers (especially in studio production). Initially they were used primarily for controlling ganged light sources rather than for dimming effects but are now used to help

balance intensity levels for a production—especially when working on the fly. Jim Moody used to place an additional light on each of the contestants of Wheel of Fortune so that he could boost or drop the intensity of the light for the varying skin tones of the show’s contestants. This allowed him to provide the additional intensity required to make a shot work without having to stop production to change scrims or make other adjustments in the lamps. It also gave him a backup lamp for each of these positions. Since dimmers are usually part of a television studio’s standard equipment, LDs are also more likely to use them to adjust a lamp’s color temperature and to balance the light throughout a studio. A general rule that can be used to predict a dimmer’s effect on color temperature is that the color temperature will drop by about 10°Kelvin for every 1-volt drop in voltage of an incandescent light. Dimmers are also used in controlling the balance or contrast between light coming from different sources. By modifying intensity levels between different luminaires, an LD can control contrast ratios between not only the lights striking the talent but also between the talent, background, and any other objects/subjects that are contained in a scene or camera frame. In reality, balancing light intensities is now a major reason for using dimmers in video production. Dimmers can also be used for effects: a fade out versus a blackout, shifting focus, creating effects like changes in a cyc, altering the mood, and producing motivated cues like turning practicals on and off. Since there are side-effects to dimming, there are several other methods for controlling the intensity of film and video luminaires. First, many of these units are designed with multiple lamps or filaments that can be turned on or off as a means of providing more light. A second variation of this includes using luminaires with lamps of different wattages or adding more luminaires to light a particular area to increase the intensity of a scene. A disadvantage comes in the addition of more shadows as extra lamps are added to a setup. A third manner of controlling the intensity of a luminaire is in its placement. If it is too bright, it can be moved farther away from a subject—too dim, you bring it closer. On many film setups a DP will simply ask that a light be moved forward or back by a half-stop, full stop, two-stops, etc. (referring to f-stops). Most experienced gaffers and electricians are familiar enough with the light output of enough luminaires that they can make fairly accurate approximations of how far the unit must be moved to produce a desired intensity change. One side-effect of placing the lights too far away is the tendency of flattening the image through smoothing out the lighting’s contrast. In fact, when moving in for a close-up, it is best to move the lights in as well so that enough contrast can be maintained in the image. Finally, accessories like scrims (Figure  5.19) or neutral density filters can also be placed in the front of a luminaire to reduce its overall light output without changing in its color temperature.

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Figure 5.19 A  selection of scrims (singles and doubles in a variety of sizes along with several half scrims) Credit: photo courtesy of Matthews Studio Equipment

Two of the most popular methods of reducing intensity in film and television work on the principle of inserting a material into the face of a luminaire that in some way reduces the amount of light coming from the unit. This is different than blocking portions of the beam as in the case of using barn doors or flags. Scrims are made of mesh screens (usually metal) of different densities that are slipped into the front of a luminaire in a frame where the gel holder is located. The resultant light that passes through the scrim will have its intensity dropped by a given proportion without having an effect on the lamp’s color temperature. The higher the density of the scrim, the more light it will absorb and the greater reduction it will have in a unit’s light output. These scrims are quite similar to the dimming screens that are used in museum and exhibit lighting. Scrims are not specified so much by their density as by the number of f-stops in which they reduce the light. A single scrim reduces the light by about half an f-stop while a double reduces the light by a full stop. A  color system has been created that allows scrims to be quickly identified by the color of their associated frame (green for a single and red for a double). Scrims may also be made with combination densities (for instance, one half being a single while the other is a double). Scrims are often grouped into a kit or pouch containing a basic selection of different density scrims for a given luminaire which are then stored through hanging the kit on or near the unit. An alternate method of creating the same intensity-lowering effect is by using nets that are rated according to their density. However, these are mounted on grip

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stands that are placed in front of the luminaires instead of in the instrument itself. Nets are similar to flags with the exception that they are made from bobbinet (net-like) material. Unlike scrims, which are equated to a specific drop in intensity, the intensity change caused by a net is controlled by additional factors such as the distance that the net is placed from the front of the light, the type and wattage of the light itself, and the angle with which the net is oriented to the light source. These too are color-coded according to the densities of the nets (green for single and red for double). In these, a double is nothing more than a double layer of the bobbinet material with each layer oriented perpendicular to the other. A similar manner of reducing the light output of a luminaire can be done through the use of Neutral Density Filters (ND or NDF). These are special forms of filter/gel media in which the transmission of the light is altered or dropped without making a change in the color temperature or overall spectral composition of the light. This is very different from the color correction filters that are discussed in the next section. More importantly, these filters are available in a series of graded reductions that are expressed as either a loss in percentage of total light transmission or by f-stops. Neutral density filters can be supplied by most theatrical filter manufacturers and comes in the same sheet sizes as traditional filters. To this point the discussion has only dealt with how to reduce the intensity of a light source while in some cases, especially on location setups, the problem might be one of not having sufficient intensities for making a successful exposure or recording. In these situations there often aren’t any simple solutions—but there are several tricks that might help produce just enough light to make a successful shot possible. Probably the easiest solution is to start opening up the f-stop settings of your camera until you reach the largest possible opening for a lens (at a loss of depth-offield). Another solution is swapping out the lens for a faster lens with wider f-stop settings (at a loss of creating as tight of a shot). Other fixes might include shifting to a slower shutter speed, switching to a faster film stock (which adds graininess) or increasing the gain controls (which in video introduces more noise or snow), and swapping cameras for ones with more sensitivity.

Filters, Color Correction, and Diffusion Filters or gel aren’t used to the same degree in television or film lighting as they are in theatrical lighting. In fact, a significant amount of shooting is done with little or no color except for the use of color correction filters. While there are occasions when the use of more saturated colored filters is appropriate, the use of gels is usually the exception rather than the norm. Several occasions where they can be used effectively include creating light based on the color qualities of a specific motivational light source, coloring scenic

units like cycs and sky drops, and for colored effects. Most other colors used in television and film lighting tend to be associated with pastel tints—especially when lighting the talent. To be safe, it is always best to check the effect of an unknown color with a test shot and to review the results in a print or the master monitor. While it is common to recycle filters from one production to another in theatre it is not that common in film or video production. Although a theatrical designer can often spot a gel that is burning out by seeing the change on stage, a gaffer may or may not be able to sense a burnout that the camera or film may still pick up on. This could result in surprises in the final image even though the light may have appeared perfectly normal during the shoot. Because of this, and the costs of having to reshoot a video/film sequence, it is best to simply use fresh color whenever possible. In reality, for most film/ video projects, more of the lighting budget is used on diffusion and color correction than on color filters. Perhaps the most important aspect of working with filters in film and video relates to a series of specialty filters known as color correction or conversion filters. The most obvious use for these filters is in correcting the color temperature of a luminaire or light source so that it matches all the other light sources in a setup or matching the source’s light with the particular camera or film stock that is being used for a shoot. Unmatched color temperatures result in the color balance of a film/video being distorted and shifts in the color of the final images. A gaffer or LD will typically match the color temperatures of the different luminaires throughout a setup by selecting correction filters that match/color-correct all the sources to the same color temperature. A common example of this might include shooting an interior daytime scene where the exterior light coming through a window is quite different from that of the room’s interior. In this case, the interior lights and most likely all the production luminaires will be lit to an interior color temperature based on tungsten-halogen sources (approximately 3,200° K) while the daylight would have a color temperature more on the order of 5,600° K or higher. This will cause exposure problems between the differences in color temperature of these two sources. The typical solution for this is to simply place a specialty filter over the window surfaces to correct the daylight color temperature to that of the interior lighting. Specifically, this would call for a CTO (color temperature orange) filter. Likewise, when interior sources or luminaires having low color temperatures need to be raised to match a high color temperature source a CTB (Color Temperature Blue) filter can be used to correct the color temperature of the light. In addition to the standard sheets, color correction filters also come in sizes as large as 4 × 8 feet and in rolls. This allows the filters to be fit to large surfaces like windows and doors. A number of different CTO and CTB filters are available that allow sources of different color temperatures to be corrected to standard color temperatures like tungsten or daylight. These are indicated by values such as 1/4 CTO,

1/8 CTB, or____CTB, etc. An alternative system for indicating color correction uses MIRED values to determine the appropriate filter to apply to a source for correcting it to a given color temperature. While it is common to correct for color temperature and intensity variations by placing filters and ND in front of the luminaires, it may be preferable at times to filter an entire scene. This is done by correcting the light by placing a filter over the lens of the camera. These are high-quality filters that are designed to avoid any distortion in the lens or final image. An example of this would be placing a blue (nighttime filter) over a camera’s lens while shooting an exterior night scene during daylight hours (dayfor-night filter). The popular UV or skylight filters that are used on personal cameras are another example of this type of filtering. In today’s productions, it is also becoming more common to make filtering changes by manipulating the images digitally in post-production through the use of digital inter-negatives. Video cameras can correct for color temperature by adjusting the white balance setting of the camera(s). In this case a white card is shot under the existing lighting while the white balance on the camera is set. This adjusts the camera so that it registers the existing light as its reference for “white light.” However, an issue that comes out of this is that all colors seen by the camera are skewed based on how much of an adjustment was made in the white balance setting. Another issue comes about when light sources of different color temperatures appear on the set and the camera either registers the combined sources as a single “white base” or the gaffer sets the white balance for one of the sources and must then add correction filters to all the other sources appearing in the setup. On the other hand, the effect of using different color temperature light sources and setting the white balance for only one of them might create a pleasing effect. Diffusion media is used to soften the overall quality of a light source. Unlike the color and ND filters, these may or may not be placed in the media holder of a luminaire. If used in combination with another filter, the diffusion should be placed farthest away from the lamp and lens. Diffusion may also be placed in several layers (a bit of separation should be left between layers so that air can circulate between them). Although many luminaires have a double color frame holder, a number of lighting professionals like to produce a softer light by clipping diffusion media to the outer edge of a unit’s barn doors with spring clips or wooden clothespins (C-47s are used in the field and are simply clothespins that are taken apart and reassembled with the flat edges placed on the inside for easier clamping). Soft-lights like chicken coops also often contain diffusion media. In fact, gaffers sometimes construct homemade diffusion boxes using lightweight materials like FoamBoard to create an open-ended box-like structure around the front of a luminaire and its barn doors. A sheet of diffusion is then added across the front of the box that

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softens the light while providing a larger light source for the scene. Many different degrees of diffusion are available from gel manufacturers. Some produce a subtle effect while others will have a more profound effect on a light’s quality. Much of the diffusion media, such as color correction and ND filters, are available in rolls and large sheets.

LEDs and Film/Video Production Just as in many other areas of the lighting industry, LEDs are making a significant impact on the options that studios and lighting designers have for light sources that are being used in film and video production. Major players such as ESPN, Fox Sports and the 700 Club of the Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN) have converted entire studios to a heavy, if not predominant, use of LED sources. As LED luminaires continue to improve in quality, while also dropping in price, we will see growing use of these sources in the film and video industries. The most significant issues at this point appear to lie in determining the overall quality of the units that a designer chooses. Here, you definitely get what you pay for. Top-of-the-line LED luminaires are expensive but produce superior light at a very economical price once the initial outlay for the cost of the fixtures has been accounted for. Several of the positive benefits of choosing LED units include the following: LEDs have lamp lives that reach well beyond traditional tungsten and fluorescent sources; they maintain their color temperature when dimmed; they produce comparatively little heat, which is an advantage for both handling the units as well as for not raising studio and on location temperatures, and therefore they create a reduction in air-conditioning costs; they produce far less power consumption per lumen that they deliver; and the luminaires are typically smaller and weigh a lot less than traditional film/video luminaires, which makes them easier to handle and able to fit into smaller spaces. Several issues that should be considered, especially when evaluating lower-priced fixtures, include the spectral response (CRI) of the units and the fact that units making use of arrays or multi-colored LEDs can cast multiple shadows from the individual LED light sources. When the units are dimmed, older LED units tend to drop off and pop on at some point near the lower end of their dimming curve. However, since units are typically used at or near full intensity in these applications (typically to balance a scene), this isn’t usually a significant problem. The most important LEDs that are making a mark in the film and video industry are those that are used in units that produce white light. Recent advances in white LED technology have produced a range of white LEDs that now produce enough light output with good color rendering that studios are starting to make regular use of these new light sources. Initially, LEDs created white light by using an additive mixture of several different colored LEDs. These LEDs, though they could create white light, produced light in fairly narrow portions of the spectrum (creating spikes

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rather than full-spectrum light), which resulted in poor color rendering and spectral response in these sources. The new white LED sources (at least the higher-end ones) have a much better CRI and as a result are now being adopted as a light source in the film and video industries. White LEDs used in the film and video industry are typically formulated to produce light that is characteristic of either the warm color temperatures of traditional tungsten sources or the cooler color temperatures associated with daylight sources that are also popular in film and video production. Some luminaires even combine both types of LEDs, which allows for dialing in a desired color temperature based on some combination of the warm and cool colored LEDs. LEDs are now being incorporated as light sources in a variety of film and video luminaires, including Fresnels, multi-lights, and arrays that function much like the fluorescent units that they are now replacing. Several examples of these newer style LED luminaires are indicated in Figure 5.20. While some studios prefer to use the warmer LED units to simulate traditional tungsten/incandescent light, studios with sets that display a number of video monitors such as news or sports highlight programs typically prefer the daylight units because their light is a better match with that of the video monitors. Luminaires that use several different colored LEDs to mix color are also becoming popular in film and video production—but again, the more variety that exists in the individual colors of the LEDs, the more colors that will be successfully produced and the better color rendering ability that the fixture will display. These units are often used to wash scenic elements like cycs and set pieces. Many LED PARs and moving light LED luminaires are in popular use for creating effects lighting like that used for lighting musicians on many of the morning or evening talk shows (i.e., The Today Show, The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, and The Tonight Show with Jimmy Fallon). LED luminaires that are designed for film and video use can be used pretty much in the same way as any other luminaires that are designed for these industries. They can be used for both key and fill lighting, can produce both soft and hard light and can be used in any of the same manners as traditional fixtures to produce threepoint, following source (motivational) or any other lighting that a LD might desire. Any control features such as flags, barn doors, egg crates, diffusion, and other accessories used on traditional fixtures may also be used with the new LED units as well. The units can also be used in combination with more traditional sources and luminaires. Lighting with LEDs will be different from using tungsten and fluorescent sources; however, if you keep an awareness of the differences or considerations mentioned in the last several paragraphs, there is no reason why these units can’t make a successful contribution to a film and video’s lighting. In the end, as these units become less costly and as there is more and more demand to become environmentally conscious, these units will grow in popularity throughout both the film and video industries.

Figure 5.20  LED luminaries used in film and video production: (a) A location lighting kit (ARRI L5/LoCaster LED Kit II). (b) A soft light (Mole-Richardson 500w Softlite LED). (c) LED Fresnel (ARRI L-Series—L10-C Fresnel). (d) LED array (Mole-Richardson VariPanel LED) Credit: (a) photo courtesy of ARRI (www.arri.com), (b) photo courtesy of Mole-Richardson Company, (c) photo courtesy of the ARRI Group, (d) photo courtesy of Mole-Richardson Company

Film/Video Studios and Sound Stages Video studios and sound stages are quite similar to black box theatres. Video studios are typically large open rooms with an overhead lighting grid that allow scenic pieces to be placed almost anywhere within the studio. Since the audience has no need to see anything except what is shot by the camera, scenic elements may or may not be set up in an arrangement that on first appearances seems to make any sense. Adjoining sets may even belong to two completely different programs. The best example of this is found in many local television stations where the studio is used for several different productions. The local news, a talk show, and Saturday morning children’s program are often simply placed in different areas of the same studio. This may break down further to create specific settings for a given program—the news desk, weather corner, and sports or traffic center are examples of multiple sets that are associated with many news programs. A sound stage is designed in much the same way as a studio with the exception of being on a much grander scale while also often serving a number of different productions. Sound stages also do not usually have a lighting grid associated with them. Instead, a catwalk system of platforms (green bed or greenie) is hung from the ceiling rafters about 4 feet above a set. The platforms are typically arranged along the outline of a set and have a series of holes along their edges that allow luminaires to be easily mounted along their perimeter. Power is then dropped down to the platforms and lights from above. In many ways a sound stage is not much different from a large warehouse—even to the point of having large cargo bays that allow production vehicles to literally drive into the space. The Nickelodeon Studios Tour that used to be at Universal Studios in Orlando provided good examples of sound stages that were used for several productions at a time. In reality, while this sound stage was set up all the time, actual production for any given program was usually limited to just a couple weeks of taping at a time. As a rule, it is rare to have more than one production taping in a given week—even though pre-production activities may be going on at nearly any time. A number of studios are equipped with a lighting grid that contains a series of pipes set in much the same way that a theatrical lighting grid is laid out over a black box theatre. Some studios may make use of trussing rather than a pipe grid. Many of these grids are even rigged with hoists or chain motors that allow the grid to be easily raised or lowered by the electricians. This not only provides a variety of mounting heights but also helps facilitate changeovers. Even though many studios use repertory light plots, a television studio with local programming may require that a focus be changed for each of the shows that share the studio. Other studios and sound stages are set up for rentals where one-day shoots are popular for commercial and advertising setups. These studios are frequently equipped with extensive plots that are pre-hung and cabled in what are called saturation rigs. The LD for the client comes into the studio on the day of the shoot and makes a selection

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of which luminaires they will use for the project—ignoring all the other units that are hung in the grid. The selected units are patched and focused and then the scene is shot. Large studios may use several smaller grids that are flown independently of one another to add flexibility to a studio’s design. Some studios and sound stages may have independently controlled lighting battens that are 8 to 12 feet long and spaced at regular intervals throughout the entire facility. In many cases these battens are secured to self-climbing winches and contain four to six lighting circuits and cable trays that create even more flexible hanging positions for a designer. One common studio arrangement places a number of rows of these units (spaced 6–8 feet apart) in an end-to-end placement that spans across the entire width of a facility. A simplified arrangement breaks the batten arrangements into three segments across the width of a studio. In some studios, rather than using self-climbing battens (Figure 5.21), luminaires may be mounted on independent telescoping poles (monopoles) that are lowered into the studio from the grid. Sometimes the monopoles have further flexibility through being mounted to tracks that allow the unit to travel across the width or depth of the studio as well. Many video studios in the past had much less control equipment than one might imagine despite being outfitted with overhead lighting grids and elaborate distribution systems. Power distribution in video studios is quite similar to a theatre facility, with circuits running throughout the studio terminating in either dimmer-per-circuit lighting systems or a patchbay that is then wired to a number of dimmers. A well-equipped network or local television studio will typically have a fully installed distribution system.

Figure 5.21  Self-climbing lighting batten Credit: courtesy of De Sisti Lighting

In many cases, luminaires used in film and video lighting of the past used high wattage lamps such as 5Ks or 10Ks, which resulted in the tendency to equip studios with dimmers of higher capacities than those used in theatrical applications. However, with the development of more light sensitive cameras and films, the need for such highly powered lamps is now not as important and contemporary studios are often equipped with dimmers and control systems that reflect smaller dimmer capacities based on the standard of using 1K and 2K sources and more sophisticated control technology. Dimmer-per-circuit systems and computer controlled consoles are used extensively in today’s studios and patchbays are becoming a thing of the past. A sound stage, however, is often stripped to the bare walls and any lighting equipment (dimmers and distribution equipment included) needs to be rented from a production house or studio. These facilities usually provide only a series of company switches that are used by the gaffer to tie-in the dimmers. In many sound stages and studios there might even be wall pockets that allow power feeds to be passed through the studio wall to a generator that is parked outside of the facility. Figures 5.22 and 5.23 provide examples of several different studio installations.

Figure 5.22  A television studio: Fox Sports Credit: photo courtesy of Philips Strand Lighting

Location Lighting When shooting on location, yet another element is added to the responsibilities of the chief lighting technician in that all of the equipment must be arranged and transported to the location where the shooting will take place. Normally, the equipment is assembled and transported by a special truck called a grip truck. One such example is called a 10 Ton (a 24-foot straight-bed truck that has a given inventory of luminaires, stands, and other grip/lighting accessories). Production studios also have semi-trailers that are used for the same purpose for feature films. In either case, the truck has a pre-determined inventory of lighting and grip gear that is either set by the studio or specially ordered by the head lighting technician or LD. There are two ways to handle the lighting charges: either the producer pays a flat fee for the entire contents of the truck or a rental fee based on the specific equipment plus an extra fee for anything else that you might need for the shoot. In either case, fees for expendables (gel, diffusion, tape etc.) are in addition to the rental fee. Studio rentals are conducted in a similar fashion. Location shoots present other problems in that not only are there issues related to transportation and setup needs but you also have to make considerations for unwanted lighting conditions. Weather like rain and fog are obvious problems, but other conditions that can be just as disastrous to a location shoot include too much sunlight, the sun changing direction, too fast of a transition into dusk, stray light hitting the setup during night scenes, and fluctuating light levels due to scattered cloud cover. Even interior location shoots can run into problems like insufficient space for the required throws of the

Figure 5.23  Television studio sets: (a) GA Lottery, (b) Southern Living Best Credit: photos courtesy of Rick Clark and Entertainment Design Group

luminaires, unmatched color temperatures from multiple sources, and insufficient power. In fact, when shooting video or film interiors, many buildings are not equipped to handle the electrical draw of the lighting equipment that would normally be plugged into the standard convenience outlets. In these situations, additional power is run to the site by tapping into the building’s main electrical panel or

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Figure 5.24  A trailer-mounted generator Credit: photo courtesy of Lindsey Goodson

having an additional electrical service wired to the site by the power utility. The gaffer then ties into the power in much the same way that any company switch is dealt with. If either of these options aren’t practical, another option includes renting a generator (Figure  5.24) for the shoot. These generators may be as small as a 45-amp Putt-Putt that can provide two 20-amp circuits to large truck or trailer mounted generators that are capable of putting out as much as 3,000 or more amps of three-phase power. One obvious issue that one must consider when using a generator lies in the noise that is created by its gas or diesel engine. Ideally, the generator (genny) should be placed as far from the set as possible so that noise is abated—in many cases this means placing the genny around the block or down the street a bit and running heavy feeder cables to portable dimmer racks or distribution panels that are placed relatively close to the lights and set. More importantly, generators used in film and video production have special features that are not found in construction generators, and a gaffer must make sure that the generator is rated for film/video use. These generators are equipped with special noise baffles to reduce the sound of the generator’s engine along with frequency modulation features (Crystal sync) that allow the operator to produce power that prevents flicker effect in HMI and other ballasted light sources. Generators come in a variety of capacities and may produce AC and/or DC power. When running a generator, it is important to try to balance the loads evenly between the hot legs and to run an over-sized neutral that will not become overloaded if the loads should become unbalanced. Establishing a good earth ground is especially important to proper generator operation.

Film/Video Production Practices While video and film lighting follow essentially the same design processes as theatrical design, they are quite different

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in the manner in which they are executed. For one thing, they tend to get more technical due to the greater worries regarding lighting intensity, color temperature/color corrections, exposure settings, and other factors that can normally be skipped when lighting for the native eye. On the other hand, a number of film/video setups can be more in line with shooting from the hip where the actual choice of fixtures, positions, and accessories may not be dealt with till just prior to shooting a given setup. This is particularly true for location setups or when renting a studio on a daily basis such as when shooting music videos or commercials. These studios often have saturation rigs containing a variety of pre-hung equipment. The LD simply decides which units they will use and then has the crews pull them into position, focuses and colors them, and patches them into the control system. Film setups also tend to follow this more improvised approach while other productions work in a more calculated fashion where the lighting rig is carefully designed, plotted, and hung for the unique needs of a given setup. The interior sets for a series such as Chicago P.D. or The Blacklist will more than likely be lit in this second fashion.

Developing a Lighting Concept As with other forms of lighting, lighting concepts are used in film and video production as well. The concept comprises a series of parameters or conditions through which the designer explores and answers the specific demands of a script or screenplay. It also gives a context from which the elements of a production can be determined and understood. If the LD, DP, or gaffer is collaborative and remains true to the director’s concept, each of their design choices will reinforce the overall production concept and should contribute to producing a unified project. The lighting concept should be based on the director’s concept but go further in providing an outline to the overall qualities that the lighting will display and how the individual scenes will be approached from a lighting perspective. It should also deal with the manner in which the transitions will be handled. At this point in the process, the lighting qualities are usually described while not becoming overly technical. Visual research and conversations with the rest of the production team will also take place during this time and storyboards are frequently used to illustrate design ideas to other members of the design team. While LDs may use storyboards to illustrate their lighting, storyboards in video/film work are more often prepared by the director or DP to illustrate the scenic arrangement and camera angles/individual shots that are planned for a production. As with theatrical lighting, there are a number of important questions that should be asked while developing a lighting concept. What’s the mood? How realistic should it appear? What time of day or season is it? What’s the weather like? Where’s the geographical setting? What’s the visual style? More specific issues such as whether the lighting is

motivational or not and what and where the light sources are located are important conceptual issues that should also be examined at this time. If a script is more abstract, the LD needs to ask about what is driving the lighting. Are there symbolic connections to be expressed through the lighting? Are any metaphors present? Once completed, the lighting concept should be used as a reference for making specific decisions that will ultimately guide the selection of luminaires, colors, and mounting positions that will be used for a project.

Drafting for Film and Video Design Drafting light plots in the film and video industries may or may not be similar to those methods used for drafting theatrical designs. Many of the differences that exist in plotting productions relate to the manner in which film and video are produced. At one extreme, light plots can be very minimal and might even be skipped all together for small location shots or if units are being selected from a pre-existing hang in a studio. At the other end of the spectrum a LD might develop a fairly elaborate plot for an extensive project like a long-running series that will take place in a large studio or sound stage. In these cases, a plot can become even more sophisticated than theatrical plots. In reality though, most light plots for film or video applications aren’t drafted to the same degree of detail as those of many theatrical applications. Figure 5.25 provides an example of a fairly simple studio plot for a single setting.

In the simplest applications, the LD will go into an existing studio and pick their lighting from whatever instrumentation is already in the air. These choices are jotted down quickly in some form of schematic plot but the hang itself is not specifically created for the given shoot. Millerson refers to this as the “look and light” method of design. For more elaborate situations the LD will specify and draft a plot that is tailored to a specific production or setup. This approach is more consistent with what is done in the theatrical community; Millerson refers to it as the “plot and light” method of designing.

Film and Video Shooting Procedures Film and many video scenes are seldom shot in the order in which they are presented to an audience. In fact, shooting sequences are ordered primarily based on the economics of shooting rather than the order in which the story unfolds. All scenes taking place in a given setting will be shot backto-back and then the cast and crew will move on to the next location where all those scenes are then shot. After all the shooting is done, the editor and director will go back and select and manipulate the cuts, camera angles, and transitions to create the finished product. The introduction of different shots and camera angles creates another set of considerations for anyone who designs the lighting for film or television productions. In lighting live broadcast events or when video-taping productions where there is little post-production editing, it is common to tape or

Figure 5.25  A sample studio plot

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broadcast while running three or four cameras at a time. Each of these cameras are online and the director must make a selection via a video switcher as to which camera’s image is being taped or broadcast at any given moment. In order to support this multi-camera technique the LD must maintain acceptable lighting for each of the camera angles so that the director will have no problem making shifts between the cameras. The downside of lighting for multiple cameras comes in that the subject is often lit more conservatively as a result of being concerned that any one of the cameras might be selected by the director at any time. This can result in bland and unimaginative lighting for an event. Storyboards or some variation of cue sheets may be used to give the camera operators, LD, and other personnel a sense of what is coming up throughout a shoot—allowing them to work ahead of a camera switch. On the other hand, it is the LD’s job to anticipate the director’s lighting needs for the various camera angles and the coverage that will be required for each setup. This is easier to do in film because all the final selection of camera angles and editorial decisions can be made in post-production where there is more time to analyze and manipulate the images. In single-camera shoots, each setup is planned and then shot as a small entity of its own. When everyone is satisfied, the team moves on to the next camera angle, which ultimately progresses through a series of additional setups. Film crews almost always work with only one camera while video setups commonly use several cameras at a time. Also, as stated earlier, films or location shoots are rarely shot in sequence. Through using this out-of-order sequence, it is easy to make what seems like minor changes in the lighting from one camera setup to another while actually producing a very jarring change if the LD hasn’t taken precautions to keep the image’s lighting fairly consistent from one take to another. What can happen involves a slow evolution of the light from one cut to another which when edited can produce extreme changes as the scene is viewed from one setup to another. In reality, the apparently minor changes that developed from one take to another can lead to significant differences between the early and later shots of a particular setup. One manner in which LDs and gaffers work to prevent this relates to the manner in which the order of the camera shots are planned. In the simplest sense, you begin big by shooting the widest camera angles first (a master or establishing shot), then progressively work into a scene by shooting the next tighter camera angles next, and end with the most extreme close-ups near the final sequences of a shoot. In this way, it is easier to fine tune the lighting as you pull into the tight picture rather than having to expand the setup as the camera opens up. Another consideration relates to lighting for the different camera angles that will be used throughout a filming/taping sequence. First, each camera angle must be lit so that the camera is capable of recording an image with proper exposure from each perspective. This can be particularly challenging in live video setups where the lighting must be successful for multiple camera angles and where

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a camera could go “live” at any moment. A  second consideration comes in maintaining a consistent quality and overall image of light for the scene—regardless of camera angle. If the light appears to be coming from behind the left shoulder of the talent from one camera, then a camera from another angle should reinforce this image and the light should also appear to be coming from over the talent’s left shoulder—even if the new angle shifts to the point that the performer is now viewed in profile and the light becomes a sidelight for the new camera angle. While small modifications can be made when shifting from one angle to another, drastic changes should be avoided. Dimmers can become an important tool for adjusting the balance of the lights as a director shifts between the different cameras. Finally, it is important to understand the manner in which scenes and camera angles are shot. While every production team has their own personal way of working, there are still some general procedural elements that are followed in most shooting sequences. Without dealing with issues like individual takes, camera shots, or turnarounds a crew can expect to follow a series of basic events that occur repeatedly throughout the filming/taping process. First, film/video performers generally don’t have to either learn or perform large segments of a script at any given time. In many cases, they only have to work on the scene(s) that are being shot on a given day. A  typical shooting day begins with the actors arriving for a blocking rehearsal (walkthrough or dry run) where they and the director work out the movement patterns and action of the scene. The LD or DP along with the head lighting technician attends this rehearsal and uses it to finalize their lighting needs for the scene. Through prior conversations, the LD or DP will have most likely made some preliminary decisions regarding the design and may have even had the gaffer/head lighting technician “rough-in” some of the lights and their focuses prior to the time in which the actors arrive for this rehearsal. Second, once the scene has been blocked, the actors are sent to costume and makeup while a group of stand-ins (second team) are used to replicate the blocking while the director, LD or DP, and crews work out the lighting and camera moves. It is also at this point that spike marks are placed on the floor which will identify the “marks” where the performers are to land or stop to deliver key elements of the scene. These marks usually coincide with specific camera and lighting placements. Several advantages of working in this manner include having to focus on only small aspects of the production at a given time, providing a time for flexibility/ experimentation, and not tiring the actors while addressing all the technical elements of the rehearsal process. Third, after the set has been lit, the performers (first team) are brought back and the scene is rehearsed with both the actors and camera crew. This is typically called a camera rehearsal and it is customary not to do anything that could be a distraction to the performers while they are working on the set. The LD, DP, or gaffer continues to refine or tweak the lighting, as do the camera operators, and most remaining issues

requiring an adjustment are dealt with at this time. Having green beds on the set will allow the crews to work overhead during these rehearsals (as long as they aren’t a distraction), which will save the producer both time and money. When the team is satisfied with the preliminary results of the camera rehearsal, they move on to actually rehearsing and recording the shot or may take a break, where any changes that could not be completed during the rehearsal are dealt with. An example of this might be having to refocus a unit that is directly over a scene where a ladder or lift must be brought onto the set. Once the lights and other technical elements have been completely tweaked, the actors are brought back one last time for the actual filming or taping and the scene is finally shot. The taping/filming may be repeated several times (each being a take) to ensure that there is a variety of results and that everyone is completely satisfied that there is at least one version of the shot that will be acceptable for the final product. Once a successful take has been recorded, the team moves on to the next setup or camera angle. At times, scenes may have to be fairly extensively relit due to a complete turn-around in camera angles. Once all the takes and camera angles have been completed for a given setup, the team moves on to another set or location. When working in studios and sound stages it is quite common to be shooting on one set while preliminary work is being done on the next one or two setups that are coming up in the shooting order.

Key Elements in Film/Video Illumination Video and film cameras have a different way of “seeing”; the image produced by a camera can be significantly different from what is seen by the native eye on a set or in the studio. Cameras also have issues in revealing the depth and sculptural qualities of an image since they in effect only produce a two-dimensional image. This is quite different from observing light on the actual performers in the studio or in a theatrical production. Because of issues like these, lighting becomes a critical resource for enhancing the depth and relative contrast or exposure differences within a video or film image. Another set of differences relates to the proximity of the lighting and camera equipment for shooting film/video setups. Unlike theatrical situations where audiences have full view of the entire stage, a video or film shot is staged only to the scale that encompasses the viewpoint of the camera angles that will be used for a scene. If a setup is comprised of close-ups only, then the lighting will be placed close to the talent and just out of view of the cameras. Due to this, the manner of providing general illumination for a scene can vary significantly in film or video shoots—being dependent on the type of action, distance to talent, and camera angles that a scene requires. Also, if camera angles change, then the lighting needs to appear as though it is consistent from angle to angle. Sources that once appeared to be in

front of the talent must appear as if they have remained in the original location and that only the camera has changed position. In today’s film and video work, especially in HD video, there is pressure to light at the lowest intensity thresholds possible in order to have the cameras shoot with consistently low depth-of-field settings. Because of the distance involved in some setups, the lighting will also have to be adjusted so that it works for both the video feed as well as a live audience—and this is in addition to any special lighting needs like lighting for I-MAG. Figure 5.26 illustrates a large-scale church that is housed in a former sports arena where the lighting must be successful not only for the live and broadcast audience, but also for the I-MAG video that is used in the large projection screens. The general issue of continuity in film and video production has already been discussed. More specifically, though, there are also issues of continuity that are of special concern for LDs and head lighting technicians. Most of these relate to remaining consistent in the treatment of light from one setup to another. One of the most common mistakes found on multi-camera productions such as live events is having an overexposed reverse shot from behind a subject that has been lit with strong rim light for the front shots. Film stock should also remain consistent from one angle to another and if possible, f-stops should only be adjusted as a means of fine-tuning the overall exposure. You can’t give the impression that the source moved or that someone suddenly turned on an extra set of lights when shifting from one camera angle to another. Lighting continuity must also be maintained from setup to setup so that the colors of costumes and props also remain consistent from one setup to another.

Figure 5.26  Lakewood Church (I-MAG and broadcast video lighting) Credit: photo courtesy of Bill Klages

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Distribution Lighting with a single directional source is quite rare for a video or film setup because cameras struggle with the extreme contrast created between those areas of the subject that are brightly lit and those that fall into shadow. As additional luminaires are introduced to a scene, the LD must become concerned with the contrast or lighting ratios that exist on the illuminated surfaces revealed by each of the lighting instruments. In the early days of television, cameras could not make distinctions within a large range of intensities and were set for a base level of illumination, low or high, with the lighting being adjusted so that there wasn’t a large range of contrast between the different sources in a setup. As technology has improved, cameras have not only become more light sensitive but have also become more capable of working with a much larger range of contrast ratios than before. In fact, there are now many cameras, even of the personal variety, that are capable of recording events under completely natural lighting conditions—without any supplemental lighting at all. Even with these advances, it is still common to use additional lighting simply to increase the overall intensity so that the cameras can capture more effective images. Contrast ratios may not be determined only by the intensity of the different sources but also by the choice of specific luminaires and where they are placed. Many key/fill relationships are determined initially not so much by shear illumination as by the choice of whether the source is soft or hard, or of a different color temperature, from a particular angle. The direction that light strikes a subject also plays a significant role in how it is revealed by a camera—just as it does with the native eye. However, even though the effects are the same, the results are often more pronounced in film/video lighting due to the impaired ability of a camera to deal with contrast. Lighting angles for a stage are usually discussed from the perspective of an audience while film and video designers base their discussions of light distribution on camera angles. A special concern when lighting for the camera is in making sure that the lighting remains both consistent and acceptable from each of the camera perspectives that are used in a setup. If a couple is well lit from a front angle, shooting a close-up of just one of the individuals from an angle located more to the side could produce a very different and possibly harshly shadowed image in the new angle. Both horizontal and vertical angles need to be accounted for, and there are also consequences of directing a light at a subject from either too flat or too steep of an angle. Shadows may become unnatural or distorted if the angle is too severe, features or textures could be masked, and cast shadows might be projected onto other subjects or the background if the angles are too flat. Typical distribution angles for video and film production include dead front and dead back, sidelight, cross-key positions on the front diagonals, 3/4 back on the back diagonals, and offset angles that fall just off the dead front/back positions. The relationship of these angles to a subject (talent) is illustrated

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in Figure 5.27. Key and fill light and their contrast ratios are an important element of lighting distribution. What follows is a discussion of some of the effects of placing a key light in a variety of positions from a subject. A sidelight might be adjusted so that it slightly grazes the surface of a subject and produces an effect of extended shadows that emphasizes the texture of a subject’s surface (edge lighting). Backlight is an important element of camera lighting because of the need to separate subjects from the background and usually comes from directly behind the subject. Other important angles that have been named and produce specific effects in video/film lighting include face- or eye-light, which is relatively flat light coming from about the same angle as the camera (often camera mounted) that enhances the performer’s face and brings life/sparkle to their eyes. Hair light is used to add highlights to the talent’s hair (it is a variation of steep backlight). A kicker and rim light are more confusing because they can mean different things depending on whom you talk to. Most professionals tend to agree that they are both variations of backlight that are shifted to either side in order to provide more modeling than a straight backlight. The kicker is a backlight that is offset to one side but can come from any direction above or below the subject (it is often used to simulate motivated sources and to produce dramatic effects). It also tends to wrap around the face of the subject. Rim lights tend to have a higher elevation that edges (rims) the subject rather than wraps around it, and are often used to help separate a subject from the background. Kickers are often called “3/4 backlights” because of their position being shifted slightly to the side and around the subject. Background lights, which don’t light the subject at all but instead wash the background behind it, are used for maintaining proper balance and establishing contrast between the subject and the background. An additional form of lighting that may or may not focus onto a subject is effect lighting, which is used to produce effects and could materialize in the form of projections like patterns of windows or doors, accents for fire light, or any other form of lighting effect.

Three-Point Lighting One common method of creating general illumination for a video or film shoot involves three-point lighting. Though the basic system may be modified, the essence of the three-point system lies in providing several luminaires that are placed around the subject. This is a simple approach that is treated in much the same manner as the McCandless Method in theatrical productions. In fact, critics of the system believe that it has produced many of the same negative influences in the film and video industry as the McCandless system brought to the theatrical community—namely, that it has led to uninspired lighting when such an approach hasn’t been necessary, especially with the sensitivity of today’s cameras and films. Figure 5.28 illustrates a typical three-point lighting setup. The basis of the system lies in providing a

Figure 5.27  Directional distribution for a camera

Figure 5.28  Three-point lighting

key light that is from the front and offset to one side of the subject and camera, with a second light (the fill light) placed on the opposite front side of the subject, and a third unit used as a backlight placed directly behind the subject (often in line with the camera). The backlight is used to separate the subject from the background while a fourth light is often added to light the background itself. The method is quite adequate for producing basic illumination but at the same time can come off as uninspired and mechanical. With today’s cameras and films a LD or head lighting technician can create their own variations of a three-point system that provide unique solutions to particular setups. In fact, there are other popular lighting formulas based on variations of this system that use four or more lamps per area. In one such system the units are oriented approximately 45° from one another and provide a variation of key/fill light for virtually any angle in which a camera might be placed. Some variation of three-point lighting is often used to light the talent or performers that are found on a set. More importantly, decisions regarding the key light placement should be based more on the motivational lighting elements of a scene than on a formulaic approach that is now somewhat dated. This newer technique of linking the lighting to motivational sources and a more dramatic quality is called following

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source and is a direct result of the improved contrast ratios that have come to camera designs since the 1980s. Since then, the industry has steadily been shifting toward lowkey lighting as this ability to sense larger ranges of intensity and contrast ratios have improved. It has also brought more effective use of shadowing and stronger dramatic qualities to the lighting of today’s film and video productions. However, regardless of how inexperienced one is, the three-point system still is a place to start from and will produce satisfactory results in most situations. A basic approach to a three-point system (Figure 5.28) begins by providing a key light from an angle that is located both above and from either side of a camera in a cross-key position. The key light is often a hard light and is generally equated with the primary source of illumination for a scene. In exterior scenes the key light is almost always the sun. This light also often informs the principal intensity for which the camera’s exposure level is set. The light provides the lighting directionality of a scene, becomes the source of the primary shadows, and provides key visual elements relating to the overall modeling and textures that will be revealed in a scene. In a traditional placement, a key light will be placed 45° both above and off-center from the ­subject—just as is done in McCandless lighting for the stage. More often though, the key light is hung at a flatter angle (with a vertical angle from 0° to 45°) and can be positioned anywhere from dead-on to as far as 90° to either side of the subject. The fill light is then placed on the opposite side of the subject. It is quite common to offset the key light from the camera based on how much of a performer’s face is oriented toward the camera. This brings about a concept known as shooting with far-side key or near-side key. Far-side key lighting is generally preferable and is based on placing the key light on the side of the performer’s face that is facing away from the camera while near-side key places the key light on the side toward the camera. The reason that far-side key lighting is preferred relates to the effect that more of the cast shadows fall onto the side of the face that is exposed to the camera. This gives interest to the image and provides visual clues to the dimensionality of the subject. Near-side key light tends to provide a more even exposure and the shadows that might be used to help distinguish form are cast into areas of the face that the camera cannot see—causing an overall flattening of the image. Far-side key is also sometimes called short light while near-side key may be called long light. A special variation of key light exists where a small triangular patch of light is found on the shadow-side cheek of the performer and is known as Rembrandt light after the Dutch master. A second luminaire, the fill light, is a diffused source that is used to soften the shadows that are produced by the key light while also creating a base level of illumination so that a camera can record features that exist in the shadow areas of a subject. The fill light also reduces the overall contrast ratio between areas that are or are not lit by the key light. Normally, fill light for a setup is provided by

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a soft light source that may or may not be diffused further by diffusion media. Fill light may also be created not only through an actual luminaire but also through the use of reflective or translucent panels. The final luminaire found in the three-point system is a backlight, which is used to separate a subject from the background. This source is often, but not necessarily, a hard light source and is positioned in such a manner (steep enough or to either side enough) that it will not be directed into the camera’s lens. If the light from a backlight should accidentally hit a camera’s lens it can cause an undesirable effect by producing internal reflections of the source in the image—an effect called lens flare. Too steep of a backlight angle can create highlights that come too far around the front of the talent, possibly even adding a distracting flash of highlight to the bridge of a subject’s nose. Dimming the backlight to some degree can soften this effect. On other occasions, lens flare might be a positive contribution to the image. If you want to eliminate lens flare, one solution is to tape a black card across the top of the lens hood so that it masks the lens from an offending light. It should be emphasized that this is just one method of lighting and only a basic guide for producing a satisfactory result for a given setup. The angles and distribution patterns are only approximate and a designer should feel free to experiment with the positions, choice of luminaires, and contrast ratios for producing a unique image.

Following Source With the improvement of the cameras of the late 1980s came the ability of recognizing a much larger range of contrast ratios. This allowed LDs to move away from the more traditional and relatively flat lighting of high-key lighting to the more evocative low-key lighting that can make effective use of shadows to bring a more dramatic quality to a scene. Both high and low-key lighting were discussed earlier. However, along with the ability to create more dramatic images came the ability to link the lighting to the motivational elements of a scene. This is a variation of motivational lighting that is commonly called following source. It is a much more naturalistic manner of lighting and links the image to elements like windows or doorways, lamps or other practical sources, and other naturalistic elements that would light a scene. Even if an actual light source is not present, an apparent source can be determined and then lit by using luminaires, angles, and colors that reinforce that image.

Area Lighting for Film and Video As previously discussed, basic lighting in most camera work is based on lighting an individual. When expanding the lighting to cover one or more additional people, variations of this approach are often used. When lighting two

or three people who are in close proximity to one another it is common to arrange the lighting so that each subject shares some of the lighting of the other subjects. While each individual has their own key, fill, and backlight—the luminaires change function between the different subjects. By carefully placing the luminaires, a unit that forms the key light for one of the subjects will effectively become the backlight for another. Fill lights on the other hand are typically placed in such a manner that all of the subjects receive adequate coverage. When going to larger groups, it is more common to light the entire group with only one or two units from each of the principal angles rather than to try

to create an extensive area coverage for the group. Angles of the key, fill, and backlight are simply double-hung or repeated so that enough coverage is provided to adequately light the entire group from each of the key, fill, or backlight angles. For even larger applications such as for lighting entire sections of a studio for events like a floorshow, dance performance, or where there is substantial movement from one part of a set to another, a LD may choose to treat the entire studio through a single large-scale variation of area lighting based on the three-point system. In this case, fill lights are placed at a front light angle (one or two

Sidebar 5.4  DESIGNER PROFILE William L. Klages

Credit: photo courtesy of Bill Klages

William “Bill” Klages is one of television lighting’s pioneers. Primarily associated with lighting special events that are televised to millions of live viewers, he has lit a variety of stars (Frank Sinatra, Barbara Streisand, Dorothy Hamill, John Denver, Bette Midler, Patti LaBelle, Mikhail Baryshnikov, and Barry Manilow to only mention a few) as well as numerous televised programs throughout the more than 50 years of experience that he brings to his design projects. His designs have won him seven Emmy Awards and approximately 30 other awards and nominations over the years, including the USITT Distinguished Lighting Designer Award. Several significant television programs that he has lighted include The Kraft Music Hall, The Perry Como Show, Entertainment Tonight and Fairie Tale Theater. Just a few of the special events that he has designed over the years include: The Closing Ceremonies of the L.A. Olympic Games; The Atlanta Olympic Games; The Kennedy

Center Honors broadcasts; Emmy, Grammy, Tony, and Country Music Awards; The Statue of Liberty Celebration; and several national political conventions like the 1992, 2000, 2004, and 2008 Republican Conventions. In recent years he has created a television lighting consultancy through forming the New Klages, Inc. where just a few of his impressive projects include the Mormon Church’s Assembly Hall in Salt Lake City (a 21,000 seat worship center with television production services), Joel Osteen’s 16,000 non-denominational Lakewood mega-church in Houston (where both broadcast and in-house video form important elements of the services), and a number of broadcast studios in the top-40 market. In 2012, Bill was inducted into the Television Academy of Arts and Sciences Hall of Fame, the only Lighting Designer to receive this honor. In 2015, he was inducted into the Alumni Hall of Fame of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, the nation’s oldest technological research university. In part, Klages’s entry into television lighting can be attributed to simply being at the right place at a time when the industry was in its beginnings. He never had any formal training in lighting because people coming to work in the broadcast industry at that time came from electrical engineering backgrounds. “Lighting Director” was the term that was first used for the individual that is now better described today as a “Lighting Designer.” It took many years to erase this incorrect designation. Bill recounts his entrance into television through a series of opportunities that emerged early in his career. “My career in television started very early (1948 to be specific). I was hired by NBC in New York as a result of having an Electrical Engineering degree, a requisite at the time. I was heavily involved in the technical aspects of television broadcast, which was then in its infancy.” After a year or so, he moved to the operating group as a Video Control Engineer, where he developed an interest in lighting and the manner in which

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visual quality was obtained in this (then) mysterious new medium. “As a result of this interest, and a set of unusual circumstances that could have only transpired at the time, I became a Lighting Director.” His first show was the largest-budget live drama series that NBC had presented to date and was called Playwrights 56. The year was 1955. “My only training for the job was from observing and analyzing from the video control position how the Lighting Directors practiced their craft at that time and how they obtained images that I either liked or didn’t like. It was with the confidence of youth and my inexperience that I believed that I knew how it should be done and could prove it. Thankfully, there were disappointments and reverses along the way that humbled and matured this view.” Klages believes that the abilities that define a person as a lighting designer are not confined to one lighting discipline. For example, “I have been able to work in many areas: feature films, facility design, traditional theatre, architectural lighting as well as my primary field, television production. All that the designer must do is discover what unique technical requirements or techniques make the unknown discipline different from his own familiar and more comfortable discipline. This is illustrated when a theatrical lighting designer is asked to adapt and translate his efforts to a video production. If the designer exercises his imagination and observations, he will immediately be aware that the two audiences require rather different lighting methods and that his “bag of tricks” may fail in a very disappointing way when used for the television medium. He will also have to make the difficult decision about which discipline will take precedence.” On the other hand, “The great joy is seeing an end result that is even

different fill directions are possible) while the key lights and backlights are placed so that they wash over large portions of the studio floor. This could involve as little as a single widely dispersed luminaire from each of the principal key/fill/backlight directions or could expand to using several overlapping units from each of the principal angles. When an LD is overlapping the coverage of several units that together have been designated as key lights, extra care must be taken to not cause excessive overlapping of their beam patterns. This will have the effect of increasing their intensity at different points within the field as well as will cause multiple shadows to be created both on and by the subject. If the entire floor space isn’t utilized, a LD might be able to light different areas of a studio through creating a unique three-point lighting system for each specific area or setting. This is often called localized three-point lighting. Two of these variations in area lighting are illustrated in Figure 5.29.

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better than what you had in your mind. The worst is when the end result does not meet your expectations.” We are bombarded with trade publications and press releases that help us remain abreast of industry developments in all the lighting disciplines. However, he also suggests “swallowing your pride and watching other talented designers’ efforts as well.” “Lighting for a camera is much more complicated as a result of all the numerous changes of state that might be present (optical, electrical, and chemical, as well as heavy manipulation of the electrical signals before the final display of a visual image). Characteristic elements of the lighting system will demand techniques that cannot be as simplified as say, using a warm/cool approach (although it has been tried). Predicting the end result may be difficult and must be learned, but is not impossible if this skill is approached open-mindedly.” If Bill had to offer a cardinal rule, it would relate to creating proper exposure and the balance of values (“brightnesses”) that are found between all of the elements in each camera view. When Klages got his break, there were no established methods. “Everyone was learning, known rules were few, and those that we assumed to be true were not necessarily true. Every day could bring not only a new revelation but also a different job experience. The personal associations made at this time would continue and expand like an enormous family tree throughout my entire career.” He recalls that even in the early days he was obsessed with the idea of how to obtain images on video that duplicated what he saw in feature films. “It has taken more than 50 years for the video system to finally get to a point where this is actually possible. The end result of having video acquisition replace film is a very practical reality of today.”

Special Cases of Lighting for Film and Video This book can’t begin to provide a comprehensive treatment for all the situations that might arise while lighting film and video setups. For that, you should turn to more specific sources like Gloman and Letourneau’s Placing Shadows: Lighting Techniques for Video Production or Millerson’s Lighting for Television and Film. Blain Brown’s Motion Picture and Video Lighting also is a solid introductory reference for film and video lighting. However, there are a couple of special situations that do warrant a bit more attention. These are briefly introduced here with the intent that further materials should be consulted if you need more information on these topics. Although this chapter has focused on many of the technical elements of lighting for a camera, it cannot be emphasized enough that these are only the beginnings of creating an appropriate image for a project.

display the subject in a flattering image while capturing a sense of their personality. The photographer not only tries to enhance the features of a subject by providing good illumination of facial features like the nose, eyes, and skin quality but also by providing a good sense of modeling of the subject. Because of the need for illustrating facial features, lighting angles for these applications tend to be relatively flat to avoid the harsh shadows associated with steeper angles of light. In most photographic studios the subject is lit from several sides with a series of soft lights that establish an overall base level of illumination for the setting. Other stronger sources are used to supplement this and to create a source of key light that is added on top of the base light. Sometimes the key light is no more than a photoflash. Regardless of how the key light is created, what’s important is that it typically lights one side of the face while fill is used on the opposite side of the subject. It is especially important to avoid placing too many light sources on a subject since this introduces multiple and usually unwanted shadows into the image. Contrast ratios are usually low for portrait and commercial photography because you are typically trying to reveal the subject as well as possible. While there are occasions where either high or low-key lighting may be considered, one must be careful to ensure if the particular style is appropriate for the subject. Finally, backgrounds are usually lit separately from the subject to once again provide a means of balancing levels between the subject and the background. Variations of three-point lighting are the basis of much of this type of lighting.

Documentation of Stage and Installation Lighting

Figure 5.29  Lighting larger areas: (a) Lighting two people, (b) lighting a larger group.

Whether you’re a photographer, LD, head lighting technician (gaffer), or DP you must not simply consider the basic sources and levels of illumination but more importantly go on to make aesthetic expressions by varying the mood, style, focus, and any number of other lighting or compositional elements to make a successful contribution to a project.

Portrait and Commercial Photography Portraiture is a special area of film lighting that relates to the photography of an individual or subject(s) in a fairly formal pose or setting. In most cases, these photographs are based on a close-up format where the subject is viewed from the chest or shoulders up with the focus centering on the face. The job of a photographer is not only to capture the subject from a documental perspective but also to

Yet another specialty area of media lighting relates to documenting lighting that was initially designed to be viewed on stage with the native eye. Here, the challenge that must be dealt with comes in recording or modifying the lighting in a way that the recorded image appears to reflect the same qualities and character of what the eye originally observed while at the same time also meeting the technical needs of the camera. The challenge is prominent in shooting both still and video recordings of a production. This type of photography pertains to the successful creation of portfolio and publicity shots of both theatrical productions as well as to the documentation of landscape or architectural lighting projects. In the entertainment field this may expand to include full documentary recordings of entire productions onto film or videotape. In some cases, such as with many concert or contemporary church applications, a designer might be faced with not only shooting documentary records but also providing live images to projection screens or closed-circuit/web broadcasts as part of a live program—requiring successful lighting for both the video feed and live performance at the same time. Regardless of what you are recording, if you are trying to record natural lighting you need to record the images

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using natural light and should never use a flash. Also, a number of darkroom practices can be employed to provide further manipulation of an image and to increase the chances of producing a successful final product. Techniques that might be utilized to do this include pushing the film’s speed and development (basing your light readings on a higher ASA reading), dodging or burning in various features of the film during processing/printing (over or underexposing select portions of the image), and manipulating the images with software like Adobe Photoshop. An issue that some people have with photo-editing software lies in that the software can be used to such a degree that the images can be manipulated to look even better than what actually appeared on stage. Digital cameras provide benefits such as immediate feedback to the success of capturing an image, manipulation of the image with software, and the ease in which the images can be stored and circulated through being in an electronic format. Today’s digital cameras are getting better all the time and are capable of successfully capturing a diverse range of images. In the past it was difficult to shoot successful film or video images directly from a stage or other lighting project without making adjustments in the lighting or having the performers pose for the photographs. This continues to be true, especially in low-light settings like night scenes where the photograph must be shot at slow enough shutter speeds that blurring frequently occurs. Both video and still cameras tend to have three primary issues when recording stage productions. First, there is not enough light for the camera to register the image successfully. Second, there is too wide of a contrast range between the darkest and lightest elements of an image. Third, part of the image is too heavily saturated with one color or another (i.e., a bright red costume that over-stimulates the camera in the red tones). In many cases, basic intensity isn’t as much of a problem for photography as dealing with the extreme contrast ranges that typically occur in a photograph. Shooting slower shutter speeds and opening up the f-stop setting are popular techniques for getting additional light into a camera and creating better exposures—but they also produce several offsetting problems, namely blurred action and a loss of depth of field. In some cases, these tradeoffs are acceptable (maybe even desirable), while in others they are not. The photographer will have to make a judgment call as to what will work best for a given situation. Another issue lies in making sure that there is a sensible balance between all the areas of the photograph. A  photo of a single person in a special while all the other characters are in dark shadow will generally not be an attractive shot. In one scenario the actor in the special will be exposed correctly while the remaining actors will be lost in darkness. In another, if the camera is set properly for exposing the majority of the cast members, the actor in the special will most likely be overexposed and will burn out. If the situation permits, a photo call might be arranged, outside of performances, where the performers pose for specific images while either the lighting

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or camera exposures are modified to produce the best photographs possible. In reality, the larger the company, the less chance that there will be for a photo call because of the logistical problems of assembling the cast outside of their normal call times. A popular solution is found in scheduling photo calls immediately after a performance (although union issues may have to be dealt with). A more economical solution involves shooting the photographs during a dress rehearsal while the actors are performing at the normal pace of the show—with the added problems of trying to get correct exposures. In recording a live performance, such as those found in Figure 5.30, the lighting will usually have to be modified to create images that are going to be acceptable for broadcast or documentary recordings. This modification is most commonly accomplished by boosting the levels or adding supplemental luminaires to the original design to increase the intensities to levels that fall within the thresholds of the cameras. The lighting is often further modified so that any wide changes in contrast (both color and intensity) are not as extreme as seen on stage and so that they fall within the contrast ratios and latitude required by the cameras. Most video cameras work best with contrast

Figure 5.30  Video lighting of live productions: (a) Bill Maher, (b) Dr. Wayne Dyer Credit: photos courtesy of Jeff Ravitz

ranges of less than 30:1. In the very simplest cases, a solution might be found in simply bumping all of the cue levels up by 10% or 15%; the actual percentage is dependent on a number of factors like the overall intensities of the cues and the amount of contrast that exists in the original lighting. The scenes will also have to be re-balanced for the cameras. Photographing installations and architectural projects generally present less of a problem because of the static nature of these subjects. However, in images where there are a variety of different light sources, the photographer (or lighting designer in video) will also have to be aware of and make corrections for the different exposure settings that will probably be required for each light source. Time exposures are frequently needed to get a proper exposure for many exterior architectural projects that are shot at nighttime. Several suggestions that will help create more successful stage photographs include: always photograph the entire stage, position yourself in the auditorium so that the frame of the camera roughly corresponds with the size of the proscenium opening using as wide of a lens angle as possible, and include at least one performer in each shot. Photos are also better if the camera is placed on a tripod just off of centerline (being directly on center might flatten the image). When shooting arena and thrust productions you should shoot as wide-angled a shot as possible. You are best served by placing the camera in a position that roughly corresponds with a vom location. Shutter speeds should be set for as quick of an exposure as possible—providing enough light to record the image while being fast enough to eliminate blurs from any motion that might occur while taking the photograph. Likewise, use a tripod and try to take the exposure at a time when there is little motion on the stage or when the performers are in a pose and are relatively still. A special technique that might be employed that increases the chances of obtaining successful exposures is bracketing. This is when a photographer shoots multiple exposures of an image—one at the exposure suggested by the light meter and then a second and third exposure shooting one f-stop on either side of the proper exposure. Finally, you should try to avoid extreme contrasts in a shot. Parts of the image will likely blow out or be so underexposed that they’ll go completely dark. Photographs of a brightly lit background with the performers in shadow or of a single performer in a stark special completely surrounded by darkness are usually of little use. When making video recordings of a stage performance in which there will be no or little modification of the lighting for the camera, you should select a scene that displays lighting that is characteristic of the production and then have the cue brought up on stage prior to the taping. In most cases, this should reflect a fairly bright scene. Once the image is on stage, the camera’s white balance is set. A couple of cues can also be looked at to determine how far the f-stop setting will have to be opened for the darkest scenes or shut down for the brightest scenes. It is best to not use the camera’s automatic exposure control but to instead

modify the exposure settings based on the level of light that is on stage at any given time. Even with this, scenes where there are large contrast ratios (i.e., a scene using followspots) can be problematic. The alternative is adding more light to kick up the exposure levels and to even out the light levels across the stage—at a cost of flattening the image and losing some of the effectiveness that the lighting may have provided to the live audience. One manner of compensating for this is to add in or boost the levels of the backlights that are already present in the stage lighting. The gain setting of a camera may also be adjusted, which makes it more sensitive to the low-light conditions but at a cost of introducing more “noise” or grain into the image. As a special consideration, in most cases where a production with a live audience is broadcasted or filmed/ taped, the lighting is adjusted primarily for the benefit of the much larger media audience rather than for the live audience. In some cases, special performances may be conducted without an audience so that additional modifications can be made in the lighting and camera angles (such as closeups) for the media audience who will view a taped presentation of the production at a later time. In just the opposite scenario, NBC has recently re-introduced productions of a number of classic musicals such as The Sound of Music, Hairspray, and Jesus Christ Superstar that perform as live productions (often with an audience) in which the lighting among all the other elements of the production must be correct for the broadcast video the very first time. When photographing lighting installations and architectural projects, try setting multiple exposure times based on each of the light sources contained within the image. Pay particular attention to contrast ratios when looking at shots with a range of different lighting levels, such as in an image that contains an entrance area, facade lighting, and other features like a walkway or landscape lighting. Time exposures are frequently used to bring out some of the more subtle areas of the design. Also consider temporarily replacing or filtering some of the overexposed lamps in the image; you may need to use special filters or other measures where sources like HID lamps with very limited spectral outputs are involved. Again, contrast ratios need to be noted and brought into a range that the camera can process.

Composite and Matte Photography One special form of photography that is often used in film and video production relates to combining two different shots into the same final image. Composite and matte photography are methods in which an electronic image of one scene is projected onto a neutral background surface of another scene. Most people refer to these as chroma key techniques. More specifically, they describe the actual screen color and often refer to chroma key as either blue screen or green-screen techniques. These screens are colored in a very narrowly defined spectral color (blue or

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green) and are hung in the background of a scene containing actors who perform in the foreground. The floor and surrounding areas may also be treated with paint or other materials that are keyed to the basic chroma colors. Rosco makes a series of chroma keyed papers that come on a roll and are used to cover floors and other studio surfaces. When compositing or combining the two images together, the background image is inserted electronically into the primary image (the one containing the performers) by being projected onto all areas of the image that have the color of the blue or green screen. This results in producing a combined image from two separate inputs. One of the most common applications of this technique is found in the backgrounds that are used for displaying the weather reports in most television studios. The technique is also used in the infamous drives through mid-town Manhattan that Jimmy Fallon and Conan O’Brien have taken on their late-night shows. While both screens work in the same fashion, blue screens tend to be more popular in film setups while green screens are more characteristic of video setups. Several suggestions for working with composite imaging include lighting both the foreground and background setups in as similar a manner as possible, creating a neutral zone between the actors in the foreground and the screen in the background, lighting the screen with soft light that has as even of a coverage as possible, and taking measures to avoid getting any shadows or flashes of light onto the screen. Any stray light striking the screen can result in holes appearing in the projected image. In order to help separate the foreground from the background it is also beneficial to use some form of rim or side/backlight on the subjects in the foreground. One interesting side effect of this technology relates to the issue of the electronic image being inserted onto anything containing the chroma color of the screen. This means that if a performer is costumed in an article of clothing (such as a tie) containing the same hue as the blue screen, the projected image appears on the tie as well as in the background. Likewise, something else to be careful of is excessive light reflecting off the screen onto other nearby surfaces. In some cases, the blue- or green-tinted light being reflected from a screen can fall onto the talent’s shoulders or hair—resulting in these features taking on the properties of the screen as well as the projected image. This effect can be overcome by placing a warm gel in the talent’s backlight, which washes out the unwanted reflected light from the screen. Chroma screens

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work best if stretched completely flat, with no wrinkles, and should be lit with as even of a wash as possible.

For Further Reading Alton, John. Painting with Light (Reprint). Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2013. Barbizon Lighting Company. Electricians Pocket Book. Ver. 4.0. New York, NY: Barbizon Lighting Company, 2007. British Broadcasting Company (BBC). Low Energy Lighting Guide for TV Productions. Oxford, UK: BBC Publications, 2011. Brown, Blain. Motion Picture and Video Lighting. 2nd ed. Amsterdam and Boston: Elsevier and Focal Press, 2008. Box, Harry C. Set Lighting Technician’s Handbook: Film Lighting Equipment, Practice, and Electrical Distribution. 4th ed. Oxford and Boston: Focal Press, 2010. DiLaura, David L., Kevin W. Houser, Richard G. Mistrick, and Gary R. Steffy. eds. Illuminating Engineering Society—The Lighting Handbook Tenth Edition: Reference and Application. New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2011. Ferncase, Richard K. Film and Video Lighting Terms and Concepts. Newton, MA: Focal Press, 1995. Fitt, Brian and Joe Thornley. Lighting Technology: A Guide to the Entertainment Industry. 2nd ed. Oxford and Boston: Focal Press, 2002. Flanigan, Steven R. Lighting, HD, Film and Business: A Maverick’s World. Colorado Springs, CO: Self-Published, 2010. Gloman, Chuck B. and Tom Letourneau. Placing Shadows: Lighting Techniques for Video Production. 3rd ed. Oxford and Boston: Focal Press, 2013. Hart, John. Lighting for Action. New York, NY: Amphoto, 1992. Jackman, John. Lighting for Digital Video and Television. 3rd ed. Amsterdam and Boston: Elsevier and Focal Press, 2010. Landau, David. Lighting for Cinematography: A Practical Guide to the Art and Craft of Lighting for the Moving Image. New York, NY: Bloomsbury, 2014. Lyver, Des and Graham Swainson. Basics of Video Lighting. Oxford and Boston: Focal Press, 1995. Maulkiewicz, Kris. Film Lighting: Talks with Hollywood’s Cinematographers and Gaffers. Revised ed. New York, NY: Touchstone Publishing, 2012. Millerson, Gerald. The Technique of Lighting for Television and Film. 3rd ed. New York, NY and London, UK: Focal Press, 2013. Viera, Dave. Lighting for Film and Electronic Cinematography. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1993. Watson, Lee. Lighting Design Handbook. New York, NY: McGrawHill, 1990. Whittaker, Ron. Video Field Production. 2nd ed. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing, Company, 1996.

CHAPTER 6

DISPLAY/RETAIL AND EXHIBIT/MUSEUM LIGHTING T

HIS CHAPTER IS not intended to be used as a specification tool for designers who are considering work in this avenue of lighting design. Codes relating to electrical installations, illuminance levels and power densities vary considerably from one part of the country to another and should be determined through consulting specification guidelines and the local authorities for where a project is located. This chapter’s purpose is to present an overview of the primary concerns that are unique to these disciplines while also providing several guiding principles for designing in these areas. In order to remain current and to determine the most recent guidelines you should refer to the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America’s (IESNA) Lighting Handbook, IESNA’s Recommended Practice for Lighting Merchandising Areas (RP-2–01), and IESNA’s Museum and Art Gallery Lighting (RP-30–96). These, along with other references, provide illumination guidelines for making specifications in these specialty areas and are under constant examination while also being revised/updated on a regular basis.

Essentials of Display and Exhibit Lighting Lighting is an extremely important, and unfortunately often overlooked, component of display environments. Light is used to make a subject more appealing, direct focus, influence traffic patterns, and to direct client flow or circulation throughout a store, gallery, or museum. It is also used to create an overall ambiance or mood for an environment. In fact, a specific lighting style can often be associated with a given store or retail chain. The light found in a Victoria’s Secret boutique is going to be very different from that observed at your local supermarket or hardware store. Special areas like cosmetic counters need to be lighted in warm tones that allow women to make an evaluation of the makeup as it combines with their natural skin tones while jewelry counters are lit to bring sparkle to the precious metals and gemstones that are contained within them. This chapter presents materials that relate to the unique considerations of lighting retail and museum environments. The following considerations for retail and museum lighting are related to lighting qualities that have been presented through many previous discussions throughout both this and its companion book (Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals). Each is discussed here, not by definition, but as it relates to retail and museum lighting. In each case, what is most important is creating an environment that draws attention to the subject and reveals it in the most flattering way possible.

Color Temperature Color temperature relates to the overall color appearance of the light and is expressed in degrees Kelvin. Our most popular color reference for light is based on common daylight and all lighting is in a sense evaluated in terms of how it looks in comparison to daylight. Our overall moods

and the feelings that we connect with an environment can be associated with the color temperature of the light that we experience in that environment. While some museums (and especially galleries) prefer color temperatures more in line with daylight, retailers often manipulate the color temperature for a specific product or store. Natural daylight is often worked into the design of galleries so that the artwork can be exhibited under the same natural lighting in which many of the works were most likely created. In retail designs, color temperature is used to reveal the product(s) in a “better light,” or to produce a mood that is conducive to selling products. While some establishments use light sources that produce a single color temperature of light throughout a facility, others manipulate color temperature by department based on the products being sold or as a means to create contrast between different displays. Here, color temperature is used to create visual interest and focus.

Color Rendering Color temperature speaks to the overall color of the light. Color rendering deals with the spectral composition of the light. In order for a lamp to enhance all colors equally well, each color (wavelength) must be present in the spectral composition of the light that a lamp produces. If there is a high presence of a specific wavelength in a light source, that color will be enhanced on a subject while those colors associated with wavelengths that are missing will appear dull and grayed out. The best light sources have a full spectral composition and enhance all colors reasonably well. Unfortunately, most light sources have unequal spectral distributions, which results in weaknesses in rendering colors associated with various parts of the spectrum. While retailers and museum designers may make use of light sources with limited spectral compositions in certain situations (i.e., cool colors for diamonds and other silver-finished jewelry), this is more commonly seen as a disadvantage and designers prefer to use light sources with wider spectral compositions so that a larger variety of colors can be enhanced. As a measure of color rendering, lamps are assigned a numerical value based on a percentage figure called a color rendering index (CRI). The higher the number, the more complete the spectral composition of the source and the more colors that the light enhances. In the majority of retail and museum lighting, color rendering indexes must be 85–90 or higher due to the need to accurately depict the original colors of the subjects. In some cases, the CRI may need to approach 100 or have 100% compatibility with a full-spectrum light source like the sun. On the downside, along with better color rendering comes higher costs for lamps with higher CRI ratings. At some point, a designer will have to decide when the additional costs of the higher CRI lamps aren’t warranted for a particular application. One way of modifying the color temperature and increasing the overall color rendering of an entire space while avoiding the appearance of areas that

shift in lighting color for specific departments or displays is to mix lamps with different CRI and color temperatures in the general lighting fixtures (i.e., placing two warm colored lamps and two cool colored lamps in each fluorescent fixture). The light quickly mixes and produces yet a different color temperature light while at the same time the overall color rendering of the combined sources increases—none of this being perceptible to a visitor within a space.

Optimal Visibility In both museum and retail lighting the subject must be revealed in the best way possible. This means providing sufficient intensities and true enough perception of a subject that the viewer can appreciate the art or make an informed purchasing decision. I’ve already discussed how colors must be represented accurately, but other physical properties must also be revealed appropriately to the viewer. Textures should be readily observable and any dimensionality of the subject should be revealed in a well-modeled manner. Details should also be readily observable. In the case of sculptures, reliefs, or other three-dimensional objects, the lighting should consist of several light sources of unbalanced illumination that come from different directions to bring contrast and shape to the subject. Probably the two most common issues found in display and exhibit lighting involve, first, incorrectly placed light sources where direct or cast shadows (even those of the viewer) fall onto a subject and, second, unwanted glare from adjoining displays and luminaires that can obscure an object’s detailing. Glare can even become a problem on the surface of the object itself if appropriate lighting angles have not been determined by the designer. Glare can be such a problem that expensive specialty glass with curved or forward slanted faces is used to control it and unwanted reflections in the cabinets of some museums.

Ambience Ambience relates to creating a specific mood or feeling throughout an environment. Museums, especially, try to create an environment that reinforces the natural settings of the artifacts or exhibits that they display. In retail situations, the ambiance is based on setting a mood that places the customers at ease while showing off the natural qualities of the merchandise. Ambience is also in part determined by the relative costs of the goods. Stores based on turnover and volume sales generally have little ambience while stores that deal with major purchases are marked by a much more personal environment. In retail chains, corporations work very hard to create a specific image for their stores. Chains like Best Buy, Macy’s, or The Gap have an associated “look”—lighting included—that each of us are familiar with and expect to see upon entering these stores. Ambience is often determined by whether a retailer is focusing their sales strategies toward the high-end market

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or not. While many stores and museums are lit with an eye toward a single ambience, it is also possible that several different areas or zones might be created within a single facility. Practical examples of this include different departments in a department store or going from one gallery to another in a museum. If multiple environments have been created, a proper transition zone should also be designed so that a visitor’s eyes can adjust as they move from one zone into another. This effect is minimal in retail lighting, but museum lighting often requires transition zones between areas of relatively bright and low-level lighting. Here, an additional corridor or exhibit area of intermediate brightness is often placed between galleries or chambers that have extreme differences in their lighting levels.

Organizational Principles One way that a person first analyzes an unknown space is through pendant signs that are hung from a building’s ceiling. These give us directions for locating restrooms, elevators, baggage claim or gate information at an airport, specific exhibits or displays in a museum, etc. In retail environments a customer is pointed to particular product lines or departments in this manner. We also use overhead signs at the ends of aisles to identify the products in an aisle while we mount signage high on the exterior (perimeter) walls of a store to call attention to specific departments. Your local supermarket most likely displays both types of signs. Lighting can be used to point-up this signage. Since people have been conditioned to look upward for these signs, the full ceiling along with the tops of perimeter walls and their associated lighting are often kept in full view. This allows customers to look for clusters of lighting fixtures as an additional clue to identifying a store’s layout and aisles, locating specific departments, and making other observations regarding the physical arrangement of a store. A common example of this is that the luminaires of many stores are arranged in rows that follow the aisle layout of an establishment. This effect can work to disadvantage if the lighting fixtures appear to be arranged in a random, unorganized manner—what is often termed ceiling clutter. In fact, as a means of avoiding ceiling clutter, lighting designers often use recessed lighting that places all the fixtures in the void directly above the ceiling. Finally, lighting can play a vital role in the psychological practice of leading a customer to various features of a store or museum. Since humans, like other animals, are drawn toward light, designers often place strong light sources near the rear of a store, which has the effect of luring customers deeper into the establishment where they will hopefully buy a product on impulse.

Lighting Layers Both retail and museum lighting are often based on the principles of layering. This relates to creating different lighting systems for a variety of functions within a space.

The heart of the lighting for most stores and museums lies in the development of two different lighting systems. These include the primary or general circulation and secondary or accent lighting systems. The primary system may also be called the ambient lighting system. The primary lighting aids customers in moving around in a store or museum and creates basic visibility throughout a space while the secondary systems are used to accent or draw focus to items like displays or exhibits. In nearly all situations, several different lighting layers must be created due to the various visual tasks that must be performed in an environment, each of which is often associated with lighting that is designed for specific tasks. For instance, even though a jewelry store best displays its merchandise with cool-colored light (light that enhances gems and silver), this light is unflattering to natural skin tones. A  designer will also want to provide some form of incandescent lighting so that customers can evaluate the jewelry as they wear it. While the secondary systems are primarily associated with accent lighting, other lighting can be further broken down into even more specific functions.

General Circulation This system is the most significant lighting component of a store or museum and is frequently referred to as primary lighting by many designers. It delivers essential illumination to a room or facility. In some retail lighting this may be the only lighting system used (appearing thrifty) while in more upscale stores this system delivers ambient lighting as other systems are used to accent or draw focus to specific displays or exhibits. Museums may use general

Figure 6.1 Popular fixtures for primary lighting: (a) Twolamp striplight (EATON Metalux SN 2-lamp), (b) wrap-around (EATON Metalux EFIX), (c) 2 × 4 foot parabolic troffer (EATON Metalux—Parlux II) Credit: photos courtesy of EATON

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Figure 6.2 Typical primary lighting layout using fluorescent sources: (a) Striplights; (b) Recessed troffers. Figure 6.1 (Continued)

circulation systems but tend to be more focused on accent lighting, while retailers (except in high-end retailing) place their emphasis on primary lighting systems. Because of this, most of this next section will focus primarily on retail lighting because of the importance of primary lighting in these environments. The most economical means of providing general circulation lighting has traditionally come through using fluorescent lighting—often with 4–8 foot fluorescent tubes that are simply hung in rows along the ceiling (Figure 6.2a). This has come about due to the low costs of installing and maintaining these systems and the overall efficiency of these luminaires. The light is well-diffused and can provide an overall high level of relatively shadow-free light that spreads evenly throughout a room. When evaluating the lighting for many architectural applications we not only worry about providing a given quantity of light on flat surfaces like table tops (lighting the horizontal plane), but we are also concerned about the quantity of light hitting vertical

surfaces like walls and shelving or display units (lighting the vertical plane). Both are measured by the amount of light that strikes a surface (lux or footcandles). In many stores, lighting the vertical plane may be more important than lighting the horizontal plane simply from the perspective that a large majority of products are arranged along shelves. While low-end retailers often place the fluorescent tubes in full view, many intermediate to high-end retailers attempt to avoid ceiling clutter by placing the fixtures in the ceiling cavity. These units may also be equipped with diffuser panels or baffles that further diffuse the light, prevents viewer glare from seeing the actual lamps, and aid in directing the light downward. Many luminaires used in retail establishments are of a decorative nature; there are thousands of designs that can bring a unique character to any environment. These are not discussed here other than to mention several of the more popular fluorescent fixtures that are commonly used in the primary lighting systems of many commercial applications. Fluorescent tubes come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and wattages. T-8 and T-5 lamps and compact fluorescent

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lamps are currently specified most often. These were discussed in detail in Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals. Several of the more popular units used in primary lighting are the simple two-lamp pendant or surface-mounted strip fixtures that typically run in rows throughout a store (i.e., grocery stores) and the two to four lamp 2 × 2 foot or 2 × 4 foot parabolic troffer fixtures that are typically placed in suspended ceilings (Figure  6.2b). What are more important in using these fixtures for general lighting are characteristics like their CRI ratings and color temperatures. Stores may be outfitted with one of several types of fluorescent lamps to provide different color temperatures that are conducive to the products and ambience desired for different departments. However, lamps with varying color temperatures are often found randomly placed throughout many stores due to the accidental oversight of maintenance workers who don’t have an awareness of color temperatures and their impact. In this case, they have simply replaced the burnouts with lamps with no consideration of color temperature, and a variety of lamps with visually different color temperatures can be found throughout a room. By varying the composition of the phosphors within a fluorescent lamp, the overall color temperature and CRI of a lamp can be modified. The most popular color variations of fluorescent lamps are listed in Sidebar 6.1 while the current convention of specifying fluorescent lamps is found in Sidebar 6.2. With warmer colored lamps, products in the warm color range and skin tones tend to be enhanced while cooler colored lamps are more successful in areas like men’s departments that tend to be colored in gray and other cool colors. Many stores vary the coloration of their lamps from department to department. If meat counters are lighted under common cool white fluorescent lamps, the meat will take on a sickly green-grey appearance that will ultimately hurt the purchasing process. Instead, designers should specify lamps that emphasize the red portion of the spectrum to enhance the blood that gives the meat a nice red color and fresh appearance. When lighting a diverse range of colored products, several different lamp colorations may be placed in each fixture so that the resultant light mixes and produces a better overall spectral composition. In today’s medium to high-end markets most general lighting is done through a mixture of incandescent and fluorescent light sources. Even though incandescent lamps are most often used for accent lighting, they can also be used as a major component of a primary or general circulation lighting system. Although incandescent sources aren’t very good from an efficiency point of view, they provide illumination that is very flattering to both the customers and merchandise while at the same time are suggestive of an upscale environment. For this reason, these sources remain popular in today’s retail and display industries. In many retail environments traditional incandescent lamps are confined to cabinet and decorative forms of lighting while the better-CRI-rendering tungsten-halogen lamps (due to their consistent light output over their life cycle) are more popular

Sidebar 6.1 TRADITIONAL FLUORESCENT TUBES Warm White

Emphasizes warm wavelengths and products. Enhances skin tones and blends with incandescent lighting but is a standard utility lamp. Color temperatures are around 3,000° K.

Deluxe Warm White Further enhancement of warm tones with the compromise being in a more costly lamp. This lamp has higher CRI ratings than Warm White lamps. Cool White

The basic utility fluorescent lamp that is used in most situations due to its efficiency and low-cost. It has relatively poor CRI ratings (approximately 65 or lower) and overall color temperatures of around 4,100° K.

Cool White Deluxe

Much better CRI ratings, which makes it a better suited, although more costly, source for retail lighting.

Daylight

Attempts to provide a good rendition of natural daylight with high color temperatures that may be 5,000° K or higher and excellent CRI ratings (around 90 or better).

Note: These are general classifications of fluorescent lamps. Manufacturers actually produce a number of different lamps with a variety of CRI and chromaticity or color temperature ratings. Philips Lighting alone provides more than 30 different colorations of fluorescent lamps.

as general duty incandescent light sources. If these sources are used as part of the primary lighting system they are often equipped with a diffuser or shade that helps to soften and scatter the light. In some cases these fixtures may even be used as an indirect lighting component in which light is directed upward so that it can be reflected off the ceiling, where it scatters and forms a wash of ambient light. The color contrast between the cool fluorescent lighting used in many primary lighting systems and the warm incandescent lighting of the secondary lighting can also provide a good means of creating accents and drawing focus to different

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Sidebar 6.2  FLUORESCENT LAMP SPECIFICATIONS A lamp’s specification number provides critical data regarding its properties through designating specific characteristics to various digits within the specification number. The first digit specifies the lamp type, followed by the wattage, bulb style, CRI and finally color temperature. The following two lamps are used as examples: F35T5/830 represents a fluorescent lamp of 35 watts, T-5 tube, CRI over 80%, and 3,000° K F96T8/741 represents a fluorescent lamp of 96 watts, T-8 tube, CRI over 70%, and 4,100° K

elements of a store. Due to the development of better phosphors and the constant need to conserve power, many applications that would have traditionally been lighted through incandescent sources are now being lit by compact fluorescent lamps. These newer lamps are starting to provide the color temperatures and color rendering capabilities that have made incandescent sources so desirable. Even though the majority of primary lighting systems in retail design use fluorescent sources, some retailers— especially those who cater to the high-end markets—may still choose to use sources other than variations of the fluorescent lamp. These may include either incandescent or high-intensity discharge (HID) sources. Several of the more popular reasons for using incandescent sources include the ability to produce a more controllable source along with their warm color temperatures. Fluorescent sources have traditionally been used as wash or flood luminaires while incandescent units are better suited for spotlighting and where more control is necessary. Several natural drawbacks to using incandescent fixtures in circulation lighting relate primarily to the high costs of operating/maintaining these systems and the excess heat that they produce. This is despite the fact that they are usually cheaper to install. The heat that they produce not only represents a waste of power but also places additional strain on other building systems like the air-conditioning systems. Their lack of efficiency has even prompted Congress to pass an act that could effectively “ban the bulb” in the next several years. We are already seeing the effects of this legislation as once-popular incandescent lamps are now more expensive and difficult to acquire. Whether this ban becomes the final nail in the coffin of incandescent lighting is hard to say because the legislation has not addressed several important issues related to these lamps—i.e., the disposal of mercury that exists in nearly all fluorescent lamps (including compact fluorescents), the compromised light output of many of these lamps, and the

fact that most compact fluorescent lamps are manufactured outside of the United States. More importantly, solid-state lighting—specifically LEDs—is starting to have a significant impact on all lighting markets and the trend appears to be continuing to gain momentum. Many in the industry feel that LEDs will become the next significant light source for many of the applications found in retail and exhibit lighting. While there are plenty of issues in regard to the efficiency of incandescent lamps, there are still numerous applications where, for now, they are still the best light source for a given situation. Applications where LEDs are starting to make a difference in retail and gallery/museum lighting include providing low-powered light sources for accent lighting, creating wash lighting over larger areas in variations of white light, and using colored LED fixtures for creating effects such as color-changing backgrounds. The issues of brightness and uneven spectral composition in the light output of white LED units have for the most part been solved and LEDs will continue to gain popularity as a light source for retail and display lighting. Stores making use of incandescent lighting for their primary lighting system usually make use of some variation of R and PAR lamps that are arranged in a way that provides even coverage throughout the store. The floodlighting capabilities of R lamps make them particularly effective for this type of application. Patterns are often designed into the arrangement of these systems that typically follow aisles or individual department layouts of a store. Even newer developments in HID and LED sources have produced extremely economical lamps with constantly improving CRIs that are also making their way into popular retail usage. Entire stores are now using smaller variations of metal halide sources to provide their primary lighting systems. The ceramic metal halide (CMH) lamp is becoming especially popular because of its efficiency and improved color rendering capabilities. Wholesale discounters and large discount centers like Sam’s Club, Lowes, and Office Depot make use of large-scale HID sources for much of their primary lighting. A variation of high-bay luminaire that is also becoming popular in these “big-box” establishments makes use of as many as six T-5 fluorescent lamps in a single unit. Regardless of light source or type of fixture, the general circulation/primary lighting systems of many establishments have been undergoing a number of significant changes over the last several years and will continue to evolve well into the future. Much of this is driven by power density regulations that are being dictated by building codes—many being stringent enough that incandescent sources, in any number, cannot meet the codes.

Accent or Secondary Lighting In many ways accent or secondary lighting brings out the character and uniqueness of a particular design for retail or museum environments. The most important thing to remember about accent lighting is that it is responsible for

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pointing up (establising focus) or making the merchandise or artifact stand out from the rest of the environment. It is the lighting that draws focus to particular displays and exhibits. Accent lighting is especially important in museum lighting where ambient lighting is frequently kept to a minimum. In fact, some lighting designers feel that ambient lighting systems aren’t even necessary in some museum settings. A store or museum can achieve a huge variety in accent lighting based on the combination of colors, distribution and types of light sources, and overall intensity levels of the featured elements that are contained within a facility. Critical to the success of accent lighting is the balance of illumination levels that are achieved between it and the primary or ambient light that is present in an environment. An object revealed through accent lighting should be brighter than its surroundings, have a good enhanced appearance, and should display readily observable textures and detailing. Lighting accents can also be used to bring focus to display cabinets. While some elements of the secondary system may be permanent, a good portion of any accent lighting system should be flexible enough to be easily modified as department layouts and displays are altered and moved. In the simplest variation, swivel sockets are simply inserted into standard lamp sockets that allow a lamp to be swiveled and focused in nearly any direction. Although some fixtures may be permanently mounted in a ceiling and will offer limited focus control, the most flexible systems are based on variations of track or cable lighting systems (Figure 6.3). These allow the individual fixtures to be moved, refocused, or swapped out as needed by the staff that maintain the system. Even if the fixtures are mounted in a fairly permanent manner, individual lamps can be swapped out to provide different beam spreads, color temperatures, and different intensities by making wattage changes in the lamps. Accessories can add even more flexibility to these systems. A lighting designer should ensure that there is plenty of flexibility designed into any secondary lighting system that they specify for retail and museum installations. This will provide clerks and sales managers or curators plenty of options for modifying the lighting to suit a variety of different situations. In retail environments this means making a determination of those areas of a sales floor where displays will be permanent versus those that will be changed on a regular or seasonal basis. Areas that are less prone to change can be lighted by the primary system or a more permanent type of secondary lighting while areas that change frequently need to have a more flexible lighting system associated with them. The same approach holds true in gallery lighting where track lighting is often used and tailored specifically to a given show or exhibit. Some galleries can hang new shows as often as on a weekly basis. This flexibility, along with a quick system for instituting changes, makes track lighting a particularly popular solution for these environments. Because of the need for spotlighting, flattering color temperatures, and overall control, incandescent light sources have traditionally been the most popular choice for

Figure 6.3 Popular accent lighting systems: (a) Track lighting. (b) LED Waves Star Cable Lighting. (c) Pendant—EATON Shaper Series Credit: (b) photo courtesy of LED Waves Lighting (www. LEDwaves. com), (c) photo courtesy of EATON

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most accent lighting systems. The contrast that they provide with the primary or ambient lighting systems, which are usually created with fluorescent sources, also makes them a popular choice for accent lighting systems. Tungsten-­ halogen sources are often preferred over common incandescent lamps due to their better color rendering capabilities, longer life, and consistent light output. Both floodlighting and spotlighting can be appropriate within an accent lighting system. Several of the most popular lamps used in accent lighting include the R and PAR lamps. These operate on line-voltage, come in a variety of sizes (R40, PAR-30, PAR20, and PAR-16), and are relatively inexpensive. In recent years many of these have become less attractive because of their poor energy efficiency and size. Newer sources that are becoming more popular include low-voltage lamps like the MR-16 and MR-11 (miniature reflector) lamps and a variety of LED sources. An advantage of these miniature tungstenhalogen lamps beyond their small size and efficiency is that they are also a more controllable source due to their smaller filaments (they more closely approximate a point light source). The lamps are also equipped with dichroic reflectors that allow heat to radiate out of the back of the units— placing less heat stress on any objects that are contained in the beam of these fixtures. They come in a wide variety of designs and are easily manipulated by individuals who don’t have an extensive background in lighting. Each type of lamp also comes in a number of different beam spreads (very narrow, narrow, flood, etc.) that allow the beam to be sized to a given display. Small-scale metal halide sources can also be used to produce good color rendering and a high color temperature that can add focus and sparkle to a display area. CMH (Ceramic Metal Halide) lamps are becoming especially helpful for accent lighting. If color is used in a retail or museum system it is usually used in more subtle manners, and tints are generally preferred for lighting ­subjects—if any color is used at all. This prevents distortion of the natural colors of an object. On the other hand, colored light can be used in the background or surrounding areas to create mood, dramatic effect, and focal interest in a display. While there are track lighting systems that make use of line-voltage and units like PAR-38 heads, the trend is toward providing low-voltage track or cable systems in the majority of new installations. One disadvantage to any of the low-voltage systems is the fact that a transformer or power supply must be placed somewhere in the system to lower the line-voltage to the 12 or so volts that these lamps must operate on. In some cases the transformer will be mounted somewhere above the track (in the ceiling) and the entire track conducts low voltage while in others the track provides line-voltage and each fixture has its own transformer built into its design. In today’s market there are hundreds of low-voltage luminaire designs. A  designer should have little difficulty finding an appropriate design to match to a given client’s image and lighting needs. Figure  6.4 provides examples of several of the most popular forms of accent lighting fixtures that are commonly used in display lighting applications.

While dimmers are used in accent lighting, it is generally preferable to adjust lighting intensities by selecting lamps of different wattages rather than through using dimmers in display lighting. The main reason for this lies in avoiding red or amber shift as lamps are dimmed to levels below their maximum intensity. Any effect of red shift increasingly alters the color appearance of a subject as the lights are brought to lower intensity levels. These loads are also hard on dimming systems, which unlike theatrical systems must often operate for 15 or more hours a day—often every day of the week! On the other hand, in those situations where a store or museum/gallery makes use of dimming, it is common for the levels to be set at levels lower than their maximum intensity. In fact, even those dimmers operating at the highest levels are seldom run over 90%. In many cases the color shift is used to help create an appropriate ambiance for an environment. This also results in saving energy and increased lamp life. Wire mesh screens (dimming screens) of various densities may also be placed over the front of a fixture to reduce the light output of a lamp (Figure 6.5). This has the added benefit of lowering the intensity while having no effect on the color temperature of the light. These are very similar to the scrims used in film and television lighting. Whether dimmers are used or not, accent lighting is a primary element of display and exhibit lighting. In some cases it is even used to heighten the theatricality of a space by introducing glitter or sparkle and other forms of visual interest to an environment—as long as care is taken not to create distractions that take away from the primary focus of the lighting. In summary, the secondary or accent lighting systems are primarily responsible for attracting clients to a particular exhibit or piece of merchandise so that it will be examined more carefully.

Background or Perimeter Lighting Perimeter lighting is most commonly created to light the top wall surfaces that extend around the perimeter of a store and places an emphasis on lighting vertical surfaces. It can also be found along partitions that are used to divide departments from one another. These walls are usually lit with two purposes: first, retailers place signage along the tops of these walls (i.e., signs designating major departments of a grocery store), and second, the lighting of these walls tends to make a store look bright and interesting. It is rare that you will see perimeter lighting used in anything but retail applications. While most perimeter lighting is focused on the tops of the walls, the illumination often carries down to the display racks that are directly below the perimeter signage. Perimeter lighting is accomplished using one of several techniques. Luminaires are frequently mounted directly below or above any signage in order to create an even wash of light over a sign. Grocery stores often make use of this type of lighting to illuminate signs related to the meat, deli, or dairy departments. Other designs simply wash the entire upper wall with light—signs along with

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Figure 6.4  Common display/exhibit luminaires: (a) Cylinder PAR can by Times Square Lighting. (b) Rectangular flood by Lightolier. (c) Gimble Ring (Halo Power by EATON). (d) MiniLUME Halo by EATON. (e) Eyeball (Halo 3” Adjustable Gimble by Eaton). (f) Track light with separate transformer by EATON. (g) Recessed multiple lamp unit (Multiple PAR-30 by Times Square Lighting). (h) Shelf lighting (T-5 Low-Profile Shelf Lighting by Pegasus) Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Times Square Lighting, (b) photo courtesy of Philips Lightolier, (c–f) photo courtesy of EATON, (g) photo courtesy of Times Square Lighting, (h) photo courtesy of Pegasus Associates Lighting

Figure 6.5  Dimming screens Credit: photo courtesy of Philips Lightolier

everything else. This provides the illusion of a bright background, draws customers into the store, and can illuminate any displays that are placed on top of shelving units that are located directly below these walls and signage. Often retailers like to hide the fixtures that create this type of lighting and may use fluorescent sources placed behind valences (valence lighting) or coves (cove lighting) and wallwashers to light these areas. Cove lighting is used to hide lighting fixtures that are mounted above a wall (they often light ceilings and/or the walls) while valences are typically used to light the walls from below. Valences can be further modified so that they light not only the signage above them but also any displays and associated products located below the top of the display or shelving units. Valence lighting is a popular technique for lighting the suit displays that are found in many men’s departments at higher-end stores. Wallwashers are ceiling-mounted luminaires that often make use of tubular or non-tubular sources that are spaced at regularly spaced intervals that run parallel to a wall. Figure 6.6 demonstrates two different variations of perimeter lighting.

Shelving Units and Vertical Displays Occasionally special visibility lighting will have to be provided for lighting within the cabinets or shelving of a display. In many ways, this type of lighting is a specialized version of accent lighting because these units are typically associated with featured display areas. Many sweaters and casual shirts are displayed with this method. In the case of shelving, supplemental fixtures are hung so that additional lighting is created where the ambient or accent lighting systems cannot provide adequate illumination of the subject or merchandise. This is most commonly done by introducing light sources at some point between the viewer and the display. Steeper angled light coming from track lighting or wallwashers is often sufficient for lighting many of

Figure 6.6 Perimeter lighting: (a) Valence/soffit lighting, (b) Wallwashers

these objects (Figure 6.7). However, care should be taken to choose an appropriate angle that makes it difficult for customers to get into the path of the light that comes from these fixtures. Spotlighting can also be used if particular elements of the display need to be emphasized. Where extra visibility may be warranted in a display that has shelves oriented in long horizontal planes, additional lighting can be provided through placing wash sources along the length of the shelf immediately above the merchandise. This source can be of an incandescent, fluorescent, or LED variety, but care should be taken to both match the color temperature of the lamp with the subject and to make sure that any heat or light generated by the fixture doesn’t damage anything displayed on the shelves. Additional shelves in a cabinet will require additional fixtures. If the display is oriented in a vertical system, the fixtures can be mounted behind baffles on either side of the display. The lamps and fixtures used to light these displays could be of almost any variety: tubes, individual lamps placed at regular spacings, and even low-voltage miniature lamps. Newer light sources—especially LED and fiber optic sources are presenting a number of new options

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for these types of applications. Floral refrigerators and many frozen food cabinets make use of this type of lighting, except that the lamps are aligned vertically along the edges of the cooler’s doors. Examples of various forms of cabinet lighting are presented in Figure 6.8.

Figure 6.7  Vertical lighting: (a) Combination of valance and track accent lighting, (b) End-cap and vertical retail display with track light accents.

Figure 6.8  Cabinet and shelf lighting: (a) Cooler with vertical lighting, (b) under-shelf lighting, and (c) cabinet lighting.

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Figure 6.8 (Continued)

Specialty Areas These lighting systems are used in addition to the primary and secondary lighting systems and are designed for lighting specific tasks. Sometimes they exist within the same space as the other two systems while at other times they are found in areas outside the principle retail or exhibit spaces. Each performs a specialized function for the general public or staff that work in a facility. On occasion, the tasks that these specialty systems perform may be supported solely through the primary or secondary lighting systems that are already in place. The first area of specialized lighting is used primarily by the client/customer in a retail environment. In retail lighting, one of the most important tasks that a designer needs to achieve is making a product seem appropriate for an individual purchaser. While accent lighting is specifically designed to enhance a product’s look on the shelf, the primary lighting may or may not help sell a product if the light fails to make the product look good on the purchaser. In order to avoid this, supplemental lighting should be made available to help attract customers to the products as they make a more careful evaluation of them. In areas where there is an abundance of cool colored light that is provided predominantly through fluorescent fixtures (often high in unflattering color content like green light) some type of incandescent lighting should also be available so that a customer can evaluate the merchandise under warmer lighting conditions as well. The most common practice of achieving this in jewelry stores involves placing a counter top mirror with some internal incandescent lighting accents on the counter. In department stores, mirror carrel/evaluation areas (i.e., a partial surround of full-length mirrors) should also be equipped with supplemental lighting that uses incandescent sources. In both cases, the incandescent light will make the skin tones of the purchaser more attractive while also providing a better representation of

how the product will look under more natural lighting conditions. Other areas that are often overlooked and not lighted properly include dressing rooms. It’s ironic that so many purchasing decisions get made in dressing rooms, yet the majority of these cubicles are lit by a single 4-foot fluorescent tube or series of pendant fluorescent fixtures that are hung well above the individual room partitions and which light the entire dressing area rather than the individual rooms. A second area of specialized lighting is needed for areas that help an employee fulfill their job duties. The most important of these are what retailers call points of purchase. These are the counters where a sale is actually conducted. There must be satisfactory lighting for the employee to complete the transaction (run the register, fill out receipts, run credit approvals, package the purchase, etc.) as well as to have good communication with the customers. Points of purchase may come in the form of a single counter in a highend retail establishment (i.e., a personal clothing boutique or highly specialized store) or numerous stations established throughout a store in individual departments (department stores like Macy’s, JC Penney, or Sears). In a discount chain there might be 20 or more stations at a single location at the front of the store (i.e., Walmart, Target, or Discount City). Finally, a more economical form of lighting must be provided in private areas like stock rooms, break rooms, and restrooms that are out of public view. These are generally lighted with fluorescent fixtures. Other service areas that are used by both employees and the general public might include areas like elevator lobbies, entrance foyers, aisles, stairways, and escalators. These must generally receive a higher level of illumination not only because of the increased levels of pedestrian traffic, but also because many of them also provide areas that feature more elaborate displays.

Decorative and Effects Lighting Decorative lighting is established primarily to create ambience throughout a retail environment. It could be accomplished through the use of chandeliers and wall sconces, fixtures with flicker-lamps, twinkle lights, or miniature lamp strings. This lighting can even take on themed qualities that are directly related to a store’s image. While these fixtures may provide the primary illumination for an environment, they are more often only of a decorative nature in most retail applications. Often, the interior designer on a project will have the strongest influence on the selection of decorative fixtures. It is natural for humans to be drawn to any setting in which there is motion—and where there is motion, there is a good chance of establishing a focus. This principle holds true in lighting, too, and retailers and museum designers have discovered numerous ways for using moving light to draw attention to exhibits and displays. The simplest lighting effects found in retail and museum applications include roving beacons,

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flashing lights, rope lights, and low-powered strobe effects. Additional moving effects can include animation disks, color wheels, and chasing marquee effects. Gobos, gobo rotators and automated lighting fixtures may even be used. High-end lighting effects that are commonly used in these environments may also include neon, cold cathode, fiber optics, and LED technologies. One relatively new element that designers are just now starting to grapple with involves the use of full video displays and projection systems in some product/ exhibit areas. The Georgia Aquarium in Atlanta makes use of a projection system that creates images covering a significant portion of an entire wall of its main lobby. These projections must be treated just as carefully as those used in entertainment design with the added issues of a moving audience and higher levels of ambient light. Regardless of the issues that these technologies present, many designers are finding imaginative ways of incorporating them into their display or exhibit lighting.

Principles of Retail Lighting At one time retailers didn’t place much emphasis on the role of lighting in the overall success of creating an environment for the sale of merchandise. This has changed: retailers are now seeing the value of good lighting and are spending more of a building’s budget toward creating illumination that is tailored to their specific display and product needs. Many of the principles found in any other area of lighting are also followed by retail lighting designers. Layering becomes an important element of these lighting designs (Figure  6.9). Of all the architectural lighting applications, retail lighting lends itself best to creative solutions by a lighting designer. This is especially true in the high-end markets. On the other hand, some theatrically based designers struggle with this area of design because of the different parameters in which they are expected to make a design work. Having to provide code-specified lighting levels for circulation, dealing with energy codes, and the need to avoid distortion can make this discipline frustrating. Anyone working in this area—especially those who adjust the lighting based on the everyday needs of a retailer—learns to work quickly and efficiently to keep up with the constantly shifting displays. Unfortunately, the task of updating the lighting for these changes frequently gets rushed and is often done by unqualified clerks who don’t understand what they are doing. To make matters worse, there are a number of retailers who don’t get around to adapting their lighting to new display layouts at all. I’ve often walked into stores and found track fixtures focused in completely random directions with no apparent connection to the displays on the display floor at that particular time. There are essentially three types of retail store, each relating to the type of products and customer experience

Figure 6.9 Layering in display lighting: (a) Jewelry department, (b) produce department, and (c) Seafood department.

that are provided by a store. In the basic retail environment, lighting is designed from a purely functional point of view. Is there enough visibility to see the products and make an informed purchasing decision? Here, lighting is designed from a perspective of providing even illumination throughout the entire store. It is usually not very creative and speaks to being economical—meaning that the increased costs of maintaining a decorative lighting system are not passed on to the consumer.

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Figure 6.9 (Continued)

Discount stores like Kmart and Walmart, or building suppliers like Home Depot or Lowes are examples of stores that are lit predominantly from this perspective. Size alone does not have to dictate this approach: many two-aisle delis and strip mall retailers are also lighted in this manner. At the other extreme is the high-end retail market where a customer is made comfortable and catered to while going through the purchasing process. There is good customer service and clients are encouraged to take their time while making a purchasing decision. The lighting is designed to create an appropriate atmosphere for the type of services/products that are sold in this type of establishment. Prices are generally high and the lighting is tailored much more specifically to the special needs of a store. Fine clothing, wine and jewelry shops, and specialty stores like furniture, camera, or book stores are examples of high-end retail environments. The third area is the intermediate retail market, which falls somewhere between the other two markets. It may contain elements of each of the other markets and would best be characterized by department stores where different departments are lighted in ways that approach either of the two other extremes. The “discount basements” associated with many department stores approach a basic retail environment while the

china, jewelry, or wedding/bridal departments are more in line with a high-end retail environment. Figure 6.10 provides examples of these different retail markets and their associated lighting. A cardinal rule in retail lighting is to illuminate a product or display in a way that best enhances its features. This practice should relate to an object’s color rendition, texture, and specific detailing. This is particularly true of lighting foods and fabrics. The remaining elements of designing a retail environment quickly fall into place after placing this as the primary objective. What follows in Sidebar 6.3 is a listing of additional principles that will help a designer to effectively light these environments. Just as with entertainment lighting, there are no solutions written in stone and lots of examples where effective lighting has broken the rules. Successful lighting designers find imaginative techniques for luring customers to a product/display while providing them with an opportunity to make an evaluation of the product that ends in a sale. Aside from meeting minimum code regulations— such as those dictating illumination levels, electrical codes, and power density for the permanent elements of the lighting systems—lighting designers are free to create whatever they feel is appropriate for aiding a client’s sales. While some codes are typically rigid (electrical codes), others such as intensity levels are now a bit more flexible and are generally acceptable if they are kept within an acceptable range. Many of these regulations/codes are under the control of local authorities and need to be consulted prior to getting too involved with a retail project. The layering approach previously discussed is especially applicable to retail lighting where a number of different lighting tasks must be accomplished by a design.

Display Cabinets Display cabinets can be lighted in much the same way as shelving units, with the exception that the objects contained in them have special needs for illumination as a result of being in an enclosed environment. This is especially true when horizontal shelves must be lit in a showcase. Articles may be placed in a cabinet because they need to be protected from handling due to fragility or susceptibility to theft. If a cabinet is not to be lighted internally, the designer will generally light the contents of the display from a relatively steep angle that comes from behind the customer. This allows the light to either strike the glass counter top and pass through the glass to the objects below or bounce away from the customer along with any distracting reflections. In addition to having to light the objects contained within a case, a lighting designer must also contend with problems like glare and reflections coming from surrounding lights and other displays or exhibits. They must also deal with people moving between the light sources and the cabinet, which can cause further distractions in that the customers’ shadows may obscure the contents of a display

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Figure 6.10  Lighting in different retail markets: (a) A basic retail market (also displays ceiling clutter), (b) a bakery, (c) a bookstore, (d) a department store, and (e) a higher-end retail market Credit: (b–d) photos courtesy of EATON

Sidebar 6.3  SEVERAL PRINCIPLES OF RETAIL LIGHTING 1. Illuminate products and displays in the most natural way possible. Use sources that have appropriately matched color for the merchandise and good CRI ratings. On the other hand, take care to avoid exposure that can damage the merchandise. 2. Determine a priority system for establishing focus in a retail environment and match the highest lighting levels with areas of primary focus, the next highest intensities to those displays of a secondary nature, etc. Establish good contrast ratios between the primary and secondary lighting—contrast ratios between two and five times the brightness of the ambient lighting produce good accents for secondary lighting. A combination of floodlights and spotlights can produce these accents. 3. Overall even distributions and intensities can work against you. Variety must be created to draw customers to a display. Create contrast between the primary lighting system and any accent lighting that you use. This creates visual interest and also reveals the form and mass of objects—modeling is important. Primary lighting should avoid creating deeply shadowed areas and must provide enough general illumination so that customers can evaluate the merchandise outside of the primary display areas. 4. Place the highest intensities and focus of the lighting on the merchandise, not the mannequins or display fittings. Unlike with theatrical lighting, the faces and other elements of mannequins are not as important—lighting them too well calls attention to their unnatural qualities and takes attention away from the merchandise. 5. Avoid direct downlighting in accent lighting. Just as in theatre, this angle produces severe shadows and unnatural highlights; it should generally be avoided if trying to create the most attractive illumination for a display or mannequin. Light coming from different angles with different intensities creates contrast and a more natural revelation of an object’s form. Cross lighting also emphasizes the textures of the materials. 6. Provision of a good ambient/primary lighting system can provide a baseline level of illumination throughout an entire retail environment. This is often accomplished through efficient sources like fluorescent fixtures. If using accent lighting, take care to ensure that the primary illumination levels do not get too high. Proper balance and contrast must be maintained between the two systems. The higher that the intensity levels are within the primary system, the higher that the levels of the accent

lighting must be, which leads to a larger use of electricity and unnecessary wasting of power. Try to work with lower intensities in the primary lighting so that the accent lights will read at lower levels. 7. While primary lighting systems can be quite permanent, the accent lighting system should remain flexible. A designer should provide lots of options that allow clerks to move, refocus, and modify the accent lighting as much as possible. A  variety of lamps of different wattages and beam spreads should be part of this flexibility. Unfortunately, other than moving and focusing fixtures, many clerks aren’t knowledgeable about beam spreads and lamp wattages—often leading to problems in the lighting of specific displays. 8. Dimming (other than lowering levels by about 10% for better power consumption and increased lamp life) is not generally a good practice in retail lighting. Increased dimming causes shifts in color temperature that will usually have a negative impact on the merchandise. Instead, use a variety of lamp wattages to create different intensity levels in order to avoid red or amber shift.   9. Strong use of color in retail lighting should generally be avoided since it distorts the natural appearance and colors of the merchandise. Tints are best used while strong color saturations are better used for creating special effects and providing backgrounds that create mood and contrast between the backgrounds and the merchandise. 10. Display lighting on the whole is not very economical. Some manner of control should be provided so that display fixtures can be turned off when not in use. They should not be left on throughout the night and are often turned off using timers or other devices when they are required to remain on beyond a store’s closing (i.e., window displays). 11. While incandescent lighting (especially tungsten-halogen) provides many flattering qualities, it is not very efficient and costs more than most other light sources in terms of operating costs. Relatively new sources like compact fluorescent, metal-halide HID, and LED sources are now available that can approximate incandescent lighting. These are more efficient and should be considered as replacements for incandescent sources when possible. 12. Consult local codes regarding regulations on illumination levels and power densities. While there is room for lots of creativity in retail lighting, power densities have become an increasing factor in determining how light is used in commercial buildings.

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case. In order to minimize these issues, a number of display cases are lighted internally. However, this brings additional concerns for not only lighting the merchandise but also taking care in regard to excessive heat and light damage or exposure to the objects that are displayed in a cabinet. One lamp type, the showcase lamp (a special variation of incandescent tube lamp), is long and thin and designed specifically for shelf and cabinet lighting. Tall cabinets may also make use of small spotlighting or floodlighting fixtures that are mounted near the top of the cabinet. These may also be placed vertically along the front edges of a cabinet behind baffles. In museum cases, specialty chambers called light attics are often added to the top of a cabinet to house the lamps, diffusers, and baffles or any other optical accessories needed for a display. Light attics provide exposure protection by separating the lighting elements from the rest of the case contents. They also provide for air circulation and cooling for the showcase. In museum lighting where cases may contain extremely sensitive artifacts, specially controlled environments and gases may even be placed in a case—sometimes with the lighting contained in this environment as well. Exposure to overly strong light levels results in the fading of an object’s natural colors while excessive heat not only causes harm through the heat itself but also through lowering a case’s humidity, which can then cause excessive drying and cracking of the materials contained in a cabinet. Because of the concern for exposure, newer sources using fiber optics or LED technology are receiving special interest in this area of the lighting industry. LEDs are especially lucrative because of their small size, low heat output, and color mixing capabilities, while fiber optics are popular because they place the actual light source (and its associated heat) in a remote location like a compartment located in the ceiling or base of a cabinet. While technology in these areas is improving by leaps and bounds, both systems are not quite to the point of producing high enough CRIs and appropriate color temperatures to make them the most popular light sources for museum and retail applications. This will change as more fixtures using these sources, particularly LEDs, continue to appear each year. Figure 6.11 displays a variety of LED luminaires that are now used in retail and museum lighting applications.

the window display itself. The task of a window designer is to simply bring customers into a store. At that point, other displays will take on the task of luring customers to specific merchandise and potential purchases. There are several unique problems related to window displays and their lighting. The majority of these relate to one, if not both, of two types of issues. The first type of issue relates to creating the proper balance of light between the contents of the window, the background, and the exterior or street areas. Avoiding issues like glare and unwanted reflections are two primary concerns of this nature. If the overall intensities of the interior and exteriors of these windows are balanced incorrectly, the contents of a window display will become obscured thorough increased reflections of objects and other distractions from the street. This can become an even larger issue in malls where the lighting of common areas is often created through a variety of different sources—not to mention reflections from the displays of other retailers. More importantly, the unbalanced intensities may even result in the glass taking on a mirror-like quality that can completely mask the contents of a display. This is a particular concern where windows are exposed to direct sunlight. On the other hand, at night, a window display using the same intensity levels will often appear too brightly lighted, causing the contents of the display to appear washed out. The second area of concern relates to the limited size of these environments and to issues like exposed light sources and limited throw distances. Both of these are affected to some degree by the specific type of window display that a designer is lighting. Choosing luminaires that fully light a product within a limited throw distance (sometimes as small as only a foot or so) while also avoiding unwanted hot spots on the merchandise can lead to a number of challenges that must be solved by a lighting designer. Additionally, concerns like exposure and heat dissipation must also be considered in these enclosed environments. In both cases, merchandise can be damaged if lit improperly. This is particularly true in the food industry where exposure can quickly make meat or produce look unattractive. The following sections examine several different types of window displays and the challenges that must be met when lighting them.

Window Displays

Open-Back Windows

Window displays are extremely important in retail design because they are often the only visible contact that a store may have with street or mall traffic outside of the actual store. This means that these displays become an important feature for luring customers into a store. The lure of a window display is especially important in the case of impulse buying. Window displays must communicate something about the general profile of a store, the products or merchandise that are available, and a sense of intrigue that will get a potential customer to enter the store. In reality, it is rare for customers to purchase the specific items found in

Open-back window displays (Figure 6.12) have no backs. Viewers from the street can look beyond the exhibit and merchandise into the actual store. Reasons for using this type of window include creating a sense of excitement by seeing people and what lies within the store—giving a preview of merchandise/displays that could not be presented within the limited space of a window setting. Benefits from the interior perspective include allowing natural daylight into the establishment and making the store feel larger and less enclosed. Maintaining a good balance between the window lighting and areas lying both beyond the front and

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Figure 6.11  Several LED fixtures used in display/retail lighting: (a) PAR-38 LED retrofit lamp. (b) Neutral white LED MR16 Low-Voltage Adjustable Miniature Recessed Light by Pegasus Lighting. (c) LED LD82 Cabinet Spotlights by LightGraphix. (d) Display cabinet striplight. (e) LED color wash luminaire (ColorBlast Powercore RGBA by Philips/Color Kinetics) Credit: (b) photo courtesy of Pegasus Associates Lighting, (c) photo courtesy of LightGraphix Lighting, (e) photo courtesy of Philips/Color Kinetics

Figure 6.12  An open-back window display

back of the window is critical to providing a proper view of any merchandise in a given window. Objects in the window should be lighted more brightly than the ambient lighting of either the exterior or interior of the store. Additionally, window displays will have to be adjusted with higher intensities during daylight hours— when the display is in competition with daylight or possibly even direct sunlight. At night, the levels will need to be reduced so that the merchandise is not over-illuminated. Several methods of providing control over these intensities include use of lighting with low and high settings, adding additional daylight circuits, or using dimmers. In addition to the electrical systems, awnings or other shields placed above the exterior windows will also help block a significant amount of light from entering a window display. Another way of reducing the effects of exterior lighting is placing the merchandise as far back in the window as possible. Other methods of providing proper illumination for an open-back window involve how the background (or store beyond) is treated. In this case, the intensity levels of the lighting must be greater than the ambient lighting of the sales floor that lies beyond the back of the window. Also, store displays that are placed and lighted within the store must be planned so that they don’t steal focus from the window lighting. This can result in customers looking right through the window to the more interesting displays in the background. The best

way of lighting these windows involves placing the focus of the luminaires directly on the merchandise while taking care to avoid hitting any of the windows (a challenge when back lighting) and using steep-enough angles to prevent a significant amount of spill light from continuing past the merchandise and entering the store. The spill and direct glare coming from window displays can be a major irritation for customers and store personnel who must work in the vicinity directly behind these displays. Sometimes designers create partial backings in window displays so that they have something to light while also blocking the view of the store beyond. Plants, lattice structures, and swags of fabric are frequently used for this purpose. In terms of light sources, fluorescent fixtures do not generally work very well in window displays. The washes that they produce are too soft and general—although they may still be used as a general wash of ambient light throughout a display. Because of the need for extra punch, spotlighting often becomes an important element of window displays. Incandescent—especially tungsten-halogen—sources provide good contrast in the spotlighting of these displays, and low-voltage miniature lamps such as the MR-16 have met with especially good success in this type of lighting. It should be noted once again that the garments are more important than the mannequin and that it is better to place the focus of these lamps on the chest instead of the face of the figure (unless displaying hats or other unique garments). Most lighting fixtures in a window display are mounted in one of several basic configurations. In general, the fixtures need to be located as close to the front of the window as possible so that maximum throw distances can be achieved. This usually amounts to providing a row of fixtures, outlets, or track lighting mounted directly to the ceiling and placed as close to the front of the window as possible. Additional front lighting may be provided by mounting additional lamps, circuits, or tracks downward along the front corners of a window display. If lamps are placed in these positions, baffles are often designed into the window to both control glare and to mask the fixtures. In reality, this is usually more successful with closed-back displays. In many display windows, a simple grid (ceiling grid) is created above the display area. This grid contains smaller spacings and is not as heavy as a theatrical grid but performs essentially the same function of providing a method for mounting luminaires and other display elements. These grids may be made out of hardened wire, wooden slats/lattice, or even cable. Additionally, the farther back in a window that the merchandise can be located, the more successful its lighting will be since there is a greater opportunity for it to be lit by the display lighting with less competition from any exterior light sources.

Closed-Back Windows Closed-back windows (Figure  6.13) are enclosed on all sides, which allows retailers to create backgrounds for their

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Figure 6.13  A closed-back window display

displays. These windows, because of their more controlled environments, offer the opportunity for much more dramatic lighting than open-backed window displays. The competition of focus from the store beyond the window that was such a strong consideration of open-backed displays is completely eliminated and the background can now become an integral part of a display’s design. These window displays require a good level of illumination so that they can overcome the effects of daylight and other reflections coming from outside the store. In order to accomplish this, the intensity of the light inside the window must be greater than that from outside of the window. In some ways, this can become more important than with open-back window displays. In dealing with the background, a lighting designer needs to consider new issues like spill and how it might become a distraction on the background. On the other hand, backgrounds in these windows can usually be used to great advantage by a lighting designer. Neutral-colored backgrounds tend to work best since they can help soften the effect of reflections coming from outside of the store, while dark backgrounds have a greater chance of creating a mirror effect in a window display. More importantly, a neutral background allows a lighting designer to color the backing, which can add contrast that helps separate the merchandise from the background. The color

also provides great opportunities for adding an element of mood to a window display. The dramatic effects of closedback window displays allow the window to be compared to a proscenium stage—even to the point of closing in the sides in much the same way as a stage would use torms to create a smaller proscenium opening. If this has been done, additional fixtures may be introduced from the sides that are masked by the same baffles/panels that were used to close in the width of the display. The height of the opening may also be closed down in much the same manner. Some of the most elaborate window displays of all are the closedback window displays that are done during the Christmas season by major department stores. Most other elements of successful window lighting follow the same principles used in other areas of retail lighting. Once again, light sources that work best for spotlighting include mostly tungsten-halogen and incandescent sources while metal halide and LED sources are also becoming popular. Track and other types of flexible lighting—especially low-voltage fixtures—are among the most common solutions that designers use for window displays. The merchandise should, as a rule, appear natural; sources with high CRI ratings are usually preferred. The use of color should be selective, with an emphasis on tints, unless there is a strong need to create a dramatic effect or background. Theatrical gel may be used in display lighting, but a better solution involves the use of glass/plastic filters or dichroic filters that are longer-lasting and more effective—despite their costs. A caution for using dichroic filters involves the possibility that the color may not be uniform across the entire field of a light beam. This is due to their color being a factor of the angle between the light and filter and the fact that this relationship changes across the width of a beam. This may produce a desirable effect in some instances but can lead to problems in others. Although effects can be used to generate interest in a window display, they should not have a negative effect on the merchandise. Cross lighting and contrast are important for revealing forms and textures in window displays and should be used as much as possible. For spotlighting, flat light coming directly from the front is often undesirable. If additional fill light is needed, supplemental uplight can be added through placing fixtures on the floor of the cabinet or creating a position much like adding footlights across the front edge of the window. Care should be used when using these angles to make sure that any unnatural balance of uplight doesn’t distort the objects in a display. While most window displays use spotlighting to highlight merchandise, some window displays are lighted predominantly through floodlighting techniques. In these cases, care must be taken to space the fixtures so that the associated merchandise is lit evenly.

Island and Other Varieties of Window Displays Island windows are surrounded by glass on all sides and customers are free to walk completely around the display. Such

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displays are commonly found in the entrance areas of stores (particularly older ones) and also appear in the public areas of malls and sales floors of stores. A variation of this is a threesided window that juts out into an entryway—much like a peninsula. These window displays have a double-jeopardy related to their design: since they are typically located at the

entrance of a store, they must be especially interesting, and since customers are free to roam about the display, sightlines, glare, and spill are larger considerations in these designs. In most cases, these displays can be lighted successfully by following the same principles that a theatrical designer would use for lighting thrust or arena productions. Using steeper angles and lighting merchandise from multiple angles are the two most important issues to consider when lighting displays in these types of windows. The contrast that is produced by following these techniques allows the display to be lit in an interesting manner from all sides. Care should also be taken to arrange the display so that spotlighting for taller objects is set so that the spill from these fixtures doesn’t strike the glass and cause unwanted reflections and scattering throughout the display. A certain amount of this may be unavoidable—but more importantly a designer should avoid arranging fixtures in any way that results in them pointing directly into the eyes of pedestrians who are looking at the display or walking by on the street. The glare from these lights could temporarily blind a person, which can result in them tripping or bumping into the window, building, or other people. One way of increasing the effectiveness of the lighting of these windows is in using the natural shade of the entrance region and not over-lighting the areas around such a window display. This allows a better contrast ratio to be established between the display and surrounding environment while at the same time allowing lower overall intensity levels to be used in both designs. Shadow boxes are miniature window displays that are used along aisles and exterior walls of retail stores. These are commonly associated with high-end establishments like department stores and jewelry companies. The displays are usually mounted at about eye level and can be as small as a cubic foot. Often a series of 3 to 10 of these cases will be used in conjunction with one another, spacing the shadow boxes every several feet along a wall. They are usually lit in a minimal manner. Miniature lamps and fixtures—often a single luminaire—are commonly used for lighting these displays. Fiber optic and LED units are beginning to show up regularly in these applications and will likely play a significant role in lighting these displays in the future.

Essentials of Museum and Gallery Lighting

Figure 6.14  Spotlighting versus floodlighting in window displays: (a) Spotlighting—specific accents and focuses; (b) Floodlighting—evenly spaced and distributed.

While it is especially important to reveal works of art or artifacts as naturally as possible, the large amount of primary lighting required for retail environments is often not found, and even discouraged, in many museum/gallery installations. Many galleries and retail environments have white ceilings and use indirect lighting while museums may go as far as to paint the ceiling black in order to produce a more dramatic mood for an exhibit. One of the major conflicts of museum/ gallery design comes in the need to light the subject as well as possible (good color rendition, even distributions, and highenough illumination for viewing detail) while at the same

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time dealing with the consequences of light and heat damage that can come as a result of exposure. The lower primary lighting levels in galleries and museums is usually related to the issue of exposure. Much of the emphasis of museum and gallery lighting is placed on secondary lighting systems that follow the same principles used in the display and cabinet lighting associated with retail environments. The most significant difference is in the contrast ratio or balance that is created between the light in the exhibits and that used in the general circulation lighting. As a benefit, the lower the primary lighting levels, the more dramatic the presentation of the exhibits. This technique of keeping lower intensity levels works especially well in museums where lower exposure levels also protect the artwork or artifacts. Due to this, and the fact that mood and ambience usually play a larger role in these presentations, museums tend to be lighted in more dramatic styles than galleries or retail environments. Galleries tend to approach lighting from a more neutral perspective, creating an environment that best reveals the artwork in a natural way that lets the work speak for itself. Museums also tend to have very different levels of primary lighting from one exhibit space or hall to another. Because of these differences in illumination levels, a lighting designer must work to ensure that proper transition zones are created between spaces with large variations in their lighting levels. Galleries often don’t change the general lighting levels that much from one gallery to another. Another principle in lighting these projects is to establish a common theme or style for lighting an exhibit so that individual pieces of a collection appear to belong together. Variation in treatment from one piece to another is fine— even desirable—but all of the pieces in a given collection should appear to be related to one another. Display cabinets in both museums and galleries are typically lighted in much the same way as window displays are treated in retail lighting—with an added consideration toward exposure and any damage that a light source may bring to the artwork or artifacts that a cabinet might contain. As mentioned earlier, fiber optic systems, light attics, and LED luminaires (Figure 6.15) are all used as a means of lowering a subject’s degree of exposure. Just as with retail lighting, both museum and gallery lighting make use of several lighting systems. While some exhibits may be relatively permanent and can be lighted in such a way, the majority of these spaces have areas devoted to touring or temporary exhibits. Galleries, in particular, go through a rapid changeover in exhibits or art shows: flexible lighting systems in these spaces must provide lots of options for changing fixtures and their beam controls. At the same time, these changes need to be conducted in a timely manner. In many cases, those who make the modifications between shows, like sales clerks in retail design, are not necessarily that knowledgeable in lighting applications. Using a limited variety of fixtures, lamps, and accessories tends to provide the best solution for making these

Figure 6.15  A museum cabinet with a light attic

Figure 6.16  An LED cabinet fixture Credit: photo courtesy of Philips Lightolier

modifications without overwhelming the staff with technical details. In permanent installations, it makes sense to spend extra money on fixtures that can have their focus locked down so that maintenance workers don’t move the units off their targets when replacing lamps. Several permanent museum installations are featured in Figure 6.17. A significant amount of both gallery and museum display work is done on walls and other flat surfaces where it is important to light the objects along the vertical plane. Good, even wash lighting may be used in some cases, while spotlighting may be more applicable at other times. Lighting from a direct front orientation will better reveal color and overall details of a subject while lights coming from an angle or the sides will emphasize texture and form. Lighting from the wrong angle can cause problems like

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Figure 6.17 Examples of museum/exhibit lighting: (a) A dinosaur museum exhibit at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, PA (lighting by Cindy Limauro and Christopher Popowich). (b) Mapparium exhibit—Mary Baker Eddy Library, Boston, MA (lighting by Paul Gregory and Focus Lighting). (c) Science Storms exhibit—Museum of Science + Industry, Chicago, IL (lighting by Paul Gregory and Focus Lighting) Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Christopher Popowich, (b) photo courtesy of Ryan Fisher, (c) photo courtesy of Evidence Design

excessive texture that masks the details contained in an art piece or could cause a three-dimensional object to appear flat and uninteresting. Another complication comes about when art is mounted under a glass frame that can produce reflections and glare. Wallwashers and track lighting, once again, are major elements of the typical accent lighting systems that are used in gallery and museum facilities. Low-voltage units are also popular. Because of their light quality, availability, and ease of control, tungsten-halogen sources have traditionally been the preferred choice of light source for many museum and gallery applications. However, due to their poor efficiency and excessive heat, newer lamps such as high-color-rendering compact fluorescents and CMH lamps are now working their way into this market. Where more control is needed, framing projectors (Figure 6.18) are often utilized. These are smaller variations of an ellipsoidal reflector spotlight (ERS) that are typically box-shaped and contain superior optics along with shutters and other accessories for manipulating the shape of the light. Gobos may even be used in many of these projectors. While framing projectors may be used in retail design, they are more commonly associated with museum and gallery lighting. When mounting luminaires (often variations of track lighting) in a gallery or museum, it is important to place the units far enough away from the wall to provide a lighting angle that will fully illuminate the art without causing shadows to be cast by the frame holding the artwork. At the same time, the angle must be steep enough that a viewer at a normal distance from the wall isn’t caught in the beam of the light source. Overly deep frames can cause problems with shadows but can be addressed by adding a task light such as a portrait lamp directly above or below the artwork. A normal height for hanging most artwork is at eye level—being “hung on the line”—meaning that the artwork is hung so that about a third of the frame is located above this imaginary line. Diffused edges are normally preferred in this type of accent lighting and beam spreads should light just beyond the actual artwork—ideally fading out (bleed out) slightly beyond the frame. Many times this spill will be sufficient for lighting any nearby labels that are related to the artwork. Large scallops of light that surrounds each piece of art should be avoided. Due to the great effect that lighting can have on an object, it is very important that a lighting designer work carefully with the artist or curator when hanging an exhibit. Two examples of gallery lighting are shown in Figure 6.19. Occasionally museums will choose to exhibit artifacts and other elements of historical value in a natural setting that is styled in the period to which the artifacts belong. This style of presentation is particularly true in regard to historical sites like Independence Hall in Philadelphia, the shops and buildings of Colonial Williamsburg and Mystic Seaport, The Hermitage in Nashville, presidential homesteads, or any number of sites that create a lived-in setting within the interior of a historical building. In these instances much of the original wall, floor, and ceiling treatments, as

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Figure 6.18 A  framing/pattern projector by Times Square Lighting Credit: photo courtesy of Times Square Lighting

well as the furnishings, are presented in their original state. Here, the lighting designer has the added task of not only creating an appropriate ambiance based on a specific time period but must also deal with preservation issues relating to using modern technologies and lighting equipment without causing any damage to the building. Some of these environments make use of authentic materials while others use reproductions. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York has a wonderful maze of period rooms that are both lit and detailed to their original periods. For displays that are out on an open floor, it is often best to light the artifacts from several angles using unbalanced sources to model the subject in an interesting manner. The varied angles will also reveal the textures of the artifact’s surfaces. Light from the primary lighting system can also perform some of this lighting function. Relatively steep angles should be used so that the patrons can walk fairly close to the exhibit without getting caught in the light or being exposed to direct glare from fixtures mounted on the opposite side of a display. Glare is also an issue in museum and gallery settings for exhibits that are placed in glass cases or cabinets. Methods of controlling this include careful planning of lighting positions in regard to cabinet placement and the use of cabinets with curved glass or glass faces that are angled toward the floor. These cause reflections to be directed away from a case’s contents. Daylight and windows create additional concerns in regard to glare.

Exposure and Conservation Exposure is a major concern in both gallery and museum lighting. While it is an issue in retail design, it isn’t treated

Figure 6.19 Gallery lighting: (a) Hanging on the line (track lighting from overhead lights the Artwork). (b) Track lighting for a small exhibit Credit: (b) photo courtesy of EATON

with the same degree of concern as the possibility of causing damage to an important piece of art or rare artifact. Most exposure damage comes as a result of exposing an object to increased levels of radiant energy while trying to produce better visibility of the subject. Designers need to be sensitive to daylight (particularly direct sunlight) exposure when designing museum and gallery lighting. In fact, exposure to direct sunlight should probably be avoided 99% of the time. Exposure is relative and some materials are more susceptible to it than others. IESNA recognizes three levels of sensitivity to exposure (High, Low, and No). Materials like silk, vellum, and numerous organic dyes are some of the most sensitive materials to exposure. Other materials like inks, watercolor, and especially color photographs are also subject to a high degree of exposure damage. Less, although still sensitive materials, include natural fabrics like cotton, wool, leather, fur, and wood. Still other materials, like the marble or granite found in sculptures, may be virtually unaffected by light exposure. Damage to an artifact or artwork can come from several different forms of radiant energy. Increased exposure to visible light will cause objects to fade while increased exposure to heat

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Sidebar 6.4  DESIGNER PROFILE Cindy Limauro

Credit: photo courtesy of C&C Lighting

Cindy Limauro designs lighting for theatre, opera, dance, and architecture. In addition to designing professionally, she leads the lighting program at Carnegie Mellon University and recently held a visiting professorship with the Higher Institute of Architectural Sciences, Henry van de Velde, in Antwerp (Belgium). She is a member of United Scenic Artists (USA) and the International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD), and was named a Fellow of the Institute by USITT. Several notable companies that she has designed for include The Pittsburgh Opera, Opera Columbus, Burt Reynolds Theatre, The Pittsburgh Public Theatre, the Cincinnati and Pittsburgh Ballets, and the Barter Theatre in Virginia. Her international credits include work with Teatro Vascello in Rome and a series of architectural installations throughout Prague coordinated with a group of international lighting design students. Her movement into architectural lighting has produced a business partnership called C & C Lighting with her husband, Christopher Popowich (also a lighting designer), that has produced such creations as the lighting of the Gulf Tower, the Randy Pausch Memorial Bridge, the Hunt Library and the Hall of Dinosaurs exhibit at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History. Cindy’s formal training includes a BA in theatre from the University of Michigan and an MFA in lighting design from Florida State University. She became interested in theatrical lighting when Arthur Miller visited her undergraduate playwriting class (she originally majored in creative writing). “I also found an emotional connection to storytelling in the lighting course that I took and became a double major in English and Theatre. I was so mesmerized by the power of lighting and how it impacted an audience’s experience that I chose

to become a lighting designer after graduation.” Following graduation, she worked a couple of years and then went to graduate school, where she was introduced to the worlds of dance and opera. “I developed a love for all three areas and vowed that my career would follow this passion.” After graduate school she primarily lit theatre and dance. Her first opportunity in lighting opera came from an artistic director who saw her dance work. Years later, her introduction to architectural lighting came from architects who saw her theatre work and wanted a more dramatic approach to lighting one of their projects. She estimates her current design work to be about 60% theatre, opera, and dance and 40% architectural lighting. While Limauro continues to both work and teach in a number of areas of lighting, she has found that her skills were readily transferred from one discipline to another. Even with the larger shift into architectural lighting she relates that, “It was a natural transition going from theatre to architecture. The design process is very similar. I did take an IES workshop on architectural lighting but it mostly dealt with technical issues like lighting calculations and daylighting. My theatrical training has served me well in crossing over.” In discussing the similarities and differences between lighting for theatre and architectural projects she feels that the processes aren’t that different from one another. “As a designer I ask the same questions. What kind of mood am I trying to create? Where is the focus? How do I create contrast and visual interest? In the theatre, I’m trying to reinforce the director’s vision . . . in architecture, it’s the architect’s vision. Space is about people whether it is characters in a play or people in the real world. How is the space being used? Both disciplines also require collaboration and everyone working towards a common goal. The only real difference is that theatre lighting is temporary, while architectural lighting is permanent, and you have to be aware of additional issues like codes. While the lighting principles are the same, there are different fixtures and lamps in architectural lighting, but this, again, is something that a lighting designer can easily adapt to.” Several other unique considerations of architectural and display lighting relate to the specific conditions that you must work within. “Every city is different in regard to code issues. Also, if you are lighting a historic landmark there will usually be very strict rules about what you can and cannot do. Architectural lighting designers must also strive for energy efficient designs and need to think about issues like sustainability.” What Cindy likes most about working in the theatre is that it is a live event with an audience. “You never

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know how they are going to respond or if a show will run flawlessly.” What she likes most about working in architecture is the permanence of the work. In all areas, she loves the collaboration with different people. What she dislikes most are the time and budget constraints facing today’s arts. “While lighting technology is getting more and more sophisticated, the amount of time necessary to create a polished design is becoming less and less in the theatre. As a designer, you often have to work with speed and efficiency rather than enjoying a process of experimentation.” What she likes least about working in architecture is how slow the process can be. “Projects require a much longer design period, and budgets can be cut at any time in the process.” Limauro remains current by attending both LDI (Lighting Design International) and Lightfair (the architectural and display lighting professionals’ equivalent to USITT) trade shows or conferences and reading many of the lighting industry trade journals. In offering a bit of advice she suggests, “Whether working in theatre or architecture, always start from a black void. Add the first

will cause them to dry out and become brittle. The most damaging exposure comes in the form of ultraviolet radiation, which can cause significant damage. This is the same radiation that causes painful sunburns. Exposure is a result of several factors and any damage caused by it can vary considerably depending on the specific combinations of how the radiation was delivered. Issues like the intensity of the exposure, type of radiation, and number of hours of exposure all play a role in destroying an artifact. A painting will fade much more quickly under a few hours of intense sunlight per day than over years of being lit by a soft wash of gallery light. What matters is the issue of total exposure. Exposure is controlled in a couple of key ways in the museum and gallery industry. When we speak of conservation we are referring to manners of limiting exposure. The first method of control limits the levels of illumination that an object is exposed to. This is the most common manner in which exposure is controlled—simply placing enough brightness onto an object that an observer can gain an appreciation for a piece of art or artifact without overexposing the subject. If the article is especially valuable or sensitive, even lower intensities may be used. If the circulation lighting is kept low, the accent lighting used to reveal these objects can also be kept lower. In the second method of control, filters may be placed on the glass of the cabinets or in the lights themselves as a means of filtering harmful radiation and keeping it away from the objects. Dimming screens may also be used to drop a fixture’s light output. To control heat, dichroic reflectors can be specified for luminaires that allow infrared rays to pass through the back of the fixtures and away from the

light and ask is this enough? If not . . . what do I need to add next? Too often people overlight.” She also has a strong interest in bringing students from different cultures together and wants them to be involved in the communities where they live. These ambitions have been realized through projects like the Antwerp experience where students researched and created a design presentation for a museum and neighborhood for an architectural lighting installation. They did full-scale mock-ups and made a presentation to the city and museum staff who were impressed enough that the design was actually installed that summer. Past student projects in Pittsburgh include working to create a Master Plan of Light for the Carnegie Mellon campus and collaborating with the Pittsburgh Cultural Trust on branding the downtown area with light. Limauro’s passion for teaching architecture students about light has now become a partnership with the Nuckolls Education Fund. Together with her design partner, Christopher Popowich, they have received grant funding to teach architectural lighting workshops at universities around the US.

artifact. Ultraviolet radiation can also be removed by placing filters in the front ends of display fixtures or slipping plastic filters over tubular lamps. Ultraviolet radiation can also be removed through placing neutral-density filters over the glass that is used in the cabinets that house the artifacts. In especially sensitive cases, entire atmospheres are created within the enclosed environment of a display case (i.e., for the original copy of the Constitution). Some cabinets remove the lighting components from the case completely and are lit from totally outside of the case or make use of technologies like light attics and/or fiber optic or LED sources to light the objects while removing the immediate threat of having the source and its associated heat so close to the artifacts. The last area of conservation comes in controlling the amount of time that an object is exposed to light and its harmful radiation. Museums and galleries are often equipped with elaborate timers and control systems that ensure that the display lighting is turned off when the facility isn’t open to the public. Other lighting systems and settings can be established for maintenance/janitorial staff who will not need the exhibit lighting but must still complete specific tasks in a space. Further controls that can be used to limit exposure include placing motion detectors at the entrances to a gallery/exhibit chamber that turns on the accent lighting only when the space is occupied and using activation switches that a patron must turn on when viewing a given exhibit. These displays also have timing or motion controls that turn the accent lighting off after a sufficient time has been allowed for viewing the exhibit (i.e., two to three minutes). The actual techniques used in any situation are dependent on the value and condition of the subject, the

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amount of detail and texture that must be observed in the object, and how sensitive the object is to exposure.

Daylighting in Museums and Galleries While daylight can create an important component of some museum and gallery environments, it can also create severe problems if used incorrectly. Direct sunlight can cause numerous issues in these environments and measures should be taken to prevent it from penetrating very deeply into a museum or gallery facility. Even simple steps like placing blinds, shades, or adjustable louvers over windows can go a long way toward protecting the contents of an exhibit from exposure to direct sunlight. Special films and filters can also be applied to window glazings to help filter out ultraviolet and other forms of radiation. Architectural solutions may include placing large overhangs over windows, and using light shelves and awnings or canopies to help shield the windows from direct sunlight. Daylighting is more fully discussed in Chapter 7 but for now can be thought of as allowing natural light, mostly sky scatter, to enter a building to provide supplemental lighting for a space. In addition to providing additional ambient light and increasing the general illumination levels of a space, the light contains a full spectrum of colors and has a high color temperature—both of which enhance artwork nicely. More importantly, many paintings and other forms of art were created under natural exterior lighting and are therefore best viewed under these same conditions. While direct sunlight should be avoided, indirect daylight has been used quite effectively in many gallery and museum designs (Figure  6.20). Devices like skylights are used to channel this soft diffused daylight into facilities while also opening a space up visually. Additional benefits can be gained by painting reflective surfaces like walls and

Figure 6.20 Effects of daylight coming into a gallery lobby from behind the photographer and the block windows in a stairway

ceilings with white paint containing large amounts of titanium oxide. This not only provides a better reflective surface for the daylight but also absorbs some of the unwanted UV light that can be so destructive to a museum’s holdings. In some cases, daylighting alone will be sufficient for providing the general circulation lighting for many exhibit halls and gallery spaces (except when under severe overcasting or nighttime skies). Track lighting or other types of accent lighting is then used to bring focus to specific pieces. This is particularly effective due to the nice contrast that exists between the warm color temperatures of the accent lighting and the cooler color temperature of the natural daylight. Even with a sufficient daylighting system delivering the primary lighting, supplemental lighting must still be available for evening hours and those times when overcast skies prevent the daylighting system from being effective. In addition to the aesthetic advantages, there are also economic advantages to using daylight systems. While the obvious advantage comes in requiring less energy and maintenance, there are additional advantages in that daylighting can help reduce the power density requirements of a building through providing a key element of the lighting without using any electrical power. This frees a designer to provide a more energy efficient design or to reallocate the saved wattage to other lighting systems.

Energy Efficiency, Economics, and Maintenance Most display lighting—no matter where it is utilized—is not very efficient when compared to other types of architectural lighting. This is primarily due to the need to combine the practical needs of illuminating a building along with the more theatrical elements that are required of the display lighting. The emphasis on incandescent sources, lots of accent lighting, and overall high illumination levels also work against the general principles of energy efficiency. However, a lighting designer must be responsible when designing any space and should strive to create a lighting system that is as efficient as possible. This will not only conserve energy but will also save the client money in the long run. In many cases, especially in museum lighting, some power efficiency can be gained through running the primary lighting systems at lower intensities. This also helps create better contrast ratios for the accent lights so that these, too, can run at lower levels. It also reduces the degree of exposure for a collection. In reality, most of this lighting becomes successful by providing good contrast ratios between the accent and primary lighting systems: too much light is not only inefficient from a power perspective, but also isn’t effective as a display technique. Light sources and related technologies are constantly improving as energy costs continue to escalate. This improvement is also a result of the more stringent regulation of the use of power. Compact fluorescent, metal

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halide, and LED lamps are much more efficient than traditional incandescent or tungsten-halogen lamps and are now becoming more popular in display functions. In the meantime, color rendering in these sources is also improving at a dramatic rate. Lamp designs, particularly low-voltage systems, are another field where improvements in both optical design and the ability to produce a greater output of controllable light are making significant contributions to display lighting—all while consuming less energy. With the increasing costs of producing electricity, utility companies and power authorities are becoming more conscientious of electrical consumption and the code restrictions that regulate power densities. The ideology of “thinking green” will continue well into the future and will force lighting designers to look toward being more efficient in their designs. On the other hand, increased efficiency doesn’t have to compromise good lighting. By adhering to these general conservation philosophies, a successful lighting design can not only conserve resources but will also reduce the costs of maintaining and operating a lighting system—something that in the long run should save a client thousands of dollars through the years that a system is in operation. Maintaining lighting systems is another major element of how successful a design will be in the future. Unlike theatrical designs, many exhibit and gallery designs, especially those found in museums, are in use for 15 or 20 years— sometimes even longer. More importantly, rather than using these systems for a couple of hours several times a week, these systems are under constant operation for 10 to 12 hours a day, five or more days a week, for years on end. Not only must a display lighting system be designed properly, but it also must be maintained properly. Even the best designs can be wrecked over time as dirt collects in the luminaires, lamps are replaced with new ones of the wrong beamspeads and wattages, fixtures lose their focus, and important units remain burned out for extended periods of time. The first step to ensure that a system is well-maintained is choosing luminaires and lamps that can be easily managed by the maintenance or sales staff who will ultimately maintain the systems. Choosing fixtures with lamp enclosures that can be removed without changing the focus of a unit will help maintain the focus of the lights. Using lamps with long life cycles can cut down on both replacement and personnel costs while additional savings can take place with methods to facilitate not only lamp changes but also the changeovers from one exhibit to another. Automation in control systems will ensure that lamps are not left on when the building isn’t occupied. Designing with a minimal number of fixture models and lamp types can also help prevent incorrect relamping issues when staff members replace burnouts. Finally, providing full documentation of the lighting systems and training the personnel who must maintain them are good procedures for keeping the lighting in top shape. Regular schedules for tasks like cleaning lenses and reflectors should be part of any maintenance program for these lighting systems. A technique that helps keep a design

from falling into disrepair includes the scheduling of regular return visits by the designer (i.e., on an annual basis). These visits are designed to check up on the systems and to identify and fix any issues related to focus, lamp configurations (distributions, wattage, and color temperature), and any other problems that may have developed since the lighting was last checked. These problems tend to be less of an issue in settings that make use of regular changes because the fixtures end up being maintained when they are moved or refocused to new displays or as new shows are hung. The assumption, though, is that a certain degree of lighting proficiency exists on the part of the staff who are making the changes. Unfortunately, it isn’t all that uncommon for these displays or exhibits to be equipped with fixtures or lamps that don’t perform to the specific needs of the new subjects. On the other hand, with a properly designed system, regular maintenance, and a knowledgeable staff, retail and display or exhibit lighting can make significant contributions to these special environments and can offer an exciting form of employment for a lighting designer.

For Further Reading Boylan, Bernard R. The Lighting Primer. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1987. DiLaura, David L., Kevin W. Houser, Richard G. Mistrick, and Gary R. Steffy. eds. Illuminating Engineering S­ociety—The Lighting Handbook Tenth Edition: Reference and Application. New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2011. Gordon, Gary. Interior Lighting for Designers. 5th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2014. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. IESNA Lighting Ready Reference. 4th ed. New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2003. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. Museum and Art Gallery Lighting (RP-30–96). New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 1996. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. Recommended Practice for Lighting Merchandising Areas (RP-2–01). New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2001. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. Recommended Practice for Museum Lighting (RP-30–17). New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2017. Mills, Kenneth H., Judith E. Paul, and Kay B. Moormann. Applied Visual Merchandising. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1995. Pegler, Martin M. and Anne Kong. Visual Merchandising and Display: Studio Instant Access. 7th ed. New York, NY: Fairchild Publications, 2018. Portas, Mary. Windows: The Art of Retail Display. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, Inc., 1999. Turner, Janet. Designing with Light: Public Spaces. New York, NY: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1998. Turner, Janet. Designing with Light: Retail Spaces. New York, NY: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1998. Watson, Lee. Lighting Design Handbook. New York, NY: McGrawHill, 1990.

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CHAPTER 7

ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTINGARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING

T

ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING

HE PROFESSION OF architectural lighting design in some ways is actually quite young and at one point, almost anyone who could print up a business card could call themselves a lighting designer. This resulted in a number of poorly executed projects being designed by people who were only marginally qualified to design architectural lighting projects. In the late 1990s the industry chose to self-regulate and turned to a voluntary certification program that emphasizes continuous education and evaluates individuals in order to demonstrate that they have reached a particular level of competency in lighting. The organization that manages this certification program is the National Council for Qualifications for the Lighting Profession (NCQLP) and upon successfully completing a qualifying exam, an individual may display the LC (Lighting Certified) credential after their name. Even more importantly, the certification is good for only three years and professionals who want to remain certified must either retake the exam or complete a series of educational activities that will earn 36 Learning Education Units (LEUs) over each three-year certification period. Both requirements help ensure that anyone displaying the LC credential remains both active and abreast of developments in the lighting industry. While the NCQLP program certifies that a person has a high level of knowledge about lighting, it doesn’t ensure that person is a competent lighting designer. A second organization, the International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD), is an organization for lighting designers in which one qualifies as a member based on a minimal amount of experience and level of competence as evidenced by a design portfolio. A second certification program was introduced in 2015 by the IALD that is aimed even more specifically at lead architectural lighting designers. This is the Certified Lighting Designer (CLD) credential, which focuses primarily on lighting design. Many place architectural lighting’s emergence to sometime during the 1950s, even though there were individuals laying the groundwork that would define the role of a lighting designer much earlier than that time. A good portion of the early beginnings of architectural lighting was associated with the role that lighting was playing in commercial projects as designs moved to alternate light sources like fluorescent lamps and more complex control systems for projects like office buildings and industrial complexes. Much of this specialization remained more of a function of developing a building’s electrical systems until a growing number of designers started to place a stronger emphasis on the aesthetics of a lighting design rather than simply bringing illumination to an environment. Even today, a lot of architectural lighting is still based on quantitative design approaches (amount of light)—although significant progress has been made toward giving equal consideration to the quality of illumination in an environment. The issue of “quantity versus quality” in lighting is now a significant consideration of contemporary architectural lighting design practice. In recent years, a number of lighting designers with entertainment backgrounds have migrated into architectural lighting as an area of specialization. Regardless of a person’s background, architectural lighting represents the single most significant place of employment for most people who work in the lighting industry

Despite the fact that lighting hadn’t changed much for thousands of years, several centuries ago people began to experiment with different techniques for controlling artificial light in interior environments. These changes could occur by manipulating the light sources to gain better “control” of the light through improved optics or could relate to “control” through finding methods to turn them on and off, changing their intensities, or developing ways to operate several lights at one time. Even today, architectural lighting designers use “control” as a means of defining not only the intensity and ganging of light sources, but also the manipulation of the optical properties of the light (focal length, beam distribution, focus, etc.). In the earliest days, this could be done by placing devices around a candle or lantern to produce a more efficient light source. Something as simple as placing a polished reflector behind a candle could in effect produce a primitive luminaire. It wasn’t till we learned to control luminaires in multiple numbers or from a distance that lighting design really began to evolve. Early control methods could be as simple as placing candles on panels backed by mirrored surfaces that were aimed in different directions or by placing candles in chandeliers that could be hoisted to a height that allowed the light to cover larger areas. The real advent of lighting control began in the early 1800s with the development of gaslight. This was the first source of general illumination that could be easily regulated and distributed—which was done through pipes using a series of valves (gas table) that controlled the flow of gas jets and their related light. More importantly, gaslight was soon replaced, and often simply skipped, with electrical illumination coming about so quickly on its heels. The earliest use of electricity for lighting came through the use of arc sources like limelight, but these weren’t of much use for lighting interiors. Incandescent lighting was first made practical by the lamps that were developed by Joseph Swan (1878) and Thomas Edison (1879). Following these two developments, and the developments of other electrical innovators, it didn’t take long for electric lighting to become standard in many cities and municipalities. Since then, electric lighting has grown and developed though a number of innovations that continue to evolve at an ever increasing rate. Today, all modern societies have become dependent on electric lighting while at the same time, new technologies focus on making our light sources and luminaires ever more efficient. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to discuss in any significant detail the historical development of architectural lighting, but two excellent references on this topic include Lengthening the Day by Brian Bowers and Artificial Sunshine: A Social History of Domestic Lighting by Maureen Dillon. This chapter is designed to provide you with an introduction to architectural lighting; it is not intended to be used as a specification tool for designers who are considering work in this area of lighting. While many of us have had our primary training in either entertainment design or illuminating engineering, architectural lighting in today’s society continues

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to bring these two disciplines closer together all the time. A significant portion of this and its companion book have addressed lighting from an entertainment perspective and many of the same design principles used in entertainment lighting apply to lighting architecture as well. However, the primary focus of this chapter centers on illumination engineering and speaks more specifically to the issues and principles related to working from this design perspective. In the future, lighting designers will move between entertainment and architectural lighting more frequently and will find that they can draw on practices based on both approaches as they light a given project. As done with previous topics, this chapter only provides an introduction to the general principles of working in architectural lighting. For more detailed discussions, you should consult the references that are listed at the end of the chapter. For the most comprehensive treatments, you should consult the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) Lighting Handbook (10th edition), the IESNA Lighting Ready Reference (4th edition), and various IESNA Recommended Practice (RP) publications. In the fall of 2018 the IES even introduced the Lighting Ready Reference in an app format. While the Lighting Handbook represents the illuminating engineers’ bible and covers almost any imaginable lighting application, the recommended practices represent information on more specific methods and guidelines for a variety of specialty areas of architectural lighting design (i.e., houses of worship, office spaces, educational facilities, hospitality buildings, health care facilities, etc.). Both the handbook and recommended practices were developed through the input and knowledge of committees of professionals who have years of experience in a particular design application. Finally, codes relating to illuminance levels, electrical wiring, and power densities will vary with a given application as well as from one part of the country to another. This means that a lighting designer needs to consult specification guidelines and the local authorities where a project is located at some point in the design process. Inspections are also usually a part of the process. It should be noted that the industry guidelines and recommended practices are under constant examination and revised on a regular basis.

Unique Qualities/Demands of Architectural Lighting While theatrical designers often use the term “fixture” to describe a lighting instrument, entertainment luminaires technically aren’t fixtures. A fixture is generally associated with architectural lighting and typically refers to a permanently installed or mounted luminaire. This points out the first unique difference between entertainment and architectural lighting systems: the fact that architectural lighting systems are installed permanently. As a result, there are several very distinct differences in the way in which architectural projects and luminaires are designed from those in entertainment practices. For instance, all wiring

must be encased in conduit and circuit boxes, which must be securely mounted to the building’s structure. A second significant difference between lighting architectural installations and entertainment venues relates to the time line that a project follows. While entertainment projects are frequently scheduled and designed over a period of only weeks and months (although this can be accelerated to days or even hours), a typical architectural project takes months if not years to complete. Part of this is due to the scale of most architectural projects while another reason relates to the fact that buildings take an extended amount of time to design. In reality, a typical feature of architectural lighting is the “hurry up and wait” method of working where critical information must be made available quickly—followed by weeks, if not months, of inactivity as other parts of a project are developed. Just as in entertainment design, communication and collaboration are significant parts of any architectural project. The individuals whom a lighting designer is typically under contract with include the owners/users of the space (clients) and the principal architectural firm that is designing a project. Sometimes a lighting designer is contracted to the clients and at other times to the architectural firm. Additional individuals who are also frequently involved in the design process include specialists like interior designers, planning/space consultants, electrical engineers, and engineers who design building systems like plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning (HVAC), and audio-visual (AV) or communication systems (telephone, network, security, etc.). Once a project moves into the bidding, contract, and construction phases, the lighting designer will also have frequent discussions with the contractor and subcontractors to ensure that the lighting equipment is acquired and installed as intended. Even seemingly unimportant issues like knowing where the ventilation ducts, sprinklers, and PA speakers are located are critical decisions in which each department must know of the plans of all the other departments. In most cases, just as in any other collaborative project, contractors, and architects are usually more than willing to discuss alternatives for any issues that may develop in a project—but these issues must be well communicated and discussed carefully so that there are no major surprises at the building site once the building/renovation goes into actual construction. Once a project goes into construction it is very hard to make changes. A  solution like swapping out a fixture such as in a theatrical hang simply can’t happen in architectural lighting design. If a problem occurs prior to the actual installation, a solution may be possible through creating a revision and issuing a document called a change order that amends the construction documents—but since the contractors have already based their fees on a predetermined list of materials and estimated labor costs, change orders frequently result in an adjustment in the contractor’s fees (almost always an increase rather than decrease). If the problem isn’t discovered until the equipment is already installed

on the building site, the problem will most likely have to be lived with unless the fix is easily accomplished or is of such a significance that it absolutely has to be dealt with—which will once again require that a change order be issued along with a revision in the costs. While it isn’t all that uncommon to have a few change orders on an architectural project, a designer must work closely with the contractors and other designers to ensure that none of these are major and that they hopefully develop only from a positive development like the introduction of a new product or additional request on the part of a client. Planning, specifying (laying out lighting requirements/equipment choices), and documenting a design are almost always a more tedious aspect of producing an architectural lighting package than what is found or expected in entertainment design. Another significant difference between entertainment and architectural lighting is in that entertainment luminaries are used for performances with durations that are typically only a couple of hours. Architectural luminaires, on the other hand, must operate for many continuous hours throughout a day . . . day after day . . . week after week . . . year after year. Because of the extended operation, power utilization and efficiency become major factors when specifying luminaires for architectural applications. These demands are in addition to the fact that the equipment must be reliable for the day-to-day service that requires them to be in operation for 12 to 15 or more hours a day. While building owners are becoming more aware of the significant costs of maintaining and operating lighting systems, some states (i.e., California and New York), along with other municipalities, are legislating building/energy codes that regulate the amount of power that a lighting installation may use. This most often relates to studies of power density, which in effect regulate how much energy per square foot that a building may use. We also speak of sustainability, where efforts are made to use materials and equipment that do not contribute to wasting natural resources and energy. Use of recycled or natural materials, minimal use of energy, efficiency, limited use of toxic materials, and proper disposal are all environmentally friendly concerns that must now be considered by the construction industry. These trends will become even stronger forces in the future as energy costs continue to escalate and we become more aware of energy waste, environmental impacts, and conservation of our natural resources. It is important to note that while there are relatively few styles of entertainment luminaires, there are many variations of luminaire designs for architectural applications. In fact, while most manufacturers of theatrical lighting equipment produce only a dozen or so models of lighting instruments, architectural manufacturers make hundreds if not thousands of different luminaire models—each one designed for a specific application and equipped with a unique set of optics. The reason for this is the need to match individual architectural fixtures to very specific applications. Once installed, architectural fixtures generally fulfill a single unique purpose,

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which is in stark contrast to the general-duty applications of theatrical luminaires. In fact, it isn’t all that uncommon to design specific architectural luminaires based on the needs of an individual project. Examples of this are the decorative fixtures that are found as custom-designed pendants or wall sconces in many hotels or restaurants. Figure  7.1 provides illustrations of several of the most common architectural luminaire styles that are currently available. Also, beam distributions can vary considerably from one model of luminaire to another—as well as from one manufacturer to another. All of this makes it imperative that a lighting designer be able to comprehend the photometric charts and data that are presented as part of the cut sheet for a given luminaire. These sheets, along with online photometric reports, represent the most common method for gaining an understanding of the individual performance of a fixture and making comparisons between luminaires.

Finally, unlike luminaires used in entertainment lighting, architectural fixtures are typically mounted in full view of a room’s occupants. This means that they must be designed to be attractive, if not actually decorative, and that measures need to be taken to prevent viewers from looking directly into the face of a luminaire. Shielding relates to placing an accessory or fitting on the front of a luminaire to reduce glare and other unwanted exposure to a unit’s lamp. Glare is a fairly critical consideration in architectural lighting, and specialized accessories like baffles, hoods, egg crates or louvers are often used to help block occupants from direct glare (Figure 7.2).

Architectural Luminaire Classifications It is virtually impossible to describe all of the possible designs for luminaires that are created for architectural

Figure 7.1  Several common architectural luminaires: (a) Halo recessed downlight by EATON. (b) Track lighting (Premium HID Lampholder by Lithonia Lighting). (c) 2 × 4 foot parabolic troffer (PARMAX by Lithonia Lighting). (d) linear fluorescent (Rigby Linier by Lithonia Lighting) Credit: (a) photos courtesy of EATON, (b–d) photos courtesy of Lithonia Lighting

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Figure 7.2  Shielding devices used in architectural lighting: (a) Trim kit with black baffles, (b) louvers, (c) cross baffles/louvers, and (d) shields Credit: photos courtesy of Philips Lightolier Lighting

applications because of the need to specify luminaires to a particular application. However, this section of the chapter presents more detailed information in regard to the primary ways in which architectural luminaires are classified. Elements like how a luminaire is mounted, its light source, particular application, and type of distribution pattern all are major classifications of architectural luminaires. Rather than producing more generic luminaires that are fairly flexible and can be adjusted to a range of applications, these units are manufactured to fairly narrow specifications. Due to this, a manufacturer may produce 50 different variations of a luminaire model, resulting in architectural product catalogs (both hardcopy and online) and cut sheets that are much more extensive than those found in entertainment lighting. There are also special areas of architectural lighting—like display or landscape lighting—that have specialty fixtures that are associated with only a specific application. Rather than discussing all the specialty luminaires, this chapter presents only the primary manners of classifying architectural luminaires. For more specific information, you should consult the product literature and catalogs of manufacturers that produce architectural luminaires. Several prominent manufacturers and their websites are listed in Appendix B.

Light Sources The design of most architectural luminaires and often the first decision that must be made by an architectural lighting designer relates to the selection of light source for a luminaire. This is the first manner of classifying architectural luminaires which will not only be related to the basic size and design of a luminaire’s lamp, but also to the actual light source itself: incandescent, fluorescent, high-intensity discharge (HID), arc, LED, etc. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages that will make one source more attractive for a project over another (Sidebar 7.1). As a rule, incandescent sources tend to be more popular in residential applications where a high color rendering index (CRI) is important. Fluorescent lighting is more popular in applications where efficiency and simple delivery of lumens are more important (office, education, and commercial applications). Arc and short-arc sources such as HID lamps like metal halide may be a compromise between these, while a designer might also choose sources like fluorescent lamps with improved color rendering capabilities for a given application. LEDs are now being utilized in many applications due to their efficiency and long life cycles.

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Sidebar 7.1  PROS AND CONS OF COMMON LIGHT SOURCES Advantages

Disadvantages

Incandescent Instant on/off Inexpensive Dimmable High CRIs Operable at extreme temperatures Wide variety of styles available

Short life cycle Clouding/tungsten buildup on bulb Most energy (90%) is wasted as heat Cannot tolerate voltage surges

Fluorescent Long life Inexpensive Very efficient light source Little heat production/wastage Wide variety of styles available

Compromised output in cold temperatures A ballast is required Dimming is possible but more difficult Flicker effect Many contain mercury (a hazard) Overall poor color rendering (CRI) Warm-up period in some varieties

HID (*Mercury, Metal Halide, and Low/High-Pressure Sodium) Have relatively long life cycles Very High Efficiencies Not Affected by Temperatures A Variety of Source Types*

LED/Solid-State Lighting Extremely long life cycles Very high efficiencies Approaching a point light source Low power consumption Can use in combinations to mix color Instant startup No mercury hazard

One final consideration relating to light sources that is causing considerable debate is the movement toward “banning the bulb.” States like California, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, and even entire countries (Australia), have created movements and legislation that will force the adoption of alternate light sources to replace the less efficient incandescent lamps that are in common use. In the United States, national legislation has also been put in place that is slowly moving the country away from incandescent lamps toward alternate light sources like compact/traditional fluorescent, metal halide, and LED sources. As of 2015 it started to become increasingly difficult to find traditional incandescent lamps as both manufacturers and individuals began to show considerable interest in looking toward the more efficient and ecologically friendly light sources like LEDs. The controversy in using alternate sources like compact fluorescent lamps usually relates to the fact that many produce light of an inferior quality when compared

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Many have compromised CRIs Warm-up periods required Long restrike time Many produce harmful UV radiation A ballast is required Can’t be dimmed (as a rule)

Older versions have compromised CRIs Binning (matching light output) Compromised dimming at low end of curve Older versions have lower light output

to incandescent lamps as well as issues like the proper disposal of the mercury that is found in many of these lamps. LEDs have made significant progress in overcoming many of these obstacles in the last several years and are most likely poised to become the primary light source of the future. LEDs are solid-state components that give off light as a byproduct of their operation. A  full discussion of LEDs (solid-state lighting) and how they operate can be found in Stage Lighting: The Foundations. In the early days, solid-state sources did not produce enough light to be used in a number of applications. However, due to their benefits in size, efficiency, and low heat output, many were quickly adopted in special areas of lighting like display lighting where the sources could be placed relatively close to a subject. Early developments in red, blue, and green LED technology also led to successes in the development of luminaires that could mix color through additive mixing. These, despite their relatively low light output, still became

popular due to their abilities to mix a seemingly infinite number of colors. However, LEDs produce light in very narrow portions of the spectrum: though any color could theoretically be mixed, color rendering in these fixtures had a lot to be desired. This resulted in the units typically being used primarily for colored wash effects. In more recent times, this problem has been corrected by adding LEDs of additional colors to the luminaires so that those portions of the spectral output that were left vacant by the red, blue, and green LEDS were filled in by the additional colored LEDs. Amber colored LEDs have been a popular addition to many of these wash luminaires. More recently, white LEDs have been developed with enough light output to also be incorporated into these luminaires. The biggest hurdle to using LEDs as a popular light source was in developing the technology that could produce white LEDs with both good CRIs as well as sufficient light output to compete with traditional incandescent sources. This has

happened over the last five or so years, and now luminaires that make use of white LED sources in a wide range of different variations are being introduced as replacements to many more traditional light sources. LEDs are being packaged into clusters in various spotlight fixtures, in linear sources to replace fluorescent tubes, as single sources in other specialty luminaires, and have even been manufactured into solid-state tapes (both with and without color changing capabilities). Though there are still shortcomings in aspects of LED technology where manufacturers continue to strive for more light output and smoother dimming (LEDs have a tendency to bump on and off at the low-end of the dimming curve), white LEDS are now appearing in any number of applications in our homes and businesses. This trend will continue to gain popularity with every passing year. Figure 7.3 provides examples of a number of LED luminaires that are being used as replacements to a variety of more traditional architectural lighting fixtures.

Figure 7.3  LEDs in architectural lighting: (a) LED retrofit for a traditional incandescent clear lamp (a dimmable 60-watt A-lamp), (b) LED retrofit for a traditional A-lamp, (c) LED 6-inch retrofit downlight, (d) LED retrofit for a PAR-38 lamp, (e) LED retrofit for 4-foot linear fluorescent tube, (f) LED exterior wall pack floodlight, and (g) LED battery operated closet luminaire (note motion sensor and timer settings)

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architectural surface. The five categories of fixtures named by IESNA based on mounting arrangements include: surface mounted (mounted directly to walls and ceilings), suspended (luminaries hung below a ceiling from a pendant or other device), recessed (mounted within a wall or ceiling with the face of the fixture being flush with the surface), semi-recessed (mounted partially within a wall or ceiling), and track luminaires (mounted to an electric path/rail or raceway) that are suspended below an architectural surface. Each of these classifications is illustrated in Figure 7.4. A common mounting technique for many suspended luminaires involves hanging the unit from a wire,

Figure 7.3  (Continued)

Mounting Classifications A second way of classifying architectural luminaires is based on the manner in which a unit is mounted. The most common mounting position for architectural fixtures is from above. The mounting techniques are simply based on what portion of a luminaire is exposed beyond an

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Figure 7.4 IESNA mounting classifications of architectural luminaires: (a) Surface mounted, (b) recessed, (c) semi-recessed, (d) suspended, and (e) track. Source: Based on The Lighting Handbook, 9th edition

cable, conduit, or track that is located at some distance below the ceiling. Many of these hanging fixtures are called pendant luminaires while those mounted from a track are called track lighting. A variation of track lighting in which the track is replaced by a set of metal cables is cable lighting. Track or cable lighting is often powered by low voltage (12–24 volts) and has a transformer either included with the track assembly or as part of the luminaires themselves. These classifications have been expanded somewhat in the 10th edition of The Lighting Handbook but on the whole much of this classification remains the same.

Distribution Pattern Classifications A third method of fixture classification (also defined by IESNA) is based on the beam or distribution pattern of a luminaire. While theatrical luminaires typically point directly toward their targets (a direct light source) many architectural luminaires in addition to being aimed toward their targets may bounce light off a surface as a means of diffusing light that is then redirected into a chosen area

(indirect light sources). Some luminaires direct their light straight downward into a room, while others create a more diffuse light by directing the light up toward the ceiling where it is reflected and redirected back into the room. This technique of using reflection to produce diffuse light is quite common in architectural projects. The IESNA fixture classifications assume that a fixture is mounted directly downward and includes the following classifications: direct luminaries, in which 90–100% of the light is directed downward; indirect luminaries, in which 90–100% of the light is directed upward and reflected off the ceiling; direct-indirect luminaries, in which light is directed approximately equally both upward and downward; semi-direct luminaries, in which a significant amount of light is directed upwards (10–40%) but the majority of the light is directed downward (60–90%); semi-indirect luminaries, in which 10–40% of the light is directed downwards while 60–90% is directed upwards; and general diffuse luminaries, in which light is directed in virtually all directions. Each of these luminaire distribution pattern classifications are illustrated in Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5  IESNA distribution patterns of luminaires (based on The Lighting Handbook, 10th edition): (a) Direct luminaire. (b) Indirect luminaire. (c) Direct-indirect luminaire. (d) Semi-direct luminaire. (e) Semi-indirect luminaire. (f) General diffuse luminaire.

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Design Application A fourth method of classification is based on the nature of the application that a luminaire is designed for. Sidebar 7.2 provides a summary of IESNA lumianire classifications based on applications. Wallwashers, downlights, decorative, and task lights are just a few of the more common application classifications that are in popular use. Wallwashers are usually ceiling-mounted in close proximity to a wall and create a soft diffuse light that evenly covers a wall surface (scalloped patterns are also possible). Downlights distribute light straight downward and are commonly mounted as recessed fixtures in a ceiling, while decorative lights are created primarily to create an aesthetic effect (chandeliers and wall sconces are common examples). Task lights are luminaires that are placed in close proximity to a visual task and supplement a room’s lighting so that the task may be completed without causing any ill-effects like eyestrain. Desk or table lamps are common examples of task lights that are found in almost any household. Other specialty luminaires can be developed into entire systems like those used in emergency and exit lighting. Yet another luminaire classification method is based on the maintenance category of a fixture and is defined by the amount of dirt depreciation and environmental cleanliness that a luminaire must perform in.

Sidebar 7.2  IESNA LUMINAIRE TYPES Commercial and Residential Luminaires Portable luminaires Wall-mounted downlights and uplights Furniture mounted Recessed or surface mounted downlights Wallwasher Recessed or surface mounted troffers Accent Track Point indirect Linear indirect Linear direct-indirect Cove Industrial Luminaires Linear fluorescent Striplights High bay Low bay Outdoor Luminaires Street, path, and Sports lighting parking lighting Floodlighting Emergency and exit luminaires Security Landscape Special applications Custom luminaires Source: The Lighting Handbook, 10th edition

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Due to the permanence issue, there is no need for easily accessible focus/beam controls in architectural fixtures since it would be rare that you would ever have to change the optics and beam shaping characteristics of a fixture. In fact, it is often more desirable to make these controls less accessible simply to prevent untrained personnel from changing the optics of the fixture unnecessarily. Architectural luminaries are also almost always permanently mounted through using electrical hardware like clamps, conduits, and junction boxes. Temporary mounting hardware such as the yokes and C-clamps that are quite popular in entertainment applications are for the most part not used in architectural installations—the exception being the relatively recent practice of adapting theatrical luminaries to architectural applications. Nashville’s Bridgestone Arena and a number of themed attractions make use of a number of modified Source Four luminaires to effectively light signage and other features of the lobbies and themed areas of the buildings.

Ballasts and Architectural Control Elements Ballasts are very important components of most architectural lighting designs because so many of the luminaires used in these applications use sources that require a ballast (HID, gaseous discharge, and fluorescent). The ballast is an electrical component that helps regulate the flow of electricity to an arc or fluorescent light source (Figure 7.6). A typical ballast has two functions: first, it provides the initial surge that helps ignite or energize the arc that either produces the light directly or causes the fluorescence of the phosphors in a fluorescent tube; second, it constantly regulates the flow of power to a lamp. While many ballasts may supply the power to a single lamp (i.e., most compact fluorescent, arc, and short-arc lamps), the majority of fluorescent ballasts are designed to supply the power to more than one lamp at a time. The popular four-tube ceiling fixtures (2 × 4 troffers) commonly found in public buildings use two ballasts in which each ballast powers two of the four lamps. Compact fluorescent lamps have ballasts that are typically manufactured into the actual base of the lamp. In the past, most ballasts were of a magnetic nature while today the industry has shifted to using electronic ballasts and manufacturers have stopped making the older magnetic ballasts. Until recently, the majority of architectural lighting applications paid relatively little attention to dimming and the use of specific control in an installation. The luminaires were simply turned on and off, and the method in which they were ganged or circuited provided the primary means of control for many projects. Intensity was controlled by the wattage of the lamps. Because of this, and the fact that dimming a ballast or arc source is a more difficult task, dimming was rarely a consideration of many architectural lighting designs in the past—the

Figure 7.6  Several popular ballasts: (a) Advance Transformer’s Mark III Magnetic Ballast. (b) Advance Transformer’s SmartMate Electronic Ballast Credit: photos courtesy of Philips Lighting Electronics, N.A.

exceptions being those situations where the fixtures were mostly incandescent light sources, such as residential or display installations. In many designs, the luminaries were merely laid out in a pattern that provided the illumination levels required for a given application and simply wired with adequate power and switching options for the space being lighted. It wasn’t uncommon for every luminaire in a room to be under the control of a single switch in smaller offices and medium-sized rooms. In more decorative applications, such as within a residence or restaurant, some form of elemental dimming is often provided. Since most architectural applications traditionally didn’t require dimming, the cheaper magnetic ballasts were better suited for many commercial lighting installations. However, as the industry started to move toward more energy efficiency and with new interests in dimming fluorescent sources, dimmable electronic ballasts have become a popular solution for architectural applications. Much of the dimming equipment found in many architectural installations is based on variations of theatrical gear. However, these systems are generally of a heavier duty since they are used for numerous hours a day for a number of years. Nowadays, dimmers, automated lighting, fiber optics, LEDs, and computer control have all become elements of contemporary architectural projects. Energy conservation and specific control of luminaires are significant concerns of most of today’s architectural lighting systems. In the most elementary form, this is simply observed by breaking a room’s luminaires into several different circuits of control. Each circuit will have a switch of its own that is used to activate different groups of luminaires as required by a building’s occupants. For instance, fixtures located near the windows might be circuited separately so that they can be turned off as additional light

enters a room. In other applications, one switch may turn on half of the lamps in a fixture while a second switch could activate the remaining lamps for more critical tasks. In more sophisticated systems, lighting circuits are controlled by additional switches or relays that allow a building’s lighting to be controlled by areas as large as wings or entire floors—all regulated by a central control system. Dimmers have been introduced to architectural systems as a means of both lowering power demands and adding more aesthetic qualities to an environment. Contemporary control systems make use of state-of-the-art dimming technology and may include control signals that run through dedicated wiring systems such as DMX networks, Ethernet applications, or may even overlay control signals within the wires that provide line-voltage/power to the luminaires. Consoles for these systems are often designed specifically for architectural applications but may interface with a common PC platform using specialized lighting software. While there is usually a central control system, various elements of the system are often broken out for controlling smaller zones or areas. The LCD control panels found in many conference rooms are examples of these sub-panels—giving specific control to a single room while at the same time allowing the room to be mastered into a central control system. A  common feature of these systems is the inclusion of an astronomical clock or timer that can regulate both when and what fixtures come on and off throughout a day. Astronomical clocks are perpetual timers and are typically programmed for a 24-hour period over an entire week. These clocks can adjust for seasonal changes, automatically adjust to daylight savings time, and can be overridden as needed. Astronomical clock systems are especially popular for public and office buildings where different lighting systems (exteriors, stairways and corridors, lobby areas, lounges, offices, etc.) have different operating times. Other control devices that help

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conserve energy include photosensors that can be used to turn fixtures on if the light levels drop below a given intensity and occupancy sensors or motion detectors that can extinguish lights in areas like restrooms that have not been

occupied after a predetermined amount of time. A number of these control devices are illustrated in Figure 7.7. As architectural lighting designers and clients moved toward designs that were more aesthetically based and

Figure 7.7  Control devices for architectural lighting: (a) Timer (Intermatic 24-Hour). (b) Photosensor by Lightolier. (c) Photosensor w/photocell. (d) Occupancy sensor (wall-mounted). (e) Wall-mounted occupancy sensor—switchable. (f) Ceiling mounted occupancy sensor Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Intermatic, Inc., (b, d) photos courtesy of Philips Lightolier

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less concerned with just illumination an increasing number of decorative lighting elements and fixtures requiring more specific control than on/off instructions also began to appear. Dimmers were a logical means of providing the additional intensity control that these designs demanded and it wasn’t long before variations of theatrical dimming systems appeared in the architectural market. In many cases, actual theatrical equipment has been utilized, with slight modifications to make it more acceptable for architectural applications. However, more efficient lighting systems designed specifically for architectural uses like standing up to the demands of increased hours of operation are better suited for these applications. Such a system includes the Unison® line of dimmers by Electronic Theatre Controls (ETC) which is illustrated in Figure  7.8. These dimmers are architectural variations of the Sensor® dimmers that the company manufactures for the entertainment industry. One last area of control that separates architectural lighting from entertainment lighting relates to the way in which designers define control within a lighting design. Architectural designers tend to expand the concept of control to include more than simply intensity in a design. This more inclusive nature of control includes the manipulation of the light and can include devices like shutters, lenses,

Figure 7.8  Unison architectural dimming system (24-dimmer DR-Series rack) by ETC Credit: photo courtesy of Electronic Theatre Controls

baffles, and louvers. Figure 7.9 illustrates several prominent accessories for manipulating the light of architectural luminaires that can be added to a fixture.

Figure 7.9  Popular accessories for architectural luminaires: (a) Baffle wallwasher. (b) Prismatic lens or refractor. (c) 30° eyeball in brass trim kit. (d) Wrap-around diffuser Credit: (a, c) photos courtesy of EATON, (b, d) photos courtesy of Lithonia Lighting

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Architectural Hanging/Mounting Positions Architectural mounting positions are considered quite differently than those associated with entertainment lighting. The locations are created on a permanent basis and there is no need for temporary positions that provide flexibility like those used in entertainment lighting. Once the luminaires are mounted, they will most likely never be moved. Fixtures are integrated into the walls and ceilings, wired permanently with conduit and electrical boxes, and mounted in such a way that they would rarely have to be refocused. On the other hand, along with the permanence comes the need for the units to appear aesthetically pleasing—as should the way in which they are mounted. In entertainment lighting the majority of the luminaires are mounted out of sight, while in architectural practices it is virtually impossible to keep luminaires out of view since the occupants are free to move around as they wish. Architectural fixtures therefore must not only be functional, but must also have a decorative element to their design. Finally, it is often possible in entertainment practices to locate a luminaire virtually anywhere that a designer may wish to place it—even to the point of creating non-conventional mounting positions like trusses over an audience or tailing-down from an overhead lighting position. In architectural practices most mounting positions are restricted to placing a fixture within or on an architectural element like a wall or ceiling. Only in rare situations will a lighting designer be permitted to create a structural element in order to mount a fixture in open space.

Architectural Lighting Techniques The following sections are focused on some of the more popular techniques and functions that are frequently developed in architectural lighting practices. In reality, many of these are found in other areas of lighting as well. The first two, task lighting and ambient lighting, are the most important and relate to the overall approaches in architectural lighting; the remaining types of lighting are listed in alphabetical order and are representative of more specific lighting techniques. Prior to the 1970s energy crisis, a typical approach to lighting involved boosting the levels of the general lighting so that it was bright enough to accomplish the most critical task to be completed in an environment. After the crisis, lighting designers shifted to providing ambient lighting that was sufficient for general circulation with task lighting placed where the more critical visual tasks were completed.

Task Lighting While a building project may have several different layers of lighting, the most important aspect of any architectural

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project is what we call task lighting. Task lighting provides the basic illumination required to perform a particular visual task or activity. In areas where more critical activities take place, a higher level of illumination will be called for and specified. A classroom requires a brighter environment than a residential building, and an assembly plant requires higher illumination levels than a restaurant. Illumination levels may also vary throughout a facility. Hallways and stairwells aren’t typically lit to the same level as the rooms in a building. The age of the occupants is also a factor in how an environment is lighted—with more light being provided for environments populated by the elderly. While task lighting may be provided through an environment’s general or ambient lighting system, it may also be created by introducing supplemental fixtures that are used to bring visibility to specific locations throughout a space. Desk lights and reading lamps are common examples of task lights. One significant difference between architectural applications and other areas of lighting design is that illumination levels are often dictated by building codes for specific visual tasks and applications. The IESNA, up to the ninth edition of The Lighting Handbook, provided very specific guidelines for bringing adequate illumination levels to particular tasks or environments. This previously represented a solely quantitative solution to a design but has now shifted to allowing more flexibility and emphasis on additional quality issues instead of simply illumination levels. The most recent 10th edition of The Lighting Handbook puts even more emphasis on the other qualities of light and less emphasis still on delivering a specific number of footcandles or lumens to an environment. Additional examples of supplemental task lighting luminaires include moveable luminaires like floor, desk, and table lamps or specialty luminaires like jewelers’ lamps and permanently mounted units such as under-counter lighting, hanging pendants, and medical examination lights.

Ambient Lighting Ambient lighting is the general illumination that is provided throughout a space and can be equated with fill light. Some designers may actually call this “fill light” while others may refer to it as general lighting or base level lighting. It is typically diffuse and non-directional, giving a basic level of illumination throughout an entire environment. In many cases the light comes from reflected or heavily diffused sources and efforts are made to eliminate both shadows and highlights in the light. Often, task lighting for a room may be created by the same luminaires that provide the ambient lighting for an environment. Architectural spaces like classrooms, discount stores, and many office buildings have lighting systems that deliver their task lighting through the ambient lighting systems.

Accent Lighting Accent lights are used to direct focus or attention to objects within a space. They can be thought of as an equivalent to a theatrical special. Since these units are seldom used by themselves they must be capable of “punching through” any ambient light in order to draw a viewer’s attention to a featured object. These units provide more control and tend to have narrowly defined beam spreads that often have more sharply defined edges. An accent/focus can be established by not only increasing the intensity of the light striking an object but also through other techniques such as altering the color of the light so that it is different from the light of the surrounding area. Creating appropriate contrast ratios is important to the success of accent lighting—but while they may be treated boldly, they are usually done in a more subtle fashion than in most theatrical applications. A special type of accent lighting is delivered by the framing projector (Figure  7.10), which has a set of working shutters and is the architectural equivalent to the ellipsoidal reflector spotlight (ERS). In this case, the beam can be shaped around an object through using the shutters and focus adjustments of the luminaire. This is often called framing. Some framing projectors have additional controls that might even provide for optical devices like gobos which can project patterns such as lighting textures and corporate logos into a space. In practice, the use of framing projectors for accent lighting is rare. It is more common to use sealed-beam lamps like MR16s and PAR-38s with specific beam spreads that correspond to the distance and size of the objects being highlighted. Figure 7.11 provides practical examples of accent lighting. Figure 7.11 Accent lighting: (a) Accenting the reception areas with multiple luminaires. (b) Individual luminaire accents focused to each picture frame.

Cove Lighting

Figure 7.10  A framing projector by Times Square Lighting Credit: photo courtesy of Times Square Lighting

Cove lighting is a special type of indirect lighting in which luminaires are located around a wall perimeter or partially recessed area like a tray ceiling and aimed to wash the ceiling or upper elements of a wall. The light sources typically used in this application are linear sources like fluorescent tubes or units that contain a number of miniature lamps that blend evenly from one lamp to another. There are also special luminaires designed for cove lighting that are similar to cyc lights which have asymmetric reflectors that direct light upward to evenly illuminate a ceiling—even though they are often placed within 12–18 inches of a wall or ceiling. In nearly all cases, the luminaires are blocked from view by a soffit or other architectural element. The wash of light may be used as a decorative effect to light the perimeter of a room or to wash the entire ceiling. Figure  7.12

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Figure 7.13  Cold cathode by Cathode Lighting Systems, in a decorative ceiling cove application at the National Museum of the American Indian (lighting design by Branson Partnership) Credit: photo courtesy of Cathode Lighting Systems; photography by Eric Long

There are several variations of cove lighting that a designer may use: one (valence) washes light both downward and upward from behind a trim panel, while most other systems direct light upward onto the wall and ceiling directly above the fixture.

Decorative Lighting

Figure 7.12 Variations of cove light installations: (a) Incandescent, (b) Fluorescent (one lamp), (c) Fluorescent (one lamp, curved surface), (d) Fluorescent (two lamp), (e) Neon, rope lights, or cold-cathode

illustrates several popular configurations for cove lighting. Cold-cathode sources that can wash the perimeter of a ceiling in a variety of colors are a popular alternative to using fluorescent or incandescent luminaires in these applications. Two of the more popular colors for cold-cathode cove lighting are white and a deep cobalt blue. Other light sources used in cove lighting include architectural neon (also in a variety of colors), fiber optics, and LED wash fixtures. A realized project in which cold-cathode has been used for the cove lighting is demonstrated in Figure 7.13.

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Decorative lighting (Figure  7.14) is created primarily for aesthetic effects and often becomes an element of interior design as much as one of lighting. In fact, the appearance of the fixtures themselves can often be of more importance than the light that they produce. Chandeliers, pendants, and wall sconces are examples of some of the more popular traditional forms of decorative lighting. Track and cable lighting systems, along with LED vintage/period retro-lamps, are additional contemporary lighting elements that are both popular and decorative. These units often bring glitter or sparkle to a design by providing a view of the light source or bulb (often a decorative element in itself ), translucent globes that glow, or prismatic crystals that reflect and refract light from the source. In addition to the fixture itself, the unit may also create decorative highlights and/or shadow patterns such as the hourglass-shaped patterns that are often cast above and below wall sconces. Decorative fixtures come in an incredible variety of sizes, shapes, and finishes. There are volumes of catalogs dedicated to the design of these luminaires. Decorative luminaires are among the most popular fixtures to be designed as custom luminaires for a specific client or project. Because of their ability to gain attention, a designer must be careful about how

Figure 7.14 Several examples of decorative lighting fixtures: (a) Sconce (Midvale by Lithonia). (b) Commercial chandelier. (c) Pendant (Lytepoints by Lightolier). (d) Monorail with decorative firefly luminaires in addition to cove and wallwashing. (e) Ceiling-mounted MR16 focusable spotlight (LED Source). (f) MR16 track light luminaire. (g) LED cabinet/shelf luminaire Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Lithonia Lighting, (c) photo courtesy of Philips Lightolier

they use decorative luminaires: incorrect placement may cause conflicts of focal interest, and too many can cause visual clutter in a design. The secret of using these fixtures is in picking both the right type and size of any decorative fixtures for a project and then placing them in the proper locations. In many projects, a basic style or type of decorative fixture is chosen and then variations of it are used throughout the lighting design. Hotels frequently make use of sconces and chandeliers that are based on common designs that are modified to suit the needs of specific locations like main lobbies, public corridors, guest/room corridors, elevator lobbies, etc.

Grazing Grazing refers to placing a luminaire close to a wall or surface and aiming it so that the light skims across the surface—revealing and enhancing the surface’s texture. High points in the material will cause highlights and elongated shadows, while pits in the surface will remain completely shadowed. This makes the material more interesting to view. The more extreme the texture, or more severe the lighting angle, the stronger the contrast that is created between the highlights and shadows and more interesting that the surface will usually appear. A  designer may choose to graze an entire surface with a number of luminaires placed at regular intervals that blend evenly together, or could create an uneven pattern by placing the luminaires at wider spacings that graze only limited portions of a wall or surface. This second approach allows scalloped patterns to form along the surface. Grazing may be directed at a surface from almost any direction but most commonly is used as an effect to light walls from directly above or below. Popular architectural features that are often treated with grazing light include masonry walls and columns of brick or stone, fireplaces, stucco walls, fabric, and even textured ceilings (Figure 7.15). On the other hand, on flat walls like drywall where smoothness is desired, grazing may be totally inappropriate because it can reveal the seams and other imperfections of a wall.

Space Manipulation Space manipulation can come about through several different lighting techniques, but generally involves altering an occupant’s perception of a space. Some of the more productive ways of doing this include lighting areas of a room or building differently from one another to lead or draw an individual into a space. Popular examples of this in commercial settings involve lighting the back walls of stores more brightly than the rest of the space. This has the effect of drawing customers to the brighter light and hopefully deeper into the store where there is a greater chance of them making a purchase.

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Figure 7.15  Stone columns of lobby are grazed to enhance wall texture

Similar techniques are used in retail displays where featured products are accented in order to draw customers to a particular display. A more common, less economically driven, technique relates to creating the perception of a space appearing larger or smaller than it might actually be. Here, a lighting designer either purposely lights or avoids lighting the surrounding walls of a room or facility. Walls that are highly reflective and have bright, even lighting tend to open a space up and give a larger appearance while dark walls that have low reflectances or little light on them tend to make a space appear smaller and more intimate. Though the former provides less contrast and is associated with providing good overall illumination, the latter creates a more dramatic mood so that additional units which bring accents, sparkle, and glitter to a space can have a more prominent effect on a lighting design.

Wash Lighting Wash lighting, as in other areas of lighting, simply provides a nice even distribution of illumination over a particular area. Wash lighting is typically produced by a number of evenly spaced luminaires that are blended so that the individual beam patterns of the fixtures are indistinguishable from one another. Diffuse, even, shadow-free lighting is the primary goal of most wash lighting systems. Wash lighting is commonly used to light both ceilings and walls (Figure  7.16). The wallwasher is a specialty fixture that was designed specifically for washing walls from a ceiling position. Luminaires selected for wash lighting are chosen for their ability to blend while delivering an even wash of light across an entire surface. This is particularly important since a portion of the wall's surface will be quite close to

the luminaire while much of the light quickly falls away to create throw distances of 8 feet or more. This form of lighting is important because it has the effect of making a space feel brighter and bigger than it actually is. It also might make it possible to provide less ambient or task lighting for a particular design.

Commercial Power Distribution In a typical commercial application of power distribution (Figure  7.17), a building is first serviced with a transformer or vault that allows electricity to be stepped down to voltages that are in line with the equipment needs of that business. Next, the electricity flows through a series of secondary service conductors to the main switchboard where it is separated into additional cable runs (main feeders) that connect to distribution panels located throughout the building (e.g., to each wing or floor), which further separate the power into branch circuits that lead to specific electrical equipment such as

Figure 7.16  Uplights wash superstructure and walls of lobby area

lights and outlets throughout the area that is serviced by a given panel. Each branch circuit has its own breaker or fuse, and each distribution panel is under the control of a main breaker that is specified for the total load of all of the branch circuits contained within that box. At times this breaker is located in the distribution box, but more commonly the main breaker for each distribution panel is located on or near the main switchboard for the facility. It actually isn’t uncommon for main breakers to be found in both locations.

Lighting Calculations One of the most significant differences between architectural lighting and entertainment lighting lies in the more quantitative design process that is part of the analysis and specification practices of architectural lighting design. This approach of determining illumination levels based on the amount of luminance or number of footcandles or lux that a particular task might require has left much of architectural lighting design to illuminating engineers. It is important to note that we see illuminance (light reflecting off of surfaces), not luminance, which relates to the amount of light that is actually created or made available for a visual task. Illuminating engineers have the engineering backgrounds necessary to handle the extensive calculations required for producing successful lighting designs. Many of these calculations are quite extensive and beyond the nature of this text. In reality, it is rare for designers to make these calculations by hand. More frequently, specialized lighting software (i.e., Lumen Micro or AGi32) produced by lighting manufacturers or third-party software vendors are used to produce nearly instantaneous analysis and results for a number of lighting calculations. These software packages often go further than making overall calculations for a space and can suggest luminaire spacing/positioning criteria, make illuminance calculations at virtually any point in the environment, and can even create visualizations of the proposed lighting

Figure 7.17  Electrical distribution for a typical commercial power system

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design. Even though this section/book does not present all of the actual formulas and methods for executing these calculations, it is important to be familiar with what the calculations represent and how they are utilized in the design process. For an exploration of these formulas and examples of how to complete the calculation process, consult any number of IESNA resources such as The Lighting Handbook (10th edition), IESNA Lighting Ready Reference or the calculations modules of the IESNA ED100 or ED150 instruction manuals. Several architectural references that are specifically aimed at architectural lighting also provide detailed examples of these calculations. Two of these include Gary Gordon’s Interior Lighting for Designers (5th edition) and Jack L. Lindsey’s Applied Illumination Engineering (2nd edition). There are also several simplified methods that can be used for calculating approximate levels of illuminance that are usually good enough to ballpark many initial estimates of illumination data.

The Lumen (Zonal Cavity) Method The Lumen Method or Zonal Cavity Method of lighting calculation and variations of this procedure are some of the most popular calculations used in architectural lighting design. This calculation is used to predict the maintained illuminance or average amount of light that reflects off of a given horizontal surface. It is used for making calculations for interior environments and is best represented by rooms that have rectangular floorplans with ceilings that are mounted at a consistent height above the floor. It can be adopted for more complexly shaped rooms—to the point of considering vaulted and domed ceilings or irregularly shaped wall configurations—but the calculations quickly increase in complexity. What is important in these calculations is that we use them to match a luminaire to a particular environment and illuminance level demanded by a given task. The process of architectural lighting design is more fully represented later in this chapter, but for now what a designer needs to know is that the IESNA has made a general recommendation for the minimum number of footcandles or lux (latest edition of The Lighting Handbook) required to comfortably complete a variety of visual tasks. More critical tasks, such as working on small electronic circuit boards, require a higher degree of illumination than less critical tasks. In addition to this, all luminaire manufacturers provide literature (cut sheets) that present a variety of data related to the performance and efficiency of a luminaire and its associated light output. One of the most important elements of information that comes from the cut sheets relates to the overall lumens or initial lumens that a lamp/luminaire delivers. From this point on, numerous determinants are used to reduce this amount of light by factors that represent the real light loss that can be expected in

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an actual installation. Factors like ballast efficiency, dirt depreciation, lumen depreciation, distance between the source and the task (throw distance in theatre, mounting height in architectural lighting), room surface reflectances, and other issues relating to light loss are all factors that are accounted for in the calculations. Through the calculations, a designer attempts to predict the average illuminance that will be present at the point in the room where the visual task must be completed. If the luminaire produces the required footcandles or lux to fulfill the needs of the IESNA recommendation, the fixture is deemed to be an appropriate choice for the application. If the calculated value is too low, another fixture must be selected for the application. If a luminaire produces an especially high level of footcandles, this will also create a poor match since the solution will more than likely not meet the power density or efficiency requirements that must be fulfilled by a design. The goal, then, is to provide as close of a match as possible between a fixture that delivers the required amount of light for a task while making accommodations for the environment and any other compromising factors that will reduce the amount of light at the location where the task is completed. Several primary elements of the zonal cavity or lumen method relate to not only a determination of the initial lumens that a system can deliver but how efficiently it can bring light to a visual task. In order to accomplish this, the calculation assumes that light is evenly distributed over an entire room in a uniform manner. The location at which the available illuminance is calculated is taken as the height from the floor in which the visual task is completed and is considered as a plane (work plane) that stretches across the entire room at the same height. For example, the work plane associated with an application that takes place at a desk would be considered to be taken at roughly 30 inches from the floor—and any measurement of illuminance at this height should remain consistent throughout the room. In most cases, we consider only the volume of that portion of a room that extends between the work plane and the mounting heights of the lighting fixtures, which allows us to create three different cavities or volumes of space within a room. The volume associated with the distance between the task and the luminaires is used to calculate a Room Cavity Ratio (RCR), which relates the volume (height and area) of the room within that portion of the room in which we are primarily concerned with the levels of illumination. The volume of the room that lies below the workplane is known as the floor cavity while the volume of the room between the luminaires and the ceiling is known as the ceiling cavity. These three cavities are illustrated in Figure 7.18. The room cavity ratio is later used as one of the variables that will determine the efficiency of a given luminaire. The RCR is a significant factor in the final calculation and is in part responsible for the

Approximate Maintained Illuminance initial lumens × # of lamps × # of luminaires = length × width 2 As an example: Calculate the approximate maintained illuminance for a hotel room measuring 20 × 30 feet that is lighted by four luminaires containing two lamps each. Each lamp produces 2,500 lumens. Solution:

Figure 7.18  Zones associated with the zonal cavity method

naming of the calculation method. Another factor that is important in this process is the Coefficient of Utilization (CU)—a factor that relates to the overall efficiency of a luminaire design. Coefficients of Utilization are determined by the luminaire manufacturers and are presented in tables that make a correlation between the CU, the reflectance of a room’s surfaces, and the RCR for a given situation. Finally, a factor is incorporated into the calculations that deals with properties that inhibit the light in an application. This is simply known as the Light Loss Factor (LLF) but in reality comes to represent a number of complicated processes by which the light is lost or reduced in a given application. These losses represent factors like the effects of ambient temperature on a luminaire, heat exchange, voltage factors, ballast efficiency, lamp depreciation, burnouts, and the amount of dirt buildup/lack of cleaning that impairs a luminaire’s efficiency. This final illuminance level is further modified by additional factors such as a modifier based on the average age of the occupants using the space (less illuminance being required for occupants under the age of 25 while additional illuminance being added for occupants over the age of 65). While the actual calculation of the lumen method or zonal cavity method is quite complex, several shorthand methods exist that help designers make quick approximations of the average illuminance of an environment while avoiding the more in-depth analysis of using the full lumen method. The following formula (based on a method offered by Mark Karlen and James Benya) creates an estimate of illumination that will be close enough for initial ­treatments—but the full calculation should be utilized whenever possible. The final division by two is a representation for light loss factors like depreciation.

Maintained Illuminance 2,500 lumens × 2 lamps × 4 luminaires = 20 feet × 30 feet 2 =16.667 footcandles As a second example and by extrapolation: A desired illuminance can be used to determine how many lamps will be required for a given situation. Let’s assume that we want to produce an illuminance of 40 footcandles using the same space (20 × 30 feet) and luminaires/lamps that produce the same 2,500 initial lumens per lamp. The number of lamps required for this application will be as follows:

# of lamps (maintained illuminance × 2) × (length × width) = initial lumens (40 footcandles × 2) × (20 feet × 30 feet) = 2,500 lumens = 19.2. lamps or 9.6 luminaires Note: The resultant need of 19.2 lamps is divided by two (assuming the same two-lamp fixtures) which would call for 9.6 luminaires which would then be rounded to 10 (ten) luminaires.

Illuminance at a Point (Direct Component) Rather than making a calculation of the average illuminance over a plane as done in the lumen method, there are times when a designer will be more interested in determining the illuminance at a specific point. The illuminance at a point calculation can be done for both horizontal and vertical surfaces and is best utilized for a single light source. It is particularly helpful for determining the illuminance level of wall surfaces for applications such as chalkboards, bulletin boards, and any other vertical displays. It predominantly measures the direct component or line-of-sight measure of light coming from a luminaire to a particular point and is based on the assumption of a luminaire being best represented by a point light source. It becomes

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increasingly complex as more luminaires are added into the calculations and as additional reflections are factored into the process. The basic calculation of illuminance at a point considers the direct component of illumination only, which can be misleading since a significant amount of many lighting systems are affected by the many reflections that also occur in a space. As a basic principle, this calculation is a variation of the Inverse Square Law where the illuminance is not only based on throw distance but also adjusted for the angle in which the luminaire is oriented with the target’s surface. This calculation is also often adjusted for various light loss factors (LLF). The calculation also isn’t valid at close distances; illuminating engineers typically use the five times rule to establish whether the method can be used appropriately for a given calculation. This rule simply states that the distance between the source and target must be at least five times the largest dimension of the luminaire or light source. As an example, a 2 × 2 troffer’s maximum dimension is across its diagonal face. which can be determined to be 2.83 feet by using the Pythagorean Theorem. Five times this means that the target and source must be separated by a distance of at least 14.15 feet in order to provide reasonable results using the Inverse Square Law to calculate illuminance. The essence of the illuminance at a point formula is:

Illuminance of the surface

= intensity

×

cos θ distance 2

Illuminance (E ) = footcandles





Intensity (I ) = candelas







Distance (D ) = feet θ represents the angle between a light ray coming from a source to the point where the illumination is being calculated and normal to the plane in which the illuminance is being alculated. Figure 7.19 illustrates the relationships

Figure 7.19  Illuminance at a point components

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between the factors involved in illuminance at a point calculations. If light loss is entered into the calculations an additional factor, the LLF is added to the equation and the illuminance is multiplied by this factor. In addition to making illuminance calculations of both horizontal and vertical surfaces for interior locations, the illuminance at a point calculation is also used for exterior applications. It is particularly well-suited for making calculations in roadway lighting where luminosity is plotted from pole or masthead fixtures to the road surface below. When considering the effects of more than one light source striking a common surface, the illuminance of each luminaire is simply added to that of all the other luminaires to determine the total illuminance at a given point. The method is particularly effective for calculating the rate of falloff that a source will have when focused downward along a wall or other vertical surface. When expanding the calculation to account for the reflected elements, the calculation is changed to a formula that is essentially the same as the lumen method with the coefficient of utilization being substituted with an additional factor, the reflected radiation component (RRC) for horizontal illuminations or the wall reflected radiation component (WRRC) for vertical illumination calculations. These calculations are beyond the needs of this book but, if you are interested, you can find specific formulas and examples of these calculations in the IESNA references listed at the end of this chapter. In reality, many of the calculations that are used in lighting analysis are now done by a variety of personal computers and visualization programs. Many manufacturers produce their own analysis software—such as Cooper Lighting’s (now EATON) Lexicon software—or have created analysis applications that can be run from the manufacturer’s website. While the manufacturers’ software typically recommendations only their own products, there are other packages that will make recommendations across a number of different product lines and equipment manufacturers. The most popular of these software packages are Lumen Designer, Lumen Micro, and AGi32. Other lighting software packages will interface with AutoCAD, Revit, and even SketchUp software. In each of these cases, the software can make lighting calculations throughout an entire facility and can represent the data in a variety of formats—including simple isomaps that map out the areas of common illuminance throughout an environment—can make recommendations of fixture layout, and can even create fully rendered visualizations of the environment that are photorealistic in quality (Figure 7.20). There are a number of additional calculations that are typically utilized by illuminating engineers while completing a design project which are beyond the scope of this text. These, too, can also be explored in the references at the end of the chapter. These additional calculations are used to further define a design by exploring issues like glare

Figure 7.20  Computer analysis in lighting projects: (a) A mapping of luminance throughout a room (Lumen Micro). (b) Computer visualization of a lighting project using AGi32 software—Marriot Spring Hill Suite Banquet Hall (visualization design by David Brownell Credit: (b) photo courtesy of Lighting Analysis, Inc.

Figure 7.20  (Continued)

components through Visual Comfort Probability (VCP) calculations, spacing criteria calculations, daylighting calculations, and the calculation of various contrast ratios. Other common areas of calculation used extensively in architectural lighting relate to determining the efficiency and economical effects of lighting designs and systems. Issues like power density, payback, pricing maintenance and operating costs, and life cycle costing are just a few of the analysis that can be performed for a lighting design. Several of the more common analyses are presented later in this chapter.

The Architectural Lighting Design Process While there is now more consideration for design aesthetics and variation based on the needs of an individual project, maintaining minimal illumination standards and guidelines are still very much a part of the process of architectural lighting design. This new approach has resulted

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in a modified method of using design guidelines for the architectural lighting community since 2000. The last two editions of the IESNA Lighting Handbook (9th and 10th editions) address these changes and incorporate many of them into the design process while also providing the required recommendations on illumination levels for visual tasks. The ninth edition began the process of incorporating additional design considerations such as glare, color appearance, flicker, shadows, contrast ratios, and other more subjective lighting qualities into the design process while the 10th edition moved even further in consideration of these other lighting characteristics. The IESNA also publishes design guidelines that address specific parts of the lighting industry through a series of booklets called recommended practices. These provide guidance to the special needs of specific types of lighting installations. Several examples of specialty areas covered by IESNA recommended practices include houses of worship, museum lighting, health care, education, and the hotel/hospitality specialties.

Design and Construction Process There are two different processes that need to be discussed in regard to completing an architectural project. The first deals with the overall steps that a designer will complete throughout the entire renovation/construction of a project while the second deals with the lighting design process itself. When talking about an entire building program, a lighting designer works with an architect, client, and any number of other specialists from the inception of a project,. throughout the design and construction, and all the way through commissioning (startup) and post-construction reviews of a project. The process follows traditional practices that have been well-established by the construction industry and can take anywhere from weeks or months to several years to finish. While the names given to any particular phase of the process may vary somewhat between different professionals, most projects follow a fairly similar process. It should be noted that the distinctions between construction phases are often gray and that specific tasks may at times be combined differently between construction phases. Also, depending on a project and a designer’s contractual obligations, a lighting designer may be involved only with a limited number of the construction phases. Unfortunately, just as in theatrical design, architectural lighting designers are often brought into a project at a much later stage in the design process than the rest of the designers. A lighting designer must be flexible and may have to go back to revisit previous construction phases due to changes that can develop in a project. Something that may appear as simple as dropping an acoustic tiled ceiling by 6 inches for additional duct clearances can have an immense impact on the lighting of a space. Lighting designers are typically employed as contracted consultants under an arrangement that is either a straight fee for the design services or based on an hourly fee schedule. Even if the compensation is based on an hourly fee, most contracts have a statement that places a “not to exceed” or maximum limit on the fees that a designer may charge a client. If additional services are needed beyond those specified in the initial contract, these are re-negotiated for an additional fee.

Sidebar 7.3  CONSTRUCTION PHASES Programming Phase Schematic Design Design Development Contract Development/Document Bidding Construction Administration and Commissioning Post-Occupancy Evaluation

The first phase of construction, often called the programming phase, is the fact-finding stage of the project. Meetings are arranged with the clients, primary occupants, architect, and any number of other individuals who are involved in the project. The emphasis of this phase is in fact finding: discovering who will be using the space(s), how they will be using them, the project schedule, taking measurements, acquiring project details (color schemes, material treatments, etc.), conducting surveys of occupants, and discovering clients’ likes/dislikes, etc. The primary goal of a lighting designer at this point in the process should be in learning as much as they can about the project and defining and prioritizing the goals/criteria of the lighting project. In this phase of the project, the architect will be making preliminary decisions relating to the number of square feet of a building that will be dedicated or programmed to specific purposes. This will allow an initial budget to be developed based on the square-footage costs of the particular types of spaces contained in a project. Unfortunately, this stage of the process frequently takes place before a lighting designer is hired. The second project phase is the schematic design phase and is the equivalent of the conceptual or preliminary design phases found in entertainment design. The architecture is sketched out, preliminary designs are evaluated and discussed by the team and client, and a final approach and conceptual framework for a project are agreed upon. This is the point in the process where a lighting scheme or concept is often developed and many of the preliminary design decisions like choice of light sources and basic design approaches for each of the designed environments are going to be established. Budgets will be discussed and revised again as the project becomes more specific. Lighting designers may go further and could also present preliminary lighting layouts, a range of luminaire selections, and some preliminary photometric analysis of the project at this stage of the project. In reality, there are a number of times where this part of the design process and discussions are also completed without the lighting designer yet being on board. The third phase, known as the design development phase, is where the primary tasks of designing a project’s lighting actually occur. This is the design phase of when a detailed analysis of the project takes place, with the designer moving toward selecting specific luminaires for each application required throughout a project. Lighting layouts become more formalized, detailed photometric analysis are developed to ensure that illumination levels are within the recommended practices for the tasks to be completed, and control systems and their layout are developed. Frustrations that can occur at this point in the process come about when the lighting designer is expected to make specific design decisions while the architect and other members of the team are still making revisions that will

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have an impact on the lighting of the project. The budget is once again updated and further refined based on the development of the project. The fourth phase, the contract development/document phase, sets very specific lighting plans (lighting layouts) and other specifications in place. The goal is to lock in all the design decisions and to present a final design for the project. The most important task at this stage of the project is to develop contract documents that give contractors very specific instructions and specifications on what lighting equipment is required throughout a project and the way in which it needs to be installed. Many refer to this part of the project as specification. Specifications typically include very specific requirements that the luminaires and other equipment must satisfy. In some cases, a document package may even contain the cut sheets of the specific luminaires that a designer has chosen for a project. In reality, much of this phase is concerned with preparing documents in such a way that the contractors will not only have enough details for making accurate bids on the project but also, and more importantly, that they will have enough information to produce the lighting as designed. An architectural lighting designer should get into the habit of writing “tight” or very specific specifications for lighting equipment that they feel is needed to maintain a given quality of performance for the design or for which they don’t want to accept any substitutions. The lighting designer is only concerned with the specifications of the lighting equipment and the basic manners in which it is installed. Determination of specifics like conduit runs and sizing, wire gauging, and distribution boxes are all left to electrical engineers or the electrical contractors themselves. In many cases, a lighting designer’s drawings are not included in the final set of contract documents unless the project is relatively small (i.e., many residential projects) or especially complex (i.e., museum designs) where additional details will have to be provided. Here, the lighting designer’s fixture layouts, fixture schedules, and mounting details are provided to the architect and electrical engineer who will add the lighting to the architectural drawings—primarily the Reflected Ceiling Plans, which places the fixture locations in coordination with other building systems like sprinklers, overhead speakers, and HVAC grilles and duct work. The electrical engineer indicates all the fixtures on the electrical drawings and then goes on to add information on conduit and wire sizes, circuiting, switching, etc. On occasion, the specifications will not be able to be met within the proposed budget for a project and the design will have to cut back to fit within the smaller budget limitations. This is called “value engineering” and is represented by practices like reducing the number of luminaires or lamps in a design, selecting less expensive luminaires, and revising control and other design features.

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Bidding is the fifth phase of the construction process. The term refers to sending the contract documents to electrical contractors who will in turn examine the package and submit a bid for providing the lighting equipment and installation of the lighting design. Bids more importantly refer to a document that states that the electrical contractor will supply the materials and installation for a specific price. Many contractors are known for finding ways of cutting corners to increase their profit margins on a job and will often select inferior equipment or try to make substitutions that fulfill only the minimal specifications for a piece of lighting equipment. These inferior luminaires are often called “knock-offs” by the lighting industry. This practice can be prevented by writing specifications that are so stringent that only the selected products can fulfill the specifications. Other methods of controlling the use of knock-offs is to state either “no substitutions” or “the designer must approve any substitutions” somewhere in the contract documents. The designer must also be available to respond to any questions that electrical contractors may have regarding the bidding process, the specifications, and the consideration of any substitutions/modifications in the equipment throughout the process. The lighting designer may also help the client review the bids and select a contractor based on the proposals/bids that have been submitted for a project. The sixth phase, construction administration, includes the actual execution and construction phases of completing a design. It begins with the final approval/ selection of the bid and electrical contractor (awarding the bid) and ends with the client taking possession of the space or building. The majority of this part of the process is supervising the installation to ensure that all elements of the design are consistent with the plans of the lighting designer. One of the most important tasks of a lighting designer at this stage in the construction process is in either approving or rejecting an electrical contractor’s submissions of any substitutions for the lighting equipment. Traditional responses that may be used when accepting or rejecting lighting equipment include the following: “No exceptions permitted,” “Revise as noted—re-submission not required,” “Revise as noted and resubmit,” “Rejected,” or “Accepted.” If a fixture is rejected, the lighting designer must provide an explanation of why the unit is unsatisfactory. There will also be revisions that have to be made due to changes in architectural plans, modifications in other building systems, availability of supplies and equipment, and requests made by the client. When a change must be made, a change order document is issued that outlines the changes along with any adjustments in fees or costs that are a result of the change. In the best scenarios, these changes will be minimal and the project will be executed as originally conceived. The construction administration phase may involve creating more documented drawings

of various parts of a design, adjusting to modifications in the project, and dealing with change orders, as well as making regular site visits to observe the project’s progress and to address any installer’s questions. Many decisions are made and communicated through a simple conversation with the installers but there are times when revised plans and documents will have to be prepared by the lighting designer. When there are more significant questions or issues to address, a formal request in the form of a Request for Information (RFI) is sent by the general or subcontractor to the lighting designer through the architect. The lighting designer will then formally respond to the RFI in order to clarify information or to resolve a conflict that may have developed in the design. These may or may not result in having to issue any change orders for the project. The process of supervising submissions and responding to RFIs along with issuing any change orders represents the most extensive part of what a lighting designer will be doing at this stage in the design/construction process. The final element of this phase is going through a power-up or commissioning sequence in which the designer goes through the entire project to check the final control and circuiting of the lighting equipment, aims or focuses any fixtures requiring specific focus treatments, and sets or programs any presets/control features that are included in the design. The designer will also make a list (punchlist) of those items that are damaged or incorrectly installed and will work with the client to ensure that the contractor fixes these problems. The final phase of the construction process is an evaluation phase. In this case, the designer returns to a project sometime after the client has been using its design for a while and gets feedback on their overall satisfaction and how well the design is fulfilling the occupants’ needs. Possible problems with the design may also be addressed through this evaluation. Many refer to this as post-­occupancy evaluation. This evaluation may be done informally through simple conversations or could be as extensive as conducting quantitative studies through formal interviews and surveys. If evaluating a project over a longer period of time, a designer will also be able to observe issues like whether the design is being maintained and operated as intended. A designer may also be brought back on special occasions when elements of a design might be modified based on a client’s changing needs. A  fairly common example of this would be in reprogramming the control units to reflect a different set of needs required by the occupants, such as when a department store changes its floorplan layout of various departments. This last phase is ­important—although it is often skipped—because it not only determines the client’s satisfaction with the design, but also helps a designer to use the experience to tweak the design and observe/consider the effectiveness of the design for future projects.

Lighting Schemes and Design Process A lighting scheme or lighting concept is a specific approach to lighting a project. Lighting schemes tend to be associated with architectural projects, although designers may speak of lighting concepts just as they do in entertainment-related lighting designs. The scheme or concept creates a series of parameters or conditions through which the design team explores the particular demands of a project. Issues like overall mood and style of an environment become important elements in shaping a building—and therefore the lighting of a project as well. If the designer remains true to the architect or interior designer’s concept, each of their choices should reinforce the special features/ needs of a project while also contributing to the unification of the entire design. Once an overall concept has been developed for a project the lighting designer goes on to develop their own lighting scheme or concept. Through a lighting scheme, a designer will seek to address a number of specific questions. What is the task to be accomplished? What is the predominant mood? Are we trying to direct movement or traffic patterns in a space? Is there a focal point(s) to be established? What contrast ratios are appropriate for the environment? Can color temperature and type of source be an element of the design? Who will use the space? At this point, lighting qualities should simply be described visually rather than becoming overly technical. The lighting scheme represents the approach for lighting a project, and once developed will be used as a point of reference for the designer to work from while actually designing the lighting and making specific selections of fixtures, hanging positions, and intensity levels. Every lighting project, whether for a performance or permanent installation, should make use of a lighting concept/scheme in order to provide guiding principles for the realization of a design. Projects that have weak concepts are often not as successful as those in which a carefully considered scheme or concept has been utilized. The actual method of designing the lighting for an architectural project can vary considerably from one designer to another. In fact, it may also change significantly from one project to another. Despite this, there are still a series of tasks that play a role in lighting nearly all architectural projects. Although designers may refer to these steps differently, there are essentially four steps that a lighting designer completes when moving through most architectural projects. Some designers may use as many as eight or more steps in their personal design processes. The following sections provide a general approach to this four-step design process, which is presented in Sidebar 7.4. It should be noted that these steps relate only to the design of the lighting itself, which is different from working through the construction phases of a project. For comparison, one might also look at Glenn Johnson’s ADAPTIVE method of

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residential lighting design or Mark Karlen and James Benya’s eight-step approach to architectural lighting design. Both methods can be found in the references listed at the end of this chapter.

Sidebar 7.4  DESIGN STEPS IN ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING DESIGN 1 Determine the Design Needs 2 Determine Light Source/Luminaires (light source, photometrics, and actual luminaire selection) 3 Determine the Layout 4 Determine Control System(s)

DETERMINE THE DESIGN NEEDS  This is an extremely important step in the design process and relates to gathering information about the project. If incorrect information is collected here, the chances of designing appropriate lighting for a project can diminish significantly. This information addresses several areas in which a designer must learn about the specific needs of a lighting design. First, the designer must get a solid understanding of the space(s) that they will light. Architectural considerations form a significant element of these concerns, with issues like overall dimensions of a room, ceiling heights, depths of ceiling plenums or voids, the building systems

using a ceiling cavity, architectural features or details (window and door locations, materials and surfaces, skylights, etc.), and any other elements relating to the actual construction of the space. Second, and probably the most essential line of questioning, relates to the specific visual needs of the environment. What is/are the primary tasks or activities that will take place in the environment? Who will be completing the visual tasks (ages of the principal occupants)? Are there any special problems in visual acuity that the lighting must provide for? What are the likes/dislikes of the clients? How many hours a day will the lights be in operation and who maintains the lighting systems? What are the practical issues of executing the design (preliminary budget and schedule)? Additional areas where design criteria must be considered include the following: the role of daylighting in the environment; overall mood and appearance of the space; highlights and shadowing; flicker, glare, and sparkle; and overall control that the design will require. Even proposed furniture layouts and color schemes can play a significant role in the outcome of a lighting design. The choice of treating walls with white paint versus a dark wood finish can have an immense effect on both the lighting and perception of a space. A  designer will have to find answers to these and many more questions in order to gain a true understanding of a project. Sidebar 7.5 provides a sampling of just a few of the many questions that a lighting designer should be considering as they approach a new design project.

Sidebar 7.5  SAMPLE LIGHTING DESIGN QUESTIONS How does the lighting relate to the architecture and interior design? Does the design satisfy the aesthetics and primary needs of the client? Does the lighting contribute to the ambience or mood of the room or project? Are appropriate illumination levels created by the lighting? Does the design satisfy the needs of the primary visual task? Secondary?—etc. Is there an appropriate level of control for the lighted environment?

Many visual tasks are addressed through guidelines that have been established through IESNA recommended practices. In essence, these practices provide recommended minimum illumination levels for a specific type of visual task. In the IESNA Lighting Handbook and individual recommended practices that IESNA publishes, a designer can consult a series of tables to determine

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Does the lighting enhance the architecture and other elements of a space? Do the luminaires and other fittings blend in with the rest of the design elements? Are different levels of focus or accents established appropriately? Does the design comply with all applicable codes? How does the design satisfy lighting economics and energy use? Does the design satisfy the budgetary needs of the client?

an approximate level of illumination that is considered acceptable for a given task. As a basic reference, IESNA established seven broad categories of illumination based on the needs of delivering an ever increasing level of illumination for more critical tasks. These are grouped from Category A (least amount of light required) to G (representing the most demanding tasks). Sidebar 7.6 identifies

these categories and their associated illumination levels. Most recently, IESNA has expanded these categories to a new classification system listing visual illuminance categories from A (least critical) to Y (most critical). See the 10th edition of The Lighting Handbook for the new illuminance classifications. Also, when consulting the new

recommended practices and illuminance guideline tables in the handbook, target illuminance levels are now based on lux rather than footcandles (1 footcandle = 10.76 lux) and take into direct consideration different illuminance levels based on occupant age rather than applying additional factors to the illuminance levels based on age.

Sidebar 7.6  IESNA ILLUMINANCE CATEGORIES Simple Visual Tasks A Public Spaces B Simple Orientation C Simple Visual Tasks D Visual Tasks of High Contrast and Size E Visual Tasks of Low Contrast/Large Size or Visual Tasks of High Contrast/Small Size F Visual Tasks of Low Contrast and Size Special Visibility Tasks G Critical Visibility Tasks  

Below 3 3–5 5–10 10–30 30–50

footcandles footcandles footcandles footcandles footcandles

50–100

footcandles

up to 1,000 footcandles

**approaches lighting threshold *All Categories Referenced from IESNA Lighting Handbook (9th Edition)

As a designer begins a project they identify a given application and the specific visual tasks to be completed in an environment, then go on to consult a series of tables in the Lighting Handbook or specific Recommended Practice that relate to the given applications. When a designer references these tables (in either system), they are not only given a match to one of the major IESNA illuminance categories assigned to a task but are also presented with additional information that relates to the importance of a number of other lighting qualities that are related to the given task. Issues such as modeling, shadows, flicker, and glare are just a few of these qualities. Each of these is rated as being either Very Important, Important, Somewhat Important, or Not Important to the given task (Lighting Handbook, 9th edition). In the 10th edition, the approach has been modified to some degree but the principal tasks are once again provided with illuminance recommendations based on age and specific tasks/environments as well as a variety of more subjective lighting qualities. By looking at the additional information and specifics of a given project a designer has some leeway to adjust the illumination levels suggested by the illuminance categories and associated tables either upward or downward based on the specific needs of a project. These levels can be further adjusted based on issues like the ages of the occupants (where a factor is applied to the levels in the ninth edition while a specific target illuminance is indicated for an age group in the 10th edition) and the degree of complexity demanded by the visual tasks. It should be emphasized that these illumination levels are only recommendations and are not set as inflexible codes.

However, care must still be taken to specify lighting levels that still fall reasonably close to the levels of the recommended levels. Not doing so could leave a designer open for liability lawsuits. In some cases, as in the amount of light provided in an emergency exit or stairway of a high-rise tenant building, there may be a minimum light level required by local ordinances. Later, luminaires will be identified and laid out in a system that delivers the approximate level of illumination that has been determined at this stage in the process. There are also building codes that must be observed when designing a building’s lighting. The most sweeping set of codes that effect the lighting industry are found in the National Electrical Code (NEC), which specifies the way in which electrical equipment is designed and installed. While there are national standards like the NEC, most codes are actually under the jurisdiction and interpretation of local authorities—a designer must design systems that are in full compliance with the local codes. Not being aware of the codes leaves a designer open to liability claims and possible lawsuits. Many of the codes are relaxed in residential situations but can become quite stringent in areas where safety could become compromised. An example of this would be that only public and commercial buildings need emergency and exit lighting systems. Exit lighting provides lighted signage that points occupants to the exits while emergency lighting provides minimal lighting during power outages. In public buildings specialty codes like the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) may dictate items like special levels of visibility or the height of wall switches

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in particular areas of a building. Hospitals and nursing homes may have even more stringent codes that a designer must fulfill. Finally, there are codes that relate to energy conservation and management. While these generally have little impact on residential design (this is changing), most commercial and public buildings are required to bring a building’s lighting system into compliance with codes that regulate the efficiency of a building’s power use. In brief, the codes dictate a building’s allowable power density or how much energy that the building may use per square foot. This is typically expressed in watts/square feet. Acceptable levels can either increase or decrease based on the nature of a building and the particular tasks being completed in various parts of the building. The most stringent power density requirements are controlled by states such as California, but there are also less stringent national energy codes or standards (most importantly, the ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1– 2004) that apply to the construction and renovation of lighting in virtually every type of commercial installation. Only residential lighting is generally exempt from these codes. This forces lighting designers to rethink the manner in which they approach projects and is causing them to turn to more efficient luminaires while conserving additional power through incorporating devices like photocells, timers, and occupancy sensors into their designs. DETERMINE LIGHT SOURCE/LUMINAIRES  Identifying the correct luminaires for a project is an essential part of the design process. A  mistake here will result in a compromised design. The selection of a luminaire represents the culmination of several design decisions, but in the end is the most important consideration in a design. When a project is first evaluated, the lighting designer must consider the type of light source(s) that will be appropriate for a design. Would a store be best lighted by ceramic metal halide or by traditional fluorescent fixtures? Can any incandescent fixtures be used for contrast? Are LEDs a potential light source for various aspects of the project? Does the project require dimmable sources? How does color temperature and color rendering (CRI) play into the design? All of these are important questions that the designer will have to address regarding the light source(s) to be used on a project. The designer will also have to consider any special concerns relating to the needs of the luminaires. Does the lighting have to contain any flexible elements like track lighting? Do the luminaires have to be shielded to prevent glare? Does a client want to avoid ceiling clutter by hiding all the fixtures in the ceiling cavity? What is the depth of a ceiling cavity and how much clearance does it provide for housing a recessed luminaire? What other building systems are contained in the ceiling cavity and will any of these affect the luminaires in regard to issues like ventilation, insulation, clearance, and spacing? Once a light source/lamp and overall luminaire characteristics have been identified, the lighting designer can go to the manufacturers’ catalogs and websites to search for an appropriate match of luminaire and lamp to the needs of

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the fixtures. This will allow a general product line or lines to be identified that will fulfill the specific needs of the project. The next step is to look more specifically at the photometric data presented on a variety of luminaire cut sheets to choose specific luminaires that best fulfill the needs of the application. A  fairly extensive discussion in how to interpret the photometric information represented on these sheets can be found in the partner book, Stage Lighting: Fundamentals. This information along with lighting calculations is used to identify the best match between specific luminaires and the associated applications. This may have to be repeated several times in order to find several different fixtures that have the potential of satisfying the needs of a given application. Once a luminaire has been identified, the process is repeated for other applications within the design. By the end of this stage of the design process, every essential task will be matched to a specific make and model of luminaire. Other considerations that a designer addresses at this time might include the selection of similar models and finishes for all the luminaires so that they relate to one another aesthetically as well as to avoid too many different lamp types as a means of preventing incorrect relamping problems as less experienced workers change the lamps over time. A designer may also consider the actual number of luminaires that will be required to light an area that is defined by a given application—although this begins to cross into the next phase of the design process where fixture layout is determined. DETERMINE LAYOUT The lighting layout consists of one or more scaled drawings that show every luminaire and its location in the project. It is discussed in detail in the next section. In some ways, the layout stage of a design cannot be separated from the process of selecting specific luminaires since issues like individual beam spreads and patterns have such an impact on the spacing or mounting criteria associated with a fixture. Software is often used to run the calculations that are needed to check a match between the amount of footcandles/lux that a unit can deliver to the work plane and the illumination that is required for a particular task. Many software packages, including those that are supplied by individual manufacturers, not only run the calculations but also help predict the number of lamps/luminaires and even approximate spacing arrangements of the fixtures for a space. Through these steps, the list of luminaires can be narrowed down to the most appropriate unit for each task while their placements are also determined and set within the geometry of the space. Much of this centers on the development of the ambient or general lighting system for an environment—where a uniform quality of light is desired throughout a space and applications of the lumen method are used to determine if a system will deliver appropriate lighting for the space. Architectural lighting is also often designed to reinforce the architectural features of a room—like aligning rows of luminaires with windows, columns, and doors or centering/mirroring the fixture arrangement on either side of a room or building’s centerline. These methods are

particularly helpful when a ceiling grid or similar geometrical arrangement is adopted for the luminaire placements. Fluorescent troffer units in a 2 × 2 or 2 × 4 tiled ceiling are the most common example of this type of arrangement. Spacing a number of recessed PAR downlight fixtures uniformly in a drop ceiling is another popular method of delivering general illumination to a space. On the other hand, lighting layouts aren’t based solely on delivering general illumination to a project and through using layering; additional elements like task and accent lighting, grazing, and decorative fixtures can be added to the final layout. These additional features and layers are what will take the design beyond simply being functional and will help create the ambience and character that will make a design unique. One unique method of communicating the overall concept and layout of a lighting project is done through a process that some designers like to use called light mapping. Light mapping is an illustration of the effects of a lighting design in relationship to a floorplan of the space(s). Once the tentative layout and luminaire selection has been completed, the lighting designer makes an indication of the location of each of the fixtures on an overlay (acetate, vellum or tissue) of the floorplan while adding a shading of color (typically in the color of the light; i.e., yellow for incandescent fixtures) that represents the distribution patterns of the associated lighting fixtures. The density of the color is varied in proportion to the projected intensity of the associated light. In this manner a visual representation of the lighting can be easily communicated to the client. Figure 7.21 illustrates examples of light mapping for two design projects. DETERMINE CONTROL  Once a fixture layout has been determined, the designer can go back and finalize the methods of control that will be required for a project. In actuality, some of this has to be considered throughout the entire project, but this is the point where the details of the control get worked into a design. The first task, if it hasn’t already been done, is to determine which luminaires must be circuited together. Additionally, power saving options like multiple switching should be considered at this point in the process. A common power saving option for 2 × 4 troffers using four lamps involves circuiting the inboard and outboard lamps separately. This allows a different switch to be used for each circuit, which gives an occupant the option of using only half the lamps at any given time. In large rooms, it is rare for a single switch to activate all the luminaires in a room. Instead, the luminaires are usually ganged into several different circuits that control various portions of the room based on the arrangement of office partitions, task areas, or furniture groupings. Second, in addition to determining the circuiting requirements of a design, the lighting designer also specifies the location and type of switching device(s) that will be used for each circuit. Some of the more familiar examples of control that a designer might use include dimmers, photosensors, occupancy/motion sensors, and timers or other programmable equipment. Third, once the layout

Figure 7.21  Examples of light mapping: (a) A residential project. (b) A commercial project

and circuit assignments have been made, architectural lighting designers create fixture or luminaire schedules that are essentially variations of the entertainment lighting designer’s instrument schedule and circuit or control schedules that provide specification information based on the circuit/control assignments that have been made.

Lighting Layouts and Design Documentation Lighting layouts are the architectural equivalent to light plots. In many cases in architectural lighting, the designer will work as much, if not more, with the architect or interior designer as they might with the clients who will own and occupy a space. Much of the preliminary design materials that a lighting designer receives will already be in a CAD

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format (most commonly AutoCAD) since CAD is so commonly accepted in the architectural/electrical engineering industry. If the designer is not presented with a CAD file, they will most likely be given a floorplan and will then create overlays (vellum, tissue paper, or acetate) to illustrate the lighting layout. When using CAD, the information that is available is much more extensive and the lighting designer creates the lighting design on one or more assigned layers of the drawing. This process is better because the designer has access to all the other building systems and information like HVAC, plumbing, or furniture layout by simply turning the associated layers of immediate interest on or off. Any layers that are turned off become invisible but remain a part of the file so that they can be turned back on as needed. The drafted materials that are given to the lighting designer are generally supplemented with additional information like fabric swatches of window and furniture treatments, carpet and wallpaper samples, paint chips, etc. The drafted information included in these design packets traditionally includes floorplans, reflected ceiling plans, and the elevations for a space. There may also be some detail plans to add clarification to special aspects of the project. After the

Figure 7.22  A lighting layout

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floorplan, the reflected ceiling plan is the next most important design document that a lighting designer will need in order to design the lighting for a given space. This drafting provides the construction plans of the ceilings that will become the mounting locations for most of the luminaires. The reflected ceiling plan not only illustrates the ceiling, but also identifies features like soffits, cornices, trey ceilings, coffers, cathedral ceiling peaks, and vaults, domes, etc. These details are extremely important when considering the luminaire specifications and fixture layouts for a room. Even a simple tiled ceiling can be more effectively designed if the grid pattern is in part laid out through consultation with the lighting designer. In fact, many architects leave these grid layouts to the discretion of the lighting designer. In large or commercial projects the designer will also be given copies of the plans for the HVAC, electrical, plumbing, and other building systems that could have an impact on the lighting designer’s decisions. As stated earlier, this documentation is often organized in multiple layers of CAD drawings that allow for easy referencing between all of the system layouts. A lighting layout (Figure  7.22) typically provides an indication of the types of luminaries (wallwasher,

downlight, track lighting, troffer, sconce, etc.) along with their exact locations. Like a theatrical light plot, specific symbols are designated for each type of lighting fixture (Sidebar 7.7). The lighting layout also contains a title block and general information like a legend or key. Appendix E provides some basic information regarding the IESNA graphics standards for drafting lighting layouts. Additional information such as manufacturer, model numbers, and wattage are usually attached as tags to each fixture (tags are identification letters/numerals that are placed next to a luminaire's symbol.). In some cases, designers may show some of this information directly on the layout while more often they choose to identify the specific choices of luminaries, lamp specification details, and control data in the associated schedules. In these situations, the tag is often a simple letter designation that is used to identify the specific choice of luminaire with a numeral added for different variations of the fixture. This presents a cleaner layout while at the same time allows additional data to be represented in the associated schedules. For example, all luminaires of a specific model will be identified by a particular symbol and tag letter (i.e., A, B, C, etc.) while the same luminaire with different lamp specifications would be identified as A1, A2, A3, etc. The schedules list the luminaires by tag (i.e., A1, A2, etc.) and will then go on to list other pertinent data like manufacturer and model number, lamp type and wattages,

number of lamps, etc. Some designers also list the counts for each type of unit in the schedules, while others feel that this is a bad practice and say that all counts should be “per the drawings.” This places the burden of accurate fixture counts on the contractor and keeps the lighting designer off the hook in regard to any change orders that could come about as a result of a miscount—each at an additional cost of materials and labor. Sometimes the fixtures are drawn on the layout as an overlay of the entire facility on their own CAD layer, while other times they may be added to an existing layer such as the reflected ceiling plan or electrical plan. With the reflected ceiling plan, the luminaries can be illustrated in a manner that is directly related to the ceiling design in which they will be mounted. This could be particularly helpful in cases where a room contains an atrium, trey, cathedral, or tiled drop-ceiling. A lighting layout is usually created for each floor of a building. In a project where a designer is only lighting a limited portion of a larger building, such as a wing of an office building or store in a mall, only that portion of the facility directly affected by the design is represented. Many times additional information regarding the wiring and switching of the fixtures is also indicated on the lighting layout. In more complex cases, an additional layer or drawing will be used for designing the lighting control. In especially demanding situations, the lighting

Sidebar 7.7  COMMON ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING LAYOUT SYMBOLS (BASED ON IESNA STANDARDS)

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layout may be assigned to several layers, such as one level for those fixtures that will be mounted in the ceiling, a second level for wall mounts such as sconces, and a third level for floor-mounted units like under-counter luminaires or floor and table lamps. Examples of the control information that is often presented in a lighting layout include the addition of curved lines as a means of indicating which luminaires are wired together in the same circuit, tracing the circuit lines to particular switch locations, and notation of specific types of switches such as single-pole or three-way switches, dimmers, occupancy sensors, photo-relays, and timers. Figure 7.23 illustrates a lighitng layout that provides the additional control information for the design. The luminaire or fixture schedule (Figure  7.24) is very similar to the instrument schedule found in the entertainment industry with the exception that each luminaire is rarely given a unique number or identifier as in theatrical design. Instead, the fixture schedule only represents each type of luminaire present in a design

Figure 7.23  A lighting layout with control indications

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(although a column may be provided that lists the total number of each type of luminaire). Typical information that is provided for each luminaire in these schedules includes the luminaire’s tag, manufacturer and model number, a description of the luminaire, lamp specification, voltage, wattage, ballast or dimmer notation if needed, and other information like mounting instructions or type of finish that a luminaire will have. Most designers will add a final column for an extra description or note. Additional schedules may be developed based on the control layout (Figure  7.25) or even the lamps that are used throughout a project. The final part of the design documentation lies in creating a set of detailed lighting specifications that provide specific instructions on the required characteristics of the lighting equipment and how it must be equipped and installed on a project. These are often called the contract documents. The focus of these documents is on the specification details of the luminaires/control equipment and is typically presented in a manual or binder that is

Fixture Fixture Description Manufacturer Catalog Lamp Type Number Description

Wattage Voltage Location/Comment Remark

(3) F28T8 -3500K -85 CRI By Philips, GE or Sylvania.

28W

277V

Classroom Verify that dimming ballast is compatible with dimming system.

METALUX 2RDI 2RDI2BX40/RP/ TBW277 ER8DLS

(2) BX40 -3500K -85 CRI by Osram Sylvania, Philips or GE.

40W

277V

Front Office Suite Ambient Verify that electronic ballast is compatible with dimming system.

Continuous Suspended DirectIndirect Perforated Fixture

CORELITE CLASS A Perf/DI APWB3T82D277AC18T91 2ET

(3) F32T8 -3500K -85 CRI By Philips, GE or Sylvania.

32W

277V

Computer Classrooms, Library, and Conference Room Ambient

C

6-inch aperture Lensed Recessed Downlight

PORTFOLIO C6281 C6213E6280W2HB26

(2) 13 watt DTT -3500K -85 CRI

13W

277V

Front Office Suite and Library Accent

D

Interior WallMounted Cylinder Fixture

SHAPER 652 SERIES 652CFL/1277NA

(1) 26 watt CFL 26W -3500K -85 CRI

277V

Front Office Suite Accent

E1

LED Exit Light Thin SURE-LITES VRX profile/High Abuse VRX610000R

5.7 RED LED

5.7W

277V

At Required Code Locations

E2

Emergency Light Glare-free Lens and Metal Body with Sealed Nickel Cadmium Battery

(2) INCAD #29-86

9W

12VDC

See Plan Location

F

High-Bay Industrial METALUX F-BAY 2HB Luminaire

(6) F32T8 -5000K -85 CRI

32W

277V

Gymnasium Ambient

A1

METALUX EFIX-3R 2x4 Recessed F28T8/SP35/UMX/ECO Direct/lndirect with white indirect reflector and perforated center lamp shield

A2

2x2 Recessed Direct/lndirect with with white indirect reflector and perforated center lamp shield

B

SURE-LITES XR XR20MH1BRWH

Refer to plans for actual required lengths

Equip with Wire Guard

Figure 7.24  An architectural fixture schedule (based on a project from the IESNA Teachers of Lighting Workshop) PEACHTREE CITY MIDDLE SCHOOL LIGHTING FIXTURE SCHEDULE

created specifically for a given project. It is also used as a guide to the installation throughout the bid and construction process. More importantly, the binder and its associated paperwork is often given to the client following the commissioning of a project so that they have a ready reference for troubleshooting and maintaining the design. Most specification manuals are broken down into several dominant areas. The first part usually relates to general

information about the project (who the client and designer are, where the project is located, scope of the project, etc.). The remaining portion of this part of the documentation relates to a more generic description of the design process and is often done as a boiler plate using a standardized format that is altered to address the specifics of a project. Issues that are commonly identified in this part of the document are items like code compliance; copyright

Architectural Lighting   233

Channel/ Zone

Label

Description

Luminaires

Control

Load (watts)

 1

Track 1

Sitting Room Track Lights

6-MR-16 -Low Voltage Gimble Heads

LowVoltage Dimmer

300

 2

Track 2

Bar Area Track Lights

6-MR-16 -Low Voltage Gimble Heads

LowVoltage Dimmer

300

 3

Chandelier

Entrance Foyer Chandelier

1-Chandelier MF-1234

Dimmer

200

 4

Foyer Sconce

Entrance Foyer Sconce

1-Bowl Sconce MF-1222

Dimmer

75

 5

Bar Sconce

Bar Sconce

1-Bowl Sconce MF-1222

Dimmer

75

 6

Sitting Rm Sconces

Sitting Room Sconces

2-Bowl Sconce MF-1222

Dimmer

150

 7

Hallway

Hallway Downlights

2-Recessed Downlights MF-5555

Dimmer

200

 8

Aquarium

Aquarium Wallwashers

2-Recessed Wallwashers MF-4533

Dimmer

200

 9

End Shelf

End Shelf Wallwasher

1-Recessed Wallwasher MF-4533

Dimmer

100

10

Entertainment Center

Entertainment Center Wallwashers

4-Recessed Wallwashers

Dimmer

400

11

Window Seats

Window Seat Downlights and South Wall Wallwashers

2-Recessed Wallwashers 8-Recessed Downlights

Dimmer

1,000

12

Cove Lighting

Fluorescent Striplights

16-4’-T-8 Tubes (Warm)

Fluorsc. Dimmer

560

13

Living Room

Living Room Downlights

8-Recessed Downlights MF-5555

Dimmer

800

14

Bar

Downlight in Bar

1-Recessed Downlight

Dimmer

100

15

Bar Pendants

Pendant Lights Over Bar

4-Pendant Lights MF-3333

Dimmer

300

16

Sink

Sink Downlight

1-Recessed Downlight

Dimmer

100

17

Bar Shelving

Bar Wallwashers

2-Recessed Wallwashers

Dimmer

200

18

Bar Back

Under Cabinet Low-Voltage Strips

2-Cabinet Striplights

Dimmer

200

Figure 7.25  An architectural control specification (based on the project shown in Figure 7.22 and 7.23) SEABREEZE CONDO—UNIT 237 WEST CONTROL SCHEDULE R Dunham, Designer 11/20/1999

and warranty information; responsibilities of the contractor, client, and designer; and a table of contents for the remaining parts of the document. These specification documents can be extensive, very legalistic in the ways in which they are drafted, and can often run between 20 to 30 pages or more in length. Some designers create a specification document for just the lighting while others roll their specifications into a more general “project manual” created by the architectural firm that contains specifications for the entire project—not just the lighting. These types of binders can become hundreds of pages long. If this is the case, the lighting specifications are presented as part of the electrical section of the documents. This electrical section is usually presented in three parts: first, a general section containing boiler plate information such as code and project information as well as the manner of submitting substitutions; second, a product section that lists all the electrical products (including lighting); and third, a section on the installation of the lighting/electrical equipment. The second portion of the document addresses the specific needs of the lighting equipment and may contain or make reference to the cut sheets for each luminaire that has been selected for a design—although cut sheets are frequently not included as part of this document. In reality, cut sheets are often used to communicate more of the aesthetics of a particular fixture to an architect or interior designer during the design development phase of a project and once a fixture has been described in the fixture schedule there is usually no need for a cut sheet to be included as part of the documentation package. Ballasts and lamps are also specified at this point in the documentation as are any accessories or other details regarding the luminaire specifications. The Fixture Schedule is the most important part of this part of the documentation because it identifies the actual specifications for the luminaires and is what electrical contractors will predominantly base their bids and work upon. Veteran lighting designer Bill Warfel once told me that, “The schedule must be air tight because that’s what they [the contractors] use.” Additional drawings and schedules may be included in this part of the document to help communicate more specific information to the electrical contractor. This central portion of the electrical part of the document represents the most extensive part of the specification. The third and final part of the specification document is concerned with the installation practices that are to be utilized throughout a design. Once again, a standard format is used for much of this. While some of it addresses concerns like following manufacturer instructions and general code procedures, other elements address the specific needs of aiming or focusing the luminaires and any final preparations that should be made before turning the system over to the owners/clients. Some of these might include touching up any aiming

problems, creating or programming pre-defined looks or lighting presets, and cleaning the luminaires and removing any dust and grime that may have collected over the construction process. The lighting specification document is based primarily on a specification of luminaires, while a second type of specification, the control specification, addresses the project predominantly from a control perspective. This is much more simplistic than the lighting specification and deals with issues like zone or channel assignments, specification of control equipment, and its installation. In reality, control specifications are often not needed in many situations simply because most of the switching is done through nothing more than ordinary electrical switches. In this case, the indications of control found on the lighting layout are often all that are needed to document the control in this type of design. As a rule, the control specification is only used for more complex control situations. The entire set of design documents not only guide the electrical contractor through the bidding and installation process, but are also used by the client to help repair and maintain the lighting once a project has been commissioned. This information, along with providing some basic education in the upkeep and operation of a system is critical for enabling a client to keep a design in the same condition as when it first went into service. This documentation also provides information like what lamps are to be used in which fixtures, instructions in the operation of any control modules installed on the project, and maintenance information like cleaning and relamping schedules that will keep the lighting equipment in good condition and working at peak efficiency.

Daylighting Daylighting uses natural exterior light to help illuminate an indoor space. We speak of the amount of depth to which the light extends into a room from an exterior wall and its windows as penetration. Therefore, daylighting has a more prominent effect on buildings that display deeper penetrations—which can have both positive and negative effects on an environment. Skylights are another means of introducing daylight to a space.

Direct Sunlight and Skylight There are essentially two components of daylight: One relates to direct sunlight while the other relates to the effect of light undergoing atmospheric scattering in the sky. This scattering forms an overall soft diffuse source of illumination that we often simply call skylight. Direct sunlight is actually more often a problem than benefit to many architectural lighting designs. This is primarily due to issues related to the extreme contrast that it can produce

Architectural Lighting   235

Sidebar 7.8  DESIGNER PROFILE Robert “Bob” Shook

Credit: photo courtesy of Leslie Schwartz

Robert Shook began his career in theatrical lighting but was introduced to lighting architecture when he was asked to consult on a couple of architectural projects by Chicago architects who had seen his theatrical designs. He now works almost exclusively in architectural lighting and partnered with fellow lighting designer Duane Schuler in 1986 to form the architectural lighting firm of Schuler Shook. Bob holds the FIALD (Fellow of the International Association of Lighting Designers) designation and has consulted on numerous architectural lighting projects throughout the world. Several high-profile projects he has designed include O’Hare International Airport, the Chicago Downtown Lighting Master Plan, Wrigley Field, The Historic Water Tower (Chicago), John G. Shedd Aquarium (Chicago), Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (Ft. Wayne), Second Street Bridge (Columbus, Indiana), and numerous university projects (Rice University, Northwestern University, University of Notre Dame, Princeton University, and University of Chicago,). His lighting has won many awards (IESNA Int’l Illumination Design Awards, IESNA Illumination Design Awards, an IESNA Int’l Illumination Design Award of Distinction, IALD International Illumination Design Awards, and a GE Edison Award of Excellence). Shook was trained in theatrical lighting design and received a BFA from the Goodman School of Drama and an MFA from Ohio University. He was working in the Chicago theatre scene following his graduate work when he was first approached to offer advice on how to light architectural projects. “My reputation as a theatrical lighting designer in Chicago led some clients to call me to help them with architectural lighting challenges. As a theatrical lighting designer, I  welcomed the opportunity to design lighting that would be more permanent.” His initial break came

236  Architectural Lighting

when Chicago architect John Vinci hired him for several small lighting projects—this being before he had established a reputation in architectural lighting. This introduction to the field of architectural lighting was extremely helpful in gaining entry to other projects with additional architects throughout Chicago. In 1980, he met his future business partner Duane Schuler while working for the Chicago Civic Theatre and Duane was resident lighting designer for the Lyric Opera of Chicago. They worked together consulting on a number of architectural projects and eventually formed their own lighting firm. Bob’s preparation for architectural lighting came primarily through his participation in the many educational seminars that are conducted through IALD and IESNA. Even with many years of designing architectural lighting, he tries to attend as many educational opportunities as possible. “The IALD and IES offer excellent seminars that are sources of information to help you remain up to date in the discipline, particularly with evolving technologies.” In describing several unique differences between lighting for theatre and lighting for architecture he points out that, “Architectural lighting design differs from theatrical lighting primarily by its permanence. In most cases, once luminaires are installed in an architectural environment, there’s no moving them around or adding or subtracting to make corrections or refinements in a design. There’s also no rehearsal process and little opportunity to test ideas. A  lot more up-front research and calculation must be done to assure that the design will meet the client’s requirements and expectations.” He also shares that, “Architectural lighting must conform to local and national energy codes, so designs must utilize energy-efficient sources, primarily LED. Designs must be tested for energy usage in addition to illumination levels, architectural integration, and artistic concept.” What Shook likes best about designing in architectural lighting is that every project is completely different in regard to the artistic requirements that it will have. He also likes the collaboration that takes place over the lifetime of a project and believes that, “Lighting designers must discover how best to relate lighting to each architect’s personal artistic process.” This attitude also ties into what he considers to be one of the most essential principles of working in this area of lighting—that, “The lighting must be completely integrated into the architecture and that the lighting and architecture must be seen as one complete design.”

between the lit and unlit portions of a room, the glare that it can cause, and the greenhouse heating effect that is produced once daylight becomes trapped within an interior. Architects often design architectural features like awnings or light shelves into buildings to either block or trap light depending on whether the designer is trying to trap/­harvest or eliminate daylight and its effects. Most window glazing or glass treatments permit sunlight to enter a room but slow its speed down through the act of passing through the glazing material. This change in speed causes the wavelength of the light to be extended so that much of the radiant energy associated with the light is converted into heat. To further the effect (the greenhouse effect), the longer wavelength heat waves are unable to pass back through the glazing material and become trapped inside the room as heat. While this may be beneficial to the building’s heating during the winter, it can play havoc on the air-conditioning systems during the summer. Several methods of preventing both glare and the entrance

of excessive sunlight into a building include insetting windows deeply within an exterior wall (window wells), adding awning elements to a window, using manual and automated shade/blind systems, creating extended overhangs and soffits to shade the windows from direct sunlight, and even using glazing materials that can be adjusted or manipulated electronically to allow more or less light to pass into a building. These are often controlled by automated systems where photosensors are placed in the room at about a third of the distance from the exterior wall. The sensors are then used to automatically turn additional lights on/off, adjust blinds, shades, or the density of the glazing material. In the opposite case, where a designer wants to bring more light into a room, devices such as light shelves and prismatic glass can be used to reflect additional light through a window and into a room where it contributes to the ambient lighting of the space. Through devices like these, light is reflected upward toward the ceilings where it is used as a source of indirect illumination. Figure 7.26

Figure 7.26  Daylighting techniques: (a) Blocking sunlight from a window glazing, (b) Harvesting daylight, (c) Several skylight designs

Architectural Lighting   237

illustrates techniques for both shielding and harvesting daylight. Sunlight in itself is unreliable as a direct light source due to the extreme variation that it may have and is often considered only as a supplemental light source for a building’s lighting. The second type of daylighting, skylight, is much more consistent and can be considered a more important source for lighting an interior. While there are still factors that influence a building’s exposure to skylight, it has an overall predictability that the extreme fluctuation of direct sunlight does not. Just a few of the many factors that will have an impact on a building’s daylight exposure include the time of day, geographical location and orientation of a building, seasons, and weather—even the seemingly unimportant factor of cloud cover can actually have a profound effect on a building’s exposure to daylight. Building sites that are located in areas like Los Angeles or Orlando where there is a more dominant influence of sunlight will generally be designed with more daylighting features than buildings located in areas like Boston or Chicago where there are a greater number of overcast days. However, being sensitive to daylighting considerations can benefit any building’s design, no matter where it is located.

Penetration Several of the more important considerations of skylighting relate to creating mechanisms that will increase daylight penetration into deeper portions of a building. On exterior walls, this is done through creating devices that provide for a longer or more direct exposure of daylight for an interior space. In a commercial building where an entire exterior wall might be made of glass with little or no overhangs between floors, much more sunlight can penetrate into a room than if the windows were of either a more traditional size or if there were large overhangs above each of a building’s stories. Also, since we are usually only considering skylight, the constant variations in direct sunlight become less important in our design considerations. In addition to allowing light to enter a room directly through a building’s glazing, many daylighting solutions also explore ways of redirecting daylight into a room by reflecting the light off of surfaces like light shelves. This also helps bring daylight deeper into a room. In the case of direct sunlight, the technique can also play a role in the diffusion of the sunlight. In interior rooms, that have no opportunity for sunlight exposure, a designer can provide skylights as a way of bringing daylight into these rooms.

Daylighting Control Due to the unreliability of daylighting we cannot generally consider it as a primary light source where critical tasks are performed. However, with today’s ever-increasing

238  Architectural Lighting

awareness of the costs of energy, daylighting is becoming an ever-more important consideration as a source of supplemental lighting for a building. In the future, it will continue to gain popularity as energy management becomes an important consideration of the construction industry. When daylighting is used as a secondary source, engineers will first specify lighting that effectively accomplishes the lighting tasks without any influence from daylighting at all. Then, they will go on to create techniques that will allow the initial lighting to be paired back as more daylight becomes available for supplementing the design. Some solutions can be as simple as circuiting the lights so that the luminaries are ganged and switched in rows that are parallel to an exterior wall. Through this simple technique, each row can be switched separately and turned on or off progressively as daylight enters deeper into the room. More elaborate solutions include circuiting a room’s lamps into zones that are connected to photosensors that switch the lamps on when daylight levels fall below a specified level or elaborate computer systems that monitor and activate the lighting according to daily schedules that are based on daylighting conditions and a building’s occupancy needs. A  practice that is currently gaining popularity in energy management involves lighting restrooms primarily with skylights that are supplemented with fixtures that are turned on or off by occupancy sensors. If nobody is detected in the restroom after a set period of time, the electric lighting is automatically turned off until someone reactivates the sensor, which then restores power to the lights. In many installations, computers are synchronized with astronomical clocks that allow the lighting to be pre-programmed for daily and seasonal variations over an extended period of time once parameters like latitude and longitude or other geographical influences have been entered into the lighting program. Daylighting is becoming an ever-more important consideration of building design as the costs and availability of energy continue to play an increasing role in our society. Figure 7.27 provides an example of a building where the primary source of the lobby’s lighting is coming from daylighting techniques, In addition to energy conservation and contributing to the preservation of our natural resources, daylighting also provides a pollution-free method of adding supplemental light to our interior environments. As resources become more depleted, it can be expected that there will be increased regulation from the federal, state, and local authorities dictating even more stringent lighting efficiencies than those that are already in place. States like California and New York are already more heavily regulated than other states and are setting the pace for power conservation and lighting efficiencies of the future. As power densities become a more critical element to lighting design, reliance on alternate sources like daylighting will play an ever more important role in the future.

Figure 7.27 Daylighting in the lobby of the Crocker Art Museum (daylight visualization study by Julie Jensen of PIVOTAL Lighting Design Affiliated Engineers using AGi32 Software) Credit: courtesy of AGi32 Software and Lighting Analysts, Inc.

Lighting Green and Lighting Economics From the energy crisis of the 1970s on, lighting professionals have searched for ways to reduce our need for power, examined alternative energy sources, and looked to a variety of technologies for conserving and protecting our resources and environment. One of the programs in the construction industry that emphasizes environmentally friendly building practices is the LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) certification program. This program provides certification of a building through earning qualifying points by practicing environmentally sound building practices. Lighting is only one area that affects the certification process, but it can account for over a dozen points toward the certification score for a particular building project. While other parts of our society focus on conserving gas, commuting, recycling, and eliminating waste, the lighting industry has focused on issues like energy conservation, luminaire and power efficiency, and elimination of hazardous materials in its daily practices. While much of the interest in conservation is tied to making the earth a better place to live, an even larger part of the effort is economically based and relates to finding methods to lower a client’s power and lighting-maintenance bills as electricity and other sources of energy become more expensive. Unlike entertainment lighting systems, architectural lighting systems are in operation for many hours a day. When considering a commercial building, this may mean that a considerable amount of power is consumed as the lights perform their daily tasks. This becomes even more significant as buildings get bigger and expand into large square footage or multilevel structures like warehouses, industrial complexes, and high-rise apartments or office towers. In large commercial buildings, lighting is often one of the most energy-demanding systems to operate. It can also

have serious impacts on other building systems: for instance, using more light sources can raise the temperature of a room which forces the air-conditioning units to work harder. Most economical concerns that relate to lighting are aimed at either reducing the power demands of an installation or making determinations of how long it takes for the savings in an investment in new lighting equipment to pay for itself. These economic issues are addressed through a series of practices that are collectively called energy management and lighting economics. Energy management relates to finding ways of reducing a building’s power demands while at the same time causing a minimal loss in quality to the lighting and other building systems. Power conservation has become so important that there are now energy codes that dictate how much power a lighting design may use over a given period of time. This is expressed in power densities that relate to the watts/square foot that a building system consumes. The most widespread energy code that specifies power densities is the ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1 code, which dictates the maximum number of watts/square foot that a lighting design may use for a given application. This and other energy codes will increase or decrease the allowed power density specifications based on the activities that take place in a given environment. The maximum power density for a hospital or electronics manufacturing facility is higher than one allowed for a hotel, while the power density allowed for a school or office building is higher than those of an apartment building or parking garage. Nearly every building or renovation project must now be designed to be in compliance with these power density requirements— and several states, like California and New York, have even more stringent power codes. The all-purpose incandescent lamp is one of the least energy efficient means of producing light available—by some calculations, up to 90% or more of the energy is wasted as heat. This wasn’t a huge factor in the early days of electric lighting because power resources were abundant and not very costly. However, as modern society became more dependent on power generation and electric lighting, the need for using fossil fuels became more demanding. Around the mid-1900s (as well as with energy crises like those of 1973 and 1979) it became apparent that these resources weren’t renewable and that energy wasn’t always going to be cheap and readily available. This led to the development and use of newer, more efficient light sources like fluorescent and HID sources. These became more popular as the population grew—and since they were more economical than incandescent lighting, they were adopted in a wide variety of applications that eventually resulted in most commercial and retail operations embracing them. The demand continued to grow at an ever-increasing pace and luminaires using these sources were frequently specified simply because a designer could use them. Little thought was ever given to how much power that the units used. The efficiency of a design beyond determining overall power loads or circuit capacities wasn’t a large factor

Architectural Lighting   239

in the design process at that particular time. Power was cheap and many designs simply squandered power because it was readily available. Designers also tended to believe in the falsehood that better illumination was characterized by both more and brighter luminaires. We have once again crossed a point where energy efficiency has become a primary concern in lighting, which has resulted in the current emphasis being placed on solid-state light sources like LEDs. One of the primary goals of any architectural lighting design, beyond providing appropriate illumination for a task or environment, now lies in designing a lighting system where power is conserved and energy waste is eliminated. Much of this conservation is accomplished through practices that reduce or limit the amount of time and number of luminaires that are in operation at any given time. This is done primarily by turning the luminaires on and off as needed—as opposed to leaving all the lights on at full intensity for the entire time that a building is in operation. The simplest way of saving energy is in simply creating more circuits that can independently switch luminaires or areas of the building on and off as needed. To make this technique even more effective, specialty switches or relays can be placed in the installation that ensure that unused lights switch off automatically when they are not needed. Timers may be used to turn lights on and off during business hours, photosensors can be used to turn lights on and off as light from daylighting penetrates deeper into a room, and occupancy sensors can be used to turn lights off in rooms or areas that become unoccupied. Dimmers may also be incorporated into a design to not only switch luminaires on and off at various levels, but to also lower an area’s power consumption by setting the lights at a less than full intensity. In fact, it is a common practice in architectural lighting to limit a dimmer’s maximum level to approximately 80–90% in order to not only conserve power but to also add lamp life to the lamps that are used in a design. Even without switching, there are methods of conserving power and making a lighting system more efficient that don’t have to jeopardize the quality of the light in an environment. Some of these include the creation of more efficient lamps and luminaires that can deliver as many footcandles to an environment while at the same time consuming less power. Innovations that conserve energy in this manner include the energy miser lamps (retrofit lamps of a slightly lower wattage that produce about the same amount of light as their predecessors) and alternative lamp designs like compact fluorescent (CF) and LED lamps. With lamps like these, power densities for a project can be improved upon while the quality of the lighted environment is essentially unaffected. LEDs are rapidly appearing in both retrofit lamps that are used to replace conventional incandescent sources in older luminaires as well as are even more heavily utilized in the design of the latest models of architectural lighting fixtures. While consuming much less

240  Architectural Lighting

power, the latest generation of LED sources have extensive life spans as well as can produce light that is quite comparable to the conventional sources. In addition to creating more efficient luminaires, the emphasis on creating successful lighting has also shifted away from simply delivering a minimal intensity of light for a project. We now place more value on the entire visual experience—not simply greater intensity levels, as other lighting qualities are also valued. In fact, there are instances when lower intensity levels might even be desired. The industry has also relaxed some of the recommended practices so that the minimum illumination levels aren’t as rigid as they once were and a designer has more discretion in varying the intensity based on the individual needs of a project. When we speak of economics in lighting design we are addressing issues that relate to the purchase, installation, and operating costs associated with maintaining a lighting system. Lighting economics can relate to studies that compare the operating costs of proposed and existing lighting systems, determining how long a system must remain in operation in order to pay for itself, predicting equipment life cycles and number of years that a system can be maintained, and determining maintenance and relamping schedules. One of the most important economic considerations that a lighting designer should be familiar with is life cycle costing. This is a calculation that predicts how much a lighting system will cost to install, operate, and maintain over its projected life span. It is often used to make comparisons between different lighting solutions for a project—taking care to ensure that any proposed designs are truly comparable to one another. Elements that are considered in life cycle costing include the initial costs of the materials and labor to install the lighting system, the annual energy costs associated with operating the system (the kilowatt rate multiplied by the number of lamps, wattage, and hours of operation/year), and the costs of maintaining the system (number of burnouts that can be expected along with the costs of replacing them as well as the costs and amount of time for maintenance workers to change the lamps, clean the fixtures, and maintain the system). Another consideration of operating a lighting system relates to relamping the luminaires. There are essentially two approaches to this task. The first, spot relamping, requires maintenance workers to replace lamps on an irregular basis as burnouts occur. This may be the preferred method of relamping in those situations where a client never wants to see more than a few burnouts at a time or where it is easy to get to the fixtures to replace a lamp. Lamps with extended service (longer lamp lives) may also be used in areas where it is hard to replace lamps. However, there are times when spot relamping isn’t very economical. In group relamping, lamps are replaced together as a group on a regular schedule such as every 18 months or three years. The actual relamping schedule is based on the number of hours that the system is in operation and the rated lamp life of the lamps. As

a rule, group relamping is considered around the time that the lamps have gone through about 80% of their life cycle. This has an advantage in that facilities personnel will always know approximately where in the life cycle all the lamps may be—but more importantly, they can use more efficient relamping practices if all the luminaires are cleaned and relamped at the same time. This is especially true in situations where special lifts and equipment are required to gain access to the luminaires. One final economic consideration that is quite useful for making comparisons between lighting renovations involves the concept of payback. Payback simply relates to determining the point in time in which a proposed lighting system saves enough money in maintenance costs and power savings to pay for itself. This is done by calculating the operating costs of both the proposed and existing systems and subtracting the savings of the proposed system from its original costs. The calculations are usually done for predicting the costs of operating both systems for one, three, and five years following the proposed renovation. One of the driving forces of many architectural lighting projects is simply in replacing outdated luminaires with more efficient equipment that can save the client money in maintenance and energy costs. The largest cost of operating any lighting system is the cost of the energy used to operate it. By updating a lighting system, it is often possible to regain the initial costs of purchasing and installing the equipment just through the energy savings that will be made after the system has been placed in operation. In many cases, payback can be achieved in as little as three to five years. As a further incentive, many power utilities offer cash or reduced power rates to customers who lower their power demands by completing significant lighting renovations.

Examples of Interior Lighting The two final sections of this chapter provide a basic introduction to several of the more prominent specialty areas of architectural lighting design. Each has unique qualities that make it different from all other areas of lighting design. If you are particularly interested in a given area of architectural lighting you can refer to one of the more specific references listed at the end of this chapter. Although several general principles and concerns are presented for each of the applications that are illustrated throughout the rest of the chapter, specific design guidelines are beyond the scope of this book. In reality, no practice is set in stone: like a cookbook that identifies a basic approach and ingredients for creating dishes like chili, every project will be a unique creation based on the individual tastes of the chef, the way they like to doctor it, and their guest’s preferences. For more specific information relating to common design practices or specific demands of working and specifying designs in a given area you should refer to the IESNA Lighting Handbook or, even more importantly, the specific IESNA Recommended Practices that are written for many of the

specialty areas that are introduced here. Additionally, Gary Steffy’s Architectural Lighting Design and Lighting Design Basics by Karlen and Benya both present good examples of information related to basic design preparation and contract documentation.

Residential Lighting Of all the interior lighting applications, residential lighting design is the one area in which there is little regulation in terms of codes that govern the development of a design. While certain codes are still relevant—like the NEC or equipment being certified by the Underwriter’s Laboratory that relates to product installation and safety—most areas of residential design still go unregulated. This may soon change as states like California place more regulatory demands on residential installations by creating more stringent energy codes. Current regulations strive to place fluorescent fixtures in a growing number of residential applications (bathrooms, kitchens, porches, and service areas like garages and laundry rooms) while also encouraging the use of occupancy/motion and photosensors as well as more widespread dimming for any remaining incandescent lamps. If the “ban the bulb” movement continues, residential lighting will have to change significantly in the not-so-distant future. Despite these growing demands, a residential lighting designer has considerable freedom to create designs that are for the most part only accountable to the client or principal architect. This doesn’t mean that they shouldn’t pay attention to the general practices followed by the rest of the lighting industry—or that a homeowner isn’t concerned in whether a design is energy friendly or in avoiding large utility bills. Every home makes use of some degree of architectural lighting. However, most homeowners are content with contractor-grade luminaires and layouts that have been created by the architect. When building a home, a homeowner is typically given a lighting allowance that allows them to go to a lighting retailer and pick out their own lighting fixtures. An occasional dimmer and/ or track or accent light may be added at the request of the owner. The remaining elements are frequently finished through do-it-yourself installations of equipment that has been bought at lighting showrooms, home improvement stores, or through a selection of floor and table lamps that are picked more for the interior decorating scheme than for lighting design. True residential lighting design is usually limited to high-end residential structures. A designer who works on these projects may work directly for the homeowner or might be part of a team that includes an architect, interior designer, and other residential building specialists. The project may involve new construction or could be part of a renovation. One especially popular area of residential lighting is in working with clients on condo projects where owners have purchased a condo shell that is then laid out into rooms and completely custom

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designed. Renovation projects can be especially challenging since existing building systems are often poorly documented along with the additional complication of combining elements of both the old and new lighting into a single unified design. Most residential design involves lighting a wide variety of spaces and a designer needs to work very closely with the homeowners to prevent communication from becoming confused throughout a project. Residential design is also of a more personal nature than other areas of lighting design: A designer must make special efforts to understand the likes, dislikes, and specific needs of the clients. The clients have invited the designer into their home and he/she needs to help them discover what will work best for their specific situation. Personal preference is at its highest level when working with residential clients. Decorative fixtures are a significant part of many of these designs: chandeliers, wall sconces, pendants, track lights, and floor/table lamps are some of the more popular decorative luminaires that are common to residential lighting. Recessed downlights and wallwashers are also popular in many contemporary residential projects. Other especially important elements include determining which parts of a project are to be used as public areas for entertaining and what will remain as private areas of the residence. Ambiance and mood will also play an important role in many residential projects and can vary considerably from room to room. In fact, dimming and elaborate control systems are often installed on high-end residential projects simply to provide the residents with a means of altering the moods and functionality of each of the spaces. Some of these systems will provide dimming that is independently controlled for every room while in others dimming will be mastered into elaborate control systems that can provide central control of any fixture (interior or exterior) on the property—some systems even feature control by remote access through devices such as a cell phone or an online interface. Often these more elaborate lighting systems are wired into the security systems of a home and can turn lights on and off in pre-programmed sequences to give a “lived in” look to a property—even if the owners are out of town. Additional security features often include remote access and control of the system and a “panic mode” in which all the lights come on when the intrusion alarm is tripped. Individual rooms are designed predominantly from the viewpoint of the types of tasks and activities that will take place in them. A kitchen must provide good illumination on its counters for preparing food while a bathroom will require good perimeter lighting around the mirrors so that the clients can apply makeup and/or shave properly. An entrance foyer should be inviting while also providing a sense of security for not only the clients but also any guests who approach the home from a street or walkway. A home theatre will require multiple controls and should have dimming capabilities while a laundry room or shop can

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receive good ambient lighting that might best be satisfied with bright fluorescent fixtures. Rooms like dining rooms, living rooms, and bedrooms will almost certainly have several layers of lighting that are combined with switching and dimming that allow the spaces to be modified as the tasks and mood of an environment might change. A lighting designer should also identify points of interest within a residence that can be pointed up through an addition of an accent or other lighting element. Adding in-cabinet lighting within a china cabinet to add sparkle to a crystal collection, identifying and placing accents on wall spaces and architectural elements like niches where artwork will be displayed, or providing additional task illumination in offices or sewing rooms where more critical tasks will be completed are just a few examples of where a lighting designer can bring additional comfort and functionality to a home. The primary role of these designs is in enhancing a residential environment. Finally, many residential projects expand to lighting the exterior of a home. Some of this lighting will relate to lighting the structure itself while some will cover the walkways and surrounding grounds. Just as in interior lighting, the exterior should be lighted in such a way that enhances the features of the building. Additional lighting systems such as security lighting are also often part of an exterior lighting design. Much of the exterior of a home, along with the plants and foliage, will be lighted through landscape lighting, which is discussed in detail in Chapter 8. Examples of different styles of lighting for two different types of residential spaces are illustrated in Figure 7.28.

Hospitality (Hotel, Club, and Restaurant) Design Hotels, restaurants, and clubs are places where a lighting designer will have the flexibility to be very creative. In fact, restaurant and club designers work especially hard to display some degree of theatrical flair in their lighting designs as a means of bringing visual interest and an appropriate ambiance to a dining or recreational experience. In some cases, this theatrical element becomes full-fledged themed design, which can include scenic environments, special effects, animatronics or live characters (often the waiter staff), and even full-blown theatrical presentations—some of which the diners or guests may be full participants in. Themed design actually takes on a whole different perspective than simply designing a restaurant or nightclub. Although there are themed portions of many architectural designs, there needs to be functional elements like circulation and task lighting that must also be accomplished throughout a project. Chapter  9 speaks specifically to themed design and has specific sections focused on architectural projects like restaurants. Club lighting is a combination of architectural, music, and themed design and was addressed in Chapter 2 (The Music Scene). Hotel and restaurant lighting design, like all the remaining design areas addressed in this chapter, is designed

Figure 7.28 Residential lighting design: (a) A  living area (open-concept design). (b) A kitchen Credit: photos courtesy of EATON

for public spaces and come under much more regulation than residential designs. Minimal illumination levels are set by codes and standards, energy codes are usually in force, installations will have to follow commercial electric codes, and specialty lighting systems must be incorporated into the design and final installation of these projects. The most obvious difference between residential and hospitality design is in that these projects create public environments where most of the occupants probably won’t be familiar with a given space. Two lighting systems that address this difference directly include the exit and emergency lighting systems that are required by law for any public space. Both systems’ sole function is in helping occupants move through an unfamiliar environment. Outside of these systems, the lighting is treated primarily on whether a specific location in a building is considered a public or private space. Regardless of a room’s location or function, layering is an important element of these designs; many decorative techniques like grazing are used to add variety to a building’s

materials and surfaces. Also, a designer should take care to specify fixtures that result in a minimal number of lamp types throughout a design. This will allow a client to better maintain the lighting since fewer lamp types will have to be inventoried and there will be less chance of “wrong” lamps being placed in the luminaires. These projects will also have exterior areas that are lit in connection with the rest of the project. Garden pathways, pool areas, terraces, and other guest amenities can frequently create transitional areas between the building (both its interior and exterior) and any neighboring spaces. Several examples of hospitality lighting (specifically hotels) are presented in Figure 7.29. There are many different areas in a hotel or restaurant, some public and others private, that have an associated set of activities calling for a variety of lighting treatments. Mood performs an important function in hospitality lighting and is controlled on both a grand as well as more limited scale in different spaces throughout a facility. While an overall mood or ambience is often created throughout the majority of the public spaces, the moods created for the many smaller spaces require some flexibility so that the ambience of any given space can be altered as needed. As a rule, most public areas are lighted with ambient lighting for general circulation that is then accented and layered upon to fulfill specific tasks or functions that are needed by a design. Frequently, parts of a larger space like a lobby are broken down into smaller zones that have slightly different lighting treatments based on the activities that must be performed in each area. Decorative elements—especially those that add glitter or sparkle—are also quite common to public areas of most hotels and restaurants, and they are often added simply to impress. Most hotel lobbies illustrate a number of these practices. The main foyer/reception area is usually well-lighted and often contains impressive architectural elements that are frequently accented. Decorative components like impressive chandeliers or wall sconces are also found in a typical lobby design. Looking a bit more carefully, there will also be several lounging areas where guests can have conversations or pass time. These areas are frequently supplemented by task lighting like table lamps or other lighting elements. Also, lighting is frequently used to help direct guests to important features of the lobby: the registration desk, elevator lobbies, and bell captain stations are guest services where the lighting is usually altered to bring attention to these areas. Signage, artwork, and specialty displays are often accented by framing projectors, track lighting, or other forms of accent lighting. Linear fixtures like rope lights can be used to accent windows, line stair treads, or bring emphasis to other architectural features. Finally, ceiling treatments and overall luminaire layout can be used to help guide guests to different areas of a building like hallways that lead to ballrooms or dining/bar areas, meeting rooms, and parking garages. Natural light and daylighting can also play a role in many hotel lobbies with many using skylights, large window walls, or atriums in their designs. Additional, specialty areas like

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Figure 7.29  Hospitality lighting (hotels): (a) Agua Caliente Casino Hotel in Rancho Mirage, California (lighting by Tom Ruzika). (b) Public corridors of a mid-grade hotel. (c) Semi-private corridor leading to meeting rooms of a high-end hotel. (d) Andaz Maui at Wailea in Hawaii, A luxury hotel lobby (lighting design by Paul Gregory and Focus Lighting) Credit: (a) photo courtesy of The Ruzika Company, (d) photo courtesy of Focus Lighting, photo by Doug Salin

high-end retail stores or gift shops are frequently found in hotels which can make use of these more elaborate lighting schemes as well. Areas of a hotel that are common yet private—such as hallways designated for access to guest rooms—are treated with some degree of elegance but not to the same degree as the more public lobby and general circulation areas. As

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a primary lighting task, guests need adequate lighting to navigate through the hallways and to identify their rooms. Decorative elements like sconces, especially in the area of the elevator lobby, are also usually included in these hallways. The guest rooms themselves are generally lit with several layers of task lighting on top of any ambient lighting that may be provided in a room. Desk and night stand or

table lamps are among the most popular methods of providing task lighting in guest rooms. Other areas that receive special lighting treatments are the bathrooms. These are often lit with a higher degree of illumination over the vanity mirrors for visual tasks like shaving or applying makeup. Additional lighting may come through ceiling fixtures that provide general purpose lighting for both the shower area and bathroom in general. Upscale hotels will also include extras like nightlights, heat lamps, and makeup lamps in the bathrooms. Because of power efficiency requirements, most hotels now use fluorescent or LED sources in many of the areas outside of the lobby and other public areas. Hallways may be lighted with variations of tube fixtures while guest rooms, including most table and desk lamps, are often lamped with compact fluorescent rather than incandescent lamps. Many recessed downlights and sconces are also equipped with compact fluorescent sources. While most hallway and bathroom areas using fluorescent products provide adequate levels of illumination, care must be taken to avoid the tendency to undersize any of the compact fluorescent lamps used in the guest rooms—doing so can produce dim, murky room conditions that are uninviting. Restaurant lighting design is also based in providing an ambience for the guests. While fast-food restaurants make use of efficient yet unflattering light sources like fluorescent troffers, a more upscale restaurant caters to producing a desired mood and ambiance through the lighting. Fast-food establishments are based on volume/turnover while upscale restaurants are about creating an event. Both require very different approaches to their lighting and either one may or may not be appropriate for a particular client (Figure 7.30). Once again, decorative elements play a significant role in this lighting—often including custom designed fixtures. Good restaurant lighting makes extended use of the layering concept. General circulation or ambient lighting levels are usually kept relatively low while accents are typically placed in locations where tables will most likely be placed. This adds focus to the table and its guests while also providing visibility for eating. Pendants, track, and downlight fixtures are often used for this particular task. Additional layers that will be created in many restaurant designs include placing specialty lighting in the hostess/waiting area or bar; setting accents on artwork and other significant features of the room; and providing additional task lighting like counter lighting for waiter stations, cashier counters, or bar back areas. In some restaurants there might even be specialty displays or retail cases that contain food like steaks, seafood, or desserts that guests have an option to purchase as part of their meal or for taking home. Here, color rendering plays an important role in how these displays are lighted. Restaurants tend to make heavier use of dimming and elaborate control systems than most other areas of architectural lighting design. The owner/operator will need to modify the intensity of the lights to create different dining experiences and to set overall mood or ambience changes based on the time of day and type of guests that populate the

Figure 7.30  Hospitality lighting (restaurant): (a) A  corporate café. (b) Upscale restaurant lighting for Jia Restaurant (lighting Design by Tom Ruzika) Credit: (a) photo courtesy of EATON, (b) photo courtesy of The Ruzika Company

restaurant at any given time. Most of us have experienced a restaurant dimming the lights between the early to late dinner crowds, but there are also adjustments that can be made that are more conducive to a lunch or breakfast experience as well. One special area of lighting that is unique to many restaurant and club settings relates to being able to bring all the lights up to a high level of illumination for after-hours cleaning and maintenance services. In some cases, an entirely different system known as an after-hours, cleaning/maintenance, or worklight system is created for this application. One final area to discuss in regard to the hospitality lighting industry relates to lighting those areas of a hotel

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or restaurant that are for the most part out of view from the public. These include specialty areas where employees provide a variety of services that support the hotel. Service corridors, storage areas, janitorial or maid supply closets, kitchens, dishwashing areas, and laundry rooms are just a few of these specialty areas. Each will be lighted according to the specific activities that take place in a given area.

Public Buildings These buildings are used for public gatherings and municipal functions. Judicial and government buildings, courthouses, and meeting halls are several common examples of public buildings. On a larger scale, there are public buildings that are designed with the specific intention of attracting a massive number of visitors. Convention and conference centers, sports stadiums and arenas, transportation centers like airports and bus or train stations, and specialty buildings like museums, libraries, performing arts centers, and concert halls are all public buildings that a lighting designer may have an opportunity to light. Without going into the specific needs of each area, there are still a number of general principles that a lighting designer uses when designing for these facilities. General circulation is extremely important and any techniques identified earlier in this chapter that provide good general visibility and circulation lighting can be adopted to lighting public buildings. These projects will also often have accents placed on signage and other features that are used to help people navigate throughout the space. Since the buildings are usually designed to attract crowds and attention, their exterior lighting becomes extremely important and is usually designed to bring interest to the building and its associated events. In large facilities (arenas and convention centers), visitors typically attend a specific event and must be able to clearly see the event and any participants associated with it. At times, visitors will have close access to the visual task (a car or trade show where they can circulate among the displays and products), while at other times they will have to witness an event at a considerable distance (watching a sports event like a hockey game, listening to a speaker like a presidential candidate, or a corporate officer). Again, lighting for general circulation and informational signage are important aspects of lighting these spaces. Many public buildings are designed for special functions like museums or performing arts centers where their associated galleries, theatres, and concert halls will have specialty lighting systems. These systems aren’t addressed here since they represent more specific types of lighting design. Municipal and other government buildings are a special classification of public buildings predominantly due to the monumental scale that many of these facilities are built to. These structures are frequently epic in nature and are created to make an impression. Most of these buildings also have a variety of environments contained within them. Large lobby areas may be offset by postage-stamp sized personal offices

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or office suites where individuals share a room filled with cubicles. Conference rooms may be offset by large gathering spaces like auditoriums or courtrooms. Libraries frequently contain lots of wide-open space where a number of different visual tasks are executed (reading/study corrals, casual seating areas, computer search terminals, and circulation/ reference desks) that are lit quite differently from the book stacks where vertical illumination is so important. Each of these areas are typically lighted in fashions that are consistent with spaces found in similar buildings. Lobby areas are, once again, often treated with several types of lighting. First an ambient layer is created while accents are added to important locations like information booths or reception areas. Wall washing and grazing are also popular in many municipal lighting applications. Other architectural features like domes and vaults (both interior and exterior) are often found in public buildings and are frequently treated with variations of uplight. The final lighting elements of large areas of public buildings using ambient lighting systems include adding task lighting to areas where more critical tasks are completed (security stations where objects are screened and IDs are verified); adding accents to statuary, inscriptions, and other points of interest; and providing transitional lighting to the entrance areas. Large decorative chandeliers and other fixtures that have often been restored from an earlier time period are also often found in these buildings. Finally, the exteriors of these buildings are frequently lighted in a way that brings attention to the most significant features of a building while pointing to its importance in a community. The entrances are also given special attention to help identify their locations to people who are unfamiliar with the building. Emergency and exit lighting are especially important in public buildings since many of the occupants will most likely not be all that familiar with the building and its layout. Figure 7.31 provides examples of several lighting projects of public buildings.

Houses of Worship (Churches) Churches or houses of worship are special types of public buildings in which the structures are dedicated to creating religious experiences. The market for lighting churches is emerging as one of the fastest growing areas in lighting design. Even though the majority of this lighting relates to providing variations of theatrical lighting as an aid to contemporary worship, there is also strong interest in producing a more significantly designed lighting environment for more traditional churches and their services as well. Some churches are small and create a very intimate worship experience while others are created to assemble the masses in order to produce an experience on an epic scale. Cathedrals and the mega-churches that are now serving several thousand people in a single service are examples of this type of experience. In reality, most churches fall somewhere between these extremes. Above all else, these buildings are created to honor God (primarily of the Christian

buttresses, exposed beams and timbers, elaborate carvings in marble or woodwork, symbolic artwork, and large picturesque images created in stained glass are all characteristic architectural elements that are found in many churches. Some features, like stained glass windows, are often lighted from the building’s interior so that the window can also contribute to the exterior lighting of the structure. Even many of the lighting fixtures themselves, like massive chandeliers, are designed to be ornate and impressive. One of the special challenges of lighting a house of worship lies in both choosing and placing non-decorative luminaires so that they can not only perform the lighting task, but also aren’t too conspicuous against the architecture. They should blend in naturally with the exposed structural elements of a sanctuary. All of these surfaces and objects need to be lighted in a manner that enhances the architectural features of the structure. In many contemporary houses of worship, video is used to supplement a service by providing a live feed of the service (with close-ups and additional resources) to monitors throughout the sanctuary and other parts of the facility. In some cases the video may even be broadcasted to people outside of the church. In these situations, lighting elements that are more characteristic of a video studio will most likely have to be incorporated into a facility’s design. As an alternative to traditional church structures, many contemporary churches prefer to go with the idea of creating a clean, almost sterile worship environment. Large areas of open space, simplistic furniture, palms, and lots of glass are examples of typical building treatments in these environments. Houses of worship that use these techniques may be either small or large. The Crystal Cathedral featured in the Hour of Power with Robert Schuller is an older model of this type of structure, while Saddleback Church in Orange County, California, and Lakewood Church in Houston (Figure  7.32) are examples of contemporary

Figure 7.31  Lighting public buildings: (a) Public atrium area (National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland). (b) Airport terminal (Atlanta Hartsfield Airport, Terminal B)

or Jewish faith) and a particular worship experience. While most people would quickly relate to calling these buildings “churches,” the term “house of worship” is a more inclusive manner of recognizing buildings of different faiths. Many churches, temples, mosques, and synagogues are built and decorated with the finest materials/elements and finishes that a congregation can afford and will often contain a number of decorative elements. Vaulted ceilings, flying

Figure 7.32 Lakewood Church—a contemporary megachurch where broadcast and I-MAG video are used Credit: photo courtesy of Bill Klages

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mega-churches where several thousand people can worship at the same time. The Mormon Tabernacle facility in Salt Lake City that most people have heard of possibly is the largest house of worship in the world—large enough that a Boeing 747 can fit in the sanctuary. While emphasizing many of the decorative elements of a church/temple forms a significant part of house of worship lighting designs, there are still many other tasks that are just as important. Congregants need to be able to participate in a range of visual activities as they participate in a worship service. Most importantly, they will need to read from bulletins or hymnals and prayer books, have good visibility of the altar/pulpit area and worship leaders, and will need to have enough general lighting to move to and from their pews and other portions of the sanctuary. Special accents are frequently placed on the altar or chancel area as well as on any lecterns or pulpits used by a pastor or other worship leaders. In fact, the altar is traditionally the area of highest illumination in most churches. Two lighting systems or layers are generally applied to chancel areas. A front light accent system that ensures that the congregation can see the celebrants and an overhead system that allows the celebrants to read their worship materials. The overhead system should cover most of the chancel area (particularly the choir, if they are located here) but the front light accents only need to cover specific areas like the pulpit, lectern, and altar. Additional areas for special lighting include highlighting or adding accent lighting to choir areas and organs (usually the pipes more so than the console), liturgical furniture and objects like baptismal fonts, and the numerous decorative elements that usually exist throughout a church. Most churches feature artwork like a cross, crucifix, or other religious icon that is placed on the wall directly behind an altar—and this, too, will typically be highlighted in some manner. There will also have to be special task lighting for reading from the pulpit or seeing music at the organ console. Any shrines, statuary, or religious inscriptions that are present within a sanctuary are also almost always pointed up with light. The central aisle of many sanctuaries is another important area to light due to the number of processionals/ recessionals that will take place within it. Special forms of lighting that include daylighting through stained glass windows, backlit shadow boxes, and window walls with large expanses of paneled glass can also be found in many houses of worship. The sanctuary is the most important area in these buildings because it provides for the actual worship experience and the lighting must reinforce the reverent mood that is typically required for this environment. Many churches are moving toward a more modern style of worship called contemporary worship, which is designed to bring more people to a faith. Some of the activities that may accompany this type of service can include less formal sermons, dramatizations of religious passages, a more participatory style of worship, and most significantly an abundance of contemporary worship music. Sound systems, guitars, drums, and microphones along with contemporary singing typically accompany these services. Lighting may also be

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called on to add theatrical or even concert-like elements to the worship experience. In the most extensive cases, the lighting approaches concert practices with trusses, multi-colored PARs, and sophisticated cueing forming significant elements of the worship experience. Automated lighting can even play a role in many of these services and lighting rigs. In some cases the theatrical lighting is permanently mounted in a variation of a rep plot, while in others the units are moved from one event or service to another. Some churches may go to an extreme and produce large religious pageants in their sanctuaries—resulting in placing yet additional demands on the lighting systems. Most houses of worship contain much more than a sanctuary/place of worship and go on to provide facilities that include offices and conference rooms for the religious staff, nursery and play areas for children, classrooms, lounges, fellowship halls, and even cafeterias and/or gyms in larger facilities. A number of churches not only have educational centers for religious studies, but also support private schools that are affiliated with the church. All of these should be lit through following the recommended practices that are most appropriate to the activities that take place in a given part of the facility. Finally, the exteriors of most houses of worship are often lighted in a way that displays a sense of welcome to anyone who passes by the buildings at night. In most cases, this lighting is designed to act as a beacon for the building. The lighting of steeples and featured stained glass windows are frequently used to provide this invitation to the community. Most importantly, these projects are terrific opportunities for a lighting designer to bring creative designs to a unique facility. An issue that can make the design of these facilities a bit more challenging relates to the fact that the design team rarely deals with one or two individuals as clients on these projects. Instead, there are usually building committees, which can mean that obtaining consensus on a design or construction issue can be more difficult—and the bigger the committee, the more difficult it will usually be to come to an agreement. In fact, even though a committee is usually charged with most of the decision making, the majority of these projects have to be approved by the full congregation— usually through formal presentations and a vote. Figure 7.33 illustrates both a more traditional and contemporary mega church and their lighting.

Museum and Gallery Lighting Lighting in these disciplines is a combination of permanently installed lighting equipment and equipment that remains flexible to accommodate changes as exhibits and collections move in and out of these facilities. While some exhibit areas change on a regular basis, others are created with the understanding that they will remain as part of a permanent collection or until such a point that a major renovation is planned for the exhibit or gallery. The displays that occupy great museums like the Smithsonian in Washington, DC or The Franklin Institute in Philadelphia often contain collections that are presented in this manner.

Figure 7.33 Lighting for churches or houses of worship: (a) Traditional—combination of interior and exterior lighting. (b) Contemporary—altar area with lighting rig overhead Credit: (b) photo courtesy of Bill Klages

On the other hand, many galleries, especially small ones, change exhibits as frequently as every week. Here, flexible sources like track lighting play a major role in allowing the lighting to be modified for each show. Other factors that are characteristic of most of these installations include creating a good level of base or ambient lighting and then adding accents to the artwork or artifacts as needed. Color rendering plays a significant role in museum and gallery lighting: most lamps used in these applications should have high CRI ratings. Daylighting also plays a role in lighting many galleries through using skylights, large glass surfaces, or windows as part of a building’s design. However, even with the attractiveness of natural daylight, direct exposure from the sun must be avoided since it will bring harm to many of the subjects that are typically housed in an exhibit. A  special precaution that must be observed when working in these areas of lighting relates to exposure. Care must be taken to avoid exposing the items to excessive levels of light, heat, or ultraviolet radiation which can cause irreparable damage to these subjects. An extensive discussion of museum and gallery lighting was presented earlier in Chapter 6.

Retail Lighting Retail lighting follows many of the practices of display and museum/gallery lighting. The major emphasis is now on accenting products and merchandising displays. This form of architectural lighting must provide for flexibility due to the need to shift displays as a result of selling seasonal merchandise or making stock rotations of products that go on and off sale. Color rendering and exposure are important considerations of working in this area of lighting design as well. Layering of accents and decorative lighting over a comparatively high level of base or

ambient light allows a designer to draw focus to various products throughout a store. On the other hand, a high degree of lighting contrast can also be used in a retail environment—which can help create the more dramatic feel or mood that is often associated with the higher-end markets. The ceiling and back walls of many retail establishments are also often lighted as a means of drawing customers into a store. Retail lighting and its applications were presented in detail in Chapter 6.

Commercial Lighting Commercial lighting is a very inclusive area of lighting and includes retail shops, specialty stores, discount stores, and businesses that provide professional services to customers. Tax consulting or accounting services, banks, attorney offices, copy or mail-center firms, and laundry services are just a few of the professional services that a lighting designer might be asked to light In many cases, commercial lighting follows more traditional practices like those found in general office or retail lighting. On a larger scale, corporate offices or centers may be considered as a special type of commercial lighting. Much of these properties consist of specialized areas like offices, product showcases, warehouses, or even manufacturing plants that are lighted for specific tasks using the recommended practices for each type of area. However, there are also areas of these facilities that are open to the public and treated much like any other public building. These public spaces are frequently decorated and lighted in manners that suggest opulence and a successful corporate image that can make use of more sophisticated lighting gear. Conference centers are also often lighted in many of the same ways that corporate buildings may be designed. Two examples of corporate lighting are illustrated in Figure 7.34.

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Figure 7.34  Corporate/public buildings: (a) Main entrance lobby (high-bay HID lighting at the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland). (b) Convention center exhibit hall with heavy use of daylighting

Important elements of corporate lighting design are in the layering and accents of notable features of the public portions of these facilities. Examples of this may include having a focus directed toward a general reception area, accenting displays that recognize some of the company’s history or products, and placing special accents on corporate logos and flags. The main entrance lobbies of many corporate buildings are often housed within glass walls that allow the entrance area and central lobby to be illuminated at night—making them both observable and appealing to passing motorists and pedestrians. Many corporate facilities are housed on a significant tract of ground that creates a corporate campus while others are found in office or industrial parks where much of the surrounding grounds are shared by other companies. In either case, a significant effort is usually spent on lighting the grounds and exterior elements of the buildings to make them as impressive as a company’s main lobby. Banks and other financial institutions are a special type of commercial facility where many of the characteristics of these structures are similar to those of municipal buildings due to the magnitude of scale associated with these facilities. However, there are also security considerations that must be dealt with when lighting banks or financial institutions. Two such considerations include higher general levels of security lighting (especially in entrances, drive through services, and ATM locations) and higher task lighting around the teller counters where money counting and camera activities are highest.

Office Lighting In the past, lighting offices was among some of the more mundane projects that an architectural lighting designer could be associated with. The design solutions were pretty much dictated by the illuminance levels suggested by the

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recommended practices and the lighting designs were simply laid out. Since a uniform level of task lighting was the usual goal, much of this lighting design was as much concerned with providing an interesting arrangement in the mounting of the fixtures as it was with the lighting itself. This was particularly true when dealing with spaces that made use of tiled ceilings where repetitive design tasks were frequently practiced—like lighting a 20-story office tower in which each floor shares a similar floorplan. In many cases, the layout of one office wasn’t that much different from any other; as long as the minimum illumination standards were met, the design process was more in line with cranking out a basic arrangement of luminaires. In fact, this is possibly where the term “lighting layout” may have come from. While the most important task for most office lighting lies in creating an acceptable level of illumination at the work plane, there are other factors that can come into play that can add some variety to an office lighting design. First, no matter how they first appear, office buildings do have variety—even if the exterior floorplan remains the same for every single floor of a building. There are private offices and shared offices. Office pools that might be shared by many people and reception areas where people can be exposed to different variations of a lighting design. Second, ceiling treatments are of particular interest in office applications because many designers use some degree of indirect lighting to create a softened, more diffuse light for many office environments. There are times, especially in private offices, when the age of the principal occupants might play a role in the illumination of a space. Third, there are also rooms in which special activities can require specific lighting solutions. A mail room, copy room, and an electronics workshop will most likely have slightly different lighting solutions associated with each of them. Offices that make heavy use of computer screens should be lit in a manner

that allows occupants to vary the level of light around them. Also, they should be designed to minimize the effect of veiling reflections from surrounding light sources that can obscure the monitor screens. In addition, there can be a variety of meeting and conference room sizes and configurations throughout an office facility. Many corporate/office centers are equipped with small auditoriums for presenting educational programs and marketing seminars to their employees, dealer representatives, and clients. These conference rooms and auditoriums often support projection activities like Microsoft PowerPoint presentations, slide or film programs, and video conferences that the lighting should help facilitate. Some of the most common solutions for office lighting typically involve neatly arranging downlights like recessed cans or troffers in regular grid-like spacings that deliver the required level of illumination to a work plane. The arrangement of the lighting fixtures (layout) is often influenced by the ceiling grid of acoustic tiles—providing even spacings for aesthetics, uniform ceiling illumination, and consistency between both private and open office lighting. Track lighting is often used to supplement the area lighting by drawing focus to artwork or other corporate materials that have been hung on the walls while task lights are frequently added to the undersides of cubical cabinets to help occupants perform more difficult visual tasks at their desks. Lastly, perimeter lighting is often added through wallwashing or accenting to provide good vertical illumination of entire wall surfaces in order to focus on objects like bulletin boards, dry erase boards, and other displays. It is also important to consider the role that the lighting plays in the exterior appearance of a building after dark. Figure  7.35 provides several different examples of office lighting. Despite the apparent straightforwardness of designing office lighting layouts, there are three very important elements of this type of lighting that a designer should pay particular attention to—even though they aren’t limited or unique to an office environment. The first of these relates to power density codes. Much of the reason why codes like ASHRAE came about was due to the blatant over-lighting that has characterized office lighting. If any areas of the lighting industry were at one time guided by the “more is better” adage, office lighting would most likely be at the top of the list. Energy codes and use of energy-efficient sources are now major considerations in office lighting due to the large number of hours that these systems are in operation. A second area that requires special consideration relates to how vertical illuminance and glare affect computer displays and monitors. Fixtures that are improperly placed may cause reflections and glare on computer monitors (veiling reflections). These can appear as reflections of objects that are located throughout the room as well as reflections of the light sources themselves. Using egg crates or baffles on the luminaires can help minimize this effect.

Figure 7.35  Office lighting: (a) Open office design. (b) Open office with significant daylight component. (c) President’s office (design and rendering by Steve Aries of MKP Co., Ltd. with AGi32 visualization software) Credit: (a,b) photos courtesy of EATON, (c) photo courtesy of Lighting Analysis, Inc.

If an office suite makes use of a number of computer stations, it is also common to lower the overall illumination of a room as a means of increasing the contrast between the monitors and the lighting. While computer areas in most offices are commonly illuminated at a slightly reduced

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level, the more important factor in providing proper illumination to these spaces is in the method of lighting that is employed rather than simply the intensity of the lighting. In this case, the best lighting for offices with computer terminals, is typically indirect (or direct/indirect), so that the quality of illumination is soft and does not create veiling reflections on the computer screens. The third and final area of special interest comes in that many office buildings are well-suited for using daylighting as a supplement to a building’s lighting. This supplemental lighting, although somewhat unreliable, provides significant energy savings through allowing a portion of the overhead lighting to be turned off when daylighting is effective. The use of daylight will also help lower the power density requirements associated with the lighting. Office installations using daylighting practices often use elaborate control equipment that allow banks of lights to switch on and off or to be dimmed (even fluorescent) through photosensors that automatically determine whether additional lights need to be added to a room’s lighting.

Educational Facilities The lighting of educational facilities is primarily associated with the illumination of schools and college or university facilities. While there will be a range of environments contained in a typical school, most of these facilities are dedicated to providing basic classroom or lecture spaces. These rooms are often designed in a manner that is quite similar to the way in which an office might be lighted—with the exception that there is an added emphasis on vertical illumination for objects like chalkboards/whiteboards and other presentation surfaces. Modern classrooms are often more complex and will often have several different types of visual tasks being performed in a given area (Smart Screens, LCD projections, multiple computer stations, etc.). Shops, labs, auditoriums, libraries, offices, corridors, and bathrooms are usually lighted in the same ways as they would for any other facility. Many large rooms like cafeterias or gymnasiums make use of metal halide or HID lighting as an alternative source to the fluorescent tubes that till recently weren’t all that effective at producing the illumination levels needed for some of the higher mounting heights found in these installations. However, there are warm-up issues commonly associated with the HID sources. On the other hand, there are new developments that include high-bay T-8, T-5, and CF fixtures that are capable of supporting these longer throws and are now being used fairly regularly in these installations. When designing the lighting for secondary schools, a couple of notable precautions are also in order. The first includes specifying luminaires that are of a more institutional variety that are generally tamper-proof and more functional than decorative in their designs. Second, especially in common areas—are best control systems—­ protected by locating switches in more restricted areas or

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with lockout devices that prevent students from “playing with the lights.” For a typical classroom, the majority of the lighting is concerned with giving proper illumination to the horizontal work plane (where the desk surfaces are located). Additional illumination is provided at the front of most classrooms, especially in the vertical plane, to bring focus to the instructor and to aid in the illumination of chalkboards/whiteboards and other instructional aids that may be mounted on the front wall. If there are specialty areas, these too, will receive treatments that are dependent on the visual tasks that are associated with a given space. Along with this, additional switching or dimming will allow students to take notes while film or media presentations are being made. While traditional classrooms are often lighted in a fairly even distribution, lecture halls make strong use of these added techniques. As with office lighting, much of the lighting in classrooms is based on tiled ceilings and providing illumination levels that are guided by the recommended practices. Daylighting is commonly practiced in educational facilities through large window surfaces and skylights that are placed in corridors and public spaces like gymnasiums and cafeterias. Most schools also have special-purpose rooms like libraries and media centers, ­ science labs, theatres/auditoriums, band/choral rooms, and art studios/shop facilities where additional needs and lighting systems are required. Computer labs must receive especially careful consideration due to the potential for causing glare and reflections on monitor screens as well as proper contrast ratios between the monitors and the lighting. These specialty systems may be supplied through dimmable incandescent or fluorescent downlights, track or otherwise focusable lighting systems, switching, and/or layout options. Lighting for television might also be necessary, which in some cases may mean equipping a school studio for closed-circuit television production or (more importantly) providing for the new trends in distance learning that require adequate lighting of specialized classrooms that support web TV and other distance learning techniques. Figure 7.36 provides examples of typical lecture halls and a computer laboratory/studio. Most educational facilities, at least at the primary and secondary levels, are built with public funds and are often designed on relatively tight budgets. This attitude not only prevails throughout the construction process but also in the years that follow. Because of this, power densities should be kept as low as possible and care should be taken to specify lamps and luminaires with long lives that do not need a lot of effort to maintain. On the other hand, many universities and other educational institutions not only desire functional lighting for their classrooms, but also want to create an impression that is much like the corporate image discussed earlier. This is particularly true of educational facilities and auditoriums connected to hospitals and corporate training centers.

Health Care Facilities

Figure 7.36 Educational facility lighting: (a) A  moderately sized lecture hall, (b) a large lecture hall, and (c) a computer laboratory Credit: (b) photo courtesy of EATON

Health care facilities cover a range of specialized rooms and buildings that provide medical care to the public. Hospitals are the most obvious example of these facilities, but nursing homes, long-term care centers, and medical professional buildings also represent significant groups of related facilities that require specialized lighting. The offices of private medical practices like those of a dentist or physician also fall within this classification. In addition to private offices, many communities are creating medical campuses where a number of health care buildings and associated offices are combined for one-stop medical services. These buildings are becoming more specialized all the time as a result of the trend in performing more medical procedures in a physician’s office or as an outpatient service rather than at an actual hospital. Some practices even house surgical centers. Lighting associated with these facilities can be quite specific to the visual tasks and applications that take place in any given part of the facility. Even a private physician’s office will have several types of rooms with different functions and therefore different types of lighting throughout. Reception areas, waiting rooms, medical records storage, personal offices, and labs and procedure rooms as well as the expected examination rooms are specialty areas found in almost any medical office. In reality, beyond private practices, most health care facilities contain an immense number of rooms that are committed to very specialized activities. Most visual tasks performed in a health care facility are of a complex nature and frequently contain critical visual tasks. Some, like operating rooms, relate to some of the most critical tasks possible. Because many of the people using health care facilities are elderly, general illumination levels of public areas are also usually kept higher than in most other buildings. Many of the specialized lighting needs in a health care facility must be somewhat flexible. While there are overall lighting levels assigned to an area based on the primary tasks and activities performed in a space, much of the lighting is layered so that task lighting can be placed and used as needed. The best example of this can be found in an ordinary hospital room where there first is a general ambient level of light that is kept quite low so that patients can rest or sleep while allowing nurses and other medical staff to perform basic observations of the patients. This is frequently found in some variation of a nightlight/level setting that is used for a hospital room. A  second level of general illumination provides normal light levels for the room during waking hours. This layer of light is used while the patients are visited or when normal activities are being done in a room (bathing by attendants, housekeeping chores, and normal nursing activities). Special task lights are usually layered on top of the general lighting to provide light to the areas of the bed where examinations or other procedures may have to be performed. Additional lighting that is often added to

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a hospital room to aid the medical staff or provide added comfort to the patients might include placing task lights over counter and sink areas, providing reading lights, or even providing decorative fixtures that give a homier feel to the environment. Birthing rooms, therapy areas, and long-term care facilities often make stronger use of these later techniques. Dimmers can also be used to provide further comfort for these patients. In procedural areas, the actual illumination levels are dictated by the specific type of activities that must be performed. While much of the lighting in these environments relates to performing critical tasks, this doesn’t mean that an entire room has to be lighted to the levels required by the associated task. On the other hand, even though a room used for reading x-rays will require overall low levels of illumination, sufficient task lighting must still be available so that medical records can be read while notes are taken regarding a doctor or technician’s observations. Most procedural lighting requirements are accomplished by a wide variety of very specific task lights that are directed to the exact location where an exam or procedure is performed (Figure 7.37). A common example of a specific task light is the adjustable examination light that a dentist uses when performing an oral exam. What is important is that a proper degree of visual contrast be made between the levels

of the general lighting and the specific location in which a procedure is to be completed. In facilities that provide long-term care, efforts should be made to create a more relaxed and inviting environment. Rooms used for patients who require more extensive care will model a hospital room while others are more in line with what would be found in dorm rooms or hotel suites (for patients who are more mobile). Even though some of the patients may require care that is in line with that found in a hospital, most appreciate a more comfortable lighting environment. Psychological considerations for how patients perceive themselves and the light’s effect on them are also important in these environments. Color temperatures and high color rendering sources are used to make the patients appear healthier, thus helping to build their confidence and morale. Finally, a designer must be especially conscious of lighting for the aging eye since so many of the occupants will have compromised visions. In addition to patient rooms, most facilities have a number of other rooms that are designed for a wide range of activities. Television lounges and common rooms, therapy and exercise areas, craft and game rooms, lunch rooms or cafeterias, and sunrooms/garden areas all provide therapeutic services to a patient—most requiring special lighting treatments. There are also special lighting needs for the staff as well.

Figure 7.37  Health care lighting applications: (a) A dental task light. (b) A specialty task light used in medical procedures.

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Nursing stations, medical supply and records closets, labs, and medication storage areas are just a couple examples of specialized areas in these facilities that will have different lighting needs. While most of the discussion to this point has focused on the medical needs of the patients and staff, both hospitals and nursing homes have extensive infrastructures that allow these facilities to be essentially self-contained. Not only are there spaces dedicated to medical activities, but also to kitchens and cafeterias, laundry and linen services, lounges, and even chapels, as examples of several of the more unique areas where specialty lighting is often required in these facilities. Outside of these, there are a host of additional tasks and areas that will be lighted in ways that are similar to other public buildings. Lobby areas will be made to appear impressive and inviting while waiting areas will be softer and more intimate—both employing many of the techniques of hospitality lighting. Private offices, consultation rooms, and conference rooms will be lighted using more traditional office techniques. Other areas of the building may require techniques that are more in line with commercial and industrial lighting practices. All of these needs make the lighting of health care facilities one of the more demanding areas to design in.

Industrial Design Industrial lighting can vary considerably from one project to another and relates to lighting structures and facilities involved in the manufacturing, warehousing, and shipping of consumer and commercial products. The range and type of illumination will vary considerably—being directly related to the type of products and services that are created by a particular facility. In some cases, critical tasks are performed as part of the manufacturing process (machining small parts or soldering electronic components) while other environments will require much lower illuminations for fairly simple tasks (i.e., packing and warehousing activities). Since the visual needs of any project are so dependent on individual situations, only general considerations are discussed here. First, safety is a critical issue in lighting any manufacturing or industrial process. Employees will be operating machinery that can be dangerous and minimal levels of illumination must be established to provide for the safe operation of the equipment. The more dangerous the equipment, the more critical the lighting becomes. Not only is the quantity of the light important, but also where it is located. Glare and misdirected light that takes focus away from a primary visual task can compromise both workmanship and safety. A machinist must be able to clearly see the markings of the tools on a lathe because they frequently deal with tolerances of a few hundredths of an inch. In these situations, task lights are an important supplement to the basic lighting package. Also, speed and efficiency are somewhat dependent on the lighting: the more

speed that a task requires, the more important it is to provide adequate illumination to the environment in which the task is completed. In manufacturing processes that use heavy machinery—especially any that involve spinning parts or materials at a fairly fast rate—flicker and strobe effects may become factors that could impair an operator’s visual perception. In especially dirty manufacturing processes dirt and grime is deposited on the luminaires, which results in a depreciation of the light coming from the fixtures. This requires that regular cleaning schedules be developed and adhered to for the luminaires. Finally, there are hazardous chemicals and materials in many industrial processes in which special precautions might have to be taken to protect the luminaires and lamps from vapors or other elements that might cause either corrosion or a spark that could cause a fire or explosion. Manufacturing processes that generate petroleum vapors or that charge the air with minuscule metal dust/particles are examples where these hazards are very real and where most lamps are protected by metal gratings and heavy glass globes that are vapor resistant. Figure  7.38 contains samples of several common luminaire styles that are used in industrial lighting, Many industrial projects include vast warehouses and manufacturing plants that cover thousands of square feet. In the past, entire facilities were lit by placing luminaires at regular grid-like placements in order to create a wash of light over an entire facility. The amount of footcandles/ lux that must be delivered to the work plane is based on the demands of the primary visual tasks. In order to save power, the choice of specific luminaires typically calls for specifying the most efficient light sources possible. Popular sources for much of this illumination are fluorescent tubes or high-bay fixtures using mercury or metal halide lamps. Recently, high-bay LED fixtures have also been used in these applications. If more critical tasks are to be done in a space, supplemental lighting is added as needed. This often appears as task lights that are placed on or near the equipment or assembly areas where the increased levels of illumination are required. An example of this is hanging fluorescent striplights on pendants a couple of feet above a work table or assembly area. Manufacturing facilities and warehouses have grown in size over the years. While the earlier approach to general illumination worked fine when energy was cheap, the approach is now usually modified to lower the power consumption of a facility. Overall energy considerations, efficiency of lamps and light sources, and power densities are significant considerations in lighting these facilities since these buildings almost always operate on a 24-hour schedule. Warehouses are a special consideration for energy conservation because a significant amount of these spaces rarely have occupants working in all of the space at the same time. It’s now a common practice to plan the lighting of these facilities so that the light is concentrated in those areas of the building in which particular activities are

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Figure 7.38  Industrial luminaires: (a) Luminaire with vapor protection. (b) A high-bay HID luminaire.(c) A linear fluorescent highbay luminaire (4-T-8 tubes with specular reflector). (d) An LED high-bay luminaire (4-foot Metalux LED high-bay series fixture by EATON) Credit: (a) photo courtesy of e-conolight, (b) photo courtesy of Lithonia Lighting, (c) photo courtesy of EATON, (d) photo courtesy of EATON

completed. In warehousing, the luminaires are typically centered over the aisles that separate the rows of shelving and vertical illumination is considered a critical part of the lighting task. Frequently, occupancy sensors are placed on these fixtures to establish a power saving level and a working level that is activated when a fork lift or occupant moves into an area. These same sensors will deactivate the work-level lighting at a predetermined amount of time after sensing that the occupants have left an area.

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Areas in which there are more concentrated activities, like in the shipping department or loading docks, are maintained with higher levels of illumination and will not use occupancy sensors. Many warehouses and manufacturing plants also use skylights and other passive daylighting techniques to supplement a building’s lighting. All of these techniques can save considerable amounts of energy since these structures are so large. Figure 7.39 provides a variety of different examples of industrial lighting applications.

Figure 7.39  Industrial lighting: (a) A line assembly area. (b) A line assembly area. (c) Warehouse lighting. (d) warehouse lighting. (e) Large-scale exterior industrial lighting. (f) large-scale exterior industrial lighting Credit: (a) photo courtesy of sirtravelalot/Shutterstock, (b) photo courtesy of DuxX/Shutterstock, (c) photo courtesy of Don Pablo/Shutterstock, (d) photo courtesy of Hunter Bliss/Shutterstock, (e) photo courtesy of FotoBug11/Shutterstock, (f) photo courtesy of manine99/Shutterstock

Examples of Exterior Lighting Exterior lighting isn’t confined to only lighting the exteriors of buildings. While buildings are the most dominant area of exterior architectural lighting, this type of lighting is usually expanded to include the lighting of the plants and foliage, pathways, and decorative structures/statuary found throughout a property as well. In fact, exterior

lighting is used to describe the lighting of almost any exterior structure or environment. Lighting the grounds and plant life is usually considered a special discipline of exterior lighting known as landscape lighting. In reality, the two types of lighting work very closely with one another. Landscape lighting is unique enough to warrant special attention and is discussed in detail in Chapter 8. Several

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of the more unique exterior structures that designers or illuminating engineers might light include roadways and streets, parking lots, and public artwork installations/monuments as well as bridges. One of the primary reasons for lighting a building’s exterior is the need to call attention to a structure and its occupants. Most exterior lighting began with lighting public buildings or corporate centers—the goal being to draw attention to the success of a company or to identify and give recognition to a public monument or building. We use exterior lighting to advertise businesses and professional services, identify addresses and the occupants of an address, and to make aesthetic statements about our private and public buildings. The trend has become so ingrained in society that the concept of exterior lighting has spread to almost every type of structure. Even many private residences use exterior lighting to add value and interest to a home. Image, once again, is an important part of these designs for both commercial and residential projects. One of the most popular uses of exterior lighting is in drawing attention to a structure so that it becomes a landmark that brings attention to the property and its owner/tenants. As an example, numerous malls are lighted on the outside in ways that lure customers to the shopping environments found within these buildings. The mall lighting is also used to collectively tie a number of unrelated businesses together. Larger examples of this include lighting a corporate or university campus in a way that brings unity to an area. Even though the buildings may vary considerably in architectural style, they might all be treated with mercury vapor uplights that graze their entrance facades. Designing common street and walkway lighting between these structures will also tie the buildings together. Last, but not least, security and safety lighting are additional elements of many exterior lighting designs. Safety lighting addresses an individual’s need to be able to navigate their way to the entrances while avoiding safety hazards like steps or uneven walkways. Security lighting provides enough light to prevent vandalism or intruders from bringing any harm to a building and its contents—as well as to anyone entering or leaving the building. Several of the more specific concerns of exterior lighting are discussed in the remaining sub-sections of this chapter. Once again, these are only introductions and further details can be found in The Lighting Handbook or specific Recommended Practices that apply to a given lighting specialty. There are several general issues that pertain to nearly all areas of exterior lighting that a lighting designer should be aware of before becoming involved in these projects. Many of these areas of lighting are specialized enough that they are best addressed by illuminating engineers. Since these lighting systems are used for many hours on a daily basis, energy-efficient

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sources are used in the majority of these applications. While dimming may be used, it is more common to simply turn the luminaires on and use wattage as a means of controlling intensity—in many cases, arc sources are used on these projects. Incandescent sources, like PAR lamps, that were among some of the most popular sources of the past are now used on a much more limited basis—especially on large installations. Several of the more popular sources now being used in applications like roadway lighting or large buildings like skyscrapers are HID sources using mercury, metal halide, and high-pressure sodium lamps. With the current concerns for power efficiency, LEDs are also becoming a popular source for lighting building exteriors. Along with being power efficient, many LED units are manufactured as wash luminaires that contain three or more independently controlled color components as well as variations of white light that allow them to produce a variety of easily changed colors as well. As another means of saving energy and lamp hours, exterior lighting systems are often operated by photosensors (or more commonly timers) that provide them with limited operating schedules. Although all of the exterior lighting may be turned on around dusk, the majority of it is usually turned off around 11:00 p.m. so that only the security lighting remains on throughout the night. Other similar cutbacks might involve turning all the lights on at dusk, scaling back some of the exterior lighting after business hours, and then extinguishing the remaining decorative elements at midnight—once again leaving just the security lighting on till dawn. Other exterior lighting equipment issues relate to the fact that the luminaires are constantly exposed to the elements and must be equipped to weather extreme conditions that might include rain, snow, wind, heat, and salt spray. Glare and light trespass are among several final considerations that are important to exterior lighting designs. Glare is a concern in the sense that a building’s lighting cannot disturb or blind passing motorists or pedestrians that are moving throughout a property or its neighboring spaces. Light trespass relates to avoiding conditions that cause stray light (spill in theatrical terms) to illuminate unintended objects or, more importantly, fall onto another property. An example of this issue might be found in using uplights to light a building facade where light from one building is projected into a window of a neighboring building. Glare can also force pedestrians to walk through the light of ground-mounted luminaires. A  related concept is light pollution, in which reflected light or poorly chosen/aimed luminaires send light skyward—lighting not only the intended target but also spilling significant amounts of light into the sky. This is one of the primary ways in which sky glow is created around towns and cities. One organization, the International

Dark-Sky Association, is a special interest group that campaigns for controlling light pollution.

Building Exteriors The majority of exterior lighting is committed to lighting buildings and other architectural structures. Revealing a building in the most flattering manner possible is a major goal of this lighting. How can the designer bring attention to the building? What can be done to tie the building in with the lighting of neighboring structures? How can it be set apart from the other structures? What sources are most suited to lighting a project? How much control does a project require? What architectural elements need to be accented? Can the lighting enhance the materials and surfaces of the building? Finally, are there any special illumination tasks like facades, statuary, and inscriptions to be treated? Each of these lines of questioning can help a lighting designer establish the needs of a specific project. While much of this lighting is of a decorative nature, functions such as drawing focus to an entrance area or company signage are good auxillary motives. In many ways, exterior lighting provides the sources that give a city skyline its unique quality. In fact, in many

metropolitan areas, the lighting of any structure that would affect a city’s skyline is regulated in much the same way that restrictions may be placed on a building’s height to preserve the city's skyline landmarks. Since landscape lighting also deals with similar elements, the lighting designer needs to work closely with the designers who are lighting the landscaping to create a unified appearance between the building’s exterior and its surrounding grounds. Often a lighting designer will be called upon to design both the exterior and landscape lighting for an architectural project. Most exterior building projects tend to be lit in fairly conservative manners by washing large portions of the facades that form a building’s structure (Figure  7.40). In many cases, this is limited to a single type of light source that washes the building in a single color. On occasion, a combination of sources like metal halide and high-pressure sodium might be used together to create contrast between various elements of a lighting design. Washing tends to be the most popular exterior lighting technique, although grazing and limited amounts of accent lighting are also worked into many exterior lighting projects. Figure  7.41 provides examples of exterior lighting for a variety of different types of building. Color can be used, but is often limited to a relatively narrow range of choices since the filters are typically made of glass. In reality, many of the light sources used in exterior lighting aren’t filtered at all. While most applications don’t call for a strong use of color, more subtle dichroic filters now provide the potential for using color when it is desired. It also isn’t uncommon to add a limited element of color to draw focus to specific features of a building’s design. Various tiers of the Empire State Building are often lighted in red, white, and blue for patriotic holidays. Some buildings will make use of color changes that change through slow

Figure 7.40  Office towers with wash lighting: (a) Roof-mounted luminaires and selective washing. (b) Complete exterior washing of several office buildings.

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Figure 7.41  Examples of exterior lighting: (a) A financial institution. (b) A recreational facility using daylighting and multi-colored light sources. (c) The Cannery Eastside Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada (lighting design by The Ruzika Company). (d) The Georgia State Capitol Credit: (c) photo courtesy of the Ruzika Company

crossfades that may take 30 or 40 seconds to shift from one color to another. Lighting an office tower that shifts between red and green for Christmas is another popular use of changing color in exterior lighting designs. In fact, with the newer exterior-grade LED luminaires and DMX control, a number of landmark buildings are used as backdrops

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to pre-programmed light shows. In some cases, these may even be programmed to music that is provided through a radio broadcast or web-streaming. The latest installation of exterior lighting for the Empire State Building even features a Halloween light show that is produced around that holiday. In the most sophisticated cases, automated

luminaires can be worked into these designs. Many of these fixtures are based on theatrical versions of automated lights that are housed in clear dome-like structures that protect them from the elements. Color changes, movement, and even gobo texturing can be brought to a design through using these fixtures. While such a treatment probably isn’t appropriate for a small town courthouse, it would fit right in for a casino in recreational/resort communities like Las Vegas or Atlantic City. Figure 7.42 demonstrates how significantly a color LED installation can modify a building's appearance. A special problem of lighting buildings lies in locating proper mounting positions for the luminaires. If possible, these should be hidden from view on catwalks or roofs that are obscured by other elements of a building’s architectural trims and features. However, this isn’t always possible. If the units must be in full view, attempts should be made to pick luminaires that blend in with the rest of a building. Luminaires may also be mounted on poles/ masts or on the rooftops of neighboring buildings. If other buildings are used, there are additional legal concerns like installation of equipment on another property and providing electrical service to these fixtures. Control of these remotely placed luminaires is another condition that must be dealt with and is most commonly solved through using some form of wireless DMX control. The GE building in the Rockefeller Center in New York is lighted by a number of fixtures that are mounted on neighboring buildings—but in this case, the center owns all of the neighboring buildings.

Public Spaces Public spaces involve exterior locations where people gather. Parks and gardens or other related spaces are the principal examples of this type of environment. Public spaces can include municipal properties like city or county parks, walkways, and greenways or might be located on private property like a corporate or university campus. While most public spaces contain lots of wide open space, others are associated with courtyards and urban gardens, street malls, and other manmade structures that are relatively small. Sidewalk and pathway lighting are major elements of this type of lighting, and creating good illumination for safe circulation is an essential element of these lighting designs. In a way, even the common areas of shopping malls are examples of these environments—though they are actually interior spaces. Their lighting, too, is frequently based on the same principles that are used for lighting exterior environments. All of these lighting systems are usually placed on automatic controls like timers or photocells since they are such a large component of safety and security lighting for a property. The illumination associated with lighting public spaces often has a connection to the lighting of the buildings that are found in a given area. At the same time, light must also be provided for general circulation throughout the area. This is done so that people can attend a variety of activities while also navigating successfully between different parts of the environment. Since security and safety are major considerations in this type of lighting, the luminaires used in these

Figure 7.42  LED lighting of Gulf Tower in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (lighting design by C&C Lighting): (a) Winter Weather Preset. (b) Fireworks Preset Credit: photo courtesy of C&C Lighting

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Sidebar 7.9  DESIGNER PROFILE Paul Gregory

Credit: photo courtesy of Ryan Fischer

Paul Gregory’s life’s work has been about evoking emotions. He is the founder of Focus Lighting which is one of the most successful architectural lighting firms in the United States. Today, Focus Lighting is an Architectural Lighting Design firm with over thirty talented designers doing projects all over the world. Gregory looks at each project as “an opportunity to produce something wonderful for the owner . . . and to create, with his design colleagues, an immersive environment that engenders a sincere emotional response from the viewer.” This notion of emotion-driven lighting design first struck a teenage Gregory during a Saturday matinee of Man of la Mancha on Broadway, whose dramatic lighting sequences he still vividly remembers. “We try to bring this same emotional drama to our work as architectural lighting designers and if we do a good job, it gives the viewer an emotional link to the experience and strengthens their memory of the visual image,” For the last thirty years, Gregory’s architectural lighting design firm has applied this philosophy to hundreds of architectural projects across the globe. Included in the firm’s sizable portfolio are such projects as New York City’s iconic Tavern on the Green restaurant, the Times Square New Year’s Eve Ball for its 100th anniversary, the Atlantis Resort in Dubai, and the Space Shuttle Endeavor at the Intrepid Sea, Air  & Space Museum. Gregory himself is considered a pioneer in the field and is known widely for his and his firm’s innovative designs. In 1994, their lighting treatment for Chile’s Entel Tower marked the first use of automated color-changing on a large-scale. For the famed FAO Schwarz toy store in New York City, they were responsible for one of the first ever all-LED lighting displays. Today, Focus Lighting remains one of the top architectural lighting design firms in the world, having earned more than fifty awards for their contributions to the field. Gregory got his start in lighting design in summer stock theater during his senior year in high school,

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where he lit one of his first shows. During the next five years, he designed theatrical lighting for over 100 productions, including Company (when it was first rereleased from Broadway), 1776, and Promises! Promises! The experience and knowledge he gained on those 100 shows has remained with him and presents itself in his firm’s work. Gregory attended the Goodman Theater School at The Art Institute of Chicago where he was trained in theatrical lighting. Then, after two seasons in Houston as a lighting designer for the Alley Theater, he made a shift from theater to architectural lighting, where his mark would be more permanent. In 1975 he started his first company, Litelab, with his friend and business partner Rick Spaulding. They found their niche in designing and providing lighting systems and control equipment for clubs. We started with smaller clubs in Chicago and over the period of five years grew to 150 people with offices in Chicago, New York City, Boston, Buffalo and Los Angeles. “We worked on nearly every major nightclub or disco in the world and it was one of the most thrilling experiences in my life.” However, looking for something that was more about lighting design and less about manufacturing, he left Litelab in 1984 to pursue this goal. He founded Focus Lighting in 1987 and slowly grew the company to where it is today. He received an MFA in architectural lighting design from the Parsons School of Design in 1992. Gregory’s extensive experience in both theatrical and architectural lighting design has led him to form a unique perspective that combines the two disciplines. “We often take a theatrical approach on architectural projects. In both disciplines, it is important to analyze the views in order to create beautiful pictures that are composed of foreground, background, frame and focus. What does the viewer see and from where? That question is just as important in a theater or industrial show as it is in a retail space, restaurant, hotel, or museum. What will the viewer see, and how do you make that view better?” Due to his theatrical training, he pays close attention to how faces and people look within a space. He asserts that, “The transition from theatrical lighting to architectural lighting design was rather seamless. In both disciplines it is important to fully “analyze the views.” In architectural lighting, the vertical surfaces, furniture, artwork and the people that will inhabit the space are the most important elements. As designers we analyze the reflectivity, and depth of each surface and invent specialized treatments to create the final picture.” The Marcus Center for the Performing Arts in Milwaukee, Wisconsin is a wonderful example of a project

that draws from other sources of creativity to evoke an emotional connection. Home to the local symphony orchestra, opera, ballet and theater companies, the building was designed by architect Harry Weese. With so much art and culture on the inside of the building, Gregory and his team wanted the creativity exhibited on the stage to express itself on the exterior façade. Using individually addressed color changing LED fixtures, they treated the concrete facade as a blank canvas and painted the building with subtly blended color changing compositions. Color palettes were inspired by natural scenes such as the Northern Lights and the paintings of Wisconsin native artist Georgia O’Keefe and have universal appeal. Locals feel a connection and sense of pride in seeing their cultural center adorned with the art of a Wisconsin native. “See everything, learn everything, light everything” is Gregory’s view when it comes to staying relevant, or even ahead of the curve. “My friend, Jonathan Speirs, and I  used to go to the World’s Fair every four years to see what was new. Now and then we would use an idea that we found on those trips in our designs.

applications must be designed to survive the elements and any tampering that might come from anyone who may have contact with them. In addition to providing proper illumination in the way of post or bollard lighting along walkways or floodlighting larger areas of a space like academic malls; features like statuary or architectural structures (shelters, band shells, gazebos, etc.) are also frequently lighted as part of an outdoor space. Many of these structures are discussed in Chapter 8. Figure 7.43 provides a few additional examples of exterior lighting that are on a grander scale.

Roadways and Bridges Roadway lighting falls into a very specific discipline of illumination engineering and is generally only done by engineers who have specific training in this area. The primary use of this type of lighting is in lighting streets and roadways, parking areas, walkways/sidewalks, and entrance driveways. The primary functions of these applications are in providing a safe environment for people while driving and leaving their cars as they go to and from work, shopping, and other activities. Upon their return, people also need to quickly identify and get safely back to their cars while being directed to a parking lot’s exits. While floodlighting is the most popular method of approaching many of these designs, there are special variations of floodlighting that can contribute to a better or worse design for a given application. One example that illustrates this is a car dealer’s new or used car lot. Here, higher intensity levels are commonly developed along with special distribution patterns to help the cars look their best. In terms of a unique

Getting out and seeing a new Broadway show or a museum installation, or even taking a walk down New York’s 5th Avenue will help to slowly build a mental database of quality experiences that one can study and reevaluate. That is what great design is all about,” says Gregory. In closing, Paul states that, “As lighting designers, we are only one part of the greater design team that makes a project work. I believe it is our role to understand which emotion the project will evoke, and affirm it in the minds of the architects, interior designers, engineers and contractors on the team. A  project is successful when a person walks in and instantly feels affected by the space. For this to occur, the architect, interior designer, owner and lighting designer must articulate and agree on what emotions the space will evoke and which moods will be created. Specifically, the lighting design must serve and enhance this vision by controlling the light that is reflected off the surfaces and forms created by the architectural designer. This is the emotionally evocative design we strive for in every project,” says Gregory.

treatment, these projects often make heavy use of metal halide sources and two different pole-mounted luminaires and focuses for lighting the cars on the lot (one high, the other low). The additional luminaires on the lower level are aimed at the grills and bumpers of the cars to add extra sparkle to the vehicles. Roadway lighting illuminates roads and important interchanges that a car or truck may be driven on. Illumination of the roadway surface is the primary focus of this type of lighting. A variation of roadway lighting is street lighting (towns and cities), in which not only the street but also the sidewalks and neighboring buildings are lighted. Several tasks of street lighting that are different from roadway lighting are that it is used to attract interest and commerce to an area, is designed for better vertical illumination so that people can see the features of people walking within the space (security/ safety), and the use of decorative luminaires and poles. Main Street scenes associated with the historic downtown locations of small towns or cities are examples where street lighting is often at its best. Many of these luminaires and posts can be quite decorative. Some lighting systems are relatively simple while others can be quite complex. Light sources are typically HID-based and are chosen because of their efficiencies. Mercury vapor sources were and continue to be popular but in recent years the most popular sources have shifted to high-pressure sodium and metal halide. In some applications, low-pressure sodium lamps may also be used and there are now LED luminaires being used in many of these applications. The general principle of roadway or

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Figure 7.43  Architectural lighting design and projects by Paul Gregory and Focus Lighting: (a) Marcus Center for Performing Arts. (b) Atlantis Dubai. (c) Entel Tower Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Focus Lighting, photo by JR Krauza, (b) photo courtesy of Kerzer International, (c) photo courtesy of Focus Lighting

street lighting, on the other hand, works on the basis of providing an even level of illumination on a road’s surface without creating glare. When a road passes over elevated areas or approaches a hill, shielding may have to be placed on the luminaires so that they don’t blind motorists who are driving toward the offending lamps. While there are still a number of special considerations that go into this lighting, unlike street lighting, there are relatively few luminaire designs available for roadway applications. The famed cobra head luminaire (Figure  7.44a), equipped with a high-pressure sodium lamp, remains one of the most popular roadway luminaires in use today. Several of the newer LED luminaires used in roadway lighting applications are featured in Figure  7.45, while Figure  7.46 provides two examples of LED luminaires used in parking garages. As with interior lighting, there are also a series of luminaire classifications for roadway fixtures that are based on

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the beam or distribution pattern of the luminaires. Both distance of throw (short, medium, and long distributions) and shape of the pattern form methods of classifying these fixtures. The most popular classification, Type I, is designed to mount directly over a roadway and throws the majority of the light in only two directions (along the path of the road). Types II, III, and IV allow the luminaire to be mounted to one side of the road while Type I-4-way, Type II-4-way, and Type V classifications are used at intersections. In the 10th edition of The Lighting Handbook, the Type I-4-way and Type II-4-way classifications have been dropped while a square distribution pattern (Type VS) has been added. The various distribution patterns are illustrated in Figure 7.47. Roadway conditions or type of pavement and traffic speeds/stopping distances are also criteria in designing these lighting systems. In terms of control, most roadway or street lighting luminaires have self-contained photocells that turn the units on and off at dusk and dawn.

An important element of roadway lighting is the height at which the luminaires are mounted. The most common mounting method includes the use of mast arms that are attached to wooden or aluminum poles. These poles come in a variety of heights, but 40-foot heights are among the more popular sizes used along most roadways. Along open roadways it is quite common for only one luminaire to be mounted on a pole, but in areas of more congestion and along interchanges, several luminaires frequently share a common pole. A pole containing several fixtures is sometimes called a cluster mounting. As a rule, poles are generally spaced at regular intervals that allow an even wash and transition of light over the roadway and between the light sources. It is also usually more practical to design roadway lighting systems that use higher capacity luminaires that allow the fixtures to be positioned at a higher mounting height—allowing the luminaires and associated poles to be placed farther apart. This ultimately saves money in installation and operating costs. In large interchanges, poles over 60 feet tall, called high-mast lighting, are often used. In addition to spacing, an illumination engineer must also consider glare as a driver moves from one luminaire toward another. This glare is also prevented to some degree by using fixtures that are equipped with shielding features. These features also help prevent peripheral light from being directed skyward. A variation of this control is known as cut-off (more of an internal design feature) and luminaires can be further classified according to how much light, or the angle above a horizontal reference, that a luminaire might display spill (full cut-off, cut-off, semicut-off, and noncut-off). Several guidelines that will help bring quality lighting to street or roadway lighting while minimizing the effects of light pollution include the following: • Don’t over light • Be conscious of light trespass • Light from above whenever possible • Avoid using direct uplight for roadway signs • Design in ways that minimize glare • Try to use a combination of luminaires with narrower beam patterns and higher mounting positions whenever possible

Figure 7.44  Roadway luminaires: (a) A cobra head roadway luminaire with high-pressure sodium lamp; (b) an LED roadway luminaire.

Bridge lighting is a form of exterior lighting that has become a unique blend between lighting a structure and roadway lighting. This is particularly popular where a bridge becomes a major entrance point and symbol of a city or if it is constructed in an especially interesting manner. While much of the lighting of these structures is based on providing the illumination required for driving, other elements of the bridges can be treated with decorative lighting techniques. Many of the aesthetic treatments of bridge lighting have their roots in more traditional

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exterior lighting design. Suspension bridges are especially popular candidates for this combined treatment. Bridge lighting in the past 30 or 40 years has typically emphasized the use of naturally colored HID sources like metal halide fixtures while designs in the last 10  years have expanded to include many effective uses of color. Many of the bridges that cross into Manhattan in New York are examples of the former while cities like Pittsburgh and Cleveland have added color treatments to iconic bridges in those cities. Some make use of limited changes in color while others use moving lights and elaborate color scrolling techniques. Some of the installations are permanent while others are only for a limited time or special event. Areas that relate to travel paths or roadways are typically lighted as a variation of roadway lighting; any artistic treatments of these areas is avoided in order to both minimize glare and not distract the drivers. However, other bridge features that are popular for being lit in a more artistic manner include the piers or abutments, towers, the main suspension and hanger cables, and the bridge’s undercarriage. Fixtures mounted on bridges should be equipped with some form of vibration insulation to help prevent premature lamp failures caused by the traffic or trains that cross it. In many ways, the lighting treatments can add a sense of wonder and welcome for anyone who uses or views these bridges. Bridges frequently become

Figure 7.45  LED roadway/exterior luminaire heads: (a) LED single head, (b) LED double head, and (c) LED flood (warm color temperature).

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Figure 7.46  Parking garage luminaires: (a) LED canopy luminaire, (b) LED tube-style luminaire with attached motion detector.

Figure 7.47  IESNA roadway luminaire distribution classifications, referenced from the Lighting Handbook (9th and 10th editions): (a) Type I, (b) Type II, (c) Type III, (d) Type IV (e) Type V, (f) Type I-4-way, (g) Type II-4-way, and (h) Type VS.

For Further Reading

Figure 7.48  Examples of bridge lighting: (a) Pausch Pedestrian Bridge (distant view), Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh. (b) Pausch Pedestrian Bridge (bridge view), Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh. (c) Combination traffic/pedestrian bridge, Columbus, OH Credit: (a, b) photo courtesy of C&C Lighting

landmarks that characterize a city and its skyline. Cities like New York, Cleveland, Columbus, Louisville, and Pittsburgh have all used bridge lighting to enhance their cities.

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Bowers, Brian. Lengthening the Day: A History of Lighting Technology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1998. Boylan, Bernard R. The Lighting Primer. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1987. Brandston, Howard M. Learning to See: A Matter of Light. New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2008. Cadena, Richard. Lighting Design for Modern Houses of Worship. Las Vegas, NV: Timeless Communications, 2008. DiLaura, David L., Kevin W. Houser, Richard G. Mistrick, and Gary R. Steffy. eds. Illuminating Engineering Society—The Lighting Handbook Tenth Edition: Reference and Application. New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2011. Dillon, Maureen. Artificial Sunshine: A Social History of Domestic Lighting. London, UK: National Trust Enterprises, Ltd., 2002. Fielder, William J. and Frederick H. Jones. The Lit Interior. Oxford, UK: Architectural Press, 2001. Gordon, Gary. Interior Lighting for Designers. 5th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2014. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. IESNA Lighting Education 100 (Fundamental Level). New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 1993. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. IESNA Lighting Education 150 (Intermediate Level). New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 1993. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. IESNA Lighting Ready Reference. 4th ed. New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2003. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. An Introduction to Light and Lighting (ED 50). New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 1991. Johnson, Glenn M. The Art of Illumination: Residential Lighting Design. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1999. Karlen, Mark and James Benya. Lighting Design Basics. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2012. Lindsey, Jack L. Applied Illumination Engineering. 2nd ed. Liburn, GA: The Fairmont Press, Inc., 1997. Livingston, Jason. Designing with Light: The Art, Science, and Practice of Architectural Lighting Design. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2014. NFPA (National Fire Protection Association). NFPA 70: National Electrical Code (NEC) 2008. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2017. Penzel, Frederick. Theatre Lighting Before Electricity. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1978. Rae, Mark. ed. IESNA Lighting Handbook. 9th ed. New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2000. Rhiner, James L. A Complete Guide to the Language of Lighting. Elk Grove Village, IL: Halo Lighting Division, McGraw-Edison Company, 1983.

Robbins, Claude L. Daylighting: Design and Analysis. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1986. Smith, Fran Kellogg and Fred J. Bertolone. Bringing Interiors to Light: The Principles and Practices of Lighting Design. New York, NY: Whitney Library of Design, 1986. Steffy, Gary. Architectural Lighting Design. 3rd ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2008. Steffy, Gary R. Lighting the Electronic Office. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1995.

Steffy, Gary R. Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Lighting. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000. Szenasy, Susan S. Light: The Complete Handbook of Lighting Design. Philadelphia, PA: Running Press Book Publishers, 1986. Watson, Lee. Lighting Design Handbook. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1990. Winchip, Susan M. Fundamentals of Lighting. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Fairchild Books, 2017.

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CHAPTER 8

LANDSCAPE LIGHTING

T

HIS CHAPTER IN many ways is an extension of Chapter 7 but has several key elements that address the special needs of working in landscape lighting. The basic tasks of creating client studies, proposals, and lighting documents are based on a similar set of principles as discussed in architectural lighting and are not repeated here. Several topics in which this chapter provides more specific detail include a description and general background of landscape lighting, luminaires, and other equipment that are unique to this area of lighting, and a summary of common approaches to landscape lighting. While the materials in this chapter should give you an introduction to this area of lighting design, they are not meant to be a full reference for this type of design. For a more comprehensive view of landscape lighting I suggest looking at references like Janet Lennox Moyer’s The Landscape Lighting Book or Randall Whitehead’s The Art of Outdoor Lighting: Landscapes With the Beauty of Lighting.

Lighting Landscapes Landscape lighting is in many ways an extension of a building’s exterior lighting. In reality, you can’t separate them because of the close ties that they should share with one another. What is essential is that they together create an aesthetic that comments positively on a building’s structure and neighboring grounds. The final designs may be either bold and attention getting or subtle and well-blended with the rest of a property’s surroundings. In addition to providing a more pleasing environment, this lighting also offers an important “first impression” to anyone entering or passing by a property. Many corporate headquarters and hotel chains make heavy use of landscape lighting in the overall design of their facilities for this purpose. Landscape lighting is also used to make areas of a property more useable for outdoor activities that extend into the later portions of a day. Adding lights to a patio or deck area, swimming pool or hot tub, or simply putting floodlights on an outdoor basketball or tennis court greatly increases the potential for using these spaces. While most of us think of landscape lighting from the viewpoint of a single property, many landscape lighting schemes grow into more comprehensive projects such as lighting industrial parks and corporate or academic campuses, lighting public walkways and municipal parks, creating master designs for subdivisions and their entrances and public areas, and designing street and bridge lighting for cities and highways. City skylines might even be considered as one of the largest scales of landscape lighting. Cities like Cleveland and Columbus, Ohio; Atlanta; Los Angeles; and New York are just a few cities that have brought a recognizable aesthetic to their cities through lighting their many bridges and office towers in a variety of lighting treatments. A few unique elements of landscape lighting relate to the fact that the primary subjects of these designs are the plants and trees of a property. This creates several special considerations that must be examined while completing these projects. First, a new team member is brought into the design mix with the appearance of a landscape architect. This individual is responsible for the

design and  layout of a building site and all its plantings. These professionals determine how a yard is terraced; introduce special features like walls and fountains to a property; identify the locations of the flower beds and trees; and ultimately place all of the plants, shrubs, and other foliage that are featured in a landscape design. A landscape lighting designer must work very closely with this member of the design team because they determine where and what the lighting designer will light. A second even more pertinent element of lighting landscapes lies in the fact that the subject(s) are constantly changing and that the design must be maintained to accommodate these changes in order to remain attractive. A designer needs to understand how fast a tree will grow and must plan for what height the tree will be in several growing seasons. Other flora may change appearance significantly during a year, and it is best to find a technique that will successfully light these plants throughout the year—not just when they are in full bloom. Also, rapidly growing plants can grow over or might even obscure the light of luminaires if precautions aren’t taken to either trim the plants on a regular basis or to place the luminaires well above the encroaching growth. A tree that is lighted from above with the idea of casting shadows of its branches onto the ground will be ineffective if either the luminaire is placed too high in the tree or if the leaf density is too great. The cardinal rule is knowing your plants: how fast and big they will grow, their annual cycles, and any other unique characteristics that relate to their shape and density. Many landscape lighting designers offer an annual service where they not only repair any broken luminaires but also refocus and adjust the lighting based on the changes that have occurred in the foliage over the previous year. As with any other exterior lighting, landscape lighting also provides additional services such as creating safety and security measures throughout a property. Safety measures will create appropriate illumination to walkways, steps, and other hazards that pedestrians may encounter throughout a propery while also providing security from vandals and intruders.

Essential Approaches to Lighting Landscapes One of the more unique elements of landscape lighting is observed in the lighting levels that are typically used to light landscapes. Unlike many other types of lighting design, this becomes a much more relative than absolute call on what is appropriate from one installation to another. First, the overall intensity levels found in garden or landscape lighting are relatively low compared to most other lighting applications. In fact, many gardens can be lighted quite successfully with five to 10 footcandles or less. Low-­ intensity features may have as little as 1/2 footcandle of light on them while more prominent features may be lit to 20 or more footcandles. In most cases, only commercial landscaping features get much brighter than this. This

is in part due to the extreme contrast that typically exists between the lighted features of a landscape and the accompanying darkness that exists in most gardens. There is also a need to avoid excessive glare. Glare can be a particular problem because individuals are usually free to circulate about a property as they wish. Second, overall intensity levels of a project are in part based on the relative amount of light associated with the neighboring properties and surrounding environment. Bright streetlights or a location that is surrounded by neighbors who have well-lighted properties will require higher luminosities than if a property were located along the river front of a national park. Third, landscape lighting is best utilized through creating accents that focus on specific elements of the landscape— not on creating uniform lighting throughout a space. This brings contrast and visual interest to a design and is quite different from providing floodlight over an entire area. A designer doesn’t have to light everything in these designs. One of the most important tasks they must accomplish is to determine which features of a landscape should be accented and which should be ignored. Also, landscape lighting is not limited to lighting trees and plants. In fact, a number of the more effective elements in many landscape designs light objects other than the foliage. The plants or growing elements are usually referred to as softscape as opposed to architectural features like footbridges, pathways, retaining walls, and sculptures, which are called hardscape. Landscape lighting is also designed to be viewed from different perspectives at the same time. First, one must consider the lighting from not only the exterior but also from within a property. The view of a garden from a large bay window or an enclosed sun-porch should be as pleasing as what is seen while being in the garden. Many restaurants offer choice seating in areas where windows provide views of the landscaping and surrounding areas. Second, even from within a garden, different views should be considered while lighting any landscape feature or project. Although there will most likely be a prominent view such as looking to the back of the garden from a deck or patio, there will almost always be additional features that a designer can highlight for individuals who might be looking at the garden from other positions and perspectives. In this case, the patio itself could be lighted for people who would view the building from the back of the garden. There may also be obscured areas where a birdbath or sculpture might be situated and lighted for pedestrians who are traveling through those parts of a garden. Finally, as alluded to earlier, landscape lighting designers must design with the idea of planning for the future. Lighting saplings from below will work nicely for a couple years until the trees’ branches extend beyond the beams of any in-ground fixtures that may have been placed around them. Likewise, spotlights that were once focused to the top of a tree may fall short of any new growth that has appeared or the increased leaf density of a growing tree may

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block light that was originally designed to extend throughout the tree.

project. Several of the most popular techniques are illustrated in Figure 8.1.

Distribution Patterns in Landscape Lighting

Area Lighting

There are a variety of techniques for lighting landscapes. Many are based on variations of lighting angles and distribution patterns found in other types of lighting design while some are unique to this lighting specialty. In some cases, landscape lighting designers may refer to these distribution patterns by different names than those used by other areas of the lighting industry. The following sections introduce a variety of positioning techniques/distribution methods that are commonly employed in lighting landscapes. The first six relate to describing functional elements of landscape lighting while the remaining ones relate to specific techniques that may be used in lighting a landscape

Area lighting for landscape projects is conceived of a bit differently than in entertainment or architectural venues. While area lighting in the more traditional design disciplines relates to creating an even coverage of light throughout an entire area, it plays a much more limited role in landscape lighting. In this sense, we generally refer to area light as light that is used to illuminate a limited area for a specific task or purpose. Examples of this might include lighting a porch or deck, a pool area, tennis courts, etc. Any lighting that provides good general illumination over a given area with the intention of providing enough illumination to perform a given task can be considered area light.

Figure 8.1  Several landscape lighting projects: (a) Uplighting of trees with pathway lighting along sidewalk (both leading to the building’s entrance lobby), (b) entrance area lit from within while uplights light columns, overhead structures, and foliage, (c) moonlighting with area lighting of flower beds, and (d) washing of entrance area while brick wall is lighted as a background that silhouettes the foliage.

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Fill Lighting Fill light, like in other areas of lighting design, can be thought of as a general ambiance that adds a bit more illumination to a nighttime scene. In many cases, fill light comes from scatter or spill from the primary luminaires that are used in a lighting design. Fill light is often a lowlevel light that not only helps to provide an overall ambiance to an installation but also provides a means of tying all the other light sources together into a cohesive whole.

Safety Lighting Safety lighting was introduced in Chapter  7 and represents landscape lighting that is used primarily for visibility purposes. It is used to help direct people to various portions of a property while also permitting them to safely navigate throughout the space. Safety lighting commonly includes pathway lighting, which is no more than lighting the walkways and steps that people will have to use while walking through the space. It is one of the most important elements that a lighting designer must provide for a landscape project. How much light is actually required is dependent on a number of factors—but issues like amount of traffic passing through an area, irregularities in terrain, and amount of ambient light from other sources are just a few of the issues that a landscape lighting designer must consider when planning safety lighting.

Security Lighting Security lighting was also introduced in Chapter  7 and provides lighting that can be used to deter crime. It can take on many different forms in how it is worked into a design, but the older concept of simply flooding an exterior with light is no longer necessarily seen as the best approach to security lighting. From the perspective of a landscape lighting designer, security lighting can be quite different from this and (more importantly) should be worked into the aesthetics of the rest of a lighting design. At one time, security lighting was only thought of in terms of mounting several PAR-38s (residential) or mercury vapor (commercial) fixtures to a high point on a building to simply flood an area with light. Often these units were placed on timers or photocells and remained on throughout the night. More recent versions are more energy efficient and may be activated by other means like motion devices. Contemporary designs tend to work from the perspective of a more aesthetic approach and use light from other functions like accent or safety lighting and their spill to provide security lighting that helps keep intruders away.

usually more defined light on an object(s) to bring focus to whatever is contained in the light. Spotlighting is a primary means of addressing focus issues for landscape designs. A bit of discretion must be taken when using spotlighting techniques to ensure that too many objects aren’t fighting for the attention of the viewer. Several popular uses of spotlighting include lighting statues, emphasizing a particular plant or arrangement, and uplighting trees and flag poles.

Accent Lighting Accent lighting is a bit different from spotlighting in that it relates more to the relative intensity of a light when compared to other light sources. While accent lighting is based on relative intensities, spotlighting typically picks a subject out of the darkness. More importantly, accent lights draw focus because of the contrast that they create between various elements of a design. Accent lighting is most commonly achieved through placing a slightly more intense light on a subject or creating a glow in an area of the garden that would for the most part lie in darkness. Although accent lighting may be achieved through spotlighting, it is more commonly associated with simply placing a focus or accent on a given feature. Two final methods in which accent lighting might be used include bringing sparkle to an area through placing exposed lamps in view (within reason and not to cause glare) and to color a luminaire with filters that are different from the rest of the lamps in an area. One very common technique is to place cool colored filters in the majority of the luminaires while using unfiltered light for those areas of the design that will draw focus. Here again, it is contrast (color, not intensity this time) that creates the accent. One method of adding sparkle elements to a design includes stringing clear miniature lamps throughout a shrub or sapling’s branches. Many small towns use this technique of stringing clear lamps through the trees that line their streets and sidewalks to produce a more inviting downtown.

Background Lighting Background lighting is lighting an area that lies behind other features of a garden and is a way in which a series of layers can be created in a landscape’s design. Objects may or may not be silhouetted against this background and in many cases the background is simply illuminated in some interesting manner. More importantly, many background lighting treatments help define the edge of a property and often become scenic backdrops or surrounds for the rest of the elements in an exterior area. Masonry walls and fences are often lit as a part of a garden’s background lighting.

Spotlighting

Contour Lighting

In landscape lighting this is no different than any other type of spotlighting. This technique places a more intense and

Contour lighting, as the name implies, follows the landscape’s lines or contours. The most obvious case of this is

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when people line their walkways or pathways with luminaires. The basic set of 6–20 path markers that are found in many residential lighting kits are the most common example of this type of lighting. Contour lighting may also follow other objects like driveways, edges of flower beds, and pools, etc.

Cross Lighting Cross lighting is a technique, not unlike other areas of lighting, where two lights are aimed at a subject from roughly two opposing directions. The effect of doing this adds more dimensionality to the trees while also providing a slightly more diffuse or softer treatment of the objects. The severe contrasts of single spotlighting can be softened by using this technique. Floodlights are frequently used for cross lights because they complement the soft diffuse quality that this type of lighting generally provides. It is quite common to use some variation of cross lighting for mounting accent lights on floral features or as downlights throughout an area.

Downlighting and Moonlighting This technique places luminaires in the tops of trees or on poles/masts so that they can be aimed to throw shadows of branches and leaves downward into a garden or yard. It is perhaps the most natural of the lighting angles because it simulates sunlight coming through the trees. Downlighting may be accomplished through the placement of a single fixture or a grouping of several units throughout different trees. If possible, the luminaires should be mounted high enough in the trees so that the light, not the fixture, is seen by an observer. A special form of downlighting called moonlighting (Figure 8.2) tries to simulate natural moonlight through mounting mercury vapor lamps in the trees so that their shadows and cool color provide a suggestion of moonlight.

Figure 8.2 Moonlighting

Grazing Light A technique for emphasizing surface texture can be created by placing a luminaire so that it is relatively close to the object that it is lighting. Once placed, the lamp is focused so that its beam skirts (grazes) across the surface of the object. Grazing light (Figure  8.3) is both a very interesting and effective technique for lighting backgrounds. It is particularly successful for lighting wall and rock faces containing masonry materials or other surfaces with rough textures. The extreme angle emphasizes highlights and shadows cast by the material while also enhancing any inconsistencies in the object’s surface. The luminaires are typically mounted from either above or below the face of the structure and can even be placed to an extreme side position if desired. The closer that a luminaire is placed to the surface that it is lighting (i.e., a wall), the more intense the shadows become.

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Figure 8.3  Grazing light along brick columns

Perspective Lighting Perspective lighting creates an illusion of distance. In principle, the technique is based on an illusion that isn’t much different than what you might observe in the familiar example of train tracks and telephone poles that fade off to a central vanishing point. In terms of landscape lighting, we use two different variations of perspective lighting to bring this illusion to a space. First, just as in the example

of the tracks, plantings and trees can be located in such a way that the more distant plants are progressively smaller in size while they are also placed closer together. This initiates some forced perspective into the design and any luminaires used to light the plants are located in a way that reinforces the perspective lines already established by the trees. As a second means of initiating perspective, a lighting designer may purposefully give the appearance of the extreme edges of a garden falling off to lower levels of illumination. This also gives the appearance of a larger space. The most common means of accomplishing this is to either progressively lamp the luminaires so that the units farthest away contain lamps with lower wattages or to use screens as an alternate way to vary the intensity of similarly lamped fixtures. Through progressively reducing the intensity of the fixtures, a designer can bring the appearance of more depth to a design.

Shadowing Shadowing techniques work much like gobos are used in the film industry. In this case, the luminaires are placed somewhere to the front of the plants or trees and are aimed so that the light that illuminates these objects casts shadows onto a background like an exterior wall. The technique has a dual purpose in that the luminaire first lights the subject/tree then goes on to cast interesting shadows onto the neighboring background. The smoother the surface of the background, the more apparent the shadows will be. This produces a layered and more interesting textured effect than simply lighting the shrubs or foliage alone. The amount and type of distortion found in the cast shadows is directly related to the angle and distance that the source is placed from the foliage. Figure 8.4 provides an example of shadowing along with several other techniques of landscape lighting.

Figure 8.4  Additional landscape lighting techniques: (a) Shadowing. (b) Uplighting of trees. (c) Pathway lighting. (d) Uplight/ grazing. (e) Decorative fixtures: Tavern on the Green, New York (lighting design by Paul Gregory and Focus Lighting) Credit: (e) photo courtesy of Ryan Fischer

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distant landscape. Vista lighting provides safety lighting that aids in the general circulation of an area while at the same time ensures that the lighting does not interfere with the distant view. Contrast and control are key elements in how much lighting is required for this type of application. A distant view of a city skyline or view of a distant shoreline from a porch/deck are examples of situations where vista lighting may be called for.

Principles of Landscape Lighting

Figure 8.4  (Continued)

Silhouette Lighting Silhouetting or silhouette lighting refers to shining a light source on an object that is behind a tree or shrubbery material so that the silhouette of the objects stand out as black shadows against a well lit background. In this instance, contrast between the unlit objects and the relatively bright background creates a dramatic silhouette of the plants and other landscaping materials. This technique is particularly effective when the background is relatively smooth as in the case of stucco or concrete walls. This is very similar to background lighting with the exception being that background lighting tends to wash an entire background surface while silhouette lighting tends to be a more limited practice of lighting only select areas of a background.

Uplighting Uplighting is a very unnatural yet common angle for lighting landscape features. It is generally considered a fairly dramatic angle due to its being reversed from what we perceive as a normal lighting angle. Since its highlights and shadows are reversed, this angle is especially effective for adding a dramatic focus to a subject. The fixtures may be mounted on the ground below the subject or may be mounted below grade with the lens being placed essentially at the ground’s surface. This is a very popular technique for lighting trees that are planted along city sidewalks. The angle also emphasizes the height of objects and is especially effective for lighting trees that have reflective canopies. It is important to realize that the trees need to appear grounded when using this angle and that this effect is best achieved through making sure that the trunk is lighted along the majority of its length from the ground to its associated canopy. Uplighting is also popular for highlighting medium-sized shrubs and bushes along with statuary and any other architectural features where an emphasis is desired.

Vista Lighting Vista lighting provides supplemental lighting to an area that has a particularly wide and beautiful view of some

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While opinions and tastes might change considerably from one designer to another, most have come to recognize a couple of basic techniques for lighting specific applications that are commonly associated with landscape environments. Several of these applications are presented in this section along with a few of the special considerations that should be examined when lighting landscape objects. These techniques should be thought of as a starting place and should not be considered the only ways of approaching any of these applications.

Plants, Shrubs, and Foliage Plants and foliage make up most of a landscape’s composition. Even though they are the principal subjects, it should be understood that selective illumination of the plants is usually better than trying to fully light them. A  designer must use contrast and variety in their designs and should pick a couple of elements to highlight instead of trying to illuminate everything in a garden uniformly. In fact, elements of darkness are valuable to these designs because they help the spotlighted elements to stand out. Even once it has been determined that a particular plant will be featured there are considerations that a designer should examine to ensure that it is lit in a way that the plant is best revealed. Some issues to consider include: size and density of the plant, shape of the foliage, and overall color of both the plant and any blooms or flowers that the plant produces. Colored light, if used at all, must be chosen carefully so that the colors of the plants don’t become too distorted. The colors should be chosen to enhance the greenery of the plant and the luminaire, and mounting methods should be flexible enough that they can be revised as the needs of the plant or flower bed change. Some species look great under cool mercury light while others go dark and need to be enhanced with an alternate color. The texture and thickness of a plant’s growth must be considered since light may be aimed through the plant onto other objects. Also, the texture and basic form of a plant or hedge can be highlighted by placing luminaires more to the sides or backs of the subject. Finally, the structure of the plant must be considered. What lighting angle best illuminates the plant? Should multiple sources be employed from different directions? What is the likely height of the plant once it matures? How close to maturity is it? How does

the plant change with the seasons? Will the lamps have to be repositioned or moved in a couple of seasons? Will the plants in a flower bed remain there in upcoming seasons? A  landscape lighting designer must be familiar with the distinguishing characteristics and growth patterns for each of the plants that are found in a landscape design. In addition to the plant itself, its location will also play a role in how it is lighted. If relatively close to a wall, a shadowing or silhouetting technique may be more appropriate than simply lighting the plants from the front. A popular angle for many medium-sized shrubs and small ornamental trees is in using uplights placed somewhat to the front of the subject and aimed away from the viewer. The plants and shrubs of a landscape project usually are the one element of a design that require the most amount of flexibility since these features will most likely be changing from season to season. This flexibility becomes one of the primary reasons why the annual lighting contracts mentioned earlier are made available to a client.

Trees Trees are another major component of gardens that are lit by landscape lighting. The specific techniques for lighting trees may vary considerably from one installation to another, but in most cases, they are lit with variations of either up- or downlight. Uplight is popular for illuminating the canopy and producing a varied texture across the tree. Sometimes designers use a single light source to light a tree but more often tend to specify two or three lamps that are mounted around the base of the trees. It is also best if these fixtures are lamped to different wattages to introduce some contrast in the illumination which will aid in the modeling of a tree. These same luminaires may be placed relatively close to the trunk or farther out, closer to the edges of a tree’s canopy. The closer units provide highlights and texture from within the tree while more distantly placed lights reveal the overall shape of a tree. If the angle is steep enough, the light may even be turned into a grazing light source. It should be noted once again that a designer should not skip the lighting of a tree’s trunk since failing to do so causes the canopy to appear to float which can be distracting. A better solution is to place an uplight near the base of the trunk and to focus it so that it grazes the trunk and tree’s main branches. This will connect the tree to the canopies while also anchoring them visually to the ground. Additonal lights placed farther away from the trunk can be used to light more of the canopy and exterior branches. While uplighting is common for lighting many trees, trees with any significant height might be better illuminated by placing downlights high in a tree’s branches and focusing the light through the tree onto the landscape below. While not as dramatic as lighting from below, this creates a more naturalistic quality that can still be very pleasing to many property owners. Much of the attraction of this technique lies in the textured patterns that are created from the light

shining through the branches onto the lawn below. A variation of this lighting that was presented earlier is moonlighting, in which mercury vapor luminaires are mounted high in the trees to produce simulated moonlight. When luminaires are mounted in trees, special attempts need to be made for annual inspections and for modifying the cable runs and anchors since the cables may become stretched or overgrown by the tree’s growth. In fact, local codes need to be consulted before installing lights in trees because some municipalities do not permit this practice.

Pathways and Steps Pathway and step lighting are extremely important aspects of landscape lighting. In fact, in many cases, these may be the only lighting elements to be incorporated into a landscape design. Their importance is in the role that they play in providing safety throughout a property. These luminaires light paths and walkways for visitors who are unfamiliar with a space and who aren’t aware of any hazards that may be in their path. There are several approaches to lighting pathways, but a common philosophy that they all share remains in providing enough visibility for occupants to circulate easily and safely throughout a property. The most common areas for receiving these treatments are sidewalks and driveways that lead to the entrances of a building. They are also used to connect a building to any outlying areas and structures that are found throughout a property. If a walkway contains any irregular surfaces such as slabs of slate or fieldstone the lighting should also help people discern the edges of each walking surface. As a rule, the spacings of the luminaires are determined predominantly by the heights of the luminaires (typically about 2 feet off the ground) and the beam spreads of a unit. With this information, the luminaires are placed so that the light from adjoining lamps just touch or barely overlap with one another. A smooth, uniform wash of light over the entire surface of a pathway should be the goal. Two popular arrangements for achieving this include placing the luminaires along a single side of a path or alternating fixtures from one side of a path to the other. Pathway luminaires are usually quite decorative and trace the movement patterns that people should follow while moving through an environment. In addition to providing safety, they are also used to lead or direct strangers to specific locations within a space. Pathway lights and bollards are the two most common types of fixtures used for these applications. While the primary function of these lights is to provide visibility and to lead people, they cannot be so bright as to be distracting or to take focus away from the rest of the installation. Again, it comes down to an issue of the contrast that exists between this and the other types of lighting that are used on a project. Steps and staircases represent a special concern in pathway lighting because they invariably represent a hazard. Not only can these areas be dangerous when not lit with a sufficient amount of light, but can also actually cause safety

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Figure 8.5  Entranceway marked by bollard fixtures

issues if lighted in a way that produces distortion in how one navigates the steps. Incorrectly placed luminaires will cast shadows that cause people to misread the location of the treads, which can result in falls. In an attempt to avoid this, many designers specify luminaires (stair lights) that are built into the structure of the stairs that cast their light directly onto the stair treads. Lights may also be placed to the sides of the stairs so that any shadows created by the lights are cast along the width of the steps. Other solutions line the edge of the treads with linear sources like ropelight, LEDs, or fiber optic tubing. If not using lights specifically for the purpose of lighting the stair treads, then lighting fixtures should be chosen that produce good area lighting over the steps while preferably locating them to the side of the steps that corresponds with the lowest step. This helps to prevent cast shadows that could give the treads an appearance of being wider than they actually are. Placing luminaires at the top of a stairway in a way that casts shadows downward across the treads should be avoided. It is also best to use as few lamps as possible since each lamp will cast additional shadows onto the steps.

Hardscape and Sculptures These features include objects like retaining walls, ledges, and sculptures (Figure 8.6). What makes them unique are the strong textures that are present on many of their surfaces. A landscape lighting designer should see the potential of creating interesting effects on these surfaces and should light each in accordance with the needs and tastes of a property owner. In some cases it will be appropriate to emphasize the textures while in others the texture may have to be downplayed. Grazing and spotlighting are popular techniques for lighting these objects. Shadowing and silhouetting techniques are also used quite frequently in these applications. In addition to working with the texture, distribution patterns can also become part of a lighting

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Figure 8.6  A sculpture (uplighting lights the wall plaques as well as the sculpture while accent lights mounted on masts also light the sculpture)

design. Placing alternating columns of grazing uplight and shadow along the length of a wall can create an interesting design motif—especially if silhouetting landscape features like small cypress or cedar trees. Sculptures are three-dimensional structures that benefit from being lighted by more than one source. This is especially important if individuals can walk around a sculpture to view it from different directions. On the other hand, lighting a sculpture equally well from several directions can produce an uninteresting flattening effect. One way of avoiding this is to not have each source’s intensity equally balanced with the others. Lamps of different wattages or screens are often used to produce this effect of contrast in order to bring a more interesting appearance to the statuary. While these structures can be lit from above as a means of creating a more natural lighting quality that mimics sunlight, there are occasions when a more dramatic treatment is appropriate. Adding stake-mounted or below-grade luminaires that shine on a sculpture from below will often create a more interesting composition for a garden. Simply creating effects that are suggestive of sunlight defeats the potential for producing the magic that can be brought to an exterior after dark. Finally, when lighting a subject from multiple directions, care must be taken to consider how glare affects people who might view the sculpture from different angles.

Architectural Features Architectural features relate to structures that have been designed as permanent elements of a landscape project. They do not necessarily relate directly to the building itself except in the consideration of decks and patios. Most lighting of the actual building is traditionally referred to as exterior lighting, although, in reality, you can’t separate a building’s exterior lighting from that of the grounds

and landscape lighting that surrounds it. Often a single designer designs both. If there are different designers, they will collaborate quite extensively with one another throughout a project. Typical structures that fall under the category of architectural features that a landscape lighting designer might design include: footbridges, patios/decks, arbors, trellises, and gazebos. In each case, the designer must examine the particular needs of the client while also seeking ways to showcase the structure(s) in as positive of a manner as possible. In addition to making the structure visually interesting, many of these architectural elements carry further lighting needs like establishing a specific level of visibility—such as in a gazebo where musicians are required to read music or a patio where food is prepared and served. Many architectural features provide surfaces in which vegetation and flowers may be grown and the designer should attempt to light not only the structure but also the flora in as flattering of a way as possible. The individual solutions to actually lighting any of these structures can vary considerably. Flag poles are another example of architectural features that are often lit. These are typically lit with uplights that are mounted in the ground surrounding a flagpole’s mast. The units must have wide enough beam spreads to ensure that the flag will be completely lit no matter what direction the wind is coming from.

Water Features Many gardens and exterior environments make use of water as an element of design in their landscaping. The most common examples include pools and spas, reflecting pools, fountains, and waterfalls. The last two add the excitement of moving water to a space. Lighting these attractions can be a bit tricky not only because of the issue of mixing water and electricity but also because water can be unpredictable in terms of how it and light may respond to one another. On the whole, there are two primary approaches to lighting most water projects. The first places the luminaires under the surface of the water where the light is scattered and turns the entire pool into a glowing source of light while the second uses the water as a reflecting surface where the lighting and landscape features from the surrounding area are reflected onto the surface of the water. Figure 8.7 provides an example of pool lighting where several different techniques of lighting have been utilized. One of the conditions that must be ensured to make these techniques successful comes in maintaining the cleanliness and more importantly clarity of the water. This is especially true for any water that is lit from below. Increased sediment and debris can not only become an obstacle to any light breaking the surface but may also cause the color of the water and light to take on an unattractive appearance. Most of us have seen pools that are overrun with algae and other debris and the sickly green color of the water and light associated with them.

Figure 8.7 A  typical application of pool lighting with fiber optic perimeter lighting, underwater sources, and surrounding landscape lighting Credit: photo courtesy of Calm Water Pools

A common practice for lighting pools and other water features is to mount luminaires below the surface of the water in the bottom of the pool or within the pool’s sidewalls. When mounting the units in the sidewalls, they are placed and aimed as much as possible in a direction away from the pool’s predominant viewing points in order to reduce glare. More importantly, underwater luminaires that are specified for pools and other water features are usually relatively large and designed to flood and scatter light throughout the water. This in turn produces the effect of turning the entire pool into a glowing light source. Many of these luminaires are placed on dimmers as a means of further controlling the lighting of the water features. When the surface of the water is used as a reflection surface, designers have discovered that if they keep the surface of the water dark and unlit, the pool will take on a mirror-like quality and any nearby lighted structures will be reflected on the surface of the water. This is often called mirror lighting and can be used as an approach for lighting pools, reflecting ponds, and small lakes or other water bodies. The success of both approaches is dependent on maintaining a proper balance of intensities between the pool and the surrounding landscape. Mirror lighting must also consider issues like the relative distance and angles of the landscaping from the pool as well as the pool’s relationship to the points from which it will be viewed from. The Crown Fountain in Chicago makes use of a reflecting pool and mirror lighting in addition to ever-changing video walls (Figure 8.8). As a precaution, any luminaires used in wet environments should be rated for wet exposure/submergence and must be checked and maintained on a regular basis. While some luminaires are rated for submergence, others are rated for moisture or wet exposure only—a designer

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Figure 8.8  Crown Fountain/Towers in Chicago’s Millennium Park, with video elements that change regularly on both towers: (a) Mirror lighting in reflecting pool. (b) Silhouette lighting in front of second tower Credit: photos courtesy of Kelly Johnston

must be clear in which type of unit they are specifying. Although some units are wired in waterproofed housings that are built directly into a pool’s construction, others are waterproofed only to the point where the unit’s power connection is made. In these cases, a long waterproofed cable leads from the luminaire to a plug that is then powered by a source somewhere in an above ground/water location in the immediate vicinity of the water feature. This is common for lighting smaller projects like personal garden fountains or applications where some portability may be desired in placing the light sources. Because of the potential for disaster, every circuit should be equipped with ground-fault equipment to add another layer of protection to anyone who may come in contact with the water. In addition to the water itself, a number of pools will also be lighted around their perimeters. Fiber optic sources have become especially popular for this application; these bring the added safety measure of being able to locate the electrical components of the system (illuminators) farther away from the pool. Finally, good visibility lighting should be provided in the area that surrounds a pool as a safety practice for observing people while they’re swimming.

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Another group of water features that can be especially exciting to light include fountains and waterfalls. In these features the water is in motion and light plays a significant role in bringing more interest to the water. The amount and type of motion found in any particular waterfall or fountain will determine much or how a designer might light it. In situations where there is little motion, such as when a gentle flow of water is created over a rock outcrop or wall, the design is often not approached any differently than from any of the lighting methods already described. On the other hand, if there is a significant amount of water flow, or if the water must cascade over a drop of at least several feet, a froth of white bubbles typically forms at the base of the fall that produces a wonderful surface to project light onto. Fountains can also produce this effect and are frequently lit to capitalize on this particularly good reflector of light. Using colored uplights are yet another popular practice in lighting fountains. Overall, there are numerous methods for lighting water features that contain moving water. A  designer should be imaginative when approaching these projects. Some techniques place the luminaires in front of the moving water and some locate them directly

below it under the water’s surface—still others may actually be mounted behind the falling water. Downlighting is used in some situations and colored lamps are a part of many installations. The scale can be large or small, and can range from a garden trickle-pool to as large as Niagara Falls. Fountains present other interesting challenges in that they are frequently lighted with a variety of angles and colors while at the same time they don’t remain stationary or at the same heights. Fountain/light shows like the Las Vegas Bellagio’s Fountains of Bellagio which are fully choreographed productions that are cued to musical routines that last about 10 minutes. The challenges of lighting an ever-changing surface makes the lighting of these features more difficult but all the more satisfying once all the specifics have been worked out and the program is finished. Even atriums in upscale hotels and shopping malls frequently display light/fountain shows that have been developed to entertain patrons who circulate throughout a property. The Opryland Hotel in Nashville has atriums that contain such water-related features.

Line-Voltage Versus 12-Volt Lighting Systems Landscape lighting systems of the past were typically limited to 120-volt AC or line-voltage systems. This also holds true for most of today’s commercial installations because of the ballasts and high-intensity discharge (HID) sources that are frequently used in these systems. Much of this is due to the fact that they must often be capable of supporting throws of 50–100 feet or more. While having readily available power is a primary advantage of line-­voltage systems, there are also a number of precautions and regulations regarding their installation and maintenance that make them more difficult for non-professionals to work with. In fact, these systems must be installed while conforming to electrical codes with the understanding that they usually have to be inspected and often even installed by a licensed electrician. Other reasons for using line-­voltage in commercial projects relates to the more demanding needs of the luminaires and more distant cable runs used in these operations. In the last 20 or so years low-voltage lighting systems have been developed that operate on approximately 12 volts. While other voltages may be used, 12 volts is the most popular standard for most of these systems. Low-voltage has become extremely popular in residential landscape lighting because of the relative low-cost of the equipment and user-friendly voltages that are involved in their use. The relative ease with which these systems can be installed also allows any reasonable handyman/person to install them—making them extremely popular with homeowners. In the last 10  years, solar cells and LED luminaires have led to even further use of low-voltage systems in residential landscape lighting. Many of the newer solar-powered systems are as simple to install as taking the luminaires out

of the box and sticking their ground stakes in the locations where you want to place the fixture. Another significant advantage of low-voltage systems lies in their ability to be easily changed with the growing patterns of the landscaping as a designer is required to modify or move a system’s luminaires to other locations. One of the biggest problems with low-voltage systems is that many of the do-it-yourself lighting kits are poorly made and do not last for extended periods of exposure to the elements. The issue of voltage drop is also of more concern in low-voltage systems. As electricity is conducted through greater distances, the resistance in a circuit gets larger, which results in a drop in voltage (voltage drop) as one moves farther along a circuit and away from the power source. Despite these issues, there are many low-voltage luminaires that can be wired to minimize voltage drop, are just as easily installed, and can last for many years if they are properly maintained. The advantages of line-level systems are primarily in that they tend to be more durable, have beam and lamp properties that are more in line with the needs of larger installations, and the equipment is designed to take the abuse of pedestrian traffic and potential vandalism. While homeowner systems typically light no more than a story or two of a building, commercial properties frequently demand throw distances and luminaires capable of lighting facades and other features that can extend to three, five, 10, or even more stories. An even more important consideration comes in that commercial properties are quite large in comparison to most residential lots and that many more units are usually required in commercial installations. This means that there are often considerable distances between luminaires in a commercial installation, which in addition to having more luminaires in a single circuit/cable-run has an added effect on voltage drop. Low-voltage systems experience a much greater percentage of voltage drop than line-voltage systems over runs of the same distance. While voltage drop in low-voltage systems is a concern in residential lighting, it becomes almost impossible to deal with in commercial installations. On the downside, much of the wiring/installation of line-voltage systems requires code compliance and additional safety measures such as placing all connections in electrical boxes, the use of specially shielded cables that are rated for burial, that these cables be buried to a minimum depth, and that the cables be placed in conduit when extending from the luminaire to this given depth. In reality, whether a landscape lighting system is designed around a line or low-voltage setup depends entirely on the individual needs of a project. As a matter of principle, small projects—especially residential ones—can frequently be done very nicely with a low-voltage system. Commercial installations or projects that cover a significant area or deliver brighter intensity levels are probably best left to a line-voltage system. One common practice that may also be considered is combining both types of systems on a

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single project. Through this, a designer can get the best of both systems.

Voltage Drop Voltage drop is the effect of the voltage in a circuit being lowered due to resistance building up in extended runs of a cable. In situations where long runs exist between luminaires or where they are wired in a daisy-chain fashion, the units farthest from the power source will typically glow dimmer and be found to be operating at a lower voltage than the other units. This effect often displays itself through lamps getting progressively dimmer while getting farther away from the power source. This is a much larger issue in low-voltage systems than line-voltage systems where there are only 12 volts available to begin with. A three-volt drop in a 12-volt system will translate into close to a 25% drop in voltage and light output while the same voltage drop in a line-voltage system will probably go unnoticed. Therefore, designers usually only give more serious consideration to voltage drop when specifying low-voltage systems or when there are especially long cable runs in a lighting design. The rest of this section examines the effects of voltage drop in typical low-voltage (12-volt) lighting systems. Oddly enough, voltage drop doesn’t have to be a bad thing. One example of using voltage drop to an advantage is in using it to reduce the voltage of a circuit to about 80%—which despite causing a slight drop in light output actually produces a substantial savings through increased lamp life. Also, it can be used to give the illusion of more depth/distance for luminaires that are farther away from the power source, which gives the impression of a larger/more distance property boundary. The actual amount of voltage drop that is experienced in an installation is related to several factors. The most important ones are the number of fixtures contained on a run (a circuit and all the lamps wired back to the transformer/power supply), the distance between the lamps and the transformer/power supply (especially the farthest ones), and the gauge of the cable that is used for the wiring. As a rule, the larger the gauge (not gauge number, but actual size), the less resistance there will be and the lower effect that voltage drop will have on a circuit. Also, there are several techniques that a designer might use to lower the impact of voltage drop on a lighting system. The first is to simply keep the length of any circuits and their associated wires as short as possible: the longer the run, the greater effect that voltage drop will play in a system. Second, placing too many luminaires on a circuit will also create a more pronounced voltage drop. This effect is also dependent on the actual load or wattage of the lamps that are contained in the circuit. More lamps/luminaires can be added to a circuit if you are willing to accept a slight drop in individual lamp brightness or if you are willing to lower the wattages of the associated lamps. Most manufacturers provide websites

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and cut sheets that provide guidelines with recommendations regarding voltage drop and what will work best for their equipment. A third, and fairly simple remedy to voltage drop, makes use of the fact that some transformers are equipped with additional power taps that allow a designer to use a slightly higher voltage such as 13-volts or 15-volts to compensate for voltage drop. A final method of dealing with voltage drop involves using cables of a heavier gauge for longer runs. While 18- to 12-gauge wiring is found in many standard landscape installations, a shift to 8- or 10-gauge cable could lower the effect of voltage drop fairly significantly. There are also accessories that function much like a transformer that can be wired at a point down-line in a circuit that will boost the voltage enough to offset the effects of voltage drop on the more distant parts of a run. A number of wiring practices are used to counter the effects of voltage drop that effectively shorten the cable runs and distances between luminaires and their transformer/ power source. There are essentially four methods of wiring a low-voltage landscape lighting circuit, each of which is illustrated in Figure 8.9. The straight run or daisy chain method creates a chain of luminaires that are wired in parallel along the entire length of a run. This system, while being the simplest to install, also experiences the greatest voltage drop and the farthest lamps from the source will appear dimmest. The junction method of wiring attempts to eliminate voltage drop by wiring every lamp back to a single point in the circuit. This, in theory, provides each lamp with the full voltage and is good as long as the point where all the circuits are joined is centrally located. While this is an improvement from the straight run, any individual runs that are significantly longer than the others will experience a greater voltage drop and will appear dimmer than the lamps in other runs. Two additional wiring methods that provide a more consistent power for each of the luminaires include the multiple-feed system and the loop system. The multiple-feed method involves locating several different transformers throughout the entire setup—each carrying the loads/luminaires of only a portion of the project. In this method, several individual line-voltage cable runs are used to establish different junction points (each with a transformer) that in turn have multiple luminaires wired to each junction location (the luminaires in each of these could then be wired in either daisy chained or junction methods). In each of these cases, heavier cable must be used for the runs from the common junction back to the transformer. In the loop technique all of the luminaires are wired in a daisy-chain method but with both ends of the cable being wired back to the transformer. This creates a continuous loop in which power is fed to the lamps from both directions and results in a more equal output for all the lamps. It is important to observe polarity throughout the circuit when using the loop method since crossing the feeds will most likely cause a short circuit and damage to the transformer.

Figure 8.9  Wiring to avoid voltage drop: (a) Straight run (daisy-chain) method. (b) Junction (individual runs). (c) Junction (multifeed) method. (d) Junction (split) or T-method (makes use of multiple transformers), and (e) Loop method.

Fighting the Elements One requirement of landscape luminaires that makes them significantly different from all other classes of lighting equipment is that they are designed to endure the hardships of outdoor weather. Luminaires and other lighting equipment that are used in landscape lighting generally have a number of special features to help them survive an exterior environment. At one end of the spectrum they may be covered with several inches or even feet of snow and exposure to sub-zero temperatures while at the other extreme they will endure summer temperatures of more than 100° and long-term exposure to ultra-violet radiation. Plastic luminaire housings and lens systems often fade and become brittle under these conditions and seldom survive more than a couple of years. For this reason, most of the discussion of luminaires throughout this chapter will be kept to higher-end fixtures that are more durable and made to survive these conditions rather than the do-it-yourself luminaire kits that are typically found at home improvement stores. There are essentially two opposing philosophies regarding the construction of landscape luminaires—often with

water/moisture control being one of the biggest issues in how a fixture is designed. The first makes no attempt to keep water out of the housing while the second attempts to create a weather/waterproofed environment for the lamp, reflector, and electrical components. Not only is water an issue in terms of corrosion but also in the sense of heat exchange. A couple of drops of cold rain on a hot lamp can cause it or a lens to crack or break. Also, any moisture that becomes trapped in a unit can create problems in producing excessive corrosion of the luminaire’s socket and other electrical fittings. In those luminaires (open fixtures) that make no attempt to shield the lamp and its related components from the elements, a drainage hole is often drilled or cast into the housing at a point relatively low and to the back of the luminaire’s base. In a closed fixture, a lens and protective gasket assembly are placed over the front of the luminaire so that water is prevented from entering the unit at all. These are also sealed with silicon or another waterproofed material at the location where the electrical wires enter the housing. How extensive any measures for weatherproofing are taken is in part dependent on the function and mounting location of the luminaire. If a luminaire is used as an uplight, there are more concerns regarding

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protection of the lamp and a greater chance that a closed fixture will be chosen for the application while if the unit is to be mounted within the shelter of an eve there will be less concern for shielding the unit from the elements. A below grade or underground unit where only the lens is exposed has less potential for the luminaire to be damaged by a mower while at the same time it has a greater chance of being exposed to water that could leak into the vault that the unit is housed within. Likewise, luminaires used in water locations such as pools and fountains must be waterproofed if they are placed in an area that is closely associated with the water. Just as water causes problems, heat will also create issues that can have an adverse effect on a landscape lighting fixture. Many of the disadvantages of line-voltage systems are the high amounts of heat that these sources produce. Other factors that play a role in the survival of a luminaire relate to the chemicals that they are exposed to through fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation (sprinkler systems), and the makeup of the soil itself. Any units placed in a marine climate will be exposed to salt spray that will corrode the units much faster than those placed in an inland display. As most metals are exposed to the elements they undergo chemical breakdowns such as rusting or pitting. Pitting is a special form of corrosion that causes the surface finish to become rough or pitted. Pitting and corrosion may occur uniformly over the entire surface of a fixture or may be accelerated at points where a fixture is more vulnerable to exposure. There are a number of approaches that manufacturers take to help bring the effects of corrosion under control. The first relates to the types of finishes and metals that are used on a luminaire. Many landscape luminaires are made of metals like aluminum or stainless steel that are inherently more resistant to corrosion. In other cases, metals like copper or bronze are used because they effectively oxidize in a way that not only produces protective coatings over the metal but also do so in an aesthetically pleasing manner. Untreated copper and/or bronze luminaires have been popular in garden lighting for many years and are easily recognized by the bluish-green to black color that develops on their surfaces. Second, anodized or zinc finishes may also be placed on the metal surfaces of luminaires to protect a unit from corrosion. A special variation of these finishes is a Verdigris or Verdi Green finish, which has a black/green marbleized appearance. Regular painting and/or applying clear sealers over the metal surfaces of a fixture are other ways of combating the elements. In some cases, luminaires may be made from special plastics as a deterrent to weathering. This is not only true of relatively cheap residential fixtures but is also employed for high-end commercial fixtures that are made from expensive highly durable plastics like PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene). However, many plastics found in budget-priced luminaires are susceptible to ultra-violet radiation damage and become brittle or start to break down.

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Just as the luminaires themselves are protected from the elements, special measures must be taken regarding the wiring and other electrical components of a landscape lighting system. Since most of this equipment is located outdoors—much of it buried underground—extra precautions must be taken to decrease the amount of moisture that comes in contact with the electrical connections. Care must also be taken to prevent shocks through accidental contact with a system’s wiring. This is particularly true of line-voltage systems. For the most part, all electrical connections should be made within junction boxes that are either waterproofed or at a minimum are water resistant. If possible, the boxes should also be located so that they are above ground and sheltered as well as they can be. A nice location for a junction box is under the decking of a porch or pool deck, preferably as close to the building and power source as possible. If components like transformers and timers can be located inside you should do so. In low-voltage systems, where regulations aren’t as stringent, junctions made between the lighting circuit and individual lamps are often created with wire nuts that have been sprayed with a silicon coating that are also often placed in special capsules containing a gel-like substance that further protects the connections from moisture. In some cases, the connections may even be mounted in an encasement of epoxy. Line-voltage systems on the other hand should strive to have every connection contained in electrical junction boxes which are rated for outdoor exposure. While the actual cables rarely have any problems in regard to exposure, it isn’t uncommon for careless actions on the part of property owners to result in severing these cables from time to time. This isn’t a huge issue in low-voltage systems but is a big problem if property owners accidentally cut through a live 120volt line while digging a hole for that perfect shrub that they just purchased. Since the consequences of cutting through a low-voltage cable aren’t as dangerous, these systems aren’t regulated as stringently by electrical codes and homeowners are often free to bury landscape lighting cables at any depth that they wish. This frequently results in the cables of many low-voltage systems only being buried to a depth that is as deep as the last layer of mulch. On the other hand, line-voltage systems are regulated by local building codes that will almost always require the cables to be buried to a depth of 1 1/2 to 2 feet. It is also common to require that a piece of conduit be run from the fixture to the depth in the ground where the cable is laid in these systems. In some cases, even the underground cables must be encased in conduit (electrical gray PVC) to further protect the cable from being cut by unknowing excavators. The underground runs may also be completed with heavy-duty cables of durable plastics like Type UF cable, which is specifically rated for burial applications. Even with the use of this heavy cable, conduit is still usually specified between the luminaire to the required burial depth.

Just like an automobile, these systems quickly fall into disrepair if a regular maintenance program is not established from the time that the system is first installed. Many lighting designers offer an annual service contract that provides a series of maintenance services in addition to repairing any units that may have stopped working over a given year. Some of the tasks typically associated with these contracts include cleaning and resealing all the lenses, reflectors, and housings of the luminaires; inspecting and resealing the electrical connections; checking for any excessive voltage drops that might be indicative of a wiring problem; making checks of the control system; and replacing lamps or making other repairs needed throughout the system. This is also a time for touching up the focuses of the luminaires and making changes based on the growth of existing or introduction of new plants. Additionally, any plant growth that blocks or covers a luminaire must be dealt with by either trimming back the offending plant or moving/extending the riser/stake of the affected luminaire.

Landscape Luminaires and Accessories Like architectural luminaires, many of these fixtures are meant to be seen and must therefore compliment the garden and plants that they are lighting. On the other hand, some clients may want to hide the fixtures—preferring to see only the effects of the light. Different light sources also need to be considered because of the varied color temperatures associated with their output: for example, while solar lighting is easy to install and modify, the light output of these units is typically quite low and often shifted toward the blue portion of the spectrum. Because there are so many personal tastes and varied applications, the number of luminaire models available for landscape lighting is immense. Even with the numerous styles, the units may be further specified through modifications in finish, mounting method or height, type of light source, and/or wattage that they are equipped with. Further, if a luminaire design is not available for a specific application or effect, a designer may specify custom-designed fixtures for a project. These are generally quite expensive, but if you’re creating a specific look for a client like a hotel or corporate chain, the additional costs of custom fixtures may not be an issue. Regardless of all the variables that exist regarding the specifications (light source and wattage, mounting hardware, lens, and housing assemblies, finishes, etc.) that make a luminaire unique and a best choice for a given application, there are only a few basic luminaire classifications that are recognized in the landscape lighting community. Each group is based on a fundamental set of applications—even though within each group there are as many designs as a designer can imagine. This section introduces each of these basic luminaire groups. Also, while spotlights are used in landscape lighting, many landscape luminaire designs are based on the ability to deliver soft diffuse light to a subject. Another fundamental element in the design of these

fixtures is the way in which they are mounted. The three most popular means being: a surface mount in which the luminaire is mounted directly to an electrical box (either horizontally or vertically), a below grade mounting (the unit is contained in a vault or housing where only the lens is seen at the surface), and a stake mount (the unit is mounted on a stake that is driven into the ground).

Lampholders Lampholders aren’t true luminaires because they are nothing more than sockets with adjustable fittings that allow lamps like PAR-38s to be mounted to the face plate of a junction box. A specific characteristic of these fittings is that the lamps themselves are completely exposed. This means that they not only have to deal with exposure but also have no way of preventing glare. Lampholders are readily available at any hardware store and are one of the most common solutions to basic flood or security lighting. Variations of the basic design provide two or three focusable lamps that are mounted to an electrical box for floodlighting a given area. These units are frequently surface mounted on exterior walls or in the eves of buildings. If possible, the units should be mounted under an eve so that they are afforded some protection while also allowing them to blend in with a building’s design. Another variation includes groundmounted units that are placed on lawns to floodlight portions of a home—these are popular in holiday displays.

Architectural Luminaires Architectural luminaires are typically line-voltage luminaires that are mounted to the exterior of a building. They are often used to bring focus to entryways or other significant features of a building. The carriage lights that are mounted on either side of a garage door or a porch light are among the most common examples of these luminaires. Since these fixtures are meant to be seen, they come in an immense variety of designs and the client’s personal taste will play a significant role in their selection. While some may contain globes, others direct grazing light both upwards and downwards while displaying a translucent panel or shade and color around the fixture itself. Some designers call these special types of fixtures wall packs (Figure 8.10).

Post Lights Post lights are common features to a property and are luminaires mounted on a post or pole. The street lamps or light posts that are placed in the front yards of many homes are the most popular example of these luminaires. Since they are predominantly decorative, they too, are selected under the strong influence of the client and their personal taste. They are meant to draw attention to the property and in many cases also provide vital information like an address

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Figure 8.10  A wall pack (Lumark Wal-Pak)

Figure 8.11  Area light (classic pagoda design)

Credit: photo courtesy of EATON

Credit: photo courtesy of Philips Hadco Lighting

or business/family name to visitors. The post itself is usually specified as a separate item from the luminaire and allows for a selection of mounting heights from approximately 3–8 feet in height. These units are almost always powered by line-voltage, but in special circumstances these luminaires may use gaslight.

ground. In many cases, only the fixtures themselves extend above the ground’s surface. These are used to illuminate and bring emphasis to a variety of features but are probably most commonly used to light the flora contained in flower beds or other points of interest in a landscape. Two of the most popular designs that have been around for many years include the mushroom and pagoda (Figure 8.11) designs. The units may be of either line or low-voltage design and in most cases bring a significant decorative element to a landscape’s features. Some clients will want the units to blend in with the surroundings while others will want the visibility of the units to become part of the design itself.

Bollards Bollards are special variations of post lights that are used to mark pathways and entrance areas of buildings. They are usually around 3 feet in height (although shorter ones exist) and typically have the lamp and its lenses incorporated into the design of the actual post (as opposed to having the luminaire mounted on top of the post). While bollards may appear in residential design, they are more popular in commercial applications and often contain HID sources rather than incandescent lamps. They are a favorite source for lighting sidewalks in public areas like parks, courtyards, and college campuses. Because of their light sources, these units are also nearly always run on line-voltage.

Area Lights Area lights are among the most common form of landscape luminaires and come in a variety of styles and finishes. These are also the majority of the decorative fixtures that will be used throughout a design and simply provide the surrounding area with a nice wash of diffuse light. Most units are mounted on a post or riser assembly that keeps the mounting height to no more than about 2 feet off the

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Pathway Lights Pathway lights (Figure 8.12) are a special variation of area lighting and are typically used to line surface features like sidewalks and driveways. While area lights have uniform light fields in all directions, pathway lights tend to direct light in specific directions—the majority of it downward. On many properties, pathway lights are used to direct visitor circulation to different features of a house or garden. Because the fixtures are in full view, they are chosen predominantly for their decorative elements and once again a wide variety of designs are available. Not only must the fixtures provide the necessary circulation light, but they must also be attractive both during the day and night because they are a welcoming treatment for a property. These luminaires are especially important because they provide for the safe circulation of people who are unfamiliar with a property and its surroundings.

Figure 8.12  Pathway lights and stair lights: (a) Hadco Pathlyte. (b) Maui 1502 path light by Lumiere. (c) Brass Pathlyte by Hadco. (d) Cambria 206 by Lumiere. (e) Hadco Steplyte. (f) Zuma 1203 step light by Lumiere Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Philips Hadco Lighting, (b) photo courtesy of EATON, (c) photo courtesy of Philips Hadco Lighting, (d) photo courtesy of EATON, (e) photo courtesy of Philips Hadco Lighting, (f) photo courtesy of EATON

Well Lights Clients often want to hide landscape luminaires that are being used for uplighting and may choose to place the units below the ground’s surface. The simplest versions of these luminaires are well lights (Figure 8.13), which are nothing more than a cylinder containing the lamp and its electrical components. The unit frequently contains a low-voltage PAR-38 lamp that is buried to the point that the top of the unit is within an inch or two of being below the surface of the groundcover. These units are especially useful for grazing and uplighting applications. One disadvantage in their design is that many of the units are open-faced with a lamp that is essentially pointing straight up that can get covered by leaves or mulch, while water and other elements can also easily gain access to the unit’s interior. This not only results in blocking the unit’s light but can also create excessive corrosion of the unit’s electrical connections and other interior components. As a preventative measure, many of these units are equipped with a lens and/or grill assembly

that keep unwanted materials from becoming trapped in the housing. Larger commercial versions of well lights are almost always equipped with heavy glass lenses, metal grates or screens for protection, and composite plastic housings that help reduce the effects of corrosion. They also often contain mechanisms like one-way valves that prevent moisture buildup in the fixture’s housing. A unique issue in planning for well lights relates to taking precautions to place and mount them properly due to the limited range of their focus adjustments. An example of these commercial well lights can be found in downtown pedestrian areas of many towns and cities where the units are located between the sidewalks and streets as a method of uplighting trees within these unpaved strips that line the streets.

Accent Lights These luminaires come in a variety of designs and have many different functions. Most accent lights bring focus

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Figure 8.13  Uplights (well lights): (a) A residential well light). (b) A commercial well light (Luminere Boca 635) Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Philips Hadco Lighting, (b) photo courtesy of EATON

and visual interest to special subjects or elements of a landscape design and can be thought of as the equivalent to spotlights in theatrical design. One of the most popular variations is the framing projector, which is the landscape lighting’s version of an ellipsoidal reflector spotlight (ERS). These are used to control light in a very precise way—even the shape of its beam. Some framing projectors may even be used to project colored gobos onto a home or business. These projectors have become increasingly popular in residential holiday displays. Most other accent lights bring a predominantly decorative element to a design and can come in a variety of shapes and sizes—most commonly based on the particular function that they fulfill. Examples of several popular accent lights include strings of miniature lamps or rope lights that can be used to outline architectural features (i.e., walls or fences) or placing them in the foliage directly, decorative statuary containing luminaires, neon tubes (more often associated with commercial applications), and units that create textured light with lamps placed in perforated housings that project dots of light onto nearby surfaces—much like a gobo would do in theatrical design. Fiber optics can also be used to bring accents to landscape features like the edges of pools or other landscape structures. Bullet lights (Figure 8.14) are a fairly common solution for both flood and spotlighting. The basic unit is shaped in an inverted cone that has its socket and electrical fittings mounted in the tip of the housing while the lamp’s face shines out from the wider front opening. These are often equipped with PAR lamps. Advantages

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that bullet lights have over lampholders come in that they are pretty much enclosed, which provides more protection from the elements. Also, since the lamps are shielded, they can also limit many of the glare problems that lampholders cannot overcome. While the units are typically open-faced, many models have a lens accessory that offers further protection to the front of the unit while also providing additional shielding or control through devices like louvers, beam spreaders, and colored filters. Many low-voltage systems are making use of bullet lights through using variations of the design that are based on MR11 and MR16 lamps.

Linear (Wash) Lights Linear or wash lights (Figure  8.15) are used to create a smooth, even distribution or wash of light over a wide surface area. Often these fixtures make use of special variations of linear light sources. The most popular applications for these units are in lighting signage such as the entrance marker of a subdivision, corporate signs, or background lighting on a wall or other surface for shadowing foliage that lies in front of a fixture. They are also used to create a grazing effect on walls and other surfaces. While there are a number of linear fixtures that make use of multiple light sources, this is the one area of landscape lighting where tubular fluorescent lamps have become popular. However, they are most successful in warm climates like Florida or Arizona because of the relatively limited range of temperature fluctuation. In colder climates, their light output is

Figure 8.14  Accent lights: (a) Cambria 355 low-voltage (MR16) bullet light by Lumiere). (b) PAR30 Bullyte by Hadco Credit: (a) photos courtesy of EATON (b) photo courtesy of Philips Hadco Lighting

Figure 8.15  Linear wash lights

compromised by the more extreme temperatures, which results in multiple-lamped incandescent sources being a more popular choice of fixture in these areas. Newer LEDbased luminaires are now becoming a very popular solution for this lighting application.

LEDs in Landscape Lighting Landscape lighting has become one of the fastest growing areas of acceptance for using LEDs as a light source. Today, there are countless variations of landscape luminaires that use LEDs (Figure 8.16). While some installations make use

Figure 8.16 Examples of landscape luminaires powered by LED light sources: (a) CUL6 LED Path Light by Philips/Hadco Lighting. (b) Lumiere Eon LED 303-A1 Accent Luminaire. (c) WAM1D/WBM1D Mini Floodlight/Wallwasher LED by Philips/ Hadco Lighting. (d) Lumiere Eon LED 303-B2 Bollard Luminaire. (e) i25 Inground LED Well Light by Philips/Hadco Lighting Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Philips Hadco Lighting. (b) photo courtesy of EATON, (c) photo courtesy of Philips Hadco Lighting, (d) photo courtesy of EATON, (e) photo courtesy of Philips Hadco Lighting

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Figure 8.16  (Continued)

of color (even to the point of mixing custom colors as well as programming changing colors into the displays), most applications make use of variations of white LEDs as their light source. In residential design they have become especially attractive. The popularity of LEDs in landscape lighting can be attributed to several features of this relatively new technology. First, due to their low power requirements, they are easily utilized in low-voltage applications—and more fixtures can also be placed on a given circuit. This is especially true when considering units that are self-powered by batteries that are re-charged by solar power. In many cases, the luminaires themselves may have a solar cell built right into their design and the unit can become a standalone fixture where the owner only has to place the unit where desired (making sure that it is placed so that there is

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enough sunlight exposure to charge the battery during daytime hours). Second, LEDs are smaller, more efficient light sources for many luminaires. This technology has rapidly evolved over the last several years and there are now numerous LED fixtures that can deliver very effective light intensities through using both single and cluster arrays of LED sources. Third, the life cycle of LEDs is especially attractive for creating luminaires that for the most part become self-sufficient and maintenance free. Finally, the color temperature of many of the white LEDs that are now in use matches the needs of lighting foliage and other landscape features quite nicely while at the same time the lower CRI ratings of these sources doesn’t typically have a significant impact on this area of lighting design. Figure  8.17 illustrates a unique use of LED lighting for a pedestrian bridge.

Figure 8.17  LED lighting of Pausch Bridge (Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) by C&C Lighting: (a) View across river. (b) Interior view along walkway Credit: photos courtesy of C&C Ligthing

Control of Landscape Lighting There are a variety of methods for controlling landscape lighting systems. While some may be operated only through manual controls, most provide various degrees of automation in their operation. Since a primary function of these systems is in providing security lighting, automated control systems are preferred because they remain in operation when a property owner is away. In many systems this control is automated by simply placing the lighting on a timer or photo-electric sensor. In more complex designs the lighting may be under the control of a specialized controller that has several fully programmable cycles or may be linked to a computer that allows the lighting to be programmed and adjusted as needed. The advantage of these programs is in that they can be fully automatic—even to the point of using astronomical clocks that automatically adjust for changes in daylight savings time and other seasonal fluctuations. There is also an advantage in that many of these systems can be accessed from a remote location through using the Internet and a laptop or cell phone that allow a property owner to make adjustments from almost any location. In the simplest cases, all of the luminaires are placed on one circuit that is powered by a single switch or control feature. More switches can be added for extra convenience as well as additional circuits might be added for specific purposes (i.e, one circuit/switch could turn on the walkway lights, another the garden areas, and a third switch for the security floodlights). Photosensors may turn the system on at dusk and off at dawn or a timer may power the system according to a pre-programmed schedule. Many of the popular residential low-voltage lighting kits come with a transformer that has a self-contained timer which is simply plugged into a convenience outlet. Less expensive systems allow for only a single daily program of turning the lights on and off while more sophisticated units provide a way of setting up a variety of programs. A more common

arrangement involves using a timer and photosensor in combination with one another. In this type of system both the timer and photosensor must be in the “on mode” to turn the lights on. This allows the lighting to come on automatically at dusk while being turned off at a predetermined hour later that night. More importantly, large installations should be broken down into a variety of control circuits that allow the owner to provide a range of programming options depending on the needs of any given moment. This also allows the designer to create a layered approach to the lighting—allowing only certain aspects of the system to be used at a given time. In most commercial situations various groups of circuits are turned on and off at different times throughout a day. The most common example involves setting three different lighting settings for retail properties. The first turning on all of the exterior and landscape lighting at dusk while the business is open to customers, the second powers down some of the exterior lighting at a time immediately following closing, while the third cuts back the lighting still further to just security lighting from midnight to dawn. When using line-voltage systems, dimmers and dimming may be specified for controlling elements of a landscape lighting. However, it is unusual that the levels will have to be changed once an agreed-upon look has been established for a project. Because of this, dimming is not incorporated into many landscape lighting systems—­ several common exceptions being the placement of simple household dimmers on features like porch lights, floodlights, and path lights where there might be occasions to vary the intensity of these lights based on the activities that take place in an area. Complex preset systems that can recall and control different brightness levels and circuit combinations are also available for landscape lighting control. These systems provide easy access to a number of pre-determined settings where individual circuit dimming can be provided. Other systems will make use of a portable

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control module that is used by the designer to program the level settings and presets that are then uploaded to the system and stored for daily use while the programming module is removed. While this ensures that the lighting will remain consistent, any changes that a client may want in the settings will require that the designer return with their programming module. Many low-voltage lighting systems are not dimmed at all because of the complications associated with having transformers in these systems. Since dimming is not typically used in a number of landscape lighting systems, brightness variations are accomplished primarily by lamping the luminaires to different wattages. If more focus is desired on a given feature, the lamps illuminating that subject are simply lamped to a slightly higher wattage. Likewise, if a luminaire is too bright, its lamp can be replaced with one of a lower wattage. Dimming screens may also be used to control the relative intensities of the luminaires. In laying out the circuits, the individual loads of each lamp need to be added to one another to ensure that the total load does not exceed the capacity of a circuit. Lamp wattages and different color temperature light sources can also be used to add color variation throughout a design. Filters and colored lamps are a final option for adding color to a project (though each has a fairly limited range of color choices available). All of these techniques aid lighting designers in establishing a variety of contrasts and levels of focus throughout a lighting project.

Design Considerations Once a client’s needs have been evaluated, an important step in the design process is making a site visit to personally evaluate the grounds that a project will occupy. This should be done as part of a two-step process that involves looking at the site both before and after dark. Most landscaping projects appear quite differently when viewed under sunlight as compared to darkness and a site visit conducted at both times provides opportunities to study the landscaping in its entirety. It’s quite possible for property features that are prominent during the daytime to not be the best features to emphasize after dark. If the project is part of a renovation, the designer should evaluate what lighting is already in place so that it can be built upon while correcting any existing problems. The designer should also have a copy of the site plan for the project and needs to verify its accuracy. A visit to the site and walk-through with the owner also provides an opportunity to look at the overall

The Design Process and Documentation Designers have a number of personal techniques for developing landscape lighting projects, but much of what follows is in line with the processes that are used for any other architectural lighting project. Central to this process, like all other areas of design, is the development of a concept that is then used to guide the remaining elements of the design process. Also, personal taste is a major element in what a client will consider successful or unsuccessful for a project. As a means of preparation, before getting too involved in the design process, a designer should observe how natural light plays on the plants and other features that are being used in a landscape and how shadows and highlights play upon these materials. How do the leaves and blooms reflect light? Are there translucent elements in the foliage? How does color affect the appearance of the plants? What is the size, shape, and density of a plant? Does it stand alone or is it part of a grouping? Does the plant cast interesting shadows and texture? Each of these questions provide some guidance into how to light a project at night. This section provides a brief summary of the major considerations and processes involved in developing a landscape lighting design. Figure 8.18 provides images of two projects from one of the individuals who helped define the role of landscape lighting designers, Janet Lennox Moyer (who is also featured in Sidebar 8.1).

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Figure 8.18 Landscape lighting projects designed by Janet Lennox Moyer: (a) A pathway project, (b) a commercial waterfront project Credit: photo courtesy of George Gruel

Figure 8.18  (Continued)

Sidebar 8.1  DESIGNER PROFILE Janet Lennox Moyer

Credit: photo courtesy of George Gruel

Janet Lennox Moyer is considered one of the pioneers of landscape lighting design. She began her career studying interior design and fell in love with lighting. Upon facing a project that contained extensive exterior views she became interested in lighting beyond the interiors and started to focus on landscape lighting design. After working at an architectural engineering firm in the 1970s, she moved to California and focused on landscape lighting for the next twenty years. At the time, very little information was available about landscape lighting, so, after years of figuring out how to create beautiful night environments and educating herself about how to specify fixtures that could hold up in the destructive outdoor environment, Jan worked to produce The Landscape Lighting Book (now in its 3rd edition). This book has been received as the

go-to reference on landscape lighting and is listed as a must read for landscape professional exams worldwide. She moved to upstate New York in the 1990s to continue her design practice and has been instrumental to both IESNA and IALD in creating programming and studies that are related to landscape lighting design. In 2010, Jan founded The International Landscape Lighting Institute, an educational public charity for sharing information about and training people interested in landscape lighting. Her current company, Jan and Brooke, Luminae, works on many aspects of lighting from video conferencing to wineries—with their filter being, “we want to help people to function and enjoy their interior or landscape space—it gets dark every night and we have the opportunity to create space that helps people thrive.” Janet’s training comes from a wide variety of sources—much of it coming through her own personal research and experiences. She began her studies in the Interior Design program at Michigan State University and recalls that, “I  just loved lighting and that at the time it was hard to get information about it. My junior year, I  was sent as a student representative to the National ASID Convention in Los Angeles where I  attended two lectures by Jim Nuckolls and met my mentor, Fran Kellogg Smith. Those two were inspiring! Fran tucked me under her wing and made sure I learned how to soar.” On a particular project, Smith assigned Moyer as lead designer for a living room containing three massive walls of glass. “It was that project that made me realize how important landscape lighting was to humans and how much it excited me . . . I realized I needed to understand plant materials and how they must be lit. Fran had this idea that lighting designers

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and photographers used the same part of their brain and to test her theory she sent me to Brooks Institute in Santa Barbara for a summer. I came back a changed designer.” Much of Moyer’s training has come from her personal research. “I embarked on a life-long learning project. I took multiple courses on plants at local colleges and universities, travel, visit gardens, and collect books on plants. I  got light fixtures and did mockup after mockup in my and all of my neighbors’ yards which led me to understand how important our knowledge of fixture construction is to the success of landscape lighting projects. I also learned how to select and place fixtures for many kinds of plant material.” With no true resources available, she states that, “I had this voice in the back of my head that kept telling me to write a book about what I  had learned  – all aspects of landscape lighting from conceptual design, to all the corrosion issues, to the importance of record documents and maintenance, etc.” Upon making the decision to go ahead with the book she spent months at the UC Berkeley chemistry and architecture libraries learning about corrosion as well as about mechanics and designing/manufacturing products. She was also given the opportunity to visit manufacturing and finishing companies to learn all she could about landscape fixtures and their design. Today, it is nearly impossible to keep up with all of the changes that are occurring in light sources due to the influence of LEDs. In fact, “Things are changing too fast. At one point, I got a group of designers together to speak at as many conferences as possible to request that the electronics people understand that we can’t replace landscape lighting the way they expect us to replace mobile phones.” Moyer relates that there are a number of differences between how one lights a landscape and how one lights interiors or other types of environments. First, once we have crossed beyond twilight and allowed our eyes to adjust, it doesn’t take much light for us to be able to comfortably understand an environment. “We have to think differently about light levels; how the human eye responds to light; how the eye and brain relate in understanding space; and how electrical usage can

style of the property and to observe the tastes of the owner. It helps a designer to gain an understanding of which features of a landscape a client wants to feature or use as focal points along with what they may want to de-emphasize. Often, a designer will bring several luminaires to these site visits which are used as mockups for demonstrating various lighting techniques to a property owner. All of this will help the designer to determine an appropriate approach for designing a project. Other individuals who are consulted

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change completely. We typically start with a dark space where there are no walls or ceiling and when there is street lighting, we have to deal with that brightness, not only of the light on our space, but, from the glare of the fixture as well. We must also understand how plants continually grow and change through all seasons, over their lives, and at the whim of people. Garden spaces are continually evolving and landscape projects never end due to this continual change. Clients regularly pass their designer on to new owners in order to keep continuity in a project as the lighting and plant life evolves.” Other considerations include that, “There is a lot of education needed to help people understand the expense of lighting and that a single fixture is often not sufficient to light a tree or that a set of lights from a big box store is all that they need. Landscape lighting is also exposed to the elements and starts to fall apart the minute you complete a project, in addition to the exposure you have to make sure that the fixtures don’t get knocked out of adjustment or broken by animals, tools, or humans.” In closing, what Jan likes most about the profession is that, “Landscape lighting affects the lives of people every day. It gets dark every night and we lose our connection to our gardens . . . about half the year people get up and leave for work in the dark and then come home after dark. Landscape lighting reconnects people and helps them see the beauty of our planet while they cook dinner or wash the dishes. In warm climates, it provides useable rooms at night and in cold climates gives them a magical experience during rain and snow storms.” What she likes least relates to the “careful attention to detail that these projects require from their beginning through the development of the final documents and maintenance instructions. These must be provided and designers have to cajole not only the clients, but, the maintenance folks into paying any attention to the lighting.” Two of Moyer’s cardinal rules include: 1. Provide solid power distribution that will respond to all changes through the life of a garden and 2. Provide a cohesive composition at a low enough level to respect the night with as little fixture brightness being visible from the most directions as possible.

during these initial interviews include the building’s architect, possibly an interior designer, and the landscape architect. Each of these individuals will provide valuable information regarding how they see the light impacting their individual designs. After these initial evaluations and discussions have taken place it is time for the lighting designer to create a concept and begin laying out the lighting for a project. Much of this comes down to lighting many of the

landscaping features that were discussed earlier. What must be determined at this point is setting priorities regarding those features that will take focus and how a series of lighting layers might be developed throughout a design. Once a list of priorities has been established, a lighting designer can work toward any number of approaches for illuminating each of the individual landscape features. A variety of luminaire types and techniques like grazing, uplighting, and path lighting have already been discussed in regard to the actual lighting of landscapes and will not be repeated here. However, there are additional considerations that should be examined that can enhance a client’s project even further. First, don’t over-light a project. Too much light can create distractions: it is often more effective to use selective visibility to make the features interesting rather than to make them simply bright. Too much light can also cause light trespass that can become a nuisance to a building’s occupants and/or neighbors. You will not be popular if the uplight that you placed to light a tree near a property line casts light into a neighbor’s master bedroom. It is fairly rare for residential gardens to contain features that are lit with more than 20 footcandles. In fact, most features in these projects can be lit quite successfully with between five to 10 footcandles (the exception being task lighting). On the low end, features can be lit with less than 1/2 footcandle while prominent objects in commercial displays may be lit with 30 or more footcandles. Second, be selective in what you illuminate. Everything does not have to be lit with equal intensities. Selective illumination can be more successful than creating an even treatment of light over large portions of an area. Much of this illumination can be achieved by using a variety of lighting angles and through using contrast to produce a more effective design. On the other hand, too much variety may become chaotic and can distract from the quality of a garden’s lighting. A  few selective treatments that create a unified design with several simple yet consistent themes generally produce better results. Third, examine the plants that are fully grown and consider how flexibility might be used to accommodate future plantings and growth in a garden. A consideration that can greatly enhance these designs involves placing the fixtures so that they are hidden from an observer’s view and so that direct glare is avoided as much as possible. This is frequently achieved by placing the luminaires so that they point away from the viewer or so that the units are obstructed through layers of foliage or other landscaping materials. Other items that need to be considered include: tying into the overall style of the landscaping and architecture, providing enough visibility where activities and task lighting are required, identifying specific viewing angles from which to light from, providing equipment that is appropriately designed for a garden’s climate and weather conditions, developing maintenance plans for the system, and designing within the client’s budget.

The safety and security needs of a client must also be addressed. Visitors need to be provided with safe passage throughout the space while intruders should be deterred. Maintenance should also be a consideration of any project since a poorly maintained system quickly becomes unattractive and out of sync with the new growth that develops from one year to the next. A  well-designed project will take into account all of these considerations while adding an ambiance or mood that is conducive to the activities and needs of the client. This should also extend beyond the garden to people viewing it from both within a home or business as well as when approaching a property from the street.

The Site Plan Site plans are ground plans that show the area covered by a landscaping project and may contain a portion of a yard/ garden or the entire property. The plan is drawn to scale and includes the buildings that are located on the property; all driveways, sidewalks, and pathways; hardscape, including garden structures and sculptures; water features; and all the flower beds, trees, and other plant materials that are found on a property. This document is a master plan that the lighting designer uses to place each of the luminaires that will be used throughout a design. In reality, the site plan will become a variation of a light plot. Once the lighting information is transferred to the site plan many designers call this a lighting plan or lighting layout (Figure 8.19). Sidebar 8.2 illustrates a number of lighting symbols that are used in these plans. The lighting plan is not only used to specify the location and types of luminaires, but also identifies cable runs and distances as well as the identity of the switch, circuit, and transformer locations that are used in a project. In its preliminary format, the plan serves as a worksheet for the designer; in later renditions it becomes the principal document by which the designer’s decisions are communicated to the electricians and other members of the team. Even after the installation and focus have been completed, this document remains important because it serves as a master record of the buried cable runs, types of lamps, and aiming/ focusing information that are assigned to each fixture.

Design Documentation The finished site plan or lighting layout is the primary design document for communicating the decisions of the designer. Just as in other areas of lighting design, this plan does not represent the only documentation that is provided for a project. Other materials might include working drawings that detail the luminaires and/or their mountings as well as a series of lighting schedules that specify the equipment and control elements of the design. Some of the more popular schedules included in many landscape lighting packets include transformer or control schedules, which

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Sidebar 8.2  COMMON LANDSCAPE LIGHTING SYMBOLS

are similar to the dimmer or channel schedules found in entertainment applications, and circuit schedules, which are similar to instrument schedules. These schedules and specification documents, along with the lighting plan, are then used to guide the clients through the bidding and installation process. The lighting designer will work with the clients to ensure that the expectations of the design are communicated to the contractors, may help select the installer/electrical contractor, and will visit the site throughout the installation process to make sure that the equipment is installed properly. Once the luminaires have been installed and had their operation successfully checked, they are focused (aimed) sometime after dark. The designer will also use this time to program any presets or controllers to provide a couple of basic “looks” or settings for the client. At the conclusion of the installation, the designer should provide the client with a full maintenance packet that contains the lighting layout and schedules, product documentation and instruction manuals for each piece of equipment, instruction materials for programming the control devices, a suggested maintenance schedule, and a full listing of luminaires that are matched to their lamp assignments. It is also important to walk the client through the project to ensure that they understand the equipment and how to operate their lighting package. As a final service (previously discussed), most landscape lighting designers offer an annual maintenance plan that helps to ensure that the lighting is maintained and updated with the changing needs of the landscaping. An important consideration throughout the design comes in keeping the system flexible so that it can be easily modified as the landscaping changes over time.

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Lighting Exteriors and Buildings as Landscape Design It often becomes extremely difficult to separate the lighting of a building’s exterior from its landscape lighting. The two must work together with the landscape lighting becoming an extension of a building’s exterior. Sometimes the two will be created with contrasts between them while at other times they will be fully integrated with one another. For this reason, both lighting treatments are often considered together when working on a project. In many cases, they are even designed by the same lighting designer—however, the fixtures used in these applications are typically quite different from one another. This is particularly true in commercial settings where lighting systems receive extended use and there often is a need for more powerful luminaires for the architectural parts of the installations. Not only are base level illuminations much higher in these applications but also these units must light facades and other architectural features that are several stories above the ground. It isn’t uncommon to light five or more stories of a building with ground-mounted luminaires. Larger buildings are usually lighted through mounting luminaires on poles, adjacent rooftops, or even on ledges at various heights around the perimeter of a building. Landscape fixtures are rarely capable of lighting to these heights. Because of this, the actual building lighting is usually considered as a specialized area of architectural rather than landscape lighting. Due to the increased levels of illumination and power demands that are required by most commercial luminaires, these fixtures typically use more efficient HID or fluorescent sources. They are also frequently installed in

Figure 8.19  A site plan with landscape lighting indicated

160 SNAPFINGER LN CONTROL SCHEDULE R. Dunham, Designer Channel/ Zone

Label

Description

Luminaires

Control

1

a

Path lights along driveway and entrance area plus mailbox accents

8-MR16 (50w) Lumiere (Cambria 206) 2-MR16 (75w) Hadco (BUL1 A S)

Lowvoltage transformer

Flower beds North/South

12-PAR36 (25w)Well lights AQL (PG450)

Lowvoltage transformer

300

Tree uplights North/South

10-MR16 75w) Hadco (BUL1 A S)

Lowvoltage transformer

200

Woods line uplights

13–120vPAR30 (75w) AQL (PSD333)

120-volt dimmer

975

5–120v Halogen (35w) Steplights AQL (PDM35)

120-volt dimmer

175

9–120v (75w) Hadco (BUI A)

120-volt dimmer

675

2

3

4

5

6

b

c

d

e

f

Decklights

Downlights North/South

Load (watts)

550

Figure 8.20  A control schedule for the site plan illustrated in Figure 8.19 Note: All transformers equipped with both photocell and timer switching.

public locations that require the units to have more durability (protective gratings, well enclosures, and heavier duty components and housings) that protect them from their greater exposure to pedestrian traffic and any abuse that vandals might bring to them. They must also have better efficiencies because of the longer hours of operation. There is limited intensity control in most commercial lighting installations with changes in light levels being accomplished not by dimmers but by the wattage assignments of the individual lamps. Since only on/off operation is required in controlling many of these designs, the majority of these systems are simply placed on automatic devices like timers, photo cells, and computer controllers or astronomical clocks. Most exterior architectural lighting deals with lighting features of a building’s architecture. The most common variation simply involves basic floodlighting to wash the facades and other faces of a building (Figure  8.21). More interesting installations tend to add color to the lighting or at the other extreme may be more selective

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in choosing what is fully illuminated and what is a more modeled treatment of the building’s features. Such lighting often uses spotlights to pick out various points of interest in the design (columns, niches, or sculptures). Another interesting way of illuminating building exteriors comes through using less conventional mounting positions and techniques like grazing to bring out the textures and relief of a building and its surfaces. Techniques like these are frequently combined to produce integrated effects such as shadowing landscape features like trees or saplings against a wall. There is an important distinction in scale between residential and commercial applications of exterior/landscape lighting. Residential projects are intimate and are used to extend the living space of a property while providing a more subtle mood that relates to the needs of the clients. Commercial projects tend to use landscape lighting to draw focus to given features of a property while providing a stronger emphasis on the safety and security of a client and their guests. Because of this, floodlighting tends

flora. While the overall landscaping is often lighted using the same techniques as any other landscaping project, the designer will most likely have to make some provision for providing light that simulates sunlight to supplement the limited amount of exposure that the plants might have to actual sunlight. This helps the plants to grow and remain healthy.

Landscape Lighting on a Grand Scale

Figure 8.21  Exterior lighting of the Hunt Library in Pittsburgh, PA by C&C Lighting: (a) Single color floodlight setting. (b) Holiday floodlight setting Credit: photos courtesy of C&C Lighting

to be more prominent in commercial applications. Other elements of designing for commercial installations that should be considered include identification of the primary gathering areas and circulation patterns found within the property, types of public functions that may take place on a property, and the type of public image that the client wishes to promote. One unique area of landscape lighting that bears special mention is in the design of atriums. These are indoor garden areas that are typically surrounded by portions of a building’s interior and have a glass roofing element. They are best described as interior courtyards that are filled with plants, trees, and other landscape materials. Atria are often lighted in the same way as any other landscaping project with the added complication that the plants do not have immediate access to the sun. This can lead to both good and bad sun exposure for the plants. Too much of a greenhouse effect will raise temperatures and be detrimental to the growth and survival of the plants while too little exposure will create yet a different set of problems for the

This is an expansion of landscape lighting to the extent of including city parks, streets and sidewalks, bridges, and even entire city skylines. The element that distinguishes this type of lighting from other areas of landscape lighting is one of simply scale. The types of projects that belong to this category of landscape lighting are predominantly public in nature. The lighting is designed for the benefit and enjoyment of the general population. There are few, if any, restrictions on the public’s accessibility to viewing and circulating throughout these installations. Once again, general safety and security are primary elements of this illumination. However, in corporate installations this relates very specifically to the image that a company wants to promote to the public. Nearly anyone in the Southeast can relate to the extensive lighting packages that BellSouth (now AT&T) has placed on most of its office towers that are found in major cities across the Southeast. On a smaller scale, even Wendy’s and McDonald’s have characteristic lighting schemes associated with the majority of their restaurant designs. Figure  8.22 provides two examples of commercial lighting designs that contribute to the character of a city’s nightime skyline.

Figure 8.22  Lighting as part of a cityscape: (a) 1717 Broadway, New York, NY (lighting by Paul Gregory and Focus ­Lighting). (b) Bank of America Corporate Center, Charlotte, NC (lighting by Paul Gregory and Focus Lighting). (c) Part of the Atlanta, GA skyline at dusk Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Ryan Fischer, (b) photo courtesy of Daniel Gray (www.DanielGrayPhotography.com)

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dictate a series of conditions that private property owners must adhere to. Items that are typically considered under these operations include street lamps and roadway lighting; bridges and tunnels: the lighting of parks and public squares; and the lighting of municipal buildings such as courthouses, public office buildings, and schools. In many ways lighting is also used to tie all of the exterior building designs of an area like a neighborhood or district together into a cohesive whole. Unfortunately, unless a city has a master plan that is well-adhered to, lighting at this scale often turns into a collection of unrelated ideas and concepts. On the other hand, with proper planning, much of this lighting can work together, with a common theme that might be established throughout an entire city. Even lighting elements that are as simple as using common street lamps can help promote this unity. At the grandest scale, the entire skyline of a city can be considered as a distant example of landscape architecture and lighting, with each building forming an element of a grander composition.

For Further Reading

Figure 8.22 (Continued)

Landscape lighting on a grand scale must usually be coordinated by a municipality such as a town or city. This may be accomplished directly through guiding and supporting the lighting of public areas/properties or indirectly through creating zoning ordinances that

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Davidson, James. Garden Lighting: Contemporary Exterior Lighting. New York, NY: Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 1999. DiLaura, David L., Kevin W. Houser, Richard G. Mistrick, and Gary R. Steffy. eds. Illuminating Engineering Society—The Lighting Handbook Tenth Edition: Reference and Application. New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2011. Johnson, Glenn M. The Art of Illumination: Residential Lighting Design. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1999. Moyer, Janet Lennox. The Landscape Lighting Book. 3rd ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2013. Narboni, Roger. Lighting the Landscape. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhauser, 2016. Rae, Mark. ed. IESNA Lighting Handbook. 9th ed. New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2000. Watson, Lee. Lighting Design Handbook. New York, NY: McGrawHill, 1990. Whitehead, Randall. The Art of Outdoor Lighting: Landscapes With the Beauty of Lighting. Gloucester, MA: Rockport Publishers, Inc., 2001.

CHAPTER 9

THEMED OR SPECIALTY LIGHTING

T

HIS CHAPTER IS placed near the end of the book because themed projects often bring a number of lighting disciplines together to form a design for a particular project. In many ways, this represents a culmination in the lighting experience: the lighting is considered not only for the themed event itself, but also for anything related to the event and its surroundings. At the Disney World Resort near Orlando, Florida, everything is designed from the point when a guest first drives through the gates of a Disney property down to the smallest details. Flowers and landscaping are planted with specific intentions; transportation is arranged; and even the water management of lagoons, waterways, and pumping stations is considered throughout a property’s design—not to mention the obvious treatment of the attractions and other guest services that are located throughout the parks. The themed parks of Universal Studios follow this design approach in very much the same manner—as do the West Coast and other international parks that are owned by these and other companies. Because of this, the lighting (and all design for that matter) begins with the exterior grounds and involves not only the treatment of the buildings themselves but also all the landscaping, walkways, and approaches that lead to the structure that houses a particular attraction or activity. Once inside, lighting designers typically use a combination of architectural and theatrical luminaires and control equipment to light an attraction. The selection of the type of lighting equipment that is actually used on a project is very much dependent on the individual needs of an attraction. Lighting for themed or specialty designs is quite often a combination or layering of techniques and equipment and can involve elements of architectural, theatrical, display, landscaping, and/or any other lighting specialty. These disciplines have already been discussed in earlier chapters—therefore, this chapter examines only the unique demands of themed or specialty lighting as a whole. You should feel free to go back to the earlier chapters to examine how specific techniques from these disciplines might be transferred to themed projects. On themed projects, it is usually best for a designer to think about how to combine or layer the lighting so that it achieves the required tasks while also adding a sense of theatrical flair to a project.

Themed/Specialty Design Versus Amusement Entertainment Themed entertainment initially grew out of the amusement industry: While both are quite similar and often confused with one another, there is one significant distinction that sets them apart from one another. This difference relates to the requirement of a “story” or “storyline” for a themed attraction. Amusement parks have been around for several centuries and are typically identified with the concept of providing a playground where a collection of rides and other attractions are presented for the public’s entertainment. An amusement attraction usually has no storyline associated with the event: you simply participate in the ride or attraction and then go on to the next activity. For the most part, each ride is a self-contained entity and the attractions are rarely related to one another. Often, amusement parks are no more than a collection of vendors and thrill rides like

roller coasters, bobsleds, Ferris Wheels, and other attractions. A truly themed attraction is organized and designed around a more significant experience and attempts to involve the guests in a story—even to the point of becoming participants in an attraction’s action. Disney’s Pirates of the Caribbean (Figure 9.1) is one of the most memorable themed attractions that can be found in virtually every one of the Disney parks. Though the original design of the attraction dates back to the original park, the popularity of the recent films that feature Captain Jack Sparrow has resulted in these attractions being renovated and updated to reference the films. Today, themed environments have grown in popularity and are not limited to just theme parks. These environments entertain dining guests; sell food, toys, clothing, and other wares; and provide education through attractions like themed museums and historical re-enactments. Many of these attractions contain themed elements and we often refer to these experiences as themed entertainment. However, to be considered a truly themed attraction some form of “storyline” must be part of the basic workings of a project. The storyline also provides a conceptual framework that allows the specifics of a design to be determined and evaluated. If you think back on any themed attraction that you may have previously experienced you will most likely have evaluated its success or failure based on how consistently the environment and designs fit into the story that was presented throughout the attraction. The more that the guests get caught up in the situation, the more successful the project will be. Even though we often speak about themed retail stores or restaurants, the majority of these make use of themed design approaches while not necessarily making full use of a storyline. Examples of this might involve having workers wear particular uniforms or costumes, having guests/clients participate in particular activities, or making use of themed interior design elements within a business. An ice cream shop whose interior is designed around a

Figure 9.1 Scene from Disney’s Pirates of the Caribbean attraction, Disneyland Park Credit: photo courtesy of ©Disney

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1950s soda shop and where the waiters wear period uniforms is a common application of this type of theming, as are many of the sports bars and athletic supply stores that have become so popular in the last 5–10 years.

History of Themed Entertainment The origins of theme parks have been charted back to the 1500s in Europe. The earliest beginnings are thought to be a variety of gardens (“Pleasure Gardens”) that were created for the entertainment of villagers through music, games, and simple rides. Two rides that are speculated to have existed in these parks include horse-drawn carts and a gravity-driven sled ride that was similar to the bobsleds that are used in today’s sporting events. The United States is credited with the invention of two of the most popular amusement rides with the appearance of the roller coaster and Ferris Wheel in the late 1800s. More importantly, American vacationers made many of the coastal cities of the East Coast popular seashore resorts by drawing people to the beaches by day and a variety of attractions on the piers and boardwalks at night. One of the most popular forms of entertainment at that time was going to the amusement piers where a number of rides, midway games, and eateries catered to everyone’s evening pleasures. Resorts like Coney Island, Atlantic City, and Wildwood were all seaside cities whose amusement piers were extremely popular during this time. While the attractions have changed over the years, these cities remain popular vacation sites to this day. Other regions of the country have a similar history, with lakeside attractions along the Great Lakes and more shoreline amusements along the Gulf and Pacific coasts. Even now, much of the attraction of these parks is found in the fastest, roughest, or most exhilarating rides that engineers can create. Some attractions (thrill rides) are aimed at teenagers and young adults while others are aimed at young families and produce much milder experiences. Some parks cater to a particular audience while others provide a variety of attractions that appeal to a more diverse range of guests from a variety of ages. In most amusement parks, visitors pay by the individual ride by purchasing tickets as opposed to theme parks where a single admission fee is used to give visitors full privileges to nearly everything in the park for an entire day. The transition of parks from amusement parks to theme parks began predominantly with the work of innovators like Walt Disney. He and his teams not only became the visionaries for this new approach to designing attractions and parks, but also were the leaders in bringing this concept into practice through developing Disneyland in the 1950s and ’60s. Other innovators of the theme park concept included the teams that led to the development of the Six Flags and Universal Studios parks. The Disney organization and its legendary team of Imagineers (Disney Imagineering) are typically credited with being among the most influential forces in the themed entertainment industry.

The Imagineers form the creative team that produces the storylines, concepts, and principal design guidelines or scenarios for Disney’s themed projects. The name comes from a combination of key principles upon which the Disney experience has been shaped (imagination and engineering) and is central to the team’s approach to creatively inventing any new technologies required to fulfill their show or attraction requirements. The projects can vary considerably in scale—from as small as vendor carts to individual rides or attractions that can grow into the design of entire parks. Most themed projects have a team of designers associated with them throughout the design and construction process, often with individual designers (or teams) being assigned to specific aspects of a project. It is quite popular to have different interior and exterior lighting designers working on various aspects of the same project. If a park does not have its own resident design staff (which is the usual case), freelance designers are hired to design the projects on a consultation basis. The difference in design approach for themed design versus amusement design has led to much greater attention to detail in the design aesthetic of themed designs as well as in creating more interactive events for the guests to participate in. By creating an environment in which guests can “play along,” there’s a greater chance that they will become engaged in the attraction and have a better experience. This holds true not only for the attraction itself, but expands to incorporate the entire process that a guest experiences while leading up to the main attraction. The queue (waiting area leading up to a ride), approach (pathway leading to an attraction), and neighboring areas all aid in preparing the guests for the main event while also aiding in creating the immersive experience that a themed attraction requires. In many ways, the design of these areas makes the lengthy amount of time passed while waiting in line part of the entertainment experience. Theme designers also discovered that they could bring more people to their parks by creating attractions that appealed to the entire family—not just teenagers or elementary-aged children. Disney’s most progressive ideas laid the foundation for a park called Epcot Center that would be suggestive of a futuristic society. He died well before its completion and the programming changed to become more of a celebration of world cultures, but his creative leadership was the seed from which the whole theme park industry of Orlando sprouted. Theme parks in Orlando now include four Disney parks, two Universal Studio parks, SeaWorld Orlando, and even a biblical theme park. Spin-off attractions include water parks and nightspots like City Walk, Downtown Disney, and Pleasure Island (now closed) along with a host of themed restaurants and stores based on everything from music celebrity and NASCAR racing to tropical rainforests and LEGO toys. California has also embraced the theme park industry, as have other states through companies like the Six Flags or Anheuser-Bush organizations. There are also many independent operations like Cedar Point in Ohio or Hershey Park in Pennsylvania that practice themed

design as well. Finally, theme parks have been introduced to other continents and have been built in cities like Paris, Dubai, and Tokyo. Even parks that can’t fully embrace the concepts of a true theme park use theming principles where they can afford to make them work within their budgets and resources. With the population’s growing preference for being involved with interactive experiences, it can be assumed that theme parks and themed design will continue to be popular in the future.

The Story Whenever a design team approaches a themed project one of the most critical considerations that must be examined is the story that will be developed for the project. Not only is the story important in its own sense, but it also becomes a way of getting the visitors to connect with an attraction on an emotional level. The story is used to define the event and every decision should be evaluated on how it supports the story that is being told. It is only through providing a well-defined story that a convincing environment can be created that immerses the visitors in the world of the story. Without it, a project simply becomes a ride or attraction with no greater experience for the participant. Universal Studios’ Hollywood and Orlando parks were designed around the concept of “riding the movies.” Popular attractions in theses parks were often based on films such as Jaws, Earthquake, King Kong, the Harry Potter series, and Twister. As a means of updating the parks, attractions such as many of these have been updated or even replaced by newer attractions that are based on more current films and technologies. Both parks were also based on sites focused around a number of sound stages and a backlot—where everything is an illusion. Each provides a number of film settings that are authentic when viewed from the front and then shown quite literally as scenery when viewed from an angle outside of a usable camera angle. All of the theatrical elements that would suggest that a wall is actually scenery are placed in full view of the visitors because this supports the temporary illusion and concepts that are required throughout the parks. In fact, even now, much of the backlot and studios are still actively used for making films and video programs. At the other extreme, Disney’s Magic Kingdom strives to reinforce the ideas of “illusion” and “magic” in the opposite manner: extreme measures are taken to prevent visitors from observing too much of the inner workings of the park. While we speak of story development primarily being associated with the theme parks, there are occasions where theming techniques are transferred to attractions in sales, restaurants, and other experiences. While not taken to the same extreme as the park attractions, even retailers make use of this concept and storyline approach to create environments that enhance a shopper’s experience. In many ways, you can think of themed events as being yet another production or shows that are supported by scenery, props,

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lighting, sound, and all the other design elements associated with a theatrical production. The performers may be employees who are often called “cast members,” animatronics characters that may narrate parts of the story, or even the visitors or “guests” themselves who become full participants in an event. The many haunted houses that pop up around Halloween are events in which the characters are frequently cast members while rides such as the Star Wars simulators use robotic pilots to narrate the story while attempting to fly a space vehicle. Finally, there are other attractions like the movie-making events at Universal Studios and Disney’s Hollywood Studios (formerly MGM Studios) where guests are chosen to participate in mock shooting sequences based on films like Honey I Shrunk the Kids. For several years my wife was a cast member of Nickelodeon Studio’s former Game Lab at Orlando’s Universal Studios, where both the cast and visitors were active participants in a mock game show in which one of the losing guests got “slimed” by the famous green fluid. Universal Studios’ E.T. Adventure doesn’t simply take guests on an aerial bicycle ride through the Southwest—it attempts to place the guests in the same final chase sequence as the boys in the film who helped E.T. escape and race away from the authorities. The ride tells a story: makes the guests participants in the bike chase while going on to take the riders off to further adventurers with E.T. and his friends. Designers of themed events try to create an all-encompassing experience and hope to immerse the guests in an event. A truly themed attraction will attempt to bring as many of a participant’s senses into the experience as possible. While sight and sound are the primary senses that are stimulated in these attractions, touch and motion have been addressed through creating vibrations and blasts of heat/air in events like explosive sequences, using motion simulators, and using water for creating mists or using other spray technologies to get the guests wet. Disney and several other major park operators have even gone to the extent of introducing smells into some attractions. The more senses involved in a participant’s experience, the greater the chance that they will have a successful encounter. The initial interaction with an attraction begins as guests first approach it and stand in the queue areas as they wait for the ride. One common technique for disguising excessive lines involves designing queues that lead from one chamber to another. Each chamber provides another experience and sets some groundwork (exposition, if you think about it) in telling the story that leads up to the point where the ride actually begins. Some of the more popular rides with elaborate queues like The Amazing Adventures of Spiderman or Men in Black Alien Attack at Islands of Adventure and Universal Studios or The Pirates of the Caribbean at Disney’s Magic Kingdom have mazes of connected tunnels and a half dozen or more chambers that provide additional opportunities for entertaining the guests as they wait. Just a few of the rooms used in the queue of Men in Black include being led past a creature break room, a central control/processing area, and

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Figure 9.2  Activity center in a themed exhibit Credit: photo courtesy of Rick Clark and ID3 Group

a munitions/weapons room before going on to the actual ride. Each area is lit appropriately. There are a number of examples beyond theme parks where strong storylines are worked into themed environments. For many years historical sites like presidential homesteads or attractions like Colonial Williamsburg, Historic Jamestown, and Mystic Seaport have gone to the extent of recreating entire villages based on themed environments. These attractions are complete with cast members who take on the roles of craftspeople who perform re-enactments of life from an earlier time. Museums and special exhibits are also gravitating toward more frequent uses of theming in their designs. The Titanic touring exhibit goes to the extent of issuing boarding passes to guests with one of the names of the original passengers, which is then compared to a survivor list at the end of the exhibit. Some people in the business refer to this type of themed design as edu-tainment (Figure 9.2). Regardless of the nature of the event, the story becomes the most important theme in driving the rest of the design and development decisions for a project. Ultimately, it will be the primary element that will determine the success for a project.

Development of a Themed Project Most themed projects begin with brainstorming—what is called blue sky development. After this, a concept is developed and the team works out the details of a project. Lighting designers should be brought into the design process as soon as possible so that they can contribute to the overall concept of a project. Unfortunately, just as in many theatrical endeavors, lighting designers are often added at a later point in the process. This is in part due to the fact that lighting designers are rarely part of a park’s full-time design staff and are usually hired on a contract basis as consultants. Regardless of whether they are in on the initial discussions or not, the sooner that they are brought onboard, the bigger the contributions that they can make to a project.

Once a themed project’s basic nature has been determined, it moves into the first design stage/phase, which is referred to as concept development. This activity simply lays out the general ideas, concept, and parameters of an attraction. In addition to entertainment value, there must also be some economic considerations for the project. Some of these include familiar issues like budgets and schedules, but there are other factors like volume of visitors, the duration of the event, manner of controlling crowds, and engineering concerns that also need to be addressed as the attraction moves into a more detailed stage of development. Perhaps the most important aspect of working through this phase of a project is identifying the general parameters and storyline for the attraction. For instance, when Disney wanted to build another roller coaster for Disney’s Hollywood Studios, the concept team developed a unique story around the attraction. A roller coaster in itself wasn’t all that unique—instead, they built the story around a ride that placed the coaster in a dark nighttime environment in which a crazed limo driver is trying to get his band and accompanying “guests” across town for a concert following the late arrival of their flight. The ride gets off to an immediate start and travels very quickly over images and models of Los Angeles while the limo makes its way to the arena—both tires and music screaming. The ride is better known as Rock ‘n’ Roller Coaster with Aerosmith—after the real band, whose name and music are featured throughout the attraction (Figure 9.3). A similar themed attraction is Terminator Salvation where part of the queue involves leading guests through a warehouse/assembly area. The popular Halloween Haunted House attractions that appear each October are another great example of themed entertainment.—each with its own version of gore and storyline. The importance of concept development lies not only in developing the story but also in determining the themes that a team will make prominent throughout an attraction. This holds true not only for single attractions but also for entire sections of a park’s design. In fact, many themed

Figure 9.3  Loading area and ride vehicle for Disney’s Rock’n Roller Coaster attraction as the ride gets off to a “quick start” Credit: photo courtesy of ©Disney

Figure 9.4  Space (an example of themed museum design) Credit: photo courtesy of Rick Clark and ID3 Group

parks create several different sections that are essentially located around a large circle or “loop.” Each area will have its own themes, thus creating a series of related but very distinct sections that cater to a variety of guests. Disney’s Magic Kingdom has sections such as Frontierland, Tomorrowland, and Main Street that are different themed areas that are found within the larger park. The Six Flags parks use a different set of themes. Six Flags Over Georgia contains French, Spanish, Bug's Bunny (Boomtown), and Georgia themed areas as well as a Gotham City (Batman) section. Universal’s Islands of Adventure park in Orlando contains themed areas like Seuss Landing, Marvel Super Hero Island, Jurassic Park, and The Lost Continent. Attractions and even entire sections of the parks can be replaced and updated as the needs of a park may change. The Wizarding World of Harry Potter attractions that are currently so popular in the Universal Studios parks are examples of how these parks have been updated to not only attract new guests, but also to bring back guests who have previously visited the parks. The first book in the Harry Potter series had not even been written when these parks were initially conceived and built. The second stage in creating a themed project relates to developing the actual show or attraction. Many refer to this as schematic development, and this is where the blue sky concepts are brought into a preliminary set of plans and drawings. This will generally involve the completion of floorplans, sections, and basic elevations for an attraction. Models may also be introduced at this point in the process. It is critical that all members of the design team be in place by this stage of the project so that ideas can be shared and troubleshot together. It is a time in which the themes are refined and each team moves on to develop specific solutions for each aspect of the attraction. Scenery is designed for each of the settings and costumes are designed for the cast members who will be operating the attraction. Circulation patterns, number of scenes, and manners of movement are all examined in detail at this point in the process. If a ride is involved, its pathway, ride vehicles, and manner

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of movement are also worked out. Meanwhile, while the set designers create a plausible set of environments for the attraction, costume designers design clothing for the characters, and sound designers work on original music and effects—the lighting designers develop their initial plots or layouts and control schedules for the project. Plans, drawings, and mockups are all developed at this point in the process. This can drag on for months, or even years, as the team members respond to and interact with one another. Quite often, there are several different lighting teams—the most popular arrangement being one team for lighting the attraction itself while another lights the exterior structures and landscaping associated with the project. Like with theatre, there will be times when a lighting designer must wait for information to be locked in by other design areas before they can go on to completing their duties. At some point, the team will come to an agreement on the overall design of the attraction and will finalize their designs. This aspect of the process or stage is often called design development and is focused on working out the details so that the schematic designs are refined into a finished package. The lighting designer will discuss how to best illuminate different parts of the project, identify areas of primary and secondary focus, identify color palettes, and will work with the other designers to create mounting positions that both prevent glare and mask as many of the luminaires as possible. For a lighting designer, this is the point in the project where the formal plot or lighting layout, control schedule, and other aspects of the design are finalized. Ironically, the luminaires are often located in the scenic structures and might even have to be placed by the designer personally on site. On the other hand, much of the lighting installation is frequently mounted in a permanent fashion and the lighting plans need to be accurate so that the circuit boxes and conduit runs can be located properly by the electrical contractor. Once the project enters construction, site visits help to ensure that any changes or mistakes are caught at a point where modifications can still be accommodated fairly easily. It should be understood that themed design makes use of a number of techniques to complete an illusion or impression of any environment that is being created—not an actual re-creation of a subject or environment. In a sense, this requires giving enough detail that people will buy into or accept the illusion. In the long run, it is often more beneficial to give an impression of a scene in which there has been some dramatic license in the presentation of its details than to provide an exact duplication of an environment as evidenced by historical research. This in many ways follows the same arguments of realism versus naturalism in theatrical styles. The designers should strive for an emotional connection to the material rather than necessarily presenting one of accuracy. Other techniques that are popular in aiding this illusion include the use of forced perspective to provide an illusion of distance, scale or proportion to make objects appear more or less distant or threatening than they actually

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are, and the use of color and other design elements to create a more presentational style that appeals to the emotional needs of the attraction. Throughout the entire process, the creative team will set forth artistic challenges that will be given to an engineering team which will develop the means of producing the desired effects. Like other forms of design, themed designing also can make use of a specialized vocabulary and some unique terms. Sidebar  9.1 provides and introduction to some of these terms.

Sidebar 9.1  SOME COMMON TERMINOLOGY ASSOCIATED WITH THEME PARK ATTRACTIONS Animatronics

Backstage

Bump door

Cycle time

Dark ride

Loading platform Motion base

On stage

An animated character created as a robotic device that has some form of mechanical or mechanized movements associated with it Areas that are only open to cast members and where guests are not permitted to enter Doors that separate one scene from another in a dark ride and through which a ride vehicle simply bumps in order to pass into the next room or chamber The time that it takes a ride vehicle to go completely through a single cycle of an attraction—picking up guests, completing the ride, dispersing the passengers, and then picking up new riders A themed ride in which a ride vehicle holding two to six guests follows a track/path through an attraction that winds through a series of sets and events. Dark rides are typically broken down into separate scenes that are often separated from one another by large spring loaded doors (bump doors) that the vehicle bumps through as it goes from one chamber to another. The area where guests are loaded into the ride vehicles. Specialized machinery that is installed on the base of a ride vehicle that simulates motions like bumps, shifts, and drops in the vehicle’s movement Areas that are in full view of guests and to which they may even have access to

Pre-show

Pulse

Queue

Ride envelope

Show scene (set)

Spiel

Wait time

A manner of presenting initial information regarding the storyline prior to experiencing the actual ride. Most queues provide a fairly comprehensive pre-show to guests as a way of passing time while waiting in line for the actual attraction. A manner of advancing attraction lines through admitting a larger number of guests (20–50 or so) into a secondary queue or chamber where they view a pre-show event that helps pass some time just prior to entering the actual attraction. The elevator rooms of Disney’s Haunted Houses are examples of this technique. A technique for giving the appearance of a shortened waiting line by arranging the line in a series of rows that turn back on one another as well as leading the guests to additional chambers/staging areas with additional queues and waiting times The neutral zone between a ride vehicle and the themed environment. It is best not to have any equipment in this region so guests cannot injure themselves or touch the equipment/scenery. A series of scenes or sets and all other design elements that are created to support a given part of a themed attraction’s story. Single chambers in a dark ride often contain individual scenes, although it is possible to have more than one scene in a room. The narration or storyline that is presented to the guests by a cast member who is also often operating the ride The time that guests must wait in line before beginning the attraction’s actual ride

Once a ride or event’s design is fairly well developed, it is time to design the building that houses the attraction, which is the reverse of what happens in typical building programs. This is done so that the building is designed around the attraction—not the attraction being designed

into a building—which protects the integrity of the design. The cardinal rule is that everything, even the design of the building itself, should be integrated into the design of a themed attraction. There are exceptions, the most notable being when a new attraction is moved into an older venue in order to replace another attraction. However, if at all possible, consideration should go to designing the attraction first, then to the design of the building. After the planning stages of an attraction are completed, construction documents are created and the project is put out for bids with contractors and installers. While much of the installation can be completed by general contractors under proper supervision, elements of the project that involve more specialized equipment will almost always have to be contracted to special providers. Much of the lighting equipment, especially any theatrically based equipment, will often be supplied and installed by theatrical vendors. Throughout the construction process the lighting designer(s) will need to be available for consultation and site visits. At some point, after the majority of the equipment has been installed, the lighting team will aim or focus the luminaires and cue the attraction. The lighting, as well as all the other elements of the attraction, are then tested and refined over an extended period of time. In many cases there will be an initial shakedown period where the ride might be open only to park employees or special guests so that the experience can be improved upon and refined with feedback from these individuals. Even after an attraction opens to the public it will continue to be tweaked by running the ride during normal hours and performing touchups after the park closes for the night.

Considerations of Themed (Specialty) Lighting Design Lighting, like other elements of a themed event, must help tell the story that drives an attraction. Some of the critical functions that it provides include directing focus both toward and away from specific elements of an attraction, creating mood(s), providing selective visibility as needed, and aiding in the circulation of the guests. Perhaps the most critical element is in helping the other design areas create a plausible environment or the necessary imagery that allows guests to escape from the real world and buy into the themed experience. As with any other form of illusion, the lighting designer should avoid producing any conditions that remind the guests that they are in an illusionary world because this would take them out of the experience. Several critical mistakes that can destroy this illusion include placing luminaires and other electrical equipment in full view of the guests, allowing light leaks from the exterior world or adjoining sets to enter a scene, and creating effects that distract rather than enhance an attraction. One technique for masking ceiling mounted luminaires creates overhead baffles (i.e., borders) that mask the units from a ride vehicle’s direction of travel.

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As with many other areas of lighting, the lighting should enhance the experience and not unnecessarily call attention to itself. In many cases, if the guests don’t particularly notice the lighting, the lighting designer is considered to have created a successful design.

Story/Theatrical Elements As already stated, much of the lighting of an attraction lies in the creation of layers of light, each with a particular purpose. The first layer is probably the most important and usually relates to lighting the event or story elements of the attraction—it should be considered first by a lighting designer. What does the guest have to see? How much visibility (or darkness) does a particular element of an attraction require? How should the focus of the guests be directed/misdirected? What are the dominant moods of each scene or setting? Do the colors of the light distort or work with the other elements of a scene? These questions relate directly to how the lighting designer must contribute to telling the story of an attraction. Because of the amount of control that many of these tasks require, it is common for theatrical luminaires, control, and related lighting equipment to be used for these aspects of an attraction’s lighting design. Some will refer to this as the theatrical lighting for an attraction. Contrast ratios are especially important in this aspect of an attraction’s lighting because they become the primary means of directing the guests’ attention. It also bears noting that it is the contrast ratio that is important—not necessarily the overall brightness that is important in a themed environment. There are many occasions when reducing the overall intensity levels may be a more appropriate solution than simply increasing the intensity on a feature to which you want to bring focus. The equipment associated with much of this illumination is often off-the-shelf theatrical lighting equipment which is mounted and wired in a permanent fashion. The most common practice being to run conduit and junction boxes from the dimmer racks to the locations where the units will be tied into their associated circuits. While traditional theatrical gels are often used with these fixtues, their extended use requires maintenance and replacement on a regular basis—something that often gets ignored until the lighting becomes dismal due to the number of burned out gels that are present in a scene. With this being a fairly common occurrence, many designers are now specifying dichroic filters as a long-term solution to the gel problem.

Architectural Elements There are times when the theatrically based systems may provide enough lighting to perform all the other lighting functions required for a design. However, if this is not the case, supplemental lighting is added to the project. This second area/layer of lighting involves the lighting of the

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interior and exterior of the actual building and is commonly called the architectural lighting element of an attraction. Even though this lighting is predominantly architectural in nature, it doesn’t prohibit these units and equipment from being used for theatrical functions—or vice versa. On the whole, this lighting provides general illumination for various elements of the building. Some of these tasks support general functions like guest circulation (i.e., lighting building approaches, queues, and waiting areas), while others perform tasks such as illuminating the exterior of the building and its landscaping (Figure 9.5). Often this system is used in queue areas as an aid to helping guests make the transition from the bright sunlight outside to the much darker inner environments of the attractions. These lighting systems typically use architectural and landscaping luminaires rather than theatrical units—although there are exceptions. The architectural lighting systems should also move beyond providing simple illumination and are frequently used to create moods, set off building features, light signage, and to make statements about the attraction.

Figure 9.5 Exterior and entrance approach lighting: (a) The Anaheim Rainforest Café Restaurant. (b) 57th Fighter Group Restaurant in Atlanta (view from parking area). (c) 57th Fighter Group Restaurant in Atlanta (walkway approach to main entrance) Credit: (a) photo courtesy of Rainforest Café–Landry’s Restaurants, Inc., (b) photo courtesy of 57th Fighter Group Restaurant, (c) photo courtesy of 57th Fighter Group Restaurant

Figure 9.5 (Continued)

Effects Lighting The final area/layer of lighting that is layered into an attraction’s lighting design involves effects lighting that is used to create special effects for the attraction. Simple gobos that create textured light like that associated with being in the woods, LEDs used to create shimmering water effects, chase and flicker effects designed for fire or flame effects, strobe sequences, fiber-optic effects, and blacklight (along with day-glow paints) are all popular lighting effects that are used in many themed attractions. Fiber optics may be used as a point light source for shimmering effects like those used in a star-scape or as side-emitting fiber that is suggestive of neon effects. Regardless of the type of equipment or how it is used, a lighting designer needs to keep focused on the relative importance of any lighting that is used to support these three layers and how they relate to the story. Depending on the nature of the attraction, these layers may become more or less important. For instance, while a themed ride

will place a heavy use on the theatrical lighting systems, a themed restaurant or retail space will require a much greater emphasis on task lighting and will therefore be lit with a very different set of priorities and equipment than a ride attraction. Visibility and circulation tasks are much more critical in these designs. The same holds true in making a comparison of lighting from a walk-through attraction with that of an attraction in which the guests are placed in a ride vehicle. Circulation lighting becomes almost non-existent in attractions using ride vehicles because there is no need for it and the vehicle/track provides for the circulation of the guests. In walk-through attractions, not only is the level of circulation lighting more critical, but also a lighting designer can use the lighting to draw guests farther into the attraction. Guests are typically drawn to light at the end of a pathway. If placed in a dark tunnel, the guests will naturally move toward the area where there appears to be more light. Several additional rules that will help a lighting designer produce a more effective design for themed projects (regardless of the degree of theatricality) include enhancing the other design elements (scenery and costumes) through making appropriate choices in color, angle, and intensity; directing and misdirecting the focus of the guests as a means of pointing up certain features while also concealing “surprises”; taking measures to control glare through mounting the fixtures from behind the guests where possible; using accessories like barn doors or half-hats throughout a design to control spill; and paying attention to light adaptation as guests make their transition from entering and exiting a ride. A show set or scene at the beginning of a ride will typically require higher levels of illumination to provide time for the guests’ eyes to adjust to the lower light levels. In fact, the queues found in many rides typically shift from being completely lit by sunlight, to moving into an area that is kept predominantly in shade, to interior chambers where the light levels are progressively lowered as the guests move toward the loading area.

Lighting Equipment and Design Documentation The lighting equipment that is used in any themed attraction is quite dependent on the specific needs of a project. Some designs will gravitate more heavily toward pure entertainment and theatrical gear while others will have demands that are more along the lines of illumination engineering and will follow architectural practices and techniques in their design and installation. Because of this, the gear used on most projects is frequently a combination of both types of equipment. The one exception is that most control equipment tends to come from the entertainment industry because of the more sophisticated control that these systems typically provide. Since lighting designers for themed attractions tend to have a much greater arsenal of tools and equipment to consider, they must be even more

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Figure 9.6  A lighting layout for a themed clubhouse

knowledgeable in what luminaires are available in both architectural and theatrical lines of equipment as well as being able to understand/interpret product cut sheets and photometric data. In nearly every project, some of the equipment will come from architectural suppliers while the rest will come from theatrical vendors. Lighting designers who work on themed projects should also have some expertise in architectural lighting standards and codes or should work with illumination engineers or other professionals who can bring these aspects of the design into compliance. In many cases, two or more lighting designers or firms are often involved with the lighting of themed projects—each dealing with specific areas of expertise while collaborating on the overall lighting of an attraction. Design documentation once again grows out of the development of a light plot or lighting layout. This communicates luminaire and accessory information to the contractors who will be installing the equipment. The installers may be employees of the client’s own staff or individuals from other firms that have been contracted to install the lighting. Numerous schedules are produced as part of an

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attraction’s document package and are organized predominantly from the perspective of control. The actual manner of drafting these plots/layouts is dependent on what elements of the lighting are represented in a given layout. If the luminaires are predominantly of a theatrical nature, theatrical standards are employed, while architectural reflected ceiling plans (Figure  9.6) and lighting layouts are more commonly used when representing architectural lighting elements/systems. At times, both practices are used together—using architectural practices for the architectural and landscape lighting systems and theatrical practices for the theatrical systems. Regardless of the manner of working, what is important is that the type and location of every unit be identified on the layout. Some designers will provide additional information such as color, lamp/wattage, and control information on the lighting plan while others simply place this information in the related schedules. No matter how it’s specified, it is extremely important that all this information be presented somewhere in the design documentation. Hookup and control schedules are an important part of this package. The most common

technique of communicating much of this information follows the architectural practice of indicating a limited amount of information on the draftings and placing the detailed specifications in the schedules and related binders that are prepared for a project. In most cases, the practice of providing detailed installation drawings, full cut sheets, and additional lamping and maintenance schedules are all part of these packages.

Construction/Installation Process The process of producing a themed lighting project is very similar to that of creating most other architectural projects and is only briefly reviewed here. Designers often have several of these projects at various stages of completion at any given time. This is because these projects are frequently completed in short and intense periods where a designer works for several long days (often two or three back-to-back 15-hour days) that are offset by weeks if not months of inactivity on a project. However, one of the most important aspects of designing themed projects is in providing a full set of construction documents that very carefully specify the lighting equipment and how it is to be installed. Not only do these document packets guide the actual installation, but they are also the basic documents that are used for the bidding process, actual selection of the lighting equipment, and the awarding of the contract to an installer or lighting contractor. It is important to note that it is especially hard, if not impossible, for an individual lighting designer to function as an independent contractor or freelancer on these projects—especially the larger ones. There is simply too much at stake and you need to have a company behind you to be successful in being awarded these contracts. Several of the most important items that a company can provide that are requirements for working in this part of the industry are the certificates of insurance and liability bonds that must be in effect while working on these projects (typically with $1,000,000 to $2,000,000 coverage). In addition, you will benefit from the personal protection of a corporation that will prevent lawsuits from putting your personal resources like your home at risk, and the resources of a team rather than individual to approach a design project. In reality, if you are considering any form of design consultation that provides services for any permanent installation (architectural, display, landscape, etc.), you should give serious consideration to forming a company as a means of protecting yourself and your financial resources. When a lighting firm is first asked to become involved with a themed project the attraction’s producer will forward a document called a Request for Proposal (RFP) to the lighting firm. This document is a formal proposal that provides a very specific outline of the project and includes information such as a specification of the responsibilities/services that must be provided by the lighting designer, a listing of the overall design requirements of a project, storyline, specific scene and staging requirements (i.e., an identification and

description of each scene along with the mood and basic needs of each scene’s lighting), specification requirements of the lighting equipment (i.e., number of hours that the exhibit will be in daily operation, approximate life expectancy of equipment, and applicable code requirements), and an approximate time schedule for each stage of the project. The RFP is an extremely important document because it becomes the formal reference that outlines the design services and requirements of a project. An RFP will frequently contain 20 to 30 or more pages of specifications. A related document, the Request for Qualifications (RFQ) is issued by the producer as a means of identifying design firms that may be hired for the project. This document simply asks for prospective designers or firms to demonstrate their experience and qualifications for working on a project. A separate document (the actual design contract) outlines the actual duties and requirements of the lighting designer as well as the fee schedule and responsibilities of both the designer and project’s producer. As in architectural projects, most design firms work on an hourly fee basis that is used to estimate a design fee that is split into a series of payments that are due upon the completion of specific stages of the design. Typical payments come in connection with the signing of the contract and upon the completion of the following design stages: Concept/Schematic, Design Development, Contract Documentation, Bidding and Award the of Lighting Contract, Production and Installation, and Programming. Because many of these projects are connected with entertainment related activities like popular films and other image related themes where some secrecy may be demanded by a show’s producer, it is fairly common for a designer to be expected to sign a confidentiality agreement that basically states that they will not discuss any of the details of the project outside of a given circle of people who are approved by the show’s producer. Once a project has been designed and the specification documents have been prepared, the lighting designer guides the producer through the processes of bidding and selecting a lighting installer/contractor. They also offer advice in the final selection of the lighting equipment. Like most other architectural projects, value engineering (the substitution and cutting of fixtures and other equipment due to the costs of construction) plays into these projects and the lighting designer must be on top of any revisions that are made to the original design as a result of these changes. After a project has been awarded to a contractor(s), the designer will monitor the installation and respond to any questions or revisions that might develop throughout the construction process. Once the equipment has been installed, the designer will test it, supervise the focus, and make any adjustments that are required in the design. The final stages of a project include the programming stage where all of the lighting levels and control features are programmed into the consoles and a Test and Adjust (T and A) phase where the design is revised and tweaked as needed during a shakedown period.

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Sidebar 9.2  DESIGNER PROFILE Tom Ruzika

Credit: photo courtesy of Donna Ruzika

Tom Ruzika has a career that reflects a project list with credits in many areas of lighting design. His designs have been seen on Broadway, in national tours, major regional theatres, and national and international dance and opera companies. He’s designed over 90 productions for the South Coast Repertory Theatre with design credits at other leading companies that include Coconut Grove Playhouse, Hollywood Bowl, Ford’s Theatre in Washington D.C., Laguna Playhouse, Los Angeles Civic Light Opera, Opera Santa Barbara, Berkeley Repertory Theatre, and the Mark Taper Forum. More uniquely, he has designed the lighting for numerous attractions associated with theme parks in six different countries and architectural projects that include prestigious hotels, casinos, restaurants, and retail centers covering several continents (North America, Asia, and Europe). His entertainment lighting can be seen at theme parks in six countries and his architectural lighting can be seen across the nation and in multiple Asian and European countries. Just a few of his themed projects include Backdraft, Earthquake, and Back To The Future (Universal Studios, Hollywood); the Main Street Emporium and renovation of the Disneyland Hotel Grand Ballroom (Disneyland); Batman Forever and Maverick shows at Movie World Australia (Warner Brothers); Seuss Landing at Universal’s Islands of Adventure in Orlando; as well as five theme parks in Japan and additional attractions at Knott’s Berry Farm and other parks. Several of his more visible architectural projects include Seminole Hard Rock Hotels and Casinos in Florida, casinos in Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Des Plaines, Indiana, Oklahoma, California, and Las

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Vegas, the Hard Rock Hotel San Diego, South Coast Plaza, the Los Angeles Music Center, and Universal CityWalk. He has also consulted on over 90 performance facilities, and created an extensive Master Plan for lighting the exterior facades of 104 historic buildings in downtown Los Angeles. His lighting has won many awards across multiple areas of the industry, including numerous Critics Circle Awards, the Lifetime Achievement Award in Lighting from the Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle, Lighting Dimensions Designer of the Year Award, Cal Poly Pomona Alumni of the year, and a number of national and international architectural lighting design awards. Ruzika’s formal training includes a BS in Drama from California State Polytechnic University, Pomona and an MFA from University of California, Irvine. More interestingly, his introduction to theatre came through his playing the organ for choirs in his high school auditorium. “Being backstage, this experience led to my interest in stage lighting. I  learned theatrical lighting in high school ‘by doing’ and continued my training in college.” His learning of architectural lighting came about when he was asked to light a shopping mall parking garage to help make women look more attractive. He learned themed entertainment lighting when he was asked to light a portion of a theme park in Japan. There were different people that helped him break into each of the specialty areas of lighting in which he now works: Tharon Musser and Ken Billington (stage lighting), Pat Maloney of Universal Studios Hollywood (themed entertainment lighting), and Henry Segerstrom with the South Coast Plaza Mall project (architectural lighting). Since there are relatively few options for being trained for much of this type of lighting, most of his training came out of “developing knowledge of all styles of lighting via projects that came through my design studio and being in the business for over 30 years.” Currently, his design work is comprised of approximately 50% architectural and specialty lighting, 10% themed entertainment, 35% theatre consulting, and about 5% theatrical performance designs. Tom states that, “I  love everything about working with light. There is great satisfaction in revealing something in an exciting, vibrant way, making it stand out no matter what it is  .  .  . an actor, or a building. This is especially true today with the many new light sources that are available. Our imagination can really soar because we can achieve so many exciting compositions of light.” Several unique conditions of working in architectural and themed lighting are the considerations of picking the light sources and luminaires and

where you ultimately put the lighting fixtures. “You need to collaborate with the architects in the early phases of the design; there is no lighting plan with specific hanging positions like in a theatre, so you have more freedom, but at the same time you have more constrictions due to building codes, energy restrictions, construction techniques, lamp choices, and the stylistic nature of the architecture that you are illuminating.” On the other hand, Ruzika also shares that, “All lighting design is based on the same principles; what makes the difference is in the question of what are you lighting? An actor, a building, piece of art, cartoon characters; the principles are all the same—it’s the equipment that’s different.” When asked to respond to what he considers to be “Rule #1” for lighting within any of these disciplines Ruzika replies that it has to be about “providing high quality ‘selective visibility’ to a project or

Examples of Themed (Specialty) Lighting Design Themed design has become an everyday element in our lives. Designers need to understand how this type of lighting can be introduced to our daily experience. While most of us won’t have the opportunity to light an attraction at Disney, we should be knowledgeable enough in these practices that we can contribute to a themed project when one comes our way. The last section of this chapter provides a glimpse of several areas in which a lighting designer can find gainful employment in themed or specialty design. The goal is to introduce you to these areas while also addressing some of the qualities that make each area unique. Specific lighting techniques for many of these applications typically follow a combination of other lighting techniques (theatrical, architectural, landscape, display, etc.) and you should refer back to the earlier chapters on these topics for techniques that might be appropriate for lighting given themed projects. Like all other permanent installations, various building codes are applicable and additional systems for emergency and worklight/maintenance lighting must be added on top of a project’s themed and general lighting systems.

Theme Parks Theme parks represent the “holy grail” in themed design experiences. The attractions may take years to complete and can cost millions of dollars if the projects are on the scale of those created by Disney or Universal Studios. However, there are few parks that operate on this scale and many more parks that are much smaller and where a designer finds themselves having to be more resourceful. It’s also important to understand that lighting designs can still be very successful without being affiliated with

environment—be it an actor, building, or themed scenic element.” He also comments on the lack of time that can exist on these projects as well. “You don’t always have time for creative or reflective thought on a project. With today’s computer aided systems, we get projects on a Friday afternoon and are told that initial design drawings must be finished by Monday. We are given less time to actually design!” Like many other designers he reads the trade magazines, goes to LDI, and observes what other designers around the world are creating as a means of remaining on top of the technology and business. One final thought that he shares speaks to how he has done so well in such a range of disciplines throughout the lighting industry. “Good lighting design practice is based upon knowledge, skill, and collaboration. It is also in accepting challenges, problem solving, talent, and bringing a sense of fun and adventure to a project.”

large-scaled projects. This only means that you have to be more considerate of your options. If you follow the design principles used in the larger parks, smaller projects can also develop into successful designs. The theme park experience is the foundation of themed designing and has been discussed in considerable detail throughout this chapter. Single attractions and entire parks are conceived on the notion of creating these experiences. The benefits of themed experiences are more long-lasting than simple thrill rides and guests spend a lot of money to be thrust into the illusionary worlds that these parks and attractions create. In the best examples—such as with the Disney, Universal Studios, or even Six Flags parks—every detail from the attractions themselves, to the designs of the vendor carts, cast uniforms, booths/shops, and landscaping, as well as overall park appearance are designed to heighten a guest’s experience. From the simple dark ride attractions like Disney’s It’s a Small World to sophisticated horror attractions such as Universal’s Van Helsing: Fortress Dracula and action packed adventures like Men in Black—these attractions engage guests by immersing them in fictional worlds. For the 10 or 12 hours that guests are in a park, they are placed in an illusionary world with no reminders of what exists beyond a park’s admission gate. In fact, some of the largest companies (i.e., Disney) even provide onsite hotels and recreational areas like Pleasure Island or Downtown Disney to extend the experience even further. Pleasure Island (now closed) was designed around a number of dance clubs for the over-18/21 crowd while Downtown Disney caters primarily to the restaurant and retail crowd. Universal Studios has followed suit and has created its own version of this extended experience through its City Walk attractions. Other events that are similar to these experiences are the pavilions and other attractions

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associated with the old World’s Fair exhibits. Futuristic technologies were often introduced at these fairs—some specifically relating to lighting. The first appearances of fluorescent tubes were at the 1939 World’s Fair in New York and Golden Gate Exposition in San Francisco. These fairs aren’t created anymore because of the costs that a city must absorb in bringing these projects to completion. However, there are occasions when similar projects may still be possible, the best examples being the Olympic villages that

are built for many of the Olympic games. While much of the lighting of these events falls predominantly along the lines of traditional architectural and display practices, there is often some form of theming also supported by these designs. There also are themed attractions that are mounted on a temporary basis. Some of the most common examples being the haunted houses that appear each Halloween (Figure 9.7). Though it is easy to point to the most significant examples of theme park design, the same principles used in producing good lighting in these environments can be followed for projects of a much smaller scale as well. The local theme park that caters to preschool children in a fairytale atmosphere can and should be lit just as effectively as the large parks despite the more limited budget. In most cases, it is simply an attention to detail and taking care to design appropriately for the type of guests who will use the attraction that defines how successful a project is. Budget is the other factor that can have a significant impact on these designs. On the other hand, even Disney and Universal have budgets and limitations for each of their projects—they’re just bigger than what many of the rest of us usually deal with. The lighting of a theme park attraction will often have many theatrical elements to it but must also provide for a variety of other visual tasks such as safety that must also be accomplished throughout the space at the same time.

Hospitality Industry (Hotels and Restaurants)

Figure 9.7  Halloween haunted house themed attraction: (a) Torture chamber. (b) Blood bath. (c) The morgue Credit: photos courtesy of Rick Clark and ID3 Group

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Theming in the hospitality industry relates to designing for hotel/restaurant and resort or vacation/travel activities. While most hotels provide some sort of themes in their basic design motifs, much of this doesn’t go any further than interior designing and working a common set of themes into a hotel’s carpets, wallpaper, and basic furniture designs. Common examples of this might include a palm and coconut theme for a tropical hotel, a nautical theme for a seaside resort, or a ski theme for a winter resort in the Rocky Mountains. Figure  9.8 provides several examples of establishments that make use of theming in their designs. Lighting designers can bring added effectiveness to these establishments by creating appropriate atmospheres or moods and accents in the individual rooms and public areas while also creating unified themes throughout the building and surrounding grounds. These projects often do not represent true themed design because there is usually no presence of a story in these projects. On the other hand, many hotels/resorts do make use of theming techniques—even though they are not themed designs in themselves. Many specific techniques for lighting these environments were presented previously in the hospitality section of Chapter 7. Other hospitality areas that make use of theming include lounges and nightclubs, spas, and even recreational activities like water parks and miniature golf courses. Just a few of the more popular themes used in putt-putt courses include

Figure 9.8 (Continued)

Figure 9.8  Themed hotels and restaurants: (a) Themed hotel/ casino, the Cannery Eastside Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada (specialty lighting by The Ruzika Company). (b) The Imperial Fez Restaurant in Atlanta, a Moroccan-themed restaurant. (c) Bone Garden Cantina in Atlanta, based on folk art inspired by Mexico’s Day of the Dead holiday Credit: (a) photo courtesy of The Ruzika Company, (b) photo courtesy of the Imperial Fez Restaurant, (c) photo courtesy of The Bone Garden Cantina

fairytales; seashores; prehistoric creatures; and travel to exotic parts of the world like Africa, the South Pacific, and Asia. Cruise ships also make popular use of themed designs. The Disney sister ships—the Magic, Fantasy, Dream, and

Disney Wonder—represent four of the largest themed vessels afloat. Each has Disney-related decor throughout the carpet and wall treatments, Disney furnishings and detailing throughout the cabins and public areas, and fully themed dining rooms. Two of these include Beauty and the Beast (Lumiere’s) and painting/animation (The Animator’s Palate). In The Animator’s Palate, guests begin their meal in a restaurant decorated with line drawings of Disney’s cartoon characters and a black-and-white color scheme. As the meal progresses, a magical transformation takes place as color is added to the restaurant (primarily through lighting and projection techniques) as colored washes fall over the walls and other architectural elements of the room while color is also added to the drawings. Even the servers add color to their costumes throughout the meal. Truly themed hotels are typically associated with large resort hotels and casinos where the entire property is designed around a specific theme. Atlantic City’s Taj Mahal provides a background of ornate East Indian architecture that appears to be encrusted with jewels and other embellishments signifying wealth and pleasure while staff members outfitted with costumes fashioned after native Indian dress greet and service the guests. The Luxor Hotel in Las Vegas is based on Egyptian themes and is even designed like a giant pyramid. This hotel is landscaped with tropical plants that are suggestive of the vegetation that you might find along the Nile, while many of the hotel’s employees wear costumes based on ancient Egyptian dress. The lighting of these hotels generally follows more traditional architectural practices since task lighting and visibility are primary requirements of a hotel’s lighting environment. However, in select areas, more emphasis can be placed on the themed nature of a space where the lighting shifts to a much more theatrical style where mood and focus can be altered to shape an environment. Lounges, attraction areas, and restaurants are the primary areas where this type of lighting is more dominant. In reality, it is usually best to layer the effects and theatrical elements of the lighting on top of the architectural parts of the design. What is important to these themed or specialty lighting designs is providing a unique signature that can be associated with the given hotel while at the same time

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allowing regular hotel/casino activities to be accomplished in a normal fashion. Other unique lighting demands for casinos involve the special problems associated with lighting the gaming areas and providing adequate lighting for all the security systems that are in place. Not only must the lighting be adequate enough that cameras can identify guests and employees, but it must also provide for the recognition of gaming elements like card faces, numbered wheels, and dice rolls, which must also be recorded by the cameras. Much of the signature lighting of many resorts is accomplished through a resort’s exterior lighting and can include elements like Las Vegas’s MGM Grand’s green fiber optic edging or Luxor’s chase-lighting along the edges of its pyramid and the brilliant beacon that emits a shaft of white light from the apex of the hotel’s pyramid. Las Vegas hotels and casinos have taken the lead in producing themed attractions that have developed into large spectacle productions. These events are usually quite large and are presented at an exterior location on a casino’s property that is easily viewed by the public. The attractions have no admission fee and are elaborate presentations that are designed to lure curious visitors into a hotel’s casinos. Several of the more popular themed events in Las Vegas include the Mirage’s erupting volcano and the Bellagio’s choreographed fountain shows. Lesser known attractions include the Star Trek attractions at the Las Vegas Hilton and Treasure Island’s Sirens of TI show. In the Sirens of TI attraction a

Figure 9.9  Themed attractions along the famous Las Vegas Strip Credit: photo courtesy of f11photo/Shutterstock

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battle ensued between pirates and mythical sirens on a stage that was as large as four football fields. Pyro effects, swordplay, lighting, and a sinking ship were part of this attraction. Unfortunately, these attractions (including the Sirens of TI) are disappearing due to casinos converting their locations into retail space to generate additional income. These events are usually tied into the overall theming of a hotel and are typically repeated at regular intervals throughout an evening. While some of the storylines are weak, a significant portion of these attractions are based on theming principles. Lounges are also almost always themed to some degree and can have a seemingly infinite variety of topics. A nightclub project that I  designed in New York when industrial music was popular had a unique manner of shifting themes, scenery, and lighting from its usual nostalgic decor of antiques and American a memorabilia to an industrial theme that catered to a younger crowd for one or two evenings each week. The entire setup that we devised could be changed over by the bar staff in less than an hour. What was important in this project was the fact that we created two completely different atmospheres based on the type of clientele that the owner wanted to attract on a given night. The Las Vegas Hilton’s Quark’s Bar and Grill ties into the Star Trek themes that are found throughout the rest of the hotel and even goes to the extent of providing opportunities for sharing specialty drinks with a variety of alien characters. The minus 5° Ice Experience bars that are appearing in

various cities across the United States are another example of themed club design. In this case, the clubs are kept at a sub-zero temperature while much of the decoration and furniture is formed from ice. There are a variety of specialty drinks associated with the clubs and the lighting is kept predominantly in the cool range as a means of amplifying the cold environment. Several additional examples of club and restaurant themed design are presented in Figure 9.10. Restaurants can be themed in a number of ways, but in each case a lighting designer must take care to ensure that proper task lighting is provided for eating and guest circulation as well as for creating the appropriate mood that is to be associated with the dining experience. Once again, the storyline may be weak, but general theming considerations can still be given in order to create a unique image for a given restaurant or franchise. Layering is a primary principle in lighting these establishments. It begins with providing a low base level illumination that creates the ambiance for the dining environment. On top of this, additional layers of light are designed that provide task light to tables and other areas where more visibility is required (i.e., waiter or hostess stations, bars, etc.). Finally, accents are added to highlight and bring contrast to the design while also drawing focus to displays and other architectural/decorative features of the restaurant. Sparkle elements are also frequently added to bring additional interest to the designs. Themed restaurants that have made an appearance in many US cities include Planet Hollywood, House of Blues, The Spaghetti Warehouse, The Cheesecake Factory, Joe’s Crab Shack, and Hard Rock Café. Each has a unique decor and style of associated lighting. Subjects that have been used for themes include popular music (Jimmy Buffett’s Margaritaville and City Jazz), vehicles (Harley Davidson and NASCAR), and sporting events (ESPN Zone or NBA City). While much of the decor in these restaurants is based on themed principles, most would not be considered true themed design because they usually lack a storyline. Other restaurants make a bigger production out of a meal and bring actual show or performance elements into the dining experience. The Mars 2112 restaurant in New York’s Times Square creates a futuristic dining experience in a Martian environment while horses, a princess’s tale, and medieval food are the basis of the Arabian Nights attraction in Orlando or Medieval Times in Atlanta. Yet another themed restaurant chain that first made its appearance in Kansas City is T-Rex, which follows a prehistoric/dinosaur theme. This attraction boasts a lake, waterfall, meteorites, and flame effects as well as geysers as part of its experience. One of the most popular themed restaurants associated with producing a themed event are the Rainforest Cafe restaurants that are making appearances throughout several of the larger cities in the United States. In these restaurants, guests are seated in a tropical environment of lush green foliage that is completed to the point of even providing a tree canopy. Animatronics animals, native sounds, and several panoramic tanks of tropical fish complete the

environment. What makes these restaurants popular, however, are the tropical storms that materialize every half hour or so. The illusion of the storms is completed with a darkening of the overhead skies, thunder, and lightning, and finally an actual rainfall. The storm sequence is completed in about 3 minutes and adds another dimension to the guest’s experience. With luck, a guest may witness two or three storms through their meal. The Rainforest Cafe and T-Rex restaurants also make use of adjoining themed gift shops where guests can purchase souvenirs related to their dining experience. A  local favorite in Atlanta is the 57th Fighter Group Restaurant, which is located directly adjacent to one of Atlanta’s smaller airports. This restaurant and grounds are themed around World War II aviation in a simulated European farmhouse that has seen some bombing damage. Figure 9.11 shows examples of several of the themed features and lighting of this restaurant.

Museums and Exhibits Museums and exhibits are moving away from the traditional methods of simply presenting a collection of artifacts in a series of display cases. Today’s curators are finding ways to engage their audiences and are using theming techniques to create a more interactive learning environment for their patrons (edu-tainment). The bottom line is in how well the visitor can be engaged in the exhibit or collection. A number of the specific techniques for lighting these projects have been developed but depend on the nature of the materials that are being displayed. Cases and display racks will require one form of lighting, while large three-dimensional objects will require a more three-dimensional treatment, and wall hangings will require a stronger emphasis on vertical illumination. Excessive exposure and heat damage must also be considered in lighting these subjects. As in all other themed environments that provide for several different activities, layering once again is a popular treatment for lighting these projects. Even though a base level of illumination must be provided in a themed exhibit, this doesn’t usually have to be very much. All that is required is that enough illumination be provided for the guests to navigate throughout the attraction. Many of the approaches to exhibit lighting that were presented in Chapter  6 can be used or modified to work in these themed environments. Light can also be used quite successfully to lead guests from one area of an exhibit to another by placing areas of brightness in the direction in which you want the patrons to travel. Some of the more comprehensive uses of themed design in museum and exhibit settings include specialty museums that are designed around an interactive approach to displaying their artifacts or exhibits. The International Spy Museum in Washington, DC provides a number of engaging exhibits and interactive experiences where visitors are challenged to make discoveries regarding espionage and other spying escapades. Lighting plays a large role in creating the patron’s experience in these exhibits. The two exhibits of the

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Figure 9.10  Themed hospitality attractions with specialty lighting by The Ruzika Company: (a) Entrance area to an upscale restaurant and its lighting (Jia Restaurant, in the Beau Rivage Casino, Biloxi, Mississippi). (b) Bar and lighting of the cabinets/shelving areas for Body English/Hard Rock Hotel and Casino (Las Vegas). (c) Atmospheric lighting in the Body English/Hard Rock Hotel and Casino (Las Vegas). (d) Studio 54/MGM Grand (Las Vegas) Credit: photos courtesy of The Ruzika Company

Figure 9.11a  Themed restaurant design—the 57th Fighter Group Restaurant (Atlanta, GA): (a) Entrance foyer/hallway to hostess station, (b) latrine (restrooms), (c) booths, and (d) dance floor Credit: photos courtesy of 57th Fighter Group

International Spy Museum featured in Figure 9.12 are being replaced with even more interactive exhibits as the museum moves to a new location in early 2019. A museum in Las Vegas provides one of the world’s largest collections of Star Trek memorabilia and makes use of several themed attractions to make the exhibit more informative and interesting. The Kennedy Space Center attraction, Space Center USA, also makes use of a number of interactive/themed elements

in its presentations. While an entire museum rarely contains a completely immersive environment, attractions within a collection will often display various levels of a themed experience. The Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, DC, makes use of themed design to place visitors in one of the train cars and a simulated bunk area that was characteristic of the concentration camps that the Holocaust victims suffered. Titanic—The Artifacts Exhibition is yet another example of

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themed design being brought to an exhibit experience on a touring basis. These exhibits are set up in conference centers and exhibit halls for limited engagements of several weeks at a time. When done, the exhibit it packed up and transported to another city for another run of several weeks. Light is kept low and focused on those portions of the artifacts that are most important while sounds of music, crew, water, and passengers play in the background. The sounds and lighting are varied according to the needs of each scene. Several of the themed elements that add interactivity to this exhibit include a large piece of ice (several hundred if not thousand pounds) that viewers can touch (providing an impression of an iceberg) and as mentioned earlier, giving each guest an authentic boarding pass printed with the name of one of the original passengers that is later compared to the survivor list at the end of the exhibit. Also, many of the “passengers” or their belongings are featured in different displays throughout the exhibit and visitors become further involved through seeking out their personal “passenger’s belongings” as they

Figure 9.12 The International Spy Museum (Washington, DC): (a) War of the Spies exhibit. (b) School for Spies exhibit Credit: photos courtesy of © The International Spy Museum)

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move through the attraction. Several additional examples of themed exhibits are included in Figure 9.13.

Retail In the last 20 or so years retailers have also caught on to the benefits of theming and are using these techniques to draw customers into their stores. On the small scale, this is represented by displays that feature specific products or product lines of select designers. This type of theming was discussed briefly in Chapter 6 and relates to lighting many of the displays that appear in department stores— such as those for Ralph Lauren, Armani, or Ashley Williams labeled clothing. The displays are lit differently from the rest of a department and bring focus to these products. Intensity levels are frequently brighter, the color temperature may be warmer or cooler, or more accent and sparkle techniques are placed on or around these displays. In some cases, such as in toy or children’s departments, theming of all types may be introduced to a store’s displays. Malls often use theming in the decoration of their public spaces—food courts and play/activity areas are locations where this is common. While lighting may not necessarily add a significant theatrical flair to these environments, it should still help enhance the overall concept of the spaces. Often, the lighting of these exhibits follows traditional retail/display principles with an added twist of adding some theatrical elements on top of the basic lighting. Once again, much of this isn’t true themed design but instead represents examples where retailers are making use of theming principles. A more significant, although less common, area of themed design is found in specialty stores that have themed activities and environments that are directly related to the products that they sell. Two companies that were years ahead of other themed retailers include the L. L. Bean Outlet Store in Maine and the Bass Pro Shops that are popular in the South. Both have brought elements of the outdoors into their stores and outlets. Branches and other foliage are found throughout these stores; accents with gobos and textured light fall onto camping setups that are assembled on the retail floor. There are even interior ponds with fish (often live ones) that further support the themed experience in these shops. The Landry’s organization and Rainforest Cafés are another leader in this type of themed design, not only for their restaurants which were discussed earlier, but also for the gift shops that are also a part of these same designed environments (Figure 9.14). In restaurants like these and the Cracker Barrel franchises you not only have the themed restaurant but must also pass through a themed gift store to enter and exit the restaurants—leading to additional sales. Theme parks also make use of this technique; where many of the exits from the larger attractions dump their guests out at the rear of a gift shop so that they can buy pictures of themselves screaming as they plunged down that first drop of a roller coaster or could purchase other memorabilia associated with the particular attraction.

Figure 9.14  A Rainforest Cafe Restaurant and Gift Store: (a) Restaurant entrance area (Note how patrons must enter/exit the restaurant by going through the gift store). (b) Gift shop with themed retail floor and displays Credit: photos courtesy of Rainforest Cafe–Landry’s Restaurants, Inc.

Figure 9.13 Other themed exhibits/displays: (a) Superhero School. (b) Live the Adventure. (c) Daredevil Island Credit: photos courtesy of Rick Clark and ID3 Group

Other retailers who make heavy use of themed design include many of the gift shops and chain stores that are commonly found in shopping malls. Some of the more popular retailers include the Disney Stores where there are a host of Disney characters featured in the displays and activity

centers, Build-A-Bear stores where children work with the staff to create and bring life to a personalized stuffed animal (complete with a heart and birth certificate), and specialty stores like the LEGO Store where all of the exhibits are based on LEGO constructions and there are play areas where children can construct LEGO creations of their own. There are also a number of flagship stores in major cities that also make use of themed experiences. Just a few found in New York’s Times Square include Hershey’s Chocolate, the former Toys R Us, and both Disney and Warner Brothers retail stores. Not far from Central Park are still other themed businesses like the American Girl Place where girls bring their favorite American Girl dolls for a make-over and tea or a luncheon in which the dolls, girls, and mothers are served a meal. In addition to the ever-popular eating activities (you’ll need to make a reservation) there’s a full line of American Girl clothing and accessories that can be purchased to fill out your doll’s wardrobe. Theming has even been done for entire shopping malls—like the one associated with the Venetian Casino in Las Vegas (The Grand

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Canal). This high-end retail mall sports an entire indoor villa that has themed shops, street performers and musicians, sidewalk cafes, and landscaping that even includes a waterfront canal that features gondola rides. Circus Circus, another Las Vega casino hotel/retail area, is designed around a circus theme and sports a facade that is inspired by a circus big top, midway, and arcade on its premises—it even has an amusement park (The Adventuredome).

Themed Spectacle Events These attractions are usually associated with theme parks or casinos and frequently bring a high level of theatricality to an event. Perhaps the most famous examples of these events are found in the closing activities and shows presented nightly at many of the large theme parks. In reality, they are more like spectacle events than simply themed entertainment. In Orlando, each of the Disney parks has a different closing attraction that includes immense degrees of spectacle. Disney characters, music, pyro, large scenic elements, floats, and the infamous aerial displays of lasers and fireworks are common elements of these presentations. Universal Studios has its own version of closing events that are designed in a similar manner. Several exterior attractions at Las Vegas hotels approach this type of spectacle, but there are rarely any events as involved as those associated with the theme parks. Most shows last for approximately 15 minutes and have strong storylines in addition to all the spectacle and special effects. Perhaps the best example of this theming is illustrated in Disney’s Fantasmic production (Figure  9.15), which is performed nightly through most of the summer and several times a week over the winter months at Disney’s Hollywood Studio Park in Orlando while a second version is presented at Disney’s Anaheim park. This event is based on the Disney version of The Sorcerer’s Apprentice in which Mickey Mouse conjures up creatures while a couple of Disney villains get out of control. In many ways, the live event follows the same action as the animated film that most of us have seen as children. The setting of the event is in its own pavilion and includes a steep rock face/ mountain that towers many stories above a large lagoon. The characters and fast-paced action jumps quickly from location to location up and down the face of the outcrop while good strives to overcome evil. At one point, a flotilla of about half a dozen vessels containing most of the Disney characters parades across the lagoon while the battle ensues above them on the mountain. Large-format projections nearly 30 feet high and several hundred feet wide are projected onto a screen of mist that is created through a series of directional water jets and an epic-sized dragon takes on the role of the evil antagonist. When the event reaches its climax, there are lots of explosions and near misses from water cannons and pyro-effects that shoot out of the water as lasers and fireworks coming from the

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Figure 9.15 Scene from Disney’s Fantasmic: Mickey Mouse Conjures Up Some Magic against the forces of evil. Credit: photo courtesy of ©Disney

mountain and its creatures add theatricality to the show. The Disney park in Tokyo creates a similar experience through its BraviSEAmo attraction. All of these elements, despite their spectacle, support a story and draw the audience into the event. In many ways, these are primarily theatrical events and the lighting is based on theatrical techniques. Finally, while these are not connected to theme parks, there are a couple of other large-scale events that can be associated with themed spectacles. The most familiar of these would be the productions that are connected with the opening and closing ceremonies of the Olympics. Many of these spectacles have been connected with telling a story while producing a spectacle event. The 2002 Salt Lake City winter games brought fire to civilization and native folklore to us while the 2004 Summer Games in Athens, Greece, used ancient mythology, gods, fire, and water as common themes for its opening ceremony. In the latter, the entire deck of the stadium was flooded with water so that a giant fireball could strike the surface and ignite a set of Olympic rings that were submerged below the surface of the water. Each of these are examples of how themed entertainment can be worked into even the largest events. The 2008 Beijing Games created quite possibly the largest themed events in history through its opening and closing ceremonies. Thousands of performers, sophisticated multimedia video productions, aerial fireworks displays, elaborate machinery, and flying effects were just a part of the spectacle that was incorporated into these events. The 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympic games made grand use of projections and LEDs in another especially well-presented opening program. This program also told a story, in this case we experienced the struggles of the various tribes and earliest inhabitants of the countryside that would one day become Canada. Figure 9.16 provides examples of the lighting of two different moments of the Vancouver Opening Games Ceremony.

pick up enough information to get a start on the cross-over process by participating in some self-study while getting involved in professional organizations and conferences/ trade shows that are representative of the various lighting communities. More serious individuals can take additional course work through local universities, online courses, and seminars/workshops offered by many of the professional societies and manufacturers that are connected to this part of the lighting industry. Internships or working as an assistant in a design office of one of the themed companies or with an independent firm that works on themed projects are especially good ways of learning how this area of the lighting industry operates. In many ways, this particular specialty in lighting combines the best elements of working in both the theatrical and architectural lighting design industries.

For Further Reading

Figure 9.16  Opening Ceremonies of the 2010 Winter Olympic Games (Vancouver, British Columbia): (a) LED Spirit Bear, Opening Program. (b) Torch Lighting Ceremony Credit: photos courtesy of Department of Defense/US Army; photos by Tim Hipps)

Regardless of scale, themed design is making its way into all avenues of our lives. There is immense potential for lighting designers who want to cross over and work between the areas of architectural and entertainment lighting. If you are trained primarily in either discipline, you can usually

Beard, Richard R. Walt Disney’s Epcot: Creating the New World of Tomorrow. New York, NY: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Publishers, 1982. Bright, Randy. Disneyland: Inside Story. New York, NY: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Publishers, 1987. DiLaura, David L., Kevin W. Houser, Richard G. Mistrick, and Gary R. Steffy. eds. Illuminating Engineering Society—The Lighting Handbook Tenth Edition: Reference and Application. New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2011. Dunlop, Beth. Building a Dream: The Art of Disney Architecture. New York, NY: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Publishers, 1996. Johnson, David. ed. Universal Studios Islands of Adventure (Special Supplement to Entertainment Design). New York, NY: Intertec Publishing, 1999. Kurtti, Jeff. Since the World Began: Walt Disney World, the First 25 Years. New York, NY: Hyperion, 1996. Marling, Karal Ann. ed. Designing Disney’s Theme Parks: The Architecture of Reassurance. New York, NY: Flammarion, 1997. Rae, Mark. ed. IESNA Lighting Handbook. 9th ed. New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2000. Rafferty, Kevin. Imagineering: A Behind the Dreams Look at Making the Magic Real. New York, NY: Hyperion, 1996. Watson, Lee. Lighting Design Handbook. New York, NY: McGrawHill, 1990. *Due to the relative short time that themed entertainment has been in existence and few reference books on it, several websites are listed below as further references for these materials. http://disneycruise.disney.go.com; http://disneyland.disney.go.com http://disneyworld.disney.go.com www.knotts.com www.sixflags.com www.themedattraction.com www.universalstudioshollywood.com www.universalorlando.com

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CHAPTER 10

VIRTUAL LIGHTING (RENDERINGS, VIRTUAL REALITY, GAMING, ETC.) A

LTHOUGH MUCH OF virtual design emerged from using Computer-Aided Design and Drafting (CADD) as a tool for creating other designs, it didn’t take long before artists realized the potential for using this technology to create virtual designs as art in itself. Some of the more popular uses of virtual design include uses as a visualization tool for entertainment and architectural designs, work in commercial advertising, creating mattes and special effects for film and video production, and creating simulations for education and gaming purposes. While virtual design had its beginnings in basic CADD or drafting applications, many modeling and rendering programs have evolved into the mainstay programs of the virtual design industry. Some software packages that remain primarily CADD programs like AutoCAD or Vectorworks (Figure 10.1) have developed into progressive visualization tools that include modules for three-dimensional modeling, material assignments, lighting, and rendering. Other animation and visualization programs are more suited to computer animation than drafting applications. In these cases, tools that aid in creating motion and effects are major elements of the programs as well as providing the functions for modeling and lighting a subject or scene. One of the most significant differences between the two sets of programs for many years was that while proportion was important in animation programs, exact scale was hard to control. Meanwhile, the precision required in the drafting programs often couldn’t be provided in the animation programs. Now, scale is a much more specific feature in animation programs and many of them can even directly import CADD files to serve as the basis of their three-dimensional models. Several popular animation/modeling programs include 3d Studio Max (animation), 3d Studio Viz (architectural visualization—frequently called Viz), the newer 3ds Max Design, Lightwave, Softimage, Maya, Revit, Sketchup, and RenderMan. All of these programs are used extensively in commercial animation projects that range from creating simulations of historic events to advertising; film and video production; and games for personal computers or stand-alone systems like Microsoft Xbox, Nintendo Wii, and Sony PlayStation. Some programs, especially those connected with architectural lighting (i.e., Lumen Micro and AGi32) make use of actual photometric data to produce very accurate depictions of the rendered light in a designed environment. Figure  10.2 is of a visulization project that has been created and rendered with AGi32. In entertainment design, several of the more popular programs that approach this accuracy are WYSIWYG, Capture, and LD Assistant (though this product is soon set to be discontinued). This chapter provides some of the basic terminology associated with virtual lighting as well as several principles and techniques that are used for lighting virtual projects. The chapter concludes with brief discussions of several different areas of visualization and virtual design. Once again, many of the practices of good lighting discussed throughout this and its partner book can be transferred to lighting a virtual world—with a couple of unique and very interesting differences that will be pointed out later in the chapter. This chapter can only provide an introduction to this exciting area of lighting due to some extent to the fact that this area of lighting undergoes changes so quickly.

Figure 10.1 A  Vectorworks rendering: Vectorworks design and visualization of The Foreigner at Snow College Department of Theatre Credit: rendering and scenic design by Michael Helms

Figure 10.2 Lighting visualization with AGi32—Parkview Regional Medical Center (design and rendering by Hyung Seok Choi, Electrical, WSP, MEP Engineer: CCRD Partners; Architect: HKS, Inc.) Credit: photo courtesy of Lighting Analysts, Inc.

Finally, this chapter also discusses only general principles and aesthetics of designing in this medium rather than making an attempt to provide step-by-step instructions for working in this area of lighting (like those found in a tutorial). In fact, the software that is presented here is only discussed from the perspective of generalities rather than specific names or features because these too can change so much from one program to another.

Virtual Design Virtual designing typically involves several steps as part of the process of producing a finished product. The first, and quite possibly most involved, aspect of the design process is that of developing the model or basic geometry that defines the subject and its environment. This is traditionally called

modeling and essentially creates three-dimensional forms for any object that will be contained in a scene or image of the virtual world. The more detailed the subject and more curvilinear or irregular its shape, the more complex the model will become and the more difficult and time consuming it will be to create it. The second step in virtual designing involves adding materials, colors, and textures to the model’s surfaces while the final step involves lighting the finished model using virtual light sources. If animation or movement is to be included in the project, it is created after all of the initial steps to the project have been completed. The final step in the design process involves having the computer(s) render or go through all of the calculations to produce the final digital image or animation sequence. There are essentially two types of modeling in virtual design. The first is called surface modeling. Here, all three-dimensional masses are treated as shapes that are defined by a series of surfaces or planes. In polygonal modeling the surfaces are made up of individual planes called polygons. The more complex the shapes, the more polygons required to create an object and the more time that it will take to compute or render it. The file size associated with the scene also increases proportionally according to the complexity of the objects. These models aren’t solid and are most commonly recognized by the contour lines that define the surfaces or boundaries of the planes that define the objects. These particular models are called wire-frame models (Figure  10.3a). A  cube would be represented by six squares—each sharing common lines that define the adjoining faces. The individual faces used to represent a sphere would give an appearance that is similar to a mirror ball, though with smoothing algorithms, the final rendering of it can appear to be a perfect sphere. The smaller the planes that define an object, the smoother any curved surface will appear. However, this added accuracy comes at the expense of creating larger file sizes and longer rendering times. Another popular surface modeling technique, called NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines) modeling, uses squares, or patches, that are mathematically defined. The surfaces can be stretched, folded, and deformed in many ways, producing curvy shapes in a more efficient manner than polygonal modeling. The second type of modeling is solid or mass modeling (Figure 10.3b). In this type of modeling objects are created from primitive geometric solids that give volume and mass to the objects that are being created. One solid volume is either added to or subtracted from another to create a more complex solid volume. These types of object creations are often referred to as Boolean operations. Spheres and cubes are two common examples of primitive solids. Other popular primitive solids include cones, cylinders, and the torus which is based on a donut-like shape. A  straw would be an example that could be constructed by placing a smaller diameter solid cylinder within a larger cylinder and then subtracting this from the volume of the larger ­cylinder— producing the open space associated with the center of the

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Figure 10.3 A  cylinder, sphere, cube, cone, and torus: (a) Wire-frame models. (b) Primitive geometric solids.

straw. Another solid modeling technique involves stretching a two-dimensional surface along a given length or axis to produce a three-dimensional object (extruding). An example of this would be pushing clay through a hole or form such as a circle to produce an object or length of clay with a profile/cross-sectional contour in the shape of the form. In this case, the final three-dimensional object would be in the shape of a solid tube or pipe. Models may be simple or complex. In many visualizations, only those objects that will be contained in a given camera view or perspective are typically modeled. This is due to the large amounts of rendering time and extra data that would be associated with producing features that do not appear in the final images. However, if multiple views or walkthroughs/fly-bys are required, the designer will have to build believable models for at least those areas of the environment that lie along the path of the observer. A  walk-through lets an observer navigate as they wish throughout a space by using an interactive device like a mouse or arrow-key commands. A  flyby takes a viewer down a pre-determined path in which they typically have no way of controlling where they go or what they view— the designer determines what the observer will see and from what perspective they will view it from. If the observer is given full rein to determine their movements, any area where the observer might enter must be built or modeled to a high degree of detail. Game design is the best example of where this type of detailing is often required. Anyone

who has played interactive games like Doom, Halo, Chronos, or Medal of Honor can attest to the modeling detail that is contained in each of the scenes/areas where the virtual players are free to roam. One of the methods of building finished detail into these models is by adding materials to the geometry that defines each of the objects in a virtual scene. These materials might be a simple color assignment to all the polygons that define a particular object—like painting it a single color—or may be a more complex assignment like projecting a particular material over the model’s surface. An example of this would be assigning a two-dimensional image of brick or wood as a texture to a wall surface to make it look as though it were covered in brick or wooden planks. In these cases, the materials are image files called bitmaps or texture maps that are essentially nothing more than digital photographs or illustrated images of the given material (Figure 10.4). These images can be thought of as wallpaper that is scaled to an appropriate size and then stretched over the surface of the wire-frame model or geometry. Most modeling/rendering programs contain vast material libraries that provide hundreds of texture maps that can be imported into a file to be modified and/or assigned directly to a model’s surfaces. Numerous other libraries are available on CD-ROMs, DVDs, or via website downloads; some libraries are free while others must be purchased. The real advantage of using bitmaps or texture maps is that they are two-dimensional images that give the illusion of three-dimensional surfaces. One of the easiest ways for a designer to cut down on excessive rendering times and file sizes is by using these two-dimensional images as a means of avoiding the modeling of excessive three-dimensional details in a project. Texture maps can also be created procedurally, or through the use of mathematical formulae. Making textures in this way is highly efficient for creating repeating or semi-random surfaces like tiled roofs or the leather grain of a jacket. However, there are also limits to what a formula can produce, and procedural texture maps are useful only

Figure 10.4  Texture mapping on a sphere and cube

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in certain situations. A bump map is a variation in surface mapping that is used in connection with texture maps to help create the illusion of depth and complexity in a surface. A  bump map creates the appearance of variation in depth both above and below an object’s surface without actually altering the geometry itself. When used in combination with a texture map, bump maps provide an illusion of depth that can add dimensionality and believability to the texture map. Not only can complicated geometry be made more simply through using texture maps, but also, and more importantly, entire backgrounds can be simplified into a single bitmap image—eliminating the need for modeling all the distant objects. A designer who is creating an image of a London street might only have to model those objects in the fore- and mid-ground—placing all the background objects like the skyline with Big Ben’s tower in a single bitmap image in the same way that a backdrop might be used in the theatre. This image might even come from a digital photograph of the London skyline. Solid models are also assigned materials, but rather than having the texture maps applied just to their surfaces, the material assignment is done as a three-dimensional element and assigned throughout the entire solid. This results in different views of an object revealing different features of the material on each surface of that given object. Once a model has been created that contains all the objects and materials that will be used in a rendering, the scene is lit using a variety of techniques and light sources. Just as in any other area of lighting, these sources can be placed and have their optical qualities like color, intensity, and beam distribution modified to suit the needs of a project. The majority of the rest of this chapter is dedicated to this part of the virtual design process. The final stage of virtual designing involves rendering the final image(s). There are several different processes that must be accomplished during this stage of a project’s development; any one of them can become more intensive than any of the other steps in the process up to this point. For instance, in projects where a single image is the final output of a digital design, more emphasis is often placed on producing an accurately detailed image—even to the point of producing images where the light sources are photometrically correct and the image approaches a photorealistic creation. In an animation sequence, the amount of detail will typically depend on the length of the sequence being animated and whether the rendering is being completed for a predetermined path/sequence of events, or if the rendering is being completed on the fly in real or actual time. The best practical illustration of the difference between prerendering and rendering on the fly can be seen in comparing computer animated movies like Shrek, Frozen and 3D movies like Wall-E, which were all rendered over months, to video games like Halo, Call to Duty or Grand Theft Auto, which are rendered as the games are played in real time and as a player shifts views or camera angles and moves throughout a scene.

The first issue to be addressed in creating a final rendering for a project lies in determining the view from which the image(s) will be taken. In most rendering software this is typically referred to as assigning camera settings to a project. Parameters that are assigned to a camera can include the camera placement, the viewing angle that it will have in relationship to the target or subject, the relative angle of the lens setting (wide-angled, normal view, or zoomed-in), and other settings like focal length or depth of field. If animation is to be part of the rendering process, several individual images will be created and then linked together as part of an animation sequence. Each image might be compared to a snapshot of a character in mid-sequence of an animation path or event. This effectively produces the same effect as the primitivetechnique in which animations can be made by creating a stack of illustrations (with slight changes based on the desired motions) which you flip through to produce the animated effect. For instance, you might create a model of a girl jumping rope in which each individual picture is drawn with the rope, her arms, and her body continuing a bit further along in the circular motion around her body. The more individual drawings/cards introduced into the sequence, the smoother the animation will become. Computer animation works in a similar manner but with the advantage that the animator creates the most important or significant images (keyframes) in the sequence while the computer creates the additional images that fit between each of the keyframes. There are two types of animation that are created through keyframing techniques. The first, tweening, charts the transitions of an object as it moves through one motion or position to another, while the second, morphing, relates to changes that occur in the actual geometry itself (i.e., a sphere changing into a pyramid. The animator specifies how many additional images they want to have created between the keyframes and the computer simply creates a smoothchange in images that transition between the keyframes. The pacing of the transition can be adjusted via motion curves, allowing for a great deal of control over the exact nature of the final animation. The greater the number of transitional images, the smoother the animation will be—but these come with a cost. The more images created, the bigger the animation’s file becomes and the longer that a computer will take to render the animation. To give an idea of how much time can be involved in rendering an animation sequence, the animation labs in our department have a render farm of approximately 20 Apple computers plus another 20–30 additional high-end computers (some with dual processors) in the main computer labs that are used for animation rendering. When we render a detailed animation, all of these computers can be dedicated to running the calculations over an entire weekend to produce a final rendered sequence of an animation—and even with all this computing power, this may only produce a finished product of as little as 20 seconds of a 24 fps(frames per second) high-definition animation. Large animation studios

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such as those found at the Disney or Pixar studios can have hundreds, if not thousands, of processors dedicated to the task of rendering final animations. The final set of decisions that a computer animator must make involve selecting which rendering approach is best suited to the project that they are working on. Again, the tradeoff comes in determining the proper balance between accuracy/detail and the speed in which the images must be produced. Because of the extreme amount of computations that go into these renderings, software developers have created a number of different methods for producing the final rendered images. Each is completed through a different set of formulas or computations—some being less accurate but taking much less time to compute while others are more accurately produced with the tradeoff being a significant increase in processing time and file size. Interestingly, but predictable, is the fact that much of this render detail/speed tradeoff concerns the manners in which the lighting is rendered in these animations. Several popular rendering approaches are discussed later in this chapter. Full-length films have been animated by computers. Despite the amount of time that the renderings may take, this is still manageable because the movies rarely have to be re-rendered once the renderings have been transferred to film. Toy Story, Shrek, Frozen, and Zootopia are just a few examples of these computer-animated full-length films. Once rendered, the files are stored in a format that will allow the sequence to be run over and over again without any further need for completing the rendering calculations—the exception being if the animators decide to change something in a scene. In that case (which can be quite common), the change of a single material, object, or lighting assignment will require that the entire sequence be re-rendered. On the other hand, many computer games must be capable of rendering an image immediately as a game player maneuvers throughout a space. This is one reason why the computers used primarily for gaming, as well as modern game consoles, have some of the most demanding hardware requirements. Regardless of whether one is rendering single images or complete animation sequences, once the parameters of the rendering have been set, the rendering is turned over to the computer or computers to complete all the calculations for producing the final images.

Calibration One of the issues that arises with computer art comes in ensuring that the artwork of a computer that produces a rendering, animation sequence, or still image is produced under a set of conditions that would be the same as those under which other individuals might view the finished artwork. People adjust their monitors differently from one another and these changes can have a significant impact on how an image is seen from one computer to another. This becomes especially critical when a large project like an animated film is being completed by a number of different

artists. This is similar to the problem that lighting directors or directors of photography face in the video or film industry, where all images must be based on a master or broadcast monitor. In the case of computer images, the monitor or printer is calibrated based on calibration software that allows a monitor to be adjusted to a given standard. Many software packages are bundled with additional add-ons that provide this calibration feature. In animation production houses, lighting designers always look at their final render on these “master” monitors, which are carefully calibrated and maintained, before signing off on any shot. This is especially important on large-budget projects like the special effects animations used in films like the Pirates of the Caribbean series. In a low-tech or low-budget environment, a standardized set of printed color chips or a chip chart can be used to make color comparisons and corrections between different monitors. One of the primary variables in adjusting any monitor is based roughly on color temperature and/or color contrasts. Most importantly, color temperature and contrast are used to determine the white balance for a monitor that is then used to set a calibration point that can be considered “true” white. This is similar to adjusting video cameras for white balance. Monitors that are set with a relatively high color temperature for their white balance will have a blue tint associated with them while those set to lower color temperatures will have an amber tone. Graphic artists tend to prefer high color temperature calibrations of around 5,000° K, while animators tend to follow film practices and adjust their monitors for color temperatures that are consistent with the primary light sources that are used in a scene: 5,500° K for exterior scenes and 3,200° K for interior scenes. In the end, the issue of color balance and calibration comes down to both choosing a setting that appears natural for what you are rendering and then maintaining consistent images from one monitor to another.

Virtual Light Sources Just as with all other areas of lighting design, virtual lighting uses several primary types of light sources that have distinct properties that are different from one another. These lights can be altered or manipulated in a number of ways (color, intensity, etc.) that can make each source unique. In addition to normal parameters like adjusting intensity or color, some of these sources go on to produce effects that are actually impossible to create in the real world. Perhaps the most unique of these is the ability to create a negative lighting effect where a virtual light can be pointed onto a target to actually remove light from the area. Additionally, virtual lights do not necessarily have to cast shadows, which allows for effects like shining a light through one object onto another without producing a shadow of the first object onto the second one. These and several other unique features of virtual lighting are discussed later. This section focuses on the light sources found in many rendering

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packages. These are generic names and the actual names of the sources may vary from one software package to another. In fact, not all of these light sources are provided in every visualization program.

Ambient Lights The first type of light source is generally called an ambient light and is simply the background illumination for a scene. It is usually shadow-free, comes from no particular direction, and is simply an overall fill lighting that represents random scattering and reflections in an environment. For the most part, this type of lighting, if it’s used at all, is kept at relatively low intensities and is used just to bring visibility to the shadow areas that are created by the other light sources that are found in a scene. Ambient lights don’t exist in the real world, but are often used in virtual scenes due to the limitations of computer lighting algorithms, which are unable to effectively reproduce the highly scattered ambient illumination that comes from indirect sources (like a hall light lighting up a dark bedroom).

Directional Lights A second type of light source is used to represent distant sources like the sun and assumes that an entire scene is lit by rays of parallel light. This is usually called a directional light source (Figure 10.5). It may also be called “distant,” “sun,” “infinite,” or “direct” lights in different programs. One of the most popular uses of this type of light is in architectural visualizations where the directional source represents the sun and where a designer orients an architectural model in its proper compass direction. The designer then specifies the building’s longitude and latitude along with a given day and time, which enables the program to determine the sun’s precise location in the sky. This information is used to determine the position of the shadows

Figure 10.5  Shadows created by a directional light source

that will be created by any overhangs found on the building as well as the angle and amount of sunlight that would enter a room in the final rendering. In some packages, the renderer will also adjust color and intensity to match the sun’s illumination at a given latitude and time of year (a winter sky at 42° North latitude provides very different illumination than a summer sky at 34° North latitude).

Point or Omnidirectional Lights A third type of light source is the point or omnidirectional light (Figure 10.6). This light represents a true point light source where light emits from a single infinitely small point in all directions. Light emitting from a bare bulb would be most in line with this type of light source. Omnidirectional sources are often placed within computer modeled objects like lamps as a means of suggesting that these sources are practical and functioning light sources. These sources can also be set with a specified degree of attenuation or falloff and can therefore be used to produce fairly realistic lighting effects (Figure 10. 7). This attenuation may follow actual physical laws like the Inverse Square Law or may do something completely based on the individual needs of an image. Rather than the exponential falloff associated with a light behaving through the Inverse Square Law, other methods might include something like a linear falloff where the light’s intensity falls off proportionally from its highest intensity to completely out at a specified distance from the source. A  point halfway between these two points would be associated with the light being at half intensity while three-quarters of the distance from the source would be associated with only a quarter of the light’s initial intensity. On the other hand, virtual lights need not have any falloff at all, which allows for easier illumination of a large scene with relatively few lights. Omnidirectional lights cast shadows in directions that radiate away from the light source. If you place an omni-directional source somewhere near the

Figure 10.6 An omnidirectional source placed between the cylinder and sphere

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Figure 10.7  Attenuation in virtual light sources

middle of a scene, some shadows will be cast in one direction while objects on the other side of the light will have their shadows cast in the opposite direction. The amount of assumed surface area associated with a light source may also be varied for shadow calculations—with smaller point sources (small shadowing volumes) generating harsher more defined shadows and sources with larger surface areas (large shadowing volumes) producing a more diffuse effect that produces less defined shadows and highlights. This is similar to the soft light techniques of film/video lighting.

Spotlights Spotlights are a fourth group of virtual lights and are the most versatile of the light sources that are available to a virtual lighting designer. A  spotlight is a directional light based on a point light source that spreads out like a cone in a given direction. Most spotlights that are placed in a computer model not only need to have their own positions indicated but also require input that aims the light toward a given target. Virtual spotlights are not only capable of providing the same controls that they display in the real world, but often have additional features that allow them to behave in ways that don’t necessarily follow the laws of nature. One such feature allows the intensity of the light to falloff at pre-selected distances along the throw of a spotlight—to the point of not only decreasing but possibly even increasing the light’s intensity at various points along its associated path. Some of the basic controls that most visualization and animation programs offer for spotlights include options for varying the beam spread of a spotlight, the intensity and color assigned to a light, attenuation patterns, and the softness or harshness of a light’s focus. Even shutter cuts can be simulated in many virtual spotlights. Most of the control options available to a virtual designer are consistent with what one would find for a spotlight used in any other area of lighting design. Virtual spotlights can also project shadow images like those used for

Figure 10.8  Cross lighting with two spotlights

gobos or cookies while some programs like 3d Studio Max or Maya even make provisions for turning these units into scenic projectors. Here, both still and animated or video sequences can be projected onto a target. Figure 10.8 illustrates the effect of using two spotlights to cross light the setting.

Area Lights Area lights, as opposed to point light sources, produce light from a two-dimensional area or surface. In the real world, this is similar to the difference between an incandescent light and a fluorescent one: the incandescent light is close to a single-point source, while the fluorescent light is shaped like a tube that emits light from a linear volume of space. In most visualization packages, area lights can take on many two-dimensional shapes such as squares, rectangles, or even ovals—becoming more of a plane than a light source. Area lights could also be used to produce a light source in a plane such as one that might be defined by a window opening. Three-dimensional forms can be modeled into complex shapes like bent tubes that emit light in the same way as fiber optic cables or neon tubes might produce light. Light from these sources is qualitatively different from point light sources, since area lights create a smoother lighting effect with less direct falloff and more diffuse shadowing.

Effects Lighting There are additional lights and options commonly available in many visualization and animation packages that are used for creating lighting effects. When creating lights in a virtual world, a designer often places only the actual light source and not a luminaire in a model or scene. This means that the light comes from an infinitely small source that for all practical purposes is invisible unless the designer chooses to model a luminaire around the source. This can be done by modeling the fixtures or practicals like a lamp’s shade or globes of the luminaire as part of the modeling process

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indirect lighting information as well as surface-to-surface color bleed, photon mapping, light that scatters within an object, and occlusion of the lighting on an object. These tools provide the most realistic images possible in visualization today, but come at a cost of extremely long render times, due to the highly complex nature of the calculations that must be performed to produce these images. However, for projects where the realism of the final image is paramount, the extra rendering time can be well worth the tradeoff.

Lighting Techniques for Virtual Lighting

Figure 10.9 Volumetric lighting that produces a fog/haze effect

(i.e., floor, ceiling, or table lamps). The light sources are then placed within these objects and adjusted to produce an effect that is consistent with how they would behave in the natural world. In addition to producing effects that react in a natural manner, the designer can go on to manipulate the lights to produce effects that are less naturalistic but in line with the needs of a particular project. As a rule, light in the virtual world, like in the real world, cannot be seen unless it strikes a surface and is reflected. However, there are occasions when a designer may want to illustrate the light in much the same way that designers use haze to reveal light beams in a concert setting. In virtual lighting this is typically done through making an adjustment to the lights themselves as opposed to introducing elements like fog or haze to a project (although this may also be done in some cases). Instead, many programs have a property called volumetric lighting where simulations of atmospheric particles can be introduced to the scene to represent haze and make the path of the light visible in a rendering (Figure 10.9). The effect may represent a subtle treatment such as light passing into a room through a window or between Venetian blinds or may be dramatic like depicting the pattern of a car’s headlights as seen through a late-night fog. Still other effects are used to simulate light producing elements like fire or torchlight and camera effects like suggestions of lens flares.

Just as in working with other forms of lighting, virtual lighting is often discussed in terms of key and fill light. In fact, much of the terminology of film and video lighting has been adopted by designers who work in virtual lighting. Key light simply represents the dominant light in a scene and is often associated with the primary light source while fill light is used to soften the shadow areas so that the shadows aren’t so stark or drastic. At the same time, fill light also brings a touch of visibility to the shadow areas and often adds some contrasting color to a scene. Fill light is frequently used to suggest the ambient light in a scene. Another lighting technique often found in virtual environments includes a fairly strong use of rim light. This, too, comes from the video/film industry. It is associated with a form of backlight that helps to “rim” or create highlights around the back of a subject while also helping to separate the subject from the background—or in the lingo, give the foreground character some “pop.”

1-Point or Single-Point Lighting Lighting that makes use of the 1-point or single-point lighting system makes predominant use of a single light source for any scenes or images created by this type of lighting (Figure 10.10). Examples of this lighting include a

Global Illumination A final type of lighting that is becoming more prevalent, especially in still images and architectural animations/ renderings, is collectively termed global illumination. This set of lighting tools is not so much a light source as a manner of calculating light’s interaction with surfaces in a more realistic manner. Tools such as radiosity, final gather, sub-surface scattering, ambient occlusion and others provide a means to produce extremely realistic images that take into account

Figure 10.10  1-point or single-point lighting

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performer lighting a match in a darkened basement or cave, sunlight streaming through a crack in a wall or doorway/window opening, and a room being lit by a single lamp. The light appears to be coming from a single motivational source and there is little, if any, fill associated with the scene. The lighting produces a very stark, dramatic quality and is often used in an environment where some dramatic tension or mood plays a significant role. Film noir, a popular lighting style found in many of the black-and-white mystery films of the 1940s is an excellent example of this approach to lighting. This lighting is also often associated with high contrast ratios where there is a significant difference between the intensities of the key light and any other sources that are included in a scene. In some cases, a variation on 1-point lighting may be used to create a more evenly treated subject where light comes predominantly from a single direction and either makes use of a larger more diffuse source or a series of related sources placed in close proximity to one another— causing the light to gently wrap around the subject. This, too, is a variation of 1-point lighting even though the effect may be produced through the combination of several different light sources. In the end, what matters is that the finished effect creates no extra shadows and simply produces a well illuminated subject from the direction in which the primary light is oriented. This type of lighting is used fairly often in music videos and commercial photography like that used in the fashion industry.

quality in the lighting. A distinct difference should usually be apparent between the intensity levels of the key and fill lights as well as in the coloring of the two lights used in this scenario. The differences in either intensity or color may be either subtle or dramatic. In some cases, the fill light will be so low that only a few features can be seen in the shadow areas—approaching single-point lighting. At other times, a balance is found where the levels of the fill light are much higher and almost equal with that of the key light. As a general rule, fill lights can be set initially at about one half the intensity of the key light and are then adjusted as needed for the particular scene. Usually, neither the key nor fill light is oriented along the same axis as the camera or view; instead, one of the two will typically be placed to one side of the camera while the other will be located on the camera’s opposite side. In reality, the camera or viewing angle can actually be ignored and either light may come from any angle. Examples of this type of lighting might include a classroom where the primary or key light sources are fluorescent ceiling fixtures while fill light gently washes or fills in the remaining faces and other features of the students. The fill light will come from light that is being both reflected throughout the room as well as from light that enters the room through a set of windows.

3-Point Lighting

2-point lighting makes use of two different light sources (Figure  10.11) The first is a key light that represents the dominant light source while the second is more diffuse and represents the fill or ambient light that is contained in a scene. This is by far the more popular of the two scenarios introduced thus far and produces a much more naturalistic

3-point lighting is the most common formulaic approach to virtual lighting (Figure  10.12). Its emphasis is in providing a relatively strong key light to one side of a subject that is offset from the camera or viewing axis by 15° to 45°. A  second source (the fill light) is placed on the opposite side of the camera, while a third source (a rim or backlight) is placed somewhere behind the subject so that it strikes the subject from a back diagonal or possibly a grazing angle. The key and fill light should maintain a fairly high contrast ratio, which aids in modeling the subject, while the rim light helps push the subject forward and separates it from

Figure 10.11  2-point lighting

Figure 10.12  3-point lighting

2-Point or Key/Fill Lighting

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the background. The backlight/rim light is often as intense or may even be more intense than the key light. Even though this type of lighting is quite popular, many virtual lighting designers, like those in video and film production, argue that it is used too often and that it frequently produces lighting that has no relevance to a given scene. Its popularity, though, is based on the good modeling, separation, and depth that it can produce both on a subject and throughout an image. If a key light is placed too close to a subject, it can burn in and cause a flattening effect on the subject—but if it is placed too far to the sides, it will not fully illuminate the subject’s front and can cause distracting rimming effects. Care should also be taken in regard to positioning the lights vertically. Here, a fairly natural angle is found in keeping the light approximately 15° to 45° above the subject. Too steep an angle will cause distracting shadows to fall on a subject while aiming a light upward from below will form highlights and shadows that are unnatural (a horror movie effect). The entire 3-point system can be rotated in relationship to the subject or camera so that at any given time more or less of the subject’s front face is illuminated by the key light. In fact, if a subject is placed in a profile (side view) orientation with the camera, it is quite common to also rotate the lighting so that a significant amount of the key light falls on the face of the subject. The primary function of fill light, like that in all other areas of lighting, is to add a touch of illumination to the shadow areas that are produced by the key light. While an ambient light source may be used to create fill lighting, a designer may often choose to use a spotlight or other type of light source to produce the fill light because it provides more control than using an ambient light source.

Naturalistic Lighting Naturalistic lighting follows the very specific needs of a scene and is most commonly linked to any motivational lighting that is found in a setting. If a scene is lit by sunlight, then the sun is ultimately the source that a designer will try to replicate. If candlelight is present, then the designer should use it as the basis for the scene’s lighting. On the other hand, the source itself does not have to actually be present in a scene—many scenes can be lit by sunlight from behind the audience without having to place an actual sun in the image. This approach is very similar to the following source lighting technique that has become so popular in film and video lighting. Naturalistic lighting should also make use of appropriate contrast ratios between the key, fill, and any other sources that are contained in a scene. In short, every element of the lighting should appear to be tied to the light sources that are present in a scene as a means of creating effective naturalistic lighting. This is most clearly illustrated through the fact that all the shadows and highlighted surfaces should be connected to any motivational sources that are found in a scene. An example of

where designers fail in this is when objects appearing to be lit from a single source create multiple shadows. Unmotivated light sources, even if they contribute to the modeling of a scene should be avoided unless they can be connected to a naturalistic function. This opens up possibilities for good motivational lighting despite the fact that the subject may not be illuminated to the best extent possible. However, this too can produce a more believable lighting design. Figure 10.13 provides an example of where this approach to naturalistic lighting has been put into practice. Naturalistic lighting can easily be created by first identifying the primary light source of a scene. What is the light source? Where is it coming from? Is the source contained within the camera frame or does it fall outside of it? What color is it? The answers to these questions can be used to identify and place the key light for a scene. Once the key light has been placed, it can be matched to the appropriate properties of the light source (intensity, color, amount of harshness, etc.). After the key light has been defined, identify and define/place any secondary or other sources that are contained in the image. In addition to the secondary lights, fill light (often called bounce light in this context) should also be introduced to the scene. These lights are especially needed in virtual scenes because natural bounce lighting does not normally exist in these settings; thus, lights may be placed in floors or on walls that project light back to the subject—as if it were bouncing or reflecting off that surface. Most importantly, take care to establish an appropriate balance between the intensities of the key and fill light along with any other sources that are used in a scene. A  later generation example which makes use of the more naturalistic bounce light concept is featured in Figure 10.14. Sidebar 10.1 offers a number of suggestions that can be used to help create more effective lighting for virtual projects.

Figure 10.13  Early-generation lighting of rendering for Japanese Navy animation. Though the ship's lighting follows a naturalistic approach, the sky is rendered at a much lower resolution to increase animation speed (CG supervisor: Michael Hussey) Credit: image courtesy of Perpetual Motion Films and University of Georgia Department of Theatre and Film Studies

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Sidebar 10.1  SEVERAL HINTS FOR SUCCESSFUL VIRTUAL LIGHTING

Figure 10.14 Later-generation rendering with naturalistic lighting: Water Witch project (CG supervisor: Michael Hussey) Credit: image courtesy of Perpetual Motion Films, University of Georgia Department of Theatre and Film Studies and Port Columbus Civil War Museum

Stylized Lighting Stylized lighting does not have to be bound by any rules and is simply designed around the needs of creating a particular mood or effect for an image. This type of lighting speaks primarily to the emotions and can be associated with creating a fantasy atmosphere or design based on theatrical effect. Many of the environments that are created for computer games or simulations follow this lighting format. In these cases, the lighting is often non-motivated and may contain angles, colors, and other qualities that have no basis in the natural world. Most animation follows this approach since the very nature of this media tends to move outside of naturalistic appearances. On the other hand, some games have lighting that is quite suggestive of a realistic style and motivational lighting.

Contrast Ratios Contrast ratios indicate a proportional relationship between the intensities of two or more light sources and/or reflected surfaces. Without contrast ratios, rendered images would have a flat and unappealing appearance. Contrast ratios are just as important in virtual environments as they are in any other form of lighting. In fact, in some ways they become even more important in virtual design because of the limited size of the images that are created for many of these projects. Most contrast ratios are based on the intensity differences between the key and fill light of a scene but comparisons can also be made between the intensities of any light sources or reflective surfaces in a scene. Even though it is common to make a comparison between the intensity levels of the lights in a scene, it is more telling to focus on the appearance of an object once light strikes its surfaces. While the balance between two different light sources and their related contrast ratio may remain the same, objects with lightly colored surfaces will display intensity changes much more readily than surfaces that are darkly colored.

 1. Study light in the natural environment and through the work of photographs, films, and paintings—this will give you references to draw upon when lighting virtual scenes.   2. Perfect the creation of the model and its materials in a neutral lighting scenario before going on to the actual lighting of a virtual environment.   3. Pure white light is rare in nature and should generally be rare in virtual worlds as well; introduce variations of white light based on observations of light sources, shadow colors, reflections, etc.   4. Use extremely bright light sources and intensities sparingly.  5. Pay attention to contrast ratios throughout the entire scene—not just on the principal objects.  6. Determine an appropriate balance between the detail that you create and the data and rendering times that a rendering will require.  7. Don’t get carried away with creating too many light sources. Each additional source can confuse the lighting environment and generates additional data that will increase render times for unnecessary reasons. In many ways, the concept of “less is more” can be applied to this area of lighting design.   8. Be careful of clipping or overexposing areas of an image through the additive effect of having more than one light strike a given surface   9. Use texture maps where possible for eliminating unnecessary modeling in more complex images. This helps reduce file size and will also shorten rendering times. 10. Make use of previewing options and initial rendering runs as a means of testing and refining a scene prior to investing the time and effort in completing a final rendering.

Care must also be taken to observe the difference in contrast ratios between not only the highlight and shadow areas (areas of an object that are opposite the light source) but also between the shadow areas and the cast shadows (the actual shadow of an object). Lighting designers speak primarily of contrast ratios in terms of key to fill or key versus fill ratios. Too much key light will result in “burning in” an image and a loss of surface detail while too little will cause details to be lost in the darkness of a subject’s surfaces. Likewise, too much fill light weakens the modeling of a subject while too little results in a loss of detail and an overly stark contrast between the key and fill lights. A  good starting contrast ratio between key and fill lights for many situations is something on the order

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Figure 10.15 (a) High-key (low contrast) versus (b) lowkey(high contrast) lighting.

of 2:1. We can also refer to low-key and high-key lighting where low-key lighting deals with high contrast ratios (generally higher than 8:1) in which there is a larger contrast between the intensities of the key and fill light and high-key lighting which represents fairly equal intensities between the two sources (1.5:1, 3:1, etc.). Low-key lighting can be associated with strong contrasts between the shadows and highlights and produces a more dramatic image while high-key lighting produces a more uniform, even type of coverage. Some low-key lighting can be associated with contrast ratios of 15:1 or even higher and is very dramatic and theatrical in appearance. Examples of high-key and low-key lighting are illustrated in Figure 10.15. One of the problems that might develop in a digital rendering relates to having multiple light sources fall on a surface and their combined brightness producing an overexposed area (clipping).

Rendering Approaches Computer rendering relates to the computational methods in which a final image is produced by a computer. Some

methods produce much more realistic images than others but take more time and computing power to complete. Others sacrifice image quality but reduce the number of computations that a computer must make which therefore also reduces the rendering time associated with producing a final image. In addition to time, file size also becomes a factor in the rendering process with files growing exponentially with increases in a final image’s dimensions and detail—animation increases the amount of data and render time significantly more still since multiple frames must also now be rendered of the final images. A designer must always consider the tradeoff between detail and accuracy versus speed and file size whenever they work on a virtual project. Programs like virtual games, where images must be rendered almost instantaneously, are usually produced in much less detail so that a computer can generate the images as a player navigates through a space. Several of the more common rendering engines/approaches are illustrated in Figure 10.16. The quality of any computer-generated rendering is the product of the individual shading or rendering engine (program) that an image is rendered in. Most software packages provide several different rendering options that allow a designer to either make a choice in rendering detail or make preliminary rendering runs that will give some initial feedback of the settings that will be used for a final rendering of a project. Based on the quality of these images, further adjustments are made in the materials, view, and lighting of an image. Once the designer is happy with the result of these preliminary renderings, the time consuming final images are finally created with the detailed rendering options of the program. Some programs even allow a window to be defined by the designer so that a final rendered quality of an image can be tested on a limited portion of a scene without having to take the time to compute the entire image. Most rendering engines are based on complex mathematical algorithms to compute the geometry, light sources, and surface reflectivity of all of the elements contained in a scene. The more complex algorithms are associated with the most realistic images, while simpler ones produce less sophisticated results but can be completed in much shorter amounts of time. Rendering engines tend to work via two interacting elements. The first is the surface attributes of an object, including an object’s geometry and its shader, or texture map. The second being the scene’s lighting, where light rays are emitted from the light sources and their interactions with the models and shaders are calculated. While lighting is a primary area of the rendering calculations, surfaces that contain many facets or tiled surfaces/polygons can also have their junctions smoothed out to appear more natural. This diminishes the mirroredball effect that is present in polygonal models that contain rounded or organic surfaces. Some of the more popular shader modes include the flat and Gouraud shading methods. These produce a basic illustration of light on a subject or scene but do not

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Figure 10.16a  Several rendering styles: (a) Wire-frame. (b) Primitive shading. (c) Materials/texture shading with wire-frame overlay. (d) Phong shading. (e) ray-tracing

usually give any indication of specular highlights (shininess) or cast shadows of these objects. While these are quick, the lack of highlights and shadows makes these renderings less naturalistic. However, they are a manner of producing preliminary renderings that allow a designer to do a quick check of the elements that make

up a scene without experiencing the wasted time involved in making corrections to a final rendering. This type of shading can also be used to “toon shade” a scene, producing a hand-inked, two-dimensional feel for an image (a non-realistic rendering style that is similar to cartoon animations).

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An intermediate approach to rendering involves using the same data to produce Phong shadings and shadow mapping, where specular reflections and highlights are also calculated as part of the rendering process. Creating cast shadows through using the Z-buffer method, while not being physically accurate, can be subjectively adequate and can often allow the reflectivity of the materials to be taken into consideration and illustrated in a final image. These shadings are fairly accurate representations of the design elements that are contained in a scene. More complex rendering engines are even more detailed in their analysis—the most detailed ones producing photorealistic images. Ray-traced shadows or ray-tracing is a fairly accurate rendition of the lighting of an image which is made by calculating the path of individual rays that leave a light source and go on to either strike or penetrate through an object (translucent or transparent materials). Not only are cast shadows accurately depicted, but also the reflections and refractions that take place once a ray strikes any reflective or refractive surface. Whether the surfaces are highly reflective or not, ray-tracing produces a very naturalistic image for a final rendering. Ray-tracing will complete calculations of features like casting a reflection of color from the surface of one object on to another—such as when a red ball casts red light onto a white table top or nearby wall. Another form of rendering, global illumination rendering, depicts one of the most accurate means of producing rendered images. A main component of global illumination, radiosity isn’t simply an image file but a full three-dimensional modeling system that was originally developed for making radiant energy studies of architectural spaces. The system has been transferred to the study of light by creating a rendering algorithm based on the assumption that all light is energy that is contained within a virtual scene and that all the surfaces of a model can be mapped or illustrated through the amount of energy that ultimately leaves any surface. In brief, the software maps out the surface reflectance of all the objects based on the individual absorption and reflection of each of the modeled surfaces. By combining radiosity with other global illumination techniques like photon mapping, sub-surface scattering, and ambient occlusion, one can create images that are extremely accurate. In other words, if you set up a real scene with the same objects and lights as your virtual scene, global illumination techniques would produce an image that would be very close to what you would see in the actual scene. A final rendering method is High Dynamic Range Imagery (HDRI), which refers to images that store a much wider range of data (color, brightness, etc.) than can be directly observed on a monitor. The basis of this system is in recording a series of images for a single scene in which each image represents one of a number of different lighting exposures for the scene (from overexposed to underexposed). These images are then combined and averaged into a single image that contains all of the data from each of the many exposures. Because of the wealth of data, this

is a popular manner for generating lighting for photorealistic images. Both global illumination and HDRI rendering options are becoming more widely available, but are usually not included in rendering/modeling programs due to their expense. In the past, they were available only in more sophisticated programs or add-on modules that could be purchased in addition to a basic modeling or rendering program. Lightscape was a former add-on to AutoCAD that was rolled into AutoVIZ (which have now evolved into 3ds Max—formerly 3d Studio and Revit Architecture) which allows this type of rendering to be completed in an AutoCAD environment. Most importantly, this rendering format can produce photometrically or near photometrically correct images that replicate the lighting as it might be created in the real world.

Unique Properties of Virtual Rendering One of the most unique features of virtual design is that a designer can manipulate an image or environment in ways that do not have to follow the rules of nature. In fact, some virtual creations could be completely impossible to create if you were designing them in the real world. In using these practices, a designer designs solely for the visual impact or effect that they hope to achieve and disregards working within the rules of the natural world. Examples of this disregard for naturalism in lighting might include adding additional light to areas that would normally be cast into shadow, modifying the color of light sources to suit the needs of a project, removing light from some surfaces, and creating (or removing) shadows for dramatic effect rather than through following a naturalistic generation of shadows and highlights. Not only does virtual designing allow for some fudging on the part of the virtual designer, but also it provides a number of techniques/tools that produce effects that are completely impossible to create in the real world. Perhaps the most dramatic illusionary effect of virtual lighting comes in the ability to assign a negative intensity to a light. With negative lights, light can actually be removed from an area if a designer should have a need for this to happen. The most common utilization of this effect comes when a portion of an object is exposed to too much light—possibly through having too much ambient light or too many light sources striking some of its faces. Another virtual lighting technique that is in common practice is the ability to turn a light’s shadow on or off. We can’t do this in the real world, but distracting shadows in the virtual world can be eliminated while still gaining the benefits of illuminating an area by simply turning off a light’s shadow—or even unlinking the shadows from particular objects and placing them where desired. This option can prove especially effective in high-key situations where the shadow from a fill light may be just as defined as that of the key light. This is also helpful when several combined lights have overlapping shadows that can produce patterns that are distracting in a final image. Figure 10.17 illustrates

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Figure 10.17 Faking shadows in virtual reality: (a) Original image and light sources. (b) Same lights but, key light’s shadows are turned off while fill light’s shadows remain on

a setting in which one image produces a normal image and has the key light’s shadow turned on while in the second image the key light’s shadow has been turned off. Another rather strange quality of many virtual lights is that in most visualization programs you insert the light only into a scene or project—not necessarily the light source or luminaire. This can provide for some unique opportunities like having objects illuminated from an invisible light source. An example of this might include arranging a ring of objects in a circle while placing a light source at the circle’s center. This would provide a series of highlights on each of the surfaces of the objects that face the center of the circle while at the same time causing the cast shadows to radiate outward away from the circle like spokes on a wagon wheel even though the source wouldn’t even be visible. Many visualization programs used in architectural applications offer the possibility of importing not only a specific light fixture (by manufacturer and model) and its associated data, but also a model of the actual

luminaire as well. On the other hand, generic lights can be used to simulate many light sources in which photometric data and models are not available. One of the most popular methods of lighting a practical like a table lamp involves creating the model of the lamp first and then placing an omnidirectional or point light source somewhere within the shade in a location that corresponds to where the lamp or light bulb would be located. When rendered, the shade will cast off patterns that coincide with the shapes of its top and bottom openings. To make the effect even more natural, translucency can be added to the shade’s material so that it glows and emits some light itself. One can also create lights that produce only specular highlights, provide just ambient lighting, or only cast shadows. In other words, any given quality of a light can be rendered without having any of the other elements of the light present in a simulation. This aspect of virtual lighting is one of its biggest benefits. Despite the theatricality and interesting effects that cast shadows can add to a project, they also represent one of the most intensive parts of a rendering calculation. Due to this, shadows may be created through methods that are different than simply relying on the software to generate the shadow calculations. With these practices, a fair amount of data and rendering time can be eliminated from processing a rendered image or animation. Methods of “faking” these shadows might include creating three-dimensional surfaces or objects/models that replicate the pattern of a cast shadow that replace the calculated shadows while the light sources that would normally produce these shadows have their shadows turned off. This can cut down substantially on rendering time if it is done for a couple of different lights in a scene. Another technique to help trim down on the rendering time required for shadow generation is to carefully place the camera and associated lights so that any cast shadows are located in positions that are out of the scene’s view. One such example would be in creating an observation point that is lower and looks upward—­ eliminating any view of a floor where most cast shadows would be located. Since the view doesn’t see the floor, it does not have to render any of the shadows falling in this area. Another technique is adjusting a spotlight’s attenuation so that its intensity falls off to zero prior to striking any areas of a scene that lie beyond the subject that the light is illuminating. The edges of a spotlight may also be softened—getting softer as you move toward the edge of the light (a normal condition). However, some virtual spotlights will also allow the beam to be sharpest at its edge while being fuzzed more toward the center of the beam. Finally, many rendering packages allow a designer to create shadows-only lights where a light can be created that doesn’t produce any added intensity to a scene but which none the less casts a shadow. This can be particularly effective for creating cast shadows for multiple objects where sources are not distant enough to create parallel rays of light—i.e., the objects would have cast shadows that would

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not be parallel to one another. Shadows-only lights have the added advantage that the darkness or depth of the shadows can be adjusted independently of the lights—meaning that they can be made as dramatic as a designer may want or need them to be. Another unique element of virtual lighting comes through the manner in which a light’s intensity falls off as it moves along a given throw or distance from a light source. This property is generally called attenuation. While the behavior of light in the natural world is dictated by the Inverse Square Law, this does not necessarily have to hold true in the virtual world. A designer is free to manipulate the attenuation of a light to suit the needs of a project. In some cases, a designer may elect to use no attenuation at all and the light will remain uniform and at the same intensity at any distance from its source; at other times a select pattern of attenuation may be assigned to a light. This could follow an exponential falloff like the Inverse Square Law or could follow a linear projection where the light falls off proportionally at a set distance from the source. The most extreme variation allows a designer to create zones of increased or decreased brightness across parts of a light’s throw—i.e., it can even increase in brightness at various points along its projected path. Finally, there are a host of lighting effects that can be created through specialized rendering tools that are associated with these rendering packages. Some are contained in the basic rendering software but many are independent programs that are sold as add-ons or plug-ins that are purchased or downloaded as additional features of the primary rendering program. Two of the more popular add-ons that have already been discussed include volumetric or fog-like effects and lens flares. Still other effects that are often created through these plug-in programs include creating flame and fire effects, metallic materials, transparent materials/ surfaces, and water effects.

Examples of Virtual Lighting Virtual design has not only been used as a valuable tool for design visualizations, but it also has grown to the point of forming the basis of several unique industries where the virtual design itself represents the final art or product. Because of this, the final section of this chapter provides a brief introduction to several unique applications of virtual design and visualization.

Theatrical and Entertainment Design Visualization The entertainment industry was quite quick to recognize the potential for using computer visualization for communicating a designer’s decisions to the rest of a design team. Lighting designers, in particular, have been quick to get involved with virtual designing. However, due to production schedules and the amount of time that it typically

takes to create a realistic model, computer visualization has until recently only received a limited amount of attention in the theatrical and entertainment design community. When it had been used earlier, the results were often either too crude to produce any benefit to the design team or simply couldn’t be justified on the basis of the amount of time and costs required to produce a virtual scene that would be of much use to a theatrical design team. The earliest attempts at creating virtual images of intended lighting effects can be more easily compared to creating traditional lighting storyboards, where the intent of the lighting was illustrated through use of a computer and related software but the result was not actually linked to virtual fixtures and models. Examples of these tools include using Adobe’s Photoshop to produce lighting storyboards or more specialized lighting software like Virtual Light Lab. Though Virtual Light Lab provides options of loading actual gels and varying luminaire positions and intensities, its limitations (lack of modeling capabilities, limited hanging positions, etc.) prevent it from becoming a visualizer. Photoshop makes no connection to any luminaires at all—it only allows you to draw or render the light as you would in any other medium. Despite this, we still use both of these as effective tools for communicating our design intentions, producing images in much the same way that traditional storyboards are produced. However, with the ever continuing improvement of software and increasing speed and capacity of computer hardware—coupled with the lowering costs that have made this technology more reasonable to purchase—more designers are taking the plunge and using virtual design to complete part of the design process. In some cases, fairly realistic scenes may be created while at other times a more skeletal representation of an environment is considered adequate. This is done so that animations of the staging and associated lighting can be run in real time allowing a designer to track and synchronize lighting elements like cues and automated lighting moves while running the program alongside items such as the sound track or video of a given song. In the end, it is the designer and team that will ultimately determine if a visualization tool provides the necessary information that is needed throughout the design process. The team will also determine the degree of sophistication required for a given project. In entertainment design, some designers also make a distinction between pre-visualization and visualization software. Pre-visualization programs will allow you to model the environment, produce a plot/paperwork, and create renderings by assigning various intensities and other attributes to the lights but will not connect to a console. True visualization software will connect to a lighting console and will exchange data between the console and virtual images (whether for live or previewed lighting). Several years ago, London’s Royal Opera put a significant investment of time and money into creating an incredibly detailed virtual model of its opera house using a combination of Autodesk’s AutoCAD and Maya software.

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Figure 10.18 Photoshop storyboards for Measure for Measure (based off photograph of model): (a) Duke with Isabella and Angelo. (b) Duke. (c) Isabella and Angelo.

The sets of the opera’s repertory are also modeled for the virtual stage, which are then exported to ESP’s Vision software where the lighting (an elaborate rig of both conventional and moving lights) and scenic moves are developed and cued for each production. More importantly, the visualization is done in real time and gives a good prediction of what a sequence of events should look like on stage. Once in the theatre, the package is interactive and live changes on the stage via DMX-controlled devices like the lighting console can be completed on the fly and updated automatically in the opera’s visualization. This visualization package should prove invaluable once all of the operas in the repertory that have been produced using this visualization are brought back into performance. On a much simpler note, some may refer to gobo and slide projections as a means of creating virtual scenery— especially if the projections (Figure 10.20) make a significant contribution to the scenic elements of the production (although most of us simply think of this as a projection technique). Visualization programs that have been developed especially for the entertainment lighting industry include LD Assistant, Capture and WYSIWYG. Each of these have had a significant impact on the way that lighting designers prepare certain types of projects. The concert and industrial markets make the greatest use of these programs and frequently use them to pre-write many of the lighting cues even before a show begins its initial load-in. However, these visualizations are also making appearances in more traditional theatrical applications. Both programs begin with designing the environment/staging and lighting rig of an event in a virtual environment. After that, individual lights/cues are programmed and then transferred to the real world by downloading the data to a lighting console via a DMX or ArtNet interface: the process is bi-directional and allows continuous interaction and updating between the two worlds. Animation is brought into these visualizations by placing animated characters and movements into a rendering sequence, or more commonly, by indicating the cue changes that are made from one moment to another. The software has become a particularly useful tool for plotting lighting elements such as the base cues and color/focus palettes as well as the motions and other changes that occur in a moving light rig. It’s especially helpful when creating fans and other choreographed moves with the moving lights. More importantly, all of this reduces programming time that would otherwise have to take place in the actual venue (at a significant cost). Vectorworks Spotlight (most likely the most popular CAD software used by entertainment lighting designers) can also produce visualizations through purchasing rendering add-on programs such as Renderworks or ESP Vision software. The latest version of the software now contains modules that allow a designer to create visualizations of their projects as well as to have direct interaction with the console and lighting rig. Other

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Figure 10.19  Virtual Light Lab: (a) Scene image for a Cabaret moment—Cliff’s Room. (b) Lighting grid for same Cabaret moment.

popular visualization programs are proprietary and are either included with or purchased as add-ons to different lighting consoles. Several of the most popular of these combination packages in recent years include Martin’s Show Designer, GrandMA 3D, ETC’s Emphasis, and Avolite’s Visualizer. Concert, cooperate and spectacle events tend to make the most use of these tools since they have the budgets and associated funding to purchase this expensive software. As an alternative, there are also visualization studios that can be rented where a team could also have access to the software. Screen shots of several of these visualization packages include: Martin’s Show Designer (Figure 10.21), CAST Software's WYSIWYG (Figure 10.22), and LD Assistant (Figures 10.23 and 10.24).

Architectural Visualization Architectural visualization has been the force behind much of the advancement in computer modeling and visualization. This industry frequently invests the amount

of time required to create the degree of detailing that is required to create the sophisticated models necessary for achieving photorealistic images of their projects. In the past, this detailing could take days, weeks, or even months to complete for an elaborate project—but now, the process can be shortened to a much more reasonable amount of time due to the development of more user friendly tools and faster computers. The most time consuming element in the creation of any virtual design lies in the building of the models and material assignments, not so much in the creation of the lighting (even though lighting typically adds the most amount of calculation time to the rendering process). This industry takes whatever time is needed to complete the virtual models to the degree of detail that will be needed for producing the photorealistic images. Architectural visualization has traditionally tried to produce highly accurate images for designs—even to the point of placing photometrically correct luminaires into the virtual environment. The majority of architectural visualization programs provide symbol libraries of

Figure 10.20  Virtual scenic elements created by slide projections and gobos: (a) Clytemnestra at SUNY-Stony Brook. The dynamic background is created through projecting slides onto the highly reflective screens (scenic and projection design by R. Finkelstein, lighting by R. Dunham). (b) Clytemnestra at SUNY-Stony Brook. A second moment of the projection where different slides have been projected onto the background (scenic and projection design by R. Finkelstein, lighting by R. Dunham). (c) The Maids at the Cocteau Repertory Theatre. Barren tree limb gobos have been projected onto the backside of the translucent windows (lighting design by R. Dunham, scenic design by R. Tatarowicz). (d) The Maids at the Cocteau Repertory Theatre. A second image with performers on the stage (lighting design by R. Dunham, scenic design by R. Tatarowicz) Credit: (a and b) photos courtesy of Richard Finkelstein, (c and d) photos courtesy of Roman Tatarowicz

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Sidebar 10.2  DESIGNER PROFILE Christopher Higgins

Credit: photo credit Christopher Higgins

Chris Higgins is a 3D Animator and Composite Artist with over 19  years of professional production experience in the TV industry. He began his career with a degree in Interdisciplinary Study in 3D Computer Animation from the University of Georgia. His long career has included working at Turner Studios as a Lead 3D Animator, as Animation Director leading a team of artists at Cartoon Network and then Crazy Legs Productions, and he’s currently the Founder and Lead Artist of Triple Threat 3D, a production company that produces a wide range of creative solutions for his long list of high profile clients. During his career, he’s had the privilege to conduct Maya Master Classes for notable conferences such as SIGGRAPH. Awards that his animations have won include two BDA Gold Awards (NBA—TNT Signature and Toonami “Lockdown”—Cartoon Network), two BDA Silver Awards (Spy Kids 2—Cartoon Network and Power Puff: Be An Artist—Cartoon Network), a Southeastern Regional Emmy (Swamp Theater—Turner South) and a Student Emmy while he was in undergraduate school (Mamita Rica). Chris came to specialize in CG lighting after beginning his animation career as somewhat of a generalist. “For my entire career, I’ve been a 3D generalist who can cover all areas of animation at any given time. Lighting has become one of my primary specialties, partly due to necessity, as there have been numerous times when it was needed, but mostly, because it’s always been one of my favorite areas of 3D.” His training combines a mixture of traditional training in animation and design (stage design, lighting classes, and color theory) as well as a lot of personal study of movie and TV production.

An even more important part of his training was simply done through a lot of hands-on learning—just seeing what worked and didn’t work. In order to stay current, he tries to stay abreast with various 3D trade magazines as well as with the traditional film production journals. He’s also always looking for the latest groundbreaking animations to learn from. His big break came when a former professor introduced his work to a friend who worked for Turner Entertainment and ran the 3D department at Turner Effects. When asked to respond to how CG lighting is different from more traditional areas of lighting Higgins states that, “The biggest difference is that with 3D, you can do anything with the light that you can imagine, without any restrictions due to the physics of light or the real-world equipment used to create it. You can easily control light as you define your frame and can just as easily animate it and change it over time, by setting a few key frames. It’s really up to the lighting artist to define the frame.” Chris goes on to also explain that, “Since you aren’t limited by the number of lights in a scene, you must always ask yourself the question, ‘What does the scene need, and what am I trying to accomplish in making these lighting decisions?’ More lights are not always better, and in 3D, every light comes at the expense of slower rendering times, so you must make these decisions carefully.” In fact, what he likes least about the profession is that this unlimited nature of lighting can be intimidating. “Since anything is possible, the struggle is often deciding what is really needed and limiting yourself so that you can achieve your result while meeting the deadline.” He also loves seeing a scene come to life through focusing the viewer’s attention with light and creating an appropriate mood for a scene. “I  love the step-by-step process of adding a light, seeing its effect, deciding what’s needed next, adding another light  .  .  . rinse and repeat. The process of balancing all of the light within the frame feels subjective and artistic, even if it’s a simple logo.” As a final thought, Chris considers contrast to be the most essential element of lighting for animation. “In 3D lighting for Broadcast Television, I think Rule #1 is contrast. While many lighting principles should be considered during the lighting process, the most important for conveying the message to the home viewer is the balance of contrast within the frame. It should be present throughout the animation and should direct attention to whatever is considered most important at that time. If you only do one thing with lights, create contrast.”

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Figure 10.21  Rendered image created and displayed within Martin’s Show Designer 6 software interface Credit: photo courtesy of HARMON Professional Solutions

Figure 10.22  Rendering Produced in CAST Software’s WYSIWYG: Oasis World Tour, 2008–2009 (lighting design by Rob Gawler, WYG model and rendering by Miguel R.) Credit: image courtesy of CAST Software

Figure 10.23  LD Assistant by Design and Drafting for a nightclub design: (a) Software interface illustrated along with block navigator and wire-frame model of the nightclub design. (b) Final rendering of the nightclub design Credit: screenshots of design by R. Dunham, software by Design and Drafting

  Figure 10.24  LD Assistant visualizations: (a) Theatrical visualization/scenic rendering by G. B. Stephens. (b) Conference ballroom rendering by G. B. Stephens Credit: images courtesy of Design and Drafting and G. B. Stephens

luminaires that contain photometrically correct data as well as virtual models of the luminaires. This associated data is then used in the actual rendering computations. In fact, most software packages support a file structure that is based on an Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) standardized format. Stand-alone programs like Lumen Micro or AGi32 (Figure 10.25) offer these features and provide libraries/data for a number of different manufacturers. They have been around for a number of years. Similar software is available through lighting manufacturers like Cooper Lighting (now EATON) or Lithonia Lighting that can also produce simulations or visualizations of their products in a lighting environment. However, many of the corporate visualization tools work almost exclusively with only that company’s personal product lines of luminaires. Animation may be brought into these visualizations through either moving a camera along a predetermined path and recording the view as it moves from one location to another (flyby) or through providing the viewer with options in which they can navigate through a space as they wish (walkthrough). In walkthroughs, rendering detail and quality is generally sacrificed for the ability to freely explore or move within the environment.

Simulations and Animation This form of visualization relates primarily to producing animated sequences that can be used for almost any purpose. The animation itself serves as the final product in these projects and is not considered as a tool in part

of another design process. Motion, whether predetermined by a design team, or initiated by an individual actually participating in the event, is a major element of these projects. Amount of detail will also have to be considered from the perspective of detail versus rendering speed. If the animations are pre-rendered, delivery is less of an issue, but if the animations are rendered on the fly, not only speed but whether the animation is run from a computer’s RAM, a CD or DVD player, or even the web, will ultimately determine how complex the animation can become. Some of the more popular uses of these animations are in commercial advertising or for delivering an educational message/learning experience. Many of the icons or labels associated with consumer products, corporate logos, and television programming are generated through using these animation/ visualization techniques. The NBC logo, News 4 New York, and any number of other logos are popular examples of these animations. The opening sequence of a movie that announces the studio associated with a film’s production are also often produced in this manner. Finally, films, including full-length movies, have been created with this technology (Toy Story, Shrek, Cars, Frozen, Up, etc.). More sophisticated or realistic animations can be found in computer-generated imagery (CGI) sequences that are placed over real footage for many live action movies and historical re-enactments like those found on the History or Discovery channels. Many futuristic films contain many of these CGI elements. Our department has done several of the computer animations found in the History

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Figure 10.26 Computer model and rendering/animation: ships of the Russian Navy by Perpetual Motion Films and the University of Georgia Department of Theatre and Film Studies (CG Supervisor: Michael Hussey) Credit: image courtesy of Perpetual Motion Films and University of Georgia Department of Theatre and Film Studies

Figure 10.25  Visualization using AGi32 software by Lighting Analysts, Inc.: (a) Plaza lighting concept (rendering by Jack O’Hanlon of The O’Hanlon Group, Inc.). (b) High school auditorium lighting improvements concept (renderings by Jack O’Hanlon of The O’Hanlon Group, Inc.) Credit: images courtesy of The O’Hanion Group, Inc.

Channel’s Boneyard: Where Machines End Their Lives series as well as sequences on the Japanese and Russian navies (Figure  10.26). Animations are also often used in education and can be as insignificant as illustrating events like the rising temperature of a thermometer or how a cell is structured and functions. More complex animations can be created to illustrate functions like how the components of the Space Shuttle or International Space Station are assembled. Computer visualization for mattes and other computer rendered effects in the film and video industry can become quite sophisticated in that the lighting must match the real components of a scene. Many special effects and character creations in films like the popular Pirates of the Caribbean series have made extensive use of CGI effects. In the most advanced simulations a completely reactive environment is created by the software. Figure  10.27 illustrates a character animation which was developed for Marley’s Ghost in a University of Georgia production of A Christmas Carol. The extremely popular Flight Simulator by Microsoft is an example of this type of animation, which is both highly detailed and sophisticated yet completely interactive while being capable of running on a personal computer. Even more realistic simulations are created for commercial and military pilots that run on more sophisticated computer systems. Many of today’s most popular interactive video

Figure 10.27 Character animation of Marley’s Ghost in A Christmas Carol (character modeling and animation by Joelle Dunham) Credit: photo courtesy of University of Georgia Department of Theatre and Film Studies

and computer games are making steps toward this degree of realism—the amount of rendering detail and performance being linked to a personal computer’s RAM and processor speed.

Motion Capture Animation Motion capture, often called mocap, is an advanced animation technique that is used to produce animations where a character is first created in a computer and then animated by following a live performer’s movements. Once a character has been created in the computer, actors wearing special leotards fitted with a number of reflective points are recorded as they perform the motions of a given scene (Figure 10.28). The body suits are black while the reflective points are made of a highly reflective silver material and are placed at specific locations that map the

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that display more naturalistic movements based on the actual motions of the performers.

Game Design

Figure 10.28  Motion capture body suit Credit: photo courtesy University of Georgia Department of Theatre and/Film Studies

entire performer’s body (i.e., elbows, wrist, ankle, knee, waist, etc.). The actual actors perform in a neutral environment that is completely surrounded by a network of cameras (usually in the infrared spectrum) that track the motions of each of the reflective points. In the final step of the process, the motions of the performers are imported into the animation program where the reflective points associated with the actor are connected to a similar set of points (skeleton) on the animated character. Once the points have been associated with one another, the animation sequence is cleaned up and rendered. With this technique, not only is the need for creating a number of keyframes eliminated (resulting in a much faster animation process), but also the characters are animated in ways

Game design, while being used mostly for entertainment, is among one of the most demanding uses of virtual design. Not only do gamers expect a detailed environment, but they also want to be able to move around the virtual world freely while being immersed in a fast-paced action event. All of these requirements typically find serious gamers using the most sophisticated personal computers—along with the fastest processors and largest amount of RAM memory that they can afford. Games may use computer platforms that are personal desktop or laptop computers or may be designed for specialty computers/gaming platforms like the X-Box, PlayStation, or Wii series of gaming systems. Gaming is some of the most challenging yet fun areas in which a designer might find employment. While there was a time when a team of one to three people could turn out a respectable game, current games usually take several years to produce and typically bring an innumerable number of artists together who are divided into departments or teams that deal with specific aspects of a game’s creation. When working at this scale, it is common for either an individual or team of lighting designers to be assigned to the task of producing the lighting for the specific environments that are found in a particular project. In some ways, game design is growing to the same scale and production organizational structures that are used by many feature film and video studios. In the game market, the struggle will always be in providing more detail versus slowing down the game and affecting its action/interactivity. Additional concerns may arise if the game is to be played on the web, where downloading speed and network connections must also be examined. This is of particular concern now that a number of games feature the ability to add remotely located players where a player may have both team members and adversaries/rivals playing from almost anywhere in the world. While gamers usually want the most expressive environment that can be delivered, the game also cannot be interrupted because a scene or view needs to be rendered before going on. If this must happen, a game needs to be designed so that there are natural breaks in the gaming action (i.e., a break between levels) where the new environments and sequences can be loaded into the RAM. Because of the need for speed and more demanding needs of photorealistic rendering, it has only been fairly recently that this amount of detail has been attempted in gaming environments. Historically, lighting and other design elements in virtual gaming have tended to be more stylized as a means of delivering games with faster playing speeds. Regardless of how much detail current games can bring to the market, the trend of providing more detail and the ability to more quickly render the gaming environment will continue to improve with games of the future—especially as processors become faster and more memory is configured

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Figure 10.29  Virtual Vaudeville mocap images. Project developed at The University of Georgia Department of Theatre and Film Studies (project director: Dr. David Saltz). Go to www. virtualvaudeville.com to observe the re-creation/animation of entire scenes from this project.: (a) Balcony view of virtual show, (b) Extreme sightline view of virtual show Credit: images courtesy of University of Georgia Department of Theatre and Film Studies

into our personal computers and gaming consoles. This area of virtual designing will continue to be a challenging area of lighting design for many years to come.

For Further Reading Bartlett, Brandon, Jesse K. Miguel, Phillip Miller, Adam Nobel, Todd Peterson, and Martha Rowlett. 3D Studio Architectural Rendering. Indianapolis, IN: New Riders Publishing, 1996. Birn, Jeremy. [Digital] Lighting and Rendering. 3rd ed. Indianapolis, IN: New Riders Publishing, 2013. Brown, Karen M. and Curtis B. Charles. Computers in the Professional Practice of Design. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1995.

Carver, Gavin and Christine White. Computer Visualization for the Theatre: 3D Modeling for Designers. Amsterdam and Boston: Elsevier and Focal Press, 2003. Dong, Wei and Kathleen Gibson. Computer Visualization: An Integrated Approach for Interior Design and Architecture. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1998. Gerhard, Mark, Jefferey M. Harper, and Jon McFarland. Mastering Autodesk 3ds Max Design 2010. Indianapolis, IN: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2009. Kalay, Yehuda E. Architecture’s New Media: Principles, Theories, and Methods of Computer-Aided Design. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2004. Kramer, Wayne. The Mind’s Eye: Theatre and Media Design from the Inside Out. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Press, 2004. Kundert-Gibbs, John. ed. Maya: Secrets of the Pros. Alameda, CA: Sybex, Inc., 2002. Kundert-Gibbs, John and Dariush Derakhshani. eds. Maya: Secrets of the Pros. 2nd ed. Alameda, CA: Sybex, Inc., 2005. Laseau, Paul. Architectural Representation Handbook: Traditional and Digital Techniques for Graphic Communication. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000. McCarthy, David, Ste Curran, and Simon Byron. The Art of Producing Games. Cambridge,UK: The Ilex Press Ltd., 2005. Morris, Dave and Leo Hartas. Game Art: The Graphic Art of Computer Games. New York, NY: Watson-Guptill Publications, 2003. Novitski, B. J. Rendering Real and Imagined Buildings: The Art of Computer Modeling from the Palace of Kublai Khan to Le Corbusier’s Villas. Gloucester, MA: Rockport Publishers, Inc., 1998. Omura, George. Mastering 3D Studio VIZ 3. Alamedia, CA: Sybex, Inc., 2001. Palamar, Todd. Mastering Maya 2016. Indianapolis, IN: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007. Weishar, Peter. Digital Space: Designing Virtual Environments. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1998. Wojtowicz, Jerzy. Virtual Design Studio. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1995. *Due to the relative short amount of time that virtual design has been in existence, several websites are listed below as further references. www.agi32.com/ www.autodesk.com/store www.cast-soft.com/ www.espvision.com/ www.itchy-animation.co.uk/light.htm http://ldassistant.com/www.lighthouse.nl/ www.onstagelighting.co.uk/lighting-design/lightingdesign-software http://performingarts.about.com/od/Lighting/a/Helpful-AppsFor-Lighting-Design.htm www.software-for-free.tehnomagazin.com/S/S/Stage-design-soft ware-free-download.htm www.vectorworks.net

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

LIGHTING PERIODICALS Entertainment Lighting Design American Cinematographer (www.theasc.com) Filmmaker Magazine (www.filmmakermagazine.com) Lighting and Sound America (www.lightingandsoundamerica.com) Live Design (www.livedesignonline.com) Projection, Lights and Staging News—PLSN (www.plsn.com) Theatre Design and Technology—TD & T (www.usitt.org) Videomaker Magazine (www.videomaker.com)

Archival entertainment publications that are no longer in print: Lighting Dimensions Theatre Crafts Theatre Crafts International

Architectural and Display Lighting Design AL—Architectural Lighting (www.archlighting.com) AL LED, a supplement to Architectural Lighting (www.archlighting.com) Architectural SSL (www.architecturalssl.com) Contract Lighting (www.contractlighting.net) Hospitality Design (www.hospitalitydesign.com) Illuminate: Lighting Architectural Spaces, a supplement to Architectural Products (www.arch-products.com) Interiors and Sources (www.interiorsandsources.com) Lighting Design and Application—LD + A (www.ies.org) Metropolis Magazine (www.metropolismag.com) Mondo* Arc (www.mondoarc.com) Residential Lighting (www.residentiallighting.com) VMSD (www.vmsd.com)

Online Resources eLumit (www.elumit.com) Design Guide (www.designguide.com) Light Search (www.lightsearch.com) *Many of these trade publications offer both online and print versions.

APPENDIX B

LIGHTING EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS The companies listed here are a sampling of manufacturers that produce a variety of lighting equipment. Some of these companies specialize in theatrical or entertainment equipment, while others are representative of other specialized areas of lighting, such as architectural or display lighting equipment. The address of each company’s website is provided so that students may be directed to the most current information regarding a variety of lighting products. There has been no attempt to create a comprehensive list of manufacturers, only enough to aid students in beginning the task of researching the quickly evolving equipment. Many companies also contribute products in more than one of the categories but are listed in only one area as a means of saving space. One final note is that manufacturers of lighting equipment frequently appear/ disappear and change corporate partners. Though the contacts presented here were accurate at publishing time, some of this information may have changed between then and when you read this.

Luminaire and Control Equipment ACT Lighting (www.actlighting.com) Acclaim Lighting (www.acclaim-lighting.com/) AC Power Distribution, Inc. (www.acpowerdistribution.com) Action Lighting (www.actionlighting.com) Alkalite/Elation Lighting (www.elationlighting.com) Altman Lighting Company (www.altmanltg.com) A DJ (www.adj.com) Applied Electronics (www.appliednn.com) Avolites (www.avolites.org.uk) Barco (www.barco.com/en) Chauvet Lighting (www.chauvetlighting.com) Clay Paky S.p.A. (www.claypaky.it) Compulite Systems (2000) Ltd. (www.compulite.com) DmxSoft (www.dmxsoft.com) Dove Lighting (www.dovesystems.com) Electronic Theatre Controls (ETC) (www.etcconnect.com) Galaxia, Electronics Co. Ltd. (www.winvision.co.kr) High-End Systems (www.highend.com) Inner Circle Distribution ICD-Coemar USA (www.icd-usa.com) Johnson Systems, Inc. (www.johnsonsystems.com) Lehigh Electric Products, Co. (www.lehighdim.com) Leprecon (www.leprecon.com) Leviton/NSI/Colortran (www.leviton.com) Lex Products Corp. (www.lexproducts.com) Lighting and Electronics, Inc. (www. ledlinc.com) Lightronics, Inc. (www.lightronics.com) Lycian Stage Lighting (www.lycian.com) Martin/Harman Professional (www.martin.com) Moonlight Illumination Co. (www.moonlightusa.com)

Philips/Color Kinetics (www.colorkinetics.com) Philips/Strand Lighting (www.strandlighting.com) Phoebus Lighting and Manufacturing/Strong Lighting (www.phoebusmanufacturing.com) PixelRange (www.pixelrange.com) Robe Lighting (www.robelighting.com) Selecon North America–Philips (www.seleconlight.com) Spotlight S.R.L. (www.spotlight.it) SSRC (www.ssrconline.com) Strong Lighting Equipment (www.strong-lighting.com) Swisson of America Corp. (www.swisson.com) Techni-Lux, Inc. (www.techni-lux.com) TMB Production Supplies and Services Worldwide (www.tmb.com) Vari-Lite—Philips (www.vari-lite.com)

Peripheral Equipment and Accessories Apollo Design and Technology, Inc. (www.apollodesign.net) Birket Specialty Lighting (www.birketspecialtylighting.com) City Theatrical, Inc. (www.citytheatrical.com) Doug Fleenor Design (www.dfd.com) GAM Products, Inc. (www.gamonline.com) GOBOLAND (www.goboland.com) GoboMan, Inc. (www.goboman.com) Goddard Design Company (www.goddarddesign.com) InLight Gobos (www.inlightgobos.com) Lee Filters (www.leefiltersusa.com) RC4 Wireless/Soundsculpture Inc. (www.theatrewireless.com) Rosco Laboratories, Inc. (www.rosco.com) SeaChanger by Ocean Optics (www.oceanoptics.com) SSRC (www.ssrconline.com) Tempest Lighting (www.tempestlighting.com) Wybron, Inc. (www.wybron.com)

Lighting Software AGi32 Software (www.agi32.com) AutoDesk (www.autodesk.com) Capture (www.capturesweden.com) CAST Software (www.cast-soft.com) Focus Track (www.focustrack.co.uk) Future Light, Inc. (www.future-light.com) LD Assistant (www.ldassistant.com) LTI Optics (www.ltioptics.com) John McKernon Software (www.mckernon.com) Stage Research, Inc. (www.stageresearch.com) Vectorworks Spotlight by Nemetschek North America (www.vectorworks.net)

Lamps and Light Sources GE Lighting (www.gelighting.com) Philips Lighting (www.philips.com) Osram Sylvania (www.sylvania.com) USHIO America, Inc. (www.ushio.com)

354  Appendix B

Architectural Equipment AC Electronics (www.ace-ballast.com) Acuity Lighting (www.acuitybrands.com) Advance (www.advance.philips.com) Bartco Lighting (www.bartcolighting.com) Dreamscape Lighting, Inc. (www.dreamscapelighting.com) EATON (http://eatonlightingsystems.com) Edge Lighting (www.edgelighting.com) Elliptipar Lighting (www.thelightingquotient.com) Focal Point (www.focalpointlights.com) Halco Lighting Technologies (www.halcolighting.com) Hubbell Lighting (www.hubbelllighting.com) LEDtronics, Inc. (www.ledtronics.com) Leviton Manufacturing Company, Inc. (www.leviton.com) Lightolier/Philips (www.lightingproducts.philips.com) Lutron Electronics, Co., Inc. (www.lutron.com) Neo-Neon (www.neo-neon.com) Prescolite (www.prescolite.com) Pure Lighting (www.purelighting.com) Revolution Lighting (www.rvlti.com) SPI Lighting (www.spilighting.com) Times Square Lighting (www.tslight.com) Universal Lighting Technologies, Inc. (www.unvlt.com)

Film/Video and Projection Equipment Airstar America, Inc. (www.airstar-light.com) American Grip, Inc. (www.americangrip.com) ARRI, Inc. (www.arri.com) Christie (www.christiedigital.com) Daktronics/Vortek (www.daktronics.com) Gerriets International, Inc. (www.gerriets.com/us/) Green Hippo Ltd. (www.green-hippo.com) Harkness Screens (USA) Ltd. (www.harkness-screens.com) Mole-Richardson Company (www.mole.com) Pani Projection and Lighting (www.pani.com) Photon Beard (www.photonbeard.com) Robert Juliat (www.robertjuliat.com) Sunray Mfg. (www.dadcopowerandlights.com) The Tiffen Company, LLC (www.lowel.tiffen.com)

Related Equipment and Manufacturers Bad Dog Tools (www.baddogtools.com) Clark Transfer, Inc. (www.clarktransfer.com) Clear-Com Communication Systems (www.clearcom.com) Columbus McKinnon Corp. (www.cmworks.com) Global Truss (www.globaltruss.com) HME (www.hme.com) James Thomas Engineering (www.jthomaseng.com) J. R. Clancy, Inc. (www.jrclancy.com) Laser Production Network (www.lasernet.com)

Appendix B   355

Look Solutions USA, Ltd. (www.looksolutions.com) MDG Fog Generators (www.mdgfog.com) Prolyte Products Group (www.prolyte.com) Skjonberg Controls, Inc. (www.skjonberg.com) Telex Intercom Headsets (www.telex.com/) TOMCAT USA, Inc. (www.tomcatglobal.com) Total Structures (www.totalstructures.com) Ultratec Special Effects Inc. (www.ultratecfx.com) Vortek–ETC (www.vortekrigging.com) Wenger—JR Clancey (www.performance.wengercorp.com) Union Connector Co., Inc. (www.unionconnector.com) Universal Manufacturing Corp. (www.universaltruss.com)

356  Appendix B

APPENDIX C

PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND UNIONS The American Association of Cinematographers—ASC (www.theasc.com) Entertainment Technician Certification Program—ETCP (http://etcp.esta.org) Illuminating Engineering Society of North America—IESNA (www.ies.org) International Organization of Lighting Designers—IALD (www.iald.org) International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees—IATSE (www.iatse-intl.org/home.html) National Council for Qualifications for the Lighting Profession—NCQLP (www.ncqlp.org) United Scenic Artists Local 829—USA (www.usa829.org) United States Institute for Theatre Technology—USITT (www.usitt.org)

APPENDIX D

USITT LIGHT GRAPHICS STANDARD

Appendix D   359

360  Appendix D

Appendix D   361

362  Appendix D

Appendix D   363

364  Appendix D

Appendix D   365

366  Appendix D

Appendix D   367

APPENDIX E

IESNA LIGHTING GRAPHICS

Appendix E   369

GLOSSARY Absorption  A process by which light (and its associated wavelengths) is absorbed by a material and usually converted into heat. Abstraction (Stylization)  Expressing artistic style in a way that is in opposition to realism. Stylization is more abstract and symbolic, while realistic styles emphasize duplication of the natural environment. Accent Light  A luminaire used to draw focus or attention to a given feature or subject. In entertainment design it is often used to supplement practicals or to suggest other sources that are lighting a scene. Accent (Secondary) Lighting  A form of lighting associated with architectural and museum or retail lighting that provides focus to specific subjects or displays. It’s also found in landscape lighting, where it is used to provide sparkle or establish focus. In concert lighting, accent lighting refers to the color accents that come from the backlight and sidelights. Adaptation  A process where the eye narrows its response to a limited brightness range to become more efficient and sensitive within a narrow range of intensities. The eye accepts this as normal and tends to ignore brightnesses outside of this range. Adapter  A short cable with different connector types mounted on each end. Additive Color Mixing  When different wavelengths or colors of light are combined to produce another color. The process requires having different colored light sources illuminating or falling on the same surface. Add-on  A specialty program that is installed on top of a CADD program. The application works within the original program and provides a host of extra tools that are designed for the specific area of design. Addressing  The process by which control/channels are assigned to specific dimmers and the attributes of other lighting/ specialty equipment such as automated lights. Advance  To visit a performance venue prior to a scheduled load-in to survey the space. Aerial Show  An exterior spectacle production that typically includes lighting effects, lasers, and fireworks. After Hours (Cleaning/Maintenance) Lighting See Worklight Afterimages  The illusion that appears following the removal of a disproportionally high color saturation or high-intensity light source or other image/stimulus that remains unchanged for an extended period of time. Aim  To focus landscape and architectural luminaires or fixtures. Aircraft Landing Lights (ACL)  Narrow-beamed lamps adapted from their use in airplanes for theatrical purposes. They are often low-voltage sources that must be used in conjunction with a transformer. Air Light  A reference to lighting in which the actual beams of light become visible due to the effects of haze and smoke (first associated with the concert lighting industry). Alignment  A manner of adjusting the orientation/relationship between a luminaire’s reflector and lamp in order to achieve maximum light output. All Fade  A cue in which all of the lights are dimmed out, typically to a count that is greater than 1 second. Alternating Current (AC)  A type of electricity developed through electromagnetism that results in the voltage constantly changing both direction and level (voltage) over a period of time. Amber Drift See Red Shift Ambient (General Circulation or Primary) Lighting  1. General non-directional background light that is a result of scattering and indirect reflections. 2. A retail/museum and architectural lighting system that provides a blanket of general illumination over an environment. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) A standard’s organization that regulates codes and measurement standards. American Society of Cinematographers (ASC)  Professional organization for directors of photography. American Society of Lighting Designers (ASLD)  A society of the film and video industries that represents lighting directors and gaffers.

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)  An act that prohibits any form of discrimination based on disabilities. In the entertainment and construction industry this relates to providing accessibility to those with disabilities and we speak of buildings and shows being ADA compliant. Amperage (A)  The measurement of electrical flow that relates to the rate of electrons flowing through a point at any given time. Its unit of measure is the ampere. Analog Control  A control format in which the console creates a constant low-voltage signal that is proportional to the voltage being made available to the circuit. Angle  The direction from which light comes from and strikes an object. Various responses in mood and other overall lighting qualities are associated with the directionality of light. Angstrom (Å)  A unit of measurement for light wavelengths. It is equal to 1/254,000,000 of an inch. Animation Disk  A moving disk accessory that is placed in front of a spotlight to create simple motion effects. Applause Button  A console button, similar to a blackout button, that bumps the intensities of all the lights to full rather than out. Arc  A very bright, high color temperature, light source created by an electrical spark that jumps between two electrodes. Architainment  A variation of design that combines elements of architectural design with entertainment. It is another name for themed design. Architecture for Control Networks (ACN)  A lighting control protocol that primarily addresses the formatting of control communications over an Ethernet network. It covers several specific protocols that are packaged together as a unit or suite. This protocol supports bi-directional data flow between a console and any networked gear. ACN may also be used as an acronym for Advanced Control Network. Architectural Lighting  Lighting the interiors and exteriors of buildings. It can also refer to the architectural lighting elements of a themed design or other structures. Architectural Luminaires  A classification of exterior lighting fixtures that are used to bring focus to entryways or other significant features of a building. Area Control  Creating general or area lighting so that there is an ability to pull into smaller portions of the stage or lit environment. Greater area control allows more specific area selection while less area control is more general and less defined. Area Lighting (General Illumination)  A means of bringing overall visibility to an environment. This usually means providing a system of luminaires that creates a consistent even coverage across an environment, giving the appearance of being lit by a single distant light source. In landscape lighting this refers to lighting an area with enough illumination that a given task can be performed. Area versus Color Control  A choice in area or general lighting where specific control of the luminaires is based on whether more specific control is designed into the number of areas that the luminaires light or by the different colors that are lighting an environment. Aria  A solo that is performed (usually by a principal character) in an opera. ASA (ISO)  An index of how sensitive or fast a film reacts to light. Values are based on a standard by the American Standards Association (now ANSI—American National Standards Institute) or International Organization of Standardization (ISO). The higher the rating, the faster the film speed and more quickly it can capture an image. ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1  A document that guides energy codes and the manner in which power densities are determined and specified for architectural lighting. Aside  A performance technique in which a performer addresses the audience. Asides are often performed downstage and frequently present a character’s inner thoughts. Assistant House Electrician  The electrician who is second in command of the electrics crews for a performance facility. Assistant Lighting Designer (ALD)  A personal assistant to the lighting designer whose duties may vary considerably from one situation to another but whose primary task lies in the organization and documentation of a lighting design. Assistant Master Electrician (AME)  An electrician who is directly under the master electrician and is usually charged with specific aspects of coordinating the electrics crews both for a performance as well as the load-in and strike of a production. Associate Lighting Designer  An individual who operates at a level of authority just below the lighting designer. The responsibilities of an associate lighting designer can vary considerably but are more along the lines of providing artistic input and assistance to the lighting designer. Associate designers often cover various responsibilities for a lighting designer who cannot be present at various meetings or work calls. Astronomical Clock  A control device or computer used in architectural and landscape installations that executes a timing program that instructs lighting equipment to turn on and off at pre-determined times. Atmospheric Effects  A classification of special effects that involves introducing various particles into the air for a production. Fog, smoke, and haze are the most popular examples of these effects.

Glossary  371

Attenuation (Falloff)  The property by which a light’s intensity drops off as it moves farther away from its source. Attribute  A control function of a luminaire or lighting accessory. The most common examples involve automated lights, with attributes like pan, tilt, color, etc. In CADD light plots, attributes refer to notation data like color and channel numbers. Attributed Block  A library symbol (block) used in CADD drafting software that not only contains the basic symbol but also a means of tailoring the data associated with a symbol to the specific block. Lighting often uses attributed blocks to insert luminaires into a drawing while modifying attributes like color, unit number, and channel to the specific unit that is being inserted. Autofader  A variation of crossfader or splitfader that has a timing device. Times are preset and run at the assigned times once the cue is initiated. Automated Color Changers  See Scrollers. Automated Lights (Automated Luminaires)  Fixtures that have multiple control features/attributes that allow elements of a luminaire like its pan and tilt to be changed through control commands. Also called intelligent, wiggle, and moving lights. Autotransformer  A dimmer that harnesses the technology of AC currents and their ability to induce magnetic fields to create a back-EMF that in turn regulates the voltage/intensity of a circuit. Averaging Meter  A reflective light meter that records the average light level throughout the entire field of a camera. These meters are good for determining overall exposure. Awning  An architectural feature that is placed over windows and other glazed surfaces that provides shade and helps block direct sunlight from entering a window. Axial ERS  A version of the ellipsoidal reflector spotlight (ERS) that places the lamp directly on the back of the housing (on the optical axis) where it is inserted into the center of the reflector. These units were developed in the 1970s and are much more efficient than earlier ERS designs. Back Diagonal  A direction of lighting distribution that comes from behind and to the side of an object and gives a rimming type of effect. Background Lights or Lighting  Luminaires in film and video shoots that light the background behind a subject and are used to maintain a proper balance between the subject and background. Also used as a concept in landscape lighting where more distant or perimeter areas are lit while other subjects are lit in the foreground. Backing off the Rods  See Ballet Dim. Backlight  An angle that comes from behind a subject and helps to separate and push the subject forward, away from the background. It can produce a rim/halo effect. Backlot  A collection of many exterior locations that are scenic constructions used for filming movies. Baffle (Egg Crate)  An optical accessory typically added to architectural luminaires and soft-lights that creates a network of box-like dividers over the face of a fixture. Baffles help block the viewer from direct lamp and reflector glare. Balance  A consideration of the intensity or illuminance levels between different objects or surfaces. Also a concept in an electrical system where the demands of the entire service are evenly distributed on each of the power legs. Balcony Rail  A hanging position located across the front face of a theatre’s balcony. It provides a relatively flat lighting angle and is often used for washing a stage. Ballad  A slow, often romantic or sentimental, song that is usually performed as a solo or duet. Ballast  A transformer-like device that is wired in series with a fluorescent or HID lamp and regulates the current and voltage to the lamp. It also provides the initial voltage needed to start the arc process. Ballet Dim (Backing Off the Rods)  The use of a followspot in such a subtle manner that the audience may not be aware that a followspot is being used. Designers use ballet dim to draw focus without drawing attention to the light itself. Ballyhoo  A way of sweeping spotlights (followspots or automated luminaires) throughout a venue. A ballyhoo may be done over the stage or audience. Barn Doors  An accessory that provides folding flat panels that can be rotated and tilted inward or outward to block glare and spill of unwanted light. Base  An element of a lamp that supports the lamp in its proper orientation within a luminaire and provides the electrical contacts that lead to the lamp’s filament. Base Cue  A cue that has the predominant elements of the lighting for a given scene or setting established. This is often returned to and then recalled and modified as needed for additional cues. Base Light or Base Level Lighting  Another name for fill light used by some lighting directors and directors of photography. Light added to a scene to bring shadow areas to an intensity level that the camera can record. Some refer to the process as base level lighting. Also used to define the ambient light in an architectural application. Basic Retail Environment  A low-end, economical store or retail environment. Lighting is designed predominantly from a visibility or functional point of view.

372  Glossary

Batten  A pipe that is located and flown from directly above the stage. Battens are used as temporary mounting positions for lighting instruments, maskings, and scenery. Batten Tapes  A piece of scenic webbing that is secured along a batten and marked with a centerline and additional marks or labels for every luminaire hung on the associated electric. They are frequently used in touring and eliminate the need for measuring the distance from each unit to centerline. Beacon  A specialized fixture that produces a moving effect based on the same effect as the rotating light on emergency vehicles. Beam  A hanging position of horizontal pipe mounted in the ceiling above an audience that runs across the width of an auditorium. Beam Angle  The angle representing the beam distribution of a luminaire where the intensity has fallen off by no more than 50% of the initial intensity. Beam Projector  A luminaire that uses a parabolic reflector. This is the only spotlight that does not contain a lens. Beam projectors produce a very harsh intense beam of nearly parallel rays of light. Beam Spread  The amount of coverage that a luminaire creates as a distribution pattern. Beam angle and field angle are two specific ways of expressing beamspread. Below Grade  A manner of mounting architectural or landscape luminaires in a vault or waterproofed box where only the lens (if that) projects above the ground’s surface. Bend  A property of rear projection screens where image intensities drop off and are not seen as well by people who are to the sides and outside of a critical viewing angle. Best Boy  The electrician, in video and film production, who is the gaffer’s assistant. Bidding  A construction phase where contractors are provided with documents and make offers for providing the lighting equipment and its installation for a set price. Bi-directional Data Digital control information that is exchanged in both directions between lighting consoles and sophisticated devices like automated luminaires. Binning  Refers to the practice of sorting LEDs into groups based on color that provide the best color match of light output between LEDs of the same color. This is done due to the inconsistencies that exist in the LED manufacturing process. Birdies  Small PAR luminaires that are designed around MR16 lamps. Black Box Theatre (Flexible Space)  A theatre facility that allows complete flexibility in assigning staging arrangements. Black box theatres are typically painted completely black and have a lighting grid over the entire room. Blacklight  A specialized luminaire or form of light that has the majority of its spectral composition in the ultraviolet range. Special dyes and bleached objects will glow (usually in psychedelic colors) when activated by this light. Blackout  A fade to complete darkness that is done to a zero count (instantly). Blackout Button  A push button switch that allows a control board or console to instantly lower every channel to zero intensity. Blackout Check  A blackout cue that is loaded just prior to opening the house so that a venue can be checked for complete darkness. Bleed Out  Diffused light that smoothly fades out at the edge of a beam. Blind (Blind Mode or Preview Mode)  Programming or writing lighting cues without the benefit of observing the actual lights, environment, or subject(s). Also, a console mode that displays channels and their associated levels for previous or upcoming cues. This allows a designer to work on the cues while another cue is on stage. Block  A pre-designed symbol stored in the invisible background of a CADD drawing that allows simple insertion of the symbol into a drafting. Blocks contain the outline of the luminaire along with a host of other information regarding the unit and how it is to be equipped (color, focus, wattage, control channel, etc.). Block Cues (Hard Blackouts)  Cues that are entered into a console with all channels assigned to a level of zero to create points that stop any tracking instructions. Blocking Notation A means of drawing graphic diagrams to record or notate the movements and positions of the performers. Block Matrix Lights  A variation of LED luminaire that is similar to a blinder design. This creates a block or grid-like arrangement of high-intensity LED sources into a 4 × 4 or 5 × 5 arrangement that can be used for a variety of washes or effects. Each chamber can be controlled individually/pixel mapped and the units can be combined to produce larger composite digital images. Blood Pressure Cue  A very subtle lighting cue that is created with the intention of being unnoticed by an audience as a means of preventing visual fatigue and its consequences. Blueout  A special type of fade-out in which all of the lights fade to a deep blue as opposed to complete darkness. This assists crews in scene changes and can also make these shifts more interesting from an audience perspective. Blue Sky Development  A form of concept development where a team is given a blank slate and simply brainstorms themes for an attraction.

Glossary  373

Board Operator  A crew member who helps the designer program the light board and executes the cues as ordered by the stage manager during performances. Body (Hood or Housing)  The actual enclosure of a luminaire. The housing provides for the proper mounting and orientation of all the optical components and accessories of a unit. Bollard  A special form of post light that is frequently used to mark pathways and entrances. They are usually around 3 feet in height and typically have the luminaire and its lenses incorporated into the design of the post. Book Scenes  A type of scene associated with musicals where the mode of delivery shifts to traditional acting without an emphasis on singing or dancing. Boomerang (Color Boom)  A device that allows followspot operators to quickly change a spotlight’s color. Most color booms contain six different colors or gels. Booms (Trees)  Pipes extending upward from the stage floor that allow luminaires to be mounted vertically rather than horizontally. Boom Base  A heavy (50 pounds) metal plate of cast iron that forms the floor base that supports the vertical pipe of a boom. Borders  An overhead masking that stretches across the width of a stage and prevents audience view of the flyspace and any scenery or lighting equipment above the stage. Borderlights  Banks of permanently wired striplights that stretch across the width of a stage. These were popular before the use of spotlights for general illumination and contained three or four circuits of colored roundels (typically red, blue, and white, although circuits of canary or green were often substituted for white). Bounce Drop  A drop that is placed behind another drop (either a translucent drop or one with translucent elements) and to which light is focused and reflected toward the back of the first drop. Bow Cue  A cue used for curtain calls. They are usually fairly bright in intensity and cover most if not all of the stage. Box Boom  A hanging position that historically came from a boom mounted in the box seats of a proscenium theatre. The position provides front-diagonal lighting, and we now often refer to any position coming from the sidewalls of a theatre as box boom positions, box seats or not. Box-Spot (Plano-Convex Spotlight or P-C Spotlight)  Luminaire representing one of the earliest forms of theatrical spotlight and is quite similar to a Fresnel spotlight. It consists of a spherical reflector, light source, and single plano-convex lens. It is still popular throughout Europe and other parts of the world. Bracketing  A photographic technique of taking multiple exposures to increase the chances of obtaining a successful image—one at the exposure suggested by a light meter and then a second and third exposure shot one f-stop on either side of the recommended exposure. Branch Circuits  Individual circuits, with their own circuit protection, that lead from a distribution panel to electrical equipment like lights and outlets. Break-in  An adapter for the male end of a multi-cable that interfaces the cable with other cables or electronic hardware like a dimmer rack. It separates the multi into individual male connectors for each circuit. Break-out  An adapter for the female end of a multi-cable where the cable interfaces with other cabling. The break-out separates the multi into individual female connectors for each circuit. Brightness Perception  A consideration of all the variables that determine the brightness of an object—the amount of light falling on the object, optical sensitivity, and the degree of reflectivity are all factors in the perceived intensity of an object. Broad  A linear light source used in television and film production that features thin tubular lamps. They are generally considered and used as a soft light. Brute  A multi-light or cluster light used in film and video that uses an arrangement of nine lamps in a rectangular array. Buhl Projector  An enhanced Ektagraphic Slide Projector where the standard lamp is replaced with a high-wattage one along with a system of heat sinks and high-powered fans for extra cooling. These projectors have superior lenses for better projections. Build  To increase the intensity by either raising the intensity levels of the individual dimmers or by adding additional lighting instruments into a cue. Bulb  The glass envelope of a lamp that creates the appropriate atmosphere for the lamp. Bullet Lights  A landscape luminaire that is used for both flood and spotlighting. The unit has an inverted-cone shape that has its socket and electrical fittings in the tip of the housing while the lamp’s face is exposed through the wider opening. Bump (Flash) Buttons  A momentary switch associated with a controller or submaster that can instantly bump its level to full regardless of the actual controller setting. Bump Focus  A method of focusing electrics when they can’t be reached by a ladder or lift (this often occurs with raked or heavily platformed stages). The batten is lowered to within reach, the lights are rough focused and then the batten is

374  Glossary

flown to trim height where the focus is observed. The process is repeated until the focus of all the lights is correct and their shutter cuts are adjusted properly. Bundle  A number of individual cables or circuits that are simply tied together as they run along a single hanging position. They are created for hanging positions like electrics and booms as a way of pre-packing the circuits and facilitating a faster hang while touring. Bundles are often used as an alternative to multi-cables. Burning-Off  Drying out the moisture left in luminaires after a rain by heating the lamps up slowly through powering them up in increments of approximately 10–15% over a period of time. Burn Out  The breakdown of a gel or filter from continued exposure to light and heat. The gel eventually fades in the center and may even melt completely through. May also reference an inoperable lamp. Bus Bars  Metal bars that are used in large-capacity applications for moving electricity from one location to another instead of using heavy wires or cables. Busking  A term often associated with a form of improvised lighting where a designer has a number of pre-programmed presets, effects and automated lighting moves that are selected and played back as a show evolves. Busking is especially popular for designing music festivals. Butterflies (Nets or Silks)  Large diffusers used in the video and film industry that are made of translucent muslin or silk-like fabric mounted on large folding frames. Smaller versions are mounted on simple frames held in stands that are placed in front of a luminaire. Sizes and materials will vary, which results in a variety of names being associated with these diffusion accessories. Nets are made of a mesh material (bobbinet), while butterflies and silks are made of translucent material. Cable (Jumper)  Technically refers to combining several insulated wires into a single shield or jacket. It is also used synonymously with jumper to describe a two/three conductor cable with a male connector on one end and female on the other. Cable Lighting  A variation of track lighting where the track is replaced by decorative cables that also function as conductors for the low-voltage electricity. CAD or CADD (Computer Drafting)  Software programs that are designed for drafting. While initially developed for drafting needs, the software has evolved to include full modeling and visualization. Sometimes referred to as CADD (Computer-Aided Design and Drafting). Call  A work period for crew members. A call time is when individuals report to work. Call a Show  Providing the cueing commands (i.e., sound or lighting cues) to the crews during a rehearsal or performance. This is usually done by the stage manager. Camera-Lights (Obie)  A variety of portable luminaires used in film and video shoots that are mounted to a camera in order to produce good front fill over a subject. Camera Rehearsal  A rehearsal in film and video setups that would be similar to a dress rehearsal in the theatre. Lighting, costumes, actors, and cameras are all rehearsed and tweaked before the actual shooting takes place. Camlock (Cam-lock)  A heavy duty connector that is used on each individual cable of feeder cables, dimmers, and other power distribution equipment. Candlepower (Candela) Distribution Curve  A representation of photometric data that allows comparisons to be made between luminaires. These data form a graphical representation of the measured light output (intensity) of the luminaire at various angles to either side of the centerline of a luminaire. Carbon-Arc Spotlight  A spotlight (often a followspot) that has a carbon-arc light source. Cast Shadow  A shadow that is produced in the silhouette image of an object by a given light source. C-Clamp  A type of mounting hardware that secures a lighting instrument’s yoke to a batten or other hanging position or pipe. Ceiling Cavity (Plenum)  The void between the decorative ceiling and the bottom of the overlying floor or ceiling joists. It hides equipment like ducts, conduit, and pipes. Ceiling Clutter  A reference to an unsightly, disorderly arrangement of lighting fixtures on a ceiling of a retail, commercial, or other architectural lighting project. Cell  An individual lamp or reflector along with its associated housing in a cyclorama (cyc) light or far cyc. Each cell is gelled and wired independently of the others. Cells are often bolted together and hung from a common yoke. Typical units contain three or four cells that are often colored in the three primary colors. Centerline  An imaginary reference line that passes through the center of a stage, room, or building. Most side-to-side measurements are based on the centerline. Centerline Section (Section)  A sectional drawing that is drawn as if cutting through a facility on a plane along the centerline of a stage. It is a side view of the building along this plane and is used to determine vertical heights and trim settings.

Glossary  375

Certified Lighting Designer (CLD)  A certification program specifically designed for lighting designers that was sponsored by the IALD in 2015. Like the NCQLP certification, it is earned by exam and then renewed though retaking the exam or by completing a given number of educational activities to remain current in the field. It has a recertification period of five years. Chain Hoist (Chain Motor)  A winch or hoist that is specifically designed for overhead rigging. They are used to support trusses, speaker assemblies, and scenic components, most extensively in the touring industry. Change Order  A contract document used in specifying permanent installations that outlines a revision and amends the original construction documents. Changeover  The time given to making changes from one production to another. While it may refer to the transfer between new productions, it is more commonly associated with the daily changes being made between repertory productions. Channel  A control assignment that provides the actual identity of control that a console recognizes as a base element for assigning control voltages. Channels are typically assigned intensity levels that fall between 0–10 or 0–100%. Channel Check (Dimmer Check)  A check done at various points in the load-in and before each performance where each dimmer or channel is brought up to make sure that every lamp is both operational and hasn’t lost its focus. Channel Schedule  A form of designer paperwork that presents all of the luminaire data of a light plot in a table format. It is a form of the hookup that organizes the data by channel number. Chase (Chase Lights)  A programmed effect that produces a rapid sequence of cues/steps that are each associated with a given set of luminaires. Theatre marquees are an example. Cheat Sheet  A table that lists all of the control channels in order and then provides additional information relating to the purpose and color associated with each channel. It performs the same function as a magic sheet. Check Cues  Cues that are placed in a console for checking/verifying that various tasks have been completed. An example would be glowing any circuits that have been repatched at intermission to ensure that they have actually been reassigned. Chicken Coop/Space Light  A film and video soft light that is typically suspended from above and used to create a general level of fill or area lighting over an area. They are built around the concept of a soft reflective canopy using several light sources. The chicken coop is built around a rectangular arrangement of lamps, while the space light is cylindrical and uses multiple lamps in a circular arrangement. Chief Lighting Technician (Gaffer)  A video or film crew member who is the equivalent to a master electrician in theatrical production. Gaffers work with the lighting director or director of photography to provide the specified equipment, filters, and power for each shot. They also supervise the lighting staff during production. Chimera  A soft light used in film and video work that is built around the concept of creating a soft reflective canopy containing one or more light sources. Chimeras are usually mounted on a stand and used to produce horizontal fill light. They have collapsible hoods of diffuse material that are adjusted to a given situation. Chinese Lanterns  A soft light that is similar to the larger lighting balloons where lamps are placed within a circular lantern-like sphere to create a soft, diffuse light for a film or video setup. Choke  A coil that is wired in an electronic dimmer (usually SCRs) to reduce electronic interference generated by the dimmer. Choreography  The movement patterns and gestures that are established for a dance or other movement-based performance. Chroma (Saturation)  The purity of a color. The more saturated the color, the more specific and limited the range of wavelengths associated with it. Chroma Key  A form of composite or matte photography in which an electronic image of one scene is projected onto a neutral surface in another. The most popular versions are based on the colors of these surfaces and are known as bluescreen or green-screen techniques. Chromatic Aberration (Color Fringes)  An effect of an unwanted prismatic or rainbow effect at the edge of a beam of light. It is usually due to inferior lenses. CIE Chromaticity Chart  A chart that indicates the wavelengths of color radiation given off at various temperatures of a black body radiation. The importance to lighting designers lies in its depiction of the relationships between each of the three primary colors and that fairly accurate color predictions can be made for resultant colors that are formed through mixing different colored light sources. Cinch-Jones Connector  A special multi-conductor connector that is used for connecting analog control cables to one another and to control gear like light boards and dimmer packs. Cinebach Projector  A variation of Linnebach projector where the sides and slides have been curved to accommodate the shape of a curved cyclorama. Cinematographer (Director of Photography [DP])  Individual who is responsible for creating the entire visual environment for a video or film. Although the director of photography is responsible for the lighting they also have responsibilities in choosing location, determining camera angles and range of an individual shot, and selecting the camera lenses and film speeds.

376  Glossary

Circuit  A complete cycle of electron flow that follows a pathway from a source, through a device, and back to the source. Circuit/Control Schedules  Paperwork used in landscape lighting that organizes the data by circuit/control assignments (similar to theatrical dimmer schedules). Circuit Breaker  Electrical device that is designed as the weakest link in a circuit and meant to trip or “blow” if the circuit encounters a short or is overloaded. A circuit breaker can be reset once it has blown. Circuit Layout  A floorplan that includes all of the information found in a typical floorplan plus an indication of all the circuits and their locations. Circulation Lighting  A form of architectural or themed lighting that provides enough visibility so that people can move around safely within an environment. Cleaning/Maintenance (After Hours) Lighting  See Worklight Closed-Backed Window  A display window that has a back and is shut off from the store that is behind the window. Closed Fixture  A landscaping luminaire in which a lens and protective gasket are placed over the front of the luminaire to prevent water from entering the unit. Closing-in  A method of making a proscenium opening smaller through lowering the borders and bringing the legs farther onto the stage. Cluster Mounting  A mounting method used in street and roadway lighting where several fixtures are mounted from a single pole. CMY Mixing  See CYM Mixing Cobra Head  A luminaire used with HID lamps in roadway and street lighting that has a distinct shape that resembles the head of a cobra. Most high-pressure sodium, mercury, and metal halide street lamps are of this particular type of luminaire. Coefficient of Utilization (CU)  A factor that relates to the overall efficiency of a luminaire within the Lumen Method calculation. CUs are determined by luminaire manufacturers and are found in tables that make a correlation between the CU, reflectance of a room’s surfaces, and the RCR for a given situation. Coherence  A means of describing the overall quality of light in film and video lighting. It is usually associated with the hardness or softness and diffusion of the light. Cold Cathode  A lamp that produces light as a glow from the discharge of electrons within an enclosed tube. One of the more popular versions gives off a cold cobalt blue light that is often used in cove lighting applications. The tubes can be bent to follow the contour of architectural elements and come in a variety of colors. Color  A controllable quality of light. A perception based on how specific wavelengths of light stimulate the photosensors in our eyes. Light will have an associated color based on the specific collection of wavelengths being present in its makeup. Color Adaptation  Distortion in color perception when the eyes are overstimulated due to being under the influence of lighting conditions that have remained unchanged for an extended period of time. This results in the perceived color being distorted until the cones become fully functional. Color Boom  See Boomerang Color-Compensation Scale  A specialized scale (actually two scales) used in connection with a Color-Temperature Meter to correct the color temperature of a light. They are used to make a selection of color/gel correction that will make the light appear white on film. Color Constancy  A quality of perception that allows us to accept that an object’s color is constant despite variations in the color of the light that it is illuminated by. Color Contrast  Comparisons in hue and relative warmth/coolness either within or between scenes. Color Correction (Color Conversion) Filters  A special type of color media that filters a light source to change its color temperature. These are extremely important to the film and video industry where it is imperative that light from different sources be modified so that they appear to share common color temperatures. Color Depth  Refers to the number of colors that a video screen or projector can effectively create. The simplest screens display 8-bit data, which translates to 256 different levels for each of the three primary colors or a total of 16.7 million different colors. A 16-bit screen, on the other hand, can create 65,000 color levels in each of the primaries, for a total of 275 billion colors. Color Extender  An accessory that looks like a top hat and has internal slots that allow a luminaire’s gel to be placed farther away from a light source. Color Frame (Gel Frame)  A thin square of folded sheet metal with a large hole located in its center used to hold gel at the face of a lighting fixture. Color Fringes  See Chromatic Aberration Colorist  The person who adjusts the color and development of a film to ensure proper contrast exposure and color continuity between different takes and setups.

Glossary  377

Color Key  A figure that illustrates the approximate angles and color of light that surround a subject. A lighting key may be developed for any moment of a production but is usually used to illustrate the full wash systems of a stage. Color Media  Materials that either filter or modify the light produced by a source or fixture. Gel and color filters are popular names given to color media. Color Organ  A popular entertainment device of the 1970s with audio sensors that could be tuned to specific frequencies which, upon activation, could flash lights to a musical beat. Color Palette  In automated lighting, the color settings used to create a given color are preset so that a previously defined color can be brought back through use of a simple recall or library system. Color Rendering  The ability of a light source to accurately render or light a variety of colors without distorting the natural colors of an object. Color Rendering Index (CRI)  An index number that refers to the color-rendering ability of a source and how accurately it can depict an object’s true color. Sources with high CRIs have more individual wavelengths in their composition and enhance a larger range of colors. The maximum CRI possible is 100. Color Scroller  A lighting accessory that places an assembly of color filters (12 or more) in a scroll-like configuration that is then rolled into various positions to change the color of the light. Color Temperature  A comparison of the sum of all the individual wavelengths of a light source with the color emitted from a black box radiation for a given temperature. Every color of radiant energy can be equated to a referenced temperature on the Kelvin scale, where absolute zero equals 0° Kelvin or –273° Celsius. Color Temperature Meter  Directors of photography and lighting directors use a special light meter to measure the color temperature or overall color output of light. These measure light along two different scales: the first measures red/blue present, while the second measures the magenta/green content of the light. Color Wheel  1. An accessory that is mounted in the color holder of a luminaire that moves a motorized disk of colored filters through a unit’s light. 2. A diagram that illustrates the primary and secondary colors and their relationships to one another. Combination Circuits  Circuits that contain both series and parallel components. A common combination circuit contains several lights wired together in parallel placed under the control of a single switch that is wired in series. Commission  Starting up the lighting systems in architectural lighting, which involves completing any aiming and programming the levels for an installation as the design team turns the building over to the occupants. Compact Fluorescent  A form of fluorescent lamp that combines the lamp with a ballast in a single unit. These lamps are often used to retrofit traditional incandescent lamps because of their efficiency. Compact Iodide Daylight (CID) Lamp  A special variation of metal halide lamp that makes use of a specific mixture of gases and metal halides to produce a cleaner, brighter light source. Compact Source Iodide (CSI) Lamp  Another variation of metal halide lamp that make use of a specific mixture of gases and metal halides to produce a characteristic quality of light. Company Switch (Road-tap)  A specialized distribution panel or disconnect box that provides the power (typically 200– 800 amps of three-phase power) that a touring lighting system or other equipment may be connected to. Complementary Color  A color that lies directly across the color wheel from a color. Complementary Tint Theory  A lighting technique of the stage that is associated with creating a fairly naturalistic style of lighting. The effect is produced if two fixtures containing complementary tints are hung on opposing 45° angles from one another. The lights are to be hung 45° to each front/side of a subject (splitting centerline) with a vertical angle of 45° for each light. The method is credited to Stanley McCandless and is often called a McCandless Method or hang. Composite (Matte) Photography  An image created through a combination of several individual shots or settings. Blueor green-screen technologies are popular examples of an electronic insertion of one shot into another. Composition  A function of lighting that relates to combining all of the elements of a scene, stage, or environment together into a complete unified visual package. Compound Reflectors  A reflector shaped with more than one principal shape along its surface. This is a more efficient way of directing light in a primary direction. Computer Rendering  An image of a subject or environment that is created through creating a virtual model, coloring/ texturing it, and lighting it through using a computer and specialized software. Communications Workers of America (CWA)  An umbrella union representing workers primarily within the telecommunications and media industries such as the National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians (NABET), but also includes other affiliates such as flight attendants, newspaper and publishing professionals, and public service employees. Concave Lens  A lens in which one of the surfaces is curved inward toward the center of the lens. Concept  A manner or method of approach to creating meaning in a production. It refers to an approach to a design problem and addresses the themes, style, and conventions that will be used in a production.

378  Glossary

Concept Development  The first design phase of a project, in which a team first lays out the general ideas, concepts, and parameters of a project. Conductors  Materials that allow electron movement easily and have little resistance to electrical flow. Metals are usually the best conductors. Confidentiality Agreement  A contract agreement that is signed by a producer and individual that states that the individual will not share any information/secrets of a project with anyone except those who are involved with a project. Theme parks are frequent users of these agreements. Conjugate (Secondary) Focal Point  The second focal point of an ellipsoidal reflector to which all light is reflected from a source placed at the primary focal point. Any light or image that passes beyond the conjugate focal point is reversed. Connectors  Electrical hardware that allows for the easy connection and disconnection of multi-wired cables. Connectors may be male or female. Conservation  A process of providing limited lighting exposure to materials that are subject to heat and light damage, especially ultraviolet radiation. This is especially important in retail and museum or gallery lighting design. Construction Documents  A set of documents that contain all the plans (lighting layouts, reflected ceiling plans, details, etc.) and specifications for a design. Content  The source material for digital images and projections. Continuity  1. Observing details in video and film shooting to ensure that no discrepancies occur between camera angles and that every take is lit in exactly the same way, providing consistency from one angle to another. 2. In electrical theory, continuity relates to providing a complete wiring path with no breaks in a circuit. Continuous Fire  A dimming state where an SCR blows in the on position and the dimmer remains at full intensity despite any changes in the control signal. Continuous Light Sources (Hot Light Sources)  Luminaires used in film and video production that are not dimmed and are designed to simply plug into a power source. Contour Lighting  Lighting that follows contours or lines. One of the most obvious cases of this is when people line their walkways or pathways with luminaires. Contract Document Phase  An architectural design phase where the contract documents are created and assembled. The specification of the lighting equipment and installation requirements are done at this point in the design process. Contract Rider (Rider)  An addendum to the contract for a touring company, band, or artist that lists the production needs that must be provided by the local promoter Contrast Ratios  A range of intensity variations that compare the brightest to darkest elements within a frame or image. Contrast ratios are especially important to film and video production and refer to these proportional intensities. A camera with a large contrast ratio is capable of capturing a more extreme range of intensities. Contrast Viewing Glasses  A set of specialty glasses that are used to view a scene through a tinted filter. They allow quick identification of the highest- and lowest-intensity areas and help in setting the lighting/exposure levels of a scene. Control  Usually used to reference brightness or intensity modifications and control but also refers to determining which luminaires are circuited and wired together. In architectural applications this can also refer to focus and beam control as well. Control Cable  A low-voltage signal cable in electronic dimming systems that provides communication between a console and the dimmers or other devices. Control/Circuit Schedules  Schedules in landscape designs that organize the design in manners such as by circuit or control assignments. These are very similar to the dimmer and instrument schedules used in entertainment designs. Control Schedule  An architectural version of the hookup or channel/dimmer schedule. Controller  The actual slide switches or faders found on a lighting console. Controllers may control individual channels or dimmers, submasters, or even the grand master. Controller assignments range from 0–10 or 0–100% in intensity. Control Specification  A design document that is based on the lighting specification of a project from a control perspective. Conventionals  A term used to reference traditional luminaires or lighting instruments when they are combined in a rig that has automated luminaires. Conventions  An approach or use of dramatic techniques that an audience accepts as a means for a playwright and production to present a dramatic event. These are theatrical techniques (e.g., blue light is accepted as darkness) that allow the team to present the story to an audience. Convergence  An association where the ground between the lighting and video designer is becoming increasingly blurred through digital images, automated luminaires, and projection techniques that are bringing the two disciplines closer together. Converging Rays  When light rays are redirected in such a manner that they are focused toward one another and a common point. Convex Lens  A lens in which one of its surfaces curves or flexes outward away from the center.

Glossary  379

Cookie (Cucaloris or Gobo)  These were developed in the film and video industry and are custom-made flags or panels (with holes or patterns cut into them) that are placed between a light source and a target. Originally, it was meant as a “go between” and often called a gobo. While this, too, forms a shadow projection it is quite different from placing a template in an ERS as in the case of a theatrical gobo. Cool Colors  Light that has an abundance of blue, green, and lavender wavelengths and tends to produce psychological responses of calm, contentment, or melancholy. Corporate Theatre (Corporate Sales Meeting)  A special area of performance events that are produced by corporations to increase sales or to introduce new products. Corridor  A distribution pattern associated with dance lighting that forms a pathway extending from an extreme upstage position straight downstage. Count  The timing of a cue, usually based on seconds. Cove (Slot)  A lighting position that replaces the box boom position. A vertical cut located in the sidewalls of an auditorium where a boom or ladder-like device is located behind the wall for mounting front-diagonal light sources. Cove Lighting  A form of architectural lighting where wash luminaires are hidden behind a masking along the edges of a room or perimeter of a tray or other architectural feature. It creates a decorative wash around the perimeter of a room. Crossfade  To evenly shift from one lighting cue or scene to another. Crossfader  A specialized fader that allows a board to shift or fade between two or more presets. In one extreme position one preset will be live while in the opposite position a second preset will become live while the first is faded out. Cross-Key Lighting  A variation of film and video lighting in which the camera is located essentially in a frontal position with two luminaires mounted roughly in opposing 45° front-diagonal positions. Cross Lighting  A lighting technique in which two lights are aimed at a subject from opposite directions. This adds dimensionality to an object while also providing a slightly more diffuse lighting treatment. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Projector  The first widely used projector, which essentially projected three overlapping images of red, blue, and green light onto a common screen and had a relatively low intensity. C-Stand  A folding stand that is fully adjustable and used for mounting luminaires and grip equipment that is associated with location shooting. Also known as a Century Stand. CTB (Color Temperature Blue) Filter  A filter used to correct the color temperature of light sources or luminaires with low color temperatures that need to be raised to match the higher color temperature of an exterior light source. CTO (Color Temperature Orange) Filter  A filter typically placed over window surfaces to correct the daylight color temperature to that of interior light sources. Cucaloris  See Cookie and Gobo Cue (Cueing, Look or State)  A static lighting image or look that creates a given combination of lights and their angles, intensities, and overall mixing. Cueing refers to establishing the looks and recording them so that they can be duplicated from performance to performance. Cue Blocks  A method of numbering cues as a group based on their having similar functions. A common cue blocking technique includes grouping cues from individual dances of a dance repertory into blocks of cues that begin with specific numbers like 10, 20, 30, etc. Cue-In (Set Levels)  The cue-writing session where cues are created through a selection of luminaires, their colors, and intensities. Transitions are also determined during these sessions. Also known as level setting or writing cues. Cue List (Cue Stack)  A series of cues that are stored in a console that can be pulled up and initiated by a programmer at will. Cue Only Mode  A console mode by which any changes made in a cue are performed on that cue only and will not have any impact on any other cues. Cue Stack  See Cue List Cue Synopsis  Design paperwork that functions as a guideline for the creation of a production’s cues. It assigns a cue number to each cue and then goes on to describe specific information related to the cues. Cue numbers, counts, execution points, and a visual description of the cues are included in this information. Cue-Writing Session (Level-Setting Session)  See Cue-in. Curtain Warmer  A lighting cue typically done when the main or show drop is in for presets, intermissions, or scene changes where the drop or curtain is glowed with a wash of low-intensity front light. Sometimes the lights that form this wash are called curtain warmers. Cut  1. A film and video editing technique in which changes are made in what an audience sees through making switches between camera angles or scenes. 2. To strike or drop something from a production. Cut-Off  A quality of roadway luminaire design that refers to controlling how much light spills above a horizontal plane. Luminaires are characterized in regard to how much glare and spill that they allow above a given reference point.

380  Glossary

Cut List  A listing of the number of cuts/frames of a particular gel color that will be required in each frame size for a production. Cut Sheet  Reference literature that provides specification data for a piece of lighting equipment. Examples of this data might include photometric data, mounting specifications, voltage/lamp requirements, and control channel capabilities, etc. Cycle  The voltage fluctuation that occurs throughout a single revolution of a generator. Also used to describe frequency comparisons in electromagnetic radiation. Cyc Lights (Far Cycs)  A floodlight that has a significantly large distribution pattern and produces a smooth wash over a large area. Its soft edges allow it to be easily blended with adjoining fixtures. Far cycs are often used as a multi-colored wash luminaire where several cells are gelled differently from one another. Cyclorama (Cyc)  A large, flat, scenic surface used as a neutral background for stages and television studios. The wrapped or curved cyc curves around the upstage corners of a stage or studio and extends back downstage at its sides. CYM Mixing (CMY Mixing)  A technology found in many automated luminaires that allows a designer to manipulate three dichroic filters (cyan, yellow, and magenta) to mix light of virtually any desired color. Dailies (Rushes)  The first prints of film that was shot during a given day. Dailies are often developed during the late afternoon and evaluated after the evening meal or the next day. Daisy Chain (Straight Run)  A popular landscape wiring technique that forms a single chain of luminaires that are wired in parallel along an entire circuit/run. While being simplest to install, it also experiences the greatest effect of voltage drop. Damper  A set of shutters in a followspot that allow an operator to quickly cut the light across the top and bottom beam edges. Dance Breaks  The portion of a song and dance number in musical theatre where the performer(s) stop singing and go into a featured dance routine. Dance Club  A particular type of nightclub in which dance by the patrons is the primary element of entertainment. Dance Tower  A variation of boom that uses a metal truss-like structure to support the sidelights. Dancing Water Display  A performance event that features fountains with a variety of choreographed jet sprays and colored lighting, which are set to music. Dark Ride  A themed ride in which vehicles move through a darkened environment where only accent lighting is used on given features of the ride. The vehicle passes from one chamber to another through doors that it “bumps” open. Day-for-Night  A filming technique where a filter is placed over a camera’s lens that filters the daylight to give the illusion of the scene being shot at night. Daylighting  A consideration of architectural lighting that uses the natural effects of daylight to provide supplemental illumination to an interior space. Dead  Refer to a circuit not having power. Dead Back  A reference to a light that is mounted directly behind a subject. Dead Front  A reference to a light that is mounted directly in front of a subject. Dead Hang  To tie-off or hang something like a batten directly from the grid. Deck Electrician  An electrician who works backstage to connect and disconnect temporary circuits, shift equipment, and make new circuit assignments throughout a show. Decorative Lighting  Luminaires with the primary function of adding to the decor of a space. They often bring glitter and sparkle to an interior design and are illustrated by chandeliers, wall sconces, and floor or table lamps. Dedicated Controller  A lighting console that is designed specifically for operating lighting equipment. Dedicated Venue  A performance facility that is specifically designed around the event that it houses. Cirque du Soleil programs often make use of dedicated venues. Delay/Wait  A manner of placing a hold on part of a segment of a cue’s transition times. The actual nature of each is dependent on the specific console. Depreciation  A reduction in the light output of a lamp or luminaire over time. Factors that cause depreciation might include temperature effects, place in life cycle, dirt and grime, etc. Depth of Field  A range of focus located on either side of the focal point where objects remain in relatively good focus. Design Development  A design phase that represents a point at which the team comes to a basic agreement on the design, works out the details, and moves toward finalizing their designs. Design Meeting  A meeting between the director and all of the designers. Concepts are presented and the team collaborates and refines ideas regarding the designs for a production. Design on the Fly  A design mode in which a lighting designer runs a console predominately in a manual mode while creating original cues during an actual performance. This is a manner of improvising along with the performers.

Glossary  381

Design Packet  An information packet that a lighting designer sends to the venue ahead of their arrival that includes all the information that the crew will need to hang the design. It contains the light plot, other draftings related to the electrics department, the lighting schedules, and inventory or shop orders. Design Paperwork (Paperwork or Schedules)  A set of standardized lighting forms that organize all the information presented in the light plot in table formats. Each schedule is organized around a given type of lighting data. Instrument and channel schedules or hookups are the most commonly used schedules. Design Phase  A step in design development that relates to making a determination of the actual image of light. The initial phase refers to developing a concept, while later stages deal with translating this image into practical choices like fixture selection and mounting positions that support this vision. Desk (Lighting Console)  A computer or automated lighting control device. It is preferred over older terms like light board. Diagonal  A distribution pattern associated with dance lighting that forms diagonal pathways that extend from a downstage corner to the opposite upstage corner of the stage. Dichroic Filter  A glass color filter that works on the principle of reflecting unwanted wavelengths of light rather than by absorbing them. Dichroic (Cold Mirror) Reflectors  A recent innovation that permits heat and low-wavelength electromagnetic radiation to pass through the reflector to the back of the instrument while the shorter wavelengths (light) are reflected. Diffuse  A quality of light that is generally associated with a soft even distribution that does not produce sharply defined shadows. Diffuser  A piece of glass, plastic, or other material that is placed over the front face of a luminaire to scatter and soften light while also preventing view of the light source. Diffuse Reflection  A type of reflection where light is scattered in numerous directions. Diffusion Media (Frost)  Media similar to gel that is used to alter the quality of the light (to soften, as a rule). Film and video designers tend to use more diffusion due to the closer proximity that the luminaires have with the subject. Digital Control  A control protocol where a burst or packet of information (channel numbers and intensities) is sent to the dimmers and other equipment at a time when a change is required in the channel levels. Digital Light  A new generation of automated lighting instruments that in addition to having all the functions of any other automated fixture also have the ability of projecting still and video images. Digital Projection  Projection techniques that make use of computer or digital images/files and projectors rather than traditional techniques such as film or shadow projection. Digital-to-Analog Converter (Multiplexers)  A piece of equipment that acts as an interface for translating the digital signals of a control console to the analog control voltages used by older dimmers. Dimmer  A control device that adjusts the intensity of the lights. In most cases, a dimmer varies the voltage to control the brightness of the lights. Dimmer Check  See Channel Check. Dimmer Doubling™ (Multiplexing)  A trademark for ETC technology that allows designers to add additional control to a lighting system through adding specialized hardware to an existing dimmer. These additions effectively convert the single dimmer into two separately controlled dimmers. Dimmer-per-Circuit (DPC)  A specialized form of dimming in which every lighting circuit is hardwired to its own dimmer. Dimmer Plate (Plate)  The physical dimmer assembly in resistance and autotransformer dimming. It contains the coils, mounting plate, electrical contacts, and shoe mechanism. Dimmer Schedule  A specific form of paperwork or hookup that presents all the luminaire data of a light plot in a table format. It organizes the information by dimmer number. Dimming  Changes in intensity of a luminaire. Dimming may be both raised (dimming up) and lowered (dimming down). Dimming Curve  A relationship between how smoothly or proportionally a dimmer controls its load as it progresses from off to full. Dimming Screen (Reducing Screen)  A lighting accessory with a metal screen that is used in architectural and display lighting to lower the intensity of a luminaire without having an effect on the lamp’s color temperature. Different screen densities provide a variety of intensity drops. Dip  To lower the intensity of a lighting fixture or entire cue. Direct Component  An element of lighting considered by illuminance at a point calculations for the line-of-sight measure of light coming directly from a luminaire to a particular point on a surface Direct Current (DC)  Electricity in which the voltage remains steady and relatively constant throughout time. Batteries produce DC current.

382  Glossary

Direct-Indirect Luminaires  An IESNA classification of luminaire based on a distribution pattern in which the light is directed equally well in both the upward and downward directions. Direct Luminaires  An IESNA classification of luminaire based on a distribution pattern where 90–100% of the light is directed downward. Direct Sunlight  One of the components of daylighting. This refer to the effect of sunlight shining directly into a space or facility. Director of Photography  See Cinematographer. Director’s Concept  A statement presented by a director that addresses issues such as themes, meaning, character analysis and associations, and a specific interpretation of a script. The degree of realism or stylization and any symbolism may also be presented in a concept. The statement provides the context within which the production is to be created and becomes the guideline that shapes all of the interpretations and decisions connected with producing the project. Disconnect Box  A distribution panel that provides a power source for easy connection to supplemental equipment like a touring dimming rack. A company switch or road-tap are common examples of disconnect boxes. Display Lighting  An area of lighting that refers to lighting displays associated with retail and museum lighting as well as any other types of displays. Dissolve Effect  An effect that smoothly fades from one photographic image to another. Distortion  A series of properties by which a projection may be deformed. The most common form of distortion relates to keystoning. Distributed Dimming  A form of dimming that uses solid-state electronics to shorten individual cable runs through placing the actual dimmers in locations where the circuits would be located. Distribution  A controllable quality of light. Most lighting designers relate distribution to two specific lighting properties: angle or direction and quality. Distribution Amplifier  A device placed on a DMX control line to strengthen the control signal. Distribution Panels  Secondary electrical panels located throughout a building that are fed from the main switchboard and further distribute the power into branch circuits that lead to specific electrical equipment like lights and outlets. Divergence  When light rays are redirected in such a manner that they are focused away from one another and a common point. DMX 512  The original universal control protocol for digital dimming. It provided a common control signal that allowed control and dimming equipment from a variety of manufacturers to work together. A newer variation of the control protocol was updated in the 1990s and is known as DMX512A. Dots (Flags and Fingers)  In film and video lighting these are opaque objects that are placed between the source and the target to block light from an unwanted area. Each variation relates to a different shape and variety of sizes. Doughnut  An accessory placed in the color frame of a luminaire that consists of a metal plate with a hole cut at its center. They are used to sharpen the image of gobos. Double-hang  A manner of providing additional variety by duplicating lighting instruments representing a given wash or function. The most common example is in providing a second color system for a given lighting angle. Double Rotator  A variation of gobo rotator that allows two gobos to be stacked to produce a composite gobo effect. Both gobos may be rotated in either direction at a variety of speeds. Douser  A mechanical dimmer used to dim lighting fixtures that cannot be dimmed electrically. They are found on followspots and other units that use arc sources. Downlight  A distribution angle that comes from directly above a subject and tends to produce distorted or heightened shadows that can have the effect of shortening or squashing a subject. Dramatic Form (Structure)  The manner in which a play is crafted with specific elements of its structure being presented to an audience at given points in its performance. Dramatic Spine (Major Dramatic Question)  The element or action that will form the major conflict of a play. Examples might include whether a particular social injustice is righted, if a particular relationship is restored, or if the boy ends up with the pretty girl. Drop-Boxes  A circuit distribution box that is lowered from a stage’s grid and provides from three to 12 or more circuits to a new hanging position. Six additional circuits are a fairly common standard. Drop Focus  When a luminaire’s focus setting slips due to not being tightened down sufficiently or through other factors such as vibrations in a venue which results in the focus falling lower than originally set by the designer. Dry Run (Walkthrough)  A film or video first rehearsal in which the actors arrive for a blocking rehearsal and the director establishes their movement patterns. Dry Tech (First Tech and Technical Rehearsals)  A rehearsal that is often associated with the actual cue-writing process or first evaluation of the cues by the director. It focuses on the technical elements of a production, not the performers.

Glossary  383

Lighting, sound, and scenic elements are introduced and integrated into the production at this time. Performers are usually not called unless there are especially complex sequences involving them. Dumping a Show  When a computer lighting console loses its memory and all of the cues and their related data is lost. Edit Cues  Making revisions or changes in the cues. Edge Lighting  A type of film or video lighting that uses a variation of sidelight to graze a subject’s surface to produce extended shadows that emphasize its texture. Educational Facilities Lighting  Lighting that is associated with the illumination of schools and college or university facilities along with other educational buildings. Edu-tainment  A form of themed entertainment that is often used in museums. This uses entertainment and themed design elements as a method of teaching. Effect Lighting  1. Video or film lighting that doesn’t directly affect the subject but is used to produce specific effects in a scene (projection patterns, accents, etc.). 2. Lighting in a themed attraction that exists only for effect (strobes, blacklight, etc.). Effects  1. Lighting that generates some form of optical effect (fire effects, water reflections, lightning, etc.). 2. A set of menus found on computer lighting consoles that allow a designer to create elaborate cue sequences into pre-programmed effects. Effects Module  A pre-programmed effect like a chase sequence that can be assigned to specific control channels. Operators can usually vary the speed and intensity of the effects. Effects Projector  A projector that is equipped with a series of modular motion effects that can be used to create moving effects like rain and fire. Egg Crates  See Baffles. Egg-Crate Grid  A lighting grid that consists of a series of portholes that are created in a regular grid pattern directly above a stage. The portholes, or wells, are fashioned into the structure of the ceiling (2 to 3 feet square) and contain a pipe or other hardware for mounting luminaires. Electric  A hanging position for lighting that is found directly above the stage and consists of a pipe or batten that runs across the width of a stage. Many facilities have permanent electrics equipped with raceways and larger counter-weight arbors. Electrical Contractor  The company (or individual), in architectural applications, that is contracted to acquire and install the lighting equipment according to the designer’s specifications and building codes. Electrical Distribution  The electrical pathway in which electricity flows from its power source through a series of cables or wires and electrical hardware to its final destination and devices that use it, like luminaires. Electrical Mastering  A form of control in which individual dimmers are assigned or wired together with dimmers of a larger capacity for easier mastering. Electrical Potential  A difference in energy levels at two different points. It comes through the addition or gathering of electrons at one of the points and represents a potential for electrical flow. Electricians  Crew members who work around electricity and are primarily associated with the preparation and execution of the lighting for a production. In architectural applications electricians are licensed and install all of the electrical equipment. Electrics Crew  The crew that is responsible for all of the electrical requirements of a production. Their work focuses on lighting and sound but they also provide power to effects, lifts, hydraulic pumps, winches, and other electrical equipment. Electromagnetic Radiation  Energy in the form of electromagnetic waves or radiant energy. Electromagnetic Spectrum  A continuum representing a collection of different levels of radiant energy, like visible light, that are specified by different wavelengths. The longer wavelengths (radio, television, and electricity) relate to lower energy levels, while the shortest (gamma and cosmic rays) relate to higher energy levels. Electromagnetism  A physical phenomenon in which an electrical current can be produced or induced by moving a wire through a magnetic field. Electronic Control  A form of lighting control using semi-conductor electronic hardware in which a low-voltage control signal is used to proportionally regulate the line-voltage that determines the brightness of the lights. Electronic Dimming  A form of dimming in which a low-voltage control signal is created at a light board/console, which in turn regulates a line-voltage power supply that provides proportional power to a circuit and luminaires. Electronic Mastering  A low-voltage form of mastering that became possible through electronic dimming. Electronic mastering provides presetting and a host of other dimming features that aren’t possible with manual control systems. Ellipsoidal Reflector  A reflector based on the shape of an ellipse. A unique property of this reflector is that through placing a light source at the primary focal point, the light is focused to and passes through a conjugate or secondary focal point.

384  Glossary

Ellipsoidal Reflector Floodlight (ERF or Scoop)  The simplest floodlight in use. It creates an extremely wide distribution pattern of soft, diffuse light. The edges are soft and easily blend with adjoining fixtures. Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlight (ERS)  The most extensively used spotlight, with optics that are superior to other luminaires and produces a crisp, even pool of light. ERSes have very sharp, well-defined edges as well as the ability to shape the light through accessories like shutters or gobos. Emergency Lighting  Lighting that comes on and gives a base level of illumination when there is a power outage. It is powered by a battery or generator. Encapsulated Arc Sources  A variation of short-arc lamp in which the arc is enclosed in a glass envelope. In film and video setups, these lamps have very high color temperatures (approximately 5,500° K) and are often used to supplement daylight. Encoder  A knob or rotary control found on control consoles that is particularly friendly for programming the attributes of intelligent fixtures. End User  The individual(s) who will actually be inhabiting (working within or experiencing) the lit environment. The lighting is specified according to their tasks. Energy Management  Reducing a building’s power demands while producing a lighting system that is designed and used in a way that is energy efficient and doesn’t have an adverse effect on lighting quality or other building systems. Enhanced Definition Lens Tube (EDLT)  A lens barrel developed by ETC for the Source Four Spotlight that has superior optics. Enhanced Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlight (ERS)  An improved variation of the ellipsoidal reflector spotlight (ERS) that was developed in the early 1990s by ETC. Its improved lamp, shutters, and reflector design produces far superior light than traditional ERSes. It is becoming the luminaire of choice for most designers. Enhanced PAR  A PAR luminaire that is designed around the newer HPL lamp. The light is similar in quality but superior to a traditional PAR, and beam angles are varied through the replacement of lenses rather than by using different lamps. Entertainment Services and Technology Association (ESTA)  An organization of theatrical manufacturers and dealers that provides resources to the commercial areas of the entertainment community as well as a venue for establishing many of the standards of the industry. Entertainment Technician Certification Program (ETCP)  A certification program that helps to ensure that individuals have an established level of competency as a professional (rigger or electrician). Certification is granted through passing an exam every three years or going through a series of educational programs. Establish a Scene  A function of lighting in which light is used to communicate specific information about the environment that is being created (time of day, season, geographical location, etc.). Evaluation Phase  A phase of construction that takes place after a client has taken occupancy and where the designer checks client satisfaction, performs fixes or modifications as needed, and helps the client understand how to maintain and operate a design. Exit Lighting  A special lighting system that powers signage that identifies exit routes and doorways in public buildings. Expendables (Perishables)  Lighting materials such as gel, tie-line, and gobos that must be purchased and cannot be returned once used. Exposure  1. Amount of light used to sensitize or produce an image on film or video. 2. The detrimental effect of heat, visible light, and ultraviolet radiation coming from light sources (of particular concern in retail and museum or gallery lighting). It can also come from natural sources like daylight. Exposure Ratios  A variation of contrast ratios for video lighting where a comparison is made between the lighting intensities of any two objects or areas in an image. Extended Service  Lamps with longer lamp lives than normal lamps. Exterior Lighting  Lighting of the outside of a building and its entrances. Many make a distinction between exterior lighting and lighting the surrounding grounds (landscape lighting). Extrude  A virtual modeling technique in which a two-dimensional shape/plane is stretched along a length that is perpendicular to itself to produce a three-dimensional object. An example would be extruding a circle into a solid tube or cylinder. Eye-Lash (Half Hat)  A variation of a top hat that masks only half the cylinder. Eye-Light  A type of front fill used in film and video work that comes in at a low angle from the front (often mounted on the camera) and provides good facial light while bringing sparkle to a subject’s eyes. Face-Light  A frontal source used in film and video that comes in at a low angle and provides good facial lighting. Eye-light is a special type of face-light. Faders  The actual slide switches found on a lighting console. Falloff  Refers to a light’s intensity dropping off as you move away from its source. Falloff is directly related to the inverse square law.

Glossary  385

Far Cycs  See Cyc Lights. Far-Side Key  Placement of the key light in film and video so that it is on the side of a performer’s face that is away from the camera. Far-side key is usually preferable. Feeders (Feeder Cables)  Large-gauge wires that deliver high capacity power to distribution panels and other dimming/ electrical equipment. Female Connector  A connector with one or more receptacles for making quick connections between electrical devices and cables. The female connector provides the source of the power. Fiber Optics  An assemblage of very thin glass or plastic tubes that transport light. There are two popular forms: end-emitting fiber, which conducts light throughout its length where it emerges at the end of the fiber; and side-emitting fiber, which radiates light along its sides and glows like a neon tube. Field Angle  The angle representing the beam distribution of a luminaire where the intensity has fallen off to 10% of the intensity at the center of the beam. Field angles are inclusive of beam angles. Filament  The part of an incandescent lamp that contains the highly resistant material that is heated to produce the actual light source. Filament Sing (Lamp Sing)  A side-effect of early electronic dimmers where the dimmers caused the filaments of the lamps to vibrate and actually produce harmonics that could be heard. Fill Light  Light that is the result of diffusion or scattered reflections. In many cases, this is ambient light. In entertainment and film or video lighting, it is an additional source that adds light to the areas of an object that would be associated with shadows or achieves a base level of illumination that the cameras can record. In architectural and landscape lighting, fill light is a low-level light that provides an overall ambience to an area while tying all the other sources together. Film  A medium in which photosensitive emulsions are exposed to light to record images. Filtering  Placing a material in front of a light source that selectively removes frequencies or wavelengths of light. Filters  A material through which light passes where certain wavelengths are filtered out (absorbed) while others pass directly through. Gel is a generic name for filters. Fingers  See Dots. Fires  Refers to the moment of switching on or the sampling point of an SCR dimmer. Firmware  Software that is downloaded to a console, automated light, or other computer peripheral and improves the equipment’s performance. First Team  The primary or actual performers in a film or television production. First Tech  See Dry Tech Rehearsal. Five-Point Lighting  A system for area lighting design that is based on five luminaires. The most common practice involves placing four units at roughly 90° from one another and adding a fifth downlight to an area. Five Times Rule  A rule for establishing the validity of using the inverse square law in lighting calculations—the law is less accurate at close distances. It states that the distance between the source and target should be at least five times the largest viewed dimension of the source to provide accurate luminance calculations. Fixed Capacity  An association in which a dimmer (generally resistance) must be fully loaded in order to achieve complete dimming. Fixture A name given to a luminaire, but more specifically designating a luminaire that is permanently installed or mounted. Fixture Library  A collection of data regarding automated luminaires and their attributes. These can be downloaded and stored in a console to eliminate programming that would be required for setting the units up in a console. Flags  See Dots. Flash and Trash  A reference from the concert industry that alludes to simply flashing lights without any clear thought or consideration toward a lighting design. Flash Buttons  See Bump Buttons. Flat Angle  A lighting angle that is relatively low and straight-on. Flat Field  A beam distribution pattern in which the intensity of the beam remains fairly consistent and even throughout the entire field or pool of light. Flat Field Luminaires  Newer enhanced spotlights developed since the early 1990s that have relatively flat fields and more efficient light production. Flatted Reflectors  A variation of mirrored reflectors that have a series of prismatic faces over the reflector surface. Flicker Device  An animation device that produces a flicker effect, which is created through placing a motorized disk with open areas in front of a spotlight’s beam of light. Flood Focus  A setting for a Fresnel spotlight in which the lamp is moved closer to the lens, which causes divergence and results in the light being spread out.

386  Glossary

Floodlight  A luminaire that has a soft, diffuse light with undefined edges that washes over a large area evenly. Floodlights do not usually contain a lens. Floodlighting  A type of lighting that creates a soft, evenly distributed light over a large area. Floor Mount  A lighting instrument that sits or is mounted to the deck or floor. Floorplan (Groundplan)  A scaled top view drafting of a performance area or environment that provides an aerial view of a facility as if the roof had been removed. Floor Pocket  A theatrical distribution box located in the stage floor that contains several independent circuits. Flown Truss (Flying Rig)  A truss supported from above by winches or chain hoists. Fluorescent Bank  Luminaires used in the video and film industry that contain a group of fluorescent lamps (often with special properties) that are housed together and used as economical wash luminaires. They can be either a soft or hard light source depending on what other units are used in a setup. Kino Flo units are popular examples of these luminaires and come in a variety of sizes and lamp configurations. Fluorescent Lamp  A lamp that works on the principle of energizing a field of low-pressure gas between two electrodes. Unlike arc sources, whose light comes from the arc, this arc is in the ultraviolet range and energizes another material like phosphorous that glows and actually creates the light. Flyby  A tool used in visualization programs that permits a viewer to experience a virtual world through following a view along a predetermined path. Flying Rig  See Flown Truss. Focal Length  A measurement taken from a given point of a lens (its optical center) to its focal point. Focal Point  A point of focus along the optical path of a lens or reflector that coincides with the location from which light rays will be directed to produce parallel light rays. The reverse (where parallel light rays are directed to a focal point) is also true. Focus  1. A lighting function that refers to drawing attention to various elements of an environment. 2. Aiming and adjusting the beam quality of a luminaire. Focus Chart  A table that documents the focus characteristics of each luminaire in a design. Most importantly, it documents the unit’s location of the hotspot and focus as well as the focus settings (hard/soft), spot/flood settings, and shutter positions. Focusing (Focus Call)  A crew call in which the lighting crews aim and adjust each light for optimum performance under the direction of the lighting designer. Focusing Spots  Location luminaires that are relatively small and designed to be mounted on portable stands. They can be open-faced or may contain a lens. In some cases, the reflector may also be changeable. Focus Palettes (Focus Points)  Reference points to which automated lighting fixtures have pre-assigned pan and tilt positions. This allows a programmer to quickly move a light to predetermined positions. Focus Track  A specialized device that is used where a lift or ladder cannot be used due to obstructions to their movement on the deck or over an audience. It essentially places a movable boatswain’s chair on a track that is mounted on or near a neighboring electric or truss. An electrician sits in the chair and is moved along the position at trim height to focus lights across the position without having to deal with the obstructions that are below. Follow Cue  A cue that is launched automatically without a “go” instruction by a preceding cue. For instance, Cue 12 brings up a special on a performer which is then automatically followed by Cue 13 which is a 300-count sunset fade that is launched with a pre-programmed time after Cue 12 has been initiated. Following Source  A video or film technique in which the lighting is based predominantly on motivational lighting elements. Followspot  A spotlight that is used to follow performers around a stage or performance area. Most have controls for easy modification of the shape and color of the light. Followspot Operator  An individual who operates a followspot. They typically control pan and tilt, color, and size and sharpness of the beam of light that strikes the performers. Footcandle  A measure of illuminance that is based on the illuminance level found at a 1-foot distance from a candle. Footlights  A lighting position at the very front edge of the stage at floor or stage level which provides a wash of uplight onto the performers. Four-Point Lighting  A system for general lighting that is based on four luminaires being placed at roughly 90° orientations with one another. This is a popular approach for thrust and arena lighting design. Four-way Barn Door  A control device that is placed in the front of a luminaire and has four individual panels that can be rotated into the beam of light to block or control spill. Four-wire System (Wye)  An electrical service connection where a power utility provides three different hot wires and a common neutral to a given site.

Glossary  387

Framing  To shape the light around a subject using shutters or other devices. Framing is often associated with architectural, retail, and museum applications. Framing Projector  A smaller variation of ellipsoidal reflector spotlight (ERS) that is often box-shaped and contains superior optics along with shutters and other accessories for manipulating the shape of the light. Framing projectors are used in retail and architectural design, but are more commonly associated with museum, gallery, and landscape lighting. Fresnel Lens  A variation of plano-convex lens that has portions of the convex surface removed. A dimpled texture on the plano surface adds a diffusing effect that masks the concentric rings found on its front surface. Fresnel Spotlight  Named for the inventor of the Fresnel lens, Augustine-Jean Fresnel, the essential elements include a lamp, spherical reflector, and Fresnel lens. Light from Fresnels is moderately harsh, while the edges are soft and not clearly defined. Frequency  A method of measuring waves based on the number of oscillations per unit time. Front Diagonal  A distribution angle that places a light approximately midway between a front light and a sidelight angle. It offers the best of both angles in regard to revelation of a subject. Front End  The portion of a control system that contains the console or light board. Front of House (FOH)  A reference to lighting positions that are downstage of the proscenium or are in the audience area (house). Front Light  A lighting angle that comes from in front of a subject and helps provide visibility and visual clarity. At the same time, it can flatten and reduce the effect or appearance of three-dimensional textures and forms. Front Projection  A form of projection where the projector and source material are placed in front of the screen or projection surface. Frost  See Diffusion Media. Frosted Finish  A bulb finish that contains a natural diffuser to soften the light that a lamp produces. F-Stop  The size of the aperture/opening of a camera lens, which is expressed through a set of numbers that relate to one another logarithmically. Every drop in f-stop equates to allowing twice as much light into a lens. Funnel  A tapered or cone-shaped snoot or top hat. Fuse  An electrical device that is designed as the weakest link in a circuit and meant to trip or “blow” if the circuit should become overloaded. Unlike a circuit breaker, most fuses cannot be reset. Gaffer  See Chief Lighting Technician. Gain  A way of characterizing a screen or projection surface’s ability to reflect or transmit light. The higher the gain, the better the material performs as a screen. Gaseous Discharge  A form of arc light source where the arc is placed in a specific atmosphere of gases. Fluorescent lamps are an example of this light source. Gate  The area of an ellipsoidal reflector spotlight (ERS) that is located roughly at the unit’s secondary (conjugate) focal point. This is the location where the light is most concentrated and where shutters, gobos, and other accessories are placed. Gating  The process in electronic dimming in which a low-voltage signal is used to control or sample the high-voltage output of a dimmer through triggering an SCR so that it fires or turns on at a given point in a cycle. Gauge  A measurement of the thickness or diameter of a wire. The larger the gauge (number), the smaller the diameter of the wire and the less current or load that it can safely carry. Gear  A term often used by entertainment professionals for lighting equipment. Gel  A color filter originally made from animal gelatin that was tinted to produce different colors. As fixtures improved, gel could no longer stand up to the temperatures of the newer light sources and has been replaced by plastic filters. Gel Frame  See Color Frame. Gelstring  A sequence of gels that have been taped together to form a scroll of adjoining colors for a color scroller. Gel strings typically contain 12 or more colors. General Circulation Lighting  See Ambient Lighting. General Diffuse Luminaire  An IESNA classification of luminaire based on a distribution pattern in which light is directed equally well in nearly all directions. General Illumination  See Area Lighting. General Lighting  See Area Lighting. Generator  A device that allows mechanical motion to be transferred into electrical potential or power by moving electrical coils through a magnetic field. Portable generators that are used on location shoots for film or video may be as small as lawnmower engine or as large as truck or trailer mounted units. A generator is often called a “genny” by people in the business. Genie-Lift (Genie Tower and SuperLift)  Ground supports for trussing that are adaptations of lifts that were designed for the construction industry.

388  Glossary

Genny Operator (Generator Operator)  The individual who operates and monitors the generator(s) on a location or remote shoot. Ghosting  1. A dimming condition in which a full out cannot be achieved by a dimmer, despite having a setting that should produce no light. 2. Placing very low levels of intensity on a stage, such as during a near blackout for a scene change or to check if a lamp is working. Ghost Light (Ghost Load)  1. An additional load of lamps placed on a resistance dimmer to bring it to full capacity while also allowing a full range of dimming for a circuit. 2. A bare bulb lamp placed on a stand and left glowing when a theatre is not in operation. This prevents people from being harmed when entering the space. Glare  The presence of distracting light within a viewer’s field of vision. This may come about as the result of an unusually high level of reflectance (snow on a bright afternoon) or when an observer is forced to look directly into a light source. Glazing  The clear or translucent material used on windows and building facades. Glitter (Sparkle)  A positive element of glare. We may want to create a limited amount of glare to add visual interest and perhaps some focus to a scene or object. Global Illumination  A special form of virtual lighting that creates a uniform light throughout an environment. Goal Post  Grip equipment used in location shooting that connects two vertical stands like C-stands with a horizontal arm or batten to which luminaires and other grip equipment can be mounted. Gobo (Pattern or Template)  1. A metal or glass pattern that is inserted into the optical path of a luminaire to create a texture or designed image in light. 2. The film and video industries identify gobos as custom-made flags or panels (with holes or patterns cut into them) that are placed between a light source and a target. See Cookie and Cucaloris. Gobo Rotator  An accessory that generates a rotating motion for gobos. Grand Master  An intensity fader that provides a mechanism in which the entire system can be controlled by a single fader. Gray Card  A poster-like reference card that is printed in a middle gray and used for white balancing cameras and color temperature calibrations for shooting video under a given set of lighting conditions. Gray Scale  A reference scale used in film and video lighting that rates light reflectivity and value on a scale of 0 (black or total absorption) to 10 (white or total reflection). It is used for color balancing and exposure settings. Grazing  Light played across the surface of an object at an extreme angle. This angle is used to enhance the texture of a surface. Green Bed (Greenie)  A catwalk system of platforms that are hung from the rafters of a sound stage at about 4 feet above a set. They are arranged along the outline of a set and have a series of holes along their edges for mounting luminaires along their perimeters. Power is dropped down to the platforms from above and distributed to the lights as needed. Green Power  Using conservation methods or “thinking green” as a way of lowering the energy demands of a project and ultimately saving our natural resources. Grid  A structure at the top of a theatre’s flyspace that supports all the blocks and rigging hardware for all the flying equipment (battens, scenery, maskings, and electrics). Also short for lighting grid—a series of pipes hung over a performance space for hanging luminaires and other objects. Grips  The crew members for film and video shoots who are responsible for the movement and setup of any equipment required for a production. They are also responsible for the installation and operation of camera gear like dollies and cranes. Grip Truck  A truck used on location shoots that holds and transports lighting and grip equipment for location production. Studios rent grip trucks that are equipped with a pre-determined inventory of lighting and grip equipment for a standard fee. Ground  A point that represents the lowest potential for an electrical charge (earth or absolute ground) and toward which all electricity strives to flow. In electrical services, the ground is a safety path or wire that leads from a device to an earth ground and becomes the emergency path for any unwanted electrical flow. Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI)  A device that detects any flow of electricity between the neutral and earth ground. If it detects any, it trips in the same way as a circuit breaker trips. They are typically installed in areas where there is a higher risk of shock and are often found in kitchens, bathrooms, and exterior locations. Groundplan  See Floorplan. Ground Row  A collection of luminaires (usually striplights) that are floor-mounted across the width of the stage that illuminate a drop or cyclorama from below. Ground-supported Truss  A truss that is supported from below by towers or lifts. Groups  A manner of combining channels or dimmers into larger elements with less specific control when using an electronic control system. Group Relamping  A method of relamping in which lamps are replaced together as a group on a regular schedule. The schedule is based on the number of hours that the system is in operation and the rated lamp life of the lamps. This is especially efficient when luminaires are hard to reach.

Glossary  389

Hair Light  A form of film and video lighting (a variation of steep backlight) that is used to add highlights to the talent’s hair. Halation  An effect where there is a slight scattering of light around the edges of a beam or projected images (such as a gobo) that prevents a sharp well-defined edge to be produced. Half Hat  See Eye Lash. Halogen Metal Iodide (HMI) Lamp  A special variation of HID lamp that makes use of metal halides to produce an arc light source with better color rendering capabilities than other arc sources. Hanging and Circuiting  Placing or hanging the luminaires and wiring them according to the specifications of the lighting designer. Hanging Cards  A partial copy of a light plot that contains the information that an electrician needs to hang a single lighting position. They can be mounted on laminated cards or cardboard so that they can stand up to the abuses of touring. Hanging Irons  Specialized hardware, with an attached C-clamp, that are used to hang striplights. Two are required for each stripligh—one for each end. Hanging Position  A permanent mounting position for luminaires located throughout a performance venue. They also usually have permanently wired circuits running to them. Hanging Section  A portion of a light plot that provides the location and labeling of all the battens/linesets that are hung from above the stage. Hard Blackouts  See Block Cues. Hard Light  A classification of light in film and video lighting that is often associated with the key source for a setup. It is quite directional and generally the primary source responsible for producing strong highlights and sharp, well-defined shadows in a scene. In landscape lighting, this is the higher contrast light and is marked by clear well-defined shadows. Hard-Lights  A classification of film and video luminaires that produce a sharp light with shadows. The luminaires are often focusable and have a reasonable degree of control. They form strong shadows and are good directional light sources, making them a logical choice for key lights. Hardscape  The architectural and sculptural elements of a landscape. Haze  A low-grade fog or smoke that lightly charges the atmosphere with particles that permit the beams of light to be seen. Hazers  A piece of equipment that is similar to an atmospheric fog machine that lightly charges the air with a haze rather than filling the air with fog or smoke. Head  An accessory that is added to a projector to create a specific projection effect. Head Gaffer  The individual who supervises the entire lighting department for a television or film production. Health Care Lighting  Lighting associated with the needs of the medical industry. It is one of the more complex areas of architectural lighting and relates to lighting hospitals, long-term care facilities, and medical offices or labs. Heat Shield  A special form of clear, gel-like material that filters ultraviolet radiation. It is inserted at the front of a unit, between the lamp and gel (leaving a gap for airflow between them) and can help extend a gel’s life. Heat Sink  A metal fin-like assembly for mounting and cooling SCRs and other electronic equipment. High-Bay  A variation of luminaire commonly found in “big-box” stores and warehouses that provides a wash of general lighting from relatively high mounting heights. High-Density Dimmers  Small, compact dimmers that can be packaged into a limited amount of space (High-Density Racks). Today’s high-density dimmers are small enough that nearly 200 of them can be mounted in a single rack. High-End Retail Environment  A retail market in which the customer enters an environment where they are made to feel comfortable and catered to as they go through the purchasing process. High-Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps  . Highly efficient sources that use an enclosed arc to produce light. These lamps require a ballast and have a warm-up period of up to 10 minutes. They are common to architectural applications with mercury, high-pressure sodium, and metal halide forming the most common examples. High Key  A lighting condition in video lighting in which there is little difference between the lighting levels of the key and fill light—high key lighting has a small lighting/contrast ratio (1:1, 2:1 or 3:1) and a less dramatic image. Highlights  Flashes of reflected light that represent areas that are directly illuminated by a light source. High-Mast Lighting  Mounting street and roadway luminaires on poles over 60 feet tall. High-Pipe-Ends (HPE)  Luminaires that are hung on the extreme ends of the electrics for high-angled sidelight. High-Power LEDs (HPLEDs)  A second generation of LEDs that produce a much higher light output than traditional LEDs. They are very efficient and produce enough light to be used as an actual light source. They are often combined into arrays or clusters of multiple HPLEDs that can produce enough heat to require a heat sink. High-Pressure Sodium Lamp  A variation of HID lamp that uses sodium as its primary lamp fill and is often used for street lighting. It is very efficient and can be recognized by its pinkish-orange color. High-Resolution Mode  A mode associated with the degree of control that an attribute has in an automated luminaire. High-resolution modes are associated with 16-bit/two-channel operation of an attribute. Resolution modes are frequently associated with pan/tilt functions where fine and course adjustments are available for these movements.

390  Glossary

Hologram  An advanced projection effect that is produced through a combination of laser and film effects. The unique quality of holograms is that they can produce an illusion of a three-dimension image. Home (Homing)  A process that automated luminaires go through as part of a startup sequence where the stepper motors are referenced to specific points so that the luminaires share a common reference for their attributes with every performance. Home Run (Spidering)  A manner of theatrical circuiting in which luminaires are wired directly from their hanging position all the way back to the dimmers. This is popular for touring and is often done in road houses and rental facilities. Hood (Body)  1. The actual enclosure of a luminaire. It provides for the proper mounting and orientation of all the optical components while also providing a way for mounting the luminaire and its accessories. 2. An optical accessory for architectural luminaires that fits over the face of a fixture and helps block viewers from direct glare from a lamp or reflector. Hookup  Design paperwork that presents all of the information contained in a light plot in a table format. The data is organized by control (channel or dimmer number). Hospitality Lighting  A variation of architectural lighting that relates to the hotel and restaurant industries. Hot Light Sources  See Continuous Light Sources. Hot Wire  Wire that leads to the power source for a circuit. House Electrician  Typically a master electrician assigned to a specific theatre or performance space, which is common in both union and road or touring houses. This term is also used to distinguish between a local and touring electrician on work calls. Houses of Worship (Church) Lighting  A specialized area of architectural lighting that refers to lighting churches, temples, and other religious structures. Housing  See Body Hub  A computer networking device that allows multiple Ethernet connections to be connected together through a special interface. Hues  The generic name for a color (e.g., red, blue, orange, etc.). Hues become a familiar means of communicating basic color information from one person to another. I-MAG (I-mag or I-Mag)  3A video projection system used in large venues in which live camera feeds are sent to large-format screens that allow the most distant audience members to see the artists more closely. Illuminance  The density of light that has struck an object’s surface and is then reflected. Two measurements of illuminance include the lux (1 lumen per square meter) or the footcandle (1 lumen per square foot). Illuminance at a Point  A lighting calculation used for determining the illuminance at a specific location rather than the average illuminance over an area. This method of calculation can be used for both horizontal and vertical surfaces and is best utilized for single light sources. It is particularly helpful for determining the illuminance in applications involving wall surfaces like displays and bulletin boards. Illuminating Engineer  An individual who designs the lighting for architectural projects and who comes from an electrical engineering background. Illumination Engineering  A specialized field of electrical engineering that relates to the design and specification of architectural and other permanent lighting installations. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA or IES)  A professional society that provides services to lighting professionals and the lighting industry. Publications, training, and controlling specification standards and recommended practices for the industry are a few of the responsibilities of this organization. Illuminator  The equipment that provides the light source for a fiber optics bundle. Image of Light (Lighting Scheme/Concept or Point of View)  A vision of the lighting for a project. All other tasks related to a lighting design ultimately go back to this initial step in the process. Imagineers  The unique creative team of Disney that is the primary leadership in the development of Disney’s themed attractions. They come from a creative background that is part artists and part engineers. Incandescence  The most popular method of light production, which is represented by the common light bulb. A metal filament is heated to the point that it gives off electromagnetic radiation and glows. Incident Light Meter  An exposure type of light meter that is used by standing in the location of the subject and pointing the meter back toward the camera and light source. It measures the level of light striking a subject. Independent Master  A special form of controller that allows those channels assigned to it to function independently from any other mastering on the board. Index of Refraction  The relative speed of light moving through translucent materials expressed as a proportional ratio to the speed of light moving through a vacuum. Indirect Illumination  A form of illumination in which light is reflected off another surface before being used as a source of illumination. Many architectural designs use the ceiling to create indirect illumination. Film shoots use large reflector panels to soften a light source and to provide indirect illumination to a scene.

Glossary  391

Indexing Rotator  A gobo rotator that allows gobos to be stopped at precise locations. Indirect Luminaire  An IESNA classification of luminaire based on a distribution pattern in which 90–100% of the light is directed toward the ceiling, where it is reflected back into the room. Induced Current  The current that is created in a wire from the pulsations of a magnetic field, as in the case of a transformer. Industrial Lighting  Lighting facilities that are involved in the manufacturing process. Industrials  A type of corporate theatre where large spectacle presentations combining performers, theatrical gimmicks like presentational lighting and pyro effects, and large-screen video projections build enthusiasm for a product or company service. Inky  The smallest version of Fresnel spotlight (a 3-inch variety). In-one  A plane or zone that forms a pathway across the width of a stage. It is associated with the area between the proscenium opening and the first set of legs. Additional planes include in-two, in-three, etc. Instrument  A luminaire. The term “instrument” is more commonly used in the theatrical and entertainment areas of lighting while fixture or luminaire is more popularly used in architectural applications. Instrument Schedule  Lighting paperwork that organizes the data contained in a light plot by hanging position and instrument number. Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)  A solid-state component of the newer sine wave dimmers that has the capability of sampling an AC current several hundred times throughout each half-cycle of a dimming cycle, which produces a more accurate sampling of the AC voltage than traditional SCRs. Insulation  Highly electrical resistant material used to cover conductors such as wires. Insulator  A material with high electrical resistance that forms a barrier to electrical flow. Intelligent Lights  See Automated Lights or Moving Lights. Intensity  A quality of light associated with the brightness of light. Interconnection Panel (Interconnection Patchbay)  See Patchbay. Interference Patterns  . A laser image in which the laser is distorted by passing through an irregular piece of material like glass or plastic, which causes its individual waves to become scattered or knocked out of phase with one another. The technique produces colored patterns of light that form simple or more complex organic patterns that are capable of being transported over long distances. Interior Lighting  An area of lighting that refers to lighting building interiors. Interlocking Handles  A form of mechanical mastering done through connecting banks of dimmers (resistance or autotransformer) to common shafts and control handles that can be locked together through spring-loaded pin mechanisms. Intermediate Colors (Tertiary Colors)  An unequal mixture of primary colors. Intermediate Retail Environment  A retail environment that falls between the high-end and basic retail markets. It contains elements of both markets and would best be characterized by department stores where different departments are lit differently. International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees (IATSE)  The union that represents the lighting and stagehand crews for theatre, video and film, and other production houses and facilities. It is common to hear this union called the “IA” or “local.” International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD)  A professional society that is similar to the IESNA but whose membership is restricted to lighting designers. International Illumination Design Awards (IIDA)  Design awards that are given annually for exceptional examples of architectural lighting design. Inverse Square Law  A law that states that the illuminance of a light source is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source. E = I/D2. Iris (Iris Kit)  1. A mechanical device or accessory that allows light to be shuttered in a circular pattern that permits an operator to narrow or expand the diameter of the light. 2. The colored part of the eye that adjusts the amount of light entering the eye (also found in cameras). Irons  A category of hanging hardware and accessories. Items like C-clamps, sidearms, and hanging irons are examples of irons. ISO  See ASA Island Window  A window display that is surrounded by glass on all sides and allows customers to walk around it to examine merchandise. Jewel Lighting  A variation of the zone lighting formula in which an emphasis is placed on higher intensity levels and the low-angled sidelight that is hung primarily from booms positioned along the sides of the stage and the front diagonals. In addition to the basic washes, jewel lighting adds accents and specials to bring visual interest to a design, and characteristically lights a subject from many angles. Jones Box  A lighting accessory that connects all of the individual control cables of analog dimmer packs to an interface of the digital to analog converter.

392  Glossary

Jones Connectors (Cinch-Jones Connectors)  A special connector associated with analog control cables that provides low-voltage connections between the control cable and the console or dimmers. Jumper (Cable)  A cable containing two or three insulated conductors that has a single male and female connector on each end. It is often used synonymously with cable. Junction Method  A landscape wiring technique that attempts to eliminate voltage drop through wiring every lamp back to a single point in the circuit. Key  1. A portion of the light plot that indicates the specific choice of luminaire with an associated symbol or accessory. 2. The key light or luminaire that provides the key light. Key and Fill  A system for creating general lighting in which one source (the key) is associated with the primary or apparent source and another (the fill) provides enough illumination to suggest any ambient light required for general visibility. It originated in the film and television industry where cameras required minimum levels of illumination to prevent shadow areas from going completely dark. Key Light  The light that is the primary source responsible for lighting a scene. It is associated with the source of the lighting and produces the strongest highlights and shadows. Keystone Effect  A distortion effect that occurs when a projection surface and projector’s slide and resulting image are not oriented properly along the same axis. Keystoning causes lines and surfaces to spread outward in a radiating rather than parallel manner. Kicker  A form of lighting distribution in film and video lighting in which a backlight is offset to one side but can come from any direction above or below a subject. Knock-Offs  A substitute fixture provided by a contractor for architectural installations that is less expensive than those originally specified and often only meets the specifications minimally. They are used to increase profit margin and are undesirable in most situations. Ladder  A hanging position that performs the same function as a boom but is hung from above. Ladders often look similar to an extension ladder and allow sidelight to be added while avoiding ground support that gets in the way of traffic on the deck. Lamp  A device that produces artificial light. Lamp Alignment  Adjusting the orientation or relationship between the reflector and lamp of a luminaire to achieve maximum light output. Lamp Flicker  An unwanted flicker effect that can appear in film and video images when using arc sources (most notably HMI) which is caused by not having the power of the camera and lamp’s ballast synchronized properly. Lampholders  A socket and adjustable fitting that is used to mount flood and spot lamps like PAR-38s from the face plate of a junction box. Lamp Life  The average number of hours that a lamp will burn before failing. It is based on trials in which light production drops off by 80% or more. Lamp Sing  See Filament Sing Landscape Lighting  Lighting exterior grounds and its plant life. Laser  A special form of light that contains a limited or even single wavelength of light that is emitted in a concentrated, narrowly defined direction. A laser emits light in a synchronized or stepping manner that increases its intensity or energy. Latitude  The range of darkness to brightness that a film’s emulsion or video camera is capable of capturing. Latitude is often expressed in terms of f-stops. Law of Reflection  The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. An essential physical property that determines the behavior of light with reflectors. Law of Refraction (Snell’s Law)  As light passes into a more dense material, the light is bent toward a normal angle at the surface boundary between the materials, while light passing from a more dense material into one of less density is bent away from the normal angle with the surface. Layered Design Approach  A design approach connected primarily with architectural design (but also used elsewhere) in which different visual tasks are solved through providing several different lighting solutions on top of one another, each one solving the needs of a particular task. Layering  A technique of using contrast to superimpose one or more lighting systems on top of each other (e.g., creating a base level illumination over an area and placing accent specials on various subjects in that space). LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Screens and Projectors  A projection technique in monitors and screens that are constructed of a matrix of liquid crystals that form an image by having their individual reflectances or light outputs varied through a small control voltage. These units can be assembled into screens of almost any size. LCD projectors are different from traditional projectors in that an LCD panel is located within the projector, where a high-intensity light source is placed behind the display, which then projects the image onto another surface.

Glossary  393

Leap-Frog  A method of touring in which a producer elects to duplicate some of the equipment so that the duplicated gear only plays at every other stop. This occurs when a tour is so large that it cannot be set up in the time allotted between stops and gives the crew an extended period of setup time. Learning Education Units (LEUs)  A unit of course instruction that is given for a specified number of classroom hours of continuing professional education. LEUs are frequently used to maintain certifications like the LC Certification by NCQLP. LED (Light-Emitting Diode)  A solid-state device that produces light through a process in which electricity is applied to a crystal or diode material in a given direction or manner. The result of this creates light in a very limited range of wavelengths. LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)  A program in the construction industry that emphasizes environmentally friendly building practices. Leg (Phase)  One of the power sources or hot wires of an electrical power service. Legs  A masking of vertical fabric that is hung to either side of the stage to block audience view of the stage’s wings. Leko  See Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlight (ERS). Lens  An optical device that makes use of refraction to consolidate and redirect light. If a point light source is placed at the focal point of a lens the associated light will be redirected into parallel rays. Lens Barrel  The focusing portion of a spotlight, which consists of a moveable assembly containing the fixture’s lenses. Lens Flare  An effect created when backlight accidently hits a camera’s lens. It usually causes an undesirable effect through producing internal reflections of the light in the camera but can also be used intentionally for dramatic effect. Lensless Spotlight  A location luminaire that is nothing more than a housing containing a roughly spherical reflector and small tubular tungsten-halogen lamp. It has a wide distribution pattern and provides a good, economical source for the limited power that it consumes. Level-Setting Session  See Cue-Writing Session. Library Cues  Cues in a memory board that may not necessarily be part of a cue sequence but are stored for safekeeping. Storing base cues or an old version of a cue that a designer may wish to go back to are examples of library cues. Life Cycle Costing  A calculation that predicts how much a lighting system will cost to install, operate, and maintain over its projected life span. Lift  1. A mechanical device (usually with electric or pneumatic power) that is used, like a ladder, for elevating electricians and other crew members to the heights where they can troubleshoot and focus luminaires in their hanging positions. 2. A mechanical device that is used to support lighting gear like trusses from below (the deck). Light  A specific form of electromagnetic radiation that corresponds to the wavelengths of radiant energy that are visible to the human eye. It is commonly known as the visible spectrum. Light Attic  A chamber found in display cases (particularly museum cases) that is added to the top of a cabinet that houses the lamps, diffusers, baffles, or other optical accessories used for illuminating a case. This gives protection through separating the lighting elements and heat from the artifacts or other case contents. Light Bridge  A winched catwalk that contains several lighting pipes (often with pre-wired circuits) that is flown directly over and across the width of the stage. Light Center Length (LCL)  A measurement from the center of a lamp’s filament to a specified location on its base. This base location depends on the style of a lamp but remains consistent between all bases of a given style. Light-Emitting Diodes  See LED Light Grid  A network of perpendicular pipes that are hung at regular spacings (3 to 5 feet apart) above a stage or studio. It is used to hang luminaires and scenery from above a performance area. Lighting Area  A smaller portion of an environment or stage created by dividing a larger area into a series of smaller spaces that are each illuminated in a similar manner. Lighting Balloons  An aerial balloon used in exterior location lighting that is flown above a set and contains one or more internal HMI light sources that provide diffuse light to the areas below. Lighting Calculations  A process of using a variety of formulas to determine various lighting properties for an architectural installation. A determination of illumination levels (Lumen Method and Point at a Source) are the most common calculations, but power efficiencies and economic calculations like payback or maintenance costs are also done for most projects. Lighting Concept (Lighting Scheme, Image of Light or Point of View)  A mental image or plan that creates a framework that drives the individual decisions for any lighting project. The concept addresses issues such as style, mood, and transitional patterns as well as specific environmental qualities such as location, geographical setting, and time frame. Lighting concepts are more typically associated with theatrical and entertainment lighting projects. Also see Lighting Scheme.

394  Glossary

Lighting Certified (LC)  A professional certification for architectural lighting designers by the National Council for Qualifications for the Lighting Profession (NCQLP). To earn the LC certification an individual must pass an exam and/or participate in educational activities on a three-year cycle. Lighting Console  See Desk. Lighting Designer (LD)  . The individual who is charged with the overall design of the lighting of a production, event, or environment. A lighting designer produces an artistic vision for the lighting of a project. Lighting Director  The individual who has overall charge of the lighting and its design for a film or video. Lighting Economics  Using calculations to determine the actual costs of installing and maintaining a lighting system. These calculation are also used to determine maintenance and relamping schedules. Lighting Green  To design lighting using environmentally sensitive practices. Lower power densities and consideration toward disposal of hazardous materials (e.g., mercury) are several examples of these considerations. Lighting Instrument  See Luminaire. Lighting Key  A visual representation of the primary lighting angles and colors that would be used as part of a general or overall lighting scheme for a scene or project. Lighting Kit  A selection of approximately a half-dozen location luminaires, along with their accessories (scrims, barn doors, flags, etc.), and portable stands and mountings that are packaged as a group in a shipping case. Lighting Layout (Lighting Scheme or Lighting Plan)  The architectural equivalent of a light plot. It identifies the type and location of the luminaires and also often illustrates the wiring and switch locations that are specified by a lighting designer. Lighting Plan  See Light Plot. Lighting Pole  A pole used in studio setups that helps a studio electrician pull the luminaires down from the lighting grid to their working heights while also focusing and adjusting them from the studio floor. Lighting Ratios  In video production, a variation of contrast ratio that is based on the relationship between the reflected intensity of the key light to the base or fill light. Lighting Scheme (Image of Light or Point of View)  A vision or image of the lighting for a given project. It is the architectural equivalent of a lighting concept. Lighting Score  A manner of illustrating specific lighting qualities found on stage at any given moment. The lighting score is a table that indicates specific moments or scenes across the various columns and a variety of lighting functions or properties that are identified and characterized across each row. Lighting Specification  An architectural contract document based on a specification of the luminaires that will be used on a project. It is organized from a luminaire perspective. Lighting Stands  Portable stands used in film and video lighting (particularly location work) to mount luminaires and accessories from the floor. Lighting System (System)  A group of luminaires that perform similar functions and work together as a group. Washes are popular lighting systems in which a group of lights share qualities like color, hanging angle, and basic instrument type while being focused to different areas of the stage. Lighting Template  1. A specialized stencil used to draw proportionally scaled lighting instruments on a light plot, section, or lighting layout. 2. See gobo or pattern. Lighting the Horizontal Plane  Measuring the quantity of light striking flat surfaces (the work plane) that are parallel with the ceiling (e.g., a desk or counter top). Lighting the Vertical Plane  Measuring the quantity of light striking flat surfaces that are perpendicular to the ceiling (e.g., shelving units and walls). Lighting Unit  See Luminaire. Light Jockey  The operator who improvises a light show on the dance floor for a club. Light Lab  A layout of lighting fixtures and a pipe/grid system that allows fixtures to be hung, wired, and experimented upon in a limited small-scale setting, usually with a height of only 6 to 12 feet. The lab is used for experimentation prior to completing a prototype or actually lighting of a project. Light Loss Factor (LLF)  A factor in lighting calculations that deals with properties that inhibit the delivery of light to an application. This represents factors like the effects of ambient temperature on a luminaire, heat exchange, voltage factors, ballast efficiency, lamp depreciation, burnouts, and the amount of dirt or cleaning that impairs or improves a luminaire’s efficiency. Light Mapping  . A visual representation of an architectural lighting design created by making an indication of the location of each luminaire on an overlay (acetate, vellum or tissue) of the associated floorplan while adding a shading of color (typically in the color of the light; i.e., yellow for incandescent fixtures) that represents the distribution patterns of the associated lighting fixtures. The density of the color is varied in proportion to the projected intensity of the associated light.

Glossary  395

Light Plot (Lighting Plan)  A drafting that communicates all of the information that a crew will need to execute the hanging and circuiting of a design. Typical information contained in a light plot includes choice of type and number of fixtures, hanging locations, gel colors, and control or wiring information. Light Pollution  A condition in which reflected and misdirected light or glare causes scattering and a general ambience of unwanted light in an area. This can be as limited as spilling light onto a neighbor’s property or as large as the loss of a nighttime view of the stars by city glow. Light Shelf  A passive solar device placed outside window surfaces that is used to reflect sunlight upward through the window and into the room where it is reflected off of the ceiling as an indirect light source. Light Trespass  A condition in which light spills into an unwanted area or causes unwanted glare. This is a particular issue when light causes problems with neighboring properties. Limelight  An antiquated luminaire that contained a block of lime that was heated by a gas flame to the point that it created a bright source of light for the stage. Linear (Wash Light)  Light sources and fixtures that have a long narrow source like a fluorescent tube and are used to create smooth, even washes over an area. Lineset  A batten and its associated rigging hardware. Line-Voltage  A reference to electric systems that are operated on normal household currents of 120 volts AC. Linnebach Projector  A variation of lensless or shadow projector that was developed in the early 20th century by Adolph Linnebach, a stage engineer from Germany. The projector has a single light source placed at the rear of its housing, while large acetate or glass slides are designed to cover the entire front of the fixture. Live  1. Refers to a circuit having power or current within it. 2. A console performance mode where cues are actually on stage and being executed during a performance. Load  The total capacity requirements of a circuit. It contains the power requirements (amps or watts) of every device contained on a circuit. Load-In  The process by which all of the technical elements and equipment (scenery, lighting, sound, etc.) is transported and set up in a performance venue. In lighting, this usually refers to the hanging, circuiting, and focusing of the luminaires. Lobster Scope  A visual effect that produces a strobe-like property. This was developed during the vaudeville era and before strobe lights. It was produced when a followspot operator rapidly passed an opaque panel like a piece of cardboard back and forth in front of the light to produce a flicker effect. Local  See IATSE. Lock the Unit Down  A command given by a lighting designer to an electrician during a focus call that indicates that the designer is pleased with the pan and tilt adjustments of a light and that the electrician should tighten down the appropriate set-bolts. Long-Throw Followspots  Followspots used in large venues like auditoriums, arenas, and stadiums. Look (Cue or State)  A static lighting image or look that creates a given combination of lights and their angles, intensities, and overall mixing. Cueing refers to establishing the looks and recording them so that they can be duplicated from performance to performance. Look and Light  A method of lighting associated with studio lighting in which the designer simply goes into a studio and picks lighting from whatever instrumentation is already hung. Commercials are frequently shot in this manner. Loop System  A low-voltage landscaping lighting technique that reduces voltage drop by having all the luminaires wired in a daisy chain with both ends of the cable or circuit wired to the transformer. Louvers  An optical accessory with baffles or concentric rings that is placed over the face of a fixture to block the viewer from direct glare. Low-Capacity Dimmer  A dimmer with a relatively low-wattage or load rating, frequently 1,200 watts or less. Low Key  A lighting condition in video lighting that is more dramatic than normal and reflects higher contrast ratios (5:1, 8:1, 10:1, etc.) and greater difference between the intensities of the key and fill lights. Low-Pressure Sodium Lamp  A variation of HID lamp that can be identified by its deep yellow color (like bug-lights). It is very efficient but has very poor color rendering. Low-Resolution Mode  A mode associated with the degree of control that an attribute has in an automated luminaire. Low-resolution modes are associated with 8-bit/one-channel operation of an attribute and do not have the same degree of control (fine-control) as high-resolution modes of control. Low-Voltage  Lighting systems that are operated on a voltage of approximately 12 volts (AC or DC), although other voltages are also used, such as 24 volts. Display and landscape lighting systems often use low-voltage power. Lumen  A measurement of light that refers to the luminous flux of a light source. Lumen Maintenance  A consideration of how quickly the light output of a lamp drops over the time that it is in operation or ages.

396  Glossary

Lumen Method (Zonal Cavity Method)  A specific manner of calculating and specifying average illumination levels or lumen density for an architectural lighting application. Properties such as volume of the environment, physical properties of the luminaire, mounting heights, condition of the room’s reflective surfaces, and visual tasks all play a role in the illumination levels that are calculated by using this method. Lumen Output  The amount of light that is delivered by a lamp or luminaire. Luminaire  The lighting fixture. A luminaire contains a light source, reflector, housing, and many times a lens(s). Other names for luminaire include lighting units, fixtures, instruments, and lamps. Luminance  The source’s intensity divided by the surface area of the source as observed by the viewer. A directional function that is dependent on the relationship or viewing angle of the viewer. Luminous Exitance  A measurement of intensity that refers to the total amount of light either reflecting off or leaving a surface. It is not direction-dependent like luminance. Reflection/transmission factors are introduced to the metric based on the reflective/transmitting qualities of the source or object. Luminous Flux  A measure of the actual flow of energy from a light source. The most common unit of measure is the lumen. Luminous Intensity  A measurement of the ability of a light source to produce intensity in a given direction. It is usually measured in candela. Magic Lantern  The forerunner of traditional projectors. Its development is generally credited to Jesuit Father Athanasius Kircher in the late 1600s. Although crude in comparison to today’s standards, it provides the principal method by which most traditional projectors are still designed. Light sources could be oil or limelight. Magic Sheet  A type of paperwork that designers use when they set levels or program a show’s lighting. It is an abbreviated form that is often created in a visual format and contains only the information that a designer will need to set levels (typically only channel, color, and purpose/focus). Main Feeders  Heavy duty cables that connect a main switchboard to the distribution panels that are located throughout a building. Main Switchboard  The primary distribution center for a building. It is connected directly to the power source that comes from outside the building. Maintained Illuminance  The average amount of light that reflects off of a given surface (usually horizontal). Male Connector  A connector with one or more receptacles for making quick connections between electrical devices and cables. The male connector taps into the source of power. Manual Control or Dimming  A form of dimming in which electricians are responsible for physically moving various components or hardware to regulate the lighting intensities. All cues must be executed in a live state. Mark Cue (Move Cue)  A cue that is created for presetting a moving light attribute or other DMX function so that the move is done without the knowledge of an audience. Married  When circuits and their associated cables are run from one electric or batten to another. This is usually done by running the circuits off the end of one batten onto the same end of a second batten and forming a loop of excess cable between the two pipes. The battens must be flown together when moving either batten. Maskings  Drapes, flats, or other scenic materials that are used to prevent view of the backstage and fly areas by an audience. Legs and borders are common examples of maskings that are found on many stages. Master Electrician (ME)  The technician who plays the most important supervisory role for the lighting installation. MEs are charged with making sure that the lighting and other electrical equipment is installed and operated in an efficient safe manner. Mastering  A manner of having multiple dimmers or other lighting controls controlled together. There are essentially three types of mastering: mechanical, electrical, and electronic. Matte Photography  See Composite Photography. McCandless System (The Method)  A method for providing relatively naturalistic lighting for general stage illumination based on the teachings of Yale professor Stanley McCandless in the 1930s. His technique, often called “The Method” (McCandless did not intend this), is based on dividing a stage into areas that are around 8 feet in diameter, with each area being lit by two luminaires containing complementary tints hung at 45° both above and to each side of an area. Meat Rack  A rolling rack containing a series of pipes from which lighting instruments are transported and hung for storage. Mechanical Mastering  A form of mastering in which some form of physical device is used to mechanically link the control handles of individual dimmers. Media  A reference that is usually made to film or video, where the performance is often recorded in some manner. Media Server  A computer that allows a designer to create and edit digital content for many forms of digital screens and projectors, including digital lights. Material is developed in the media server and transferred to the projectors or screens. These devices come pre-loaded with a diverse collection of video and animation files that can be edited or used

Glossary  397

directly, but more importantly, content can be imported from collections found on CDs, DVDs, or digital video and animation clips that are downloaded from the web or provided by the media designer. Medium Base  A specifically sized (1 inch diameter) lamp base. Memory Control  Lighting consoles that actually store cues in some type of memory (long or short term). Computer consoles are the most notable examples. Mercury Lamp  A variation of HID lamp that is cost-effective and used in many security and highway lighting applications. It is recognized by its bluish-green to white light. Metal Halide Lamp  A form of HID lamp that is very efficient and becoming fairly common in retail environments. The lamps contain various combinations of metal halides in addition to the traditional mercury and argon gases. These additional materials produce a better quality of light that is associated with better color rendering and a crisp quality of fairly high color temperature. Metamerism  An effect of perception where objects that appear to share the same color under one light source will appear differently under another light source. This is due to the spectral composition of the two light sources being different, and it has become a more significant issue with the appearance of LED light sources. The metamerism index relates the percentage of reflectance that a light source has within different colored wavelengths. Metaphor  A means of representing specific meanings where an object or series of words is used figuratively or symbolically to represent or make comparisons or meanings between objects. Middle Gray  A reference on the gray scale for video/film lighting that represents the mid-point of the perceived value of white/black as well as an 18% overall reflectance. MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) Control  A control format that allows one device to trigger actions in another through various digital instructions, such as using a light console to trigger various effects devices or having the lighting controlled by a sound track. Two variations of this include MIDI Show Control (MSC) where the triggers are controlled by events and MIDI Time Control (MTC) where the triggers are based on a timing code. Mids  Luminaires mounted on a boom at head height as a special form of sidelight. Miniature Base  A specifically sized (approximately 3/8 inch in diameter) lamp base. Miniature Reflector (MR) Lamp  A miniature lamp that is similar to a PAR lamp in that it has a reflector (flatted) built into the lamp’s construction. Mini-Striplight  A revision in striplight design that is about half the width and height of traditional striplights and based on the MR-16 low-voltage lamp. Mired (Micro-Reciprocal Degrees)  A scale used in film and television production that relates the difference between perceived and actual color temperature by dividing the light’s measured degrees in Kelvin by 1,000,000. Mired factors are used to calculate the proper color correction that must be applied to a source. Mirror Board  A special type of reflector or shiny board used in film and video lighting in which the surface of the panel is covered with a mirrored surface. Mirror Lighting  A technique of lighting water features in a landscape project where the water is purposefully kept dark so that the nearby lit structures and related activities can be reflected on the water’s surface. Mockup  Used to create an experimental situation for architectural lighting applications. Mockups use actual design elements like the wall and floor materials or finishes and furniture in a limited fashion so that luminaire choices and design solutions can be examined in a limited but full-scale setting. A mockup may even involve testing luminaires on site. Modeling  A function of lighting that uses light for enhancing the three-dimensional qualities or form of an object. Also known as revelation of form or sculpting. Modeling Programs  A variation of CADD software where three-dimensional virtual models are created in a computer with realistic materials and lighting that produce a reasonably accurate image or rendering of the virtual object(s) or scene. Modeling/Sculpting Systems  A lighting system or collection of luminaires characterized by washes of back and sidelight that enhance depth perception throughout a stage. Mogul Base  A specifically sized (1 1/2-inch in diameter) lamp base. Moment  A point where all of the elements of a stage picture are frozen and recorded. It is like taking a snapshot of the stage composition. Monopole  A telescoping pole used to mount luminaires in a studio grid that allows a lighting unit to be quickly brought down to a lower height (from its stored position) for use, or for creating flatter angles. Mood  Refers to creating a specific emotional response. Architectural spaces also project moods, much of which can be directly attributed to their lighting. Moon box (Shadow Box)  A specific type of shadow box that is created to simulate a moon. Shadow boxes are boxes with enclosed light sources that have a translucent front and are used to produce a lighting effect that actually transmits light. Signs are often produced as shadow boxes.

398  Glossary

Moonlighting  A special form of downlighting that simulates natural moonlight by mounting mercury vapor lamps in the tops of trees or poles so that the shadows and cool color provide a suggestion of moonlight. Motion Detectors (Occupancy Sensors)  An energy-saving switching device that extinguishes lights in areas like stairwells and restrooms that have not been occupied for a set amount of time. They can also be used to restore lighting when someone enters the space. Motivated Lighting  Often used synonymously with motivational lighting, but refers to light coming from both actual and apparent sources (sources not actually visible to the observer). It is represented by sunlight streaming through a doorway, a room being lit from an imaginary fixture like a chandelier, or a field being lit by the sun from somewhere above and behind the audience. Motivating Light (Motivating Sources)  A special form of motivational lighting in which the actual light source is seen on stage. Examples include placing candles or lanterns on stage, flash lights, a fireplace or fire, or having sconces, table lamps, or chandeliers on a stage. Motivational Accents  Luminaires and washes that are used to provide an indication of a specific or suggested motivational light source. Motivational Lighting  Light that is linked to an apparent source such as sunlight, a given lamp or chandelier, or an effect like a fireplace. It is presented in a realistic style and attempts to approach the lighting from a perspective that represents how light would appear in a natural setting. Mounting Height  The height at which an architectural fixture is mounted. It’s used in the same way that throw distances are used in entertainment luminaires. Move Cue  See Mark Cue. Movement  One of the controllable qualities of light. It suggests changes in the lighting by: seeing the actual light source move on stage (carrying a flashlight), seeing light but not the actual source move (the effect of a followspot), and seeing changes in the lighting over time (running cues). Moving Head  A variation of automated luminaire in which the body of the luminaire swivels to complete pan and tilt motions. Moving Lights  See Automated Lights. Moving Light Operator  See Programmer. Moving Mirror (Scanner)  A type of automated luminaire in which a moving mirror is placed at the front of a unit to reflect or direct the light to different locations. Moving Mirror Accessories  An accessory that provides an alternative to expensive scanners and allows movement to be introduced to conventional luminaires. This accessory and its control components are placed in the gel frame at the front of a luminaire and allows the focus to be redirected by a moving mirror. Moving Yoke  An accessory that allows a conventional luminaire’s focus (pan and tilt) to be repositioned. M-speed  A control attribute of many automated fixtures that uses a speed function to even out any jerky motions that a fixture might display while moving a light or its attributes during a cue transition. Multi-cable (Multi)  Cables that are manufactured with a number of independent conductors that terminate in individual male and female connectors corresponding to the number of circuits that are contained in a cable. Multi-lights  A luminaire used in film and television lighting that consists of an array of lamps mounted in a fixed arrangement on a panel or as groups of lamps mounted in frames that allow several lamps to be focused together. Individual lamps may be turned on or off independently or as a group. One of the most popular multi-lights is the nine-light, which combines nine PAR lamps into a three-by-three grid arrangement. This particular unit may also be called a brute, while other variations are based on the size of the lamps (e.g. a maxi-brute uses PAR-64s). Multiple-Feed System  A landscape lighting technique where individual cable runs are run from different junction points that in turn have multiple luminaires wired to each junction point (daisy chained or junctioned). Multiplexers  See Digital to Analog Converter. Multiplexing  See Dimmer Doubling™. Multiplying Factor  A numerical factor multiplied by the throw distance to calculate an approximate pool diameter for light associated with a given luminaire. Musco Lights  A popular aerial platform that adds supplemental television lighting to sports arenas. These truck-mounted cranes are used to surround a stadium in order to place an array of around a dozen luminaires (one array per truck) high enough above the stadium to shoot over the walls onto the playing field. Museum Lighting  An area of lighting that involves lighting artifacts and artwork associated with museum collections. National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians (NABET)  A union in the broadcasting industry that represents directors of photography and lighting directors along with other engineers and technicians like camera men.

Glossary  399

National Council for Qualifications for the Lighting Profession (NCQLP)  A professional certification agency used primarily for architectural lighting designers who must pass a comprehensive exam. If successful, the individual is “Lighting Certified” and may use the LC behind their name. National Electrical Code (NEC)  A construction code that provides a set of standards for guiding the specification and installation of electrical equipment like lighting packages. Naturalism  A school of style that represents an extreme form of realism. Near-Side Key  A form of lighting in film and video setups in which the key light is placed on the side of the performer’s face nearest the camera. Neon  A lighting effect in which neon gas is placed in a glass tube that is bent into designer-determined shapes. The gas is energized by a transformer, causing the entire tube to give off light. Neon gives off an intense red light while other gases produce other colors like yellow, blue, and white. Nets  See Butterflies. Neutral  The wire that provides the return path for electricity in a circuit. Neutral Density Filter (ND or NDF)  A media that is similar to gel but is instead used to drop the overall intensity of a lamp. More importantly, it drops the intensity without having an impact on the color temperature of the source. Nodes  Termination points in a lighting control network that become the points where an Ethernet signal is converted to DMX ports. Non-Motivated Lighting  Lighting that is not tied to an apparent light source, with which the designer creates an image based on emotional responses, mood, or symbolic elements for a production or project. Non-Tracking Console  A lighting console in which cue edits or changes can only be made a single cue at a time and where a modification cannot be incorporated into future cues. Notation  1. A portion of the light plot that indicates the meaning of any data such as color, unit number, and channel assignment that is attached to the luminaires luminaires (it is sometimes called “typical”). 2. A way of recording blocking and performer movements through a series of sketches. Notes  When it is not possible to make a change or to edit a cue immediately (on the fly), a designer makes a list of any problems that need to be fixed by the next rehearsal or performance. Technical notes require a crew and physical action (gel/focus changes, inoperable lamps, etc,), while board notes relate to console programming. Obie  See Camera-Lights. Objective Lens  An assembly of high-quality optical lenses that are placed in front of a slide in a traditional projector. They are used to focus the image precisely onto a projection surface. Occupancy Sensors  See Motion Detectors. Occupants  The people that will occupy or use an architectural space or environment. Office Lighting  Architectural lighting that refers to lighting offices and business centers. Off-line Editors  A simulator provided by most console manufacturers that replicates their console for a desktop computer or laptop. Off-line editors allow a designer to preprogram or edit a show without using the actual console. Ohm’s Law  Relates resistance to the voltage and amperage of a circuit. I = E/R. Omnidirectional Light  A virtual light that creates light in all directions and that moves away from the light source. One-Night Stand  A form of touring in which a production is loaded-in, performed, and struck in a single day. One-to-One Patching  A condition where all dimmers and channels share the same number assignments. Online Catalogs  Product catalogs of cut sheets and other product literature that are created and distributed in electronic formats. The most popular forms are found on company websites, though some of this literature may still be distributed by CDs. On Location  Shooting a film or video in a natural setting—the actual setting or a place similar to where the action is to be set. Onstage  1. Anything that is located in audience view. 2. A reference to come toward centerline. 3. Luminaires or hanging positions that are located on or above a stage. On the Fly  1. Making and recording cue changes live or as the performance or rehearsal is in progress. In many live events, such as in concert lighting, a number of the cue sequences and much of the designing are completed on the fly. 2. Being able to render virtual images in actual time—such as in computer gaming. Open-Backed Window  A display window that has no back and is open to the store behind the window. Open Fixture  A landscaping luminaire in which no attempt is made to shield the lamp and its related components from the elements. Optical Density  An expression of the relative ability of light to move through a material and the effect that it has on the speed of the light transmitted through it. Opto-Isolator  A device placed on the control line to protect a console and other components from a power surge. The device forms a junction where the electrical impulses of the control signal are converted to a light source (usually an LED) and then back again to an electrical impulse.

400  Glossary

Organistion des Scenographes, Techniciens et Arcitects de Theatre (OISTAT)  An international organization of theatrical designers and technicians that is affiliated with USITT. Out-of-town Tryout  A production (with an intent to go to Broadway) that is initially produced in a theatre away form Broadway as a means of lowering production costs. If successful, the show then transfers to Broadway. Overheads  A term used to reference the lighting units that are hung above the stage. Overhire  Hiring theatrical crew members on a temporary or per-show basis. Pack (Stack)  A reference to loading and storing theatrical equipment and scenery. Equipment can be stacked or packed in the trucks, wings, or almost anywhere as needed. Page  A utility device on computer consoles that allows controllers to be assigned to different functions. This allows them to be reassigned throughout a production. Painting With Light  The design aesthetic of creating the lighting images or looks/cues for a production. The process produces an image through a combination of individual lights and their colors, angles, intensities, and overall mixing. Palettes  A series of functions that are assigned to a lighting console’s encoders, submaster/channel controllers, and group displays that provide an operator with a means of organizing the data required for programming a show. Common palettes are nothing more than a selection of presets that are stored and organized by categories like focus points, color, gobo patterns, etc. Pan  A pivoting adjustment of the side-to-side focus of a luminaire’s orientation. Pantograph  A studio accessory with scissor-like telescoping arms that is used to mount luminaires from a studio grid. It allows luminaires to be quickly pulled down to a lower height. Paper Tech  A meeting completed prior to the first tech, during which cues and their placement are discussed by the director, designers, stage manager, and other personnel. Paperwork  See Design Paperwork. PAR-Bar  An assemblage of PAR fixtures (usually six) that are rigged along with their circuiting into a module along a single pipe or section of unistrut (A U-shaped channel fabricated from steel). These modules are then mounted into trussing or lighting towers for a production. PAR Can (PAR Fixture)  A luminaire using a PAR lamp as the basis of its design. These fixtures are durable and easily hung and focused, but they have no beam-shaping qualities other than through the selection of a specific lamp. The light produced by PAR cans is harsh and crisp with relatively soft edges that allow adjoining units to easily blend with one another. PAR Lamp (Parabolic Aluminized Reflector)  A lamp that contains a pre-defined lens, reflector, and filament. It is unique in that it is a complete fixture within a lamp. PARNel  A relatively new fixture design by ETC that combines the light quality of a PAR with the spot/flood capabilities of a Fresnel. It is designed around the 575-watt HPL lamp and by turning a knob an electrician can vary the fixture’s beam from a spot to flood setting. Parabolic Reflector  A reflector that is very similar to a spherical reflector, with the exception that it is flattened to some degree. Due to its shape, light that strikes it after leaving the focal point is reflected in a way that creates parallel rays of light. Parallel Circuit  A circuit that differs from a series circuit in that each device is wired directly to the power source. This results in components like lamps having access to the full amount of power despite any other lamps that might be wired into the circuit. Any breaks in the circuit will only have an effect on those units that are directly wired to that part of a circuit. Pastel Tints  Lightly colored gels or light that have a fair amount of most of the individual wavelengths and produce essentially white light that is tinted slightly in favor of a particular hue. Patch  To assign a specific circuit to a dimmer or a dimmer to a channel. Patchbay (Patch Panel, Interconnection Panel, or Interconnection Patchbay)  A piece of electrical hardware that allows circuit and dimmer assignments to be made in a theatre or studio where there are a limited number of dimmers. Plugs representing circuits are plugged into outlets that are associated with the assigned dimmers. Pathway Lights  Landscape luminaires that are used to line sidewalks and driveways. Pattern  See Gobo or Template. Payback  Determining the point in time where a lighting system saves enough money in maintenance and power savings costs to pay for itself. Peaked Field  A beam pattern in which a concentrated hotspot is formed near the center of a spotlight beam. Pendant  A classification of architectural luminaire where the unit is suspended from below a ceiling by a cord, chain, or other similar device. Penetration  In daylighting, the depth to which light extends into a room from its exterior walls and windows. Penumbra Effect  A problem associated with lensless projectors in which the filament size or surfaces are too large or numerous to produce a single image. It causes fuzzing or blurred edges in any images created by the projector.

Glossary  401

Pepper’s Ghost  A famous projection effect that uses mirrors and transparent materials like glass or plexiglass to reflect images of an object or “ghost” to new locations. Performer Specials Luminaires that are designated specifically to light a performer at a given moment(s) within a performance. Perishables  See Expendables. Perimeter Lighting  Lighting that is designed to light the top wall surfaces that extend around the perimeter of a store or public building. Personality  A series of settings for an automated luminaire or other device that allow specific parameters of the unit to be set for an individual application or preference. Sample settings might include placing the unit in an audio sensory mode, reversing the pan and tilt settings, or putting the unit in a power saving or test mode. Perspective Lighting  Landscape lighting that creates an illusion of distance either by placing the light sources in a set of skewed lines that follow a perspective projection or by using lower-wattage sources at distances further from the viewer. Phase  See Leg. Photo-Electric Sensor (Photosensor)  An electrical control device that switches circuits on and off by sensing light intensity levels. Photometrics  The study of the quality and quantities of light. Photopic Vision  That portion of vision attributed to the cone receptors that are responsible for both our color and detail vision within typical interior and exterior lighting illuminance ranges. Piano Board  A dimming package that contains a framework with a collection of individual dimmer plates (six, 12, or more dimmers) along with their associated handles and mastering levers. Pick Point (Pick)  Any location along a truss or other structure where a cable is supported from overhead by some form of rigging such as a chain motor. Pickup  1. A followspot coming on and lighting a specific target. 2. Location where a flown object is supported by an overhead cable, rope, etc. Pigtail  A 12–24-inch cable that terminates in a female plug from a circuit along a raceway or distribution box. It can also refer to the lead wires and male plug coming from a luminaire. Pile-On  A cueing function in which additional lights or effects are added or layered on top of whatever lighting already exists on the stage. Pin Matrix  A pinned plugging system on “rock and roll” preset consoles that was laid out as a grid to electronically assign control channels to submasters, which in turn featured bump/flash buttons. Pinspots  A nickname that many designers have given to ERSes, which are based on a 3 1/2-inch diameter lens. The name doesn’t match the optical characteristics of these fixtures. Club owners also use pinspots, but these are small spotlights that produce an intense shaft of light through the smaller filaments of DC lamps. Pitch  A screen property that refers to the size or spacing of the smallest elements of a display (i.e., the spacing between the clusters of LEDs that define a pixel for the screen). Pitch is important because it determines a screen’s resolution and optimal viewing distance or range. Pitting  A form of corrosion in landscape luminaires that causes the metal finish to become rough and pitted. Pixel  The smallest degree of resolution in a digital image. If an image or projection is enlarged beyond this point, the squares representing this resolution simply get larger with no further development in details. Pixelation  An effect in digital imaging. An image is enlarged beyond a point where the individual pixels become separated and distort the image. Pixel Mapping  Using control of digital projectors or individual LEDs in larger LED arrays and screens or other devices to produce digital patterns and images (projection or video) on or over two-dimensional surfaces. Plane (Zone)  A distribution pattern associated with dance lighting based on movement patterns along pathways across the width of the stage (between each set of legs). Plano Lens  A lens with essentially two flat sides. Plano-Convex Lens  The most popular lens used in the lighting industry. One side is flat, while the other is convex. Plano-Convex Spotlight (P-C spotlight)  See Box-Spot. Plant and Sing  An older opera practice where a featured singer would come downstage and simply sing the aria or other featured solo with very little physical actions. PLASA (Professional Light and Sound Association)  An international organization of theatrical manufacturers and dealers who provide educational resources and set professional and industry standards. Plasma Lamp  A relatively new form of solid-state lighting where a mixture of ionized gas is energized by radio frequencies in order to form a field of plasma energy that produces nearly full-spectrum light. The light from these lamps is comparable to short-arc sources but at the same time is very efficient and with lamp lives that are especially long.

402  Glossary

Plasterline  A reference line for measuring distances in the upstage/downstage directions that is based on an imaginary line across the width of the proscenium located between the furthest upstage edges of the proscenium wall. Plate  See Dimmer Plate. Plenum  See Ceiling Cavity. Pleasure Gardens  The earliest form of amusement parks. Pleasure gardens appeared in the 1500s in Europe. They were a variety of gardens that also provided simple rides and attractions for those who attended them. Plot and Light  A method of film and video lighting where a lighting director actually selects and plots the lighting for a studio or shoot in the same way that theatrical designers design a light plot. Plotter  A large-format printer used in printing large-scaled drawings like light plots. Plotting Service  A company that owns a large-format plotter for printing CAD files or draftings for a fee. Point Illuminance Method  An architectural lighting calculation that determines illuminance at a specific point through an examination of light as both a direct component and various indirect components from a given source(s). Point Light Source  The principle by which luminaire and lamp manufacturers strive to create the smallest light source possible by concentrating the majority of the light at a focal point, which makes any associated lens or reflector all the more efficient. Point of Purchase  A base for sales personnel. It is where sales are conducted and typically contains cash registers and counters for completing the paperwork and packaging of a transaction. Point of View  See Image of Light, Lighting Scheme, or Lighting Concept. Port  A hanging position above an audience that provides the same function as a beam, with the exception that these are openings in the ceiling that typically only house four to six lighting instruments each. Portable Generator  See Generator. Portrait Lamp  A fixture usually placed directly above or below a frame that uses a tubular incandescent lamp and shade on an adjustable arm. Post Lights  A luminaire mounted on a post or pole (e.g., a streetlight, bollard, or lamp post). Post-Occupancy Evaluation  A process that takes place after a client has taken occupancy of a space that checks client satisfaction, fixes or modifies any issues that may have developed, and helps the client understand how to maintain and operate an installation. Power (P)  The rate of doing work. In the case of lighting, it is usually expressed in wattage, which refers to how much power it takes over time to produce a given amount of light. Power-Con Connector  A specialty connector that is often used to daisy-chain power from one LED luminaire to another. These connectors typically have a blue casing and positive locking mechanism that operates in a twisting motion. These connectors are also used in sound systems for speaker connections. Power Density  A determination of how much energy is consumed per unit area of a building (watts per square foot). Many municipalities limit a building’s power density based on factors like the type of tasks required and its location. Power Formula  Relates Power (P) or wattage to the voltage (E) and amperage (A). P = I × E Power Grid  The networked system of wiring that delivers power from a generating plant to a customer. Practical  A working fixture on a set like a table lamp, chandelier, or wall sconce. Preset  A specific “look” for the lighting that can be called up on a repeated basis. In cue terminology, it refers to a lighting cue that is used prior to the start of a show or act and is present for when the audience is gathering. Preset control  An electronic dimming method in which duplicate sets of controllers (presets) are provided for each channel/dimmer. Operators shift between presets for different cues, alternating live presets with those used for upcoming cues. Preview Mode  See Blind and Blind Mode. Prismatic Glass (Variegated Glass Filters)  A form of plastic or glass that contains a textured surface that refracts and diffuses any light that passes through it. These accessories are placed in the gate of a luminaire in much the same way as a gobo is used. Primary Coil  One of several coils found in a transformer. This coil is associated with the source voltage and will induce a current in a secondary coil(s). Primary Colors  Basic elements of light (red, blue, and green) that are used in various combinations to produce every other color of light. Primary Focus  The area or subject with the strongest focus in a room or on a stage. Primary Focal Point  A point associated with a reflector or lens that refers to where light is focused to or from. Primary Lighting  See Ambient Lighting. Production Meeting  A meeting between the designers, director, and department heads that is used to check progress between departments and to discover and resolve any issues that might develop between departments.

Glossary  403

Production Number  A large-scale song and dance piece that typically involves most, if not all, of the company of performers in a highly spectacle musical number. They are often found as opening and finale numbers for the different acts of a musical. Product Unveiling  A specific type of corporate production where a “show” is about introducing a new product for the very first time. Profile Spotlight  A variation of the ellipsoidal reflector spotlight (ERS) that is in popular use throughout Europe. European designers tend to call all ERSes “profile spots.” Programming (Programming Phase)  1. Placing the lighting commands (intensity levels, cues, moving light instructions) into a console. 2. The first phase of architectural projects, in which fact finding is used to determine the client’s needs. Programmer (Moving Light Operator)  The person responsible for the programming and operation of a console that controls moving lights. The title has evolved to include anyone who programs a lighting console (both conventionals and movers). Projection Booth (Spotlight Booth)  A room located near the back of an auditorium that houses projection and control equipment, followspots, and their crews. Project Manager  The individual on architectural projects who is assigned to a project and becomes the liaison between the designer and construction crews. Projection Mapping  Using digital projections to map an image or video over three-dimensional surfaces. Examples of this include the large-scale video sequences projected onto the facades of buildings. Projector  A piece of equipment that is used to project an image to another location or surface/screen. Projector Bay  A cubby-hole set into the upstage wall of a stage that gives projectors an increased throw distance. Proportional Patch  Provides a method for channels or dimmers to be locked into a maximum intensity setting that is lower than 100%. Prototype (Template)  A master CADD drawing that contains all of the major elements of a space or facility. Prototypes eliminate redrawing features that are shared by many drawings (title blocks, facility outlines, reference lines, keys, etc.). Pull Down  A lighting cue that draws the focus to a particular character, object, or location on the stage. The areas around this are typically lowered in intensity. Punchlist  A list of items that are damaged, forgotten, or incorrectly installed on an architectural or permanent installation. It ensures that a contractor is aware of and fixes problems. Pyro Technician (Pyro Tech)  A crew member who specializes in special effects that involve fire and explosives. These technicians are typically both certified and licensed to this type of work within the entertainment industry. Quantity of light  See Quantity versus Quality. Quantity versus Quality  A lighting philosophy where architectural designers strive to create quality-driven rather than simply quantity-driven lighting designs (footcandle requirements). While intensity is still factored into lighting a particular situation, there are now other elements like color, angle, and glare that are also factored into the overall quality of the design. Quartz Lamp  See Tungsten-Halogen Lamp or TH-lamp. Queue  A waiting area in theme parks that gives the appearance of a shortened line by arranging the line in a series of rows that turn back on one another while also leading to additional staging areas or chambers with more queues and waiting times. Rack  A metal cabinet used to house electronic components. Sound components and dimmers are the most common racks found in the entertainment industry. Racks may be portable or permanently installed in a facility. Radial ERS  The earliest version of the ellipsoidal reflector spotlight (ERS), which made use of lamps that burned in a base up configuration with their lamp housings being located on the top back of an instrument. Rain Curtain  A theatrical drape of highly reflective metallic material like mylar that is slit into strips approximately 1/4 inch wide. When treated with light they sparkle and shimmer. The most popular ones are silver and take on the color of any light that strikes them. R-Lamp (Reflector Lamp)  A lamp that contains a reflector and diffuse lens that allows the light to be concentrated in a pool that spreads gently away in a single direction. It is similar to a PAR lamp. Rate  A control that allows for modifying the timing of a cue. Rate settings allow operators to speed up or slow down cueing during a performance. Ray-tracing  A special feature of visualization programs that calculates the effect of a vast number of light rays from each light source in a project. The calculations are quite specific and time consuming but result in an image that often approaches photorealism in detail. Rear Projection  A form of projection where the projector(s) are placed behind a translucent screen or projection surface. Rear-Projection Screen (RP screen)  A screen made from special materials that are translucent and allow an image to be projected from behind the screen while remaining visible on its surface.

404  Glossary

Recessed Luminaires  A classification of architectural luminaires based on a mounting position that is mounted within a wall or ceiling. Recommended Practice  A set of design guidelines that represent common techniques and practices in special areas of architectural lighting design. These are not codes and aren’t subject to regulation but they represent what most designers would consider appropriate practices for a given application. Red Shift (Amber Drift)  The effect of a light changing color as the intensity of a lamp is dimmed (becoming more red/amber). Reducing Screen  See Dimming Screen. Reflected Ceiling Plan  An architectural drafting that indicates the layout of a ceiling with peaks, trays, domes, etc. Lighting designers use this to locate their luminaires and often simply add the lighting information directly to the plate, converting it into a form of light plot or lighting layout. Reflected Radiation Component (RRC)  A component used in calculating horizontal illuminance that expands illuminance calculations to account for various reflected elements. The calculation is essentially the same as the Lumen method with the coefficient of utilization being substituted with this additional factor. Reflection  A method in which light waves or an image are redirected off of a surface. Reflective Light Meter  An exposure light meter that is used by standing near a subject and measuring the light that reflects off of it. This is an accurate means of measuring exposure since it measures the amount of light actually leaving the surface of the subject. Reflector  An optical device that uses reflection to gather and redirect light. Reflector Lamp  See R-Lamp. Reflector Unit, Panel or Board, Shiny Board  Frames or panels used in video and film production that are covered with reflective materials to reflect light into a scene. The source can be a luminaire that is hung nearby or a distant source like the sun. Refraction  A physical property in which light is bent while passing through materials of different densities. Remote Device Management (RDM)  A relatively new control protocol that should provide plug-and-play features to lighting consoles and equipment. Once plugged into a network, the console locates and determines the type and number of fixture attributes for a unit while also assigning control channels to each attribute. Rendering  An image of a project that is created by a designer. These are often done by a computer in lighting applications and illustrate how the lighting will appear on an imaginary setting. In reality, it offers only an approximation of the final image but may approach photorealism if taken to an extreme. Rental House  A company specializing in the rental and sale of theatrical equipment. Re-patch  To reassign/re-plug circuits during a performance or rehearsal. Repertory Light Plot  A light plot that supports several different productions. While many of the general systems are shared, specials, recoloring, and refocusing are often used to address specific needs of each of the individual productions. Request for Information (RFI)  A formal request for information or a conflict resolution sent by the general contractor or subcontractor to a designer through the architect. The lighting designer formally responds to the RFI to either resolve the conflict, clarify the information, or answer any other questions that may have developed. Residential Lighting  Lighting the interiors and exteriors of homes and private residences. Residuals  A weekly fee paid to designers on a long-running show that is based on a percentage of the box office receipts. Resistance (R)  An electrical property that relates to a material or object creating a barrier to electrical flow. Resistance Dimmer  A specific form of dimmer in which electrical resistance is introduced to a circuit to regulate the intensity of the lights. It is an especially wasteful form of dimming and requires dimmers to be loaded to full capacity. Resolution  The degree of detail that is displayed in a projected or digital image. Restore Cue  A cue that is repeated from an earlier time in a production. Retail Lighting  Lighting associated with sales displays and retail stores. Retrofit  A variation of lamp that is a TH-lamp replacement for an earlier lamp design. Retrofit lamps have a smaller bulb but maintain the same base and LCL of the lamp that they are replacing. They can be identified by the ceramic/ porcelain spacer located between the base and bulb. Revealing Form  A function of lighting that refers to enhancing dimensionality or revealing the sculptural or three-dimensional elements of a subject. RGB (Red, Green, and Blue)  1. A digital signal format used on screens, monitors, and projectors. This is a composite signal that combines separate inputs of each of the primary colors for video or digital images. 2. A form of additive color mixing commonly associated with Tri-colored LED luminaires. Rider  See Contract Rider. Rhythm  A function of light that refers to lighting movement and transitions. As tensions mount and resolve, the lighting should underscore the dramatic action and may appear to be very subtle or dramatic to an audience. Ride Vehicle  A car or motorized vehicles that carries guests in a theme ride or attraction.

Glossary  405

Riding the Plot  When an electrician or lighting assistant makes constant reference to the light plot and guides the progress of a focus through calling out the channels of the luminaires as they are needed. Rim Lighting  Light or a lighting systems that etches or rings(rims) a subject from the side and back, particularly the backlight system. Rim Light  A variation of backlight used in film and video lighting that is offset to the side of a subject and tends to have a higher elevation than kickers. It produces a wrapping effect that models or edges (rims) a subject and helps to separate them from the background. Ring Top  A piece of hardware consisting of a metal loop that is screwed to the top of a boom pipe and provides the connection for a tie-off rope. RMS Voltage (VRMS)  A measurement of the overall average voltage across legs of a multi-phase power system. It may also be called the Root Mean Square Voltage. Road Case  A special shipping case used for transporting sensitive lighting and sound gear that is made of durable materials and lined with specially fitted foams to protect the case’s contents. Road House  A theatre that typically presents touring productions. Road-tap  See Company Switch. Roadway Lighting  Lighting that provides illumination to highways and streets. Rods  1. The pencil-sized electrodes that are used in arc light sources like followspots. They are made out of carbon and have a copper sheathing over them. 2. Optical sensors in the eye that respond to a wide range of light sensitivities and are responsible for our scotopic vision. Rolling Dimmer Rack  A portable dimmer rack that is fashioned like a road case with wheels and is used for touring. Room Cavity Ratio (RCR)  A volume associated with the Lumen method calculation that relates the volume (height and area) of an entire room to the portion of the room with which we are concerned regarding illumination levels. It is also used as one of the variables that determine the efficiency of a luminaire and design solution. Rooster Mount  A method of mounting a luminaire in which the unit is spun up so that it is mounted directly above the pipe. Root Mean Square Voltage  See RMS Voltage (VRMS). Ropelight  A decorative effect that places miniature lamps (often of several different circuits or colors) in a flexible plastic tube. The tube is then used to outline structures. Rotary Dimmer  A dimmer (usually an autotransformer) that is often self-contained and operated from a knob or handle attached to a rotary shaft that extends through the center of the dimmer. Roundels  Circular glass filters that are installed in many striplight fixtures. Rover  A portable boom that is relatively short (usually less than 4 feet), contains very few luminaires (often only one or two), and is equipped with dollies so that it can be easily moved around as needed. Run  A circuit or cable that leads from one location to another. It can also be related to the cable distance that lies between two electrical devices. Run the Barrel  A focus command in which the lens barrel of a lighting instrument is set in the all the way forward position which is usually associated with producing the softest beam edges. Run through  A type of rehearsal in which a segment of a play, musical, etc. is run or rehearsed without interruption. This may be as small as a few pages or a scene to as much as the entire play. Rushes  See Dailies, Safety Cable  A segment of 1/8 inch aircraft cable (about 2-feet long) equipped with a loop and special snap fitting that allows lighting instruments to be further attached to a hanging position and prevents a unit from falling due to failure of a yoke or C-clamp. Safety Lighting  Landscape or street lighting that is used primarily for visibility. It directs people to different parts of a property while also helping them to avoid hazards and navigate through a space safely. Saturation  See Chroma Saturation Rig  A special type of lighting rig or grid used in film and video studios in which the grid is pre-hung and cabled heavily with a variety of luminaires and accessories. The LD simply chooses the gear from what they see is available, patches and focuses the units, and makes them work for the particular setup. Saturation rigs are popular in studios that are rented on a daily basis (e.g., taping commercials). Save  1. To record a show and all of its cue information into the console or backup system. 2. To turn off a unit that is no longer needed (when the focus of the unit is complete or it is no longer desired in a cue). Scanner (Moving Mirror)  1. A type of automated luminaire in which a moving mirror is placed at the front of the unit to direct the light to different locations. 2. A form of laser projection in which a laser beam is rapidly moved along a path. We cannot distinguish this movement, and through perception, connect the points and see the image as a series of lines that lie along the path of the laser. We use scanning to trace or draw basic images.

406  Glossary

Scene Machine  An effects projector by GAM that combines superior optics and a more intense light source with a series of modular motion effects that can be used to produce a desired image and motion. Scenic Breakdown  A listing of the specific scenes, locations, and time frames that occur in a script or performance event. Scenic Floorplan  A variation of floorplan that in addition to providing information about a facility also provides specific information about the scenic design for a production. Scenic Specials  A lighting instrument that is focused specifically to a scenic element of a production (e.g. a light focused to a sculpture or picture frame, a wall decoration, a tree, or scenic surface). Schedules  See Design Paperwork. Schematic Development  The second phase of architectural design development, in which the initial concepts are refined and developed into the foundations that will set the tone for the rest of the project. It sets the major parameters and starts to lock the team into some basic ideas. Sconce  A decorative luminaire that is mounted to a wall surface. Scoop  See Ellipsoidal Reflector Floodlight (ERF). Score  The sheet music or orchestration of an opera, musical, or other music-related event. Scotopic Vision  That portion of vision attributed to the rods photoreceptors that are sensitive to light across a wide range of wavelengths and luminous levels. It is responsible for our sight at levels of low illumination and our peripheral vision. SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)  An electronic component used in electronic dimming that is turned on and off (fired) through a low-voltage signal current to selectively sample or control the high-voltage output of a dimmer. Screen  A specially treated surface that is used as a projection surface. Screens come in a variety of sizes, colors, and shapes and perform with varied degrees of success. They may be used for both front or rear projection. Scrim  1. A special type of scenic fabric with a loose weave that when treated with relatively steep-angled front light appears opaque but becomes transparent when lit from behind. 2. In film and video lighting scrims are metal meshes that are placed in front of light sources to drop the intensity of a lamp—different densities drop the intensity by various increments. Scrims lower the intensity while having no effect on color temperature, which cannot be achieved in dimming (red shift). Scrim-Through  A combined lighting/scenic effect in which a scrim that is front lighted and appears opaque is made transparent to reveal a scene behind it through lighting the objects behind the scrim. The reverse process is known as a scrim-back. Script Analysis  A careful study of a script. It gives the first indication of themes, plot, characters, settings, mood, style, and specific lighting requirements of a play. Scrollers (Automated Color Changers)  An automated color changer that uses individual filters taped together to form a scroll. The scroll is rolled back and forth to specific positions that correspond to the different colors. Sculpting/Modeling Systems  A lighting system or collection of luminaires characterized by washes of back and sidelight that enhance depth perception. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)  A form of seasonal depression that is due to the individual not being exposed to enough sunlight. Secondary Coil  A coil in a transformer that has the induced voltage produced in it. This voltage is proportional to that of the primary coil and is dependent on the relative number of turnings in each coil. Secondary Colors  A combination of equal mixtures of any two primary colors. In light, these include magenta, cyan, and amber. Secondary Focus  An area or object that has focus brought to it but which does not have the primary focus. Secondary Lighting  See Accent Lighting. Secondary Panels (Panel Boards)  Circuit boxes fed through feeder cables from a building’s primary distribution center that bring power to all of the branch circuits in a given area of a building. Secondary Service Conductors  Heavy duty cables that carry the main power supply into a building and to the main switchboard. Second Team  A group of stand-ins in television and video shoots who are used for lighting and camera rehearsals to replicate the blocking while the real actors (first team) are getting into costume and makeup. Section (Sectional View)  A drafting representing a room or performance venue from a side view. The section is typically drawn as if you were to cut through a facility along the centerline of the stage and is used to determine beam coverage, lighting angles, approximate throw distances, and masking sightlines. Security Lighting  Lighting systems that make a property more visible and less shadowed to discourage prowlers and other criminal activities. Selective Visibility  Revealing to an audience only what they need to see in order to gain an understanding of an event. Semi-Direct Luminaire  An IESNA classification of luminaire based on a distribution pattern in which a significant amount of light is directed upward (10–40%) but the majority is still directed downward (60–90%). Semi-Indirect Luminaire  An IESNA classification of luminaire based on a distribution pattern in which a significant amount of light is directed downward (10–40%) but the majority is directed upward (60–90%).

Glossary  407

Semi-Recessed Luminaire  A classification of architectural luminaires based on a mounting position being partially contained within a wall or ceiling. Series Circuit  A circuit in which the leads of each device are sequentially connected together in a daisy chain with the first and last devices being connected to the power supply. Service  The actual power configuration or number and capacity of wires brought into a building from a power utility. Service Entrance  The point where the electrical service enters a building. Set Levels  See Cue-In. Set List (Play List)  A listing of the order of the songs that will be performed for music related performances like concerts. Set Mount  A lighting instrument or practical that is mounted directly to the scenery. Setup (Shot)  An element of television and film production based on the filming of a scene and individual camera placement. Each camera angle along with its adjustments for lighting and other production elements comprises an individual shot. Set Wireman  The individual on a film or video crew who is in charge of wiring and maintaining all of the practicals that are mounted on a set. Shadow Box (Moon Box)  1. A lighting effect in which lamps are enclosed in a light-tight box having a designed pattern or image cutout of its front panel. Gel is used to color the cutout, while scrim may be put across its front to mask the design when not in use. Moon boxes and simulated neon signs are often created in this manner. 2. A small window display (often as small as a foot square) that is placed at eye level. Shadowing  A method of casting shadows in landscape lighting in which a luminaire is placed in front of the plants and trees where it will not only light the subject but also cast its shadow onto the background as an element of the design. Shadows  Shadows are represented by either the area of an object that is not lit or the pattern of darkness that is cast by an illuminated object (cast shadow). Shakedown  The initial period of a tour (often a week or so) during which the production is tested out and tweaked. This can refer to design items (the cues, staging, and lighting itself ), the load-in and strike process, arrival order and stacking of trucks, size of crews (touring and local), etc. Shielding  A method of constructing roadway luminaires so that their light is forced downward and not to the sides or upward. It protects drivers from glare. Shins (Shin Buster/Shin Kicker)  A luminaire that creates low-angled sidelight that is mounted at floor level at the base of a boom. Shiny Board  See Reflector Unit or Reflector Panel/Board. Shoe  A part of a mechanical dimmer that contains an electrical contact that is moved across the dimmer to sample voltage at different points over a dimmer’s coils. Shoebox Design  An ellipsoidal reflector spotlight (ERS) design in which the housing or body is based on a rectangular (shoebox) shape rather than the traditional cylinder of most ERS designs. Shop Order  An inventory of all the materials and equipment that will be required to complete a lighting design. Short-arc Lamp  Modern arc sources commonly used in followspots, projectors, and other high-intensity units like moving lights. The lamp makes use of a heavy glass bulb with electrodes permanently built into the lamp. On operation, an arc forms between the electrodes with no need for trimming or adjustment. Short Circuit  Creating an accidental flow of electricity. When two hots come into direct contact with one another, or a hot wire makes accidental contact with the neutral or ground commonly results in shocks, sparks, or a possible fire. Short-Throw Followspots  Followspots designed with a range of beam spreads that are appropriate for a small venue. These throw distances are optimally between 25 and 50 feet. Shot  See Setup. Showcase Lamp  A special version of incandescent tube lamp that is long and thin, and has been designed specifically for shelf lighting. It is also popular in cabinet lighting and frequently used in both retail and museum applications. Show Control  A manner of linking several different control systems together so that all events/cues can be triggered by a single console. Lights, pyro, and other effects are often triggered by the sound track of a performance. Showroom  Special theatres often associated with cruise lines and casino or nightclubs that have well-equipped fly houses, lighting equipment, and stages but where the audience areas are more like ballrooms. The houses often include tables and bars in addition to traditional theatrical seating. The ceilings are usually relatively low which can result in overall flat lighting from the front of house. Las Vegas singers and comedy acts frequently perform in these facilities. Shutters  The most important controls in an ellipsoidal reflector spotlight (ERS). They are four metal plates that are inserted into the field of light to flatten or shape a spotlight’s beam. Shutter Speed  A camera setting that indicates how long film is exposed to light. Sidearm  An iron or hardware item that provides a method of mounting lighting fixtures to the side of a batten or boom while keeping the pan and tilt adjustments in their standard orientations.

408  Glossary

Sidelight  A lighting distribution angle that comes from the side and helps to model and give three-dimensional form to a subject. Silhouette Lighting  Lighting the background behind an object rather than the object itself. Silicon Controlled Rectifier  See SCR. Silks  See Butterflies. Sine Wave Dimmers  A recent innovation in dimming technology that makes use of IGBT dimming to produce a more effective, less noisy (electronically) dimmer by using a much higher sampling rate of the AC current than traditional SCR dimmers. Single-Source Lighting (Single-Source System)  A form of general illumination in which either an actual single light source is used to illuminate the stage or a series of individual instruments are used in such a way as to give the illusion that light is coming from a single source. Site Plan  A drafting that contains all the buildings, walkways, and landscape features of a property. A landscape lighting designer uses this to plot the design. Site Survey  A visit to the location where a lighting installation or design will actually take place. It is an opportunity to observe the facility, take measurements, and to seek out any unique concerns that may not be readily observed in the plans. Skydrop  Essentially the same scenic background as a cyc, with the exception that it is colored a light tint of blue. Skylight  1. An important component of daylighting. It refers to the more consistent overall diffuse glow of the sky as a lighting element (a result of scattering and general diffusion in the atmosphere). 2. A window-like architectural feature that is mounted in a roof or ceiling and allows daylight to enter a building. Slide  A source of original artwork for a projection. In most cases slides are made of translucent or transparent materials that allow light to pass through them. Slide Patch  A special type of patch panel where all of the circuits are arranged in rows along one axis (horizontal or vertical) while all of the dimmers are arranged along the opposing axis. A sliding contact is assigned to each of the circuits or dimmers along one of these axes and is moved along the axis and snapped into position over the corresponding circuit or dimmer to which the assignment is going to be made. Slot  See Cove. Slow Blow  A fuse or circuit breaker failing due to excessive heat in a circuit. The circuit appears fine for a period of time then fails with the breaker often appearing to trip for no reason. Slow blows are most often due to conditions like excessive resistance being created in a circuit by extra-long or under-sized jumpers, loose connections, or a slight overload of a circuit. Smart Preset Boards  The first memory boards. These were special variations of a preset board that had features that could store cues in a temporary memory. Snell’s Law  See Law of Refraction. Snoot (Top Hat)  An accessory that blocks spill by preventing light from opening up or spreading too quickly once leaving a luminaire. It is also used to control glare from backlights. Video and film professionals prefer to call it a snoot, while theatrical professionals use “top hat.” Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE)  A professional organization associated with technicians of the film and television industries. The organization sets the standard for synchronizing various production elements (sound, lights, pyro, machinery, etc.) through its SMPTE show control. Socopex (Socapex) Cables  A popular form of multi-cables used in entertainment applications. These multi-cables have special electrical fittings on each end for adapters (break-ins and break-outs) to be connected to their ends, which separates the cable into individual male and female connectors for each circuit. Soft Light  A type of light associated with the film and video industry characterized by diffuse illumination that does not display any prominent shadows. It is often associated with fill light and is used to soften any shadows created by a key light. Soft-Lights  A classification of luminaires in the film and video industry that produce a nice shadowless light over a large area. The fixtures lack a lens system and are often outfitted with diffusion media to ensure a soft, shadowless source of illumination. Soft Patch  Assigning dimmers and other control attributes to specific channels or controllers on a lighting console. Since the assignments are done electronically, the actual load of the dimmers does not factor into these assignments. Softscape  The growing elements or plants, foliage, and trees of a landscape design. Solid Core Conductor  A type of wire in which the conductor is a single piece of solid copper or metal. Sound Stage  A large, warehouse-like facility that is used for large-scale film and video productions. It is a larger version of a studio and contains lots of open space and a flexible lighting system that is easily modified to the many scenes and productions that may share the floor at any given time. Sound Wing  A stack of speaker cabinets stacked on either side of a concert stage. The sound wings supply the general PA or sound for the audience.

Glossary  409

Space Light  See Chicken Coop. Space Manipulation  Using architectural lighting to alter an occupant’s perception of a space. Spacing Criteria  A set of conditions such as illuminance levels and mounting heights that are used to determine how far apart architectural luminaires may be spaced from one another. Sparkle  See Glitter. Special  A luminaire that is used for a specific need or function. Specialty Areas  A variation in area lighting that creates additional lighting areas that mimic the actual lighting areas but are based on special needs like a variation in height or hanging restrictions. They are lit to give the appearance of being part of the same lighting environment. Specialty Lighting (Themed Lighting)  Lighting that is associated with themed design. It is a combination of traditional and entertainment based lighting design. Now more often called specialty lighting rather than themed lighting. Special Visibility  Lighting in which luminaires or lighting are assigned to a particular need of visibility that cannot be achieved by the general illumination or area lighting. Specify  A manner of identifying and providing documentation (on paper) of the exact performance and installation requirements of an architectural or other lighting installation or design. Specular Reflection  A type of reflection created from materials that have a shiny or mirrored surface that follows the Law of Reflection quite specifically. Spherical Reflector  A reflector based on the shape of a sphere that reflects light back through the focal point of the reflector. Spidering  See Home Runs. Spike (Surge)  A very sudden increase in voltage that can create a safety hazard or may damage equipment. A surge will typically last for less than a second. Spill  Stray or unwanted light. Spill is due to scattered reflections or the continuation of light beyond a target onto objects that a designer does not want to light. Spill Rings  A video and film lighting accessory that functions the same way as an egg crate, with the exception that they are used on circular-faced luminaires. Spin the Bottle  To rotate a PAR lamp to orient the axis of the lamp’s filament. Splitfade  A cue in which the lights coming up in a cue will do so at one speed while the lights coming down or out will do so at another speed. Splitfader  A variation of crossfader that includes a second fader (wired in opposition to the first) to allow a board to fade between different presets with different up and down rates and proportions. Spot Focus  The position in a Fresnel spotlight where the lamp or reflector assembly is moved toward the back of the unit that causes the light to converge over a central point. Spotlight  A luminaire that has well-defined edges and a fairly narrow distribution pattern, which is often used for creating accents. As a rule, spotlights contain lenses. Spotlight Booth  See Projection Booth. Spotlighting  A form of lighting where specific objects or performers are pointed up or given focus through creating an accent on them. This may be achieved by adding intensity, sharpness, different colors, or other contrasting features to the light. Spot Luminaire  An automated fixture that is used as a spotlight and has beam edges that can be focused to a sharp edge. These luminaires often contain effect devices, several manners of producing color, and one or two gobo wheels that can each hold up to five or more gobos, as well as moving attributes like pan and tilt. Spot Meter  A reflective light meter that measures light through a very narrow portion of a camera’s field. Spot meters are good for measuring contrast ratios between areas of high and low illumination within a camera frame. Spot Relamping  A manner of relamping that requires maintenance workers to replace lamps as burnouts occur. Spotting Light (Spotting Lamp)  A low-wattage lamp (usually red) that is placed at the rear of an auditorium to aid dancers in keeping their orientation (facing front) while making pivoting movements. Spread Reflection  A type of reflection in which most light from a source is reflected off a surface as predicted by the Law of Reflection, but due to an uneven surface this is not as specific or directional as a specular reflection. Spud  A pin-like fitting that slips into a receiving piece of hardware and allows a film or video luminaire to be quickly mounted to a stand or other support device. Stack  See Pack. Stage Mode  A console mode that displays the channels and their associated intensity levels that are actually live and on stage. Staging the Story  A function of lighting where we consider the techniques of producing a production by finding theatrical mechanisms for presenting the story or event to an audience.

410  Glossary

Stair Light  A special architectural luminaire that is designed to be mounted or recessed directly into the structure of stairs and directs light downward onto the treads. Starting Address  The first channel of any DMX-controlled device. It represents the first attribute and is the one that a fixture’s addressing switches will be set to. State (Cue or Look)  A static lighting image or look that creates a given combination of lights and their angles, intensities, and overall mixing. Cueing refers to establishing the looks and recording them so that they can be duplicated from performance to performance. Step Lens  A less popular version of the plano-convex lens that removes elements of the plano surface, leaving the convex surface intact. This lens produces a series of concentric rings in the beam of many spotlights and is no longer used in the lighting industry. Step-down Transformer  A transformer that is used to lower an AC voltage. The primary coil will be larger or contain more windings than the secondary coil. Step-up Transformer  A transformer that is used to raise an AC voltage. The secondary coil will be larger or contain more windings than the primary coil. Stepper Motors  Small motors used in the movement of automated lighting attributes that create motion by rotating through a series of steps that refer to an attribute’s position. This motion can appear jerky, especially at slow speeds. Stepping Effect  The effect by which a laser emits energy, in which the corresponding wavelengths of each waveform are in sync with all other waveforms, with the effect producing a higher amplitude and energy level. Stiffener  An accessory that is mounted to a batten and taped to its associated lift cables to prevent a pipe from spinning. It is very similar to a sidearm, which may be used in its place. Storyboards  1. Simple drawings that give an indication of each camera shot for film or video production along with the visual composition of each shot. 2. In theatrical applications, the storyboard is used as an informational sketch that indicates the lighting composition and qualities for a given moment. Straight Run  See Daisy Chain. Stranded Conductor  A type of wire in which a number of individual strands of copper or other conductive wire are woven together to form a larger conductor. Street Lighting  A variation of roadway lighting that not only lights the street but also the sidewalks and surrounding buildings, adding security and safety to an area. Strike  1. Take down and remove all of the equipment used in a production. 2. Turning on or “striking” an arc light source. Striplight  A luminaire that uses multiple lamps arranged in a side-by-side fashion that form a “strip” of light. A typical unit contains three or four circuits in which every third or fourth lamp is wired and colored separately as a common circuit. Strobe Light (Strobe)  A special xenon lamp that can be set for especially rapid on-off sequences and can produce stop-action motion. Structure  See Dramatic Form. Studio  A production facility for film and video production that is similar to a black box theatre and contains a large open area and lighting grid. Style  A function of lighting that relates to creating visual qualities that produce a characteristic overall quality for a production. The degree of realism may be used as a means of comparing styles. Style is specifically determined through the collaboration and discussions of the production team. Stylization  See Abstraction. Subject  The object or individual that is being lit. Submaster  A dimming control that provides for an assignment of several individual dimmers or control channels that function together as a unit. Subtractive Color Mixing  A method of color mixing that occurs when various wavelengths of light are removed. All materials selectively absorb (or reflect) different wavelengths, which defines an object’s natural color. Subtransmission Lines  Relatively high-voltage lines from substations that first reduce the voltage from transmission lines which in turn run to other substations that reduce the voltage even further so that it is safer to run into neighborhoods. Sun-gun  A battery operated hand-held lamp that is used on location shoots for film and video. It is similar to a spotting lamp. Supertitles  A line-by-line translation of an opera text that is typically projected onto a screen located directly above the proscenium opening of a stage. Surface-Mounted Luminaires  A classification of architectural luminaires based on a mounting position that is mounted directly to a wall or ceiling. Surge  See Spike. Suspended Luminaires  A classification of architectural luminaires based on a mounting position below a ceiling, from a pendant or other device.

Glossary  411

Suspension Grid (Tension Grid)  A lighting grid found in many black box theatres that consists of a mesh of woven aircraft cable that permits electricians to walk directly above the theatre on the grid. Swatch Book  A booklet that provides a sample of the actual color filters, transmission charts, and other information for each filter in a manufacturer’s specific series or product line of filters or gels. Samples of color correction, diffusion, and reflective materials are also frequently contained in swatch books. Switch  A device used to control the flow of power in a circuit. Open switches prevent the flow of electricity, while closed switches allow the current to flow. Swivel Socket  An accessory inserted into a standard socket that permits a lamp to be swiveled and focused in many directions. Symbol Libraries  A collection of CADD symbols or blocks that are created or purchased by the designer and stored for future use. System (Lighting System)  The combined use of multiple luminaires and washes that have similar if not identical functions to provide a unified appearance throughout an entire lit environment. Tabbing-in  Moving the torms of a larger stage in toward centerline. The practice is common for touring productions, which can then always play within a standard-sized proscenium opening. Tag  A label or identifier placed on a lighting layout along with a luminaire symbol that provides a reference to additional information relating to the fixture with which the tag is associated. This information might include the luminaire model number and manufacturer, finish, control information, lamp specification, etc. Tail Down  The practice of hanging a pipe below an existing batten or grid so that the luminaires can be hung from a lower trim height. Take  A shooting segment in film and video production. It involves a given setup, set of actions, and camera shot. Talent  The subject or performer that is to be lit in a video or film setting. Tap  A device that breaks either one or two phases of service off of a 3-phase service. Task  A visual requirement or job that must be performed successfully within a given set of lighting conditions in architectural applications. Task Light  A somewhat portable light that can be moved into position to provide specific illumination to a limited area for completing a given task. Task Lighting  Specification calculations and recommendations that are used to calculate minimum illumination levels for architectural applications representing a given visual task (function) or application requirement. Technical Rehearsal  A rehearsal in which the focus of the work is placed on the integration of the technical elements of a production. Light, sound, scene shifts and special effects are typically worked out in these rehearsals. Performers may or may not be part of these rehearsals. Tech with Actors (Wet Tech)  A rehearsal that focuses on the technical elements of a production but also includes the performers so that the performers and cues can be integrated with one another. Template  1. A sheet of rigid plastic that is stamped with a variety of symbols that provide scaled silhouettes of lighting instruments and other architectural details that are traced onto a drafting or light plot. 2. A master CAD file that is used as a base drawing for more specific draftings like floorplans or light plots (also known as a prototype). 3. See gobo or pattern. Tension Grid  See Suspension Grid. Tentative Hookup  A preliminary hookup that allows a lighting designer to work out the dimmer or channel assignments of a lighting design. Tenting  Placing a surround of diffusion material most of the way around a subject or setup to produce an evenly diffused lighting environment around the subject. Terminator  A hardware device or accessory that is plugged into the last unit of a DMX control line or run that helps prevent erroneous data from confusing the equipment along the data run. Tertiary Colors  See Intermediate Colors. Theatrical Lighting  In themed attractions, the part of the lighting installation that is supplied by theatrical luminaires, control, and related lighting equipment. Themed Design (Themed Entertainment)  A form of design in which an environment is created along a specific theme and some form of entertainment is also achieved. A visitor or viewer is immersed in an interactive environment that has some form of story associated with it. Popular themed projects include restaurants, stores, and theme parks. Themed Lighting (Specialty Lighting)  Lighting that is associated with themed design. It is a combination of traditional and entertainment based lighting design. Now this is more often called specialty lighting. Theme  An area of analysis where the playwright and director try to convey a message to an audience. Themes often relate to the social message(s) or meanings of a play.

412  Glossary

Thinking Green  A philosophy of designing buildings and lighting that are efficient and conserve natural resources while limiting byproducts that harm the environment. Three-fer  An adapter with three female plugs wired to a single male connector that allows lighting instruments to be combined together onto a common circuit. Three-Phase Power  A form of power distribution in which three separate legs or hot wires are provided to a facility or piece of equipment. Three-Point Lighting (Three-Point System)  A common method of illumination for video and film that involves three light sources that create a variety of contrast ratios around a subject, which in turn emphasizes the modeling or sculpted qualities of a subject. It’s also a common, standardized approach to lighting thrust and arena productions. Three-Way Switch  A special type of switch that allows a circuit to be controlled through using one of several switches that are placed in different locations. Three-Wire System  An electrical service that provides two hot wires (legs) and a common neutral. Threshold Exposure  The lowest exposure or light level setting at which a camera or film can record an image. Throw Distance  The line-of-sight distance measured from the luminaire to a target. Tight Specifications  Writing design specifications that are so specific that only the equipment desired by the designer can fulfill the requirements of a project. Tilt  An adjustment of a luminaire’s beam in an upward or downward direction. Timecode  A series of signals that are placed at specific points in a sound track to automatically trigger light cues or other effects or events at a specific time. In effect, the timecode simply tells the console to execute a given cue number much like an operator would tell a console to execute a cue by hitting the “go” button. Timer  A switching device that makes use of an internal clock that turns electrical devices on and off at pre-determined times. An astronomical clock or timer is often used in architectural applications and is based on a 24-hour clock, which automatically adjusts for seasonal fluctuations and other factors like daylight savings time. Tint  A color that is combined with either white light or a mixture of other wavelengths that produce a softer, less saturated version of the original hue. Title Block  A segment of a drafting plate that provides essential information regarding the drafting. Information often found in the title block includes: production or project title, the producing organization or firm, theatre or building name, identification of the designer, scale, and date of the drafting. Toning Accents  A wash of luminaires or lighting system that modifies or tones the color of a space or object over a broad area. Toon Shader  A computer shading/rendering technique which is very simplistic and produces a two-dimensional non-realistic rendering that is similar to cartoon animations. It may be used for preliminary renderings due to the speed and small file sizes that it has in comparison to more realistic rendering engines. Top Hat  See Snoot. Topper  A special form of flag used in the film and video industry that is used specifically to block the upper portion of a luminaire’s beam. Torm  A name given to the first vertical side lighting position that is just upstage of the curtain line on a proscenium stage. Some designers name torms in the same manner as booms. Tracking  Making a hardcopy of all the channel levels associated with each cue of a production. Tracking Mode  A console mode in which changes made in one cue are copied or “tracked” through future cues. A lighting console that provides for tracking is often called a tracking console. Track Luminaires  A classification of architectural luminaires based on a mounting position being an electric path/rail or raceway. Track Sheets  A record of the individual channel levels for every cue contained in a production. Each cue’s count information is also fully documented along with any effects or other information related to the control of the show. Trade Show  A corporate event in which a number of products and services (usually from a variety of companies with related products/services) are presented to a select group of potential customers, clients, or professionals. Transfer Circuits/Transfer Panels  Permanent circuits that are run to a location where they can be reassigned. Transfer circuits are common in road houses where the FOH circuits terminate at an interface where they can be assigned to either the house lighting system or a touring company’s dimmers. Transformer  An electrical device that uses coils and magnetism to modify voltages. They can either step-up or step-down the voltage depending on the relative number of turnings in the primary and secondary coils. Transformer Schedule  A schedule used in landscape lighting that is similar to a conventional dimmer schedule. This schedule organizes the equipment by transformer assignments and their associated circuits/loads. Transitions  Refers to the process and visual changes that occur while advancing from one cue to another.

Glossary  413

Transition Zone (Transition Area)  An area or zone created in museum and gallery lighting where additional exhibits and transitional lighting are designed with the primary purpose of providing an area and time for a viewer’s eyes to adjust to the lighting levels between adjoining areas. Translucence  A property that allows light to pass through a material and will allow a viewer to observe light and shadows but at the same time obscures the ability to see directly through the material. Transmission  Refers to the lighting wavelengths that pass through a gel, diffuser, or other material. Transmission refers to the percentage of radiant energy that continues beyond the filter and can be expressed as a total output across all wavelengths or as an output within specific wavelengths. Transmission rate refers to the percentage of light that actually passes through a material like a gel. More saturated gels have lower transmission rates. Transmission Lines  The heavy-duty power lines that are used to transfer power over long distances. Transmission Rate  See Transmission. Transmission Substation  A network of heavy metal cables, insulators, mast-like structures, and transformers that are used to either boost or lower the voltage of electricity as it is transported from a power plant to a customer. Those near a power plant that boost the voltage are called transmission substations, while those in neighborhoods that lower the voltage are called distribution substations. Traveler  A drapery that parts at the center and opens and closes across the stage. Trees  See Booms. Triac  An electronic component in electronic dimmers that functions in essentially the same way as SCRs. Tri-Colored  Luminaires that use arrays of three different colored LEDs as a light source. The LEDs are in the three primary colors of red, blue, and green with each color controlled by an individual control channel. In theory, additive mixing can be used with these to produce nearly any color, but in reality, many of the colors are compromised due to poor spectral coverage. Trim  1. The height of a hanging or mounting position, like a batten, measured from the stage floor to its working height. 2. The range settings of a dimmer from the point where the load goes out (low trim) to the point at which the load comes to full intensity (high trim). Trimming  1. Adjusting the movements and relative positions of the rods in a carbon-arc unit for optimal performance. 2. An adjustment of a dimmer’s voltage so that full movement of the dimmer corresponds to both a smooth/even and complete range of intensities. Triple-hang  A manner of providing a third alternative in color or focus for a general lighting system or area. Trombone  A zoom/focus assembly found on followspots that allows the beam angle and focus range of the spotlight to be easily modified. Troffer  A popular architectural luminaire based on the use of fluorescent tubes and housings that fit as flat panels within standard drop-ceiling grids. Trunions  Hardware that is used to mount striplights as floor units (one per side). Truss  A framework of reinforced metal tubing that becomes the support mechanism for lighting, sound, and other theatrical elements. These modular structures are popular in the touring industry because they are simply bolted together and often have all the lighting equipment already pre-hung within them. Tungsten-Halogen Lamp (TH-lamp or Quartz Lamp)  A special version of incandescent lamp that uses a mixture of halogen gas and the Tungsten-Halogen process to create a more efficient and longer lasting light source. Tungsten-Halogen Process  The halogen in a TH-lamp results in tungsten particles being deposited on the hottest portion (filament) of the lamp rather than the cooler bulb, creating a recycling effect that increases lamp life while also preventing the cloudy buildup on the bulb that affects the performance of traditional lamps. Tweak  A process of making refinements in the lighting cues and design throughout the rehearsal process. Two-fer  An adapter with two female plugs wired to a single male connector that allows lighting instruments or cables to be combined together. Two-Way Barn Door  An accessory that is placed in the front of a luminaire (frequently Fresnels) which has two moveable panels that can be adjusted into the beam of light for controlling spill or glare. Two-wire System  An electrical service that provides a single hot wire and neutral. Unified Production  A production in which all of the design and performance elements reinforce one another to form a cohesive whole in which nothing appears to be out of sync or place with the other elements. Unistrut  A channel of steel that is essentially U-shaped with flanged edges used to hang stage equipment like luminaires with bolts or other specialized hardware. PAR-bars are often fashioned from unistrut. United Scenic Artists (USA)  The union that represents lighting, scenic, sound, and costume designers, along with scenic artists and most recently, projection designers. It is now affiliated with IATSE. United States Institute for Theatre Technology (USITT)  An organization that represents designers and technicians across all disciplines of stagecraft throughout the entertainment profession.

414  Glossary

Universe  A unit of control based on a single control cable and its associated 512 individual channels of control. Uplighting  An unnatural angle where objects are lit from below. It is a dramatic angle and is often used for drawing focus or creating a special effect. Valence Lighting  Lighting that is used to light vertical displays and walls in which the luminaires (often using fluorescent tubes) are hidden behind a linear panel while the light is distributed upward and downward. Value  A component of color used to describe a color’s overall lightness or darkness based on a gray-scale. Value Engineering  Refers to using lower-quality equipment and installation practices than originally specified in order to increase a contractor’s profit margin or to lower the overall costs of the installation for the client. Variegated Glass Filters (Prismatic Glass)  A form of plastic or glass with a textured surface that refracts and diffuses any light that passes through it. These accessories are placed in the gate of a luminaire in much the same way as a gobo is used. Vectorscope  An instrument that breaks a video signal down into its composite colors or wavelengths and plots the individual color signals in a radial format on an electronic screen. White is found at the center of the circle, while each of the primary and secondary colors are located at various points around the radius. The further from the center that a signal is plotted, the more saturated the color. Veiling Reflections  Unwanted reflections of light sources such as sunlight, windows/skylights, and luminaires onto viewing surfaces such as computer screens that obscure the view of the desired object(s). Reflections that obscure window displays are another example. Verdigris (Verdi Green)  An anodized finish that is used to retard the corrosion of metal landscape luminaires. It resembles a black and green marbleized effect. Vertical Toning Strips (VTS)  Striplights that are mounted on booms in a vertical orientation. Dance companies will sometimes make use of this technique to produce their sidelight washes. Video Assist System  An in-lens video camera used to capture a film camera’s framing and to provide immediate feedback for what has been filmed. Video Controller (VC) or Video Engineer  A control system (and person) that controls the video output for a production. The VC controls all elements of the image on the master monitor, which becomes the final signal that is broadcast or recorded. Video Mapping  A projection technique in which a digital video signal is sent to a display device where each pixel or primary element of the image is displayed by individual control signals by various projection or LED devices that together form a composite video image. Video Wall  A composite wall of tiled LCD panels or video monitors that together produce a large-scaled screen or video display. Each tiled panel may display either an independent image or a small portion of a larger image. Video-Tiling  A projection technique in which multiple projectors are used to project a select portion of a larger image over a large surface like a building façade. Virtual Design  Any design that is created by computer simulation. Virtual Lighting  Lighting that is created for a virtual environment within a computer. Visibility  The principle of using light to reveal or illuminate objects. It’s the primary function of lighting. Vision of Light  Another manner of referring to a lighting concept or lighting scheme. Visible Spectrum  That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to which the human eye is sensitive and where individual wavelengths of light are visible. It is found approximately in the range of 400 (violet) to 700 (red) nanometers. Vista Lighting  A form of landscape lighting that provides supplemental lighting of an area that has a panoramic view of a distant landscape. Visual Acuity  Being able to manipulate the visual stimulus and environment so that a visual task may be completed. It is a function of factors like the size of the subject, distance between subject and viewer, surface reflectivity, amount of illumination, and the sensitivity of the sensors. Visual Comfort Probability (VCP)  A lighting calculation based on the angle between an observer and a light source and survey data that enables a designer to determine the degree of offensiveness of glare and other negative impacts that a luminaire and mounting position can have on an occupant. Visual Fatigue  A process by which a viewer’s eyes grow tired due to certain optical sensors being overstimulated by an unchanging visual environment. Visual Task  A visual skill or job that requires an appropriate level of visibility in order to perform the job successfully. Visualization  The use of a computer and specialized software to design, preprogram and simulate a production or architectural design. It produces images that approximate what the final design might look like under actual lighting conditions. Voltage (E)  A measurement of the electrical potential difference that exists between two points and is measured through a unit known as the volt. We may also refer to voltage as electromotive force (EMF).

Glossary  415

Voltage Drop  A measured drop in voltage that occurs as electricity is conducted through greater distances as the resistance in a circuit gets larger. Vomitory (Vom)  An aisle found in thrust and arena theatres that is typically placed on the corners of adjoining audience sections. Walkthrough  1. A film or video first rehearsal of a setup where the actors arrive for a blocking rehearsal and the director establishes their movement patterns. In this context, designers may also call this a “dry run.” 2. A tool in some visualization programs that permits a viewer to manipulate their view to complete a simulated exploration of a virtual space. Walkway Lighting  A form of landscape lighting that illuminates and often lines sidewalks and paths. Wall Pack  A classification of wall-mounted luminaires in which a grazing light is cast away from the fixture along the wall while a decorative shade shields the viewer from the light source. Wall Pocket  A theatrical distribution box containing three to six circuits that is located along the perimeter walls of a stage. Wall Reflected Radiation Component (WRRC)  A component used as a factor in calculating vertical or wall illuminance that expands the illuminance calculations to account for various reflected elements. The calculation is essentially the same as the Lumen Method, with the coefficient of utilization being substituted with this additional factor that represents vertical illuminations. Wall Sconce  A decorative luminaire that is mounted to the surface of a wall. Wallwasher  An architectural luminaire that is typically mounted as a surface or recessed ceiling mount whose light grazes or washes a vertical surface like a wall. Warm Colors  Light that has an abundance of red, yellow, and orange wavelengths. They produce responses of tension or action and appear to advance toward us. Warming Current  A small current used to pre-heat lamp filaments so that a sudden surge like bringing a dimmer to full won’t over stress a lamp. Wash  Using several luminaires to cover a significant portion of scenery, stage, or other area designated by a designer. The individual fixtures are blended from one unit to another to give the appearance of being lit by a single light source. Wash Light  See Linear Light. Washed Stage  A lighting approach for general illumination that dates back to wash variety luminaires and light sources that were typically candle or lantern flames. Horizontal strips of luminaires were typically hung above and across the stage, while additional luminaires were placed on stands to the sides of the stage. This lighting was often characterized by a strong use of footlights to help soften the shadows that were cast on the performers by the overhead lights. Wash Luminaire  Automated fixtures that have soft edges so that a series of them can be blended together to produce a wash. Another significant difference between wash luminaires and spot luminaires is their lack of features like patterns/ gobos and other features like shutters that make more controllable forms of light. Wash System  A group of luminaires that share common characteristics (e.g. angle and color) and operate together to produce an even coverage over an area that is larger than what a single spotlight can cover. The individual units work together (each covering a portion of the area) to produce a uniform coverage over the entire area. Watt (P)  A measurement of the rate of doing work and can be thought of in terms of how much power that a task might be using or consuming. Wavelength  A manner of measuring and describing waves that correlates to the distance between the points in which a wave undergoes a complete cycle (often measured peak to peak). Well Lights  Landscape luminaires that are nothing more than a cylinder containing a lamp and its electrical components, buried so that the face of the lamps are about even with the surface of the ground. West Virginia Formula  Based on the Power Formula, it relates the wattage of a circuit to the voltage and amperage. W = V × A (Watts = Volts x Amps). Wet Tech  See Tech with Actors Wheel  A mechanical control device that allows a board operator to manually adjust any channel levels or rates that are placed under its control. White Balance  A process where video cameras are adjusted for overall color temperature sensitivity through registering what the camera sees as white light. This process ensures faithful overall color reproduction. Wiggle Lights  See Intelligent Lights, Moving Lights, Automated Lights, and Luminaires. Window Well  An architectural feature that sets a building’s windows deeper into a wall surface, providing additional protection from the effects of direct sunlight. Wing Panel  An accessory that provides a set of manual faders to a control console or personal computer running software that converts the computer into a lighting control system. Wire  A component for conducting electricity that contains a metal conductor covered by insulation that shields it from other conductors. A wire by definition only contains one conductor.

416  Glossary

Wireless Dimming  A relatively new form of control in which information such as a DMX signal is transmitted through dedicated radio frequencies. Similar to the manner in which wireless mics are controlled, a receiver is addressed and then assigned channel information just as any other soft-patching is done. Some of these systems may also include a power supply so that there are actually no control or power wires leading to the circuit at all and are useful for placing lighting in costumes or on scenic pieces that must remain mobile. Wish List  A worksheet that lists all of the functions that a lighting designer intends to create throughout a design. It is then used to determine the number and type of luminaires, number of control channels or dimmers required, etc., but more importantly is used to prioritize this list and to determine ways in which the uses and associated lights can be consolidated, repatched, or cut in order to make the design practical. Working Trim  The trim or height at which a hanging position is flown to and from where the lights are actually used for a production and focused from. Worklight (After Hours or Cleaning/Maintenance) Lighting  A lighting system that is used after hours by maintenance and cleaning staff in restaurants, nightclubs, or other facilities that operate under low illumination levels during normal business hours. In the theatre, worklights are used for general illumination for load-ins and load-outs, rehearsals, and work calls where the stage lighting is not required. Work Notes  Notes that refer to technical or mechanical issues that require a crew and need to be fixed by the next rehearsal or performance (e.g., burned out gel or lamps, adding a unit, or dropped focuses are common examples of work notes). Work plane  In lighting calculations, the plane in which a visual task is completed. In most cases it represents a horizontal plane that extends across an entire room. For instance, a plane representing the height of all the desks in a classroom or office. Writing a Show Blind  Preprogramming a show in a remote location without the benefit of being able to see the stage and the effects of light on it. Wye  See Four-Wire System. Xenon Lamp  A special form of short-arc lamp that is used in followspots and other luminaires. Yoke  A U-shaped bracket that supports the actual body of a theatrical luminaire that is then attached to a hanging position by a C-clamp. Tilt adjustments are made by setting the bolts or handles that attach the yoke to the luminaire while pan adjustments are made by setting the bolt that attaches the yoke to the C-clamp. Yoking Out  Spinning the C-clamp around a pipe so that a luminaire is mounted somewhere between straight-down and 90° upward. This variation in hanging is used to help shoot around obstructions like adjoining luminaires or stretching a bit more height out of a low hanging position. Zonal Cavity Method  See Lumen Method. Zone  See Plane. Zone Lighting  A lighting formula for general illumination that represents a variation of the washed stage and is often used where a layered effect (wing and drop setting) might be created through the scenery. It is especially popular in dance productions. Zone lighting makes use of wash luminaires that are used primarily to light the scenery from above but is then supplemented by high-angled sidelight (the most dominant lighting angle), backlight, and a limited amount of front fill.

Glossary  417

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INDEX Note: Page numbers in italic indicate a figure and page numbers in bold indicate a sidebar on the corresponding page. absorption 4, 21 – 22, 131, 337, 370 abstraction 127, 370 accent lighting 5, 73, 110, 370, 381, 407; in architectural lighting 213, 213, 229, 243, 248, 259; in display and exhibit lighting 173 – 178, 180 – 182, 181, 186, 193, 196 – 197; in landscape lighting 273 Adams, Betsy 109, 115, 117, 119 – 120 adaptation 11 – 12, 31 – 32, 62, 309, 370, 377 additive mixing 21 – 22, 29, 30, 204, 414 Adelman, Alan 125 – 126 afterimages 11, 31 – 32, 370 air light 71 – 74, 72 amber drift 30; see also red shift ambience 5, 386, 396; in architectural lighting 226, 229, 243, 245; in display and exhibit lighting 172 – 173, 175, 192 ambient lighting 212, 237, 242 – 246, 338; in display and exhibit lighting 173, 177 – 178, 186, 189 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 130, 143, 370 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) 227, 371 architectural lighting 4 – 5, 23, 199 – 202, 208 – 212, 217 – 218, 371; for building exteriors 259 – 261; commercial lighting 249 – 250; and daylighting 235 – 239; design process for 222 – 229; economics and 240 – 241; educational facilities 252 – 253; and efficiency 239 – 240; and fashion shows 110; for health care facilities 253 – 255; for hospitality design 242 – 246; for houses of worship 246 – 249; for industrial design 255 – 257; and landscape lighting 270, 292, 298; lighting layouts and design documentation for 229 – 235; luminaire classifications for 202 – 208; in the music scene 40, 79; for office lighting 250 – 252; for public buildings 246; for public spaces 261 – 262; and residential lighting 241 – 242; for roadways and bridges 263 – 268; and spectacle 94; techniques for 212 – 217; and themed lighting 308, 310, 312; see also Gregory, Paul; retail lighting; Shook, Robert area lighting 111, 251, 371; for film and video 134, 147, 164 – 166; for landscape lighting 272, 272, 278, 286

arena productions 11, 118, 119, 121, 191; and architectural lighting 208, 246; and corporate meetings 112 – 114; and film and video 161, 169; in the music scene 39, 52, 56, 77, 80; spectacle and 86 – 87, 90, 92, 94, 96, 99 – 101; and themed lighting 305; and trade shows 109 ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1 228, 239, 371 automated lighting 183, 248, 339, 37; for industrials 116, 120; for the music scene 42, 44, 47, 66, 68 – 70; for spectacle 100 background lighting 178 – 180, 273, 276, 288 backlight 15, 15, 372; in film and video 141, 150, 162 – 166, 169 – 170; in the music scene 40, 47, 59, 73 – 74; in virtual lighting 331 – 333 ballasts 372; in architectural lighting 204, 208 – 211, 209, 218 – 219, 232, 233; in film and video 129, 138 – 139, 141, 142, 151, 158 ballyhoo 38, 69, 372 barn door 387, 414 battens 87, 156, 373 beacons 42, 43, 373 bollards 263, 277, 278, 286, 289, 374 bridges 195, 236, 394; architectural lighting and 265 – 266, 268, 268; in landscape lighting 270, 290, 291 brightness 1, 3, 5, 7 – 12, 374; in display and exhibit lighting 176, 186, 196; in film and video 128, 135; in landscape lighting 282, 291 – 292; in themed lighting 308, 317; in virtual lighting 335, 337, 339 busking 40, 66, 375 cable lighting 177, 207, 314, 375 cables 330, 375; and architectural lighting 207, 214, 217, 266; in display and exhibit lighting 177 – 178, 189; and fashion shows 110; in film and video 148, 151, 158; and industrials 114; and landscape lighting 277, 280 – 282, 284, 295; the music scene 41, 56 – 59, 63 – 64, 65, 68, 71 Cady, Patrick 133 – 134

cameras 9 – 10, 18, 27, 123 – 124, 126 – 127, 375; Alan Adelman and 125; and architectural lighting 250; control elements and 151 – 152; in corporate meetings 114; and documentation 167 – 169; filters and 152 – 153; and key elements in illumination 161 – 164, 163; light and 128 – 132, 134 – 139, 141, 146; and location lighting 157 – 158; Michael Grimes and 148; in the music scene 72, 80; Patrick Cady and 133 – 134; and production practices 158 – 161; in spectacle 83, 92, 94; and studios 156 – 157; and themed lighting 303, 316; and virtual lighting 326 – 328, 331 – 333, 338, 346, 348; William L. Klages and 166 Certified Lighting Designer (CLD) 199, 376 chain motors 42, 59, 63, 156, 376, 402 churches see houses of worship CIE Chromaticity Chart 19, 20, 22, 25, 29, 376 circulation 111, 377; and architectural lighting 212, 243 – 246, 261; and display and exhibit lighting 171, 173 – 176, 183, 192, 196 – 197; and landscape lighting 276, 286, 299; and themed lighting 307 – 309 club lighting 39 – 40, 44, 47, 242; gear for 40 – 42; for dance floors 42, 43 – 44, 45, 50 color contrast 31, 175, 377 color correction 27, 129, 152 – 154, 377, 398, 412 color media 23, 27, 377, 378 color perception 11, 12, 19, 27, 377 color prediction 27 – 29 color rendering 20, 128, 378; in architectural lighting 203 – 205, 245, 254; in display and exhibit lighting 176, 178, 198; see also Color Rendering Index (CRI) Color Rendering Index (CRI) 21, 29, 290, 378; in architectural lighting 203, 204, 228, 233, 249; in display and exhibit lighting 172, 175, 175 – 176, 186, 190; in film and video 129, 141, 154 color temperature 19 – 21, 27, 29 – 32, 111, 378; and the camera 128 – 129, 131; in display and exhibit lighting 171 – 172, 175 – 176, 175 – 176, 178, 180, 197 – 198; in film and video 150 – 154, 158, 162; in landscape lighting 225, 228, 266, 292; and luminaires for film and video 138, 140 – 141; in virtual lighting 328 commercial lighting 209, 249 – 250, 299 – 300; see also retail lighting commercial photography 167, 332 composite photography 123, 169 – 170, 376, 378 composition 6, 20 – 21, 24, 29, 31 – 33, 378; in display and exhibit lighting 172, 175 – 176; in film and video 129, 152, 167; in landscape lighting 278, 294, 300; in the music scene 77 Computer-Aided Design and Drafting (CADD) 73, 229, 232, 324, 340, 375 concert lighting 35, 38 – 39, 50 – 53, 59 – 64, 78 – 79, 80; automated lighting and scrollers for 69; consoles for 64 – 66; dimmers and cables for 64; luminaires for 57 – 58; plotting principles for 73 – 77; road cases for 66 – 68; trusses for 58 – 59; see also Moody, James L.; Ravitz, Jeff

conservation 194, 196 – 198, 379 consoles 26, 29 – 30, 111; in architectural lighting 209, 248; in club lighting 38, 40 – 42, 43 – 44, 44 – 45; in concert lighting 57, 64 – 66, 67, 69, 71; cueing principles and 77 – 79; in film and video 148, 157; in themed lighting 311; touring and 53, 56; in virtual lighting 328, 339 – 340, 342, 349 contract rider 52, 55, 78, 379, 405 contrast ratios 9 – 10, 379; in architectural lighting 213, 222, 225, 252; and the camera 128, 132; in display and exhibit lighting 186, 192, 197; documentation and 167 – 169; in film and video 123 – 124, 134 – 137, 146, 151, 162, 164; in themed lighting 308; in virtual lighting 332 – 335, 334 contour lighting 273 – 274, 379 control elements 151 – 152, 208 – 211, 295 corporate events 108, 112, 114, 116, 118 – 120, 119; see also Adams, Betsy corporate meetings 108, 112 – 114, 115, 120, 148 cove lighting 180, 213 – 214, 234, 377, 380 cross lighting 186, 190, 274, 330, 380 cueing 100, 111, 248, 380; the music scene and 38, 45, 77 – 79 cyclorama 29, 33, 38, 139, 381 daisy chain 282, 381 daylighting 111, 235, 237 – 240, 237, 239, 381; in the architectural design process 222, 226; in display and exhibit lighting 195, 197; interior lighting and 243, 248 – 249, 250, 252, 256, 260 decorative lighting 182, 211, 214, 215, 381 dedicated venues 100 – 103, 381 design 381 – 382; for architectural lighting 208, 222 – 229; for club lighting 45 – 50; and color 33; for film and video 159; for landscape lighting 292 – 296; for themed lighting 307 – 309; for virtual lighting 325 – 328; see also specific designers dichroic filters 26 – 27, 26, 190, 259, 308, 381 diffusion 15 – 16, 26 – 27, 152 – 154, 238, 382; in film and video 157, 164; and lighting accessories for film and video 147, 149 – 150, 150; and luminaires for film and video 138 – 139, 143 dimmers 4, 114, 382; architectural lighting and 211, 229, 232, 234, 240 – 241, 254; in display and exhibit lighting 178, 189; in film and video 127, 129, 151, 156 – 158, 160; landscape lighting and 279, 282, 291, 296, 298, 298; the music scene and 39, 41, 52, 56 – 57, 64 – 65, 65, 68; themed lighting and 308 direct component 219 – 222, 382, 403 display cabinets 177, 184, 187, 188 display lighting 21, 33, 197 – 198, 204, 383; Cindy Limauro and 195 – 196; lighting layers and 176, 178, 183; and principles of retail lighting 186; in window displays 189 – 190; see also display cabinets; vertical displays

Index    423

distribution 3, 21, 327, 383; architectural lighting and 202, 224, 229, 252, 263, 267; in display and exhibit lighting 172, 186, 191, 198; in film and video 126 – 127, 129, 134, 157 – 158, 162, 163; landscape lighting and 272, 278, 288; the music scene and 40, 64, 66; patterns of 8, 17, 203, 207, 207, 264 documentation 167 – 169, 198, 229 – 235, 241, 292 – 296, 309 – 311 downlight 3, 14, 14, 114, 383; in architectural lighting 202, 205, 208, 233, 234; fashion shows and 110 – 111; interior lighting and 242, 245, 251 – 252; landscape lighting and 274, 277, 281, 298; in layouts and documentation 229 – 230; retail lighting and 186 drafting 73, 119, 159, 230 – 231, 310 – 311, 324 economics 127, 159, 197 – 198, 226, 239 – 241, 395 educational facilities 252, 300, 384 effects lighting 43, 73, 154, 182 – 183, 309, 330 – 331 efficiency see energy efficiency electromagnetic spectrum 1 – 2, 2, 384, 415 energy efficiency 7; in architectural lighting 203 – 204, 218 – 219, 222, 239 – 240, 245, 258; in display and exhibit lighting 174 – 176, 178, 193, 197 – 198 exhibit lighting 108 – 110, 152, 248 – 249, 317; Cindy Limauro and 195; essentials of 171 – 173; fluorescent lamp specifications for 176 – 178, 179, 182 – 183; in museums and galleries 191 – 194, 193, 196 – 198; and window displays 187 exposure see cameras; film; video exteriors 258, 259 – 261, 259, 260; and architectural control elements 209; and interior lighting 246, 248; and landscape lighting 296 – 298; see also bridges; public spaces; roadways fashion shows 110 – 111, 112, 148 – 149 festival productions 84, 88, 98, 99, 103; the music scene and 50, 53, 59, 66, 74 fill light 57, 273, 337, 338, 386; in architectural lighting 212; in display and exhibit lighting 190; in film and video 139 – 140, 143, 146 – 147, 162 – 164; see also key and fill film 10, 15 – 16, 19, 27, 30, 178; Alan Adelman and 125 – 126; area lighting for 164 – 166; the camera 128 – 132, 134; control elements for 151 – 152; filters for 152 – 154; hard and soft light for 135, 139 – 143; key and fill lights for 134; key elements in 161 – 164; latitude and contrast ratios for 135 – 136; LEDs and 154 – 155; lighting accessories for 147 – 151; light meters for 136 – 137; location lighting for 157 – 158; luminaires for 137 – 139, 143 – 147; in the music scene 57, 79 – 80; production practices for 158 – 161; special cases of lighting for 166 – 170; and spectacle 82, 95; studios and sound stages 156 – 157; unique qualities of 123 – 124, 126 – 128; William L. Klages and 165 – 166; see also Cady, Patrick; Grimes, Michael

424  Index

filtering 4, 25, 26, 30, 196, 386; in film and video 129, 153, 169; see also color media; filters; plastic media filters 23 – 30, 24 – 25, 29, 32, 33, 386; in architectural lighting 259; for dance floors 43; in display and exhibit lighting 190, 196 – 197; in film and video 129, 136, 144, 151 – 154, 169; in landscape lighting 273, 288, 292; in themed lighting 308 fluorescent lighting 19, 21, 27, 32, 110, 387; in architectural lighting 199, 202, 203 – 205, 204, 208 – 209, 239 – 242; and the architectural lighting design process 228, 234; and architectural lighting techniques 213 – 214, 214; in display and exhibit lighting 174 – 176, 178, 180, 182, 189, 197; in film and video 129, 139 – 141, 154; in interior lighting 245, 252, 255, 256; lamp specifications for 176; in landscape lighting 288, 296; traditional tubes for 175; in virtual lighting 330, 332 flyby 326, 246, 287 focusing spots 162, 405 focus palettes 84, 358, 405 focus points see focus palettes focus track 405 following source 154, 164, 333, 387 followspot 111, 387; in the music scene 37, 53 – 54, 55, 59, 72 – 74, 78; in spectacle 92 – 94, 93, 99 – 100 footcandle 3 – 4; in architectural lighting 217 – 220, 227 – 228, 227; defined 387; in film and video 128, 130 – 131, 136; in landscape lighting 271, 295 form 3, 5 – 6, 12 – 13, 17, 99; in display and exhibit lighting 186, 192; in film and video 164; in landscape lighting 276; in virtual lighting 326 frequency 1 – 2, 2, 54, 139, 158, 381; defined 388 Fresnels 141 – 142, 142, 155, 388 front light 13, 14, 59, 74, 165, 248; defined 388 f-stops 128, 130 – 132, 131, 132, 134 – 137; control elements and 151 – 152; defined 388; documentation and 168 – 169; and illumination 161 gaffer 124, 133, 137 – 138, 148, 157 – 158, 376 gallery lighting 177, 191 – 194, 249, 379, 385, 414 gaming see virtual lighting gauge 114, 282, 388 gases 43, 187, 388 gel 23 – 27, 29 – 30, 152 – 154; spectral analysis of 24 – 26 gelstring 26, 68, 388 glare 9, 11, 111, 389; and architectural lighting 202, 220, 222, 226 – 228, 237; display and exhibit lighting and 174, 184, 187, 189, 191, 193 – 194; and exterior lighting 258, 264 – 266; and interior lighting 251 – 252, 255; and landscape lighting 273, 278 – 279, 285, 288, 294, 295; the music scene and 74; spectacle and 92, 99 – 100; and themed lighting 306, 309 glass media 26 grazing 16 – 17, 17, 332, 389; in architectural lighting 216, 229, 243, 246, 259; in landscape lighting 274, 274 – 275, 277 – 278, 285, 288, 295

Gregory, Paul 193, 244, 262 – 263, 264, 275, 299 Grimes, Michael 148 – 149 ground support 111, 114, 150, 389; in the music scene 59, 63, 96 headline acts: in music 50, 52, 54, 69, 77; in spectacle 84, 85 health care facilities 200, 253 – 255, 254 Higgins, Christopher 342 High-Intensity Discharge (HID) 176; in architectural lighting 202, 203, 204, 250, 252, 256; defined 390 hospitality 391; architectural lighting for 200, 222, 242 – 246, 244, 245, 255; themed lighting for 314 – 317, 318 hotels see hospitality houses of worship 121, 391; and architectural lighting 200, 222, 246 – 248, 249; and film and video 161, 161, 165, 167; spectacle and 94, 94 illuminance 7 – 8, 7, 391; in architectural lighting 200, 217 – 220, 227, 227, 250 – 251; in display and exhibit lighting 171 Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) 7, 293, 346, 368 – 369, 391; and architectural lighting 206 – 208, 206, 208, 226 – 228, 227, 231, 267; and display and exhibit lighting 194 industrial lighting 255 – 256, 257, 392 industrials 66, 108, 112, 114 – 118, 117, 120 – 121; defined 392 intensity see brightness; color perception; glare; illuminance; luminance; luminous exitance; luminous flux; luminous intensity; relative intensity inverse square law 8, 132, 134, 220, 329, 339; defined 392 key and fill 15 – 16, 134 – 136, 154, 162, 331 – 335, 393 key light 141, 144, 162 – 167, 337 – 338, 338, 393; see also key and fill Klages, William L. 94, 121, 165 – 166 lampholders 285, 288, 293 landscape lighting 270 – 271, 310; and architectural lighting 203, 242, 257, 259; control of 291 – 292; design and documentation of 292 – 296; distribution patterns in 272 – 276; essential approaches to 271 – 272; of exteriors and buildings 296 – 299; in film and video 169; on a grand scale 299 – 300; LEDs in 289 – 291; luminaires and accessories for 285 – 289; principles of 276 – 281; and voltage 281 – 283; and weather 283 – 285; see also Moyer, Janet Lennox latitude 10, 238, 329, 393; in film and video 126, 132, 135 – 137, 168 layering 301, 317, 393; in architectural lighting 229, 243, 245, 249 – 250; in display and exhibit lighting 173, 183 – 184, 183; in film and video 124; in the music scene 74, 77 layout 110, 271, 295 – 296, 306, 310, 310; architectural lighting 223 – 225, 226, 228 – 233, 230, 231, 232,

250 – 251; in display and exhibit lighting 173, 174, 176 – 177, 183; the music scene and 42, 50, 51, 60, 74; spectacle and 99 LEDs 29 – 30, 116, 309, 322, 373, 394; in architectural lighting 203 – 205, 209, 228, 240, 258; in display and exhibit lighting 176, 187; in film and video 123, 129, 138, 141, 154; in landscape lighting 278, 289 – 290, 294; in the music scene 44, 70; in spectacle 100 lifts 241, 374; in film and video 146, 161; in the music scene 54, 59, 60, 62 – 63, 73; in spectacle 84, 96 lighting calculations 195, 217 – 222, 228, 394 lighting concepts 158 – 159, 225, 347, 394 – 395, 403, 415 light meters 8, 10, 128, 131, 136 – 137, 169 Limauro, Cindy 193, 195 – 196 linear lights 139, 288; see also wash lighting line-voltage 178, 209, 281 – 282, 284 – 286, 291, 396 location lighting 138, 143, 146, 150, 155, 157 – 158 low-voltage units 110, 396; in architectural lighting 234; in display and exhibit lighting 178, 180, 189 – 190, 193; in landscape lighting 281 – 282, 284, 286 – 292, 289, 298 lumen method 218 – 220, 228, 377, 394, 397 luminance 8 – 9, 217, 221, 386, 397 luminous exitance 9, 397 luminous flux 7, 7, 9, 396 – 397 luminous intensity 8, 397; see also inverse square law maintenance 311, 313; in architectural lighting 208, 222, 235, 240 – 241, 245; in display and exhibit lighting 197 – 198; in landscape lighting 281, 285, 290, 294, 295 – 296; and the music scene 50 matte photography 169 – 170, 376, 378 mixing see additive mixing; subtractive mixing modeling 5, 13 – 14, 186, 398; in architectural lighting 227; in film and video 162, 164, 167; in landscape lighting 277; in virtual lighting 324 – 327, 330, 332 – 334, 334, 337, 339 mood 3, 5, 9 – 10, 30 – 31, 33, 398; in architectural lighting 216, 225 – 226, 242 – 243, 245, 248 – 249; in display and exhibit lighting 171 – 172, 178, 186, 190 – 192, 195; in film and video 124, 151, 158, 167; in landscape lighting 295, 298; mood alteration 11; in the music scene 38, 40, 73, 77; in themed lighting 307, 311, 315, 317; in virtual lighting 332, 334, 343 Moody, James L. 83, 151; in the music scene 47, 56, 62, 74, 79 – 80 moonlighting 272, 274, 274, 399 mounting 111, 306, 309, 399; in architectural lighting 206 – 208, 206, 224, 228, 230, 232; and architectural lighting techniques 212; in display and exhibit lighting 189, 193; in exterior lighting 261, 265; in film and video 138 – 139, 150 – 151, 156, 159; in interior lighting 250, 252; in landscape lighting 273 – 274, 276, 279, 283, 285 – 286, 295 – 296; and lighting calculations 218; in the music scene 53, 58 – 59, 79; in spectacle 100 – 101

Index    425

movement 3 – 4, 6, 26, 195, 399; in architectural lighting 204, 225, 241, 261; in film and video 160, 165; in landscape lighting 277; in the music scene 39, 42, 43 – 44, 68, 69; in themed lighting 306, 306; in virtual lighting 325 – 326, 340, 347 – 348 Moyer, Janet Lennox 292, 292 – 293, 293 – 294 museum lighting 171 – 173, 176 – 177, 187, 194, 222, 399; see also gallery lighting music scene see club lighting; concert lighting; revues office lighting 250 – 252, 251, 400 optimal visibility see under visibility overstimulation 11 patchbay 156 – 157, 392, 401 pathway lights 277, 286, 287, 401 penetration 235, 238, 401 perception 3, 9 – 10, 14, 18, 32; in architectural lighting 216, 226, 255; color perception 11, 12, 19, 27, 377; in display and exhibit lighting 172; the music scene and 57, 73; spectacle and 100 perimeter lighting 178 – 180, 242, 251, 279, 402 perspective lighting 274 – 275, 402 photography see commercial photography; composite photography; matte photography; portrait photography pickup 64, 74, 402 plastic media 23 – 24 plotting 73 – 77, 159, 340, 403 portrait photography 130, 137, 150, 167 post lights 285 – 286, 403 power distribution 110, 114, 156, 217, 294, 413 primary colors 19 – 22, 20, 27, 29, 33, 403 public buildings 227 – 228, 246, 247, 250, 255, 258 public spaces 111; and architectural lighting 227, 243, 249, 252, 261, 263; and themed lighting 320 Ravitz, Jeff 52, 72, 82 – 83, 93 red shift 30, 178, 405 relative intensity 10, 273 renderings see virtual lighting residential lighting 226, 228, 241 – 242, 243, 274, 405 restaurants see hospitality retail lighting 110, 172 – 174, 175, 182 – 184, 185, 188; and architectural lighting 249 – 250; defined 405 revues 35, 36, 38,40, 80; and spectacle 81, 84, 85 rhythm 6 – 7, 66, 405 road cases 56, 62, 66, 68, 406 roadways 17, 21, 300, 406; architectural lighting and 220, 258, 263 – 266, 265 – 267 Ruzika, Tom 88, 244, 245, 312 – 313 safety lighting 258, 273, 276, 406 scene 4 – 6, 10 – 12, 15, 18, 27, 31 – 32; in landscape lighting 273; in music 53, 64; spectacle and 82; in themed lighting 306 – 309, 307, 311, 320; see also film; video; virtual lighting

426  Index

scrollers 26, 42, 66, 68, 100, 111; defined 407 secondary lighting 175 – 177, 182, 186, 192, 407; see also accent lighting security lighting 273, 285, 291, 407; in architectural lighting 242, 250, 258, 261 shadowing 111, 330, 408; in architectural lighting 226; in film and video 164; in landscape lighting 275, 275, 277 – 278, 298 shape 12, 17, 325 – 236; in architectural lighting 264; in display and exhibit lighting 172, 193; in landscape lighting 271, 276 – 277, 288, 292 shelving 174, 180, 184, 256, 318, 395 Shook, Robert 236 shooting 27; in music 72; and themed lighting 304; see also film; video sidelight 13 – 15, 14, 160, 162; defined 409; in music 38, 59, 74 silhouette 4, 15 – 16, 17, 116; in landscape lighting 272, 273, 276, 280; see also silhouette lighting silhouette lighting 16, 17, 276, 280, 409 site plan 292, 295, 297, 298, 409 skydrop see cyclorama skylight 19, 235, 237 – 238, 237, 409 sound stages 124, 127, 138, 156 – 157, 159, 161; defined 409; and themed lighting 303 space manipulation 216 – 217, 410 specialty lighting 38, 243, 245 – 246, 412; see also Ruzika, Tom; themed lighting spectacle 81, 84, 86, 99 – 103, 102, 106; architectural lighting and 216; fashion shows and 111; industrials and 116, 120; the music scene and 38 – 39, 42, 53, 56, 69, 73; themed lighting and 322 – 323; virtual lighting and 342 spotlighting 44, 410; in display and exhibit lighting 176 – 178, 180, 187, 189 – 192, 191; in landscape lighting 273 – 274, 278, 288 stadium productions 146, 246, 322; and music 52, 56; and spectacle 81, 87, 90, 94 – 96, 95, 99 stage areas 45, 50, 87 staging 110, 119, 121; in the music scene 38 – 39, 50, 52, 54 – 56, 55, 59; in spectacle 87, 98, 101; staging the story 6, 410; in themed lighting 307, 311; in virtual lighting 339 – 340 striplights 26, 100, 111, 208, 234; defined 411; in display and exhibit lighting 173 – 174, 188 style 6, 9, 11, 411; in architectural lighting 216, 225, 248, 258; in display and exhibit lighting 171, 176, 192 – 193; in film and video 123, 127, 154, 158, 167; in landscape lighting 294 – 295; the music scene and 38 – 39, 80; spectacle and 83; in themed lighting 306, 315, 317; in virtual lighting 332, 334, 336 subtractive mixing 21 – 23 task lighting 110, 295, 309, 315, 317, 412; in architectural lighting 212, 217, 242 – 246, 248, 250, 253 – 254

themed lighting 410; common terminology 306 – 307; construction/installation process for 311 – 312; design considerations for 307 – 309; entertainment and 301 – 303; equipment and documentation for 309 – 311; examples of 313 – 322; project development and 304 – 307; the story and 303 – 304; see also Ruzika, Tom theme parks 302 – 304, 312, 313 – 314, 320, 322; and music 38; and spectacle 100, 103; see also Ruzika, Tom three-point lighting 162 – 167, 163 timecode 413 touring 116, 118, 192, 304, 320; and film and video 146, 148; in the music scene 41, 52 – 57, 55, 63 – 66, 65, 71, 77; and spectacle 81, 83, 84, 99 trade shows 108 – 110, 113, 196, 246, 323, 413; see also Adams, Betsy trusses 109 – 110, 114, 116, 119, 212, 248; club lighting and 42, 50; concert lighting gear and 57 – 59, 61, 62 – 65, 68, 70; defined 414; and plotting principles for concert lighting 73 – 74, 75, 77; spectacle and 87, 96; touring and 54, 54, 56 tungsten light sources 27, 110, 204; defined 414; in display and exhibit lighting 175, 189 – 190, 193, 198; in film and video 129 – 130, 133, 141, 142, 144, 153 – 154; see also red shift United Scenic Artists (USA) 195, 414 United States Institute for Theatre Technology (USITT) 73, 110, 358 – 367, 414 uplight 14 – 15, 14, 295, 298; in architectural lighting 208, 217, 246, 258, 265; defined 415; in display and exhibit lighting 190; and distribution patterns in landscape lighting 272, 273, 275; and landscape luminaires 287, 288; in the music scene 77; and principles of landscape lighting 276 – 280, 278; and weather 283 vertical displays 180, 219, 415 video 15 – 16, 27, 30; Alan Adelman and 125 – 126; area lighting for 164 – 166; the camera 128 – 132, 134;

control elements for 151 – 152; filters for 152 – 154; hard and soft light for 135, 139 – 143; key and fill lights for 134; key elements in 161 – 164; latitude and contrast ratios for 135 – 136; LEDs and 154 – 155; lighting accessories for 147 – 151; light meters for 136 – 137; location lighting for 157 – 158; luminaires for 137 – 139, 143 – 147; in the music scene70 – 72; production practices for 158 – 161; special cases of lighting for 166 – 170; studios and sound stages 156 – 157; unique qualities of 123 – 124, 126 – 128; see also Cady, Patrick; Grimes, Michael; Klages, William L.; Moody, James L. virtual lighting 324 – 328, 334 – 339; examples of 339 – 347; lighting techniques for 331 – 334; light sources for 328 – 331; motion capture animation and 347 – 349; see also Higgins, Christopher virtual reality see virtual lighting visibility 4 – 5, 9 – 10, 13, 111, 118, 331; in architectural lighting 212, 227, 227, 245 – 246, 248; in display and exhibit lighting 172 – 173, 180, 183, 194; in film and video 134, 146; in landscape lighting 277, 279 – 280, 286, 295; and the music scene 73; optimal visibility 172; and spectacle 92, 96, 99 – 100; in themed lighting 307 – 309, 313, 315, 317 visible spectrum 2 – 3, 18, 24, 394, 415 vista lighting 276, 415 voltage drop 281 – 282, 283, 416 walk-through 160, 292, 309, 326 wash lighting 111, 176, 192, 216 – 217, 259 wavelength 1 – 4, 2, 11, 172, 175, 237; color and 18 – 21, 27 – 31, 28; defined 416; in film and video 128 – 129; filtering light and 23 – 27; mixing and 21 – 23 weather 86, 95, 156 – 158, 238, 283 – 285, 295 well lights 287, 288, 298, 416 window displays 186, 187 – 192, 191, 415 WYSIWYG 73, 77, 324, 340, 342, 344 zonal cavity method see lumen method

Index    427